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<strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong><br />
<strong>Forest</strong><br />
<strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong><br />
<strong>Change</strong><br />
New Frontiers<br />
in Management,<br />
Conservation<br />
<strong>and</strong> Restoration<br />
Proceedings<br />
Edited by<br />
João Carlos Azevedo<br />
Manuel Feliciano<br />
José Castro<br />
Maria Alice Pinto<br />
IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology Working Group<br />
International Conference<br />
Bragança · Portugal<br />
September 21 to 27, 2010
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong><br />
New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration
The contributions to this volume have not been peer-reviewed. Only minor changes in<br />
format may have been carried out by the editors.<br />
Title: <strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong><br />
Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology Working Group International<br />
Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal.<br />
Editors: João Carlos Azevedo, Manuel Feliciano, José Castro & Maria Alice Pinto<br />
Published by: Instituto Politécnico de Bragança<br />
Apartado 1038, 5301-854 Bragança, Portugal<br />
http://www.ipb.pt<br />
Printed by: Serviços de Imagem do Instituto Politécnico de Bragança<br />
ISBN: 978-972-745-110-4<br />
Cover design: Atilano Suarez, Serviços de Imagem do Instituto Politécnico de Bragança
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong><br />
New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration<br />
Proceedings of the<br />
IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology Working Group International Conference<br />
September 21-27, 2010<br />
Bragança, Portugal<br />
Edited by<br />
João Carlos Azevedo<br />
Manuel Feliciano<br />
José Castro<br />
Maria Alice Pinto<br />
Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Portugal<br />
September, 2010
Table of contents<br />
Foreword<br />
Preface<br />
xiii<br />
xiv<br />
Section 1 1<br />
Scaling in l<strong>and</strong>scape analysis<br />
Environmental drivers of benthic communities: the importance of l<strong>and</strong>scape metrics 2<br />
Rui Cortes, Simone Var<strong>and</strong>as, Samantha Hughes, Marco Magalhães & Amílcar Teixeira<br />
Habitat suitability models for two species of forest raptors in Catalonia. Methodological consequences 8<br />
related with different scales <strong>and</strong> data sources<br />
David Sánchez de Ron, Lluís Brotons, Santiago Saura & José M. García del Barrio<br />
Section 2 14<br />
Patterns <strong>and</strong> processes in changing l<strong>and</strong>scapes<br />
Recent relations between forestry <strong>and</strong> agriculture in Pol<strong>and</strong> - the rural l<strong>and</strong>scape on the axis of 15<br />
openness <strong>and</strong> enclosure<br />
Barbara Bożętka<br />
A physiotope-based model for ecoregions for the the nationwide ecosystem management of Japan 21<br />
Siew Fong Chen, Tadashi Masuzawa, Yukihiro Morimoto & Hajime Ise<br />
Risk areas to flooding in the Hidrographical Basin of Arroio dos Pereiras in Irati, PR, Brazil 27<br />
Vivian Dallagnol de Campos & Sílvia Méri Carvalho<br />
Ecological aspects of soils deflation development in agrol<strong>and</strong>scapes of the south-east of the western Siberian plain 33<br />
N.S. Evseeva & Z.N. Kvasnikova<br />
A regionally adaptable approach of l<strong>and</strong>scape assessment using l<strong>and</strong>scape metrics within the 2D cellular 36<br />
automaton “Pimp your l<strong>and</strong>scape”<br />
Susanne Frank, Christine Fürst, Carsten Lorz, Lars Koschke & Franz Makeschin<br />
The effect of l<strong>and</strong> cover changes (1960’s-2003) on the habitat morphological spatial pattern <strong>and</strong> population 42<br />
viability of Baird’s tapir in Laguna Lachuá National Park Influence Zone, Guatemala<br />
Manolo García, Fern<strong>and</strong>o Castillo, Raquel Leonardo, Liza García & Ivonne Gómez<br />
Spatial pattern of soil macrofauna biodiversity in wildlife refugee of Karkhe in Southwestern Iran 47<br />
Shaieste Gholami, Seied Mohsen Hosseini , Jahangard Mohammadi & Abdolrassoul Salman Mahini<br />
The influence of spatial structure on natural regeneration <strong>and</strong> biodiversity in Mediterranean pine plantations: 52<br />
a nested l<strong>and</strong>scape approach<br />
P. González-Moreno, J.L. Quero, L. Poorter, F.J. Bonet & R. Zamora<br />
Impact of changing cultivation systems on the l<strong>and</strong>scape structure of La Gamba, southern Costa Rica 58<br />
Tamara Höbinger, Stefan Schindler & Anton Weissenhofer<br />
Can lichen functional diversity be a good indicator of macroclimatic conditions 64<br />
Paula Matos, Pedro Pinho, Esteve Llop & Cristina Branquinho<br />
Projections of shifts in species distributions: assessing the influence of macro-climate <strong>and</strong> local processes 70<br />
Eliane S. Meier, Felix Kienast & Niklaus E. Zimmermann<br />
Application of remote sensing to assess the wildfire impact on the natural vegetation recovery <strong>and</strong> 74<br />
l<strong>and</strong>scape structure in the Mediterranean forest of South eastern Spain<br />
H. Moutahir , J.F. Bellot, A.Bonet, M.J. Baeza & I. Touhami<br />
The use of Voronoi tessellation to characterize sapling populations 79<br />
Ciprian Palaghianu
Spatial <strong>and</strong> temporal dynamics <strong>and</strong> future trends of change in the coastal l<strong>and</strong>scape of La Araucania, Chile 85<br />
Fern<strong>and</strong>o Peña-Cortés, Daniel Rozas, Enrique Hauenstein, Carlos Bertrán, Jaime Tapia & Marco Cisternas<br />
Multi-temporal analysis of forest l<strong>and</strong>scape fragmentation in the North East of Madagascar 91<br />
F.M. Rabenilalana, L.G. Rajoelison, J.P. Sorg, J.L. Pfund & H. Rakoto Ratsimba<br />
Patterns of afforestation process in ab<strong>and</strong>oned agriculture l<strong>and</strong> in Latvia 97<br />
Anda Ruskule, Olģerts Nikodemus, Zane Kasparinska & Raimonds Kasparinskis<br />
Nitrogen retranclocation in pure <strong>and</strong> mixed plantations of Populus deltoides <strong>and</strong> Alnus subcordata 103<br />
Ehsan Sayad<br />
Evaluation of the ecosystem service in the forest formations of Biosphere Reserve “Srebarna”, 107<br />
Northeastern Bulgaria<br />
Georgi Zhelezov<br />
Section 3 113<br />
Disturbances in changing l<strong>and</strong>scapes<br />
Human-caused forest fire in Mediterranean ecosystems of Chile: modelling l<strong>and</strong>scape spatial patterns 114<br />
on forest fire occurrence<br />
Adison Altamirano, Christian Salas & Valeska Yaitul<br />
Are changes in fire regime threatening cork oak-shrubl<strong>and</strong> mosaics 119<br />
Thomas Curt & Juli Pausas<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> management <strong>and</strong> climate, through l<strong>and</strong>scape structure, affect the potential for insect outbreak 124<br />
Richard A Fleming, Allan L. Carroll, Jean-Noël C<strong>and</strong>au & Philippe Dreyfus<br />
How important are riparian forests to aquatic foodwebs in agricultural watersheds of north-central Ohio, USA 129<br />
P. Charles Goebel, Charles W. Goss, Virginie Bouchard & Lance R. Williams<br />
Merger of three modeling approaches to assess potential effects of climate change on trees in the eastern 135<br />
United States<br />
Louis R. Iverson, Anantha M. Prasad, Stephen N. Matthews & Matthew P. Peters<br />
Immediate effects of typhoon disturbance <strong>and</strong> artificial thinning on understory light environments 141<br />
in two subtropical forests in Taiwan<br />
Teng-Chiu Lin, Kuo-Chuan Lin, Jeen-Liang Hwong & Hsueh-Fang Wang<br />
Impact of hemlock decline on successional pathways <strong>and</strong> ecosystem function at multiple scales in forests 147<br />
of the central Appalachians, USA<br />
Katherine L. Martin & P. Charles Goebel<br />
Indirect estimation of l<strong>and</strong>scape uses by Lama guanicoe <strong>and</strong> domestic herbivorous through the study of diet 153<br />
composition in South Patagonia<br />
Guillermo Martínez Pastur, Rosina Soler Esteban, María Vanessa Lencinas & Laura Borrelli<br />
Effects of endozoochorous seed dispersal on the soil seed bank <strong>and</strong> vegetation in the woodl<strong>and</strong> area 159<br />
E.W Saragih, Jan Bokdam & Wim Braakhekke<br />
Anthropogenic l<strong>and</strong>scape changes <strong>and</strong> the conservation of woodl<strong>and</strong> caribou in British Columbia, Canada 165<br />
Libby R.P. Williamson, Chris J. Johnson & Dale R. Seip<br />
Modeling feedbacks between avalanches <strong>and</strong> forests under a changing environment in the Swiss Alps 171<br />
Natalie Zurbriggen, Heike Lischke, Peter Bebi & Harald Bugmann<br />
Section 4 177<br />
Biodiversity conservation <strong>and</strong> planning in changing l<strong>and</strong>scapes<br />
Ecotourism <strong>and</strong> Controlling <strong>Forest</strong> St<strong>and</strong> Damages. Case study: Varzegan district North West Iran 178<br />
M. Akbarzadeh, J. Ajalli & E. Kouhgardi
Fine-scale mapping of High Nature Value farml<strong>and</strong>s: novel approaches to improve the management 182<br />
of rural biodiversity <strong>and</strong> ecosystem services<br />
Cláudia Carvalho-Santos, Rob Jongman, Joaquim Alonso & João Honrado<br />
Wood macrolichen Lobaria pulmonaria on chestnut tree crops: the case study of Roccamonfina park 188<br />
(Campania region - Italy)<br />
I. Catalano, A. Mingo, A. Migliozzi, S. Sgambato & G.G. Aprile<br />
Extent <strong>and</strong> characteristics of mire habitats in Galicia (NW Iberian Peninsula): implications for their conservation 194<br />
<strong>and</strong> management<br />
Ramón Alberto Diaz-Varela, Pablo Ramil-Rego, Manuel Antonio Rodríguez-Guitián & Carmen Cillero-Castro<br />
Assessment of conservation status in managed chestnut forest by means of l<strong>and</strong>scape metrics, 200<br />
physiographic parameters <strong>and</strong> textural features<br />
Ramón Alberto Diaz-Varela, Pedro Álvarez-Álvarez, Emilio Diaz-Varela & Silvia Calvo-Iglesias<br />
GIS analysis of the Antidote Programme in Portugal 206<br />
Patrícia A.E. Diogo & José Aranha<br />
Investigation on Species diversity by Inventory in Caspian <strong>Forest</strong>s (Case study: Gorazbon District- Noshahr, Iran) 211<br />
Vahid Etemad & Nazi Avani<br />
The impact of the matrix on species movement: systematic review <strong>and</strong> meta-analysis 215<br />
A.E. Eycott, G.B. Stewart, G. Br<strong>and</strong>t, L. M. Buyung-Ali, D. E. Bowler, K. Watts & A.S. Pullin<br />
Eight years of development of a silvopastoral system: effects on floristic diversity 221<br />
E. Fernández-Núñez, A. Rigueiro-Rodríguez & M.R. Mosquera-Losada<br />
Participatory action research concerning the l<strong>and</strong>scape use by a native cervid in a wetl<strong>and</strong> of the Plata Basin, 227<br />
Argentina<br />
Natalia Fracassi & Daniel Somma<br />
Fortresses <strong>and</strong> fragments: impacts of fragmentation in a forest park l<strong>and</strong>scape 233<br />
Joel Hartter, Sadie J. Ryan, Jane Southworth & Colin A. Chapman<br />
L<strong>and</strong>scape structure of a conservation area <strong>and</strong> its surroundings in Minas Gerais State, Brazil 239<br />
Marise Barreiros Horta, Carla Araújo Simões, Eduardo Christófaro de Andrade & Luciana Eler França<br />
Ecological factors influencing beta diversity at two spatial scales in a tropical dry forest of the Yucatán Peninsula 245<br />
J. Omar López-Martínez, J. Luis Hernández-Stefanoni & Juan Manuel Dupuy<br />
Impact of roads on ungulate species: a preliminary approach in Portugal 251<br />
Sara Marques, Catarina Ferreira, Rogério Rodrigues, Jorge Cancela & Carlos Fonseca<br />
Electrical network hazard assessment for the avifauna in Portugal 257<br />
Miguel G. C. Martins & José Aranha<br />
Modeling l<strong>and</strong> use/cover change <strong>and</strong> biodiversity conservation in Mexico 262<br />
Jean-François Mas, Azucena Pérez Vega, Keith Clarke & Víctor Sánchez-Cordero<br />
Evaluating an old sustainable national forest in south Brazil to decide their conservation status 268<br />
Rosemeri Segecin Moro & Tiaro Katu Pereira<br />
A methodological proposal for restoration of forests in southern Brazil 274<br />
Rosemeri Segecin Moro & Carlos Hugo Rocha<br />
L<strong>and</strong>scape integration of Mediterranean reforestations: identification of best practices in Madrid region 279<br />
Victoria Núñez, María Dolores Velarde & Antonio García-Abril<br />
Conservation of priority bird species in a protected area of central Greece using geographical location <strong>and</strong> GIS 285<br />
Sofia G. Plexida & Athanassios I. Sfougaris<br />
<strong>Change</strong>s in structure <strong>and</strong> composition of forest st<strong>and</strong>s at regional <strong>and</strong> national level in the last four decades - 291<br />
a consequence of environmental, natural or social factors<br />
Ales Poljanec & Andrej Boncina
Tengmalm owl (Aegolius funereus) <strong>and</strong> Pygmy owl (Glaussidium passerinum) as a surrogate for biodiversity 297<br />
value in the French Alps <strong>Forest</strong>s<br />
Mathilde Redon & S<strong>and</strong>ra Luque<br />
Contribution to the characterization of Gentiana pneumonanthe L. <strong>and</strong> Maculinea alcon L. distribution 303<br />
in the Alvão Natural Park<br />
M. da Conceição C. Rodrigues, Paula M.S.O. Arnaldo & José Aranha<br />
Using Business <strong>and</strong> Biodiversity to put Conservation into practice: The Herdade do Esporão Case study 306<br />
M.C. Silva, S. Antunes, N. Oliveira & F. Gouveia<br />
Legal efficiency <strong>and</strong> cumulative effects in environmentally protected area 312<br />
Talita Nogueira Terra & Rozely Ferreira dos Santos<br />
Relationships among l<strong>and</strong>scape structure, climate <strong>and</strong> rare woody species richness in the tropical forests of the 317<br />
Yucatan Peninsula, Mexico<br />
Erika Tetetla-Rangel, J. Luis Hernández-Stefanoni & Juan Manuel Dupuy<br />
Economic estimations in using of the l<strong>and</strong>scapes planning 323<br />
M. Tsibulnikova<br />
Section 5 330<br />
Monitoring l<strong>and</strong>scape change<br />
Mapping <strong>and</strong> Monitoring l<strong>and</strong> cover <strong>and</strong> l<strong>and</strong> –use changing using RS <strong>and</strong> GIS. Case study: Kaleybar Iran 331<br />
M. Akbarzadeh & E. Kouhgardi<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> patches in agricultural l<strong>and</strong>scapes (loess areas of SE Pol<strong>and</strong>) 336<br />
Bogusława Baran-Zgłobicka & Wojciech Zgłobicki<br />
Integrating esthetical <strong>and</strong> ecological values at the central Asia l<strong>and</strong>scape change 340<br />
Joana Beldade & Thomas Panagopoulos<br />
The impact of legislation on the dynamics of l<strong>and</strong> use the River Basin Cará-Cará, Ponta Grossa-PR/Brazil, 346<br />
in period from 1980 to 2007<br />
Silvia Méri Carvalho & Andreza Rocha de Freitas<br />
Quantitative assessment of temporal dynamics in altitudinal-driven ecotones in a section of Valtellina Italian Alps 352<br />
Ramón Alberto Diaz-Varela, Silvia Calvo-Iglesias, Michele Meroni & Roberto Colombo<br />
L<strong>and</strong> use changes in Portugal between 1990 <strong>and</strong> 2005 358<br />
Inês Duarte & Francisco Castro Rego<br />
Simulation of climate scenarios for the region of Campos Gerais, State of Parana, Brazil 364<br />
Jorim Sousa das Virgens Filho & Maysa de Lima Leite<br />
L<strong>and</strong> use changes <strong>and</strong> mixed forest dynamics. The case of Montiferru Mountains (Sardinia, Italy) (1955-2006) 370<br />
Francisco Javier Gómez, Martí Boada & Diego Varga<br />
Analysis of rainfall in the Vila Velha State Park, State of Parana, Southern Brazil, 376<br />
in the period between 1954 <strong>and</strong> 2001<br />
Maysa de Lima Leite & Jorim Sousa das Virgens Filho<br />
Identification of climatic trends for some localities in the Southern Region of Campos Gerais <strong>and</strong> surroundings, 381<br />
State of Parana, Brazil, through the analysis of historical data of rainfall <strong>and</strong> temperature<br />
Maysa de Lima Leite & Jorim Sousa das Virgens Filho<br />
Monitoring vulnerability of the Spanish forest l<strong>and</strong>scapes: the SISPARES approach 386<br />
Marta Ortega, Valentín Gomez, Jose Manuel García del Barrio & Ramon Elena-Rosselló<br />
L<strong>and</strong>scape transformations seen through the historical cartography: Sardinia as case study 392<br />
Giuseppe Puddu, Raffaele Pelorosso, Federica Gobattoni & Maria Nicolina Ripa<br />
Multi-scale analysis of carbon stocks <strong>and</strong> deforestation monitoring Case of the Eastern tropical humid forest 398<br />
of Madagascar<br />
Harifidy Rakoto Ratsimba, L.G. Rajoelison, F.M. Rabenilalana, J. Bogaert & E. Haubruge
Characterization of a Maculinea alcon population in the Alvão Natural Park (Portugal) by a mark-recapture method 404<br />
Maria Conceição Rodrigues, Patrícia Soares, José Aranha & Paula Seixas Arnaldo<br />
L<strong>and</strong>scape changes in a watershed in the southwest of Portugal 409<br />
Maria Teresa Calvão Rodrigues & Vanessa Silva<br />
<strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> in Transition – Monitoring in Areas of L<strong>and</strong>slides 415<br />
Jorgeane Schaefer-Santos & Christel Lingnau<br />
The process of urbanization <strong>and</strong> the environment - the case of irregular occupations in the city of Ponta Grossa, 420<br />
PR, Brazil<br />
S<strong>and</strong>ra Maria Scheffer & Édina Schimanski<br />
The deforestation of loess upl<strong>and</strong>s of SE Pol<strong>and</strong> <strong>and</strong> its stages as documented by valley deposits 425<br />
(case study: Bystra river valley, Lublin Upl<strong>and</strong>)<br />
Józef Superson, Jan Reder & Wojciech Zgłobicki<br />
Impacts of changes in l<strong>and</strong> use <strong>and</strong> fragmentation patterns on Atlantic coastal forests in northern Spain 431<br />
Alberto L. Teixido, Luis G. Quintanilla, Francisco Carreño & David Gutiérrez<br />
Assessing multi-temporal l<strong>and</strong> cover changes in the Mata Nacional da Peneda Geres National Park (1995 <strong>and</strong> 2009), 437<br />
Portugal - a l<strong>and</strong> change modeler approach for l<strong>and</strong>scape spatial patterns modelling <strong>and</strong> structural evaluation<br />
Helder Viana & José Aranha<br />
Mapping invasive species (Acacia dealbata Link) using ASTER/TERRA <strong>and</strong> LANDSAT 7 ETM+ imagery 443<br />
Helder Viana & José Aranha<br />
Section 6 449<br />
Tools of l<strong>and</strong>scape assessment <strong>and</strong> management<br />
Investigation on mountain l<strong>and</strong>scape parameters on Juniper species growth (case study: Firozkooh region, Tehran) 450<br />
Nazi Avani, Hamid Jalilv<strong>and</strong> & Vahid Etemad<br />
Spatial dynamics of chestnut blight disease at the plot level using the Ripley’s K function 456<br />
João C. Azevedo, Valentim Coelho, João P. Castro, Diogo Spínola & Eugénia Gouveia<br />
The third dimension in l<strong>and</strong>scape metrics analysis applied to central Alentejo – Portugal 462<br />
Teresa Batista, Paula Mendes & Luisa Carvalho<br />
New classification <strong>and</strong> utilization of forest functions in l<strong>and</strong>scape 468<br />
Vladimir Caboun<br />
Connecting l<strong>and</strong>scape conservation <strong>and</strong> management with traditional ecological knowledge: does it matter how 474<br />
people perceive l<strong>and</strong>scape <strong>and</strong> nature<br />
Ana M. Carvalho, Margarida T. Ramos & Amélia Frazão-Moreira<br />
Identification <strong>and</strong> characterization of forest edge segments for mapping edge diversity in rural l<strong>and</strong>scapes 480<br />
Marc Deconchat, Audrey Alignier, Philippe Espy & Sylvie Ladet<br />
Visibility analysis <strong>and</strong> visual diversity assessment in rural l<strong>and</strong>scapes 486<br />
José Gaspar, Beatriz Fidalgo, David Miller, Luis Pinto & Raúl Salas<br />
L<strong>and</strong>scape runoff, precipitation variation <strong>and</strong> reservoir limnology 491<br />
A.M. Geraldes<br />
Reservoirs: Mirrors of the surrounding l<strong>and</strong>scape 496<br />
A.M. Geraldes & M.J. Boavida<br />
Using a multi-criteria approach to fit the evaluation basis of the modified 2-D cellular automaton<br />
“Pimp Your L<strong>and</strong>scape” 502<br />
Lars Koschke, Christine Fürst, Carsten Lorz, Susanne Frank & Franz Makeschin<br />
Assessing “spatially explicit” l<strong>and</strong> use/cover change models 508<br />
Jean-François Mas, Azucena Pérez Vega & Keith Clarke
Economic valuation of environmental goods <strong>and</strong> services 514<br />
Alda Matos, Paula Cabo, Isabel Ribeiro & António Fern<strong>and</strong>es<br />
L<strong>and</strong>-use management <strong>and</strong> changes in Campania Region (Southern Italy): examples from ten regional State <strong>Forest</strong>s 520<br />
A. Migliozzi, F. Cona, A. di Gennaro, A. Mingo, A. Saracino & S. Mazzoleni<br />
Naturalness <strong>and</strong> diversity of biotopes: their impact on l<strong>and</strong>scape quality-a mathematical model<br />
Maria Luiza Porto, Horst H. Wendel, Jairo J. Zocche, Gilberto G. Rodrigues, Marisa Azzolini & Rogério Both<br />
525i<br />
Application of modern, non traditional restoration methods on brown coal localities of Czech Republic 526<br />
Michal Rehor & Vratislav Ondracek<br />
Developing models <strong>and</strong> processes to aid decision support for integrated l<strong>and</strong> management in the Canadian<br />
boreal forest 532<br />
Jonathan Russell, Ellie Prepas, Gordon Putz, Daniel W. Smith & James Germida<br />
Section 7 538<br />
Management <strong>and</strong> sustainability of changing l<strong>and</strong>scapes<br />
Sustainable forest management requires multi-stakeholder governance <strong>and</strong> spatial planning: Kovdozersky state 539<br />
forest management unit in northwest Russia<br />
Per Angelstam & Marine Elbakidze<br />
Relationship between small ruminants behaviour <strong>and</strong> l<strong>and</strong>scape features in Northeast of Portugal 545<br />
Marina Castro, José Ferreira Castro & António Gómez Sal<br />
Does forest certification contribute to boreal biodiversity conservation Swedish <strong>and</strong> Russian experiences 551<br />
Marine Elbakidze, Per Angelstam, Kjell Andersson, Mats Nordberg & Yurij Pautov<br />
Impact of tree species replacement on carbon stocks in forest floor <strong>and</strong> mineral soil 557<br />
Felícia Fonseca & Tomás de Figueiredo<br />
Disentangling recent changes in forest bird ranges in Mediterranean forests (NE Spain): Assessing global change 563<br />
impacts <strong>and</strong> guiding l<strong>and</strong>scape management<br />
Assu Gil-Tena, Lluís Brotons & Santiago Saura<br />
Assessment of human <strong>and</strong> physical factors influencing spatial distribution of vegetation degradation - 569<br />
Environmental Protection Area Cachoeira das Andorinhas, Brazil<br />
Marise Barreiros Horta & Edwin Keizer<br />
Role of planted forests <strong>and</strong> trees outside forests in sustainable forest management in Iran 575<br />
E. Kouhgardi & M. Akbarzadeh<br />
Values of mangroves <strong>and</strong> its interaction with marine ecosystem 581<br />
E. Kouhgardi, E. Shakerdargah & M. Akbarzadeh<br />
The importance of Environmental Education to restore <strong>and</strong> preserve natural <strong>and</strong> cultural heritage: the case of 586<br />
Pirai da Serra – South of Brazil<br />
Edina Schimanski<br />
The certification of forest management <strong>and</strong> its contribution to the rights of workers 592<br />
Lenir Aparecida Mainardes da Silva & Edina Shimanki<br />
Role of non-wood forest products for sustainable development of rural communities in countries with a transition: 597<br />
Ukraine as a case study<br />
N. Stryamets, M. Elbakidze, P. Angelstam & R. Axelsson<br />
The regional analysis of forest management risks (by the example of Russian northern areas) 603<br />
E. Volkova<br />
Section 8 609<br />
Urban forestry in changing regions<br />
Biodiversity <strong>and</strong> recreational values in urban participatory forest planning in Finl<strong>and</strong> 610<br />
Irja Löfström, Mikko Kurttila, Leena Hamberg & Laura Nieminen
Urban tree inventory <strong>and</strong> socio-economic aspects of three villages of Ponta Grossa, PR 614<br />
Ana Carolina Rodrigues de Oliveira & Sílvia Méri Carvalho<br />
Lisbon’s public gardens, host place for world’s trees 620<br />
Isabel Silva, Elsa Isidro, Ana Luísa Soares & Francisco Moreira<br />
Section 9 626<br />
Symposia<br />
Quantifying the effects of forest fragmentation: implications for l<strong>and</strong>scape planners <strong>and</strong> 627<br />
resource managers<br />
Taking into account local people’s livelihood systems for a better management of forest fragments 628<br />
Zora Lea Urech & Jean-Pierre Sorg<br />
Measures of l<strong>and</strong>scape structure as ecological indicators <strong>and</strong> tools for conservation planning <strong>and</strong> 634<br />
forest management<br />
Multiscale analysis of l<strong>and</strong> use heterogeneity <strong>and</strong> dissimilarity as a support for planning strategies 635<br />
Emilio R. Diaz-Varela, Carlos J. Alvarez-López, Manuel F. Marey-Pérez & Pedro Álvarez-Álvarez<br />
Effects of l<strong>and</strong>scape structure <strong>and</strong> st<strong>and</strong> age on species richness <strong>and</strong> biomass in a tropical dry forest 641<br />
J. Luis Hernández-Stefanoni, Juan Manuel Dupuy, Fern<strong>and</strong>o Tun-Dzul & Filogonio May-Pat<br />
Spatial gradients of l<strong>and</strong>scape metrics as an indicator of human influence on l<strong>and</strong>scape 647<br />
Evelyn Uuemaa, Ramon Reimets, Tõnu Oja, Arno Kanal & Ülo M<strong>and</strong>er<br />
L<strong>and</strong>scape assessment tools for adaptive management of tropical forested l<strong>and</strong>scapes 653<br />
Socio-economic diagnosis of a small region using an economic farming system modeling tool (Olympe). An 654<br />
approach from household to l<strong>and</strong>scape scales to assist decision making processes for development projects<br />
supporting conservation agriculture in Madagascar<br />
Eric Penot<br />
Network theory to conserve <strong>and</strong> reconnect forested l<strong>and</strong>scapes 660<br />
Connectivity loss in human dominated l<strong>and</strong>scape: operational tools for the identification of suitable habitat patches 661<br />
<strong>and</strong> corridors on amphibian’s population<br />
Samuel Decout, Stéphanie Manel, Claude Miaud & S<strong>and</strong>ra Luque<br />
L<strong>and</strong>scape genetics 667<br />
GEOME. Towards an integrated web-based l<strong>and</strong>scape genomics platform 668<br />
Stéphane Joost, Michael Kalbermatten & Nicolas Ray<br />
Road ecology: improving connectivity 673<br />
The effect of highways on native vegetation <strong>and</strong> reserve distribution in the State of São Paulo, Brazil 674<br />
Simone R. Freitas, Cláudia O. M. Sousa & Jean Paul Metzger<br />
Detecting vulnerable spots for ecological connectivity caused by minor road network in Alicante, Spain 679<br />
Beatriz Terrones, Sara Michelle Catalán, Aydeé Sanjinés, Encarnación Rico-Guzmán & Andreu Bonet<br />
A l<strong>and</strong>scape approach to sustainable forest management 685<br />
Is it possible to combine adaptation to climate change <strong>and</strong> maintaining of forest biodiversity 686<br />
Marja Kolström, Terhi Vilén & Marcus Lindner<br />
Ecosystem services from forests at the watershed scale 691<br />
<strong>Forest</strong>s in l<strong>and</strong>scapes: modelling forest l<strong>and</strong> cover patterns suitability for meeting future dem<strong>and</strong>s for l<strong>and</strong>scape 692<br />
goods <strong>and</strong> services<br />
Sónia M. Carvalho-Ribeiro & Teresa Pinto-Correia
Impacts of wildfires on catchment hydrology: results from monitoring <strong>and</strong> modeling studies in northwestern Iberia 698<br />
João Pedro Nunes, José Javier Cancelo, María Ermitas Rial, Maruxa Malvar, Filipa Tavares, Diana Vieira,<br />
Frederike Schumacher, Francisco Díaz-Fierros, António Dinis Ferreira, Celeste Coelho & Jan Jacob Keizer<br />
Management <strong>and</strong> conservation of Mediterranean forest l<strong>and</strong>scapes 704<br />
Testing the fire paradox: is fire incidence in Portugal affected by fuel age 705<br />
Paulo M. Fern<strong>and</strong>es, Carlos Loureiro, Marco Magalhães & Pedro Ferreira<br />
Interfaces <strong>and</strong> interactions between forest <strong>and</strong> agriculture in rural l<strong>and</strong>scapes 711<br />
When forests are managed by farmers: Implications of farm practices on forest management 712<br />
E. Andrieu, A. Sourdril, G du Bus de Warnaffe, M. Deconchat & G. Balent<br />
A framework for characterizing convergence <strong>and</strong> discrepancy in rural forest management in tropical <strong>and</strong> 718<br />
temperate environments<br />
D. Genin, Y. Aumeerudy-Thomas, G. Balent & G. Michon<br />
Do wooded elements in agricultural l<strong>and</strong>scape contribute to biological control in crops 724<br />
A. Ouin, M. Deconchat, P. Menozzi, C. Monteil1, L. Raison, A. Roume, J.P. Sarthou, A. Vialatte & G. Balent<br />
From ab<strong>and</strong>oned farml<strong>and</strong> to self-sustaining forests: challenges <strong>and</strong> solutions 729<br />
Harmonized measurements of spatial pattern <strong>and</strong> connectivity: application to forest habitats in the EBONE 730<br />
European Project<br />
Christine Estreguil & Giovanni Caudullo<br />
Restoration of biodiversity <strong>and</strong> ecosystem services in cropl<strong>and</strong>. Further research is needed but action is 736<br />
desperately needed<br />
José M. Rey Benayas
xiii<br />
Foreword<br />
Twenty years ago, Dr. T. Crow <strong>and</strong> Prof. B. Anko initiated a proposal to establish a new working party (WP)<br />
within the Division 8 of IUFRO, known as l<strong>and</strong>scape ecology. Back then, the field was in its most rapid growth<br />
period with many unknowns. Quite a few scholars challenged us about whether this young discipline was<br />
science. This challenge was partially important because l<strong>and</strong>scape ecology has strong components <strong>and</strong><br />
commitments to managers <strong>and</strong> policymakers. Today, l<strong>and</strong>scape ecology is matured with solid principles <strong>and</strong><br />
implementations in resource management. Many members of the WP made significant contributions to advance<br />
this field for its recognition. At the first international conference in 1990, there were a small h<strong>and</strong>ful of<br />
participants. After the announcement of this conference, over 400 abstracts were submitted. By August 6, 2010,<br />
there were at least 233 registered individuals from 44 countries.<br />
Previous bi-annual conferences had been held in the United States, Japan, Italy, Canada <strong>and</strong> China. In the last<br />
decade, the WP also paid much attention to publishing the papers presented at our bi-annual conferences.<br />
Several books <strong>and</strong> special issues based on these conferences have been published. The WP is now soliciting<br />
proposals for future conferences. Please contact any of the committee members during the conference to discuss<br />
your interests <strong>and</strong> plans. One particular effort made by conference organizers <strong>and</strong> the WP committee is to<br />
support students. We believe that student participation is vital for both the science of l<strong>and</strong>scape ecology <strong>and</strong> the<br />
growth of the WP. In 2008, we offered travel fellowships to over 28 graduate students. This year, over 20<br />
individuals received similar support.<br />
We would like to offer special thanks to Dr. Thomas Crow for his leadership since 1990. The WP has grown to<br />
have a permanent Webpage (http://research.eeescience.utoledo.edu/lees/IUFRO/), a listserv to promote<br />
communication (iufro8-l@mtu.edu), an online registration service <strong>and</strong> a committee structure that is composed of<br />
regional coordinators <strong>and</strong> liaisons with the International Association of L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology (IALE). As of July,<br />
2010, there are 475 members in the WP database. The journal of L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology reserves a special page for<br />
us to publish important developments from the WP. Since 2008, the WP started sponsoring summer short<br />
courses <strong>and</strong> regional workshops for researchers, students <strong>and</strong> managers. To keep our communication beyond<br />
this conference, I strongly encourage you to subscribe to a membership via our Webpage <strong>and</strong> share your<br />
experiences, new developments, personnel changes, etc. via the WP’s listserv.<br />
While growing, we face new challenges. The increasing influence from global change is, no doubt, a major one.<br />
The science of l<strong>and</strong>scape ecology can no longer be independent of the changes surrounding us. An equally<br />
important issue is from the increasing dem<strong>and</strong>s of people <strong>and</strong> intensified activities. These challenges are the<br />
primary reasons for us to have the theme of this conference as “<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>: New<br />
Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration”. Through face-to-face interactions during the<br />
conference, I am very confident that everyone will be stimulated for new initiatives under this theme. However,<br />
we hope the stimulations will go beyond the conference <strong>and</strong> are translated to your daily actions after returning to<br />
your home.<br />
The WP appreciates the kindness of Instituto Politécnico de Bragança to organize this conference. We also owe a<br />
lot to the members of the Organization Committee, Scientific Committee <strong>and</strong> the Scholarship Committee for<br />
their quality work over the past 48 months. Without the financial <strong>and</strong> in-kind support of many organizations, we<br />
would not be able to have this great conference.<br />
Jiquan Chen<br />
Chair, IUFRO8.01.02<br />
Toledo, Ohio, USA, September 2010
xiv<br />
Preface<br />
This volume contains the contributions of numerous participants at the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology Working<br />
Group International Conference, which took place in Bragança, Portugal, from 21 to 24 of September 2010. The<br />
conference was dedicated to the theme <strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong> - New Frontiers in Management,<br />
Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. The 128 papers included in this book follow the structure <strong>and</strong> topics of the<br />
conference. Sections 1 to 8 include papers relative to presentations in 18 thematic oral <strong>and</strong> two poster sessions.<br />
Section 9 is devoted to a wide-range of l<strong>and</strong>scape ecology fields covered in the 12 symposia of the conference.<br />
The Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology Working Group International Conference register the growth<br />
of scientific interest in forest l<strong>and</strong>scape patterns <strong>and</strong> processes, <strong>and</strong> the recognition of the role of l<strong>and</strong>scape<br />
ecology in the advancement of science <strong>and</strong> management, particularly within the context of emerging physical,<br />
social <strong>and</strong> political drivers of change, which influence forest systems <strong>and</strong> the services they provide. We believe<br />
that these papers, together with the presentations <strong>and</strong> debate which took place during the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape<br />
Ecology Working Group International Conference – Bragança 2010, will definitively contribute to the<br />
advancement of l<strong>and</strong>scape ecology <strong>and</strong> science in general.<br />
For their additional effort <strong>and</strong> commitment, we thank all the participants in the conference for leaving this record<br />
of their work, thoughts <strong>and</strong> science.<br />
The Editors<br />
João Carlos Azevedo<br />
Manuel Feliciano<br />
José Castro<br />
Maria Alice Pinto<br />
Bragança, Portugal, September 2010
Section 1<br />
Scaling in l<strong>and</strong>scape analysis
V. Cortes et al. 2010. Environmental drivers of benthic communities: the importance of l<strong>and</strong>scape metrics<br />
2<br />
Environmental drivers of benthic communities: the importance of<br />
l<strong>and</strong>scape metrics<br />
Rui Cortes 1 , Simone Var<strong>and</strong>as 1 , Samantha Hughes 1 , Marco Magalhães 1 & Amílcar<br />
Teixeira 2*<br />
1 CITAB, Universidade de Trás-os-Montes e Alto Douro, Portugal<br />
2 CIMO, <strong>ESA</strong>, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Portugal<br />
Abstract<br />
The distribution of aquatic communities is dependent on processes that act at multiplescales.<br />
This study comprised 270 samples distributed over 2 years <strong>and</strong> used a nested sampling design to<br />
estimate the variance associated with three spatial scales: basin, site <strong>and</strong> microhabitat. Habitat<br />
assessment was made using River Habitat Survey. The derived Habitat Quality Indices <strong>and</strong> the<br />
benthic composition were crossed with l<strong>and</strong>scape metrics <strong>and</strong> types of soil use, obtained from<br />
GIS data, using multiple non-parametric regressions <strong>and</strong> distance-based redundancy analysis.<br />
Invertebrate variation was mainly linked with intermediate scale (site) <strong>and</strong> l<strong>and</strong>scape metrics<br />
were the main drivers determining local characteristics. The aquatic community exhibited a<br />
stronger relationship with l<strong>and</strong>scape metrics, especially patch size <strong>and</strong> shape complexity of the<br />
dominant uses, than with habitat quality, suggesting that instream habitat improvement is a<br />
short-term solution <strong>and</strong> that stream rehabilitation must address the influence of components at<br />
higher spatial scales.<br />
Keywords: l<strong>and</strong>scape metrics, soil use, macroinvertebrates, habitat, spatial scale<br />
1. Introduction<br />
The hierarchy theory indicates that small scale physical <strong>and</strong> biological features are hierarchical<br />
nested by variables on larger spatial scales, which means that in-stream conditions are<br />
constrained <strong>and</strong> controlled by successive larger-sale factors, interacting as filters along those<br />
scales (Frissell et al. 1986; Poff, 1997). Lotic biological assemblages occurring at a given site<br />
are a subset of the potential pool of colonizers that have passed through a system of filters<br />
related to the environmental variables <strong>and</strong> their modification by human action (Boyero, 2003;<br />
Bonada et al., 2005). This is the case of geology, climate <strong>and</strong> l<strong>and</strong>scape-level factors such as<br />
l<strong>and</strong> use or vegetation patterns that have been shown to influence local habitat condition <strong>and</strong><br />
therefore the composition of benthic fauna (Roth et al. 1996; Lammert & Allan, 1999; Joy &<br />
Death, 2004). More recently, studies tended to focus on analyzing the dependence of<br />
hydromorphological characteristics on catchment level features <strong>and</strong> l<strong>and</strong>-use, in particular<br />
whether reach or catchment scale vegetation constitute suitable predictors of in-stream features<br />
(Allan, 2004; Buffagni et al., 2009; S<strong>and</strong>in, 2009). There is a strong need to develop habitat<br />
assessment strategies that integrate different complementary spatial scales from microhabitat<br />
level (including hydraulics) to the assessment of river corridor condition <strong>and</strong> surrounding l<strong>and</strong><br />
use (Cortes et al., 2009). These aspects have been already incorporated into methodologies<br />
proposed in different field surveys (e.g. Raven, 1998). There is no doubt that the spatial<br />
hierarchy of fluvial ecosystems is a crucial aspect to consider, since identifying the relationships<br />
between different levels allows associations to be made between habitat features, processes <strong>and</strong><br />
communities. This knowledge is essential for improving the implementation of appropriate<br />
*Corresponding author:<br />
Email address: amilt@ipb.pt<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
V. Cortes et al. 2010. Environmental drivers of benthic communities: the importance of l<strong>and</strong>scape metrics<br />
3<br />
management <strong>and</strong> monitoring measures (S<strong>and</strong>in, 2009), as the effect of multiple human pressures<br />
on aquatic habitats is spread over several spatial scales (Hughes et al., 2008).<br />
The main objective of this work was to assess the influence of environmental attributes<br />
expressed at different scales on stream communities, particularly macroinvertebrates, <strong>and</strong> to<br />
determine how the habitat descriptors are shaped by higher spatial scales, namely l<strong>and</strong>scape<br />
patterns.<br />
2. Methodology<br />
A hierarchical nested design was used for sampling benthic communities. In this study it was<br />
considered 4 catchments (Rivers Olo, Corgo, Pinhão <strong>and</strong> Tua), 15 sites distributed by the river<br />
network, 3 transects in each site <strong>and</strong> 3 micro-habitats (replicates) in each site. All catchments<br />
are located in the Douro basin (Northern Portugal) <strong>and</strong> are subjected to distinct natural<br />
conditions (such as high gradient streams ranging from 1100 m to 50 m of altitude).<br />
Furthermore, there are preserved areas, like the Olo <strong>and</strong> Tua catchments, contrasting with other<br />
areas influenced by an intensive agriculture (specially vineyards), located in the downstream<br />
sectors of rivers Corgo <strong>and</strong> Pinhão (Figure 1).<br />
Figure 1: Location of the 15 study sites along the Olo, Corgo, Pinhão <strong>and</strong> Tua rivers, all from the Douro<br />
catchment, Northern Portugal. Study sites are spread along the longitudinal axis of the main rivers, but the<br />
Tua catchment, which was only sampled in the lower section.<br />
Invertebrates sampling was made in 2006 <strong>and</strong> 2007 in these micro-habitats using surber samples.<br />
Invertebrates were identified to genus level to most of the families (except Diptera <strong>and</strong><br />
Oligochaeta).The relationship between large scale variables <strong>and</strong> the benthic fauna was assessed<br />
using both species composition <strong>and</strong> species traits. The environmental variables considered<br />
covered two levels of observation:<br />
a) At l<strong>and</strong>scape <strong>and</strong> soil use scale the data was obtained from Corine L<strong>and</strong>cover <strong>and</strong> it was<br />
considered a circle of 1km radius around each site. In the first case we used a set of metrics<br />
that can be grouped in patch metrics of density <strong>and</strong> size, edge, shape <strong>and</strong> of diversity <strong>and</strong><br />
interspersion. These metrics were further applied to each type of soil use originating a total<br />
of 48 variables (Table 1).<br />
b) At the aquatic habitat <strong>and</strong> river corridor scale it was applied the River Habitat Survey<br />
methodology (RHS - Raven et al., 1997, 1998). Ten transects or “spot checks” were made at<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
V. Cortes et al. 2010. Environmental drivers of benthic communities: the importance of l<strong>and</strong>scape metrics<br />
4<br />
50m intervals along the 500m reach <strong>and</strong> discrete descriptions obtained (e.g. cover channel<br />
substrate, flow type, aquatic vegetation types, bank vegetation structure, artificial<br />
modifications). Continuous observations or “sweep up” along the 500m reach characterized<br />
features <strong>and</strong> modifications not described at the spot-checks (e.g. natural <strong>and</strong> man-made<br />
features, or riparian vegetation). Two habitat indices, derived from the RHS were<br />
determined: 1) Habitat Quality Assessment (HQA), that is an expression of the habitat<br />
quality (e.g., physical habitat, vegetation cover, the use of marginal l<strong>and</strong>), <strong>and</strong> 2) Habitat<br />
Modification Score (HMS) that quantifies the extent of artificialization (e.g. weirs, bank<br />
protections) along the channel.<br />
Table 1: Environmental descriptors used for describing l<strong>and</strong>scape-l<strong>and</strong> use <strong>and</strong> habitats at each of the 15<br />
sites included in the Rivers Olo, Corgo, Pinhão <strong>and</strong> Tua, The l<strong>and</strong>scape metrics were applied to the<br />
different soil use types resulting in a total of 48 l<strong>and</strong>scape variables.<br />
L<strong>and</strong>scape metrics Soil use variables Habitat descriptors<br />
PATCH DENSITY AND<br />
SIZE METRICS<br />
Number of patches<br />
Total edge<br />
Patch size st<strong>and</strong>s dev.<br />
SHAPE METRICS<br />
Mean shape index<br />
Mean patch fractal dimension<br />
Weighted mean patch fractal<br />
dimension<br />
Agriculture l<strong>and</strong>, except vineyards<br />
(area in m 2 <strong>and</strong> %)<br />
Vineyards (area: m 2 <strong>and</strong> %)<br />
Coniferous woodl<strong>and</strong> (are: m 2 ; %)<br />
Broadleaf woodl<strong>and</strong> (area: m 2 ; %)<br />
Mixed woodl<strong>and</strong> area (area: m 2 ; %)<br />
Urban area (area in m 2 <strong>and</strong> %)<br />
Scrub & shrubs (area in m 2 <strong>and</strong> %)<br />
Water surface including reservoirs<br />
<strong>and</strong> wetl<strong>and</strong>s (area in m 2 <strong>and</strong> %)<br />
ARTIFICIAL FEATURES<br />
Habitat Modification Score (HMS)<br />
HABITAT QUALITY<br />
HQA flow<br />
HQA channel<br />
HQA bank features<br />
HQA bank vegetation structure<br />
HQA point bars<br />
HQA in-stream channel vegetation<br />
HQA l<strong>and</strong> use<br />
HQA trees<br />
HQA special features<br />
A nested permutational MANOVA from resemblance matrix based on the Bray-Curtis<br />
coeficient was used to test the significance of benthic composition from the different spatial<br />
levels (catchment, site <strong>and</strong> transect). Multiple non-parametric regressions from distancebased<br />
linear models (DISTLM) were established between invertebrate taxa <strong>and</strong> the<br />
environmental variables by using the following independent variables (separately):<br />
habitat quality indices, soil use variables <strong>and</strong> l<strong>and</strong>scape metrics (Table 1). Ordination<br />
techniques using distance-based redundance analysis (dbRDA) were established between<br />
benthic fauna, but expressed as metrics sensitive to contamination <strong>and</strong> soil use <strong>and</strong> l<strong>and</strong>scape<br />
metrics. The biological metrics were extracted from Var<strong>and</strong>as & Cortes (2009) since they<br />
proved to be the most sensitive to disturbance in catchments of North Portugal (Table 2).<br />
Multivariate analyses were carried out using the package PERMANOVA for PRIMER<br />
(Anderson et al., 2008).<br />
Table 2: List of invertebrate metrics selected (Oliveira & Cortes, 2009). Acronyms are indicated in bold.<br />
Invertebrate metrics<br />
Families of Predators fP % Shredders %Shr<br />
Fam. of Ephem., Plecop., Trichop. fEPT % Scrapers %Scr<br />
Families of Swimmers fSwi % Filterers %Fil<br />
Families of Clingers fCling % Gatherers %Gath<br />
% Rheophilous %Rhe % Predators %Pred<br />
Genus of shredders gShr % Limnophilous %Lim<br />
Genus of Filterers gFil % Omnivorous %Omn<br />
Families of Gatherers fGath % organisms with branchial respiration %br<br />
% Intolerants %Int % organisms with cutaneous respiration %cr<br />
Index IBMWP % organisms with aerial respiration %ar<br />
Index FBI % organisms parasites %Par<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
V. Cortes et al. 2010. Environmental drivers of benthic communities: the importance of l<strong>and</strong>scape metrics<br />
5<br />
Results<br />
The results of the MANOVA for benthic composition are presented on Table 3, separately for<br />
each year, <strong>and</strong> showed that site produced the significant differences for both years (p
V. Cortes et al. 2010. Environmental drivers of benthic communities: the importance of l<strong>and</strong>scape metrics<br />
6<br />
The dbRDA ordinations, grouping biological <strong>and</strong> environmental data are represented on Figure<br />
2, with separate plots for biological <strong>and</strong> environmental variables. The 1st axis reflected the<br />
longitudinal variation, where the l<strong>and</strong>scape variables linked to the natural cover (forest <strong>and</strong><br />
shrubs) define the sites located upstream <strong>and</strong> the ones associated with the vineyard influence<br />
more the lower reaches. On the first sites we may notice the presence of less disturbed<br />
communities reflected by higher values of the biotic index, EPT, shredders <strong>and</strong> intolerant fauna,<br />
whereas this pattern is replaced downstream by a dominance of organisms with branchial <strong>and</strong><br />
cutaneous respiration, belonging to trophic groups with mainly filterers <strong>and</strong> gatherers.<br />
Concerning the relation between benthic fauna <strong>and</strong> soil use it was also detected a<br />
longitudinal gradient related to soil use from natural areas (e.g. hardwood forest) to<br />
agriculture (including vineyards).<br />
Figure 2: Redundance analysis (dbRDA) between invertebrate metrics <strong>and</strong> l<strong>and</strong>scape metrics. The left<br />
diagram represents the biological metrics <strong>and</strong> on the one on the right represents the l<strong>and</strong>scape patterns.<br />
Acronyms for l<strong>and</strong>scape metrics: N number of patches; SD- patch size st<strong>and</strong>ard deviation, SI- mean<br />
shape index, SH- mean patch fractal dimension, FR- area weighted mean patch fractal dimension; the last<br />
letters represent vegetation types: VIN vineyard; AG agriculture; FF broadleaf forest; FR coniferous<br />
forest; FM mixed forest; URB urban area (see Table 2 for the biological metric codes)<br />
Discussion<br />
Many studies using environmental variables determined at different spatial levels,<br />
attempt to extract the relevant scales that lend structure to aquatic communities such as<br />
benthic macroinvertebrate assemblages (Roth et al., 1996; Lammert <strong>and</strong> Allan, 1999).<br />
Lowe et al. (2006), who made a revision on patterns <strong>and</strong> processes across multiple<br />
scales of stream-habitat organization, emphasize the fractal network structure of stream<br />
systems at a l<strong>and</strong>scape scale <strong>and</strong> mention the need to underst<strong>and</strong> how the spatial<br />
configuration of habitats within a network affect fluxes of individuals <strong>and</strong> materials.<br />
The same authors conclude that broader use of multiscale approaches to explore<br />
population <strong>and</strong> community dynamics <strong>and</strong> species-ecosystem linkages in streams will<br />
produce research results that are applicable to management <strong>and</strong> conservation challenges.<br />
This study found that l<strong>and</strong>scape metrics provided a powerful tool for assessing both<br />
macroinvertebrate dynamics, instream habitats <strong>and</strong> also the river corridor. It was also<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
V. Cortes et al. 2010. Environmental drivers of benthic communities: the importance of l<strong>and</strong>scape metrics<br />
7<br />
found that soil use descriptors were associated with the typological functioning of the<br />
river system displayed by the longitudinal succession of benthic assemblages.<br />
References<br />
Allan J.D., 2004. <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> riverscapes: The influence of l<strong>and</strong> use on stream ecosystems.<br />
Annual Review of Ecology Evolution <strong>and</strong> Systematics, 35: 257-284.<br />
Anderson M.J., Gorley R.N. <strong>and</strong> Clarke K.R., 2008. PERMANOVA+ for PRIMER: Guide to<br />
Software <strong>and</strong> Statistical Methods. Plymouth, U.K.: Primer-E Ltd.<br />
Bonada N., Zamora-Muñoz C., Rieradevall M. <strong>and</strong> Prat N., 2005. Ecological <strong>and</strong> historical<br />
filters constraining spatial caddisfly distribution in Mediterranean rivers. Freshwater Biology,<br />
50: 81-797.<br />
Boyero L., 2003. Multiscale patterns of spatial variation in stream macroinvertebrate<br />
communities. Ecological Research, 18: 365-379.<br />
Buffagni A, Casalegno C. <strong>and</strong> Erba S., 2009. Hydromorphology <strong>and</strong> l<strong>and</strong> use at different spatial<br />
scales: expectations in a changing climate scenario for medium-sized rivers of the Western<br />
Italian Alps. Fundamental <strong>and</strong> Applied Ecology, 74: 7-25.<br />
Cortes R.M.V., Hughes S.J., Var<strong>and</strong>as S.G.P., Magalhães M. <strong>and</strong> Ferreira M.T., 2009. Habitat<br />
variation at different scales <strong>and</strong> biotic linkages in lotic systems: consequences for<br />
monitorization. Aquatic Ecology 43: 1107-1120.<br />
Frissell C.A., Liss W.J., Warren C.E. <strong>and</strong> Hurley M.D., 1986. A Hierarchical Framework for<br />
Stream Habitat Classification- Viewing Streams in a Watershed Context. Environmental<br />
Management, 10: 199-214.<br />
Hughes S.J, Ferreira M.T. <strong>and</strong> Cortes R.M.V., 2008. Hierarchical spatial patterns <strong>and</strong> drivers of<br />
change in benthic macroinvertebrate communities in an intermittent Mediterranean river.<br />
Aquatic Conservation: Marine <strong>and</strong> Freshwater Ecosystems, 18: 742-760.<br />
Joy M.K. <strong>and</strong> Death R.G., 2004. Predictive modelling <strong>and</strong> spatial mapping of freshwater fish<br />
<strong>and</strong> decapod assemblages: an integrated GIS <strong>and</strong> neural network approach. Freshwater<br />
Biology, 49: 1036-1052.<br />
Lammert M. <strong>and</strong> Allan J.D., 1999. Environmental Auditing: Assessing biotic integrity of<br />
streams: Effects of scale in measuring the influence of l<strong>and</strong> use/cover <strong>and</strong> habitat structure<br />
on fish <strong>and</strong> macroinvertebrates. Environmental Management, 23: 257–270.<br />
Lowe, W.H., Likens G.E. <strong>and</strong> Power M.E., 2006. Linking Scales in Stream Ecology. BioScience,<br />
55: 591-597.<br />
Poff N.L., 1997. L<strong>and</strong>scape filters <strong>and</strong> species traits: Towards mechanistic underst<strong>and</strong>ing <strong>and</strong><br />
prediction in stream ecology. Journal of the North American Benthological Society, 16: 391-<br />
409.<br />
Raven P.J., P. Fox J.A., Everard M., Holmes N.T.H. <strong>and</strong> Dawson F.H., 1997. River Habitat<br />
Survey: a new system for classifying rivers according to their habitat quality. In: Boon, P.J.,<br />
Howell, D.L. (eds). Freshwater quality: defining the indefinable The Stationery office,<br />
Edinburg, 215-234 pp.<br />
Raven P.J., Holmes N.T.H., Dawson F.H., Fox P.J.A., Everard M., Fozzard I.R. <strong>and</strong> Rouen K.J.,<br />
1998. River habitat quality: the physical character of rivers <strong>and</strong> streams in the UK <strong>and</strong> the<br />
Isle of Man. River Habitat Survey report no. 2, Environment Agency, Bristol.<br />
Roth N.E., Allan J.D. <strong>and</strong> Erickson D.L., 1996. L<strong>and</strong>scape influences on stream biotic integrity<br />
assessed at multiple spatial scales. L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology, 11: 141–156.<br />
S<strong>and</strong>in L., 2009. The relationship between l<strong>and</strong>-use, hydromorphology <strong>and</strong> river biota at<br />
different spatial <strong>and</strong> temporal scales: a synthesis of seven case studies. Fundamental <strong>and</strong><br />
Applied Ecology, 174: 1-5.<br />
Var<strong>and</strong>as S.G. & Cortes R.M.V., 2009. Evaluating macroinvertebrate biological metrics for<br />
ecological assessment of streams in northern Portugal. Environmental Monitoring<br />
Assessment, DOI 10.1007/s10661-009-0996-4.<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
D. S. de Ron et al. 2010. Habitat suitability models for two species of forest raptors in Catalonia<br />
8<br />
Habitat suitability models for two species of forest raptors in Catalonia.<br />
Methodological consequences related with different scales <strong>and</strong> data<br />
sources<br />
David Sánchez de Ron 1 , Lluís Brotons 2 , Santiago Saura 3 & José M. García del Barrio 1,4<br />
1<br />
CIFOR-INIA, Madrid, Spain<br />
2<br />
Centre Tecnològic <strong>Forest</strong>al de Catalunya, Solsona, Spain<br />
3 ETSIM-UPM Madrid, Spain<br />
4<br />
Instituto Universitario Investigación Gestión <strong>Forest</strong>al Sostenible, UVA-INIA, Spain<br />
Abstract<br />
Species distribution along a territory is a function of different environmental variables that<br />
changes in space <strong>and</strong> time. In this communication we use GIS based information from different<br />
sources <strong>and</strong> at different scales (1x1 km 2 <strong>and</strong> 10x10 km 2 ) for elaborating habitat suitability<br />
models of two forest raptors species (Buteo buteo <strong>and</strong> Accipiter gentilis) along a north-south<br />
gradient in Cataluña. The area of study has an extent of 7000 km 2 . <strong>Forest</strong> raptors species<br />
presence/absence data on 679 1x1 km 2 grid cells of the Catalan Breeding Bird Atlas, <strong>and</strong><br />
Spanish <strong>Forest</strong> Map at a scale 1:50,000 are the main information sources. Logistic regression<br />
methods have been essayed for comparison across different scales. Unexpectedly, preliminary<br />
results show no relation between variables like l<strong>and</strong> use type or diversity of habitats <strong>and</strong> raptors<br />
presence at 1x 1 km 2 , <strong>and</strong> this relationship is only significant for Buteo buteo at 10 x 10 km 2<br />
scale.<br />
Keywords: Habitat suitability models, l<strong>and</strong> uses, logistic regression, changing scales.<br />
1. Introduction<br />
Animal species related to forest habitats are dependent on habitat extension but on habitat<br />
quality as well. Advances in knowing species distribution <strong>and</strong> habitat requirements are essential<br />
for studies of population genetics, evolutionary <strong>and</strong> conservation biology, biodiversity<br />
maintenance <strong>and</strong> territorial planning, among others. Recent georeferenced information about not<br />
only species distribution in Spain, but also related to climate, lithology, changes in l<strong>and</strong> uses or<br />
historical disturbances (wild fires, floods, wind storms) at different scales are valuable data<br />
sources that contribute to the elaboration of habitat suitability models that are the basis for<br />
connectivity or habitat fragmentation analysis (Pascual-Hortal & Saura, 2008). Specialist<br />
species have been affected by reduction of habitat extension <strong>and</strong> population fragmentation (see<br />
Farhig, 2001; Lindenmayer, et al, 2003; Alderman et al, 2005) with the consequence of<br />
reduction on effective population levels. Spanish forest raptors are not the exception, <strong>and</strong> a<br />
proper knowledge of habitat requirements <strong>and</strong> habitat suitability is needed. Underlying reasons<br />
for explain mismatch between potential <strong>and</strong> real distribution of a species are scale dependent,<br />
<strong>and</strong> the explanation of this dependence is one of the goals of habitat suitability models –HSM<br />
hereafter- (Ottaviani et al, 2004; Guisan <strong>and</strong> Thuiller, 2005).<br />
In a previous paper (García del Barrio et al, 2009) we essayed HSM for two forest raptors on<br />
two forest districts of central-east Spain with presence/absence data at 10x10 km 2 scale. The<br />
aim of this paper is to compare the performance of HSM at changing scales <strong>and</strong> using different<br />
data sources. <strong>Forest</strong> raptors species chosen are goshawk (Accipiter gentilis) <strong>and</strong> common<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
D. S. de Ron et al. 2010. Habitat suitability models for two species of forest raptors in Catalonia<br />
9<br />
buzzard (Buteo buteo) distributed in a noth-south gradient of 140 km in Catalonia with<br />
presence/absence data at 1x1 km 2 <strong>and</strong> frequency data at 10x10 km 2 aggregation level.<br />
2. Methodology<br />
Study zone is located in Catalonia (northeast Spain). Seventy 10 x 10 km 2 (5 x 14 quadrates)<br />
units were selected along a 140 km north-south gradient. Limits were 42º 32’ N - 41º 16’N <strong>and</strong><br />
1º 25’ E – 2º 3’E. Geographic gradient ranges from Pyrenees Mountain with altitude over 3000<br />
m to Mediterranean coast at sea level.<br />
Species data came from 679 1 x 1 km 2 quadrates surveyed in the Catalan Breeding Bird Atlas<br />
1999-2002 (Estrada et al. 2004), covering less than 10 % of the study zone. L<strong>and</strong> use data came<br />
from the Spanish <strong>Forest</strong> Map at a 1:50,000 scale. <strong>Forest</strong> raptors selected were goshawk<br />
(Accipiter gentilis) <strong>and</strong> common buzzard (Buteo buteo). Goshawk is a species with a wide<br />
distribution area across Europe, inhabits several types of forest from mountain coniferous to<br />
Mediterranean evergreen at low l<strong>and</strong>s. Common buzzard is a species broadly distributed along<br />
Iberian Peninsula, less dependent than goshawk of extensive forested areas.<br />
L<strong>and</strong> uses have been reclassified following Table 1. Mean elevation was the physiographic<br />
variable selected. Mean annual precipitation, mean annual temperature <strong>and</strong> summer<br />
precipitation were the climatic variables (Gonzalo, 2007).<br />
Generalized linear models (GLZs) had been essayed; binomial-log for presence/absence data at<br />
1 x 1 km 2 level, <strong>and</strong> normal-log for frequency data at 10 x 10 km 2 level (Statistica v.7). Firstly<br />
we examined each independent variable in relation with the dependent <strong>and</strong> secondly, if there<br />
was significance of any of the independent ones, they were put together <strong>and</strong> interactions were<br />
considered in the model.<br />
3. Result<br />
The analysis at 1 x 1 km 2 resolution have not had noteworthy relationships between dependent<br />
<strong>and</strong> independent variables, neither l<strong>and</strong> uses variables nor climatic or topographic ones. Table 2<br />
shows, for the two raptors species, matches between l<strong>and</strong> uses in habitat areas <strong>and</strong> total study<br />
area. Figure 1 represents the distribution of forested l<strong>and</strong> use in three areas with the presence of<br />
the raptors <strong>and</strong> total study area. Goshawk presence is reduced to 28 of 679 quadrates (4.1 % of<br />
the effective sampled area) <strong>and</strong> main l<strong>and</strong> uses in this area are very similar to that on the total<br />
area, only with the exception of fewer incidences of artificial l<strong>and</strong> uses. Common buzzard<br />
reaches 24 % of presence (163 of 679 1 x 1 km 2 quadrates are occupied) but no significant<br />
relationships between species presence <strong>and</strong> l<strong>and</strong> use or climatic variables have been found.<br />
At 10 x 10 km 2 scale, goshawk frequency has not relevant relationships with independent<br />
variables selected, <strong>and</strong> modeling is not possible. The case of common buzzard is different<br />
because an equation that explain 36 % of deviance can be formulated<br />
F Bb = -3.223+0.516xA+0.021xF+0.001xCxF-0.005xCxA-0.009xAxF (1)<br />
F Bb : frequency of presence at 10 x 10 km 2 (nº presences/nº total)<br />
A: % of articial areas<br />
F: % of forest areas<br />
C: % of cultivated areas<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
D. S. de Ron et al. 2010. Habitat suitability models for two species of forest raptors in Catalonia<br />
10<br />
Equation 1 shows that final model includes only l<strong>and</strong> uses variables, not topographic or climatic<br />
ones. Two single variables (A, F) <strong>and</strong> three interactions between A, F y C slightly explain actual<br />
distribution of common buzzard in the study area (Table 3). There is no evident explanation to<br />
the incidence of interaction variables, whereas the positive effect of forest areas is obvious but<br />
the same effect of artificial in not so much explainable.<br />
4. Discussion<br />
The paper explores the use of recently sampled data of nesting birds in Catalonia in relation<br />
with main l<strong>and</strong> uses <strong>and</strong> other topographic <strong>and</strong> climatic variables. Presence/absence data at 1 x 1<br />
km 2 resolution <strong>and</strong> frequency data at 10 x 10 km 2 where used for modeling Habitat Suitability<br />
for two forest raptors species. Surprisingly, no relationships where found at the more detailed<br />
scale, <strong>and</strong> only a slight relation could be modeled (Figure 2) for the more abundant raptor<br />
species (common buzzard) at a coarser resolution level.<br />
These are not good news because high spatial resolution data of species distribution should be<br />
the basis for modeling connectivity, habitat fragmentation <strong>and</strong> other indicators relatives to<br />
species conservation. If we could not model in relation with the main territorial requirements of<br />
a species, <strong>and</strong> where they are located across the territory, it would be difficult to predict species<br />
colonization movements or habitat loss driving forces.<br />
It should be possible that the two main reasons that affect the absence of correlation found at 1 x<br />
1 km 2 resolution, is that the sampled territory is less than 10 % of total territory <strong>and</strong> l<strong>and</strong> uses<br />
distribution in species presence plots <strong>and</strong> total plots is quite similar, where no determinant for<br />
other species <strong>and</strong> other sampling areas at the same resolution levels, but there are not very much<br />
reasons to be optimist with the problem of true or false absences. Manel et al (2001) showed<br />
some problems that are not been solved in data acquisition methods, <strong>and</strong> modeling HSM with<br />
this kind of data is not so accurate.<br />
Next question is relative to habitat saturation by a target species in a territory. This relationship<br />
depends not only of potential habitat or potential niche but also of the effective niche. There are<br />
some biotic interdependence that l<strong>and</strong> uses variables or climatic <strong>and</strong> topographic ones do not<br />
reflect. Human pressure in Spain over raptor species had historically reduced their distribution<br />
areas, driving some of them near extinction. Absence of preys is other meaningful reason that<br />
we could not evaluate in these models, <strong>and</strong> for the migrant species maybe questions relative to<br />
synchronization of movements are important too.<br />
Finally, we could conclude that the use of presence/absence data at 1 x 1 km 2 resolution for<br />
two raptors species in Cataluña, in relation with l<strong>and</strong> use, climatic <strong>and</strong> tophographic variables<br />
had not improved the slight predictive power of the HSM at 10 x 10 km 2 resolution. Including<br />
variables of avian richness, potential prey’s richness or some relative could be improving the<br />
response of models but, in general, data relative to these variables are not available at broad<br />
scales.<br />
References<br />
Alderman, J., McCollin, D., Hinsley, S. A., Bellamy, P. E., Picton, P. & Crockett, R. 2005.<br />
Modelling the effects of dispersal <strong>and</strong> l<strong>and</strong>scape configuration on population distribution<br />
<strong>and</strong> viability in fragmented habitat. L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology. 20: 857-870<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
D. S. de Ron et al. 2010. Habitat suitability models for two species of forest raptors in Catalonia<br />
11<br />
Estrada J., Pedrocchi V., Brotons L., Herr<strong>and</strong>o S. (eds), 2004. Atles dels ocells<br />
nidificants de Catalunya 1999-2002. Institut Català d'Ornitologia (ICO)/Lynx<br />
Edicions, Barcelona, España, 638 pp.<br />
García del Barrio, J.M., Sánchez de Ron, D., de Miguel, J., Ortega, M., Elena-Rosselló, R. 2009.<br />
Modelos de disponibilidad de hábitat aplicados a dos especies de rapaces forestales en las<br />
comarcas de Urbión y el Alto Tajo. Actas del 5º congreso <strong>Forest</strong>al Español. CD<br />
publication.<br />
Gonzalo, J. (2007).Diagnosis fitoclimática de la España Peninsular. Actualización y análisis<br />
geoestadístico aplicado. Tesis Doctoral.<br />
Guisan, A. & Thuiller, W. 2005. Predicting species distribution; offering more than simple<br />
habitat models. Ecology Letters, 8: 993-1009.<br />
Fahrig, L. 2001. How much habitat is enough Biological Conservation, 100: 65-74.<br />
Lindenmayer, D.B.,H. P. Possingham, R. C. Lacy, M. A. McCarthy <strong>and</strong> Pope M. L. 2003. How<br />
accurate are population models Lessons from l<strong>and</strong>scape-scale tests in a fragmented<br />
system. Ecology Letters 6: 41-47<br />
Manel, S., Ceri Williams, H. <strong>and</strong> Ormerod, S. J. 2001. Evaluating presence-absence models in<br />
ecology: The need to account for prevalence. Journal of Applied Ecology 38: 921-931.<br />
Ottaviani,D., G. L. Lasiano y L. Boitani. 2004. Two statistical methods to validate habitat<br />
suitability models using presence-only data. Ecological Modelling. 179: 417-443.<br />
Pascual-Hortal, L. & S. Saura. 2008. Integrating l<strong>and</strong>scape connectivity in broad-scale forest<br />
planning through a new graph-based habitat availability methodology: application to<br />
capercaillie (Tetrao urogallus) in Catalonia (NE Spain). European Journal of <strong>Forest</strong><br />
Research 127: 23-31<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
D. S. de Ron et al. 2010. Habitat suitability models for two species of forest raptors in Catalonia<br />
12<br />
Tables <strong>and</strong> Figures<br />
Table 1: Main l<strong>and</strong> uses in the study area (14x 5 quadrates of 10 x 10 km 2 in Catalonia)<br />
L<strong>and</strong> cover class Total Area (ha) %<br />
Tree forested (F) 441000 63<br />
Cultivated areas (C) 161000 23<br />
Grassl<strong>and</strong> <strong>and</strong> pastures ( G) 35000 5<br />
Artificial (A) 35000 5<br />
Scrub l<strong>and</strong> (S) 21000 3<br />
Others (O) 7000 1<br />
Total 70000 100<br />
Table 2: Relationships between l<strong>and</strong> uses in total sampled area <strong>and</strong> areas with presence of raptor species<br />
Total area<br />
1x1<br />
Accipiter<br />
gentilis Buteo buteo Total area<br />
10X10<br />
Accipiter<br />
gentilis<br />
Buteo<br />
buteo<br />
n %area n %area n %area n %area n %area n %area<br />
Tree forested (F) 679 62.4 28 63.2 163 66.0 70 62.6 19 60.4 56 63.2<br />
Cultivated areas (C) 679 25.5 28 29.0 163 28.1 70 22.9 19 24.7 56 23.8<br />
Artificial (A) 679 4.1 28 1.9 163 1.3 70 4.8 19 8.8 56 3.9<br />
Grassl<strong>and</strong> <strong>and</strong><br />
pastures ( G) 679 3.2 28 2.6 163 1.7 70 5.3 19 2.7 56 5.0<br />
Scrub l<strong>and</strong> (S) 679 2.9 28 2.4 163 1.8 70 2.9 19 1.7 56 2.5<br />
Mosaic with trees 679 0.7 28 0.0 163 0.3 70 0.5 19 0.6 56 0.5<br />
Other forested 679 0.6 28 0.1 163 0.2 70 0.7 19 0.7 56 0.7<br />
Body water 679 0.5 28 0.7 163 0.6 70 0.3 19 0.4 56 0.3<br />
Mosaic without<br />
trees 679 0.2 28 0.0 163 0.0 70 0.1 19 0.1 56 0.1<br />
Table 3: Generalized Linear Model statistics for common buzzard frequency at 10 x 10 km 2 scale.<br />
Df<br />
Residual Scaled P<br />
Desviance Chi 2 <strong>Change</strong> desviance P desviance F<br />
Intercept 69 3.15290 70<br />
A+F-C*A+C*F-A*F 64 2.00510 70 1.15 0.36 7.33<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
D. S. de Ron et al. 2010. Habitat suitability models for two species of forest raptors in Catalonia<br />
13<br />
Tree forested l<strong>and</strong> use<br />
100<br />
90<br />
80<br />
70<br />
60<br />
50<br />
40<br />
30<br />
20<br />
10<br />
0<br />
Min Pc 5 Pc 25 Pc 50 Pc 75 Pc 95 Max<br />
Total area<br />
Ag<br />
Bb<br />
Figure 1: Distribution of l<strong>and</strong> use tree forested l<strong>and</strong> use on total sampled area in quadrates of<br />
1 x 1 km 2 , with presence of A. gentilis (Ag) or B. buteo (Bb). Min= Minimum, Pc= percentile, Max=<br />
Maximum.<br />
Figure 2: Real (A) <strong>and</strong> modeled distribution (B) on 10 x 10 km 2 for common buzzard. Circles in both A<br />
<strong>and</strong> B represent presence/absence data at 1 x 1 km 2 level.<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
Section 2<br />
Patterns <strong>and</strong> processes in changing l<strong>and</strong>scapes
B. Bożętka 2010. Recent relations between forestry <strong>and</strong> agriculture in Pol<strong>and</strong><br />
15<br />
Recent relations between forestry <strong>and</strong> agriculture in Pol<strong>and</strong> -<br />
the rural l<strong>and</strong>scape on the axis of openness <strong>and</strong> enclosure<br />
Barbara Bożętka *<br />
Gdańsk University, 4 J. Bażyńskiego Str., 80-952 Gdańsk, Pol<strong>and</strong><br />
Abstract<br />
The paper refers to a complex problem of l<strong>and</strong>scape change in Pol<strong>and</strong>. It concentrates<br />
on quality as well as quantity transformation within forestry <strong>and</strong> agriculture <strong>and</strong> their<br />
consequences for the rural l<strong>and</strong>scape. A systematic increase in a forest cover connected with a<br />
decrease in agricultural l<strong>and</strong> is observed in Pol<strong>and</strong>. The tendencies are accompanied by<br />
l<strong>and</strong>scape disturbance processes, such as settlement sprawl <strong>and</strong> intensification of agriculture.<br />
The work presented here stresses the influence of above mentioned factors on l<strong>and</strong>scape<br />
structure; it employs a broad-scale analysis <strong>and</strong> focuses on the last two decades. The issue of<br />
l<strong>and</strong>scape heterogeneity is widely investigated <strong>and</strong> regional differences have been underlined.<br />
Since the l<strong>and</strong>scape configuration experiences crucial changes, an axis of openness- enclosure<br />
<strong>and</strong> its spatial redistribution received special attention.<br />
Keywords: l<strong>and</strong>scape, structure, rural areas, reforestation, Pol<strong>and</strong><br />
1. Introduction<br />
A spatial arrangement of elements demonstrating open or enclosed character strongly<br />
determines l<strong>and</strong>scape configuration. Patterns of open <strong>and</strong> enclosed spaces organize <strong>and</strong><br />
differentiate the l<strong>and</strong>. Besides their compositional values (see Bell 2004), coexistence of openenclosed<br />
units fulfils significant ecological functions, e.g. enhancing or inhibiting material <strong>and</strong><br />
energy flows in ecosystems. The context of openness <strong>and</strong> enclosure may also underline<br />
variability of l<strong>and</strong>scapes <strong>and</strong> their dependence on a man-made impact.<br />
The Polish rural l<strong>and</strong>scape has been facing considerable changes for the last two<br />
decades, which result mainly from operation of new driving forces appearing after a political<br />
reorientation in 1989. Dem<strong>and</strong>s of a market economy altogether with a global environmental<br />
agenda, restrictions <strong>and</strong> regulations introduced by EU accession in 2004 set in motion new<br />
processes. They modify traditional l<strong>and</strong>-use patterns, influence structure, functions <strong>and</strong> values<br />
of the rural l<strong>and</strong>scape. Interestingly, the processes are well pronounced in interrelations between<br />
forestry <strong>and</strong> agriculture- two main functions held by the rural areas in Pol<strong>and</strong>.<br />
2. The Polish rural l<strong>and</strong>scape <strong>and</strong> its characteristic features<br />
Regarding a l<strong>and</strong>scape typology at a continental level, at least two types of the rural<br />
l<strong>and</strong>scape should be distinguished in Pol<strong>and</strong>: open fields <strong>and</strong> strip fields (e.g. Kostrowicki 1994,<br />
Meeus 1995). Agricultural l<strong>and</strong> has had the greatest share in the total area of the country for<br />
centuries; nowadays it equals 50.9 % (Stat.Yearb.Rep. 2010) <strong>and</strong> consists mainly of arable<br />
fields <strong>and</strong> meadows. Noteworthy, non-natural factors have dominated the evolution of the<br />
agricultural l<strong>and</strong>scape <strong>and</strong> very close relations between: 1. meadows, pastures <strong>and</strong> the river<br />
network <strong>and</strong> 2. arable l<strong>and</strong> <strong>and</strong> settlement constitute a typical structural feature of the rural<br />
* Corresponding author. Tel. 0048/58 523 65 61<br />
Email address: geobb@univ.gda.pl<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
B. Bożętka 2010. Recent relations between forestry <strong>and</strong> agriculture in Pol<strong>and</strong><br />
16<br />
l<strong>and</strong>scape (Kostrowicki 1959). Villages frequently formed by a dispersed settlement pattern;<br />
surrounded by rather small, long <strong>and</strong> narrow fields; with the presence of diverse eco-margins<br />
<strong>and</strong> forests in a distance can give a short characteristic. Farms in Pol<strong>and</strong> are small; majority<br />
possesses their l<strong>and</strong> in separated plots, 18% of them in more than 6 parts (The Country Program<br />
of Rural…, 2009).<br />
To a lesser degree, fragmented territorial structure is also found in the Polish forest<br />
cover. Altogether with a predominance of poor biotopes, a relatively young age of trees <strong>and</strong><br />
uneven afforestation, it poses serious difficulties for maintenance of ecological functions.<br />
<strong>Forest</strong>ry is the second l<strong>and</strong>- use function in the country, the Pol<strong>and</strong>’s forest cover reached<br />
29.0% of the total area in 2009 (Stat.Yearb.Rep. 2010). This insufficient quantity is<br />
accompanied by natural <strong>and</strong> anthropogenic hazards (Liro 1998). It has been estimated that about<br />
70% of a forest cover is formed by tree st<strong>and</strong>s designated for complete felling sites. In addition,<br />
forests demonstrate a depleted species composition <strong>and</strong> a simplistic structure, where biotic<br />
components are not adjusted to existing habitats (Smykała 1993, after Rykowski 2003). In<br />
general, woodl<strong>and</strong>s have been highly fragmented <strong>and</strong> are retained now in the areas featured by<br />
the worst agricultural qualities. The greatest amounts of forests are found in the west, north,<br />
<strong>and</strong> south-east of the country (The Lubuskie Region [c. 50 %], Pomerania <strong>and</strong> Podkarpackie).<br />
3. Large-scale spatial processes <strong>and</strong> l<strong>and</strong>-use tendencies in the rural areas<br />
3.1. L<strong>and</strong>- use tendencies<br />
The Polish rural l<strong>and</strong>scape has encountered high dynamics of l<strong>and</strong>-use changes for the<br />
last twenty years. An analysis of statistical data <strong>and</strong> relevant literature (e.g. Ciołkosz, Poławski<br />
2006) allows identifying main directions of the transformation: 1. sharp decrease in meadows<br />
<strong>and</strong> pastures, 2. steady decrease in arable fields, 3. steady increase in forested areas, <strong>and</strong> 4.<br />
dynamic increase in built areas. Many authors (ibidem) stress instability of l<strong>and</strong>- use in Pol<strong>and</strong>;<br />
however, agriculture <strong>and</strong> forestry still are dominant.<br />
3.2. Agricultural areas<br />
A steady decline of agricultural l<strong>and</strong> has been noted at least since 1930s (Ciołkosz,<br />
Poławski 2006), but after the political turnover in 1989, the process accelerated again. The loss<br />
coincides with transformation of agriculture in Pol<strong>and</strong>.<br />
Incoming market requirements caused a systematic decrease in the amount of farms <strong>and</strong><br />
led to ab<strong>and</strong>onment of l<strong>and</strong> having poor soil conditions, which are being partially afforested.<br />
However, the percentage of fallow <strong>and</strong> uncultivated l<strong>and</strong> has been declining since a period<br />
2000- 2002 (11.9 % in 2000) <strong>and</strong> in 2008 accounted for 3.8 % (Environment, 2010).<br />
Simultaneously, strong dem<strong>and</strong>s for housing sites lead to designation of thous<strong>and</strong>s ha for<br />
residential areas. Shrinking of agricultural l<strong>and</strong> is accompanied by decrease in diversity of crop<br />
<strong>and</strong> breeding varieties <strong>and</strong> by strong limitation of pasture. These sharp changes are softened by<br />
environmental instruments acquired after UE accession, but polarization between highproductive<br />
areas <strong>and</strong> ab<strong>and</strong>onment of l<strong>and</strong> takes place. Contrary to arable fields, meadows <strong>and</strong><br />
pastures, the area of orchards increases <strong>and</strong> is occupied by modern, larger farms (Kulikowski<br />
2007). The Country Program of Rural Development 2007-2013 confirms further steady decline<br />
in the total agricultural l<strong>and</strong>. Its statements allow also to anticipate growing importance of l<strong>and</strong><br />
consolidation <strong>and</strong> size polarization of farms (e.g. a further loss of medium-size enterprises).<br />
3.3. <strong>Forest</strong> areas<br />
In contrast to agricultural l<strong>and</strong>, the amount of forest areas systematically grows.<br />
Dynamic post-war reforestation was strongly connected with an ownership structure- new<br />
forests emerged mostly on the state’s grounds <strong>and</strong> therefore the northern, north-western <strong>and</strong><br />
south-eastern parts of Pol<strong>and</strong> show the highest rate of a new forest cover. Distinctively, the<br />
availability of uncultivated l<strong>and</strong> during the last two decades does not correspond with the need<br />
to improve environmental <strong>and</strong> ecological functions of the rural areas. A forest cover should be<br />
especially strengthened in central <strong>and</strong> eastern parts of the country, where it suffered advanced<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
B. Bożętka 2010. Recent relations between forestry <strong>and</strong> agriculture in Pol<strong>and</strong><br />
17<br />
fragmentation. However, supply of convenient l<strong>and</strong> is limited there mainly owing to<br />
competition of agro-environmental schemes <strong>and</strong> a growing dem<strong>and</strong> for arable fields. Therefore<br />
the planned total amount of afforestation estimated at 1.5 million ha will have to be reduced.<br />
According to the government’s plans, a forest cover in 2020 should equal 30% <strong>and</strong> after 2050<br />
33% (The Country Program for Afforestation 2003).<br />
Importantly, numerous activities aimed at improvements in forests’ quality have been<br />
undertaken. They are aimed at replacing ‘a normal forest’ scheme <strong>and</strong> mono- functional forestry<br />
by a multifunctional model (Rykowski 2003). In consequence, importance of ecological<br />
functions <strong>and</strong> renaturalisation is stressed, the share of broadleaved trees systematically grows<br />
<strong>and</strong> the age structure gets better (Raport o stanie lasów 2009). On the other h<strong>and</strong>, a quantity <strong>and</strong><br />
quality rise is accompanied by several processes initiated in farming areas, but having evident<br />
impact on forests <strong>and</strong> their ecological functions, such as settlement sprawl <strong>and</strong> intensification of<br />
agriculture. Additionally, the dem<strong>and</strong> for timber rises; requirements of energy market <strong>and</strong><br />
pressure on increase in renewable energy affect both supplies of wood <strong>and</strong> a crop structure.<br />
3. 4. L<strong>and</strong> transformation processes <strong>and</strong> l<strong>and</strong>scape degradation<br />
Although considerable environmental <strong>and</strong> ecological benefits result from a growth of a<br />
forest cover <strong>and</strong> from improvements within an ecological network, disturbing changes of<br />
l<strong>and</strong>scape structure are observed. Out of several major l<strong>and</strong> transformation processes described<br />
by Forman (2006), suburbanization, agricultural intensification, settlement sprawl <strong>and</strong><br />
reforestation are of the greatest importance in the case of the Polish countryside. First of all,<br />
contrasts between intensive <strong>and</strong> extensive l<strong>and</strong>- use become more emphasized.<br />
Expansion of vast areas featured by agricultural intensification is followed by<br />
disappearance of small biotopes <strong>and</strong> elements subdividing the l<strong>and</strong>scape <strong>and</strong> it brings with it<br />
immense l<strong>and</strong>scape homogeneity. This process is widely experienced in the northern <strong>and</strong><br />
western parts of the country. Noteworthy, processes involved in l<strong>and</strong>scape degradation often act<br />
in a synergy <strong>and</strong> spread widely. For instance, the spectacular loss of road alleys demonstrates<br />
advanced disappearance of valuable l<strong>and</strong>scape elements throughout the country (Worobiec,<br />
Liżewska 2009). Furthermore, the negative impact on the l<strong>and</strong>scape is reinforced by<br />
uncontrolled development, chaos in spatial planning <strong>and</strong> a lack of regard for l<strong>and</strong>scape values.<br />
Concerning a dimension of l<strong>and</strong>scape composition <strong>and</strong> configuration, two axes have<br />
shown high sensitivity to new conditions: order- chaos <strong>and</strong> openness- enclosure.<br />
4. Openness <strong>and</strong> enclosure of the rural l<strong>and</strong>scape<br />
Interrelations between open <strong>and</strong> enclosed space (as analysed in material physical<br />
categories) influence not only visual qualities of a l<strong>and</strong>scape, acting as one of its aesthetic<br />
descriptors (e.g. Tveit et al. 2006), but also an overall context of l<strong>and</strong>scape structure. The axis<br />
openness- enclosure is strongly connected with scale. This work, owing to a range of research is<br />
focused on a broad scale <strong>and</strong> concentrates on national or regional levels of analysis. On the base<br />
of relevant literature <strong>and</strong> the author’s own research, <strong>and</strong> concerning l<strong>and</strong>scape variability in the<br />
openness-enclosure aspect, some directions of l<strong>and</strong>scape change can be outlined (table 1).<br />
Noteworthy, the two main types of agricultural l<strong>and</strong>scape differ in their extent. Open<br />
fields are featured by a large scale, whereas strip fields units are usually formed by smaller<br />
aggregations of many similar l<strong>and</strong>scape cells. As mentioned before, owing to dem<strong>and</strong>s of<br />
intensive cereal <strong>and</strong> animal production, expansion of large fields takes place. This process is<br />
connected with field consolidation, turning meadows to arable l<strong>and</strong> <strong>and</strong> with a loss of ecomargins<br />
<strong>and</strong> semi-natural l<strong>and</strong>scape boundaries.<br />
L<strong>and</strong>scape enclosure is usually encountered in forest <strong>and</strong> semi-wild l<strong>and</strong>scapes. Both of<br />
them are connected with l<strong>and</strong> ab<strong>and</strong>onment <strong>and</strong> both can be accompanied by planned or<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
B. Bożętka 2010. Recent relations between forestry <strong>and</strong> agriculture in Pol<strong>and</strong><br />
18<br />
unplanned reforestation. Contrary to forest <strong>and</strong> semi-wild l<strong>and</strong>scapes, an agricultural l<strong>and</strong>scape<br />
formed by large modern orchards is linked with intensive cultivation.<br />
Semi-wild l<strong>and</strong>scapes develop in two main ways. First one appears when large patches<br />
are adjoined to neighbouring forests <strong>and</strong> this usually involves occurrence of unclear boundaries.<br />
Such situation is frequently met in N <strong>and</strong> NW Pol<strong>and</strong>. Second is connected with small patches<br />
of ab<strong>and</strong>oned l<strong>and</strong>. A dispersed sequence employs tiny individual parcels or their aggregations;<br />
the sets are often separated from each other <strong>and</strong> have partly legible boundaries. This is mostly<br />
the case of an agricultural l<strong>and</strong>scape of central, eastern <strong>and</strong> southern Pol<strong>and</strong>. Parts of the<br />
agricultural l<strong>and</strong>scape transformed into wide semi-wild or forest l<strong>and</strong>scapes, to quote the<br />
example of the Bieszczady mountains, where after l<strong>and</strong> ab<strong>and</strong>onment dense associations of<br />
broadleaved trees <strong>and</strong> bushes appeared (Wanic 2009).<br />
Table 1. Tendencies of the rural l<strong>and</strong>scape transformation in Pol<strong>and</strong> in the context of openness-enclosureregional<br />
differences <strong>and</strong> main factors of change (source: author’s own research).<br />
Tendency ⇒ open l<strong>and</strong>scape<br />
Tendency ⇒ enclosed l<strong>and</strong>scape<br />
1. Open fields<br />
• increase in intensively cultivated<br />
arable fields; particularly western,<br />
north-western <strong>and</strong> central Pol<strong>and</strong><br />
• decrease in meadows <strong>and</strong> pastures<br />
(transformed into arable fields);<br />
Silesia, Wielkopolska<br />
• decrease in orchards (partly<br />
transformed into arable fields); Silesia,<br />
north- west.<br />
1. <strong>Forest</strong> l<strong>and</strong>scape<br />
• spreading out of formerly established<br />
large forests: north, north-east, northwest,<br />
western borders <strong>and</strong> south-east<br />
e.g. owing to contemporary intensive<br />
reforestation.<br />
2. Semi-wild l<strong>and</strong>scape<br />
• extensive l<strong>and</strong> ab<strong>and</strong>onment<br />
followed by natural succession <strong>and</strong><br />
later designated for forests: north,<br />
north- west, Bieszczady<br />
• l<strong>and</strong> ab<strong>and</strong>onment at a less range –<br />
individual parcels overgrowing with<br />
trees <strong>and</strong> bushes: mainly central,<br />
southern <strong>and</strong> eastern Pol<strong>and</strong><br />
3. Agricultural enclosed l<strong>and</strong>scape<br />
• increase in the amount <strong>and</strong> character<br />
of orchards (mainly Vistula Valley,<br />
central <strong>and</strong> eastern Pol<strong>and</strong>).<br />
Some of previously outlined tendencies of l<strong>and</strong>scape transformation exhibit at least one<br />
common feature: expansion of relatively huge homogeneous areas. However, organization of<br />
these areas is different. Open fields are usually formed by large patches occupied by cereals<br />
(mainly wheat, triticale, barley <strong>and</strong> lately maize), have clearly defined boundaries <strong>and</strong> a small<br />
quantity of other habitats (<strong>and</strong> inner shapes). <strong>Forest</strong> l<strong>and</strong>scapes are almost always constituted by<br />
large patches spreading out from ‘nucleus’ towards agricultural l<strong>and</strong> or constituted by dispersed<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
B. Bożętka 2010. Recent relations between forestry <strong>and</strong> agriculture in Pol<strong>and</strong><br />
19<br />
areas trying to fill the spaces between ‘steps’ <strong>and</strong> in consequence forming a much bigger,<br />
elongated patch. Their boundaries have a mixed character, can be very sharp or gradual.<br />
Regional distribution of changes demonstrates interesting l<strong>and</strong>scape differences. A<br />
coarse- grain pattern is specific to the northern, north-western <strong>and</strong> western parts of the country.<br />
The rural area there tends to be distinctly divided into a small number of large, concentrated<br />
patches of agricultural as well as forest l<strong>and</strong>scapes- both of them featured by predominance of<br />
compositional simplicity. The relations between open <strong>and</strong> enclosed here should be stable in the<br />
near future, presumably. Central, eastern <strong>and</strong> southern parts are affected by appearance of new<br />
enclosed structures: 1. forest <strong>and</strong> ‘succession’ patches, 2. modern, very effective orchards. They<br />
systematically change l<strong>and</strong>scape configuration, to some degree introducing more diversity, but<br />
at the same time instigating potentially negative tendency, which can lead to a variable-grain or<br />
even a coarse-grain mosaic. Regarding a characteristic fragmented spatial <strong>and</strong> ownership<br />
structure, processes of l<strong>and</strong>scape change in these regions may be much more complex <strong>and</strong> much<br />
more difficult to anticipate.<br />
Hence, two important interconnected tendencies of l<strong>and</strong>scape change should be<br />
highlighted: spreading out of coarse- grained mosaics represented by large fields <strong>and</strong> forests,<br />
<strong>and</strong> shrinking of a traditional fine- grained l<strong>and</strong>scape pattern.<br />
5. Conclusions <strong>and</strong> discussion: l<strong>and</strong>scape diversity<br />
Redistribution of open <strong>and</strong> enclosed structures deeply affects l<strong>and</strong>scape heterogeneity in<br />
Pol<strong>and</strong>. Firstly, new l<strong>and</strong>scape types develop (for instance an agricultural enclosed l<strong>and</strong>scape<br />
connected with compact orchards). Secondly, considerable alterations of a l<strong>and</strong>scape mosaic<br />
appear. Open fields spread out <strong>and</strong> continuously simplify. <strong>Forest</strong> <strong>and</strong> semi-wild l<strong>and</strong>scapes<br />
spread as well, but owing to an ecological movement in forestry, they can be more diverse than<br />
before. However, influence of new patches formed by forests or other vegetation overgrowing<br />
ab<strong>and</strong>oned l<strong>and</strong> on the l<strong>and</strong>scape is difficult to assess. New elements can enrich central, eastern<br />
<strong>and</strong> southern provinces, but simultaneously, they can constitute a threat for continuity of a finegrained<br />
agricultural pattern, being able to disturb the l<strong>and</strong>scape structure <strong>and</strong> character.<br />
Operation of many processes at the same time may cause an increase in heterogeneity, but on<br />
the other h<strong>and</strong>, it may result in decline in l<strong>and</strong>scape values. Too much diversity can cause chaos<br />
(Bell 2004) <strong>and</strong> regrettably, this is a common feature of the Polish l<strong>and</strong>scape.<br />
Nevertheless, contrasts between diversity <strong>and</strong> homogeneity become stronger than they<br />
used to- vast areas of agricultural or forest monoculture generate the opposition to the traditional<br />
l<strong>and</strong>scape formed by numerous tiny units. Therefore, fragmentation of the traditional l<strong>and</strong>scape<br />
accompanied by consolidation of open fields <strong>and</strong> forest l<strong>and</strong>scapes should be emphasized.<br />
Additionally, replacement of natural by geometric shapes in l<strong>and</strong>scapes occurs (Solon 2003).<br />
Demonstrated processes vary regionally, historical differences between The Reclaimed L<strong>and</strong><br />
(the western <strong>and</strong> northern territories) <strong>and</strong> the rest of the country are reflected in l<strong>and</strong>scape<br />
evolution <strong>and</strong> in a l<strong>and</strong>scape mosaic.<br />
Some of the changes are observed globally. Palang et al. (2006), analysing l<strong>and</strong>scapes of<br />
Eastern <strong>and</strong> Central Europe noticed the passage from small-scale variability to large-scale<br />
monotony. Many authors (e.g. Richling, Solon 1996) recognized a change of rural areas that<br />
consists in two general directions of l<strong>and</strong> transformation: increase in diversity, linked for<br />
instance with ecological farming <strong>and</strong> increase in homogeneity within a l<strong>and</strong>scape in highly<br />
developed agro-ecosystems.<br />
The last two decades brought with them significant changes of l<strong>and</strong>scape structure in<br />
Pol<strong>and</strong>. The threats of advanced simplification <strong>and</strong> transition of a l<strong>and</strong>scape mosaic belong to<br />
the most considerable consequences. Sadly, the changes can lead to a great loss in the traditional<br />
l<strong>and</strong>scape.<br />
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<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
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Weigle A. (Eds), Różnorodność biologiczna Polski, Narodowa Fundacja Ochrony<br />
Środowiska, Warszawa; 197-202.<br />
Solon, J., 2003, Różnorodność ponadgatunkowa- krajobrazy, [in:] Andrzejewski R., <strong>and</strong> Weigle<br />
A. (Eds), Różnorodność biologiczna Polski, NFOŚ, Warszawa; 155-160.<br />
Statistical Yearbook of The Republic of Pol<strong>and</strong>, 2009, Central Statistical Office, Warsaw, 2010.<br />
The Country Program for Afforestation, 2003, Ministry of Environment, Warsaw 2003; 107 pp.<br />
The Country Program of Rural Development 2007-2013, Ministry of Agriculture <strong>and</strong> Rural<br />
Development, Warsaw, 2009; 421 pp.<br />
Tveit, M., Ode, Å., Fry, G., 2006, Key Concepts in a Framework for Analysing Visual<br />
L<strong>and</strong>scape Character, L<strong>and</strong>scape Research, Vol. 31, No. 3; 229-255.<br />
Wanic, T., 2009: Znaczenie gatunków z rodzaju Alnus dla przekształcania gleb porolnych w<br />
Bieszczadach, [in:] Koc J. (Ed.), Mat. III Ogólnopolskiej Konf. Naukowej „Kształtowanie<br />
i Ochrona Środowiska”, Uniw. Warmińsko- Mazurski w Olsztynie, 23-25 June 2009; 228.<br />
Worobiec, K. A., Liżewska, I., (eds) 2009, Aleje przydrożne. Historia, znaczenie, zagrożenie,<br />
ochrona. Wydawnictwo „Borussia”, Kadzidłowo- Olsztyn, 271 pp.<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
S.F. Chen et al. 2010. A physiotope-based model for ecoregions for the the nationwide ecosystem management of Japan<br />
21<br />
A physiotope-based model for ecoregions for the the nationwide<br />
ecosystem management of Japan<br />
Siew Fong Chen 1* , Tadashi Masuzawa 2 , Yukihiro Morimoto 1 & Hajime Ise 2<br />
1 Graduate School of <strong>Global</strong> Environmental Studies, Kyoto University, Japan<br />
2 Regional Environmental Planning Inc., Tokyo, Japan<br />
Abstract<br />
In this research we suggest a new ecologically-significant planning unit based on ecoregions<br />
adjusted to suit Japan's complicated geological history, <strong>and</strong> to analyze them from a l<strong>and</strong>scape<br />
ecology point of view. First, we divided Japan into four main geological regions <strong>and</strong> within<br />
them, delineated physiotope-based ecoregions using regional climate regime as main controlling<br />
factor. From a l<strong>and</strong>form-geological map overlay, we derived 7 physiotope classes <strong>and</strong><br />
characterized each geological region. We quantified the l<strong>and</strong>scape composition <strong>and</strong><br />
configuration <strong>and</strong> found that each region has different patch dynamics <strong>and</strong> mosaic complexity in<br />
which the extent of Neogene sedimentary basins <strong>and</strong> Quaternary strata deposition play a big role.<br />
Underst<strong>and</strong>ing the geotectonic-climatic-physiotope ecoregion framework of Japan is an<br />
important step in devising multi-scale, hierarchical ecosystem management.<br />
Keywords: Physiotope-based ecoregions, l<strong>and</strong>scape metrics.<br />
1. Introduction<br />
The Third National Biodiversity Strategy of Japan highlighted the biodiversity crisis <strong>and</strong> the<br />
importance of l<strong>and</strong> planning, design <strong>and</strong> ecosystem management at national spatial scale from<br />
the viewpoint of biodiversity conservation. The concept of ecoregion is suitable in devising<br />
ecologically-significant l<strong>and</strong> planning units that can be classified hierarchically <strong>and</strong> which<br />
transcends administrative boundaries. Omernik & Bailey (1997) noted that ecoregions are<br />
ecosystems of large regional extent that contain a group of geographical areas of similar<br />
functioning ecosystems, which can be delineated at different sizes <strong>and</strong> scales according to<br />
management goals. Omernik (2004) pointed out the numerous disagreements over how to<br />
delineate ecoregions e.g. disagreements on the definition of ecosystems, its complexity <strong>and</strong> its<br />
boundaries. Bailey (1996) noted the challenges of ecoregion delineation using vegetation <strong>and</strong><br />
biogeographic distribution of animal communities that constantly change due to disturbance,<br />
succession <strong>and</strong> habitat loss, therefore the importance on basing ecosystem boundaries on<br />
permanent features <strong>and</strong> dominance of one particular environmental factor. Bailey’s method sets<br />
climate as the composite, long-term, or generally prevailing weather as a primary control for<br />
ecosystem distribution at the highest level. Physiography modifies the influence on climate, <strong>and</strong><br />
has secondary effect on ecosystem differentiation.<br />
The Japanese archipelago is characterized by a narrow arc stretching on the eastern margin of<br />
the Asian continent, <strong>and</strong> is surrounded by the Japan Sea, Okhotsk Sea <strong>and</strong> Pacific Ocean which<br />
affect the different climatic regimes formed. In addition to climatic regimes, tectonic structure is<br />
equally important in ecoregion formation in Japan. Japan’s main isl<strong>and</strong>s are divided generally<br />
* Corresponding author. Tel.: +818061207975 - Fax: +81757536062<br />
Email address: siewfong.chen@at7.ecs.kyoto-u.ac.jp<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
S.F. Chen et al. 2010. A physiotope-based model for ecoregions for the the nationwide ecosystem management of Japan<br />
22<br />
into 2 parts: Southwest (SW) Japan <strong>and</strong> Northeast (NE) Japan by the Itoigawa-Shizuoka line,<br />
separated during the early Neogene by the subduction of the Pacific Sea Plate <strong>and</strong> the Philippine<br />
Sea Plate. A belt of Mesozoic metamorphic rocks, the Median Tectonic Line divides SW Japan<br />
into the Inner Zone <strong>and</strong> Outer Zone of SW Japan (Kimura, Hayami & Yoshida 1991). Hokkaido<br />
is separated from the main isl<strong>and</strong> of Honshu by an important zoogeographical boundary, the<br />
Blakiston Line, also known as the Tsuruga Straits.<br />
The purpose of this research is to suggest a new multi-purpose ecologically significant planning<br />
unit in Japan based on the concept of ecoregions, adjusted to suit Japan's complicated<br />
geomorphological characteristics, accretion tectonics <strong>and</strong> geological history, <strong>and</strong> finally to look<br />
at the geologic-climatic-physiographic units from a l<strong>and</strong>scape ecology point of view.<br />
2. Methodology<br />
2.1 Study site<br />
This study focuses on the main isl<strong>and</strong>s of Honshu, Hokkaido, Kyushu <strong>and</strong> Shikoku. The<br />
Ogasawara archipelago, Ryukyu archipelago <strong>and</strong> other isl<strong>and</strong>s were excluded.<br />
2.2 Delineation of ecoregions<br />
2.2.1 Delineation of ecoregions at macroscale<br />
The four major geological regions: a) Inner Zone of SW Japan, b) Outer Zone of SW Japan, c)<br />
NE Japan <strong>and</strong> d) Hokkaido were delineated using the Index Map of Fossa Magna (Kato 1992)<br />
<strong>and</strong> the Median Tectonic Line (Yoshikawa et al. 1981) <strong>and</strong> the Blakiston’s line. The Climate<br />
Regions Map of Japan by Wadachi (1974) was used to determine the boundaries of the climate<br />
regions nested within each geological zone (Fig. 1).<br />
2.2.1 Characterization of ecoregions with physiotope classes<br />
The L<strong>and</strong>form Classification map (MLIT) <strong>and</strong> Geological Classification Map (MLIT), both at<br />
1:50,000 scale <strong>and</strong> in ESRI shape format were overlaid using ArcMap 9.3 (ESRI Japan). The<br />
resulting 49 l<strong>and</strong>form-geological classes were later reclassified into 7 physiotope classes that<br />
identify accretion tectonics, tectonic relief <strong>and</strong> unique geomorphologic characteristics (Fig. 1).<br />
The resulting physiotope classes’ map was converted into ESRI GRID format <strong>and</strong> overlaid with<br />
geological regions for quantification of l<strong>and</strong>scape metrics.<br />
2.2 Quantification of l<strong>and</strong>scape metrics<br />
The raster version of FRAGSTATS (McGarigal & Marks 1994), developed by the <strong>Forest</strong><br />
Science Department, Oregon State University was used to quantify the areas, patch sizes <strong>and</strong><br />
variability, diversity, proximity <strong>and</strong> nearest neighbor indices of the physiotope classes of each<br />
geological zone. Results are in both l<strong>and</strong>scape level (Table 1) <strong>and</strong> class level (Fig. 2a-2f).<br />
3. Results<br />
3.1 Typical characteristics by geological regions<br />
3.1.1 Region A – Inner Zone of Southwest Japan<br />
Volcanoes <strong>and</strong> Volcanic L<strong>and</strong>forms <strong>and</strong> Quaternary Plains are the main physiotope classes of<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
S.F. Chen et al. 2010. A physiotope-based model for ecoregions for the the nationwide ecosystem management of Japan<br />
23<br />
Figure 1: Proposed Physiotpe-based ecoregion map, with four main geological regions followed by<br />
regional climatic units nested within, <strong>and</strong> 7 physiotope classes for characterizing ecoregion units.<br />
this region, consisting of 25% <strong>and</strong> 22% respectively. It is a fine-grained, fragmented <strong>and</strong><br />
heterogeneous mosaic interspersed evenly across the region (Fig. 2a-2f).<br />
Analysis on the l<strong>and</strong>scape level reveals a region with the highest patch numbers, but smallest<br />
largest patch index among all regions. The highest score in interspersion <strong>and</strong> juxtaposition<br />
suggests that even though physiotope classes are small <strong>and</strong> fragmented, they remain evenly<br />
distributed across the l<strong>and</strong>scape (Table 1).<br />
3.1.2 Region B – Outer Zone of Southwest Japan<br />
Paleozoic-Mesozoic Mountain is the predominant l<strong>and</strong>scape matrix in this region with an area<br />
percentage of 57%, largest patch index of 25% (Fig. 2a & Fig. 2c). Analysis on class <strong>and</strong><br />
l<strong>and</strong>scape level show that physiotope classes has patches with the poorest connectivity <strong>and</strong> are<br />
most fragmented <strong>and</strong> isolated. Despite the scores, the patches here are strongly connected <strong>and</strong><br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
S.F. Chen et al. 2010. A physiotope-based model for ecoregions for the the nationwide ecosystem management of Japan<br />
24<br />
Table 1: Results of l<strong>and</strong>scape level indices by geographical regions<br />
Geological regions TA (ha) NP LPI (%) MPS (ha) PSCV (%) MPI NNCV (%) IJI (%) PR SHDI SHEI<br />
A SW Japan 12532743.75 92 7.55 136225.48 126.71 33.32 95.45 95.85 6 1.71 0.95<br />
B Outer zone Japan 3638681.25 16 25.24 227417.58 109.38 2.36 113.05 73.08 6 1.33 0.74<br />
C NE Japan 12279050.00 55 13.71 223255.45 149.08 631.52 99.75 77.24 7 1.75 0.90<br />
D Hokkaido 7794787.50 27 12.51 288695.83 88.69 18.68 120.34 83.59 6 1.59 0.89<br />
TA: Total area (ha); NP: Number of patches; LPI: Largest patch index; MPS: Mean patch size; PSCV: Patch size coefficient of<br />
variance; MPI: Mean proximity index; NNCV: Nearest-neighbor coefficient of variance; IJI: Interspersion <strong>and</strong> Juxtaposition index;<br />
PR: Patch richness; SHDI: Shannon’s Diversity Index; SHEI: Shannon’s evenness index<br />
highly homogenous, but are separated by the Hoyo Straits <strong>and</strong> the Naruto Straits (Table 1).<br />
3.1.3 Region C – Northeast Japan<br />
Tertiary Mountains <strong>and</strong> Hills <strong>and</strong> Volcanoes <strong>and</strong> Volcanic L<strong>and</strong>forms are the main physiotope<br />
classes, consisting of 30% <strong>and</strong> 22% respectively, followed by Quaternary Plains with Volcanic<br />
Ash Soil, Quaternary Plains, Mesozoic Granite Mountains <strong>and</strong> lastly Plutonic <strong>and</strong> Metamorphic<br />
Mountains (Fig. 2a). This region is characterized by the presence of an isolated Quaternary<br />
Plain with Volcanic Ash Soil patch at a 14% largest patch index (Fig. 2c). Another peculiarity is<br />
%LAND (%)<br />
60.00<br />
50.00<br />
40.00<br />
30.00<br />
20.00<br />
Thous<strong>and</strong>s<br />
MPS (ha)<br />
1800.00<br />
1600.00<br />
1400.00<br />
1200.00<br />
1000.00<br />
800.00<br />
600.00<br />
1 old<br />
2 ter<br />
3 qua<br />
4 vsh<br />
5 vol<br />
6 gra<br />
7 plu<br />
10.00<br />
0.00<br />
30.00<br />
Inner Zone SW<br />
Japan<br />
400.00<br />
200.00<br />
a) b)<br />
0.00<br />
Outer Zone SW<br />
Japan<br />
Northeast Japan<br />
Hokkaido<br />
Inner Zone SW<br />
Japan<br />
180.00<br />
Outer Zone SW<br />
Japan<br />
Northeast Japan<br />
Hokkaido<br />
25.00<br />
160.00<br />
140.00<br />
20.00<br />
120.00<br />
LPI (%)<br />
15.00<br />
PSCV (%)<br />
100.00<br />
80.00<br />
10.00<br />
60.00<br />
MPI (Index value)<br />
5.00<br />
0.00<br />
3500.00<br />
350.00<br />
3000.00<br />
300.00<br />
250.00<br />
200.00<br />
150.00<br />
100.00<br />
50.00<br />
0.00<br />
c)<br />
Inner Zone SW<br />
Japan<br />
e)<br />
Inner Zone SW<br />
Japan<br />
Outer Zone SW<br />
Japan<br />
Outer Zone SW<br />
Japan<br />
MPI = 3151.36<br />
Northeast Japan<br />
Northeast Japan<br />
Hokkaido<br />
Hokkaido<br />
NNCV (%)<br />
40.00<br />
20.00<br />
0.00<br />
180.00<br />
160.00<br />
140.00<br />
120.00<br />
100.00<br />
80.00<br />
60.00<br />
40.00<br />
20.00<br />
0.00<br />
d)<br />
Inner Zone SW<br />
Japan<br />
f)<br />
Inner Zone SW<br />
Japan<br />
Outer Zone SW<br />
Japan<br />
Outer Zone SW<br />
Japan<br />
REGIONS<br />
Northeast Japan<br />
Northeast Japan<br />
Hokkaido<br />
Hokkaido<br />
Figure 2: Comparison of l<strong>and</strong>scape indices of physiotope classes by geological regions: (a) Percentage of<br />
l<strong>and</strong>scape (%). (b) Mean patch size (ha).(c) Largest patch index (%). (d) Patch size coefficient of variance<br />
(%). (e) Mean proximity index. (f) Nearest-neighbor coefficient of variance (%). (Key to physiotope<br />
classes in Fig. 1)<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
S.F. Chen et al. 2010. A physiotope-based model for ecoregions for the the nationwide ecosystem management of Japan<br />
25<br />
the exceedingly high mean proximity index of the Tertiary Mountains <strong>and</strong> Hills class thus<br />
making it the most connected single patch of all regions (Fig. 2e).<br />
Analysis on the l<strong>and</strong>scape level shows strong patch size heterogeneity <strong>and</strong> strongest<br />
connectivity among all regions (Table 1).<br />
3.1.4 Region D – Hokkaido<br />
Interestingly, the l<strong>and</strong> percentage of all physiotope classes in Hokkaido is almost similar to NE<br />
Japan, the only difference being the absence of Mesozoic Granite Mountains in Hokkaido.<br />
Hokkaido is characterized by fragmented coarse grain size with relatively low connectivity<br />
which is distributed unevenly across the region, particularly Paleozoic-Mesozoic Mountains <strong>and</strong><br />
Tertiary Mountains <strong>and</strong> Hills (Fig. 2a-2f).<br />
Analysis on a l<strong>and</strong>scape level shows that this region has the biggest mean patch size, lowest<br />
patch size heterogeneity, very low connectivity <strong>and</strong> most fragmented patches (Table 1).<br />
4. Discussion<br />
L<strong>and</strong>scape compostion of physiotope classes among the geological regions vary. Inner Zone of<br />
SW Japan consists of older terranes, volcanic l<strong>and</strong>forms <strong>and</strong> the highest percentage of Mesozoic<br />
granite rocks formed around 150 million years ago. Both NE Japan <strong>and</strong> Hokkaido consist<br />
mainly of newer terranes of Tertiary mountains (formed around 20 million years ago) <strong>and</strong><br />
Quaternary terranes (Fig. 2a). Jurassic accretionary prisms occupied the largest area of the pre-<br />
Neogene basement rock of SW Japan when igneous activity <strong>and</strong> regional metamorphism was<br />
most intensive. But during the Neogene era, Neogene sedimentary basins were formed only in<br />
certain parts of SW Japan while the entire of NE Japan <strong>and</strong> Hokkaido were covered with<br />
Neogene strata. During the Pleistocene-Holocene period, uppermost Pleistocene <strong>and</strong> Holocene<br />
strata formed extensive Quaternary plains in NE Japan <strong>and</strong> Hokkaido, while forming a majority<br />
of small <strong>and</strong> narrow plains in SW Japan (Kimura, Hayami & Yoshida 1991). The late<br />
Quaternary was also characterized by major changes in species distribution <strong>and</strong> composition of<br />
biotic communities (Delcourt & Delcourt 1988).The Outer Zone of SW Japan is unique both in<br />
l<strong>and</strong>scape composition <strong>and</strong> configuration, being dominated by Paleozoic-Mesozoic Mountains.<br />
In terms of physiotope class configuration, Inner Zone of SW Japan has the most complicated<br />
mosaic with small, non-contiguous, independent patches distributed all across the region. NE<br />
Japan is unique, characterized by a large, continuous patch of Tertiary Mountain <strong>and</strong> Hills class<br />
type on the Japan Sea side <strong>and</strong> a solitary Quaternary Plain with Volcanic Ash Soil in the Kanto<br />
plains (Fig. 2b-2f). Complexity of l<strong>and</strong>scape mosaics can be linked to the habitat types formed<br />
within. The dominant Tertiary mountains <strong>and</strong> hills patch of NE Japan coincide with the Fagus<br />
crenatae (broad-leaved deciduous forest) region's extent (MOE, 1989). Quaternary Plains with<br />
volcanic ash soil class type is unique because they are situated next to volcanic regions which<br />
supply the debris <strong>and</strong> being soil originating from tephra, it is among the most productive soil in<br />
the world (Shoki & Takahashi, 2002).<br />
The ecologically applicability of the results lies in ecoregion delineation of Japan. The 12<br />
climate-influenced ecoregions nested in each geological region display the significance of the<br />
Japan Sea, Okhotsk Sea <strong>and</strong> the Pacific Ocean's influences on each unit <strong>and</strong> act as the main<br />
controlling factor over the physiotope regions (Fig. 1). Even though defining the ecoregions for<br />
Japan is not an easy task <strong>and</strong> will require more extensive study, this physiotope model of<br />
ecoregions has potential as a basemap used in conjunction with environmental databases for<br />
further refinement of this study <strong>and</strong> for other research <strong>and</strong> management purposes.<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
S.F. Chen et al. 2010. A physiotope-based model for ecoregions for the the nationwide ecosystem management of Japan<br />
26<br />
References<br />
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Delcourt, H., & Delcourt, P., 2008. Quaternary l<strong>and</strong>scape ecology: Relevant scales in space <strong>and</strong><br />
time. L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology, 2(1): 23-44<br />
Kato, H. 1992, Fossa Magna A masked border region separating southwest <strong>and</strong> northeast Japan.<br />
Bulletin of the Geographical Survey of Japan, 43 (1/2) :1-30<br />
Kimura, T., Hayami, I., Yoshida, S., 1991. Geology of Japan, University of Tokyo Press: 127-<br />
240<br />
McGarigal, K., Marks, B.J., 1994. FRAGSTATS: Spatial pattern analysis program for<br />
quantifying l<strong>and</strong>scape structure. Reference manual. <strong>Forest</strong> Science Department, Oregon<br />
State University, Corvallis Oregon, 134 p.<br />
Omernik, J., 2004. Perspective on the nature <strong>and</strong> the definition of ecological regions.<br />
Environmental Management, 34 suppl. 1: S27-S38<br />
Omernik, J.M. & Bailey, R.G., 1997. Distinguishing between watersheds <strong>and</strong> ecoregion.<br />
Journal of American Water Resource Association, 96178: 935-949<br />
Shoji, S., Takahashi, T., 2002. Environmental <strong>and</strong> agricultural significance of volcanic ash soils.<br />
<strong>Global</strong> Environmental Research, 6(2): 113-135<br />
Wadachi, K. ed. 1974. Kishou no jiten. Tokyo-dou Shuppan: 96<br />
Yoshikawa, T., Kaizuka, S., & Ota, Y., 1981. The L<strong>and</strong>forms of Japan. University of Tokyo<br />
Press: 50<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
V.D. de Campos & S M. Carvalho 2010. Risk areas to flooding in the Hidrographical Basin of Arroio dos Pereiras<br />
27<br />
Risk areas to flooding in the Hidrographical Basin of Arroio dos<br />
Pereiras in Irati, PR, Brazil<br />
Vivian Dallagnol de Campos * & Sílvia Méri Carvalho<br />
Graduate Program in Geography - L<strong>and</strong> Management of UEPG, Brazil<br />
Abstract<br />
This study aimed to identify <strong>and</strong> map areas the risk areas to flooding in the hidrographical basin<br />
of Arroio dos Pereiras, located in Irati - PR (Brazil), identifying the most susceptible areas to<br />
accidents of hydrological origin, emphasizing the floods <strong>and</strong> co-relating the natural<br />
susceptibility derived from the natural morphodynamics of the system, where the hidrographical<br />
basin (with its inputs <strong>and</strong> outputs of energy, allied to the relief features) <strong>and</strong> the susceptibility<br />
created by human actions, mainly by the processes of urbanization, which modify the natural<br />
dynamics of the system, increasing susceptibility to the occurrence of the phenomenon <strong>and</strong><br />
creating risks to society.<br />
Word Keys: Mapping - risk areas - flooding - Irati - PR - Brazil.<br />
1. Introduction<br />
According to Tucci (2003), urbanization is one of the main constraints for the increase<br />
of the frequency <strong>and</strong> magnitude of floods, that due to changes made in the process of human<br />
occupation, such as soil sealing <strong>and</strong> deployment of infrastructure that alter the natural dynamics<br />
system. Such changes reflect in a higher runoff that leads to an increase of speed <strong>and</strong> flow of the<br />
river watercourses, potentiating the flood risk <strong>and</strong> other natural disasters linked to the dynamics<br />
of water <strong>and</strong> l<strong>and</strong> such as erosion <strong>and</strong> l<strong>and</strong>slides.<br />
Before such a reality, it is necessary to conduct studies to identify such areas at flood<br />
risk, as well as the frequency <strong>and</strong> magnitude of the event.<br />
1.1 Location <strong>and</strong> characterization of the study area.<br />
The hidrographical basin of Arroio dos Pereiras is located in Irati - PR, between the<br />
coordinates 533976/7179941 <strong>and</strong> 539906/7185815 UTM (Figure 1), comprising a total area of<br />
354 ha. It is an hidrographical basin of 3rd order, with a total of 27 river watercourses. Its main<br />
sources are located in rural areas <strong>and</strong> its riverbed runs to central urban area. Thus, the<br />
occupation seated along the hidrographical basin, eventually occupy inappropriate areas as the<br />
valleys bottoms, marginal areas <strong>and</strong> flood plains, thereby increasing the risk to flooding.<br />
The study area is included in the geological compartment of the Paraná Hidrographical<br />
Basin, with the main geological formation the Irati formation (pyrobituminous shale), with the<br />
occurrence of diabase dikes. It has an amount of unevenness to its outfall of about 110 meters,<br />
which adds up to a relief that ranges from rolling to rugged, results in areas where river flow<br />
may have a lot of energy. However, near its outfall it was modeled a floodplain quite<br />
expressive, where the urban area is settled. (Kazubek, 2006).<br />
1.2 Natural <strong>and</strong> Anthropic Constraints of the flood events.<br />
* Corresponding author. Email: vivica_pr@ibest.com.br<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
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2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
V.D. de Campos & S M. Carvalho 2010. Risk areas to flooding in the Hidrographical Basin of Arroio dos Pereiras<br />
28<br />
According to Cunha (2005), rivers <strong>and</strong> canals overflow their riverbeds at least once<br />
every two years, in other words, when there is peak flow, triggered by concentrated rains <strong>and</strong><br />
the river begins to occupy its larger riverbed or floodplain. What makes these risk areas is<br />
human occupation, that by ignoring or disregard the natural dynamics of the drainage network<br />
provides housing in these areas <strong>and</strong> often the walls of buildings of the river banks (photo1).<br />
When the occupation of the bottom of a city valley does not consider the natural<br />
dynamic of the system, considering riverbed just the river watercourse <strong>and</strong> not respecting the<br />
larger riverbed, which is its area of flight in the events of greater flow, creates what we call risk,<br />
which is the sum of the natural susceptibility, more created susceptibility, more the vulnerability<br />
that the population is exposed (EMPLASA / SNM, 1985).<br />
Other factors that act as constraints or even aggravating of the flood events are the<br />
infrastructure projects that increase according to the urban development such as soil sealing, the<br />
reduction of green areas, changes in canals such as rectilinizations <strong>and</strong> canalizations, which,<br />
when poorly scaled, ultimately aggravate the situation, since they reduce the area occupied by<br />
the flow, blocking the water flow in the peak events, leading to leakage or even rupture of pipes<br />
<strong>and</strong> galleries.<br />
In the case studied, the hidrographical basin of Arroio dos Pereiras, the floodplain is the<br />
area of the basin that has the more consolidated urban occupation, housing commercial activities<br />
<strong>and</strong> services, in other words, it is precisely the central area of the city with a higher potential<br />
risk of material losses.<br />
2. Methodology<br />
Figure 1 - Location of the Hidrographical Basin of Arroio dos Pereiras<br />
Org: Campos, 2006.<br />
The thematic maps were generated using the software Spring 4.3 (1996), from image of<br />
QuickBird ® 2004 satellite (Irati 2006), topographic maps of the Army (SG 22-XCI-4) at<br />
1:50000 scale, base-letters of the city 1:50.000 <strong>and</strong> cadastral urban letter cadastral at 1:10,000<br />
scale.<br />
To map the risk areas they were considered the subdivision <strong>and</strong> l<strong>and</strong> use, the<br />
characteristics of the drainage network (watercourse morphology <strong>and</strong> location of flood plains),<br />
structural change <strong>and</strong> watercourse contention <strong>and</strong> historic of previous events in the local press,<br />
brigade of firemen, residents <strong>and</strong> researchers of local history. These procedures allowed to<br />
identify <strong>and</strong> map the most susceptible areas to flooding using the GIS tools.<br />
For this work we established the period from 1983 to 2006 to identify the time of<br />
recurrence of the phenomenon <strong>and</strong> they were considered only large <strong>and</strong> medium magnitude<br />
events, which have records both in the local press <strong>and</strong> in government agencies as City Hall <strong>and</strong><br />
Fire Department . Because there is not a well established civil defense, the records are few <strong>and</strong><br />
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2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
V.D. de Campos & S M. Carvalho 2010. Risk areas to flooding in the Hidrographical Basin of Arroio dos Pereiras<br />
29<br />
there are not photographs that would make it possible to map more precisely the coverage areas<br />
of the flooding.<br />
Photo 1 - Margins of Arroio dos Pereiras on May 24 Avenue.<br />
Author: Campos, 2006.<br />
3. Results<br />
They were identified eight most relevant events which occurred in 1983 (2 episodes),<br />
1987, 1992, 1993, 2000, 2002 <strong>and</strong> 2004, totaling 8 events.<br />
In flood events (medium <strong>and</strong> large magnitude) all central area is reached, since it is<br />
settled on the floodplain of two hidrographical basins: Arroio dos Pereiras (our subject of study)<br />
<strong>and</strong> Antas River, being Arroio dos Pereiras tributary of Antas River.<br />
The frequency of events of greater magnitude seems to occur in a range of<br />
approximately 30 years, always in May, but for lack of documentary records from the period<br />
before 1983, it was decided to map only from 1983. It was noted during the period from 1983 to<br />
2006 that the recurrence time ranges from 40 to 10 years for the events of greater magnitude <strong>and</strong><br />
from 1 to 2 years for the events of lesser magnitude.<br />
Floods of greater magnitude (Figure 2) usually occur between the months from May to<br />
July. Of these, three major floods occurred in May (1983, 1987 <strong>and</strong> 1992).<br />
In 1983 there were two of the major floods in history, one in May <strong>and</strong> another in July,<br />
which reached the entire downtown area, where is located the center of trade <strong>and</strong> services, <strong>and</strong><br />
also different neighborhoods at different points of the city. In July of this year it was registered<br />
the highest average precipitation: 487.9 (INMET / 8th District of Meteorology). The events of<br />
1983 were compared by older residents as equal to that which occurred in early 1950 (photos 2<br />
<strong>and</strong> 3).<br />
Photo 2:03 - Flooding of the early 1950s (near 7 de Setembro Street, central area)<br />
Source: Irati (2006).<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
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V.D. de Campos & S M. Carvalho 2010. Risk areas to flooding in the Hidrographical Basin of Arroio dos Pereiras<br />
30<br />
The flood occurred in 1993 that also had large proportions was considered atypical, not<br />
by months of occurrence (in September) which is usually rainy, but by being accompanied by a<br />
big hailstorm, which caused an average accumulation of 60 cm of ice, reaching especially the<br />
city center <strong>and</strong> within the municipality. The material losses that occurred due to this<br />
phenomenon were immense, reaching 100% in some cultures, hundreds of homes lost their<br />
roofs, fall of gas stations covering, industrial sheds, among others (Folha de Irati Newspaper,<br />
1993).<br />
Due to the magnitude of the event (heavy rain with hail), there was still clogging of the<br />
storm drainage network of rivers <strong>and</strong> the river bus by debris, trash, sediment <strong>and</strong> by the hail<br />
itself, which, coupled with the subsequent melting of the ice, led to a great flood, increasing the<br />
losses <strong>and</strong> the number of homeless. According to the local press (Folha de Irati Newspaper,<br />
1993), which covered the event, residents said in the same day (September 29, St Michael's<br />
Day), 30 years ago, the same event occurred.<br />
Figure 2 - Risk areas to flooding of great magnitude<br />
Org: Campos, 2006.<br />
Since 1993, there were few events of flooding occurred <strong>and</strong> documented: 01/2000,<br />
01/2002 <strong>and</strong> 05/2004 (local press). These were of lesser magnitude in the urban area <strong>and</strong> no<br />
record in the Fire Department. The largest losses recorded from these events were concentrated<br />
in the rural area, with losses in agricultural production, but that go beyond this study area.<br />
Structural works undertaken by the City Hall are related to reduction of the flooding<br />
frequency, although it is known the occurrence of a period of drier years, where the few<br />
episodes of more concentrated rain did not represent major risks, because the level of the river<br />
water was extremely low <strong>and</strong> the soil was very dry, with few points of flooding (Figure 3)<br />
concentrated just after the outfall of the canalization points.<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
V.D. de Campos & S M. Carvalho 2010. Risk areas to flooding in the Hidrographical Basin of Arroio dos Pereiras<br />
31<br />
Figure 3 - Risk Areas to Flooding of lesser Magnitude<br />
Org: Campos, 2006.<br />
4. Discussion<br />
All events covered in this survey were recorded by the City Hall, which enacted<br />
"emergency situation" for them, except the flood of 1983, where he was declared "State of<br />
Public Calamity."<br />
Floods have constituted one of the main problems for urban managers, since the<br />
solutions are costly <strong>and</strong> difficult because permeate relationships of groups with different<br />
interests <strong>and</strong> occupations for the most ancient <strong>and</strong> well established, as in the case studied.<br />
Strategize in order to alleviate the population's vulnerability to these events is the great<br />
challenge that society must be willing, starting from the underst<strong>and</strong>ing of the operation of the<br />
physical system <strong>and</strong> how the changes made do interfere in their operation, creating risks not<br />
only to environment, but mainly to society.<br />
In the areas of the hidrographical basin where the occupation is not yet consolidated,<br />
there is the possibility of seeking a rational use, as allocation of green areas for recreation,<br />
which could be used for infiltration, decreasing runoff <strong>and</strong> flood risk to downstream; non<br />
occupation of the areas around the watercourses, avoiding l<strong>and</strong>fills <strong>and</strong> embankments, among<br />
others.<br />
These are simple measures, but can effectively reduce the risk to flooding <strong>and</strong> a more<br />
harmonious relationship between man <strong>and</strong> environment.<br />
5 References<br />
Cunha, S. B. Canais Fluviais e a Questão Ambiental. p. 219-239. In: Cunha, S. B. ; Guerra, J. T.<br />
(orgs). A Questão Ambiental: diferentes abordagens. Rio de Janeiro: Bertr<strong>and</strong> Brasil,<br />
2003.<br />
EMPLASA/SNM. Disciplinamento do Uso e Ocupação do Solo com Vistas à Preservação de<br />
Inundações. In: EMPLASA/SNM. O Problema das Inundações na Gr<strong>and</strong>e São Paulo:<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
V.D. de Campos & S M. Carvalho 2010. Risk areas to flooding in the Hidrographical Basin of Arroio dos Pereiras<br />
32<br />
Situação Atual e Implementação de Diretrizes Metropolitanas de Drenagem. São Paulo:<br />
EMPLASA/SNM, 1985. p. 27-42.<br />
Folha de Irati, Newspaper. Editions: 15/07/1983, 28/05 to 03/06/1992, 09 to 22/10/1993, 04 to<br />
11/06/2004.<br />
INMET, National Institute of Meteorology. 8º District – Climatological Station of Irati, 2007.<br />
Irati Hoje, Newspaper. Edition: from 14 to 20 of January, 2000.<br />
Irati. City Hall. Press Office - General Data. 2006.<br />
Kazubek, Márcio (geologist). Article: Arroio dos Pereiras – part 1. In: Jornal Hoje Centro Sul<br />
(on line edition), 2006. Available at:<br />
http://www.hojecentrosul.com.br/artigos/artigos.aspid=986. Acessado em: 20/11/2006.<br />
Spring: Integrating remote sensing<strong>and</strong> GIS by object-oriented data modelling. In: Camara G,<br />
Souza RCM, Freitas UM, Garrido J Computers & Graphics, 20: (3) 395-403, May-Jun<br />
1996.<br />
Tucci, C. E. M. Águas Urbanas. In: Tucci, C. E. M.; Bertoni, J.C. (org). Inundações Urbanas na<br />
América do Sul. Porto Alegre: Associação Brasileira de Recursos Hídricos, 2003.<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
N.S. Evseeva & Z.N. Kvasnikova 2010. Ecological aspects of soils deflation development in agrol<strong>and</strong>scapes<br />
33<br />
Ecological aspects of soils deflation development in agrol<strong>and</strong>scapes of<br />
the south-east of the western Siberian plain<br />
Abstract<br />
N.S. Evseeva & Z.N. Kvasnikova<br />
Tomsk State University, Russia<br />
The research of the modern processes during the cold season of the year (October-April) in the<br />
agrol<strong>and</strong>scapes of the south-western taiga area of the Western-Siberian plain has been done. The<br />
intensity of the aeol processes <strong>and</strong> the ecological <strong>and</strong> geochemical aspects of their development<br />
have been determined.<br />
Keywords: Aeol processes, taiga (thick forest) area, agrol<strong>and</strong>scape<br />
1. Introduction<br />
Most researchers regard the taiga area of the Western-Siberian plain in the western part of<br />
Siberia as the region where modern aeol processes are not practically developing. A.N. Sazhin,<br />
Ju. I. Vasilyev (2003) consider the south-east of the taiga area of the plain to be the aeol<br />
material accumulation zone. The findings obtained by the authors hold good for the natural taiga<br />
l<strong>and</strong>scapes of Western Siberia. Man’s economic activities introduce a correction for the natural<br />
course of processes <strong>and</strong> stimulate a number of them as well as aeol processes. Our research<br />
done from 1985 to 2008 shows that the modern south-eastern taiga aeol processes may be<br />
classified according to their conditions, area, <strong>and</strong> the mechanism of their development.<br />
Firstly, aeol processes are divided into natural <strong>and</strong> anthropogenic ones; secondly – they are<br />
categorized into global, regional <strong>and</strong> local ones; thirdly, they fall into destructive <strong>and</strong><br />
accumulative ones.<br />
Aeol processes do not play a great role in the relief formation of the taiga. They are represented<br />
by the near river mouth plain s<strong>and</strong> spit transfer, s<strong>and</strong> winding in uncovered places, terrace<br />
edges, flow hollows, water-shed plains as well as aeol material accumulation. The natural <strong>and</strong><br />
anthropogenic aeol processes are well-developed in arable l<strong>and</strong> areas, places of felling, oil <strong>and</strong><br />
gas extraction zones <strong>and</strong> some other areas of economic activities.<br />
Aeol dust accumulation carried by air flows over Eurasia should be called a global process. V.P.<br />
Chichagov (1999) gives examples of such a transfer. On the 5 th of May 1993 in Shizunshan<br />
(China) there occurred a transfer of fine aerosol particles from the north-west of Siberia, Central<br />
Asia <strong>and</strong> the northern part of the New L<strong>and</strong>. On the 13 th <strong>and</strong> the 14 th of April 1994, Peking got<br />
the material which had been delivered from Pol<strong>and</strong>, Sc<strong>and</strong>inavia, the mouth of the Pechorariver,<br />
Western Siberia <strong>and</strong> Central Asia. The fine material was moving across Asia by means of<br />
the north-west transfer which was constant in time. The process developing in the Western<br />
Siberia area <strong>and</strong> those ones which are connected with air mass circulation over its territory refer<br />
to the regional aeol processes.<br />
Very often they are represented by dusty storms coming to the investigated territory from<br />
Kazakhstan, Uzbekistan <strong>and</strong> the southern part of Western Siberia. The storm which occurred on<br />
27 th -28 th of April 1968, may serve as an example. At that time clouds of dust hiding the Sun<br />
hung over Tomsk <strong>and</strong> the Tomsk region as well as the Novosibirsk region. The air was greatly<br />
saturated with the light dust which was evenly distributed over the surfaces of l<strong>and</strong> <strong>and</strong><br />
buildings (Tanzybaev, Slavnina, 1975). Clouds of dust in the south-east of Western Siberia are<br />
the remains of the black storm which occurred in plowing <strong>and</strong> virgin l<strong>and</strong>s of Kazakhstan <strong>and</strong><br />
the southern part of the Western-Siberian plain (the distance from Tselinograd to Tomsk is more<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
N.S. Evseeva & Z.N. Kvasnikova 2010. Ecological aspects of soils deflation development in agrol<strong>and</strong>scapes<br />
34<br />
than 1000 km) The dust composition was made up of particles less than 0,25 mm in 87,4%<br />
cases <strong>and</strong> there were particles of 0,25-0,05 mm in size in 12,6% cases. According to some<br />
approximate data, about 20 mln tons of humus, about 1 mln of nitrogen, 240 th. tons of calium<br />
<strong>and</strong> more than 60 th. tons of phosphorus were carried to the territory of the Tomsk region<br />
together with dust.<br />
The local aeol processes are those ones which develop in the range of l<strong>and</strong>scape areas on the<br />
earth’s surface (inter-river areas, terraces) which have no natural vegetation (plowl<strong>and</strong>, felling<br />
sites, the areas of oil <strong>and</strong> gas extraction).<br />
The aim of the present paper is to investigate the modern local aeol processes in the<br />
agrol<strong>and</strong>scapes which developed during the cold season of the year (October-April) from 1989<br />
to 2008. The major factors of the aeol processes development of the investigated region have<br />
been considered by N.S. Evseeva, Z.N. Kvasnikova, N.V. Osintseva, T.V. Romashova, 2001;<br />
N.S. Evseeva, V.N. Slutsky, 2005 in their works.<br />
2. Initial data <strong>and</strong> the methods of investigation<br />
In order to reveal the intensity <strong>and</strong> the dynamics of the local aeol processes development the<br />
authors have done a great deal of work. They performed repeated microscale snow survey in the<br />
vicinity of the Luchanovo station in the Tom – Yaya interriver area from 1989-2008. They also<br />
made route observations, selected snow samples but of the snow thickness <strong>and</strong> its surface as<br />
well using the support profiles; they did a three-time snow water filtering. The authors also dealt<br />
with the drying <strong>and</strong> weighing of the solid sediment, analyzed the granulometric <strong>and</strong> chemical<br />
composition of the aeol deposits. There exist various techniques of determining deflation<br />
intensivity <strong>and</strong> accumulation. They determined the deflation intensity according to the formula<br />
stated by M.E. Belgibaev (1972):<br />
h=V/S,<br />
where h is the depth of soils blowing out, m; V – the volume of the material blown out, m 3 ; S –<br />
area of dust collection, m 2 .<br />
The aeol accumulation intensity was estimated according to the aeol deposits in snow as well as<br />
aeol particles accumulation per a unit of square. According to the method developed by E.M.<br />
Lyubtsova (1994) the accumulation of aeol particles is as follows: weak (less than 50 g/m 2 ),<br />
moderate (50-100 g/m 2 ), average (100-200 g/m 2 ), strong (200-500 g/m 2 ), very strong (500-1000<br />
g/m 2 ).<br />
3. Results<br />
Aeol processes in agrol<strong>and</strong>scapes are divided into destructive <strong>and</strong> accumulative; <strong>and</strong> they are of<br />
an uneven <strong>and</strong> intermittent character. The destructive processes during the cold season of the<br />
year are represented by deflation having its centre development. Wind formed slopes of micro<strong>and</strong><br />
nano-relief elevations of a plowl<strong>and</strong> as well as furrows in the process of deep autumn<br />
plowing are subjected to deflation. Researchers observe that the Siberian soil cover is vulnerable<br />
to strong winds because the soil agregate content which is less that 1 mm reaches 40-88%, i.e. it<br />
is characterized by a strong turning to dust process. The antideflation stability of grey wood <strong>and</strong><br />
soddy-podzolic <strong>and</strong> ashen-gray plowl<strong>and</strong> soil determined by G.A. Larionov technique (1993) is<br />
not mainly high, <strong>and</strong> it varies in the range of 24-57 <strong>and</strong> 10-49. Soil particles blown out of<br />
deflation centres are carried by winds over various distances <strong>and</strong> deposited on plowl<strong>and</strong> snow<br />
surface, in shelterbelts located not far from the plowing areas.<br />
Besides, fine particles which are carried by windy flows from other regions are accumulated in<br />
snow. According to some observations made from 2000-01, 2002-03, 2003-04 <strong>and</strong> 2004-05,<br />
their weak development was seen in 2005-06, 2006-07 (28%), <strong>and</strong> their average development<br />
occurred in 2007-08 (1%).<br />
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Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
N.S. Evseeva & Z.N. Kvasnikova 2010. Ecological aspects of soils deflation development in agrol<strong>and</strong>scapes<br />
35<br />
The average depth of soils blowing out varies from 0,1 mm up to 0,4 mm. The amount of aeol<br />
deposits accumulation during the observation period changed in the plowl<strong>and</strong> from 2,5-2,7 g/m 2<br />
(2005-06), up to 824 g/m 2 during the cold season of the year in 2002-2003.<br />
In should be noted that in the cedar forest bordering on the Luchanovo area from the east less<br />
than 18,8 g/m 2 of fine grained soil was gathered in snow thickness during the first stage. In the<br />
season of snow melting the intensity of aeol processes is high <strong>and</strong> intermittent which is due to<br />
air <strong>and</strong> soil temperature change, wind velocity, snowfall, etc. Selecting samples from the snow<br />
surface using the centre profiles shows that a great amount of aeol material can be accumulated<br />
in plowl<strong>and</strong>: from 0,83 g/m 2 to 224,5 g/m 2 , <strong>and</strong> in the cedar forest – from 0,285 g/m 2 to 1,0<br />
g/m 2 . When strong snow storms occur, up to 236 g/m 2 of fine grained soil is gathered within<br />
twenty four hours. The granulometric composition of aeol deposits is varied enough but dusty<br />
particles prevail: dust-up to 90%, fine grained s<strong>and</strong>-up to 21%, silt – 30%.<br />
Deflation <strong>and</strong> accumulation have a great effect on the ecological <strong>and</strong> geochemical processes in<br />
taiga agrol<strong>and</strong>scape territory. They cause the acceleration of natural <strong>and</strong> technogenic biophyle<br />
elements <strong>and</strong> humus migration, redistribution of the aeol material mass within a plowl<strong>and</strong> <strong>and</strong><br />
the near – by areas, accumulation of chemical elements <strong>and</strong> heavy metals as well. The<br />
macroelements essential to agricultural plants are removed <strong>and</strong> redistributed from deflation<br />
centres. Humus content in aeol deposits reaches 3,5%, N (nitrogen) up to 0,62%, P (phosphorus)<br />
– 0.56%, Cu (copper) – 95 g/t, Pb (plumbum = lead) – 16 g/t, Zn (zink) up to 68 g/t, Ba<br />
(barium) – 860 g/t, V (vanadium) – 146 g/t, etc.<br />
The study of the modern aeol processes during the cold season of the year in the agrol<strong>and</strong>scapes<br />
of the south-eastern Western Siberian taiga zone has shown:<br />
1). their development is of a cyclic character which may be well observed in the course of 2-3 or<br />
5-6 summer cycles. From 1988-89, 2000-04 aeol processes were extremely active during the<br />
cold season of the year.<br />
2). aeol processes in a plowl<strong>and</strong> affect the fertility of soils changing its mechanical, physical <strong>and</strong><br />
chemical properties.<br />
References<br />
Sazhin A.N., Vasilyev Ju.I., 2003. Geographical Regularities of Modern Deflation in the<br />
Eastern Europe <strong>and</strong> Western Siberian Steppes. Geomorphology, N1, 79-82.<br />
Chichagov V.P. 1999. Aeol Relief of Eastern Mongolia. The Institute of Geography of the<br />
Russian Academy of Sciences, 269 p.<br />
Tanzybaev M.G., Slavnina T.P. 1975. Extraordinary Phenomenon in the Nature of the Tomsk<br />
Region. Glacioclimatology of Western Siberia. Leningrad, Vol. 9, 155-160.<br />
Evseeva N.S., Kvasnikova Z.N, Osintseva N.V., Romashova T.V., 2001. Field Research of<br />
Soils Deflation of the Tom-Yaya Inter-River Area During the Cold Season of the Year.<br />
Ecological Risk: Proceedings of the 2 d All-Russian Conference. Irkutsk, 256-258.<br />
Evseeva N.S., Slutsky V.N., 2005. Climatology Factor of Aeol Processes Development in the<br />
South-East of the Western-Siberian plain. Geography <strong>and</strong> Natural Resources, N4, 75-79.<br />
Larionov G.A. 1993. Erosion <strong>and</strong> Soils deflation: the Major Regularities <strong>and</strong> Quantitative<br />
Estimation Moscow: the Moscow University Publishing Centre, 200 p.<br />
Belgibaev M.E. 1972. Natural Conditions of Soils Deflation <strong>and</strong> Soil <strong>and</strong> Erosion Division into<br />
Districts of the North-Turgai Plain. Synopsis of the Thesis of the C<strong>and</strong>idate of the<br />
Geographical Sciences. Alma-Ata, 22 p.<br />
Lyubtsova E.M. 1994. Aeol Migration of a Substance <strong>and</strong> Its Role in the Fluorine Distribution<br />
in the Southern L<strong>and</strong>scape of Minusinsk Depression. Geography <strong>and</strong> Natural Resources,<br />
N2, 86-91.<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
S. Frank et al. 2010. A regionally adaptable approach of l<strong>and</strong>scape assessment using l<strong>and</strong>scape metrics<br />
36<br />
A regionally adaptable approach of l<strong>and</strong>scape assessment using<br />
l<strong>and</strong>scape metrics within the 2D cellular automaton “Pimp your<br />
l<strong>and</strong>scape”<br />
Susanne Frank * , Christine Fürst, Carsten Lorz, Lars Koschke & Franz Makeschin<br />
Institute for Soil Science <strong>and</strong> Site Ecology, TU Dresden, Germany<br />
Abstract:<br />
We propose an easily applicable <strong>and</strong> regionally adaptable approach to quantify ecological<br />
functioning at l<strong>and</strong>scape level using l<strong>and</strong>scape metrics within the modified 2D cellular<br />
automaton Pimp your l<strong>and</strong>scape. In addition to a basic evaluation of l<strong>and</strong> use types, a<br />
consideration of l<strong>and</strong>scape patterns is essential to evaluate ecological functions <strong>and</strong> services.<br />
Starting point of the here presented approach is the aggregation of l<strong>and</strong> use types according to<br />
the degree of hemeroby. With regard to the concept of habitat connectivity, a cost- distanceprocedure<br />
allows identifying functionally connected natural areas in a next step. Further<br />
indicators to assess ecological functioning were taken into account. Intensity of l<strong>and</strong> use, habitat<br />
connectivity <strong>and</strong> habitat variety can be quantified using here presented set of metrics. We found<br />
that the assessment of l<strong>and</strong>scape structure related ecosystem services requests a combination of<br />
l<strong>and</strong>scape metrics on the one h<strong>and</strong> <strong>and</strong> scientific <strong>and</strong> normative assumptions on the other.<br />
Keywords: l<strong>and</strong>scape metrics, Pimp Your L<strong>and</strong>scape, biodiversity, habitat connectivity,<br />
l<strong>and</strong>scape fragmentation<br />
1. Introduction<br />
Numerous adaptation strategies concerning effects of Climate <strong>Change</strong> on agriculture <strong>and</strong><br />
forestry have been developed during the last decades (e.g. Rosenberg 1992; Molden 2007;<br />
Zomer et al. 2008; Allen et al. 2010). Also, various studies on effectiveness of such measures<br />
took place (e.g. Goria <strong>and</strong> Gambarelli 2004; Adger et al. 2007; Van den Berg <strong>and</strong> Feinstein<br />
2009). Visualization tools that support integrated l<strong>and</strong>scape planning are still rare. Therefore,<br />
the interactive planning tool Pimp Your L<strong>and</strong>scape was developed (Fuerst et al. 2008). It allows<br />
both, evaluation <strong>and</strong> visualization of l<strong>and</strong> use scenarios. This web-based tool supports multicriteria<br />
decision making <strong>and</strong> participatory processes in l<strong>and</strong> use management at l<strong>and</strong>scape level.<br />
It enables even the inexperienced user to design a l<strong>and</strong>scape by mouse click. Basic information<br />
of l<strong>and</strong> use classification is provided by the European wide available data set Corine L<strong>and</strong>cover<br />
2000 (CLC 2000). To evaluate complex interactions between l<strong>and</strong> use types (LUTs), it is<br />
necessary to divide the l<strong>and</strong>scape continuum into spatially distinct units, which can interact <strong>and</strong><br />
communicate. To reflect complex spatial interactions, a modified 2D cellular automaton with<br />
Moore-neighborhood was used as development basis for Pimp Your L<strong>and</strong>scape (Fuerst et al.<br />
2008). So far, l<strong>and</strong>scape structure related aspects of l<strong>and</strong>scape ecology, such as habitat<br />
connectivity <strong>and</strong> l<strong>and</strong>scape fragmentation cannot be appraised with the cellular automaton<br />
approach. In consequence, an evaluation procedure has to be developed to take l<strong>and</strong>scape<br />
structure into account. Within Pimp Your L<strong>and</strong>scape, several ecosystem services are assessed<br />
* Corresponding author. Tel.: +49 (0)35203 38-31377 - Fax: -31388<br />
Email address: Susanne.Frank@tu-dresden.de<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
S. Frank et al. 2010. A regionally adaptable approach of l<strong>and</strong>scape assessment using l<strong>and</strong>scape metrics<br />
37<br />
such as economic wealth, ecological functioning <strong>and</strong> l<strong>and</strong>scape aesthetics. L<strong>and</strong>scape evaluation<br />
is realized at two assessment levels. The first level (a) provides an indicator based evaluation of<br />
LUT- values with regard to each ecosystem service on a relative scale from 0 to 100. The<br />
relative scale addresses the problem to provide a basis for comparing changes of various<br />
ecosystem services, which each are expressed by different units <strong>and</strong> address different orders of<br />
magnitudes. Regarding cell values, the LUT-values are corrected by integrating cell specific<br />
attributes (soil, climate, topography) <strong>and</strong> the cell specific environment (neighbored LUT).<br />
The here presented paper documents a second evaluation level (b). The assessment of l<strong>and</strong>scape<br />
patterns using l<strong>and</strong>scape metrics (LMs) will provide the possibility to correct the result achieved<br />
for the ecosystem service “ecological functioning” with regard to superior l<strong>and</strong>scape structure<br />
aspects. Aim of our study is to develop a scientifically <strong>and</strong> normative based system facilitating<br />
quantification <strong>and</strong> assessment of the ecological functioning at l<strong>and</strong>scape level.<br />
2. Conceptual approach<br />
For the usage of LMs as corrective for the ecological functioning of a l<strong>and</strong>scape, relations<br />
between l<strong>and</strong>scape mosaic, ecological processes <strong>and</strong> ecosystem services need to be identified.<br />
L<strong>and</strong>scape structure represents the interface between the l<strong>and</strong> use that is influenced by natural<br />
<strong>and</strong> cultural compounds on the one h<strong>and</strong> <strong>and</strong> ecological <strong>and</strong> functional l<strong>and</strong>scape properties on<br />
the other. Hence, quantification of l<strong>and</strong>scape structure considering composition <strong>and</strong><br />
configuration of patches is of fundamental importance for an assessment of ecosystem services<br />
(Zebisch et al. 2004).<br />
LMs can be calculated at three spatial levels: patch level, class level <strong>and</strong> l<strong>and</strong>scape level<br />
(McGarigal <strong>and</strong> Marks 1995). To ensure an adequate quantification of the considered processes,<br />
we mainly referred to class level. An aggregation of LUTs provides not only a spatial but also a<br />
functional reference. This classification approach implies three functional groups:<br />
(a) unsealed open space, e.g. Agricultural areas, <strong>Forest</strong> <strong>and</strong> semi natural areas, Wetl<strong>and</strong>s;<br />
(b) sealed areas, e.g. artificial areas, streets, rail tracks;<br />
(c) degree of hemeroby.<br />
Especially (c) is of importance because it considers function aspects of the l<strong>and</strong>scape structure.<br />
Six degrees of hemeroby are distinguished (Table 1). Each LUT was assigned to one degree of<br />
hemeroby. Additionally, a superior aggregation into “natural” <strong>and</strong> “not natural” LUTs became<br />
necessary to assess certain ecological parameters such as habitat connectivity. As no<br />
“ahemerobe” LUTs are located in Europe (Steinhardt et al. 1999), this hemeroby class was not<br />
considered for calculations.<br />
Table 1: Classification of the human impact on ecosystems <strong>and</strong> the according degree of hemeroby <strong>and</strong><br />
naturalness (Blume <strong>and</strong> Sukopp 1976 -modified)<br />
LMs describing the intensity of l<strong>and</strong> use <strong>and</strong> the habitat connectivity, which are two of three<br />
main evaluation parameters, are based on the hemeroby classification. The degree of hemeroby<br />
is used for the Hemeroby Index. Habitat connectivity is based on the sub-classification into<br />
“natural” <strong>and</strong> “not natural” LUTs. The third main indicator, biodiversity, is based on two<br />
indices measuring the spatial diversity of a l<strong>and</strong>scape. Figure 1 gives an overview of LMs,<br />
indicators <strong>and</strong> main indicators that are used to evaluate the ecological functioning.<br />
Figure 1: Hierarchical assessment scheme for the ecosystem service “ecological functioning”<br />
3. Assessment of the ecological value<br />
Figure 1 highlightens that intensity of l<strong>and</strong> use, habitat connectivity <strong>and</strong> biodiversity are used as<br />
main factors for evaluating the effect of the l<strong>and</strong>scape structure on ecological functioning.<br />
Intensity of l<strong>and</strong> use <strong>and</strong> biodiversity are integrated into the evaluation by the use of “ecological<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
S. Frank et al. 2010. A regionally adaptable approach of l<strong>and</strong>scape assessment using l<strong>and</strong>scape metrics<br />
38<br />
linking matrices” that allow for combining various LMs including their mutual impact (Bastian<br />
<strong>and</strong> Schreiber 1999). Figure 2 illustrates the methodological approach. Values of the considered<br />
LMs are assigned to five classes. “Hemeroby” that quantifies the degree of naturalness is one<br />
factor for the determination of the intensity of l<strong>and</strong> use (left part of Figure 2). For the<br />
investigation of the second factor “l<strong>and</strong>scape fragmentation”, two LMs get interlinked. The<br />
Effective Mesh Size (M eff ) is a LM measuring the mean area of unsealed open area. A linkage<br />
with the Total Core Area of natural LUTs yields a value of “l<strong>and</strong>scape fragmentation” (right<br />
part of Figure 2). The final value of the “Intensity of L<strong>and</strong> Use” can then be read off the linking<br />
matrix (bottom part of Figure 2).<br />
Figure 2: Exemplary application of ecological linking matrices for assessing the intensity of l<strong>and</strong> use<br />
For calculating intensity of l<strong>and</strong> use <strong>and</strong> biodiversity, the same procedure is applied. For<br />
considering different aspects of biodiversity at l<strong>and</strong>scape level we considered two spatial<br />
aspects. Shannon’s Diversity Index (SHDI) that reflects the compositional component (number<br />
of patch types) as well as the structural component (distribution of classes) of l<strong>and</strong>scapes, was<br />
taken into account. Additionally, in order to quantify the spatial configuration of patch types,<br />
the Interspersion <strong>and</strong> Juxtaposition Index (IJI) was chosen. Interlinking these two indices within<br />
a linking matrix, statements on the variety of habitats can be made. For quantifying the third<br />
factor habitat connectivity, the Cost Distance Method is used. This method allows measuring<br />
functional connectivity of “natural” habitats (Zebisch et al. 2004). The basic assumption is that<br />
“ecological costs” increase with increasing degree of hemeroby of raster cells that need to be<br />
crossed for reaching other natural areas. The Moving-Window-method was then applied to<br />
identify natural areas that might serve as “stepping stones” between core areas. The value of<br />
habitat connectivity ranges from -10 to 10 in 5-point-steps (Table 2).<br />
Table 2: Evaluation of the habitat connectivity<br />
The normative background, which sets thresholds of LMs beyond expert knowledge, is given by<br />
German laws <strong>and</strong> strategies (e.g. BMU 2007; BNatSchG 2010). Thresholds were set following<br />
development targets. For example the degree of habitat connectivity m<strong>and</strong>atory shall be at least<br />
10 % (§20(1) BNatSchG 2010). As ecologists criticize this value being too low (SRU 2000;<br />
Krüsemann 2006), a positive evaluation starts at a percentage of >15 % of habitat connectivity.<br />
Summarizing the results of all three factors gives the figure to which the preliminarily<br />
calculated value for ecological functioning in Pimp Your L<strong>and</strong>scape should be increased or<br />
reduced. It ranges from - 30 to + 30. Due to the relative evaluation scale of 0 to 100, the impact<br />
of LMs as superior evaluation tool within Pimp Your L<strong>and</strong>scape is estimated to be significant.<br />
4. Conclusion <strong>and</strong> outlook<br />
Concerning l<strong>and</strong>scape panning, LMs within Pimp Your L<strong>and</strong>scape provide an assessment tool<br />
for the evaluation of functions <strong>and</strong> services that cannot easily be determined. The combination<br />
of ecological linking matrices <strong>and</strong> traits of an additive model provided the possibility to<br />
aggregate a large number of l<strong>and</strong>scape characteristics to correct one macro-indicator (ecological<br />
functioning). The here presented evaluation approach provides theoretical background for<br />
further evaluation criteria such as aesthetics, water quality <strong>and</strong> economical wealth. For complex<br />
methods evaluating the functionality of l<strong>and</strong>scapes not only LMs but also further information is<br />
necessary (Lang et al. 2009). Hence, besides a purely quantitative analysis of LMs, scientific<br />
findings such as degrees of hemeroby are essential to make basic assumptions. Employing LMs<br />
without any assumptions <strong>and</strong> restrictions would risk misinterpretations (Fortin et al. 2003). An<br />
additional measure to avoid misinterpretations is the usage of sets of LMs(Lausch <strong>and</strong> Herzog<br />
2002; Cushman et al. 2008). Due to local developed l<strong>and</strong>scape characteristics, employing only<br />
one LM could lead to an over- <strong>and</strong> under-estimation of determined characteristics.<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
S. Frank et al. 2010. A regionally adaptable approach of l<strong>and</strong>scape assessment using l<strong>and</strong>scape metrics<br />
39<br />
Table 3: Classification of the human impact on ecosystems <strong>and</strong> the according degree of hemeroby <strong>and</strong><br />
naturalness (Blume <strong>and</strong> Sukopp 1976 -modified)<br />
Hemeroby/ degree of<br />
naturalness<br />
Human impact CORINE- L<strong>and</strong>cover 2000<br />
Ahemerobe/ natural None -<br />
Oligohemerobe/ close<br />
to natural<br />
Mesohemerobe/ seminatural<br />
Very sparsely populated<br />
areas<br />
Sparsely populated<br />
cultural l<strong>and</strong>scapes<br />
e.g. Moors <strong>and</strong> heathl<strong>and</strong>,<br />
Peat bogs<br />
e.g. Complex cultivation patterns,<br />
Natural grassl<strong>and</strong>s<br />
"natural"<br />
Euhemerobe/<br />
far from natural<br />
Polyhemerobe/<br />
strange to nature<br />
Metahemerobe/<br />
artificial<br />
Agricultural l<strong>and</strong>scapes,<br />
settlements<br />
Partly built-up areas,<br />
dump sites<br />
Biocenosis widely<br />
destroyed, inner-cities,<br />
industrial facilities<br />
e.g. Non-irrigated arable l<strong>and</strong>,<br />
Vineyards<br />
e.g. Discontinuous urban fabric,<br />
Dump sites<br />
e.g. Industrial or commercial units,<br />
Road <strong>and</strong> rail networks <strong>and</strong><br />
associated l<strong>and</strong><br />
"not natural"<br />
Figure 1: Hierarchical assessment scheme for the ecosystem service “ecological functioning”<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
S. Frank et al. 2010. A regionally adaptable approach of l<strong>and</strong>scape assessment using l<strong>and</strong>scape metrics<br />
40<br />
Figure 2: Exemplary application of ecological linking matrices for assessing the intensity of l<strong>and</strong> use<br />
Table 4: Evaluation of the habitat connectivity<br />
Habitat connectivity [%] Evaluation<br />
0 - 5 -10<br />
5 - 10 -5<br />
10 – 15 0<br />
15 – 20 5<br />
> 20 10<br />
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SRU. 2000. Umweltgutachten 2000 - Schritte ins nächste Jahrtausend. Metzler-Poeschel,<br />
Stuttgart, pp. 688.<br />
Steinhardt, U., Herzog, F., Lausch, A., Mueller, E., <strong>and</strong> Lehmann, S. 1999. The Hemeroby<br />
Index for L<strong>and</strong>scape Monitoring <strong>and</strong> Evaluation. In Environmental Indices. Systems<br />
Analysis Approach. (eds. Y.A. Pykh, E. Hyatt, <strong>and</strong> R.J.M. Lenz), pp. 237-257. EOLSS<br />
Oxford, Oxford.<br />
Van den Berg, R.D., <strong>and</strong> Feinstein, O. 2009. Evaluating Climate <strong>Change</strong> <strong>and</strong> Development.<br />
Transaction Publications, Piscataway, New Jersey.<br />
Zebisch, M., Wechsung, F., <strong>and</strong> Kenneweg, H. 2004. L<strong>and</strong>scape response functions for<br />
biodiversity--assessing the impact of l<strong>and</strong>-use changes at the county level. L<strong>and</strong>scape<br />
<strong>and</strong> Urban Planning 67: 157-172.<br />
Zomer, R.J., Trabucco, A., Bossio, D.A., <strong>and</strong> Verchot, L.V. 2008. Climate change mitigation: A<br />
spatial analysis of global l<strong>and</strong> suitability for clean development mechanism<br />
afforestation <strong>and</strong> reforestation. Agriculture, Ecosystems & Environment 126: 67-80.<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
M. García et al. 2010. The effect of l<strong>and</strong> cover changes on the habitat of Baird’s tapir in Laguna Lachuá<br />
42<br />
The effect of l<strong>and</strong> cover changes (1960’s-2003) on the habitat<br />
morphological spatial pattern <strong>and</strong> population viability of Baird’s tapir<br />
in Laguna Lachuá National Park Influence Zone, Guatemala<br />
Manolo García 1* , Fern<strong>and</strong>o Castillo 1 , Raquel Leonardo 1 , Liza García 1 & Ivonne<br />
Gómez 1<br />
1 Centro de Datos para la Conservación, Centro de Estudios Conservacionistas,<br />
Universidad de San Carlos, Guatemala<br />
Abstract<br />
The current anthropogenic morphological spatial patterns (MSP) of forests usually are not<br />
suitable for large mammals such as Baird’s tapir, the largest terrestrial mammal in the<br />
Neotropics. We intended to evaluate how changes in MSP affected the population viability (PV)<br />
of this species. Using l<strong>and</strong> cover images we determined the MSP in different years using<br />
software GUIDOS. PV was modeled using software VORTEX. The species habitat reduced<br />
from approximately 95% to 46% of the study area. From 1960 to 1983 the majority of the area<br />
was core with a few perforations. In 1991 more than the 50% of the core was loss, since then,<br />
the reduction of corridors, islets <strong>and</strong> branches, increased the isolation of the park. The PV<br />
changed from 0% to 80% probability of extinction. Results show that habitat modification has<br />
accelerated the extinction process. Redirect this tendency is a challenge to l<strong>and</strong> use planning <strong>and</strong><br />
wildlife conservation.<br />
Keywords: spatial pattern population viability Tapir<br />
1. Introduction<br />
Human activities have modified morphological spatial patterns of natural ecosystems causing<br />
great impacts in wildlife (Cuarón, 2000, McCullough, 1996, Escamilla et al., 2000). One of the<br />
most common disturbances in tropical lowl<strong>and</strong>s at northeastern Guatemala is the transformation<br />
of tropical forest for livestock <strong>and</strong> currently Oil palm plantations, causing habitat reduction <strong>and</strong><br />
fragmentation, as well as its degradation. Large mammals are especially susceptible to habitat<br />
reduction <strong>and</strong> fragmentation (Kinnaird et al., 2003). Baird’s tapir is the largest native terrestrial<br />
mammal in the Neotropics, including Guatemala, with a body size of 2 meter long, 1.5 meters<br />
height <strong>and</strong> a body weight of 100 to 350 kilograms (Emmons, 1990). We intended to evaluate<br />
how changes in l<strong>and</strong> cover from 1960s to 2000s have affected the population viability of this<br />
species.<br />
2. Methodology<br />
2.1 Study area<br />
The study area was the Laguna Lachuá National Park’s (LLNP) influence zone. The LLNP is a<br />
14.5 square kilometers protected area in the north of Guatemala surrounded by rural<br />
communities, mainly Mayan Kekchí, <strong>and</strong> also big farms. It is traversed by a road known as<br />
* Corresponding author. Tel.:+502 55538913<br />
Email address: garcia.manolo@usac.edu.gt<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
M. García et al. 2010. The effect of l<strong>and</strong> cover changes on the habitat of Baird’s tapir in Laguna Lachuá<br />
43<br />
“Franja Transversal del Norte” (Northern Transversal Strip) an area of rural development driven<br />
by the Government in the 60s <strong>and</strong> renovated at present by Oil palm plantations.<br />
2.2 Habitat <strong>and</strong> Population Viability analyses for Baird’s tapir<br />
We obtained digital data of the l<strong>and</strong> cover for the years 1960s, 1983, 1991, 2001 <strong>and</strong> 2003. The<br />
1960s map was digitalized by García et al., (2009) from a printed map, the 1991 <strong>and</strong> 2001<br />
layers were obtained at the <strong>Forest</strong>s National Institute (INAB) GIS database <strong>and</strong> the 2003 from<br />
the Ministery of agriculture, livestock <strong>and</strong> food (MAGA, 2006). All maps were transformed to<br />
raster format with a 500 square meters pixel resolution.<br />
2.2.1 Morphological Spatial Pattern Analysis (MSPA)<br />
We analyzed the Baird’s tapir habitat in the study area according to García et al., (2009), using<br />
the sofware GUIDOS (Vogt et al., 2007; Soille <strong>and</strong> Vogt, 2009). We delimited the minimum<br />
square that includes the LLNP <strong>and</strong> the nearest protected areas which are currently the forest<br />
remnants. We used this quadrangle as study area for MSPA. The MSP for each year was<br />
determined.<br />
2.2.2 Population Viability Analysis<br />
The population viability (PV) was modeled using the software VORTEX (Lacy, Borbat, <strong>and</strong><br />
Pollak, 2005). VORTEX is an individual-based simulation model for PV analysis. The program<br />
requires information about the species reproductive system <strong>and</strong> rates (Miller <strong>and</strong> Lacy, 2005),<br />
we used the data generated during the PV Analysis workshop for Baird’s tapir organized by the<br />
Tapir specialist group held in Belize 2005, <strong>and</strong> modified it with the advice of Arnaud Desbiez<br />
<strong>and</strong> Patricia Medici from the Conservation Breeding Specialist Group from the IUCN. For each<br />
year, we determined the area of the forest remnant that includes the LLNP, <strong>and</strong> estimated the<br />
population of tapirs using the parameters used by García et al., 2010. Threats as hunting <strong>and</strong><br />
carrying capacity reduction were not included to evaluate the effect of the habitat MSP. A<br />
model for each year was run using a time line of 100 years <strong>and</strong> 100 interactions.<br />
3. Result<br />
From the MSPA, changes are dramatic, especially from 1983 to 1991 (see Table 1 <strong>and</strong> Figure 1).<br />
In 1960s the 90% of the area was core forest, in 1983 perforations increased to a 4.5% of the<br />
area, leading to major change to 1991 with only 16.6% of the area covered by core forest.<br />
During this period of time most of the non-core remaining forest was changed to structures such<br />
as bridges. In 1991 there are almost no perforations left, <strong>and</strong> the edge was increased. From<br />
1991 to 2003 the core forest remained almost with the same area, but bridges <strong>and</strong> branches were<br />
constantly declining. Islets at first increased in number but then also decreased which indicates<br />
the total destruction of forest remnants outside the protected area.<br />
For the PV Analysis, changes are related to MSP, which changed dramatically since 1983 (see<br />
Figure 2). From 1960 to 1983 due all the area was suitable habitat, is expected that existed a<br />
continuous population of tapirs including areas of Chiapas in México <strong>and</strong> southern Petén<br />
through Sayaxche <strong>and</strong> La Pasión river in Guatemala. This population exceeded the 1,000<br />
individuals, <strong>and</strong> the resulting model showed to be <strong>and</strong> viable population with 0% probability of<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
M. García et al. 2010. The effect of l<strong>and</strong> cover changes on the habitat of Baird’s tapir in Laguna Lachuá<br />
44<br />
extinction. In 1991 the PV dropped from a initial population of almost 50 individuals with 95%<br />
probability of extinction. At 2003, is estimated to have a population of 15 individuals with a<br />
high probability of extinction over the next 100 years.<br />
4. Discussion<br />
There exists a direct influence of MSP on PV due it determines the population size; both are<br />
useful tools for l<strong>and</strong>scape planning (Beissinger, Nicholson, <strong>and</strong> Possingham, 2009). The results<br />
may show how MSP modifications that occurred in the study area accelerated the natural<br />
extinction process of this species. In the 1960s the population viability had a 100% probability<br />
of surviving in the next 100 years, <strong>and</strong> this was changed when the habitat was transformed.<br />
Currently the remaining population is too small to be viable in the next 100 years, this shows<br />
that the protected area is too small to retain a Tapirs viable population. The fact that the<br />
protected area is too small is a mayor challenge to conservation managers because the influence<br />
zone must be also managed <strong>and</strong> re-ordered in order to increase the PV of large species as<br />
Baird’s tapir. Current pressures such as forest reduction by livestock <strong>and</strong> Oil palm plantations<br />
increases this challenge.<br />
Management should be directed in reverting the l<strong>and</strong> cover change process, increasing core<br />
forest areas <strong>and</strong> connectivity. Species such as Baird’s tapir may be used to design habitat<br />
restoration plans that conduce to future MSP that increases the species PV.<br />
References<br />
Beissinger, S., Nicholson, E., <strong>and</strong> Possingham, H., 2009. Application of population viability<br />
analysis to l<strong>and</strong>scape. In J. Millspaugh, <strong>and</strong> F. Thompson, Models for planning wildllife<br />
conservation in large l<strong>and</strong>scapes (pág. 688).<br />
Cuarón, A. , 2000. Effects of l<strong>and</strong>-cover changes on mammals in neotropical region: a modeling<br />
approach. Conservation Biology , 14 (4), 1676-1692.<br />
Emmons, L., 1990. Neotropical Rainforest Mammals. EEUU: The University of Chicago Press.<br />
Escamilla, A., Sanvicente, M., Sosa, M., <strong>and</strong> Galindo-Leal, C., 2000. Habitat mosaic, wildlife<br />
availability, <strong>and</strong> hunting in tropical forest of Calakmul, Mexico. Conservation Biology ,<br />
14 (6), 1592-1601.<br />
García, M., Leonardo, R., Castillo, F., Gómez, I., <strong>and</strong> García, L., 2010. El tapir<br />
centroamericano (Tapirus bairdii) como herramienta para el fortalecimiento del SIGAP.<br />
Dirección General de Investigación. Universidad de San Carlos de Guatemala.<br />
Guatemala.<br />
García, M., Leonardo, R., Gómez, I., <strong>and</strong> García, L., 2009. Estado actual de conservación del<br />
Tapir (Tapirus bairdii) en el Sistema Guatemalteco de Áreas Protegidas. Fondo<br />
Nacional para la Conservación de la Naturaleza. Guatemala.<br />
Kinnaird, M., S<strong>and</strong>erson, E., O'Brien, T., Wibisono, H., <strong>and</strong> Wollmer, G., 2003. Deforestation<br />
trends in a tropical lanscape <strong>and</strong> implications for endangered large mammals.<br />
Conservation Biology , 17 (1), 245-257.<br />
Lacy, R., Borbat, M., <strong>and</strong> Pollak, J., 2005. VORTEX: A stochastic Simulation of the Extinction<br />
Process. Version 9.5. Brookfield, IL: Chicago Zoological Society.<br />
MAGA , 2006. Mapa de cobertura y Uso de la Tierra de Guatemala 1:50,000. Ministerio de<br />
Agricultura, Ganadería y Alimentación. Gobierno de Guatemala. Guatemala.<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
M. García et al. 2010. The effect of l<strong>and</strong> cover changes on the habitat of Baird’s tapir in Laguna Lachuá<br />
45<br />
McCullough., 1996. Metapopulations <strong>and</strong> wildlife conservation. Isl<strong>and</strong> Press.<br />
Miller, P., <strong>and</strong> Lacy, R., 2005. VORTEX: A stochastic Simulation od the extinction process.<br />
Version User's manual. Apple Valley, MN: Conservation Breeding Specialist Group<br />
(SSC/IUCN).<br />
Soille, P., <strong>and</strong> Vogt, P., 2009. Morphological segmentation of binary patterns. Pattern<br />
recognition letters , 30, 456-459.<br />
Vogt, J., P, Iwanowski, M., Estreguil, C., Kozak, J., <strong>and</strong> Soille, P., 2007. Mapping l<strong>and</strong>scape<br />
corridors. Ecological indicators , 7 (2), 481-488.<br />
Table 1: MSPA parameters <strong>and</strong> their proportion in the study area. Source: Authors<br />
MSPA<br />
% of extencion of study area<br />
parameter 1960s 1983 1991 2001 2003<br />
Core 90.39 86.68 16.58 12.07 13.57<br />
Islet 0 0.01 5.82 6.36 4.09<br />
Perforation 2.57 4.54 0.62 0.34 0.21<br />
Edge 1.61 1.56 3.99 3.36 4.22<br />
Loop 0.4 0.73 1.5 1.35 2.35<br />
Bridge 0.31 0.53 33.96 31.9 18.34<br />
Branch 0.18 0.78 5.05 4.96 3.5<br />
Background 4.54 5.17 32.49 39.67 53.71<br />
Total 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00<br />
Figure 1: Morphological Spatial Pattern Analysis parameters <strong>and</strong> their proportion in the study area from<br />
1960s to 2003. Source: Authors<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
M. García et al. 2010. The effect of l<strong>and</strong> cover changes on the habitat of Baird’s tapir in Laguna Lachuá<br />
46<br />
Figure 2: Population viability showing the probability of surviving over the next 100 years for different<br />
models corresponding to the years 1960s, 1983, 1991, 2001 <strong>and</strong> 2003. Source: Authors<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
S. Gholami et al. 2010. Spatial pattern of soil macrofauna biodiversity in wildlife refugee of Karkhe in Southwestern Iran<br />
47<br />
Spatial pattern of soil macrofauna biodiversity in wildlife refugee of<br />
Karkhe in Southwestern Iran<br />
Shaieste Gholami 1* , Seied Mohsen Hosseini 1 , Jahangard Mohammadi 2 & Abdolrassoul<br />
Salman Mahini 3<br />
1 Tarbiat Modares University, Iran<br />
2 Shahrekord University, Iran<br />
3 Gorgan University, Iran<br />
Abstract<br />
Information about the spatial patterns of soil biodiversity is limited though required, e.g. for<br />
underst<strong>and</strong>ing effects of biodiversity on ecosystem processes. This study was conducted to<br />
determine whether soil macrofauna biodiversity parameters display spatial patterns in the<br />
riparian forest l<strong>and</strong>scape of Karkhe, southwestern Iran. Soil macrofauna were sampled in 2009<br />
using 200 sampling point along parallel transects (perpendicular to the river). Maximum<br />
distance between samples was 0.5 km. Soil macrofauna were extracted from 50 cm×50 cm×25<br />
cm soil monolith by h<strong>and</strong>-sorting procedure. Abundance <strong>and</strong> Shannon H’ index were analyzed<br />
using geostatistics (variogram) in order to describe <strong>and</strong> quantify the spatial continuity. The<br />
variograms were spherical <strong>and</strong> revealed the presence of spatial autocorrelation. The range of<br />
influence was 1724 m for abundance <strong>and</strong> 1326 m for diversity. The variograms featured high<br />
ratio of nugget variance to sill. This showed that there was the small-scale variability <strong>and</strong><br />
proportion of unexplained variance.<br />
Keywords: Biodiversity, Soil macrofauna, Spatial pattern, Variogram<br />
1. Introduction<br />
In the last 15-20 years, riparian forests have become recognized as important components of<br />
l<strong>and</strong>scape <strong>and</strong> serve as a vital link between the aquatic environment <strong>and</strong> upl<strong>and</strong> ecosystems<br />
(Giese et al. 2000). Riparian ecosystems are aquatic-terrestrial ecotones with unique biotic,<br />
biophysical <strong>and</strong> l<strong>and</strong>scape characteristics (Lyon <strong>and</strong> Gross 2005). Accordingly, sustainability<br />
<strong>and</strong> maintenance of riparian vegetation or restoring of degraded sites is critical to sustain<br />
inherent ecosystem function <strong>and</strong> values (Giese et al. 2000). Many scientists believe promoting<br />
sustainability is the overarching goal of l<strong>and</strong>scape (<strong>and</strong> regional) planning, (Leitao <strong>and</strong> Ahern<br />
2002).<br />
A current challenge in ecology is underestimating how patterns <strong>and</strong> processes vary with scale<br />
<strong>and</strong> searching for general principles (assembly rules) which determine the species composition<br />
of communities (Guillaume 2002). Also a fundamental <strong>and</strong> unanswered research question in<br />
l<strong>and</strong>scape ecology centers on how the spatial arrangement of the ecosystems influences the<br />
distribution <strong>and</strong> abundance of organisms (Coulson et al. 1999). Description of patterns in<br />
species assemblages <strong>and</strong> diversity is an essential step before generating hypotheses in functional<br />
ecology (Guillaume 2002).<br />
If we want to have information about ecosystem function, soil biodiversity is best considered by<br />
focusing on the groups of soil organisms that play major roles in ecosystem functioning when<br />
exploring links with provision of ecosystem services (Barrios 2007). Information about the<br />
* Corresponding author. Tel.:+989163716945 - Fax:+986712231662<br />
Email address: Mozhgangholami@yahoo.com<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
S. Gholami et al. 2010. Spatial pattern of soil macrofauna biodiversity in wildlife refugee of Karkhe in Southwestern Iran<br />
48<br />
spatial pattern of soil biodiversity at the regional scale is limited though required, e.g. for<br />
underst<strong>and</strong>ing regional scale effects of biodiversity on ecosystem processes (Joschko et.al.<br />
2006). The practical consequences of these findings are useful for sustainable management of<br />
soils <strong>and</strong> in monitoring soil quality. Soil macrofauna play significant, but largely ignored, roles<br />
in the delivery of ecosystem services by soils at plot <strong>and</strong> l<strong>and</strong>scape Scales (Lavelle et.al. 2006).<br />
One main reason responsible for the absence of information about biodiversity at regional scale,<br />
is the lack of adequate methods for sampling <strong>and</strong> analyzing data at this dimension. An adequate<br />
approach for the analysis of spatial patterns is a transect study in which samples are taken in a<br />
certain order <strong>and</strong> with a certain distance between samples (Joschko et.al. 2006). Geostatistics<br />
provide descriptive tools such as variogram to characterize the spatial pattern of continuous <strong>and</strong><br />
categorical soil attributes (Goovaerts 1999; Gringarten <strong>and</strong> Deutsch 2001; Mohammadi 2006).<br />
This method allows assessment of consistency of spatial patterns as well as the scale at which<br />
they are expressed (Jimenez et al. 2001).<br />
The aim of this study is to analyze spatial patterns of soil macrofauna (= invertebrates visible at<br />
the naked eye) in Wildlife Refugee of Karkhe in the riparian forest of the southwestern Iran.<br />
Parameters of soil macrofauna biodiversity comprise: abundance (total abundance of<br />
macrofauna), <strong>and</strong> diversity.<br />
2. Methodology<br />
The study was carried out in Wildlife Refugee of Karkhe in the riparian forest of the<br />
southwestern Iran (31 o 57 / - 32 o 05 / N <strong>and</strong> 48 o 13 / - 48 o 16 / E). The climate of the study area is<br />
semi-arid. Average yearly rainfall is about 325.5 mm with a mean temperature of 24 oc . Plant<br />
cover, mainly comprises Populus euphratica <strong>and</strong> Tamarix sp.<br />
The both sides of river are similar, so we sampled on one of the two sides. Soil macrofauna<br />
were sampled in 2009 using 200 sampling point along parallel transects (perpendicular to the<br />
river). The distance between transects were 0.5 km. The sampling procedure was hierarchically,<br />
we considered maximum distance between samples as 0.5 km, but the samples was taken at<br />
250m, 100m, 50m, 20m, 15m, 10m, 5m, 2m <strong>and</strong> 1m at different location of sampling.<br />
soil macrofauna (= invertebrates visible at the naked eye) was extracted from 50 cm×50 cm×25<br />
cm soil monolith by h<strong>and</strong>-sorting procedure at the last winter (because at this time moisture <strong>and</strong><br />
temperature are suitable <strong>and</strong> soil macrofauna reach their highest abundance). All soil<br />
macrofauna were identified to family level.<br />
Number of animals (abundance) <strong>and</strong> diversity (Shannon H’ index) by using PAST version 1.39,<br />
were determined in each sample. Classical statistical parameters, i.e. mean, st<strong>and</strong>ard deviation,<br />
coefficient of variation, minimum <strong>and</strong> maximum, were calculated using SPSS17 software.<br />
Diversity <strong>and</strong> abundance data were analyzed using geostatistics (variogram) in order to describe<br />
<strong>and</strong> quantify the spatial continuity. Geostatistical analysis was performed using the software<br />
Variowin 2.2 (variograms). Spatial distribution maps were made by block kriging using the<br />
software Geoease <strong>and</strong> Surfer 8.0.<br />
3. Result<br />
Soil macrofauna communities were dominated by earthworm, diplopods, coleoptera, gastropoda,<br />
araneae, <strong>and</strong> insect larvae, reaching an abundance of 43.1 individuals / m 2 .<br />
Table 1 shows the mean, st<strong>and</strong>ard deviation, coefficient of variation, minimum <strong>and</strong> maximum<br />
values for soil macrofauna abundance <strong>and</strong> diversity.<br />
The variograms revealed the presence of spatial autocorrelation Fig. 1. The parameters of the<br />
theoretical models fitted to experimental variograms are given in Table 2. The variograms of<br />
two indices were spherical <strong>and</strong> showed positive nugget, which can be explained by sampling<br />
error, short range variability, r<strong>and</strong>om <strong>and</strong> inherent variability. The nugget-to-sill ratio can be<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
S. Gholami et al. 2010. Spatial pattern of soil macrofauna biodiversity in wildlife refugee of Karkhe in Southwestern Iran<br />
49<br />
used to classify the spatial dependence of soil properties. In this study we used similar criteria to<br />
those reported by Sun et al., (2003). The variable is considered to have a strong spatial<br />
dependence if the ratio is less than 25%, <strong>and</strong> has a moderate spatial dependence if the ratio is<br />
between 25% <strong>and</strong> 75%; otherwise, the variable has a weak spatial dependence.<br />
Soil macrofauna abundance <strong>and</strong> diversity were moderately spatially dependent (Table 2). The<br />
range of influence is considered as the distance beyond which observations are not spatially<br />
dependent. This distance ranged from 1326 m for soil macrofauna diversity to 1724 m for<br />
abundance (Table 2).<br />
The maps obtained by kriging for soil macrofauna abundance <strong>and</strong> diversity are shown in Fig. 2.<br />
Table 1. Mean, st<strong>and</strong>ard deviation (S.D.), coefficient of variation (CV), minimum <strong>and</strong> maximum values<br />
of for soil macrofauna abundance <strong>and</strong> diversity<br />
Index mean S. D C.V (%) minimum maximum<br />
Abundance (indiv. m -2 ) 43.1 73.9 171 0 480<br />
Shannon (H’) 0.55 0.51 92 0 1.9<br />
Table2. Variogram model parameters for soil macrofauna abundance <strong>and</strong> diversity<br />
Index Model Sill Nugget Nugget/ Sill (%) Range(m)<br />
abundance spherical 1.13 0.59 52 1724<br />
Shannon (H’) spherical 0.27 0.153 55 1326<br />
(A)<br />
(B)<br />
Fig.1. Variograms of (A) Log transformed data for soil macrofauna abundance <strong>and</strong> (B) soil macrofauna<br />
diversity<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
S. Gholami et al. 2010. Spatial pattern of soil macrofauna biodiversity in wildlife refugee of Karkhe in Southwestern Iran<br />
50<br />
3554000<br />
3554000<br />
3552000<br />
3552000<br />
3550000<br />
3550000<br />
3548000<br />
River<br />
3548000<br />
River<br />
3546000<br />
3546000<br />
3544000<br />
3<br />
3544000<br />
1<br />
2.2<br />
0.8<br />
3542000<br />
3542000<br />
0.6<br />
N<br />
3540000<br />
0 1000 2000<br />
237000 239000 241000 243000<br />
1.4<br />
0.6<br />
N<br />
3540000<br />
0 1000 2000<br />
237000 239000 241000 243000<br />
0.4<br />
0.2<br />
4. Discussion<br />
Fig.2. Distribution of soil macrofauna diversity: A – Abundance, B –Shannon H index<br />
This study showed that soil macrofauna abundance <strong>and</strong> diversity were spatially autocorrelated<br />
within the range of 1519 <strong>and</strong> 1937 meters. In line with our result Gongalski et.al., (2008)<br />
reported the spatial autocorrelation for soil macrofauna abundance <strong>and</strong> diversity in<br />
Mediteranean forest in Russia.<br />
Typically these structures constitute one source of the nugget variance of the variograms (Rossi,<br />
2003). However, the variograms reported here featured a somewhat high ratio of nugget<br />
variance to sill (Table 2). This result showed that there was the small-scale variability <strong>and</strong><br />
important proportion of unexplained variance (Rossi, 2003, Gongalski et.al., 2008,).<br />
Spatial distribution of soil macrofauna at large scales may be influenced by factors like<br />
gradients in soil organic matter (quantity <strong>and</strong> or quality), texture <strong>and</strong> vegetation cover structure<br />
(Ettema & Wardle 2002). These factors together with intrinsic population processes constitute<br />
proximate controlling factors of population structure (Rossi, 2003).<br />
References<br />
Barrios, E. 2007. Soil biota, ecosystem services <strong>and</strong> l<strong>and</strong> productivity. Ecological Economics,<br />
24(2):269-285.<br />
Coulson, R.N., McFadden, B.A., Pully, P.A., Lovelady, C.N., Fitzgerald, J.W., Jack, S.B., 1999.<br />
Heterogeneity of forest l<strong>and</strong>scape <strong>and</strong> the distribution <strong>and</strong> abundance of southern pine<br />
beetle. <strong>Forest</strong> Ecology <strong>and</strong> Management, 114: 471-485.<br />
Ettema, C. H., Wardle, D. A. 2002. Spatial soil ecology. Trends in Ecology <strong>and</strong> Evolution 17,<br />
177–183.<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
S. Gholami et al. 2010. Spatial pattern of soil macrofauna biodiversity in wildlife refugee of Karkhe in Southwestern Iran<br />
51<br />
Giese, L.A., Aust, W.M., Trettin, C.C., Kolka, R.K., 2000. Spatial <strong>and</strong> temporal patterns of<br />
carbon storage <strong>and</strong> species richness in three South Carolina coastal plain riparian forests.<br />
Ecological Engineering, 15: S157-S17.<br />
Gonglanski, K.B., Gorshkova, I.A,. Karpov, A.I., Pokarzhevskii, A.D. 2008. Do boundaries of<br />
soil animal <strong>and</strong> plant communities coincide A case study of a Mediterranean forest in<br />
Russia. European j ournal of soil biology.44:355–363.<br />
Goovaerts, P., 1999. Geostatistics in soil science: state-of-the-art <strong>and</strong> perspectives. Geoderma,<br />
89: 1-45.<br />
Gringarten, E. <strong>and</strong> Deutsch, C.V., 2001. Teacher's aide, Variogram interpretation <strong>and</strong> modeling.<br />
Mathematical Geology, 33(4):507-534.<br />
Guillaume, D., 2002. Patterns of plant species <strong>and</strong> community diversity at different organization<br />
levels in a forested riparian l<strong>and</strong>scape. Journal of Vegetation Science, 13: 91-106.<br />
Jimenez, J.J., Rossi, J.P., Lavelle, P., 2001. Spatial distribution of earthworm in acid-soil<br />
savannas of the eastern plains of Colombia. Applied Soil Ecology, 17: 267-278.<br />
Joschko, M., Fox, C.A., Lentzsch, P., Kiesel, J., Hierold, W., Kruck, S., Timmer, j., 2006.<br />
Spatial analysis of earthworm biodiversity at the regional scale. Agriculture Ecosystem &<br />
Environment, 112: 367-380.<br />
Lavelle, P., Decaënsb, T., Aubert, M., Barot, S., Blouin, M., Bureau, F., Margerieb, P.,<br />
Mora, P., Rossi, J.-P 2006. Soil invertebrates <strong>and</strong> ecosystem services. European Journal of Soil<br />
Biology 42: S3–S15.<br />
Leitao, A.B. <strong>and</strong> Ahern, J., 2002. Applying l<strong>and</strong>scape ecological concepts <strong>and</strong> metrics in<br />
sustainable l<strong>and</strong>scape planning. L<strong>and</strong>scape And Urban Planning, 59: 65-93.<br />
Lyon, J. <strong>and</strong> Gross, N.M., 2005. Patterns of plant diversity <strong>and</strong> plant-environmental relationship<br />
across three riparian corridors. <strong>Forest</strong> Ecology <strong>and</strong> Management, 204: 267-278.<br />
Mohmmadi, J. 2006. Pedometrics: Spatial statistics (Geostatistics). Pelk Publications,453p.<br />
Rossi, J.P., 2003. Short-range structures in earthworm spatial distribution. Pedo biologia, 47:<br />
582-587.<br />
Sun, B., Zhou, S., Zhao, Q., 2003. Evaluation of spatial <strong>and</strong> temporal changes of soil quality<br />
based on geostatistical analysis in the hill region of subtropical China. Geoderma, 115:<br />
85-99.<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
P. González-Moreno et al. 2010. The influence of spatial structure on natural regeneration <strong>and</strong> biodiversity<br />
52<br />
The influence of spatial structure on natural regeneration <strong>and</strong><br />
biodiversity in Mediterranean pine plantations: a nested l<strong>and</strong>scape<br />
approach<br />
P. González-Moreno 1,* ; J. L. Quero 2,3 , L. Poorter 2 , F.J. Bonet 1 & R. Zamora 4<br />
1 Centro Andaluz de Medio Ambiente, Granada, Spain<br />
2 <strong>Forest</strong> Ecology <strong>and</strong> <strong>Forest</strong> Management Group, Centre for Ecosystem Studies,<br />
Wageningen University, Wageningen, The Netherl<strong>and</strong>s<br />
3 Área de Biodiversidad y Conservación, Departamento de Biología y Geología,<br />
Universidad Rey Juan Carlos, Móstoles, Spain<br />
4 Departmento de Ecología, Universidad de Granada, Granada, Spain<br />
Abstract<br />
Promoting plant diversity in plantations is a worldwide concern. This research aimed to evaluate<br />
the effect of the spatial configuration of Mediterranean pine plantations on regeneration <strong>and</strong><br />
plant diversity in order to facilitate management decisions. Spatial characteristics of pine<br />
plantation patches at l<strong>and</strong>scape scale (distances to other vegetation types) <strong>and</strong> at patch scale<br />
(patch geometry <strong>and</strong> internal structure) were related to abundance of Quercus ilex seedlings <strong>and</strong><br />
the Shannon diversity index of plant species. Results showed that Q. ilex regeneration <strong>and</strong> plant<br />
diversity are affected by the spatial configuration. (1) Proximity to oak patches favoured<br />
abundance of Q. ilex seedlings <strong>and</strong> plant diversity. (2) Patch geometry affected plant diversity,<br />
with larger patches having less diversity. (3) Internal structure influenced both regeneration of<br />
Q. ilex <strong>and</strong> diversity. More heterogeneous areas were characterized by higher diversity <strong>and</strong> less<br />
abundant oak regeneration suggesting that some species show different response to microhabitat<br />
heterogeneity.<br />
Keywords: fragmentation; texture; context; geometry; spatial configuration<br />
1. Introduction<br />
Pine plantations cover a large extent in the Mediterranean basin, representing ca. 12% of the<br />
total forest cover (FAO 2006). A large extent of these plantations is the result of reforestation<br />
programs, carried out since the 19 th century (Pausas et al. 2004). Current management trends are<br />
based on the multifunctionality of these plantations considering not only the original protective<br />
<strong>and</strong> productive functions but also other factors such as biodiversity or recreation (Brockerhoff et<br />
al. 2008). To facilitate plantation management towards mixed st<strong>and</strong>s it is necessary to<br />
underst<strong>and</strong> which factors affect natural regeneration <strong>and</strong> plant diversity. One of these<br />
influencing factors is the spatial pattern of pine plantations at different scales (Lookingbill <strong>and</strong><br />
Zavala 2000) For instance, pine plantation patches can be found in an heterogeneous mosaic of<br />
different vegetation types that will influence their dynamic <strong>and</strong> ecological characteristics. This<br />
effect at l<strong>and</strong>scape scale could be assessed by two aspects: vegetation context <strong>and</strong> patch<br />
geometry.<br />
Vegetation context is the relation among plantation patches <strong>and</strong> other vegetation types.<br />
Proximity to specific vegetation types will facilitate propagules exchange (White et al. 2004).<br />
* Corresponding author. Tel: +34 958241000 - Fax: +34 958137246<br />
Email address: glezmoreno@gmail.com<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
P. González-Moreno et al. 2010. The influence of spatial structure on natural regeneration <strong>and</strong> biodiversity<br />
53<br />
However, proximity relations could be complicated considering the relief. Mountain areas are<br />
anisotropic surfaces where the downhill dispersal of propagules will be easier due to the direct<br />
effect of gravity (Ohsawa et al. 2007) or because animal dispersal vectors move downhill in<br />
order to save energy (Li <strong>and</strong> Zhang 2003). Patch geometry considers the shape or area of<br />
patches <strong>and</strong> the effect that those characteristics could have on internal patch dynamics. Patch<br />
geometry determines the edge effect (Turner, Gardner, <strong>and</strong> O'Neill 2001). The edge has drier<br />
conditions, with more light <strong>and</strong> it receives the visit of open habitat species. These differences<br />
influence species composition <strong>and</strong> thus biodiversity <strong>and</strong> probability of propagules arrival.<br />
Turner et al., (2001: 3) defines l<strong>and</strong>scape as an area that is spatially heterogeneous in at least<br />
one factor of interest. This heterogeneity, can be observed at different scales. Thus, given a<br />
l<strong>and</strong>scape with a determined scale, it is possible to identify mosaics of patches within patches.<br />
This nested model of mosaics is important to underst<strong>and</strong> the ecological processes because it<br />
implies that the spatial configuration of mosaics at different scales are interconnected.<br />
Therefore, not only the vegetation context <strong>and</strong> patch geometry will affect the performance of<br />
recruitment of species but also the mosaic of microhabitats within plantation patches (i.e.<br />
internal vegetation structure). This structural diversity can be obtained from texture analysis of<br />
high resolution imagery (Hepinstall <strong>and</strong> Sader 1997; St-Louis et al. 2006). Texture is the spatial<br />
distribution of different gray-levels in the same b<strong>and</strong> of the image (Haralick, Shanmugam, <strong>and</strong><br />
Dinstein 1973). Considering that each gray-level is the spectral response to a specific vegetation<br />
type or microhabitat, the analysis of the spatial combination of gray-levels can give valuable<br />
information about the spatial structure. This type of analysis can be done applying the Gray<br />
Level Co-occurrence Matrix (GLCM) developed by (Haralick, Shanmugam, <strong>and</strong> Dinstein<br />
1973). This method gives the probability that two pixels in the same image window have same<br />
tone in a given distance <strong>and</strong> direction.<br />
In a previous research in the same study area we evaluated the effect of several environmental<br />
gradients (climate, distance to oak vegetation <strong>and</strong> st<strong>and</strong> density) on biodiversity <strong>and</strong> plant<br />
regeneration of pine plantations (Gómez-Aparicio et al., 2009). Here our objective was to<br />
evaluate specifically the effect of the spatial configuration of pine plantations on tree<br />
regeneration <strong>and</strong> plant diversity at different scales. Specifically we asked how is natural<br />
regeneration <strong>and</strong> plant diversity of different species within plantation patches related at<br />
l<strong>and</strong>scape scale to the vegetation context of pine plantation patches (proximity to seed source)<br />
<strong>and</strong> plantation patch geometry (area <strong>and</strong> patch shape complexity) <strong>and</strong> at patch scale to the<br />
internal structural diversity of pine plantations patches<br />
2. Methodology<br />
2.1 Study site<br />
Sierra Nevada National Park (Southeast Spain) is a mountain region with an altitudinal range<br />
between 860 m <strong>and</strong> 3482 m. It has an extension of more than 2000 Km 2 , <strong>and</strong> a main length of<br />
90 Km. Annual average temperature decreases in altitude from 12-16 ºC bellow 1500 m to 0 ºC<br />
above 3000 m. Precipitation is scarce in summer, while the winter precipitation is mainly in<br />
form of snow over 2000 m. The average annual precipitation oscillates from less than 250 mm<br />
in the lowest <strong>and</strong> Eastern part of the mountain, to more than 700 mm in the highest peaks.<br />
2.2 Dataset<br />
Regeneration <strong>and</strong> plant diversity variables were obtained from the <strong>Forest</strong> Inventory of Sierra<br />
Nevada National Park collected during 2004-2005 (SINFONEVADA). 275 inventory plots<br />
within pine plantation were selected for the analysis covering a gradient from 974 to 2439 m<br />
a.s.l. Plot size ranged from 300 to 400 m 2 . Two additional subplots were established within each<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
P. González-Moreno et al. 2010. The influence of spatial structure on natural regeneration <strong>and</strong> biodiversity<br />
54<br />
larger plot: a 5-m radius circle to measure the number of saplings (DBH = 2.5-7.5 cm) <strong>and</strong><br />
seedlings (DBH < 2.5 <strong>and</strong> height < 1.3 m) of tree species, <strong>and</strong> a 10-m radius plot to measure the<br />
species composition <strong>and</strong> abundance by the Braun-Blanquet cover-abundance scale.<br />
Regeneration within pine plantations was measured as seedling abundance. The species<br />
considered in the analysis was Quercus ilex subsp. ballota (Desf.) Samp. (Q. ilex). Other major<br />
species were not considered due to their low abundance in the inventory. Saplings were not<br />
considered, since oak saplings could have been established before the establishment of the pine<br />
plantation, <strong>and</strong> pine “saplings” could be suppressed old planted individuals. Plant diversity was<br />
measured using the Shannon diversity index for the total of species <strong>and</strong> considering only<br />
herbaceous species, only flesh-fruited woody species or only dry-fruited woody species. The<br />
distinction among woody species was considered in order to account the differences in dispersal<br />
syndrome. Flesh-fruited woody species usually have endozoochorous syndromes whilst rest of<br />
species can have other syndromes such as exozoochorous or anemochorous. This distinction<br />
was not made for herbaceous species because most of them (> 95 %) have dry fruits <strong>and</strong> abiotic<br />
dispersal.<br />
A simplification of the forest vegetation map of Andalusia 1:10 000 (CMA 2001) was used to<br />
identify pine plantation areas <strong>and</strong> calculate patch geometry <strong>and</strong> vegetation context variables.<br />
The different vegetation classes used were selected according to their possible contribution to<br />
regeneration <strong>and</strong> plant diversity in pine plantations. The vegetation classes considered were: (1)<br />
pine plantation (> 50 % tree cover <strong>and</strong> > 75% conifers), (2) Oak <strong>and</strong> broadleaved species (> 5 %<br />
tree cover <strong>and</strong> oak presence), (3) shrubl<strong>and</strong>s (< 5 % tree cover, > 20 % shrub cover <strong>and</strong>
P. González-Moreno et al. 2010. The influence of spatial structure on natural regeneration <strong>and</strong> biodiversity<br />
55<br />
diversity variables using correlation analyses. Regeneration <strong>and</strong> plant diversity were calculated<br />
as the average of the values of all inventory plots within each patch.<br />
3. Results<br />
3.1 Vegetation context<br />
Plant diversity declined with increasing distances to oak vegetation, riparian vegetation <strong>and</strong><br />
shrubl<strong>and</strong> (Table 1). However, proximity to riparian vegetation was not influencing herbaceous<br />
diversity. Surprisingly, the diversity index for flesh-fruited woody species had significant<br />
positive relationship to distance to agriculture fields. Considering distance to oak, shrubl<strong>and</strong> <strong>and</strong><br />
riparian vegetation, the algorithm favouring downhill dispersion had higher correlation strength<br />
than the others (weighted downhill > Euclidean > weighted uphill). In contrast to plant diversity<br />
indices, seedling abundance of Q. ilex showed only a strong negative relationship to distances to<br />
oak (Table 1). Abundance of Q. ilex seedlings showed also similar pattern of differences among<br />
algorithms than plant diversity indices (Euclidean = weighted downhill < weighted uphill).<br />
3.2 Patch geometry<br />
Patch area showed negative relationship with Shannon diversity index for all species (ρ=-0.59,<br />
P=0.05), herbaceous species (ρ=-0.60, P=0.05), <strong>and</strong> woody species although the latter<br />
relationship was not significant. Shape index did not correlate significantly with any of the<br />
Shannon diversity indices. Abundance of Q. ilex seedlings did not present significant relation<br />
with any of the geometry variables considered, although there was a positive trend with shape<br />
index (ρ=0.13, P
P. González-Moreno et al. 2010. The influence of spatial structure on natural regeneration <strong>and</strong> biodiversity<br />
56<br />
Euclidean) suggest that seed dispersal is favoured from species-rich patches occurring at higher<br />
altitude towards lower situated pine plantations. Secondly, patch geometry might affect seed<br />
permeability <strong>and</strong> therefore the overall regeneration dynamic of the patch. According to our<br />
results, fragmentation of pine plantations (i.e. patch area reduction) increases overall plant<br />
diversity. Thus, increasing edge effects in pine plantations will facilitate higher rates of plant<br />
diversity. Patch geometry effects on natural processes are based on the delimitation of isolated<br />
discrete units or patches. However some types of l<strong>and</strong>scapes do not present clear patch<br />
delimitation (Gustafson 1998). In our study site, l<strong>and</strong>scape is better depicted as a continuum of<br />
patches with different perturbation rate <strong>and</strong> following a belt structure. This limitation was<br />
overcome selecting isolated patches across the study site. This approach allowed the study of<br />
the effect of geometry on regeneration <strong>and</strong> plant diversity but also pointed out the complexity of<br />
vegetation pattern at l<strong>and</strong>scape scale that eventually might be better depicted as a continuous<br />
gradient of point-data (Gustafson 1998). Thirdly, once propagules are trapped in pine plantation<br />
patches, seeds will require special conditions to germinate <strong>and</strong> establish. This study has proven<br />
that internal vegetation structure measured in terms of texture indices, might be useful to<br />
estimate regeneration <strong>and</strong> plant diversity. All plant diversity indices but for fleshly-fruited<br />
woody species were higher in plots of higher heterogeneity. Areas with higher microhabitat<br />
diversity might have a higher abundance of niches for different species that in turns will<br />
influence positively plant diversity. This finding agrees with the extensive literature that points<br />
the positive relationship between habitat heterogeneity <strong>and</strong> species abundance <strong>and</strong> distribution<br />
(Noss 1990). Nevertheless, this effect proved to be species-dependent. Q. ilex responded in an<br />
opposite manner with higher regeneration rates in structurally homogeneous plantation patches.<br />
Despite these promising findings <strong>and</strong> the theoretical usefulness of texture indices as<br />
heterogeneity quantification techniques (Turner 1991), further research is needed to test this<br />
methodology in other l<strong>and</strong>scapes <strong>and</strong> at different scales to firmly confirm their reliability.<br />
Table 1. Pearson correlation coefficients between regeneration (Log seedling abundance of Q. ilex) <strong>and</strong><br />
biodiversity (Shannon diversity index for all species, herbaceous, dry-fruited <strong>and</strong> flesh-fruited woody<br />
species) variables <strong>and</strong> vegetation context (distances) <strong>and</strong> internal structure variables (entropy <strong>and</strong><br />
contrast). Riparian distance was square root transformed <strong>and</strong> rest of context variables were double square<br />
root transformed. n=275. (*P
P. González-Moreno et al. 2010. The influence of spatial structure on natural regeneration <strong>and</strong> biodiversity<br />
57<br />
Acknowledgements<br />
This research work has been done in the framework of GESBOME Project (RNM 1890) from<br />
the Excellence Research Group Programme of the Andalusian Government. Financial support<br />
was provided by Caja Madrid foundation to PGM <strong>and</strong> by postdoc contract (2007-0572) from the<br />
Spanish Ministry of Science <strong>and</strong> Innovation to JLQ. We are also very grateful to TRAGSA for<br />
conducting the <strong>Forest</strong> Inventory <strong>and</strong> to Lorena Gómez Aparicio for her advices.<br />
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New perspectives for an old practice — a review. Plant Ecology 171: 209-220.<br />
St-Louis, V. et al., 2006. High-resolution image texture as a predictor of bird species richness.<br />
Remote Sensing of Environment 105: 299-312.<br />
Turner, M. G. 1991., Quantitative methods in l<strong>and</strong>scape ecology. Springer.<br />
Turner, M. G., Gardner, R. H. <strong>and</strong> O'Neill, R. V., 2001. L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology in Theory <strong>and</strong><br />
Practice: Pattern <strong>and</strong> Process. New York: Springer-Verlag NY.<br />
White, W. et al., 2004. Seed dispersal to revegetated isolated rainforest patches in North<br />
Queensl<strong>and</strong>. <strong>Forest</strong> Ecology <strong>and</strong> Management 192: 409-426<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
T. Höbinger et al. 2010. Impact of changing cultivation systems on the l<strong>and</strong>scape structure of La Gamba<br />
58<br />
Impact of changing cultivation systems on the l<strong>and</strong>scape structure of<br />
La Gamba, southern Costa Rica<br />
Tamara Höbinger 1* , Stefan Schindler 1 & Anton Weissenhofer 2,3<br />
1 Department of Conservation Biology, Vegetation & L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology, Faculty of<br />
Life Sciences, University of Vienna, Rennweg 14, A-1030 Vienna, Austria<br />
2 Department of Structural <strong>and</strong> Functional Botany, Faculty of Life Sciences, University<br />
of Vienna, Rennweg 14, A-1030 Vienna, Austria<br />
3 Tropical Station La Gamba, Postal 178, Golfito/Puntarenas, Costa Rica<br />
Abstract<br />
Human activities often cause changes <strong>and</strong> homogenization in l<strong>and</strong>scape structure. To investigate<br />
the human impact on a tropical agricultural l<strong>and</strong>scape we mapped l<strong>and</strong> cover <strong>and</strong> small-scale<br />
linear l<strong>and</strong>scape elements in La Gamba (Costa Rica) <strong>and</strong> compared eight sections by different<br />
l<strong>and</strong>scape metrics. Rural sections clearly differed from forests, especially pasture-dominated<br />
sections including many linear l<strong>and</strong>scape elements <strong>and</strong> few big plantations. The largest <strong>and</strong><br />
most compact patches belonged to primary <strong>and</strong> secondary forests. Conversely, cultivated<br />
l<strong>and</strong>scapes were diverse comprising many small patches. Contrasting the results of other<br />
studies, most rural sections obtained higher fractal dimensions than forests, probably due to a<br />
higher density of linear l<strong>and</strong>scape elements. Natural l<strong>and</strong>scape elements such as live fences <strong>and</strong><br />
riparian vegetation which are supporting wildlife movement between forests are declining. Their<br />
protection is of major importance, particularly as the globally increasing cultivation of oil palms<br />
is significantly altering the countryside of La Gamba <strong>and</strong> many other tropical l<strong>and</strong> mosaics.<br />
Keywords: Costa Rica, Habitat fragmentation, La Gamba, L<strong>and</strong>scape metrics, L<strong>and</strong> use<br />
1. Introduction<br />
Nowadays biodiversity is highly threatened by human activities in all tropical regions of the<br />
world (Kappelle et al. 2003). The loss <strong>and</strong> fragmentation of tropical forests <strong>and</strong> rapid changes in<br />
l<strong>and</strong> use have great influence on the population dynamics of various native plant <strong>and</strong> animal<br />
species (e.g. Morera et al. 2005; Harvey et al. 2008b). By improving the ecological connectivity<br />
between forest patches <strong>and</strong> natural l<strong>and</strong>scape elements in agricultural areas the problem of<br />
habitat fragmentation can be alleviated (Morera et al. 2005). Therefore, the presence of natural<br />
l<strong>and</strong>scape elements, such as live fences, forest patches <strong>and</strong> gallery forests is of great importance<br />
for wildlife using cultivated areas (Harvey et al. 2005, 2008a; Seaman <strong>and</strong> Schulze 2009).<br />
The village “La Gamba” is situated at the edge of the Piedras Blancas National Park (southwest<br />
Costa Rica) <strong>and</strong> its agricultural area belongs to a zone that is important for wildlife exchange<br />
between forest areas. Since the founding of the village in the 1940s its economy has undergone<br />
several changes. Cattle breeding <strong>and</strong> rice production have always been important <strong>and</strong> large areas<br />
were deforested to gain farml<strong>and</strong>. From 1954 to 1961 bananas were the most common cash crop<br />
in La Gamba. During the great depression in the 1980s many plantations were ab<strong>and</strong>oned, rice<br />
fields <strong>and</strong> pastures remained as the most common forms of l<strong>and</strong> use (Klingler 2007). Nowadays<br />
* Corresponding author. Tel.: 0043-660-2568808<br />
Email address: t.hoebinger@gmail.com<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
T. Höbinger et al. 2010. Impact of changing cultivation systems on the l<strong>and</strong>scape structure of La Gamba<br />
59<br />
rice production sharply decreased while the oil palm industry is on the rise. During the last<br />
decade many agricultural areas have been rapidly converted into oil palm plantations which are<br />
already the second most area consuming l<strong>and</strong> use type after pastures. The cultivation of oil<br />
palms is increasing globally, causing severe problems in many tropical agricultural systems <strong>and</strong><br />
leading to deforestation, loss of biodiversity, destruction of soils <strong>and</strong> alteration of traditional<br />
countryside (Fitzherbert et al. 2008). Until now in La Gamba new oil palm plantations are<br />
mainly replacing former rice fields or pastures <strong>and</strong> there has not been much deforestation.<br />
Nevertheless, this development profoundly affects the economic situation of La Gamba <strong>and</strong> has<br />
strong influence on the l<strong>and</strong>scape structure (Höbinger 2010).<br />
L<strong>and</strong>scape metrics are a useful too to analyze <strong>and</strong> monitor changes in l<strong>and</strong>scape pattern <strong>and</strong><br />
differences between l<strong>and</strong>scapes (Uuemaa et al. 2009). L<strong>and</strong>scape structure mirrors a wide range<br />
of ecological patterns <strong>and</strong> processes (Turner 2001). Several authors wrote about the use <strong>and</strong><br />
misuse of l<strong>and</strong>scape metrics (e.g. Li <strong>and</strong> Wu 2004) <strong>and</strong> tried to figure out appropriable sets of<br />
metrics for different scales <strong>and</strong> scientific questions (e.g. O’Neill et al. 1988; McGarigal <strong>and</strong><br />
Marks 1995; Botequilha Leitão et al. 2006; Cushman et al. 2008). A careful choice of metrics is<br />
essential to avoid redundancies <strong>and</strong> misleading results (McGarigal <strong>and</strong> Marks 1995; Schindler<br />
et al. 2008; 2009).<br />
This study analysis the l<strong>and</strong>scape pattern of the La Gamba area, <strong>and</strong> deviates ecological<br />
consequences of ongoing l<strong>and</strong> use change. It shall form a basis for further investigations <strong>and</strong><br />
action plans for biodiversity conservation in the area <strong>and</strong> other tropical l<strong>and</strong>scape mosaics.<br />
2. Methodology<br />
2.1 Study area <strong>and</strong> l<strong>and</strong> cover mapping<br />
The study area, the village La Gamba <strong>and</strong> surrounding forest areas, is situated in the southwest<br />
of Costa Rica (Golfo Dulce Region) <strong>and</strong> has an extend of 25.66 km² (8°41’ to 8°43’N <strong>and</strong> 83°9’<br />
to 83°13’W). To investigate the l<strong>and</strong>scape mosaic we mapped l<strong>and</strong> cover <strong>and</strong> small-scale linear<br />
l<strong>and</strong>scape elements (see Figure 1). The base for the mapping of the region was a “QuickBird 2”<br />
satellite image with a pixel size of 2.4 m for the multispectral channels (green, blue, red <strong>and</strong><br />
infrared) <strong>and</strong> 0.6 m for the panchromatic channel (La Gamba, Costa Rica, QuickBird scene<br />
052017330010_01_P001, 6/12/2007 © Digital Globe (2008), Distributed by Euroimage).<br />
To produce a vector map showing the l<strong>and</strong> cover, we used the program ArcView® (ESRI, Inc.,<br />
Redl<strong>and</strong>s, CA) <strong>and</strong> defined eleven l<strong>and</strong> cover categories: primary forest, secondary forest,<br />
shrubl<strong>and</strong>, riparian vegetation, fern-dominated vegetation, pastures, oil palm plantations, live<br />
fences <strong>and</strong> timber plantations, agriculture, settlements <strong>and</strong> roads <strong>and</strong> drainage ditches <strong>and</strong> rivers<br />
(including ponds). We used the statistics program R version 2.6.0 (R Development Core Team)<br />
to illustrate the results in the form of barplots.<br />
2.2 L<strong>and</strong>scape pattern analysis<br />
To analyze the l<strong>and</strong>scape pattern, the study area was divided into eight sections. All sections<br />
should represent relatively homogenous <strong>and</strong> characteristic zones of the area <strong>and</strong> were delineated<br />
in order to comprise mainly either forests or rural areas. Each section includes at least five of the<br />
eleven l<strong>and</strong> cover categories <strong>and</strong> is of compact shape (see Figure 1). Three of these sections<br />
were summarized as “forest sections” (Bolsa forest, Station forest <strong>and</strong> Bonito forest), being<br />
mainly covered by primary <strong>and</strong> secondary forest <strong>and</strong> five sections were summarized as “rural<br />
sections” (Bolsa, Bonito 1, Bonito 2, La Gamba <strong>and</strong> Station agriculture), being dominated by<br />
anthropogenic ecosystems (see Figure 1).<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
T. Höbinger et al. 2010. Impact of changing cultivation systems on the l<strong>and</strong>scape structure of La Gamba<br />
60<br />
To investigate the l<strong>and</strong>scape pattern of the area <strong>and</strong> to uncover differences among the eight<br />
l<strong>and</strong>scape sections, we used the software FRAGSTATS 3.3 (McGarigal <strong>and</strong> Marks 1995) to<br />
compute the l<strong>and</strong>scape metrics Patch Density (PD), Patch Area (AREA), Fractal Dimension<br />
(PAFRAC), Similarity Index (SIMI), Contagion Index (CONTAG) <strong>and</strong> Patch Richness Density<br />
(PRD). The different patch types were characterized by the class level metrics Patch Area<br />
(AREA), Fractal Dimension (PAFRAC), Euclidean Nearest Neighbor Distance (ENN) <strong>and</strong><br />
Edge Contrast (ECON). We applied the eight neighbor rule to guarantee that linear l<strong>and</strong>scape<br />
elements were identified as single patches (McGarigal <strong>and</strong> Marks 1995; Schindler et al. 2008).<br />
As the l<strong>and</strong>scape sections differed in size, we used only metrics st<strong>and</strong>ardized for area (e.g. Patch<br />
Density instead of the absolute number of patches).<br />
3 Results<br />
Primary vegetation covered 29% of the study area, secondary vegetation 35%, anthropogenic<br />
ecosystems 34% <strong>and</strong> water (rivers <strong>and</strong> ponds) 2% (see Figure 1). The most area consuming l<strong>and</strong><br />
use types of the agricultural l<strong>and</strong> mosaics were pastures (61 %) <strong>and</strong> oil palm plantations (31 %).<br />
Other l<strong>and</strong> use types (e.g. rice, cacao, bananas) covered only small areas (< 4%). All l<strong>and</strong>scape<br />
metrics clearly separated forests from rural sections. Generally, forest areas showed lower<br />
values of PD, PAFRAC <strong>and</strong> PRD <strong>and</strong> higher values of SIMI <strong>and</strong> CONTAG compared to rural<br />
areas (see Figure 2a). The differences between forests <strong>and</strong> rural areas were most evident for<br />
traditional pasture-dominated l<strong>and</strong>scapes, which typically consisted of many small patches of<br />
different type <strong>and</strong> included many linear l<strong>and</strong>scape elements such as live fences, streets or<br />
drainage ditches. Rural sections including few linear l<strong>and</strong>scape elements <strong>and</strong> big plantations or<br />
undivided pastures were characterized by metric values more similar to those of forest sections.<br />
Most rural sections of the study area had much higher fractal dimensions than forests. Patch<br />
types including lines showed the smallest patch areas <strong>and</strong> the highest fractal dimensions (see<br />
Figure 2b). Patches of primary forest had the biggest AREA <strong>and</strong> the lowest fractal dimensions.<br />
Secondary forests were smaller <strong>and</strong> had higher fractal dimensions. All other natural patch types<br />
such as riparian vegetation were of very small extent <strong>and</strong> more complex shaped. The<br />
comparison of AREA <strong>and</strong> PD showed that oil palm plantations consisted of bigger, but less<br />
numerous patches compared to pastures (see Figure 3). Primary forests had the biggest AREA,<br />
but the lowest PD. Secondary forests were characterized by a much smaller AREA <strong>and</strong> clearly<br />
higher PD. Riparian vegetation covered only smaller areas, but showed a relatively high PD.<br />
Categories including linear l<strong>and</strong>scape elements showed the smallest AREA <strong>and</strong> highest PD.<br />
4 Discussion<br />
For this study eight l<strong>and</strong>scape metrics were chosen with regard to the suggestions of other<br />
authors (Botequilha Leitão et al. 2006, Cushman et al. 2008, Schindler et al. 2008). The chosen<br />
metrics clearly distinguished forest <strong>and</strong> rural sections. <strong>Forest</strong> sections consisted of relatively<br />
few, big <strong>and</strong> compact shaped patches. Conversely, rural areas included more, smaller patches<br />
<strong>and</strong> were more diverse. Fractal dimensions were considerable high for rural areas. This can be<br />
caused by very high values of PAFRAC for the categories “settlement <strong>and</strong> road”, “drainage<br />
ditch <strong>and</strong> river” <strong>and</strong> “live fence <strong>and</strong> timber plantation” that included linear elements. This<br />
clearly demonstrates the importance of considering linear elements when assessing patch shape<br />
complexity.<br />
The inclusion of linear l<strong>and</strong>scape elements also has a strong influence on the values of<br />
l<strong>and</strong>scape metrics <strong>and</strong> dem<strong>and</strong>s a careful interpretation of the results. For example, the results of<br />
this study are not consistent with other studies that show that agriculture causes simple <strong>and</strong><br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
T. Höbinger et al. 2010. Impact of changing cultivation systems on the l<strong>and</strong>scape structure of La Gamba<br />
61<br />
compact shaped l<strong>and</strong>scape patches (O’Neill et al. 1988). With exception of section Bonito 2 all<br />
rural sections had higher fractal dimensions than forests. Due to the inclusion of linear<br />
l<strong>and</strong>scape elements these high values indicate rather a high density of linear elements than a<br />
high complexity of the matrix. The comparison of AREA <strong>and</strong> PD clearly showed differences in<br />
the configuration of the patch types. Primary forests had the biggest extend, but comprised only<br />
few patches. Secondary forests were characterized by a much smaller AREA <strong>and</strong> clearly higher<br />
PD because most of these forests were formerly used as pastures. Riparian vegetation covered<br />
only smaller areas, but showed a relatively high PD because many small patches <strong>and</strong> strips of<br />
remnant riparian forests were present along the riversides.<br />
The expansion of oil palm plantations causes considerable changes in the l<strong>and</strong>scape matrix.<br />
Pasture-dominated parts were richer in ecologically valuable elements such as live fences <strong>and</strong><br />
riparian vegetation, while within <strong>and</strong> along oil palm plantations mainly ecologically futile<br />
elements such as roads <strong>and</strong> drainage ditches were found. Compared to pastures plantations had a<br />
bigger AREA, but lower PD which reflects that they are labor-intensive permanent cultures of<br />
great extend. The l<strong>and</strong> use map (see Figure 1) shows that, conversely to pastures, oil palm<br />
plantations were never divided <strong>and</strong> scarcely bordered by live fences. Hence, the expansion of<br />
these plantations involves the risk of a simplification of l<strong>and</strong>scapes <strong>and</strong> the loss of small natural<br />
l<strong>and</strong>scape elements in agricultural areas. This can lead to a significant reduction or shift of the<br />
biodiversity in tropical ecosystems affected by oil palm plantations.<br />
Oil palms are a globally rapidly exp<strong>and</strong>ing crop which has already replaced large areas of<br />
natural forest in many tropical countries such as Malaysia or Indonesia <strong>and</strong> this progress is still<br />
going on. These plantations entail many other problems such as habitat fragmentation, pollution,<br />
loss of biodiversity <strong>and</strong> soil destruction. Because oil palms are unsuitable habitat for most forest<br />
species they can act as severe barrier to animal movement (Fitzherbert et al. 2008). To maintain<br />
the exchange of plants <strong>and</strong> animals between the forest areas surrounding the village La Gamba,<br />
the conservation of live fences <strong>and</strong> other natural habitats is of great importance. As the mean<br />
patch area of pastures was relatively big (2.52 ha) <strong>and</strong> the density of live fences was rather low<br />
(20.0 m per ha farml<strong>and</strong>) more live fences could be established by dividing pastures into smaller<br />
paddocks (Höbinger 2010). This measure would improve the connectivity of forest patches,<br />
increase the tree cover within farml<strong>and</strong>, <strong>and</strong> provide a high conservation value of the<br />
agricultural l<strong>and</strong>scape mosaic in its unconnected gallery forests (Seaman <strong>and</strong> Schulze 2009).<br />
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November 2009).<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
T. Höbinger et al. 2010. Impact of changing cultivation systems on the l<strong>and</strong>scape structure of La Gamba<br />
63<br />
Figure 1: L<strong>and</strong> cover map <strong>and</strong> l<strong>and</strong>scape sections used for the l<strong>and</strong>scape pattern analysis.<br />
Figure 2: L<strong>and</strong>scape level metrics (a) <strong>and</strong> class level metrics (b). The values of SIMI, ENN <strong>and</strong> ECON<br />
represent the area-weighted means of the values of all single patches of the certain section (SIMI)/ of the<br />
certain l<strong>and</strong> cover type (ENN <strong>and</strong> ECON). For the explanation of the metric-acronyms, see section 2.2.<br />
Figure 3: Mean patch area of the l<strong>and</strong> cover types compared to their patch density.<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
P. Matos et al. 2010. Can lichen functional diversity be a good indicator of macroclimatic conditions<br />
64<br />
Can lichen functional diversity be a good indicator of macroclimatic<br />
conditions<br />
Paula Matos * , Pedro Pinho, Esteve Llop & Cristina Branquinho<br />
Universidade de Lisboa, Faculdade de Ciências, Centro de Biologia Ambiental, Campo<br />
Gr<strong>and</strong>e, Bloco C2, 5º Piso, Sala 37, 1749-016 Lisboa, Portugal<br />
Abstract<br />
Climate change is one of the greatest challenges facing conservation <strong>and</strong> it is predicted that its<br />
impact will be most significant in the Mediterranean region. In this work we proposed to study<br />
the effect of macroclimate on total lichen richness, abundance <strong>and</strong> on the proportion of lichen<br />
functional groups in order to find the best ecological indicators of macroclimatic conditions.<br />
The results showed that lichen functional-groups can be used as an indicator of the<br />
macroclimatic conditions at the l<strong>and</strong>scape level <strong>and</strong> showed to be better than total species<br />
richness or lichen abundance. By using three different functional groups we were able to<br />
observe shifts in the communities along the climatic gradient. Precipitation, evapotranspiration<br />
<strong>and</strong> relative air humidity were the variables that explained better the shifts from hygrophytic to<br />
xerophytic lichen communities. Lichen functional diversity showed to be a good c<strong>and</strong>idate for<br />
an ecological indicator of climate change.<br />
Keywords: lichen, functional-groups, species richness, abundance, climate change<br />
1. Introduction<br />
Climate change is predicted to affect many ecosystem services, including water shortages,<br />
increased risk of forest fires, northward shifts in the distribution of tree species, <strong>and</strong> losses of<br />
agricultural potential, which in Europe will be most significant in Mediterranean areas (Schroter<br />
et al. 2005). In particular in this region it is predicted an increase in drought conditions, due to<br />
higher temperature <strong>and</strong> reduced precipitation (IPCC 2007). There is a need to have tools for<br />
monitoring <strong>and</strong> even anticipating, the subtle changes that are or will occur due to climate change,<br />
both in space <strong>and</strong> time.<br />
Lichens are poikilohydric organisms that lack cuticle or roots, so they rely mainly on<br />
atmosphere for their water supply. Epiphytic lichens are considered one of the most sensitive<br />
groups to several changes that occur at ecosystem level, namely: air pollution (Branquinho et al.<br />
1999), ammonia (Pinho et al. 2009), l<strong>and</strong>-use (Pinho et al. 2008b) <strong>and</strong> microclimatic conditions<br />
(van Herk et al. 2002; Aptroot <strong>and</strong> van Herk 2007) due to their integrated sensitivity to changes<br />
in temperature <strong>and</strong>/or precipitation (Giordani <strong>and</strong> Incerti 2008).<br />
Although unconditionally considered good indicators of microclimatic alterations (van Herk<br />
2002; Aptroot <strong>and</strong> van Herk 2007), their use as indicators of macroclimatic conditions is not so<br />
unanimous. Moning et al. (2009), in the Bavarian <strong>Forest</strong> National Park, in southeastern<br />
Germany, found that total <strong>and</strong> threatened diversity of lichen species were mainly affected by<br />
forest structure, whereas macroclimatic factors were far less important, despite the steep average<br />
annual temperature gradient investigated, ranging from 4.2C to 7.8 °C. Other studies that<br />
focused on the impact of climate change on lichens suggested that lichens respond to global<br />
warming (Insarov et al. 1999). In the Netherl<strong>and</strong>s, arctic-alpine/boreo-montane species appear<br />
* Corresponding author.<br />
Email address: psmatos@fc.ul.pt<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
P. Matos et al. 2010. Can lichen functional diversity be a good indicator of macroclimatic conditions<br />
65<br />
to be declining, while (sub)tropical species are invading, independent of nutrient dem<strong>and</strong>s <strong>and</strong><br />
decreasing SO 2 emissions (van Herk et al. 2002). In Western Europe, the number of epiphytic<br />
species appears to be increasing rather than declining, as a result of global warming (Aptroot<br />
<strong>and</strong> van Herk 2007). Model predictions indicate major shifts in the distribution of lichen species<br />
(Ellis et al. 2007; Giordani <strong>and</strong> Incerti 2008).<br />
Despite many authors consider that climate change will affect lichens by shifting their<br />
communities, none of them tested this hypothesis explicitly, because these studies were<br />
performed considering either total species richness or individual species response. Recent<br />
studies (Giordani <strong>and</strong> Incerti 2008) focused on functional-diversity, but used posteriori selected<br />
guilds, that were based on the pattern of environmental variables. Because it was based on<br />
posteriori classification, it is strongly dependent on local communities, <strong>and</strong> thus cannot have a<br />
broader applicability. To overcome this problem <strong>and</strong> find a more universal indicator, we have<br />
made use of a priory classification of functional-diversity based on their humidity requirements.<br />
The use of lichen functional groups was shown to be better related with several environmental<br />
gradients than total biodiversity, at least for NH 3 air pollution (Pinho et al. 2009). Moreover,<br />
functional-groups of species have been successfully used to disentangle or analyze in<br />
simultaneous the influence of multiple environmental factors (Stofer et al. 2006; Pinho et al.<br />
2008a).<br />
In this work we propose to study the effect of macroclimate on total lichen richness, abundance<br />
<strong>and</strong> on the shifts of lichen functional groups in a regional area ranging from the more humid<br />
areas in coastal central Portugal to the SE of the Alentejo in semi-arid areas. This work intends<br />
to be a first approach to find the best ecological indicators of macroclimatic changes for<br />
Mediterranean areas.<br />
2. Methodology<br />
2.1 Study area<br />
The study was conducted in three different areas of continental Portugal, covering three<br />
different macroclimatic regions (Figure 1). The area A is a Quercus faginea wood located in the<br />
west central part of Portugal, within the Natural Park of Serra d’Aire e C<strong>and</strong>eeiros. This area<br />
belongs to the Mesomediterranean belt, from the Coastal Lusitano-Andalusian province (Rivas-<br />
Martinéz <strong>and</strong> Rivas-Saenz 2009). It has an annual average temperature that ranges from 15 to<br />
17.5 ºC <strong>and</strong> an annual average precipitation between 1400 <strong>and</strong> 1600 mm (averages from 1931 to<br />
1960, (IA 2010)). The area B is located in the southwest coast of Portugal, facing the Atlantic<br />
Ocean to the west. It’s a cork oak wood (Quercus suber) with annual average temperature<br />
between 16 <strong>and</strong> 17.5 ºC, <strong>and</strong> average annual precipitation between 600 <strong>and</strong> 1000 mm (averages<br />
from years 1931 to 1960 (IA 2010)). This area is in the Termomediterranean belt, within the<br />
Coastal Lusitano-Andalusian province (Rivas-Martinéz <strong>and</strong> Rivas-Saenz 2009). The area C is a<br />
holm oak wood (Quercus ilex) located southeast from the former area. This area belongs to the<br />
Mesomediterranean belt <strong>and</strong> is placed in the Mediterranean West Iberian province (Rivas-<br />
Martinéz <strong>and</strong> Rivas-Saenz 2009) <strong>and</strong> its climate is semi-arid warm, with annual average<br />
precipitation between 500 <strong>and</strong> 600 mm <strong>and</strong> average temperatures ranging between 16 <strong>and</strong> 17.5<br />
ºC.<br />
2.2 Biodiversity data collection <strong>and</strong> calculation of lichen-diversity variables<br />
Lichen diversity was sampled in 149 sites, 29 sampling sites in the area A, 77 sampling sites in<br />
the area B (Pinho et al. 2008a,b) <strong>and</strong> 43 sampling sites in the area C. The sampling was carried<br />
according to the method described in Asta et al. (2002).<br />
For each site we calculated several lichen-variables: i) total number of species; ii) LDV, lichen<br />
diversity value, which is the sum of all species frequency within the grid. Additionally LDV<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
P. Matos et al. 2010. Can lichen functional diversity be a good indicator of macroclimatic conditions<br />
66<br />
was also calculated considering functional-groups, by dividing species according to humidity<br />
requirements considering species maximum classification in an available index (Nimis <strong>and</strong><br />
Martellos 2008). Therefore, species classified in the index with 1-2 were considered<br />
hygrophytes (LDVhygro), species classified with 3 were considered mesophytes (LDVmeso)<br />
<strong>and</strong> species classified with 4-5 xerophytes (LDVxero). Because we were dealing with different<br />
ecosystems the LDV values were used as relative values, i.e. the contribution (%) of each<br />
functional group to the total LDV.<br />
2.3 Climatic data <strong>and</strong> statistical analysis<br />
Lichen data was related with annual average values of macroclimatic series, available from<br />
Atlas do Ambiente (IA 2010). The variables selected were: precipitation (mm, 1931-1960);<br />
temperatre (ºC, 1931-1960); solar radiation (kcal/cm 2 , 1938-1970); real evapotranspiration (mm,<br />
1938-1970); insolation (h, 1931-1960); relative air humidity (%, 1931-1960). Values for each<br />
sampled site were estimated from the available maps. Correlations between lichen variables <strong>and</strong><br />
climatic variables were performed using Spearman rank order correlations considering the 149<br />
samples together.<br />
3. Results<br />
No correlation was found between the number of lichen species of each site <strong>and</strong> the long-term<br />
macroclimatic variables studied, except for relative air humidity (Table 2). However the total<br />
LDV value showed to be positively related not only with relative air humidity but also with<br />
insolation <strong>and</strong> solar radiation (Table 2).<br />
All the lichen functional diversity variables showed to be related with the long-term<br />
macroclimatic parameters studied, except the percentage of mesophytic LDV with temperature<br />
<strong>and</strong> relative air humidity (Table 2). The relative value of hygrophytic LDV was positively<br />
related with precipitation <strong>and</strong> real evapotranspiration, <strong>and</strong> negatively related with insolation<br />
(Figure 2). On the contrary, the relative value of xerophytic LDV showed to decrease with<br />
increasing precipitation <strong>and</strong> evapotranspiration, but was promoted by the increase in insolation<br />
(Figure 2).<br />
4. Discussion<br />
The results show that lichen functional-groups can be used as ecological indicators of the<br />
macroclimatic conditions in a regional area. We found that indicators based on lichen functional<br />
groups responded better to changes in macroclimatic conditions, than the total number of lichen<br />
species or its abundance (LDV). The fact that functional diversity responded more clearly to<br />
environmental gradients than total diversity was also found in other works but, for other<br />
environmental stresses, such as ammonia or atmospheric pollution (Pinho et al. 2008b; Pinho et<br />
al. 2009).<br />
The most important climatic factor driving the total richness <strong>and</strong> abundance (LDV) of lichens<br />
was the relative humidity. However, its abundance was also promoted by higher insolation.<br />
Although only some works (Heylen et al. 2005) showed this relation between species richness<br />
<strong>and</strong> relative air humidity, the poikylohydric nature of these organisms justifies the importance<br />
of this climatic factor. On the other h<strong>and</strong>, abundance was also related with insolation. Lichens<br />
need water to be physiologically active <strong>and</strong> they need light to photosynthesize. In this way, sites<br />
with higher relative air humidity <strong>and</strong> with a higher number of hours with sun will promote<br />
lichens activity <strong>and</strong> productivity, <strong>and</strong> ultimately lichens abundance. This hypothesis was also<br />
raised in a work in a tropical lowl<strong>and</strong> rain forest. Zotz <strong>and</strong> Winter (1994) suggested that the low<br />
abundance of macroclichens found there was mainly due to low light conditions, combined with<br />
high temperature.<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
P. Matos et al. 2010. Can lichen functional diversity be a good indicator of macroclimatic conditions<br />
67<br />
By using three different functional groups we were able to observe shifts in the communities<br />
along the climatic gradient. Precipitation, evapotranspiration <strong>and</strong> relative air humidity were the<br />
variables that explained better the shifts from hygrophytic to xerophytic lichen communities. In<br />
a Liguria case study, Girodani <strong>and</strong> Incerti (2008) found that 30% of its observed lichen flora<br />
was significantly correlated with yearly average temperature <strong>and</strong> rainfall patterns. This<br />
correlation allowed them to identify 3 guilds of species significantly sensitive to these climatic<br />
variables: species mainly related to cold-humid climate, species related to humid conditions but<br />
occurring in a wider range of temperatures <strong>and</strong> species occurring in meso to warm areas with<br />
humid to dry climate. Although not using the same functional groups, our results show a similar<br />
tendency, not evidenced by a group of individual species as in the former study, but with an a<br />
priori selected functional-group related to humidity requirements. Above 1400 mm in average<br />
of precipitation the hygrophytic community clearly dominated (>50%) over the mesophytic or<br />
the xerophytic ones, whereas below 600 mm it corresponded to only one third of the community.<br />
The xerophytic community increased clearly <strong>and</strong> consistently only when the precipitation was<br />
below approximately 600 mm. The mesophytic group showed an intermediate behavior. With<br />
increasing evapotranspiration the hygrophytic lichens showed a constant increase in relative<br />
average <strong>and</strong> also in variance. Again the xerophytic community responded more clearly only<br />
below 450 mm of evapotranspiration.<br />
The hygrophytic lichens responded negatively to increasing insolation, solar radiation <strong>and</strong><br />
temperature, although that was not as clear as observed for precipitation <strong>and</strong> evapotranspiration.<br />
This decrease in LDV of hygrophytic lichens was associated with an increase in xerophytic ones.<br />
These sets of variables (insolation, solar radiation <strong>and</strong> temperature) induce small changes in the<br />
median, <strong>and</strong> seem to change the variance of the response of the lichen communities.<br />
The group of functional indicators used/applied in this work can be very important in the current<br />
context of climate change. It was predicted for the Mediterranean region an increase in drought<br />
conditions, due to higher temperature <strong>and</strong> reduced precipitation (IPCC 2007). This work<br />
confirms that changes in macroclimatic conditions leads to changes in the functional structure of<br />
the lichen communities. Further studies are needed to evaluate the use of these indicators along<br />
time. Moreover, changes along smaller spatial scales should also be tested. The results of this<br />
work suggested that changes in sensitive lichen communities could be used as an indicator of<br />
macroclimatic changes in space.<br />
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Farkas, Kärkkäinen, K., Keller, C., Lökös, L., Lommi, S., Máguas, C., Mitchell, R.,<br />
Pinho, P., Rico, V.J., Truscott, A.-M., Wolseley, P.A., Watt, A., Scheidegger, C., 2006.<br />
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Table 2: Spearman rank order correlation coefficient values between total number of species, total LDV,<br />
relative LDV of lichen functional groups related to humidity requirements <strong>and</strong> the climatic variables.<br />
Marked (*) correlations are significant for P
P. Matos et al. 2010. Can lichen functional diversity be a good indicator of macroclimatic conditions<br />
69<br />
Figure 1: Location of the three areas studied.<br />
Figure 2: Relative functional diversity LDV related to water stress tolerance in response to the<br />
macroclimate variables – precipitation, real evapotranspiration <strong>and</strong> insolation.<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
E.S. Meier et al. 2010. Projections of shifts in species distributions<br />
70<br />
Projections of shifts in species distributions: assessing the influence of<br />
macro-climate <strong>and</strong> local processes<br />
Eliane S. Meier * , Felix Kienast & Niklaus E. Zimmermann<br />
L<strong>and</strong> Use Dynamics, Swiss Federal Research Institute WSL, Zürcherstrasse 111,<br />
CH-8903 Birmensdorf, Switzerl<strong>and</strong><br />
Abstract<br />
It is currently unclear, whether tree species will be able to keep pace with the ongoing<br />
<strong>and</strong> likely accelerating shift in climate. Here, we estimated the influence of changing<br />
macro-climate <strong>and</strong> local processes on shifts in species distributions. First, we evaluated<br />
tree co-occurrence patterns in climate space <strong>and</strong> estimated the influence of these<br />
patterns on current <strong>and</strong> future species distributions using species distribution models.<br />
Second, we combined these models with migration rates from a process-model <strong>and</strong> a<br />
GIS path cost analysis, to estimate key processes influencing tree migration rates <strong>and</strong> to<br />
predict more realistic shifts in large-scale tree re-distributions. Our results showed, that<br />
biotic interactions mainly limited species distributions towards favorable growing<br />
conditions, while climate was directly limiting primarily where biotic interactions were<br />
low. L<strong>and</strong>scape fragmentation was further strongly limiting migration. In conclusion,<br />
this may lead to considerable time lags in range shifts <strong>and</strong> re-adjustment to new<br />
conditions during climate change, especially for late succession species.<br />
Keywords: biotic interactions, macro-climate, Europe, niche-based model, stress-gradient<br />
hypothesis.<br />
1. Introduction<br />
Macroclimate is hypothesized to play a key role in large-scale species distributions (Thuiller,<br />
Araújo <strong>and</strong> Lavorel 2004, Woodward 1987, Whittaker, Willis <strong>and</strong> Field 2001), <strong>and</strong> thus, the<br />
changing climate is expected to shift the distribution of suitable habitats for many species<br />
considerably (Root et al. 2003, Parmesan <strong>and</strong> Yohe 2003). This expectation is consistent with<br />
observations during Holocene climate changes, where species adapted their spatial distribution<br />
more or less rapidly to the changing climate conditions (Davis <strong>and</strong> Shaw 2001). For on-going<br />
<strong>and</strong> future climate change, however, it remains unclear whether species will be able to keep<br />
pace with accelerating rates of change (Iverson, Schwartz <strong>and</strong> Prasad 2004). On the one h<strong>and</strong>,<br />
new dispersal limitations emerge, such as anthropogenic l<strong>and</strong>scape-fragmentation that may<br />
cause the newly emerging suitable habitats to be insufficiently connected. On the other h<strong>and</strong>, the<br />
expected global warming is predicted to be one or more orders of magnitude faster than past<br />
climate change events (Solomon <strong>and</strong> Kirilenko 1997, Etterson <strong>and</strong> Shaw 2001) <strong>and</strong> the<br />
influence on range shifts by small-scale processes limiting species establishment, survival <strong>and</strong><br />
dispersal, such as biotic interactions (e.g. inter-specific competition, facilitation) or disturbances<br />
were so far often ignored in analysis on large-scale species responses to climate change (Caplat,<br />
An<strong>and</strong> <strong>and</strong> Bauch 2008, Brooker et al. 2007). According to the 'stress-gradient hypothesis',<br />
* Corresponding author. Tel.: +41 44 7392 560 - Fax: +41 44 7392 215<br />
Email address: eliane.meier@wsl.ch<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
E.S. Meier et al. 2010. Projections of shifts in species distributions<br />
71<br />
abiotic factors such as climate, topography <strong>and</strong> soil may primarily constrain species ranges<br />
under unfavourable growing conditions <strong>and</strong> here competition is generally low (Bertness <strong>and</strong><br />
Callaway 1994). Where abiotic conditions are more favourable, biotic interactions increase, <strong>and</strong><br />
competition may then, additionally to abiotic constraints, further determine species range limits<br />
(MacArthur 1972). The constraining effect of interlinked abiotic <strong>and</strong> biotic processes may not<br />
only be important when predicting current species distributions (Meier, 2010), but may be even<br />
more important when estimating species range shifts due to changing environmental conditions.<br />
Range shifts are mainly determined by the rate of plant establishment, growth <strong>and</strong> survival at a<br />
new location <strong>and</strong> dispersal abilities (Higgins et al. 2003), <strong>and</strong> are hence strongly linked to<br />
abiotic <strong>and</strong> biotic conditions. Moreover, because most modern l<strong>and</strong>scapes are highly fragmented,<br />
the density of individuals producing propagules is reduced <strong>and</strong> fewer <strong>and</strong> more distant sites for<br />
those propagules to colonize are available. This may further slow down migration rates (Iverson<br />
et al. 2004). Studying the interlinked effects of macroclimate, inter-specific competition <strong>and</strong><br />
l<strong>and</strong>scape-fragmentation may help to better estimate colonisable suitable habitats of species.<br />
2. Methodology<br />
2.1 Variation partitioning approach<br />
We examined the extent to which the variance in spatial patterns of species explained by species<br />
distribution models (SDMs) can be partitioned among abiotic <strong>and</strong> biotic predictors, <strong>and</strong> how<br />
these partitions depend on species characteristics. We fitted generalized linear models (GLMs)<br />
for 11 common tree species in Switzerl<strong>and</strong> using three different sets of predictor variables:<br />
biotic, abiotic, <strong>and</strong> the combination of both sets. We estimated by variance partitioning the<br />
proportion of the variance explained by biotic <strong>and</strong> abiotic predictors, jointly or independently.<br />
We then analyzed the linkage of these partitions with species traits using non-parametric tests<br />
(Mann–Whitney U-test <strong>and</strong> the Kruskal–Wallis test, depending on the number of classes<br />
differentiated).<br />
2.2 Co-occurrence patterns<br />
Further, we analysed correlations between the relative abundance of European beech<br />
(Fagus sylvatica) <strong>and</strong> three major competitor species (Picea abies, Pinus sylvestris <strong>and</strong><br />
Quercus robur) in environmental space, analyzing the variation in correlation along two major<br />
environmental gradients, namely summer rainfall <strong>and</strong> annual degree-day sum. In a next step, we<br />
projected these co-occurence patterns to geographic space. In a following spatial analysis, we<br />
used generalized additive models (GAM) to predict the spatial patterns of species abundances,<br />
<strong>and</strong> we evaluated from these models where <strong>and</strong> how much the simulated F. sylvatica<br />
distribution varied under current <strong>and</strong> future climates if potential competitor species were in- or<br />
excluded. For the analysis of co-occurrence we used ICP <strong>Forest</strong> level I data as well as climatic,<br />
topographic <strong>and</strong> edaphic variables as predictors for modelling the spatial distribution of species<br />
using SDMs.<br />
2.3 Implementing migration rates in SDMs<br />
In a final step, we calibrated SDMs using generalized linear models (GLMs) with ICP forest<br />
level I data <strong>and</strong> climatic, topographic, edaphic <strong>and</strong> l<strong>and</strong>-use variables to predict current <strong>and</strong><br />
future tree distributions, assuming either no or full migration when projecting to scenarios of<br />
future climate. Additionally, we combined our SDMs with an explicit simulation of dynamic<br />
tree migration rates (i.e., depending on interlinked effects of climate, inter-specific competition<br />
<strong>and</strong> l<strong>and</strong>scape connectivity). Dynamic migration rates were estimated from a process model<br />
(TreeMig; Lischke et al. 2004) using an intense sensitivity analysis of migration rates along<br />
gradients of climate, species competition <strong>and</strong> distance between suitable habitats in fragmented<br />
l<strong>and</strong>scapes. We combined the derived migration response with a GIS path cost analysis, to<br />
estimate climatically suitable <strong>and</strong> colonisable habitats <strong>and</strong> the rate of expected migration of<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
E.S. Meier et al. 2010. Projections of shifts in species distributions<br />
72<br />
target species to reach such habitats given constraints of the l<strong>and</strong>scape (fragmentation, climate,<br />
competing species). By this, we were able to simulate realistic tree migration patterns across<br />
Europe at a comparably fine spatial resolution of 1km for the ongoing century.<br />
3. Results<br />
The variation partitioning approach showed, that over all climatic conditions, the joint<br />
contribution of biotic <strong>and</strong> abiotic predictors to explain deviance in SDMs was relatively small<br />
(~9%) compared to the contribution of each predictor set individually (~20% each). The<br />
influence of biotic predictors was higher for mid to late succession species than for early<br />
succession species.<br />
The results of the correlation analysis were in line with the ‘stress-gradient hypothesis’ for F.<br />
sylvatica: towards favourable growing conditions, its abundance was strongly linked with the<br />
abundance of its competitors, while this link weakened considerably towards unfavourable<br />
growing conditions. This resulted in a North-South <strong>and</strong> an elevation gradient throughout Europe,<br />
with stronger correlations in the South <strong>and</strong> at low elevations. The sensitivity analysis showed a<br />
potential spatial segregation of currently competing species with changing climate <strong>and</strong> a<br />
pronounced shift of zones where co-occurrence patterns may play a major role, but also a<br />
general reduction in interaction strength.<br />
Results from the sensitivity analysis of migration rates point to one effect that may help to<br />
explain aspects of the ‘stress gradient-hypothesis’; the higher the biotic interactions (i.e.,<br />
increased number of species occurring in a cell) towards species-specific favourable growing<br />
conditions, the more migration rates are limited. Climate seems to be directly limiting migration<br />
<strong>and</strong> finally constraining species’ distributions only where biotic interactions were low.<br />
L<strong>and</strong>scape fragmentation further lead to considerable time lags in range shifts for some species.<br />
In summary, the projected distributions by 2100 predicted from limiting migration rates<br />
dynamically with SDMs was rather in agreement with assumptions of “unlimited dispersal” for<br />
early succession species, while it matched rather with the assumption of “no migration” for<br />
medium <strong>and</strong> late succession species.<br />
4. Discussion<br />
The influence of biotic variables on SDM performance may indicate that community<br />
composition <strong>and</strong> other local abiotic factors or biotic processes strongly influence species<br />
distributions. However, the importance of species co-occurrence patterns for calibrating reliable<br />
species distribution models for use in climate effects projections does not seem to be equally<br />
crucial under all possible climatic conditions; in our correlation approach we were able to<br />
localise European areas (mostly low elevations, more southern part of the range) where<br />
inclusion of biotic predictors is recommended. Further we demonstrated, that implementing<br />
more realistic migration rates might substantially alter projections, <strong>and</strong> reduce the uncertainty in<br />
projections of species distributions under climate change scenarios.<br />
During recent climate change, many slow reproducing mid to late successional species<br />
may not be able to keep pace according to our analysis. Biotic interactions may mainly limit<br />
migration rates towards species-specific favourable growing conditions, while climate seems to<br />
be directly limiting primarily where biotic interactions are low. L<strong>and</strong>scape fragmentation may<br />
further lead to considerable time lags in range shifts, which may bring migration to a halt where<br />
migration is already relatively slow. Assessing the effects of interlinked processes such as<br />
climate, inter-specific interactions <strong>and</strong> l<strong>and</strong>scape-fragmentation on migration rates <strong>and</strong> species<br />
distributions in a dynamic <strong>and</strong> compound model reduces the uncertainty in projections of<br />
species distributions under climate change scenarios. If st<strong>and</strong>ard SDMs should be used in the<br />
future because of simplicity or where insufficient information on dynamic migration rates is<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
E.S. Meier et al. 2010. Projections of shifts in species distributions<br />
73<br />
available, one may consider for each species adequate migration assumptions (i.e. “no<br />
migration” for mid to late successional species <strong>and</strong> “unlimited migration” for early successional<br />
species), <strong>and</strong> may have to investigate more intensively the influence on range shifts by smallscale<br />
processes limiting species establishment, survival <strong>and</strong> dispersal, such as biotic interactions<br />
(e.g. inter-specific competition, facilitation) or disturbances, which were so far are often ignored<br />
in analysis on large-scale species distributions.<br />
Improved predictions of potential species distributions under future climates <strong>and</strong> in<br />
novel communities may assist strategies for sustainable forest management. Especially in this<br />
domain it is important to dynamically adapt management decisions to on-going climate changes,<br />
due to the long life span of trees. Tree life cycles take multiple decades to complete, <strong>and</strong> the rate<br />
at which trees can disperse <strong>and</strong> migrate, invade <strong>and</strong> form closed forests in areas that become<br />
climatically suitable is even slower. Incorporating such local processes by combining a dynamic<br />
model approach with large-scale SDMs will be crucial for a better underst<strong>and</strong>ing of how tree<br />
species interact in a changing climate. This is key to produce more accurate <strong>and</strong> detailed<br />
predictions of tree responses to climate change as are required by forest-management.<br />
References<br />
Bertness, M. D. & R. Callaway (1994) Positive interactions in communities. Trends in Ecology<br />
& Evolution, 9, 191-193.<br />
Brooker, R. W., J. M. J. Travis, E. J. Clark & C. Dytham (2007) Modelling species' range shifts<br />
in a changing climate: The impacts of biotic interactions, dispersal distance <strong>and</strong> the rate<br />
of climate change. Journal of Theoretical Biology, 245, 59-65.<br />
Caplat, P., M. An<strong>and</strong> & C. Bauch (2008) Interactions between climate change, competition,<br />
dispersal, <strong>and</strong> disturbances in a tree migration model. Theor Ecol, 209–220.<br />
Davis, M. B. & R. G. Shaw (2001) Range shifts <strong>and</strong> adaptive responses to Quaternary climate<br />
change. Science, 292, 673-679.<br />
Etterson, J. R. & R. G. Shaw (2001) Constraint to adaptive evolution in response to global<br />
warming. Science, 294, 151-154.<br />
Higgins, S. I., J. S. Clark, R. Nathan, T. Hovestadt, F. Schurr, J. M. V. Fragoso, M. R. Aguiar, E.<br />
Ribbens & S. Lavorel (2003) Forecasting plant migration rates: managing uncertainty for<br />
risk assessment. Journal of Ecology, 91, 341-347.<br />
Iverson, L. R., M. W. Schwartz & A. M. Prasad (2004) How fast <strong>and</strong> far might tree species<br />
migrate in the eastern United States due to climate change <strong>Global</strong> Ecology <strong>and</strong><br />
Biogeography, 13, 209-219.<br />
Lischke, H., N. E. Zimmermann, J. Bolliger, S. Rickebusch & T. J. Loffler. 2004. TreeMig: A<br />
forest-l<strong>and</strong>scape model for simulating spatio-temporal patterns from st<strong>and</strong> to l<strong>and</strong>scape<br />
scale. In International Conference of the International-Environmental-Modelling-<strong>and</strong>-<br />
Software-Society, 409-420. Osnabruck, GERMANY: Elsevier Science Bv.<br />
MacArthur, R. H. 1972. Geographical ecology: patterns in the distribution of species.<br />
Parmesan, C. & G. Yohe (2003) A globally coherent fingerprint of climate change impacts<br />
across natural systems. Nature, 421, 37-42.<br />
Root, T. L., J. T. Price, K. R. Hall, S. H. Schneider, C. Rosenzweig & J. A. Pounds (2003)<br />
Fingerprints of global warming on wild animals <strong>and</strong> plants. Nature, 421, 57-60.<br />
Solomon, A. M. & A. P. Kirilenko (1997) Climate change <strong>and</strong> terrestrial biomass: what if trees<br />
do not migrate <strong>Global</strong> Ecology <strong>and</strong> Biogeography Letters, 6, 139-148.<br />
Thuiller, W., M. B. Araújo & S. Lavorel (2004) Do we need l<strong>and</strong>-cover data to model species<br />
distributions in Europe Journal of Biogeography, 31, 353-361.<br />
Whittaker, R. J., K. J. Willis & R. Field (2001) Scale <strong>and</strong> species richness: towards a general,<br />
hierarchical theory of species diversity. Journal of Biogeography, 28, 453-470.<br />
Woodward, F. I. 1987. Climate <strong>and</strong> plant distribution. Cambridge University Press. London.<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
H. Moutahir et al. 2010. Application of remote sensing to assess wildfire impact<br />
74<br />
Application of remote sensing to assess the wildfire impact on the<br />
natural vegetation recovery <strong>and</strong> l<strong>and</strong>scape structure in the<br />
Mediterranean forest of South eastern Spain<br />
H. Moutahir 1* , J.F. Bellot 1 , A.Bonet 1 , M.J. Baeza 2 & I. Touhami 1<br />
1 Departamento de Ecología, Universidad de Alicante, Ap. 99, 03080 Alicante, Spain<br />
2 Fundación CEAM, Parque Tecnológico Paterna, C/Charles Darwin 14, 46980<br />
Valencia, Spain<br />
Abstract<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> fires in the Mediterranean zone cause major disturbances in l<strong>and</strong>scape structure<br />
especially in the wooded stratum, since the recovery of the initial state of the natural vegetation<br />
is a complex <strong>and</strong> very slow process. This process, depending on many factors, passes through<br />
several stages leading to changes in the l<strong>and</strong>scape structure through time. In this research,<br />
several L<strong>and</strong>sat TM <strong>and</strong> ETM+ images were used to assess the impact of wild fire in the<br />
Mediterranean forests of south eastern Spain over the past 25 years. The use of the Normalized<br />
Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI) for mapping the burnt zones <strong>and</strong> indicators of l<strong>and</strong>scape<br />
heterogeneity allowed us to analyze the degree of l<strong>and</strong>scape change in these forests caused by<br />
the fires. In the majority of the observed zones the natural vegetation did not completely recover<br />
over this time period. The alteration in l<strong>and</strong>scape structure <strong>and</strong> its floristic composition depends<br />
on the type of vegetation <strong>and</strong> its maturity before the fire, topography, microclimates, the climate<br />
general, <strong>and</strong> finally, l<strong>and</strong> use <strong>and</strong> management.<br />
Keywords: <strong>Forest</strong> fire, Vegetation recovery, L<strong>and</strong>scape structure, Remote sensing, NDVI<br />
1. Introduction<br />
Situated on the Mediterranean coast in the South East of Spain, The Valencian Community is<br />
one of the most affected areas by the wildfires. In 1994 a total of 138404 ha of wooded <strong>and</strong> non<br />
wooded area were burnt which represents a third of the burnt area in Spain. Due to their<br />
magnitude wildfires are considered one of the most important driving forces determining the<br />
current forest l<strong>and</strong>scape in the Mediterranean basin (Naveh 1994) <strong>and</strong> several authors speak<br />
about a homogenization of the l<strong>and</strong>scape after fires. These fires affect l<strong>and</strong>scape patterns which<br />
can affect the ecological processes (Turner, 1989).<br />
The satellite images thanks to their spatial <strong>and</strong> temporal resolution allow the assessment of<br />
wildfires impact on the l<strong>and</strong>scape. In this way we carry out this research using a several L<strong>and</strong>sat<br />
TM <strong>and</strong> ETM+ images of a burnt area in the South East of the Valencian Community.<br />
* Corresponding author. Tel.: +34 644474238 - Fax: +34 965909832<br />
Email address: hassane_moutahir@yahoo.fr<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
H. Moutahir et al. 2010. Application of remote sensing to assess wildfire impact<br />
75<br />
2. Methodology<br />
2.1 Study area<br />
The chosen area is located about 70 km south east of the city of Valencia (figure 1). The<br />
dominant vegetation type covering the l<strong>and</strong>scape are the evergreen shrubl<strong>and</strong>s (with abundance<br />
of Quercus coccifera) <strong>and</strong> pine woodl<strong>and</strong>s (Pinus halepensis) with different degrees of<br />
development <strong>and</strong> species compositions (Abdel Malak, 2009). This area suffered several fires in<br />
the last 25 years.<br />
2.2 Methodology<br />
In this research we follow the same methodology used by Chuvieco (1996, 2007) in his study to<br />
measure the l<strong>and</strong>scape structure using remote sensing images. Chuvieco based his research on<br />
only two images in order to compare the l<strong>and</strong>scape structure before <strong>and</strong> after the fire. However,<br />
for this research twelve L<strong>and</strong>sat TM <strong>and</strong> ETM+ images were used in order to obtain a more<br />
accurate assessment of the evolution of l<strong>and</strong>scape structure (table 1).<br />
The twelve satellite images used have been downloaded for free from the USGS <strong>Global</strong><br />
Visualization Viewer (http://glovis.usgs.gov/.). We did not perform any geometric correction to<br />
these images because the level of their correction was already satisfactory. Nevertheless, in<br />
order to compare them a radiometric normalization was carried out using the Pseudo-Invariant<br />
Feature Normalization method (Scott et al., 1988).<br />
To detect the burnt area we used a combination of the NDVI b<strong>and</strong>s calculated from the 12<br />
images <strong>and</strong> stretched between 0 <strong>and</strong> 200. Displaying the NDVI b<strong>and</strong> of the first year (1984) in<br />
both the red <strong>and</strong> the blue channels <strong>and</strong> displaying the rest of the years in the green channel, we<br />
can detect the burnt zone as a magenta colored area due to the low values of NDVI in the green<br />
channel.<br />
In order to quantify the l<strong>and</strong>scape structure two kinds of measures were applied:<br />
-measures applied to the NDVI images as continuous values: (the st<strong>and</strong>ard deviation through a<br />
profile) which measures the spatial contrast of the image.<br />
-measures applied to intervals of NDVI which measure the spatial structure of a territory.<br />
3. Results<br />
Analyzing only two images, one image before <strong>and</strong> one after the fire, we obtained the same<br />
results as Chuvieco did in 1996. In both profiles (10.5km <strong>and</strong> 4.5km of length) chosen within<br />
two different burnt areas at different times (the first area was burnt in 1986 <strong>and</strong> the second one<br />
was burnt in 1991), we observed that the st<strong>and</strong>ard deviation decrease after the fire: 9% in the<br />
first profile <strong>and</strong> 3% in the second profile (table 2&3; figure 2&3). This result indicates that the<br />
fire tends to homogenize the l<strong>and</strong>scape. However, analyzing the rest of images we observed that<br />
the NDVI <strong>and</strong> the st<strong>and</strong>ard deviation increase with time while the vegetation recover (table<br />
2&3).<br />
The second type of l<strong>and</strong>scape structure measures was applied to a window of 1473.7 ha of an<br />
area burnt in 1986. These measures were applied to classified images of 10 intervals of NDVI<br />
obtained from an automatic segmentation. The mean area of patches <strong>and</strong> the index of patch<br />
dominance increased while the number of patches, the density of patches <strong>and</strong> the mean diversity<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
H. Moutahir et al. 2010. Application of remote sensing to assess wildfire impact<br />
76<br />
decreased after the fire (table 4). Nevertheless, it does not have the same tendency over all the<br />
observed time period.<br />
4. Discussion<br />
All results obtained in the year after the fire lead to one conclusion: the wildfires tend to<br />
homogenize the l<strong>and</strong>scape. The same conclusion was obtained for chuvieco in his study in 1996<br />
but we cannot conclude that the homogenization is forever because all indexes measured in this<br />
study change with time <strong>and</strong> there are differences in space.<br />
The difference in the NDVI values over the time period observed between the two profiles<br />
studied is due to the fact that the first profile was chosen inside an area burnt firstly in 1979 <strong>and</strong><br />
secondly in 1986. The second one was chosen inside another area burnt only one time in 1991.<br />
In the first case the initial vegetation was composed for mattorrals <strong>and</strong> shrubl<strong>and</strong>s because of<br />
the first fire <strong>and</strong> in the second case the initial vegetation was a wooded stratum that is what<br />
explains the differences in the vegetation recovery after the two fires. In the first case the pine<br />
forest can disappear (Baeza <strong>and</strong> al, 2007). The initial vegetation <strong>and</strong> the variation on the<br />
precipitations (table 1) can together explain the variability of the NDVI through time.<br />
References<br />
Abdel Malak, D., 2009. Fire regimes <strong>and</strong> post-fire regeneration in the Eastern Iberian<br />
Peninsula using GIS <strong>and</strong> remote sensing techniques. PhD thesis. University of<br />
Valencia.<br />
Baeza, M.J., Valdecantos, A., Alloza, J.A. & Vallejo, V.R, 2007. Human disturbance <strong>and</strong><br />
environmental factors as drivers of long-term post-fire regeneration patterns in<br />
Mediterranean forests. Journal of Vegetation Science 18: 243-252.<br />
Chuvieco, E., 1996. Empleo de imágenes de satélite para medir la estructura del paisaje:<br />
análisis cuantitativo y representación cartográfica. Serie Geográfica, vol. 6, pp. 131-<br />
147<br />
Chuvieco, E., 2007. Teledetección Ambiental. La observación de la tierra desde el espacio. 3º<br />
Edición. Ariel. Barcelona, 586 p.<br />
Naveh, Z., 1994. The role of fire <strong>and</strong> its management in the conservation of the Mediterranean<br />
ecosystems <strong>and</strong> l<strong>and</strong>scapes. In: Moreno, J.M. & Oechel, W. (eds.) The role of fire in<br />
Mediterranean type ecosystems. Springer-Verlag, New York, NY, US: 163-186.<br />
Schott, J.R., C. Salvaggio, <strong>and</strong> W.J. Volchok, 1988. Radiometric scene normalization using<br />
pseudoinvariant features, Remote Sensing of Environment. 26: l-16.<br />
Turner, M.G., 1989. L<strong>and</strong>scape ecology: the effect of patterns on process. Ann. Rev. of<br />
Ecological Systems 20: 171-197<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
H. Moutahir et al. 2010. Application of remote sensing to assess wildfire impact<br />
77<br />
SPAIN<br />
Velencia<br />
Figure1: Geographic situation of the studied area<br />
Table1: Images dates <strong>and</strong> cumulative precipitation<br />
Cumulative Precipitation<br />
(mm/10 Months (Sept-June))<br />
Image Date<br />
Bañares station<br />
28/07/1984 302.9<br />
23/06/1986 394.9<br />
26/06/1987 880.7<br />
06/09/1990 820.2<br />
20/04/1992 364<br />
29/06/1994 373<br />
21/07/1999 257.4<br />
19/06/2002 497.4<br />
08/07/2003 379.6<br />
18/05/2005 418<br />
03/07/2007 453.5<br />
24/07/2009 730.8<br />
Table 2: NDVI mean values <strong>and</strong> st<strong>and</strong>ard deviation through a profile for the fire of 1986<br />
1984 1986* 1987 1990 1992** 1994 1999 2002 2003 2005 2007 2009<br />
Mean 136.9 126.9 132.5 133.7 134.3 132.3 141.7 139.8 134.2 137.2 134.8 134.6<br />
St<strong>and</strong>ard<br />
deviation 3.3 3.0 3.1 4.1 3.3 2.8 4.6 4.9 3.5 3.7 3.8 3.9<br />
*year of the fire, **Image captured in April<br />
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H. Moutahir et al. 2010. Application of remote sensing to assess wildfire impact<br />
78<br />
Figure 2: NDVI value through a profile on Matorral cover before <strong>and</strong> after the fire of 1986<br />
Table 3: NDVI mean values <strong>and</strong> st<strong>and</strong>ard deviation through a profile for the fire of 1991<br />
1984 1986 1987 1990 1992* 1994 1999 2002 2003 2005 2007 2009<br />
Mean 143.4 140.5 142.1 141.0 117.9 132.1 144.4 142.9 135.0 138.5 136.9 137.4<br />
St<strong>and</strong>ard<br />
deviation 4.3 4.0 4.2 3.8 3.7 3.2 5.7 4.5 3.4 3.9 4.3 4.4<br />
*year of the fire is 1991<br />
Figure 3: NDVI value through a profile on wooded stratum before <strong>and</strong> after the fire of 1991<br />
Table 4: measures applied to 10 intervals of NDVI<br />
1984 1986 1987 1990 1992 1994 1999 2002 2003 2005 2007 2009<br />
Number of patch 7082 5707 6146 7228 7152 6747 7299 7328 6906 6962 6844 7306<br />
Mean area (pixels of<br />
30m) 2.6 3.2 3.0 2.5 2.5 2.7 2.5 2.5 2.6 2.6 2.7 2.5<br />
Density of patch /ha 130.1 104.8 112.9 132.8 131.4 124.0 134.1 134.6 126.9 127.9 125.7 134.2<br />
Mean diversity 2.2 2.2 1.9 1.8 1.6 1.5 1.4 1.4 1.2 1.2 1.1 1.0<br />
Dominance 0.1 0.2 0.4 0.5 0.7 0.9 1.0 0.9 1.1 1.1 1.2 1.3<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
C. Palaghianu 2010. The use of Voronoi tessellation to characterize sapling populations<br />
79<br />
The use of Voronoi tessellation to characterize sapling populations<br />
Ciprian Palaghianu *<br />
<strong>Forest</strong>ry Faculty, “Stefan cel Mare” University of Suceava, Romania<br />
Abstract<br />
The area potentially available to an individual plant represents a concept extensively used in<br />
population ecology but it has fewer implementations in forest research. In this paper I use a<br />
Voronoi tessellation in order to determine area potentially available to a sapling. The Voronoi<br />
polygons were used to characterize spatial pattern of sapling distribution as well as the<br />
competition relations between the individuals. Mathematically, the Voronoi tessellation<br />
represents one of the best solutions to determine neighbouring competitors of a tree. The area of<br />
Voronoi cells is frequently connected to biometrical attributes <strong>and</strong> the growth of the saplings.<br />
Furthermore, analyzing the Voronoi tessellation of a sapling population can indicate the spatial<br />
pattern of the saplings. It is considered that weighted Voronoi polygons may be more fitted for<br />
assessing sapling relationships but it is more difficult to implement such specific algorithms.<br />
Keywords: Voronoi tessellation, area potentially available, spatial pattern, sapling populations<br />
1. Introduction<br />
Researches used many times mathematical <strong>and</strong> especially geometrical techniques in their effort<br />
to explain individual competition.<br />
The area potentially available (APA) concept represents an uncommon, but rather promising<br />
approach, introduced in plant ecology by Brown (1965). The same concept was independently<br />
developed by Mead (1966), but early investigations in the field of plants growing space were<br />
conducted also by Konig, mentioned in his book „Die Forst-Mathematik” (1835).<br />
From the biological point of view, APA generally defines the area used by an individual to<br />
access vital resources, the available area for a plant to satisfy its needs in water, nutrients <strong>and</strong><br />
light. So APA is very appealing to researchers interested in growth modelling, in their effort to<br />
solve an everlasting problem: “Do trees grow faster because they are larger Or they are larger<br />
because they have been growing faster” (Wichmann, 2002; Garcia, 2008).<br />
Considering the difficulty of the analysis there are few researches using this approach (Mark,<br />
Esler, 1970; Moore et al., 1973; Mercier, Baujard, 1997). Smith (1987) considers that this<br />
approach is ignored or even avoided due to misapprehend of APA geometrical foundation <strong>and</strong><br />
computing difficulties. The late period is well-known for its computer development <strong>and</strong> also<br />
numerous <strong>and</strong> various algorithms were produced. So, the APA re-enters in researcher’s<br />
attention as a promising investigation tool.<br />
The APA was used to solve not only competition issues but also mortality <strong>and</strong> dynamics of<br />
seedlings (Owens, Norton, 1989) or spatial pattern (Mercier, Baujard, 1997). Regarding spatial<br />
pattern, Garcia (2008) considers the interaction between neighbouring growing areas as a result<br />
of autocorrelation. Two neighbours which are closer than average, will both have APA<br />
undersized values <strong>and</strong> vice versa. Winsauer <strong>and</strong> Mattson (1992) have mentioned some<br />
advantages to make use of APA in forest researches – potentially available areas are not<br />
intersecting each other, there are sensitive to population dynamics <strong>and</strong> they are correlated with<br />
* Ciprian Palaghianu. Tel.:+40745614487<br />
Email address: cpalaghianu@usv.ro<br />
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Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
C. Palaghianu 2010. The use of Voronoi tessellation to characterize sapling populations<br />
80<br />
growth rates. This final remark represents the key aspect of APA utilisation as a competition<br />
evaluation tool because if an individual has a large APA, the competition pressure will affect it<br />
less. There is, of course, a drawback – the APA is based exclusively on the position of the<br />
individual <strong>and</strong> not on its biometrical attributes. That’s why it is called “potentially”.<br />
The objective of this study is to elucidate what kind of information APA can offer regarding<br />
sapling populations. Can APA characterize the relationships between saplings A subsidiary<br />
objective is producing software tools for Voronoi analysis.<br />
2. Methodology<br />
The area potentially available of a tree has experienced different forms of interpretation <strong>and</strong> use,<br />
analogous to Brown concept. For example, Staebler (1951), Bella (1971) <strong>and</strong> Moore (et al.,<br />
1973) used in their researches a similar concept named “influence zone”. Polygon areas were<br />
used as descriptive tool of spatial plant arrangement or as predictive tool of plant performance.<br />
The most correct interpretation remains although the one based on the mathematical concept of<br />
space partitioning using Voronoi tessellation. So it is generally admitted that APA of an<br />
individual is equivalent to area of the Voronoi polygon which is associated to that individual.<br />
In the bi-dimensional space, a Voronoi polygon of an element includes all the points closer to<br />
that specific element than to any other element. The edges of a polygon contain the points<br />
located at equal distance from two elements. The vertices of such a polygon are equally located<br />
from minimum three generating elements. Considering these properties, two elements are<br />
considered to be neighbours if their associated Voronoi polygons share an edge.<br />
It is quite difficult to obtain a Voronoi partitioning for a large set of points, that’s why this<br />
process is frequently done using specific algorithms <strong>and</strong> a computer. Algorithms were poorly<br />
optimized <strong>and</strong> the computers were very slow few decades ago, so the process was not pleasant<br />
<strong>and</strong> quick. The last years arrived with great improvements regarding the algorithms <strong>and</strong> the<br />
computer instruments, giving a new chance to Voronoi based applications.<br />
2.1 Developing the software tools<br />
In order to study the area potentially available to saplings I have developed specific software<br />
tools, using Microsoft Visual Basic. For the first tool, called VORONOI, I have used an<br />
algorithm presented by Ohyama (2008) with O(n2) complexity. VORONOI is st<strong>and</strong>-alone<br />
software which is drawing the Voronoi diagrams using as input data the saplings coordinate<br />
placed in a spreadsheet. The user can obtain information regarding sapling neighbours by<br />
diagrams analyses. The Voronoi tessellation represents a natural method to select neighbouring<br />
trees, a difficult issue in assessing competition indices. The diagrams also offer information<br />
about spatial pattern of saplings – it’s easier to determine if a pattern is aggregate or uniform.<br />
The second software tool, named ARIA VORONOI, computes the area of each Voronoi<br />
polygon. These areas, equivalent to APA values, might be used as competition or aggregation<br />
index. Small values of APA might indicate competition pressure <strong>and</strong> great values of APA<br />
coefficient of variation might indicate aggregation of saplings for the analyzed plot.<br />
This software was also developed in Microsoft Visual Basic. The input data represents the<br />
saplings Cartesian coordinates, extracted from a spreadsheet. The programme computes area of<br />
Voronoi polygons <strong>and</strong> several statistic indicators - the average, st<strong>and</strong>ard deviation <strong>and</strong><br />
coefficient of variation of APA values. It is generated a grid <strong>and</strong> each cell of the grid is analyzed<br />
to asses which the generator point (sapling) is. The user can choose a grid size step in order to<br />
increase accuracy of determining APA values.<br />
It was taken into account the edge effect, so the saplings with incomplete APA were eliminated<br />
from the analyses. User can specify a value for the buffer zone – in this way the APA is<br />
calculated only for the saplings located in the core area, even if the APA extends outside the<br />
core area. If the buffer zone is too small, in some exceptional cases, there might be saplings<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
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2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
C. Palaghianu 2010. The use of Voronoi tessellation to characterize sapling populations<br />
81<br />
located in the core area with incomplete APA (Figure 1). The algorithm computes also the<br />
convex hull <strong>and</strong> all the points (saplings) located on the convex hull are eliminated. The<br />
recommended size of the buffer zone is the average distance between neighbours corrected with<br />
the coefficient of variation (20 cm in this study).<br />
2.2 Material <strong>and</strong> analyses<br />
Figure 1: Voronoi tessellation - the buffer zone <strong>and</strong> the convex hull of a plot<br />
The study area is located in Flămânzi <strong>Forest</strong> District, parcel 50A, near Cotu, a small settlement<br />
situated in Botoşani County, Romania. The topography is almost flat, with a slope average of 2-<br />
3% <strong>and</strong> the altitude is around 140 meters. The area of the st<strong>and</strong> studied is 21.5 hectares <strong>and</strong> the<br />
species composition consists of 30% sessile oak, 20% oak, 30% common hornbeam, 10%<br />
small-leaved linden <strong>and</strong> 10% common ash. The area is regenerated naturally <strong>and</strong> the<br />
regeneration gaps were created in 2001-2002 <strong>and</strong> were enlarged in 2007. Within this st<strong>and</strong> a 2.5<br />
hectare homogenous area covered in saplings was selected for further investigation.<br />
I installed a network of ten permanent rectangular sampling plots (7 x 7 m) where I measured<br />
the characteristics of all saplings <strong>and</strong> seedlings. I used a GPS receiver in order to record the<br />
coordinates of the centre of each plot <strong>and</strong> I labelled every sapling <strong>and</strong> seedling inside the plot.<br />
The features of 7253 individuals were determined. The attributes assessed are: species, location<br />
of the individuals (x, y Cartesian coordinates), diameter, total height, crown insertion height,<br />
two crown diameters along the directions of axes <strong>and</strong> the latest annual height growth.<br />
The analyses were based on areas of generated Voronoi polygons. There were studied the<br />
correlations between APA values <strong>and</strong> the main structural attributes (dimensional attributes,<br />
density), height growth <strong>and</strong> competition indices – Hegyi (1974) <strong>and</strong> Schutz (1989).<br />
APA it was also used as a potentially spatial pattern indicator. There are several studies<br />
(Mercier, Baujard, 1997; Garcia, 2008) that point out there is a relation between APA values or<br />
APA coefficient of variation <strong>and</strong> the spatial pattern of a population of mature trees. This fact<br />
might be relevant to sapling populations, too.<br />
In this case it was analyzed the APA coefficient of variation for each plot in relation with<br />
Morisita (1962) <strong>and</strong> Clark-Evans (1954) spatial pattern indicators. APA coefficient of variation<br />
might be an indicator of spatial distribution. In order to find a relationship between aggregation<br />
<strong>and</strong> APA coefficient of variation values I have used a statistical test to establish if there is a<br />
significant deviation from Poisson spatial distribution (from the complete spatial r<strong>and</strong>omness -<br />
CSR hypothesis). I have generated 19 Monte-Carlo simulations for each plot, using SpPack<br />
software (Perry, 2004) to simulate a CSR distribution for the same area <strong>and</strong> the same number of<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
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2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
C. Palaghianu 2010. The use of Voronoi tessellation to characterize sapling populations<br />
82<br />
saplings. The extreme values of APA coefficient of variation produced the 95% confidence<br />
envelope of CSR hypothesis. Higher values of APA coefficient of variations would indicate<br />
significant deviations from CSR towards aggregation.<br />
3. Result<br />
At first I have studied the relation between APA <strong>and</strong> the main biometrical attributes. There were<br />
identified very significant correlations with low intensity of APA with sapling diameter (r =<br />
0.23***) <strong>and</strong> crown diameter (r = 0.21***). This is an expected result because several<br />
researchers (Moore et al., 1973; Smith, 1987; Winsauer <strong>and</strong> Mattson, 1992) mentioned<br />
correlations of mature trees APA with the diameter or basal area.<br />
Obviously there is a strong negative correlation between APA <strong>and</strong> sapling density (r = - 0.99<br />
***) <strong>and</strong> even between APA coefficient of variation <strong>and</strong> density (r = - 0.72 *). The uniformity<br />
tendency is more evident at a higher density.<br />
Several studies (Moore et al., 1973; Winsauer <strong>and</strong> Mattson, 1992) indicate that APA might<br />
be correlated with growth <strong>and</strong> competition. Competition is one of the processes that shape the<br />
saplings spatial distribution. Consequently there were analyzed the correlations between APA<br />
<strong>and</strong> competition indices – Schutz index <strong>and</strong> Hegyi index computed in respect to diameter,<br />
height, crown volume <strong>and</strong> crown external surface. The strongest correlation is between APA<br />
<strong>and</strong> the Hegyi index calculated in respect to diameter (r = - 0.32 ***) <strong>and</strong> height (r = - 0.27 ***).<br />
In order to evaluate the performance of growth it was analyzed the correlation between APA<br />
<strong>and</strong> sapling height growth. Surprisingly, there is no correlation between these parameters (r =<br />
0.08 *). Other studies indicated significant correlations between mature trees growth (diameter<br />
growth) <strong>and</strong> APA but sapling populations seem to be more dynamic than mature trees. This<br />
initial developing stage is very unstable regarding spatial distribution of the individuals so APA<br />
is a factor with a smaller impact on height growth.<br />
Some authors (Mercier, Baujard, 1997) point out there is a relation between APA values or<br />
APA coefficient of variation <strong>and</strong> the spatial pattern of a population of mature trees. This fact<br />
seems to be relevant to sapling populations, because of the APA correlations with spatial pattern<br />
indicators – Morisita (r = 0.70 *) <strong>and</strong> Clark-Evans (r = -0.84 **). The APA coefficient of<br />
variation is also correlated with spatial pattern indicators Morisita (r = 0.88 **) <strong>and</strong> Clark-Evans<br />
(r = -0.58). Aggregated patterns lead to higher values of APA coefficient of variation (Figure 2).<br />
Figure 2: APA coefficient of variation values show aggregated patterns for both<br />
Morisita <strong>and</strong> Clark-Evans indices<br />
This detail shows that APA coefficient of variation might be used as an indicator of spatial<br />
distribution. The Monte-Carlo simulations indicate significant deviations from CSR towards<br />
aggregation - the values of APA coefficient of variation overcome the 95% confidence envelope<br />
for all the plots (Figure 3).<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
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2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
C. Palaghianu 2010. The use of Voronoi tessellation to characterize sapling populations<br />
83<br />
Figure 3: APA coefficient of variation values exceed the higher limits of 95% confidence envelope<br />
4. Discussion<br />
The results indicated that saplings APA have poor relationships with biometrical attributes. The<br />
reason might be the fact that APA takes into account only sapling position <strong>and</strong> no other<br />
biometrical feature. There is a solution - the generation of Voronoi weighted diagram in respect<br />
to some biometric parameter. VORONOI software has the capability to generate such diagrams.<br />
Still, there is one problem because it’s very difficult to compute the area of the resulted cells.<br />
In saplings population APA can be described as a low performance indicator of competition<br />
because there is no relation to height growth <strong>and</strong> there are low intensity correlations with<br />
competition indices. There might be a possibility to use APA in competition analyses in<br />
combination with other attributes, but not as a st<strong>and</strong>-alone indicator. However, one important<br />
aspect in assessing competition is that the non-weighted diagrams are the best mathematical<br />
solution to establish the neighbours of a sapling or tree. So APA might be used as a criterion for<br />
selecting neighbours. APA coefficient of variation is a straight-forward indicator with positive<br />
results as an indicator of spatial pattern. The significance of this indicator might be evaluated by<br />
comparing the results with the values of a confidence envelope.<br />
APA in sapling populations is a complex <strong>and</strong> useful tool for characterizing population structure<br />
regarding spatial distribution, but seems more suited to mature trees.<br />
I hope the development of software tools VORONOI <strong>and</strong> ARIA VORONOI will simplify <strong>and</strong><br />
support further studies.<br />
References<br />
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<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
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1069–1083.<br />
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<strong>Forest</strong> Tree Improvement Conference, Texas, 29 p.<br />
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<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
F. Peña-Cortés et al. 2010. Spatial <strong>and</strong> temporal dynamics <strong>and</strong> future trends of change in La Araucania, Chile<br />
85<br />
Spatial <strong>and</strong> temporal dynamics <strong>and</strong> future trends of change in the<br />
coastal l<strong>and</strong>scape of La Araucania, Chile<br />
Fern<strong>and</strong>o Peña-Cortés 1* , Daniel Rozas 1 , Enrique Hauenstein 1 , Carlos Bertrán 2 , Jaime<br />
Tapia 3 & Marco Cisternas 4<br />
1 Laboratorio de Planificación Territorial, Escuela de Ciencias Ambientales, Facultad de<br />
Recursos Naturales, Universidad Católica de Temuco, Chile<br />
2 Instituto de Zoología, Universidad Austral de Chile, Valdivia, Chile<br />
3 Instituto de Química de Recursos Naturales, Universidad de Talca, Chile<br />
4 Facultad de Recursos Naturales, Escuela de Ciencias del Mar, Pontificia Universidad<br />
Católica de Valparaíso, Chile<br />
Summary<br />
In the coastal rim of La Araucania l<strong>and</strong> use has significantly changed during the last 100 years<br />
mainly due to anthropic effects, though to significant natural events too. The aim of this study is<br />
to identify the direction <strong>and</strong> magnitude of change patterns that l<strong>and</strong>scape units have had from<br />
1980 to 2007. The analysis was made in base of information obtained by remote sensing <strong>and</strong><br />
cadastral mapping of vegetation, evaluating the change of spatial patterns to propose a<br />
prospective model to 2017. The prospective method was based on Markov chain <strong>and</strong> Cellular<br />
automata. The results show significant changes in usage patterns, denoting especially forest<br />
expansion <strong>and</strong> fragmentation of natural habitats. For the year 2017, the survey indicates a trend<br />
of maintaining the forest, although, however, is expected for a stabilization in the fragmentation<br />
process.<br />
Keywords: Coastal rim, l<strong>and</strong>scape units, time series, Markov chains.<br />
1. Introduction<br />
The change in l<strong>and</strong> use is one of the most relevant events in the relation between man <strong>and</strong><br />
environment. While in many cases the spatial configuration of the territory is due to natural<br />
events, are human activities, in particular, economic activity, one of the main agents of change<br />
modelers (Van der Veen & Otter 2001; Fan et al. 2008; Koomen et al. 2008).<br />
According to Peña-Cortés et al. (2009), original l<strong>and</strong> use in coastal watersheds of La Araucania<br />
has significantly changed in the last 100 years. L<strong>and</strong>scape has been strongly altered by man <strong>and</strong><br />
by important natural events like the earthquake <strong>and</strong> tsunami of 1960, <strong>and</strong> the recent one from<br />
February 2010, creating a cultural l<strong>and</strong>scape dominated by an agricultural matrix <strong>and</strong> a matrix<br />
exponential occupation of forest from 30 years ago. In this sense, temporal analysis of<br />
l<strong>and</strong>scape dynamics provides us with, on the one h<strong>and</strong>, some relevant information about<br />
ecological processes associated to magnitude <strong>and</strong> direction of the changes (Torrejón & Cisternas<br />
2002; Bender et al.2005; Peña et al. 2006), also a historical synthesis of socio-economic events<br />
which resulted in the territory, <strong>and</strong> the evolution of state policies concerning the use of natural<br />
resources.<br />
* Corresponding author. Tel.: 56-45-205469 - Fax: 56-45-205469<br />
Email address: fpena@uct.cl<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
F. Peña-Cortés et al. 2010. Spatial <strong>and</strong> temporal dynamics <strong>and</strong> future trends of change in La Araucania, Chile<br />
86<br />
Numerous investigations have attempted to develop scientists <strong>and</strong> planners on the dynamics of<br />
change <strong>and</strong> development of future projections of l<strong>and</strong> occupation (Baker 1989; Cousins2001;<br />
Weng 2002; Luijten 2003; Jackson et al. 2004; Gómez-Mendoza et al. 2006; Fan et al. 2008;<br />
Wang et al. 2010), being widely used scenario <strong>and</strong> trend analysis (Koomen et al. 2008).<br />
This paper presents an application of a series of indices <strong>and</strong> metrics related to the structure <strong>and</strong><br />
temporary dynamics of l<strong>and</strong>scape in coastal watersheds of La Araucania. The objective is to<br />
identify the direction <strong>and</strong> magnitude of usage patterns that l<strong>and</strong>scape units have had from 1980<br />
to 2007. It also proposes a scenario to 2017 based on Markov Chain <strong>and</strong> Cellular Automata in a<br />
GIS environment.<br />
2. Methodology<br />
The study area (figure 1) corresponds to the coastal rim of La Araucania, located between 38°<br />
30’ y 39° 30’ of South Latitude <strong>and</strong> 72° 50’ y 73° 30’ of West Latitude. Its surface is 221.993<br />
hectares distributed in four coastal watersheds: Moncul (44.747 ha), Budi (48.494 ha), Chelle<br />
(9.267 ha) y Queule river (69.144 ha), which are on a territory formed by mountain ranges,<br />
marine erosion platforms <strong>and</strong> extensive fluvial <strong>and</strong> marine plains (Peña-Cortes et al. 2006).<br />
According to Di Castri <strong>and</strong> Hajek (1976) the weather is oceanic with a Mediterranean influence<br />
<strong>and</strong> an average annual rainfall from 1200 mm to 1600 mm.<br />
2.1 Mapping process<br />
For the identification <strong>and</strong> analysis of l<strong>and</strong> use coverages were used 1:60,000 scale aerial<br />
photographs for 1980, 1:20,000 For 1994 <strong>and</strong> also the regional classification of the cadastre<br />
vegetation resources of Chile (CONAF - CONAMA- BIRF 1999) updated in 2007 in 1:50.000<br />
scale. In all cases we used satellite imagery in support of L<strong>and</strong>sat <strong>and</strong> Aster sensor.<br />
On these images we proceeded to classify the various ground covers in a previously established<br />
categorization of 14 classes. For the analysis of spatial patterns <strong>and</strong> dynamic changes of use<br />
layers were reclassified into eight classes according to the type of coverage. The processing <strong>and</strong><br />
data analysis was performed with the software Taiga Idrisi <strong>and</strong> ArcGis 9.3.<br />
2.2 Analysis of l<strong>and</strong>scape<br />
The analysis of dynamics <strong>and</strong> patterns of l<strong>and</strong>scape considered calculating magnitude <strong>and</strong><br />
direction of changes during the assessed process. Among the first one, rates of change annual<br />
average for each class was obtained (TCC). For the detailed study of its temporal variation<br />
metrics were used at l<strong>and</strong>scape related to the fragments, edges <strong>and</strong> complex forms described by<br />
Patton (1985) <strong>and</strong> Henao (1988). The heterogeinity of the l<strong>and</strong>scape mosaic was evaluated by<br />
the diversity index <strong>and</strong> Shannon evenness. Regarding the direction of change, it was obtained<br />
by an evaluation pixel by pixel to its original state at time 0 to the next state at time 1. The result<br />
is given by the pixel number of class x (1-8) are transformed to the class <strong>and</strong> (1-8) over a period<br />
of time t (0-1).<br />
2.3 Prospective model<br />
For the development of a future projection for the current dynamics of the l<strong>and</strong>scape, the<br />
method of Markov Chain was used. This produces a transition probability matrix for each<br />
l<strong>and</strong>scape unit simulating a future scenario from the two previous statements. After the<br />
application of Markov chain, a stochastic projection algorithm was applied to evaluate the<br />
probability of each pixel to belong to either category of l<strong>and</strong>scape. Finally, to address the lack of<br />
spatial dependence <strong>and</strong> topological criteria in evaluating the future scenario, we employed a<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
F. Peña-Cortés et al. 2010. Spatial <strong>and</strong> temporal dynamics <strong>and</strong> future trends of change in La Araucania, Chile<br />
87<br />
Cellular Automata algorithm, increasing the likelihood of belonging to a category based on its<br />
local proximity.<br />
3. Results<br />
During the period under review has seen a significant increase in the surface of the forest matrix<br />
dominated over other ground coverage, especially during the first 14 years of analysis.<br />
Moreover, the transition matrix classes <strong>and</strong> beaches <strong>and</strong> dunes, have experienced a steady<br />
decline over time. Regarding the projection to 2017 shows that the trend will continue with an<br />
increase forestry positive as the increase in the native forest, although the latter to a lesser<br />
extent. Table 1 shows the annual change rates for each type of l<strong>and</strong>scape.<br />
According to metrics that have characterized the evolution of l<strong>and</strong>scape, it is observed a trend to<br />
increase the number of fragments to the end of the period of analysis, which however, slightly<br />
decreases in 2017 scenario. While 1994 showed a lower number of fragments, their average size<br />
was the largest of the series, which was associated with a low density of edges. The average<br />
shape index indicates that the fragments are generally amorphous except 2017 which<br />
corresponds to oblong oval, also presented an average fractal dimension gives them a moderate<br />
complexity. In relation to the indices of diversity were high for all years with patterns of<br />
evenness than 60% in all cases. The metrics of each year can be seen in Table 2.<br />
Finally, in table 3 is presented the direction of changes occurred in l<strong>and</strong>scape units beginning in<br />
1980 represented by rows, through its new state in 2007 represented by columns. Units with<br />
more significant changes were wetl<strong>and</strong>s <strong>and</strong> other wet l<strong>and</strong>s, which became part of the<br />
agricultural matrix with almost 15.000 hectares.<br />
4. Discussion<br />
L<strong>and</strong>scape from the coastal rim of La Araucania is characterized by a marked anthropic<br />
difference (Peña et al. 2006, 2009). A signal of this is that prevailed coverages are related to<br />
productive activities like agriculture, silviculture <strong>and</strong> developing of human settlements, being<br />
these the one which presented major increases in surface from 1980 to 2007.<br />
Regarding l<strong>and</strong>scape patterns, showed a notable increase in the number of patches during the<br />
first 27 years of study, accompanied by a higher density <strong>and</strong> lower edges of medium size, what<br />
constitutes clear indicators of processes of fragmentation <strong>and</strong> habitat loss <strong>and</strong> it is also<br />
accentuated by the irregular shapes. In relation to the future scenario, it shows a tendency<br />
towards stabilization in the above processes, expressed mainly in a decrease in the number of<br />
fragments, the density of edges <strong>and</strong> shapes more regular <strong>and</strong> less complex than previous ones.<br />
Finally, in the period 1980-2007 the direction of changes greatly affected the natural areas with<br />
native forests, wetl<strong>and</strong>s <strong>and</strong> thicket, becoming part of the forestry <strong>and</strong> agricultural matrix,<br />
however, the latter also decreases in surface transition to forest matrix, which was identified as<br />
the main agent of change in the current configuration of the l<strong>and</strong>scape of the coast rim.<br />
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using TM <strong>and</strong> ETM+ images. Environmental Monitoring Assessment, 137: 127-147.<br />
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Jackson, L., Bird, S., Matheny, R., O’neill, R., White, D., Boesch, K. <strong>and</strong> Koviach, J., 2004. A<br />
regional approach to projecting l<strong>and</strong>-use change <strong>and</strong> resulting ecological vulnerability.<br />
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<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
F. Peña-Cortés et al. 2010. Spatial <strong>and</strong> temporal dynamics <strong>and</strong> future trends of change in La Araucania, Chile<br />
89<br />
Table 1: Variation between years for types of l<strong>and</strong>scapes present in the coastal rim of La Araucanía.<br />
L<strong>and</strong>scape units 1980-1994 (%) 1994-2007 (%) 2007-2017 (%)<br />
Human settlement 4,00 1,30 -0,50<br />
Native forest -1,90 0,30 0,30<br />
Waterbody 0,80 0,00 -0,90<br />
Wetl<strong>and</strong> <strong>and</strong> other wet terrains -10,20 2,10 -2,30<br />
Agricultural matrix 3,00 -1,50 -0,70<br />
Transition matrix -8,40 -2,50 -1,00<br />
<strong>Forest</strong>ry matrix 15,70 5,60 2,20<br />
Beaches <strong>and</strong> dunes -0,40 -5,00 -3,30<br />
Table 2: Temporal variation of the metrics of l<strong>and</strong>scape in coastal rim of La Araucania<br />
TA =total area; NP= total patches; MPS= medium patches size; ED= edges density; TE= total edges;<br />
medium shape index; MFRACT= medium fractal dimension.<br />
Metrics 1980 1994 2007 2017<br />
TA (Ha) 166.034 165.835 165.835 165.831<br />
NP 911 873 2.221 1.763<br />
MPS 166.38 288.24 167.58 105.08<br />
ED (m/Ha) 60.03 46.07 74.94 50.87<br />
TE (Km) 9.967 7.64 12.427 8.435<br />
MSI 2,46 2,02 2,1 1,65<br />
MFRACT 1,32 1,3 1,37 1,29<br />
Shannon's Diversity 1,26 1,36 1,46 1,45<br />
Shannon's Evenness 0,75 0,65 0,7 0,69<br />
Dominance 0,51 0,71 0,61 0,62<br />
Table 3: Direction of change in l<strong>and</strong>scape units in the coastal rim of La Araucania.<br />
1= human settlements; 2= native forest; 3=waterbody; 4= Wetl<strong>and</strong> <strong>and</strong> other wet terrains; 5= agricultural<br />
matrix; 6= transition matrix; 7= <strong>Forest</strong>ry matrix; 8= beaches <strong>and</strong> dunes<br />
2007<br />
1 9 8 0<br />
L<strong>and</strong>scape<br />
Units 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8<br />
1 146 0 5 0 8 0 1 2<br />
2 3 14.343 38 952 8.567 1.470 8.475 25<br />
3 9 45 7.018 233 557 46 33 71<br />
4 105 2.509 1.343 6.035 13.908 591 2.265 115<br />
5 65 3.935 481 974 48.876 1.031 7.921 12<br />
6 0 4.684 6 166 6.207 2.798 14.780 18<br />
7 0 367 0 16 311 23 1.108 1<br />
8 14 4 115 98 600 433 552 1.318<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
F. Peña-Cortés et al. 2010. Spatial <strong>and</strong> temporal dynamics <strong>and</strong> future trends of change in La Araucania, Chile<br />
90<br />
Figure 1: Study area. Elaborated by author.<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
F.M. Rabenilalana et al. 2010. Multi-temporal analysis of forest l<strong>and</strong>scape fragmentation in the North East of Madagascar<br />
91<br />
Multi-temporal analysis of forest l<strong>and</strong>scape fragmentation in the North<br />
East of Madagascar<br />
F.M. Rabenilalana 1 , L.G. Rajoelison 1 , J.P. Sorg 2 , J.L. Pfund 3 & H Rakoto Ratsimba 1<br />
1 Département des Eaux et Forêts, Ecole Supérieure des Sciences Agronomiques,<br />
Université d’Antananarivo, Madagascar<br />
2 Swiss Federal Institute of Technology Zurich, Institut of Terrestrial Ecosystems,<br />
Groupe de foresterie pour le développement, Zurich. Switzerl<strong>and</strong><br />
3 CIFOR, Center for International <strong>Forest</strong>ry Research, Bogor, Indonesia<br />
Abstract<br />
Habitat fragmentation caused by insufficient arable l<strong>and</strong> <strong>and</strong> rural poverty has become a main<br />
concern to tropical forest managers in Madagascar. In order to inform management decisions,<br />
the present study aims to provide quantitative information on the fragmentation process <strong>and</strong> its<br />
driving forces in Manompana. Therefore, time series analysis of fragmentation in relation to the<br />
spatial distribution of settlements, roads <strong>and</strong> topographic parameters was done. Results showed<br />
that (1) deforestation has been increasing due to exp<strong>and</strong>ing upl<strong>and</strong> rice production, thus<br />
progressively increasing l<strong>and</strong>scape fragmentation (2) fragmentation dynamic significantly<br />
differed with distance to paths, villages <strong>and</strong> depending on topographic characteristics. In the<br />
following these parameters will be used for spatio-temporal modeling of the l<strong>and</strong>scape<br />
dynamics to support decision making on sustainable management of natural resources.<br />
Keywords: l<strong>and</strong>scape, fragmentation, tropical humid forest, spatial analysis, Madagascar.<br />
1. Introduction<br />
Fragmentation refers to breaking a whole into smaller pieces while controlling for changes in<br />
the amount of habitat (Forman 1995, Fahrig 2003, Ewers 2006). Deforestation is one driver of<br />
habitat fragmentation. Fragmentation often results in the loss of habitat <strong>and</strong> the isolation of the<br />
remaining forest fragments. It creates matrices of human-managed areas, secondary vegetation<br />
regrowth, <strong>and</strong> fragments of primary forest (Benitez-Malvido 2003).<br />
The region of Manompana, is a disturbed tropical lowl<strong>and</strong> rainforest,forming a forest corridor<br />
between two protected areas with very high levels of endemism: the special reserve<br />
Ambatovaky in the South West <strong>and</strong> Biosphere Reserve of Mananara Nord in the North. In the<br />
region of Manompana forest clearing due to slash <strong>and</strong> burn agriculture <strong>and</strong> commercial logging<br />
are the main drivers of deforestation <strong>and</strong> thus habitat fragmentation, affecting the l<strong>and</strong>scape<br />
structure, the livelihoods <strong>and</strong> the biodiversity (Forman & Godron 1986, Andren 1992, Reed<br />
1996, Franklin 2001, McGarigal 2002, Kuppfer 2006, Jaeger 2000, Collinge 2009).<br />
This paper aims to study spatio-temporal patterns of l<strong>and</strong>scape fragmentation at a regional scale,<br />
i.e. the fragmentation of the forest ecosystem in Manompana in order to inform management<br />
decisions.<br />
Therefore, l<strong>and</strong> cover predictions for future were made using SPOT 5 multispectral, multib<strong>and</strong><br />
images (V 0,50 -0,59 μm R 0,61 -0,68 μm Near InfraRed or NIR 0,78 -0,89 μm <strong>and</strong> Mean<br />
InfraRed or MIR 1,58 -1,75 μm) with a 10 meters resolution from 2004 <strong>and</strong> 2009. Furthermore,<br />
1 Corresponding author. Tel.:+2613367162<br />
Email address: rmihajamanana@yahoo<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
F.M. Rabenilalana et al. 2010. Multi-temporal analysis of forest l<strong>and</strong>scape fragmentation in the North East of Madagascar<br />
92<br />
we focused on identifying the main factors that play a direct role in shaping the spatial<br />
variations in forest cover.<br />
We will start with a description of the data sources <strong>and</strong> the process of analysis adopted in the<br />
study <strong>and</strong> finally discuss directions <strong>and</strong> needs regarding the sustainable management of natural<br />
resources.<br />
2. Methodology<br />
2.1 Study area<br />
Manompana is situated on the eastern coast of Madagascar (752144 in the East <strong>and</strong> 1041646 in<br />
the north, Laborde Coordinates). This region experiences a warm <strong>and</strong> humid climate. Rainfall is<br />
reliable, <strong>and</strong> arises throughout the year with a mean annual rainfall of 3677 mm (Weather<br />
station at Soanieràna Ivongo, 2009). The wettest months are March <strong>and</strong> April at the beginning<br />
of winter. The temperature lies always above 21°C with a mean annual of 23,7°C (Weather<br />
station at Soanieràna Ivongo, 2009). The forest vegetation is typical of tropical lowl<strong>and</strong><br />
rainforest dominated by Anthostema madagascariensis <strong>and</strong> family of Myristicaceae (Guillaumet<br />
<strong>and</strong> Humbert 1975).<br />
2.1.2 Data processing <strong>and</strong> classification<br />
There are many methods for detecting l<strong>and</strong> cover changes available in the literature such as<br />
image differencing <strong>and</strong> post-classification. In the current study, image differencing was adopted<br />
(Singh 2009). This method is used mainly to detect areas with significant l<strong>and</strong> cover changes<br />
<strong>and</strong> does not require atmospheric correction, but requires careful classification of “change /<br />
persistence” thresholds.<br />
In detail we followed the succeeding steps. First, the study area was extracted from the<br />
respective scene. In a second step, the forest components were identified using the classic<br />
method of radiometric intervals. The unsupervised classification was done using the application<br />
ISODATA (Iterative Self-Organizing Data Analysis Technics), the supervised classification<br />
was done using the application Maximum Likelihood in Arc Map 9.2, Arc view 3.2a <strong>and</strong> ENVI<br />
or Environment for Visualizing Images software (Gonzales 1988, Barrett <strong>and</strong> Curtis 1976).<br />
First, ISODATA calculated class means pixels evenly distributed in the data space.<br />
Consequently, it iteratively clustered the remaining pixels according to their reflectance<br />
(including the diffuse radiation by the atmosphere, the radiation reflected by the pixel <strong>and</strong> the<br />
radiation reflected from neighbouring pixels) using minimum distance techniques. Each<br />
iteration recalculated the means <strong>and</strong> reclassified pixels with respect to the new (class) means.<br />
This process continued until the number of pixels in each class changed by less than the selected<br />
pixel change threshold or until the maximum number of iterations is reached. Next, Maximum<br />
Likelihood methods were applied. This supervised classification assumed that the values for<br />
each class in each b<strong>and</strong> are normally distributed <strong>and</strong> calculated the probability that a given pixel<br />
belongs to a specific class. Unless a probability threshold was selected, all pixels were classified.<br />
Each pixel was assigned to the class (forest, non forest) that had the highest probability.<br />
Finally, the fragmentation index was analyzed by pattern analysis. Fragmentation is a measure<br />
of the ecological quality of a habitat. In order to compute it, the following kernel-based formula<br />
(1) was used:<br />
Fragmentation = (n - l)/(c - 1) (1)<br />
where n is the number of different l<strong>and</strong>-cover classes present in a kernel, <strong>and</strong> c the number of<br />
cells considered (Monmonier, 1974). The kernel represents the similarity between two cells<br />
defined as dot-product in the new vector space.<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
F.M. Rabenilalana et al. 2010. Multi-temporal analysis of forest l<strong>and</strong>scape fragmentation in the North East of Madagascar<br />
93<br />
For this computation, a 3 by 3 kernel (majority filter) was used so that c equalled 9.This interval<br />
choice was linked to the importance of reflectance. A reflectance of 100% means that the<br />
surface reflects all solar energy in the atmosphere. This corresponds to a fragmentation index of<br />
0. When the reflectance is 0%, the fragmentation index equals 1.<br />
2.1.3 <strong>Change</strong> analysis<br />
L<strong>and</strong> cover maps from two different dates, 2004 <strong>and</strong> 2009, were used to make l<strong>and</strong> cover<br />
predictions for 2010. Using L<strong>and</strong> <strong>Change</strong> Modeler (Eastman 2006), this was done in two major<br />
stages: the transition potential sub-model, which is developed in this paper, stage <strong>and</strong> the<br />
change prediction model stage. A transition sub-model consists of a single l<strong>and</strong> cover transition<br />
or a group of transitions that are thought to have the same underlying driver variables. In the<br />
first stage, particular transitions of interest for the sub-model <strong>and</strong> the variables which are<br />
assumed to drive the transitions taking place were specified. Variables considered as drivers of<br />
deforestation were distance to rivers <strong>and</strong> streams, paths, villages <strong>and</strong> to topographic parameters.<br />
Using Cramer’s V or Phi statistic the strength, association or dependency between two variables<br />
(Agresti 2002) was analyzed. The closer V is to 0 when the smaller ie the association between<br />
the categorical variables X <strong>and</strong> Y. On the other h<strong>and</strong>, V being close to 1 is an indication of a<br />
strong association between two variables.<br />
Afterward, gain <strong>and</strong> loss of fragmentation (forests cover) area were calculated between two<br />
periods with the aim to determine the rate of fragmentation in the study area.<br />
3. Results<br />
3.1 Fragmentation Index<br />
The fragmentation was classified in two groups depending on the fragmentation index: a) a<br />
forest fragment was considered to have a low level of fragmentation when the index was<br />
between [0; 0.1[, b) a forest fragment was considered to have a high level of fragmentation<br />
when the index was within the interval [0.1; 1].<br />
Table 1 shows the fragmentation index. In 2004, the index ranged from 0 to 0.875 while in 2009<br />
the values were between 0 <strong>and</strong> 0.25. The reasons for this difference could be either a) the<br />
luminosity at the time when the images were taken was not the same or b) the forest fragments<br />
of 2004 have been converted into less fragments in 2009, which is not evident in the short<br />
period. In terms of patch numbers, there is a large difference between 2004 <strong>and</strong> 2009. 17 % of<br />
forests cover with low fragmentation in 2004 shows a high level of fragmentation or has been<br />
converted into other l<strong>and</strong> uses in 2009.<br />
Table 1: Fragmentation index characteristics<br />
Period<br />
Total<br />
area<br />
Count Minimum Maximum Mean<br />
St<strong>and</strong>ard<br />
deviation<br />
Low<br />
fragmented<br />
class<br />
Patches number<br />
2004 30487 18918482 0 0.875 0.054 0.01 65535 5633<br />
2009 22472 18918482 0 0.25 0.017 0.01 11231 6442<br />
Fragmented<br />
class<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
F.M. Rabenilalana et al. 2010. Multi-temporal analysis of forest l<strong>and</strong>scape fragmentation in the North East of Madagascar<br />
94<br />
3.2 Fragmentation forest area<br />
In terms of forest area, a decrease (occurred during the period under review) was observed<br />
between the two periods. A deforestation rate of 5.25 % per year was calculated. Figure 1<br />
explains that 46% of low fragmented forest was changed into the other l<strong>and</strong> use classes in 2009.<br />
Approximately, most of the forested area lost has been converted into cropl<strong>and</strong> <strong>and</strong> only 36% in<br />
highly fragmented forest. In fact, there has been a tendency of highlighting small-scale<br />
migratory farmers <strong>and</strong> "poverty" as the major cause of l<strong>and</strong>scape change.<br />
In spite of increased fragmentation, the “gains <strong>and</strong> losses’ analysis showed that some fragments<br />
persisted. In reality, more or less 35% of the total forest area resists change. These values<br />
illustrate l<strong>and</strong>scape changes at a very high rate. And if there is no action taken soon, large<br />
amounts of habitat <strong>and</strong> biodiversity values will be lost.<br />
Area (Ha)<br />
35 000,00<br />
30 000,00<br />
25 000,00<br />
20 000,00<br />
15 000,00<br />
10 000,00<br />
5 000,00<br />
0,00<br />
2004 2009<br />
Year<br />
Low fragmented Fragmented<br />
Figure 1: <strong>Forest</strong> area change from 2004 to 2009<br />
3.2 <strong>Change</strong> analysis<br />
The impact of distance variables (distance to streams, rivers, paths, villages <strong>and</strong> topographic<br />
parameters) on l<strong>and</strong>scape changes was calculated. Cramer’s V test revealed that a) the selected<br />
distance variables did not influence low fragmented forest patches because V equal 0; b)<br />
distance to path <strong>and</strong> topographic parameters did, however, impact high fragmented forest<br />
patches (see figure 2).<br />
V*<br />
0,45<br />
0,4<br />
0,35<br />
0,3<br />
0,25<br />
0,2<br />
0,15<br />
0,1<br />
0,05<br />
0<br />
Village distance to<br />
fragmented forest<br />
Path distance to<br />
fragmented forest<br />
Stream & river distance<br />
to fragmented forest<br />
Topography to<br />
fragmented forest<br />
Variables distance<br />
Cramer's V* ( V significant)<br />
Figure 2: Test of driver variables<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
F.M. Rabenilalana et al. 2010. Multi-temporal analysis of forest l<strong>and</strong>scape fragmentation in the North East of Madagascar<br />
95<br />
4. Discussion<br />
The annual deforestation rate was estimated to be 5.25%. This is very high in comparison to the<br />
national rate of 0.3 % (FAO, 2009). This means that the pressure on the forest in the area of<br />
Manompana is extremely high. In this part of the country, the local population does not produce<br />
enough rice to feed their family, there is a chronic shortage. The rice needs are merely satisfied<br />
on an average of nine months per year. The rest of the year people resort to other products,<br />
mainly cassava, yams <strong>and</strong> bananas, as it is often not possible to buy rice during this starvation<br />
period. The development of irrigated rice production is hampered by various factors, such as<br />
topographical, technical, socio economic <strong>and</strong> policy. Thus, to maximize production, slash <strong>and</strong><br />
burn agriculture has remained the main method of food production so far. Therefore, the<br />
deforestation is continuously increasing for upl<strong>and</strong> rice production <strong>and</strong> the l<strong>and</strong>scape is<br />
becoming progressively more fragmented. The l<strong>and</strong> use change map <strong>and</strong> examination of the<br />
driving variables of deforestation indicate that distance to topographic parameters <strong>and</strong> to paths<br />
has the highest impact on forest fragmentation, followed by distance to villages, rivers <strong>and</strong><br />
streams. Topography is an important factor impacting fragmentation. Most likely, because local<br />
people’s choice of l<strong>and</strong> clearing is strongly related to it. For example, local people prefer areas<br />
where slopes are not too steep <strong>and</strong> l<strong>and</strong> less windy because of climate. Paths are the only way of<br />
communication in inaccessible areas. Thus, to access a forestl<strong>and</strong>, the local population opened<br />
paths along the forest edge or in the forest itself.<br />
The result from this study will be able to contribute to the objectives of conservation. Indeed, if<br />
the variables remain more or less the same in the coming years, meaning that there is no<br />
opening of new paths or migration (village), <strong>and</strong> pertinence area doesn’t change, so biodiversity<br />
richness biodiversity is maintained.<br />
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l’Agriculture. Viale delle Terme di Caracalla - 00153 Rome, Italie. 168pp.<br />
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<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
F.M. Rabenilalana et al. 2010. Multi-temporal analysis of forest l<strong>and</strong>scape fragmentation in the North East of Madagascar<br />
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Guillaumet, J-L. <strong>and</strong> Koechlin, J., 1971. Contribution à la définition des types de végétation<br />
dans les régions tropicales (exemple de Madagascar). C<strong>and</strong>ollea, 26(2): 263-277.<br />
Jaeger, J. A. G., 2000. L<strong>and</strong>scape division, splitting index, <strong>and</strong> effective mes size: new<br />
measures of l<strong>and</strong>scape fragmentation. L<strong>and</strong>scape ecology, 15: 115-130.<br />
Kuppfer, J. A., Malanson, G.P., Franklin, S.B., 2006. Not seeing the ocean for the isl<strong>and</strong>s: the<br />
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the study of habitat fragmentation effects. Ecological applications, 12: 335-345.<br />
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<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
A. Ruskule et al. 2010. Patterns of afforestation process in ab<strong>and</strong>oned agriculture l<strong>and</strong> in Latvia<br />
97<br />
Patterns of afforestation process in ab<strong>and</strong>oned agriculture l<strong>and</strong> in<br />
Latvia<br />
Anda Ruskule * , Olģerts Nikodemus, Zane Kasparinska & Raimonds Kasparinskis<br />
University of Latvia, Latvia<br />
Abstract<br />
Afforestation of the former agriculture l<strong>and</strong> is one of the most typical trends of the<br />
contemporary Latvian rural l<strong>and</strong>scape. The study examines development of l<strong>and</strong>scape<br />
ecological succession, its spatial character <strong>and</strong> influencing environmental factors within<br />
ab<strong>and</strong>oned agriculture l<strong>and</strong> in Vidzeme, central part of Latvia. The study area comprises<br />
a great variety in the spatial dynamics of the ecological succession. Character of the<br />
ecological succession is influenced by various factors like soil fertility, moisture <strong>and</strong><br />
light conditions, species composition of surrounding forest, former l<strong>and</strong> use etc. The<br />
study aims to assess impacts of these factors on dynamics of afforestation process in<br />
order to predict its future development.<br />
Keywords: ab<strong>and</strong>onment, afforestation, l<strong>and</strong>scape ecological succession, environmental factors<br />
1. Introduction<br />
L<strong>and</strong> ab<strong>and</strong>onment <strong>and</strong> related natural afforestation process is typical feature of contemporary<br />
l<strong>and</strong>scape in marginal areas all over the Europe <strong>and</strong> most probably this trend will last for the<br />
coming years - modelling of l<strong>and</strong> use development in Europe until 2030 shows decline of<br />
agricultural l<strong>and</strong> as one of the major factors influencing European l<strong>and</strong>scape in future (Stoate et<br />
al 2009). In Latvia afforestation process has been noted from the beginning of the last century,<br />
resulting from frequentative change of political <strong>and</strong> economic situation – if in 1935 forest<br />
occupied ca. 27 % of the l<strong>and</strong> area, than by 2008 its area has almost doubled, reaching ca. 50 %<br />
(Ministry of Agriculture 2009; Nikodemus et al. 2005). During the last ten years forest area has<br />
increased mostly due to natural afforestation, twice exceeding artificial afforestation. This is<br />
related to extensive l<strong>and</strong> ab<strong>and</strong>onment after regaining of independence from Soviet Union in<br />
1991 <strong>and</strong> the following collapse of the collective farming system, urbanisation process <strong>and</strong> l<strong>and</strong><br />
reform (big share of the agriculture l<strong>and</strong> was retrieved by the former l<strong>and</strong> owners, presently<br />
living in city <strong>and</strong> having not much interest in farming).<br />
In the recent years l<strong>and</strong> ab<strong>and</strong>onment has become an important issue in scientific research,<br />
questioning what are the factors influencing this process, how it impacts the l<strong>and</strong>scape structure<br />
<strong>and</strong> biodiversity as well as the potential of ab<strong>and</strong>oned l<strong>and</strong> for use of natural resources or<br />
restoration of habitats. Socio-economic <strong>and</strong> political factors driving the marginalisation process<br />
<strong>and</strong> l<strong>and</strong> ab<strong>and</strong>onment are well studied. However little is known about impacts of<br />
environmental factors on ecological succession process <strong>and</strong> related changes in the l<strong>and</strong>scape<br />
spatial structure. Some authors argue that role of these factors is less significant compared to<br />
socio-economic factors (Łowicki 2008; M<strong>and</strong>er et al. 2004).<br />
Though one should bear in mind that once the l<strong>and</strong> has been ab<strong>and</strong>oned, the ecological<br />
succession process takes over <strong>and</strong> environmental factors becomes determinant. The course of<br />
* Corresponding author. Tel.:371 29222324 - Fax: 371 6750 7071<br />
Email address: <strong>and</strong>a.ruskule@bef.lv<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong> -New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
A. Ruskule et al. 2010. Patterns of afforestation process in ab<strong>and</strong>oned agriculture l<strong>and</strong> in Latvia<br />
98<br />
afforestation, its spatial character <strong>and</strong> species composition will depend on factors like soil (its<br />
chemical properties <strong>and</strong> humidity), terrain, initial herb layer, nearby forest, as well as former<br />
l<strong>and</strong> use (Prach et al. 2001a; Prach et al. 2001b; Barth et al 2003; Alard et al. 2005; Daugaviete<br />
2009; Kopecký <strong>and</strong> Vojta 2009; Rosenthal (in press)). Depending on interaction of these factors<br />
ecological succession might be either arrested or stimulated as well as leading to different<br />
succession patterns.<br />
Afforestation of ab<strong>and</strong>oned l<strong>and</strong>scape has significant effect on l<strong>and</strong>scape structure <strong>and</strong> its<br />
ecological functions (Reger et al. 2007; Stoate et al. 2009). Impacts on biodiversity might<br />
varying – at the initial stage of afforestation habitat diversity is increasing, while in long term<br />
perspective l<strong>and</strong>scape becomes more homogenous thus reducing also biological diversity<br />
(Fjellstad et al. 1999; Nikodemus et al. 2005; Sitzia 2010). Ab<strong>and</strong>onment of agricultural l<strong>and</strong> is<br />
reducing areas important for resting, feeding or breeding of migratory birds. However secondary<br />
succession process might be used also for restoration of natural habitats <strong>and</strong> increasing of<br />
abundance of related animal species (Prach et al. 2001a; Stoate et al. 2009).<br />
L<strong>and</strong> ab<strong>and</strong>onment also influence the scenic quality of l<strong>and</strong>scape <strong>and</strong> its identity which might<br />
psychologically deject inhabitants causing feelings like isolation, poverty, shame etc. (Bürgi<br />
2004; Palang et al. 2006; Benjamin 2007). Better underst<strong>and</strong>ing the role on environmental<br />
factors in the process of l<strong>and</strong>scape ecological succession would help to predict the course of its<br />
development <strong>and</strong> to make optimal choice for the future use of the ab<strong>and</strong>oned l<strong>and</strong>.<br />
2. Methodology<br />
The study analyses the spatial character of l<strong>and</strong>scape ecological succession <strong>and</strong> its influencing<br />
environmental factors at the local level within selected pilot areas. The study area comprise an<br />
ab<strong>and</strong>oned agriculture l<strong>and</strong> in Vidzeme, central part of Latvia, which represents typical rural<br />
l<strong>and</strong>scape including scarcely populated areas in the Gauja River valley bordering the strict<br />
reserve zone of the Gauja National Park, as well as more densely populated areas in vicinities of<br />
towns Sigulda, Līgatne <strong>and</strong> Taurene. The pilot areas of the study have been chosen by visual<br />
analysis of the latest available ortophoto images from 2007. The most distinct patterns of<br />
l<strong>and</strong>scape ecological succession within the study area were selected, covering different spatial<br />
character of shrub <strong>and</strong> tree patches <strong>and</strong> their species composition. As result 5 pilot areas have<br />
been chosen representing 4 patterns of l<strong>and</strong>scape ecological succession (see Table 1).<br />
During the field visits actual borders of woody patches have been mapped as well as density <strong>and</strong><br />
composition of woody species have been assessed at the sampling sites of 10x10m, by recording<br />
each tree <strong>and</strong> measuring their height. Sampling sites were selected within each patch, thus their<br />
number was dependent on size of pilot area <strong>and</strong> complexity of the secondary succession pattern<br />
(20 sampling sites in 1st pilot area; 24 - in 2nd pilot area; 26 - in 3rd pilot area; 14 - in 4th pilot<br />
area <strong>and</strong> 15 - in 5th pilot area).<br />
Environmental conditions <strong>and</strong> factors were described in the investigation areas. Altogether 13<br />
soil profiles were described during field works according to the international FAO WRB<br />
classificator (IUSS Working Group WRB, 2007), 57 soil samples were collected from soil<br />
profile diagnostic horizons <strong>and</strong> physical <strong>and</strong> chemical analyses were done in the laboratory<br />
according to the methodology of ICP <strong>Forest</strong> monitoring (Manual on methods…, 2006). Impacts<br />
of nearby forest st<strong>and</strong> <strong>and</strong> its species composition on the character of ecological succession have<br />
been defined by analysing the forest taxation maps obtained from the State <strong>Forest</strong> Service.<br />
Impacts of drainage systems have been analysed using the melioration maps of the former<br />
collective farms. Information on former l<strong>and</strong> use <strong>and</strong> period since agriculture practice has been<br />
given up were obtained from local inhabitants <strong>and</strong> l<strong>and</strong>owners by direct interviews at the pilot<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong> -New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
A. Ruskule et al. 2010. Patterns of afforestation process in ab<strong>and</strong>oned agriculture l<strong>and</strong> in Latvia<br />
99<br />
areas. Dynamics of ecological succession process has been analysed comparing the latest<br />
ortophoto images from 2007 with earlier ones from 1997-1998 <strong>and</strong> 2003-2004.<br />
3. Results<br />
3.1 Development stage <strong>and</strong> character of l<strong>and</strong>scape ecological succession process<br />
Within the study area 4 patterns of l<strong>and</strong>scape ecological succession could be distinguished:<br />
linear development of succession; mosaic development of succession; continuous development<br />
of succession <strong>and</strong> development of succession from edge of a forest (see Figure 1).<br />
1 2<br />
5b<br />
5c<br />
5a<br />
3 4<br />
Figure 1: Patterns of l<strong>and</strong>scape ecological succession: 1; 2 - linear development of succession; 3; 4; 5b -<br />
mosaic development of succession; 5a - continuous development of succession; 5c - development of<br />
succession from edge of a forest.<br />
The most typical pattern in study area is linear succession, where natural afforestation process<br />
starts as linear patches following the ploughing direction. Two representative examples of this<br />
pattern are found in 1st <strong>and</strong> 2nd pilot area. Both areas are placed within larger agriculture fields<br />
(425 ha <strong>and</strong> 376 ha) previously used for crop production. Development of tree cover in these<br />
areas has started ca. 10 years ago (4-5 years after ab<strong>and</strong>onment) <strong>and</strong> it is formed by deciduous<br />
trees - Betula pendula <strong>and</strong> Salix spp. Dominant species within the 1st pilot area is Betula<br />
pendula, forming mostly sparse st<strong>and</strong>s (up to 50 trees per 100m 2 ) with few more dens patches<br />
(up to 126 trees per 100 m 2 ). Height of the trees in these st<strong>and</strong>s reaches 8 m at maximum. The<br />
topography of the area is rather plain with prevailing soil groups: Stagnosols, Arenosols,<br />
Luvisols <strong>and</strong> Phaeozems (according to FAO WRB classification). In 2nd pilot area dominant<br />
are Salix spp. forming visually dense st<strong>and</strong>s, although the number of trees per 100m 2 also mostly<br />
are bellow 50. Height of trees reaches 11 m both for Betula pendula <strong>and</strong> Salix spp. Also the<br />
topography of this area is plain with widely distributed soil groups: Stagnosols <strong>and</strong> Gleysols.<br />
Mosaic l<strong>and</strong>scape succession is represented at 3rd, 4th <strong>and</strong> 5th pilot area. This pattern can be<br />
characterised by higher diversity of woody species <strong>and</strong> irregular shapes of patches. The size of<br />
the surrounding agriculture fields is smaller than in two previous cases (134 ha, 102 ha <strong>and</strong> 38<br />
ha). In 3rd pilot the most common tree species is Betula pendula, however few patches are<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong> -New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
A. Ruskule et al. 2010. Patterns of afforestation process in ab<strong>and</strong>oned agriculture l<strong>and</strong> in Latvia<br />
100<br />
dominated by Picea abies. Tree cover is mostly forming sparse st<strong>and</strong>s. Height of Betula<br />
pendula reaches 10. In 4th pilot area the most widespread species is Picea abies, but also Salix<br />
spp. <strong>and</strong> Betula pendula are frequent. Maximum height of trees is 9 m. In 5th pilot area mosaic<br />
succession pattern is dominated by Betula pendula with rather high share of Picea abies <strong>and</strong><br />
Pinus sylvestris. The highest trees reach 8 m. In this area tree st<strong>and</strong>s are mostly dense (more<br />
than 50 trees per 100 m 2 ). In all these pilot areas tree species cover has started to develop ca. 10<br />
years ago. The topography of the 3rd <strong>and</strong> 4th pilot area is slightly waved, <strong>and</strong> the distribution of<br />
soil cover is rather complex, including Luvisols, Phaeozems, Stagnosols, Gleyosols, Planosols,<br />
as well as Arenosols <strong>and</strong> Podzols. In 5th pilot area the topography is plain <strong>and</strong> mostly covered<br />
by Luvisols, Stagnosols, Gleysols <strong>and</strong> Arenoslos.<br />
Continuous succession pattern has been observed at one part of the 5th pilot area – a narrow<br />
field in earlier years used as arable l<strong>and</strong>, but later regularly mowed. The tree cover has<br />
developed just recently - during the last 2-3 years, forming rather dense st<strong>and</strong> (up to 150 trees<br />
per 100 m 2 ) dominated by Betula pendula up to 3 m height. Development of succession from<br />
the edge of a forest is the most explicit at the 5th pilot area where it is combined with mosaic<br />
succession pattern. However also in 1st <strong>and</strong> 2nd pilot area influence of the forest edge or nearby<br />
forest st<strong>and</strong> on development of linear succession pattern can be observed.<br />
Table 1: Character of l<strong>and</strong>scape ecological succession in pilot areas<br />
Pilot area<br />
1. pilot area village<br />
Nurmiži<br />
2. pilot area near<br />
farmstead “Gobas”<br />
3. pilot area near<br />
village Ieriķi<br />
4. pilot area village<br />
Taurene<br />
5. pilot area near<br />
village Inciems<br />
Pattern of<br />
succession<br />
Year since is<br />
ab<strong>and</strong>oned<br />
Dominant tree species<br />
linear 1996 Betula pendula 65%<br />
from forest edge<br />
Salix spp. 35%<br />
linear 1996 Salix spp. 71%<br />
from forest edge<br />
Betula pendula 29%<br />
mosaic 1995 Betula pendula 74%<br />
Picea abies 18%<br />
Pinus sylvestris 5,4%<br />
mosaic 1995 Picea abies 55%<br />
Salix spp.19%<br />
Betula pendula 14%<br />
continuous; 2000 Betula pendula 62%<br />
mosaic;<br />
Picea abies 23%<br />
from forest edge<br />
Pinus sylvestris 12%<br />
Total area of the<br />
agriculture field (ha)<br />
425<br />
377<br />
135<br />
102<br />
38<br />
3.2 Impact of species composition of surrounding forest on ecological succession process<br />
Unfortunately forest taxation information was not complete (it did not include all forest st<strong>and</strong>s<br />
bordering the pilot areas) therefore comprehensive analysis of relation between species<br />
composition in the forest st<strong>and</strong>s <strong>and</strong> secondary succession patches was not possible. However<br />
from the available information it is obvious that tree species composition not always correspond<br />
between the succession patches <strong>and</strong> the surrounding forest. For example in 3rd pilot area<br />
composition of the dominant species is similar (Betula pendula 50 % - in forest, 74 % - in<br />
succession patches; Picea abies 23 % - in forest, 18 % - in succession patches), while less<br />
dominant species present in forest (e.g. Populus tremula – 13 %; Alnus incana – 11%) can<br />
hardly be found within the succession patches. In the 2nd pilot area where secondary<br />
succession patches are formed by Salix spp. - 71 %, Betula pendula - 29 %, Picea abies - 0,1 %,<br />
Alnus incana - 0,1 %, the species composition of surrounding forest st<strong>and</strong>s is different (Betula<br />
pendula -53 % <strong>and</strong> Populus tremula – 26 %, including also Picea abies - 8%, Alnus incana -<br />
5 % <strong>and</strong> Pinus sylvestris – 3 %).<br />
3.3 Impact of soil conditions on ecological succession process<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong> -New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
A. Ruskule et al. 2010. Patterns of afforestation process in ab<strong>and</strong>oned agriculture l<strong>and</strong> in Latvia<br />
101<br />
Information from soil maps obtained from State L<strong>and</strong> Service as well as from soil sampling<br />
carried out in the pilot areas mainly do not show direct impact of soil groups <strong>and</strong> its chemical<br />
properties on spatial distribution <strong>and</strong> character of the ecological succession patches (see Figure<br />
2). Nevertheless, relationship between soil groups <strong>and</strong> its chemical properties have been<br />
recognized within the 3rd pilot area. There it was established that development of shrubs <strong>and</strong><br />
trees are faster on the soils characterized with poor nutrient status, but on fertile soils this<br />
process could be considerably delayed.<br />
4. Discussion<br />
Figure 2: Soil conditions in pilot area 1 <strong>and</strong> 3.<br />
The study shows that relation between character of l<strong>and</strong>scape ecological succession <strong>and</strong> such<br />
environmental factors as soil properties <strong>and</strong> species composition of surrounding forest are rather<br />
ambiguous, if viewed separately. Development of ecological succession depends on interactions<br />
of various factors like topography, geology, level of ground waters, soil <strong>and</strong> its chemical<br />
properties. The previous l<strong>and</strong> use <strong>and</strong> initial stage of succession prescribed by herbaceous<br />
species colonising the ab<strong>and</strong>oned fields also has significant role in this process (Prach et al<br />
2001b; Kopecký <strong>and</strong> Vojta 2009; Rosenthal (in press)). For example in some cases higher soil<br />
fertility can enhance the growth of shrubs, while in another it might increase density of herb<br />
layer, thus solving down the course of succession by competitive exclusion of trees (Alard et al<br />
2005).<br />
Furthermore distribution of seeds of woody species depends on dominant winds as well as size<br />
<strong>and</strong> configuration of the field. Although some studies highlight importance of distance from the<br />
seed st<strong>and</strong> <strong>and</strong> species composition of the seed st<strong>and</strong> as decisive factor in development of<br />
secondary succession (Daugaviete 2009), we consider that degree of influence of this factor<br />
depends on size of the field as well as heterogeneity of environmental conditions. In very large<br />
<strong>and</strong> fields with strait edges <strong>and</strong> plane topography having uniform environmental conditions the<br />
afforestation process starts form the edge of forest <strong>and</strong> might develop into linear patches, while<br />
in smaller fields with more complex shapes <strong>and</strong> hilly topography, where environmental<br />
conditions are more diverse, the pattern of secondary succession is rather complex, usually<br />
developing as mosaic patches, not always having direct connection to the forest edge. In very<br />
small fields surrounded by forest continuous succession might develop covering simultaneously<br />
all the area in rather short time.<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong> -New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
A. Ruskule et al. 2010. Patterns of afforestation process in ab<strong>and</strong>oned agriculture l<strong>and</strong> in Latvia<br />
102<br />
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vegetation data Basic <strong>and</strong> Applied Ecology, 6: 161-173.<br />
Benjamin K., Bouchard A., Domon G., 2007. Ab<strong>and</strong>oned farml<strong>and</strong>s as components of rural<br />
l<strong>and</strong>scapes: An analysis of perceptions <strong>and</strong> representations, L<strong>and</strong>scape <strong>and</strong> Urban<br />
Planning, 83: 228-244.<br />
Bartha S., Meiners S.J., Pickett, S.T.A., Cadenasso M.L., 2003. Plant colonization windows in<br />
mesic old field succession, Applied Vegetation Science, 6: 205-212.<br />
Bürgi M., Hersperger A.M, Schneeberger N., 2004. Driving forces of l<strong>and</strong>scape change –<br />
current <strong>and</strong> new directions, L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology, 19: 857-868.<br />
Daugaviete M., 2009. The qualitative characteristics of Naturally-developed deciduous forest<br />
st<strong>and</strong>s in ab<strong>and</strong>oned agricultural l<strong>and</strong>s. In: Substantiation of deciduous trees cultivation<br />
<strong>and</strong> rational utilisation, new products <strong>and</strong> technologies. State Research Programme, 2005-<br />
2009.Proceedings. Riga, Latvian State Institute of Wood Chemistry: 23-27. (In Latvian)<br />
Fjellstad W.J., Dramstad W.E., 1999. Patterns of change in two contrasting Norwegian<br />
agricultural l<strong>and</strong>scapes, L<strong>and</strong>scape <strong>and</strong> Urban Planning 45: 177 – 191.<br />
IUSS Working Group WRB, 2007. World Reference Base for Soil Resources 2006, first update<br />
2007. World Soil Resources Reports No. 103. FAO, Rome.<br />
Łowicki D., 2008. L<strong>and</strong> use changes in Pol<strong>and</strong> during transformation: Case study of<br />
Wielkopolska region, L<strong>and</strong>scape <strong>and</strong> Urban Planning 87, 279–288.<br />
M<strong>and</strong>er Ü., Palang H., Ihse M., 2004. Development of European l<strong>and</strong>scape, Editorial, L<strong>and</strong>scape<br />
<strong>and</strong> Urban Planning, 67: 1-8.<br />
Manual on methods <strong>and</strong> criteria for harmonized sampling, assessment, monitoring <strong>and</strong> analysis<br />
of the effects of air pollution on forests, (2006) / International Co-operative Programme<br />
on Assessment <strong>and</strong> Monitoring of Air Pollution Effects on <strong>Forest</strong>s / United Nations<br />
Economic Commission for Europe Convention on Long-Range Transboundary Air<br />
Pollution. Part IIIa, Expert Panel on Soil <strong>Forest</strong> Soil Co-ordinating Centre, Research<br />
Institute for Nature <strong>and</strong> <strong>Forest</strong>, Belgium.<br />
Ministry of Agriculture, 2009. <strong>Forest</strong>ry sector in Latvia: 2009.<br />
Nikodemus O., Bell S., Grīne I., Liepiņš I., 2005. The impact of economic, social <strong>and</strong> political<br />
factors on the l<strong>and</strong>scape structure of the Vidzeme Upl<strong>and</strong>s in Latvia, L<strong>and</strong>scape <strong>and</strong><br />
Urban Planning, 70: 57-67.<br />
Palang H., Printsmann A., Konkoly Gyuro E., Urbanc M., Skowronerk E., Woloszyn W., 2006.<br />
The forgotten rural l<strong>and</strong>scapes of Central <strong>and</strong> Eastern Europe, L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology, 21:<br />
347-357.<br />
Prach K., Bartha S., Joyce C.B., Pyšek P., van Diggelen R., Wiegleb G., 2001 a. The role of<br />
spontaneous vegetation succession in ecosystem restoration: A perspective, Applied<br />
Vegetation Science, 4: 111-114.<br />
Prach K., Pyšek P., van Diggelen R., Bastl M., 2001 b. Spontaneous vegetation succession in<br />
human-disturbed habitats: A pattern across seres, Applied Vegetation Science, 4: 83-88.<br />
Reger B., Otte A., Waldhardt R., 2007. Identifying patterns of l<strong>and</strong>-cover change <strong>and</strong> their<br />
physical attributes in a marginal European l<strong>and</strong>scape, L<strong>and</strong>scape <strong>and</strong> Urban Planning, 81:<br />
104–113.<br />
Rosenthal G., (in press). Secondary succession in a fallow central European wet grassl<strong>and</strong>, Flora.<br />
Sitzia T., Semenzato P., Trentanovi G., 2010 (in press). Natural reforestation is changing spatial<br />
patterns of rural mountain <strong>and</strong> hill l<strong>and</strong>scape: A global overview, <strong>Forest</strong> Ecology <strong>and</strong><br />
Management.<br />
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Ramwell C., 2009. Ecological impacts of early 21st century agricultural change in Europe<br />
– A review, Journal of Environmental Management, 91: 22-46.<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong> -New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
E. Sayad 2010. Nitrogen retranclocation in pure <strong>and</strong> mixed plantations of Populus deltoides <strong>and</strong> Alnus subcordata<br />
103<br />
Nitrogen retranclocation in pure <strong>and</strong> mixed plantations of Populus<br />
deltoides <strong>and</strong> Alnus subcordata<br />
Ehsan Sayad *<br />
Natural Resources Faculty, Higher Education Complex of Behbahan, Iran<br />
Abstract<br />
Nutrients allocated to green leaves are recycled through 4 parallel pathways: herbivory,<br />
throughfall, foliar resorption <strong>and</strong> litter decomposition. Nutrients recycled trough each pathway<br />
may be of similar magnitude. Populus deltoides <strong>and</strong> Alnus subcordata were planted in five<br />
proportions (100P, 67P:33A, 50P:50A, 33P:67A, 100A) in Noor, Iran. After 7 years, the effects<br />
of species interactions on nutrient retranslocation were assessed. Leaves were collected from the<br />
bottom one-third of the tree. Six representative trees (two near the center of sub-plot <strong>and</strong> one in<br />
each corner of it) of each species were sampled for fully exp<strong>and</strong>ed leaves. Senescent leaves<br />
were also collected from each species in each sub-plot. The Nitrogen retranslocations of both<br />
species were not significantly differed between the different proportions also it was not different<br />
between the two species. Finally, it should be implied that nutrient retranslocation was not<br />
differed as a result of mixing these species at this age.<br />
Keywords: Mixed plantations, Nutrient Retranslocation, Nitrogen fixing tree<br />
1. Introduction<br />
Tree plantations with different purposes are widespread activity all over the world. Almost all<br />
the industrial plantations are monocultures, <strong>and</strong> questions are being raised about the<br />
sustainability of their growth <strong>and</strong> their effects on the site (Khanna 1997). Poplars (Populus L.<br />
spp.) are preferred plantation species, because their fast growth is expected to meet the<br />
extensive dem<strong>and</strong>s of wood for poles, pulp <strong>and</strong> fuel (Kiadaliri 2003; Ghasemi 2000; Ziabari<br />
1993). Repeated harvesting of fast-growing trees such as poplar plantations on short rotations<br />
may deplete site nutrients.<br />
Nitrogen losses are likely to be very important for future growth. Therefore, it is appropriate to<br />
explore new systems of plantation management in which N may be added via fixation (Khanna<br />
1997). Mixed plantation systems seem to be the most appropriate for providing a broader range<br />
of options, such as production, protection, biodiversity conservation, <strong>and</strong> restoration<br />
(Montagnini et al. 1995; Keenan et al. 1995; Guariguata et al. 1995; Parrotta <strong>and</strong> Knowles<br />
1999).<br />
Nutrients allocated to green leaves are recycled through 4 parallel pathways: herbivory (feces<br />
<strong>and</strong> dead bodies), throughfall, foliar resorption <strong>and</strong> litter decomposition. Research often focuses<br />
exclusively on decomposition, but the fraction of nutrients recycled trough each pathway may<br />
be of similar magnitude. This fraction varies with the nutrient considered, the species <strong>and</strong> the<br />
climatic conditions. For example, leaf nitrogen recycling is estimated to be 10% through<br />
herbivory, 5% through throughfall, 40% through resorption <strong>and</strong> 45% through litterfall <strong>and</strong><br />
subsequent decomposition. Locally, the chemical <strong>and</strong> physiological characteristics of leaves<br />
* Corresponding author. Tel.: +989161425493 - Fax: +98(671)2231662<br />
Email address: ehsansaiad@yahoo.com<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
E. Sayad 2010. Nitrogen retranclocation in pure <strong>and</strong> mixed plantations of Populus deltoides <strong>and</strong> Alnus subcordata<br />
104<br />
may relate to the ecological status of the species (pioneer vs. late successional species, sun vs.<br />
shade tolerant species). Litter chemistry is determined both by the chemistry of green leaves <strong>and</strong><br />
by the nutrient resorption. The latter has not been given enough attention despite its major role<br />
in nutrient conservation both at the individual <strong>and</strong> ecosystem level (Binkley <strong>and</strong> Menyailo<br />
2005).<br />
Thus in this paper, we focus on N resorption in pure <strong>and</strong> mixed plantations in order to increase<br />
our underst<strong>and</strong>ing of the ecology of these tree species in this region. Therefore our question is:<br />
Are there differences in the degree of internal cycling of N (resorption) of each species in<br />
different proportions And dose it differ between the two species<br />
2. Methodology<br />
2.1 Study site<br />
The study area is located at the Chamestan experiment station, in Maz<strong>and</strong>aran province, on the<br />
northern parts of Iran (36º29’N, 51º59’E). Experimental plantations were established in 1996<br />
using a r<strong>and</strong>omized complete block design that included four replicate 40 m × 40 m plots of<br />
each of the following treatments: (i) Populus deltoides (100P), (ii) Alnus subcordata (100A),<br />
(iii) 50% P. deltoides + 50% A. subcordata (50P:50A), (iv) 67% P. deltoides + 33% A.<br />
subcordata (67P:33A), (v) 33% P. deltoides + 67% A. subcordata (33P:67A). Tree spacing<br />
within plantations was 4 m × 4 m <strong>and</strong> tow species were systematicly mixed within rows.<br />
2.3 Leaf<br />
Leaf samples were collected from the st<strong>and</strong>s in September 2003. Leaves were collected from<br />
the bottom one-third of the tree by clipping two small twigs located on opposite sides of the<br />
crown. Six representative trees (two near the center of sub-plot <strong>and</strong> one in each corner of it) of<br />
each species were sampled for fully exp<strong>and</strong>ed leaves. In addition, senescent leaves were<br />
collected from each species in each sub-plot. The samples were dried at 65 o C <strong>and</strong> ground prior<br />
to analysis. Nitrogen was analyzed using the Kjeldhal.<br />
2.5 Statistical Analyses<br />
The percent of retranslocation efficiency was calculated from the fallowing formula (1):<br />
R =<br />
A − B<br />
× 100<br />
A<br />
(1)<br />
In this formula A is the weight of each nutrient in fully exp<strong>and</strong>ed leaf <strong>and</strong> B is the weight of that<br />
nutrient in leaf litter. The percent of retranslocation between the species <strong>and</strong> for each species in<br />
different treatments were compared using general linear model analysis of variance (ANOVA)<br />
tests. Normality of the data was checked for analyses. Statistical analyses were done using SAS<br />
9 software.<br />
3. Result<br />
The Nitrogen retranslocations of both species were not significantly differed between the<br />
different proportions. Alnus Nitrogen retranslocation was higher in pure plantations than the<br />
mixtures, but for Populus it was higher under 67%P: 33%A than the other treatments. Nitrogen<br />
retranslocation also was not different between the two species, whereas the retranslocation in<br />
Alnus as Nitrogen fixing tree was lower than Populus (Figure 1).<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
E. Sayad 2010. Nitrogen retranclocation in pure <strong>and</strong> mixed plantations of Populus deltoides <strong>and</strong> Alnus subcordata<br />
105<br />
Figure 1: N retranslocation of each species in mixed plantations <strong>and</strong> between the two species in pure<br />
plantations<br />
4. Discussion<br />
In line with our results, Parrotta (1999) showed that N retranslocation were not significantly<br />
different among treatments for Eucalyptus. He implied that this result suggest that the<br />
association with either Nitrogen fixing species is not (yet) having any positive influence on<br />
nutrient availability of Eucalyptus. The same conclusion could be stated for the current results.<br />
It means that the species have not any effect on nitrogen cycling of other one. In contrary to our<br />
results about the two species Cuevas <strong>and</strong> Lugo (1998) found different nitrogen retrenslocation<br />
between the species. In this case it could be concluded that the nitrogen requirements of these<br />
two species at this age are similar, although Alnus had the lower retranclocation. Finally, it<br />
should be implied that nutrient retranslocation was not differed as a result of mixing these<br />
species at this age.<br />
References<br />
Binkley, D., Menyailo, O., 2005. Tree Species Effects on Soil: Implications for <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>,<br />
NATO Science Series. IV Earth <strong>and</strong> Environmental Sciences-Vol.55. 358 pp.<br />
Cuevas, E., <strong>and</strong> Lugo, A.E., 1998. Dynamics of organic matter <strong>and</strong> nutrient return from litterfall<br />
in st<strong>and</strong>s of ten tropival tree plantation species. <strong>Forest</strong> Ecology <strong>and</strong> Management,<br />
112:263-279.<br />
Ghasemi, R., 2000. Study of phenology of different Populus in Karaj <strong>and</strong> Safrabasteh Gilan.<br />
M.Sc. thesis of Tarbiat Modarres University. 171 p.<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
E. Sayad 2010. Nitrogen retranclocation in pure <strong>and</strong> mixed plantations of Populus deltoides <strong>and</strong> Alnus subcordata<br />
106<br />
Guariguata, M.R., Rheingans, R. <strong>and</strong> Montagnini, F., 1995. Early woody invasion under tree<br />
plantations in Costa Rica: implications for forest restoration. Restoration Ecology, 3(4):<br />
252–260.<br />
Keenan, R.J., Lamb, D. <strong>and</strong> Sexton, G., 1995. Experience with mixed species rainforest<br />
plantations in North Queensl<strong>and</strong>. Commonwealth <strong>Forest</strong>ry Review, 74(4): 315–321.<br />
Khanna, P.K., 1997. Comparison of growth <strong>and</strong> nutrition of young monocultures <strong>and</strong> mixed<br />
st<strong>and</strong>s of Eucalyptus globules <strong>and</strong> Acacia mearnsii. <strong>Forest</strong> Ecology <strong>and</strong> Management,<br />
94(1–3): 105–113.<br />
Kiadaliri, Sh., 2003. Study of populus plantations on different soils in western parts of<br />
Maz<strong>and</strong>aran. M.Sc. thesis of Tarbiat Modarres University. 94 p.<br />
Montagnini, F., Gonzalez, E., Rheingans, R. <strong>and</strong> Porras, C., 1995. Mixed <strong>and</strong> pure forest<br />
plantations in the humid neotropics: a comparison of early growth, pest damage <strong>and</strong><br />
establishment costs. Commonwealth <strong>Forest</strong>ry Review, 74(4): 306–314.<br />
Parrotta, J.A., 1999. Productivity, nutrient cycling, <strong>and</strong> succession in single- <strong>and</strong> mixed-species<br />
plantations of Casuarina equisetifolia, Eucalyptus robusta, <strong>and</strong> Leucaena leucocephala in<br />
Puerto Rico. <strong>Forest</strong> Ecology <strong>and</strong> Management, 124(1): 45–77.<br />
Parrotta, J.A. <strong>and</strong> Knowles, O.H., 1999. Restoration of tropical moist forests on bauxite-mined<br />
l<strong>and</strong>s in the Brazilian Amazon. Restoration Ecology, 7(2): 103–116.<br />
Ziabari, Z.F., 1993. The importance of Populus in forestry. Proceedings of forest restoration<br />
<strong>and</strong> forestry. Research Institute of <strong>Forest</strong>s <strong>and</strong> Range L<strong>and</strong>s publication, Iran. 11 p.<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
G. Zhelezov 2010. Evaluation of the ecosystem service in the forest formations of Biosphere Reserve “Srebarna”<br />
107<br />
Evaluation of the ecosystem service in the forest formations of<br />
Biosphere Reserve “Srebarna”, Northeastern Bulgaria<br />
Georgi Zhelezov *<br />
Institute of Geography, Bulgarian Academy of Sciences, Bulgaria<br />
Abstract<br />
The investigation observes the basic parameters in ecosystem services of the forest formation on<br />
the territory of Biosphere Reserve „Lake Sreburna”. Wetl<strong>and</strong> system is a part of Danube<br />
catchments. Importance of the lake depends of rich biological <strong>and</strong> l<strong>and</strong>scape diversity. The most<br />
important are bird colonies of Dalmatian pelican <strong>and</strong> waterfowl birds.<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> formations in the lake <strong>and</strong> around the wetl<strong>and</strong> systems are natural place for nesting <strong>and</strong><br />
spreading of the bird populations. They are dominated of willows <strong>and</strong> popular species. The<br />
forest formations in Danubian isl<strong>and</strong>s have high level of importance as quality <strong>and</strong> diversity of<br />
the ecosystem services. They are flooded for the different period of time during the high Danube<br />
waters. This process reflects <strong>and</strong> determines the complex of ecosystem services in the reserve.<br />
The results of the research can use for optimization of nature protection <strong>and</strong> conservation<br />
activities in the Biosphere Reserve „Srebarna” <strong>and</strong> the territories around the wetl<strong>and</strong> system.<br />
Keywords: ecosystem services, forest formation, evaluation<br />
Introduction<br />
Ecosystems provide different ecosystem services. The concept of ecosystem services deals with<br />
the benefits that humans gain from natural processes <strong>and</strong> ecological functions (Costanza et al.<br />
1997). Ecosystem services are supporting (nutrient cycling, soil formation, primary production<br />
etc.), provisioning – referring to the resource supply (food, fuel, fiber, water, other goods),<br />
regulatory (associated with climate, atmosphere, extreme events, water quality etc.) <strong>and</strong> cultural<br />
(aestetic, spiritual, educational, recreational etc.). Publication of Millenium Ecosystem<br />
Assessment in 2005 focused on ecosystem services of different ecosystems, stressing their<br />
overall decline.<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> formations are among the most endangered systems in spite of the fact that they have a<br />
great influence on human wellbeing <strong>and</strong> are providing to us the majority of important<br />
ecosystem services. <strong>Forest</strong> formations of Danubian isl<strong>and</strong> <strong>and</strong> around the lake are marked by<br />
changes in water level during the year. Water level fluctuations create a variety of habitats with<br />
diverse communities. Habitats are delineated by a range of changes in water regime, soil<br />
properties <strong>and</strong> some other factors. Many primary producers are well adapted to these changes<br />
(avoiding unfavourable conditions, being cosmopolites, having persistent stadia or amphibious<br />
character) <strong>and</strong> find optimal conditions for their survival while supporting a variety of other<br />
organisms. Water level during the vegetation period as well as the intensity, timing <strong>and</strong> the<br />
extent of floods influence primary production <strong>and</strong> other processes i.e. mineralization,<br />
decomposition, colonization with plants, as revealed from different studies. The researches<br />
revealed that ecosystem services depend on biotic community complexity, especially on<br />
vegetation type of the area.<br />
* Corresponding author. Tel.: +359 2 979 6309 - Fax: +359 2 870 0204<br />
Email address: gzhelezov@abv.bg; zhelezov75@yahoo.com<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
G. Zhelezov 2010. Evaluation of the ecosystem service in the forest formations of Biosphere Reserve “Srebarna”<br />
108<br />
The problems of evaluation of the ecosystem services in the wetl<strong>and</strong> nature system are<br />
presented in the investigations of Br<strong>and</strong>er et al. (2006), Hoehn J et al. (2003), Heong K.L.<br />
(2008) etc.<br />
Object<br />
The lake Srebarna is one of the biggest wetl<strong>and</strong>s along the Bulgarian sector of river Danuve<br />
(Table 1). It is situated in northeastern Bulgaria, near the village of the same name, 18 km west<br />
of Silistra <strong>and</strong> 2 km south of the Danube. The reserve embraces 6 km² of protected area <strong>and</strong> a<br />
buffer zone of 5.4 km². Diversity of the reserve <strong>and</strong> surrounding territories is determined in<br />
Corine Biotope Project in 13 habitate types. The importance of the wetl<strong>and</strong> system is determine<br />
from diversity of the rare <strong>and</strong> protected bird species as Dalmatian Pelican (Pelicanus crispus),<br />
Mute Swan (Cygnus olor), six heron species (Ardea alba, Ardea cinerea, Ardea purpurea,<br />
Ardeola raloides, Egretta garzetta etc), cormorants (Phalacrocorax carbo <strong>and</strong> Halietor<br />
pygmaeus) etc.<br />
Table 1: Limnological characteristics (Management plan, 2001)<br />
Indicator<br />
Value<br />
Elevation (m) 10,0 - 13,2<br />
Water catchments (km 2 ) 402<br />
Length of shore line (km) 18,5<br />
Reserve area (ha) 902,1<br />
Open water body (ha) 120<br />
Capacity (km 3 ) – low water levels 2,81<br />
Capacity (km 3 ) – high water levels 14,35<br />
Maximal depth (m) 3,3<br />
Years flow (m 3 ) 12,48<br />
Time of stay (months) 2,67<br />
Diversity of biogeographical provinces is determined from three provinces based on Udvardy<br />
(1975):<br />
- Middle European forest formations;<br />
- Pontiac steps formations;<br />
- Mountain territories.<br />
Ecosystem diversity in the reserve “Srebarna” is determined from different wetl<strong>and</strong> types based<br />
on the Ramsar convention (1971):<br />
M Permanente rivers – river Danube between right bank <strong>and</strong> isl<strong>and</strong> Devnia;<br />
O Permanente fresh water lake – open water body;<br />
R Seasonal marshes <strong>and</strong> water bodies – area between left bank of river Danube<br />
<strong>and</strong> river dike from Silistra to village Vetren;<br />
X f Fresh water bodies with domination of forest formations; seasonal flooded<br />
forests – whole territory of isl<strong>and</strong> Devnia <strong>and</strong> part of the river bank between Silistra <strong>and</strong> village<br />
Vetren <strong>and</strong> right bank of river Danube.<br />
X k Underground karst <strong>and</strong> cave hydrological systems – natural spring<br />
“Kanarichkata” in the south part of the reserve.<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
G. Zhelezov 2010. Evaluation of the ecosystem service in the forest formations of Biosphere Reserve “Srebarna”<br />
109<br />
Bialata prust<br />
∗<br />
Devnia<br />
Danube<br />
Kodzha Bair<br />
(84,1 m)<br />
Kara Burun<br />
(111 m)<br />
Srebarna<br />
- w ater body<br />
- hydrophites formation<br />
- forest formation w ith<br />
domination of Pinus nigra<br />
- forest formation w ith<br />
domination of Robinia pseudoacacia<br />
- forest formation w ith<br />
domination of Quercus species<br />
- forest formation w ith<br />
domination of Populus species<br />
- f orest f ormation with<br />
domination of Salix alba<br />
<strong>and</strong> Populus alba<br />
- grass formation<br />
- flooded area<br />
- agriculture area<br />
- villages<br />
Figure 1: <strong>Forest</strong> formations in the Biosphere Reserve “Srebarna”<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
G. Zhelezov 2010. Evaluation of the ecosystem service in the forest formations of Biosphere Reserve “Srebarna”<br />
110<br />
Research problem<br />
The topic of the research is to investigate the importance of forest formations on the territory of<br />
Biosphere reserve Srebarna (Northeastern Bulgaria) from the point of view of ecosystem<br />
services. Basic vegetation types (Fig. 1), which are presented on the territory of the reserve are:<br />
1. Hydrophite <strong>and</strong> hygrophite formations dominated from Phragmites australis, Typha<br />
angustifolia <strong>and</strong> Typha latipholia, Schoenoplectus lacustris, Sch. triquetra, Sch.<br />
Tabernemontana, Salix cinerea etc.<br />
2. Mixed forest formations dominated from Populus alba <strong>and</strong> Salix alba.<br />
3. Mezokserotermal grass formation dominated from Poa bulbosa, Lolium perenne,<br />
Cynodon dactilon, Dichantium ischaemum, Chrysopogon gryllus.<br />
4. Mixed forest formations dominated from Quercus cerris, Quercus pubescens, Quercus<br />
virgiliana.<br />
5. Mixed forest formations dominated from Quercus frainetto <strong>and</strong> Carpinus orientalis<br />
with Mediterannian elements.<br />
6. <strong>Forest</strong> formation of Tilia argentea mixed with Salix alba.<br />
7. Artificial formations of Robinia pseudoacacia <strong>and</strong> Gleditsia triacantha.<br />
8. Artificial formations of Pinus nigra.<br />
9. Agricultural areas on the place forest formations from Quercus cerris <strong>and</strong> Quercus<br />
virgiliana, in some places mixed with Quercus pedunculiflora.<br />
Results<br />
Ecosystem services of the forest formations are connected with specific of the l<strong>and</strong>scape<br />
diversity <strong>and</strong> determinate sustainability of the ecosystems. They secured food provision <strong>and</strong><br />
nesting condition for the bird species. They have role in the ecological balance of the<br />
hydrological resources <strong>and</strong> whole process of interaction between species. There is real<br />
opportunity for using of the biomass in energy producing. <strong>Forest</strong> formations determine<br />
attractiveness of the territory <strong>and</strong> circumstances for development of tourism.<br />
Present research includes investigation of the key forest formations in Biosphere Reserve<br />
“Srebarna”.<br />
The first research territory included investigation of artificial forest formations of Robinia<br />
pseudoacacia <strong>and</strong> Gleditsia triacantha on the place of the vineyard terraces along the slope of<br />
hill Kodzha bair (84,1 m) in west part of the reserve. The region characterizes with high level of<br />
the erosion processes. The age of forest is 32 years. Whole quantity of the tree phytomass is<br />
75,7 t/ha. The low level of phytomass of forest formation is determined from the fact that these<br />
plant species are not typical for the region. The analysis in the management plan of the reserve<br />
recommends replacing of the artificial forest formation with natural Danubian forest formations<br />
of Tilia argentea mixed with Salix alba.<br />
The second research area is situated on the foot of hill Kodzha Bair (13-14 m) <strong>and</strong> showed<br />
hydrophytes formations dominated Phragmites australis, Typha angustifolia, Typha latipholia,<br />
Schoenoplectus lacustris <strong>and</strong> mixed with Salix cinerea. The productivity of reed formations is<br />
2,9 t/ha. The hydrophytes species have very important transpiration role in hydrological regime<br />
of the wetl<strong>and</strong> system The intensity of transpiration is 1,79 gr/dm 2 /h for Populus alba, 0,575<br />
g/dm 2 /h for Salix cinerea <strong>and</strong> 0,478 gr/dm 2 /h for Phragmites australis. Populus formations in<br />
the buffer zone (18, 1 ha) transpirated 70 200 t water for one season. Populus formations in the<br />
protected area (56 ha) transpirated 218 400 t water for one season. Hydrophytes formations in<br />
the reserve (402 ha) transpirated 1 413 000 t water for one season (Management plan, 2001).<br />
The third research area is situated in the west part of isl<strong>and</strong> Devnia (10-11 m), which is<br />
part of the reserve territory. <strong>Forest</strong> formation is dominated of Populus alba in the central<br />
part of the isl<strong>and</strong> <strong>and</strong> Salix alba in the periphery, mixed with Gleditsia triacantha. The<br />
phytomass of Salix alba is 215 t/ha, Gleditsia triacantha - 0,97 t/ha <strong>and</strong> Populus alba - 6,3<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
G. Zhelezov 2010. Evaluation of the ecosystem service in the forest formations of Biosphere Reserve “Srebarna”<br />
111<br />
t/ha in the periphery, where density of this species is not high. The isl<strong>and</strong> territory saved<br />
<strong>and</strong> protected the classical Danubian formation with low anthropogenic impact <strong>and</strong> can<br />
be use as etalon territory.<br />
The fourth research area is situated in east part of the reserve along the slope of hill<br />
Kara Burun (111 m). The forest formations are presented with mixed forest formations<br />
diminated from Quercus cerris, Quercus pubescens, Quercus virgiliana <strong>and</strong> mixed forest<br />
formations diminated from Quercus frainetto <strong>and</strong> Carpinus orientalis. The low quantity of tree<br />
phytomass (67,8 t/ha) is depended from low density of the formations <strong>and</strong> high<br />
anthropogenic impact.<br />
The ecosystem service of forest formations in the Biosphere Reserve „Srebarna” can<br />
observe in several aspects:<br />
- supporting - primary production, nesting conditions;<br />
- provisioning – food, wood, <strong>and</strong> other good;<br />
- regulatory – water quality <strong>and</strong> water regime, regulation of erosion processes;<br />
- cultural – aestetic, recreational <strong>and</strong> touristical.<br />
Conclusions<br />
The basic problem in the ecological situation of Srebarna wetl<strong>and</strong> system is intensive<br />
degradation of the systems as a result of long-time anthropogenic impact in the region –<br />
building of river dikes <strong>and</strong> irrigation system.<br />
The eutrophication processes are connected with productivity of the vegetation formations.<br />
Regulation of the productivity of the hydrophite formations in the lake is basic aim of the<br />
present nature protected activities <strong>and</strong> management plans of the wetl<strong>and</strong> systems.<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> formations from the point of view of ecosystem services have important role in the<br />
protection of the wetl<strong>and</strong> system from slope erosion in south, east <strong>and</strong> especially west part of<br />
the wetl<strong>and</strong> system. Some forest formation (Salix cinerea) combined with hydrophite<br />
formations are key factor for degradation of the lake (closing of water body, increasing of<br />
bottom substrate etc). Mixed forest formation of Salix alba <strong>and</strong> Populus alba are important<br />
habitat for the nesting colonies of waterfowl birds, especially cormorant <strong>and</strong> heron species.<br />
Development of monitoring system for hydrophite formations <strong>and</strong> water regime is basic<br />
problem connected with future investigations <strong>and</strong> management of the wetl<strong>and</strong>s system.<br />
Acknowledgement<br />
This work is supported by the European Social Fund <strong>and</strong> Bulgarian Ministry of Education,<br />
Youth <strong>and</strong> Science under Operative Program “Human Resources Development”, Grant<br />
BG051PO001-3.3.04/40.<br />
References<br />
Br<strong>and</strong>er L., Raymond J.G., Florax M, Vermaat J., 2006. Empirics of Wetl<strong>and</strong> Valuation:<br />
Comprehensive Summary <strong>and</strong> a Meta-Analysis of the Literature. Environmental &<br />
Resource Economics 33: 223–250.<br />
Costanza et al., 1997 The value of the world's ecosystem services <strong>and</strong> natural capital. Nature<br />
387:253-260.<br />
Management plan of reserve Srebarna, 2001.<br />
Heong K.L., 2008 Biodiversity, ecosystem services <strong>and</strong> pest management. Second International<br />
Plantational Industry Conference <strong>and</strong> Exibition, Shah Alam.<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
G. Zhelezov 2010. Evaluation of the ecosystem service in the forest formations of Biosphere Reserve “Srebarna”<br />
112<br />
Hoehn J., Lupi F., Kaplowitz M., 2003 Untying a Lancastrian bundle: valuing ecosystems <strong>and</strong><br />
ecosystem services for wetl<strong>and</strong> mitigation. Journal of Environmental Management 68<br />
263–272.<br />
Ramsar convention, 1971.<br />
Udvardy, M. D. F., 1975. A classification of the biogeographical provinces of the world. IUCN<br />
Occasional Paper no. 18. Morges, Switzerl<strong>and</strong>: IUCN.<br />
Udvardy, Miklos D. F., 1975 "World Biogeographical Provinces" (Map). The CoEvolution<br />
Quarterly, Sausalito, California.<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
Section 3<br />
Disturbances in changing l<strong>and</strong>scapes
A. Altamirano et al. 2010. Human-caused forest fire in Mediterranean ecosystems of Chile<br />
114<br />
Human-caused forest fire in Mediterranean ecosystems of Chile:<br />
modelling l<strong>and</strong>scape spatial patterns on forest fire occurrence<br />
Adison Altamirano 1* , Christian Salas 1,2 & Valeska Yaitul 2<br />
1 Departamento de Ciencias <strong>Forest</strong>ales, Universidad de La Frontera, Temuco, Chile<br />
2 School of <strong>Forest</strong>ry <strong>and</strong> Environmental Studies, Yale University, USA<br />
Abstract<br />
Modelling forest fire occurrence has been lacked for the southern hemisphere, in particular for<br />
Chilean ecosystems. We developed models to investigate the relationship between forest fire<br />
occurrence <strong>and</strong> l<strong>and</strong>scape heterogeneity in Mediterranean ecosystems of Chile. We used<br />
georreferenced forest fires data from 2004 to 2008. Our data of spatial heterogeneity were<br />
obtained at multiple spatial scales, including climatic, topographic, human-related, <strong>and</strong> l<strong>and</strong>cover<br />
variables. We fit a logistic model in order to predict forest fire occurrence as a function of<br />
our potential predictor variables. Our best model suggests that the probability of forest fires<br />
occurrence is related to high both temperature <strong>and</strong> precipitation, <strong>and</strong> lower distance to cities.<br />
Our predictions suggest that 46% of the study area has high probability of forest fires<br />
occurrence. Our findings can help to take adequate decisions regarding l<strong>and</strong> planning.<br />
Keywords: Disturbance, logistic regression, remote sensing, l<strong>and</strong> planning.<br />
1. Introduction<br />
Fire disturbance is recognized as an important problem because it can devastate natural<br />
resources, human property, <strong>and</strong> threaten human lives (Cardille et al. 2001; Gustafson et al.<br />
2004; González et al. 2005; Ryu et al. 2007). <strong>Forest</strong> fires result in enormous economic losses<br />
because they affect environmental, recreational, <strong>and</strong> amenity values as well as consume timber,<br />
degrade real estate, <strong>and</strong> generate high cost of suppression (Yadav <strong>and</strong> Kaushik 2007).<br />
Modelling forest fire occurrence (i.e., where <strong>and</strong> when a forest fire starts) has recently been<br />
conducted in the northern hemisphere (Calef et al. 2008; Lozano et al. 2007; Ryu et al. 2007;<br />
Vega-Garcia <strong>and</strong> Chuvieco 2006), however, efforts on the subject are lacking for the southern<br />
hemisphere, in particular for Chilean ecosystems. Some studies in Chile have focused in postfire<br />
effects on vegetation dynamics (Navarro et al. 2008; Litton <strong>and</strong> Santelices 2003), but<br />
studies on predicting forest fires occurrence are lacking. <strong>Forest</strong> fire occurrence has increased in<br />
the last years in Chile, being the mean frequency about five thous<strong>and</strong> forest fires per year. These<br />
fires have affected a mean area of about 500 km2 per year (Navarro et al. 2008; CONAF 2009)<br />
being the human activity the main cause of fire ignition (CONAF 2009). We developed models<br />
to investigate the relationship between forest fire occurrence <strong>and</strong> l<strong>and</strong>scape heterogeneity in<br />
Mediterranean ecosystems of Chile.<br />
* Corresponding author. Tel.: +56 45 325658 - Fax: +56 45 325634<br />
Email address: aaltamiranofro.cl<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
A. Altamirano et al. 2010. Human-caused forest fire in Mediterranean ecosystems of Chile<br />
115<br />
2. Methodology<br />
The study area extends over 892 km 2 <strong>and</strong> is located in Eastern Central Chile covering parts of<br />
the Valparaíso <strong>and</strong> Metropolitan regions (See Figure 2 a). We selected a l<strong>and</strong>scape with<br />
temporal-stability in composition <strong>and</strong> no other significant processes than fire <strong>and</strong> succession<br />
operating at the l<strong>and</strong>scape level (Vega-García <strong>and</strong> Chuvieco 2006).<br />
We used georreferenced forest fires data from a 5-year period of fire occurrence from 2004 to<br />
2008. The database consisted of 7,210 observations, out of which 891 were pixels that burned<br />
between 2004 <strong>and</strong> 2008. A distance of 25 x 25 pixels (750 m) was used to compute the cooccurrence<br />
matrices, since small windows result in very sparse matrices.<br />
Our data of spatial heterogeneity were obtained at multiple spatial scales, including climatic,<br />
topographic, human-related, <strong>and</strong> l<strong>and</strong>-cover variables from satellite imagery.<br />
We fit a logistic model in order to predict forest fire occurrence as a function of our potential<br />
predictor variables. The relationship modeled was that between the binary response variable<br />
(one = burned, zero = not burned) <strong>and</strong> the predictor variables.<br />
3. Result<br />
We selected the best’s no correlated predictor variables. Temperature correlated strongly with<br />
Elevation (r = 0.75) (See Figure 1 a), so only one of the two variables could be used in the same<br />
model. So, we selected Temperature in order to be more biologically meaningful. No significant<br />
correlation was found between Temperature <strong>and</strong> Precipitation (r = 0.31) (See Figure 1 b). Our<br />
best model suggests that the probability of forest fires occurrence is related to high both<br />
temperature <strong>and</strong> precipitation, <strong>and</strong> lower distance to cities (Table 1). The high probability of<br />
forest fire occurrence related to high precipitation could be unusual. However, it can be<br />
explained because the most precipitation is concentrated in the first 500 masl because the local<br />
topographic conditions (See Figure 1 c). Our predictions suggest that 46% (410 km2) of the<br />
study area has high probability of forest fires occurrence, being concentrated in the eastern<br />
locations of the study area (See Figure 2 b). Our model correctly classified about 73% of our<br />
validation dataset.<br />
4. Discussion<br />
The information of this study may be useful for hazard reduction, indicating that risk of forest<br />
fire occurrence (Ryu et al. 2007; Vega-Garcia <strong>and</strong> Chuvieco 2006). Study area is one of the<br />
most populated regions of Chile. Therefore, our findings can help to take adequate decisions<br />
regarding to l<strong>and</strong> <strong>and</strong> urban planning.<br />
If climate determines patterns of forest fire occurrence, then when the climatic variables change,<br />
forest fire occurrence should change. This might have important consequences for long-term<br />
l<strong>and</strong> <strong>and</strong> urban planning, since prioritization of high probability of forest fire occurrence today<br />
might not be effective for the future in the face of climate change.<br />
Exploring new statistical model approach would allow to improving the predictive capability of<br />
the models. So, part of our future research will target to this subject.<br />
References<br />
Calef, M.P., McGuire, A.D., <strong>and</strong> Chapin, F.S., 2008. Human Influences on Wildfire in Alaska<br />
from 1988 through 2005: An Analysis of the Spatial Patterns of Human Impacts. Earth<br />
Interactions, 12 (1): 1–17.<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
A. Altamirano et al. 2010. Human-caused forest fire in Mediterranean ecosystems of Chile<br />
116<br />
Cardille, J.A., Ventura, S.J., <strong>and</strong> Turner, M.G., 2001. Environmental <strong>and</strong> social factors<br />
influencing wildfires in the Upper Midwest, United States. Ecological Applications, 11:<br />
111–127.<br />
CONAF., 2009. Corporación Nacional <strong>Forest</strong>al. Recursos <strong>Forest</strong>ales. Protección contra<br />
incendios forestales. http://www.conaf.cl, last accessed 9 june 2008.<br />
González, M., Veblen, T.T., <strong>and</strong> Sibold, J.S., 2005. Fire history of Araucaria–Nothofagus<br />
forests in Villarrica National Park, Chile. Journal of Biogeography, 32: 1187–1202.<br />
Gustafson, E.J., Zollner, P.A., Sturtevant, B.R., He, H.S., <strong>and</strong> Mladenoff, D.J., 2004. Influence<br />
of forest management alternatives <strong>and</strong> l<strong>and</strong> type on susceptibility to fire in northern<br />
Wisconsin, USA. L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology, 19: 327–341.<br />
Litton, C.M. <strong>and</strong> Santelices, R., 2003. Effect of wildfire on soil physical <strong>and</strong> chemical<br />
properties in a Nothofagus glauca forest, Chile. Revista Chilena de Historia Natural, 76:<br />
529-542.<br />
Lozano, F.J., Suárez-Seoane, S., <strong>and</strong> de Luis, E., 2007. Assessment of several spectral indices<br />
derived from multi-temporal L<strong>and</strong>sat data for fire occurrence probability modelling.<br />
Remote Sensing of Environment, 107: 533–544.<br />
Navarro, R.M., Hayas, A., García-Ferrer, A., Hernández, R., Duhalde, P., <strong>and</strong> González, L.,<br />
2008. Caracterización de la situación posincendio en el área afectada por el incendio de<br />
2005 en el Parque Nacional de Torres del Paine (Chile) a partir de imágenes<br />
multiespectrales. Revista Chilena de Historia Natural, 81: 95-110.<br />
Ryu, S., Chen, J., Zheng, D. <strong>and</strong> Lacroix, J.J., 2007. Relating surface fire spread to l<strong>and</strong>scape<br />
structure: An application of FARSITE in a managed forest l<strong>and</strong>scape. L<strong>and</strong>scape <strong>and</strong><br />
Urban Planning, 83: 275–283.<br />
Vega-García, C. <strong>and</strong> Chuvieco, E., 2006. Applying local measures of spatial heterogeneity to<br />
L<strong>and</strong>sat-TM images for predicting wildfire occurrence in Mediterranean l<strong>and</strong>scapes.<br />
L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology, 21:595–605.<br />
Yadav, B. <strong>and</strong> Kaushik, R., 2007. <strong>Forest</strong> fire <strong>and</strong> its impacts. Plant Archives, 7 (1): 33-37.<br />
Table 1: Best model for predicting spatial variation of forest fire occurrence in the study area.<br />
Variables Coefficients St<strong>and</strong>ard error z value<br />
Intercept -9.2939 1.6625 -5.54*<br />
Annual mean temperature 0.0437 0.0097 4.43*<br />
Distance to cities -0.0001 0.0000 -7.26*<br />
Annual precipitation 0.0090 0.0009 9.60*<br />
* P < 0.0001<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
A. Altamirano et al. 2010. Human-caused forest fire in Mediterranean ecosystems of Chile<br />
117<br />
a)<br />
Temperature (C o )<br />
10 14<br />
0 500 1000 1500 2000<br />
Elevation (masl)<br />
b)<br />
Temperature (C o )<br />
10 14<br />
300 400 500 600 700<br />
Precipitation (mm)<br />
c)<br />
Precipitation (mm)<br />
300 500 700<br />
0 500 1000 1500 2000<br />
Elevation (masl)<br />
Figure 1: Relationship between predictor variables of forest fire occurrence in the study area. a) Annual<br />
mean temperature <strong>and</strong> Elevation; b) Annual mean temperature <strong>and</strong> Annual precipitation; <strong>and</strong> c) Annual<br />
precipitation <strong>and</strong> Elevation.<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
A. Altamirano et al. 2010. Human-caused forest fire in Mediterranean ecosystems of Chile<br />
118<br />
Figure 2: a) Map of study area <strong>and</strong> records of forest fire between 2004 <strong>and</strong> 2008, <strong>and</strong> b) Map of forest fire<br />
occurrence probability based on the predictive model.<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
T. Curt & J. Pausas 2010. Are changes in fire regime threatening cork oak-shrubl<strong>and</strong> mosaics<br />
119<br />
Are changes in fire regime threatening cork oak-shrubl<strong>and</strong> mosaics<br />
Thomas Curt 1* & Juli Pausas 2<br />
1 Cemagref, UR EMAX Ecosystèmes méditerranéens et Risques,<br />
3275 route Cézanne - CS 40061 - 13182 Aix-en-Provence cedex 5, France<br />
2 CIDE, CSIC Apartado Oficial, Camí de la Marjal s/n 46470 Albal, Valencia, Spain<br />
Abstract<br />
We simulated the changes of vegetation abundance <strong>and</strong> richness among mosaics of cork oak<br />
woodl<strong>and</strong>s <strong>and</strong> shrubl<strong>and</strong>s using the LASS-Fatel<strong>and</strong> model (Pausas <strong>and</strong> Ramos, 2004). During<br />
simulations, similar mosaics have been submitted to different fire regimes including fire<br />
recurrence, fire size, <strong>and</strong> fire severity. The results showed that cork oak populations are stable<br />
under such fire regimes, suggesting that the shift from cork oak to pure shrubl<strong>and</strong>s are likely to<br />
be due to a combination of disturbances by fires <strong>and</strong> by droughts.<br />
Keywords: Shrubl<strong>and</strong>, cork oak (Quercus suber L.), fire regime, LASS Fatel<strong>and</strong>, Mediterranean<br />
l<strong>and</strong>scape<br />
1. Introduction<br />
Mosaics of shrubl<strong>and</strong>s <strong>and</strong> trees are a common feature in the Mediterranean fire-prone<br />
ecosystems such as in cork oak woodl<strong>and</strong>s associated with so-called maquis (Aronson et al.,<br />
2009). In these ecosystems, trees interact strongly with shrubs in the context of disturbance by<br />
recurrent wildfires. Actually, shrubby understory is a key factor determining the interval<br />
between successive fires <strong>and</strong> the intensity of fires as shrubs are flammable fuels that can rebuild<br />
rapidly after disturbance (Baeza et al., 2006). The composition, cover <strong>and</strong> flammability of<br />
shrubby fuels may lead to a high mortality of mature woody seeders (Moreira et al., 2007), but<br />
also limit drastically the resprouting of surviving stems (Pausas, 1997) <strong>and</strong> the establishment of<br />
young individuals from seeds (Curt et al., 2009).<br />
Cork oak (Quercus suber) is renowned as especially fire-resistant <strong>and</strong> fire-resilient (Pausas,<br />
1997). However, the legally-protected cork oak ecosystems experience increasing tree mortality<br />
<strong>and</strong> regeneration failure in the Maures massif (southern France), likely due to recurrent wildfires<br />
<strong>and</strong> severe summer droughts. This is hypothesized to cause major population impacts in a<br />
context of climate change, as fire recurrence <strong>and</strong> fire severity should increase. L<strong>and</strong> <strong>and</strong> forest<br />
managers need the help of simulation tools to predict l<strong>and</strong>scape-scale impact of different fire<br />
regimes, <strong>and</strong> to set up <strong>and</strong> to test reliable scenarios in order to limit the impact of fires <strong>and</strong><br />
drought, <strong>and</strong> for helping cork oak conservation. To test the impact of the size of the patches of<br />
cork oak woodl<strong>and</strong>s <strong>and</strong> of different fire regimes on the stability of the oak-shrubl<strong>and</strong> mosaic<br />
we used a simulation approach using data from the field <strong>and</strong> literature to implement <strong>and</strong> to<br />
calibrate the model.<br />
* Corresponding author. Phone: +33 4 42 66 99 24 - fax +33 4 42 66 99 23<br />
Email adress: thomas.curt@cemagref.fr<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
T. Curt & J. Pausas 2010. Are changes in fire regime threatening cork oak-shrubl<strong>and</strong> mosaics<br />
120<br />
2. Methodology<br />
2.1 Study area <strong>and</strong> species<br />
The study area is the Maures massif located in the southeastern part of France (43°3 N, 6.3°E),<br />
which is the largest French area for cork oak (Quercus suber L.). This massif is composed of a<br />
granitic <strong>and</strong> metamorphic basement covered with acidic Cambisols. The climate is typically<br />
Mediterranean <strong>and</strong> subhumid xerothermic. The massif is a hotspot for fires, including zones<br />
with up to five recurrent fires since 1959 (Curt et al., 2009). The Maures massif has features<br />
common to many Mediterranean countries that explain the recurrence of wildfires: the<br />
predominance of human-induced fires owing to population <strong>and</strong> urban growth (Curt <strong>and</strong> Delcros,<br />
2010), the development of large <strong>and</strong> intense summer wildfires during dries <strong>and</strong> windy spells<br />
(Pausas, 2004), enhanced by the abundance of flammable vegetation types (Mouillot et al.,<br />
2003). The cork oak (Quercus suber) populations are protected by the European Union (Habitat<br />
directive 92/43/EEC) due to their high conservation value. They are intermingled with<br />
shrubl<strong>and</strong>s dominated by the resprouter Erica arborea <strong>and</strong> various seeders (Cistus spp.).<br />
2.1 Model <strong>and</strong> simulation plan<br />
In order to simulate the fate of cork oak population, the vegetation dynamics <strong>and</strong> the spread of<br />
fire we used the FATELAND model (Pausas <strong>and</strong> Ramos, 2006), which is a spatially explicit<br />
version of the FATE model (Moore <strong>and</strong> Noble, 1990) implemented under the LASS software<br />
(available at www.uv.es/jgpausas/lass). FATELAND has been used to model the dynamics of<br />
Mediterranean vegetation submitted to different scenarios of disturbance by fires in Spanish<br />
ecosystems (Pausas <strong>and</strong> Lloret, 2007). For all simulations we selected four main species that<br />
correspond to the most representative <strong>and</strong> dominant plant types in the study area, <strong>and</strong> to various<br />
plant functional types: a resprouter tree (cork oak, Quercus suber L.), a resprouter shrub (heath<br />
tree, Erica arborea L.), seeder shrubs (rockroses, Cistus spp.) <strong>and</strong> a perennial grass<br />
(Brachypodium retusum (Pers.) P.Beauv.) that resprouts after fire (Caturla et al., 2000).<br />
We built an artificial l<strong>and</strong>scape of 200 x 200 square cells, each one equivalent to 10 x 10 meters.<br />
The total area is thus 400 ha, i.e. an area sufficient to take into account the spatial interactions<br />
between species, <strong>and</strong> coherent with the maximal distance of seed dispersal. On the basis of our<br />
field survey of vegetation <strong>and</strong> fuels (Curt et al., 2009), we simulated two mosaics of cork oak<br />
woodl<strong>and</strong>s, shrubl<strong>and</strong>s dominated by Erica arborea <strong>and</strong> Cistus species, <strong>and</strong> patches of<br />
Brachypodium grass. The first one corresponded to small patches of cork oak within the<br />
shrubl<strong>and</strong> matrix while the second one corresponded to large patches of cork oak within the<br />
shrubl<strong>and</strong> matrix. Both mosaics had a similar total area for cork oak <strong>and</strong> shrubl<strong>and</strong>s, but they<br />
had different spatial patterning of vegetation.<br />
All simulations had 110 years duration, the last fire being at year 100 to allow vegetation to<br />
recover. In all simulations, the disturbance started at year 10. At the beginning of each<br />
simulation, the initial conditions of vegetation were set equal for each mosaic. During<br />
simulations, each mosaic was submitted to variable fire regimes including different fire<br />
recurrences, fire sizes <strong>and</strong> fire severities:<br />
- the fire recurrence was simulated by setting different fire intervals, i.e. 10, 20, 30, 40<br />
<strong>and</strong> 50 years<br />
- the maximum fire size was set to three levels: small fires (25% of the l<strong>and</strong>scape),<br />
medium fires (50%) <strong>and</strong> large fires (75%)<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
T. Curt & J. Pausas 2010. Are changes in fire regime threatening cork oak-shrubl<strong>and</strong> mosaics<br />
121<br />
- the fire severity for cork oak was modeled by two levels of fire response: low (i.e. low<br />
mortality <strong>and</strong> high resprouting rate for cork oak) versus high (high mortality <strong>and</strong> low<br />
resprouting rate for cork oak)<br />
The persistence of all plants was assessed at the end of the simulations using the total<br />
abundance of all cohorts, <strong>and</strong> the abundance of four cohorts representing the life stages (i.e.<br />
seeds, immature individuals, mature trees, <strong>and</strong> mature high trees). In order to analyze the spatial<br />
changes of the mosaics we also compared the spatial patterning of cork oak <strong>and</strong> of the whole<br />
mosaic before <strong>and</strong> after the simulations. For this purpose we assessed the ‘total edge length’<br />
(McGarigal et al., 2002), this statistics being expected to be a good indicator of species’ spatial<br />
interactions (Pausas, 2006). We also tested the spatial autocorrelation for species richness at the<br />
end of simulations by computing the Moran’s I index (Cliff <strong>and</strong> Ord 1981). The comparison of<br />
the effect of different fires regimes on the mosaics was done using multiple analyses of variance<br />
(MANOVA) with the variables describing species abundance, richness <strong>and</strong> patterning as<br />
dependent variables <strong>and</strong> the variables of fire regime as independent variables.<br />
3. Result<br />
The multiple analyses of variance (Table 1) indicated that the overall abundance of cork (i.e. the<br />
number of cells in which cork oak was present whatever the cohort) was quite stable among all<br />
the simulations runs. It varied from 46.5 to 62% of the l<strong>and</strong>scape (mean value 50.7% with a<br />
coefficient of variation of 6.6%) while the area at the beginning of all simulations was 50% of<br />
the l<strong>and</strong>scape. The total abundance of cork oak after simulation did not relate to the type of<br />
mosaic: large <strong>and</strong> small patches of cork oak woodl<strong>and</strong>s resulted in similar cork oak abundance<br />
under a similar fire regime. Likewise, the different cohorts of cork oak (i.e. from seeds to<br />
mature high trees) were not significantly affected by the size of the woodl<strong>and</strong> patches at the<br />
beginning of simulation. Conversely, all the variables of the fire regime clearly impacted the<br />
abundance of cork oak in the l<strong>and</strong>scape (Table 1): its overall abundance decreased with low fire<br />
recurrence <strong>and</strong> small fires. While the presence of cork oak in the l<strong>and</strong>scape was quite stable<br />
among simulations, the different cohorts behaved differently. Seeds were more abundant with a<br />
mean fire interval of 30 to 40 years. Immature individuals were more abundant at a 20-years fire<br />
interval <strong>and</strong> with large fires. Mature cork oak trees tended to increase with longer fire intervals<br />
but not statistically significantly. High mature trees that form the overstory increased at low fire<br />
recurrence, <strong>and</strong> with low severity <strong>and</strong> small fires. In all the simulations, lower disturbance by<br />
fire (i.e. long fire-free intervals, small fires <strong>and</strong> low-severity fires) favored the development of<br />
mature cork oak woodl<strong>and</strong>s dominated by mature trees, with fewer immature individuals.<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
T. Curt & J. Pausas 2010. Are changes in fire regime threatening cork oak-shrubl<strong>and</strong> mosaics<br />
122<br />
Table 1. Multiple analysis of variance of cork oak abundance <strong>and</strong> l<strong>and</strong>scape metrics as a<br />
function of the size of the patches of cork oak woodl<strong>and</strong>s <strong>and</strong> the fire regime. The total<br />
abundance of cork oak <strong>and</strong> the abundance of the different cohorts were computed as the mean<br />
value at the end of the simulations (years 100 to 110). NS = non statistically significant (Tukey’s<br />
HSD test 95%)<br />
Size of the Fire Recurrence Fire Size Fire Severity<br />
woodl<strong>and</strong><br />
patches<br />
Cork oak<br />
Total abundance NS 6.59<br />
13.97<br />
NS<br />
P
T. Curt & J. Pausas 2010. Are changes in fire regime threatening cork oak-shrubl<strong>and</strong> mosaics<br />
123<br />
References<br />
Aronson, J., Pereira, J.S., Pausas, J.G., (Eds.), 2009. Cork Oak Woodl<strong>and</strong>s on the Edge: ecology,<br />
Adapative Management, <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Isl<strong>and</strong> Press, Washington, D.C., USA 352 pp.<br />
Baeza, M.J., Raventos, J., Escarre, A., Vallejo, V.R., 2006. Fire risk <strong>and</strong> vegetation structural<br />
dynamics in Mediterranean shrubl<strong>and</strong>. Plant Ecology, 187, 189-201.<br />
Caturla, R.N., Raventós, J., Guàrdia, R., Vallejo, V.R., 2000. Early post-fire regeneration dynamics of<br />
Brachypodium retusum Pers. (Beauv.) in old fields of the Valencia region (eastern Spain). Acta<br />
Oecologica, 21, 1-12.<br />
Curt, T., Adra, W., Borgniet, L., 2009. Fire-driven oak regeneration in French Mediterranean<br />
ecosystems. <strong>Forest</strong> Ecology <strong>and</strong> Management, 258, 2127-2135.<br />
Curt , T., Delcros, P., 2010. Managing road corridors to limit fire hazard. a simulation approach in<br />
southern France. Ecological Engineering, 4, 1-12.<br />
Delitti, W., Ferran, A., Trabaud, L., Vallejo, V.R., 2004. Effects of fire reccurrence in Quercus<br />
coccifera L. shrubl<strong>and</strong>s of the Valencia region (Spain): I. Plant composition <strong>and</strong> productivity.<br />
Plant Ecology, 177, 57-70.<br />
McGarigal, K., Cushman, S.A., Neel, M.C., Ene, E., 2002. FRAGSTATS: spatial pattern analysis<br />
program for categorical maps. University of Massachusetts, Amherst.<br />
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Moreira, F., Duarte, L., Catry, F., Acacio, V., 2007. Cork extraction as a key factor determining postfire<br />
cork oak survival in a mountain region of southern Portugal. <strong>Forest</strong> Ecology <strong>and</strong><br />
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665-674.<br />
Pausas, J.G., 1997. Resprouting of Quercus suber in NE Spain after fire. Journal of Vegetation<br />
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Climatic <strong>Change</strong>, 63, 337-350.<br />
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Pausas, J.G., Lloret, F., 2007. Spatial <strong>and</strong> temporal patterns of plant functional types under simulated<br />
fire regimes. International Journal of Wildl<strong>and</strong> Fire, 16, 484-492.<br />
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Modelling & Software, 21, 629-639.<br />
Pons J. & Pausas J.G. 2006. Oak regeneration in heterogeneous l<strong>and</strong>scapes: the case of fragmented<br />
Quercus suber forests in the eastern Iberian Peninsula. <strong>Forest</strong> Ecology & Management 231:<br />
196-204<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
R.A Fleming et al. 2010. <strong>Forest</strong> management <strong>and</strong> climate, through l<strong>and</strong>scape structure, affect the potential for insect outbreak<br />
124<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> management <strong>and</strong> climate, through l<strong>and</strong>scape structure, affect<br />
the potential for insect outbreak<br />
Richard A Fleming 1* , Allan L. Carroll 2 , Jean-Noël C<strong>and</strong>au 1 & Philippe Dreyfus 3<br />
1 Canadian <strong>Forest</strong> Service, Natural Resources Canada, P.O. Box 490, Sault Ste. Marie,<br />
P6A 4C8, Canada<br />
2 Department of <strong>Forest</strong> Sciences, Faculty of <strong>Forest</strong>ry, University of British Columbia,<br />
2424 Main Mall, Vancouver, BC, V6T 1Z4, Canada<br />
3 Institut National de la Recherche Agronomique (INRA), Recherches <strong>Forest</strong>ières<br />
Méditerranéennes (Mediterranean <strong>Forest</strong> Research), Avenue A. Vivaldi, 84000,<br />
Avignon, France<br />
Abstract<br />
The mountain pine beetle (MPB) is endemic to western North American pine forests <strong>and</strong> is<br />
currently causing a very destructive outbreak in western Canada. Historically, expansion further<br />
north <strong>and</strong> east was limited by mountains <strong>and</strong> winter cold, but during recent warm winters the<br />
insect crossed the mountains <strong>and</strong> it now threatens Canada’s eastern forests.<br />
This concern has motivated our study of how l<strong>and</strong>scape structure affects outbreak development<br />
<strong>and</strong> spread. As part of this study, we describe a model of MPB-st<strong>and</strong> dynamics. Based on recent<br />
field work, the model includes a threshold at low density which the local beetle population must<br />
overcome to become eruptive. We show how, from the MPB perspective, l<strong>and</strong>scape structure<br />
responds to climate <strong>and</strong> forest management <strong>and</strong> has strong, indirect affects on the likelihood of<br />
eruption. We discuss the recent under-estimation of MPB spread in Alberta by much more<br />
complex models.<br />
Keywords: mountain pine beetle, st<strong>and</strong> density management diagram, Dendroctonus<br />
ponderosae, forest l<strong>and</strong>scape structure, outbreak spread<br />
1. Introduction<br />
Besides timber, healthy forests provide a variety of non-timber products <strong>and</strong> many ecosystem<br />
services including maintenance of biodiversity, clean water, <strong>and</strong> carbon storage. In Canada’s<br />
forests, change comes primarily in the form of "disturbances". Disturbances occur in many<br />
forms (e.g., storms, fire, insects, disease, <strong>and</strong> logging) <strong>and</strong> over a wide range of scales (Ayres<br />
<strong>and</strong> Lombardero 2000; Dale et al. 2001). Disturbances leave ecological legacies which<br />
determine future species composition, age structure, <strong>and</strong> spatial heterogeneity of the area<br />
(Radeloff et al. 2000) <strong>and</strong> consequently, facilitate or impede the occurrence of future<br />
disturbances (Kulakowski et al. 2003).<br />
Insects are the most diverse class of organisms on earth <strong>and</strong> the major natural cause of depletion<br />
from Canada’s forest productivity. Past outbreaks have engulfed extensive areas (Volney <strong>and</strong><br />
Fleming 2000). Canada’s western forests are now experiencing “the largest insect outbreak in<br />
* Corresponding author.<br />
Email address: rfleming@nrcan.gc.ca<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
R.A Fleming et al. 2010. <strong>Forest</strong> management <strong>and</strong> climate, through l<strong>and</strong>scape structure, affect the potential for insect outbreak<br />
125<br />
Canadian history” (Ono 2004). The mountain pine beetle (Dendroctonus ponderosae) has been<br />
killing mature lodgepole pine over an area extending up to 13 million ha since 1999 (Raffa et al.<br />
2008). The resultant decline in carbon uptake through photosynthesis <strong>and</strong> increase in emissions<br />
from decaying trees has been so great that it has even changed Canada’s western forests from a<br />
small net carbon sink to a large net atmospheric source (Kurz et al. 2008).<br />
Mountain pine beetle (MPB) can successfully attack most western pines, but lodgepole is its<br />
primary host throughout most of its range. Although widespread – occurring from northern<br />
Mexico, through 12 U.S. states <strong>and</strong> 3 Canadian provinces – mountain pine beetle outbreaks in<br />
Canada have been mainly restricted to the southern half of British Columbia <strong>and</strong> the extreme<br />
south-western portion of Alberta. (In 1979, an outbreak occurred in the Cypress Hills at the<br />
southern junction of the Alberta-Saskatchewan border (Ono 2004)). This restriction is not due<br />
to MPB’s host tree. Lodgepole pine extends north into the Yukon <strong>and</strong> Northwest Territories,<br />
<strong>and</strong> east across much of Alberta. Rather, the potential for mountain pine beetle populations to<br />
exp<strong>and</strong> north <strong>and</strong> east has historically been limited by winter cold <strong>and</strong> mountainous terrain.<br />
The substantial shift by mountain pine beetle populations into formerly unsuitable habitats<br />
during the past 30 years as a result of warmer winters has recently enabled the beetle to<br />
overcome the natural barrier of the high mountains (Carroll et al. 2004).<br />
Pre-requisites for a mountain pine beetle outbreak to occur are an abundance of large, mature<br />
pine trees <strong>and</strong> several years of favorable weather. Fire suppression <strong>and</strong> selective harvesting<br />
(for species other than pine) during the latter half of the previous century have more than<br />
tripled the area of mature pine in western Canada. Moreover, mountain pine beetle survival has<br />
increased as a result of warmer winters over much of western Canada, allowing populations to<br />
invade successfully into pine forests in areas that formerly were climatically unsuitable. Thus,<br />
both conditions for an outbreak have coincided, <strong>and</strong> with enough force to produce the largest<br />
MPB outbreak in recorded history. Given the rapid colonization by mountain pine beetles of<br />
areas that formerly were climatically unsuitable in recent decades, continued warming in<br />
western North America associated with climate change will likely allow the beetle to exp<strong>and</strong><br />
its range further northward, eastward <strong>and</strong> toward higher elevations.<br />
In the past, large-scale mountain pine beetle outbreaks collapsed due to localized depletion of<br />
suitable host trees in combination with adverse weather (e.g., an unseasonably cold period or<br />
an extreme winter). The current outbreak may be different. In the absence of unusual weather,<br />
this outbreak may persist by continually moving into new habitats as global warming allows<br />
access to a small, but continual supply of mature pine, thereby maintaining populations at<br />
above-normal levels for some decades into the future (Carroll et al. 2004).<br />
A recent series of benign winters has allowed mountain pine beetle populations to extend their<br />
ranges along the northeastern slopes of the Rockies in Alberta – areas in which the beetle has<br />
not been previously recorded. This has created a very dangerous situation. The MPB is now<br />
approaching the jack pine, Pinus banksiana, forests of northern Alberta <strong>and</strong> Saskatchewan.<br />
There is no known biological barrier to populations of the beetles colonizing jack pine if its<br />
range exp<strong>and</strong>s north to the zone of overlap between jack <strong>and</strong> lodgepole pines. Because jack pine<br />
is susceptible <strong>and</strong> extends through the rest of the boreal all the way to the east coast, the MPB<br />
may be about to gain access to the whole extent of Canada’s boreal forest (Raffa et al. 2008).<br />
Although changes in forest l<strong>and</strong>scape structure caused by selective harvesting <strong>and</strong> fire<br />
suppression are often cited as a contributing factor to the current outbreak, the mechanisms<br />
involved in the interactions between the l<strong>and</strong>scape structure <strong>and</strong> the population dynamics of<br />
mountain pine beetle remain largely unknown. Indeed, the interactions between the spatial<br />
patterns of l<strong>and</strong>scape structures <strong>and</strong> disturbance processes have been a central question in<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
R.A Fleming et al. 2010. <strong>Forest</strong> management <strong>and</strong> climate, through l<strong>and</strong>scape structure, affect the potential for insect outbreak<br />
126<br />
l<strong>and</strong>scape <strong>and</strong> forest ecology. Insect outbreak severity <strong>and</strong> extent have been shown to be<br />
influenced by l<strong>and</strong>scape structure (Coulson et al. 1999; Radeloff et al. 2000; Cairns et al. 2008).<br />
There is a long history of modeling MPB population dynamics (Berryman et al. 1984; Powell et<br />
al. 1996; Logan et al. 1998; Heavilin <strong>and</strong> Powell 2008; Powell <strong>and</strong> Bentz 2009). However, we<br />
still have little idea what triggers a stable, low density, endemic population to erupt to outbreak<br />
levels which can become self-perpetuating through contagious spread between susceptible<br />
st<strong>and</strong>s. Once a population has exceeded the st<strong>and</strong>-level eruptive threshold, its capacity to<br />
contribute to a l<strong>and</strong>scape-scale outbreak will depend on the availability <strong>and</strong> the quality of<br />
susceptible host trees in neighboring st<strong>and</strong>s (Aukema et al. 2006; Safranyik <strong>and</strong> Carroll 2006).<br />
As the resource gets depleted, the l<strong>and</strong>scape structure at a larger scale becomes a critical factor.<br />
2. Methodology<br />
Our over-all objective is to develop a simple, flexible model which can accurately describe the<br />
broad characteristics of the spread of MPB outbreaks in time <strong>and</strong> space over both lodgepole<br />
pine <strong>and</strong> jackpine l<strong>and</strong>scapes. Our goal is to provide a better underst<strong>and</strong>ing of the interactions<br />
between l<strong>and</strong>scape structure <strong>and</strong> the dynamics of mountain beetle populations, particularly<br />
during the eruptive phase. We hope to identify how l<strong>and</strong>scape properties interact with<br />
population dynamics to enable MPB to erupt to outbreak levels <strong>and</strong> the different scales at which<br />
these processes are interacting. The model will also provide a tool to assess the susceptibility of<br />
current <strong>and</strong> future l<strong>and</strong>scapes to mountain pine beetle outbreaks <strong>and</strong> benchmarks for forest<br />
management plans <strong>and</strong> decision support systems.<br />
2.1 Model development<br />
This model can be thought of as comprising 3 interacting components. The site (sub)model<br />
describes the ecological mechanisms that affect the probability that a low density MPB<br />
population can escape from its limiting factors <strong>and</strong> erupt within both a lodgepole pine <strong>and</strong> a<br />
jackpine st<strong>and</strong>. The l<strong>and</strong>scape structure (sub)model describes how pine st<strong>and</strong>s are distributed<br />
over the l<strong>and</strong>scape of concern both in terms of their presence <strong>and</strong> in terms of the ecological<br />
factors which determine the characteristics of their susceptibility to MPB. The dispersal<br />
(sub)model describes how the insects leaving one st<strong>and</strong> are dispersed over the l<strong>and</strong>scape <strong>and</strong><br />
can thus contribute to triggering eruptions in neighboring or more distant st<strong>and</strong>s.<br />
At the forest st<strong>and</strong> level, the dynamics are controlled by the interaction between a host pine<br />
species st<strong>and</strong> model <strong>and</strong> a mountain pine beetle population dynamics model. At the l<strong>and</strong>scape<br />
level, the dynamics of the system emerge from interactions between st<strong>and</strong>s <strong>and</strong> local MPB<br />
populations through insect dispersal. The dynamics of the system also depend on the initial<br />
characteristics of the l<strong>and</strong>scape (i.e. heterogeneity, patch size, connectivity) <strong>and</strong> the evolution of<br />
its structure according to forest management <strong>and</strong> natural disturbance scenarios. Ultimately, the<br />
simulation models will be implemented in CAPSIS, a simulation platform developed at the<br />
Institut National de la Recherche Agronomique (France) to study the dynamics of forest<br />
ecosystems.<br />
3. Results <strong>and</strong> Discussion<br />
This paper focuses on the development of the site (sub)model. Because previous research<br />
(Carroll et al. 2004) showed that the st<strong>and</strong>-level dynamics of MPB populations can be well-<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
R.A Fleming et al. 2010. <strong>Forest</strong> management <strong>and</strong> climate, through l<strong>and</strong>scape structure, affect the potential for insect outbreak<br />
127<br />
described in the context of st<strong>and</strong> density management diagrams (Farnden 1996), it was decided<br />
to use this approach to model the host pine st<strong>and</strong>s.<br />
St<strong>and</strong> density management diagrams (SDMD) are graphical representations of st<strong>and</strong><br />
development that illustrate the interactions between stocking <strong>and</strong> other st<strong>and</strong> parameters such as<br />
mean diameter, top height, <strong>and</strong> volume. In a modeling context, when many st<strong>and</strong>s have to be<br />
“grown” simultaneously, SDMDs present the advantage of eliminating the need to perform<br />
complex mathematical analyses often used in individual tree, distance-dependent growth <strong>and</strong><br />
yield models. This SDMD approach also provides needed flexibility <strong>and</strong> transparency in<br />
preparation for modeling MPB spread into l<strong>and</strong>scapes dominated by a different pine species for<br />
which there has been no prior experience.<br />
The site (sub)model describes the key ecological mechanisms affecting the growth of MPB<br />
populations within even-aged st<strong>and</strong>s of lodgepole pine in the context of SDMDs. This growth is<br />
non-linear: at low densities, tree defences, competitors, <strong>and</strong> lack of suitable habitat severely<br />
restrict MPB populations. But as st<strong>and</strong>s age, the trees become more susceptible to mass attack in<br />
which upwards of a 1000 MPBs will aggregate to overwhelm the defences of an individual tree.<br />
Besides age, other st<strong>and</strong> properties, particularly tree density, also affect a st<strong>and</strong>’s ability to resist<br />
a mass attack. St<strong>and</strong>s are most susceptible beyond 80 years of age, but by at least 160 years the<br />
phloem in their trees has become too thin for a mass-attacking MPB population to successfully<br />
reproduce itself.<br />
In this presentation, we describe the site (sub)model <strong>and</strong> show how it can be used to<br />
infer a variety of different possible patterns of spread for MPB outbreaks. We also show<br />
that the local st<strong>and</strong> dynamics can be crucial determinants of the larger l<strong>and</strong>scape<br />
patterns that emerge when l<strong>and</strong>scape structure <strong>and</strong> dispersal dynamics are also<br />
considered.<br />
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Acknowledgements<br />
This work would not be possible without the financial support of Manitoba<br />
Conservation, the Ontario Ministry of Natural Resources, <strong>and</strong> the Saskatchewan<br />
Ministry of Environment through SERG (Spray Efficacy Research Group)-International.<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
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P. Charles Goebel 1* , Charles W. Goss 1 , Virginie Bouchard 2 & Lance R. Williams<br />
3<br />
1<br />
School of Environment <strong>and</strong> Natural Resources, Ohio Agricultural Research <strong>and</strong><br />
Development Center, The Ohio State University, 1680 Madison Ave., Wooster, OH<br />
44691, USA<br />
2 School of Environment <strong>and</strong> Natural Resources, The Ohio State University, 2021<br />
Coffey Rd., Columbus, OH 43210-1085, USA<br />
3<br />
Department of Biology, University of Texas at Tyler, 3900 University Blvd., Tyler,<br />
TX 75799, USA<br />
Abstract<br />
In agricultural l<strong>and</strong>scapes restoring riparian forest patches along streams is a watershed<br />
management priority. There are questions, however, as to the degree to which aquatic food<br />
webs are supported by inputs from small <strong>and</strong> often isolated forested riparian patches in<br />
agricultural l<strong>and</strong>scapes. To examine these contributions we compared the plant communities<br />
<strong>and</strong> stream food webs between forested <strong>and</strong> non-forested riparian patches in an agricultural<br />
l<strong>and</strong>scape <strong>and</strong> used stable isotope analyses to determine whether the primary source of energy<br />
for different levels of aquatic food webs were derived from terrestrial or aquatic sources. We<br />
observed no differences in the δ 13 C signatures of consumers between forested <strong>and</strong> non-forested<br />
riparian areas. Similarly, we also observed few differences in δ 15 N signatures between forested<br />
<strong>and</strong> non-forested sites for different trophic levels. This suggests that there may be other<br />
mechanisms driving the structure of aquatic food webs than basal resources alone.<br />
Keywords: riparian forests, stable isotope analysis, food webs, ecosystem structure<br />
1. Introduction<br />
Riparian forests are dynamic components of the l<strong>and</strong>scape that promote many ecosystem<br />
functions vital to the sustainability <strong>and</strong> productivity of watersheds through their influence on<br />
stream water quality, in-stream habitat, food web structure, <strong>and</strong> ecosystem function (Gregory et<br />
al. 1991; Naiman et al. 1993; Wallace et al. 1997). Although riparian areas are subjected to a<br />
variety of natural disturbances (e.g., flooding, drought, l<strong>and</strong>slides, <strong>and</strong> wildfire) that alter habitat<br />
structure <strong>and</strong> biodiversity (Ilhardt et al. 2000), human disturbances (including agricultural<br />
practices) can alter riparian forests in complex <strong>and</strong> often synergistic ways (Gregory et al. 1991).<br />
In many agricultural l<strong>and</strong>scapes, riparian forests have been removed or greatly modified. As a<br />
result <strong>and</strong> because of the importance of riparian areas to watersheds, riparian corridors are often<br />
protected around streams, <strong>and</strong> they are a major component of most watershed management <strong>and</strong><br />
restoration initiatives.<br />
Under ideal conditions, headwater streams are heterotrophic systems where allochthonous<br />
(carbon) inputs from riparian forest vegetation provides energy <strong>and</strong> nutrients for aquatic food<br />
* Corresponding author. Tel: +1 330-263-2789 – Fax: +1 330-263-3658<br />
Email address: goebel.11@osu.edu<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong> -New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
P.C. Goebel et al. 2010. How important are riparian forests to aquatic foodwebs in agricultural watersheds<br />
130<br />
webs, which in turn, provide the assimilative mechanisms for nutrients including nitrogen <strong>and</strong><br />
phosphorus (Vannote et al. 1980; Minshall et al. 1985). In most cases, the processing of<br />
nitrogen, phosphorus, <strong>and</strong> organic matter (carbon) is strongly influenced by channel<br />
morphology (e.g., sinuosity <strong>and</strong> connection to an active floodplain), habitat characteristics (e.g.,<br />
large wood that traps leaves <strong>and</strong> slows downstream movement) <strong>and</strong> diversity <strong>and</strong> structure of<br />
the aquatic community. A diversity of organisms in the aquatic food web sequesters nutrients<br />
<strong>and</strong> slows their downstream transport. In contrast, in managed <strong>and</strong> degraded headwaters, large<br />
proportions of inorganic nutrients enhance the growth of algae, which lowers levels of dissolved<br />
oxygen, consequently limiting the survival of more desirable invertebrate <strong>and</strong> vertebrate<br />
species. The degree to which this assimilative capacity remains intact is particularly critical in<br />
predominantly agricultural watersheds where riparian forests have been removed <strong>and</strong> nutrient<br />
loadings to streams tend to be high. In the absence of organic carbon inputs, as is encountered<br />
when riparian vegetation is removed, the capacity of streams to process <strong>and</strong> retain nutrients can<br />
be lowered significantly (Malanson 1993). In these systems, it remains unclear whether instream<br />
production is an alternative energy source to woody riparian vegetation that structures<br />
aquatic food webs.<br />
In this paper, we examine the relationships between basal resources <strong>and</strong> consumers in small <strong>and</strong><br />
often isolated riparian forest fragments within a larger agricultural l<strong>and</strong>scape. To accomplish<br />
this, we utilize stable isotope analysis to quantify the use of terrestrial <strong>and</strong> aquatic sources of<br />
organic matter by consumers <strong>and</strong> explore how the presence of riparian forest fragments can<br />
affect the source of energy <strong>and</strong> its availability to aquatic consumers in headwater streams. Use<br />
of carbon (δ 13 C) <strong>and</strong> nitrogen (δ 15 N) stable isotopes is a powerful tool to evaluate trophic<br />
relationships in aquatic food webs (Peterson <strong>and</strong> Fry 1987). Because the δ 13 C composition of<br />
animals correspond closely to those of their food sources, it is possible to evaluate the<br />
contribution of various sources of carbon to the energy flux of aquatic systems. Such connection<br />
between food sources <strong>and</strong> the consumers can only be done when sources have distinctive δ 13 C<br />
ratios (Hamilton et al. 1992). It has also been shown that in aquatic systems, allochthonous <strong>and</strong><br />
autochthonous sources of carbon tend to generally have different δ 13 C signatures, providing a<br />
tool to evaluate their incorporation into the aquatic food web. δ 15 N isotope ratios, in contrast,<br />
become more enriched at successive trophic positions.<br />
2. Methodology<br />
2.1 Study area, site selection, <strong>and</strong> field sampling<br />
We conducted our research in the Sugar Creek watershed, located in northeastern Ohio, USA.<br />
The Sugar Creek watershed covers 922 km 2 <strong>and</strong> is dominated by different types of agriculture,<br />
including conventional row-crop production <strong>and</strong> traditional Amish farming practices (Stinner et<br />
al. 1989). The l<strong>and</strong>scape is best described as fragmented, with small isolated riparian forests<br />
<strong>and</strong> woodlots typically comprising less than 10% of the total watershed area. Within this<br />
watershed, we selected nine stream reaches dominated by small forested riparian areas <strong>and</strong> ten<br />
stream reaches dominated by non-forested riparian areas.<br />
At each site, we collected three categories of organic materials: (1) autotrophs from the channel<br />
(i.e., macroalgae, macrophyte, <strong>and</strong> epilithon) <strong>and</strong> the riparian area (i.e., herbaceous vegetation<br />
<strong>and</strong> leaves from trees), (2) detrital material (i.e., coarse particulate organic matter or CPOM,<br />
fine particulate organic matter or FPOM, <strong>and</strong> dissolved organic matter or DOC), <strong>and</strong> (3)<br />
consumers (both macroinvertebrates <strong>and</strong> fishes). Riparian trees were only sampled at forested<br />
sites as they were mostly absent from non-forested sites. All samples were collected in the<br />
spring of 2008 once from each location.<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong> -New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
P.C. Goebel et al. 2010. How important are riparian forests to aquatic foodwebs in agricultural watersheds<br />
131<br />
For all autotrophs, sampling was conducted by compositing subsamples from different habitats<br />
within the selected reach, resulting in one sample per type of material sampled per site.<br />
Macroalgae <strong>and</strong> macrophytes were r<strong>and</strong>omly sampled through each reach. Macrophytes were<br />
only present at six <strong>and</strong> five of the forested <strong>and</strong> non-forested sites, respectively. Epilithic<br />
microfilm material was collected from cobbles with a brush. In addition to microalgae, these<br />
samples might have contained some detrital material or heterotrophic bacteria. Thus, these<br />
samples are referred to generally as epilithon, whereas the algal component of such sample<br />
would be referred to as epilithic microalgae. In the lab, epilithon sample were filtered onto<br />
precombusted GFF filters <strong>and</strong> invertebrates were removed. Samples of herbaceous species were<br />
collected r<strong>and</strong>omly in the riparian area. At the forested sites, leaves from the dominant three to<br />
four riparian trees were collected. In the laboratory, all material was carefully washed <strong>and</strong> dried.<br />
Three 1-L water samples were collected at the reach <strong>and</strong> brought back to the lab. Coarse<br />
particulate organic matter (> 1mm), fine particulate organic matter (< 1mm, > 0.47μm) <strong>and</strong><br />
dissolved organic matter (
P.C. Goebel et al. 2010. How important are riparian forests to aquatic foodwebs in agricultural watersheds<br />
132<br />
Isotope ratios are expressed as δ 13 C <strong>and</strong> δ 15 N values per mille [‰] relative to the international<br />
reference st<strong>and</strong>ard VPDB using NBS 19, L-SVEC, IAEA-N-1 <strong>and</strong> IAEA-N-2. St<strong>and</strong>ards<br />
deviations of δ 13 C <strong>and</strong> δ 15 N replicate analyses were 0.2 ‰ <strong>and</strong> 0.2 ‰, respectively.<br />
DOC samples were analyzed for δ 13 C using an O.I. Analytical Model 1010 TOC Analyzer (OI<br />
Analytical, College Station, TX) interfaced to a PDZ Europa 20-20 isotope ratio mass<br />
spectrometer (Sercon Ltd., Cheshire, UK). This analysis was conducted at the UC Davis Stable<br />
Isotope Facility, in the Department of Plant Sciences. A 20-mL aliquot of sample was<br />
transferred into a heated digestion vessel <strong>and</strong> reacted sequentially with phosphoric acid then<br />
with sodium persulfate to convert DIC <strong>and</strong> DOC each into a pulse of CO 2 . The two sequential<br />
CO 2 pulses liberated by the chemical treatments are carried in a helium flow to an infra-red gas<br />
analyzer (IRGA), then to the isotope ratio mass spectrometer where the 13 C/ 12 C ratios are<br />
measured <strong>and</strong> compared to ratios of laboratory st<strong>and</strong>ards calibrated against NIST St<strong>and</strong>ard<br />
Reference Materials.<br />
We compared δ 13 C <strong>and</strong> δ 15 N values of dominant basal resources (autotrophs <strong>and</strong> detrital<br />
materials) between forested <strong>and</strong> non-forested streams using a t-test. Likewise, to examine<br />
differences in stable isotope signatures for macroinvertebrate functional feeding groups <strong>and</strong><br />
dominant fish species between forested <strong>and</strong> non-forested riparian areas, we also utilized a t-test.<br />
3. Results<br />
We detected no statistically significant differences in δ 13 C values of dominant autotrophs <strong>and</strong><br />
detrital material between forested <strong>and</strong> non-forested streams (Figure 1A). Algae δ 13 C values were<br />
the most depleted, ranging from -40.5‰ to -22.3‰ while δ 13 C values of the epilithon were the<br />
most enriched (ranging from -23.3‰ to -15.1‰), followed by FPOM δ 13 C values (ranging from<br />
-23.0‰ to -11.3‰). With values ranging collectively from -32.5‰ to -23.6‰, δ 13 C values of<br />
CPOM, riparian vegetation (tree <strong>and</strong> herbaceous), <strong>and</strong> macrophytes were similar (Figure 1A.).<br />
We did detect significant differences in δ 15 N values of basal resources (Figure 1A).<br />
Specifically, we found that macrophytes <strong>and</strong> CPOM were enriched in the non-forested sites<br />
compared to the forested sites (t-test; P = 0.01 <strong>and</strong> 0.01, respectively). No differences in δ 15 N<br />
values of the other autotrophs or detrital material were detected between forests <strong>and</strong> nonforested<br />
riparian areas.<br />
Overall, consumer δ 13 C values across all species are best characterized as enriched, with δ 13 C<br />
values ranging between -28.0‰ <strong>and</strong> -20.2‰ <strong>and</strong> δ 15 N values between 3.2‰ to 8.5‰ for all<br />
macroinvertebrate functional feeding groups (Figure 1). Both filterers <strong>and</strong> grazers had higher<br />
δ 15 N values associated with non-forested riparian areas than forested riparian areas (t-test; P =<br />
0.01 <strong>and</strong> 0.02, respectively). Similarly, δ 13 C values ranged from -22.0‰ to -26.2‰ <strong>and</strong> δ 15 N<br />
values from 10.5‰ to 12.7‰ for selected fish species, with creek chubs having significantly<br />
more enriched δ 13 C values in the non-forested riparian areas (t-test; P = 0.01). These values are<br />
similar to the values for FPOM, CPOM, <strong>and</strong> riparian plants (Figure 1).<br />
4. Discussion<br />
Our results, which were only collected once <strong>and</strong> do not capture seasonal variation in isotopic<br />
signatures, suggest that there are not marked differences in the primary sources of energy<br />
supporting aquatic food webs among forested <strong>and</strong> non-forested headwater streams in this<br />
agricultural watershed. Neither the primary consumers (e.g., grazers) nor higher-level<br />
consumers (e.g., black-nose dace) showed differences in δ 13 C signatures among forested <strong>and</strong><br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong> -New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
P.C. Goebel et al. 2010. How important are riparian forests to aquatic foodwebs in agricultural watersheds<br />
133<br />
non-forested reaches. This may be related to the fact that we did not observe clear differences<br />
between δ 13 C signatures for some of the autochthonous resources (epilithon) <strong>and</strong> allochthonous<br />
resources (CPOM <strong>and</strong> riparian plants). It has been observed elsewhere that variation in stream<br />
flows, dissolved CO 2 concentrations, <strong>and</strong> δ 13 C concentrations in dissolved inorganic C can<br />
result in higher than expected algal δ 13 C values that overlap with detrital δ 13 C values which tend<br />
to be more consistent both spatially <strong>and</strong> temporally (Finlay 2004). Consequently, disentangling<br />
energy pathways in this system may require additional study or the use of other stable isotopes<br />
such as hydrogen (δD) (Finlay et al. 2010).<br />
We did observe differences in levels of consumer 15 N enrichment between the forested <strong>and</strong> nonforested<br />
riparian areas. However, we did not observe these differences with the higher-level<br />
consumers as anticipated. We had hypothesized that the increased diversity of basal food web<br />
resources associated with the forested sites would result in δ 15 N signatures of higher-level<br />
consumers. The fact that we did not detect such a relationship suggests a possible linkage with<br />
diet quality <strong>and</strong> stoichiometry associated with the different environments rather than trophic<br />
position. Similar linkages have been suggested by others observing similar patterns in streams<br />
of Arkansas (Dekar et al. 2009). This pattern may also be related to seasonality <strong>and</strong> differences<br />
associated with diet (i.e., more reliance on algae <strong>and</strong> macrophyte sources during the spring as<br />
these basal resources may have higher C:N ratios than detrital sources). However, more<br />
research on these mechanisms is clearly needed to better underst<strong>and</strong> the patterns of 15 N<br />
enrichment in these headwater streams <strong>and</strong> how that may relate to riparian management <strong>and</strong><br />
restoration.<br />
References<br />
Dekar, M.P., Magoulick, D.D., <strong>and</strong> Huxel, G.R. 2009. Shifts in the trophic base of intermittent<br />
stream food webs. Hydrobiologia, 635: 263-277.<br />
Finlay J.C. 2004. Patterns <strong>and</strong> controls of lotic algal stable carbon isotope ratios. Limnology <strong>and</strong><br />
Oceanography, 49: 850-861.<br />
Finlay, J.C., Doucett, R.R., <strong>and</strong> McNeely, C. Tracing energy flow in stream food webs using<br />
stable isotopes of hydrogen. Freshwater Biology. 55: 941-951.<br />
Gregory, S.V., Swanson, F.J., McKee, W.A., <strong>and</strong> Cummins, K.W. 1991. An ecosystem<br />
perspective of riparian zones. Bioscience, 41: 540-551.<br />
Hamilton, S.K., Jr., Lewis, W.M, <strong>and</strong> Sippel, S.J. 1992. Energy sources for aquatic animals in<br />
the Orinoco River floodplain: evidence from stable isotopes. Oecologia, 89: 324-330.<br />
Ilhardt, B.L., Verry, E.S., <strong>and</strong> Palik, Bj.J. 2000. Defining riparian areas. In: E.S. Verry, J.W.<br />
Hornbeck, <strong>and</strong> C.A. Dolloff (Eds.). Riparian Management in <strong>Forest</strong>s of the Continental<br />
Eastern United States. New York, USA: Lewis Publishers: 23-42.<br />
Malanson, G.P. 1993. Riparian l<strong>and</strong>scapes. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.<br />
Minshall, G.W., K.W. Cummins, T.L. Bott, J.R. Sedell, C.E. Cushing, <strong>and</strong> R.L. Vannote. 1985.<br />
Developments in stream ecosystem dynamics. Ecological Monographs 53:1-25.<br />
Naiman, R.J., Decamps, H., <strong>and</strong> Pollack, M. 1993. The role of riparian corridors in maintaining<br />
regional biodiversity. Ecological Applications, 3: 209-212.<br />
Peterson, B.J., <strong>and</strong> Fry, B. 1987. Stable isotopes in ecosystem studies. Annual Review of<br />
Ecology <strong>and</strong> Systematics, 18: 293–320.<br />
Stinner, D.H., Paoletti, M.G., <strong>and</strong> Stinner, B.R. 1989 Amish agriculture <strong>and</strong> implications for<br />
sustainable agriculture. Agriculture, Ecosystems <strong>and</strong> the Environment, 27: 77-90.<br />
Vannote, R.L., Minshall, G.W., Cummins, K.W., Sedell, J.R., <strong>and</strong> Cushing, C.E. 1980. The<br />
river continuum concept. Canadian Journal of Fisheries <strong>and</strong> Aquatic Sciences, 37: 130-<br />
137.<br />
Wallace, J.B., Eggert, S.L., Meyer, J.L., <strong>and</strong> Webster, J.R. 1997. Multiple trophic levels of a<br />
forest stream linked to terrestrial litter inputs. Science, 77:102-104.<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong> -New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
P.C. Goebel et al. 2010. How important are riparian forests to aquatic foodwebs in agricultural watersheds<br />
134<br />
A. Basal Resources<br />
18<br />
<strong>Forest</strong>ed Riparian Area<br />
18<br />
Non-<strong>Forest</strong>ed Riparian Area<br />
δ 15 N (‰)<br />
16<br />
14<br />
12<br />
10<br />
8<br />
6<br />
4<br />
2<br />
0<br />
16<br />
14<br />
12<br />
10<br />
8<br />
6<br />
4<br />
2<br />
0<br />
Algae<br />
Macrophytes<br />
Epilithon<br />
Herbaceous riparian<br />
Woody riparian<br />
CPOM<br />
FPOM<br />
DOC<br />
-40 -35 -30 -25 -20 -15 -10<br />
δ 13 C (‰)<br />
-40 -35 -30 -25 -20 -15 -10<br />
δ 13 C (‰)<br />
B. Consumers<br />
<strong>Forest</strong>ed Riparian Area<br />
18<br />
Non-<strong>Forest</strong>ed Riparian Area<br />
δ 15 N (‰)<br />
15<br />
10<br />
5<br />
0<br />
16<br />
14<br />
12<br />
10<br />
8<br />
6<br />
4<br />
2<br />
0<br />
Filterers<br />
Gatherers<br />
Grazers<br />
Shredders<br />
Predators<br />
Black-nose dace<br />
Creek chub<br />
White sucker<br />
Central stoneroller<br />
-40 -35 -30 -25 -20 -15 -10<br />
δ 13 C (‰)<br />
-40 -35 -30 -25 -20 -15 -10<br />
δ 13 C (‰)<br />
Figure 1. Stable isotope food web plots for forested <strong>and</strong> non-forested riparian areas, Sugar Creek<br />
watershed, northeastern Ohio for the spring of 2008. Symbols represent the mean δ 13 C <strong>and</strong> δ 15 N<br />
values (± 1 SE) for each basal resource (A) <strong>and</strong> consumer taxonomic grouping (B). Note there were<br />
no woody riparian basal resources sampled for the non-forested riparian areas.<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong> -New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
L.R. Iverson et al. 2010. Merger of three modeling approaches to assess potential effects of climate change on trees<br />
135<br />
Merger of three modeling approaches to assess potential effects of climate change<br />
on trees in the eastern United States<br />
Louis R. Iverson 1* , Anantha M. Prasad 1 , Stephen N. Matthews 1,2 & Matthew P. Peters 1<br />
1<br />
Northern Research Station, USDA <strong>Forest</strong> Service, Delaware, OH, USA<br />
2<br />
The Ohio State University, School of Natural Resources, Columbus OH, USA<br />
Abstract<br />
Climate change will likely cause impacts that are species specific <strong>and</strong> significant; modeling is<br />
critical to better underst<strong>and</strong> potential changes in suitable habitat. We use empirical, abundancebased<br />
habitat models utilizing decision tree-based ensemble methods to explore potential<br />
changes of 134 tree species habitats in the eastern United States<br />
(http://www.nrs.fs.fed.us/atlas).To help interpret <strong>and</strong> add value to these outputs, we assigned<br />
<strong>and</strong> calculated Modification Factors for disturbance <strong>and</strong> biological factors that cannot be<br />
specifically assessed with the empirical R<strong>and</strong>om<strong>Forest</strong> approach. We also use a spatially<br />
explicit cellular model, SHIFT, to calculate colonization potentials, based on the abundance of<br />
the species, the distances between occupied <strong>and</strong> unoccupied cells <strong>and</strong> the fragmented nature of<br />
the l<strong>and</strong>scape. By combining results from the three efforts, we are estimating potential impacts<br />
that can be used to aid in management decisions under climate change. These tools are<br />
demonstrated for one species, black oak (Quercus velutina), in northern Wisconsin.<br />
Keywords: Climate <strong>Change</strong>, R<strong>and</strong>om<strong>Forest</strong>, Species Distribution Modeling, Eastern United<br />
States, Trees<br />
1. Introduction<br />
The ranges of tree species in eastern North America have generally shifted northward as the<br />
climate has warmed over the past 14,000+ years since the last ice age (Webb 1992). Evidence is<br />
mounting that tree species, along with many other organisms, are continuing this northward<br />
movement, some at very high rates (Hoegh-Guldberg et al. 2008). There is also increasing<br />
evidence of broad expanses of tree mortality that can be attributed to drier <strong>and</strong> hotter conditions,<br />
often predisposing the forests to insect pest outbreaks (e.g., mountain pine beetle in western<br />
North America) (Allen et al. 2010). Habitats for individual species have, <strong>and</strong> will continue to,<br />
shift independently <strong>and</strong> at different rates, resulting in changing forest community compositions<br />
over time (Webb 1992). Such shifts are likely to occur in the coming decades in the eastern<br />
United States, so that some species will decline in suitable habitat while others will increase to<br />
various degrees. While it is likely that certain habitat will become suitable for some species not<br />
currently present, it is less clear how rapidly – or even whether – those species will migrate into<br />
the region without active human intervention (Higgins <strong>and</strong> Harte 2006). Studies on six eastern<br />
United States species showed that, at the rate of migration typical of the Holocene period (50<br />
km/century in fully forested condition), less than 15% of the newly suitable habitat has even a<br />
remote possibility of being colonized within 100 years (Iverson et al. 2004). The relatively rapid<br />
nature of the projected climate shifts, along with the limits on the rate at which trees can migrate<br />
over a l<strong>and</strong>scape, especially in the current <strong>and</strong> future fragmented state of forests, constrain the<br />
rate of ‘natural’ migration.<br />
* Corresponding author. Tel.:740-368-0097 - Fax:740-368-0152<br />
Email address: liverson@fs.fed.us<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
L.R. Iverson et al. 2010. Merger of three modeling approaches to assess potential effects of climate change on trees<br />
136<br />
We approach modeling impacts of climate change using a combination of statistical species<br />
distribution models (DISTRIB), literature-based conceptual models (MODFACs), <strong>and</strong> cellbased<br />
spatially explicit models (SHIFT) to quantify colonization probabilities (Fig. 1). The<br />
work presented here is based on modeling the primary individual tree species of the eastern<br />
United States, with results focused on the northern Wisconsin region. We briefly describe the<br />
methods used <strong>and</strong> then present a brief evaluation <strong>and</strong> example of potential changes for one tree<br />
species, black oak (Quercus velutina), along with several other interpretive measures that<br />
complement the models, to assist in further evaluation of vulnerabilities <strong>and</strong> potential<br />
management options.<br />
2. Methodology<br />
2.1 DISTRIB model development<br />
To create the models, current climate variables (1960-1990) are used in statistical model<br />
development, <strong>and</strong> then are swapped with the future climates (~2070-2100) according to several<br />
global circulation models (GCMs) <strong>and</strong> emission scenarios. We used two emission scenarios<br />
developed for the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate <strong>Change</strong> (IPCC): a high level of emissions<br />
that assumes a continued high rate of fossil fuel emissions to 2050 (A1fi), <strong>and</strong> a lower emission<br />
scenario that assumes a rapid conversion to conservation <strong>and</strong> reduced reliance on fossil fuels (B2)<br />
(Nakicenovic <strong>and</strong> al. 2000). The scenarios are also based on the output from two representative<br />
GCMs: the HadleyCM3 model (Pope 2000), <strong>and</strong> the Parallel Climate Model (PCM) (Washington<br />
et al. 2000). We present the HadleyCM3 model projections under the high emissions scenario<br />
(HadHi) as the most extreme warming case in our analysis, <strong>and</strong> the PCM model under the low<br />
emissions scenario (PCMLo) to represent the case with the least warming.<br />
We use the DISTRIB model, a statistical-empirical approach using decision-tree ensembles to<br />
model <strong>and</strong> to predict changes in the distribution of potential habitats for future climates (Fig. 1)<br />
(Prasad et al. 2006), Iverson et al. 2008b). For species information on a total of 134 tree species,<br />
we use the USFS <strong>Forest</strong> Inventory <strong>and</strong> Analysis (FIA) data to build importance value estimates for<br />
each species. We use 38 environmental variables – 7 climate, 9 soil classes, 12 soil characteristics,<br />
5 l<strong>and</strong>scape <strong>and</strong> fragmentation variables, <strong>and</strong> 5 elevation variables – to statistically model current<br />
species abundance with respect to the environment. Because the processes involved are nonlinear<br />
with numerous interactions, we use non-parametric machine-learning approaches using decisiontree<br />
ensembles to predict <strong>and</strong> provide valuable insights into the important predictors influencing<br />
species distributions. Specifically we used a 'tri-model' approach: R<strong>and</strong>om<strong>Forest</strong> for prediction,<br />
bagging trees for assessing the stability among individual decision-trees <strong>and</strong> a single decision tree<br />
to assess the main variables affecting the distribution if the stability among trees proved<br />
satisfactory (Prasad et al. 2006, Iverson et al. 2008). The result is an estimate of the potential<br />
future suitable habitat.<br />
Because models vary in their ability to predict we provide an index of the reliability for each<br />
species. For example, species with highly restricted ranges with low sample size often produce<br />
less satisfactory models as compared to more common species (Schwartz et al. 2006). This<br />
pattern results in quite large differences in the reliability of the predictions among species <strong>and</strong><br />
highlights the need to consider how the model captures the speceis distribution. The 'tri-model'<br />
approach gives us the ability to assess the reliability of the model predictions for each species,<br />
classified as high, medium or low depending on the assessment of the stability of the bagged<br />
trees <strong>and</strong> the R 2 in R<strong>and</strong>om<strong>Forest</strong>. This high rating occurred for 55 of the 134 tree species in our<br />
models. Even if the model reliability was medium or low, R<strong>and</strong>om<strong>Forest</strong> predicts better without<br />
overfitting due to its inherent strengths compared to a single decision-tree (Cutler et al. 2007).<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
L.R. Iverson et al. 2010. Merger of three modeling approaches to assess potential effects of climate change on trees<br />
137<br />
2.2 Modification Factors<br />
The DISTRIB model does not address biological or disturbance factors that may influence a<br />
species’ response to climate change. We conducted a literature assessment of these modifying<br />
factors <strong>and</strong> developed a scoring system to address 9 biological <strong>and</strong> 12 disturbance modification<br />
factors (MODFACs) that influence species distributions. Biological factors we evaluated<br />
include the species’ capacity to regenerate after fire, regenerate vegetatively, establish as<br />
seedlings, disperse, as well as the species’ response to competition for light, elevated CO 2 for<br />
productivity <strong>and</strong> water use efficiency, <strong>and</strong> specificity to specific environmental habitats or<br />
edaphic conditions. For distubance factors, we considered the species’ response to invasive<br />
plants, insects, browse, disease, temperature gradients, fire topkill, wind, ice, pollution, floods,<br />
droughts, <strong>and</strong> harvesting. We also rated their level of uncertainty <strong>and</strong> future relevance under<br />
climate change (e.g., droughts will become more problematic under most future scenarios).<br />
These factors, when considered alongside the speces models, can be used to modify how one<br />
interprets the potential for increasing or decreasing future importance of a species. Each species<br />
is given a set of default scores based on the literature, <strong>and</strong> each factor can be changed by<br />
managers as they consider local conditions. With knowledge of site-specific processes,<br />
managers may be better suited to interpret the models after MODFACs have been considered.<br />
The MODFACs can then be used to modify the interpretation of the potential suitable habitat<br />
models. The goal of this effort is to provide information on the distribution of species under<br />
climate change that accounts for the natural processes that influence the final distribution. In<br />
addition, this approach encourages decision-makers to be actively involved in managing tree<br />
habitats under projected future climatic conditions.<br />
2.3 SHIFT model development<br />
Finally, with SHIFT we are evaluating selected species for their potential migration potentials<br />
from where they exist currently to where, of the new suitable habitat to emerge, they may be<br />
able to colonize over the next 100 years (Fig. 1). SHIFT calculates colonization potentials based<br />
on the abundance of the species, the distances between occupied <strong>and</strong> unoccupied cells, the<br />
quality of the habitat, <strong>and</strong> the fragmented nature of the l<strong>and</strong>scape. The long distance dispersal,<br />
captured by an inverse power function, also depends on stochasticity. By combining output<br />
from DISTRIB <strong>and</strong> SHIFT, we may not only obtain an idea of how the suitable habitat may<br />
move, but also some idea on how far the species may move across the fragmented habitats of<br />
the region. We calibrate movement at the approximate (generous) migration rate of 50 km per<br />
century, according to paleoecological data from the Holocene period (e.g., (Davis 1981). Details<br />
of the method (although under revision now because of newly available computing approaches)<br />
are presented in several publications (Iverson et al. 1999; 2004; Schwartz et al. 2001).<br />
3. Results <strong>and</strong> Discussion<br />
3.1 DISTRIB model<br />
Of 134 species modeled in the eastern United States, we found a total of 73 species of interest<br />
for the region in northern Wisconsin. Using the estimates of potential changes in suitable habitat,<br />
we sorted the species according to their potential to gain, lose, have no change, or enter into the<br />
region from outside. As such, we classify them into 8 vulnerability classes which can be<br />
influenced by climate change classes ranging from most vulnerable to least vulnerable:<br />
Extirpated (Extirp): These species are in northern Wisconsin currently, but all suitable habitat<br />
disappears by 2100. [1 species]; Large Decline (LgDec): Show large declines in suitable habitat ,<br />
especially under the high emissions scenarios [12 species]; Small Decrease (SmDec): Show<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
L.R. Iverson et al. 2010. Merger of three modeling approaches to assess potential effects of climate change on trees<br />
138<br />
smaller declines, mostly apparent in the high emissions scenarios. [6 species]; No <strong>Change</strong><br />
(NoChg): Show roughly similar suitable habitat now <strong>and</strong> in the future. [6 species]; Small<br />
Increase (SmInc): Have an increased amount of suitable habitat in the future as compared to<br />
current, especially with the higher emissions. [4 species]; Large Increase (LgInc): Have much<br />
higher estimates of suitable habitat in the future as compared to current, especially with the<br />
higher emissions. [17 species]; New Entry Both (NewEntBoth): Have very rarely been currently<br />
detected via FIA sampling in northern Wisconsin, but show potential suitable habitat entering<br />
the region, even under the low emission scenarios. [11 species]; New Entry High (NewEntHi):<br />
Have very rarely been detected via FIA sampling in northern Wisconsin, but show potential<br />
suitable habitat entering the region, especially under higher emissions. [16 species]<br />
We chose to select one example species from class 6, large increaser (LgInc), to illustrate the<br />
process researchers <strong>and</strong> managers may pursue to help chart out a range of mangement choices in<br />
the face of climate change. Our example species, black oak (Quercus velutina), has high model<br />
reliability so we can have higher confidence in the modeled expansion of suitable habitat from<br />
nearly absent to the entire northern Wisconsin range (Fig. 2a), with an increase in suitable<br />
habitat under both low (4-fold increase, Fig. 2b) <strong>and</strong> high (6-fold increase, Fig. 2c) emission<br />
scenarios according to our model.<br />
3.2 Modification Factors<br />
The literature assessment of black oak revealed that it is quite resistant to drought <strong>and</strong> fire<br />
topkill (both projected to increase under climate change), but not so much as compared to many<br />
other oaks. It is moderately affected by diseases (which may also increase) <strong>and</strong> it can succumb<br />
to successive defoliations by gypsy moth. It can regenerate quite well from seed or sprouts with<br />
the likely increased fire under climate change. And it is rather a generalist with respect to<br />
temperatures as well as edaphic <strong>and</strong> environmental habitats, all of which are advantageous for a<br />
species projected to have increased habitat. Overall, both the biological <strong>and</strong> disturbance<br />
modifying factors suggest that the species could do slightly better than modeled from DISTRIB<br />
<strong>and</strong> that it may be well suited for the newly emerging habitats of northern Wisconsin.<br />
3.3 SHIFT model<br />
The preliminary output of 100 repetitive runs of the SHIFT model (1 run = 1% probability of<br />
colonization) for black oak shows an expansion of areas with even a small probability of<br />
colonization of roughly 120-160 km into the new suitable habitat within 100 years (Fig. 2d).<br />
Obviously, variations in colonization probability relate to the current abundance of the species<br />
next to the range boundary (Fig. 2d), <strong>and</strong> the quantity <strong>and</strong> nature of the forest habitat in the<br />
exp<strong>and</strong>ing zone (Fig. 2e). The outputs give us a picture of the relatively small <strong>and</strong> slow<br />
expansion of the species, given the constraints of the current habitat <strong>and</strong> the paleoecologically<br />
derived migration rate of 50 km/century. Of course, should humans intervene to assist in the<br />
migration, the picture could potentially change dramatically.<br />
4. Conclusions<br />
The combination of these three approaches to assessing the likely impacts of climate change<br />
provide a more thorough analysis <strong>and</strong>, we hope, a tool set that managers can begin to use in the<br />
course of their adaptive management decisions in the face of climate change. With DISTRIB,<br />
we provide potential changes in individual species’ suitable habitat under various climate<br />
models <strong>and</strong> scenarios of human responses to this crisis. With the modifying factors, we assess<br />
each species’ capacities <strong>and</strong> vulnerabilities to adapt to various changing conditions <strong>and</strong><br />
disturbances. And with SHIFT, we provide an indication of the rate of ‘natural’ migration<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
L.R. Iverson et al. 2010. Merger of three modeling approaches to assess potential effects of climate change on trees<br />
139<br />
through the fragmented habitats now existing. We intend to use SHIFT as well to perform<br />
‘experiments’ of l<strong>and</strong>scape manipulation <strong>and</strong> assisted migration to assess these potential<br />
strategies under climate change.<br />
We also show the vast differential in outcomes between a low carbon future (PCMlo) <strong>and</strong> high<br />
carbon future (HADhi) with respect to habitats for one species (it is the case for most species),<br />
<strong>and</strong> thus the critical need for a global effort to reduce carbon emissions.<br />
References<br />
Allen C., Macaladyb A., Chenchounic H., Bachelet D., McDowell N., Vennetier M., Kitzberger<br />
T., Rigling A., Breshear D., Hoggi E., Gonzalezk P., Fensham R., Zhangm Z., Castron<br />
J., Demidavao N., Lim J.-H., Allard G., Running S., Semerci A. <strong>and</strong> Cobb N. 2010. A<br />
global overview of drought <strong>and</strong> heat-induced tree mortality reveals emerging climate<br />
change risks for forests. <strong>Forest</strong> Ecology <strong>and</strong> Management 259: 660-684.<br />
Cutler D.R., Edwards T.C., Beard K.H., Cutler A., Hess K.T., Gibson J. <strong>and</strong> Lawler J.J. 2007.<br />
R<strong>and</strong>om forests for classification in ecology. Ecology 88: 2783-2792.<br />
Davis M.B. 1981. Quaternary history <strong>and</strong> the stability of forest communities. In West D. C. <strong>and</strong><br />
Shugart H. H. (eds.), <strong>Forest</strong> succession: concepts <strong>and</strong> application, pp. 132-153.<br />
Springer-Verlag, New York.<br />
Hoegh-Guldberg O., Hughes L., McIntyre S., Lindenmayer D.B., Parmesan C., Possingham H.P.<br />
<strong>and</strong> Thomas C.D. 2008. Assisted colonization <strong>and</strong> rapid climate change. Science 321:<br />
345 - 346.<br />
Iverson L.R., Prasad A.M., Matthews S.N. <strong>and</strong> Peters M. 2008. Estimating potential habitat for<br />
134 eastern US tree species under six climate scenarios. <strong>Forest</strong> Ecology <strong>and</strong><br />
Management 254: 390-406.<br />
Iverson L.R., Prasad, A.M. <strong>and</strong> Schwartz M.W. 1999. Modeling potential future individual treespecies<br />
distributions in the Eastern United States under a climate change scenario: a<br />
case study with Pinus virginiana. Ecological Modelling 115: 77-93.<br />
Iverson L.R., Schwartz M.W. <strong>and</strong> Prasad A.M. 2004. Potential colonization of new available<br />
tree species habitat under climate change: an analysis for five eastern US species.<br />
L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology 19: 787-799.<br />
Nakicenovic N. <strong>and</strong> others. 2000. IPCC special report on emissions scenarios. Cambridge<br />
University Press, Cambridge, UK.<br />
Pope V.D. 2000. The impact of new physical parametrizations in the Hadley Centre climate<br />
model -- HadCM3. Climate Dynamics 16, 123-46. 16: 123-146.<br />
Prasad A.M., Iverson L.R. <strong>and</strong> Liaw A. 2006. Newer classification <strong>and</strong> regression tree<br />
techniques: bagging <strong>and</strong> r<strong>and</strong>om forests for ecological prediction. Ecosystems 9: 181-<br />
199.<br />
Schwartz M.W., Iverson L.R. <strong>and</strong> Prasad A.M. 2001. Predicting the potential future distribution<br />
of four tree species in Ohio, USA, using current habitat availability <strong>and</strong> climatic forcing.<br />
Ecosystems 4: 568-581.<br />
Schwartz M.W., Iverson L.R., Prasad A.M., Matthews S.N., O <strong>and</strong> Connor R.J. 2006.<br />
Predicting extinctions as a result of climate change. Ecology 87: 1611-1615.<br />
Washington W.M., Weatherly J.W., Meehl G.A., Semtner Jr. A.J., Bettge, T.W., Craig A.P.,<br />
Str<strong>and</strong> Jr. W.G., Arblaster J.M., Wayl<strong>and</strong> V.B., James R. <strong>and</strong> Zhang Y. 2000. Parallel<br />
climate model (PCM) control <strong>and</strong> transient simulations. Climate Dynamics 16, 755-74.<br />
16: 755-774.<br />
Webb T.I. 1992. Past changes in vegetation <strong>and</strong> climate: lessons for the future. In Peters R. L.<br />
<strong>and</strong> Lovejoy T. E. (eds.), <strong>Global</strong> warming <strong>and</strong> biological diversity, pp. 59-75. Yale<br />
University Press, New Haven, CT.<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
L.R. Iverson et al. 2010. Merger of three modeling approaches to assess potential effects of climate change on trees<br />
140<br />
Fig. 1. Schematic showing approach to modeling potential impacts of climate change on trees <strong>and</strong> birds in<br />
the Eastern United States.<br />
Fig. 2. Potential habitat changes for black oak; a) current distribution; b) future habitat under PCM low<br />
(humans track low carbon emissions); c) future habitat under Had high (humans continue to exp<strong>and</strong><br />
carbon usage); d) SHIFT colonization probability on current distribution; e) forest cover of Wisconsin<br />
region (gray=forest).<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
T.-C. Lin et al. 2010. Immediate effects of typhoon disturbance <strong>and</strong> artificial thinning on understory light environments<br />
141<br />
Immediate effects of typhoon disturbance <strong>and</strong> artificial thinning on<br />
understory light environments in two subtropical forests in Taiwan<br />
Teng-Chiu Lin 1* , Kuo-Chuan Lin 2 , Jeen-Liang Hwong 2 & Hsueh-Fang Wang 3<br />
1<br />
Department of Life Science, National Taiwan Normal University, Taiwan<br />
2<br />
Taiwan <strong>Forest</strong>ry Research Institute, Taiwan<br />
3<br />
Department of Geography, National Taiwan University, Taiwan<br />
Abstract<br />
We compared changes in understory light environments immediately following two typhoons,<br />
<strong>and</strong> artificial thinning (25% <strong>and</strong> 50% of stems removed) in two subtropical forests. Both<br />
typhoon disturbance <strong>and</strong> artificial thinning enhanced understory light availability in Taiwan, but<br />
the enhancement following thinning, 42%, was considerably greater than that following typhoon<br />
disturbance, < 25%. Understory light availability increased 45% <strong>and</strong> 120% after 25% <strong>and</strong> 50%<br />
thinning, respectively. The diffuse nature of canopy disruption following typhoon disturbance<br />
relative to the patchy <strong>and</strong> binary canopy removal associated with artificial thinning was likely<br />
the reason for their very different impacts on understory light environments. It appears that<br />
artificial thinning with more than 25% of stems removed increases understory light availability<br />
to a level that does not naturally occur in low-elevation forests so that forest development<br />
following artificial thinning is likely to be different from that following typhoon disturbance.<br />
Keywords: typhoon disturbance; artificial thinning; understory light environment; Fushan<br />
Experimental <strong>Forest</strong><br />
1. Introduction<br />
The availability of light to understory plants is critical in determining patterns of the understory<br />
plant community (Fahey <strong>and</strong> Puettmann 2007). Because light availability beneath undisturbed<br />
forest canopies is typically low, enhancing understory light availability can increase the growth<br />
<strong>and</strong> survival of both shade-tolerant <strong>and</strong> -intolerant tree seedlings (Chazdon <strong>and</strong> Fetcher 1984;<br />
Oliver <strong>and</strong> Larson 1996). Disturbances that lead to enhancement of understory light availability<br />
create opportunities for seedlings to grow into the mid-canopy <strong>and</strong> overstory <strong>and</strong> therefore play<br />
a key role in determining the structure <strong>and</strong> function of forest ecosystems. Although artificial<br />
thinning may create spatial <strong>and</strong> temporal heterogeneities in the understory light environment<br />
<strong>and</strong> promote the growth of understory plants (Yanai et al. 1998; Wang et al. 2008), the<br />
comparison of its impacts with wind disturbances, to our knowledge, has not been adequately<br />
documented. Such comparisons are critical to evaluate whether artificial thinning results in<br />
patterns <strong>and</strong> processes that are comparable to those following natural disturbances.<br />
Typhoons are the most common natural disturbance in many low-elevation, subtropical<br />
forest ecosystems, such as those in Taiwan with an average of three to four typhoons striking<br />
Taiwan annually (Wu <strong>and</strong> Kuo 1999). Any silvicultural practice that intends to maintain natural<br />
levels of light heterogeneity <strong>and</strong> species diversity in low-elevation forests must consider the role<br />
that typhoon disturbance plays in regulating natural patterns <strong>and</strong> processes of these ecosystems.<br />
* Corresponding author. Tel.: +886-2-7734-6240 - Fax: +886-2-2931-2904<br />
Email address: tclin@ntnu.edu.tw<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
T.-C. Lin et al. 2010. Immediate effects of typhoon disturbance <strong>and</strong> artificial thinning on understory light environments<br />
142<br />
In 2006, an experimental thinning on a Cryptomeria japonica plantation in central<br />
Taiwan was initiated as an attempt to improve the structural heterogeneity <strong>and</strong> biodiversity of<br />
the forest (Sun 2007). This was the first large <strong>and</strong> comprehensive experimental thinning in<br />
Taiwan, <strong>and</strong> the study included assessment of a wide variety of biotic <strong>and</strong> abiotic consequences<br />
(e.g. vertebrate <strong>and</strong> invertebrate diversity, recruitment of tree species, microclimate,<br />
decomposition, <strong>and</strong> soil respiration) of forest management practices. Although the C. japonica<br />
plantation under investigation is located at a moderate elevation (1500-1700 m), the study<br />
aimed to produce recommendations for isl<strong>and</strong>-wide application (Sun 2007).<br />
The objectives of the current study are to 1) characterize the forest understory light<br />
environment before <strong>and</strong> after the experimental thinning, <strong>and</strong> 2) compare the impacts of artificial<br />
thinning in the C. japonica plantation with those from typhoon disturbances in a mixed<br />
evergreen hardwood forest at Fushan Experimental <strong>Forest</strong> in northeastern Taiwan (Fig. 1). In<br />
both the C. japonica plantation <strong>and</strong> the Fushan Experimental <strong>Forest</strong>, we measured understory<br />
light availability immediately before <strong>and</strong> after artificial thinning <strong>and</strong> typhoon disturbances to<br />
determine whether artificial thinning results in patterns of understory light environments<br />
comparable to those following typhoon disturbances characteristic of many low-elevation<br />
forests in Taiwan.<br />
2. Methodology<br />
2.1 Study site<br />
2.1.1 Cryptomeria japonica plantation: The Zenlun Experimental <strong>Forest</strong><br />
The C. japonica forest plantation is located in central Taiwan between 1500 m <strong>and</strong> 1700<br />
m elevation. The natural vegetation in this area was clear-cut approximately 50 years ago <strong>and</strong><br />
replanted with C. japonica. The mean annual precipitation at the plantation is 3800 mm, <strong>and</strong> the<br />
mean monthly temperature is 17.5 o C (Wang et al. 2007). The mean tree height was<br />
approximately 17 m in 2006 (Chiu 2007 unpublished data).<br />
In 2006, twelve 100 x 100 m plots were established at Zenlun Experimental <strong>Forest</strong><br />
following the design of large forest dynamic plots at the Center for Tropical <strong>Forest</strong> Science of<br />
the Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute (Losos <strong>and</strong> Leigh 2004). The 12 plots were evenly<br />
<strong>and</strong> r<strong>and</strong>omly assigned to three treatments: unthinned, 25% thinning, <strong>and</strong> 50% thinning. Each<br />
plot was divided into a grid of 100 10 x 10 m subplots, which were grouped into 25 20 x 20 m<br />
operating plots. In the 25% thinning, one of the four subplots in each operating plot was<br />
r<strong>and</strong>omly assigned for clear-cutting; two non-adjacent subplots were r<strong>and</strong>omly assigned for<br />
cutting in operating plots assigned a 50% thinning. We established one 100-m transect<br />
perpendicular to the elevational contours at the center of each of the 12 plots. In order to<br />
monitor seasonal variation of understory light environment before thinning, transects at Zenlun<br />
Experimental <strong>Forest</strong> were established one year before thinning. All transects were less than 3 m<br />
from the edges of the thinning subplots; none of our sampling transects ran through the center of<br />
the thinned subplots.<br />
2.1.2 Natural forest: the Fushan Experimental <strong>Forest</strong><br />
The Fushan Experimental <strong>Forest</strong> is a mixed evergreen hardwood forest dominated by<br />
Fagaceae <strong>and</strong> Lauraceae <strong>and</strong> located in northeastern Taiwan at elevations between 500 <strong>and</strong> 1200<br />
m. Typhoons mainly occur between July <strong>and</strong> September, with infrequent typhoons as early as<br />
May <strong>and</strong> as late as December. On average, 1.4 typhoons strike the Fushan Experimental <strong>Forest</strong><br />
each year (Mabry et al. 1998). The mean annual temperature at Fushan is 18.6 o C, <strong>and</strong> the mean<br />
annual relative humidity is 96% (Hsia <strong>and</strong> Hwong 1999). The forest is multistoried with<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
T.-C. Lin et al. 2010. Immediate effects of typhoon disturbance <strong>and</strong> artificial thinning on understory light environments<br />
143<br />
scattered tree ferns (Alsophila podophylla Hook (Cyatheaceae)) <strong>and</strong> herbaceous cover. We<br />
measured light availability every five meters along a 300-m transect along the eastern ridge of<br />
experimental watershed #1 established in 1994.<br />
2.2 Methods<br />
Understory light environments were investigated using hemispherical photography<br />
(Rich 1990; Lin <strong>and</strong> Chiang 2002). Hemispherical photographs were taken at 1.5 m above the<br />
ground, at 5-m intervals in both forests. Photographs were analyzed to estimate global site<br />
factor (GSF), the proportion of solar radiation reaching a given location, relative to a fully<br />
exposed location with no obstructions (Rich 1990) using Hemiview 2.1 (Delta-T 2000).<br />
Two typhoons, Herb in 1996, <strong>and</strong> Toraji in 2001 were used to evaluate the immediate<br />
effects of typhoon disturbance on understory light environments. According to the Central<br />
Weather Bureau of Taiwan, both typhoon Herb was a strong typhoon (maximum wind velocity<br />
> 51 m.sec-1), <strong>and</strong> typhoon Toraji was a medium-intensity typhoon (maximum wind velocity<br />
33-51 m.sec-1; Table 1).<br />
3. Result<br />
Light indices significantly increased after both typhoon disturbance <strong>and</strong> artificial<br />
thinning (Fig. 1, paired t-test all p-values < 0.001). In the unthinned plots, mean post-thinning<br />
GSF was significantly lower than the mean pre-thinning GSF (paired t-test p < 0.01). The effect<br />
of typhoon disturbance was variable, depending on the strength of the typhoon. The mean<br />
percent changes in understory light indices were significantly greater after typhoon Herb (24%)<br />
than after typhoon Toraji, (7.8%) (Fig. 1, Bonferroni multiple comparisons, both p-values <<br />
0.005).<br />
Artificial thinning caused disproportional increases in understory light indices. The 25%<br />
thinning caused an approximately 42% increase 0.25, while the 50% thinning resulted in an<br />
approximately 120% increase reaching 0.36 (Fig. 2). The increase in understory light indices<br />
was greater after the 25% thinning (approximately 42% enhancement) than after the strong<br />
typhoon Herb (approximately 25% enhancement) (one-way ANOVA, p
T.-C. Lin et al. 2010. Immediate effects of typhoon disturbance <strong>and</strong> artificial thinning on understory light environments<br />
144<br />
4. Discussion<br />
There was a positive relationship between typhoon strength <strong>and</strong> increase of understory<br />
light availabilities following typhoons. Typhoon Herb was a category three typhoon <strong>and</strong> the<br />
strongest to impact Taiwan in the last 3 decades (Longshore 2008). It caused a decrease in the<br />
canopy leaf area index from 2.99 to 2.40 or 20% on the transect (Lin et al. 1999). The 25%<br />
artificial thinning should have also resulted in an approximately 25% removal of canopy leaf<br />
area because all trees located in the thinned subplots were felled. However, the resulting<br />
enhancement of understory light indices (approximately 42%) was significantly greater than that<br />
which followed typhoon Herb (approximately 25%). Note that the magnitude of understory light<br />
enhancement following typhoon Herb was comparable to the magnitude of canopy leaf removal<br />
<strong>and</strong> was likely the result of the spatially distributed effect of typhoon disturbance on canopy<br />
structure. In contrast, thinning removes whole clusters of trees to create gaps of 100m 2 that are<br />
open to the sky <strong>and</strong> resulted in disproportional increases in understory light availabilities which<br />
must be taken into consideration if artificial thinning is used in attempts to enhance understory<br />
light availability to a pre-determined level because the reduction of tree basal area does not<br />
provide a good estimate of increases in canopy transmittance (Hale 2003).<br />
In addition to the disproportional increases in understory light availabilities, the much<br />
greater understory light enhancement following 25% artificial thinning compared to the<br />
strongest typhoon in the last three decades indicates that thinning of 25% or greater is likely to<br />
create understory light environments that do not exist naturally in these forests. The light<br />
availability following artificially thinning, 25%-36% of levels in the open, could lead to a very<br />
different trajectory of forest regeneration.<br />
The very different patterns of post-typhoon GSF for micro-sites that varied in pretyphoon<br />
GSF (Fig. 2) may reflect differences in vulnerability of tree canopies. The increase in<br />
GSF is certainly due to the opening of the forest canopies caused by typhoon disturbance. The<br />
low light micro-sites were likely under taller <strong>and</strong>/or denser tree canopies than the high light<br />
micro-sites. The decrease in GSF after typhoon disturbance in many high-light micro-sites<br />
probably resulted from the larger effect of canopy closure between two repeated measurements<br />
than the effect of typhoon disturbance in these high-light micro-sites. However, typhoons as<br />
intense as Herb in 1996 can completely obliterate this effect of seasonal growth.<br />
After 25% thinning there were still many micro-sites showing decreases in GSF (Fig. 1)<br />
suggesting that the growth potential of micro-sites with high light availability was substantial.<br />
Thus, if such micro-sites are not in or near the thinned subplots, the effect of seasonal growth<br />
cannot be completely offset by thinning by 25% or less.<br />
The very different responses to artificial thinning among micro-sites with similar prethinning<br />
understory light indices (Fig. 2) resulted from their difference in distances relative to<br />
the thinned subplots. Micro-sites near or on the edges of the thinned subplots certainly exhibited<br />
large enhancements of understory light availability. Micro-sites further away were less affected,<br />
<strong>and</strong> the effect of artificial thinning on understory light availability may even be smaller than the<br />
effect of tree growth between the two repeated measurements.<br />
In the natural forest at Fushan Experimental <strong>Forest</strong>, differences in topography <strong>and</strong><br />
species composition are possible causes for the variable impact of typhoon disturbance on<br />
micro-sites of similar pre-typhoon light indices. The disruption to forest canopies <strong>and</strong>, in turn, to<br />
understory light environments were scattered in space resulting in spatially variable impacts on<br />
understory light availability. Thus, the effect of both typhoon disturbance <strong>and</strong> artificial thinning<br />
on understory light environments exhibited large spatial variation.<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
T.-C. Lin et al. 2010. Immediate effects of typhoon disturbance <strong>and</strong> artificial thinning on understory light environments<br />
145<br />
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Fahey, R.T., Puettmann, K.J., 2007. Ground-layer disturbance <strong>and</strong> initial conditions influence<br />
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Hale, S.E., 2003. The effect of thinning intensity on the below-canopy light environment in a<br />
Sitka spruce plantation. <strong>Forest</strong> Ecology <strong>and</strong> Management, 179: 341-349.<br />
Hsia, Y.J., <strong>and</strong> Hwong, J.L., 1999. Hydrological characteristics of Fu-shan Experimental <strong>Forest</strong>.<br />
Quarterly Journal of Chinese <strong>Forest</strong>ry, 32: 39-51.<br />
Lin, T.C., <strong>and</strong> Chiang, J.M., 2002. Applications of hemispherical photographs in studies of<br />
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Lin, T.C., Lin, T.T., Chiang, Z.M., Hsia, Y.J., <strong>and</strong> King, H.B., 1999. A study on typhoon<br />
disturbance to the canopy natural hardwood forest in northeastern Taiwan. Quarterly<br />
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Losos, E.C., <strong>and</strong> Leigh Jr., E.G., 2004. Tropical forest diversity <strong>and</strong> dynamism: findings from a<br />
large-scale plot network. The University of Chicago Press, Chicago, 688 p.<br />
Mabry, C.M., Hamburg, S.P. Lin, T.C., Horng, F.W., King, H.B., <strong>and</strong> Hsia, Y.J., 1998.<br />
Typhoon disturbance <strong>and</strong> st<strong>and</strong>-level damage patterns at a subtropical forest in Taiwan.<br />
Biotropica, 30: 238-250.<br />
Oliver, C.D., <strong>and</strong> Larson, B.C., 1996. <strong>Forest</strong> st<strong>and</strong> dynamics. 2nd Edition. John Wiley <strong>and</strong> Sons,<br />
New York, 544 p.<br />
Rich, P.M., 1990. Characterizing plant canopies with hemispherical photographs. Remote<br />
Sensing Review, 5: 13-29.<br />
Sun, I.F., 2007. Managing forest plantation for biodiversity conservation <strong>and</strong> timber production<br />
in Taiwan. In Wang, D.H., <strong>and</strong> Chung, C.H. (Eds) Proceedings of the Symposium on<br />
ecosystem <strong>and</strong> biodiversity conservation on plantation forests in Taiwan <strong>and</strong> France.<br />
Taipei, Taiwan: 1-6.<br />
Wang, D.H., Hwong, J.L., Sun, I.F., Lin, Z.H., Ddeng, S.L., <strong>and</strong> Chung, C.H., 2007. Thinning<br />
effect on st<strong>and</strong> structure of a Sugi Plantation (Cryptomeria Japonica) in Zenlen Area. In<br />
Wang, D.H., <strong>and</strong> Chung, C.H. (Eds) Proceedings of the Symposium on ecosystem <strong>and</strong><br />
biodiversity conservation on plantation forests in Taiwan <strong>and</strong> France. Taipei, Taiwan: 7-<br />
20.<br />
Wang, D.H., Tang, S.C., <strong>and</strong> Liu, C.K., 2008. Four-year monitoring of thinning effects on the<br />
microclimate <strong>and</strong> ground Vegetation in a Taiwania plantation in the Liukuei Experimental<br />
<strong>Forest</strong>, Taiwan. Taiwan Journal of <strong>Forest</strong> Science, 23: 191-198.<br />
Wu, C.C., Kuo, Y.H. 1999. Typhoons affecting Taiwan: current underst<strong>and</strong>ing <strong>and</strong> future<br />
challenges. Bulletin of American Meteorological Society, 80: 67-80.<br />
Yanai, R.D., Twery, M.J., <strong>and</strong> Stout, S.L., 1998. Woody understory response to changes in<br />
overstory density: thinning in Allegheny hardwoods. <strong>Forest</strong> Ecology <strong>and</strong><br />
Management,102: 45-56.<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
T.-C. Lin et al. 2010. Immediate effects of typhoon disturbance <strong>and</strong> artificial thinning on understory light environments<br />
146<br />
Fig. 1. Frequency distribution of light availability before <strong>and</strong> after typhoon disturbance <strong>and</strong><br />
artificial thinning.<br />
Fig. 2. Light availability before <strong>and</strong> after typhoon <strong>and</strong> thinning light availability.<br />
Measurements for each sampling position were sorted based on the rank order of the<br />
beforetyphoon/thinning light measurements.<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
K. L. Martin & P.C. Goebel 2010. Impact of hemlock decline on successional pathways <strong>and</strong> ecosystem function<br />
147<br />
Impact of hemlock decline on successional pathways <strong>and</strong> ecosystem<br />
function at multiple scales in forests of the central Appalachians, USA<br />
Katherine L. Martin * & P. Charles Goebel<br />
School of Environment & Natural Resources, Ohio Agricultural Research &<br />
Development Center, The Ohio State University, 1680 Madison Ave.,<br />
Wooster, OH 44691, USA<br />
Abstract<br />
Hemlock woolly adelgid (HWA) is an invasive, exotic insect causing widespread mortality in<br />
Tsuga canadensis (L.) Carr forests of the eastern United States. T. canadensis is considered a<br />
foundation species that dominates ravine <strong>and</strong> riparian forests across the central <strong>and</strong> southern<br />
Appalachian Mountains. We are working to clarify how the loss of T. canadensis will affect<br />
ecosystem function in forests of the central Appalachians at both local <strong>and</strong> l<strong>and</strong>scape scales.<br />
Using a chronosequence approach, we are examining forests within regions classified as longterm<br />
invaded (> 10 years), recently invaded (5-10 years), <strong>and</strong> intact (not invaded). Initial<br />
analyses indicate hemlock is particularly dominant immediately adjacent to streams, with few<br />
other species in any of the vegetation layers. As this evergreen with poor quality leaf litter<br />
declines, light availability <strong>and</strong> decomposition rates are increasing, changing the successional<br />
pathways of these forests <strong>and</strong> providing resources for additional species including invasive,<br />
non-native plant species.<br />
Keywords: Central Hardwood <strong>Forest</strong>, Ecological disturbance, Hemlock woolly adelgid,<br />
invasive species, Tsuga canadensis<br />
1. Introduction<br />
The forested l<strong>and</strong>scape of eastern North America has been reshaped over the past two centuries<br />
by introduced pests <strong>and</strong> pathogens (Lovett et al. 2006). Tsuga canadensis (L.) Carr has been an<br />
influential canopy tree species throughout these forests from the last major glacial maximum<br />
approximately 10,000 ybp (Allison et al. 1986, Heard <strong>and</strong> Valente 2009). Yet, an invasive<br />
insect may eliminate it from most of its range within the next few decades. Described as a<br />
foundation species (Ellison et al. 2005), the demise of T. canadensis will result in widespread<br />
changes throughout forests of eastern North America. Throughout its range extending from the<br />
southern Appalachian Mountains north to New Engl<strong>and</strong>, the upper Great Lakes <strong>and</strong> eastern<br />
Canada, T. canadensis dominates ecosystem processes. This evergreen conifer contributes a<br />
unique l<strong>and</strong>scape component, adding beta <strong>and</strong> gamma diversity in a matrix of largely deciduous<br />
forests. This may be particularly important in the central <strong>and</strong> southern portions of its range,<br />
where T. canadensis is largely restricted to riparian <strong>and</strong> cove forests along headwater streams.<br />
In the majority of cases, it composes over half of the basal area <strong>and</strong> there is little functional<br />
redundancy with any of the co-occurring deciduous hardwoods.<br />
Introduced in Virginia in the 1950’s, the pest insect hemlock woolly adelgid (Adelges tsugae<br />
Ann<strong>and</strong>; hereafter HWA) has spread from northern Georgia to southern Maine <strong>and</strong> continues to<br />
* Corresponding author. Tel: 01 330 202 3549 - Fax: 01 330 263 3658<br />
Email address: martin.1678@osu.edu<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
K. L. Martin & P.C. Goebel 2010. Impact of hemlock decline on successional pathways <strong>and</strong> ecosystem function<br />
148<br />
move westward in Pennsylvania (Figure 1). HWA feeds on the parenchyma cells of xylem rays,<br />
which causes the death of branches <strong>and</strong> leads to mortality in T. canadensis (McClure 1991).<br />
There is no evidence that T. canadensis or T. caroliniana Engelm., a species endemic to the<br />
southern Appalachians, have any resistance to HWA. Thus complete mortality occurs in 4-15<br />
years (McClure 1991; Orwig <strong>and</strong> Foster 1998). Evans <strong>and</strong> Gregorie (2007) estimate HWA to<br />
spread at a mean rate of 12 km yr -1 , but both the spread <strong>and</strong> effects are accelerated in southern,<br />
warmer portions of the range (Ford <strong>and</strong> Vose 2007).<br />
On-going T. canadensis mortality is undoubtedly altering forest dynamics including species<br />
composition, diversity, <strong>and</strong> nutrient <strong>and</strong> energy exchanges. T. canadensis forms a foundation<br />
that supports unique species assemblages, including cold-water fishes, birds, <strong>and</strong><br />
macroinvertebrates (Ellison et al. 2005). Across the T. canadensis range, pollen records<br />
following an historic population decline 5,000 ybp provide useful insight into species likely to<br />
respond to hemlock mortality, including Betula, Acer <strong>and</strong> Quercus species (Heard <strong>and</strong> Valente<br />
2009). However, communities that develop following T. canadensis mortality may be regionspecific,<br />
thus creating greater dissimilarity across portions of the l<strong>and</strong>scape once dominated by<br />
hemlock (Ellison et al. 2005; Orwig et al. 2008). Much of the current underst<strong>and</strong>ing of the<br />
impact of T. canadensis mortality is centered in the Northern Hardwoods forest province. Yet, a<br />
large portion of the T. canadensis range lies within the Central Hardwoods forest, a province<br />
extending from West Virginia to Alabama <strong>and</strong> west to Missouri <strong>and</strong> Wisconsin (Fralish 2000).<br />
We are working to clarify the contemporary impact of this introduced disturbance across the<br />
central Appalachians. The objective of our on-going study is to quantify changes in plant<br />
community structure <strong>and</strong> ecosystem function in headwater stream riparian forests of the central<br />
Appalachian Mountains. For the broader study, we are using a chronosequence of time since<br />
HWA invasion to examine the following questions:<br />
1. How will or does T. canadensis mortality impact headwater streams at local scales, moving<br />
from the stream bank upslope<br />
2. How much variation can we expect in these changes both across the central Appalachians<br />
3. How do our results compare to underst<strong>and</strong>ing from the northeastern U.S. <strong>and</strong> southern<br />
Appalachian Mountains<br />
4. What can we predict in terms of forest composition <strong>and</strong> function over time as T. canadensis<br />
mortality progresses <strong>and</strong> forests transition to an alternate ecosystem<br />
Before HWA arrives, we are quantifying the vegetation <strong>and</strong> environmental relationships in T.<br />
canadensis dominated ravines important for natural heritage <strong>and</strong> recreation on the unglaciated<br />
Allegheny Plateau of southeastern Ohio. Therefore, in this paper we focus on our first question:<br />
How will or does T. canadensis mortality impact headwater streams at local scales, moving<br />
from the stream bank upslope According to the projected rate of spread (12 km -1 year, Evans<br />
<strong>and</strong> Gregorie 2007) <strong>and</strong> the current USDA <strong>Forest</strong> Service map of HWA invasion (Figure 1),<br />
Ohio may be invaded within the next few years.<br />
2. Methodology<br />
For the broader study, areas have been identified in the central Appalachian region, including<br />
sites within the Allegheny Mountains of Virginia <strong>and</strong> West Virginia, <strong>and</strong> the Allegheny Plateau<br />
region of eastern Ohio. Using the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) <strong>Forest</strong><br />
Service HWA distribution map <strong>and</strong> information available from local l<strong>and</strong> managers, we have<br />
identified <strong>and</strong> acquired research permits for study areas in the states of:<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
K. L. Martin & P.C. Goebel 2010. Impact of hemlock decline on successional pathways <strong>and</strong> ecosystem function<br />
149<br />
1. Virginia (Jefferson <strong>and</strong> George Washington National <strong>Forest</strong>s), where HWA has been present<br />
for 25-30 years <strong>and</strong> hemlocks in invaded st<strong>and</strong>s are likely dead (based on the 4-15 year<br />
mortality timeframe; McClure 1991);<br />
2. West Virginia (New River <strong>and</strong> Gauley River National Recreation Areas, Monongahela<br />
National <strong>Forest</strong>), where HWA has recently invaded (2-5 years) <strong>and</strong> trees are declining; <strong>and</strong>,<br />
3. Ohio (Lake Katherine State Nature Preserve, Sheick Hollow State Nature Preserve, Hocking<br />
State <strong>Forest</strong>) where HWA is not yet present.<br />
In this paper, we focus on data collected in the Unglaciated Allegheny Plateau physiographic<br />
province of southeastern Ohio (Brockman 1998). This province of deep cliffs <strong>and</strong> valleys cut<br />
into the s<strong>and</strong>stone bedrock supports the majority of T. canadensis within Ohio (Black <strong>and</strong> Mack<br />
1976). Three of our steam reaches were located at Lake Katharine, an 817-ha State Nature<br />
Preserve, four were located within the 3,924-ha Hocking State <strong>Forest</strong>, <strong>and</strong> one at Sheick<br />
Hollow, a 61-ha State Nature Preserve. The climate in the area is continental with cold, snowy<br />
winters (mean = 0 o C) <strong>and</strong> warm, humid summers (mean = 21.6 o C) with an average rainfall of<br />
102 cm distributed evenly throughout the year (Kerr 1985; Lemaster <strong>and</strong> Glimore 1989). All<br />
areas were second-growth forest ravines with hemlock approximately 50% or more of the basal<br />
area. Any areas with evidence of recent human disturbance (logging roads, stumps) were<br />
excluded.<br />
We sampled vegetation using a series of five 100-m 2 circular plots (5.64 m radius) centered 10,<br />
30, <strong>and</strong> 50-m from small streams <strong>and</strong> 15 m apart. The species <strong>and</strong> d.b.h. (diameter at breast<br />
height, 1.67 m) of all woody vegetation was recorded. Stems 2.5 - 10 cm d.b.h. were classified<br />
as saplings. All stems > 10 were coded as dominant (full canopy in sun), co-dominant (portions<br />
of canopy in sun), intermediate (top of canopy not overtopped), or sub-canopy (overtopped). For<br />
analyses, the five subplots in each transect were added together for analyses for a 500-m 2 scale.<br />
To underst<strong>and</strong> community characteristics at different slope positions across the ravines, we also<br />
analyzed functional diversity using species guilds developed for the Central Hardwood <strong>Forest</strong> of<br />
the USA by Sutherl<strong>and</strong> et al. (2000). As we are focused on T. canadensis as a foundation<br />
species currently subjected to species-specific mortality, we separated it into its own functional<br />
group for analyses.<br />
Mean species <strong>and</strong> functional richness <strong>and</strong> diversity were compared by transect using one-way<br />
analysis of variance (ANOVA) tests. In cases where means differed, the three transects were<br />
subjected to Tukey’s mean separation test. All analyses were calculated using PASW statistics<br />
18 software (SPSS Inc, Chicago, IL)<br />
3. Results<br />
Our results indicate that in ravines of the Unglaciated Allegheny Plateau of Ohio, T. canadensis<br />
is highly dominant with few other species in the canopy, sub-canopy, or sapling layers (Table<br />
1). Hemlock basal area did not vary by transect, <strong>and</strong> neither did overall basal area. Although<br />
there was not a strong separation (Canopy species richness F = 2.57, P = 0.100, d.f. = 2), Betula<br />
lenta L. <strong>and</strong> Liriodendron tulipifera L., as well as Fagus gr<strong>and</strong>ifolia Ehrh., were more common<br />
adjacent to the stream. Sutherl<strong>and</strong> et al. (2000) categorize B. lenta <strong>and</strong> L. tulipifera as a part of a<br />
long-lived, shade intolerant functional group, indicating they are gap-dependent in hemlock<br />
ravines. On the other h<strong>and</strong>, F. gr<strong>and</strong>ifolia is part of the same extremely shade tolerant, slowgrowing,<br />
<strong>and</strong> long-lived functional group that includes T. canadensis (Sutherl<strong>and</strong> et al. 2000).<br />
Moving from the stream upslope, there was also a slight increase in canopy functional richness<br />
(F= 3.95, P = 0.035, d.f. = 2). This was largely due to increases in Quercus <strong>and</strong> Carya species,<br />
which Sutherl<strong>and</strong> et al. (2000) group into the red oak- hickory (i.e. Quercus rubra L., Q.<br />
coccinea Münchh. <strong>and</strong> Carya spp.) <strong>and</strong> the white oak (Q. alba L., Q. prinus L. ) groups due to<br />
differing germination requirements. Along the 30-m transect, the shade-tolerant Acer-Ulmus<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
K. L. Martin & P.C. Goebel 2010. Impact of hemlock decline on successional pathways <strong>and</strong> ecosystem function<br />
150<br />
group was also more abundant, largely due A. rubrum L. <strong>and</strong> a few scattered U. rubra Muhl. In<br />
the sub-canopy, a slight increase in species richness (F = 3.87, P = 0.037, d.f. = 2) <strong>and</strong> diversity<br />
(F = 3.10, P = 0.066, d.f.= 2) equated to slightly increased functional richness (F = 3.02, P =<br />
0.070, d.f. = 2). Somewhat mirroring the canopy, B. lenta was more common in sub-canopy at<br />
10 m while A. rubrum <strong>and</strong> Q. prinus were more frequent in the sub-canopy along the 50-m<br />
transect. The sapling layer was the most depauperate with mean species richness below three<br />
species. Saplings were overwhelmingly hemlock <strong>and</strong> were less abundant adjacent to the stream.<br />
Following T. canadensis, A. rubrum <strong>and</strong> F. gr<strong>and</strong>ifolia were the most common species in the<br />
sapling layers, but still at very low numbers (mean below 2 stems per plot).<br />
4. Discussion<br />
On the Unglaciated Allegheny Plateau of southeastern Ohio, T. canadensis dominates steep<br />
ravines formed in s<strong>and</strong>stone bedrock. These ecosystems are characterized by low species <strong>and</strong><br />
functional diversity in the canopy, sub-canopy <strong>and</strong> sapling forest layers. While these forests<br />
remain outside the current HWA invasion, the spread continues <strong>and</strong> will likely reach Ohio<br />
within the next few years. The species that replace T. canadensis will be quite different<br />
functionally. Sutherl<strong>and</strong> et al. (2000) characterize T. canadensis as part of a group including<br />
Acer nigrum Michx. f., A. saccharum Marsh., Carpinus caroliniana Walter, Fagus gr<strong>and</strong>ifolia,<br />
Ostrya virginiana (Mill.) K. Koch , Oxydendrum arboretum (L.) DC, Tilia americana L. <strong>and</strong> T.<br />
heterophylla Vent. These shade tolerant, long-lived species are currently sparse or absent in T.<br />
canadensis ravines. Runkle <strong>and</strong> Whitney (1987) suggest that in this region, poor quality, low<br />
pH soils may be responsible for the lack of these species typically dominant in mesic habitats of<br />
the Central Hardwoods region such as Acer saccharum <strong>and</strong> Tilia spp. This functional group is<br />
also challenged by mortality of F. gr<strong>and</strong>ifolia due to beech bark disease, caused by an<br />
interaction between the pest Cryptococcus fagisuga Ling, <strong>and</strong> the exotic fungi Nectria coccinea<br />
var. faginata Lohman, Watson, <strong>and</strong> Ayers <strong>and</strong> N. galligena Bres. This disease is currently<br />
causing widespread mortality in the northeastern US <strong>and</strong> continues to spread westward.<br />
HWA will shift ravine <strong>and</strong> riparian forests into a different ecosystem state, driven by different<br />
forest functional groups. In Northern Hardwood <strong>Forest</strong>s of the northeastern USA, T. canadensis<br />
is being replaced largely by Betula lenta (Ellison et al. 2005; Orwig et al. 2008). B. lenta is<br />
currently a minor component of T. canadensis ravines in Ohio, however, it is an opportunistic<br />
species well adapted to exploit canopy gaps (Orwig <strong>and</strong> Foster 1998; Catovsky <strong>and</strong> Bazzaz<br />
2002). Ford <strong>and</strong> Vose (2007) also identify Lirodendron tulipifera as a canopy replacement<br />
species in the southern Appalachians. Sutherl<strong>and</strong> et al (2000) group B. lenta, L. tulipifera as<br />
relatively shade-intolerant <strong>and</strong> long-lived. Also included in this group are Juglans nigra <strong>and</strong><br />
Platanus occidentalis which occur infrequently at our plots, but respond well to disturbance.<br />
Our results also indicate that HWA mortality may have differing impacts at local scales. At<br />
upper slope positions, we found a trend of increasing species richness in the sub-canopy <strong>and</strong><br />
canopy, although sapling species richness remained low. This was largely due to increases in<br />
species of Quercus <strong>and</strong> Carya. Species in these groups are responsive to disturbance (Small et<br />
al. 2005) <strong>and</strong> may also exploit gaps created by the death of individual hemlock stems. Thus,<br />
upper slope positions may transition differently than areas immediately adjacent to streams. As<br />
we collect additional data across our mortality chronosequence, these patterns will be refined for<br />
the central Appalachian region.<br />
References<br />
Allison, T.D., Moeller, R.E. <strong>and</strong> Davis, M.B., 1986. Pollen in laminated sediments provides<br />
evidence for a mid-holocene forest pathogen outbreak. Ecology, 67:1101-1105.<br />
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Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
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Black, R.A. <strong>and</strong> Mack, R.N., 1976, Tsuga canadensis in Ohio: Synecological <strong>and</strong><br />
phytogeographic relationships. Plant Ecology, 32: 11-19.<br />
Brockman, C.S., 1998. Physiographic regions of Ohio [map]. Columbus, OH: Division of<br />
Geologic Survey, State of Ohio.<br />
Catovsky, S. <strong>and</strong> Bazzaz. F.A., 2000. The role of resource interactions <strong>and</strong> seedling<br />
regeneration in maintaining a positive feedback in hemlock st<strong>and</strong>s. Journal of Ecology,<br />
88:100-112.<br />
Ellison, A. M., Banks, M. S., Clinton, B. D. , Colburn, E. A., Elliott, K., Ford, C. R. , Foster, D.<br />
R., Kloeppel, B. D. , Knoepp, J. D. , Lovett, G. M., Mohan, J. Orwig, D. A. <strong>and</strong><br />
Rodenhouse, N. L. , 2005. Loss of foundation species: consequences for the structure <strong>and</strong><br />
dynamics of forested ecosystems. Frontiers in Ecology <strong>and</strong> the Environment, 3:479-486.<br />
Evans, A.M. <strong>and</strong> Gregorie, T.G., 2007, A geographically variable model of hemlock woolly<br />
adelgid spread. Biological Invasions, 9:369-382.<br />
Ford, C.R. <strong>and</strong> Vose, J.M., 2007. Tsuga canadensis (L.) Carr. mortality will impact hydrologic<br />
processes in southern Appalachian forest ecosystems. Ecological Applications, 17:1156-<br />
1167.<br />
Fralish, J.S., 2000. The central hardwood forest: Its boundaries <strong>and</strong> physiographic provinces. In:<br />
VanSambeek, J.W., Dawson, J.O., Ponder, F., Loewenstein, E.F., <strong>and</strong> Fralish, J.S. (Eds).<br />
Proceedings of the 13 th Central Hardwood <strong>Forest</strong> Conference. Champaign, IL: USDA<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> Service Northern Research Station: 1-20.<br />
Kerr, J.W., 1985. Soil survey of Jackson County, Ohio. Washington, DC: USDA Soil<br />
Conservation Service. 170 pages.<br />
Lemaster, D.D. <strong>and</strong> Glimore, G.M., 1989. Soil survey of Hocking County, Ohio. Washington,<br />
DC: USDA Soil Conservation Service. 249 pages.<br />
Lovett, G.M., Canham, C.D., Arthur, M.A., Weathers, K.C., <strong>and</strong> Fitzhugh, R.D., 2006. <strong>Forest</strong><br />
ecosystem responses to exotic pests <strong>and</strong> pathogens in eastern North America. BioScience,<br />
56: 395-405.<br />
McClure, M.S., 1991. Density-dependent feedback <strong>and</strong> population cycles in Adelges tsugae<br />
(Homoptera, Adelgidae) on Tsuga canadensis. Environmental Entomology, 20: 258-264.<br />
Orwig, D. A., <strong>and</strong> Foster, D.R., 1998. <strong>Forest</strong> response to the introduced hemlock woolly adelgid<br />
in southern New Engl<strong>and</strong>, USA. Journal of the Torrey Botanical Society, 125 :60–73.<br />
Orwig, D.A., Cobb, R.C. D’Amato, A.W. Kizlinski, M.L., <strong>and</strong> Foster, D.R., 2008. Multi-year<br />
ecosystem response to hemlock woolly adelgid infestation in southern New Engl<strong>and</strong><br />
forests. Canadian Journal of <strong>Forest</strong> Research, 38: 834-843.<br />
Runkle, J.R. <strong>and</strong> Whitney G.G., 1987. Vegetation-site relationships in Lake Katharine State<br />
Nature Preserve Ohio: A northern outlier of the mixed mesophytic forest. Ohio Journal of<br />
Science, 87:36-40.<br />
Small, M.J, Small, C.J. <strong>and</strong> Dreyer, G.D., 2005. <strong>Change</strong>s in a hemlock-dominated forest<br />
following woolly adelgid infestation in southern New Engl<strong>and</strong>. Journal of the Torrey<br />
Botanical Society, 132: 458-470.<br />
Sutherl<strong>and</strong>, E.K., Hale, B.J., <strong>and</strong> Hix, D.M., 2000. Defining species guilds in the Central<br />
Hardwood <strong>Forest</strong>, USA. Plant Ecology, 147: 1-19.<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
K. L. Martin & P.C. Goebel 2010. Impact of hemlock decline on successional pathways <strong>and</strong> ecosystem function<br />
152<br />
Figure 1: USDA <strong>Forest</strong> Service 2009 map of hemlock woolly adelgid spread across the range of T.<br />
canadensis. Study sites have been added with a star, moving west to east: Ohio, West Virginia, <strong>and</strong><br />
Virginia.<br />
Table 1: Comparisons of richness <strong>and</strong> diversity in Tsuga canadensis ravines at three transects centered<br />
upslope at 10, 30, <strong>and</strong> 50 m from headwater streams in Ohio, USA. Comparisons of means were<br />
calculated with one-way analysis of variance. Significant results are indicated: ** α = 0.05, * α = 0.1.<br />
Sub-canopy species richness F = 3.87, P = 0.037; Sub-canopy diversity F = 3.10, P = 0.066; Sub-canopy<br />
functional richness F = 3.02, P = 0.070; Canopy species richness F = 2.57, P = 0.100; Canopy functional<br />
richness F= 3.95, P = 0.035. In all cases d.f.= 2. Means separation as determined by Tukey’s test is<br />
indicated by letters.<br />
10 m 30 m 50 m<br />
Sapling species richness 1.63 ± 0.18 2.5± 0.68 2.38± 0.50<br />
Sapling species diversity 0.20 ± 0.06 0.40 ± 0.19 0.42 ± 0.17<br />
Percent saplings Tsuga canadensis 93.6 ± 2.3 86.6 ± 6.5 77.0 ± 10.4<br />
Sub-canopy species richness** 2.50 ± 0.38 a 3.38 ± 0.38 ab 4.13 ± 0.48 b<br />
Sub-canopy species diversity* 0.48 ± 0.14 a 0.58 ± 0.08 ab 0.93 ± 0.17 b<br />
Sub-canopy functional richness* 2.50 ± 0.48 a 3.25 ± 0.37 ab 3.88 ± 0.13 b<br />
Sub-canopy functional diversity* 0.40 ± 0.14 a 0.45 ± 0.11 ab 0.81 ±0.13 b<br />
Canopy species richness* 4.00 ± 0.27 a 4.63 ± 0.32 ab 5.13 ± 0.44 b<br />
Canopy species diversity 1.22 ± 0.09 1.23 ± 0.10 1.31 ± 0.11<br />
Canopy functional richness** 3.63 ± 0.26 a 4.13 ± 0.23 ab 4.11 ±0.26 b<br />
Canopy functional diversity 1.14 ± 0.09 1.11 ± 0.09 1.11 ± 0.08<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
G.M. Pastur et al. 2010. Indirect estimation of l<strong>and</strong>scape uses by Lama guanicoe <strong>and</strong> domestic herbivorous<br />
153<br />
Indirect estimation of l<strong>and</strong>scape uses by Lama guanicoe <strong>and</strong> domestic<br />
herbivorous through the study of diet composition in South Patagonia<br />
Guillermo Martínez Pastur 1* , Rosina Soler Esteban 1 ,<br />
María Vanessa Lencinas 1 & Laura Borrelli 2<br />
1 Centro Austral de Investigaciones Científicas (CADIC CONICET), Argentina<br />
2 Instituto Nacional de Tecnología Agropecuaria (INTA EEA-Bariloche), Argentina<br />
Abstract<br />
Herbivory is central in ecosystem function studies, <strong>and</strong> herbivores influence over regeneration<br />
<strong>and</strong> vegetation composition through browsing. Underst<strong>and</strong>ing diet selection behavior along the<br />
year is important to predict herbivore impacts on regeneration <strong>and</strong> vegetation dynamics under<br />
different scenarios of forest <strong>and</strong> grazing management. The objective was to evaluate diet<br />
composition of herbivorous, <strong>and</strong> correlates it to the use of different vegetation types along the<br />
year. Study was conducted in 100 km² of Tierra del Fuego Isl<strong>and</strong> (Argentina) where 205<br />
floristic surveys were obtained. Feces of native (Lama guanicoe) <strong>and</strong> domestic (Bos taurus <strong>and</strong><br />
Ovis aries) herbivorous were collected. Four laboratory samples per species <strong>and</strong> season were<br />
analyzed, each one composed by five fecal collection. Samples were mixed, dried <strong>and</strong> ground in<br />
a mill (1 mm) for micro-histological analysis. Browsing occurred all around year, where native<br />
<strong>and</strong> domestic herbivorous alternate the uses of different environments. Native species preferred<br />
Nothofagus pumilio forests, except in winter, where domestic species had major predominance.<br />
Beside this, all herbivorous species included grasses in their diet, which were found in open<br />
environments (grassl<strong>and</strong>s <strong>and</strong> peatl<strong>and</strong>s). The knowledge of diet <strong>and</strong> plant distribution at<br />
l<strong>and</strong>scape level allows us to propose management strategies for native <strong>and</strong> domestic<br />
herbivorous.<br />
Keywords: browsing, forest management, fecal micro-histological analysis, Nothofagus,<br />
Argentina.<br />
1. Introduction<br />
Herbivory is central in ecosystem function studies, where large herbivores can produce<br />
important floristic <strong>and</strong> structural changes in forested l<strong>and</strong>scapes, influencing plant productivity<br />
<strong>and</strong> species diversity (Augustine <strong>and</strong> McNaughton 1998; Skarpe <strong>and</strong> Hester 2007). In South<br />
Patagonia, these forested l<strong>and</strong>scapes are mosaics of different site types, where timber-quality<br />
forests rarely constitute large, continuous masses since these are mixed with openl<strong>and</strong>s <strong>and</strong><br />
associated non-timber-quality forest st<strong>and</strong>s (Lencinas et al. 2008), e.g. grassl<strong>and</strong>s, peat-l<strong>and</strong>s,<br />
Nothofagus antarctica forests <strong>and</strong> N. pumilio low quality forests. Beside this, the harvesting of<br />
N. pumilio forests impacts over richness <strong>and</strong> cover of the understory (Martínez Pastur et al.<br />
2002). For this, underst<strong>and</strong>ing diet selection behavior along the seasons is important to predict<br />
herbivore impacts on regeneration <strong>and</strong> vegetation dynamics under different scenarios of forest<br />
<strong>and</strong> grazing management. Lama guanicoe (guanaco) is the only one large native herbivore<br />
(Bonino <strong>and</strong> Fern<strong>and</strong>ez 1994), which compete with domestic herbivores across the l<strong>and</strong>scape<br />
(Bonino <strong>and</strong> Sbriller 1991). The objective was to evaluate diet composition of large herbivorous,<br />
<strong>and</strong> correlate them to the use of different vegetation types along the year.<br />
* Corresponding author. Tel.: +54-2901-422310 int 111- Fax.: +54+2901-430644<br />
Email address: cadicforestal@cadic.gov.ar; cadicforestal@gmail.com<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
G.M. Pastur et al. 2010. Indirect estimation of l<strong>and</strong>scape uses by Lama guanicoe <strong>and</strong> domestic herbivorous<br />
154<br />
2. Methodology<br />
The study was conducted in 100 km² of Tierra del Fuego Isl<strong>and</strong> (Argentina) (54°20' SL, 67°52'<br />
WL), where open l<strong>and</strong>s covered 40.0% of the area (grass-l<strong>and</strong>s 36.5% <strong>and</strong> peat-l<strong>and</strong>s 3.5%),<br />
forests covered 59.8% (Nothofagus antarctica forests 19.3% <strong>and</strong> N. pumilio forests 49.5%,<br />
classified as primary unmanaged 26.8%, recently harvested 9.1% <strong>and</strong> old harvesting 13.6%),<br />
<strong>and</strong> lagoons <strong>and</strong> lakes covered 0.2% (Fig. 1). Recently harvested forests (1-5 years) were cutted<br />
using a variable retention method (Martínez Pastur et al. 2009), which include non-harvested<br />
aggregated retention areas (30% of the st<strong>and</strong>) <strong>and</strong> harvested areas with dispersed retention (70%<br />
of the st<strong>and</strong>). Old harvesting (>5 years) was done through selective cuts. Climate is<br />
characterized by short, cool summers <strong>and</strong> long, snowy <strong>and</strong> frozen winters. Mean monthly<br />
temperatures vary from about -7ºC to 14ºC. Absolute temperatures range from -17ºC in July to<br />
22ºC in January. The growing season extends for about 5 months, <strong>and</strong> only 3 months per year<br />
are frost-free. Precipitation is near 400 mm per year, <strong>and</strong> average wind speed is 8 km.h -1 ,<br />
reaching up to 100 km.h -1 during storms (Lencinas et al. 2008). A total of 205 floristic surveys<br />
were obtained recording the cover percentage of vegetation in different site types. Vascular<br />
plants (Dicotyledonae, Monocotyledonae <strong>and</strong> Pteridophytae) were taxonomically classified by<br />
species <strong>and</strong> determined their origin (native or exotic), following Moore (1983) <strong>and</strong> Correa<br />
(1969-1998). Beside this, each species was classified according their relative abundance in<br />
common (more than 0.02% covers in average for the entire census) or rare (less than 0.02%).<br />
Figure 1: Study area, where: yellow = open l<strong>and</strong>s, brown = Nothofagus antarctica forests, green = N.<br />
pumilio forests (dark green = primary unmanaged, green = recently harvested, pale green = old<br />
harvesting), <strong>and</strong> blue = lagoons <strong>and</strong> lakes.<br />
Feces of native (Lama guanicoe) <strong>and</strong> domestic (Bos taurus <strong>and</strong> Ovis aries) herbivorous<br />
were collected along the four seasons (spring, summer, autumn <strong>and</strong> winter). In each sampling,<br />
four areas including different site types were selected, <strong>and</strong> five feces were collected <strong>and</strong> mixed<br />
to complete one pool sample (n = 4 per season per herbivorous species). Pool samples were<br />
oven-dried at 60ºC for 48 h, grounded to
G.M. Pastur et al. 2010. Indirect estimation of l<strong>and</strong>scape uses by Lama guanicoe <strong>and</strong> domestic herbivorous<br />
155<br />
were obtained. Quantification of the species components of the diets was achieved through the<br />
frequencies of each species following Holechek <strong>and</strong> Gross (1982). Plant epidermal fragments<br />
were identified examined using 100x magnification based on their morphological characteristics.<br />
Nothofagus pumilio <strong>and</strong> N. antarctica were identified through the stoma distribution patterns in<br />
the epidermis <strong>and</strong> swellening of cuticle <strong>and</strong> trichomes (Ragonese 1981). Data were analyzed<br />
trough a comparison with a detrended correspondence analysis (DCA) for the environment type<br />
or herbivorous species using plant species values obtained in the different sampling or census<br />
3. Results<br />
Plan diversity (Table 1) greatly changed among the studied vegetation types, <strong>and</strong> large diversity<br />
was shared among the environments (Fig. 2A). Beside this, open environments (mainly<br />
grassl<strong>and</strong>s) presented more exclusive species than the other environments. Harvested forests<br />
increased their diversity with time, including many exotic species (Fig. 2B) compared to the<br />
primary unmanaged forests.<br />
Table 1: Plant richness <strong>and</strong> their codes used for the vegetation type analysis.<br />
Name Code Name Code Name Code<br />
Acaena magellanica ACMA Colobanthus quitensis COQU Pernettya pumila PEPU<br />
Acaena ovalifolia ACOV Coronopus dydimus CODY Phaiophleps biflora PHBI<br />
Acaena pinnatifida ACPI Cotula scariosa COSC Phleum alpinum PHAL<br />
Achillea millefolium ACMI Cystopteris fragilis CYFR Phleum pratense PHPR<br />
Adenocaulon chilense ADCH Dactylis glomerata DAGL Plantago barbata PLBA<br />
Agoseris coronopifolium AGCO Deschampsia antarctica DEAN Poa annua POAN<br />
Agropyron pubiflorum AGPU Deschampsia flexuosa DEFL Poa nemoraris PONE<br />
Agrostis magellanica AGMA Draba magellanica DRMA Poa pratensis POPR<br />
Agrostis perennans AGPE Dysopsis glechomoides DYGL Polygonum aviculare POAV<br />
Agrostis uliginosa AGUL Elymus agropyroides ELAG Pratia longiflora PRLO<br />
Alopecurus magellanicus ALMA Empetrum rubrum EMRU Pratia repens PRRE<br />
Alopecurus pratensis ALPR Epilobium australe EPAU Primula magellanica PRMA<br />
Arenaria serpens ARSE Erigeron myosotis ERMY Ranunculus biternatus RABI<br />
Azorella lycopodioides AZLY Euphrasia antarctica EUAN Ranunculus fuegianum RAFU<br />
Azorella trifurcata AZTR Festuca gracillima FEGR Ranunculus maclovianus RAMA<br />
Berberis buxifolia BEBU Festuca magellanica FEMA Ranunculus uniflorus RAUN<br />
Berberis empetrifolia BEEM Galium antarcticum GAAN Ribes magellanicum RIMA<br />
Blechnum penna-marina BLPE Galium aparine GAAP Rubus geoides RUGE<br />
Bolax gummifera BOGU Galium fuegianum GAFU Rumex acetosella RUAC<br />
Bromus unioloides BRUN Gamochaeta spiciformis GASP Sagina procumbens SAPR<br />
Calamagrostis stricta CAST Gentiana postrata GEPO Schizeilema ranunculus SCRA<br />
Calceolaria biflora CABI Gentianella magellanica GEMG Senecio magellanicus SEMA<br />
Caltha sagitata CASA Geum magellanicum GEMA Senecio vulgaris SEVU<br />
Capsella bursa-pastoris CABU Gunnera magellanica GUMA Stellaria debilis STDE<br />
Cardamine glacialis CAGL Hieracium antarcticum HIAN Stellaria media STME<br />
Carex capitata CACA Holcus lanatus HOLA Taraxacum gillesii TAGI<br />
Carex curta CACU Hordeum comosum HOCO Taraxacum officinale TAOF<br />
Carex decidua CADE Hordeum secalinum HOSE Tetroncium magellanicum TEMA<br />
Carex fuscula CAFU Juncus scheuzerioides JUSC Thlaspi magellanicum THMA<br />
Carex gayana CAGA Leucanthemum vulgare LEVU Trifolium repens TRRE<br />
Carex macloviana CAMA Luzula alopecurus LUAL Triglochin concinna TRCO<br />
Carex magellanica CAMG Lycopodium magellanicum LYMA Triglochin palustris TRPA<br />
Carex sorianoi CASO Nanodea muscosa NAMU Trisetum spicatum TRSP<br />
Carex subantarctica CASU Nothofagus antarctica NOAN Uncinia lechleriana UNLE<br />
Cerastium arvense CEAR Nothofagus pumilio NOPU Veronica serpyllifolia VESE<br />
Cerastium fontanum CEFO Osmorhiza chilensis OSCH Vicia magellanica VIMA<br />
Chiliotrichum diffusum CHDI Osmorhiza depauperata OSDE Viola magellanica VOMA<br />
Cirsium vulgare CIVU Oxalis magellanica OXMA<br />
All the herbivorous mainly grazed in open environments all around the year, <strong>and</strong> were<br />
possible to find the same plant species in their feces analysis (e.g., Carex sp.) in all seasons<br />
(Table 2, Fig. 3). Beside this, in spring, Lama guanicoe consumed also N. pumilio saplings <strong>and</strong><br />
Misodendrum, which were found in forested environments <strong>and</strong> specially in N. pumilio forests,<br />
while domestic herbivorous eaten species of open environments <strong>and</strong> N. antarctica forests too. In<br />
example, N. antarctica saplings, Cotula scariosa or Luzula alopecurus (Fig. 3A).<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
G.M. Pastur et al. 2010. Indirect estimation of l<strong>and</strong>scape uses by Lama guanicoe <strong>and</strong> domestic herbivorous<br />
156<br />
A<br />
B<br />
Figure 2: DCA for the analysis of plant species distribution: (A) among Nothofagus pumilio forests<br />
(Lenga), N. antarctica forests (Ñire) <strong>and</strong> grassl<strong>and</strong>s <strong>and</strong> peat-l<strong>and</strong>s (Open); (B) among primary<br />
unmanaged N. pumilio forests (PF), recently harvested forests (1-5 years) (RH) <strong>and</strong> old harvesting (>5<br />
years) (OH). Codes for plant species appeared in Table 1.<br />
In spring, while L. guanicoe consumed mainly species of N. pumilio forest, domestic<br />
herbivores incorporated more components of open areas <strong>and</strong> N. antarctica (Fig. 2A). However,<br />
in summer more species were shared among all herbivorous in their diets (Fig. 2B) mainly from<br />
the open environments. In autumn, Lama guanicoe consumed species from N. pumilio forests<br />
<strong>and</strong> open environments, while domestic herbivorous eaten species of open environments <strong>and</strong> N.<br />
antarctica forests (Fig. 3C).<br />
A<br />
B<br />
C<br />
D<br />
Figure 3: DCA for the analysis of diet feces composition of guanacos (G), cows (C) <strong>and</strong> sheeps (S)<br />
according the seasonal sampling (A = spring, B = summer, C = autumn, D = winter). Codes appeared in<br />
Table 2.<br />
Finally, during winter (Fig. 3D), domestic herbivorous consumed plants from N.<br />
pumilio forest <strong>and</strong> open environment species (e.g., N. pumilio saplings, Plantago barbata <strong>and</strong><br />
Trisetum spicatum), while L. guanicoe preferred species from open environments (e.g., Senecio<br />
magellanicus or N. antarctica saplings). Thus, native <strong>and</strong> domestic herbivorous alternated the<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
G.M. Pastur et al. 2010. Indirect estimation of l<strong>and</strong>scape uses by Lama guanicoe <strong>and</strong> domestic herbivorous<br />
157<br />
uses of the different environments around the year, where an incompatibility of seasonal uses<br />
was observed.<br />
Table 2: Annual percentage of plant genus or species registered in diets, <strong>and</strong> their codes used for the<br />
analysis.<br />
Species Code G C S<br />
Acaena AC 1.6% 1.2% 2.9%<br />
Achillea millefolium ACMI 0.0% 0.1% 1.2%<br />
Agrostis AG 5.7% 8.7% 10.0%<br />
Alopecurus magellanicus ALMA 3.1% 2.9% 3.7%<br />
Arjona AR 0.1% 0.0% 0.2%<br />
Berberis BE 3.1% 0.5% 1.1%<br />
Blechnum penna-marina BLPE 0.9% 1.6% 1.5%<br />
Bromus unioloides BRUN 0.1% 0.0% 0.4%<br />
Calceolaria biflora CABI 0.1% 0.0% 0.0%<br />
Capsella bursa-pastoris CABU 0.0% 0.0% 0.0%<br />
Carex CA 16.8% 29.3% 20.5%<br />
Cerastium CE 2.3% 4.2% 3.3%<br />
Cotula scariosa COSC 0.7% 0.5% 2.3%<br />
Deschampsia DE 9.0% 8.1% 7.4%<br />
Empetrum rubrum EMRU 2.8% 1.7% 1.3%<br />
Epilobium australe EPAU 0.3% 0.0% 0.5%<br />
Erigeron myosotis ERMY 0.2% 0.0% 0.1%<br />
Erodium cicutarium ERCI 0.1% 0.0% 0.2%<br />
Festuca magellanica FEMA 3.6% 9.6% 7.2%<br />
Galium GA 1.2% 0.4% 0.5%<br />
Geum magellanicum GEMA 2.9% 0.0% 0.0%<br />
Gunnera magellanica GUMA 0.7% 0.3% 0.5%<br />
Hordeum HO 0.5% 0.0% 0.0%<br />
Juncus JU 2.6% 2.0% 4.4%<br />
Luzula alopecurus LUAL 0.2% 2.1% 1.2%<br />
Misodendron MI 10.7% 3.6% 5.7%<br />
Nanodea muscosa NAMU 0.1% 0.2% 0.1%<br />
Nothofagus antarctica NOAN 2.7% 1.6% 3.8%<br />
Nothofagus pumilio NOPU 19.1% 10.1% 7.3%<br />
Osmorhiza OS 0.3% 0.0% 0.6%<br />
Pernettya PE 0.6% 0.5% 1.8%<br />
Plantago PL 2.1% 1.4% 0.5%<br />
Ranunculus RA 0.3% 0.0% 0.1%<br />
Rubus geoides RUGE 1.3% 0.0% 1.1%<br />
Rumex RU 0.1% 0.0% 0.1%<br />
Senecio allophyllus SEAL 0.6% 0.1% 0.0%<br />
Senecio magellanicus SEMA 1.1% 0.3% 2.4%<br />
Trifolium repens TRRE 0.0% 0.0% 0.4%<br />
Trisetum spicatum TRSP 0.4% 0.9% 1.1%<br />
Uncinia lechleriana UNLE 0.0% 0.2% 0.2%<br />
Veronica VE 0.0% 0.0% 0.1%<br />
Vicia VI 0.2% 0.0% 0.5%<br />
Sphagnum SP 1.9% 7.8% 3.6%<br />
4. Discussion<br />
Lama guanicoe is a generalist species, which can adapt to a wide spectrum of environments<br />
(Raedeke 1980; Puig et al. 1997), from closed forests where mainly consumed leaves <strong>and</strong><br />
sprouts of Nothofagus saplings (Martínez Pastur et al. 1999; Pulido et al. 2000) to sub-alpine<br />
grassl<strong>and</strong>s (Rebertus et al. 1997), where grasses <strong>and</strong> sedges are the main food. Domestic<br />
herbivorous mostly include grasses in their diet, but also can consumed saplings in adverse<br />
conditions, mainly in winter when forest are preferred among other site types because provides<br />
them with protection. Lama guanicoe avoid presence of domestic herbivorous, using<br />
environments free of them, independently of the season. This native species is a natural<br />
component of these native forests, but the impact in the unmanaged <strong>and</strong> harvested st<strong>and</strong>s can<br />
increase according to the livestock density in the area. The knowledge of diet <strong>and</strong> plant<br />
distribution at l<strong>and</strong>scape level allows us to propose management strategies for native <strong>and</strong><br />
domestic herbivorous, minimizing the impact to the forestry activities.<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
G.M. Pastur et al. 2010. Indirect estimation of l<strong>and</strong>scape uses by Lama guanicoe <strong>and</strong> domestic herbivorous<br />
158<br />
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Manage., 62: 1165-1183.<br />
Bonino, N. <strong>and</strong> Pelliza Sbriller, A., 1991. Comparación de las dietas del guanaco, ovino y<br />
bovino en Tierra del Fuego, Argentina. Turrialba 41(8): 452-457.<br />
Bonino, N. <strong>and</strong> Fernández, E., 1994. Distribución general y abundancia relativa de guanacos<br />
(Lama guanicoe) en diferentes ambientes de Tierra del Fuego, Argentina. Ecología<br />
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Lencinas, M.V., Martínez Pastur, G., Rivero, P. <strong>and</strong> Busso, C., 2008. Conservation value of<br />
timber quality vs. associated non-timber quality st<strong>and</strong>s for understory diversity in<br />
Nothofagus forests. Biodiv. Conserv., 17: 2579-2597.<br />
Martínez Pastur, G., Peri, P.L., Fernández, C., Staffieri, G. <strong>and</strong> Rodriguez, D., 1999. Desarrollo<br />
de la regeneración a lo largo del ciclo del manejo forestal de un bosque de Nothofagus<br />
pumilio: 2. Incidencia del ramoneo de Lama guanicoe. Bosque, 20(2): 47-53.<br />
Martínez Pastur, G., Peri, P.L., Fernández, M.C., Staffieri, G. <strong>and</strong> Lencinas, M.V., 2002.<br />
<strong>Change</strong>s in understory species diversity during the Nothofagus pumilio forest<br />
management cycle. J. For. Res., 7: 165-174.<br />
Martínez Pastur, G., Lencinas. M.V., Cellini, J.M., Peri, P.L. <strong>and</strong> Soler Esteban, R., 2009.<br />
Timber management with variable retention in Nothofagus pumilio forests of southern<br />
Patagonia. For. Ecol. Manage., 258: 436-443.<br />
Moore, D., 1983. Flora of Tierra del Fuego. Anthony Nelson, Missouri Botanical Garden, UK.<br />
395 pp.<br />
Puig, S., Videla, F. <strong>and</strong> Cona, M.I., 1997. Diet <strong>and</strong> abundance of the guanaco (Lama guanicoe<br />
Müller 1776) in four habitats of northern Patagonia, Argentina. J. Arid Environ., 36: 343-<br />
357.<br />
Pulido, F., Díaz, B. <strong>and</strong> Martínez Pastur, G., 2000. Incidencia del ramoneo del guanaco (Lama<br />
guanicoe) sobre la regeneración de lenga (Nothofagus pumilio) en bosques de Tierra del<br />
Fuego, Argentina. Investigación Agraria: Sistemas y Recursos <strong>Forest</strong>ales, 9(2): 381-394.<br />
Raedake, K., 1980. Food habitats of the guanaco (Lama guanicoe) of Tierra del Fuego, Chile.<br />
Turrialba, 30: 177-181.<br />
Ragonese, A.M., 1981. Anatomía foliar de especies sudamericanas de Nothofagus Bl.<br />
(Fagaceae). Darwiniana, 23(2-4): 587-603.<br />
Rebertus, A., Kitzberger, T., Veblen, T. <strong>and</strong> Roovers, L., 1997. Blowdown history <strong>and</strong><br />
l<strong>and</strong>scape patterns in the Andes of Tierra del Fuego, Argentina. Ecology, 78(3): 678-692.<br />
Skarpe, C. <strong>and</strong> Hester, A.J., 2007. The impacts of browsing <strong>and</strong> grazing on plant population<br />
dynamics. In: Gordon, I. <strong>and</strong> H. Prins (Eds.). Ecology of grazing <strong>and</strong> browsing of<br />
mammalian herbivores. Springer Verlag. pp. 217-262.<br />
Sepúlveda, L., Pelliza, A. <strong>and</strong> Manacorda, M., 2004. Importancia de los tejidos no epidérmicos<br />
en el microanálisis de dieta. Ecología Austral, 14: 31-38.<br />
Sparks, D., <strong>and</strong> Malechek, J.C., 1968. Estimating percentage dry weigth in diets using a<br />
microscopic technique. J. Range Manage., 21: 264-265.<br />
Williams, O., 1969. An improved technique for identification of plants fragments in herbivore<br />
feces. J. Range Manage., 22(2): 51-52.<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
E.W Saragih et al. 2010. Effects of endozoochorous seed dispersal on the soil seed bank <strong>and</strong> vegetation in the woodl<strong>and</strong> area<br />
159<br />
Effects of endozoochorous seed dispersal on the soil seed bank <strong>and</strong><br />
vegetation in the woodl<strong>and</strong> area<br />
Evi Warintan Saragih 1 , Jan Bokdam 2 & Wim Braakhekke 2<br />
1 Saragih,. Animal Husb<strong>and</strong>ry Faculty. Papua University. Manokwari, Indonesia<br />
2 Bokkdam, Jan <strong>and</strong> 2 Braakhekke, Wim. Department of Nature Conservation <strong>and</strong> Plant<br />
Ecology Wageningen University, The Netherl<strong>and</strong>s<br />
Abstract<br />
In the framework of nature conservation <strong>and</strong> restoration, some experts found the potential of<br />
endozoochorous seed dispersal in a semi-natural l<strong>and</strong>scape. Predicting seed input by large<br />
herbivores through germination test of seeds in dung is needed to figure out the role of large<br />
herbivores. The contribution of large herbivores to ecological restoration sites can be<br />
determined by gathering quantitative information of the dung seed content <strong>and</strong> compared it with<br />
soil seed bank content <strong>and</strong> aboveground vegetation in grazed <strong>and</strong> ungrazed woodl<strong>and</strong> area. The<br />
seed density <strong>and</strong> species richness of two areas as well as dung content were evaluated by<br />
germination test in the green house to find out effect of grazing regime. The result show that<br />
cattle grazing had a positive effect on distribution of vegetation from lawn area to woodl<strong>and</strong><br />
area. Species richness in graze area is higher than ungrazed one. Grazing reduced the cover of<br />
grazing sensitive <strong>and</strong> transport exclusive species to grazed woodl<strong>and</strong> area. Grazing affected the<br />
number of seeds in the soil seed bank sample in the woodl<strong>and</strong> area by creating gaps, stimulating<br />
losses by germination. In conclusions, seed density <strong>and</strong> species richness in the soil seed bank<br />
are less directly affected by large herbivore but direct effect on above ground vegetation.<br />
Keywords: endozoochorous, seed dispersal, herbivores, vegetation<br />
1. Introduction<br />
Seed dispersal can be defined as the movement of seeds from one place to another by agents<br />
including wind, water <strong>and</strong> animals. Seed dispersal is a bottleneck for vegetation development<br />
<strong>and</strong> restoration of isolated (semi) natural relict of nature conservation areas, particularly for<br />
species with short-lived seed banks (Pywell et al. 2002). Therefore studies on seed dispersal<br />
have become an important issue in plant ecology in general <strong>and</strong> restoration management in<br />
particular. In the framework of nature conservation <strong>and</strong> restoration, seed dispersal by livestock<br />
has been examined by Bakker et al. (2005), Malo <strong>and</strong> Suarez (1995a), Mouissie et al. (2005),<br />
Couvreur et al. (2005), Cosyns et al. (2005b) who showed the potential of endozoochorous seed<br />
dispersal in a semi-natural l<strong>and</strong>scape. The contribution of large herbivores to ecological<br />
restoration sites can be determined by gathering quantitative information on the dung seed<br />
content. Predicting seed input by large herbivores through germination test of seeds in dung is<br />
needed to figure out the role of large herbivores.<br />
Seed dispersal contributes to the diversity of plant species in the seed bank. Large herbivores<br />
consume large numbers of seed (Malo <strong>and</strong> Suarez 1995b) <strong>and</strong> move long distances, due to their<br />
extensive home-ranges (Haskell et al. 2002). Bakker <strong>and</strong> Olff (2003) found 183.1 ± 21.1<br />
seedlings per 100 gram dung of cattle in September <strong>and</strong> 9.8 ± 2.1 seedlings per 100 gram dung<br />
of rabbit in the same month. Most nature conservation areas in The Netherl<strong>and</strong>s consist of open<br />
area (heathl<strong>and</strong> <strong>and</strong> grassl<strong>and</strong>) <strong>and</strong> woodl<strong>and</strong>. In some part of this area, large herbivores like<br />
cattle <strong>and</strong> horses are used as management tools. Defoliation, treading <strong>and</strong> excretion are direct<br />
effects of large herbivores on the vegetation. Modification of the plant environment is indeed an<br />
indirect effect (Bokdam <strong>and</strong> Gleichman 2000). Usually large herbivores graze in open areas but<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
E.W Saragih et al. 2010. Effects of endozoochorous seed dispersal on the soil seed bank <strong>and</strong> vegetation in the woodl<strong>and</strong> area<br />
160<br />
they ruminate <strong>and</strong> defecate in woodl<strong>and</strong> area. In the Wolfhezerheide cattle spend most nonforaging<br />
time (56%) in woodl<strong>and</strong> area (Bokdam 2003). This causes seed disperse from open<br />
areas that are dominated by ‘lawn species’ to woodl<strong>and</strong> areas that are dominated by forest<br />
species. The large herbivores may have an important influence on the soil seed bank in the<br />
woodl<strong>and</strong> area through endozoochory. Pakeman et al. (2002) gave evidence of a relation<br />
between soil seed bank <strong>and</strong> dung seed content. Dung deposition by cattle influences plant<br />
dynamics through the combined effects of seed input <strong>and</strong> gap formation i.e. dung itself as a<br />
potential regeneration site or as a precursor of gaps by suppressing vegetation (Cosyns et al.<br />
2005a). The present of grassl<strong>and</strong> species in the gaps of woodl<strong>and</strong> area confirmed the<br />
contribution of endozoochory to the soil seed bank. In the Wolfhezerheide Nature Reserve,<br />
cattle <strong>and</strong> rabbits are the herbivores that play an important role in seed dispersal. Large numbers<br />
of seeds are potentially dispersed via cattle <strong>and</strong> rabbit dung. In this study, endozoochorous seed<br />
dispersal affect species richness in the vegetation directly <strong>and</strong> soil seed bank indirectly.<br />
Different seasons contribute different species richness <strong>and</strong> the number of seed in the soil seed<br />
bank.<br />
2. Methodology<br />
2.1 Study site <strong>and</strong> experimental design<br />
This study was carried out in the nature reserve ’The Wolfhezerheide’ (120 ha)<br />
(Naturmonumenten 1996; (Bokdam 2003). This area is located in the Veluwe in the centre of<br />
The Netherl<strong>and</strong>s (51º 47’N; 5º 41’E) <strong>and</strong> owned by Vereniging Natuurmonumenten. The<br />
reserve consists of 30 ha forest <strong>and</strong> 90 ha open area. The soils are mainly acid (pH KCl 3–3.5)<br />
<strong>and</strong> podzolic, developed in Pleistocene fluvio-glacial s<strong>and</strong> <strong>and</strong> cover s<strong>and</strong> (Bokdam 2003).<br />
Calluna vulgaris, Deschampsia flexuosa <strong>and</strong> Molinia caerulea are dominant plant species in the<br />
open area. Pinus sylvestris <strong>and</strong> Betula spp. dominate the forest area. Since 1983, grazing<br />
management has been applied in this area. The general approach in this research was<br />
observational by using a fence line study technique where the fence is used to divide the study<br />
area in a grazed <strong>and</strong> a non-grazed area.<br />
2.2 Data collections<br />
Data collection of this study consists of vegetation composition, cattle dung <strong>and</strong> soil seed bank.<br />
Vegetation data were collected from grazed <strong>and</strong> ungrazed woodl<strong>and</strong> sites. Pairs of sites with a<br />
size of 5 x 5 m (25 m 2 ) were chosen opposite to each other on either side of the fence, with ten<br />
replicates resulting in ten relevés in the grazed area <strong>and</strong> ten relevés in the ungrazed area. The<br />
present of each species in a relevés was estimated by its cover <strong>and</strong> used to assess the similarity<br />
between vegetation in the grazed <strong>and</strong> ungrazed woodl<strong>and</strong> area. The numbers of species in both<br />
sites are also compared to find out the differences in plant species diversity. Cattle dung<br />
samples were collected from two seasons. Dung sample (141 gram) was air dried in the<br />
greenhouse at the prevailing temperature (25-28 o C) for 2 weeks before storing them in the<br />
cooler at 5 o C for two weeks. After the cool period, trays were placed in the greenhouse for the<br />
germination test period. In addition, the soil seed bank was sampled with composite samples of<br />
the litter layer plus the top five centimeter of the mineral soil were collected from the plot where<br />
the vegetation was studied. Each composite sample consists of ten cores (2.5 cm in diameter x<br />
25 cm deep) is taken r<strong>and</strong>omly within a plot. Soil samples were sieved to remove coarse gravel,<br />
roots <strong>and</strong> vegetation. The samples were spread in trays with one cm thickness (672 g or 0.8 L)<br />
on top of a three cm thick layer of coarse river s<strong>and</strong>. A cold treatment (6 o C) was given to the<br />
samples for two weeks to break dormancy <strong>and</strong> improved germination of the seeds (Olff et al.<br />
1994).<br />
2.3 Seedling emergence technique<br />
For germination test in the green house, the weight <strong>and</strong> volume of the soil <strong>and</strong> the dry dung<br />
samples were determined. After cold stratification treatment, the trays were placed in a<br />
greenhouse with day temperature of 20 o C <strong>and</strong> night temperature of 18 o C (12/12 hr day-night<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
E.W Saragih et al. 2010. Effects of endozoochorous seed dispersal on the soil seed bank <strong>and</strong> vegetation in the woodl<strong>and</strong> area<br />
161<br />
light regime) <strong>and</strong> air humidity 70%. The trays were placed under a hood of plastic foil to reduce<br />
evaporation <strong>and</strong> contamination of seed within the greenhouse. The emerging seedlings were<br />
identified by using identification keys (Muller 1978).<br />
2.4 Data Analysis<br />
The data were analyzed using SPSS 12.01, a statistical software for Windows (SPSS 2003).<br />
3. Results<br />
3.1 Cover, species richness, species composition<strong>and</strong> lawn species in the vegetation<br />
The average cover of vegetation in the grazed area is higher than in the ungrazed area (48.865%<br />
vs. 69.972 %). A paired sample T-test executed to figure out different on cover vegetation<br />
between them. The result showed significant difference on cover vegetation between vegetation<br />
ungrazed <strong>and</strong> grazed woodl<strong>and</strong> area (t = -2.481; N = 10; P = 0.035). The species <strong>and</strong> total<br />
number of species in the pooled of vegetation is higher in the grazed area than in the ungrazed<br />
area (32 vs. 20 species). The Pair T-test tested the significance of the difference between the<br />
average species richness of ungrazed <strong>and</strong> grazed plots. It showed a significant difference in the<br />
number species between two treatments (areas) (t = -4.017; N = 10; P = 0.003). The average<br />
number of species per plot in the grazed area (11.3 ± 1.585) is higher than in the ungrazed area<br />
(5.5 ± 0.373). Ungrazed <strong>and</strong> grazed areas had 35 species in total <strong>and</strong> 17 species in common.<br />
Lawn species in this study are herbs <strong>and</strong> dwarf shrubs with Ellenberg value for light larger than<br />
six. In total, 14 lawn species found in both ungrazed <strong>and</strong> grazed vegetation of woodl<strong>and</strong> area.<br />
Both of them shared five of lawn species (Agrostis capillaries, Deschampsia flexuosa, Galium<br />
saxatile, Rubus fruticosus agg, Taraxacum officinale). Nine species out of 14 were found only<br />
in the grazed area <strong>and</strong> two species (Holcus lanatus <strong>and</strong> Senecio jacobea) were dispersed by<br />
endozoochory. 31.47% is total cover of lawn species in ungrazed area <strong>and</strong> 65.08% in grazed<br />
area. Total frequency of lawn species in ungrazed is 2.1 <strong>and</strong> 5.2 in grazed area.<br />
3.2 Seed density, species richness, species composition <strong>and</strong> lawn species of summer<br />
<strong>and</strong> winter dung<br />
A total of 986 seedlings emerged from the winter dung, while 7680 seedlings sprouted from the<br />
summer dung samples (six litres, dry weight 2115 gr). The parametric test for two independent<br />
samples showed significant difference on the number of seeds between winter <strong>and</strong> summer (t=-<br />
5.504; N=20; P=0.000). Total number of species of winter dung samples is higher than in<br />
summer dung samples (25 vs. 17 species). A parametric test for two independent samples T-test<br />
showed a significant difference in the average number of species between winter <strong>and</strong> summer<br />
dung (F = 0.005; N = 25; P = 0.009). In the species richness, in total 34 species were found in<br />
winter <strong>and</strong> summer dung one <strong>and</strong> only eight species in common. From a total of 25 species in<br />
the winter dung, 17 species did not occur in the summer dung. Nine species of summer dung did<br />
not occur in the winter dung. In total, 24 lawn species were found in both seasons. Six lawn<br />
species were shared in ungrazed <strong>and</strong> grazed (Calluna vulgaris, Holcus lanatus, Lolium perenne,<br />
Polygonum aviculare, Senecio jacobae, <strong>and</strong> Veronica arvensis). 13 species (out of 24) were<br />
exclusively found in the winter dung <strong>and</strong> five exclusively in the summer dung. The number of<br />
seeds of lawn species was higher (509.73) in the summer dung than in the winter (92.4), but the<br />
frequency was higher in winter dung (8.1) than in the summer (5).<br />
3.3 Seed density, species richness,species composition <strong>and</strong> lawn in the soil seed<br />
banks.<br />
A total of 601 seedlings (representing 22 species) emerged from soil samples ungrazed forest<br />
area, 360 seedlings with 23 species from the grazed forest area. Six species (Genista anglica,<br />
Jasione montana, Lamium purpureum, Plantago major <strong>and</strong> Sonchus oleraceus <strong>and</strong> Polygonum<br />
persicaria) were only found in the grazed woodl<strong>and</strong>. Five species (Hypericum perforatum,<br />
Oxalis corniculata, Rumex acetosella, Vaccinuium mytillus <strong>and</strong> Veronica arvensis) occurred<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
E.W Saragih et al. 2010. Effects of endozoochorous seed dispersal on the soil seed bank <strong>and</strong> vegetation in the woodl<strong>and</strong> area<br />
162<br />
only in the ungrazed woodl<strong>and</strong>. In total, 19 lawn species found in both soil seed bank. Two<br />
lawn species (Cirsium vulgare <strong>and</strong> Veronica arvensis) only present in ungrazed area while five<br />
species (Genista anglica, Juncus buffonius agg, Plantago major, Sonchus oleraceus <strong>and</strong><br />
Lamium purpureum) only present in grazed area. However only Jasione montana, Lamium<br />
purpureum & Sonchus oleraceus were found in the dung <strong>and</strong> those species dispersed during the<br />
winter. Number of seeds is higher in the soil seed bank ungrazed area than soil seed bank grazed<br />
area but frequency of lawn species in soil seed bank of grazed area is higher than ungrazed area.<br />
Total frequency lawn species in grazed area (4.6) is higher than ungrazed area (4.2)<br />
4. Discussion<br />
4.1 The effects of cattle on woodl<strong>and</strong> vegetation<br />
Cattle play an important role in the vegetation which show by species richness as well as cover<br />
was higher in the grazed woodl<strong>and</strong> vegetation than ungrazed ones. Many of these are the<br />
characteristic species of pasture <strong>and</strong> heathl<strong>and</strong> (Senecio jacobaea, Cerastium fontanum,<br />
Danthonia decumbens, Plantago lanceolata, Poa pratensis, Ranunculus repens, Rumex<br />
acetosella, Trifolium repens), clearings (Senecio sylvaticus) or fringes (Rubus idaeus, Teucrium<br />
scorodonia). Grazing reduced the cover of grazing-sensitive species: Ceratocapnos claviculata,<br />
Dryopteris carthusiana, <strong>and</strong> Vaccinium myrtillus. Agrostis capillaris has the same average<br />
cover in grazed <strong>and</strong> ungrazed but species frequency in grazed area is higher than in ungrazed<br />
area. In addition, Deschampsia flexuosa <strong>and</strong> Galium saxatile had the same species frequencies<br />
but average cover of species was higher in grazed vegetation. This evidenced present<br />
contribution of cattle-dispersed lawn species in the woodl<strong>and</strong> area by creating understory gaps,<br />
stimulate germination <strong>and</strong> growth of lawn species in the understory vegetation of the woodl<strong>and</strong>.<br />
Seven species of dung samples (Erigeron Canadensis, Epilobium sp, Juncus bufonius agg,<br />
Lolium perenne, Medicago lupulina, Ranunculus acris) were absent from aboveground<br />
vegetation in the grazed area due unable to cope with the environmental condition <strong>and</strong><br />
predators. It seemed that the number of species aboveground is not influenced by the number of<br />
species in the soil seed bank, as the numbers of species in the soil seed bank depend on the<br />
number of persistent seeds. The floristic composition of the seed bank is not a mirror reflecting<br />
the vegetation composition, but rather a record of a long-term turnover of species <strong>and</strong> many<br />
different events which in various periods of time influence the input <strong>and</strong> output of seeds<br />
(Falinska 1998).<br />
4.2 Contribution of endozoochorous seed dispersal to lawn species establishment<br />
The dung deposited by herbivores (cattle) increased the diversity in the grazed woodl<strong>and</strong><br />
vegetation that could cause by cattle facilitated the arrival of species from open area to the<br />
woodl<strong>and</strong> area <strong>and</strong> good condition provided by dung for germination. Dung creates places free<br />
from vegetation (gaps) with high nutrient availability (Dai 2000) <strong>and</strong> dung with sufficient<br />
water- retention capacity provide a safe site for a number of species particularly those from<br />
nutrient-rich habitat that able to grow fast <strong>and</strong> root in underlying soil (Mouissie 2005). The right<br />
conditions for germination <strong>and</strong> establishment, which could be linked to the change in nutrient<br />
concentrations, were provided by dung <strong>and</strong> might have also generated positive effects on the<br />
germination of some of the species present in the soil seed bank (Traba et al. 2003). Eleven<br />
light dem<strong>and</strong>ing species (Danthonia decumbens, Poa pratensis, Rumex acetocella, Ranunculus<br />
repens, Rosa canina Rubus idaeus, Sorbus ocuparia, Sinecio sylvaticus, Sambucus nigra,<br />
Teucrium scorodonia, Trifolium repens) from grazed vegetation were absent in the species dung<br />
sample. Those species might be unpalatable or not providing seeds during the study period.<br />
Endozoochorous seed dispersal explained the exclusive occurrence of Cerastium fontanum,<br />
Holcus lanatus, Plantago lanceolata, Poa trivialis <strong>and</strong> Senecio jacobaea the in grazed<br />
vegetation. Most of them were exclusively present in the summer dung, except for Holcus<br />
lanatus which was found in both seasons. Those species are light dem<strong>and</strong>ing (L- value≥6). Total<br />
cover <strong>and</strong> total frequency of lawn species is higher in vegetation of grazed area than in the<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
E.W Saragih et al. 2010. Effects of endozoochorous seed dispersal on the soil seed bank <strong>and</strong> vegetation in the woodl<strong>and</strong> area<br />
163<br />
ungrazed area. This might indicate contribution of large herbivore on the establishment of lawn<br />
species.<br />
4.3 The contribution of endozoochous seed dispersal to the soil seed bank<br />
The seed density in ungrazed woodl<strong>and</strong> are is higher than in grazed woodl<strong>and</strong>. The expectation<br />
was in contrast because cattle contribute the number of seeds into the grazed area. One reason<br />
for the higher number of seed in ungrazed soil could be the thickness of litter layer. The litter<br />
layer in the ungrazed (36 cm) area is thicker than in the grazed area (30.5 cm). Litter increased<br />
seed longevity (Rotundo <strong>and</strong> Aguiar 2005) <strong>and</strong> when the litter layer is thick, this can lead to the<br />
conservation of seed in the soil (Jensen 1998). Furthermore, trampling by cattle can bury seeds<br />
deeply so they were not present in the top soil samples (30 cm deep). McDonald et al. 1996<br />
stated that grazing allows the incorporation of seeds deeply in the soil. Twelve species of<br />
summer dung sample absent from soil seed bank ungrazed <strong>and</strong> grazed woodl<strong>and</strong> area. The<br />
summer dung species needed more light (L Ellenberg’s value >6) <strong>and</strong> have the same<br />
requirement levels of moisture <strong>and</strong> nitrogen. Winter dung might contribute more to the species<br />
richness of the soil seed bank than the summer dung did. This could be the case as during the<br />
winter, limited foods were available for the cattle which led them to consume more different<br />
plants species. On the contrary in the summer, the cattle preferred the most palatable<br />
species, mostly grasses which were abundant during this season. Grass species have a<br />
low seed longevity index <strong>and</strong> low densities in the soil. Total seed density of lawn<br />
species was higher in soil seed bank ungrazed area than grazed area, however total<br />
frequency of lawn species in soil seed bank grazed area is higher than ungrazed. This<br />
might indicate role of cattle on distribution of lawn species which showed by more lawn<br />
species was found in soil seed bank grazed area than ungrazed area. Jasione montana,<br />
Lamium purpureum & Sonchus oleraceus dispersed by cattle during the winter <strong>and</strong> only<br />
found in soil seed bank grazed area.<br />
References<br />
Bakker, C., H. F. d. Graaf, W. H. O. Ernst, <strong>and</strong> P. M. v. Bodegom. 2005. Does the seed bank<br />
contribute to the restoration of species-rich vegetation in wet dune slacks Applied<br />
Vegetation Science. 2005; 8:39-48.<br />
Bakker, E. E. S., <strong>and</strong> H. H. Olff. 2003. Impact of different-sized herbivores on recruitment<br />
opportunities for subordinate herbs in grassl<strong>and</strong>s. Journal Of Vegetation Science 14:465.<br />
Bokdam, J., <strong>and</strong> J. M. Gleichman. 2000. Effects of grazing by free-ranging cattle on vegetation<br />
dynamics in a continental north-west European heathl<strong>and</strong>. Journal Of Applied Ecology<br />
37:415-431.<br />
Bokdam, J. S. 2003. Nature conservation <strong>and</strong> grazing management: free-ranging cattle as a<br />
driving force for cyclic vegetation succession, Wageningen. The Netherl<strong>and</strong>s.<br />
Cosyns, E., A. Delporte, L. Lens, <strong>and</strong> M. Hoffmann. 2005a. Germination success of temperate<br />
grassl<strong>and</strong> species after passage through ungulate <strong>and</strong> rabbit guts. Journal Of Ecology<br />
93:353-361.<br />
Cosyns, E. E., S. S. Claerbout, I. I. Lamoot, <strong>and</strong> M. M. Hoffmann. 2005b. Endozoochorous seed<br />
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178:149.<br />
Couvreur, M., E. Cosyns, M. Hermy, <strong>and</strong> M. Hoffmann. 2005. Complementarity of epi- <strong>and</strong><br />
endozoochory of plant seeds by free ranging donkeys. Ecography 28:37-48.<br />
Dai, X. 2000. Impact of cattle dung deposition on the distribution pattern of plant species in an<br />
alvar limestone grassl<strong>and</strong>. Journal Of Vegetation Science 11:715.<br />
Falinska, K. 1998. Long-term changes in size <strong>and</strong> composition of seed bank during succession:<br />
From meadow to forest. Acta Societatis Botanicorum Poloniae 67:301.<br />
Haskell, J. P., M. E. Ritchie, <strong>and</strong> H. Olff. 2002. Fractal geometry predicts varying body size<br />
scaling relationships for mammal <strong>and</strong> bird home ranges. Nature 418:527-530.<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
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Jensen, K. 1998. Species composition of soil seed bank <strong>and</strong> seed rain of ab<strong>and</strong>oned wet<br />
meadows <strong>and</strong> their relation to aboveground vegetation. Flora 193:345-359.<br />
Malo, J. E. 2000. Hardseededness <strong>and</strong> the accurancy of seed bank estimates obtained through<br />
germination. web. ecology 1:70-75.<br />
Malo, J. E., <strong>and</strong> F. Suarez. 1995a. Establishment Of Pasture Species On Cattle Dung - The Role<br />
Of Endozoochorous Seeds. Journal Of Vegetation Science 6:169-174.<br />
Malo, J. E., <strong>and</strong> F. Suarez. 1995b. Herbivorous Mammals As Seed Dispersers In A<br />
Mediterranean Dehesa. Oecologia 104:246-255.<br />
McDonald, A. W., J. P. Bakker, <strong>and</strong> K. Vegelin. 1996. Seed bank classification <strong>and</strong> its<br />
importance for the restoration of species-rich flood-meadows. Journal Of Vegetation<br />
Science 7:157-164.<br />
Mouissie, A. M., P. Vos, H. M. C. Verhagen, <strong>and</strong> J. P. Bakker. 2005. Endozoochory by freeranging,<br />
large herbivores: ecological correlates <strong>and</strong> perspectives for restoration. Basic<br />
<strong>and</strong> Applied Ecology. 2005; 6:547-558.<br />
Muller, F. M. 1978. Seedlings of the North-Western European lowl<strong>and</strong>: a flora of seedlings,<br />
Wageningen.<br />
Olff, H., D. M. Pegtel, J. M. Vangroenendael, <strong>and</strong> J. P. Bakker. 1994. Germination Strategies<br />
During Grassl<strong>and</strong> Succession. Journal Of Ecology 82:69-77.<br />
Pakeman, R. J., G. Digneffe, <strong>and</strong> J. L. Small. 2002. Ecological correlates of endozoochory by<br />
herbivores. Functional Ecology 16:296-304.<br />
Pywell, R. R. F., J. J. M. Bullock, A. A. Hopkins, K. K. J. Walker, T. T. H. Sparks, M. M. J. W.<br />
Burke, <strong>and</strong> S. S. Peel. 2002. Restoration of species-rich grassl<strong>and</strong> on arable l<strong>and</strong>:<br />
assessing the limiting processes using a multi-site experiment. The Journal of applied<br />
ecology 39:294.<br />
Rotundo, J. L., <strong>and</strong> M. R. Aguiar. 2005. Litter effects on plant regeneration in arid l<strong>and</strong>s: a<br />
complex balance between seed retention, seed longevity <strong>and</strong> soil-seed contact. Journal<br />
Of Ecology 93:829-838.<br />
SPSS, I. 2003. SPSS 12.01 for windows.<br />
Traba, J., C. Levassor, <strong>and</strong> B. Peco. 2003. Restoration of Species Richness in Ab<strong>and</strong>oned<br />
Mediterranean Grassl<strong>and</strong>s: Seeds in Cattle Dung. Restoration Ecology 11:378-384.<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
L.R.P. Williamson et al. 2010. Anthropogenic l<strong>and</strong>scape changes <strong>and</strong> the conservation of woodl<strong>and</strong> caribou<br />
165<br />
Anthropogenic l<strong>and</strong>scape changes <strong>and</strong> the conservation of woodl<strong>and</strong><br />
caribou in British Columbia, Canada<br />
Libby R.P. Williamson * , Chris J. Johnson 1 & Dale R. Seip 2<br />
1 Ecosystem Science <strong>and</strong> Management Program, University of Northern British Columbia,<br />
3333 University Way, Prince George, British Columbia, V2N 4Z9, Canada.<br />
2 British Columbia Ministry of <strong>Forest</strong>s, 1011 4 th Ave, Prince George, British Columbia,<br />
V2L 3H9, Canada.<br />
Abstract<br />
Conservation <strong>and</strong> management of caribou across Canada is now a high priority due to increasing<br />
rates of decline associated with greater levels of l<strong>and</strong>scape change <strong>and</strong> anthropogenic disturbance.<br />
Two of the most pressing threats to caribou are habitat loss <strong>and</strong> predation; both effects are a direct<br />
result of large-scale forestry, energy, <strong>and</strong> mineral development. Mountain, northern <strong>and</strong> boreal<br />
caribou are three ecotypes of woodl<strong>and</strong> caribou (Rangifer tar<strong>and</strong>us caribou) found in British<br />
Columbia. Across most of the province, the federal government has listed all three ecotypes of<br />
woodl<strong>and</strong> caribou as “threatened”, but recovery planning for caribou in the province has met with<br />
only limited success. This literature review will provide a foundation to further underst<strong>and</strong> how<br />
l<strong>and</strong>scape change is contributing to declines in woodl<strong>and</strong> caribou populations <strong>and</strong> how continued<br />
research will aid in favorable decisions for the long-term survival <strong>and</strong> management of this keystone<br />
species of the North.<br />
Keywords: Rangifer tar<strong>and</strong>us caribou, industrial disturbance, population decline, conservation,<br />
predation<br />
1. Introduction<br />
The North would not be what it is today, without caribou. Rangifer tar<strong>and</strong>us is considered to be a<br />
single species throughout the world <strong>and</strong> includes both domestic reindeer <strong>and</strong> wild caribou (Hummel<br />
<strong>and</strong> Ray 2008). The term “reindeer” often refers to domesticated members in Europe, while<br />
“caribou” is reserved for wild members of the same species in North America. Caribou <strong>and</strong><br />
reindeer reside in most of the world’s north, above the 50 th parallel in North America <strong>and</strong> the 62 nd<br />
parallel in Eurasia, respectively (Hummel <strong>and</strong> Ray 2008).<br />
In the northern extent of their range, caribou congregate in large social communities, take<br />
part in major migrations from their wintering to calving grounds, <strong>and</strong> are commonly referred to as<br />
“barren-ground” caribou. Towards the south, characteristics change <strong>and</strong> herds remain at low<br />
densities, have shortened migrations, <strong>and</strong> are often classified as “sedentary”. Caribou have been<br />
classified into three primary ecotypes across North America based upon their behavioral <strong>and</strong><br />
ecological differences: mountain, boreal forest, <strong>and</strong> migratory tundra (Hummel <strong>and</strong> Ray 2008).<br />
Woodl<strong>and</strong> caribou (Rangifer tar<strong>and</strong>us caribou) is a sub-species found across each of the three<br />
ecotypes of North American caribou.<br />
* Corresponding author. Tel.:1(250)960 6739<br />
Email address: williame@unbc.ca<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.) 2010,<br />
Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
L.R.P. Williamson et al. 2010. Anthropogenic l<strong>and</strong>scape changes <strong>and</strong> the conservation of woodl<strong>and</strong> caribou<br />
166<br />
2. General Ecology of Woodl<strong>and</strong> Caribou in British Columbia<br />
Similar to the federal system for North American caribou, British Columbia (B.C.) classifies<br />
woodl<strong>and</strong> caribou into three ecotypes: mountain, northern <strong>and</strong> boreal (Heard <strong>and</strong> Vagt 1998).<br />
Mountain caribou rely on old-growth subalpine <strong>and</strong> rugged alpine habitats in the central <strong>and</strong><br />
southeastern portions of the province. During winter, these caribou forage on abundant arboreal<br />
lichens (Bryoria spp. <strong>and</strong> Alectoria sarmentosa) as deep snow restricts there access to terrestrial<br />
lichens or vascular plants (Stevenson <strong>and</strong> Hatler 1985; Seip <strong>and</strong> Cichowski 1996; Jones et al. 2007).<br />
Moving to higher elevations to access forage in the winter is an effective strategy for avoiding<br />
predators (Seip <strong>and</strong> McLellan 2008).<br />
Caribou of the northern ecotype prefer terrestrial lichens (Cladina mitis <strong>and</strong> Cladonia spp.)<br />
that are found in lower-elevation pine forests or alpine habitats (Heard <strong>and</strong> Vagt 1998; Johnson et<br />
al. 2004; Jones et al. 2007). Depending on snow conditions <strong>and</strong> lichen abundance, these caribou<br />
will also forage on arboreal lichens (Bryoria spp.) during the winter months (Johnson et al. 2004).<br />
Northern caribou have highly variable wintering strategies between years, populations <strong>and</strong><br />
individuals; some caribou will winter on high, wind-swept alpine ridges, while others prefer<br />
wintering in lower-elevation pine-lichen forests (Bergurud 1978; Terry <strong>and</strong> Wood 1999; Johnson et<br />
al. 2004; Jones et al. 2007).<br />
The boreal ecotype is found in the northeastern portion of the province <strong>and</strong> prefers black<br />
spruce (Picea mariana) fen/bog complexes, <strong>and</strong> tends to avoid well-drained areas (Stuart-Smith et<br />
al. 1997; Dzus 2001). A lack of topographic relief prevents boreal caribou from making<br />
elevational migrations as demonstrated by the mountain <strong>and</strong> northern ecotypes (Stuart-<br />
Smith et al. 1997; Culling et al. 2006). Ground lichens (Cladina stellaric, C. mitis <strong>and</strong> C.<br />
rangiferina) become the dominant food source in winter (Schaefer 2008). Boreal caribou now<br />
occupy less than half of their historical range across the continent (Schaefer 2008).<br />
3. Threats to Populations of Woodl<strong>and</strong> Caribou<br />
The abundance <strong>and</strong> distribution of woodl<strong>and</strong> caribou has been on the decline across North America<br />
since European advancement <strong>and</strong> colonization (Bergerud 1974; Seip 1992; Vors et al. 2007).<br />
Conservation <strong>and</strong> management of caribou across Canada is now a high priority due to increasing<br />
rates of decline associated with greater levels of l<strong>and</strong>scape change <strong>and</strong> anthropogenic disturbance<br />
(Wittmer 2004; Vors <strong>and</strong> Boyce 2009). Two of the most pressing threats to caribou are habitat loss<br />
<strong>and</strong> predation; both effects are a direct result of large-scale forestry, energy, <strong>and</strong> mineral<br />
development (Schaefer 2003; Vors et al. 2007).<br />
Predation is suggested as the leading cause of mortality for woodl<strong>and</strong> caribou in North<br />
America with wolves serving as the primary predator in this multi-carnivore ecosystem (Bergerud<br />
1974; Fuller <strong>and</strong> Keith 1981; Stewart-Smith et al. 1997; Kinley <strong>and</strong> Apps 2001; Gustine et al.<br />
2006). Caribou are thought to minimize the risk of predation by using habitats that are spatially<br />
separated from predators (Bergerud et al. 1984; Stuart-Smith et al. 1997; Cumming et al. 1996;<br />
Johnson et al. 2004; Latham 2009). During the calving season, for example, caribou in the<br />
mountainous regions of B.C. <strong>and</strong> west-central Alberta reduce predation by moving to higher<br />
elevations (Bergurud et al. 1984; Seip 1992; Johnson et al. 2002). Similarly, boreal caribou in<br />
northeastern B.C. use predator refugia such as lakeshores, small isl<strong>and</strong>s of mature black spruce,<br />
thick alder st<strong>and</strong>s saturated with water, <strong>and</strong> old burn sites adjacent to wetl<strong>and</strong>s during the calving<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.) 2010,<br />
Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
L.R.P. Williamson et al. 2010. Anthropogenic l<strong>and</strong>scape changes <strong>and</strong> the conservation of woodl<strong>and</strong> caribou<br />
167<br />
season (Culling et al. 2006). Studies in Ontario also show an increased use of isl<strong>and</strong>s <strong>and</strong> lake<br />
shorelines during the spring (Bergerud 1985; Cumming <strong>and</strong> Beange 1987).<br />
Many declines in ungulate populations have been attributed to habitat degradation (Leopold<br />
<strong>and</strong> Darling 1953; Bradshaw <strong>and</strong> Hebert 1996). L<strong>and</strong>scape change <strong>and</strong> an increase in the<br />
abundance of other ungulate species now limit the ability of caribou to effectively space-away from<br />
predators (Rempel et al. 1997; Wittmer 2004; Latham 2009). Since the early 1900s, moose (Alces<br />
alces) have exp<strong>and</strong>ed their distribution throughout B.C. resulting in a numerical <strong>and</strong> distributional<br />
response of wolves (Bergerud <strong>and</strong> Elliot 1986; Seip 1992; Spalding 1990). Known as “apparent<br />
competition”, primary prey species such as deer <strong>and</strong> moose do not compete directly with caribou for<br />
forage or space, but support larger number of wolves that prey on caribou opportunistically (Holt<br />
1977; Bergerud <strong>and</strong> Elliot 1986; Seip 1992; Wittmer et al. 2005; Latham 2009).<br />
Recent studies in B.C. <strong>and</strong> Alberta have demonstrated that industrial activities <strong>and</strong><br />
associated linear features, including roads, trails, geophysical exploration lines, pipelines, electrical<br />
right-of-ways, cutblocks, <strong>and</strong> oil <strong>and</strong> gas wells can negatively affect woodl<strong>and</strong> caribou populations<br />
(Bradshaw et al. 1997, James <strong>and</strong> Stuart-Smith 2000, Smith et al. 2000, Dyer et al. 2001, Sorensen<br />
et al. 2008). These features can alter the movements, distributions, <strong>and</strong> population dynamics of<br />
both caribou <strong>and</strong> wolves. Timber harvesting is one of the primary agents of habitat change. Largescale<br />
harvesting reduces the amount of habitat for caribou <strong>and</strong> increases the area of early<br />
successional forests favored by moose <strong>and</strong> other ungulate species (Fuller <strong>and</strong> Keith 1981, Rempel et<br />
al. 1997, Johnson et al 2004, Nitschke 2008). There is rising concern about how advancing threats<br />
from industry are influencing the ability of sub-populations to survive. Small populations, like the<br />
mountain caribou in the southern portions of B.C., have become isolated from neighboring herds<br />
<strong>and</strong> are at greater risk of extirpation from r<strong>and</strong>om variation <strong>and</strong> stochastic events (Heard <strong>and</strong> Vagt,<br />
1998).<br />
Recent evidence suggests that disturbance from recreational activities may also be<br />
contributing to the decline of northern <strong>and</strong> mountain caribou herds (Seip et al. 2007). Recreational<br />
tenures for commercial purposes have increased in both area <strong>and</strong> number across the province; these<br />
tenures allow greater access into caribou habitat for snowmobiles <strong>and</strong> helicopter ski (heli-ski)<br />
operations (McNay <strong>and</strong> Giguere 2008). As recreational activities exp<strong>and</strong> across alpine areas used<br />
by caribou, herds are forced into less favorable habitats that increase accidental mortalities from<br />
avalanches, increase energy dem<strong>and</strong>s used to move across steep terrain <strong>and</strong> deep snow, as well as<br />
increase the risk of predation (Seip et al. 2007).<br />
4. Management of Woodl<strong>and</strong> Caribou<br />
Across most of B.C., the federal government has listed all three ecotypes of woodl<strong>and</strong> caribou as<br />
“threatened”. Management goals continue to focus on monitoring population levels, restoring <strong>and</strong><br />
maintaining appropriate sex <strong>and</strong> age ratios, <strong>and</strong> include a required inspection for all human<br />
harvested caribou (populations of northern <strong>and</strong> boreal ecotypes that are not considered threatened).<br />
In order to continue developing the most effective conservation strategies for species-at-risk,<br />
professionals must rely on the philosophy of their discipline, scientific <strong>and</strong> traditional ecological<br />
knowledge (TEK) from indigenous communities, as well as educated opinions that come from<br />
expert peers (Stephenson 1982; Mountain Caribou Technical Advisory Committee 2002).<br />
All provinces <strong>and</strong> territories in Canada must adhere to federal endangered species<br />
legislation. For species listed as “endangered” or “threatened”, SARA (Species at Risk Act 2003)<br />
requires that the responsible jurisdiction, or authority, develop <strong>and</strong> implement a Recovery Action<br />
Plan. These recovery plans address immediate threats to the species <strong>and</strong> protects or enhances the<br />
species residence <strong>and</strong> critical habitat. Two advisory committees were formed in B.C. to provide<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.) 2010,<br />
Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
L.R.P. Williamson et al. 2010. Anthropogenic l<strong>and</strong>scape changes <strong>and</strong> the conservation of woodl<strong>and</strong> caribou<br />
168<br />
strategic direction for the recovery of caribou in the province <strong>and</strong> multiple Recovery<br />
Implementation Groups (RIGs) develop Recovery Action Plans that address the specific<br />
conservation needs of collections of herds.<br />
Recovery planning for caribou in B.C. has met with only limited success. The Mountain<br />
Caribou Technical Advisory Committee has produced a document outlining the threats <strong>and</strong> a<br />
strategy for the recovery of mountain caribou in B.C (Mountain Caribou Technical Advisory<br />
Committee 2002). Both the North-Central <strong>and</strong> the Hart <strong>and</strong> Cariboo Mountains RIGs have<br />
developed recovery action plans that make specific conservation recommendations for establishing<br />
self-sustaining populations of caribou. In 2003, the Central Rocky Mountain RIG was temporarily<br />
suspended <strong>and</strong> there are no committees designated for implementing recovery strategies for boreal<br />
caribou in B.C.<br />
5. Future Directions in Research<br />
As we progress into the future, continued research in caribou ecology remains crucial. Populations<br />
of woodl<strong>and</strong> caribou should be continuously monitored <strong>and</strong> surveyed across Canada. If we are<br />
unclear on the health <strong>and</strong> overall status of caribou, it challenges our underst<strong>and</strong>ing of how to<br />
properly implement habitat protection. Studies should continue looking into relationships between<br />
l<strong>and</strong>scape disturbance <strong>and</strong> habitat change, woodl<strong>and</strong> caribou <strong>and</strong> increasing numbers of elk, deer,<br />
<strong>and</strong> moose populations. Additional studies focusing on the predator-prey dynamics of wolves with<br />
their primary prey will provide insight into alternate management strategies where caribou<br />
populations are dramatically declining. Moose-wolf interactions, for example, are a key component<br />
that shape caribou population dynamics. Future research should also include predation studies that<br />
specifically focus on the spatial distribution, habitat selection <strong>and</strong> hunting patterns of wolves <strong>and</strong><br />
other influential carnivores (e.g., bears <strong>and</strong> cougars) living in caribou habitat. Intensive efforts in<br />
the conservation of woodl<strong>and</strong> caribou will continue to grow as changing predator-prey relations are<br />
exacerbated by l<strong>and</strong>scape change due to advancing human developments.<br />
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Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
N. Zurbriggen et al. 2010. Modeling feedbacks between avalanches <strong>and</strong> forests under a changing environment<br />
171<br />
Modeling feedbacks between avalanches <strong>and</strong> forests under a changing<br />
environment in the Swiss Alps<br />
Natalie Zurbriggen 1,3* , Heike Lischke 1 , Peter Bebi 2 & Harald Bugmann 3<br />
1 L<strong>and</strong> Use Dynamics, Swiss Federal Research Institute WSL, Birmensdorf, Switzerl<strong>and</strong><br />
2 Ecosystem Boundaries, WSL Institute for Snow <strong>and</strong> Avalanche Research SLF, Davos,<br />
Switzerl<strong>and</strong><br />
3 <strong>Forest</strong> Ecology, Institute of Terrestrial Ecosystems ITES, ETH Zurich, Switzerl<strong>and</strong><br />
Abstract<br />
<strong>Forest</strong>-avalanche feedbacks are important forces shaping subalpine treeline ecotones. Under<br />
rapid <strong>and</strong> drastic environmental change, these feedbacks can develop unexpected dynamics.<br />
Merging forest <strong>and</strong> avalanche models provides a tool to analyze such feedbacks, <strong>and</strong> to envision<br />
management scenarios for protection forests. We modeled <strong>and</strong> analyzed these feedbacks for<br />
Davos (Switzerl<strong>and</strong>), where l<strong>and</strong> ab<strong>and</strong>onment <strong>and</strong> temperature change are the main drivers of<br />
environmental change. We developed a spatially explicit model for avalanche release zones<br />
inside forests, based on slope steepness, crown coverage, gap size, <strong>and</strong> forest type, <strong>and</strong><br />
incorporated it into the forest-l<strong>and</strong>scape model TreeMig. Preliminary results reveal that (1)<br />
TreeMig is sensitive to the proposed changes in disturbance simulation, (2) a simplified<br />
vegetation model shows feedback effects with an avalanche subroutine, <strong>and</strong> (3) the intermediate<br />
disturbance hypothesis partly applies to avalanche influence on forests. The merged model<br />
TreeMig-Av is presented <strong>and</strong> scenarios of forest-avalanche interaction under environmental<br />
change are interpreted.<br />
Keywords: treeline dynamics, avalanches, environmental change, feedback effects, forest<br />
l<strong>and</strong>scape models<br />
1. Introduction<br />
In subalpine treeline ecotones, avalanches have a strong influence on vegetation dynamics. The<br />
influence of the vegetation on avalanche dynamics, however, is often modeled as a binary<br />
decision variable excluding potential avalanche release in forested areas. Yet it is well known<br />
that avalanches can initiate inside forests, especially in sparsely vegetated forests near the<br />
treeline. So far, there have been only few studies analyzing the interactions between forests on<br />
avalanches, with focus on long-term forest dynamics (Cordonnier 2008). Modeling avalanches<br />
in a forest-l<strong>and</strong>scape model should provide a tool to analyze the future development of forests,<br />
avalanches, <strong>and</strong> their feedbacks, under changing environmental influences. Our goal is to<br />
develop a simplified spatially explicit avalanche module, <strong>and</strong> to implement it in TreeMig<br />
(Lischke et al. 2006), a forest-l<strong>and</strong>scape model based on the gap model ForClim (Bugmann<br />
1994). One of the main goals is to analyze simulations of forests interacting with l<strong>and</strong> use<br />
change <strong>and</strong> climate change, under the influence of avalanches as spatially connected<br />
disturbances. Previous versions of TreeMig accounted only for single-cell disturbances. Output<br />
variables of interest include changes in biomass, species composition, structural composition,<br />
avalanche occurrence, etc. Simulating the protection function of forests against avalanches is a<br />
* Corresponding author. Tel.: 0041 44 739 2817 - Fax: 0041 44 739 2215<br />
Email address: natalie.zurbriggen@wsl.ch<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
N. Zurbriggen et al. 2010. Modeling feedbacks between avalanches <strong>and</strong> forests under a changing environment<br />
172<br />
new option in TreeMig, <strong>and</strong> is the main ecosystem service simulated here, using l<strong>and</strong> use<br />
change scenarios in combination with climate change scenarios as input.<br />
Snow avalanches are a key disturbance in forest ecosystems in the Swiss Alps, <strong>and</strong> their<br />
interactions with forest dynamics, such as mortality <strong>and</strong> regrowth, have strong influences on<br />
subalpine forests <strong>and</strong> their ecosystem services. These feedback effects are especially important<br />
for the location, spatial patterns, <strong>and</strong> structure of upper alpine timberlines. Avalanches can start<br />
both above <strong>and</strong> below timberlines, <strong>and</strong> feedback effects can differ between the two initiation<br />
types. While avalanches starting far above timberlines can destroy forests below without being<br />
influenced much, avalanches starting below timberlines can be strongly modified by the<br />
vegetation. For the avalanche release probability inside forests, st<strong>and</strong> structure <strong>and</strong> gap size are<br />
important factors in addition to the variables commonly used to predict avalanche release<br />
outside of forests, namely topography, weather, <strong>and</strong> snow conditions (Bebi et al. 2009).<br />
Including the vegetation-based variables in an avalanche release module leads to feedback<br />
effects between avalanche release probability <strong>and</strong> the mortality <strong>and</strong> regenerative success of<br />
forests. Yet how these interactions will be affected under scenarios of changing snowpack <strong>and</strong><br />
forest cover is less clear. Merging forest <strong>and</strong> avalanche models provides a tool to analyze such<br />
feedbacks, <strong>and</strong> to envision management scenarios for protection forests under climate <strong>and</strong> l<strong>and</strong>use<br />
change.<br />
Due to the spatial connectivity of avalanches, we expect this disturbance type to have a stronger<br />
influence on the spatial pattern at treelines than the single-cell disturbances previously simulated<br />
in TreeMig. Avalanches are expected to depress treelines to lower altitudes than climate would<br />
allow, <strong>and</strong> to increase fragmentation of the vegetation (Patten et al. 1994), but there are only<br />
few attempts at including avalanches in forest-l<strong>and</strong>scape models (Cordonnier et al. 2008). In<br />
TreeMig, modeled influences on treelines do not differ from influences on lowl<strong>and</strong> areas, except<br />
indirectly via climatic variables <strong>and</strong> differences in seed availability. Most allometries or<br />
processes, such as growth curves, competition for light <strong>and</strong> space, dispersal, or disturbances, are<br />
modeled the same way for all areas. We plan to answer the question of how treelines will<br />
develop under environmental change, <strong>and</strong> how their spatial patterns are influenced by<br />
avalanches, by using TreeMig as a tool for scenario development. To achieve this, the model<br />
needs to be adapted specifically to include more treeline-relevant factors, <strong>and</strong> to allow for<br />
different processes in different simulation areas. Both growth- <strong>and</strong> size-related allometries for<br />
treelines are improved, <strong>and</strong> a process-based feedback loop between avalanches <strong>and</strong> forest<br />
regeneration is implemented.<br />
2. Methods<br />
2.1 Avalanche modeling<br />
The avalanche module is divided into avalanche release <strong>and</strong> avalanche flow, each further<br />
divided into the respective process inside or outside of forested areas. Three of the resulting four<br />
components (release outside forest, flow inside forest, <strong>and</strong> flow outside forest) are based on the<br />
avalanche model RAMMS (Rapid Mass Movements; Christen et al. 2008). The fourth<br />
component, avalanche release inside forested areas, was built as a probabilistic module based on<br />
regression analysis of historical avalanche data (1985-90) <strong>and</strong> related forest data (Meyer-Grass<br />
<strong>and</strong> Schneebeli 1992), according to the method used by Bebi et al. (2001). Using only variables<br />
that can be calculated from TreeMig output, we performed a Generalized Linear Model (GLM)<br />
on the historical avalanche data.<br />
The GLM was used to estimate the dependence of the binary avalanche release variable on<br />
predictor variables describing the vegetation, in addition to the geophysical <strong>and</strong> meteorological<br />
variables often used for avalanche release prediction outside forested areas (e.g. topography,<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
N. Zurbriggen et al. 2010. Modeling feedbacks between avalanches <strong>and</strong> forests under a changing environment<br />
173<br />
snow profile, temperature). The distinct weather conditions within a few days of the event,<br />
which in reality strongly influence avalanche release probability, were not included due to the<br />
larger time scale of TreeMig (1 year steps). To be compatible with TreeMig, the avalanche<br />
module also uses one year steps. A r<strong>and</strong>om component was added to the probabilistic release<br />
module instead of explicit weather related variables, to simulate short-term (within-year)<br />
weather variability. The historical avalanche <strong>and</strong> forest data used as input was stratified into<br />
coniferous <strong>and</strong> broadleaf forest, <strong>and</strong> the GLM is run separately for each forest type.<br />
The selection criteria to include variables in the GLM were (a) significant improvement of<br />
variance explained, (b) sensitivity of at least some of the variables to climatic or l<strong>and</strong> use<br />
change, <strong>and</strong> (c) the possibility to calculate or estimate the variables from TreeMig output. To<br />
implement the equation resulting from the GLM in the avalanche module, the values for slope<br />
angle were taken from the Swiss digital elevation model (DEM) at 25m resolution (Swiss<br />
Federal Office of Topography), <strong>and</strong> maximum gap size <strong>and</strong> other forest-related variables were<br />
calculated allometrically from TreeMig output. For example, crown projection could be<br />
calculated from TreeMig output using the percent cover equations established by Lischke <strong>and</strong><br />
Zierl (2002).<br />
2.2 Mortality <strong>and</strong> regeneration modeling<br />
The increased mortality of trees st<strong>and</strong>ing in an avalanche path will be modeled based on a metamodel<br />
of RAMMS, which is currently in development. In TreeMig, different model versions<br />
will be compared, using either full mortality of all trees in the avalanche path, or partial<br />
mortality based on tree size <strong>and</strong> species. For preliminary versions of the avalanche subroutine in<br />
the forest-l<strong>and</strong>scape model, mortality will be set to one, <strong>and</strong> adapted later to include the<br />
RAMMS meta-model output.<br />
To simulate regeneration after avalanche disturbances, the dispersal, germination, establishment,<br />
<strong>and</strong> growth subroutines of TreeMig will be used (Lischke et al. 2006). Here, growth is modeled<br />
in height class increments, with a maximum possible growth rate per species, modified by<br />
environmental factors such as light, temperature, precipitation, or local disturbances. As trees<br />
are in competition for light, an increased light availability due to avalanches changes the growth<br />
potential of surviving seedlings or freshly germinated seeds.<br />
TreeMig is set up so that primary succession in the destroyed cells is given by potentially<br />
remaining seeds or seedlings, dispersal distance from mature forest, <strong>and</strong> germination <strong>and</strong><br />
growth response to environmental conditions. Seedlings that survive the avalanches will have<br />
higher growth rates due to the lower competition <strong>and</strong> higher light levels, making seedling shade<br />
tolerance <strong>and</strong> the shading function highly critical. To increase the accuracy of the seedling<br />
growth, we will partition the lowest height class (previously including all individuals 0-1.37m<br />
height) into 4 smaller classes, <strong>and</strong> improve the shading subroutine. Furthermore, the previously<br />
strict allometry between size <strong>and</strong> growth, both simulated in units of height classes, will be<br />
improved by allowing more variability between size <strong>and</strong> growth. This is especially important at<br />
treelines, where individuals are often found to be relatively old, but short, with a relatively high<br />
stem diameter.<br />
2.3 Merging of model components<br />
The four components of avalanche release <strong>and</strong> flow inside <strong>and</strong> outside of forested areas will be<br />
implemented in the forest l<strong>and</strong>scape model TreeMig, <strong>and</strong> analyzed for sensitivity, scaling<br />
effects, <strong>and</strong> model uncertainties. To implement the avalanche module in TreeMig, both the<br />
avalanche submodel <strong>and</strong> the growth <strong>and</strong> regeneration subroutines require careful calibration.<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
N. Zurbriggen et al. 2010. Modeling feedbacks between avalanches <strong>and</strong> forests under a changing environment<br />
174<br />
Furthermore, to be able to model avalanches in sufficient detail, the cell size will be reduced<br />
from 100m side length to 25m. To ensure applicability of the forest-l<strong>and</strong>scape model with<br />
reduced cell size, we will compare model runs with both cell side lengths.<br />
The feedback effects will emerge once the avalanche release probability, flow dynamics,<br />
destruction, <strong>and</strong> regeneration subroutines are set up. These will have to be fine-tuned for current<br />
climatic <strong>and</strong> l<strong>and</strong>-use conditions to make sure that there are no runaway effects, which could<br />
develop due to the positive feedback cycle between forests <strong>and</strong> avalanches. Keeping the<br />
environmental conditions constant, we will make sure there is a balance between avalanches <strong>and</strong><br />
forest dynamics, by tuning the avalanche <strong>and</strong> forest parameters involved. Once the feedbacks<br />
are established, we will compare the output to current treeline positions <strong>and</strong> patterns, to estimate<br />
the precision of the model.<br />
In a sensitivity analysis, environmental conditions are again kept constant while disturbance<br />
intensity (frequency <strong>and</strong> magnitude) are varied, <strong>and</strong> the influence on output variables such as<br />
total biomass per area, location <strong>and</strong> pattern of treelines, <strong>and</strong> species composition will be<br />
analyzed. The merged model TreeMig-Av will then be applied to the study area of the Davos<br />
municipality, in the eastern Swiss Alps. The model will be validated against historical avalanche<br />
frequency data <strong>and</strong> compared to the output of other models such as those used for avalanche risk<br />
mapping. IPCC AR4 climatic change scenarios <strong>and</strong> different l<strong>and</strong> use scenarios will then be<br />
used to simulate avalanche release <strong>and</strong> forest cover scenarios for the next centuries, <strong>and</strong> to<br />
analyze how the feedback effects develop under the changing environmental conditions.<br />
3. Preliminary <strong>and</strong> expected results<br />
In the GLM, the final variables used for the estimation of avalanche release inside forests are<br />
similar between the two forest types: While the coniferous forest model equation uses slope<br />
angle, crown projection, <strong>and</strong> maximum gap size, the broadleaf forest equation uses slope angle,<br />
crown projection, <strong>and</strong> proportion of coniferous trees instead of the gap size.<br />
A sensitivity analysis in the current version of TreeMig, with single cell disturbances, showed<br />
that it is sensitive to changes in disturbance frequency <strong>and</strong> magnitude. <strong>Change</strong>s in these<br />
variables led to changes not only in total biomass, but also species composition <strong>and</strong> structural<br />
diversity in the affected cells. Furthermore, the single cell disturbance regime was compared to<br />
spatially connected disturbances on a transect, which confirmed the expected difference in<br />
regeneration patterns after the two disturbance types. The main feature of the spatially<br />
connected disturbance type is the potentially larger distance of a recently disturbed cell to the<br />
nearest vegetated cell, from where seeds may disperse into the disturbed cell. Regeneration<br />
dynamics therefore strongly depend on accurate simulation of dispersal kernels <strong>and</strong> size of the<br />
disturbed area.<br />
The Intermediate Disturbance Hypothesis (IDH) was shown to apply to TreeMig's disturbance<br />
rates at the single cell level, <strong>and</strong> for connected disturbances along the one-dimensional transect,<br />
<strong>and</strong> is expected to also apply to spatially connected disturbances in two-dimensional space.<br />
Highest species diversity was found at intermediate disturbance frequency <strong>and</strong> magnitude. The<br />
exact location of the peak diversity along the two axes, however, was influenced by altitude, i.e.<br />
by limitations given by climatic variables. For example, where growth <strong>and</strong> survival is limited by<br />
climate, a relatively high disturbance frequency could lead to the disappearance of the forest<br />
altogether. Here, the peak of diversity would shift to lower values of disturbance frequency. The<br />
IDH applies to species composition but not necessarily to forest structure (size distribution), as<br />
avalanches can increase the number of smaller trees relative to the larger trees. Applicability of<br />
IDH to structural diversity will further be studied using the adapted version of TreeMig.<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
N. Zurbriggen et al. 2010. Modeling feedbacks between avalanches <strong>and</strong> forests under a changing environment<br />
175<br />
Potential release areas (PRAs) were simulated in the avalanche release subroutine as results of<br />
the GLM equations, <strong>and</strong> are influenced by the avalanche flow dynamics <strong>and</strong> the subsequent<br />
forest regeneration. The forest has a strong influence in reducing PRA occurrence, but we found<br />
that the forest structure is just as important. Sparsely vegetated areas, which under some<br />
definitions may still be classified as forests, can only reduce PRAs up to a certain point, but can<br />
not avoid avalanches altogether. Furthermore, a forest cannot stop an avalanche once it reaches<br />
full speed <strong>and</strong> strength, which can happen for example when avalanches are initiated far above<br />
forests.<br />
Avalanches are expected to have a stronger influence on vegetation at higher altitudes, due to<br />
the increased release probability at higher altitudes, <strong>and</strong> the downhill flow direction. <strong>Forest</strong>s at<br />
higher altitudes should therefore experience more disturbances by avalanches. As these forests<br />
are also climatically more limited in regeneration, they should be more sensitive to disturbances.<br />
Regarding the IDH, diversities of forests at high altitudes are strongly influenced by<br />
disturbances, <strong>and</strong> may not be ably to maintain the same diversity without avalanches (Rixen et<br />
al. 2007). However, climate change could further shift the maxima along the axis of disturbance<br />
intensities, <strong>and</strong> therefore also influence forest diversity <strong>and</strong> structure.<br />
4. Conclusions<br />
Including an avalanche module in a forest-l<strong>and</strong>scape model provides a useful tool, <strong>and</strong> improves<br />
model predictions for the avalanche protection function. Compared to models that include<br />
vegetation only as a binary variable, our merged model is able to predict PRAs relatively well,<br />
even though it does not consider the same physical or short-term weather variables most<br />
avalanches models use. The purpose of our merged model is not to explicitly account for single<br />
avalanche events, but to generate scenarios of trends for forest-avalanche feedbacks, forest<br />
protection abilities, <strong>and</strong> their development over time under changing environment. We expect<br />
that the proposed changes in TreeMig will lead to an improved representation of subalpine<br />
forest <strong>and</strong> treeline ecotones for different climate change scenarios, <strong>and</strong> therefore to a better<br />
judgment of how effective different forests are in terms of avalanche protection under various<br />
environmental scenarios. This should then contribute to improved long-term decision support<br />
for forest management of the study area.<br />
References<br />
Bebi, P., F. Kienast, <strong>and</strong> W. Schonenberger. 2001. Assessing structures in mountain forests as a<br />
basis for investigating the forests' dynamics <strong>and</strong> protective function. <strong>Forest</strong> Ecology <strong>and</strong><br />
Management 145: 3-14.<br />
Bebi, P., D. Kulakowski, <strong>and</strong> C. Rixen. 2009. Snow avalanche disturbances in forest ecosystems<br />
- State of research <strong>and</strong> implications for management. <strong>Forest</strong> Ecology <strong>and</strong> Management<br />
257: 1883-1892.<br />
Bugmann, H. 1994. On the ecology of mountainous forests in a changing climate: a simulation<br />
study. PhD Thesis. Dissertation Nr 10638, ETH Zurich.<br />
Christen, M., P. Bartelt, J. Kowalski, <strong>and</strong> L. Stoffel. 2008. Calculation of dense snow<br />
avalanches in three-dimensional terrain with the numerical simulation program<br />
RAMMS. Online documentation.<br />
http://ramms.slf.ch/ramms/images/stories/rammsissw08.pdf (last accessed March 2010)<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
N. Zurbriggen et al. 2010. Modeling feedbacks between avalanches <strong>and</strong> forests under a changing environment<br />
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Cordonnier, T., B. Courbaud, F. Berger, <strong>and</strong> A. Franc. 2008. Permanence of resilience <strong>and</strong><br />
protection efficiency in mountain Norway spruce forest st<strong>and</strong>s: A simulation study. <strong>Forest</strong><br />
Ecology <strong>and</strong> Management 256: 347-354.<br />
Lischke, H. <strong>and</strong> B. Zierl. 2002. Feedback between structured vegetation <strong>and</strong> soil water in a<br />
changing climate: A simulation study. Pages 349-377 Climate <strong>Change</strong>: Implications for<br />
the Hydrological Cycle <strong>and</strong> for Water Management. Kluwer Academic Publishers,<br />
Netherl<strong>and</strong>s.<br />
Lischke, H., N. E. Zimmermann, J. Bolliger, S. Rickebusch, <strong>and</strong> T. J. Loffler. 2006. TreeMig: A<br />
forest-l<strong>and</strong>scape model for simulating spatio-temporal patterns from st<strong>and</strong> to l<strong>and</strong>scape<br />
scale. Ecological Modelling 199: 409-420.<br />
Meyer-Grass, M. <strong>and</strong> M. Schneebeli. 1992. Die Abhängigkeit der Waldlawinen vom St<strong>and</strong>orts-,<br />
Best<strong>and</strong>es- und Schneeverhältnissen. Schutz des Lebensraumes vor Hochwasser, Muren<br />
und Lawinen, Interpraevent 92. 2: 443-455.<br />
Patten, R. S. <strong>and</strong> D. H. Knight. 1994. Snow avalanches <strong>and</strong> vegetation pattern in Cascade-<br />
Canyon, Gr<strong>and</strong>-Teton National Park, Wyoming, USA. Arctic <strong>and</strong> Alpine Research 26:<br />
35-41.<br />
Rixen, C., S. Haag, D. Kulakowski, <strong>and</strong> P. Bebi. 2007. Natural avalanche disturbance shapes<br />
plant diversity <strong>and</strong> species composition in subalpine forest belt. Journal of Vegetation<br />
Science 18: 735-742.<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
Section 4<br />
Biodiversity conservation <strong>and</strong> planning in changing<br />
l<strong>and</strong>scapes
Akbarzadeh et al. 2010. Ecotourism <strong>and</strong> controlling forest st<strong>and</strong> damages<br />
178<br />
Ecotourism <strong>and</strong> controlling forest st<strong>and</strong> damages<br />
Case study: Varzegan district North West Iran<br />
M. Akbarzadeh 1* , J. Ajalli 1 & E. Kouhgardi 2<br />
1 Islamic Azad University, Myianeh Branch, East Azarbaijan, Iran.<br />
2 Islamic Azad University, Boushehr Branch, Boushehr, Iran.<br />
Abstract<br />
This paper aim to show using ecotourism how can protection the l<strong>and</strong>s, forest st<strong>and</strong>s <strong>and</strong><br />
biodiversity or not In addition to preserving forest ecosystems <strong>and</strong> biodiversity, natural<br />
protected areas in Arasbaran are homel<strong>and</strong>s for people, largely indigenous, who traditionally<br />
base their resource management on a multiple use strategy. We analyzed l<strong>and</strong> use <strong>and</strong> l<strong>and</strong><br />
cover changes in the Varzegan district in the Arasbaran northern west Iran, where Varzegan<br />
recently incorporated ecotourism to their set of economic activities. We evaluated changes in<br />
l<strong>and</strong> use using vegetation maps from 1997 to 2002 based on Enhanced Thematic Mapper<br />
(ETM+), l<strong>and</strong> sat 7 <strong>and</strong> predicted vegetation cover in 2010 by developing a cellular automata<br />
<strong>and</strong> Markovian chains model. So we selected 2 parts at study area for controlling of damages<br />
<strong>and</strong> monitoring of ecotourism effects on it. We used two scenarios to predict l<strong>and</strong> cover in<br />
2010: (a) forest ecosystems <strong>and</strong> biodiversity implemented at the same rate; (b) forest ecosystem<br />
<strong>and</strong> biodiversity decreases due to the growing dem<strong>and</strong> of ecotourism. Both scenarios predict<br />
slight change in the area. Our results provide guidelines for managing natural resources<br />
managements, suggesting that forest st<strong>and</strong> protection, biodiversity conservation <strong>and</strong> ecotourism<br />
are compatible activities.<br />
Key words: Ecotourism, Biodiversity, Varzegan, <strong>Forest</strong> st<strong>and</strong>s.<br />
1. Introduction<br />
Remote sensing techniques have recently recived lots of attentions in agriculture <strong>and</strong> natural<br />
resources. Natural resources <strong>and</strong> environmental conservation need a lot of attention especially<br />
on under devloped countries. Using remote sensing techniques <strong>and</strong> sateliate data for evaluation<br />
of environmental changes is rapidly growing.<br />
Ecotourism industry is of importance in l<strong>and</strong> conservation <strong>and</strong> income. Natural resources,<br />
especially forest ecosystems in Arasbaran have many ancient parameters for ecotourism using.<br />
2. Methodology<br />
2.1 Study area<br />
The study area is located in North West of IRAN <strong>and</strong> the North Eastern of the East Azerbijan<br />
province, which called Arasbaran, is a mountainous area with elevation between 300 <strong>and</strong> 2700<br />
meters above the see level <strong>and</strong> very near to the Caspian Sea.<br />
* Corresponding author. Tel.: +98914 406 6696 - Fax: +98 423 22 400 85<br />
Email address: m.akbarzadeh@m_iau.ac.ir<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
Akbarzadeh et al. 2010. Ecotourism <strong>and</strong> controlling forest st<strong>and</strong> damages<br />
179<br />
o<br />
o<br />
o<br />
o<br />
The area is located between 38 .38′<br />
<strong>and</strong> 38 .52′<br />
latitude <strong>and</strong> between 46 .03′<br />
<strong>and</strong> 46 .15′<br />
longitude. It covers diversity of elevation, slope, population <strong>and</strong> l<strong>and</strong> use <strong>and</strong> includes a variety<br />
of Seashore Rivers, etc. There are above 785 plant species in this forest that 97 species of them<br />
are woody (Sagheb et al, 2004).<br />
Arasbaran includes 11 basins. Varzegan is one of them, which is our study area. Aras river is in<br />
the Northern boundary of the study area. Varzegan basin includes about 58500 ha, which is 9.40<br />
percent of Arasbaran,s total area.<br />
Temprate front Mediterranean <strong>and</strong> Siberian climate causes accumulation of snow in the crest of<br />
the mountains in winter. The study area is under the influence of the Mediterranean climate <strong>and</strong><br />
also Caspian <strong>and</strong> Caucasus climates. Nearest meterology station to the area is kaleibar station<br />
which is 1300 m, above the sea level. Average rain fall in this station in a 20- year period was<br />
461mm.<br />
45% of the raining was in spring, 23% in autumn, <strong>and</strong> 22% in winter <strong>and</strong> % 10 in summer.<br />
Maximum monthly evaporation is %85 in spring. Average yearly temperature is different so<br />
that it may be up to12 o c , it would be 17 o c in low elevations <strong>and</strong> 5 o c in high elevations.<br />
Average temperature in the warmest days of the year is 24 o c in low l<strong>and</strong> <strong>and</strong> 12 o c in high<br />
l<strong>and</strong>s. Average temperature in the coldest days of the year is 10 o c in low l<strong>and</strong>s <strong>and</strong> − 2<br />
o c in<br />
high l<strong>and</strong>s. Minimum temperature may be up to − 29<br />
o c , in the study area . Based on Due<br />
Martteene method the climate situation in Ilighinehchay Basin is: Semihumid with cold<br />
summers (Akbarzadeh <strong>and</strong> Babie. K 2002) (Sagheb et al, 2007) (Sabeti.H, 1976).<br />
The area is bounded among Ararat, Sah<strong>and</strong> <strong>and</strong> Sabalan mountains <strong>and</strong> their activities <strong>and</strong><br />
tectonical frequency formed collection of lime <strong>and</strong> igneous stones among them marn, shale, tuff<br />
<strong>and</strong> conglomerate can be seen.<br />
This collection belongs to tertiary which has been formed due to high motion alpine mountain.<br />
There are a large amount of basalt <strong>and</strong> tracite among them.<br />
There are lime pans in Ghare Dagh Mountains too.<br />
Surface of l<strong>and</strong>s are covered with brown soils. There are many springs in the study area which<br />
are emerged from the crest of rocky mountain.<br />
Raining mostly is snow in study area which its low evaporation has caused some rivers to<br />
emerge from high l<strong>and</strong> <strong>and</strong> enter to Aras river. The main river is ilghineh chay which is the<br />
same name as the basin.<br />
Quality of waters is so good that can be used for human being, wildlife <strong>and</strong> agriculture without<br />
any limitation (Akbarzadeh, 2007) (Mukhdum, 2000).<br />
2. Methodology<br />
The socioeconomic analysis was aimed at examining current l<strong>and</strong>-use practices <strong>and</strong> their spatial<br />
distribution, as well as the different l<strong>and</strong>-use strategies implemented by households within the<br />
NPA (natural protected areas). This analysis was needed to identify the forces behind<br />
LUCC(l<strong>and</strong> use / cover changes) in VARZEGAN, since l<strong>and</strong>scapes are transformed by natural<br />
resources appropriation <strong>and</strong> implementation of productive activities, in addition to ecological<br />
processes. Our intention with this analysis was to reveal the ecological, economic <strong>and</strong> social<br />
conditions under which the VARZEGAN ecosystem is managed. Socioeconomic data was<br />
collected between September 2008 <strong>and</strong> October2009.<br />
Data collection was done via participant observation, informal <strong>and</strong> semi-structured interviews,<br />
<strong>and</strong> a survey with semi-closed questions.<br />
All the above were conducted with the assistance of a bilingual interpreter who was not from<br />
VARZEGAN <strong>and</strong> whose native <strong>and</strong> second languages were Turkish <strong>and</strong> Persian, respectively.<br />
Data collection was designed to gather both quantitative <strong>and</strong> qualitative information. Semi-<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
Akbarzadeh et al. 2010. Ecotourism <strong>and</strong> controlling forest st<strong>and</strong> damages<br />
180<br />
structured interviews were carried out in 29 of the 30 households inside the NPA, <strong>and</strong> were<br />
focused on household activity implementation. Special emphasis was placed on gathering data<br />
on plots (distance to house, surface area, crops, activities implemented <strong>and</strong> labor allocation). An<br />
additional 23 semi-structured interviews were carried out to gather data on household home<br />
gardens (variety of species <strong>and</strong> uses). Informal interviews <strong>and</strong> semi-closed questions were used<br />
to evaluate their views on ecotourism activities in the area. Emphasis was placed on informant<br />
perceptions of the possibility of allocating more time to new economic activities (ecotourism)<br />
instead of traditional ones.<br />
Finally, a semi-structured interview was held with a tourist agency executive interested in<br />
working in VARZEGAN. Future LUCC scenarios were projected using socioeconomic analysis<br />
data, <strong>and</strong> the factor of possible l<strong>and</strong> tenure changes in VARZEGAN.<br />
To build these scenarios, we classified study area into 2 groups: (a) forest ecosystems <strong>and</strong><br />
biodiversity implemented at the same rate; (b) forest ecosystem <strong>and</strong> bio diversity decreases due<br />
to the growing dem<strong>and</strong> of ecotourism.<br />
Characteristic vegetation in the VARZEGAN NPA is medium deciduous forest in different<br />
successional stages, although small patches of seasonal grassl<strong>and</strong> are also present. Vegetation<br />
maps were generated using various tools <strong>and</strong> Spot 5 data, to validate the different described l<strong>and</strong><br />
use <strong>and</strong> vegetation succession categories in VARZEGAN. Initially, a 2002 Etm+ panchromatic<br />
image was interpreted <strong>and</strong> digi- talized. The visual interpretation of l<strong>and</strong> use categories <strong>and</strong><br />
vegetation successional stages, as well as the mapping of the different trails in the NPA were<br />
aided by performing ground verifications <strong>and</strong> by conducting participatory mapping exercises<br />
with local inhabitants. They have a vast knowledge of plant species, forest successional stages<br />
<strong>and</strong> l<strong>and</strong>-use history which could be translated into spatial references given the scale at which<br />
we were working at. By these processes were defined the following l<strong>and</strong> use <strong>and</strong> vegetation<br />
successional stages categories: agricultural units ( 0–1 year); four forest successional stages (2–<br />
7; 8–15; 16–29; <strong>and</strong> 30–50 years); old-growth forest(>50years); Later, a 2005 SPOT image (5m<br />
ground resolution) was interpreted using the same categories for l<strong>and</strong> use <strong>and</strong> vegetation<br />
successional stages defined for the 2002 map. Additionally, for thisimageweusedb<strong>and</strong>s2,<br />
3<strong>and</strong>4todigitalize, <strong>and</strong>differentiate among textures, forms <strong>and</strong> color patterns (IDRISI15,<br />
Ilwis3.0). The successional stage category was assigned correctly in 90% of the sites.<br />
3. Result<br />
1. Tourism in the NPA will increase mainly because of agreements between local inhabitants<br />
<strong>and</strong> one or more tourists.<br />
2. Protection of area is seen more strongly, because degradation rate in these areas is lower<br />
than the others.<br />
In the first projection scenario (Scenario 1), l<strong>and</strong> use cover maps for 1999 <strong>and</strong> 2003 were<br />
projected to 2007 <strong>and</strong> then to2010under the assumption that the change observed between1999<br />
<strong>and</strong> 2003 would occur at the same pace from 2003 to2007.<br />
The second scenario (Scenario 2) was run in which the probabilities of observed change were<br />
altered according to socioeconomic analysis results <strong>and</strong> current l<strong>and</strong> tenure policy in the NPA.<br />
In Scenario 2 we decreased by 8% the future probability that all succession categories would<br />
change to a new agriculture.<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
Akbarzadeh et al. 2010. Ecotourism <strong>and</strong> controlling forest st<strong>and</strong> damages<br />
181<br />
Figure 1: Map of Study Area group A: Dark Green B: Light Green<br />
3. Discussion<br />
This hypothetical reduction was based on the results of the socioeconomic analyses, which<br />
suggested a tendency for households to devote increasingly more time to ecotourism <strong>and</strong> less to<br />
agriculture <strong>and</strong> traditional activities, as well as a tendency of local inhabitants to emigrate <strong>and</strong><br />
ab<strong>and</strong>on their agriculture.<br />
References<br />
Akbarzadeh, M., 2007. Using RS <strong>and</strong> GIS for L<strong>and</strong> evaluation in Arasbaran Iran. Ph.D. thesis,<br />
IAU, Science <strong>and</strong> Research University, Tehran, Iran.<br />
Campbell, L.M., Smith, C., 2006. What makes them pay Values of volunteer tourists working<br />
for sea turtle conservation. Environmental Management, 38: 84–98.<br />
Clifton, J., Benson, A., 2006. Planning for sustainable ecotourism: the case for research<br />
ecotourism in developing country destinations. Journal of Sustainable Tourism, 14: 238–<br />
254.<br />
Collar, N.J., 1998. Information <strong>and</strong> ignorance concerning the word’s parrots: an index for<br />
twenty-first century research <strong>and</strong> conservation. Papageienkunde, 2: 201–235.<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
C. Carvalho-Santos 2010. Fine-scale mapping of High Nature Value farml<strong>and</strong>s<br />
182<br />
Fine-scale mapping of High Nature Value farml<strong>and</strong>s: novel<br />
approaches to improve the management of rural biodiversity <strong>and</strong><br />
ecosystem services<br />
Cláudia Carvalho-Santos 1* , Rob Jongman 2 , Joaquim Alonso 3 & João Honrado 1<br />
1 Departamento de Biologia, Faculdade de Ciências & CIBIO-Centro de Investigação<br />
em Biodiversidade e Recursos Genéticos, Universidade do Porto, Edifício FC4, Rua do<br />
Campo Alegre, S/N 4169-007 Porto, Portugal<br />
2 Alterra, Wageningen UR, PO Box 47, 6700 AA Wageningen, The Netherl<strong>and</strong>s<br />
3<br />
<strong>Escola</strong> <strong>Superior</strong> Agrária, Instituto Politécnico de Viana do Castelo, 4990-706 Ponte de<br />
Lima<br />
Abstract<br />
High Nature Value farml<strong>and</strong>s (HNVf) are defined as rural l<strong>and</strong>s characterized by high<br />
levels of biodiversity <strong>and</strong> extensive farming practices. These farml<strong>and</strong>s are also known<br />
to provide important ecosystems services, such as food production, pollination, water<br />
purification <strong>and</strong> l<strong>and</strong>scape recreation. Recently, this concept has been introduced in<br />
Rural Development Programmes related to biodiversity preservation in traditional<br />
agricultural l<strong>and</strong>scapes. However, there are no specific rules concerning the practical<br />
use of the concept, particularly on the identification of potential HNVf areas at a local<br />
scale. This application becomes important for farml<strong>and</strong> biodiversity protection in the<br />
context of multi-scale agricultural development.<br />
We present a novel approach for HNVf mapping, which provides an improved local<br />
discrimination of farml<strong>and</strong>s according to their contribution for the conservation of rural<br />
biodiversity <strong>and</strong> ecosystem services. Our approach is based on a multi-criteria valuation<br />
of habitat types based on the national l<strong>and</strong> cover map <strong>and</strong> agrarian censuses. It is<br />
considered applicable in other EU countries since comparable datasets are usually<br />
available. This methodology is also expected to provide the backbone of a st<strong>and</strong>ard,<br />
cost-effective methodology for HNVf monitoring, with an emphasis on the impacts of<br />
l<strong>and</strong> use change on species, habitats <strong>and</strong> l<strong>and</strong>scape function.<br />
Keywords: ecosystem services, local scale, HNVf, mapping, rural biodiversity<br />
1. Introduction<br />
Biodiversity is an important product of agricultural l<strong>and</strong>scapes, but in many European farml<strong>and</strong>s<br />
species richness has been declining (Billeter et al. 2008). Furthermore, research <strong>and</strong> policy on<br />
biodiversity conservation <strong>and</strong> agricultural management have not progressed very well (Moonen<br />
<strong>and</strong> Bàrberi 2008). Since rural l<strong>and</strong>scapes are dominant in most European countries <strong>and</strong> the<br />
European Union (EU) has established ambitious goals concerning the halting of biodiversity<br />
loss (Pereira <strong>and</strong> Cooper 2006; EEA 2006a, 2006b; Fontaine 2007), it is imperative to establish<br />
* Corresponding author. Tel.: (+351) 220402000<br />
Email address: claudiasantos.malta@gmail.com<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
C. Carvalho-Santos 2010. Fine-scale mapping of High Nature Value farml<strong>and</strong>s<br />
183<br />
sound frameworks to monitor agricultural impacts on biodiversity, by selecting the best general<br />
indicators (EASAC 2005; EEA 2005, 2006b, 2007) <strong>and</strong> at the same time paying attention to the<br />
specificity of different agro-ecosystems. It is important to underst<strong>and</strong> the relationships between<br />
l<strong>and</strong>scape, biodiversity <strong>and</strong> l<strong>and</strong> use to manage the l<strong>and</strong> <strong>and</strong> to develop consistent plans for the<br />
future maintenance or enhancement of the current resources (Jongman et al 2006).<br />
More than 50% of Europe’s most highly valued biotopes occur in low intensity farml<strong>and</strong><br />
(Bignal <strong>and</strong> McCracken 1996). Over the last few decades biodiversity losses in farml<strong>and</strong>s were,<br />
in great extent, due to large scale rationalization <strong>and</strong> intensification of agricultural production<br />
<strong>and</strong>, on the other h<strong>and</strong>, many marginal <strong>and</strong> extensively farmed areas have either been improved<br />
or ab<strong>and</strong>oned, both resulting in the reduction on habitats <strong>and</strong> species diversity (EEA 2004).<br />
2. High Nature Value Farml<strong>and</strong><br />
Among the many initiatives to prevent biodiversity decline, the identification <strong>and</strong> mapping of<br />
High Nature Value Farml<strong>and</strong>s (HNVf, low-intensity traditional agricultural areas, such as the<br />
montados in Portugal) is surely one of the most valuable (Andersen et al. 2003; EEA 2004;<br />
Paracchini et al. 2006; Cooper et al. 2007; Poux <strong>and</strong> Ramain 2009). Besides gathering<br />
information about these areas, a major objective is to take conservation measures to protect<br />
hotspots of biodiversity (EEA 2004).<br />
HNVf is a concept applied on rural l<strong>and</strong>s characterized by the existence of high levels of<br />
biodiversity, <strong>and</strong> by extensive farming practices (EEA 2004). Recently, this concept, originally<br />
introduced by Baldock (Baldock D et al. 1993) as farming systems with low-inputs of chemicals<br />
<strong>and</strong> of management practices, was also adapted to the forestry sector in the framework of Rural<br />
Development Plans (Beaufoy <strong>and</strong> Cooper 2008).<br />
Europe is characterized by unique <strong>and</strong> variable rural l<strong>and</strong>scapes, heritage of many centuries of<br />
cultural <strong>and</strong> natural history (EEA 2004). Many of them can be considered as HNVf. According<br />
to Andersen (Andersen et al. 2003), there are three types of High Nature Value farml<strong>and</strong>:<br />
Type 1: farml<strong>and</strong> with a high proportion of semi-natural vegetation;<br />
Type 2: farml<strong>and</strong> with a mosaic of habitats <strong>and</strong>/or l<strong>and</strong> uses;<br />
Type 3: farml<strong>and</strong> supporting rare species or a high proportion of their European or world<br />
populations.<br />
In Europe (EU 15), about 15-25% of the utilized agricultural area (UAA) is considered as HNV<br />
farml<strong>and</strong>. The majority of this area is located in the Southern Europe, <strong>and</strong> in Portugal the<br />
percentage of HNV farml<strong>and</strong> is estimated at about 37% of the total UAA (EEA 2004).<br />
Another important concept associated with HNVf is HNV farming, used in more recent<br />
documents (Beaufoy <strong>and</strong> Cooper 2008). It refers not only to the l<strong>and</strong> use (farml<strong>and</strong>) but also to<br />
the associated farming management practices. In the context of Rural Development Programs,<br />
the HNV farming indicator is an obligation of the EU states in order to assess whether the<br />
objectives of rural programmes are being achieved under the strategy of Pillar 2 of the CAP<br />
(Beaufoy <strong>and</strong> Cooper 2008). These indicators were developed, not only to describe <strong>and</strong><br />
characterize where HNVf is located, the farml<strong>and</strong> systems <strong>and</strong> practices as well as species <strong>and</strong><br />
habitats of conservation concern (baseline indicators), but also to survey HNVf, contributing to<br />
monitor agricultural impacts on biodiversity (result <strong>and</strong> impact indicators). Member States are<br />
committed to identify <strong>and</strong> maintain HNV farming, <strong>and</strong> it is important for all countries to<br />
identify these systems in order to implement targeted economic support measures (Beaufoy<br />
2009). Ultimately, HNVf associated with high levels of biodiversity can also be related with the<br />
concept of ecosystem services, since in these traditional agricultural areas ecosystems provide a<br />
range of important ecosystem services such as food, water purification, soil formation, <strong>and</strong><br />
recreation.<br />
3. Mapping HNVf across Europe<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
C. Carvalho-Santos 2010. Fine-scale mapping of High Nature Value farml<strong>and</strong>s<br />
184<br />
3.1. Problems with existing methodologies<br />
Ecological, historical <strong>and</strong> cultural differences in farming l<strong>and</strong>scapes among countries require<br />
region-specific rules to identify HNVf. This paper addresses this problematic <strong>and</strong> presets a new<br />
methodology to map HNVf at a local level, considering the importance of this identification to<br />
the improvement of rural natural <strong>and</strong> economic environment.<br />
The st<strong>and</strong>ard procedures for mapping HNVf in Europe include the use of l<strong>and</strong> use data (CLC -<br />
Corine L<strong>and</strong> Cover), with classes based on an Environmental Stratification (Metzger et al.<br />
2005)When available, the methodology also suggests the use of complementary information on<br />
farming practices, altitude <strong>and</strong> latitude, soil quality, climatic condition, steepness of slope at<br />
national level to improve the cartography (Paracchini et al. 2006). However, the resulting maps<br />
cannot be used to draw conclusions on the presence of HNV farml<strong>and</strong> at the local level, but<br />
only at the regional level (Paracchini et al. 2006). In fact, scale is very important when trying to<br />
map HNVf, because different agro-ecological processes operate at different scales that must be<br />
taken into account.<br />
For HNVf identification at the local scale the application of a downscaling exercise using a<br />
bigger scale l<strong>and</strong> use map seemed to be a good option. In Portugal, local-scale l<strong>and</strong> cover/use<br />
analysis is based on the COS products (Portuguese l<strong>and</strong> cover map, 1:25.000), obtained from<br />
the interpretation of aerial photos. However, there is no satisfactory direct relationship between<br />
the CLC <strong>and</strong> COS classifications (table 1), <strong>and</strong> an HNVf map based on the application of the<br />
regional-scale methodology to a COS map would exhibit more than twice the extent of HNVf<br />
area than a map obtained using the CLC dataset. So, differences in l<strong>and</strong> cover classifications in<br />
maps with different scales may result in very different maps for a same area. Overall, this<br />
implies that the methodology for identifying <strong>and</strong> mapping HNVf should be revised in order to<br />
adapt it to multi-scalar exercises.<br />
3.2. Local scale HNVf mapping – proposal of a new methodology<br />
In order to best consider those areas that could be excluded when applying the CLC<br />
methodology, a new refined methodology has been developed to identify HNVf at local scales.<br />
The national l<strong>and</strong> cover dataset (COS) is the central dataset in this novel methodology.<br />
The first step is to define the “total farml<strong>and</strong> area”, considering not only the pure agricultural<br />
<strong>and</strong> agro-forestry areas, but also small patches of neighbouring forest <strong>and</strong> semi-natural areas<br />
spatially <strong>and</strong> functionally linked with cropl<strong>and</strong>s. We defined the maximum areas of 5ha for<br />
forests <strong>and</strong> 1ha for semi-natural areas. Herewith, we are placing the farml<strong>and</strong> not as fragments<br />
with restricted boundaries, but in its context as a continuous place where biodiversity circulates<br />
among habitats.<br />
Even if the methodology considers two different levels of analysis, the patch level <strong>and</strong> the civil<br />
parish level, the final HNVf map should be presented at the less detailed scale (the parish level),<br />
in order not to lose information in the transition among scales. Moreover, as a l<strong>and</strong>scape<br />
concept, HNVf should not be mapped directly at the individual patch of COS, but using context<br />
attributes such as l<strong>and</strong>scape metrics <strong>and</strong> other features of the farming l<strong>and</strong>scape <strong>and</strong> of the<br />
territory itself (Figure 1). L<strong>and</strong>scape attributes include those related to l<strong>and</strong>scape composition<br />
<strong>and</strong> to l<strong>and</strong>scape structure. Available data on farming (from agrarian censuses) were also added<br />
at the parish level, to identify the importance of primary sector of activity in each parish. Finally,<br />
natural value was taken into account, using available data on regional biodiversity <strong>and</strong><br />
ecosystems from a previous project (FCUP 2009).<br />
Mean values were calculated for all parameters <strong>and</strong> for each parish, based on “total farml<strong>and</strong><br />
area”. To isolate any surrogacy among variables a correlation analysis (e.g. using the Spearman<br />
index) should be carried out. Finally, a global HNV score is obtained for each patch or parish by<br />
reclassifying the selected parameters into five classes using equal breaks, <strong>and</strong> then by averaging<br />
their values. The final scale ranges from 1 (low nature value farml<strong>and</strong>) to 5 (high nature value<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
C. Carvalho-Santos 2010. Fine-scale mapping of High Nature Value farml<strong>and</strong>s<br />
185<br />
farml<strong>and</strong>). The objective is thus not to identify HNVf vs. non-HNVf areas, but instead to<br />
provide a hierarchic zoning of nature value. The parish-level HNVf map is obtained from the<br />
area-weighted mean value of farml<strong>and</strong> patches inside the parish, <strong>and</strong> the final score is expressed<br />
without considering the total extent of each parish.<br />
3.3. Testing the new framework in Northern Portugal<br />
The region chosen to test the methodology was the Baixo Tâmega, in the north of Portugal, a<br />
mosaic of different agrarian systems <strong>and</strong> l<strong>and</strong>scapes that have, in most cases, been suffering<br />
ab<strong>and</strong>onment in the last few decades. Nonetheless, there are some areas with more specialized<br />
<strong>and</strong> intensive agricultural systems, mostly related to wine production along the Douro <strong>and</strong><br />
Tâmega valleys. There are also non-cultivated areas, mostly in mountain areas, with seminatural<br />
vegetation associated with extensive grazing.<br />
Due to the regular presence of semi-natural vegetation types, most of these farml<strong>and</strong>s are<br />
classifiable as HNVf areas (Andersen et al. 2003). The final maps (figure 2) provide<br />
complementary views of HNVf distribution in the area. In fact, the patch-level map identifies<br />
HNVf areas in most of the study area except for the eastern mountain areas (where forestry<br />
prevails), but the parish-level map identifies small farml<strong>and</strong> areas in these mountains as the ones<br />
with the highest nature value.<br />
4. Discussion<br />
The concept of HNVf, areas associated with low intensity farming, has become very important<br />
regarding agrobiodiversity protection under the Rural Development Programs. It is already used<br />
in many European countries from different perspectives, <strong>and</strong> is starting to be more <strong>and</strong> more<br />
included in the political agricultural context. This could mean economic support to these areas,<br />
through European financial instruments.<br />
L<strong>and</strong> cover, farming characteristics <strong>and</strong> species distribution data are the central datasets in the<br />
common approach to the identification of HNVf at European <strong>and</strong> national levels. The<br />
availability <strong>and</strong> the quality of farming <strong>and</strong> species datasets is a recurrent problem. In fact,<br />
mapping methodologies using l<strong>and</strong> cover datasets at different scales can provide very distinct<br />
HNVf maps.<br />
A new refined methodology based on l<strong>and</strong> cover data, l<strong>and</strong>scape features, farming attributes <strong>and</strong><br />
natural value/conservation data was designed to map HNVf at a local scale. The use of datasets<br />
on nature value including information on the valuation of ecosystem services inferred from<br />
l<strong>and</strong>-use dataset is considered an advantage. In the literature, HNVf is stressed to promote<br />
biodiversity in agroecosystems. In our novel methodology, we suggest a stronger emphasis on a<br />
l<strong>and</strong>scape perspective <strong>and</strong> on the ecosystem services provided by semi-natural areas close to<br />
cropl<strong>and</strong>.<br />
This methodology appears as an important instrument in the identification of HNVf areas to<br />
support policy implementation in the framework of agrobiodiversity protection. It can be used<br />
either spatially, comparing the extent of potential HNVf areas among different regions, or<br />
temporally, comparing changes in extent of HNVf in one region at different times as a<br />
monitoring effort. Additionally, we expect with future research to check the possibility to adapt<br />
this methodology in other EU countries, where local l<strong>and</strong> cover datasets are usually available.<br />
References<br />
Andersen E., Baldock D., Bennet H., Beaufoy G., Bignal E., Brouwer F., Elbersen B., Eiden G.,<br />
Godeschalk F., Jones G., MaCracken D., Nieuwenhuizen W., Eupen M., Hennekens S.<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
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& Zervas G. 2003. Developing a Hight Nature Value Farming area indicator. In. EEA<br />
Copenhagen.<br />
Baldock D, Beaufoy G., Bennett G. & Clark J. 1993. Nature Conservation <strong>and</strong> new direction in<br />
the common agricultural policy. In. IEEP London.<br />
Beaufoy G. 2009. HNV Farming - Explaining the concept <strong>and</strong> interpreting EU <strong>and</strong> national<br />
policy commitments. In. European Forum on Nature Conservation <strong>and</strong> Pastoralism<br />
London.<br />
Beaufoy G. & Cooper T. 2008. Guidance Document to the Member States on the Application of<br />
the Hight Nature Value Impact Indicator. In: European Evaluation Network for Rural<br />
Development. Institute for European Environmental Policy Brussels.<br />
Bignal E.M. & McCracken D.I. 1996. Low-intensity farming systems in the conservation of the<br />
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Billeter R., LiiRA J., Bailey D., Bugter B., Arens P., Augenstein I., Aviron S., Baudry J.,<br />
Bukacek R., Burel F., Cerny M., De Blust G., De Cock R., Diekötter T., Dietz H.,<br />
Dirksen J., Dormann C., Durka W., Frenzel M., Hamersky R., Hendrickx F., Herzog F.,<br />
Klotz S., Koolstra B., Lausch A., Le Coeur D., Maelfait J.P., Opdam P., Roubalova M.,<br />
Schermann A., Schmidt T., Schweiger O., Smulders M.J.M., Speelmans M., Simova P.,<br />
Verboom J., van Wingerden W., Zobel M. & Edwards P.J. 2008. Indicators for<br />
biodiversity in agricultural lansdcapes: a pan-European study. Journal of Applied<br />
Ecology, 45, 141-150.<br />
Cooper T., Arblaster K., Baldock D. & Beaufoy G. 2007. Guidance Document to the Member<br />
States on the Application of the HNV Impact Indicator. In. IEEP Brussels.<br />
EASAC 2005. A user's guide to biodiversity indicators. The Royal Society, London.<br />
EEA 2004. Hight Nature Value farml<strong>and</strong> - Characteristics, trends <strong>and</strong> policy challenges. In.<br />
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assessment report. In: Copenhaga.<br />
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competitividade territoriais no Baixo Tâmega - o presente e o futuro do património<br />
natural dos concelhos de Amarante, Baião e Marco de Canaveses In. relatório final da<br />
primeira fase Porto.<br />
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Biological Conservation, 139, 167-185.<br />
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the environment of Europe. <strong>Global</strong> Ecology <strong>and</strong> Biogeography, 14, 549-563.<br />
Moonen A.C. & Bàrberi P. 2008. Functional biodiversity: An agroecosystem approach.<br />
Agriculture, Ecosystems <strong>and</strong> Environment, 127, 7-21.<br />
Paracchini M.L., Terres J.T., Petersen J.E. & Hoogenveen Y. 2006. Background Document on<br />
the Methodology for Mapping Hight Nature Value Farml<strong>and</strong> in EU27. In. EEA.<br />
Pereira H. & Cooper H. 2006. Towards the global monitoring of biodiversity change<br />
. Trends in Ecology <strong>and</strong> Evolution, 21, 123-129.<br />
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pour mieux l'accompagner. In. European Forum on Nature Conservation <strong>and</strong><br />
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<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
C. Carvalho-Santos 2010. Fine-scale mapping of High Nature Value farml<strong>and</strong>s<br />
187<br />
Table 1 – L<strong>and</strong> cover/use classes used to identify farml<strong>and</strong> areas when using wither the CLC or the COS<br />
classifications<br />
CLC – Lusitanian region<br />
Pastures<br />
L<strong>and</strong> principally occupied by agriculture<br />
Agro forestry areas<br />
Moors <strong>and</strong> heathl<strong>and</strong>s<br />
COS<br />
Annual crops associated with permanent crops (orchards, vineyards<br />
<strong>and</strong> olive groves)<br />
Orchards <strong>and</strong> orchards associated with olive groves, vineyards <strong>and</strong><br />
annual crops<br />
Olive groves <strong>and</strong> olive groves associated with orchards, vineyards<br />
<strong>and</strong> annual crops<br />
Vineyard <strong>and</strong> vineyards associated with olive groves, orchards <strong>and</strong><br />
annual crops.<br />
Agro forestry areas<br />
Complex <strong>and</strong> partial cultural systems<br />
Semi-natural areas<br />
Total Farml<strong>and</strong> of Baixo<br />
Tâmega map<br />
HNV<br />
features<br />
L<strong>and</strong>scape composition<br />
(Patch level)<br />
• Naturalness 1<br />
• Naturalness 2<br />
• Patch Richness<br />
Density<br />
L<strong>and</strong>scape structure<br />
(Patch level)<br />
• Patch Size<br />
• Mean Nearest<br />
Neighbor<br />
• Interspersion<br />
Juxtaposition Index<br />
• Mean Proximity<br />
Index<br />
• Mean Shape Index<br />
• Edge Density<br />
• Mean Patch Fractal<br />
Dimension<br />
Farming features<br />
(Parish level)<br />
• Mean size of<br />
holdings<br />
• Mean number of<br />
plots by holding<br />
• Mean size of plots<br />
• Ratio permanent<br />
/annual crops<br />
Natural Value<br />
(Patch level)<br />
• Biological value<br />
• Ecosystem value<br />
• Conservation value<br />
Figure 1 – Groups of parameters included in the new methodology to map HNVf at a local scale<br />
Figure 2 – Patch <strong>and</strong> Parish HNVf map using the new methodology<br />
Figure 2 – Patch <strong>and</strong> Parish HNVf map using the new methodology<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
I. Catalano et al. 2010. Wood macrolichen Lobaria pulmonaria on chestnut tree crops: the case study of Roccamonfina park<br />
188<br />
Wood macrolichen Lobaria pulmonaria on chestnut tree crops: the case<br />
study of Roccamonfina park (Campania region - Italy)<br />
I. Catalano 1* , A. Mingo 1 , A. Migliozzi 1 , S. Sgambato 1 & G.G. Aprile 1<br />
Dip. di Arboricoltura, Botanica e Patologia Vegetale, Università degli Studi di Napoli<br />
Federico II, Italy<br />
Abstract<br />
Integrating at l<strong>and</strong>scape level the information coming from local environment indicators can<br />
help monitoring environmental quality in conservation programs. Lobaria pulmonaria is a<br />
lichen species widely used to evaluate the spatio-temporal continuity of forest cover <strong>and</strong> to<br />
assess environmental quality in areas of high biogeographical interest. In the Lobaria project of<br />
the Società Italiana Lichenologica, wood macrolichens were sampled on Chestnut woods in a<br />
regional park of Campania Region (Italy). A geographical datasets of lichen distribution, l<strong>and</strong><br />
use, topographical <strong>and</strong> climatic characteristic was built in GIS environment. Multivariate<br />
analysis was conducted to highlight the relationships between lichen distribution <strong>and</strong><br />
environmental quality. The results show that the agronomic management practiced in this area<br />
enabled the establishment of stable conditions over time <strong>and</strong> the development of species<br />
indicator of undisturbed areas. A general framework to analyse l<strong>and</strong>scape-level changes over<br />
the area is proposed in this paper.<br />
Keywords: Lobaria, lichens, chestnut, l<strong>and</strong>scape, monitoring.<br />
1. Introduction<br />
No areas was left on our planet that did not experience changes, directly or indirectly connected<br />
to human activities. The assessment <strong>and</strong> monitoring of forest resources for environmental policy<br />
<strong>and</strong> management is recognized to be of prime importance (Loppi et al., 1999). Epiphytic lichens<br />
are an integral component of forest ecosystem <strong>and</strong> represent a characteristic part of the total<br />
biodiversity. Habitat fragmentation <strong>and</strong> other human l<strong>and</strong> use variables, such as urbanization,<br />
intensity of agricultural or pastoral use, <strong>and</strong> forestry management, are increasingly important as<br />
predictors of lichen species distribution (Will-Wolf et al., 2002).<br />
In fact, lichens react to disturbances <strong>and</strong> habitat alterations for several reasons. Firstly, some<br />
lichen species are dependent on favorable microclimatic conditions. Some epiphytic lichens,<br />
particulary the rarer ones, are stenotopic <strong>and</strong> require a long habitat continuity, for example<br />
substrates such as old or large trees (Friedel et al., 2006). Many epiphytic lichens are strongly<br />
affected by forestry practices, particularly logging (Nascimbene et al. 2007). For example,<br />
cyanolichens are considered a guild of species extremely sensitive to intensive forest<br />
management <strong>and</strong> so they are good indicators of forest continuity. This is the case of the flagship<br />
species Lobaria pulmonaria (L.) Hoffm., whose populations was drastically reduced in the<br />
recent decades (Nascimbene et al., 2007).<br />
The aim of this work was to analyze the effects of chestnut tree crops management practices on<br />
Lobaria pulmonaria populations, <strong>and</strong> on lichens diversity in a natural reserve of Southern Italy.<br />
* Corresponding author. Tel.: +390817760104 ext.45<br />
Email address: migliozz@unina.it<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
I. Catalano et al. 2010. Wood macrolichen Lobaria pulmonaria on chestnut tree crops: the case study of Roccamonfina park<br />
189<br />
2. Materials <strong>and</strong> methods<br />
The study was carried out in Roccamonfina’s Park a reserve located in the northen part of<br />
Campania, South Italy. According to the phytoclimatic classification (Nimis & Martellos, 2008),<br />
the area is intermediate between humid sub-Mediterranean <strong>and</strong> humid Mediterranean. The mean<br />
annual temperature is 15.7°C <strong>and</strong> the mean annual rainfall 950 mm. <strong>Forest</strong>s in this area are<br />
dominated by chestnut tree crops (Castanea sativa Miller).<br />
The monitoring study was carried out between March <strong>and</strong> July 2008. Sixteen 30x30 m plots<br />
were selected, spaced 300-500 m inside four stations differing for forest cover <strong>and</strong> management.<br />
In the center of each plot, 6 trees colonized by Lobaria pulmonaria were sampled <strong>and</strong> georeferenced.<br />
On the selected trees, the presence of all epiphytic lichens was recorded from the<br />
trunk base to a height of 180 cm. Species nomenclature <strong>and</strong> phytoclimatic classification follow<br />
Nimis & Martellos (2008).<br />
In addition we calculated Lobaria pulmonaria area with the aid of 40x40 cm sampling grids<br />
divided into 1x1 cm contiguous quadrants:<br />
%=(total area of Lobaria pulmonaria/ lateral area of trunk)*100<br />
Cartographic processing was carried out using ArcGis 9.3, Ilwis 3.4 <strong>and</strong> Idrisi Kilimangiaro<br />
GIS integrate software. Kriging was the interpolation method used to obtain a geostatistic<br />
correlation of the nearest r<strong>and</strong>omly surveyed values inside the plots <strong>and</strong> to produce an estimate<br />
of minimum least squares variance, as a continuos map. The interpolation procedure, followed a<br />
pattern analysis that allowed to define the range of action of the algorithm (barriers), in order to<br />
minimize disturbance of adjacent areas not subject to survey. Four separate continuos grids,<br />
strictly related to the single plot, were subsequently elaborated to present Lobaria pulmonaria<br />
coverage percentage maps.<br />
Floristic data were analyzed with multivariate statistical methods (Podani 2007), namely a<br />
classification analysis (cluster analysis) <strong>and</strong> an ordination analysis (PCA, Principal Component<br />
Analysis), using SYN-TAX 2000 software. Cluster analysis was performed with group average<br />
link method (upgma) with chord distance for binary data as the dissimilarity coefficient, in order<br />
to identify the classification dendrogram. For ordination analysis a centred PCA was applied,<br />
obtaining the biplot of the species-stations dispersion <strong>and</strong> the screeplot showing the percentage<br />
of variability explained by each of the detected axes.<br />
Ecological indices were calculated to detect local trends related to pH of the substratum, solar<br />
irradiation, aridity, eutrophication <strong>and</strong> poleophoby referring to the Italian Lichen System (Nimis<br />
& Martellos, 2008).<br />
3. Results<br />
A total of 74 lichen species were recorded during the survey on the 96 sampled trees, four of<br />
which were new findings for Campania region (Calicium abietinum Pers., Lobarina<br />
scrobiculata (Scop.) Nyl., Physconia subpulverulenta (Szatala) Poelt v. subpulverulenta,<br />
Platismatia glauca (L.) W. L. Culb. & C. F. Culb). Most of the lichens (83.56%) presented a<br />
coccoid green alga as photobiont, whereas few of them had cyanobacterium (15.07%) or<br />
Trentepohlia (1.37%). Foliose lichens prevailed (50%), followed by crustose (39.18%) <strong>and</strong><br />
fruticose (10.82%).<br />
Concerning phytoclimatic classification, temperate species prevailed (41.25%), divided in<br />
temperate (26.25%), mild temperate (10%) <strong>and</strong> cold temperate (5%). Then followed the suboceanic<br />
species (22.5%), <strong>and</strong> holartic (17.5%). The remaining 18.75% was divided in several<br />
phytoclimatic groups, among which the mediterranean.<br />
Two clusters for the stations (hereafter cluster A <strong>and</strong> B) <strong>and</strong> five for the species (hereafter<br />
cluster 1 to 5) were identified by classification analysis (Figure 1). The PCA (Figure 2)<br />
confirmed the groups identified by the cluster analysis.<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
I. Catalano et al. 2010. Wood macrolichen Lobaria pulmonaria on chestnut tree crops: the case study of Roccamonfina park<br />
190<br />
Figure 1 Dendrograms showing the main clusters of species (above) <strong>and</strong> stations (below)<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
I. Catalano et al. 2010. Wood macrolichen Lobaria pulmonaria on chestnut tree crops: the case study of Roccamonfina park<br />
191<br />
Figure 2: Biplot showing the main axis of PCA ruled on species <strong>and</strong> stations<br />
Stations<br />
Cluster A includes the stations 1, 2 <strong>and</strong> 4, located at relatively lower elevations. Cluster B<br />
includes four plots located at higher elevation <strong>and</strong> is characterized by the presence of almost<br />
exclusive species such as Hypogymnia physodes, Platismatia glauca, Physconia<br />
subpulverulenta v. subpulverulenta e Parmelina pastillifera, <strong>and</strong> some other species that are<br />
represented with a higher frequency relative to the other cluster, such as Leprocaulon<br />
microscopicum <strong>and</strong> Lecanora chlarotera.<br />
Species<br />
Cluster 1 includes lichen species of the Lobarion pumonariae alliance, such as Lobaria<br />
amplissima var. amplissima (the spesies with the highest frequency in the sampled area),<br />
Lobarina scrobiculata, Degelia plumbea, Peltigera collina, Nephroma laevigatum, Leptogium<br />
cyanescens.<br />
Cluster 2 is dominated by species of the Xanthorion paretinae alliance, with some species of<br />
Lecarion subfuscae: Lecanora clarotera, Lecanora carpinea, Lecidella elaeochroma, Physcia<br />
adscendens, Physconia distorta, Xanthoria parietina, Punctelia subrudecta. These species are<br />
typical of heliophilous, xerophilous, nitrophilous communities distributed in anthropized<br />
environments, where they show a good resistance to pollution.<br />
Cluster 3: Species of Graphidion scriptae: Opegrapha atra, Ochrolechia balcanica, Pertusaria<br />
amara, Pertusaria hymenea. These are communities of crustose pioneer lichens, usually found<br />
in forest environments <strong>and</strong> rarely in anthropized areas, that precede in the succession or<br />
sometimes coexist with the species of Lobarion <strong>and</strong> Parmelion.<br />
Cluster 4: species of Parmelion parlatae <strong>and</strong> Xanthorion parietinae alliances: Flavoparmelia<br />
caperata, Parmotrema perlatum, Hypogymnia physodes, Parmelia sulcata, Parmelina tiliacea.<br />
These are species of mesophilous <strong>and</strong> sub-acidophilous communities, less adapted to dry <strong>and</strong><br />
nitrified environments compared to Xanthorion, but relatively more sensitive to pollution,<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
I. Catalano et al. 2010. Wood macrolichen Lobaria pulmonaria on chestnut tree crops: the case study of Roccamonfina park<br />
192<br />
though in some case they are found in anthropized areas if atmospheric humidity allow their<br />
presence.<br />
Cluster 5 includes several species that may be considered closer to Lobarion pulmonariae than<br />
to Parmelion perlatae or to Xanthorion parietinae.<br />
Cartographic analysis<br />
Four maps of Lobaria percent cover were obtained for the sampled stations. Lobaria cover<br />
values ranged between 0.009 <strong>and</strong> 35%, clustered in nine classes in the maps (Figure 3). The<br />
species did not show very high cover values, except in one of the plots of the first station.<br />
Figure 3: Lobaria sp Cover map elaborated from the surveyed data<br />
4. Discussion<br />
Lichen biodiversity resulted relatively high in the sampled areas, both for the numerical<br />
representation of taxa <strong>and</strong> for their floristic quality, though rich of generalist species adapted to<br />
disturbed areas. Lobaria cover, however, presented relatively low cover values on the studied<br />
area, as it resulted from cartographic analysis. Also the other species of the Lobarion<br />
pulmonariae alliance were not very diffuse on the area. Ecological indices showed that many of<br />
the sampled species are typical of natural or semi-natural habitats, with a hygro-mesophylous<br />
behaviour, preferring high availability of diffuse light, but escaping direct sun radiation. Though<br />
the list of sampled species represents only a small portion of the lichen flora in the studied area,<br />
the marked presence of temperate <strong>and</strong> sub-oceanic species is well correlated with the submountain<br />
character of the area.<br />
A limited number of species characterized by low tolerance to air pollutants prevailed in cluster<br />
A, whereas a greater number of species was found in cluster B, most of which typical of<br />
undisturbed areas or small mountain urban sites. The most frequent species belonging to the<br />
alliance of Lobarion pulmonariae are Lobaria amplissima <strong>and</strong> Lobaria pulmonaria; other<br />
species, such as Lobarina scrobiculata e Peltigera collina, resulted to be rare <strong>and</strong> sporadic,<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
I. Catalano et al. 2010. Wood macrolichen Lobaria pulmonaria on chestnut tree crops: the case study of Roccamonfina park<br />
193<br />
mainly in the northern side of the park, inside the ancient volcanic caldera. These species are<br />
good indicators of wood stability over time. They were mainly found in chestnut forests, rather<br />
than in coppiced oak mixed wood areas (Quercus pubescens, Olea europaea, etc.), more<br />
represented in the western side of the park. Despite l<strong>and</strong>scape fragmentation, the results could<br />
suggest that the agroforestry management carried out over many decades in the north-east of the<br />
park allowed wide forest corridors to get established, which could be an important factor of<br />
ecological continuity. This ensured the conservation of biodiversity due to the local presence of<br />
a large number of vegetative propagules, inducing several colonization events of rare lichen<br />
species over surrounding areas. So a fruit chestnut wood, subjected to a good agronomic <strong>and</strong><br />
forestry management, would give better results in terms of biodiversity than an oak mixed<br />
forest, characterized by a more natural floristic composition but strongly disturbed by frequent<br />
coppice.<br />
The method used to estimate the actual coverage of the monitored species associated with the<br />
cartographic approach, allowed to quantify the species areal extent as monitored on individual<br />
trees, <strong>and</strong> to propose an estimation of the visible cover of the species in the studied area. This<br />
kind of study represents a good starting point for further investigations, specifically designed to<br />
monitoring possible deviations from current conditions <strong>and</strong> focused to assess the effectiveness<br />
of environmental policy actions taken at municipal <strong>and</strong> regional level.<br />
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Will-Wolf, S., Scheidegger, C. <strong>and</strong> McCune, B., 2002. Methods for monitoring biodiversity <strong>and</strong><br />
ecosystem function. In: Nimis P.L., Scheidegger C. & Wolseley P. (eds.). Monitoring<br />
with Lichens – Monitoring Lichens. Kluwer Academic Publishers, Dordrecht, The<br />
Netherl<strong>and</strong>s, pp. 147-162.<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
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194<br />
Extent <strong>and</strong> characteristics of mire habitats in Galicia (NW Iberian<br />
Peninsula): implications for their conservation <strong>and</strong> management<br />
Ramón Alberto Diaz-Varela, Pablo Ramil-Rego, Manuel Antonio Rodríguez-Guitián &<br />
Carmen Cillero-Castro<br />
1 Universidade de Santiago de Compostela, Spain<br />
Abstract<br />
NW Iberian Peninsula hosts a variety of mire habitats linked to wet environments that contrast<br />
with surrounding regional vegetation. These wetl<strong>and</strong>s are confined to locations meeting certain<br />
azonal conditions, due to local topographies that prevent or delay drainage, to the occurrence of<br />
significant rainfall, or to a combination of both. Despite of their international relevance <strong>and</strong> their<br />
designation as habitats of interest for biodiversity conservation by the EU habitats Directive,<br />
they are threatened mainly by changes in l<strong>and</strong> use, particularly by agriculture<br />
intensification/ab<strong>and</strong>onment <strong>and</strong> the development of wind farms.<br />
In the present work we address the mapping, description <strong>and</strong> analysis of these habitats in a<br />
spatial explicit way in the region of Galicia (NW Iberian Peninsula), in order to support the<br />
development of strategies of planning <strong>and</strong> management. Results showed differences in the<br />
extent, distribution <strong>and</strong> characteristics of the different types of mire habitats with important<br />
implications in their conservation.<br />
Keywords: Mire habitats; NW Iberian Peninsula; spatial distribution; habitat environmental<br />
controls; CHAID<br />
1. Introduction<br />
Mire habitats are azonal wetl<strong>and</strong> ecosystems confined to areas with particular environmental<br />
conditions defined by a positive water balance, a low organic mater decomposition rate <strong>and</strong><br />
where the vegetation remains composition has the potential to form peat (Goodwillie 1980;<br />
Raeymaekers 2000; Rydin <strong>and</strong> Jeglum 2008). Their conservation value has been recognized<br />
internationally by different institutions <strong>and</strong> treaties, as the Ramsar Convention. In the EU<br />
context, most of mire types were included as interest of priority habitats in the Annex II of the<br />
European Directive 92/43/CEE for their inclusion in the European network of protected areas<br />
Natura 2000 (European Commission, 2003). They also host a great amount of species of<br />
bacteriae, protozoans, fungi, algae, lichens, bryophytes, vascular plants, invertebrates <strong>and</strong><br />
vertebrates of interest for biodiversity conservation. Most of them have they optimal or even<br />
exclusive habitats in these environments (Rydin <strong>and</strong> Jeglum 2008). In relation with plant<br />
communities, mire habitats frequently include endemic taxa <strong>and</strong> usually show particular floristic<br />
compositions along geographical <strong>and</strong> altitudinal gradients because of their azonal <strong>and</strong><br />
fragmented distribution.<br />
A key issue in the planning <strong>and</strong> conservation of these habitats is the assessment <strong>and</strong> modelling<br />
of their spatial distribution in relation with key environmental factors as this information might<br />
be used for the optimization of conservation efforts (Wainwright <strong>and</strong> Mulligan 2004). There are<br />
a number of factors that determine the occurrence <strong>and</strong> the type of mire habitats, being the most<br />
important climate, topography <strong>and</strong> nutrient supply (Graniero <strong>and</strong> Price 1999). In this work we<br />
aimed at the exploration of the relationship <strong>and</strong> dependence between different environmental<br />
controls <strong>and</strong> the occurrence of different mire habitats in a sector of the NW of Spain. More<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
R.A. Diaz-Varela et al. 2010. Extent <strong>and</strong> characteristics of mire habitats in Galicia (NW Iberian Peninsula)<br />
195<br />
specifically, we carried out a data mining procedure to determinate the influence of topography,<br />
climate, lithology <strong>and</strong> distance to sea in the occurrence of four types of mire habitats.<br />
2. Methodology<br />
We conducted our analyses in the region of Galicia, located in the NW of Spain (code NUTS<br />
ES11 of the European Union) <strong>and</strong> covering an area of 29 574 Km2 (cf. fig. 1). Altitudes range<br />
from sea level to about 2000 m a.s.l. showing a contrasted relief. Biogeographically most of the<br />
area is included in the Atlantic Region, but a sector of the SE quadrant of the scene corresponds<br />
with Mediterranean region, being a matter of discussion the exact extent of the Mediterranean<br />
domain in the area (European Environment Agency 2008, Rodríguez Guitián <strong>and</strong> Ramil Rego<br />
2008; Rivas-Martinez <strong>and</strong> Rivas-Saenz 2009). Natural vegetation comprises different deciduous<br />
forest, mostly dominated by Quercus robur, but most of the present day l<strong>and</strong> cover shows an<br />
important degree of human intervention, being frequent afforestations with non native species,<br />
scrubs <strong>and</strong> heatl<strong>and</strong>s along with mosaics of traditional <strong>and</strong> modern agrarian l<strong>and</strong>scapes.<br />
Mire habitats maps were done using different data sources, from national habitat inventories<br />
(http://www.mma.es/portal/secciones/biodiversidad/banco_datos/info_disponible/index_atlas_m<br />
anual_habitats.htm) <strong>and</strong> wetl<strong>and</strong> catalogs (Galician Wetl<strong>and</strong> Inventory,<br />
http://medioambiente.xunta.es/espazosNaturais/humidais/index.htm) to monographic works<br />
(Izco Sevillano et al. 2001) <strong>and</strong> regional maps for protected areas planning (Ramil-Rego <strong>and</strong><br />
Crecente Maseda 2005). All this information was processed in a Geographic Information<br />
System software (ArcGisTM V9.2) <strong>and</strong> converted to different raster layers (one for mire type)<br />
with a cell size of 90 m. Mire classification legend was based on the typology of the Annex I of<br />
the European Habitat Directive (consolided version of the 92/43/CEE Directive) <strong>and</strong> included<br />
four types of mire habitats: Blanket bogs, Cladium mariscus fens, Calcareous fens <strong>and</strong> Tufa<br />
formations, <strong>and</strong> was a compromise between the available input information <strong>and</strong> the categories<br />
of the Directive. Other mire habitats of the Annex I of the directive (i.e. Raised bogs,<br />
Depressions on peat substrates of the Rhynchosporion <strong>and</strong> Transition mires <strong>and</strong> quaking bogs)<br />
were not considered in this analysis as are often included in mosaics of other habitat complexes<br />
(frequently wet heathl<strong>and</strong> or moorl<strong>and</strong>) in the existing cartography.<br />
We considered four groups of explanatory variables (climate, topography, geology <strong>and</strong> distance<br />
to sea) as potential environmental controls for mire habitats (cf. table 1). Climate variables were<br />
obtained from regional climate maps available in literature (Martínez Cortizas <strong>and</strong> Pérez Alberti<br />
1999), where the variables are expressed in intervals of different amplitude labelled as a<br />
numeric scale (cf. table 2). Topographic variables were computed from a Digital Elevation<br />
Model using the ArcGisTM V9.2 software package. Geology map were done by reclassifying<br />
the original classes of geological charts from the Spanish Geological Institute in five classes,<br />
namely sedimentary (sd), granitic (gr), ultrabasic (ub), siliceous metamorphic (mt) <strong>and</strong><br />
calcareous (ca) materials. We also computed the minimum distance to sea as an indicator of the<br />
degree of continentality. All the information layers were converted to raster format with the<br />
same spatial reference <strong>and</strong> resolution as the mire habitat maps. We extracted the explanatory<br />
variables data by means of the spatial overlay of the masks corresponding with each mire type.<br />
The final output for the subsequent analyses was a table with mire type as dependent / grouping<br />
variable <strong>and</strong> several explanatory or independent variables.<br />
In order to asses the effect or explanatory power of these variables, we performed a<br />
classification using the tree based segmentation technique CHAID, acronym of Chi-Squared<br />
Automatic Interaction Detection (Biggs et al. 1991; Kass 1980). CHAID is an exploratory<br />
analysis based in the recursive partitioning of a feature space of several independent or potential<br />
predictors, that themselves might interact, in relation to a dependent or response variable. Both<br />
predictors <strong>and</strong> response variables may be continuous, ordinal or categorical. Since CHAID is a<br />
non-parametric technique, no normalization of original variables is needed (Van Diepen <strong>and</strong><br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
R.A. Diaz-Varela et al. 2010. Extent <strong>and</strong> characteristics of mire habitats in Galicia (NW Iberian Peninsula)<br />
196<br />
Franses 2006). CHAID technique was applied using mire classes as response variables against<br />
the abovementioned collection of potential predictors. For the validation of the model, we<br />
r<strong>and</strong>omly split the original data in a training <strong>and</strong> validation with 50 % of the cases assigned to<br />
each subset. We finally generated a contingency matrix for the contrast of the observed <strong>and</strong><br />
predicted classes for the validation set, <strong>and</strong> subsequently we computed the KAPPA statistic<br />
(Bishop et al. 1975) as a measure of model accuracy.<br />
3. Results <strong>and</strong> Discussion<br />
Results of the CHAID classification are presented in figure 2. According the diagram, the most<br />
powerful discriminant variable was distance to sea. In the second level nodes other variables<br />
related to geology, topography <strong>and</strong> climate were taking into account for the discrimination of<br />
mire types. Finally, water balance was considered for the discrimination in the third level<br />
between some blanket bogs <strong>and</strong> Cladium fens with similar values regarding their distance to sea<br />
<strong>and</strong> slope. Overall accuracy reached more than 96 % (table 3) while the estimation of KAPPA<br />
index, regarded as a more reliable indication of the overall accuracy due to its compensation of<br />
chance agreement (Congalton 1991), achieved a value of 0.93, indicating an almost perfect<br />
agreement between the classification <strong>and</strong> reference values (L<strong>and</strong>is <strong>and</strong> Koch 1977). Per class<br />
accuracies reached particularly high values for blanket bogs <strong>and</strong> tufa, while fen <strong>and</strong> Cladium<br />
mires accuracies were lowered because the confusions with each other <strong>and</strong> also with tufa mires.<br />
According these results, blanket bogs occur on sub-coastal areas at different exposures, more<br />
frequently facing north <strong>and</strong> under high annual rainfall or water balance, as previously stated by<br />
biogeographic studies of this habitat in NW Iberian Peninsula (Rodríguez Guitián et al. 2007).<br />
Cladium fens are located close to the coastline, on sedimentary deposits (corresponding in most<br />
cases with the inl<strong>and</strong> border of coastal salt marshes). They also occur in the inl<strong>and</strong>, on flat<br />
surfaces under not particularly high water balances, where some confusion with tufa or fens<br />
could happen. Even when some fen localities may occur in the inl<strong>and</strong>, they tend to appear close<br />
to the coast, on ultra basic material sharing these environmental conditions with localities of<br />
Cladium fens <strong>and</strong> tufa formations. Finally, tufa occurs on the coast, in springs or water table<br />
ruptures leaching fossil/raised coastal dunes systems still rich in carbonates on coastal cliffs, or<br />
alternatively in the inl<strong>and</strong>, linked to the few ditches of limestone rocks in the region (Ramil<br />
Rego et al. 2008).<br />
4. Conclusions<br />
In the present work we explored the role of different environmental controls on the occurrence<br />
of four types of mire habitats. We found out that the degree of continentality (using the reliefcorrected<br />
distance to sea as an indicator) play a potential key role in the differences in spatial<br />
distribution of types in the region of Galicia. However mire types occurrence can not be<br />
differentiated or explained on the basis of just one kind of environmental control, but rather a<br />
combination of different controls (as geology, distance to sea, climate or lithology), being the<br />
importance of each one related to the ecology, tolerance <strong>and</strong> requirements of each particular<br />
habitat.<br />
The results corroborate in a quantitative <strong>and</strong> spatially explicit way the previous knowledge on<br />
the ecological differences between the different mire habitats in the region. This information has<br />
a potential application in habitat management plans for protected areas in combination to other<br />
datasets (e.g. spatial pattern <strong>and</strong> distribution, vulnerability <strong>and</strong> resilience, future climatic <strong>and</strong><br />
l<strong>and</strong> use scenarios) <strong>and</strong> also constitutes a first step towards a predictive biogeographic<br />
modelling of habitat distribution.<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
R.A. Diaz-Varela et al. 2010. Extent <strong>and</strong> characteristics of mire habitats in Galicia (NW Iberian Peninsula)<br />
197<br />
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Classification <strong>and</strong> Decision Trees. Journal of Applied Statistics, 18: 49-62.<br />
Bishop, Y. M. M.; Fienberg, S. E. <strong>and</strong> Holl<strong>and</strong>, P. W., 1975. Discrete multivariate analysis :<br />
theory <strong>and</strong> practice. MIT Press, Cambridge. Massachusetts.<br />
Congalton, R. G., 1991. A review of assessing the accuracy of classifications of remotely sensed<br />
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European Commission 2003. Interpretation Manual of European Union Habitats - EUR 25.<br />
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Goodwillie, R., 1980. Les Tourbières en Europe. Comite Europeen Pour la Sauvegarde de la<br />
Nature et des Ressources Naturelles. Conseil de L´Europe. Collection Sauvegarde de la<br />
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Graniero, P. A. <strong>and</strong> Price, J. S., 1999. The importance of topographic factors on the distribution<br />
of bog <strong>and</strong> heath in a Newfoundl<strong>and</strong> blanket bog complex. CATENA, 36: 233-254.<br />
Izco Sevillano, J.; Díaz Varela, R. A.; Martínez Sánchez, S.; Rodríguez Guitián, M. A.; Ramil<br />
Rego, P. <strong>and</strong> Pardo Gamundi, I. M., 2001. Análisis y Valoración de la Sierra de O<br />
Xistral: un Modelo de Aplicación de la Directiva Hábitat en Galicia. Xunta de Galicia.<br />
Santiago de Compostela. 161 pp.<br />
Kass, G. V., 1980. An Exploratory Technique for Investigating Large Quantities of Categorical<br />
Data. Journal of Applied Statistics, 29: 119-127.<br />
L<strong>and</strong>is, J. R. <strong>and</strong> Koch, G. G., 1977. The measurement of observer agreement for categorical<br />
data. Biometrics, 33: 159-174.<br />
Martínez Cortizas, A. <strong>and</strong> Pérez Alberti, A. (Dir.), 1999. Atlas climático de Galicia. Xunta de<br />
Galicia. Santiago de Compostela. 207 pp.<br />
Raeymaekers, G., 2000. Conserving mires in the European Union. Actions Co-Financed by<br />
LIFE-Nature. European Commission. DG XI. 90 pp.<br />
Ramil-Rego, P. <strong>and</strong> Crecente Maseda, R. (Dir.), 2005. Planes de conservación de las ZEPVN de<br />
Galicia. Xunta de Galicia. Consellería de Medio Ambiente. Dirección Xeral de<br />
Conservación da Natureza. Santiago de Compostela.<br />
Ramil-Rego et al., 2008. Os hábitats de Interesse Comunitario en Galicia. Descrición e<br />
Valoración Territorial. Monografías do IBADER. Universidade de Santiago de<br />
Compostela. Lugo. Spain. 263 pp.<br />
Rivas-Martinez, S. <strong>and</strong> Rivas-Saenz, S., 2009. Worldwide Bioclimatic Classification System,<br />
1996-2009. Phytosociological Research Center, Spain. http://www.globalbioclimatics.org.<br />
Rodríguez Guitián, M.A; Ramil-Rego, P.; Real, C.; Díaz Varela, R.; Ferreiro da Costa, J. <strong>and</strong><br />
Cillero, C., 2009. Caracterización vegetacional de los complejos de turberas de cobertor<br />
activas del SW europeo. En: F. Llamas & C. Acedo (Coords.): Botánica Pirenaico-<br />
Cantábrica en el siglo XXI. Área de Publicaciones. Universidad de León. León: 633-653<br />
Rydin, H. <strong>and</strong> Jeglum, J., 2008. The biology of peatl<strong>and</strong>s. Oxford University Press. New York.<br />
343 pp.<br />
Rodríguez Guitián, M.A. <strong>and</strong> Ramil-Rego, P. 2008. Fitogeografía de Galicia NW Ibérico.<br />
análisis histórico y nueva propuesta corológica. Recursos Rurais, 14: 19-50.<br />
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detection. Information Systems, 31: 814-831.<br />
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Complexity. John Willey <strong>and</strong> Sons, Ltd. West Sussex, Engl<strong>and</strong>. 408 pp.<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
R.A. Diaz-Varela et al. 2010. Extent <strong>and</strong> characteristics of mire habitats in Galicia (NW Iberian Peninsula)<br />
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Table 1: Explanatory variables<br />
Variable group Variable Acronym Type Units<br />
Annual average temperature Temp Ordinal Adimensional (intervals)<br />
Climate<br />
Annual total rainfall Rain Ordinal Adimensional (intervals)<br />
Annual total evapotranspiration ETP Ordinal Adimensional (intervals)<br />
Annual water balance Waterbal Ordinal Adimensional (intervals)<br />
Transformed aspect TRASP Scale Adimensional<br />
Curvature Curv Scale Adimensional<br />
Plan curvature (across slope) Plancurv Scale Adimensional<br />
Topography<br />
Profile curvature (along slope) Profcurv Scale Adimensional<br />
Slope Slope Scale degrees<br />
Terrain shape index Tershp Scale Adimensional<br />
Wetness index Wenidn Scale Adimensional<br />
Elevation DEM Scale m a.s.l.<br />
Geology Geologic material MAT Nominal Adimensiona<br />
Distance to sea Distance to sea Distosea Scale m<br />
Table 2: Intervals for the climate variables<br />
Average year temperature Total year rainfall Total year Evapotranspiration Total year water balance<br />
Code Intervals (ºC) Code Intervals (mm) Code Intervals (mm) Code Intervals (mm)<br />
1 15 9 > 2000 - - - -<br />
Table 3. Accuracy of the CHAID classification<br />
Predicted<br />
Observed Blanket Cladium Fen Tuf Percent correct<br />
blanket 1767 0 0 1 99,9%<br />
cladium 13 122 4 40 68,2%<br />
fen 11 11 49 0 69,0%<br />
tuf 1 14 10 924 97,4%<br />
Percent correct 60,4% 5,0% 2,1% 32,5% 96,5%<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
R.A. Diaz-Varela et al. 2010. Extent <strong>and</strong> characteristics of mire habitats in Galicia (NW Iberian Peninsula)<br />
199<br />
Figure 1: Study area<br />
Figure 2: CHAID results<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
R.A. Diaz-Varela et al. 2010. Assessment of conservation status in managed chestnut forest<br />
200<br />
Assessment of conservation status in managed chestnut forest by<br />
means of l<strong>and</strong>scape metrics, physiographic parameters <strong>and</strong> textural<br />
features<br />
Ramón Alberto Diaz-Varela 1* , Pedro Álvarez-Álvarez 2 , Emilio Diaz-Varela 1 & Silvia<br />
Calvo-Iglesias 3<br />
1 University of Santiago de Compostela, Spain<br />
2 University of Oviedo, Spain<br />
3 University of Vigo, Spain<br />
Abstract<br />
In this work we aim to model the conservation status of chestnut forests in the NW of Iberian<br />
peninsula, assuming the coverage of chestnut <strong>and</strong> developing state as indicator of forest st<strong>and</strong>s<br />
quality. We used as potential predictors features available at wide geographic scales, namely:<br />
geographic location, l<strong>and</strong>-cover heterogeneity approached by means of satellite images texture,<br />
<strong>and</strong> l<strong>and</strong>scape metrics. As some of these variables are prone to be influenced by terrain shape,<br />
we also introduced topographic parameters derived from Digital Elevation Models in the<br />
analyses. Results allowed us to classify chestnut forests in relation to their conservation status<br />
<strong>and</strong> to identify current degradation trends. We expect that the results would serve as a basis for a<br />
more indeep research on conservation strategies for Iberian chestnut forests.<br />
Keywords: Chestnut; NW Iberian Peninsula; L<strong>and</strong>scape metrics; Terrain features; Image<br />
texture<br />
1. Introduction<br />
Chestnut forest has been recognised as habitat of interest in the European Natura 2000 network<br />
<strong>and</strong> it was also acknowledged as a characteristic cultural l<strong>and</strong>scape of the Mediterranean <strong>and</strong><br />
Atlantic regions in Europe. Despite of its environmental <strong>and</strong> cultural interest it is threatened by<br />
pathogen fungi, traditional management ab<strong>and</strong>onment <strong>and</strong> recent rural l<strong>and</strong>scape change both in<br />
the Atlantic <strong>and</strong> Mediterranean Europe (Cevasco, 2009; Díaz Varela et al. 2009). In fact, its<br />
conservation status is regarded as “not favourable” either in the Alpine, Continental <strong>and</strong><br />
Mediterranean regions, while information is lacking in the Atlantic region, according to the<br />
European Topic Centre on Biological Diversity (2008). One of the main threats for the long<br />
term conservation of this habitat is the natural evolution of the chestnut st<strong>and</strong>s towards some<br />
kind of native forest due to natural succession dynamics or its invasion by alien woodl<strong>and</strong><br />
species.<br />
Taking these threats into account, it is necessary to design simple, repeatable <strong>and</strong> precise<br />
methods for the monitoring <strong>and</strong> assessment of chestnut forest conservation status at large scale<br />
in the European Union in general <strong>and</strong> in the Atlantic region in particular. In this work we<br />
explore the possibilities of automatic <strong>and</strong> spatially exhaustive assessment of chestnut woodl<strong>and</strong>s<br />
conservation status using datasets easily available like remote sensed imagery, forest inventory<br />
maps <strong>and</strong> digital terrain models. We hypothesized that some simple st<strong>and</strong> variables are reliable<br />
* Corresponding author. Tel.: +34 982 285 900 ext. 22482 - Fax: +34 982 285 985<br />
Email address: ramon.diaz@usc.es<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
R.A. Diaz-Varela et al. 2010. Assessment of conservation status in managed chestnut forest<br />
201<br />
indicators of the conservation status of chestnut woodl<strong>and</strong>s. Then using statistic methods, we<br />
explored the predictor value of several datasets potentially related to forest structure <strong>and</strong><br />
composition, like patch morphology metrics (Saura <strong>and</strong> Carballal 2004) or satellite image<br />
texture (Kayitakire et al. 2006). As these potential predictor features are prone to be influenced<br />
by topography, we also considered terrain attributes in the analysis.<br />
We conducted the study in a sector of NW Iberian Peninsula, an area where good examples of<br />
chestnut forest st<strong>and</strong>s with different conservation status occur. In order to provide a dataset with<br />
an adequate size to assemble variability in forest st<strong>and</strong> conditions, we considered an area of<br />
approximately 24 448 km 2 corresponding with the l<strong>and</strong> extent of the L<strong>and</strong>sat TM scene 204-30<br />
(Fig. 1). Altitudes range from sea level to about 2000 m a.s.l. showing a contrasted relief.<br />
Biogeographically most of the area is included in the Atlantic Region, but a sector of the SE<br />
quadrant of the scene belongs to the Mediterranean region, (European Environmental Agency<br />
2008; Rivas-Martinez <strong>and</strong> Rivas-Saenz, 2009). Natural vegetation is dominated by different<br />
deciduous forest, mostly dominated by Quercus robur <strong>and</strong> Quercus petraea, coexisting toward<br />
the west with Betula alba <strong>and</strong> Fagus sylvatica <strong>and</strong> interspersed with mixed mesophytic<br />
woodl<strong>and</strong> at lower altitudes. Transition to Continental <strong>and</strong> Mediterranean environments are<br />
characterised by Quercus pyrenaica forests, while some evergreen or sclerophyllous forest are<br />
restricted to the dryer <strong>and</strong> warmer locations (Rivas-Martínez, 2007). Chestnut forests appear as<br />
pure st<strong>and</strong>s or interspersed with different deciduous forests or alien species in the area, being<br />
more frequent towards the East.<br />
2. Methodology<br />
Chestnut forest variables were extracted from the Digital <strong>Forest</strong> Map of Spain at a scale 1:50<br />
000 (Ministerio de Medio Ambiente, 2002). This map is based on digitalisation of forests from<br />
satellite images or aerial orthophotographs <strong>and</strong> supported by fieldwork <strong>and</strong> ancillary data.<br />
Minimum mapable area is 2.5 has for forested area <strong>and</strong> 6.25 has for other l<strong>and</strong> cover types. The<br />
map provides information on tree species composition, overall (in percentage) <strong>and</strong> per-species<br />
(in 10% intervals) canopy coverage, along with other st<strong>and</strong> variables. We queried the map to<br />
extract the chestnut forest patches for the study area. At the effects of the present work <strong>and</strong> as<br />
we are focused on dense forest with a significant share of chestnut in the canopy, we considered<br />
patches with minimum crown coverage of tree species of 60 %, a minimum of 20 % of chestnut<br />
coverage, <strong>and</strong> the interval 2 to 4 of stage of st<strong>and</strong> development for chestnut out of a scale from 1<br />
to 4, resulting a total of 1585 chestnut patches. For each patch we retrieved chestnut canopy<br />
coverage in intervals of 10%, coded as a scale variable from 1 (0-10% to 10 (90-100%) along<br />
with the stage of st<strong>and</strong> development. Then we set three classes of chestnut st<strong>and</strong> quality based<br />
on the combination of these two variables (cf. table 1), being class 1 the worst <strong>and</strong> 3 the best<br />
quality. As some of the analysis inputs must be in raster format, we also generated 30 m<br />
resolution raster mask of chestnut patches.<br />
A collection of morphometric parameters were extracted from the selected forest patches by<br />
means of two different approaches (table 2). The first approach was based on the use six<br />
different l<strong>and</strong>scape metrics: patch area (MPS), patch edge (TE), shape index (MSI), perimeter<br />
area ratio (MPAR), fractal dimension (MFRACT), <strong>and</strong> number of shape characteristic points<br />
(NSCP). All were calculated using the software V-Late (Lang <strong>and</strong> Tiede 2003), except for<br />
NSCP (Moser et al. 2002). Calculation was made at patch level. We also used the GUIDOS<br />
software (Graphical User Interface for the Description of image Objects <strong>and</strong> their Shapes)<br />
initially designed for morphological spatial pattern analysis (MSPA) of forest functional<br />
connectivity (Vogt et al., 2009) as an alternative morphometic approach. The output of the<br />
MSPA is a raster layer where patch cells are assigned to seven morphological spatial pattern<br />
classes: edge, core, perforated, islets, bridge, loop <strong>and</strong> branch. We ran the software using the<br />
default parameters for the computation of MSPA, considering one pixel edge (30 m).<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
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Considering that terrain relief might play a key role in the l<strong>and</strong>scape structure <strong>and</strong> in vegetation<br />
pattern in general (Hoechstetter, et al. 2008) we selected several terrain features that showed<br />
their potential as predictors for forest distribution in previous works (Lindenmayer et al. 1999).<br />
Terrain features were derived from a raster digital elevation model with a spatial resolution of<br />
30 m. We selected a number of first <strong>and</strong> second order terrain features widely used in<br />
hydrological, geomorphological, <strong>and</strong> ecological studies (Wilson <strong>and</strong> Gallant 2000) along with<br />
other addressing more specifically vegetation <strong>and</strong> forest assessment (Mcnab 1989; Roberts <strong>and</strong><br />
Cooper 1989) as detailed in table 2.<br />
Image texture has shown its potential as predictor for forest st<strong>and</strong> characteristics (see p.e.<br />
Franklin et al., 2001). In order to assess its value as predictor of chestnut st<strong>and</strong> quality at patch<br />
level, we computed eight texture features based on kernel grey level co-occurrence matrices as<br />
proposed by Haralick et al., (1973) on a NDVI (greenness index) image, using the software<br />
package PCI TM 9.1 (cf. table 2) setting a direction 45º, displacement of one pixel <strong>and</strong> a window<br />
size of 5x5. We used a relatively small size for the kernel as some small or narrow patches are<br />
foreseen <strong>and</strong> to avoid influence from the neighbouring patches.<br />
As terrain relief <strong>and</strong> texture information are refered at pixel level, we computed mean (MN) <strong>and</strong><br />
st<strong>and</strong>ard deviation (SD) of these features for each patch in order to obtain information at patch<br />
level. The final dataset comprises 16 texture variables (MN <strong>and</strong> SD for the eight texture<br />
features), 14 terrain variables (MN <strong>and</strong> SD for the seven terrain features) <strong>and</strong> 13 patch<br />
morphology variables (six patch l<strong>and</strong>scape metrics along with the percentages of each of the<br />
seven typologies of the MPSA analysis for a given forest patch). These 43 variables were<br />
analysed by means of a Classification <strong>and</strong> Regression Tree (CaRT) procedure using the<br />
statistical package SPSS TM 16.0. CaRT is a data mining technique pursuing the recursive binary<br />
partition of a multivariate space of independent or predictor variables into regions for which the<br />
values of the dependent or response (in this case st<strong>and</strong> quality) variable are approximately equal.<br />
In this application, we use the method for exploring the internal structure of the dataset in order<br />
to assess the potential of the different variables as chestnut patch quality predictors.<br />
3. Results<br />
Figure 2 shows the results of the CaRT application on the 43 potential predictors, pruned to 3<br />
branch levels. The first significant classification variable was mean terrain slope, with a value of<br />
15º that splits a terminal node corresponding with patches of gently slope assigned mainly<br />
(72 %) to the worst class of chestnut st<strong>and</strong>s quality. The second significant classification<br />
variable was the mean patch value of GLCM mean (Mean_MN), a variable sensitive to the<br />
image tone <strong>and</strong> texture, that could be interpreted in this case as an indicator of the degree of<br />
texture complexity <strong>and</strong> greenness inside a patch. Values lower that 48 for this variable led to a<br />
third level defined by terrain elevation, spitting at a value of approximately 600 m in two<br />
branches, one dominated by the lower quality classes corresponding to low altitudes <strong>and</strong> other<br />
dominated by high quality st<strong>and</strong>s, located at higher altitudes. Values of Mean_MN higher that<br />
48 led to another splitting level, where the criterion was patch size. In this case low area patches<br />
correspond with good quality st<strong>and</strong>s, while larger patches correspond to st<strong>and</strong>s containing lower<br />
chestnut canopy coverage <strong>and</strong> development (qualities 2 <strong>and</strong> 3).<br />
4. Conclusions<br />
We assessed the potential discrimination power of different kind of variables <strong>and</strong> chestnut forest<br />
conservation status by means of CaRT data mining. Despite of the relative high degree of<br />
impurity in some of the nodes, the method allowed us to recognise some mayor trends of<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
R.A. Diaz-Varela et al. 2010. Assessment of conservation status in managed chestnut forest<br />
203<br />
behaviour of predictors <strong>and</strong> chestnut forest quality classes. Focusing on high quality st<strong>and</strong>s, they<br />
occur mainly on quite steep slopes <strong>and</strong> also tend to occur at altitudes higher than 600 m showing<br />
a relative low textured <strong>and</strong> low greenness value. This is consistent with the theoretical<br />
confinement of the chestnut traditional forest to mountain or marginal areas, where agricultural<br />
activity is constrained by the environment, <strong>and</strong> also indicates that a relative low degree of<br />
heterogeneity in the patches might be used as an indicator of well preserved st<strong>and</strong>s. Good<br />
quality st<strong>and</strong>s can also occur on more textured (heterogeneous) patches, but in this case<br />
corresponding to small plots, fact that could be interpreted as the separation between large<br />
heterogeneous forest patches with lower relative chestnut coverage <strong>and</strong> small plots dominated<br />
by chestnut but with some heterogeneity in the st<strong>and</strong> characteristics.<br />
References<br />
Cevasco, R., 2009. Terraced Castanea woods in Val di Vara, Liguria, NW Italy. In Krzywinski,<br />
K.; O'connell, M. <strong>and</strong> Küster, H., Eds. Cultural <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> of Europe. Fields of Demeter<br />
Haunts of Pan. Aschembeck Media UG. Bremen, Pp: 106-107.<br />
Diaz Varela, R. A.; Calvo Iglesias, M. S.; Diaz Varela, E. R.; Ramil Rego, P. <strong>and</strong> Crecente<br />
Maseda, R., 2009. Castanea sativa forests: a threatened cultural l<strong>and</strong>scape in Galicia, NW<br />
Spain. In Krzywinski, K.; O'connell, M. <strong>and</strong> Küster, H., Eds. Cultural <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> of<br />
Europe. Fields of Demeter Haunts of Pan. Aschembeck Media UG. Bremen. Pp: 106-107.<br />
European Environment Agency, 2008. EEA Biogeographical regions of Europe 2008.<br />
http://www.eea.europa.eu/data-<strong>and</strong>-maps/data/biogeographical-regions-europe-2008.<br />
European Topic Centre on Biological Diversity, 2008. Article 17 Technical Report, 2001-2006).<br />
European Commission .DG Environment. http://biodiversity.eionet.europa.eu/article17<br />
Franklin, S. E.; Wulder, M. A. <strong>and</strong> Gerylo, G. R., 2001. Texture analysis of IKONOS<br />
panchromatic data for Douglas-fir forest age class separability in British Columbia.<br />
International Journal of Remote Sensing, 22: 2627 - 2632.<br />
Haralick, R.; Shanmugam, K. <strong>and</strong> Dinstein, I., 1973. Textural features for image classification.<br />
IEEE Transactions on Systems, Man, <strong>and</strong> Cybernetics, 3: 610-621.<br />
Hoechstetter, S.; Walz, U.; Dang, L. H. <strong>and</strong> Thinh, N. X., 2008. Effects of topography <strong>and</strong><br />
surface roughness in analyses of l<strong>and</strong>scape structure – A proposal to modify the existing<br />
set of l<strong>and</strong>scape metrics. L<strong>and</strong>scape Online, 3: 1-14.<br />
Kayitakire, F.; Hamel, C. <strong>and</strong> Defourny, P., 2006. Retrieving forest structure variables based on<br />
image texture analysis <strong>and</strong> IKONOS-2 imagery. Remote Sensing of Environment, 102:<br />
390-401.<br />
Lang, S.; Tiede, D. (2003): vLATE Extension für ArcGIS - vektorbasiertes Tool zur<br />
quantitativen L<strong>and</strong>schaftsstrukturanalyse, ESRI Anwenderkonferenz 2003 Innsbruck.<br />
CDROM.<br />
Lindenmayer, D. B.; Mackey, B. G.; Mullen, I. C.; Mccarthy, M. A.; Gill, A. M.; Cunningham,<br />
R. B. <strong>and</strong> Donnelly, C. F., 1999. Factors affecting st<strong>and</strong> structure in forests - are there<br />
climatic <strong>and</strong> topographic determinants. <strong>Forest</strong> Ecology <strong>and</strong> Management, 123: 55-63.<br />
Mcnab, W. H., 1989. Terrain Shape Index: Quantifying Effect of Minor L<strong>and</strong>forms on Tree<br />
Height. <strong>Forest</strong> Science, 35: 91-104.<br />
Moser, D.; Zechmeister, H.G.; Plutzar, C.; Sauberer, N.; Wrbka, T.; Grabherr, G. (2002)<br />
<strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> patch shape complexity as an effective measure for plant species richness in<br />
rural l<strong>and</strong>scapes. L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology 17:657–669<br />
Ministerio De Medio Ambiente, 2002. Mapa <strong>Forest</strong>al de España escala 1:50 000. Banco de<br />
Datos de la Naturaleza. Organismo Autónomo de Parques Naturales. Ministerio de Medio<br />
Ambiente. Madrid.<br />
Rivas-Martinez, S. <strong>and</strong> Rivas-Saenz, S., 2009. Worldwide Bioclimatic Classification System,<br />
1996-2009. Phytosociological Research Center, Spain. http://www.globalbioclimatics.org.<br />
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Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
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Rivas-Martínez, S., 2007. Mapa de series, geoseries y geopermaseries de vegetación de España.<br />
Memoria del mapa de vegetación potencial de España. Itinera Geobotanica, 17: 5-436.<br />
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Classifications Based on Vegetation. Applications for Resource Management. USDA<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> Service GTR INT-257. Ogden, UT. Pp: 90-96.<br />
Saura, S. <strong>and</strong> Carballal, P, 2004. Discrimination of native <strong>and</strong> exotic forest patterns through<br />
shape irregularity indices: An analysis in the l<strong>and</strong>scapes of Galicia, Spain. L<strong>and</strong>scape<br />
Ecology. 19: 647-662.<br />
Vogt, P.; Ferrari, J. R.; Lookingbill, T. R.; Gardner, R. H.; Riitters, K. H. <strong>and</strong> Ostapowicz, K.,<br />
2009. Mapping functional connectivity. Ecological Indicators, 9: 64-71.<br />
Wilson, J. P. <strong>and</strong> Gallant, J. C., 2000. Digital Terrain Analysis. In Wilson, J.P. <strong>and</strong> Gallant, J.C.,<br />
Eds: Terrain Analysis: Principles <strong>and</strong> Applications. John Wiley <strong>and</strong> Sons, INC. New<br />
York. Pp: 1-28.<br />
Table 1: Criteria for st<strong>and</strong> quality index. Grey tone indicates canopy coverage <strong>and</strong> stage of st<strong>and</strong><br />
development corresponding to each of the chestnut forest quality classes: light grey quality 1;<br />
medium grey quality 2 <strong>and</strong> dark grey quality 3. Cell values indicates number of patches.<br />
Chestnut canopy coverage<br />
2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10<br />
Stage of 2 - 5 2 1 1 1 - - -<br />
st<strong>and</strong> 3 1 56 33 31 40 17 36 5 1<br />
development<br />
4 1 345 202 174 149 152 131 151 50<br />
Table 2: Predictors<br />
Variable group Variable Acronym Reference<br />
patch area (m 2 ) MPS Lang <strong>and</strong> Tiede 2003<br />
patch edge (m) TE Lang <strong>and</strong> Tiede 2003<br />
shape index MSI Lang <strong>and</strong> Tiede 2003<br />
perimeter area ratio MPAR Lang <strong>and</strong> Tiede 2003<br />
fractal dimension MFRACT Lang <strong>and</strong> Tiede 2003<br />
L<strong>and</strong>scape pattern<br />
number of shape characteristic points NSCP Moser et al. 2002<br />
Fraction of Edge Edge Vogt et al., 2007, 2009<br />
Fraction of Core Core Vogt et al., 2007, 2009<br />
Fraction of Perforated Perforated Vogt et al., 2007, 2009<br />
Fraction of Islets Islets Vogt et al., 2007, 2009<br />
Fraction of Bridge Bridge Vogt et al., 2007, 2009<br />
Fraction of Loop Loop Vogt et al., 2007, 2009<br />
Fraction of Branch Branch Vogt et al., 2007, 2009<br />
Elevation (m a.s.l.) DEM Wilson <strong>and</strong> Gallant 2000<br />
Curvature Curv Wilson <strong>and</strong> Gallant 2000<br />
Plan curvature Plancurv Wilson <strong>and</strong> Gallant 2000<br />
Terrain<br />
Profile curvature Profcurv Wilson <strong>and</strong> Gallant 2000<br />
Slope (degrees) Slope Wilson <strong>and</strong> Gallant 2000<br />
Transformed aspect TRASP Roberts <strong>and</strong> Cooper 1989<br />
Terrain shape index Tershp McNab 1989<br />
Contrast Contr Harlick 1973<br />
Correlation Corr Harlick 1973<br />
Dissimilarity Dissim Harlick 1973<br />
Image texture<br />
Entropy Entrop Harlick 1973<br />
Homogeneity Homog Harlick 1973<br />
Mean Mean Harlick 1973<br />
Second Moment Sec_mom Harlick 1973<br />
Variance St<strong>and</strong>_de Harlick 1973<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
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Chestnut Woodl<strong>and</strong><br />
Figure 1: Study area<br />
Figure 2: CART results<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
P.A.E. Diogo & J. Aranha 2010. GIS analysis of the Antidote Programme in Portugal<br />
206<br />
GIS analysis of the Antidote Programme in Portugal<br />
Patrícia A.E. Diogo 1 & José Aranha 1,2*<br />
1 Departamento de Ciências Florestais e Arquitectura Paisagista, Universidade de Trásos-Montes<br />
e Alto Douro, 5001-801 Vila Real, Portugal<br />
2 CITAB, Universidade de Trás-os-Montes e Alto Douro, 5001-801 Vila Real, Portugal<br />
Abstract<br />
The aim of this research was to analyse the huge number of animal poisoning occurrences in<br />
Portugal <strong>and</strong> to establish a relationship between poisoning, l<strong>and</strong> use, l<strong>and</strong> cover <strong>and</strong> human<br />
activity.<br />
It was used a large database, belonging to the programme Antidote Portugal in order to create a<br />
GIS. This database records all occurrences attributes, such as, the location of dead animals, the<br />
number of affected individuals, the species that belong <strong>and</strong> their location.<br />
Two approaches were made, one based on poisoning occurrences <strong>and</strong> one base on number of<br />
dead animal per occurrence, in order to calculate hazard maps. Both approaches were based on<br />
multivariate analysis <strong>and</strong> geostatistical processes.<br />
According to the results, agro-forested areas are those were the most cases occur. A special<br />
reference must be made to the Protected Areas <strong>and</strong> the Natural Park of Southwest Alentejo <strong>and</strong><br />
Costa Vicentina, were token place few cases but very deadly.<br />
Keywords: Principal Component Analysis, Geostatistic, Hazard Poisoning, Programme<br />
Antidote Portugal, GIS<br />
1. Introduction<br />
The Portuguese Antidote Programme (PAP) was created in January the 12th, 2003 with the aim<br />
of evaluating the effects of the use of poisons on wildlife populations <strong>and</strong> to establish measures<br />
to control this problem (Br<strong>and</strong>ão 2003). It is a platform based on the Spanish Antidote<br />
Programme (SAP), which began in 1997 due to growing concern about the illegal use of<br />
poisons <strong>and</strong> other toxic substances posing a threat to wildlife conservation (FCQ 2009). The<br />
PAP’s aims is to establish a cooperation protocol between different organizations, public <strong>and</strong><br />
private entities, <strong>and</strong> to developed policies in order to gather all the scattered information <strong>and</strong><br />
establish mechanisms for its concentration <strong>and</strong> a complete study (Br<strong>and</strong>ao 2003).<br />
The first use of poison is reported to the nineteenth century, leading some drastic declines or<br />
extinction of some wildlife populations, especially the Iberian Wolf (Canis lupus) <strong>and</strong> carrion<br />
birds. In agro forested areas <strong>and</strong> natural areas, poisons area used for various reasons, mainly as<br />
an attempt to control predators of game animals <strong>and</strong> livestock. These actions are carried out by<br />
hunters <strong>and</strong> hunting areas managers, <strong>and</strong> have as target species <strong>and</strong> feral dogs, wolves <strong>and</strong><br />
mammals of small <strong>and</strong> medium businesses. This is the most accessible <strong>and</strong> successful method<br />
because of the easiness of which it can be applied <strong>and</strong> the number of individuals that can be<br />
eliminated under a low level of effort for anyone who applies. Almost all historical references<br />
* Corresponding author; Telf. + 00 351 259 350 856 - Fax. + 00 351 250 350 480<br />
Email address: j.aranha.utad@gmail.com<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
P.A.E. Diogo & J. Aranha 2010. GIS analysis of the Antidote Programme in Portugal<br />
207<br />
refer the use of strychnine. This poison is often used in horse carcasses, viscera of ruminants<br />
<strong>and</strong> dogs, <strong>and</strong> chicken gizzards, thus attracting not only species such as wolves, but also carrion<br />
birds (Br<strong>and</strong>ão, 2004).<br />
National Association for Nature Conservation (Quercus - Associação Nacional de Conservação<br />
da Natureza) is the organisation which supports the project, as been developing a database of all<br />
occurrences recorded since 1992 until now. This database records: place where the animal was<br />
found, who found it, the species, the cause of death, etc. This important database has hundreds<br />
of records, <strong>and</strong> an enormous potential for a Geographical Information System (GIS) creation<br />
(Diogo 2009).<br />
The original aim, of the present research, was to create a GIS, which ultimately aim was to<br />
produce maps of the main risk of poisoning for the entire Portuguese country (see Figure 1,<br />
Portuguese isl<strong>and</strong> not included).<br />
To achieve those aims, it was necessary to stablish a relationship between the poisoning<br />
episodes, environmental characteristics <strong>and</strong> the human activity. Thus, they were used GIS<br />
techniques, such as 3D Analyst, Spatial Analyst <strong>and</strong> Geostatistical Analysis were used in ity<br />
(Morrison, 1991; Reis, 1997; Hoef et al, 2001; Clemente et al. 2002; Blanquer et al. 2005;<br />
Soares 2006; Abdi & N<strong>and</strong>ipati 2009).<br />
Figure 1: Study area location [Adapted from Portuguese Environment Atlas 2009]<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
P.A.E. Diogo & J. Aranha 2010. GIS analysis of the Antidote Programme in Portugal<br />
208<br />
2. Methodology<br />
Using the Quercus database for Portuguese Antidote Programme (PAP), all recorded<br />
information was used in order to create a geographic information system (GIS).<br />
In a second stage, the GIS was updated with information concerning:<br />
• L<strong>and</strong> use <strong>and</strong> l<strong>and</strong> cover map<br />
• Settlements Location<br />
• Portuguese Roads network<br />
• Digital Elevation Model<br />
In the third stage, 3D Analyst <strong>and</strong> Spatial Analyst Tools, were used in order to process<br />
information <strong>and</strong> to calculate:<br />
• L<strong>and</strong> slope <strong>and</strong> aspect<br />
• Distances to water bodies<br />
• Distance to road network<br />
• Distance to settlements<br />
Then, Principal Components Analysis, Cluster Analisys <strong>and</strong> Geostatistical Analysis were used<br />
in order to stablish a relationship between the poisoning episodes, environmental characteristics<br />
<strong>and</strong> the human activity (Morrison, 1991; Reis, 1997; Hoef et al, 2001; Soares 2006).<br />
In a fourth stage, previous present data were submited to geostatistical calculation, in order to<br />
create poisoning hazard maps for the entire Portuguese country (isl<strong>and</strong>s not included).<br />
3. Results<br />
The results showed a greater number of episodes (274) <strong>and</strong> poisoned individuals (781) were<br />
located in Agriculture Areas, which corresponds to an average of 2.85 dead animals per<br />
poisoning episode. The Artificial Territories (e.g. industrial areas) <strong>and</strong> <strong>Forest</strong>ed <strong>and</strong> Seminatural<br />
Areas presented similar values for the number of dead animals (331 <strong>and</strong> 371<br />
respectively), but significant differences for the number of episodes, 104 over 79 respectively.<br />
Thus, the rate of poisoned individuals per poisoning episode is higher for <strong>Forest</strong>ed <strong>and</strong> Seminatural<br />
Areas (4.70) then for Artificial Territories (3.18). Classes "Wetl<strong>and</strong>s" <strong>and</strong> "Water<br />
Bodies" do not present any type of episode.<br />
These results enable to state that the Agriculture Areas are those with higher probability to<br />
observe poisoning episodes but under small ratio of dead animals per episode (2.85). In the<br />
opposite, <strong>Forest</strong>ed <strong>and</strong> Semi-natural Areas are those with lower probability to observe a<br />
poisoning episode but under high ratio of dead animals per episode (4.70).<br />
4. Discussion<br />
Wild species.<br />
In "Artificialized Areas”, the most affected wild species are the Miliaria cal<strong>and</strong>ra with 6<br />
poisoned animals (16.67%), followed by Gyps fulvus <strong>and</strong> Streptopelia turtur both with 5<br />
poisoned animals (13.89% each) <strong>and</strong> the Ciconia ciconia with 4 dead animals (11.11%). The<br />
remaining 12 cases were attributed to other 12 species.<br />
In “Agricultural Areas”, the Gyps fulvus was the species that accounts for a greater number of<br />
poisoned animals (69) with nearly 44.52% of the cases, followed by the Canis lupus with 17<br />
cases (10.97%) <strong>and</strong> Ciconia ciconia 16 cases. Although the Milvus milvus presented a smaller<br />
number of poisoned animals (14 - 9.03%), this is quite worrying, especially when considering<br />
that Portugal only has 50 to 100 breeding pairs (Cabral et al. 2006).<br />
In class "<strong>Forest</strong>ed <strong>and</strong> Semi-natural Areas", Canis lupus was the species most affected, with<br />
29.73% of the deaths, followed by Aegypius monachus with 6 poisoned animals (16.22%) <strong>and</strong><br />
the species Gyps fulvus <strong>and</strong> Buteo buteo both with 5 dead animals (13.51% each). The<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
P.A.E. Diogo & J. Aranha 2010. GIS analysis of the Antidote Programme in Portugal<br />
209<br />
remaining 4 episodes of poisoning have been attributed to Aquila chrysaetos, Ciconia ciconia,<br />
Milvus milvus, <strong>and</strong> Milvus migrans.<br />
Game hunting species.<br />
In the class "Artificial Areas", Vulpes vulpes was the species clearly more affected in poisoning<br />
episodes, with 14 dead animals (87.50%), followed by Pica pica <strong>and</strong> Herpestes ichneumon with<br />
6.25% of the cases each.<br />
In class "Agricultural Areas," the Vulpes vulpes was, again, the species with the highest number<br />
of dead animals (71 or 85.54% of total), followed by Corvus corone <strong>and</strong> Pica pica with 6 <strong>and</strong> 4<br />
dead animals, respectively.<br />
In class "<strong>Forest</strong>ed <strong>and</strong> Semi-natural Areas", the Vulpes vulpes remains the species most affected<br />
(21 to 85.54%) followed by Herpestes ichneumon with 1 dead animal.<br />
Home Species.<br />
In "Artificial Areas", the Canis lupus familiaris was the species most affected with 234<br />
(83.87%) poisoned animals, followed by Columba livea with 9.32% (26 individuals) <strong>and</strong> by<br />
Felis silvestris catus with 19 dead animals (6.81%) <strong>and</strong><br />
In the "Agricultural Areas" the Canis lupus familiaris was, again, the species with the highest<br />
number of dead animals (495 - 90%). The Columba livea was the second most affected species<br />
(25 individuals), followed by the Felis silvestris catus with 18 cases. There is also the death of 4<br />
Ovis aries, which corresponds to a percentage lower than 1% of the total.<br />
In “<strong>Forest</strong>ed <strong>and</strong> Semi-natural Areas", only Canis lupus familiaris (308 to 98.72%) <strong>and</strong> Felis<br />
silvestris catus (4) dead animals were noticed.<br />
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Blanquer, J., Mateu, A., Cassiraga, E. <strong>and</strong> Romero, F. 2005. Generation of risk maps of<br />
contaminated areas combining Geographic Information Systems with Geostatistics.<br />
Universidad Politécnica de Valencia, Spain.<br />
Br<strong>and</strong>ão, R. 2003. Mortalidade de fauna por envenenamento de 1992 – 2002. Programa<br />
Antídoto - Portugal: I Relatório Técnico. Vila Real. Portugal.<br />
Br<strong>and</strong>ão, R. 2004. Estratégia nacional contra o uso de venenos. Programa Antídoto - Portugal.<br />
Vila Real. Portugal.<br />
Brio, R. G. del 1984. El lobo ibérico. Biología y mitología. Série Ciências de la Naturaleza, ed.<br />
Hermann Blume, Madrid, 344 pp.<br />
Burrough, P. A. 1996. Principles of geographical information systems for l<strong>and</strong> resources<br />
assessment. Oxford: Clarendon Press. Oxford University. New York.<br />
Clemente, R., Vieira, S., Reynolds, W., Jong, R. <strong>and</strong> Toop, G. 2002. Mapping groundwater<br />
pollution risk within an Agricultural watershed using Modeling, Geostatistics <strong>and</strong> GIS.<br />
Intituto Agronomico, São Paulo, Brasil.<br />
Fundación para la Conservación del Quebrantahuesos 2009. Proyectos – Justificación del<br />
Proyecto Programa Antídoto. http://www.quebrantahuesos.org/htm/es/otros/antidoto.htm<br />
read at 15/05/2009.<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
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Goovaerts, P. 1997. Geoestatistics for Natural Resources Evaluation. Oxford University Press.<br />
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European Commission, Joint Research Center – Institute for Environment <strong>and</strong><br />
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<strong>Superior</strong> Técnico. Lisboa. Portugal.<br />
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Dordrecht.<br />
Acknowledgement<br />
Authors would like to express their acknowledgements to Fundação para a Ciência e Tecnologia<br />
(FCT), project REEQ/1163/AGR/2005, CITAB – UTAD, the Portuguese Institute for Nature<br />
Conservation (ICN – Instituto da Conservação da Natureza) <strong>and</strong> the National Association for<br />
Nature Conservation (Quercus - Associação Nacional de Conservação da Natureza).<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
V. Etemad & N. Avani 2010. Investigation on species diversity by inventory in Caspian <strong>Forest</strong>s<br />
211<br />
Investigation on species diversity by inventory in Caspian <strong>Forest</strong>s<br />
(Case study: Gorazbon District- Noshahr, Iran)<br />
Vahid Etemad & Nazi Avani<br />
<strong>Forest</strong>ry Group, Faculty of Natural resources, Tehran University, Iran<br />
Abstract<br />
Species diversity is an index for forest ecosystems <strong>and</strong> is an important matter in plant cover<br />
ecology. In this study after %100 inventory in Gorazbon district (Kheyrud <strong>Forest</strong>) <strong>and</strong><br />
establishment of forest type, biodiversity indexes were applied. The results illustrated that the<br />
highest level of the plant species richness, diversity <strong>and</strong> evenness indexes belonged to Carpinus-<br />
Alnus type with Acer sp. <strong>and</strong> the least level of the plant species richness belonged to Fagus <strong>and</strong><br />
Fagus-Carpinus type. The least level of diversity <strong>and</strong> evenness belonged to Fagus <strong>and</strong><br />
Carpinus-Quercus. The results show that sampling is suitable for biodiversity evaluation too.<br />
Keywords: Kheyrud <strong>Forest</strong>, diversity, species richness <strong>and</strong> evenness, Noshahr, Iran<br />
Introduction<br />
Hyrcanus forests with special genetic diversity as number of wooden species <strong>and</strong> plant<br />
communities is very rich <strong>and</strong> have different forest communities (Asadollahi, 2000). The studies<br />
of biodiversity indicators in Hyrcanus forests for investigation on species diversity <strong>and</strong> exact<br />
recognize <strong>and</strong> function of management plan is very necessary.<br />
Moderate regions forests have the main role in biodiversity conservation. Wooden species are<br />
the major matters in the forest ecosystems that have most traces on the other beings life, as<br />
decrease of species diversity can lead weakness other beings.<br />
In biodiversity study, many experts work on it <strong>and</strong> show many formula, such as Sympson<br />
biodiversity indicator in 1949, Manhinic richness indicator in 1964.<br />
The purpose of this study is determination of species diversity in North forests of Iran with<br />
100% inventory as sustainable management of st<strong>and</strong>s under utilization. The results can<br />
investigate status of wooden species as number <strong>and</strong> abundance.<br />
Eshagh Nimvari <strong>and</strong> et al., (2006), for studying of biodiversity in Fagetum community,<br />
Carpino-fagetum <strong>and</strong> Querco-carpinetum in Namkhane <strong>and</strong> Gorazbon district (Noshahr),<br />
richness, species diversity <strong>and</strong> Evenness indicators were measured. The results show that the<br />
most richness, diversity <strong>and</strong> Evenness were in Querco-carpinetum <strong>and</strong> the least was in Fagetum<br />
community. Species diversity in mixed communities was more than pure communities.<br />
Hauk (2005), richness <strong>and</strong> species diversity were studied in Austrian forests <strong>and</strong> the results<br />
showed that richness <strong>and</strong> species diversity in the whole broadleaf communities except Fagetum<br />
was more than conifers. Quercus communities had the most richness , Picea <strong>and</strong> Fagus<br />
communities had the least.<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
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Porbabaee (2000), diversity in Fagus habitats in Gilan province is studied <strong>and</strong> shows that in<br />
Fagus communities because of prevailing of Fagus population to another species, species<br />
diversity is very low is this community.<br />
Porbabaee (1999), richness, diversity <strong>and</strong> evenness indicator were studied in forests of Gilan<br />
province, <strong>and</strong> the results show that the least diversity indicator was in Fagus habitats.<br />
Materials <strong>and</strong> methods<br />
Study area<br />
Kheyrud educational <strong>and</strong> investigational forest is located in eastern of Noshahr in North of Iran.<br />
This forest has 8 districts that located in different latitude.<br />
We selected Gorazbon district as 100% inventory was done in this district in the past.<br />
Study method<br />
Sampling<br />
For the first time in autumn of 2007, 100% inventory as execution of selection method of<br />
silviculture in Gorazbon district was suggested <strong>and</strong> done. In this inventory method the whole of<br />
trees (up than 7.5 cm in diameter) were measured. In this method the number of trees <strong>and</strong> shrubs<br />
in each diameter class <strong>and</strong> in each parsel was numbered. With the number of trees in parsels, the<br />
typology map was applied.<br />
Research method<br />
For investigation of biodiversity indicators, we must know about type <strong>and</strong> number of wooden<br />
species that as taken with 100% inventory forms that was done for the entire of forest.<br />
For investigation of biodiversity, there are many indicators but we use of common indicators for<br />
calculation of species diversity. After extraction of data of inventory forms, 8 types in Gorazbon<br />
district were defined. In these types with formulas, Shannon Wiener <strong>and</strong> Sympson diversity<br />
indicators <strong>and</strong> Sympson Evenness indicators was calculated.<br />
For calculation of these species diversity indicators, Ecological methodology software was used.<br />
For drawing of graphs Excel software was used too.<br />
Results<br />
The results show that the most richness is in Carpinus- fagus with Alnus type <strong>and</strong> Carpinus-<br />
Alnus with Acer. The least of richness is in Fagus <strong>and</strong> Fagus- Carpinus type (figure 1).<br />
Shanon <strong>and</strong> sympson species diversity indicators is the most in Carpinus- Alnus with Acer <strong>and</strong><br />
the least in Fagus type (Figure 2, 3).<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
V. Etemad & N. Avani 2010. Investigation on species diversity by inventory in Caspian <strong>Forest</strong>s<br />
213<br />
Sympson Evenness indicator is the most in Carpinus - Alnus with Acer type, <strong>and</strong> show that<br />
frequency of species in this type is evenness. This indicator in Fagus type <strong>and</strong> Carpinus –<br />
Quercus is the least (Figure 4).<br />
Conclusion<br />
In recent years, biodiversity <strong>and</strong> climate change are tow subjects that are the major cases in<br />
environment circles. The condition of universe biodiversity is very critical that one of the tow<br />
environments intricate in the universe is biodiversity (Majnonian, 1996).<br />
In a forest, study of st<strong>and</strong> structure can has the key role in biodiversity indicator description<br />
(Franklin, 1993).<br />
As we saw in this study biodiversity indicators: richness, evenness <strong>and</strong> species diversity was the<br />
most in Carpinus - Alnus with Acer type that it was the same to the Eshagh Nimvari (2006)<br />
research.<br />
Statistics results showed that Fagus <strong>and</strong> Fagus- Carpinus types had the least richness indicators<br />
that the same to the results of Hauk (2005) <strong>and</strong> porbabaee (1999 & 2000).<br />
References<br />
Asadollahi, F. 2000, Study species societies in Hircanus region.The Collection of Papers in<br />
National Conference Management of North <strong>Forest</strong>s <strong>and</strong> Sustainable development. Gostare<br />
Population: 323-345.<br />
Ehsagh nimvari, J., Zahedi Amiri, Gh., Marvi Mohajer, M. R., Asadi, M. <strong>and</strong> metaji, A. 2006.<br />
Evaluation <strong>and</strong> comparison of species diversity in fagetum orientalis, Carpino- fagetum<br />
orientalis, <strong>and</strong> Querco carpinetum betulii communities. (Case study: Namkhane <strong>and</strong><br />
Gorazbon Districts- Noshahr). Iranian Journal of <strong>Forest</strong> <strong>and</strong> Poplar Research. Vol. 14, No:<br />
4, 326-337.<br />
Franklin, J. F. 1993. Preserving biodiversity: species ecosystems or l<strong>and</strong>scape Ecological<br />
application. 3: 202-205.<br />
Hauk, E., 2005. Austrian <strong>Forest</strong> Inventory 2000-2002: <strong>Forest</strong> type, Federal Research <strong>and</strong> Training<br />
Center for <strong>Forest</strong>s, Department of <strong>Forest</strong> Inventory, first publication, http://Waldwissen.net.<br />
Majninian, H. 1996. Biodiversity as a key for development. Environment Journal. 8th year, No: 2.<br />
2-7.<br />
Porbabaee, H. 2000. Study of woody species biodiversity in Gilan Fagus <strong>Forest</strong>s. Collection of<br />
Papers National Conference Management of North <strong>Forest</strong>s <strong>and</strong> Sustainable development.<br />
Gostare Population: 51-66.<br />
Porbabaee, H. 1999. Biodiversity of woody plants <strong>and</strong> those Ecosystems in Gilan Provinces. PhD.<br />
These. Tarbiat Modares University.<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
V. Etemad & N. Avani 2010. Investigation on species diversity by inventory in Caspian <strong>Forest</strong>s<br />
214<br />
Figure 1: richness indicator in different types<br />
Figure 2: sympson diversity indicator in different types<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
V. Etemad & N. Avani 2010. Investigation on species diversity by inventory in Caspian <strong>Forest</strong>s<br />
215<br />
Figure 3: shanon diversity indicator in different types<br />
Figure 4: sympson evenness indicator in different types<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
A.E. Eycott et al. 2010. The impact of the matrix on species movement: systematic review <strong>and</strong> meta-analysis<br />
215<br />
The impact of the matrix on species movement: systematic review <strong>and</strong><br />
meta-analysis<br />
A.E. Eycott 1* , G.B. Stewart 2 , G. Br<strong>and</strong>t 1 , L. M. Buyung-Ali 2 , D. E. Bowler 2 , K.<br />
Watts 1 & A.S. Pullin 2<br />
1 <strong>Forest</strong> Research, Alice Holt, Farnham, UK.<br />
2 Centre for Evidence-Based Conservation, School of the Environment <strong>and</strong> Natural<br />
Resources, Bangor University, Gwynedd, UK<br />
Abstract<br />
An increasing number of studies have demonstrated an impact of matrix structure on species<br />
movement. However, the strength of these effects are variable, with no general indications of<br />
which kinds of matrix might be more permeable. In this study we test four possible reasons for<br />
the variability in outcomes from 19 different studies on a range of animal taxa. In particular, we<br />
test whether matrix that is more similar in vertical structure to the 'home' habitat increases<br />
individual movement.<br />
Patch emigration rates were extracted from studies where controlled comparisons or 'choice'<br />
experiments compared the impact of different matrix types on emigration rates.<br />
Matrix types that have a more similar vertical structure to the 'home' habitat were associated<br />
with increased emigration rates. The planning of forests will need to account for ways of<br />
achieving permeable matrix for both forest species moving across cleared areas <strong>and</strong> open<br />
ground species passing through forests.<br />
Keywords. matrix structure, emigration, patch, connectivity<br />
1. Introduction<br />
It is now widely established that the matrix, i.e. the intervening l<strong>and</strong> cover between patches of<br />
habitat, can have a significant impact on species movement (Debinski, 2006; Franklin &<br />
Lindenmayer, 2009; Ricketts, 2001). Ecological network modelling techniques are developing<br />
rapidly to meet the challenge of incorporating matrix impacts (Saura & Pascual-Hortal, 2007).<br />
Such models are currently a key part in the development of some adaptation strategies to help<br />
species move in response to climate change (Hopkins et al., 2007, p.18). What is less clear,<br />
however, is how to account for the matrix in multi-species ecological networks. The data are<br />
limited by taxonomic coverage <strong>and</strong> by spatial <strong>and</strong> temporal scale. To the best of the authors’<br />
knowledge, there are two quantitative analyses of how the matrix affects the abundance of<br />
different taxa (Prugh et al., 2008; Prevedello & Vieira, 2010) but no analyses of movement.<br />
In this paper we apply systematic review <strong>and</strong> meta-analysis to this problem. We examine the<br />
impacts of matrix structure <strong>and</strong> experimental designs on the outcomes of the different studies.<br />
* Corresponding author. Tel.: +44 1420 526200 - Fax: +44 1420 23653<br />
Email address: amy.eycott@forestry.gsi.gov.uk<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
A.E. Eycott et al. 2010. The impact of the matrix on species movement: systematic review <strong>and</strong> meta-analysis<br />
216<br />
2. Methodology<br />
2.1 Data search<br />
We used a systematic review technique that was originally developed for conservation <strong>and</strong><br />
environmental management from the medical evidence review model (Pullin & Stewart, 2006).<br />
Systematic review strives to minimise error <strong>and</strong> bias through an exhaustive search of peerreviewed<br />
journal publications, grey literature <strong>and</strong> unpublished research findings.<br />
Full details of the systematic review methodology <strong>and</strong> search terms can be found<br />
atwww.environmentalevidence.org/SR43.html. In summary, we aimed to select all articles<br />
(including grey literature <strong>and</strong> web-published data) that presented original, empirical data on<br />
measured emigration rates from habitat patches where two or more matrix types were directly<br />
compared in a controlled experiment or through a single survey. We excluded studies which<br />
measured emigration indirectly, for example by distribution patterns, or where the patches were<br />
too small to support a single individual (e.g. Castellon & Sieving, 2006). We also were unable<br />
to include those papers from which raw emigration rates could not be extracted <strong>and</strong> the authors<br />
of which did not respond to our request for the original data.<br />
2.2 Data synthesis<br />
Matrix types were classified as ‘more favourable’ or ‘less favourable’. This was decided using<br />
the classification by the author of each study. In all but one case, the matrix type that was<br />
assumed to be more favourable was that most structurally similar to the habitat patch, the<br />
exception (Goodwin & Fahrig, 2002) being more ambiguous.<br />
In order to combine the outcomes of different studies, all the data were converted to a single<br />
measure that describes the magnitude of the effect of the study treatment. In this case the<br />
'treatment' is the matrix type. We used risk ratios as the measure of the size of the effect. The<br />
risk ratio is the multiplication of the risk that occurs in a ‘treated’ group relative to a control<br />
group. In this case, the ‘treatment’ was the more similar matrix <strong>and</strong> the ‘control’ the less similar<br />
matrix. If the chance of movement is reduced by a more favourable matrix, the risk ratio will be<br />
less than one; if it increases the chance of individual movement, the risk ratio will be greater<br />
than one.<br />
‘Number needed to treat’ (NNT) can more intuitively illustrate the effect of a 'treatment'. NNT<br />
is defined as the expected number of individuals who need to receive the experimental<br />
‘treatment’ (the permeable matrix) rather than the control (the less permeable matrix) in order<br />
for one additional individual to either incur (or avoid) an event in a given time frame.<br />
The risk ratio was calculated individually for each homogeneous subgroup in a study, e.g. ‘all<br />
the tests performed on species x over a distance of 250 m’. Calculated risk ratios were pooled<br />
across studies to generate an overall weighted average risk ratio within a r<strong>and</strong>om effects model<br />
(DerSimonian & Laird, 1986). The estimate of heterogeneity (variation in risk among studies)<br />
was taken from the Mantel-Haenszel model.<br />
2.3 Covariate analysis<br />
We looked at the impact of five different factors on the study risk ratio: distance, duration,<br />
contrast, choice <strong>and</strong> taxon. Distance <strong>and</strong> duration were investigated using meta-regression.<br />
Contrast, choice <strong>and</strong> taxon were investigated using subgroup analysis, where the meta-analysis<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
A.E. Eycott et al. 2010. The impact of the matrix on species movement: systematic review <strong>and</strong> meta-analysis<br />
217<br />
is repeated on just one group of data, e.g. all the birds, to see if there is a difference in mean<br />
effect size to the complete analysis.<br />
A ‘contrast’ covariate was generated to define whether the two matrix features being compared<br />
were structurally different. Matrix type was split into four different categories: wooded, grass<br />
or arable, bare or ‘made ground’ (e.g. concrete), <strong>and</strong> water. The ‘contrast’ was zero if both<br />
matrix features were from the same groups <strong>and</strong> one if they came from different groups.<br />
The 'choice' subgroup analysis was determined by the experimental design. Some data were<br />
based on comparisons of emigration from different patches set in different matrix types.<br />
'Choice' was coded zero for these types of experimental design. When the design involved a<br />
comparison of emigration rates through two different matrix types adjacent to different parts of<br />
the edge of the same patch, 'choice' was coded one.<br />
3. Result<br />
We found 19 studies that met our criteria, all of which were animal species across a range of<br />
phyla (birds, fish, insects <strong>and</strong> rodents). Two of these studies were on forest species – both birds<br />
(St. Clair 2003, Desrochers & Hannon 1997). From those 19 studies we extracted 107 data<br />
points that met the homogeneous subgroup criteria. The pooled risk ratio over all studies was<br />
significantly greater than one <strong>and</strong> the lower 95% confidence intervals was not less than one (RR<br />
= 1.32, 95% CI 1.20 to 1.45, p
A.E. Eycott et al. 2010. The impact of the matrix on species movement: systematic review <strong>and</strong> meta-analysis<br />
218<br />
The analysis suggests that permeability is, for many species, related to the structural complexity<br />
of the matrix. It is possible that organisms are adapted to move through structurally similar<br />
habitat types. This could be due to locomotive adaptation or for predator avoidance as species<br />
may avoid different matrix types because they are more conspicuous. This effect was not wholly<br />
consistent across all studies <strong>and</strong> risk ratios below one were found in a number of cases. Some<br />
species may prefer to move through a matrix type structurally dissimilar to their home habitat<br />
for a range of reasons, for example features could be used as visual cues or cover from predators.<br />
While the high heterogeneity <strong>and</strong> correlation of the covariates means further inferences from the<br />
results remain speculative. However, the contrast subgroup analysis may suggest that, in order<br />
to encourage a greater number of individuals to move out of their habitat patch, the matrix may<br />
need to be radically altered to become much more similar to the focal patch habitat structure.<br />
The implication of this would be that a large conservation investment may be necessary to have<br />
a significant effect on connectivity. The 'choice' subgroup analysis may suggest that adding a<br />
permeable route out of a patch is enough to encourage emigration, rather than needing to<br />
surround the patch entirely within a permeable matrix. Routes out of a patch would still need to<br />
be wide enough to provide the matrix required without edge impacts <strong>and</strong> also not lead to lethal<br />
cul-de-sacs (Simberloff et al., 1998).<br />
This review suggests that planning for ecological networks can be generalised to support groups<br />
of species by providing routes through the matrix of similar vegetation structure to their habitat.<br />
Not enough studies were on forest species to compare forest to open-habitat species. In the<br />
majority of densely inhabited regions, altered for hundreds of years by agricultural activity,<br />
fully functional l<strong>and</strong>scapes need to include habitat networks which include permeable elements<br />
for both forest <strong>and</strong> open ground species.<br />
Study<br />
Baum et al., 2004<br />
Bhattacharya et al., 2003<br />
Cronin & Haynes, 2004<br />
DeMaynadier & Hunter, 1999<br />
Desrochers & Hannon, 1997<br />
Goodwin & Fahrig, 2002<br />
Grez, 1997<br />
Grez & Prado, 2000<br />
Haynes & Cronin, 2003<br />
Haynes & Cronin, 2006<br />
Haynes et al., 2007a<br />
Haynes et al., 2007b<br />
Jonsen & Taylor, 2000<br />
Malmgren, 2002<br />
Pither & Taylor, 1998<br />
Ries & Debinski, 2001<br />
Rothermel & Semlitsch, 2002<br />
Russell et al., 2007<br />
Schaefer et al., 2003<br />
St Clair, 2003<br />
Overall (95% CI)<br />
.132872 1 7.52605<br />
Risk ratio<br />
Figure 1: Mean risk ratios from each study. The vertical dashed line represents the mean risk ratio.<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
A.E. Eycott et al. 2010. The impact of the matrix on species movement: systematic review <strong>and</strong> meta-analysis<br />
219<br />
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<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
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Pullin, A.S. & Stewart, G.B. (2006) Guidelines for systematic review in conservation <strong>and</strong><br />
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prairies of Central Iowa. Journal of Animal Ecology, 70: 840-852.<br />
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resistance of forest versus old-field habitats to emigrating juvenile amphibians.<br />
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decisions of meadow voles (Microtus pennsylvanicus). Journal of Mammalogy, 88: 573-<br />
579.<br />
Saura, S. & Pascual-Hortal, L. (2007) A new habitat availability index to integrate connectivity<br />
in l<strong>and</strong>scape conservation planning: Comparison with existing indices <strong>and</strong> application to a<br />
case study. L<strong>and</strong>scape <strong>and</strong> Urban Planning, 83: 91-103.<br />
Schaefer, J.F.; Marsh-Matthews, E.; Spooner, D.E.; Gido, K.B. & Matthews, W.J. (2003)<br />
Effects of barriers <strong>and</strong> thermal refugia on local movement of the threatened leopard<br />
darter, Percina pantherina. Environmental Biology of Fishes, 66: 391-400.<br />
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bargains or poor investments. Conservation Biology, 6: 493-504.<br />
St Clair, C.C. (2003) Comparative permeability of roads, rivers, <strong>and</strong> meadows to songbirds in<br />
Banff National Park. Conservation Biology, 17: 1151-1160.<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
E. Fernández-Núñez et al. 2010. Eight years of development of a silvopastoral system: effects on floristic diversity<br />
221<br />
Eight years of development of a silvopastoral system: effects on<br />
floristic diversity<br />
E. Fernández-Núñez 1 , A. Rigueiro-Rodríguez 2 & M.R. Mosquera-Losada 2<br />
1 Mountain Research Centre (CIMO), <strong>ESA</strong> – Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Campus<br />
de Stª Apolónia, Apartado 1172, 53001-855 Bragança, Portugal<br />
2 Crop Production Department, High Politechnic School, University of Santiago de<br />
Compostela, Lugo Campus, 27002-Lugo, Spain<br />
Abstract<br />
Biodiversity is an important issue to promote agricultural sustainability, <strong>and</strong> usually depends on<br />
vegetation management. One of the main reasons to maintain biodiversity is to enhance<br />
productivity in extensive systems, due to the best complementarity between different species to<br />
use soil resources. The objective of this study was to evaluate the effect of two different tree<br />
species, an exotic (Pinus radiata D. Don) <strong>and</strong> a native (Betula alba L.) established at two<br />
densities (833 <strong>and</strong> 2500 tree ha -1 ) <strong>and</strong> three types of fertilization (no fertilization, dairy sewage<br />
sludge fertilization <strong>and</strong> mineral fertilization) on component, species richness <strong>and</strong> abundance<br />
eight years later. The results showed an important reduction in species richness in the systems<br />
established at high density under pine tree compared with birch fertilised with mineral or<br />
without fertilisation. Shannon index was reduced when fertilization was applied under birch at<br />
high density, mostly with dairy sludge, compared with no fertilisation. No effects on plant<br />
diversity was detected when tree density was 833 trees ha -1 .<br />
Keywords: pine, birch, species richness, Shannon index, fertilisation<br />
1. Introduction<br />
In the Northern Spain, where the study was carried out, important changes have occurred in<br />
rural l<strong>and</strong> use in the last decades. The traditional l<strong>and</strong>scape, a heterogeneous mosaic of pastures<br />
<strong>and</strong> native deciduous forests has been gradually substituted by plantations characterized by the<br />
presence of a unique forest tree species (Eucaliptus spp <strong>and</strong> Pinus spp.). The lack of subsequent<br />
management of these plantations has resulted in excessive FCC <strong>and</strong> very high tree densities that<br />
hamper an adequate forest development. Silvopastoral systems may be a viable means to<br />
promote multipurpose forest l<strong>and</strong> use <strong>and</strong> obtain income from newly afforested. Areas managed<br />
for silvopastoralism can reduce fire <strong>and</strong> erosion risk in forests (Rigueiro-Rodríguez et al. 2005),<br />
<strong>and</strong> can enhance biodiversity <strong>and</strong> contribute to the preservation of many endangered species that<br />
depend on ecotones between woodl<strong>and</strong>s <strong>and</strong> open l<strong>and</strong>scapes (Rois-Díaz et al. 2006). However,<br />
these l<strong>and</strong> use changes can cause important modifications to microclimatic conditions (soil,<br />
interior temperature of the system...) <strong>and</strong> this can affect biodiversity in the short <strong>and</strong> medium<br />
term. On the other h<strong>and</strong>, studies carried out in NW Spain have shown that fertilisation enhances<br />
pasture production as well as tree growth in a silvopastoral systems established in very acidic<br />
soils (López-Díaz et al. 2007), but reduces both in neutral soils (Mosquera-Losada et al. 2006)<br />
but, it is important to study how this fertilisation affects to vascular plant biodiversity on a short<br />
time. This study aims to evaluate the effect of Pinus radiata D. Don <strong>and</strong> Betula alba L.<br />
established at two density with different soil fertilisation treatments on alpha biodiversity<br />
over eight years.<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
E. Fernández-Núñez et al. 2010. Eight years of development of a silvopastoral system: effects on floristic diversity<br />
222<br />
2. Methodology<br />
2.1 Characteristics of the study site<br />
The experiment was established in Lugo (Galicia, NW Spain) at 439 meters above sea level.<br />
The zone in which the study was carried out is located in the Atlantic Biogeographic Region of<br />
Europe (EEA 2010). The experiment was developed from 1995 to 2003 over a soil classified as<br />
Umbrisol (FAO 1998), with a s<strong>and</strong>y-silty texture (61% s<strong>and</strong>, 34% silt <strong>and</strong> 5% clay) that was<br />
previously used for agricultural purposes (cultivation of potatoes). The initial water pH (1:2.5)<br />
was close to neutrality (6.8), indicating an optimum availability of nutrients for plants (Porta et<br />
al., 2003).<br />
2.2. Experimental design<br />
The experimental design was a completely r<strong>and</strong>omized block with three replicates. In 1995, a<br />
plantation of Pinus radiata D. Don (from container plants) <strong>and</strong> Betula alba L. (from bare root)<br />
were established at 2,500 <strong>and</strong> 833 trees ha -1 . Each experimental unit consisted of a rectangle<br />
square of 5×5 trees with an area of 64 <strong>and</strong> 192 m 2 , respectively. At the end of the winter of<br />
1995, after ploughing, the plots were sown with a mixture of 25 kg ha -1 of Dactylis glomerata L.<br />
var. Saborto, 4 kg ha -1 of Trifolium repens L. var. Ladino <strong>and</strong> 1 kg ha -1 of Trifolium pratense L.<br />
var. Marino. Two types of fertilisation were applied: mineral fertilisation (M) every year<br />
throughout the experiment following a st<strong>and</strong>ard procedure for the region: 500 kg ha -1 of 8:24:16<br />
(N:P 2 O 5 :K 2 O) fertiliser complex in March <strong>and</strong> 40 kg of N (calcium ammonium nitrate 26% N)<br />
ha -1 in May, <strong>and</strong> fertilisation with dairy sludge (D) in the first year (1995) at 154 m 3 ha -1 , i.e.<br />
160 kg of total N, 85.9 kg of total P 2 O 5 <strong>and</strong> 23.4 kg of total K 2 O ha -1 , with values determined<br />
based on total N of sludge. In the two years following (1996 <strong>and</strong> 1997), the plots to which the<br />
sludge was applied were not fertilised, but they were fertilised again from 1998 until the<br />
conclusion of the study (2003), using the same fertilisers <strong>and</strong> doses as for M. One control<br />
treatment was also included in the comparison: no fertilizer (NF). A low pruning (at 2-m high)<br />
was performed on pine at the end of 2001 <strong>and</strong> the birch was given a formational pruning with<br />
the objective of producing quality timber. In this paper, we show the results obtained eight years<br />
after establishment (2003).<br />
2.3 Field samplings<br />
Pasture was harvested in July <strong>and</strong> December under pine at high density <strong>and</strong> on June, July <strong>and</strong><br />
December on the other systems. At each harvest in each experimental unit, the entire surface<br />
area of the nine trees in the centre of the plot delimited by six trees was cleared, the fresh forage<br />
was weighed in situ, <strong>and</strong> a representative subsample was taken to the laboratory. In the<br />
laboratory, the species of 100 g subsamples from each plot were h<strong>and</strong>-separated to determine<br />
botanical composition. The different species were separately weighed to determine dry weight<br />
(48 h at 60 ºC) <strong>and</strong> their relative percentage proportion (taking into account the four harvests of<br />
the year) was calculated. The relative abundance of each species was obtained <strong>and</strong> abundance<br />
diagrams were produced, ordering the species from most to least abundance (Magurran 2004).<br />
Species richness (SR) (Magurran 2004) <strong>and</strong> Shannon–Wiener index (H´) (Shannon <strong>and</strong> Weaver<br />
1949) were also determinated.<br />
2.4 Statistical analyses<br />
The results obtained were analysed with ANOVA following the model: Y ijk = µ + F i +Sp j + B k +<br />
ε ijk , where Y ijk is the studied variable; µ the variable mean; F i : fertilisation; Sp j : tree species; B k :<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
E. Fernández-Núñez et al. 2010. Eight years of development of a silvopastoral system: effects on floristic diversity<br />
223<br />
the block; <strong>and</strong> ε ijk is the error. The LSD test was used for subsequent pairwise comparisons (P <<br />
0.05; α= 0.05). The statistical software package SAS (2001) was used for all analyses.<br />
3. Results<br />
26 species were found eight years after establishment, belonging to 9 different families. Eight<br />
species belonged to the family Asteraceae (31%), 7 to the Poaceae (27%), 3 to the<br />
Leguminosae, 2 to the Geraniaceae, 2 to the Polygonaceae, leaving just one representative for<br />
each of the families Caryophyllaceae, Umbelliferae, Plantaginaceae <strong>and</strong> Rosaceae (see Figure<br />
1). Of these, 54% are perennial species, 42% are annual species <strong>and</strong> 4% are biannual. The total<br />
number of species (SR) under pine was 2, 5 <strong>and</strong> 1 at 2,500 trees ha -1 <strong>and</strong> 6, 12 <strong>and</strong> 13 at 833<br />
trees ha -1 for the treatments D, M <strong>and</strong> NF, respectively. Under birch, SR was 5, 10 <strong>and</strong> 17 <strong>and</strong> 8,<br />
8 <strong>and</strong> 14 at high <strong>and</strong> low density <strong>and</strong> D, M <strong>and</strong> NF treatments, respectively. Dactylis glomerata<br />
was the most abundant species in all treatments evaluated; Dactylis species was above 70%<br />
under pine <strong>and</strong> 50% under birch, independently of density. Holcus lanatus L. <strong>and</strong> Agrostis<br />
capillaris L. appeared also in all treatments, with the exception of those systems established<br />
with pine at high density <strong>and</strong> fertiliser with dairy sludge (D) <strong>and</strong> no fertiliser (NF). On the<br />
contrary, there were species, all annuals, that were only associated to certain treatments e.g<br />
Erodium moschatum (L.) L´Hér <strong>and</strong> Lolium multiflorum Lam under pine at low density or<br />
Bromus di<strong>and</strong>rus Roth, Chamaemelum mixtum L., Conyza canadensis L., Cerastium<br />
glomeratum Thuill <strong>and</strong> Sonchus oleraceus L. that were cited only under birch systems (the first<br />
three at high density <strong>and</strong> the last at low density). Finally, Shannon index (H´) was reduced when<br />
fertilization was applied under birch at high density, mostly with dairy sludge (D), compared<br />
with control (NF) No effects of tree species or fertilization on plant diversity was detected when<br />
tree density was 833 trees ha -1 .<br />
4. Discussion<br />
It is generally assumed that even-aged forest plantations are negative from the viewpoint of<br />
biodiversity conservation because, they are characterized by loss of horizontal <strong>and</strong> vertical<br />
heterogeneity, fundamental components of forest biodiversity (Marcos et al 2007). Our results<br />
show that this is true only, if at the moment of establishment of the system, the choice of tree<br />
cover <strong>and</strong> tree density are not adequate. In the year of establishment (1995), when the<br />
development of canopy was small <strong>and</strong> the understory environmental conditions were quite<br />
similar between both tree systems, SR was very similar between them (23 <strong>and</strong> 20 species under<br />
high <strong>and</strong> lower density, respectively, of which approximately 55% were annuals) (Fern<strong>and</strong>ez-<br />
Núñez et al 2010). From the beginning of study (1995), the growth of pine was greater than that<br />
of birch (Rigueiro-Rodríguez et al. 2000) <strong>and</strong> resulted in a faster canopy closure in pine than<br />
birch in the systems established at high density five years after establishment (year 2000)<br />
(Fernández-Núñez et. al 2010). This canopy closure caused a deep shade, especially in spring,<br />
lead to fast reductions of vascular plants when biodiversity is compared among the years 1995<br />
<strong>and</strong> 2003 (88% vs 49% at high density under pine <strong>and</strong> birch, respectively <strong>and</strong> 48% vs 52% at<br />
low density, under pine <strong>and</strong> birch, respectively). This reduction effect was especially important<br />
on annuals species, as they dissapiared under pine at high density <strong>and</strong> reduced their proportion<br />
around 67% in the other systems, which depend on high levels of radiation, that in our case, was<br />
mostly intercepted by pine at a high density. Moreover, the higher accumulation of litter <strong>and</strong><br />
humus under pine at high density (Mosquera-Losada et al. 2006b), that is know to contain plant<br />
growth inhibitors (Piggot 1990), contributed to enhance biodiversity losses. On the other h<strong>and</strong>,<br />
a negative relationship between mineral fertilizer (M) <strong>and</strong> development of pine at hight<br />
density (Mosquera-Losada et al. 2006) was found from the begining of study. This<br />
effect has been repeated until year 2003 (data not presented), <strong>and</strong> results in a lower<br />
reduction on alpha biodiversity. While, under birch at hight density, alpha biodiversity<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
E. Fernández-Núñez et al. 2010. Eight years of development of a silvopastoral system: effects on floristic diversity<br />
224<br />
was reduced when fertiliser was applicated (D or M). These treatments have favoured<br />
the presence of Dactylis glomerata (80, 60, 39% under D, M <strong>and</strong> NF, respectively).<br />
This gramineae is characterised by strong growth in height that limit the presence of<br />
other species (Rodríguez et al. 2001). At low density, SR was reduced by D treatment<br />
around 50% when compared with M y NF treatments in pine st<strong>and</strong>s. Dactylis glomerata<br />
<strong>and</strong> Rumex obtusifolius L. were the most abundant species in D. Some Polygonaceae<br />
plants including Rumex spp. have been described as allelopathic <strong>and</strong> reduced the<br />
germination of Lolium spp (Lutts et al. 1987) <strong>and</strong> inhibited some grasses <strong>and</strong> controlled<br />
their spatial distribution (Carballeria et al. 1988). Regarding birch established at low<br />
density, D <strong>and</strong> M treatments had lower biodiversity than NF in spite of being birch<br />
smaller in those treatments compared with NF. Both D <strong>and</strong> M had an important<br />
proportion of Dactylis glomerata, Agrostis capillaris L. <strong>and</strong> Holcus lanatus L. Tree<br />
canopy develop also caused a reduction on evenness <strong>and</strong> therefore an increase of the dominance<br />
of perennial species (Dactylis glomerata, Holcus lanatus <strong>and</strong> Agrostis capillaris), irrespective<br />
of the overstorey tree species <strong>and</strong> density.<br />
References<br />
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interaction between Rumex obtusifolius <strong>and</strong> meadow species. Jounal of Chemical<br />
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M.P. <strong>and</strong> Villarino-Urtiaga, J.J., 2005. Silvopastoral systems as forest fire prevention<br />
technique. In: MR Mosquera-Losada, J McAdam <strong>and</strong> A Rigueiro-Rodríguez (Eds.)<br />
Silvopastoralism <strong>and</strong> sustainable l<strong>and</strong> management, UK: CAB Internacional: 380-387.<br />
López-Díaz, M.L., Mosquera-Losada, M.R. <strong>and</strong> Rigueiro-Rodríguez, A., 2007. Lime, sewage<br />
sludge <strong>and</strong> mineral fertilization in a silvopastoral system developed in very acid soils.<br />
Agroforestry Systems, 70 (1): 91–101.<br />
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obtusifolius L. Bull. Soc. Royle de Botanique de Belgique, 120: 143-152.<br />
Magurran, A.E., 2004. Measuring biological diversity. Blackwell Publishing, Malden,<br />
Massachusetts, 256 p.<br />
Mosquera-Losada, M.R., Fernández-Núñez, E. <strong>and</strong> Rigueiro-Rodríguez, A., 2006. Pasture, Tree<br />
<strong>and</strong> Soil Evolution in Silvopastoral Systems of Atlantic Europe. <strong>Forest</strong> Ecology <strong>and</strong><br />
Management, 232: 135-145.<br />
Mosquera-Losada, M.R., Fernández-Núñez, E. <strong>and</strong> Rigueiro-Rodríguez, A., 2006b.<br />
Contribución de las acículas al pasto tras la poda baja y aporte en nutrientes en un<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
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sistema silvopastoral desarrollado con Pinus radiata. Actas del IV Congreso Nacional<br />
<strong>Forest</strong>al. Zaragoza.<br />
Marcos, J.A., Marcos, E., Taboada, A. <strong>and</strong> Tárrega, R., 2007. Comparison of community<br />
structure <strong>and</strong> soil characteristics in different aged Pinus sylvestris plantations <strong>and</strong> a<br />
natural pine <strong>Forest</strong>. <strong>Forest</strong> Ecology <strong>and</strong> Management, 247(1-3):35-42.<br />
Piggot, C.D., 1990. The influence of evergreen coniferous nurse-crops on the field layer on two<br />
woodl<strong>and</strong> communities. Journal of Applied Ecology 27, 448-459.<br />
Rigueiro-Rodríguez, A., Mosquera-Losada, M.R. <strong>and</strong> Gatica-Trabanini, E., 2000. Pasture<br />
production <strong>and</strong> tree growth in a young pine plantation fertilized with inorganic fertilizers<br />
<strong>and</strong> milk sewage in northwestern Spain. Agroforestry Systems, 48: 245–256.<br />
Rodríguez, M., Gómez-Sal, A., García, R., Moro, A. <strong>and</strong> Calleja, A., 2001. Relaciones entre la<br />
producción, diversidad y riqueza de especies en prados fertilizados. Pastos: 175-180.<br />
Rois-Díaz, M., Mosquera-Losada, R. <strong>and</strong> Rigueiro-Rodriguez, A., 2006. Biodiversity Indicators<br />
on Silvopastoralism across Europe. European <strong>Forest</strong> Institute, Joensuu, Finl<strong>and</strong>.<br />
SAS 2001. SAS/Stat User´s Guide: Statistics. SAS Institute Inc. Cary, NC, USA.<br />
Shannon, C.E. <strong>and</strong> Weaver, W., 1949. The mathematical theory of communication. Univ.<br />
Illinois Press, Illinois, 116 p.<br />
1.00<br />
0.50<br />
0.00<br />
*Dg(2)<br />
*Hl(2)<br />
*Dg(2)<br />
*Hl(2)<br />
*Ag(2)<br />
*Se(1)<br />
*Hm(2)<br />
*Dg(2)<br />
*Dg(2)<br />
*Hl(2)<br />
*Lp(2)<br />
*Ag(2)<br />
*Ta(1)<br />
*Dg(2)<br />
*Hl(2)<br />
*Ag(2)<br />
**Gd(4)<br />
D(7)<br />
*Ro(5)<br />
**Br(2)<br />
**Co(1)<br />
**Ce(6)<br />
*Rub(1)<br />
*Dg(2)<br />
*Ag(2)<br />
**Tc(3)<br />
*Hl(2)<br />
*Rub(1)<br />
**Br(2)<br />
D(7)<br />
*Ac(1)<br />
*Hm(2)<br />
*Tr(3)<br />
**Ch(1)<br />
**Ce(6)<br />
*Lo(3)<br />
**Mat(1)<br />
*Se(1)<br />
*Lp(2)<br />
*Ta(1)<br />
D M NF D M NF<br />
SR:2 SR:5 SR:1 SR:5 SR:10 SR:17<br />
Pine<br />
Birch<br />
2500 trees ha-1 2500 trees ha-1<br />
1.00<br />
0.50<br />
0.00<br />
*Dg(2)<br />
*Ro(5)<br />
*Ag(2)<br />
D(7)<br />
*Hl(2)<br />
**Lm(2)<br />
*Dg(2)<br />
*Hl(2)<br />
*Ag(2)<br />
*Ta(1)<br />
*Se(1)<br />
**Er(4)<br />
*Tr(3)<br />
D(7)<br />
*Ac(1)<br />
**Cre(1)<br />
**Tc(3)<br />
*Pl(8)<br />
*Dg(2)<br />
*Ag(2)<br />
*Hl(2)<br />
**Tc(3)<br />
*Ta(1)<br />
**Mat(1)<br />
*Se(1)<br />
D(7)<br />
*Pl(8)<br />
**Cre(1)<br />
**Gd(4)<br />
*Rub(9)<br />
*Rac(5)<br />
*Dg(2)<br />
*Ag(2)<br />
*Hl(2)<br />
D(7)<br />
*Ta(1)<br />
*Pl(8)<br />
*Rub(9)<br />
*Rac(5)<br />
*Dg(2)<br />
*Hl(2)<br />
**Cre(1)<br />
D(7)<br />
*Se(1)<br />
*Pl(8)<br />
*Tr(3)<br />
*Ro(5)<br />
*Dg(2)<br />
*Ta(1)<br />
D(7)<br />
**Tc(3)<br />
*Hl(2)<br />
*Se(1)<br />
**Cre(1)<br />
**So(1)<br />
*Ag(2)<br />
*Tr(3)<br />
*Pl(8)<br />
**Ce(6)<br />
**Rac(2)<br />
**Rub(9)<br />
D M NF D M NF<br />
SR: 6 SR: 12 SR: 13 SR:8 SR:8 SR:14<br />
Pine<br />
Birch<br />
833 trees ha-1 833 trees ha-1<br />
Figure 1: Abundance diagrams in the plots established under Pinus radiata D. Don (Pine) <strong>and</strong> Betula alba<br />
L. (Birch) at two densities (2500 <strong>and</strong> 833 trees ha -1 ). Note: SR: species richness, D: fertilised with sludge,<br />
M: mineral fertiliser, NF: not fertilised, Ac: Achillea millefolium L.; Ag: Agrostis capillaris L.; Br:<br />
Bromus di<strong>and</strong>rus Roth; Ce: Cerastium glomeratum Thuill; Ch: Chamaemelum mixtum L.; Co: Conyza<br />
canadensis L.; Cre: Crepis capillaris (L.) Wallr; D: Daucus carota L.; Dg: Dactylis glomerata L.; Er:<br />
Erodium moschatum (L.) L´Hér; Gd: Geranium dissectum L.; Hl: Holcus lanatus L.; Hm: Holcus mollis<br />
L.; Lo: Lotus corniculatus L.; Lm: Lolium multiflorum Lam; Lp: Lolium perenne L.; Mat: Chamomilla<br />
recutita L.; Pl: Plantago lanceolata L.; Rac: Rumex acetosella L.; Ro: Rumex obtusifolius L.; Rub:<br />
Rubus sp.; Se: Senecio jacobaea L.; So: Sonchus oleraceus L.; Ta: Taraxacum officinale Weber; Tc:<br />
Trifolium campestre Schreber <strong>and</strong> Tr: Trifolium repens L.; families: (1) Asteraceae, (2) Poaceae, (3)<br />
Leguminosae, (4) Geraniaceae, (5) Polygonaceae, (6) Caryophyllaceae, (7) Umbelliferae, (8)<br />
Plantaginaceae <strong>and</strong> (9) Rosaceae, (*): perennial species, (**): annual species <strong>and</strong> ( ): biannual species.<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
E. Fernández-Núñez et al. 2010. Eight years of development of a silvopastoral system: effects on floristic diversity<br />
226<br />
2<br />
Shannon´s Index (H´)<br />
a<br />
1<br />
bc<br />
ab<br />
0<br />
cd<br />
d<br />
d<br />
D M NF D M NF D M NF D M NF<br />
Pine Birch Pine Birch<br />
2x2<br />
Treatments<br />
3x4<br />
Figure 2: Shannon-Wiener index (H´) determined for each of the fertiliser treatments applied under the<br />
two types of trees <strong>and</strong> densities. Note: D: fertilised with sludge, M: mineral fertiliser <strong>and</strong> NF: not<br />
fertilised. Different letters indicate significant differences between treatments in the same density.<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
N. Fracassi & D. Somma 2010. Participatory action research concerning the l<strong>and</strong>scape use by a native cervid in a wetl<strong>and</strong><br />
227<br />
Participatory action research concerning the l<strong>and</strong>scape use by a native<br />
cervid in a wetl<strong>and</strong> of the Plata Basin, Argentina<br />
Natalia Fracassi 1* & Daniel Somma 1,2<br />
1<br />
Delta Research Station-National Institute of Agricultural Technology (INTA),<br />
Argentina<br />
2<br />
National Parks Administration, Argentina<br />
Abstract<br />
The marsh deer is one of the few deer species restricted to wetl<strong>and</strong> habitats. It is considered<br />
“threatened” at both national <strong>and</strong> international levels. In the Delta of the Paraná River part of<br />
the natural vegetation has been converted to industrial forest after to drain the l<strong>and</strong>. Thus, the<br />
persistence of the species at the l<strong>and</strong>scape level may depend on its adaptation <strong>and</strong> the attitude of<br />
the local people towards the deer. From 26 stakeholders’ interviews, we evaluate how the cervid<br />
uses the l<strong>and</strong>scape <strong>and</strong> what threats this species is facing. The deers were registered mostly in<br />
adult <strong>and</strong> young poplar afforestations followed by adult willow afforestations, but interviewees<br />
agreed that afforestations that maintain understory foliage function as refuges for deers. In turn,<br />
interviewees agreed that the deer population declined in the last 10 years <strong>and</strong> current level of<br />
hunting is the biggest problem for the regional marsh deer population.<br />
Keywords: marsh deer, wetl<strong>and</strong>, afforestations, stakeholders, l<strong>and</strong>scape, threats<br />
1. Introduction<br />
The marsh deer (Blastocerus dichotomus, Illiger, 1811) is the largest <strong>and</strong> probably the most<br />
endangered cervid in South America (Thornback <strong>and</strong> Jenkins 1982; Fonseca et al. 1994). The<br />
species is distributed from mid-western <strong>and</strong> southern Brazil, Paraguay, eastern Bolivia <strong>and</strong> a<br />
small portion of south-eastern Peru to northern Argentina (Pinder <strong>and</strong> Grosse 1991; Tomás et al.<br />
1997; Wemmer 1998; D´Alessio et al. 2001). It is considered “threatened” at both national<br />
(Díaz <strong>and</strong> Ojeda 2000) <strong>and</strong> international (IUCN, 2002) levels, <strong>and</strong> it is one of the few deer<br />
species known to be restricted to wetl<strong>and</strong>s such as seasonal streams, swamps, <strong>and</strong> flooded<br />
savannas (Schaller <strong>and</strong> Hamer 1978). In Argentina, the Delta of the Paraná River (provinces of<br />
Buenos Aires <strong>and</strong> Entre Rios) constitutes the austral distribution boundary of the species <strong>and</strong> it<br />
holds one of the three main populations of this cervid in the country (Chébez 1994, D’Alessio et<br />
al. 2001).<br />
The Lower Delta of the Paraná River is a wide costal freshwater wetl<strong>and</strong> characterized by a<br />
vegetation mosaic crossed by an intricate network of rivers. Native forests develop on levees<br />
<strong>and</strong> relatively elevated sites, whereas lowl<strong>and</strong>s are colonised by marshes or rush communities<br />
(K<strong>and</strong>us et al. 2003). A part of the terminal portion of this wetl<strong>and</strong> has been altered in the last<br />
80 years mainly due to the replacement of natural vegetation by forestry plantations after the<br />
drainage of the l<strong>and</strong>. Three different population nuclei of marsh deer have been proposed to<br />
occur in this wetl<strong>and</strong>, one in an undisturbed area covered with native vegetation <strong>and</strong> the two<br />
* Corresponding author. Tel.: 0054-3489-460075 - Fax: 0054-3489-460076<br />
Email address: nfracassi@correo.inta.gov.ar/ natfracassi@yahoo.com.ar<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
N. Fracassi & D. Somma 2010. Participatory action research concerning the l<strong>and</strong>scape use by a native cervid in a wetl<strong>and</strong><br />
228<br />
remaining in areas mostly dominated by forestry plantations (D´Alessio et al. 2002). The<br />
recently created Delta of the Paraná River Biosphere Reserve (MAB-UNESCO) currently<br />
protects the nuclei inhabiting the undisturbed area. The two remaining nuclei, on the other h<strong>and</strong>,<br />
are established in non-protected human-dominated areas where productive activities with low<br />
sustainable management appear to be threatening the long-term persistence of the species.<br />
The population status of the marsh deer in this wetl<strong>and</strong> under current conditions is unknown<br />
(Dellafiore <strong>and</strong> Maceira 1998). So, an evaluation of the main threats that affect this population<br />
<strong>and</strong> the detection of how individuals use the various components of the altered l<strong>and</strong>scape are<br />
necessary. In turn, conservation strategy generated for the marsh deer can also bring<br />
conservation benefits to other wild species <strong>and</strong> the whole Delta as well.<br />
As the persistence of the species at the l<strong>and</strong>scape level may depend on its adaptation to the<br />
altered habitats <strong>and</strong> the attitude of the local people towards the deer, the aim of this study was to<br />
evaluate the local people perception about how this cervid uses the l<strong>and</strong>scape <strong>and</strong> which threats<br />
are affecting the species.<br />
2. Methodology<br />
The study area covers around 500km 2 <strong>and</strong> is centred in the downstream area of the Lower Delta<br />
of the Paraná River region (Buenos Aires province, Argentina). It includes the accretion portion<br />
of the delta between Paraná de las Palmas <strong>and</strong> Paraná Guazú rivers. The Lower Delta region<br />
(2,700km 2 ) has a temperate climate with a mean annual temperature of 289.96K, <strong>and</strong> an annual<br />
rainfall of 1,073 mm. The hydrological regime is the result of the combined effects of the<br />
Paraná river flow <strong>and</strong> the tidal pattern of the Del Plata estuary (Mujica 1979; Minotti et al.<br />
1988). About 50% of the region is affected by human activities, mainly by the development of<br />
Salicaceae plantations (Salix spp. –willow- <strong>and</strong> Populus spp. –poplar-) <strong>and</strong> tourist <strong>and</strong><br />
recreation activities (K<strong>and</strong>us 1997).<br />
This Delta holds the largest Salicaceae plantations in the country (Petray 2000) <strong>and</strong> this activity<br />
constitutes the economically most significant in the region (SAGPyA 1999; Casaubón et al.<br />
2001) with 75% of willow <strong>and</strong> 25% of poplar afforestations (Borodowski 2006). Before<br />
planting, systematic work is carried out through the construction of canals <strong>and</strong> drainage ditches<br />
of different sizes <strong>and</strong> / or construction of embankments along the coast (locally known as<br />
“diques” <strong>and</strong> “atajarrepuntes”), which prevent entry of water from flooding (Casaubón et al.<br />
2001). In the study area the poplar plantations are made for sawing wood, with large planting<br />
spacing ranging from 6x2 m to 6x6 m (Poplar Commission 1985). The willow, on the other<br />
h<strong>and</strong>, is used mainly for paper <strong>and</strong> particle board industries <strong>and</strong> plantations vary in spacing on<br />
3x3 <strong>and</strong> 3x2 m. In the case of poplar, the understory foliage management implies keeping the<br />
soil free of weeds.<br />
The methodology was based on the interview to stakeholders (local people, producers, <strong>and</strong> l<strong>and</strong><br />
managers). Six questions were included in the interview: 1) Area occupied by each habitat type<br />
in the area of influence (e.g. ranch) of the interviewer; 2) Which habitat types are used by deers<br />
to transit <strong>and</strong> feed; 3) Which habitats appear to be used by deers as refuges; 4) Did the<br />
population decline in the last 10 years; 5) Which are the main threats for the deer population;<br />
<strong>and</strong> 6) How can we contribute to the protection of the marsh deer.<br />
Habitat types were divided into: 1) adult willow afforestations; 2) young willow afforestations;<br />
3) adult poplar afforestations; 4) young poplar afforestations; 5) marshes; 6) Cattle pastures; 7)<br />
afforestations without management or ab<strong>and</strong>oned; 8) riparian native forests; 9) roads; <strong>and</strong> 10)<br />
others. A habitat was considered as a refuge for deers when it was used by individuals to rest or<br />
to escape from humans.<br />
3. Results<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
N. Fracassi & D. Somma 2010. Participatory action research concerning the l<strong>and</strong>scape use by a native cervid in a wetl<strong>and</strong><br />
229<br />
During 2009, 26 stakeholders (with an area of influence of 250.6 km2) were interviewed. The<br />
habitat types included in this area of influence are shown in Figure 1. The most representative<br />
habitats were the young <strong>and</strong> adult willow (49.7%) <strong>and</strong> poplar (28.3%) afforestations, whereas<br />
the rest of the habitats occupied a smaller area.<br />
Most of the records were reported in almost all habitats but mainly in adult poplar afforestations<br />
(24.7%) (see Figure 2). On the other h<strong>and</strong>, interviewees reported that ab<strong>and</strong>oned afforestations<br />
or afforestations without understory management were the habitat most used as refuge by deers,<br />
followed by poplar <strong>and</strong> willow afforestations (see Figure 3). In turn, interviewees reported that a<br />
half of the poplar afforestations used as refuge by deers corresponds to afforestations without<br />
understory management or with presence of herbaceous <strong>and</strong> shrubs.<br />
Regarding the population status, almost 60% of interviewees reported that there are fewer deers<br />
in the population than 10 years ago, while the remaining responded that the number of deer is<br />
equal or higher (19% <strong>and</strong> 23%, respectively) than 10 years ago (see Figure 4). Hunting was<br />
reported as the principal threat that affects the species in the area, whereas habitat modification<br />
(ej. embankments construction <strong>and</strong> drainage of l<strong>and</strong>s) <strong>and</strong> the interaction with cattle (ej.<br />
competition <strong>and</strong> transmission of diseases) were considered secondary threats (see Table 1).<br />
Interviewees suggested that the effective control of hunting (by their own or by control agents)<br />
could be the most appropriate action contributing to the conservation of the deer (see Table 2).<br />
In turn, they also considered as an important conservation measure to leave unmanaged<br />
afforestations within their own fields as a refuge for deer. Finally, they agreed that education in<br />
schools <strong>and</strong> awareness within the general public <strong>and</strong> decision makers would help minimize the<br />
risk level of the deer population in the Lower Delta.<br />
4. Discussion<br />
According to interviewees, despite the low representation of natural habitats in the study area<br />
(marshes <strong>and</strong> riparian forests) marsh deer are present <strong>and</strong> uses the new habitats generated by<br />
forest industries as transit <strong>and</strong> feeding sites. However, the greater visibility inside poplar<br />
plantations due to the planting distance <strong>and</strong> the lack of understory foliage could improve the<br />
detection of deers in those areas in comparison with other more closed habitats. Considering the<br />
use of different habitats as refuge, the interviewed agreed that the marsh deer uses the denser<br />
poplar afforestations with presence of understory proportionally more often than the rest of the<br />
poplar because this habitat provides greater protection <strong>and</strong> resting sites. On the other h<strong>and</strong>, both<br />
cattle pastures <strong>and</strong> roads would be less optimal habitat due to the lower presence of refuges.<br />
In spite of the possibility that the species may have adapted to the habitat transformation, the<br />
current level of hunting continues threatening the deer population in the region. The possibility<br />
of diseases transmission from cattle to deers <strong>and</strong> the increase of suboptimal habitats due to the<br />
mish<strong>and</strong>ling of understory foliage <strong>and</strong> water in the afforestations are also threats for this<br />
population. In relation to water management, people perception agreed with Varela (2003), who<br />
determined that the l<strong>and</strong> use type associated with hydrological management is a key factor in<br />
the distribution patterns of marsh deer in afforestations. Periodic openings of the dams<br />
floodgates (or diques) would allow the coexistence of forest plantations with high-rich patches<br />
of forage resources for the deer. Thus, an analysis of the effects of water management inside<br />
afforestations <strong>and</strong> hunting on the population is urgently needed. In addition, the analysis of the<br />
distribution, size, <strong>and</strong> connectivity of optimal <strong>and</strong> suboptimal habitat patches at different<br />
l<strong>and</strong>scape levels could allow an assessment of the regional population viability.<br />
At the afforestations level, is essential to delineate a scheme of plantation planning <strong>and</strong> forest<br />
management that considers relevant aspects such as (1) understory management (at least in<br />
poplar plantations), (2) management of patches in ab<strong>and</strong>oned afforestations, (3) the inclusion of<br />
high density willow plantations in some areas as an alternative to generate favorable refuge<br />
patches for the deer, <strong>and</strong> (4) l<strong>and</strong>scape management of forestry establishments. Therefore, the<br />
detection <strong>and</strong> design of corridors connecting feeding zones with refuge areas in the<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
N. Fracassi & D. Somma 2010. Participatory action research concerning the l<strong>and</strong>scape use by a native cervid in a wetl<strong>and</strong><br />
230<br />
afforestations <strong>and</strong> others productive l<strong>and</strong>s would contribute to the persistence of the deer<br />
regional population.<br />
It would be also relevant to evaluate the effects of the cattle production system on the deer<br />
population as well, because the regional increase in cattle numbers related to the expansion of<br />
silvopastoral systems (Arano, 2006) may constitute a new potential threat. This analysis should<br />
include both sanitary <strong>and</strong> competence aspects. Finally, it is essential to organize <strong>and</strong> perform<br />
environmental awareness campaigns focusing on stakeholders <strong>and</strong> decision makers. Based on<br />
the appropriate application of laws <strong>and</strong> the increased knowledge of the ecology <strong>and</strong> demography<br />
of marsh deers, is possible to implement more effective conservation programs. In this context,<br />
the participatory action research approach considered in this study can provide a suitable<br />
platform to build these conservation programs, generating the commitment of the local people<br />
since the beginning of the program execution.<br />
References<br />
Arano, A. 2006. Ganadería en sistemas silvopastoriles del Delta del Paraná. EEA INTA Delta<br />
del Paraná. Monografía. Sitio argentino de Producción Animal.<br />
Borodowski, E., 2006. Álamos y sauces en el Delta del Paraná: situación del sector y<br />
Silvicultura. Actas Jornadas de Salicáceas 2006, 61-70pp.<br />
Chébez, J.C., 1994. Los que se van. Ed. Albatros. Buenos Aires.<br />
Casaubon, E., Gurini, L.B., <strong>and</strong> Cueto, G., 2001. Diferente calidad de estación en una<br />
plantación de Populus deltoides cv. Catfish 2 del bajo Delta Bonaerense del Río Paraná<br />
(Argentina). Invest. Agr.: Sist. Recur. For. Vol 10(2).<br />
D’Alessio, S., Varela, D., Gagliardi, F., Lartigau, B., Aprile, G., Mónaco, G., <strong>and</strong> Heinonen, S.,<br />
2001. El Ciervo de los Pantanos (Blastocerus dichotomus). En: Los Ciervos Autóctonos<br />
de la Argentina y la acción del hombre. (Eds.: C. Dellafiore y N. Maceira). Secretaría<br />
de Desarrollo Sustentable y Política Ambiental. Buenos Aires, 95pp.<br />
D’Alessio, S., Varela, D., Lartigau, B., Gagliardi, F., Aprile, G. <strong>and</strong> Mónaco C., 2002. Marsh<br />
Deer Project. Marsh Deer (Blastocerus dichotomus): A Flagship Species for the Delta of<br />
Paraná <strong>and</strong> it’s Biodiversity. Final Report to BP Conservation Programme.<br />
Dellafiore, C.M. <strong>and</strong> Maceira, N.O., 1998. Problemas de conservación de los ciervos autóctonos<br />
de la Argentina. Mastozoología Neotropical 5(2): 137-145.<br />
Díaz, G.B. <strong>and</strong> Ojeda R.A. (eds.). 2000. Libro rojo de mamíferos amenazados de la Argentina.<br />
Sarem.<br />
Fonseca, G.A., Bda, A.B., Ryl<strong>and</strong>s, C.M.R., Costa, R.B., Machado, <strong>and</strong> Leite, Y.LR., 1994.<br />
Livro Vermelho dos Mamíferos Brasileiros Ameaçados de Extinção. Fundação<br />
Biodiversitas. Belo Horizonte.<br />
IUCN. 2002. 2002 IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. IUCN. Gl<strong>and</strong> y Cambridge.<br />
(Disponible en Intenet www.redlist.org).<br />
K<strong>and</strong>us, P; Malvarez, A. I, <strong>and</strong> Madanes, N.,. 2003. Estudio de las comunidades de plantas<br />
herbáceas de las islas bonaerenses del Bajo Delta del Río Paraná (Argentina).<br />
Darwiniana 41(1-4).<br />
K<strong>and</strong>us, P. 1997. Análisis de patrones de vegetación a escala regional en las islas del sector<br />
bonaerense del Delta de Río Paraná. Tesis doctoral, FCEN, Universidad de Buenos<br />
Aires.<br />
Minotti, P, Fernández, P <strong>and</strong> Corley, G., 1988. Regionalización del régimen de inundaciones en<br />
el Delta del Paraná; En: Adamoli, J. <strong>and</strong> A.I. Malvárez (eds). Condicionantes<br />
ambientales y bases para la formulacion de alternativas productivas en la región del<br />
Delta del río Paraná. Informe Final Proyecto UBACYT 135.<br />
Mujica, F., 1979. Estudio ecológico y socioeconómico del Delta Entrerriano. Parte I. Instituto<br />
Nacional de Tecnología Agropecuaria. Paraná. Argentina.<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
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231<br />
Petray, E. 2000. Las actividades relativas al cultivo y la utilización del álamo y del<br />
sauce. Período 1966-1999. Comisión Nacional del Álamo de Argentina.<br />
Pinder, L <strong>and</strong> Grosse. A., 1991. Blastoceros dichotomus. Mammalian Species. Nº 380 1-4.<br />
SAGPyA, 1999. Estado del avance del 1. Inventario de bosques cultivados a marzo de<br />
1999: Informe de Consultoria. Buenos Aires, 1999.<br />
Schaller, G.B. <strong>and</strong> Hamer, A., 1978. Rutting behabiour of Pére David´s deer, Elaphorus<br />
davidianus. Zool. Gart. N.F. 48, 1-15.<br />
Thornback J <strong>and</strong> Jenkins, M., 1982. The IUCN mammal red data book. Part 1: Threatened<br />
mammalian taxa of the Americas <strong>and</strong> the Austrasia zoogeographic region (excluding<br />
Cetacea). International Union Conservation Nature, Switzerl<strong>and</strong> 516 pp.<br />
Tomás, W., Beccaceci, M. <strong>and</strong> Pinder, L. 1997. Cervo-do-pantanal (Blastocerus dichotomus).<br />
En: Biologia e Conservaçao de Cervídeos Sul-americanos: Blastocerus, Ozotocerus e<br />
Mazama (Editor: Barbanti Duarte). FUNEP, Jaboticabal.<br />
Varela, D., 2003. Distribución, Abundancia y Conservación del Ciervo de los Pantanos<br />
(Blastocerus dichotomus) en el Bajo Delta del Río Paraná, Provincia de Buenos<br />
Aires, Argentina. Tesis de Licenciatura, Universidad de Buenos Aires (UBA),<br />
53pp.<br />
Wemmer, C., (Ed.), 1998. Deer. Status survey <strong>and</strong> conservation action plan. IUCN/SSC Deer<br />
Specialist Group. IUCN, Gl<strong>and</strong>, Suiza y Cambridge, UK. 106pp.<br />
Table 1. Principal threats for marsh deer in the Delta of the Paraná River according to interviewees.<br />
Threats<br />
Number of interviewees that<br />
listed this threat as the principal<br />
threat<br />
Number of interviewees that<br />
listed this threat as a secondary<br />
threat<br />
Hunting 16 3<br />
Habitat modification 8 4<br />
Interaction whit cattle 2 6<br />
Table 2. Perception of interviewees regarding the main actions contributing to the marsh deer<br />
conservation in the Delta of the Paraná River.<br />
Action Importance degree (%)<br />
Effective control of hunting 39.4<br />
Education & Awareness 27.3<br />
Maintenance patches of unmanaged understory 21.1<br />
afforestations<br />
Improve livestock good management practices 6.0<br />
Research on marsh deer ecology 3.1<br />
Hydrological management into afforestations 3.1<br />
Percentage of each Habitat<br />
Willow afforestation<br />
Poplar afforestation<br />
Afforestation without<br />
management<br />
Marshes<br />
Cattle pasture<br />
Riparian forest<br />
Roads<br />
Others<br />
Figure 1. Percentage of each habitat in the influence area of stakeholders.<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
N. Fracassi & D. Somma 2010. Participatory action research concerning the l<strong>and</strong>scape use by a native cervid in a wetl<strong>and</strong><br />
232<br />
Marsh deer habitat uses<br />
%<br />
30<br />
25<br />
20<br />
15<br />
10<br />
5<br />
0<br />
Adult<br />
Willow<br />
Adult Poplar<br />
Young<br />
Poplar<br />
Young<br />
Willow<br />
Afforestation<br />
without<br />
management<br />
Marshes<br />
Cattle<br />
pasture<br />
Riparian<br />
forest<br />
roads<br />
others<br />
Habitat<br />
Figure 2. Percent of marsh deer records in each habitat typeas reported by interviewees<br />
Marsh deer Habitat Uses<br />
45<br />
40<br />
35<br />
30<br />
25<br />
%<br />
20<br />
15<br />
10<br />
5<br />
0<br />
Adult Willow Adult Poplar<br />
Young<br />
Poplar<br />
Young<br />
Willow<br />
Afforestation<br />
without<br />
management<br />
Marshes<br />
Cattle<br />
pasture<br />
Riparian<br />
forest<br />
roads<br />
others<br />
Habitat<br />
Figure 3. Percent of interviewees that reported each habitat type as a refuge for the Marsh deer.<br />
Number of individuals in the Population<br />
70<br />
60<br />
50<br />
40<br />
%<br />
30<br />
20<br />
10<br />
0<br />
No change Fewer than 10 year ago Higher than 10 year ago<br />
Nº Individuals<br />
Figure 4. Perception of interviewees regarding the current number of marsh deers in the Delta population.<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
J. Hartter et al. 2010. Fortresses <strong>and</strong> fragments: impacts of fragmentation in a forest park l<strong>and</strong>scape<br />
233<br />
Fortresses <strong>and</strong> fragments: impacts of fragmentation in a forest park<br />
l<strong>and</strong>scape<br />
Joel Hartter 1* , Sadie J. Ryan 2 , Jane Southworth 3 & Colin A. Chapman4<br />
1 Department of Geography, University of New Hampshire, 102 Huddleston Hall, 73<br />
Main Street, Durham, NH 03825, USA<br />
2 National Center for Ecological Analysis <strong>and</strong> Synthesis (NCEAS), University of<br />
California, 735 State Street, Suite 300, Santa Barbara, CA 93101-5504, USA<br />
3 Department of Geography, L<strong>and</strong> Use <strong>and</strong> Environmental <strong>Change</strong> Institute (LUECI),<br />
University of Florida, 3141 Turlington Hall, Gainesville, FL 32611-7315, USA<br />
4<br />
Department of Anthropology <strong>and</strong> McGill School of Environment, McGill University,<br />
Montreal, Quebec, H3A 2T7, Canada<br />
Abstract<br />
Our research addresses patterns of l<strong>and</strong> cover <strong>and</strong> forest fragmentation in <strong>and</strong> around<br />
Kibale National Park in equatorial East Africa, <strong>and</strong> how park presence affects local<br />
livelihoods. Combining discrete <strong>and</strong> continuous data analyses of satellite imagery with<br />
a geographically r<strong>and</strong>om sample of two agricultural areas neighboring Kibale, we<br />
examine multi-scalar l<strong>and</strong>scape change <strong>and</strong> diminishing resources in the context of<br />
population increase, potential climate change, <strong>and</strong> fortress conservation. While park<br />
boundaries have remained relatively intact since 1984, the domesticated l<strong>and</strong>scape has<br />
become increasingly fragmented, with forests <strong>and</strong> wetl<strong>and</strong>s shrinking, becoming more<br />
isolated, <strong>and</strong> suffering decreased productivity. Remnant wetl<strong>and</strong> <strong>and</strong> forests are of<br />
particular interest because they supply ecological goods <strong>and</strong> services, but also provide<br />
habitat for primates <strong>and</strong> elephants from which to raid crops, not only posing a risk to<br />
food security, but may also lead to zoonotic disease emergence through spillover <strong>and</strong><br />
spillback events.<br />
Keywords: Kibale National Park, forest fragments, protected areas, l<strong>and</strong>scape fragmentation<br />
1. Introduction<br />
Recently, there has been a call for an integrated methodology that crosses temporal <strong>and</strong><br />
spatial scales to promote underst<strong>and</strong>ing of the social, ecological, <strong>and</strong> climatological<br />
dynamics within park l<strong>and</strong>scapes <strong>and</strong> to identify global trends, focus conservation<br />
priorities, <strong>and</strong> enable innovative <strong>and</strong> effective policy <strong>and</strong> resource management at<br />
multiple levels (DeFries et al. 2007). This paper details our data acquisition<br />
methodology that is designed to anticipate the consequences of a dynamic social <strong>and</strong><br />
ecological system faced with anthropogenic pressures <strong>and</strong> climate change at multiple<br />
scales to inform appropriate management or legislative interventions for the<br />
mechanisms using Kibale National Park as a “natural laboratory”.<br />
Establishing parks is the primary mechanism used to protect tropical forest<br />
biodiversity, particularly in regions with high human densities. Parks (protected areas of<br />
* Joel Hartter. Tel.: +1 603-862-7052 - Fax:+1 603-862-4362<br />
Email address: joel.hartter@unh.edu<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
J. Hartter et al. 2010. Fortresses <strong>and</strong> fragments: impacts of fragmentation in a forest park l<strong>and</strong>scape<br />
234<br />
all sorts) protect <strong>and</strong> maintain endemic, threatened or endangered, flora <strong>and</strong> fauna,<br />
geological features, <strong>and</strong> cultural heritage sites. In addition, they can generate income<br />
for the local <strong>and</strong> national economies, <strong>and</strong> provide important benefits associated with<br />
enhanced tourism sectors. However, many parks are also associated with negative social<br />
<strong>and</strong> ecological impacts. Human populations neighboring parks are often excluded from<br />
settlement, access, resource extraction, <strong>and</strong> most forms of consumptive l<strong>and</strong> use in the<br />
park, which in turn affects farmers’ l<strong>and</strong> use <strong>and</strong> livelihood options.<br />
The processes that drive l<strong>and</strong> cover change are complex <strong>and</strong> cannot be understood<br />
without addressing underlying cause <strong>and</strong> effect relationships. <strong>Change</strong>s in climate,<br />
population, <strong>and</strong> l<strong>and</strong> use occur <strong>and</strong> interact simultaneously at different temporal <strong>and</strong><br />
spatial scales, having major implications for both livelihoods <strong>and</strong> biodiversity. <strong>Forest</strong><br />
loss <strong>and</strong> fragmentation are regarded as the greatest threat to global biological diversity<br />
(Turner <strong>and</strong> Corlett 1996). Fragmentation negatively impacts species composition due<br />
to a reduction in forest area <strong>and</strong> isolation of remaining fragments. Between 1990 <strong>and</strong><br />
2005, forest cover in Africa decreased by 21 million ha (Chapman et al. 2006). Since<br />
most parks are already ecosystem remnants of a limited size, it is important to consider<br />
each as a component of a larger l<strong>and</strong>scape.<br />
The presence <strong>and</strong> use of forest fragments outside parks illustrate the<br />
interconnected nature of the park-domestic l<strong>and</strong>scape.Within the greater continuous<br />
l<strong>and</strong>scape, remnant fragments of larger forests can be important to neighboring human<br />
communities, providing subsistence-based resources. These forests represent reservoirs<br />
of l<strong>and</strong>, resources, <strong>and</strong> economic opportunity for people, while at the same time are<br />
often viewed as buffers for parks by managers, as wildlife corridors <strong>and</strong> habitat that<br />
extends the effective size of the park.<br />
Unfortunately, these forest fragments are also hazards for local farmers, as sources<br />
of crop raids by primates, elephants, <strong>and</strong> birds. There has been extensive conversion of<br />
fragments, both to claim more l<strong>and</strong> <strong>and</strong> to destroy the habitat of would-be crop raiders.<br />
Health concerns have also arisen as pest animals move pathogens across l<strong>and</strong>scapes,<br />
leading to spillover of disease (potential zoonotic emergence), <strong>and</strong> spillback (pathogens<br />
transferred back into parks).<br />
The decline of remaining fragments in the human-dominated l<strong>and</strong>scape may be<br />
an inevitable process, exacerbated by the impacts of current <strong>and</strong> future changing climate.<br />
The impacts that fragmentation has on both wildlife <strong>and</strong> vegetation within a fragment<br />
<strong>and</strong> perhaps more importantly, the impact of loss of intact habitat <strong>and</strong> wildlife on the<br />
people relying on the remaining fragments, are important to underst<strong>and</strong>ing <strong>and</strong> slowing<br />
or preventing future decline. As fragments decrease <strong>and</strong> become more degraded,<br />
encroachment into the park <strong>and</strong> the number <strong>and</strong> severity of human-wildlife incidences<br />
may increase.<br />
There is growing interest in the academic community <strong>and</strong> by policy makers as to<br />
the extent of climate change impact on ecological communities (Walther et al. 2002).<br />
Climate variability <strong>and</strong> change are affecting wildlife populations, posing serious risk to<br />
poverty reduction <strong>and</strong> threatening rural livelihoods. Local climate variability directly<br />
impacts crop yields, resource quality <strong>and</strong> abundance, vegetation productivity, <strong>and</strong><br />
wildlife habitat <strong>and</strong> food sources. Climate change can also adversely affect the<br />
availability of resources for human populations outside of parks, who depend on the<br />
l<strong>and</strong> for their livelihoods. In addition, changes in food abundance within parks may<br />
force wildlife to seek food in agricultural areas near the park boundary, increasing the<br />
vulnerability of farms to crop damage <strong>and</strong> predation.<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
J. Hartter et al. 2010. Fortresses <strong>and</strong> fragments: impacts of fragmentation in a forest park l<strong>and</strong>scape<br />
235<br />
Figure 1. Kibale National Park in western Ug<strong>and</strong>a.<br />
2. Study Site<br />
Kibale National Park (795km 2 , Figure 1), medium altitude tropical moist forest in<br />
western Ug<strong>and</strong>a represents one of the best-studied forest sites in forested Africa, having<br />
been the site for multiple field projects for 40 years. The human population surrounding<br />
Kibale has increased seven-fold since 1920 <strong>and</strong> exceeds 270 people/km 2 at the western<br />
edge. Annual population growth rates range between 3 <strong>and</strong> 4% per year. The l<strong>and</strong>scape<br />
is a mosaic of small farms (most 200ha), <strong>and</strong> interspersed<br />
forest fragments <strong>and</strong> wetl<strong>and</strong>s (0.5-200ha or more), effectively isolating the park<br />
(Hartter <strong>and</strong> Southworth 2009). <strong>Forest</strong> fragments <strong>and</strong> wetl<strong>and</strong>s extending from Kibale’s<br />
boundaries <strong>and</strong> isolated within the agricultural matrix vary in size, shape, <strong>and</strong> resource<br />
types <strong>and</strong> amount. The Kibale l<strong>and</strong>scape is an extremely valuable setting because the<br />
biophysical <strong>and</strong> social response to social <strong>and</strong> ecological change may be emblematic of<br />
forest park l<strong>and</strong>scapes across the entire Albertine Rift <strong>and</strong> likely elsewhere. Parks in the<br />
Albertine Rift have been identified as areas of extremely high endemic biodiversity <strong>and</strong><br />
have been classed as a conservation priority (Plumptre et al. 2007).<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
J. Hartter et al. 2010. Fortresses <strong>and</strong> fragments: impacts of fragmentation in a forest park l<strong>and</strong>scape<br />
236<br />
3. Methodology<br />
Integrating l<strong>and</strong>scape level change detection with household level processes <strong>and</strong><br />
ecological sampling requires a sampling scheme that links household surveys <strong>and</strong><br />
ecological sampling to remotely sensed data. Social <strong>and</strong> ecological surveys provide<br />
valuable fine-scale, ground-data. Household-level decision making is critical to<br />
underst<strong>and</strong>ing the changes in l<strong>and</strong>-use <strong>and</strong> l<strong>and</strong>-cover <strong>and</strong> their effects on livelihoods.<br />
Ecological sampling provides means of underst<strong>and</strong>ing the consequences of household<br />
decisions to biodiversity <strong>and</strong> allows the generation of future scenarios for change.<br />
Linking classifications of l<strong>and</strong> cover to socio-economic <strong>and</strong> ecological surveys can<br />
provide a more comprehensive underst<strong>and</strong>ing of l<strong>and</strong> use <strong>and</strong> l<strong>and</strong> cover change over<br />
time. Instead of asserting that deforestation happened, we can now describe the effects<br />
of this change (i.e., loss of biodiversity), <strong>and</strong> pinpoint key social drivers for this change.<br />
Figure 2. Hierarchical framework that is embedded with multiple datasets at multiple spatial resolutions<br />
to examine four elements of the park l<strong>and</strong>scape <strong>and</strong> their temporal <strong>and</strong> spatial changes. Within this<br />
hierarchical framework, the higher level provides a context <strong>and</strong> imposes top-down constraints on the<br />
lower level, <strong>and</strong> the lower level provides mechanisms <strong>and</strong> imposes bottom-up constraints.<br />
3.1 Data Acquisition<br />
To provide the link between l<strong>and</strong>scape <strong>and</strong> household/ecological data, appropriate<br />
areas had to be defined that permitted the integration of research tool <strong>and</strong> intellectual<br />
questions. These areas had to be large enough to include the scales of satelliteevaluated<br />
l<strong>and</strong> cover change, <strong>and</strong> small enough to permit assessment of biodiversity <strong>and</strong><br />
human activities.<br />
Household Interviews – To link micro-scale l<strong>and</strong> use decisions with meso-scale l<strong>and</strong><br />
cover change area, we used the superpixel methodology (Hartter <strong>and</strong> Southworth 2009)<br />
to define a 5-km perimeter around park boundaries as the meso-scale research area.<br />
Interview respondents were selected from among l<strong>and</strong>holders in each of the 95 9-ha<br />
circular superpixels for which there were l<strong>and</strong>holders. The number of respondents<br />
selected per superpixel was proportional to the number of l<strong>and</strong>holders controlling l<strong>and</strong><br />
within the study area, <strong>and</strong> at least one interview was conducted in each superpixel.<br />
Therefore, superpixels with more l<strong>and</strong>holders (<strong>and</strong> correspondingly smaller individual<br />
l<strong>and</strong>holdings) had a higher sampling intensity than those with fewer l<strong>and</strong>holders. GPS<br />
points were also taken at access points for the nearest forest fragment <strong>and</strong> wetl<strong>and</strong> for<br />
each house <strong>and</strong> were used to calculate the straight-line distance from the house to the<br />
nearest wetl<strong>and</strong> <strong>and</strong>/or forest fragment <strong>and</strong> park boundary. Thus social <strong>and</strong> ecological<br />
units of interest can be mapped together.<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
J. Hartter et al. 2010. Fortresses <strong>and</strong> fragments: impacts of fragmentation in a forest park l<strong>and</strong>scape<br />
237<br />
Time Series Analysis of L<strong>and</strong> Cover, Productivity, & L<strong>and</strong>scape Fragmentation – To<br />
quantify l<strong>and</strong>scape change outside Kibale, L<strong>and</strong>sat TM <strong>and</strong> ETM+ imagery was chosen<br />
because it offers the best combination of spatial, spectral, temporal <strong>and</strong> radiometric<br />
resolutions. Six dry season images were acquired: (August 4, 1986, August 20, 1989,<br />
January 17, 1995, January 9, 2001, January 31, 2003, <strong>and</strong> September 1, 2008) (path<br />
162, row 60). An additional image (May 26, 1984) was acquired near the end of the<br />
rainy season <strong>and</strong> was the only available cloud-free image within this time period. Our<br />
analysis accounts for the phonological difference. Images were geometrically registered<br />
to 1:50,000 scale survey topographic maps of the region within an RMS of
J. Hartter et al. 2010. Fortresses <strong>and</strong> fragments: impacts of fragmentation in a forest park l<strong>and</strong>scape<br />
238<br />
over the period of record. Periodicities in autocorrelation functions are indicative of a<br />
cyclical response in seasonal <strong>and</strong> annual climate variables <strong>and</strong> may be attributed to<br />
fluctuations in large-scale atmospheric circulation patterns (e.g., ENSO). Spatial<br />
autocorrelation will be used to assess the spatial variability in temperature <strong>and</strong><br />
precipitation at sub-regional scales. High spatial autocorrelations between stations may<br />
be indicative of strong regional influences on local climate, whereas strong local<br />
influences, such as l<strong>and</strong> use, may result in lower spatial autocorrelations between<br />
stations.<br />
Integration of data – A series of logistic models will be incorporated into a model<br />
selection algorithm, assessed using an information theoretic framework, such as AIC<br />
(Akaike’s Information Criterion) based estimators. These models will be constructed<br />
by overlaying the information gathered <strong>and</strong> constructing process based models<br />
predicting fragment loss as a result of covariates such as ownership, fragment type,<br />
isolation <strong>and</strong> distance metrics, ecological factors, climate in preceding years,<br />
neighborly crop types <strong>and</strong> perceptions of use. We will derive suites of models at<br />
different spatial scales, wherein processes will likely differ.<br />
4. Conclusion<br />
While it is well established that models of the park-l<strong>and</strong>scape interface are necessary<br />
to the conservation discourse <strong>and</strong> to the persistence <strong>and</strong> sustainability of parks <strong>and</strong> the<br />
human populations that surround them, the necessary data to underst<strong>and</strong> the<br />
multifarious processes at play are hard to acquire. We have addressed issues of socioecological<br />
boundaries, climate <strong>and</strong> both spatial <strong>and</strong> temporal scale within our data<br />
acquisition. We will thus not only document a park-l<strong>and</strong>scape dynamic process, but<br />
identify drivers which are relevant to management <strong>and</strong> policy.<br />
References<br />
Chapman, C.A., Wasserman, M.D., Gillespie, T.R., Speirs, M.L., Lawes, M.J., Saj, T.L., <strong>and</strong><br />
T.E. Ziegler, 2006. Do nutrition, parasitism, <strong>and</strong> stress have synergistic effects on red<br />
colobus populations living in forest fragments American Journal of Physical<br />
Anthropology, 131: 525-534.<br />
DeFries, R., Hansen, A., turner, B.L., Redi, R., <strong>and</strong> J. Liu, 2007. L<strong>and</strong> use change around<br />
protected areas: management to balance human needs <strong>and</strong> ecological function. Ecological<br />
Applications, 17: 1031-1038.<br />
Hartter, J. <strong>and</strong> J. Southworth, 2009. Dwindling resources <strong>and</strong> fragmentation of l<strong>and</strong>scapes<br />
around parks: wetl<strong>and</strong>s <strong>and</strong> forest patches around Kibale National Park, Ug<strong>and</strong>a.<br />
L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology, 24: 643-656.<br />
Stampone, M.D., Hartter, J., Ryan, S.J., <strong>and</strong> C.A. Chapman, Submitted. Temporal <strong>and</strong> spatial<br />
variability of rainfall in <strong>and</strong> around a forest park in western Ug<strong>and</strong>a. Journal of Applied<br />
Meteorology <strong>and</strong> Climatology.<br />
Plumptre, A.J., Behangana, M., Ndomba, E., Davenport, T., Kahindo, C., Kityo, R.<br />
Ssegawa, P., Eilu, G., Nkuutu, D. <strong>and</strong> I. Owiunji, 2003. The Biodiversity of the<br />
Albertine Rift. Wildlife Conservation Society, 107p.<br />
Turner, I. <strong>and</strong> R. Corlett, 1996. The conservation value of small, isolated fragments of lowl<strong>and</strong><br />
tropical rain forest. Trends in Ecology & Evolution 11: 330-333.<br />
Walther, G.R., et al., 2002. Ecological responses to recent climate change. Nature, 416: 389-395.<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
M.B. Horta et al. 2010. L<strong>and</strong>scape Structure of a Conservation Area <strong>and</strong> its Surroundings in Minas Gerais State, Brazil<br />
239<br />
L<strong>and</strong>scape structure of a conservation area <strong>and</strong> its surroundings in<br />
Minas Gerais State, Brazil<br />
Marise Barreiros Horta 1* , Carla Araújo Simões 2 , Eduardo Christófaro de Andrade 2 &<br />
Luciana Eler França 2<br />
1 Companhia Botânica, Brazil<br />
2 Delphi Projetos e Gestão Ltda., Brazil<br />
Abstract<br />
This study examined the suitability of a conservation area establishment through the l<strong>and</strong>scape<br />
structure investigation inside <strong>and</strong> outside the area. The l<strong>and</strong> cover mapping was performed<br />
using CBERS image, supervised <strong>and</strong> unsupervised classification. L<strong>and</strong>scape metrics were<br />
calculated utilizing Fragstats 3.3. The presence of a large forest patch inside the conservation<br />
area revealed the preservation of a rare patch in the l<strong>and</strong>scape. Shape index varied from 1,68 to<br />
2,02. Core index was higher for the forest patches (92,73%). Percentages of 50,00% of forest<br />
patches <strong>and</strong> 57,14% of grassl<strong>and</strong>s presented distances lower than 100m. The pastures showed<br />
high juxtaposition index (95,41%). The overall pattern denoted low influence of edge effect <strong>and</strong><br />
reasonable connectivity among patches. Conservation planning for the area has to take into<br />
consideration that grazing can be an impact source. Measures for the surrounding areas<br />
maintenance as a buffer zone can enhance flux among patches inside <strong>and</strong> outside the area.<br />
Keywords: L<strong>and</strong>scaspe structure, l<strong>and</strong>scape metrics, nature conservation<br />
1. Introduction<br />
Nature conservation in Brazil has been a challenge since the dem<strong>and</strong> for economic growth has<br />
contributed to environmental degradation, fragmentation <strong>and</strong> deforestation. The country<br />
presents a great importance for global biodiversity comprising a large percent of the remaining<br />
tropical forest stock. Although a large amount of l<strong>and</strong> is under protection these do not represent<br />
Brazil’s biodiversity. (Lele et al 2000).<br />
Biodiversity <strong>and</strong> ecological infrastructure maintenance are fundamental for nature conservation<br />
(Bridgewater 1993). The conservation value of a specific area in terms of ecological<br />
infrastructure can be examined through the measurement of the l<strong>and</strong>scape features (Haines-<br />
Young <strong>and</strong> Chopping 1996). In the case of biodiversity, the role of l<strong>and</strong>scape structure<br />
characterization is well known. Some l<strong>and</strong>scape components such as patch size, heterogeneity,<br />
perimeter-area ratio <strong>and</strong> connectivity can be major controls for species composition <strong>and</strong><br />
abundance (Noss <strong>and</strong> Harris 1986).<br />
As a part of the l<strong>and</strong>scape, the structure comprises the patches connected by corridors <strong>and</strong><br />
surrounded by a matrix (Forman <strong>and</strong> Godron 1986). The l<strong>and</strong>scape structure patterns include<br />
two aspects: composition <strong>and</strong> configuration (Turner 1989; Griffith et al 2000). L<strong>and</strong>scape<br />
composition refers to the patch or l<strong>and</strong> cover types without being spatially explicit. L<strong>and</strong>scape<br />
configuration has to do with the spatial distribution of patches or cover types within the<br />
* Corresponding author. Tel.: 55 31 33445937; 55 31 88835937<br />
Email address: marisehorta@companhiabotanica.com.br<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
M.B. Horta et al. 2010. L<strong>and</strong>scape Structure of a Conservation Area <strong>and</strong> its Surroundings in Minas Gerais State, Brazil<br />
240<br />
l<strong>and</strong>scape <strong>and</strong> includes measures relatives to the placement of patch types relative to others<br />
(Mac Garigall <strong>and</strong> Marks 1995).<br />
A large number of l<strong>and</strong>scape indices that provide quantitative measurement of the l<strong>and</strong>scape<br />
structure are found in the literature (Forman <strong>and</strong> Godron 1986; Turner <strong>and</strong> Gardner 1990; Mac<br />
Garigall <strong>and</strong> Marks 1995; Haines-Young <strong>and</strong> Chopping 1996). According to Haines-Young <strong>and</strong><br />
Chopping (1996), for practical purposes, those indices can be grouped in the following<br />
categories: area, edge, shape, core area, nearest-neighbor, diversity, contagion <strong>and</strong> interspersion.<br />
The present study aimed to verify the l<strong>and</strong>scape structure concerning area, shape, core area,<br />
nearest-neighbor, contagion <strong>and</strong> interspersion inside <strong>and</strong> outside an area to be preserved. The<br />
conservation area is located in the Iron Quadrangle (Quadrilátero Ferrífero) region, Minas<br />
Gerais state, where besides the agricultural l<strong>and</strong> use pressure, the mineral resources exploitation<br />
has led to the reduction of rocky shrubl<strong>and</strong>s formations, grassl<strong>and</strong>s <strong>and</strong> forest. The<br />
responsibility for the conservation area creation belongs to the Vale Mining Company, as a<br />
dem<strong>and</strong> from the state forest government agency to compensate impacts on environmental<br />
resources, due to mining exploitation.<br />
2. Methodology<br />
2.1 Study area <strong>and</strong> l<strong>and</strong> cover mapping<br />
The conservation site Mata do Limoeiro is located in Itabira county, Minas Gerais state, in the<br />
west extreme distribution of the Brazilian Atlantic <strong>Forest</strong>, setting bounds with the Savannah<br />
dominion (Rizzini 1979). The climate is tropical showing mean annual temperature of 21,3 0 C.<br />
The relief is characterized by the presence of quartzite escarpments, gneiss hills <strong>and</strong> alluvial<br />
lowl<strong>and</strong>s (Radambrasil 1987).<br />
The l<strong>and</strong> cover mapping was performed for the conservation area <strong>and</strong> its surroundings (10 km<br />
round) using CBERS-2 CCD image 2008, 20m resolution. The software package Spring<br />
5.1.5/INPE was used for image processing. In a previous phase was carried out a contrast<br />
correction. Segmentation <strong>and</strong> classification techniques were applied during the processing phase.<br />
For the segmentation, a region growing method was used <strong>and</strong> for the classification, supervised<br />
(pixel based) <strong>and</strong> unsupervised (region based) procedures were undertaken. Adjustments in the<br />
classification were made after data collection in the field.<br />
2.2. L<strong>and</strong>scape pattern metrics<br />
The l<strong>and</strong>scape metrics were calculated utilizing the public domain software package Fragstats<br />
3.3. (Mac Garigal <strong>and</strong> Marks 1995). The l<strong>and</strong> cover map (raster format) was used as input data.<br />
The set of indices utilyzed for the l<strong>and</strong>scape structure characterization are listed in Table 1.<br />
Calculations of the relative percentage of the cover, number, size <strong>and</strong> isolation of the patches<br />
were also undertaken. The whole l<strong>and</strong>scape area was given by the sum of the area inside <strong>and</strong><br />
outside the conservation area.<br />
3. Results<br />
The l<strong>and</strong> cover map of the conservation area Mata do Limoeiro <strong>and</strong> its surroundings derived<br />
from the classification of the image CBERS-2 CCD 2008 is showed in the Figure 1. The l<strong>and</strong><br />
cover classes found were generalized into four: forest (semi-deciduous seasonal forest in<br />
advanced, intermediate <strong>and</strong> initial succession stages); grassl<strong>and</strong>s (savannah grassl<strong>and</strong>s, rocky<br />
shrubl<strong>and</strong>s, scrub); pasture (pasture, agricultural areas) <strong>and</strong> urban areas (villages, cities).<br />
The l<strong>and</strong>scape metrics resulted for the conservation site are presented in Table 1. The whole<br />
study area inside the conservation site is 2.097,04 ha. The forest class covers the largest area<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
M.B. Horta et al. 2010. L<strong>and</strong>scape Structure of a Conservation Area <strong>and</strong> its Surroundings in Minas Gerais State, Brazil<br />
241<br />
(1.559,20ha), followed by the grassl<strong>and</strong>s (515,08ha) <strong>and</strong> pasture (31,76ha). When comparing<br />
the number of patches one can see that the majority belonged to the grassl<strong>and</strong>s comprising 35<br />
pieces, followed by 8 pasture <strong>and</strong> 6 forest pieces. The mean patch area was higher for forest<br />
class (258,36ha) that presented a continuous <strong>and</strong> large patch inside the conservation area of<br />
1.529,20ha. Patch density was 1,66 for grassl<strong>and</strong>s, 0,38 for pasture <strong>and</strong> 0,28 for forest.<br />
Table 1: L<strong>and</strong>scape metrics used for the l<strong>and</strong>scape structure characterization inside <strong>and</strong> outside the<br />
conservation area*<br />
Acronym<br />
Metric Name (units)<br />
Area Metrics<br />
TA<br />
Total Area (hectares)<br />
CA<br />
Total Class Area (hectares)<br />
PD<br />
Patch density (no./100 ha)<br />
NP<br />
Number of patches<br />
AREA MN<br />
Mean Patch Area (hectares)<br />
AREA<br />
Patch Size (patch size selected minimum <strong>and</strong> maximum)<br />
Shape Metrics<br />
SHAPE MN<br />
Mean shape index<br />
Core Metrics<br />
TCA Total Core Area (ha) – specified edge depth (20 m)<br />
CAI<br />
Core Area Index (percent)<br />
Isolation/Proximity Metrics<br />
ENN MN<br />
Mean euclidean nearest neighbor distance distribution (meters)<br />
Contagion/Interspersion Metrics<br />
IJI<br />
Interspersion <strong>and</strong> Juxtaposition Index (percent)<br />
* Full description of l<strong>and</strong>scape metrics equations is provided in Mac Garigal <strong>and</strong> Marks (1995)<br />
The mean shape index varied from 1,68 (grassl<strong>and</strong>s) to 2,02 (forest). The core area index was<br />
higher for forests. The mean distance among patches was lower for the grassl<strong>and</strong>s (109,82m),<br />
followed by pastures (164,83m) <strong>and</strong> forests (224,93m). The pastures showed high interspersion<br />
<strong>and</strong> juxtaposition index (95,41%). This index was 63,82% for grassl<strong>and</strong>s <strong>and</strong> 49,38% for the<br />
forest class.<br />
The results for the surrounding area are presented in Table 2. The total surrounding l<strong>and</strong>scape<br />
comprises an area of 52.674,92ha. The pastures cover the largest area (28.561,80ha), followed<br />
by forest (16.833,28 ha) <strong>and</strong> grassl<strong>and</strong>s (31,76ha). Two small urban areas are located inside the<br />
surrounding area occupying 35,56ha. The forest cover presented the highest number of patches<br />
(334), followed by pastures (224) <strong>and</strong> grassl<strong>and</strong>s (102). The mean patch area was higher for<br />
pastures (119,00ha). For the grassl<strong>and</strong>s <strong>and</strong> forest covers the value of this variable was<br />
respectively 71,02ha <strong>and</strong> 50,39ha. Patch density was 0,63 for forest, 0,45 for pasture <strong>and</strong> 0,19<br />
for forest.<br />
Mean shape index in the surrounding area varied from 1,69 (forest) to 2,10 (grassl<strong>and</strong>s). Core<br />
area index was similar for forest (86,58%) <strong>and</strong> grassl<strong>and</strong>s (85,91%). Mean distance among<br />
patches was lower for urban area (72,11m), followed by pasture (139,73m), forest (191,37m)<br />
<strong>and</strong> grassl<strong>and</strong>s (312,11m). The highest interspersion juxtaposition index was found for<br />
grassl<strong>and</strong>s (63,82%).<br />
Considering the whole l<strong>and</strong>scape area, the forest to be preserved inside the conservation area<br />
represents 8,43% <strong>and</strong> the grassl<strong>and</strong>s 6,63%. The 6 forest <strong>and</strong> 35 grassl<strong>and</strong>s patches were<br />
equivalent to 1,76% <strong>and</strong> 25,54% of the total patches. The largest forest patch inside the<br />
conservation area (> 1.000ha) represented 0,29% <strong>and</strong> the largest grassl<strong>and</strong>s one (> 100 ha)<br />
5,83%. Regarding isolation, 50,00% of forest patches <strong>and</strong> 57,14% of grassl<strong>and</strong>s presented<br />
distances lower than 100m.<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
M.B. Horta et al. 2010. L<strong>and</strong>scape Structure of a Conservation Area <strong>and</strong> its Surroundings in Minas Gerais State, Brazil<br />
242<br />
Figure 1: L<strong>and</strong> cover map of the conservation area Mata do Limoeiro <strong>and</strong> surroundings.<br />
Table 2: L<strong>and</strong>scape metrics results for the conservation area<br />
Metrics<br />
Classes<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> Grassl<strong>and</strong>s Pasture<br />
L<strong>and</strong>scape<br />
TA (ha) 1.550,20 515,08 31,76 2.097,04<br />
PD (no./100 ha) 0,28 1,66 0,38 2,33<br />
NP 6 35 8 49<br />
AREA MN (ha) 258,36 14,71 3,97 42,79<br />
AREA (minimum – ha) 0,60 0,04 0,04 0,04<br />
AREA (maximum – ha) 1.529,20 121,00 26,68 1.529,20<br />
SHAPE MN 2,02 1,68 1,73 1,73<br />
TCA (ha) 1.437,60 393,76 21,45 1.852,84<br />
CAI (%) 92,73 78,44 67,53 93,12<br />
ENN MN (m) 224,93 109,82 164,83 132,90<br />
IJI (%) 49,38 63,82 95,41 64,04<br />
Metrics<br />
Table 3: L<strong>and</strong>scape metrics results for the surrounding area<br />
Classes<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> Grassl<strong>and</strong>s Pasture Urban Areas L<strong>and</strong>scape<br />
TA ( ha) 16.833,28 7.244,28 28.561,80 35,56 52.674,92<br />
PD (no./100 ha) 0,63 0,19 0,45 0,00 1,28<br />
NP 334 102 240 2 678<br />
AREA MN (ha) 50,39 71,02 119,00 17,78 77,69<br />
AREA (min. – ha) 0,04 0,04 0,04 9,60 0,04<br />
AREA (max. – ha) 11.190,24 3.540,96 22.580,76 25,96 22.580,76<br />
SHAPE MN 1,69 2,10 1,78 1,88 1,77<br />
TCA (ha) 14.573,72 6.223,76 23.356,88 26,20 47.180,56<br />
CAI (%) 86,58 85,91 92,28 73,68 89,57<br />
ENN MN (m) 191,37 312,11 139,73 72,11 190,55<br />
IJI (%) 51,47 62,50 49,20 16,13 52,53<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
M.B. Horta et al. 2010. L<strong>and</strong>scape Structure of a Conservation Area <strong>and</strong> its Surroundings in Minas Gerais State, Brazil<br />
243<br />
4. Discussion<br />
The l<strong>and</strong>scape structure results for the conservation site showed that the area to be preserved<br />
comprises a large amount of forest <strong>and</strong> grassl<strong>and</strong>s. These findings increase the site importance<br />
for nature conservation purposes especially considering that the area is set in the Brazil’s<br />
Atlantic <strong>Forest</strong> Dominion, a highly threatened tropical ecosystem (Conservational International<br />
2000), where conservation recommendations includes large areas, with elevate forest cover to<br />
favor species maintenance (Metzger 2009).<br />
Inside the conservation site the results of low patch number <strong>and</strong> high average area for the forest<br />
cover indicated the preservation of more continuous areas whereas in the surroundings the<br />
findings suggested concerns regarding fragmentation, especially for those areas located at the<br />
east side, closer to Itabira county. Valente (2001) found as more fragmented, in a l<strong>and</strong>scape<br />
structure study of river basins, the sites with lower mean patch area <strong>and</strong> higher patch density. As<br />
pointed out by Ji at al (2008), patch number <strong>and</strong> average area can reflect the fragmentation of a<br />
certain l<strong>and</strong>scape in some degree. <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> comprising lower mean patch area tend to be<br />
more fragmented (Mac Garigal <strong>and</strong> Marks 1995).<br />
The mean shape index results inside <strong>and</strong> outside the conservation area for the various l<strong>and</strong> cover<br />
classes indicated a prevalence of irregular patches. Valente (2001) <strong>and</strong> Jorge <strong>and</strong> Garcia (1997)<br />
found similar results for the mean shape index in forest <strong>and</strong> savannah environments. Patches<br />
characterized by larger areas tends to present more irregular shapes (Mac Garigal <strong>and</strong> Marks<br />
1995) <strong>and</strong> irregular patches with lower areas interact in a higher degree with the surrounding<br />
matrix being more susceptible to the edge effect (Valente 2001). In the present study, the<br />
characteristics of the core area might be compensating the shape. The l<strong>and</strong> cover majority inside<br />
<strong>and</strong> outside the conservation area presented high proportion of core area suggesting a larger<br />
proportion of natural vegetation with low influence of the edge effect. This is the case of the<br />
largest forest patch found inside the area to be preserved (1.529,20ha). Regarding conservation<br />
purposes, the forest patch exceeds the 250ha core area criterion suggested by Jongman (1995),<br />
for nature conservation planning in Europe.<br />
The mean distance among patches of the same l<strong>and</strong> cover inside the conservation area was<br />
highest for forests <strong>and</strong> in the surroundings for grassl<strong>and</strong>s. Considering that approximately half<br />
of the patches of natural vegetation inside the conservation area presented low mean distances, a<br />
relative aggregation <strong>and</strong> low isolation among patches is occurring. Low isolation enables a<br />
better influx of animals, seeds <strong>and</strong> pollen improving dispersion <strong>and</strong> biological diversity (Forman<br />
& Godron 1986).<br />
The highest interspersion <strong>and</strong> juxtaposition index inside the conservation area was found for the<br />
pastures. This l<strong>and</strong> cover type showed consequently a higher adjacency to the other patch types<br />
indicating a potential impact risk, since inappropriate fencing system coupled with free grazing,<br />
may favor invasive species colonization <strong>and</strong> damages to the seed bank.<br />
The surrounding area may work well as a buffer zone <strong>and</strong> enhance the flux among patches,<br />
given the richness in patches found. Nevertheless, the fragmentation trend especially on the east<br />
side <strong>and</strong> the large amount of pastures has to be considered. As pointed out by Jongman (1995)<br />
nature conservation sustainability must be supported by policies on buffering external<br />
influences <strong>and</strong> integrating functions, where possible.<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
M.B. Horta et al. 2010. L<strong>and</strong>scape Structure of a Conservation Area <strong>and</strong> its Surroundings in Minas Gerais State, Brazil<br />
244<br />
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L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecolgoy <strong>and</strong> GIS. Taylor & Francis, London, New York, Philadelphia: 23-36.<br />
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Forman, R.T.T. <strong>and</strong> Godron, M., 1986. L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology. New York: John Wiley. 619 p.<br />
Griffith, G.A., Martinko, E.A. <strong>and</strong> Price, K.P., 2000. L<strong>and</strong>scape analysis of Kansas at three<br />
scales. L<strong>and</strong>scape <strong>and</strong> Urban Planning, 52: 45-61.<br />
Haines-Young, R. <strong>and</strong> Chopping, M., 1996. Quantifying l<strong>and</strong>scape structure: a review of<br />
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Ji, J., Yuanyuan, C., Wunian, Y. <strong>and</strong> Yanian,K., 2008. Analysis <strong>and</strong> evaluation of l<strong>and</strong>scape<br />
pattern of Songpan county with remote sensing <strong>and</strong> GIS. The International Archives of<br />
the Photogrammetry, Remote Sensing <strong>and</strong> Spatial Information Sciences, 37: 1143-1148.<br />
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networks. L<strong>and</strong>scape <strong>and</strong> Urban Planning, 32: 169-183.<br />
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Management, 98: 35-47.<br />
Lele, U., Vianna, V., Verissimo, A., Vosti, S., Perkins, K. <strong>and</strong> Husain, S.A., 2000. Brazil.<br />
<strong>Forest</strong>s in balance: Challenges of conservation with development. Evaluation Country<br />
Case Studies Series. The World Bank. Washington D.C.<br />
Mac Garigal, K. <strong>and</strong> Marks, B.J., 1995. Fragstats: Spatial Pattern Analysis Program for<br />
Quantifying L<strong>and</strong>scape Structure. Gen.Tech.Report.US Department of<br />
Agriculture.Pacific Northwest Research Station. 122p.<br />
Metzger, J.P., 2009. Conservation issues in the Brazilian Atlantic <strong>Forest</strong>. Conservation Biology,<br />
142:1138-1140.<br />
Noss, R.F. <strong>and</strong> Harris, L.D., 1986.Nodes, networks <strong>and</strong> MUMs: preserving diversity at all<br />
scales. Environmental Management, 10: 299-209.<br />
Radambrasil, 1987. Geologia, geomorfologia, pedologia, vegetação e uso potencial da terra.<br />
Folha SE 24, Rio Doce.<br />
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( Vol. 2). São Paulo: Hucitec - Edusp.<br />
Turner, M.G., 1989. L<strong>and</strong>scape ecology: the effect of pattern on process. Annual Review of<br />
Ecology <strong>and</strong> Systematics, 20:191-197.<br />
Turner, M.G. <strong>and</strong> Gardner, R.H., 1990. Quantitative methods in L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology: An<br />
Introduction. In: Monica G. Turner <strong>and</strong> Robert H. Gardner (Eds.). Quantitative methods<br />
in L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology: the analysis <strong>and</strong> interpretation of l<strong>and</strong>scape<br />
heterogeneity.Ecological Studies, Vol. 82. Springer-Verlag, New York: 3-14.<br />
Turner, M.G., 2005. L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology: what is the state of the science.<br />
Annu.Rev.Ecol.Evol.Syst.36:319-344.<br />
Valente, R.O.A., 2001. Análise da estrutura da paisagem no rio Corumbataí, SP.<br />
Unpublished Dissertação de Mestrado, Universidade de São Paulo, Piracicaba, SP.<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
J.O. López-Martínez et al. 2010. Ecological factors influencing beta diversity at two spatial scales in a tropical dry forest<br />
245<br />
Ecological factors influencing beta diversity at two spatial scales in a<br />
tropical dry forest of the Yucatán Peninsula<br />
J. Omar López-Martínez * , J. Luis Hernández-Stefanoni & Juan Manuel Dupuy<br />
Centro de Investigación Científica de Yucatán A.C. Unidad de Recursos Naturales,<br />
Calle 43 # 130. Colonia Chuburná de Hidalgo. C.P. 97200, Mérida, Yucatán, México<br />
Abstract<br />
Underst<strong>and</strong>ing the ecological factors determining beta diversity at different spatial<br />
scales is relevant for ecological theory <strong>and</strong> for conservation <strong>and</strong> management. We analyzed the<br />
relationship of beta-diversity <strong>and</strong> environmental <strong>and</strong> spatial variables at two spatial scales. We<br />
identified vegetation classes based on a supervised classification, determined species<br />
composition, <strong>and</strong> obtained soil samples from a total of 276 sites in 23 sampling l<strong>and</strong>scapes.<br />
Using vegetation classes <strong>and</strong> FRAGSTAT, we calculated patch-type metrics in each l<strong>and</strong>scape.<br />
Spatial dependence was included in the models using PCNM. Partial CCA <strong>and</strong> RDA were<br />
performed to partition variation. Soil properties, st<strong>and</strong>-age, l<strong>and</strong>scape metrics <strong>and</strong> site PCNMs<br />
were used at the local level, while l<strong>and</strong>scape metrics <strong>and</strong> l<strong>and</strong>scape PCNMs were used at the<br />
l<strong>and</strong>scape level. At the local level, space was the most important variable related to variation in<br />
species composition (48.87%), whereas at the l<strong>and</strong>scape-level, l<strong>and</strong>scape-metrics explained<br />
most (50%) of the variation in species composition.<br />
Keywords: Beta diversity; CCA; forest succession; l<strong>and</strong>scape patterns; RDA; spatial<br />
dependence<br />
1. Introduction<br />
Beta diversity refers to variation in species composition among sites within a<br />
geographic area (Legendre et al. 2005). It could be determined by different habitats along an<br />
environmental gradient, or by geographic distance within seemingly uniform habitats. In the<br />
latter case, beta diversity reflects spatial isolation among species (Halfter 1998). Beta diversity<br />
allows us to underst<strong>and</strong> how species habitats are distributed, it is also an important component<br />
in biodiversity conservation planning <strong>and</strong> management (Halfter 1998).<br />
Factors affecting species turnover <strong>and</strong> the scale at which they operate have been debated<br />
for a long time in ecology. Two of the main causal factors of beta diversity are: 1) limitation in<br />
the dispersal capacity of species that are demographically <strong>and</strong> competitively equal (neutral<br />
theory, Hubbell 2001). 2) Environmental conditions as a determinant of species presence <strong>and</strong>/or<br />
abundance (niche theory, Grubb 1977).On the other h<strong>and</strong>, it is important to note that factors<br />
affecting species turnover may vary among spatial scales (Garcia 2006).<br />
The aim of this study was to analyze the relative importance of environmental<br />
heterogeneity, st<strong>and</strong> age, l<strong>and</strong>scape structure <strong>and</strong> spatial dependence on species turnover of a<br />
tropical dry forest at two different spatial scales.<br />
* Corresponding author.<br />
Email address: jmartinez.omar@gmail.com<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
J.O. López-Martínez et al. 2010. Ecological factors influencing beta diversity at two spatial scales in a tropical dry forest<br />
246<br />
2. Methods<br />
2.1 Study Area<br />
The study was conducted in a l<strong>and</strong>scape of 22 x 16 km 2 located in the Yucatán<br />
Peninsula, México (-89.60 W, 20.01 N <strong>and</strong> -89.39 W, 20.16 N). The climate is warm<br />
subhumid, with summer rain (May-October) <strong>and</strong> a marked dry season (November-April). Mean<br />
annual temperature is ± 26°C, <strong>and</strong> mean annual precipitation ranges from 1000 to 1200 mm.<br />
Topography consists of flat areas alternating with low hills. Elevation ranges between 60 <strong>and</strong><br />
160 m.a.s.l (Flores <strong>and</strong> Espejel, 1994). The l<strong>and</strong>scape is dominated by tropical semideciduous<br />
forest of different successional ages derived from traditional agriculture (Figure 1).<br />
2.2 Remotely sensed data, imagery processing <strong>and</strong> calculation of l<strong>and</strong>scape metrics<br />
A Spot 5 satellite imagery acquired in January 2005 was geo-referenced to<br />
Universal Transverse Mercator Projection (WGS 84) <strong>and</strong> radiometrically corrected to minimize<br />
the effect of atmospheric scattering. A false color composite image was created from b<strong>and</strong>s 2<br />
(red), 3 (near infrared), <strong>and</strong> 4 (mid infrared). Training sites were selected from this image to<br />
perform the classification. The l<strong>and</strong>-cover classes consdiered were: 1) 3-8 y-old secondary<br />
forest; 2) 9-15 y-old secondary forest; 3) >15 y-old secondary forest on flat areas; 4) >15 y-old<br />
secondary forest on hills; 5) agricultural fields; 6) urban areas <strong>and</strong> roads. We used the maximum<br />
likelihood algorithm in Idrisi Kilimanjaro (Eastman, 2004), <strong>and</strong> two accuracy measures were<br />
applied to the map: the overall accuracy, <strong>and</strong> Cohen’s Kappa statistic (Campbell, 1987).<br />
We selected three l<strong>and</strong>scape metrics that can be considered as fragmentation indices:<br />
TECI (Total Edge Contrast Index), SIEI (Simpson´s Evenness Index) <strong>and</strong> LPI (Large Patch<br />
Index). The definition of these metrics is given in McGarigal et al (2002). Finally, the weighted<br />
edge contrast between vegetation cover classes required to compute total edge contrast index<br />
were calculated as the inverse values of the Morisita-Horn measures between each pair of<br />
vegetation cover classes.<br />
2.3 Species composition <strong>and</strong> environmental data.<br />
Survey sampling was performed in the summer of 2008 <strong>and</strong> 2009 during the rainy season. First,<br />
we selected 23 1 km 2 l<strong>and</strong>scapes along a fragmentation gradient. Second, we selected 12 sites<br />
using a stratified r<strong>and</strong>om sampling design using the four vegetation classes. Each site consisted<br />
of two concentric circular plots: all woody plants > 5 cm in DBH (diameter at breast (1.3 m)<br />
height), hereafter referred to as adults, were sampled in a 200 m 2 plot; whereas 1-5 cm DBH<br />
woody plants, hereafter referred to as juveniles, were sampled in a nested 50 m 2 subplot. In each<br />
site, we identified each individual <strong>and</strong> calculated the Importance Value Index (IVI) for each<br />
species. To characterize soil conditions at each site, we estimated percent stoniness <strong>and</strong><br />
collected soil samples for physical-chemical analyses: pH in water, electric conductivity<br />
(EC), soil organic matter (SOM, combustion or Walkley-Black), total nitrogen (N,<br />
Kjeldahl), available phosphorous (P, Bray), <strong>and</strong> interchangeable potassium (K).<br />
2.4 Statistical Analysis<br />
To explore general patterns of species composition, we used detrended<br />
correspondence analysis (DCA) ordination of the IVI of each species in each site or<br />
l<strong>and</strong>scape in CANOCO (4.52).<br />
Principal coordinate of neighbor matrices (PCNM) was used to account for spatial<br />
dependence (Borcard <strong>and</strong> Legendre 2002). The PCNM vectors were calculated from the<br />
location of each sampling site for local-level analyses <strong>and</strong> from the centroid of each l<strong>and</strong>scape<br />
unit for l<strong>and</strong>scape-level analyses.<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
J.O. López-Martínez et al. 2010. Ecological factors influencing beta diversity at two spatial scales in a tropical dry forest<br />
247<br />
Variation in community composition among sites was partitioned using the method of<br />
Borcard et al (1992). Four sets of explanatory variables were considered at the local level:<br />
environmental variables (soil attributes, % stoniness), l<strong>and</strong>scape structure (TECI, SIEI, LPI),<br />
spatial dependence (PCNMs), <strong>and</strong> st<strong>and</strong> age; whereas only two sets of variables were used at<br />
the l<strong>and</strong>scape level: l<strong>and</strong>scape structure <strong>and</strong> spatial dependence. To determine the amount of<br />
variation explained independently by each set of predictor variables, we performed partial<br />
constrained ordination separately for each set of variables at both levels. Due to the length of<br />
gradients, CCA was used at the local level (3.99 SD), while RDA was used at the l<strong>and</strong>scape<br />
scale (2 SD).<br />
3. Results<br />
The l<strong>and</strong> cover thematic map of the study area is shown in Figure 1. The total area<br />
occupied by this l<strong>and</strong>scape was 37,243 ha, 94.8% corresponded to tropical sub-deciduous forest<br />
in any of the four vegetation classes, whereas 5.2% corresponded to agriculture <strong>and</strong> urban areas.<br />
We obtained an overall accuracy in the supervised classification of 73.3% <strong>and</strong> the Kappa index<br />
was of 0.7.<br />
Figure 1: Location <strong>and</strong> l<strong>and</strong> cover map of the study area obtained from a supervised classification.<br />
A total of 22,262 woody individuals belonging to 204 species <strong>and</strong> 52 families were<br />
recorded in 276 sites in 23 l<strong>and</strong>scapes. Of total of sites sampled, 51 belonged at class 1, 77 to<br />
class 2, 83 to class 3 <strong>and</strong> 62 to class 4. The most abundance species was Neomillspaughia<br />
emarginata with 3,421 individuals, whereas 29 species were represented only by a single<br />
individual.<br />
3.1 Local scale.<br />
Detrended correspondence analysis at the local scale showed a large length gradient of species<br />
composition (3.99 sd; Fig. 2a). Vegetation class 4 differed significantly from the other classes.<br />
Canonical correlation analysis showed that total variation explained was 13.79%. Variation<br />
partitioning showed that space is the most important variable explaining 5.95% of species<br />
composition, followed of the soil variables with 5.83% (Table 1). Vegetation class 1 was<br />
negatively associated with organic matter (SOM), stoniness, st<strong>and</strong> age <strong>and</strong> TECI whereas<br />
vegetation class 4 showed the opposite pattern (Fig. 2b).<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
J.O. López-Martínez et al. 2010. Ecological factors influencing beta diversity at two spatial scales in a tropical dry forest<br />
248<br />
Figure 2. Ordination analysis at the local scale. (a) Detrended correspondence analysis (DCA) of the IVI<br />
of each species at each site. (b) Canonical correspondence analysis biplot for the first <strong>and</strong> second axes<br />
showing st<strong>and</strong> age, space, environmental, <strong>and</strong> l<strong>and</strong>scape structure variables.<br />
Table 1. Variation partitioning of woody plant species composition at the local scale.<br />
PREDICTOR<br />
VARIABLE<br />
MARGINAL<br />
VARIATION<br />
EXPLAINED<br />
PERCENT<br />
VARIATION<br />
EXPLAINED<br />
Soil Variables 0.49 41.56<br />
St<strong>and</strong> age 0.07 6.34<br />
Structure Metrics 0.08 6.94<br />
Space 0.50 43.10<br />
Share 0.02 2.06<br />
Total inertia explained 1.17 100<br />
Unknowledge 7.23<br />
Total Inertia 8.40<br />
3.2 L<strong>and</strong>scape scale.<br />
Detrended correspondence analysis showed a short length gradient (2 sd) of species<br />
composition. We found no clear pattern of species composition in relation to fragmentation<br />
class (Fig. 3a) (. Redundancy analysis showed that l<strong>and</strong>scape structure variables explained a<br />
greater amount of variation in species composition than space (16.5% <strong>and</strong> 13.8%, respectively;<br />
Table 2). Fragmentation class 4 was positively associated with SHEI <strong>and</strong> negatively associated<br />
with LPI, whereas fragmentation class 1 showed the opposite pattern (Fig. 3b).<br />
Figure 3. Ordination analysis at the local scale. (a) Principal components analysis (PCA) ordination of the<br />
IVI of each species in each site or l<strong>and</strong>scape. (b) Redundancy analysis biplot for the first <strong>and</strong> third axes<br />
showing Shannon´s Evenness Index (SHEI) <strong>and</strong> Large Patch Index variables.<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
J.O. López-Martínez et al. 2010. Ecological factors influencing beta diversity at two spatial scales in a tropical dry forest<br />
249<br />
Table 2. Variation partitioning of woody plant species composition at the l<strong>and</strong>scape scale.<br />
4. Discussion<br />
MARGINAL PERCENT<br />
PREDICTOR<br />
VARIABLE VARIATION VARIATION<br />
EXPLAINED EXPLAINED<br />
L<strong>and</strong>scape structure 0.17 16.5<br />
Space 0.14 13.8<br />
Shared 0.01 1.4<br />
Total inertia explained 0.32 31.7<br />
Unknown 0.68 68.3<br />
Total Inertia 1.00<br />
The amount of variation in species composition (beta diversity) was higher at the<br />
l<strong>and</strong>scape scale (32%), than at the local scale (13.89%). This indicates that differences in<br />
species composition are greater among l<strong>and</strong>scape units with varying degrees of fragmentation,<br />
compared to differences among vegetation cover classes (Figures 2a, 3a).<br />
Arroyo-Mora et al. (2005) also found differences in species composition among<br />
successional classes in neotropical dry forests.<br />
At both spatial scales, environmental factors <strong>and</strong> spatial dependence explained a similar<br />
amount of variation in species composition (Tables 1. 2). This lends support to both niche<br />
theory (environmental drivers, Grubb, 1977) <strong>and</strong> the neutral theory (based on dispersal<br />
limitation, Hubbell 2001, Chust et al. 2006). This is consistent with the recently proposed<br />
continuum hypothesis of Gravel et al. (2006), which states that both niche theory <strong>and</strong> dispersal<br />
limitation play an important role in beta diversity.<br />
Variation partition at the local scale showed that soil attributes had a higher contribution<br />
to explaining beta diversity than st<strong>and</strong> age or l<strong>and</strong>scape structure (Table 1). In particular, soil<br />
organic matter <strong>and</strong> pH were the variables most strongly associated with change in species<br />
composition (Figure 2b). At the l<strong>and</strong>scape scale, l<strong>and</strong>scape structure was the most important<br />
contributor to beta diversity (Table 2). The large patch index (LPI), which was the variable most<br />
strongly associated with beta diversity, was also positively associated with the least disturbed<br />
l<strong>and</strong>scape units (Figure 3b). These results concur with other studies indicating that species<br />
composition is affected by several factors <strong>and</strong> process operating at different spatial scales<br />
(Leibold, 2006, Hubbell, 2001, Parker, 2004).<br />
Although there were fewer environmental <strong>and</strong> space variables explaining species<br />
composition at the l<strong>and</strong>scape scale than at the local scale, the variation explained by these<br />
variables was more than double at the l<strong>and</strong>scape scale compared to the local scale (31.7% versus<br />
13.8%). This may suggest that disturbance has a greater influence on woody species<br />
composition than vegetation cover.<br />
References<br />
Arroyo-Mora J.P., Sánchez-Azofeifa G.A., Kalácska M., Rivard B. <strong>and</strong> Janzen D.H. 2005.<br />
Secondary forest detection in a Neotropical dry forest using L<strong>and</strong>sat 7 ETM+ imagery.<br />
Biotropica, 37 (4): 497-507.<br />
Borcard, D. <strong>and</strong> Legendre, P., 2002. All-scale spatial analysis of ecological data by means of<br />
principal coordinates of neighbour matrices. Ecological Modelling, 153: 51-68.<br />
Borcard, D., Legendre, P. Drapeau, P., 1992. Partialling out the Spatial Component of<br />
Ecological Variation. Ecology, 73(3): 1045-1055.<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
J.O. López-Martínez et al. 2010. Ecological factors influencing beta diversity at two spatial scales in a tropical dry forest<br />
250<br />
Chust, G., Chave, J., et al. 2006. Determinants <strong>and</strong> spatial modeling of tree β-diversity in a<br />
tropical forest l<strong>and</strong>scape in Panama. Journal of Vegetation Science, 17: 83-92.<br />
Eastman, R. 1987-2004. Idrisi (kilimanjaro) 14.02. Clark Labs, Clark University 950 Main<br />
Street, Worcester MA.<br />
Flores, S. & Espejel, I., 1994. Tipos de vegetación de la Península de Yucatán. Fascículo de la<br />
Etnoflora Yucatanense. Univ. Aut. de Yucatán. UADY.<br />
García, D., 2006. La escala y su importancia en el análisis espacial." ecosistemas. Revista<br />
Científica de Ecología y Medio Ambiente, 15(3): 7-18.<br />
Gravel, D., Canham, D. et al, 2006. Reconciling niche <strong>and</strong> neutrality: the continuum hypothesis.<br />
Ecology Letters, 9(399-409).<br />
Grubb, P. J., 1977. The maintenance of species-richness in plant communities: the importance<br />
of the regeneration niche. Biological reviews, 52(1): 107-145.<br />
Hubbell, S.P. (2001). The Unified Neutral Theory of Biodiversity <strong>and</strong> Biogeography. Princeton<br />
University Press.<br />
Legendre, P., D. Borcard, Peres-Neto, P. R., 200. Analyzing beta diversity: partitioning the<br />
spatial variation of community composition data. Ecological Monographs, 75(4): 435-<br />
450.<br />
Leibold, M. A. <strong>and</strong> McPeek, M. A., 2006. Coexistence of the niche <strong>and</strong> neutral perspectives in<br />
community ecology. Ecology, 87(6): 1399-1410.<br />
McGarigal, K., Cushman, S.A., Neel, M.C., Ene, E., 2002. FRAGSTATS: Spatial Pattern<br />
Analysis Program for Categorical Maps. Computer software program produced by the<br />
authors at the University of Massachusetts, Amherst available at the following web site:<br />
http://www.umass.edu/l<strong>and</strong>eco/research/fragstats/fragstats.html.<br />
Parker, V. T., 2004. The community of an individual: implications for the community concept.<br />
OIKOS, 104: 27-34.<br />
Halffte, G., 1998. Una estrategia para medir la biodiversidad a nivel de pasiaje. In: Halffter, G<br />
(Ed.). La diversidad biológica de Iberoamérica Vol. II. Acta Zoologica Mexicana, nueva<br />
serie. Volumen especial: 3-17.<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
Sara Marques et al. 2010. Impact of roads on ungulate species: a preliminary approach in Portugal<br />
251<br />
Impact of roads on ungulate species: a preliminary approach in<br />
Portugal<br />
Sara Marques 1,* , Catarina Ferreira 1 , Rogério Rodrigues 2 , Jorge Cancela 3 & Carlos<br />
Fonseca 1<br />
1 Biology Department & C<strong>ESA</strong>M, University of Aveiro, 3810-193 Aveiro, Portugal<br />
2 Northern Regional Direction of <strong>Forest</strong>s, National <strong>Forest</strong>ry Authority, 5000-567 Vila Real,<br />
Portugal<br />
3 Central Regional Direction of <strong>Forest</strong>s, National <strong>Forest</strong>ry Authority, 3500-093 Viseu,<br />
Portugal<br />
Abstract<br />
The impact of linear infrastructures, particularly the roads on wildlife, has been one of the<br />
highlight themes of a new field of knowledge that combine Conservation Biology <strong>and</strong> modern<br />
Engineering Sciences. The impacts of roads in the ecological l<strong>and</strong>scape include habitat loss,<br />
fragmentation <strong>and</strong> degradation, barrier effect, wildlife vehicle-collisions, among others longterm<br />
effects. Wildlife vehicle-collisions represent an additive source of mortality to wildlife<br />
populations in addiction to natural mortality, such as predation <strong>and</strong> disease. This preliminary<br />
approach reveals the importance of variables involved in vehicle collisions with ungulate<br />
species in northern <strong>and</strong> central Portugal, such as road type, time of the day <strong>and</strong> season of the<br />
year. In this study the majority of accidents occured with wild boar at national roads (EN),<br />
during the night <strong>and</strong> principally in winter <strong>and</strong> August. These studies are very important in order<br />
to prevent <strong>and</strong> mitigate effects of vehicle-collisions on large animal populations.<br />
Keywords: ungulate vehicle-collisions; wild boar; red deer; roe deer; central <strong>and</strong> northern<br />
Portugal<br />
1. Introduction<br />
The references of wildlife vehicle-collisions began on the 1920’ <strong>and</strong> 30’ by some researchers,<br />
<strong>and</strong> very few of these early studies found ungulate causalities (Gagnon et al. 2007). From 1970’<br />
big game species, such as ungulates, became a concern as traffic levels <strong>and</strong> vehicle speeds<br />
increased, leading to higher rates of ungulate vehicle-collisions. Research of potential direct <strong>and</strong><br />
indirect effects of roads <strong>and</strong> traffic on ungulates populations start on that time. There are many<br />
studies about this subject (Christie & Nason 2003, Seiler 2004, Huijser et al. 2009, Apollonio et<br />
al. 2010). Actually we know that roads <strong>and</strong> traffic associated have many primary effects on wild<br />
ungulates populations <strong>and</strong> ecological l<strong>and</strong>scape, as mortality caused by ungulate-vehicle<br />
collisions, habitat loss, fragmentation, <strong>and</strong> degradation, decreased movement across roadways<br />
leading to habitat fragmentation <strong>and</strong> potentially genetic isolation, recognized as barrier effect,<br />
among others long-term effects (Gagnon et al. 2007; Huijser et al. 2009).<br />
Roads, in general, are a great linear feature within the l<strong>and</strong>scape directly impacting wildlife<br />
populations through vehicle collisions. The ungulate vehicle-collisions often result in injuries or<br />
* Corresponding author.<br />
Email addresse: sara.marques@ua.pt<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
Sara Marques et al. 2010. Impact of roads on ungulate species: a preliminary approach in Portugal<br />
252<br />
fatalities to vehicle occupants, significant property damage, <strong>and</strong> animal deaths that represent an<br />
additive source of mortality to wildlife populations, in addition to other mortality, such as<br />
predation <strong>and</strong> disease (Christie <strong>and</strong> Nason 2004, Seiler 2004). Road mortality affects the<br />
individual animals <strong>and</strong> also some species at the population level which may create a serious<br />
reduction in population survival probability, affecting the entire ecosystem (Bruinderink <strong>and</strong><br />
Hazebroek 1996; Huijser 2009). Further, these collisions are a considerable threat to traffic<br />
safety, socio-economics, animal welfare, <strong>and</strong> wildlife management <strong>and</strong> conservation (Christie<br />
<strong>and</strong> Nason 2004; Seiler 2004; Huijser 2009).<br />
Some researchers state that the increasing traffic levels are the primary reason for number grow<br />
of ungulate vehicle-collisions but many recognize traffic level as a component of this increase,<br />
along others factors such as wildlife population fluctuations, wildlife behavior, driver behavior<br />
<strong>and</strong> temporal <strong>and</strong> spatial environmental factors (Gagnon et al. 2007).<br />
In Portugal there is a lack of information about this subject but we know that the wild ungulate<br />
populations, as wild boar (Sus scrofa), red deer (Cervus elaphus) <strong>and</strong> roe deer (Capreolus<br />
capreolus) tend to increase in a generalized way (Vingada et al. 2010). Some populations have<br />
been dispersing into historical areas like coastal <strong>and</strong> urban areas. It’s just at this range, where<br />
human presence is more intense, causing impacts on these species.<br />
This study aimed to put in evidence some variables involved in car accidents with ungulates in<br />
central <strong>and</strong> northern Portugal, <strong>and</strong> the conclusions obtained may be important to help the<br />
mitigation of ungulate-vehicle collisions <strong>and</strong> ungulate habitat fragmentation because it could<br />
potentially be used by roads designers <strong>and</strong> planners to avoid potentially hazardous areas in<br />
future roads development or new roadway design or to identify appropriate preventive measures.<br />
The findings could also potentially be used to identify “black points” on existing routes that are<br />
involved in many ungulate-vehicle accidents <strong>and</strong> should be the focus of mitigate procedures.<br />
2. Methodology<br />
Ungulate vehicle-collisions data was acquired from the National <strong>Forest</strong>ry Authority (AFN) of<br />
the Portuguese Ministry of Agriculture, particularly the services at central <strong>and</strong> northern Portugal<br />
(Central Regional Direction of <strong>Forest</strong>s (DRFC) <strong>and</strong> Northern Regional Direction of <strong>Forest</strong>s<br />
(DRFN)). Many of this data belong to the National Policy whose reports wildlife vehiclecollisions<br />
cases to AFN.<br />
Data used for this work include the districts of Aveiro, Braga, Bragança, Castelo Branco,<br />
Coimbra, Guarda, Leiria, Portalegre, Porto, Viana do Castelo, Vila Real <strong>and</strong> Viseu. The<br />
information was collected during 10 years, from 1999 to 2009. However data from 1999 <strong>and</strong><br />
2000 are unreliable, as well as in 2008 <strong>and</strong> 2009. During these two last years, the lack of<br />
information can be explain by the few number of cases that arrives to AFN. Probably some of<br />
them will be received soon.<br />
A database with important information as the species involved in the accident, local, the road<br />
type, date, particularly the month <strong>and</strong> year, <strong>and</strong> time of day was created. This study involves<br />
three ungulate species, wild boar (Sus scrofa), red deer (Cervus elaphus) <strong>and</strong> roe deer<br />
(Capreolus capreolus) <strong>and</strong> are considered six different road types namely national roads (EN),<br />
municipal roads (EM), high speed roads (A), complementary roads (IC), main roads (IP) <strong>and</strong><br />
forestry ways (CF). The times of day (dawn, day, evening <strong>and</strong> night) was defined according to<br />
the seasons with specific hour range.<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
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253<br />
The information contained in database was subjected of a basic statistical analysis as the<br />
collisions’ percentage with wild boar, roe deer <strong>and</strong> roe deer, to underst<strong>and</strong> which the ungulate’s<br />
species are more affected by the vehicle accidents; collisions’ percentage in the different types<br />
of roads, to evidence the importance of the selected l<strong>and</strong>scape variables to make the area more<br />
or less susceptible to these types of accidents; collisions’ percentage at different time of the day<br />
<strong>and</strong> months of year (date), to underst<strong>and</strong> the relation of road type to ungulate movements <strong>and</strong><br />
behaviour.<br />
3. Results<br />
According to our data, the majority of the ungulate vehicle-collisions with tractable information<br />
occurred with wild boar (86%), followed by roe deer (9%) <strong>and</strong> lastly the red deer with 5% of the<br />
cases (Figure 1).<br />
Figure 1: Percentage of ungulate vehicle-collisions per species in central <strong>and</strong> northern Portugal.<br />
Taking into account the road type (Figure 2) it is evident that the majority of ungulate vehiclecollisions<br />
occurred at national roads (EN), with 131 cases among 186, which corresponds to<br />
70,4% of the cases, followed by municipal roads (EM) (12,9%), high speed roads (A) (9,1%),<br />
main road (IP) (5,4%) <strong>and</strong> complementary roads (IC) <strong>and</strong> forestry way (CF) with 2 accidents<br />
each one (1,1%).<br />
Figure 2: Ungulate vehicle-collisions in different road types (EN; EM; A; IP; IC; CF) in central <strong>and</strong><br />
northern Portugal<br />
The distribution of ungulate vehicle-collisions throughout the months of the year showed that<br />
the majority of accidents occurred in winter, particularly in the months of November (19,5%),<br />
December (13,3%) <strong>and</strong> January (13,8%) <strong>and</strong> in summer its visible a peak in August (10,8)<br />
(Figure 3).<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
Sara Marques et al. 2010. Impact of roads on ungulate species: a preliminary approach in Portugal<br />
254<br />
Figure 3: Distribution of ungulate vehicle-collisions over the months of the year (1999 to 2009) in central<br />
<strong>and</strong> northern Portugal.<br />
Day time analysis highlights the nigh period that concentrate the biggest ungulate<br />
vehicle-collisions number with 129 cases (70,9%). The accidents involving ungulates<br />
occurred in the evening showed a smaller but still relevant peak with 27 cases of the<br />
182 (14,8%) (Figure 4).<br />
The number of accidents during the dawn <strong>and</strong> day are the less expressive, corresponding<br />
both to 14,3% of the total ungulate vehicle-collisions in central <strong>and</strong> northern Portugal.<br />
Figure 4: Ungulate vehicle-collisions at different time of day (dawn; day; evening; night) in central <strong>and</strong><br />
northern Portugal (1999-2009 years interval).<br />
4. Discussion<br />
Linear infrastructures like roads <strong>and</strong> the traffic associated have impacts on wildlife <strong>and</strong><br />
particularly in this case, in ungulate species. To underst<strong>and</strong> the size of the problem it’s<br />
imperative to monitor roads kills, on a national scale, <strong>and</strong> comprehend the various parameters<br />
involved in the accidents.<br />
Our data support that in Portugal the wild boar was the most affected wild ungulate in central<br />
<strong>and</strong> northern Portugal with 86% of the vehicle-collisions, <strong>and</strong> in all districts of the study area<br />
this ungulate species was the most affected target because it’s the ungulate more widely<br />
distributed in Continental Portugal, occupying almost the entire national territory except for<br />
large urban settlements <strong>and</strong> some coastal areas (Vingada et al. 2010).<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
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255<br />
Roe deer’s collisions correspond to a 9% of amount cases, which support the reduced number of<br />
animals killed by cars. Population estimates show that current populations of roe deer in<br />
Portugal include between 3000 <strong>and</strong> 5000 animals (Vingada et al. 2010), with the highest<br />
densities concentrated in the northern region of the country where the roe deer collisions were<br />
higher (districts of Braga, Viana do Castelo <strong>and</strong> Bragança).<br />
The red deer vehicle-collisions correspond to a 5% of the cases which proof the reduced <strong>and</strong><br />
scattered distribution of this animal at Portugal (Vingada et al. 2010). The data of red deer<br />
collisions were mostly in the districts of Coimbra, Viseu, Bragança, Viana do Castelo <strong>and</strong><br />
Castelo Branco which is according to dispersed Portuguese northern <strong>and</strong> central populations<br />
(Tejo Internationa, Lousã <strong>and</strong> Montesinho).<br />
According to the analysis of road type the majority of ungulate vehicle-collisions occurred at<br />
National Roads (EN), with overwhelming percentage of 70,4%, probably due to the high traffic<br />
volume <strong>and</strong> bad road conditions. The lower number of accidents with ungulate in main roads<br />
(IP), complementary roads (IC) <strong>and</strong> high speed road (A) could be explained by the existence of<br />
lateral road protections (fences) in both sides of the road which avoid the invasion of wild<br />
animals. Only two cases of wildlife vehicle-collisions were recorded in forestry ways (CF)<br />
because this type of road has not regularly traffic, although of the bad conditions.<br />
The majority of ungulate vehicle-collisions occurred in winter, particularly in November,<br />
December <strong>and</strong> January. This can be explained by the fact that the big game hunting period is<br />
mainly from October to February <strong>and</strong> it’s precisely in this time of the year that the animals are<br />
more restless (Fonseca <strong>and</strong> Correia 2008). The August ungulate-vehicle collisions’ peak can be<br />
derived from the holiday’s traffic growth in Portugal.<br />
As expected the overwhelming percentage of accidents occurred at night (70,9%) because it’s<br />
precisely the time of the day that the ungulates are more active (Apollonio et al. 2010). During<br />
the dawn, day <strong>and</strong> evening the number of accidents involving ungulates are smaller.<br />
This study indicates that there are some variables that can contribute to the ungulate vehiclecollisions<br />
increase such as the road type, time of the day <strong>and</strong> month of the year. The first<br />
variable can be amended by man in the sense of prevent <strong>and</strong> mitigate the accidents with wildlife,<br />
particularly involving large animals, such as ungulates, but the second concerns to the biology<br />
<strong>and</strong> behaviour of animals.<br />
Gradually there is a growing concern in the road planning <strong>and</strong> implementation, according to the<br />
measures to prevent <strong>and</strong> mitigate the impacts on wildlife. The design of infrastructures in the<br />
l<strong>and</strong>scape has an enormous relevance to wildlife because it causes mainly the fragmentation of<br />
available ungulate habitat <strong>and</strong> resulting in a diminished habitat connectivity <strong>and</strong> permeability.<br />
Mitigations measures that include wildlife crossing structures not only substantially reduce road<br />
mortality, but also allow movements of animals across the road (Huijser et al. 2009). Properly<br />
designed wildlife crossing structures may help to reduce the barrier effect of roads while<br />
decrease ungulate vehicle-collisions (Gagnon et al. 2007). This connectivity is essential to<br />
survival probability of the fragmented populations of some species, in determinate regions. As<br />
referred by Seiler (2004) if these measures will be combined with traffic adjustments, such as<br />
reduced speed limits, rerouting of traffic flow or improvement of features roads, traffic safety<br />
may further be improved <strong>and</strong> the collisions with wildlife will reduce.<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
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Engineering, Moncton, New Brunswick, 11p.<br />
Fonseca, C. <strong>and</strong> Correira, F., 2008. O Javali: património natural transmontano. João Azevedo<br />
Editor (1ª edição), Mir<strong>and</strong>ela, Portugal, 168p.<br />
Gagnon, J., Schweinsburg, R. <strong>and</strong> Dodd, N., 2007. Effects of roadway traffic on wild ungulates:<br />
a review of the literature <strong>and</strong> case study of Elk in Arizona. In Proccedings of the 2007<br />
International Conference on Ecology <strong>and</strong> Transportation, edited by C. Leroy Irwin,<br />
Debra Nelson <strong>and</strong> K.P. Mcdermott. Raleigh, NC: Center for Transportation <strong>and</strong> the<br />
Environment, North Carolina State University, 449-458p.<br />
Huijser, M., Duffield, J., Clevenger, A., Ament, R. <strong>and</strong> McGowen, P., 2009. Cost-benefit<br />
analysis of mitigation measures aimed at reducing collisions with large ungulates in the<br />
United Satates <strong>and</strong> Canada: a decision support tool. Ecology <strong>and</strong> Society, 14(2): 15.<br />
Seiler, A., 2004. Trends <strong>and</strong> spatial patterns in ungulate-vehicle collisions in Sweden. Wildlife<br />
Biology, 10(4): 301-313.<br />
Vingada, J., Fonseca, C., Cancela, J., Ferreira, J. <strong>and</strong> Eira, C., 2010. Ungulates <strong>and</strong> their<br />
Management in Portugal. In: Apollonio, M., Andersen, R. & Putman, R.J. (Eds.)<br />
European Ungulates <strong>and</strong> their Management in the 21st Century. Cambridge University<br />
Press: 392-418.<br />
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Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
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Electrical network hazard assessment for the avifauna in Portugal<br />
Miguel G. C. Martins 1 & José Aranha 1,2*<br />
1 Departamento de Ciências Florestais e Arquitectura Paisagista, Universidade de Trásos-Montes<br />
e Alto Douro, 5001-801 Vila Real<br />
2 CITAB, Universidade de Trás-os-Montes e Alto Douro, 5001-801 Vila Real<br />
Abstract<br />
The suspended electrical network represents a danger to the birds’ wildlife conservation, both<br />
because of the possibility of collision <strong>and</strong> electrocution. L<strong>and</strong> use type is strictly related to<br />
birds’ presence, eating habits <strong>and</strong> nesting. This way they are factors that are directly related to<br />
collision <strong>and</strong> electrocution hazards.<br />
This work was based on the occurrences geographical position <strong>and</strong> the location of suspended<br />
electrical network. The available data were used to create a GIS in order to calculate hazard<br />
maps, by means of geostatistical processes <strong>and</strong> multivariate analysis.<br />
The final results indicate that approximately 46% of the total (km) electrical network analysed<br />
are classified with the two higher hazard classes in the case of electrocution, <strong>and</strong> about 40% in<br />
the case of collision. The classification maps show that the danger of electrocution is greatest in<br />
the central <strong>and</strong> southern Portugal, <strong>and</strong> the danger of collision is higher in the central region.<br />
Keywords: Avifauna; Collision, Electrocution; Hazard Assessment, GIS<br />
1. Introduction<br />
In the year of 2003, four Portuguese entities: the Portuguese enterprise for electrical energy<br />
(EDP – Electricidade De Portugal), the Portuguese Institute for Nature Conservation (ICN –<br />
Instituto da Conservação da Natureza), the National Association for Nature Conservation<br />
(Quercus - Associação Nacional de Conservação da Natureza) <strong>and</strong> the Portuguese Society for<br />
Birds Survey (SPEA - Sociedade Portuguesa para o Estudo das Aves), signed up a protocol, in<br />
order to analyse the relationship between the Portuguese electrical network (high <strong>and</strong> middle<br />
power) <strong>and</strong> the birds’ wildlife conservation.<br />
This research project was derived for entire continental Portugal, with special attention to areas<br />
under special protection areas (SPA’s) for birds nesting <strong>and</strong> migration (ZPE - Zonas de<br />
Protecção Especial) <strong>and</strong> areas classified Important Bird Areas (IBA’s), whish represent<br />
1372966 ha.<br />
The study sought to characterize, in general, the impacts of the electrical power network on the<br />
avifauna, in the identification <strong>and</strong> classification of power lines <strong>and</strong> their wire supports, in order<br />
to create a hazard index (Br<strong>and</strong>ão et al. 2005; Martins 2009).<br />
The results from a research project derived in Spain showed that the use of orange PVC spirals<br />
along electrical power wire network leaded to a decrease in 60% of birds’ collision to electrical<br />
wire. The results also showed that the use of these orange PVC spirals reduced the number of<br />
birds flying between suspended electrical wire leading birds to fly over or under electrical<br />
power wire network (Ferrer & Janss, 1999).<br />
* Corresponding author; Tel.: + 00 351 259 350 856 - Fax: + 00 351 250 350 480<br />
Email address : j.aranha.utad@gmail.com<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
M.G.C. Martins & J. Aranha 2010. Electrical network hazard assessment for the avifauna in Portugal<br />
258<br />
Results from a 25 year research in USA, showed that the use of non conductive materials for<br />
isolate the ground wire from the phase conductor wire or the distance enlargement between<br />
these two electrical wire, leaded to a significant decrease in birds of prey dead, such as eagles<br />
<strong>and</strong> hawk, by electrocution. Another important result is related to birds’ propensity to nest on<br />
the suspension towers of electric network. This way, the researchers proposed the use of l<strong>and</strong>ing<br />
<strong>and</strong>/or nesting platforms erected over towers ends (James & Haak 1979).<br />
The aim of this paper is to present the results from a Geographical Information System created<br />
to analyse the relationship between the Portuguese electrical network (high <strong>and</strong> middle power)<br />
<strong>and</strong> the birds’ wildlife conservation (Scott et al. 1972; Meyer 1978; James & Haak 1979;<br />
Beaulaurier 1981; Burrough 1987; Janns & Ferrer 1998; Bernhardsen 1999; Janss 2000).<br />
The study was conducted for entire continental Portugal <strong>and</strong> was developed in protected areas,<br />
IBAs <strong>and</strong> SPAs (see Figure 1), in a total area of, approximately, 1 409 365ha (Br<strong>and</strong>ão et al.<br />
2005). They are, in this territory, the most important sites for wild birds, bringing together more<br />
than 90% of the national population of at least 21 species of Annex I of Birds Directive. In order<br />
to improve the management of fieldwork, the study area was divided into 4 sampling zones <strong>and</strong><br />
data were collected along 61 senses performed on sections selected for the study of hazard rates,<br />
the frequency estimates for birds <strong>and</strong> species diversity (Br<strong>and</strong>ão et al. 2005).<br />
Figure 1: Study area location [Adapted from Portuguese Environment Atlas 2009]<br />
2. Methodology<br />
For a year, all incidents relating to birds killed or injured by the electric network, within<br />
protected areas, natural parks <strong>and</strong> national parks, have been reported, recorded its position with<br />
a GPS <strong>and</strong> recorded the nature of death or injury. The information collected was recorded in a<br />
database, which was used to create a geographic information system.<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
M.G.C. Martins & J. Aranha 2010. Electrical network hazard assessment for the avifauna in Portugal<br />
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In a second stage, the GIS was updated with information concerning:<br />
• Portuguese electrical network<br />
• Portuguese Roads network<br />
• Settlements Location<br />
• L<strong>and</strong> use <strong>and</strong> l<strong>and</strong> cover map<br />
• Digital Elevation Model<br />
In the third stage, using 3D Analyst <strong>and</strong> Spatial Analyst Tools, the recorded information was<br />
processed in order to calculate:<br />
• L<strong>and</strong> slope <strong>and</strong> aspect<br />
• Distances to water bodies<br />
• Distance to road network<br />
The fourd stage was dedicated to geodata analysis <strong>and</strong> multivariate statistics calculation. They<br />
were used Principal Components Analysis, Cluster Analisys <strong>and</strong> Geostatistical Analysis, in<br />
order to stablish a relationship between the Portuguese electrical network (high <strong>and</strong> middle<br />
power), environmental characteristics <strong>and</strong> the birds’ wildlife conservation (Morrison, 1991;<br />
Reis, 1997; Hoef et al, 2001; Soares 2006).<br />
Results from previous present stages were, then, used to create collition <strong>and</strong> electrocution<br />
hazard maps for IBAs <strong>and</strong> SPAs<br />
3. Result<br />
Results from data management shown that the frequency of deaths is higher in Steppe l<strong>and</strong> <strong>and</strong><br />
Agroforestry areas. Tables 1 <strong>and</strong> 2 summarizes all deaths by type of habitat <strong>and</strong> electrical power<br />
line hazard level.<br />
Table 1: Deaths by type of habitat<br />
Habitat (class code) Total (n) %<br />
Steppe (1) 110 28.06<br />
Shrub l<strong>and</strong> (2) 32 8.16<br />
<strong>Forest</strong>ed l<strong>and</strong> (3) 51 13.01<br />
Inl<strong>and</strong> wetl<strong>and</strong>s (4) 16 4.08<br />
Coastal wetl<strong>and</strong>s (5) 5 1.28<br />
Agroforestry mosaic (6) 174 44.39<br />
Other (e.g. bare soil) (7) 4 1.02<br />
Total 392 100.00<br />
Results from Principal Components Analysis revealed a positive correlation between the<br />
number of deaths <strong>and</strong> the number of power line network planes <strong>and</strong> a negative correlation to<br />
distance to roads. This could indicate that the "mortality rate" increases as "distance to roads,"<br />
decreases because power line network is often parallel to road network <strong>and</strong> birds need to cross<br />
roads for feeding in around l<strong>and</strong>.<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
M.G.C. Martins & J. Aranha 2010. Electrical network hazard assessment for the avifauna in Portugal<br />
260<br />
Table 2: Electrical power line classification, according to hazard level<br />
Electrocution<br />
Collision<br />
Class Death_class Number of lines Length (km) Length (%)<br />
1 [0 ; 0,83] 6447 1597,375 9,21<br />
2 [0,83 ; 1,66] 4386 1698,577 9,79<br />
3 [1,66 ; 2,49] 14926 6024,488 34,72<br />
4 [2,49 ; 3,33] 11267 4899,044 28,24<br />
5 [3,33 ; 4,16] 8223 3130,009 18,04<br />
1 [0 ; 1,32] 6248 2649,333 17,28<br />
2 [1,32 ; 2,65] 9360 3439,777 22,46<br />
3 [2,65 ; 3,97] 10557 3761,530 24,53<br />
4 [3,97 ; 5,30] 6365 2356,527 15,37<br />
5 [5,30 ; 6,63] 7685 3128,657 20,40<br />
Final results enable to state that Portuguese country areas with lower degree of birds’ electric<br />
shock danger are: the north <strong>and</strong> part of the center, as well as the southwestern district of Lisbon,<br />
<strong>and</strong> the coastline of the districts of Setúbal <strong>and</strong> Beja.<br />
In the districts of Guarda, Castelo Branco; Bragança, Braga, Porto, Portalegre, Santarém (North),<br />
Setubal <strong>and</strong> Viana do Castelo dominates the middle class of danger (see Figure 1 for location).<br />
The regions under high hazard level are: the districts of Évora, Santarém (South), Lisboa<br />
(northeast) Beja (central <strong>and</strong> northern) <strong>and</strong> Faro.<br />
According to the power line network characteristics <strong>and</strong> location, the south of Portugal is the<br />
results most concern as well the central coast.<br />
4. Discussion<br />
The objectives of this study were successfully achieved. The entire power line net work was<br />
classified <strong>and</strong> analysed, for the entire country, the relationship between power network <strong>and</strong><br />
environmental characteristics, with special relevance for Natural Regions <strong>and</strong> Protected Areas.<br />
We would like to highlight the following results:<br />
the worst case scenario, related to collision hazard, indicates that the high <strong>and</strong> very high hazard<br />
classes of collision are present in more than 36% of the total analysed kilometres,<br />
for electrocution hazard, the worst forecast indicates the prevalence of high <strong>and</strong> very high<br />
hazard classes in approximately 50% of the total analysed kilometres.<br />
These results are worrying in terms of ecology, <strong>and</strong> should wherever possible, be eliminated or<br />
minimised in order to reduce negative effects on avifauna,<br />
for Natural Regions <strong>and</strong> Protected Areas, the results indicate that the high <strong>and</strong> very high hazard<br />
classes of collision are present in more than 43% of the total analysed kilometres, the high <strong>and</strong><br />
very high hazard classes of electrocution are present in more than 34% of the total analysed<br />
kilometres <strong>and</strong> 43% classified as middle class.<br />
References<br />
Bernhardsen, T. 1999. Geographical Information Systems, an introduction – Second<br />
Edition. John Wiley & Sons, Inc. New York. U.S.A.<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
M.G.C. Martins & J. Aranha 2010. Electrical network hazard assessment for the avifauna in Portugal<br />
261<br />
Beaulaurier, D. L. 1981. Mitigation or bird collision with transmission lines. Bonneville<br />
Power Administration. U.S. Department of Energy. Portl<strong>and</strong>. U.S.A<br />
Burrough, P. A. 1987. Principles of geographical information systems for l<strong>and</strong><br />
resources assessment. Oxford, Clarendon Press. Oxford. United Kingdom.<br />
Br<strong>and</strong>ão, R., Infante, S., Ministro, J., Neves, L. 2005. Estudo sobre o Impacto das<br />
Linhas Eléctricas de Média e Alta Tensão na Avifauna em Portugal. Quercus<br />
Associação Nacional de Conservação da Natureza e SPEA Sociedade Portuguesa<br />
para o Estudo das Aves. Castelo Branco. Portugal.<br />
Ferrer, M., Janss, G. F. E. 1999. Aves y Líneas Eléctricas, Colisión, Electrocución y<br />
Nidificación. Serviços Informativos Ambientales - Quercus. Madrid. Espanha.<br />
Hoef, J. M., Johnston, K., Lucas, N., Krivoruchko, K. 2001. Using ArcGIS<br />
Geostatistical Analyst. ESRI. USA.<br />
Janss, G. F. 2000. Avian mortality from power lines: a morphologic approach of a<br />
species-specific mortality. Biological Conservation 95: 353-359.<br />
James, B. W. & Haak, B.A. 1979. Factors affecting avian flight behavior <strong>and</strong> collision<br />
mortality at transmission lines. Bonnevile Power Administration Report. U.S.<br />
Department of Energy. Oregon. U.S.A.<br />
Janns, G. F. & Ferrer, N. 1998. Rate of collision with power lines: conductor-marking<br />
<strong>and</strong> groundwire-marking. Journal of Field Ornithology 69: 8-17.<br />
Meyer, J. R. 1978. Effects of transmission lines on bird flight behavior <strong>and</strong> collision<br />
mortality. Bonnevile Power Administration Report. U. S. Department of Energy.<br />
Oregon. U.S.A.<br />
Soares, A. 2006. Geoestatística para as ciências da terra e do ambiente – Segunda<br />
Edição. Instituto superior Técnico. Lisboa. Portugal.<br />
Acknowledgement<br />
Authors woul like to expresse is acknowledge to Fundação para a Ciência e Tecnologia (FCT),<br />
project REEQ/1163/AGR/2005, CITAB – UTAD, EDP – Electricidade De Portugal, the<br />
Portuguese Institute for Nature Conservation (ICN – Instituto da Conservação da Natureza), the<br />
National Association for Nature Conservation (Quercus - Associação Nacional de Conservação<br />
da Natureza) <strong>and</strong> the Portuguese Society for Birds Survey (SPEA - Sociedade Portuguesa para o<br />
Estudo das Aves).<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
J.-F. Mas et al. 2010. Modeling l<strong>and</strong> use/cover change <strong>and</strong> biodiversity conservation in Mexico<br />
262<br />
Modeling l<strong>and</strong> use/cover change <strong>and</strong> biodiversity conservation in<br />
Mexico<br />
Jean-François Mas 1* , Azucena Pérez Vega 2 , Keith Clarke 3 & Víctor Sánchez-Cordero 4<br />
1 Centro de Investigaciones en Geografía Ambiental - Universidad Nacional Autónoma<br />
de México, Mexico<br />
2 Departamento de Ingeniería Civil - Universidad de Guanajuato, Mexico<br />
3 Department of Geography – University of California - Santa Barbara, USA<br />
4 Instituto de Biología - Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Mexico<br />
Abstract<br />
A nationwide multidate GIS database was generated in order to carry out the quantification <strong>and</strong><br />
spatial characterization of l<strong>and</strong> use/cover changes (LUCC) in Mexico during the last decades.<br />
Digital maps from three different dates (1993, 2002 <strong>and</strong> 2007) were revised <strong>and</strong> integrated into<br />
a GIS database along with ancillary data (Road network, settlements, slope <strong>and</strong> socioeconomical<br />
parameters at the municipality level). L<strong>and</strong> cover maps were overlaid in order to<br />
generate LUCC maps <strong>and</strong> calculate two indices de LUCC: 1) a simple rate of deforestation <strong>and</strong><br />
2) a rate of degradation which takes into account the degradation <strong>and</strong> recovery processes. An<br />
analysis of causes <strong>and</strong> drivers of LUCC was conducted, at the municipality level, computing the<br />
Spearman coefficient between these two rates <strong>and</strong> biophysical <strong>and</strong> socio-economic factors.<br />
<strong>Change</strong> trends were also compared with biodiversity distribution. Preliminary results show that<br />
although rates of deforestation have decreased during the most recent period, LUCC still<br />
represents a serious threat to biodiversity conservation in Mexico.<br />
Keywords:l<strong>and</strong> use/cover change, modeling, drivers, biodiversity<br />
1. Introduction<br />
Mexico is a megadiverse country, but biodiversity is threatened by the loss of native vegetation<br />
due to the high rates of deforestation (FAO, 2001). Various studies have attempted to assess<br />
l<strong>and</strong> use/ cover change (LUCC) over the last decades (Mas et al., 2004). Fuller et al. (2007)<br />
examined the effect of LUCC on the distributions of 86 endemic mammal species in 1970,<br />
1976, 1993, <strong>and</strong> 2000 in Mexico. They showed that this fauna could have been protected<br />
considerably more economically if a conservation plan had been implemented in 1970 than is<br />
possible today due to extensive conversion of primary habitats. At each time step, optimal<br />
conservation area networks were selected to represent all species. These authors found that 90%<br />
more l<strong>and</strong> must be protected after 2000 to protect adequate mammal habitat than would have<br />
been required in 1970. The goals of this study are to 1) delineate maps of LUCC in Mexico for<br />
different periods, 2) identify variables <strong>and</strong> drivers that influence the LUCC rates <strong>and</strong> 3) compare<br />
LUCC trends with a biodiversity map to evaluate the possible effects of LUCC on biodiversity<br />
conservation. In this paper, we present the preliminary results.<br />
2. Methodology<br />
* Corresponding author. Tel.: +52 443 328 38 35 - Fax: +52 443 38 80<br />
Email address: jfmas@ciga.unam.mx<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
J.-F. Mas et al. 2010. Modeling l<strong>and</strong> use/cover change <strong>and</strong> biodiversity conservation in Mexico<br />
263<br />
2.1. Material<br />
The following data were used:<br />
• Maps of l<strong>and</strong> use/cover (LUC) at 1:250,000 scale from the National Institute of<br />
Geography, Statistics <strong>and</strong> Informatics (INEGI) for 1993, 2002 <strong>and</strong> 2007. These maps are<br />
compatible with regards to scale <strong>and</strong> classification scheme. The classification scheme<br />
distinguishes primary covers <strong>and</strong> 3 categories of secondary l<strong>and</strong> covers (with herbaceous,<br />
scrub <strong>and</strong> tree secondary vegetation respectively). According to INEGI, primary<br />
vegetation is defined as relatively undisturbed vegetation that preserves, in large part, its<br />
condition of density, coverage, <strong>and</strong> species composition from its original, primary,<br />
ecosystem. Secondary vegetation is defined as the vegetation which substitutes totally or<br />
partially the original (primary) vegetation as a result of secondary succession.<br />
• Map of species richness: To generate this map, Sánchez-Cordero et al. (2005) modeled<br />
ecological niches for the 459 continental mammal species of Mexico using point<br />
occurrence distribution from national <strong>and</strong> international scientific collections <strong>and</strong><br />
environmental data layers, including potential vegetation type, elevation, topography <strong>and</strong><br />
climatic parameters using the Genetic Algorithm for Rule-set Prediction (Stockwell et al.<br />
1999; Anderson et al. 2003). Then maps of each species were overlain in order to<br />
calculate the species richness.<br />
• Maps of ancillary data (digital elevation model, roads maps, human settlements, municipal<br />
boundaries).<br />
• Socio-economic data from the INEGI organized by municipality (Population census for<br />
2000 <strong>and</strong> 2005).<br />
GIS operations were carried out with the program ArcGIS (ESRI, Redl<strong>and</strong>s, CA) <strong>and</strong> statistical<br />
analysis <strong>and</strong> graphs were created using R (R Development Core Team 2009).<br />
2.2. LUCC Monitoring<br />
Mapping of LUCC was done by overlaying the LUC maps of different dates. Based upon<br />
LUCC maps, areas of change were tabulated <strong>and</strong> rates of change, including the rate of<br />
deforestation, were computed. As the rate of deforestation is sensitive to the change from forest<br />
areas (primary <strong>and</strong> secondary covers altogether) to non forest area only, we also applied an<br />
“index of conservation” which takes into account forest degradation <strong>and</strong> recovery (e.g.<br />
transitions between secondary categories). L<strong>and</strong> cover categories were associated to a weight<br />
value ranging from 0 to 4 for anthropogenic, herbaceous secondary, scrub secondary, tree<br />
secondary <strong>and</strong> primary forest forest respectively. Mean values of this index was calculated for<br />
2004 <strong>and</strong> 2007 for each municipality.<br />
3.2. Relationship between LUCC <strong>and</strong> socioeconomic features<br />
To determine which socioeconomic factors are most likely to be indirect drivers of deforestation<br />
we calculated the rate of deforestation <strong>and</strong> the variation of the conservation index for each<br />
municipality for 2004-2007 <strong>and</strong> compared them with various indices describing population<br />
density, education, poverty <strong>and</strong> accessibility to resources. These indices were: a) Population<br />
density in 2000 <strong>and</strong> 2005 (people per km 2 ) <strong>and</strong> the variation of density between these two dates;<br />
b) settlements density (number of settlements per km 2 ); c) proportion of the population older<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
J.-F. Mas et al. 2010. Modeling l<strong>and</strong> use/cover change <strong>and</strong> biodiversity conservation in Mexico<br />
264<br />
than 12 years without primary education; d) proportion of the population speaking an<br />
indigenous language; e) proportion of the population living in small settlements (with less than<br />
100 <strong>and</strong> 2500 inhabitants); f) proportion of population between 20 <strong>and</strong> 39 years (%), which is<br />
expected to be inversely correlated with migration; g) proportion of houses with a cement roof<br />
as an index of social welfare; h) the Gini index which measures inequality <strong>and</strong> ranges<br />
theoretically from 0 to 100, where 0 is perfect equality <strong>and</strong> 100 perfect inequality; i) the mean<br />
salary (expressed as the number of minimum wage salaries) <strong>and</strong> the proportion of the<br />
population with less than one <strong>and</strong> two minimum wage salaries; j) the natural cover area (ha) <strong>and</strong><br />
the proportion of total area covered by natural cover; k) the mean slope (degrees); <strong>and</strong> l) the<br />
road density (km of road per km 2 ).<br />
3. Result<br />
3.1. LUCC Monitoring<br />
Figure 1 <strong>and</strong> table 1 shows a significant decrease of forest area (except secondary temperate<br />
forest) <strong>and</strong> an increase of crop <strong>and</strong> pasture l<strong>and</strong>s during both periods. However, rates of change<br />
are lower during the more recent period.<br />
Figure 1: Areas of the main l<strong>and</strong> cover types in 1993, 2002 <strong>and</strong> 2007 (km 2 )<br />
Table 1: Rates of changes for the main l<strong>and</strong> cover types<br />
L<strong>and</strong> cover category Area (km 2 ) <strong>Change</strong> (km 2 /yr) Rate of change<br />
(%/yr)<br />
1993 2002 2007 1993-2002 2002-07 1993-2002 2002-07<br />
Arid tropical scrub 571383 558297 554661 -1454 -727 -0.26 -0.13<br />
Crop l<strong>and</strong>s 278424 308592 321597 3352 2601 1.15 0.83<br />
Pasture l<strong>and</strong>s 172278 187587 188964 1701 275 0.95 0.15<br />
Primary Temperate <strong>Forest</strong> 270432 252891 247707 -1949 -1037 -0.74 -0.41<br />
Primary Tropical <strong>Forest</strong> 233388 229815 227205 -397 -522 -0.17 -0.23<br />
Secondary Temperate <strong>Forest</strong> 78021 89028 93987 1223 992 1.48 1.09<br />
Secondary Tropical <strong>Forest</strong> 116316 99333 93726 -1887 -1121 -1.74 -1.16<br />
3.2. Analysis of drivers<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
J.-F. Mas et al. 2010. Modeling l<strong>and</strong> use/cover change <strong>and</strong> biodiversity conservation in Mexico<br />
265<br />
For the statistical analysis we use only the municipalities with a scrubl<strong>and</strong>s or forest area<br />
covering at least 500 ha <strong>and</strong> 30% of the municipality. 2314 municipalities (of a total of 2443)<br />
fulfilled this condition <strong>and</strong> represent more than 96% of the forest <strong>and</strong> scrub area of the country.<br />
Figure 2 shows the rate of deforestation per municipality.<br />
Table 2 shows that rate of deforestation <strong>and</strong> the variation of the conservation index are strongly<br />
associated (R = 0.77, p < 0.01) <strong>and</strong> that both indices are weakly, but significantly, related to<br />
some of the indices describing the socio-economic <strong>and</strong> environmental characteristics of the<br />
municipalities. Unexpectedly, population density is negatively correlated with degradation <strong>and</strong><br />
deforestation during 2002-2007 although the increase of density is related with an increase of<br />
deforestation. Indices related with poverty present a positive correlation with deforestation <strong>and</strong><br />
degradation. No significant correlation was found with the Gini index. Higher slopes <strong>and</strong><br />
unexpectedly road density tend to reduce the deforestation/degradation.<br />
Index<br />
Table 2: Spearman correlation between change <strong>and</strong> municipality characteristics<br />
Rate of<br />
deforestation*<br />
Degradation (Variation of<br />
conservation index) *<br />
R p R p<br />
Population density 2000 (people per km 2 ) -0.04 0.14 -0.05 0.03<br />
Population density 2005 (people per km 2 ) -0.02 0.34 -0.05 0.06<br />
Population density variation 2000-2005 0.11 0.00 0.05 0.05<br />
Settlements density (settlements per km 2 ) -0.07 0.01 -0.06 0.02<br />
Population older than 12 years without primary -0.10 0.00 -0.05 0.06<br />
education (%)<br />
Population speaking an indigenous language (%) -0.04 0.07 -0.06 0.02<br />
Population living in settlement of less than 100 -0.02 0.37 0.00 0.97<br />
inhabitants (%)<br />
Population living in settlement of less than 2500 -0.09 0.00 -0.05 0.03<br />
inhabitants (%)<br />
Population between 20 <strong>and</strong> 39 years (%) 0.17 0.00 0.06 0.02<br />
Houses with cement roof (%) 0.06 0.01 0.03 0.21<br />
Gini index 0.00 0.95 0.00 1.00<br />
Mean salary (number of minimum salary) 0.13 0.00 0.13 0.00<br />
Population with less than one minimum salary (%) -0.11 0.00 -0.12 0.00<br />
Population with less than 2 minimum salary (%) -0.13 0.00 -0.13 0.00<br />
Natural cover area (ha) 0.23 0.00 0.23 0.00<br />
Natural cover area (%) 0.09 0.00 0.11 0.00<br />
Mean slope (degrees) -0.24 0.00 -0.15 0.00<br />
Road density (km/km 2 ) -0.13 0.00 -0.11 0.00<br />
Rate of deforestation - - 0.77 0.00<br />
* A negative value for the rate of deforestation <strong>and</strong> degradation indicates recovery<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
J.-F. Mas et al. 2010. Modeling l<strong>and</strong> use/cover change <strong>and</strong> biodiversity conservation in Mexico<br />
266<br />
Figure 2: Rates of deforestation by municipality (2002-2007)<br />
Spearman’s coefficient of rank correlation between the rate of deforestation <strong>and</strong> the average<br />
species richness per municipality is 0.06 (p < 0.01). The coefficient between the rate of<br />
degradation <strong>and</strong> the average species richness is 0.11 (p < 0.01) which indicates that most<br />
threatened areas tend to present more biodiversity.<br />
4. Discussion<br />
According to INEGI maps, the patterns of change observed during 1993-2002 remain similar in<br />
2002-2007: Crop <strong>and</strong> pasture area is increasing <strong>and</strong> forest area, expect secondary temperate<br />
forest, is decreasing. However, the rates of deforestation are lower during the second period<br />
except for primary tropical forest, which presented an increase of the rate of deforestation. Rates<br />
of deforestation <strong>and</strong> degradation tend to be higher in biodiverse areas <strong>and</strong>, therefore, LUCC still<br />
represents a serious threat to biodiversity conservation in Mexico.<br />
The results of the analysis of the drivers must be taken with caution for various reasons:<br />
1) Analysis was based upon average characteristics of the municipality, yet their size is very<br />
variable (125 to more than 5,000,000 ha) <strong>and</strong> they are often heterogeneous; 2) the causes of<br />
LUCC in a given municipality are not necessarily reflected in the characteristics of this<br />
municipality (spatial lag); 3) LUCC are likely due to different processes over the entire territory,<br />
which can obscure meaningful explanatory variables in a nationwide study; 4) only recent<br />
LUCC are observed, in many settled regions, with high population <strong>and</strong> road density, rates of<br />
deforestation are low because few forests remain. Moreover, due to multicollinearity, a variable<br />
correlated with rates of LUCC may actually have no influence <strong>and</strong> be correlated with the true<br />
causal variables. In further research, method such as hierarchical partitioning will be used in<br />
order to deal with these limitations (MacNally 2000; 2002).<br />
However, the results obtained which indicate that marginal poor areas present lower rates of<br />
deforestation <strong>and</strong> degradation are not surprising. Many previous studies reported that most<br />
conserved natural areas in Mexico are often located in poor rural areas <strong>and</strong>/or community l<strong>and</strong>s<br />
where people have demonstrated for centuries that they have the ingenuity to cope with major<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
J.-F. Mas et al. 2010. Modeling l<strong>and</strong> use/cover change <strong>and</strong> biodiversity conservation in Mexico<br />
267<br />
environmental <strong>and</strong> social threats to their live-hoods (Klooster 2000; Alix-Garcia et al. 2005;<br />
Merino 2007, Figueroa et al. 2009, García-Barrios et al. 2009).<br />
5. Acknowledgements<br />
This research has been supported by the Consejo Nacional de Ciencia y Tecnología -<br />
CONACyT (Sabbatical <strong>and</strong> posdoctoral stays at the University of California - Santa Barbara of<br />
the first <strong>and</strong> second author respectively) <strong>and</strong> the Dirección General de Asuntos del Personal<br />
Académico (DGAPA) at the Universidad National Autónoma de México.<br />
References<br />
Alix-Garcia, J., de Janvry, A. <strong>and</strong> Sadoulet, E., 2005. A Tale of Two Communities: Explaining<br />
Deforestation in Mexico. World Development, 33(2): 219-235.<br />
Anderson, R. P., Lew, D, Peterson, A. T., 2003. Evaluating predictive models of species<br />
distributions: criteria for selecting optimal models. Ecological Modelling (162) 211-232.<br />
FAO, 2001. <strong>Global</strong> resources assessment. <strong>Forest</strong>ry paper 140.<br />
Figueroa, F., Sánchez-Cordero, V., Meave, J.A. <strong>and</strong> Trejo, I., 2009. Socioeconomic context of<br />
l<strong>and</strong> use <strong>and</strong> l<strong>and</strong> cover change in Mexican biosphere reserves. Environmental<br />
Conservation, 36 (3): 180–191.<br />
Fuller, T. M., Sánchez-Cordero, V., Illoldi-Rangel, V., Linaje, M. <strong>and</strong> Sarkar, S., 2007. The cost<br />
of postponing biodiversity conservation in Mexico. Biological Conservation, 134(4): 593-<br />
600.<br />
García-Barrios, L., Galván-Miyoshi, Y. M., Valdivieso Pérez, I. A., Masera, O. R., Bocco, G.,<br />
<strong>and</strong> V<strong>and</strong>ermeer, J., 2009. Neotropical forest conservation, agricultural intensification<br />
<strong>and</strong> rural outmigration: The Mexican Experience. BioScience, 59(10): 863-873.<br />
Klooster, D., 2000. Beyond Deforestation: The Social Context of <strong>Forest</strong> <strong>Change</strong> in Two<br />
Indigenous Communities in Highl<strong>and</strong> Mexico. Journal of Latin American Geography, 26:<br />
47-59.<br />
Mac Nally, R., 2000. Regression <strong>and</strong> model building in conservation biology, biogeography <strong>and</strong><br />
ecology: the distinction between <strong>and</strong> reconciliation of ’predictive’ <strong>and</strong> ’explanatory’<br />
models. Bio- diversity <strong>and</strong> Conservation, 9: 655–671.<br />
Mac Nally, R., 2002. Multiple regression <strong>and</strong> inference in ecology <strong>and</strong> conservation biology:<br />
further comments on identitying important predictor variables. Biodiversity <strong>and</strong><br />
Conservation, 11: 1397–1401.<br />
Mas, J.F., Velázquez, A., Díaz-Gallegos, J.R.,Mayorga-Saucedo, R., Alcántara, C., Bocco, G.<br />
Castro, R., Fernández, T., <strong>and</strong> Pérez-Vega, A., 2004. Assessing l<strong>and</strong>/use cover changes: a<br />
nationwide multidate spatial database for Mexico. International Journal of Applied Earth<br />
Observation Geoinformatics, 5: 249–261.<br />
Merino, L., 2008. Conservación comunitaria en la cuenca alta del Papaloapan, Sierra Norte de<br />
Oaxaca. Nueva Antropología, Revista de Ciencias Sociales, I68: 37-49.<br />
R Development Core Team, 2009. R: A language <strong>and</strong> environment for statistical computing. R<br />
Foundation for Statistical Computing,Vienna, Austria, URL http://www.R-project.org.<br />
Sánchez-Cordero, V., Cirelli, V., Munguia, M. <strong>and</strong> Sarkar, S., 2005. Place prioritization for<br />
biodiversity representation using species ecological niche modeling. Biodiversitic<br />
Informatics, 2: 11-23.<br />
Stockwell, D. R. B. <strong>and</strong> Peters, D., 1999. The GARP modelling system: problems <strong>and</strong> solutions<br />
to automated spatial prediction. International Journal of Geographical Information<br />
Science, 13: 143-158.<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
R.S. Moro & T.K. Pereira 2010. Evaluating an old sustainable national forest in south Brazil<br />
268<br />
Evaluating an old sustainable national forest in south Brazil to decide<br />
their conservation status<br />
Rosemeri Segecin Moro 1* & Tiaro Katu Pereira 2<br />
1 DEBIO- Universidade Estadual de Ponta Grossa, PR, Brazil<br />
2 Mestrado em Gestão do Território- Universidade Estadual de Ponta Grossa, PR, Brazil<br />
Abstract<br />
National <strong>Forest</strong>s were settled in the past in order to increase forestry surveys in Brazil. After<br />
their transformation in units of conservation of sustainable use, old ab<strong>and</strong>oned sets becoming<br />
important remainders of the endangered Atlantic <strong>Forest</strong>. The recent government intention to<br />
exploit their timber has caused discussions regarding this legallity. To elucidate their appliance,<br />
reforestation in the Açunguí National <strong>Forest</strong> were evaluated. Studies showed 61 species <strong>and</strong> 30<br />
families, which the most representative were Flacourtiaceae, Lauraceae <strong>and</strong> Myrtaceae.<br />
Frequent species were Araucaria angustifolia, Cordyline dracaenoides, Cyathea corcovadensis,<br />
Casearia sylvestris, Allophyllus edulis, Clethra scabra, Dalbergia brasiliensis, <strong>and</strong> Matayba<br />
elaeagnoides. The IVI varied between 14.3 <strong>and</strong> 7.5. Diversity of species was high for secondary<br />
forested areas - Shannon’s index (H’= 3.15); evenness (J’= 0,77). There were endangered<br />
species <strong>and</strong> bioindicators that enhance the ecological importance of this National <strong>Forest</strong>. Thus,<br />
this one should not be exploited despite their original purpose.<br />
Keywords: Araucaria forest – Atlantic <strong>Forest</strong> – planted forests<br />
1. Introduction<br />
Remnants of Ombrophylous Mixed <strong>Forest</strong> is one of the most endangerous at the Atlantic<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> Biome (Castella <strong>and</strong> Britez 2004). Native species reforestation was a federal politics in<br />
Brazil in the decades of 1940-60, settling National <strong>Forest</strong>s all over the country. After the<br />
project’s dismounting <strong>and</strong> their transformation in units of conservation of sustainable use<br />
(SNUC 2000), old sets presenting vigorous sub-forests becoming important remainders of the<br />
endangered Atlantic <strong>Forest</strong>. Nowadays, the government intention to exploit their timber has<br />
caused intense internal discussions once they could be protected by law as mature regenerated<br />
forests. Intending to elucidate their appliance, we analyze sub-sets under reforestation <strong>and</strong> under<br />
natural regeneration.<br />
2. Methodology<br />
Surveys were carried out in seventeen 0.01-ha plots laid out in a 30-yr-old 400 ha planted<br />
Araucaria st<strong>and</strong> <strong>and</strong> a natural 320 ha Araucaria forest (see figure 1) at Açungui National <strong>Forest</strong><br />
in Campo Largo, State of Paraná, Southern Brazil (25 o 10'41"S - 25 o 14'18"W). The dominant<br />
soil types in the region are Inceptisol <strong>and</strong> Ultisol. The climate is classified as Cfb (under<br />
Koeppen’s climate classification system), at elevations between 640 m <strong>and</strong> 905 m above sea<br />
level. Phytosociological parameters were performed by Fitopac Software (Shepherd 1994) <strong>and</strong><br />
the samples are in the HUPG herbarium at Universidade Estadual de Ponta Grossa.<br />
* Corresponding author. Tel.:55-42-3223-4417 - Fax:55-42-3224-4747<br />
Email address: rsmoro@uepg.br<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
R.S. Moro & T.K. Pereira 2010. Evaluating an old sustainable national forest in south Brazil<br />
269<br />
Figure 1: Sampling sites at Açungui National <strong>Forest</strong>, Campo Largo (Paraná, Brazil).<br />
3. Results<br />
Among the l<strong>and</strong>scape units, the Natural <strong>Forest</strong> has 38% of natural Araucaria forests <strong>and</strong><br />
56% of planted Araucaria st<strong>and</strong>s. Species composition <strong>and</strong> several forest structure parameters<br />
are summarized in Tables 1 <strong>and</strong> 2. Both natural <strong>and</strong> planted Araucaria st<strong>and</strong>s showed similar<br />
phytosociological parameters. Therefore, there is evidences that ab<strong>and</strong>oned planted Araucaria<br />
st<strong>and</strong>s are able to restore this type of community in the Atlantic <strong>Forest</strong> Biome almost like the<br />
espontaneous secondary sucession.<br />
More than a half of the species found in both planted <strong>and</strong> natural Araucaria st<strong>and</strong>s were<br />
represented by Flacourtiaceae, Lauraceae <strong>and</strong> Myrtaceae. Sapindaceae <strong>and</strong> Euphorbiaceae were<br />
found only in the natural Araucaria st<strong>and</strong>. The most abundant families found under the canopy<br />
were Agavaceae, Flacourtiaceae, Sapindaceae, Cyatheaceae, Myrtaceae, Canellaceae, <strong>and</strong><br />
Euphorbiaceae. In terms of the Importance Value Index (IVI), the Flacourtiaceae, Agavaceae,<br />
Cyatheaceae, Sapindaceae, <strong>and</strong> Fabaceae were the most important families found under planted<br />
Araucaria st<strong>and</strong>s while Sapindaceae, Myrtaceae, Flacourtiaceae, <strong>and</strong> Araucariaceae were the<br />
most important families found under the natural forest canopy.<br />
In the planted Araucaria st<strong>and</strong>s only Araucaria angustifolia stood up from the canopy,<br />
otherwise in the natural forest Matayba elaeagnoides could emerge to. The more frequent<br />
species were Casearia sylvestris, Casearia lasiophylla, Casearia obliqua, Casearia<br />
inaequilatera, Vitex megapotamica, Guatteria australis, Cabralea canjerana, Cedrella fissilis,<br />
Allophyllus edulis, Cupania vernalis, Clethra scabra, Dalbergia brasiliensis, Matayba<br />
elaeagnoides, Cordyline dracaenoides, Cyathea corcovadensis, Cyathea schanschin, <strong>and</strong><br />
Myrcia rostrata.<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
R.S. Moro & T.K. Pereira 2010. Evaluating an old sustainable national forest in south Brazil<br />
270<br />
Table 1: Phytosociological parameters of Araucaria forests at Açungui National <strong>Forest</strong>, Campo Largo<br />
(Paraná, Brazil).<br />
Under planted Araucaria canopy Under natural Araucaria canopy<br />
Number of tree species 61 54<br />
Number of families 30 21<br />
Total number of plants 400 160<br />
Density (plant/ha) 3.333 1.680<br />
Basal area /ha 54.867 -<br />
Canopy – mean Dbh (cm) 11.18 11.32<br />
Canopy – mean height (m) 7.12 6.82<br />
Shannon-Wienner Index 3.15 3,43<br />
Evenness 0.77 0.86<br />
Simpson Index 0.93 0.95<br />
Table 2: Species list of both planted <strong>and</strong> natural Araucaria st<strong>and</strong>s at Açungui National <strong>Forest</strong> in Campo<br />
Largo (Paraná-Brazil).<br />
Family Species Common<br />
name<br />
Ecological<br />
group*<br />
Density<br />
**<br />
Use<br />
***<br />
1 Agavaceae Cordyline dracaenoides Uvarana Pi, Si, St VC Fo<br />
Kunth<br />
2 Anacardiaceae Schinus terebinthifolius Aroeiravermelha<br />
Pi, Si, St NC Ti/<br />
Raddi<br />
Me<br />
3 Annonaceae Guatteria australis A.St. Embiú<br />
NC<br />
Hill.<br />
4 Aquifoliaceae Ilex dumosa Reiss. Caúna-miúda Pi, Si, St Fo<br />
Ilex paraguariensis A. Erveira; ervamate<br />
Pi, Si, St C Fo<br />
St.Hill.<br />
Ilex theezans Mart. Congonhagraúda<br />
Pi, Si, St<br />
Fo<br />
5 Araucariaceae Araucaria angustifolia Araucária Pi, Si, St VC Fo<br />
(Bert.) Kuntze<br />
6 Arecaceae Syagrus romanzoffiana Jerivá Pi, Si, St Fo<br />
(Cham.) Glassman<br />
7 Asteraceae Piptocarpha angustifolia Vassourãobranco<br />
Pi, Si, St<br />
Ti<br />
Dusén ex Malme<br />
8 Bignoniaceae Jacar<strong>and</strong>a micrantha Carobão Si<br />
Cham.<br />
9 Bombacaceae Chorisia speciosa St. Hill. Paineira Si, St R Ha<br />
10 Borraginaceae Cordia ecalyculata Vell. Louro-mole Si, St<br />
11 Caesalpinaceae Apuleia leiocarpa (Vogel) Grápia Si, St, Cl R<br />
J.F. Macbr.<br />
12 Canellaceae Capsicodendron dinisii Pimenteira Pi, Si, St Me<br />
(Schwanke) Occh.<br />
13 Celastraceae Maytenus evonymoides Coração-debugre<br />
Pi, Si, St VC<br />
Reiss.<br />
14 Clethraceae Clethra scabra Pers. Guaperê Pi, Si, St VC Ti<br />
15 Cunoniaceae Lamanonia ternata Vell. Guaraperê Si<br />
16 Cyatheaceae Cyathea corcovadensis Xaxim Si, St VC Ha<br />
Rad.<br />
Cyathea schanschin Mart. Xaxim Si, St C Ha<br />
17 Erythroxylaceae Erythroxylum deciduum Cocão Pi, Si R<br />
St. Hill.<br />
18 Euphorbiaceae Actinostemon concolor Laranjeira-do- Pi, Si, St R<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
R.S. Moro & T.K. Pereira 2010. Evaluating an old sustainable national forest in south Brazil<br />
271<br />
Spr.<br />
mato<br />
Sapium gl<strong>and</strong>ulatum Pau-leiteiro Pi, Si, St Me<br />
(Vell.) Pax<br />
Sebastiania brasiliensis Tajuvinha Pi, Si, St Ti<br />
Spr.<br />
Sebastiania<br />
Branquinho Pi, Si, St R<br />
commersoniana (Baill.) L.<br />
B. Sm. et Downs<br />
19 Fabaceae Dalbergia brasiliensis Farinha-seca; Pi, Si<br />
C<br />
Vog.<br />
marmeleiro<br />
Machaerium stipitatum Sapuva Pi, Si Ti<br />
Vog.<br />
20 Flacourtiaceae Banara tomentosa Clos. Guaçatungabranca<br />
Pi, Si, St R<br />
Casearia dec<strong>and</strong>ra Jacq. Guaçatungapreta;<br />
Pi, Si, St<br />
Me<br />
cambroé<br />
Casearia inaequilatera Guaçatungamiúda<br />
Pi, Si, St<br />
Camb.<br />
Casearia lasiophylla Guaçatungagraúda<br />
Pi, Si, St VC<br />
Sleumer<br />
Casearia obliqua Spr. guaçatungavermelha<br />
Pi, Si, St<br />
Me<br />
Casearia sp<br />
R<br />
Casearia sylvestris Sw. Cafezeiro Pi, Si, St VC Me<br />
Xylosma ciliatifolium Sucará Si, St NC<br />
(Clos) Eichler<br />
21 Lauraceae Cinnamomum sellowianum Canela-raposa Pi, Si, St NC<br />
(Nees) Kostern.<br />
Cryptocaria<br />
Canela-fogo St C Ti<br />
aschersoniana Mez<br />
Nect<strong>and</strong>ra lanceolata Canelaamarela<br />
Pi, Si, St C<br />
Ness et Mart. ex Ness<br />
Nect<strong>and</strong>ra megapotamica Canela-preta; Pi, Si, St<br />
(Spr.) Mez<br />
canela<br />
imbuia<br />
Ocotea dyospyrifolia Canela-goiaba Si, St<br />
(Meins.) Mez<br />
Ocotea lancifolia (Nees) Canela St, Cl<br />
Mez<br />
Ocotea puberula (A.Rich) Canela-sebo Pi, Si, St Ti<br />
Nees<br />
22 Meliaceae Cabralea canjerana (Vel.) Canjerana Si, St Ti<br />
Mart.<br />
Cedrella fissilis Vell. Cedro-rosa Pi, Si, St TiMe<br />
Trichilia elegans A. juss. Catiguá-deervilha<br />
St<br />
Trichillia catiguá A. Juss. catiguá St<br />
23 Mimosaceae Piptadenia gonoacantha Pau-jacaré Pi, Si, St NC<br />
(Mart.) Macbr.<br />
24 Monnimiaceae Mollinedia clavigera Tull. capixim Pi, Si, St C<br />
25 Moraceae Ficus guaranítica Schodat Figueira R<br />
Sorocea bonpl<strong>and</strong>i (Baill.) cincho Si, St, Cl NC<br />
W. C. Burger<br />
26 Myrsinaceae Myrsine umbellata Mart. capororocão Pi, Si, St C Ti<br />
27 Myrtaceae Campomanesia guabiroba Guabiroba Pi, Si, St C Fo<br />
(DC) Kiaersk.<br />
Eugenia blastantha<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
R.S. Moro & T.K. Pereira 2010. Evaluating an old sustainable national forest in south Brazil<br />
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Lam.<br />
32 Sapindaceae Allophylus edulis (A.St.-<br />
Hil., Cambess. & A. Juss.)<br />
Radlk).<br />
(O.Berg.) Legr.<br />
Eugenia uniflora L. pitangueira Pi, Si, St C Fo<br />
Gomidesia affinis (Camb.) guamirim<br />
Legr.<br />
Mosiera prismatica (D. Cerninho; Pi, Si, St<br />
Fo<br />
Legr.) L<strong>and</strong>rum<br />
cambuí<br />
Myrcia hatschbachii Legr. Caingá Si<br />
Myrcia myrcioides Guamirim Si<br />
(Camb.) O. Berg.<br />
Myrcia obtecta (Berg.) Guamirimbranco;<br />
Si<br />
Kiaersk.<br />
cambuí<br />
Myrcia rostrata DC Guamirimchorão<br />
Pi, Si, St<br />
Ti<br />
Myrcianthes pungens (O. Guabijú St<br />
Berg) D. Legr<strong>and</strong><br />
Myrtaceae 1<br />
Myrtaceae 2<br />
Myrtaceae 3<br />
Pimenta<br />
Craveiro Si Fo<br />
pseudocaryophyllus<br />
Blume<br />
28 Proteaceae Roupala brasiliensis Kl. Carvalho Pi, Si, St<br />
29 Rosaceae Prunus brasiliensis Schott Pessegueirobravo<br />
Si, St<br />
ex Spr.<br />
30 Rubiaceae Coussarea contracta pimenteira St<br />
(Walp.) Muell.Arg.<br />
Psychotria leiocarpa Gr<strong>and</strong>iúva St<br />
Cham. et S.<br />
31 Rutaceae Citrus lemon L. Limoeiro Ex R Fo<br />
Zanthoxyllum rhoifolium Mamica-de-<br />
Pi, Si, St<br />
cadela<br />
Chal-chal Pi, Si, St VC<br />
Cupania vernalis Camb. Cuvantã Pi, Si, St VC<br />
Matayba elaeagnoides Miguelpintado<br />
Pi, Si, St VC<br />
Radlk.<br />
33 Solanaceae Solanaceae 1 R<br />
34 Styracaceae Styrax leprosus Hook. et Carne-de-vaca Si, St NC Ti<br />
Arn.<br />
35 Verbenaceae Aegiphila sellowiana Tamanqueiro Pi, Si, St Ha<br />
Cham.<br />
Vitex megapotamica (Spr.) Tarumã St, Cl C Me<br />
Moldenke<br />
* PI= initial; Si = initial secondary; St = late secondary; Cl= climacic; Ex = non-native; ** VC- very common:<br />
DR≥5%; C- common: 1%>DR%
R.S. Moro & T.K. Pereira 2010. Evaluating an old sustainable national forest in south Brazil<br />
273<br />
b) including Araucaria, basal area ranges from 15 to 54m 2 /ha <strong>and</strong> dbh, from 3 to 62cm; c) liana<br />
<strong>and</strong> epiphytes are rare; there are few grasses <strong>and</strong> litter reaches more than 10 cm in the most part<br />
of the sampled sites; d) gaps could be common, sparsely located; e) there is no dominance of a<br />
few species over the others in the st<strong>and</strong>s. Typical species of this regeneration stadium are<br />
Casearia sylvestris, Matayba elaeagnoides, Capsicodendron dinisii, Eugenia uniflora,<br />
Dalbergia brasiliensis, Clethra scabra, Casearia lasiophylla, Alophyllus edulis, <strong>and</strong> Cupania<br />
vernalis. It was identified several endangered species as Dicksonia sellowiana (IBAMA 1992),<br />
Roupala brasiliensis, Apuleia leiocarpa, <strong>and</strong> Nect<strong>and</strong>ra megapotamica (Res. SEMA/IAP 31/98).<br />
There were endangered species <strong>and</strong> bioindicators that enhance the ecological importance of this<br />
National <strong>Forest</strong>. Thus, this one should not be exploited despite their original purpose <strong>and</strong><br />
deserves na integral conservation status.<br />
Acknowledgements: To ICMBio for the financial <strong>and</strong> field support; to Dr. Carlos Hugo<br />
Rocha for his l<strong>and</strong>scape´s components analysis disposal.<br />
References<br />
Castella, P.R. <strong>and</strong> Britez, R.M., 2004. A Floresta com Araucária no Paraná: conservação e<br />
diagnóstico dos remanescentes florestais.MMA, Brasília, 236p.<br />
CONAMA – Conselho Nacional de Meio Ambiente. Res. 2/94. Define vegetação primária e<br />
secundária nos estágios inicial, médio e avançado de regeneração da Mata Atlântica no<br />
Estado do Paraná.<br />
IBAMA - Instituto Brasileiro do Meio Ambiente e dos Recursos Naturais Renováveis. Portaria n.<br />
006/92-N/92. Apresenta a Lista Oficial de Espécies da Flora Brasileira Ameaçadas de<br />
Extinção.<br />
Shepherd, G.J., 1994. FITOPAC: manual do usuário. UNICAMP, Campinas, 25p.<br />
SNUC - Sistema Nacional de Unidades de Conservação da Natureza. Lei nº 9.985/2000.<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
R.S. Moro & C.H Rocha 2010. A methodological proposal for restoration of forests in southern Brazil<br />
274<br />
A methodological proposal for restoration of forests in southern Brazil<br />
Rosemeri Segecin Moro 1* & Carlos Hugo Rocha 2<br />
1 DEBIO- Universidade Estadual de Ponta Grossa, PR, Brazil<br />
2 DESOLOS- Universidade Estadual de Ponta Grossa, PR, Brazil<br />
Abstract<br />
In order to comply with the Brazilian <strong>Forest</strong> Code, l<strong>and</strong>owners except in the Amazon must set<br />
aside at least 20% of their l<strong>and</strong> area as Legal Reserves. Regional projects developed a<br />
restoration model that is both ecologically <strong>and</strong> economically viable. By mixing native <strong>and</strong><br />
exotic (Eucalyptus) species, timber production is possible in 20 years. Adding to wood<br />
production, other benefits such as carbon offset, soil <strong>and</strong> water protection, increased<br />
biodiversity, <strong>and</strong> species conservation are ensured through this strategy. To enhance chances for<br />
adoption of such strategy on the highl<strong>and</strong>s in Southern Brazil, we propose to use the native<br />
conifer Araucaria instead of Eucalyptus in the system. A 30-year evaluation between<br />
reforestation <strong>and</strong> natural Araucaria canopies showed that biodiversity could be reached using<br />
planted forest as well setting natural areas aside. The presence of endangered species in both<br />
situations indicated the ecological importance of this alternative.<br />
Keywords: Araucaria forest – forest restoration – planted forests<br />
1. Subject<br />
Timber <strong>and</strong> cellulose production make up an expressive portion of the Brazilian<br />
economy. Planted forests are seen as a l<strong>and</strong> use form of nature conservation on the highl<strong>and</strong>s in<br />
southern Brazil. They are important sources of timber that would otherwise be exploited from<br />
the natural forests. In order to comply with the Brazilian <strong>Forest</strong> Code, l<strong>and</strong>owners must set aside<br />
at least 20% of their l<strong>and</strong> area as Legal Reserves (except in the Amazon, where at least 80%<br />
must be preserved) – l<strong>and</strong> properties that are short of natural forest cover to meet the minimum<br />
required Legal Reserve areas are required to restore it by either natural or artificial regeneration.<br />
The Paraná Biodiversity Project, with support from the State Government <strong>and</strong> the World<br />
Bank, developed a Legal Reserve restoration model that is both ecologically <strong>and</strong> economically<br />
viable. It is an effort to combine conservation goals with legal requirements <strong>and</strong> sustainable<br />
development. It is based on a forest management strategy on planted st<strong>and</strong>s with native tree<br />
species mixed with exotics (Eucalyptus). Timber production is planned on a 20-year span. After<br />
harvesting Eucalyptus species over that period, only native trees are left to start the restoration<br />
of the natural ecosystem. In addition to wood production, other benefits are ensured through the<br />
adoption of this strategy such as carbon offset, soil <strong>and</strong> water protection, increased biodiversity,<br />
<strong>and</strong> species conservation. All these factors contribute to increase forest fragment sizes <strong>and</strong><br />
l<strong>and</strong>scape connectivity. In order to increase the number of adepts to this strategy on the<br />
highl<strong>and</strong>s in Southern Brazil, we propose to use only native species, including Araucaria<br />
angustifolia instead of Eucalyptus as the major timber source in the system.<br />
* Corresponding author. Tel.:55-42-3223-4417 - Fax:55-42-3224-4747<br />
Email address: rsmoro@uepg.br<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
R.S. Moro & C.H Rocha 2010. A methodological proposal for restoration of forests in southern Brazil<br />
275<br />
2. Base for the proposal<br />
Surveys were carried out in 0.01-ha plots laid out in a 30-yr-old 400 ha planted Araucaria<br />
st<strong>and</strong> <strong>and</strong> a natural 320 ha Araucaria forest at Açungui National <strong>Forest</strong> in Campo Largo, State<br />
of Paraná, Southern Brazil (25 o 10'41"S - 25 o 14'18"W). The dominant soil types in the region are<br />
Inceptisol <strong>and</strong> Ultisol. The climate is classified as Cfb (under Koeppen’s climate classification<br />
system), at elevations between 640 m <strong>and</strong> 905 m above sea level. Species composition <strong>and</strong><br />
several forest structure parameters are summarized in Table 1.<br />
More than a half of the species found in both planted <strong>and</strong> natural Araucaria st<strong>and</strong>s were<br />
represented by Flacourtiaceae, Lauraceae <strong>and</strong> Myrtaceae. Sapindaceae <strong>and</strong> Euphorbiaceae were<br />
found only in the natural Araucaria st<strong>and</strong>. The most abundant species found under the planted<br />
Araucaria canopy were of Agavaceae, Flacourtiaceae, Sapindaceae, <strong>and</strong> Cyatheaceae families.<br />
Under the natural Araucaria canopy, the most abundant families were Sapindaceae, Myrtaceae,<br />
Canellaceae, <strong>and</strong> Euphorbiaceae. In terms of the Importance Value Index (IVI), the<br />
Flacourtiaceae, Agavaceae, Cyatheaceae, Sapindaceae, <strong>and</strong> Fabaceae were the most important<br />
families found under planted Araucaria st<strong>and</strong>s while Sapindaceae, Myrtaceae, Flacourtiaceae,<br />
<strong>and</strong> Araucariaceae were the most important families found under the natural forest canopy.<br />
Araucaria trees produced similar height <strong>and</strong> crown width in both planted <strong>and</strong> natural<br />
st<strong>and</strong>s. The species with the highest relative density under the planted Araucaria st<strong>and</strong> were<br />
Casearia sylvestris, Allophyllus edulis, Clethra scabra, Dalbergia brasiliensis, <strong>and</strong> Matayba<br />
elaeagnoides (see figure 1). At shrub level, the st<strong>and</strong> was dominated by species such as<br />
Cordyline dracaenoides, Cyathea corcovadensis, <strong>and</strong> Cyathea schanschin. The most frequent<br />
species were Cordyline dracaenoides, Cyathea corcovadensis, Matayba elaeagnoides, Casearia<br />
sylvestris, Casearia lasiophylla, Dalbergia brasiliensis, Clethra scabra, Cupania vernalis,<br />
Casearia obliqua, Cedrella fissilis, Allophyllus edulis, Cyathea schanschin, Guatteria australis,<br />
Casearia inaequilatera, Vitex megapotamica, Cabralea canjerana, <strong>and</strong> Myrcia rostrata.<br />
In the natural st<strong>and</strong> (see figure 2), only Araucaria angustifolia <strong>and</strong> Matayba<br />
elaeagnoides stood out over the canopy. The main species present in the st<strong>and</strong> were Matayba<br />
elaeagnoides, Casearia sylvestris, Allophyllus edulis, Capsicodendron dinisii, Araucaria<br />
angustifolia, <strong>and</strong> Eugenia uniflora. Among shrubs, the most frequent species were Mollinedia<br />
clavigera, Sebastiania brasiliensis, <strong>and</strong> Myrcia hatschbachii.<br />
Natural <strong>and</strong> planted Araucaria st<strong>and</strong>s were similar in regard to both Shannon index <strong>and</strong><br />
evenness. Simpson index indicated that there is no dominance of a few species over the others<br />
in either st<strong>and</strong>.<br />
3. Benefits<br />
Both natural <strong>and</strong> planted Araucaria st<strong>and</strong>s showed similar phytosociological parameters.<br />
Therefore, our suggestion is that planted Araucaria st<strong>and</strong>s are suitable to be used in place of<br />
Eucalyptus for conservation purposes.<br />
Although Araucaria is highly site dem<strong>and</strong>ing, when planted on good quality sites, it can<br />
produce as much as 50 m 3 /ha.yr. Commercial Araucaria timber volume production was higher<br />
in the planted st<strong>and</strong>.<br />
Eighteen-year-old planted Araucaria st<strong>and</strong>s have shown high efficiency in conserving<br />
soil organic carbon (Guedes 2005). Thus, wood stock was maintained in levels equivalent to<br />
those in natural forests on good sites. Soil organic carbon was maintained on the site at rates<br />
ranging from 23 to 56 g/kg, mostly as litter. In a 15-yr-old planted Araucaria st<strong>and</strong>, annual dry<br />
matter accumulation in the litter varied from 5.0 to 6.4 Mg/ha (Koehler et al. 1987) while, in<br />
natural forests, it could reach 5.9 to 8.3 Mg/ha (Fern<strong>and</strong>es <strong>and</strong> Backes 1998; Floss et al. 1999;<br />
Figueiredo Filho et al. 2003).<br />
The presence of endangered species in both types of Araucaria forests indicated the<br />
ecological importance of the low density st<strong>and</strong> as a suitable alternative for the purpose of<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
R.S. Moro & C.H Rocha 2010. A methodological proposal for restoration of forests in southern Brazil<br />
276<br />
combined timber production <strong>and</strong> natural forest conservation. We propose a management option<br />
involving an initial st<strong>and</strong> density of 750 trees/ha with at least one thinning down to 250 trees/ha<br />
at 15 years of age.<br />
Table 1: Tree species <strong>and</strong> families found under the canopies of both planted <strong>and</strong> natural Araucaria<br />
angustifolia st<strong>and</strong>s at Açungui National <strong>Forest</strong> in Campo Largo (Paraná-Brazil).<br />
Under planted Araucaria<br />
canopy<br />
Under natural Araucaria<br />
canopy<br />
Sampled area (ha) 0.12 -<br />
Number of tree species 61 53<br />
Number of families 30 19<br />
Density (plant/ha) 550 1,680<br />
Richest families (number of species) Flacourtiaceae (7)<br />
Lauraceae (5)<br />
Myrtaceae (4)<br />
Abundant families (count) Araucariaceae (66)<br />
Agavaceae (67)<br />
Flacourtiaceae (63)<br />
Sapindaceae (42)<br />
Cyatheaceae (25)<br />
Families with highest IVI (%) Araucariaceae (29.5)<br />
Flacourtiaceae (10.3)<br />
Agavaceae (9.2)<br />
Cyatheaceae (7.8)<br />
Sapindaceae (7.1)<br />
dead (4.4)<br />
Myrtaceae (12)<br />
Flacourtiaceae (5)<br />
Lauraceae (4)<br />
Sapindaceae (2)<br />
Euphorbiaceae (2)<br />
Sapindaceae (26)<br />
Myrtaceae (23)<br />
Canellaceae (8)<br />
Euphorbiaceae (8)<br />
Sapindaceae (21.9)<br />
dead (12.5)<br />
Myrtaceae (12.4)<br />
Flacourtiaceae (10.5)<br />
Araucariaceae (9.6)<br />
Fabaceae (3.8)<br />
Araucaria – mean height (m) 15 16<br />
Araucaria - mean Dbh (cm) 25 29<br />
Canopy – mean height (m) 7.1 (single level) 11.0 <strong>and</strong> 5.0 (two levels)<br />
Canopy – mean Dbh (cm) 11.2 11.0<br />
Shrub height range (m) 3.0-5.3 3.0-5.3<br />
Species with the highest relative density<br />
(in decreasing order)<br />
Shrub species<br />
Araucaria angustifolia<br />
Casearia sylvestris<br />
Allophyllus edulis<br />
Clethra scabra<br />
Dalbergia brasiliensis<br />
Matayba elaeagnoides.<br />
Cordyline dracaenoides<br />
Cyathea corcovadensis,<br />
Cyathea schanschin<br />
Shannon-Wienner Index 3.15 3.43<br />
Evenness 0.77 0.86<br />
Simpson Index 0.93 0.95<br />
Matayba elaeagnoides<br />
Casearia sylvestris<br />
Allophyllus edulis<br />
Capsicodendron dinisii<br />
Araucaria angustifolia<br />
Eugenia uniflora.<br />
Mollinedia clavigera<br />
Sebastiania brasiliensis<br />
Myrcia hatschbachii<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
R.S. Moro & C.H Rocha 2010. A methodological proposal for restoration of forests in southern Brazil<br />
277<br />
Figure 1: Diagramatic profile (5 X 40 m) of 30-year-old planted Araucaria st<strong>and</strong> at Açungui National<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> in Campo Largo (Paraná-Brazil). 1. Araucaria angustifolia; 2. Cordyline dracaenoides; 3.<br />
Cyathea corcovadensis; 4. Casearia sylvestris; 5. Allophyllus edulis; 6. Clethra scabra; 7. Dalbergia<br />
brasiliensis; 8. Matayba elaeagnoides; 9. Casearia lasiophylla; 10. Cupania vernalis. Author: R. F. Moro.<br />
Fig. 2: Diagramatic profile (5 X 20 m) of a 30-year-old natural Araucaria st<strong>and</strong> at Açungui National<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> in Campo Largo (Paraná-Brazil). 1. Araucaria angustifolia; 2. Matayba elaeagnoides; 3. Casearia<br />
sylvestris; 4. Capsicodendron dinisii; 5. Allophyllus edulis; 6. Eugenia uniflora; 7. Mollinedia clavigera;<br />
8. Sebastiania brasiliensis. Author: R. F. Moro.<br />
Acknowledgements: To ICMBio for the financial <strong>and</strong> field support; to Dr. Jarbas Shimizu for<br />
the technical discussions.<br />
References<br />
Fern<strong>and</strong>es, A.V. <strong>and</strong> Backes, A., 1998. Produtividade primária em floresta com Araucaria<br />
angustifolia no Rio Gr<strong>and</strong>e do Sul. Iheringia, Série Botânica, 50: 63-78.<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
R.S. Moro & C.H Rocha 2010. A methodological proposal for restoration of forests in southern Brazil<br />
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Figueiredo Filho, A.; Moraes, G.F.; Schaaf, L.B. <strong>and</strong> Figueiredo, D.J., 2003. Avaliação<br />
estacional da deposição de serrapilheira em uma Floresta Ombrófila Mista localizada no<br />
sul do estado do Paraná. Ciência Florestal, 13: 11-18.<br />
Floss, P.A.; Caldato, S.L. <strong>and</strong> Bohner, J.A.M., 1999. Produção e decomposição de serapilheira<br />
na Floresta Ombrófila Mista da Reserva Florestal da EPAGRI/EMBRAPA de Caçador,<br />
SC. Agropecuária Catarinense, 12 (2): 19-22.<br />
Guedes, S.F.F., 2005. Carbono orgânico e atributos químicos do solo em áreas florestais no<br />
Planalto dos Campos Gerais, SC. UDESC, Lages, 58 p.<br />
Koehler, C.W.; Reissmann, C.B.; <strong>and</strong> Koeler, H.S., 1987. Deposição de resíduos orgânicos<br />
(serapilheira) e nutrientes em plantios de Araucaria angustifolia em função do sítio. Rev.<br />
Setor Ciênc. Agrárias, 9: 89-96.<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
V. Núñez et al. 2010. L<strong>and</strong>scape integration of Mediterranean reforestations: identification of best practices in Madrid region<br />
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L<strong>and</strong>scape integration of Mediterranean reforestations: identification<br />
of best practices in Madrid region<br />
Victoria Núñez 1* , María Dolores Velarde 2 & Antonio García-Abril 1<br />
1<br />
Technical University of Madrid, Research Group for Sustainable Management, E.T.S.I.<br />
Montes, Spain<br />
2<br />
School of Experimental <strong>and</strong> Technical Sciences, Rey Juan Carlos University of<br />
Madrid, Spain<br />
Abstract<br />
The European L<strong>and</strong>scape Convention was approved in 2000 by The European Council with the<br />
aim of protecting, managing <strong>and</strong> planning l<strong>and</strong>scapes in Europe. In 2008, this Convention<br />
entered into force in Spain, so nowadays it is m<strong>and</strong>atory to develop specific or sectorial<br />
strategies.<br />
We propose a methodology to define criteria <strong>and</strong> identify best practices for l<strong>and</strong>scape<br />
integration of reforestations in the Mediterranean region, based on l<strong>and</strong>scape ecology <strong>and</strong> visual<br />
properties. The methodology encompasses the following phases: i) Identification of the main<br />
relationships of l<strong>and</strong>scape with biodiversity, connectivity <strong>and</strong> public preferences; ii) synthesis of<br />
principles <strong>and</strong> criteria for l<strong>and</strong>scape integration of Mediterranean reforestations; iii) Definition<br />
of detailed l<strong>and</strong>scape criteria, both qualitative <strong>and</strong> quantitative, for reforestation design, species<br />
selection, soil preparation <strong>and</strong> protection of the reforestation area.<br />
We applied this methodology to reforestations in Madrid Region. As a result we typified 30 best<br />
practices that may be of use for reforestation in the Mediterranean region.<br />
Keywords: L<strong>and</strong>scape, reforestation, integration, Mediterranean region, best practices<br />
1. Introduction<br />
The importance of l<strong>and</strong>scape in all aspects of forest planning <strong>and</strong> management has recently<br />
become significant due to a number of factors, such as the Rio-Helsinki process, the<br />
requirements of certification <strong>and</strong> an international movement favouring more natural forest<br />
management.<br />
Moreover, the European L<strong>and</strong>scape Convention approved in 2000 by The European Council<br />
with the aim of protecting, managing <strong>and</strong> planning l<strong>and</strong>scapes is m<strong>and</strong>atory nowadays in Spain.<br />
So, specific or sectorial strategies must be developed.<br />
All these factors began to change thinking about appropriate silvicultural systems for forests. So<br />
comprehensive l<strong>and</strong>scape plans are necessary when new planting is undertaken on a substantial<br />
scale.<br />
2. Methodology<br />
We developed a methodology to define criteria <strong>and</strong> identify best practices for l<strong>and</strong>scape<br />
integration of reforestations in the Mediterranean region, based on l<strong>and</strong>scape ecology (Farina<br />
2006) <strong>and</strong> visual properties. The methodology (Figure 1) encompasses the following phases: i)<br />
Identification of the main relationships of l<strong>and</strong>scape with biodiversity, connectivity <strong>and</strong> public<br />
* Corresponding author. Tel.: +34913366401 - Fax: +34915439557<br />
Email address: mvn@iies.es<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
V. Núñez et al. 2010. L<strong>and</strong>scape integration of Mediterranean reforestations: identification of best practices in Madrid region<br />
280<br />
preferences; ii) synthesis of principles <strong>and</strong> criteria for l<strong>and</strong>scape integration of Mediterranean<br />
reforestations; iii) Definition of detailed l<strong>and</strong>scape criteria, both qualitative <strong>and</strong> quantitative, for<br />
reforestation design, species selection, soil preparation <strong>and</strong> protection of the reforestation area.<br />
3. Results<br />
We identified the following list items that must be taken into account for new mediterranean<br />
reforestation design. Underst<strong>and</strong>ing these factors, the interactions between them, <strong>and</strong> how they<br />
are influenced by st<strong>and</strong> management is essential in order to provide guidance to reforestation<br />
design under visual <strong>and</strong> l<strong>and</strong>scape ecology criteria.<br />
We applied this methodology to Madrid Region reforestations. Field visits were made<br />
throughout the forests <strong>and</strong> managers were interviewed. As a result we typified 30 best practices<br />
that may be of use for reforestation in the Mediterranean region.<br />
3.1. Main relationships of forest l<strong>and</strong>scape with biodiversity, connectivity <strong>and</strong> public<br />
preferences.<br />
1. <strong>Forest</strong> l<strong>and</strong>scape <strong>and</strong> biodiversity<br />
Mosaic structure<br />
St<strong>and</strong> structure<br />
Deadwood <strong>and</strong> large trees<br />
Minimum dynamic area (Pickett <strong>and</strong> Thompson 1978) or independent<br />
forest size<br />
2. <strong>Forest</strong> l<strong>and</strong>scape <strong>and</strong> connectivity:<br />
Size of isolated patches<br />
Edges geometry <strong>and</strong> size<br />
Matrix <strong>and</strong> patches pattern<br />
3. <strong>Forest</strong> l<strong>and</strong>scape <strong>and</strong> public preferences<br />
Aesthetic preferences<br />
Time factor<br />
Spatial activities distribution<br />
3.2. Synthesis of principles <strong>and</strong> criteria for l<strong>and</strong>scape integration of reforestations in<br />
the Mediterranean region<br />
Principles<br />
1. Multiscale approach to reforestation design<br />
2. Try to match up aesthetic <strong>and</strong> ecological criteria<br />
3. Take into account public preferences<br />
4. Try to simulate nature when designing reforestation<br />
5. Mask inevitable negative l<strong>and</strong>scape impacts<br />
Criteria for external l<strong>and</strong>scape: broad-scale approach<br />
1. Avoid fragmentation <strong>and</strong> improve ecosystem connectivity<br />
2. Increase biodiversity by species introduction<br />
3. Mitigate the visual impacts of reforestation boundary<br />
4. Adapt lineal structures to the terrain<br />
5. Fit reforestation activities to l<strong>and</strong>scape scale<br />
Criteria for internal l<strong>and</strong>scape: small-scale approach<br />
1. Protect riversides <strong>and</strong> shores<br />
2. Design reforestation edges with gradual slope<br />
3. Preserve or create gaps in forest cover<br />
4. Preserve large <strong>and</strong> dead trees<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
V. Núñez et al. 2010. L<strong>and</strong>scape integration of Mediterranean reforestations: identification of best practices in Madrid region<br />
281<br />
5. Try to integrate infrastructures <strong>and</strong> equipment<br />
6. Do not disturb the genius loci (spirit of the place)<br />
3.3 Detailed l<strong>and</strong>scape criteria<br />
1. Reforestation pattern<br />
2. Reforestation size<br />
3. Planting density<br />
4. Species selection<br />
5. Soil preparation<br />
6. Protection of the reforestation area<br />
7. Initial pruning <strong>and</strong> thinning treatments.<br />
We only present here some of the main detailed l<strong>and</strong>scape criteria as they exceed the length of<br />
this communication.<br />
3.3.1. Reforestation pattern<br />
We assessed different patterns depending on the reforestation objective (table 1). A mosaic of<br />
structures is most proposed because it involves biodiversity increase (Díaz Pineda <strong>and</strong> Schmidtz<br />
2003; Farina 2006; de Zavala et al. 2008), stability improvement (Margaleff 1993), connectivity<br />
strength (Pino et al. 2000; De Lucio et al. 2003) <strong>and</strong> enhanced visual quality (Ammer <strong>and</strong><br />
Pröbstl 1991).<br />
3.3.2. Reforestation size<br />
Mediterranean l<strong>and</strong>scape reforestations must include forested patches of different size. But, for<br />
inside-forest species presence, patches over 100 ha must be part of the mosaic (Dajoz 2002). If<br />
pine reforestation is adopted, patches over 70 ha are needed to mature all forest phases<br />
development (Korpel 1982).<br />
3.3.3. Planting density<br />
Planting density recommendations depend on reforestation objective: wood production (1000-<br />
2000 trees/ha), erosion protection (3000-2000 trees/ha), natural forest reconstruction (
V. Núñez et al. 2010. L<strong>and</strong>scape integration of Mediterranean reforestations: identification of best practices in Madrid region<br />
282<br />
The punctual soil-preparation techniques making a hole <strong>and</strong> constructing small runoff collectors<br />
(minicatchments) are preferred to linear <strong>and</strong> surface treatments that prepare the soil in general<br />
all over the plantation surface.<br />
Areas that have normally been considered more difficult to restore due to a de-structured profile,<br />
to the presence of superficial physical crusts <strong>and</strong> to a scarce vegetal cover are the ones showing<br />
a better response to minicatchments system (Bocio et al. 2004; De Simón 2006). Best practices<br />
were identified in “Navas Pinarejo” forest <strong>and</strong> “Sureste” Regional Park.<br />
3.3.6. Protection of the reforestation area<br />
Individual shelters do not show consistent better results than boundary fences for reforestation<br />
survival (Costa 2003; Sharew <strong>and</strong> Hairston-Strang 2005; Bergez <strong>and</strong> Dupraz 2009). Visual<br />
impact depends on the colour integration <strong>and</strong> visibility (Ammer <strong>and</strong> Pröbstl 1991). They cause<br />
temporal impact if they are removed. Best practices were described in “Canencia”, “Navas y<br />
Pinarejo” <strong>and</strong> “La Morcuera” forests.<br />
4. Conclusion<br />
The proposed array of principles <strong>and</strong> criteria offers considerable promise to l<strong>and</strong>scape discipline<br />
incorporation in reforestation activities <strong>and</strong> should be view as a push to sustainable forest<br />
management <strong>and</strong> best practices identification.<br />
References<br />
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einer ökologisch verträglichen Freizaitnutzung (Tiempo Libre y Naturaleza. Problemas<br />
y soluciones de un uso ecológico y sostenible del recreo). Verlag Paul Parey, Hamburg.<br />
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Cortina, J., Peñuelas, J.L., Puértolas, J., Savé, R. <strong>and</strong> Vilagrosa, A., 2006. Calidad de planta<br />
forestal para la restauración en ambientes mediterráneos. Estado actual de<br />
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Costa, J.C., 2003. Evaluación de la aplicación de tubos y mejoradores en repoblaciones<br />
forestales. Dirección General de Gestión del Medio Natural, Consejería de Medio<br />
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Dajoz, R., 2002. Tratado de ecología. Mundi Prensa, Madrid.<br />
De Lucio, J.V., Atauri Mezquida, J.A., Sastre Olmos, P. <strong>and</strong> Martínez Al<strong>and</strong>i, C., 2003.<br />
Conectividad y redes de espacios naturales protegidos. Del modelo teórico a la visión<br />
práctica de la gestión. In: García Mora, R.C. (Ed), Conectividad ambiental: las áreas<br />
protegidas en la cuenca mediterránea, Sevilla, Consejería de Medio Ambiente. Junta<br />
de Andalucía, pp. 29 – 53.<br />
De Simón, E., Ripoll, M.A., Fernández, E., Navarro, F.B., Jiménez, M.N., Gallego, E., 2006.<br />
Eficacia de las microcuencas en la supervivencia del pino carrasco (Pinus halepensis<br />
Mill.) y de la encina (Quercus ilex L. subsp. ballota (Desf.) Samp.) en distintos<br />
ambientes mediterráneos. Investigación agraria: Sistemas de recursos forestales, 15<br />
(2): 218-230.<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
V. Núñez et al. 2010. L<strong>and</strong>scape integration of Mediterranean reforestations: identification of best practices in Madrid region<br />
283<br />
de Zavala, M.A., Zamora, R., Pulido, F., Blanco, J.A., Imbert, B., Marañón, T., Castillo, F. <strong>and</strong><br />
Valladares, F., 2008. Nuevas perspectivas en la conservación, restauración y gestión<br />
sostenible del bosque mediterráneo. In: Valladares, F.E. (Ed), Ecología del bosque<br />
mediterráneo en un mundo cambiante, Madrid, Ministerio de Medio Ambiente.<br />
Organismo autónomo de Parques Nacionales, pp. 511-532.<br />
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aplicabilidad y temas urgentes para la planificación territorial. In: García Mora, M.R.C.<br />
(Ed), Conectividad ambiental: las áreas protegidas en la Cuenca Mediterránea,<br />
Sevilla, Consejería de Medio Ambiente Junta de Andalucía, pp. 9-28.<br />
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Springer, Dordrecht.<br />
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Dehesa. Aprovechamiento sostenible de los recursos naturales, Editorial Agrícola<br />
Española S.A., pp. 53-94.<br />
Korpel, S., 1982. Degreee of equilibrium <strong>and</strong> dinamical changes of forest on example of natural<br />
forest of slovakia. Acta facultatis forestalis zvolen, XXIV.<br />
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forestales. Contribuciones del profesor Ruiz de la Torre. Investigación agraria:<br />
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España. Madrid, I.N.I.A.<br />
Sharew, H. <strong>and</strong> Hairston-Strang, A., 2005. A comparison of seedling growth <strong>and</strong> light<br />
transmission among tree shelters. North. J. Appl. For., 22 (2): 102-110.<br />
Figures <strong>and</strong> tables<br />
Figure 1: Methodology<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
V. Núñez et al. 2010. L<strong>and</strong>scape integration of Mediterranean reforestations: identification of best practices in Madrid region<br />
284<br />
L<strong>and</strong> cover class<br />
Erosion in<br />
grassl<strong>and</strong>, shrubl<strong>and</strong><br />
or scarce tree<br />
density forest<br />
Grassl<strong>and</strong>, no<br />
erosion risk<br />
Shrub l<strong>and</strong>, no<br />
erosion signs, poor<br />
soil<br />
Shrub l<strong>and</strong>, no<br />
erosion signs, deep<br />
soil<br />
Gaps in forest cover<br />
with<br />
grassl<strong>and</strong>/shrubl<strong>and</strong>,<br />
no erosion<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> with scarce<br />
canopy cover<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> with dense<br />
canopy cover<br />
Table 1: Reforestation patterns<br />
Main reforestation objective<br />
Wood production Erosion control Natural <strong>Forest</strong><br />
---<br />
Preserve grassl<strong>and</strong><br />
gaps to allow fauna<br />
movements.<br />
Incorporate auxiliary<br />
species for soil<br />
improvement<br />
Reforestation not<br />
recommended<br />
Preserve shrubl<strong>and</strong><br />
gaps to allow fauna<br />
movements.<br />
Incorporate auxiliary<br />
species for soil<br />
improvement<br />
Small gap:<br />
reforestation not<br />
recommended.<br />
Big gap:<br />
Plurispecific non<br />
continuous<br />
reforestation<br />
Incorporate auxiliary<br />
species for soil<br />
improvement <strong>and</strong><br />
future wood<br />
production<br />
Use felling gaps for<br />
plurispecific<br />
reforestation of<br />
individuals or by<br />
small groups.<br />
Incorporate auxiliary<br />
species for soil<br />
improvement <strong>and</strong><br />
future wood<br />
production<br />
Plurispecific<br />
continuous<br />
reforestation,<br />
including shrub<br />
<strong>and</strong> tree species<br />
---<br />
---<br />
---<br />
---<br />
---<br />
---<br />
Burned areas<br />
restoration<br />
--- ---<br />
Plurispecific non<br />
continuous<br />
reforestation. Wide<br />
grassl<strong>and</strong> gaps to<br />
preserve biotope.<br />
Mosaic pattern<br />
Reforestation not<br />
recommended<br />
Plurispecific non<br />
continuous<br />
reforestation.<br />
Preserve wide<br />
shrubl<strong>and</strong> gaps for<br />
biotope uses<br />
Small gap:<br />
reforestation not<br />
recommended. Big<br />
gap: Plurispecific<br />
reforestation of<br />
individuals or by<br />
small groups to<br />
improve biodiversity<br />
Plurispecific<br />
reforestation of<br />
individuals or by<br />
small groups. Growth<br />
must be allowed by<br />
existing trees<br />
Use natural cover<br />
gaps for plurispecific<br />
reforestation of<br />
individuals or by<br />
small groups.<br />
---<br />
Reforestation not<br />
recommended<br />
Plurispecific non<br />
continuous<br />
reforestation where<br />
natural regeneration<br />
does not occur.<br />
Preserve wide<br />
shrubl<strong>and</strong> gaps for<br />
biotope uses.<br />
Species enrichment<br />
where natural<br />
regeneration<br />
happens<br />
---<br />
---<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
S.G. Plexida & A.I. Sfougaris 2010. Conservation of priority bird species in a protected area of central Greece<br />
285<br />
Conservation of priority bird species in a protected area of central<br />
Greece using geographical location <strong>and</strong> GIS<br />
Sofia G. Plexida 1* & Athanassios I. Sfougaris 2<br />
Laboratory of Ecosystem <strong>and</strong> Biodiversity Management, Department of Agriculture,<br />
Crop Production <strong>and</strong> Rural Environment, University of Thessaly,<br />
Fytokou str., Ν. Ionia, 384 46 Volos, Greece<br />
Abstract<br />
The effects of habitat structure <strong>and</strong> spatial variation on bird community composition were<br />
studied in the protected area “Antichasia-Meteora mountains” (GR1440003), 82.635 km 2 . The<br />
census of bird diversity was conducted from late April until mid June, <strong>and</strong> in October 2008. In<br />
185 r<strong>and</strong>omly selected sampling plots, the following parameters were recorded: (i) habitat type;<br />
(ii) habitat cover variables <strong>and</strong> (iii) spatial variables. Stepwise regression analysis was used to<br />
investigate the relationships between bird species richness <strong>and</strong> vegetation. Geostatistics were<br />
used to examine the spatial distribution of priority species by semivariography followed by<br />
kriging interpolation. The results showed that bird species richness is correlated significantly<br />
with fallow l<strong>and</strong> (β=0.15, P50cm tall) (P
S.G. Plexida & A.I. Sfougaris 2010. Conservation of priority bird species in a protected area of central Greece<br />
286<br />
variables that regulate bird distrubution <strong>and</strong> (3) to analyse the spatial distribution of bird<br />
diversity, referring to richness <strong>and</strong> abundance.<br />
2. Methodology<br />
The Special Protected Area (SPA) “Mountain Antichasia – Meteora” studied (82.635ha), is<br />
extended between 250 to 1,400 m <strong>and</strong> is considered very important for its wild fauna (Meliadis<br />
et al. 2009). There are a few hedgerows among fields, while the main shrub species, Pyrus<br />
amygdaloformis; Quercus coccifera; Carpinus orientalis; Cotinus coggygria, occupy only 25%<br />
of the total area. Trees, mostly Q. pubescens, Q. frainetto <strong>and</strong> Q. cerris, cover 65% of the area.<br />
The rest 10% of the study area is covered by cultivations.<br />
2.1 Vegetation survey<br />
Vegetation measurements were taken within the same circular plots of 50m radius where the<br />
birds were sampled. Within each sample unit, five vegetation variables were measured: cover<br />
(%) of herbaceous plants, low shrubs, tall shrubs, trees, <strong>and</strong> cover (%) of bare ground (Table 1).<br />
In order to avoid observer-related biases in vegetation sampling (Prodon <strong>and</strong> Lebreton 1981), all<br />
vegetation parameter estimations were conducted by the same observer to control for interobserver<br />
variability (Morrison et al. 1992).<br />
2.2 Bird counts<br />
Bird counts took place in spring <strong>and</strong> late autumn 2008 on 185 plots using the point count<br />
method of 50m radius (0.785ha) (Ralph et al. 1995; Bibby et al. 2000). Each point was<br />
separated by at least 250m from all other points to minimize the probability of sampling the<br />
same bird more than once. All bird species using a plot were counted. These included all birds<br />
recorded on the ground <strong>and</strong> birds hunting over sample plots such as kestrels. Counts were made<br />
with binoculars Nikon 7218 Action 10x50mm by two observers simultaneously (Bibby et al.<br />
1992). The first set of counts were conducted to sample spring migrants that use this area as<br />
stopover site during their spring migration, <strong>and</strong> breeding birds, while the second one aimed at<br />
censusing the resident birds.<br />
2.3 Statistical analysis<br />
The overall effect of habitat characteristics (habitat type, habitat cover variables) was assessed<br />
by stepwise multiple regression with the variables recorded for each sample plot. In these<br />
analyses data were log(x+1) transformed to ensure normality. To explain a significant<br />
proportion of variation in field use for each bird species, we used stepwise regression analyses.<br />
The role of geographical location was explored by the ordinary kriging geostatistical models<br />
(Johnston et al. 2001). The “spatial” data matrix was conducted from x <strong>and</strong> y geographic<br />
coordinates. Non-normal variables were logarithmically transformed (Sokal <strong>and</strong> Rohlf 1981).<br />
3. Results<br />
The five vegetation variables measured in the 185 studied plots were not highly inter-correlated<br />
with the exception of shrubs presence (Table 2). There were two extremely significant variables,<br />
the low shrub cover <strong>and</strong> the tree cover (r= -0.698, P
S.G. Plexida & A.I. Sfougaris 2010. Conservation of priority bird species in a protected area of central Greece<br />
287<br />
Alauda arvensis (N=119), Turdus philomelos (N=106) <strong>and</strong> Lullula arborea (N=95). According<br />
to boxplots, bird richness <strong>and</strong> abundance varies more in farml<strong>and</strong> <strong>and</strong> fallowl<strong>and</strong> than the other<br />
habitat types (Figures 1 <strong>and</strong> 2). Specifically, stepwise multiple regression showed that bird<br />
richness is correlated significantly with fallow l<strong>and</strong> (β=0.15, P50cm tall) (P
S.G. Plexida & A.I. Sfougaris 2010. Conservation of priority bird species in a protected area of central Greece<br />
288<br />
Johnston, K., Ver Hoef J.M., Krivoruchko, K. <strong>and</strong> Lucas, N., 2001. Using ArcGIS geostatistical<br />
analyst. GIS by ESRT. ESRI, Redl<strong>and</strong>s, California.<br />
Johnson, G. <strong>and</strong> Freedman, B., 2002. Breeding birds in forestry plantations <strong>and</strong> natural forest in<br />
the vicinity of Fundy National Park, New Brunswick. Can. Field Nat., 116: 475–486.<br />
Maes, D., Gilbert, M., Titeux, N., Goffart, P. <strong>and</strong> Dennis, R.L., 2003. Prediction of butterfly<br />
diversity hotspots in Belgium: a comparison of statistically focused <strong>and</strong> l<strong>and</strong> usefocused<br />
models. Journal of Biogeography, 30: 1907-1920.<br />
Meliadis, I., Platis, P., Ainalis, A. <strong>and</strong> Meliadis, M., 2009. Monitoring <strong>and</strong> analysis of natural<br />
vegetation in a Special Protected Area of Mountain Antichasia—Meteora, central<br />
Greece. Environ Monit Assess., Vol. 163: 455-465.<br />
Morrison, M.L., Marcot, B.G. <strong>and</strong> Mannan, R.W., 1992. Wildlife–Habitat Relationships.<br />
Concepts <strong>and</strong> Applications. University of Wisconsin press, Wisconsin.<br />
Prodon, R. <strong>and</strong> Lebreton, J.D., 1981. Breeding avifauna of a Mediterranean succession: the<br />
holm <strong>and</strong> cork oak series in eastern Pyrenees. I: analyses <strong>and</strong> modelling of the structure<br />
gradient. Oikos, 37: 21–38.<br />
Ralph, C.J., Sauer, J.R. <strong>and</strong> Droege, S., 1995. Monitoring Bird Populations by Point Counts.<br />
General Technical Report. PSWGTR-149. Pacific Southwest Research Station, <strong>Forest</strong><br />
Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Albany, CA.<br />
S<strong>and</strong>ström, U.G., Angelstam, P. <strong>and</strong> Mikusinski, G., 2006. Ecological diversity of birds in<br />
relation to the structure of urban green space. L<strong>and</strong>scape <strong>and</strong> Urban Planning, 77: 39-<br />
53.<br />
Santos, T., Tellería, J.L. <strong>and</strong> Carbonell, R., 2002. Bird conservation in fragmented<br />
Mediterranean forests in Spain: effects of geographical location, habitat <strong>and</strong> l<strong>and</strong>scape<br />
degradation. Biological Conservation, 105: 113-125.<br />
Scozzafava, S. <strong>and</strong> De Sanctis, A., 2006. Exploring the effects of l<strong>and</strong> ab<strong>and</strong>onment on<br />
habitat structures <strong>and</strong> on habitat suitability for three passerine species in a<br />
highl<strong>and</strong> area of Central Italy. L<strong>and</strong>scape <strong>and</strong> Urban Planning, 75: 23-33.<br />
Sokal, R.R. <strong>and</strong> Rohlf, F.J., 1981. Biometry, 2 nd Edition. Freeman, New York.<br />
Tucker, G.M. <strong>and</strong> Evans, M.I., 1997. Habitats for Birds in Europe: A Conservation Strategy for<br />
the Wider Environment. BirdLife Conservation Series no. 6., BirdLife International,<br />
Cambridge.<br />
Table 1: Variables measured to characterise vegetation structure <strong>and</strong> tree <strong>and</strong> shrub composition in the<br />
sample plots 1 .<br />
1. HERBCOVER: % cover of herbaceous plants<br />
2. LSHCOVER: % cover of low shrubs<br />
3. TSHCOVER: % cover of tall shrubs<br />
4. TREECOVER: % cover of trees<br />
5. GRCOVER: % cover of bare ground<br />
1 Cover variables were recorded as percentages of the sample plot.<br />
Table 2: Pearson correlation coefficients between the five sampled vegetation variables in the studied<br />
plots (n=185).<br />
Herbaceous<br />
cover<br />
Low shrub<br />
cover<br />
Tall shrub<br />
cover<br />
Tree cover Bare ground<br />
cover<br />
Herbaceous cover 1 -0.418** -0.319** -0.698** -0.254**<br />
Low shrub cover 1 0.630** -0.161** 0.110<br />
Tall shrub cover 1 -0.250** -0.011<br />
Tree cover 1 -0.138<br />
Bare ground<br />
1<br />
cover<br />
P < 0.01, correlation is significant at the 0.01 level<br />
P < 0.001, correlation is significant at the 0.05 level<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
S.G. Plexida & A.I. Sfougaris 2010. Conservation of priority bird species in a protected area of central Greece<br />
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Table 3: List of the priority bird species in the entire sample area.<br />
Scientific name Common name Phenology 1 SPEC 2<br />
Category<br />
(2004)<br />
Birds<br />
Directive<br />
79/409<br />
Alauda arvensis Eurasian Skylark R 3 II/2<br />
Circaetus gallicus Short-toed eagle M 3 I<br />
Corvus corone Hooded Crow R II/2<br />
Corvus monedula Western Jackdaw R II/2<br />
Dendrocopos<br />
Middle Spotted<br />
R<br />
I<br />
medius<br />
Woodpecker<br />
Dendrocopos<br />
Syrian Woodpecker R I<br />
syriacus<br />
Garrulus<br />
Eurasian Jay R II/2<br />
gl<strong>and</strong>arius<br />
Falco eleonorae Eleonora’s Falcon M 2 I<br />
Falco naumanni Lesser Kestrel B 1 I<br />
Fringilla coelebs Common Chaffinch R I*<br />
Lanius collurio Red-backed Shrike M 3 I<br />
Lanius minor Lesser Grey Shrike M 2 I<br />
Lullula arborea Wood Lark R 2 I<br />
Parus ater Coal Tit R I*<br />
Pica pica Black-billed Magpie R II/2<br />
Streptopelia<br />
Eurasian Collared dove R II/2<br />
decaocto<br />
Streptopelia turtur European Turtle dove B 3 II/2<br />
Sturnus vulgaris Common Starling R 3 II/2<br />
Troglodytes<br />
Winter Wren R I*<br />
troglodytes<br />
Turdus merula Common Blackbird R II/2<br />
Turdus philomelos Song Thrush R II/2<br />
Turdus viscivorus Mistle Thrush R II/2<br />
1 B: Breeding, M: Migrant that is breeding in the area, R: Resident<br />
2<br />
SPEC 1: Species of global conservation concern.<br />
SPEC 2: Concentrated in Europe <strong>and</strong> with an Unfavourable Conservation Status.<br />
SPEC3: Not concentrated in Europe but with an Unfavourable Conservation Status.<br />
Figure 1: Boxplots for bird richness by habitat type.<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
S.G. Plexida & A.I. Sfougaris 2010. Conservation of priority bird species in a protected area of central Greece<br />
290<br />
Figure 2: Boxplots for bird abundance by habitat type.<br />
Figure 3: Map of modeled priority bird richness produced by the ordinary kriging model <strong>and</strong> location of<br />
sampling points.<br />
St<strong>and</strong>ardized semivariance<br />
γ<br />
1,92<br />
1,54<br />
1,15<br />
0,77<br />
0,38<br />
0 0,34 0,67 1,01 1,35 1,68 2,02 2,35 2,69<br />
Distance, h 10 -4<br />
γ 10 -3 2,31<br />
1,85<br />
1,39<br />
0,93<br />
0,46<br />
0 0,43 0,85 1,28 1,7 2,13 2,56 2,98 3,41<br />
Distance, h 10 -3<br />
Figure 4: Semivariograms showing the st<strong>and</strong>arized semivariance according to the distance between<br />
surveyed points for bird (a) richness <strong>and</strong> (b) abundance in this study.<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
A. Poljanec & A. Boncina 2010. <strong>Change</strong>s in structure <strong>and</strong> composition of forest st<strong>and</strong>s at regional <strong>and</strong> national level<br />
291<br />
<strong>Change</strong>s in structure <strong>and</strong> composition of forest st<strong>and</strong>s at regional <strong>and</strong><br />
national level in the last four decades - a consequence of environmental,<br />
natural or social factors<br />
Ales Poljanec * & Andrej Boncina<br />
University of Ljubljana, Biotechnical Faculty, Department of <strong>Forest</strong>ry <strong>and</strong> Renewable<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> Resources, Vecna pot 83, 1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia<br />
Abstract<br />
Based on data acquired from the spatial information system Silva-SI, the majority of the<br />
entire forest area in Slovenia (22,220 forest compartments with a total area of 7,183<br />
km 2 ) was analysed for changes in structure (growing stock, dbh structure) <strong>and</strong> tree<br />
species composition of forest st<strong>and</strong>s in the period 1970–2008. Different statistical<br />
methods (data mining, GLM) <strong>and</strong> GIS-supported analyses were used to test influence of<br />
20 variables on changes of forest st<strong>and</strong>s: 11 environmental, 2 management, 3 st<strong>and</strong> <strong>and</strong><br />
4 social variables. In the observed period total growing stock significantly increased -<br />
from 190 to 293 m 3 /ha, as well the shares of medium-diameter (30 < dbh ≥ 50 cm) <strong>and</strong><br />
large-diameter (dbh > 50 cm) trees in the total growing stock, from 43 % to 46 % <strong>and</strong><br />
from 9 % to 18 %, respectively. Tree species composition changed significantly in the<br />
analysed period, resulting in a higher share of broadleaves, whereas the share of silver<br />
fir in total growing stock decreased from 17.5 % to 8.6 %. <strong>Change</strong>s in forest st<strong>and</strong><br />
structure were of different magnitudes <strong>and</strong> directions; their variability was partly<br />
explained by different initial states of forest st<strong>and</strong>s influenced by forest management,<br />
environmental <strong>and</strong> social factors included in the study.<br />
Keywords: forest structure, spatiotemporal dynamics, forest management, environmental<br />
factors, social factors, spatial information system<br />
1. Introduction<br />
Temperate forests in Europe cover a large bioclimatiological range <strong>and</strong> play a prominent role in<br />
timber production, nature protection, water conservation, erosion control <strong>and</strong> recreation. For<br />
centuries temperate forests in Europe have been affected by human activities. <strong>Forest</strong><br />
management has caused large-scale changes in the spatial distribution, tree species composition,<br />
<strong>and</strong> structure of forest st<strong>and</strong>s (Johann, 2007). In the 18 th <strong>and</strong> 19 th century, even-aged forestry<br />
created large areas of uniform, mainly conifer-dominated forest st<strong>and</strong>s. In the past few decades,<br />
as nature-based forestry has become widely accepted, several phenomena associated to changes<br />
in the forest structure <strong>and</strong> species distribution occurred (Spiecker, 2003; Gold et al., 2000).<br />
These phenomena are easier to recognize <strong>and</strong> explain if long term changes have been precisely<br />
documented. Archival data such as forest management plans with inventory data, forest maps,<br />
l<strong>and</strong> registers <strong>and</strong> felling records, which are often neglected source of information, enable us to<br />
quantify long-term changes <strong>and</strong> study the impacts of different factors on changes of forest<br />
structure <strong>and</strong> composition over the past decades or centuries (Chapman et al., 2006; Klopcic et<br />
* Corresponding author. Tel.:++38614231161 Fax:++3862571169<br />
Email address: ales.poljanec@bf.uni-lj.si<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
A. Poljanec & A. Boncina 2010. <strong>Change</strong>s in structure <strong>and</strong> composition of forest st<strong>and</strong>s at regional <strong>and</strong> national level<br />
292<br />
al., 2009). The aim of this study was thus 1) to study spatiotemporal changes in forest structure<br />
<strong>and</strong> tree species composition in the last four decades at regional <strong>and</strong> national level <strong>and</strong> 2) to<br />
determinate impact of different environmental, natural <strong>and</strong> social factors on changes of forest<br />
structure <strong>and</strong> species composition.<br />
2. Methodology<br />
2.1 Study area<br />
Slovenia lies in the south-eastern part of Central Europe, between Austria, Italy, Hungary <strong>and</strong><br />
Croatia. Due to diverse environmental conditions (the Alps, the Mediterranean, the Dinaric<br />
Mountains, <strong>and</strong> the Panonian Basin), different forest management practices in the past decades<br />
<strong>and</strong> centuries <strong>and</strong> available archival data on forest st<strong>and</strong> structure <strong>and</strong> composition, Slovenia is<br />
appropriate study area to study changes in forest st<strong>and</strong> structure <strong>and</strong> composition on the<br />
l<strong>and</strong>scape level. <strong>Forest</strong>s cover 11,400 km 2 , which represents 58% of the total l<strong>and</strong> area. The<br />
underlying characteristic of the study area is a considerable variation of relief <strong>and</strong> climatic<br />
conditions (Poljanec et al., 2010). Zonality of forest vegetation in Slovenia is quite clearly<br />
defined due to distinctive orographic factors, different soil substrata <strong>and</strong> well-preserved forest<br />
structure. For the purpose of the research, forest vegetation was classified in eight forest types<br />
according to the terminology of the Ministerial Conference on the Protection of <strong>Forest</strong>s in<br />
Europe (MCPFE) (European forest types…, 2006), reflecting distinctive <strong>and</strong> unique patterns of<br />
human impacts, modification of species composition, latitudinal/altitudinal zonation of<br />
vegetation, climatic <strong>and</strong> edaphic variability, silvicultural systems applied <strong>and</strong> forest<br />
management intensity: Alpine coniferous forest (EFC 3; 225 km 2 ), acidophilous oakwood (EFC<br />
4.1; 241 km 2 ), sessile oak–hornbeam forest (EFC 5.2; 577 km 2 ), Central European<br />
submountainous beech forest (EFC 6.4; 1,901 km 2 ), Illyrian submountainous beech forest (EFC<br />
6.6; 1,505 km 2 ), Illyrian mountainous beech forest (EFC 7.4; 2,612 km 2 ), thermophilous<br />
deciduous forests (EFC 8; 77 km 2 ) <strong>and</strong> floodplain forest (EFC 12; 45 km 2 ).<br />
2.2. Data description <strong>and</strong> analysis<br />
The study is based on data acquired from the spatial information system Silva-SI (Poljanec,<br />
2008), which covers the entire forest area of Slovenia (N of compartments = 32,597;<br />
11,400 km2). The analysis included 22,220 compartments (7,183 km2) with an average area of<br />
34 ha for which reliable data on forest condition for 1970 <strong>and</strong> 2008 are available. An attributive<br />
database comprising seven dependent <strong>and</strong> 20 independent variables describing the site, forest<br />
management <strong>and</strong> social conditions of the compartments was designed. Among 20 independent<br />
variables, the first 11 describe site conditions (INC - mean incline, INC_SD - st<strong>and</strong>ard deviation<br />
of incline, ELV - mean elevation, ELV_SD - st<strong>and</strong>ard deviation of elevation, ASP - aspect,<br />
ASP_VAR - variation of aspect, ROC - proportion of area covered with rocks, BEDR - bedrock,<br />
T - mean annual temperature, PRCEP - mean annual precipitation, RK – site productivity), the<br />
next 4 are social variables (OWN - ownership, N_OWN – number of owners in the<br />
compartment, HS - holding size, SUCC - share of ab<strong>and</strong>oned l<strong>and</strong>), 3 variables describing state<br />
of the st<strong>and</strong>s in 1970 (GS1970 - growing stock in 1970, VOL_C - proportion of large-size<br />
diameter trees in growing stock, P_CON - proportion of conifers in growing stock) <strong>and</strong> the last<br />
2 variables describe the intensity of management (FMR – forest management region, CUT -<br />
annual allowable cut (m3 ha-1) in the period 1970-2008). Data were acquired from various<br />
sources, mostly through forest inventories; this is a combination of a field description of all<br />
st<strong>and</strong>s <strong>and</strong> of tree measurements (dbh ≥ 10 cm) at permanent 500 m2 sampling plots<br />
(N = 100,178) with a dominant sampling network size of 250 m × 250 m <strong>and</strong> 250 m × 500 m<br />
(Poljanec et al., 2010).<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
A. Poljanec & A. Boncina 2010. <strong>Change</strong>s in structure <strong>and</strong> composition of forest st<strong>and</strong>s at regional <strong>and</strong> national level<br />
293<br />
Differences in changes of forest st<strong>and</strong> structure <strong>and</strong> composition was investigated by eight<br />
forest types with seven variables: the variables ΔGS, ΔS, ΔM <strong>and</strong> ΔL denotes the differences in<br />
the total growing stock, growing stock of small, medium <strong>and</strong> large diameter trees between 2008<br />
<strong>and</strong> 1970, while the variables ΔP_Beech, ΔP_Fir <strong>and</strong> ΔP_Spruce denotes the differences in the<br />
proportion of European beech (Fagus sylvatica L.), silver fir (Abies alba Mill.)<strong>and</strong> Norway<br />
spruce (Picea abies (L) H. Karst.) in the growing stock of forest st<strong>and</strong>s in 1970 <strong>and</strong> 2008. The<br />
Welch test (Welch, 1947) was used due to the non-homogeneity of variances <strong>and</strong> different<br />
sample sizes <strong>and</strong> the Tamhane's T2 test (Tamhane, 1979) for post hoc multiple comparisons of<br />
mean values. The impact of selected site, st<strong>and</strong>, forest management <strong>and</strong> social factors on<br />
changes of forest st<strong>and</strong> structure <strong>and</strong> composition were investigated with multiple regression<br />
approach (GLM). All statistical analysis was carried out in the SPSS 17.0.<br />
3. Results<br />
The analyses showed that the structure of forest st<strong>and</strong>s changed significantly in the period 1970-<br />
2005. In 1970–2008 growing stock increased from 190 m 3 /ha to 293 m 3 /ha. An increase of total<br />
growing stock was registered in most of the compartments (N=19,775). In 358 compartments,<br />
however, there was no observed change in growing stock, <strong>and</strong> in 2.087 compartments growing<br />
stock dropped (Figure 1). <strong>Change</strong>s in diameter distribution are evidently reflected in the gradual<br />
ageing of st<strong>and</strong>s, as the share of small-diameter trees dropped (from 49% of total growing stock<br />
in 1970 to 31% in 2005), the share of medium-diameter (30 cm ≤ dbh < 50 cm) <strong>and</strong> largediameter<br />
trees (dbh ≥ 50 cm) increased substantially (from 43 % to 46 % <strong>and</strong> from 9 % to 18 %<br />
of total growing stock). Rather than uniform, the changes in conifers <strong>and</strong> broadleaves are<br />
characteristically different. A considerable increase in the growing stock of small- (10 cm ≤ dbh<br />
< 30 cm) <strong>and</strong> medium-diameter trees was recorded for broadleaved species, whereas for<br />
conifers an increase in the growing stock of large-diameter trees <strong>and</strong> a decrease in the growing<br />
stock of small-diameter trees is evident. Furthermore, the tree species composition of forests<br />
changed substantially in the period 1970–2005. The changes are reflected in higher share of<br />
broadleaves (rising from 40 % of total growing stock in 1970 to 48 % in 2008) <strong>and</strong> improved<br />
conservation status of forests. The growing stock of beech doubled, whereas the share of silver<br />
fir decreased from 17.5% to 8.6 % of total growing stock. <strong>Change</strong>s were less evident for spruce,<br />
resulting in smaller increase of its share in the total grooving stock (rise from 34 % to 37 % of<br />
total growing stock).<br />
<strong>Change</strong>s of growing stock were significantly different among forest types (Welch statistic =<br />
42.547, p=0.000). The increase in growing stock was the highest in EFT 6.4 <strong>and</strong> EFT 6.6, while<br />
changes of growing stock are the smallest in EFC 3 <strong>and</strong> EFC 8. The increase of growing stock is<br />
also correlated to an increase of the proportion of small- <strong>and</strong> medium-diameter trees, while the<br />
increase of large-diameter trees was the highest in forest types where changes of growing stock<br />
were the smallest (EFC 3 <strong>and</strong> EFC 7.4). Furthermore, changes of the proportion of Norway<br />
spruce (Welch statistic = 77.127, p=0.000), silver fir (Welch statistic = 182.214, p=0.000) <strong>and</strong><br />
European beech (Welch statistic = 38.780, p=0.000) were significantly different among forest<br />
types. Proportion of spruce decreased in forest types where spruce is not present in potential<br />
vegetation (EFC 12) <strong>and</strong> increased the most in mountainous vegetation belt, especially in forest<br />
types EFC 7.4 <strong>and</strong> EFC 3. The proportion of beech in the total growing stock dropped in EFC 3<br />
<strong>and</strong> EFC 8 which is particularly distinguished from the changes in other forest types where the<br />
proportion of beech increased in the observed period. The proportion of silver fir in the total<br />
growing stock dropped in all forest types. The regression process is distinctive in forest type<br />
EFC 7.4.<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
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294<br />
<strong>Change</strong>s of forest structure, occurred in the period 1970–2005, were mainly influenced by forest<br />
management; forest management is reflected through the harvest intensity <strong>and</strong> various forest<br />
management concepts in forest management regions. In addition, changes of forest st<strong>and</strong>s were<br />
significantly influenced by the initial state of the st<strong>and</strong>s. The increase of total growing stock was<br />
the highest in forests with lower growing stock, high proportion of broadleaves <strong>and</strong> less<br />
intensive management. In these forests the growing stock of low-diameter <strong>and</strong> mediumdiameter<br />
trees rose, too. Ownership, holding size <strong>and</strong> share of ab<strong>and</strong>oned l<strong>and</strong> in a compartment<br />
were the most important social factors, whereas the main environmental factors were altitude,<br />
mean annual temperature, mean annual precipitation <strong>and</strong> site productivity.<br />
4. Discussion<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> st<strong>and</strong>s in the study area <strong>and</strong> more broadly in the central Europe changed significantly in<br />
last centuries (Klopcic et al., 2009; Spiecker, 2003). In the observed period changes are<br />
reflected in constant increase of growing stock, general aging of forest st<strong>and</strong>s <strong>and</strong> shifting tree<br />
species composition closer to current climatic <strong>and</strong> edaphic conditions. In spite of the general<br />
trends of changing composition <strong>and</strong> structure of forest st<strong>and</strong>s, this study <strong>and</strong> several others (e.g.<br />
Poljanec et al., 2010) indicate that changes varied in nature <strong>and</strong> magnitude between different<br />
forest types <strong>and</strong> different areas. <strong>Forest</strong> resources in extreme site conditions were least affected,<br />
in particular in the mountains where forest changes are slow due to harsh growing conditions,<br />
while in other forests types, changes of forest structure <strong>and</strong> composition can take on different<br />
forms. Varying magnitude <strong>and</strong> orientation of changes in st<strong>and</strong> parameters can be linked to the<br />
impact of different site conditions (Oliver <strong>and</strong> Larson, 1996), initial state of forest st<strong>and</strong>s <strong>and</strong><br />
different natural <strong>and</strong> anthropogenic disturbances (Pickett <strong>and</strong> White, 1996), as well as the<br />
selection of indicators <strong>and</strong> scale in which changes are observed.<br />
Initial state of forest st<strong>and</strong>s in 1970 <strong>and</strong> forest management are the most important factors<br />
explaining changes in forest st<strong>and</strong> structure <strong>and</strong> composition in last four decades, while the<br />
impact of natural <strong>and</strong> social factors is indirect as they point to differing conditions for forest<br />
management. Initial state of the forest st<strong>and</strong>s in 1970 are a result of interplay between different<br />
site conditions (Oliver <strong>and</strong> Larson, 1996) <strong>and</strong> different past forest management <strong>and</strong> l<strong>and</strong> use<br />
history (Spiecker, 2003; Johann, 2007). In the most of the study area intensive harvesting <strong>and</strong><br />
even-aged forestry promoting spruce significantly change st<strong>and</strong> structure <strong>and</strong> composition,<br />
while the application of uneven-aged systems in the 19 th <strong>and</strong> beginning of 20 th century<br />
particularly in the Dinaric region resulted in more preserved forest st<strong>and</strong> structure <strong>and</strong><br />
composition. In the past few decades nature-based forestry (Diaci, 2006) was applied through<br />
intensive forest management planning on the entire study area. The harvest intensity decreased<br />
<strong>and</strong> only in exceptions reached the net annual increment, natural tree species <strong>and</strong> more diverse,<br />
site oriented forest structure was promoted through silvicultural measures.<br />
Current structure <strong>and</strong> composition of forest st<strong>and</strong>s in the study area showed significant<br />
improvement of forest st<strong>and</strong>s over the period under research. In fact, some st<strong>and</strong> parameter<br />
values such as average growing stock, current annual increment <strong>and</strong> diameter distribution came<br />
close to goal values. The development of species composition is generally favorable, since<br />
alteration of natural tree species composition decreased. Despite overall improved conservation<br />
status of forests, the status <strong>and</strong> future development of silver fir population is unfavourable<br />
(Boncina et al., 2009).<br />
In the future, regeneration <strong>and</strong> tending of appropriately structured growing stock is given<br />
priority over growing stock accumulation. On account of significant differences inside of study<br />
area a differentiated approach adapted to local forest conditions will be needed to ensure even<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
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2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
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accumulation of growing stock, its maintenance or active regeneration of forest st<strong>and</strong>s. Special<br />
focus will need to be placed on alleviating forest management risks, which depends mainly<br />
upon implementation of silvicultural, protective <strong>and</strong> other measures intended to increase<br />
resistance of forest st<strong>and</strong>s.<br />
References<br />
Boncina A., Ficko A., Klopcic M., Matijasic D., Poljanec A. 2009. Management of silver fir<br />
(Abies alba Mill.) in Slovenia. Research Reports <strong>Forest</strong>ry <strong>and</strong> Wood Science <strong>and</strong><br />
Technology, 90: 43–56.<br />
Chapman R. A., Heitzman E., Shelton M. G. 2006. Long-term changes in forest structure <strong>and</strong><br />
species composition of an upl<strong>and</strong> oak forest in Arkansas. <strong>Forest</strong> ecology <strong>and</strong><br />
management, 236: 85–92.<br />
Diaci J. 2006. Nature-based silviculture in Slovenia : origins, development <strong>and</strong> future trends.<br />
Studia forestalia Slovenica, 126: 119-131<br />
European forest types, categories <strong>and</strong> types for sustainable forest management reporting <strong>and</strong><br />
policy, 2006. European Environmental Agency Technical Report No. 9.<br />
Gold. S., Korotkov A.V., Sasse V. 2000. The development of European forest resources, 1950<br />
to 2000. <strong>Forest</strong> Policy <strong>and</strong> Economics, 8: 183–192<br />
Johann, E., 2007. Traditional forest management under the influence of science <strong>and</strong> industry:<br />
the story of the alpine cultural l<strong>and</strong>scapes. <strong>Forest</strong> Ecology <strong>and</strong> Management 249: 54–62.<br />
Klopcic M., Jerina K., Boncina A. 2009. Long-term changes of structure <strong>and</strong> tree species<br />
composition in Dinaric uneven-aged forests: are red deer an important factor European<br />
journal of forest research, DOI: 10.1007/s10342-009-0325-z.<br />
Oliver C. D., Larson B. C. 1996. <strong>Forest</strong> st<strong>and</strong> dynamics. Updated ed. New York, John Wiley &<br />
Sons: 520.<br />
Pickett S. T., White P. S. 1985. The ecology of natural disturbance of natural patch dynamics.<br />
San Diego, Academic Press: 472.<br />
Poljanec A., Ficko A., Boncina A. 2010. Spatiotemporal dynamic of European beech (Fagus<br />
sylvatica L.) in Slovenia, 1970-2005. <strong>Forest</strong> Ecology <strong>and</strong> Management, 259: 2183–2190.<br />
Spiecker, H., 2003. Silvicultural management in maintaining biodiversity <strong>and</strong> resistance of<br />
forests in Europe-temperate zone. Journal of Environmental Management, 67: 55–65.<br />
Tamhane, A.C., 1979. A comparison of procedures for multiple comparisons of means with<br />
unequal variances. Journal of the American Statistical Association, 74: 471–479.<br />
Welch, B.L., 1947. The generalization of ‘‘student’s’’ problem when several different<br />
population variances are involved. Biometrika, 34: 28–35.<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
A. Poljanec & A. Boncina 2010. <strong>Change</strong>s in structure <strong>and</strong> composition of forest st<strong>and</strong>s at regional <strong>and</strong> national level<br />
296<br />
Figure 1: <strong>Change</strong>s of growing stock (ΔGS) in period 1970-2008; light gray – increase of total growing<br />
stock, dark gray - no observed change in growing stock, black – decrease of total growing stock.<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
M. Redon & S. Luque 2010. Tengmalm owl <strong>and</strong> Pygmy owl as a surrogate for biodiversity value in the French Alps <strong>Forest</strong>s<br />
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Tengmalm owl (Aegolius funereus) <strong>and</strong> Pygmy owl (Glaussidium<br />
passerinum) as a surrogate for biodiversity value in the French Alps<br />
<strong>Forest</strong>s<br />
Mathilde Redon * & S<strong>and</strong>ra Luque<br />
CEMAGREF, Institute for Agricultural <strong>and</strong> Environmental Engineering Research, Grenoble,<br />
France<br />
Abstract<br />
The problem in biodiversity monitoring <strong>and</strong> conservation is that usually exist vast gaps in<br />
available information on the spatial distribution of biodiversity that poses a major challenge for<br />
the development of biodiversity indicators <strong>and</strong> regional conservation planning.<br />
Within this context, the concept of habitat quality is fundamental to the study of ecology.<br />
Measurements of habitat structure offer the potential to directly predict quality (in terms of<br />
physical structure <strong>and</strong> plant species composition). An example using two bird species,<br />
Tengmalm owl (Aegolius funereus) <strong>and</strong> Pygmy owl (Glaussidium passerinum) is presented as<br />
indicator of forest biodiversity. Maximum entropy (Maxent), a presence-only modelling<br />
approach, is used to model the distribution of these two species within a large study area in the<br />
French Alps. Despite biased sampling design, this method performs very well in predicting<br />
spatial distribution of the two owl species. Results are then used as criteria in the habitat<br />
biodiversity value index.<br />
Key words: Habitat quality, Maxent, distribution modelling, biodiversity indicators, French<br />
Alps<br />
1. Introduction<br />
Improving knowledge on the distribution of indicator <strong>and</strong> emblematic but locally poorly known<br />
species is of great importance for managers as well as for naturalists (Baldwin, 2009). These<br />
species can be used as a surrogate for biodiversity monitoring <strong>and</strong> conservation (Lindenmayer et<br />
al., 2000). Still vast gaps in available information on the spatial distribution of biodiversity<br />
exist, that poses a major challenge for the development of relevant biodiversity indicators for<br />
regional conservation <strong>and</strong> forest management planning.<br />
In addition, the development of spatial knowledge on the habitat requirements <strong>and</strong> ecology of<br />
these species would facilitate conservation of a great number of related species.<br />
Models that establish relationships between environmental variables <strong>and</strong> species<br />
occurrence have been developed <strong>and</strong> are widely used with many applications in conservation<br />
<strong>and</strong> management-related fields (Cowley et al., 2000; Elith et al., 2006; Gibson et al., 2004;<br />
Pearce <strong>and</strong> Ferrier, 2000; Stockwell <strong>and</strong> Peterson, 2002). They can help to guide additional field<br />
work, by identifying unknown population locations. It also supports management decisions with<br />
regard to biodiversity, to determine suitable sites for reintroductions or to assist selection of<br />
protected areas (Baldwin, 2009). First, these models were mainly developed for presenceabsence<br />
data modelling. However, absence data are often lacking or biased <strong>and</strong> a new<br />
generation of models adapted to presence-only data modelling have been proposed (Baldwin,<br />
2009)(Hirzel et al., 2002; Phillips et al., 2006). A huge number of such methods exist <strong>and</strong> differ<br />
from their data requirements, statistical models used, output formats, performance in diverse<br />
situations (Elith et al., 2006; Guisan <strong>and</strong> Zimmermann, 2000). Much of them are based on the<br />
ecological niche theory (Hirzel <strong>and</strong> Le Lay, 2008)(Phillips et al., 2006). Ecological-niche based<br />
models generally define a function that links the fitness of individuals to their environment<br />
* Corresponding author.<br />
Email address: Mathilde.redon@cemagref<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
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(Hirzel <strong>and</strong> Le Lay, 2008).Thus, theoretically, if we know precisely the habitat characteristics of<br />
a species, it is possible to rebuild its ecological niche from the environmental variables<br />
describing its habitat.<br />
In this study, we have chosen to use the Maximum Entropy modelling approach, which<br />
is a relatively recent method developed by Phillips (2006). Maxent is a presence-only modelling<br />
approach with a proved good potential to predict wildlife distribution. Despite biased sampling<br />
design, this method performs very well in predicting spatial distribution of species data (Elith et<br />
al., 2006). It estimates the less constrained distribution of training points compare to r<strong>and</strong>om<br />
background locations with environmental data layers defining constrains (Baldwin, 2009). The<br />
results show how well the model fits the location data as compared to a r<strong>and</strong>om distribution<br />
(Phillips et al., 2006; Phillips et al., 2004).<br />
Herein we aim to predict the distribution of two owls’ species, Tengmalm owl (Aegolius<br />
funereus) <strong>and</strong> Pygmy owl (Glaussidium passerinum), in the French Alps. These species have<br />
specific habitat needs <strong>and</strong> their presence reflects those of numerous other forest-dwelling<br />
species. They are considered as relicts from Ice Age <strong>and</strong> need quite cold areas, which make<br />
them good c<strong>and</strong>idates to develop further studies in relation to global climate changes.<br />
In addition, their distributions are poorly known <strong>and</strong> their protection status are not well defined.<br />
It is also important to denote that Pygmy owl populations in the Vercors Mountain (Alps range)<br />
represent the occidental limit of the European range of the species. It represents also an<br />
additional stake to learn more about distribution <strong>and</strong> habitat structure of this species at the limit<br />
of its range.<br />
Requirements <strong>and</strong> distribution of Tengmalm owl are less well known because this species is<br />
nocturnal <strong>and</strong> discreet, therefore census data are difficult to gather. Modelling its potential<br />
distribution will allow to improve knowledge on its habitat <strong>and</strong> ecological needs. Several local<br />
surveys efforts took place in order to develop a census of the populations within the “Vercors”<br />
region. But these works are limited to very small areas, <strong>and</strong> a distribution model which covers<br />
the entire mountain region would be very useful to help to define adequate surveys efforts for<br />
the future while at the same time will provide an overview of the likely distribution of the two<br />
species.<br />
2. Material <strong>and</strong> methods<br />
2.1 Case study area <strong>and</strong> species occurrence data<br />
This work was conducted within Vercors Natural Regional Park (VNRP), located at the<br />
frontier between northern <strong>and</strong> southern French Alps (Figure 1). It covers 206 000 hectares with<br />
139 000 hectares of forests. Approximately a half of these forests are Public (State <strong>and</strong><br />
municipalities forests) <strong>and</strong> the rest is in the h<strong>and</strong>s of private stakeholders. The main tree species<br />
are Fir (Abies alba), Spruce (Picea abies) <strong>and</strong> Birch (Fagus sylvatica).<br />
We used Tengmalm owl (Aegolius funereus) <strong>and</strong> Pygmy owl (Glaussidium passerinum)<br />
point counts data from several surveys conducted in the ‘Hauts Plateaux du Vercors’ Natural<br />
Reserve (HPVNR), which is located within the VNRP. The Reserve is mainly composed of<br />
three main forest types: i) mixed uneven-aged birch/spruce/fir forests, ii) pure quite sparse evenaged<br />
or uneven-aged spruce forests <strong>and</strong> at high elevation, iii) pure sparse naturally even-aged<br />
Mountain Pine forests. The bigger State forest in the Reserve has recently been classified as an<br />
Integral Biological Reserve (IBR).<br />
All local surveys have take place in this State forest <strong>and</strong> mainly in the IBR. The two<br />
owls’ species are from the North European boreal forests <strong>and</strong> the cold sparse spruce Reserve<br />
forests look-like their original habitat. Therefore, local people generally thought that the range<br />
of the two species is limited to these particular forests in the Vercors.<br />
In this part of the Alps, Pygmy owl depends on cavities carved by the Great spotted woodpecker<br />
(Dendrocopus major) <strong>and</strong> Tengmalm owl by the Black Woodpecker (Dryocopus martius) for<br />
breeding.<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
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2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
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These cavity providers favour respectively spruce <strong>and</strong> birch trees to breed. It implies that the<br />
presence of the woodpeckers <strong>and</strong> their host trees are likely to be important habitat variables for<br />
the two owls.<br />
The point counts data come from the naturalist network of the National <strong>Forest</strong> Office<br />
<strong>and</strong> the “Ligue de Protection des Oiseaux”, an organism which aims to improve knowledge on<br />
the local fauna species.<br />
These data are a combination of visual <strong>and</strong> eared bird contacts in addition to nests locations.<br />
Each contact point is located with a <strong>Global</strong> Positioning System (GPS). The reliability of these<br />
data is very heterogeneous because each data source has its own sampling design <strong>and</strong> its own<br />
database system. We therefore harmonize data before integration into a common database.<br />
It is important to denote that despite the low precision of visual <strong>and</strong> eared occurrence data we<br />
include them into our database since these are owl’s activity centres within their territory.<br />
The resulted dataset is composed of presence points represented as latitude/longitude<br />
coordinates, then no absence points are considered. This is a common issue when someone<br />
works with wildlife surveys data (Anderson et al., 2003; Chefaoui <strong>and</strong> Lobo, 2008). Therefore<br />
the interest of models like Maxent, as aforementioned, is the use of presence data only for the<br />
computation of the habitat modelling.<br />
2.2 GIS environmental data<br />
We used a set of environmental data based on the knowledge of the species ecology <strong>and</strong><br />
factors affecting distribution of the species within the entire study area: elevation, aspect, slope,<br />
topography, forest habitats (from Alpine National Botanic Conservatory topology), related<br />
woodpeckers species presence (Dendrocopus major for Pygmy owl <strong>and</strong> Dryocopus martius for<br />
Tengmalm owl), l<strong>and</strong> cover (Corine L<strong>and</strong> Cover 2006 level 3), mean annual temperature,<br />
woodpeckers host tree species (Spruce <strong>and</strong> Birch).<br />
These data are represented as raster layers with a 50 m resolution; we used ArcGIS 9.3 to<br />
prepare the different data layers.<br />
A single raster mask delimiting the study area was used to assure that all raster layers have the<br />
same dimensions.<br />
For the two species, we used 20% r<strong>and</strong>omly selected occurrence data for cross-validation,<br />
leaving the remaining 80 % for analysis.<br />
We implemented the model with freeware Maxent developed by (Phillips et al., 2005).<br />
It is friendly use, as species occurrence training <strong>and</strong> test files <strong>and</strong> environmental data layers are<br />
automatically recognize by the application.<br />
We used simultaneously continuous <strong>and</strong> discrete data. We let almost all default<br />
parameters, but we set the regularization value to 1 for the two species. We also chose to see the<br />
jackknife test of variable importance <strong>and</strong> the response curves to evaluate the relative<br />
contribution of each variable to the model.<br />
We first include all the environmental variables in the model. Then, we delete those which did<br />
not show any significant contribution to the model.<br />
Five variables were finally selected for the two species: elevation, topography, l<strong>and</strong><br />
cover, mean annual temperature <strong>and</strong> presence of Spruce for Pygmy owl <strong>and</strong> L<strong>and</strong> cover,<br />
elevation, mean annual temperature, slope <strong>and</strong> Birch presence for Tengmalm owl.<br />
Maxent provides three output formats. We select the logistic output as generally<br />
recommended. The result is a continuous value between 0 <strong>and</strong> 100. Each resulting raster pixel<br />
contains a value reflecting how well the predictive conditions for each pixel are.<br />
We then export results into ArcGIS 9.3 in order to apply a threshold value to produce<br />
the occurrence map. Many methods exist to determine the presence threshold. We used 10<br />
percentile training presence (threshold= 0.305 for Pygmy owl <strong>and</strong> 0.227 for Tengmalm owl) as<br />
suggested by (Phillips <strong>and</strong> Dudík, 2008). This threshold value provides a better ecologically<br />
significant result when compared with more restricted thresholds values.<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
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2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
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3. Model evaluation<br />
To evaluate models of species distribution, the best method would have been to use an<br />
independent data set. However, for the two owl’s species, observation data are spatially<br />
aggregated <strong>and</strong> it would have had no sense to use data located in the same place than the<br />
training data to evaluate the performance of the model.<br />
We test models performance with several other tools.<br />
Maxent calculate the AUC (Area Under the receiver operating Curve) for each run. It is<br />
a st<strong>and</strong>ard, threshold-independent method for model evaluation. This method was initially<br />
developed for presence-absence data. In Maxent, absence data are replaced by r<strong>and</strong>om points<br />
(Phillips et al., 2006). AUC tests if a prediction is better than r<strong>and</strong>om for any possible presence<br />
threshold. It varies between 0.5 when the result is not better than a r<strong>and</strong>om selection <strong>and</strong> 1 when<br />
the result is significantly better than r<strong>and</strong>om.<br />
Maxent also calculates an omission rate for training <strong>and</strong> test data. Omission rate<br />
indicates the percentage of test localities that falls into pixels not predicted as suitable for the<br />
species (Phillips et al., 2006). It should be low for a good model performance.<br />
We also verify if all training points where predicted with a high probability.<br />
In addition, we compare environmental variables values between training sites <strong>and</strong> the same<br />
number of points r<strong>and</strong>omly selected among positively predicted sites. As observation data<br />
represent activity centres but rarely nesting sites, we used circles representing owls living<br />
territories to make the comparison (Hakkarainen et al., 2008; Ribe et al., 1998). Each selected<br />
point was the centre of one living territory (i.e. this include nesting sites) considered with a<br />
radius of 670 meters for Pygmy owl <strong>and</strong> of 1000 meters for Tengmalm owl. Mean of<br />
quantitative variables <strong>and</strong> dominant value of qualitative variables were used for the comparison.<br />
As data do not follow a Gaussian distribution, we used non-parametric statistic tests<br />
implemented in R 2.8.1 (Gentleman & Ihaka, 1997).<br />
4. Results <strong>and</strong> discussion<br />
Despite biased sampling design, Maxent model performed very well in predicting<br />
potential spatial distribution of the two owl species. Test omission rates are null at minimum<br />
training presence threshold (0.000 for Pygmy owl <strong>and</strong> Tengmalm owl) <strong>and</strong> low at 10 percentile<br />
training presence threshold (0.176 For Pygmy owl <strong>and</strong> 0.067 for Tengmalm owl).<br />
For the two species, models show an AUC value very close to 1. However, when species have a<br />
narrow range (or training data are spatially aggregated), AUC is overestimated (Phillips <strong>and</strong><br />
Dudík, 2008), which is certainly the case here.<br />
Mean training data predictive rate is 0.58 (SD= 0.20) for Pygmy owl <strong>and</strong> 0.55 (SD= 0.20) for<br />
Tengmalm owl. The model performance seems to be good then based on the well predicted<br />
calibration points. In addition, for the two species, there are no significant differences in<br />
environmental variables values between training <strong>and</strong> r<strong>and</strong>omly selected species living<br />
territories. It indicates that habitat is suitable within areas where the species occurrences are<br />
predicted.<br />
For the two species, the resulting distribution is wider than would be expected by local<br />
knowledge (see Figure 2). This result is not surprising because some observations have been<br />
done in Vercors forests outside of the HPVNR <strong>and</strong> in an adjacent mountain massif with a<br />
different kind of forest habitats (i.e. more humid, productive <strong>and</strong> with closed canopy<br />
conditions).<br />
The distribution maps bring new information on these poorly known species. They<br />
represent very useful data on owl species probability presence with a grain that allow their use<br />
at different scales.<br />
However, it is important to note that species could not be present in a site even if they<br />
are predicted. Other factors, not taken into account in the analysis, can explain species absence.<br />
They can be for example: predator presence (notably Tawny owl (Strix aluco) for the two owls<br />
<strong>and</strong> European pine marten (Martes martes) for Tengmalm owl), sites far from existing<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
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population <strong>and</strong> not yet colonized <strong>and</strong> a lack of prey resources (little mammals, passerine birds,<br />
etc.).<br />
Therefore, sites of predicted presence would guide naturalists’ future work in order to<br />
identify other suitable sites were the bird distribution is unknown while at the same time<br />
facilitate selection of areas with high ecological value. As numerous public forests are managed<br />
for wood production in the Vercors, these maps would allow to better integrate biodiversity<br />
conservation into management planning. In addition, as these species are linked to cold habitats,<br />
they could serve as good indicators of climate change with further work including temporal<br />
analysis. The kind of models used here would be useful to follow the evolution of their spatial<br />
distribution in years to come. Furthermore, the tools developed can be applied in assessing<br />
biodiversity value of both managed <strong>and</strong> protected forest areas to help decision-making<br />
concerning the protection of valuable habitats. Distribution modelling of these species is among<br />
the first attempts to model suitable habitat distribution of cavity-nesting owl species in France.<br />
We hope it will launch the use of such methods, which aim to improve species ecological<br />
knowledge <strong>and</strong> facilitate species censuses <strong>and</strong> conservation.<br />
Figures<br />
Figure 1: Study area localisation<br />
Figure 2: Result of Maxent model for Pygmy owl, with 10 percentile training presence threshold<br />
(left) <strong>and</strong> Tengmalm owl, with 10 percentile training presence threshold (right). Darker tones<br />
indicate higher probability of occurrence.<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
M. Redon & S. Luque 2010. Tengmalm owl <strong>and</strong> Pygmy owl as a surrogate for biodiversity value in the French Alps <strong>Forest</strong>s<br />
302<br />
References<br />
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distributions: criteria for selecting optimal models. Ecological Modelling, 162(3): 211-<br />
232.<br />
Baldwin, R.A., 2009. Use of Maximum Entropy Modeling in Wildlife Research. Entropy, 11:<br />
854-866.<br />
Chefaoui, R.M. <strong>and</strong> Lobo, J.M., 2008. Assessing the effects of pseudo-absences on predictive<br />
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Cowley, M.J.R., Wilson, R.J., Leon-Cortés, J.L., Gutiérrez, D., Bulman, C.R. <strong>and</strong> Thomas,<br />
C.D., 2000. Habitat-based statistical models for predicting the spatial distribution of<br />
butterflies <strong>and</strong> day-flying moths in a fragmented l<strong>and</strong>scape. Journal of Applied Ecology,<br />
37: 60-72.<br />
Elith, J., Graham, C.H., Anderson, R.P., Dudík, M., Ferrier, S., Guisan, A., Hijmans, R.J.,<br />
Huettmann, F., Leathwick, J.R., Lehmann, A., Li, J., Lohmann, L.G., Loiselle, B.A.,<br />
Manion, G., Moritz, C., Nakamura, M., Nakazawa, Y., Mc Overton, C.O., Peterson,<br />
A.T., Phillips, S.J., Richardson, K., Scachetti-Pereira, R., Schapire, R.E., Soberón, J.,<br />
Williams, S., Wisz, M.S. <strong>and</strong> Zimmerman, N.E., 2006. Novel methods improve<br />
prediction of species’ distributions from occurrence data. Ecography, 29: 129-151.<br />
Gibson, L.A., Wilson, B.A., Cahill, D.M. <strong>and</strong> Hill, J., 2004. Spatial prediction of rufous<br />
bristlebird habitat in a coastal heathl<strong>and</strong>: a GIS-based approach. Journal of Applied<br />
Ecology, 41: 213-223.<br />
Guisan, A. <strong>and</strong> Zimmermann, N.E., 2000. Predictive habitat distribution models in ecology.<br />
Ecological Modelling, 135(2-3): 147-186.<br />
Hakkarainen, H., Korpimäki, E., Laaksonen, T., Nikula, A. <strong>and</strong> Suorsa, P., 2008. Survival of<br />
male Tengmalm’s owls increases with cover of old forest in their territory. Oecologia,<br />
155: 479-486.<br />
Hirzel, A.H., Hausser, J., Chessel, D. <strong>and</strong> Perrin, N., 2002. Ecological-niche Factor Analysis :<br />
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2036.<br />
Hirzel, A.H. <strong>and</strong> Le Lay, G., 2008. Habitat suitability modelling <strong>and</strong> niche theory. Journal of<br />
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Lindenmayer, D.B., Margules, C.R. <strong>and</strong> Botkin, D.B., 2000. Indicators of Biodiversity for<br />
Ecologically Sustainable <strong>Forest</strong> Management. Conservation Biology, 14(4): 941-950.<br />
Pearce, J. <strong>and</strong> Ferrier, S., 2000. An evaluation of alternative algorithms for fitting species<br />
distribution models using logistic regression. Ecological Modelling, 128(2-3): 127-147.<br />
Phillips, S.J., Anderson, R.P. <strong>and</strong> Schapire, R.E., 2006. Maximum entropy modeling of species<br />
geographic distributions. Ecological Modelling, 190: 231-259.<br />
Phillips, S.J., Dud´ık, M. <strong>and</strong> Schapire, R.E., 2004. A Maximum Entropy Approach to Species<br />
Distribution Modeling, Proceedings of the 21st International Conference on Machine<br />
Learning, Banff, Canada.<br />
Phillips, S.J. <strong>and</strong> Dudík, M., 2008. Modeling of species distributions with Maxent: new<br />
extensions <strong>and</strong> a comprehensive evaluation. Ecography, 31: 161-175.<br />
Ribe, R., Morganti, R., Hulse, D. <strong>and</strong> Shull, R., 1998. A management driven investigation of<br />
l<strong>and</strong>scape patterns of northern spotted owl nesting territories in the high Cascades of<br />
Oregon. L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology, 13: 1-13.<br />
Stockwell, D.R.B. <strong>and</strong> Peterson, A.T., 2002. Effects of sample size on accuracy of species<br />
distribution models. Ecological Modelling, 148(1): 1-13.<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
M.C.C. Rodrigues et al. 2010. Contribution to the characterization of Gentiana pneumonanthe L. <strong>and</strong> Maculinea alcon L.<br />
303<br />
Contribution to the characterization of Gentiana pneumonanthe L.<br />
<strong>and</strong> Maculinea alcon L. distribution in the Alvão Natural Park<br />
M. da Conceição C. Rodrigues 1,2 , Paula M. S. O. Arnaldo 1,2 & José Aranha 1,2*<br />
1<br />
Departamento de Ciências Florestais e Arquitectura Paisagista, Universidade de Trásos-Montes<br />
e Alto Douro, 5001-801 Vila Real, Portugal<br />
2<br />
CITAB, Universidade de Trás-os-Montes e Alto Douro, 5001-801 Vila Real, Portugal<br />
Abstract<br />
The aim of this research was to study the distribution of Gentiana pneumonanthe in the<br />
geographic area of Alvão Natural Park, in order to determine the area of Maculinea alcon L.<br />
expansion as well the region’s potential for development <strong>and</strong> conservation this butterfly species.<br />
Due to the ecology needs of Maculinea alcon L (simultaneous presence of G. pneumonanthe -<br />
the host plant - <strong>and</strong> Myrmica sp. - Ant that feeds the larvae of M. alcon in its larvae stadium),<br />
we made a survey of plants, butterflies <strong>and</strong> ants’ nests, using a DGPS. Data collected during<br />
filed work was then used to create a GIS, in order to analyse the relationship between plants,<br />
ants <strong>and</strong> butterflies.<br />
The results show that the l<strong>and</strong> with less human activity are the most favourable to the plants<br />
development as well to the ants development <strong>and</strong>, therefore, to the presence of butterflies.<br />
Keywords: Maculinea alcon L, Gentiana pneumonanthe, Myrmica sp, Alvão, GIS<br />
1. Introduction<br />
The study <strong>and</strong> monitoring of Maculinea alcon (Dennis & Schiffermüller 1775) meta-population<br />
of, in Parque Natural do Alvão – Northern Portugal - began in 2006. This is a butterfly of the<br />
family Lycaenidae Lepidoptera, with a life cycle very sui geniris <strong>and</strong> which is listed in the Red<br />
Book of endangered species (Swaay et al 1999). The host of the early life of the larva, of this<br />
butterfly, is a plant, Gentiana pneumonanthe L., <strong>and</strong> its host in the final larval stage is an ant in<br />
the order Hymenoptera <strong>and</strong> the family Formicidae, which is genus <strong>and</strong> species is Myrmica<br />
Alobar (Forel 1909 ).<br />
According Nowicki et al. 2005, based on studies developed in southern Pol<strong>and</strong>, in wet meadows<br />
in the valley of the Vistula, egg-laying by females of Maculinea alcon, has a high correlation<br />
with the number of flowers that each plant Gentiana pneumonanthe has during flowering season.<br />
Thomas <strong>and</strong> Elmes 2001, in the Valley Tidna, Cornwall, confirmed that each species of<br />
Maculinea has a remarkably short period of oviposition in relation to the growth stage of<br />
Gentiana pneumonanthe. According the research results, these researchers state that Maculinea<br />
teleius <strong>and</strong> Maculinea nausithous have different sites of oviposition, which is also related with<br />
the local distribution of ant host species. These two species of Maculinea have preference for<br />
floral buds, to deposit their eggs in places where it occurs Myrmica scabrinodis with a short<br />
vegetation cover between 0 <strong>and</strong> 30 cm in the case of Maculinea teleius while Maculinea<br />
nausithous prefers the flower buds with neighborhood predominant Myrmica rubra <strong>and</strong> plant<br />
strata higher.<br />
* Corresponding author; Telf. + 351 259 350 856 - Fax. + 351 250 350 480<br />
Email address: j.aranha.utad@gmail.com<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
M.C.C. Rodrigues et al. 2010. Contribution to the characterization of Gentiana pneumonanthe L. <strong>and</strong> Maculinea alcon L.<br />
304<br />
In studies developed in central Europe by Schlick-Steiner et al., 2004, the author concluded that<br />
Maculinea rebellion, produces or secretes a complex substance whose composition is based on<br />
carbohydrates, which attracts the ants of the genus Myrmica. These ants, when found the larvae,<br />
in their third instar, in soil, take <strong>and</strong> lead them to the ants’ nest <strong>and</strong> feed them over the winter<br />
until the pupal stage <strong>and</strong> chrysalis. Over this instar, there is no segregation of that substance <strong>and</strong><br />
Maculinea rebellion butterfly must leave ants’ nest <strong>and</strong> fly out.<br />
This secretion, has similar characteristics to the ants odoriferous, which allows the larvae to be<br />
treated as pairs, inside the ants’ nest <strong>and</strong> is thus safeguarded from serving food to the colony. In<br />
that case, the substance studied, shows a capacity citron multiple of mimicry to the odorous of<br />
the Myrmica species of the region (M. sabuleti <strong>and</strong> M. schenck), presenting himself as a<br />
chemical strategy to guarantee that at least one of those species, take responsibility for their<br />
introduction.<br />
The aim of this work is to create a GIS to Parque Natural do Alvão, for mapping the current<br />
geographical distribution of Gentiana pneumonanthe L.<strong>and</strong> for mapping the location of<br />
Maculinea alcon meta-populations, as well traces of their presence (e.g. eggs on flowers)<br />
2. Methodology<br />
In October 2008 <strong>and</strong> March 2009, research team performed an intensive field work for data<br />
collection <strong>and</strong> survey, in order to updating GIS with the distribution of Gentiana pneumonanthe<br />
L., the location of nests of Myrmica alobar, the location of Maculinea alcon eggs on flowers<br />
<strong>and</strong> the capture of butterflies.<br />
This field work was supported by a GIS (Geographical Information System) installed on a PDA<br />
(Personal Digital Assistant) with DGPS (Differential <strong>Global</strong> Positioning System).<br />
3. Result<br />
Gentiana pneumonanthe grows well in shrub l<strong>and</strong>, with good exposure to sunlight, gentle slopes<br />
<strong>and</strong> proximity of running water. In the fringe of agricultural l<strong>and</strong>, close to irrigation channels,<br />
which minimises the effects of frost in the winter, it was also noticed its presence.<br />
In almost all the observation, it was notice the presence of Quercus robur <strong>and</strong> Quercus<br />
pyrenaica trees in the surrounding area.<br />
Many mapped Gentiana pneumonanthe plants evidenced Maculinea alcon eggs presence or<br />
eaten flowers.<br />
It was also noticed that Gentiana pneumonanthe grows well in ab<strong>and</strong>oned agricultural l<strong>and</strong>, but<br />
the development of high shrubs (Genista sp., Erica sp.) make difficult the flowers’ access by<br />
Maculinea alcon, which was evidenced by the eggs’ absence.<br />
4. Discussion<br />
Results from field work <strong>and</strong> GIS data management <strong>and</strong> processing enable to state that<br />
Maculinea alcon ecology is characterised by shrub l<strong>and</strong>, with good exposure to sunlight, gentle<br />
slopes <strong>and</strong> proximity of running water, with Quercus robur <strong>and</strong> Quercus pyrenaica trees in the<br />
surrounding area.<br />
Due to Maculinea alcon butterfly dimension <strong>and</strong> flying characteristics, high shrubs make<br />
difficult to access flowers <strong>and</strong>, this way, eggs’ deposition on flowers.<br />
References<br />
Árnyas, E., Bereczki, J., Tóth, A., Varga, Z., 2005. Results of the mark-release-recapture<br />
studies of a Maculinea rebeli population in the Aggtelek karst (N Hungary) between 2002-<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
M.C.C. Rodrigues et al. 2010. Contribution to the characterization of Gentiana pneumonanthe L. <strong>and</strong> Maculinea alcon L.<br />
305<br />
2004. In: Studies on the Ecology <strong>and</strong> Conservation of Butterflies in Europe. Vol2: Species<br />
ecology along a European gradient: buterflies as a model. Edited by J. Settele, E. Kuhn<br />
ans J. Thomas: 111-114.<br />
Birgit C. Schlick-Steiner; Florian M. Steiner; Helmut Höttinger; Alexej Nikirov; Robert<br />
Mistrik; Christa Schafellner; Peter Baier; Erhard Christian. 2004. A butterfly’s<br />
chemical key to various ant forts: intersection-odour or aggregate-odour multihost<br />
mimicry In: Naturwissenshchaften.<br />
Irma Wynhoff, 1998: At home on foreign meadows. The reintroduction of two<br />
Maculinea butterfly species. 236 pags. Wageningen University, Bornsesteeg 69,<br />
6708 PD Wageningen, The Netherl<strong>and</strong>s. (ISBN 90-5008-406-2).<br />
J. A. Thomas <strong>and</strong> G. W. Elmes. Food-plant niche selection rather than the presence of<br />
ant nests explains ovipotion patterns in the myrmecophilous butterfly genus<br />
Maculinea. 2001. In: The Royal Society.<br />
J. Gerard B. Oostermeijer, Sheila H. Luijtem, Zdenka V. Křenová, And Hans C. M. Den<br />
Njis. 1998. Relationships between Population <strong>and</strong> Habitat Characteristics <strong>and</strong><br />
Reproduction of the Rare Gentiana pneumonanthe L. Conservation Biology. Pags<br />
1042 – 1053 Volume 12, Nº 5, October<br />
Munguira, M.L. <strong>and</strong> Martin, J., 1999. Action Plan for Maculinea Butterflies in Europe. In:<br />
Council of Europe Publishing, editor. Convention on the Conservation of European<br />
Wildlife <strong>and</strong> Natural Habitats (Bern Convention), Nature <strong>and</strong> Environment, 97, Strasburg.<br />
Piotr Nowcki, Aleks<strong>and</strong>ra Pepkowska, Joanna Kudlek, Piotr Skórka, Magdalena Witek,<br />
Josef Settele, Michal Woyciechowski. 2007. From metapopulation theory to<br />
conservation recommendations: Lessons from Spatial occurrence <strong>and</strong> abundance<br />
patterns of Maculinea butterflies. Biological Conservation. 140. Pags. 119-129.<br />
Piotr Nowicki, Magdalena Witek, Piotr Skórka, Michal Woyciechowski. 2005.<br />
Oviposition patterns in the myrmecophilous butterfly Maculinea alcon Dennis &<br />
Schiffermüller (Lepidoptera: Lycaenidae) in relation to characteristics of<br />
foodplants <strong>and</strong> presence of ant hosts. In: Polish Journal of Ecology.<br />
Thomas, J.A., 1995. The ecology <strong>and</strong> conservation of Maculinea arion <strong>and</strong> other European<br />
species of large blue butterfly. In: A.S. Pullin, editor. Ecology <strong>and</strong> Conservation of<br />
Butterflies. London: Chapman & Hall. p. 180-197.<br />
Van Swaay, C.A.M. <strong>and</strong> Warren, M.S., 1999. Red Data Book of European Butterflies<br />
(Rhophalocera). Nature <strong>and</strong> Environment 99. Council of Europe Publishing, Strasbourg<br />
Wynhoff, I. 1998. The recent distribution of the European Maculinea species. J. Insect<br />
Conservation, 2: 15-27.<br />
Acknowledgement<br />
Authors woul like to expresse is acknowledge to Fundação para a Ciência e Tecnologia (FCT),<br />
project REEQ/1163/AGR/2005 <strong>and</strong> CITAB - UTAD who support this work.<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
M.C. Silva et al. 2010. Using Business <strong>and</strong> Biodiversity to put Conservation into practice<br />
306<br />
Using Business <strong>and</strong> Biodiversity to put Conservation into practice: The<br />
Herdade do Esporão Case study<br />
M.C. Silva * , S. Antunes, N. Oliveira & F. Gouveia<br />
AmBioDiv – Valor Natural, Rua Filipe da Mata, Nº 10-1ºF, 1600-071 Lisbon, Portugal<br />
Abstract<br />
Although Esporão estate has a great potential to include High Conservation Value areas, this<br />
will only happen if adequate Biodiversity management <strong>and</strong> ecological restoration are put into<br />
practice. The results will be presented in the form of indicators relating l<strong>and</strong> use <strong>and</strong> the type of<br />
l<strong>and</strong>scape. The l<strong>and</strong>scape is dominated by vineyards, olive groves, oakl<strong>and</strong>s, streamside<br />
galleries, scrubl<strong>and</strong>s <strong>and</strong> grassl<strong>and</strong>s. The vegetation units of Esporão are assessed using<br />
phytosociology (Braun-Blanquet, 1979) <strong>and</strong> cartography, which are the bases for the ‘Habitat<br />
Approach’ methodlogy. The forested l<strong>and</strong>scape is quite diverse, consisting mainly in 750 ha of<br />
Holm oak Montado (Quercus rotundifolia Lam.) although most areas are extremely degraded as<br />
a result of inadequate stone pine afforestation within the Montado areas. Also highly relevant is<br />
the streamside gallery <strong>and</strong> mixed woodl<strong>and</strong> patchwork covering the area of the Caridade stream<br />
<strong>and</strong> subsidiaries, which include several High Conservation Value areas spread across the whole<br />
estate.<br />
Keywords: Biodiversity management, ecological restoration, High Conservation Value Areas,<br />
phytosociology, Habitat Approach<br />
1. Introduction<br />
The Esporão estate has signed the Business & Biodiversity (B&B) protocol in 2007, in order to<br />
promote Biodiversity <strong>and</strong> with the compromise that their activities wouldn’t affect the Esporão<br />
natural values. As a br<strong>and</strong>, Esporão is dedicated to producing premium wine <strong>and</strong> olive oil <strong>and</strong><br />
is situated (Figure 1), according to Costa et. al. (1998), between the biogeographic superdistricts<br />
Baixo Alentejano <strong>and</strong> Alto Alentejano (Mariânico-Monchiquense Sector). As a result of a fouryear<br />
field-work surveys of natural <strong>and</strong> agricultural units of l<strong>and</strong>scape, which have resulted in a<br />
formulated Biodiversity Action Plan (BAP), we will present <strong>and</strong> describe Esporão natural<br />
heritage <strong>and</strong> the main goals of the Project. The Esporão BAP phase I was finished in November<br />
2008, <strong>and</strong> is by now in the second year of monitoring. A BAP is a management tool that a)<br />
evaluates <strong>and</strong> monitors wildlife <strong>and</strong> habitats with regional/local interest, with conservation<br />
status (IUCN/ICN Red Book) <strong>and</strong> included in EU Directives, b) evaluates species with<br />
importance in crop protection <strong>and</strong> soil conservation; c) defines biological indicator groups to<br />
assess <strong>and</strong> monitor the performance of pro-Conservation practices <strong>and</strong> c) target both crop areas<br />
<strong>and</strong> surroundings, including woodl<strong>and</strong>s, wetl<strong>and</strong>s set-aside areas, inter alia, for proper habitat<br />
management. A BAP focus strongly in the concept of High Conservation Value Areas (HCVA).<br />
HCVA are l<strong>and</strong>scape level units with important natural values, i.e., habitats, fauna, flora, <strong>and</strong><br />
frequently occur in agroforestry scenarios.<br />
* Corresponding author: Tel.: 914269903<br />
Email address: mctavares@ambiodiv.com<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
M.C. Silva et al. 2010. Using Business <strong>and</strong> Biodiversity to put Conservation into practice<br />
307<br />
2. Methodology<br />
In spite of the estate dimension, we needed to develop a useful <strong>and</strong> scientific approach which<br />
was successful to our work. So, our main methodology, designated by ‘Habitat Approach’, is<br />
focused on assessing the structure <strong>and</strong> development of an habitat mainly through the analysis of<br />
plant communities (Braun-Blanquet, 1979). A phytosociological approach can integrate the<br />
environmental variables <strong>and</strong> summarize practically the whole floristic diversity as well as many<br />
of the ecological relationships between the different organisms (Loidi, 1994). Further on, we’ve<br />
got to know if the habitat structure provides area, shelter, food <strong>and</strong>/or mutualism areas for<br />
different fauna species. At the end, we analyze the whole Esporão estate at a macro scale level,<br />
through the units of l<strong>and</strong> use <strong>and</strong> conservation types, to see if these areas act as ecological<br />
corridors. GIS was used for mapping all the habitats, plant communities, RELAPE (rare,<br />
endemic, localized, threat <strong>and</strong> endangered) species. According to Lengyel et. al (2008), habitat<br />
monitoring scheme should be based on remote sensing to record changes in l<strong>and</strong> cover <strong>and</strong><br />
habitat types, with complementary field mapping.<br />
Figure 1: Habitat approach scheme<br />
3. Results<br />
The Biodiversity Action Plan (BAP) includes the flora, habitats <strong>and</strong> fauna assessment, <strong>and</strong> also<br />
the evaluation of the vineyard’s natural enemies, as well as definition of High Conservation<br />
Value Areas (HCVA) <strong>and</strong> agroforestry management. There were identified 11 RELAPE species,<br />
namely: 6 orchids which are listed in CITES (Serapias strictiflora Welw., Serapias lingua L.,<br />
Serapias parvifloraParl., Orchis papilionacea L., Orchis morio L. <strong>and</strong> Ophrys tenthredinifera<br />
Willd.), 1 Directive Habitat specie (Narcissus bulbocodium L.), 3 european endemism (Linaria<br />
spartea (L.) Chaz, Verbascum thapsus L., Phlomis lychnitis L.) <strong>and</strong> 2 iberian endemisms<br />
(Genista polyanthos R. Roem., Narcissus jonquilla L.).<br />
We will describe the main l<strong>and</strong> uses <strong>and</strong> the Habitats Directive 92/43/CEE of Esporão Estate<br />
(Table 1), which can contain different varieties of vegetation types with different conservation<br />
values, as seen bellow. The current paper will focus only on plant ecology, leaving the fauna<br />
analysis for a next paper.<br />
Vineyards <strong>and</strong> Olive groves<br />
As wine <strong>and</strong> olive oil production is the main business of Esporão, it was necessary to make an<br />
evaluation of these areas. A lack of proper ecological structures was found, namely habitats for<br />
enhancing natural enemies. Some of these structures are the Beetle Banks <strong>and</strong> usually are made<br />
of flowers, from gramineae <strong>and</strong> compositae family, <strong>and</strong> are used mainly as a form of biological<br />
pest control to reduce the use of pesticides <strong>and</strong> insecticides. So, restoring grassl<strong>and</strong> margins in<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
M.C. Silva et al. 2010. Using Business <strong>and</strong> Biodiversity to put Conservation into practice<br />
308<br />
the Esporão Vineyards <strong>and</strong> Olive groves is one of the main goals to achieve biodiversity in this<br />
l<strong>and</strong>scape unit, through ecological restoration of the set-asides areas <strong>and</strong> by installing meadow<br />
<strong>and</strong> grassl<strong>and</strong> patches. In order to reduce tillage, we also propose the use of grazers, in this case<br />
sheep, to control the weeds.<br />
Table 2: Types of l<strong>and</strong> use in Esporão Estate<br />
L<strong>and</strong> use class<br />
Total Area (ha)<br />
Council Directive 92/43/CEE habitat code<br />
Vineyards<br />
450 N/A<br />
Olive groves<br />
95 N/A<br />
Holm oak Montado (Parkl<strong>and</strong>s)<br />
750 6310 – Montados with evergreen Quercus spp.<br />
Holm oak Woodl<strong>and</strong>s 28<br />
9340 – Quercus ilex <strong>and</strong> Quercus rotundifolia<br />
forests<br />
Stone Pine plantations<br />
128 N/A<br />
Stone Pine plantations with sparse<br />
Holm oak<br />
87 N/A<br />
Orchid meadows 2.68<br />
6210 – Semi-naturaldry grassl<strong>and</strong>s <strong>and</strong> scrubl<strong>and</strong><br />
facies on calcareous substrates (Festuco-<br />
Brometalia) (* important orchid sites)<br />
Grassl<strong>and</strong>s<br />
83 N/A<br />
8230 – Siliceous rock with pioneer vegetation of<br />
the Sedo-Scleranthion or of the Sedo albi-<br />
Veronicion dillenii<br />
3270 – Rivers with muddy banks with<br />
Chenopodion rubri p.p. <strong>and</strong> Bidention p.p.<br />
3150 – Natural eutrophic lakes with<br />
Magnopotamion or Hydrocharition - type<br />
vegetation<br />
3140 – Hard oligo-mesotrophic waters with benthic<br />
vegetation of Chara spp.<br />
92D0 – Southern riparian galleries <strong>and</strong> thickets<br />
(Nerio-Tamaricetea <strong>and</strong> Securinegion tinctoriae)<br />
91B0 – Thermophilous Fraxinus angustifolia<br />
woods<br />
Streamside woodl<strong>and</strong>s <strong>and</strong> grassl<strong>and</strong>s 189<br />
3260 – Water courses of plain to montane levels<br />
with the Ranunculion fluitantis <strong>and</strong> Callitricho-<br />
Batrachion vegetation<br />
Rosemary scrubl<strong>and</strong><br />
0.16 N/A<br />
Gardens<br />
5 N/A<br />
Social areas<br />
145 N/A<br />
Holm Oak Montado (Parkl<strong>and</strong>s) <strong>and</strong> Holm Oak Woodl<strong>and</strong>s<br />
The Holm Oak Montado, a parkl<strong>and</strong> like system, represents the largest l<strong>and</strong>scape unit of<br />
Esporão estate. It consists in similar distinct types of l<strong>and</strong> use which promote annuals <strong>and</strong><br />
perennials grassl<strong>and</strong>s <strong>and</strong> scrubl<strong>and</strong>s. In these areas grazing was redefined in order to preserve<br />
sensitive areas like closed woods <strong>and</strong> wetl<strong>and</strong>s. Some of these areas were converted through<br />
stone pine afflorestation as a result of an inadequate policy actually promoted by the Portuguese<br />
governments. In historical times, an edapho-climatic climax forest must have existed in Esporão<br />
estate, but almost all these climax habitats have disappeared due to convertion, mismanagement<br />
<strong>and</strong> fires. Although all the human pressure, a few habitat patches remain defined by Pyro<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
M.C. Silva et al. 2010. Using Business <strong>and</strong> Biodiversity to put Conservation into practice<br />
309<br />
bourgaeanae-Quercetum rotundifoliae woodl<strong>and</strong>s. These few areas are restricted to<br />
streamsides <strong>and</strong> damp areas which display enormous diversity. Pyro bourgaeanae-Quercetum<br />
rotundifoliae, is a s<strong>and</strong>y meso-Mediterranean, dry to sub-humid Holm oakl<strong>and</strong> which occurs in<br />
the Luso-Extremadurense Province (Pereira, 2004). Areas were this plant community occurs<br />
have a good conservation status despite their size, <strong>and</strong> are characterized by the presence of<br />
Quercus rotundifolia Lam. <strong>and</strong> Pyrus bourgaeana Decne.. Currently, there is some significant<br />
effort to restore these areas , being the main goal providing food <strong>and</strong> shelter for fauna<br />
populations, by planting myrtle, rosemary, lavender, edible fig, hawthorn, strawberry tree <strong>and</strong><br />
elmleaf blackberry species.<br />
Synthetic table of the Pyro bourgaeanae-Quercetum rotundifoliae Rivas-Martínez 1987, at<br />
slope of Caridade streamside, slopes with high inclination, N, 100 m². Characteristics: Quercus<br />
rotundifolia 2, Pyrus bourgeana 1, Olea sylvestris 1, Thapsia villosa; Companions: Cytisus<br />
scoparius 2, Cistus ladanifer 2, Lav<strong>and</strong>ula luisieri 1, Asphodelus ramosus 1, Umbilicus<br />
rupestris +, Allium massaessylum +.<br />
Stone Pine Plantations <strong>and</strong> Stone Pine Plantation with sparse Holm oak<br />
As referred above, to the government decision of financing afforestation projects was allegedly<br />
to get more l<strong>and</strong> productivity <strong>and</strong> environmental gains (Biodiversity, carbon, soil…). Due to<br />
heavy soil preparation, excessive tillage <strong>and</strong> excessive tree density the Holm oak trees present in<br />
these areas are dying, suggesting that their roots were damaged, destroyed <strong>and</strong> infected. We<br />
suggest progressive removal of all Stone Pine, good management of scrubl<strong>and</strong> <strong>and</strong> investigating<br />
Holm oak decline for further reforestation.<br />
Orchid meadows <strong>and</strong> grassl<strong>and</strong>s<br />
In the Esporão estate the orchids are present in open grassl<strong>and</strong>s <strong>and</strong> meadows between February<br />
<strong>and</strong> June. These are managed for low grazing intensity, since they are mainly present in<br />
sensitive areas. This allows orchids to grow <strong>and</strong> seed to provide a pretty ‘postcard’ for the<br />
visitors as well as raises the attention of botanists. In these habitats six orchid species can be<br />
found (Serapias strictiflora, Serapias lingua, Serapias parviflora, Orchis papilionacea, Orchis<br />
morio <strong>and</strong> Ophrys tenthredinifera). Orchid genus Serapias <strong>and</strong> Ophrys metapopulation reached<br />
over 20 individuals, making this a HCVA. This is a hemicriptofit, meso-xerofitic meadow that<br />
grows in shallow soils rich in bases <strong>and</strong> characterized by the presence of Phlomido lychnitidis-<br />
Brachypodietum phoenicoidis communities. At this point, it is important to reinforce the<br />
importance of this habitat for conservation, being a priority (as listed in the Council Directive<br />
92/43/EEC) if one of the following criteria is observed: rich orchid composition (> 4 species);<br />
presence of an important population (> 20 individuals) of one or more orchid species.<br />
Synthetic table of the Phlomido lychnitidisBrachypodietum phoenicoidis Br.‐Bl., P. Silva &<br />
Rozeira 1956, at edges of tracks, with low inclination, E, 10 m². Characteristics: Phlomis<br />
lychnitis 4; Companions: Paronychia argentea 2, Gyn<strong>and</strong>riris sysrinchium 1, Vulpia ciliata 1.<br />
Streamside woodl<strong>and</strong>s <strong>and</strong> grassl<strong>and</strong>s<br />
This is possibly the clearest example of the ‘Habitat approach’ importance to our work. The<br />
habitat evaluation shows the right conditions for fauna settlement. Despite this first analysis, the<br />
amphibian populations that should be present in the Caridade stream were not settled (to be<br />
further explored in upcoming paper). The main reasons are suspected to be high populations of<br />
red swamp crayfish (Procambarus clarkii) <strong>and</strong> low input of water from the dam discharge. Red<br />
swamp crayfish, an alien species, prefers marshes, ponds <strong>and</strong> slow moving rivers <strong>and</strong> streams.<br />
They are tolerant to fluctuating water levels <strong>and</strong> can survive long dry spells by remaining in<br />
burrows. Red swamp crayfish are omnivorous, feeding on aquatic plants, snails, insects, fish<br />
<strong>and</strong> amphibian eggs <strong>and</strong> young. It seems that this alien species tend to reduce amphibians<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
M.C. Silva et al. 2010. Using Business <strong>and</strong> Biodiversity to put Conservation into practice<br />
310<br />
populations in the Caridade stream (the main watercourse, which also floods the dam). This<br />
problem can partially be solved in time as the european otter (Lutra lutra) <strong>and</strong> some waterfowl<br />
are increasingly feeding on the crayfish. The ecological flow regime recognizes that flow<br />
magnitude, duration, frequency, timing, <strong>and</strong> predictability must be incorporated into any flow<br />
management strategy (Suen, 2005). So, changes in hydrologic trends, in concern to the<br />
continuing decline in the water levels in Caridade stream were solved through ecological flow<br />
management.<br />
Five RELAPE species were found in the areas surveyed (Ophrys tenthredinifera,<br />
Narcissus bulbocodium, Linaria spartea, Narcissus jonquilla <strong>and</strong> Genista polyanthos). Caridade<br />
vegetation is dominated by Fraxinus angustifolia Vahl galleries <strong>and</strong> woodl<strong>and</strong>s (Ficario<br />
ranunculoidis – Fraxinetum angustifoliae). Beneath <strong>and</strong> next the mature canopy it also can be<br />
described a high scrubl<strong>and</strong> community of Rubo ulmifolii – Nerietum ole<strong>and</strong>ri. Aquatic<br />
vegetation is also present, with Chara sp., Ranunculus peltatus Schrank <strong>and</strong> Callitriche<br />
stagnalis Scop. communities. These aquatic communities are extremely important to amphibian<br />
population, as refuge areas.<br />
The dam area is the most important for aquatic birds, despite the poor presence of vegetation<br />
communities. There are some communities of Typha angustifolia L. <strong>and</strong> Phragmites australis<br />
(Cav.) Trin. in the South East of the dam (Typho angustifoliae – Phragmitetum australis), but<br />
all the remnant area hasn’t vegetation. So the main action is to increase patches of vegetation by<br />
rooting some adequate plants.<br />
Synthetic table of the Ficario ranunculoidis – Fraxinetum angustifoliae Rivas‐Martínez &<br />
Costa in Rivas‐Martínez, Costa, Castroviejo & E. Valdés 1980, at Caridade stream, with low<br />
inclination, N, 100 m². Characteristics: Fraxinus angustifolia 2, Crataegus monogyna 2,<br />
Ranunculus ficaria 1, Aristolochia paucinervis 1, Scilla peruviana +; Companions: Pyrus<br />
bourgeana 2, Nerium ole<strong>and</strong>er 1, Asparagus acutifolius 1, Smyrnium olusatrum 1, Gyn<strong>and</strong>riris<br />
sysrinchium 1, Dactylis hispanica 1, Geranium molle 1, Ornithogalum baeticum +, Narcissus<br />
bulbocodium +, Ophrys tenthredinifera +.<br />
Rosemary scrubl<strong>and</strong><br />
Scattered throughout the Esporão l<strong>and</strong>scape, many patches with rosemary scrubl<strong>and</strong> which have<br />
importance to pollinator ecosystems service can be found. These also provide stepping-stone<br />
corridors to many species of invertebrates, reptiles, amphibians <strong>and</strong> birds.<br />
The flowers of rosemary produce pollen <strong>and</strong> nectar to attract insect populations so the<br />
maintenance of scrub dominated vegetative complex within Lav<strong>and</strong>ula stoechas L. is important.<br />
In order to effectively conserve these scrubl<strong>and</strong> areas, management of HCVA must restore <strong>and</strong><br />
maintain rosemary habitats. To achieve this, l<strong>and</strong> managers must minimize grazing intensity.<br />
Further work will include the measure of pollination services, so it is important to assess the<br />
rosemary scrubl<strong>and</strong> habitat to measure its ecosytemic value. Also, the maintained of these<br />
habitats in Esporão l<strong>and</strong>scape tend to safeguard <strong>and</strong> enhance pollination function in order to<br />
ensure effective pollination of wild plants (Potts, 2006), specially orchids species that are<br />
pollination limited, may also be enhanced by maintain rosermay patches in l<strong>and</strong>scape.<br />
4. Discussion<br />
The Esporão estate habitats <strong>and</strong> l<strong>and</strong>scapes are quite diverse, with important high conservation<br />
value species despite some forest areas degradation. We have assessed that dynamic plant<br />
communities are present, which are intensively interconnected in ecotone regions defining<br />
different ecological corridors. Also, Biodiversity Action Plans (BAPs) are, to some extent, a<br />
valid tool for l<strong>and</strong> owners / managers, by facilitating the identification <strong>and</strong> mapping of High<br />
Conservation Value Areas (HCVA) <strong>and</strong> important plant communities/assemblages that include<br />
rare, endemic, localized, threatened <strong>and</strong>/or endangered plant species, thus allowing the<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
M.C. Silva et al. 2010. Using Business <strong>and</strong> Biodiversity to put Conservation into practice<br />
311<br />
definition of specific management actions for each conservation area/value identified. Since<br />
2008 the following issues are ongoing: ecological evaluation of the vineyards natural enemies<br />
<strong>and</strong> ecological infrastructures; halting all predator control programs; reformulation of the<br />
forestry management plan; reduction of the area of pine plantations <strong>and</strong> implementation of<br />
biodiverse forest patches. In respect to agricultural l<strong>and</strong>scape, olive <strong>and</strong> vineyards they are<br />
being redesigned to achieve the following goals: optimize productivity, facilitate management<br />
<strong>and</strong> operations, prevent soil erosion <strong>and</strong> reduce the use of pesticides.<br />
The use of plants <strong>and</strong> plant communities as indicators for l<strong>and</strong> planning to describe <strong>and</strong> evaluate<br />
Esporão Estate has proven useful since it for HCVA protection. As well as the use of<br />
phytosociology can be used to describe the l<strong>and</strong>scape units, it also is important in what takes<br />
concern to ecological restoration. If habitats can be maintained then also species conservation is<br />
facilitated. The most represented phytosociological classes are: the Holm oak woodl<strong>and</strong>s Pyro<br />
bourgaeanae-Quercetum rotundifoliae <strong>and</strong> at streamside woodl<strong>and</strong> communities of Ficario<br />
ranunculoidis – Fraxinetum angustifoliae.<br />
Future research will focus on the validation of management effectiveness <strong>and</strong> on community<br />
dynamics.<br />
References<br />
Braun-Blanquet, J., 1979. Fitossociologia – Bases para el estudio de las comunidades<br />
vegetales. H. Blume ediciones. Madrid.<br />
Castroviejo, S. et. al., 1986-1997. Flora Iberica. Madrid. Real Jardín Bot. Madrid:1,2,3,4,5,6,8.<br />
Costa, J.C.; Aguiar, C.; Capelo, J.H.; Lousã, M. & Neto, C., 1998. Biogeografia de Portugal<br />
Continental. Quercetea, 0.<br />
Coutinho, A.X.; 1939. Flora de Portugal. Bertr<strong>and</strong>. Lisboa.<br />
Franco, J.A., 1971-1984. Nova Flora de Portugal (Continente e Açores). <strong>Escola</strong>r Editora,<br />
Lisboa.Vol. I e II.<br />
Franco, J.A. <strong>and</strong> Rocha Afonso, M.L., 1994-1998-2003. Nova Flora de Portugal (Continente e<br />
Açores). <strong>Escola</strong>r Editora, Lisboa. Vol. III, fasc. 1,2,3.<br />
Géhu, J.M. <strong>and</strong> Rivas-Martínez, S., 1981. Notions fondamentales de Phytosociologie in<br />
Syntaxonomie. J. Cramer. Vaduz.<br />
Lengyel, S., Kobler, A., Kutnar, L., Framstad, E., Henry, P., Babij, V., Gruber, B., Schmeller,<br />
D. & Henle, K., 2008. A review <strong>and</strong> a framework for the integration of biodiversity<br />
monitoring at the habitat level. Biodiversity Conservation, 17: 3341-3356.<br />
Loidi, J., 1994. Phytosociology applied to nature conservation <strong>and</strong> l<strong>and</strong> management. 35th<br />
Symposium IAVS. East China Normal Univ. Press, 17-30.<br />
Pereira, M. & Costa, J.C., 2004. Sintaxonomia das classes fitossociológicas em Portugal<br />
Continental. Universidade de Évora, Évora.<br />
Potts, S.; Petanidoub, T.; Roberts, S.; Toolec, C.; Hulbertd, A. & Willmerd, P., 2006. Plantpollinator<br />
biodiversity <strong>and</strong> pollination services in a complex Mediterranean l<strong>and</strong>scape.<br />
Biological Conservation, 129: 519-529<br />
Rivas-Martínez, S.; Fern<strong>and</strong>éz-González, F.; Loidi, J.; Lousã, M. & Penas, A., 2001.<br />
Syntaxonomical checklist of Vascular Plant Communities of Spain <strong>and</strong> Portugal to<br />
association level. Itinera Geobotanica 14.<br />
Rivas-Martínez, S.; Diaz, T.E.; Fern<strong>and</strong>éz-González, F.; Izco, J.; Loidi, J.; Lousã, M. & Penas,<br />
A., 2002 a, b. Syntaxonomical checklist (2001) of Vascular Plant Communities of Spain<br />
<strong>and</strong> Portugal to association level. Itinera Geobotanica 15 (1) (2).<br />
Suen, J.; Eheart, J. & Herricks, E., 2005. Integrating Ecological Flow Regimes in Water<br />
Resources Management Using Multiobjective Analysis. Proceedings of World Water <strong>and</strong><br />
Environmental Resources Congress.<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
T.N. Terra & R.F dos Santos 2010. Legal efficiency <strong>and</strong> cumulative effects in environmentally protected area<br />
312<br />
Legal efficiency <strong>and</strong> cumulative effects in environmentally protected<br />
area<br />
Talita Nogueira Terra * & Rozely Ferreira dos Santos<br />
LAPLA, Dept. of Water Resources, Energy <strong>and</strong> Environmental, UNICAMP, Av. Albert<br />
Einstein, 951, 13083-970, Campinas, SP, Brazil<br />
Abstract<br />
Decisions must be taken according to the impacts observed over a temporal sequence of<br />
human action. But there is another side to consider - the efficiency of the legal action after<br />
decree. In summary, l<strong>and</strong>scapes are complexes <strong>and</strong> involve a system of multiple overlapping of<br />
l<strong>and</strong> use <strong>and</strong> legal decisions. The objective of this study is interpret the chains of cumulative<br />
effect four decades to estimate the cumulative of these impacts in the future <strong>and</strong> relate the<br />
results of these chains in the face of environmental laws in force in that period. The study area<br />
was composed by three regions adjacent one each other: the Sustainable Development Reserve<br />
of Despraiado, the Ecological Station of Juréia-Itatins <strong>and</strong> the buffer zone. The cumulative<br />
effects were inferred by constructing scenarios of past <strong>and</strong> present. This strategy should explain<br />
state changes along the series of l<strong>and</strong> use <strong>and</strong> simulate the changes in the coming years.<br />
Keywords: cumulative effects, protected area, legal action<br />
1. Introduction<br />
The increase in human population causes changes in l<strong>and</strong> use, affecting the properties of the<br />
l<strong>and</strong>scape. Certain human actions that commonly occur in sequence, as deforestation, burning<br />
<strong>and</strong> opening of roads, can cause significant changes on the natural processes (Thomaziello,<br />
2007). The acceleration of the processes of environmental degradation <strong>and</strong> the cumulative<br />
effects occur in the concentration of humans in a physical space <strong>and</strong> the expansion of l<strong>and</strong> use<br />
which is related to the increase of human population, with increasing dem<strong>and</strong> for consumer<br />
goods <strong>and</strong> increasing consumption of materials <strong>and</strong> energy (Coelho, 2001 <strong>and</strong> Chen, 2006).<br />
The cumulative effects are the changes in the environment caused by the combination of<br />
human actions in the past, present <strong>and</strong> future (Hegmann et al. 1999). Human activities have<br />
their effects accumulated when the second disturbance occurs in the same location in which the<br />
first one occurred, while the ecosystem is recovering from the effects of the first one (NEPA,<br />
1997). The cumulative effects are currently resulting of multiple activities in the territory that<br />
persist for a long time. Therefore, the attribute space becomes important when integrated with<br />
variable time. In summary, l<strong>and</strong>scapes are complex <strong>and</strong> involve a system of multiple<br />
overlapping in space <strong>and</strong> time <strong>and</strong> are subject to multi-use over a number of anthropogenic<br />
changes (MacDonald, 2000). It is common that cumulative effects are greater than actually<br />
seem to be, because the summation of individual impacts can be interacting or multiply the<br />
effects (Halpern et al., 2008), in the other words they may have actions of synergism or<br />
addition. Therefore they are difficult to mensure.<br />
Santos & Santos (2008 a, b), who studied the region's agricultural Andradina (Sao<br />
Paulo), the main observed change in l<strong>and</strong> use was strongly associated with the decline of<br />
agriculture, the loss of plantation areas due the expansion of pastures <strong>and</strong> the increase soil areas<br />
with difficult recovery. They applied measures for change of l<strong>and</strong> use or destination of the l<strong>and</strong><br />
along thirty years, which coincided with significant differences about historical changes, linked<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
T.N. Terra & R.F dos Santos 2010. Legal efficiency <strong>and</strong> cumulative effects in environmentally protected area<br />
313<br />
to political <strong>and</strong> government actions. In these studies, the spatial measures were made by<br />
applying the rates of change <strong>and</strong> to better underst<strong>and</strong> them, the historical information of the<br />
region were associated with the own perception of the community about the facts.<br />
The implementation of Conservation Areas (CA) in Brazil occurs on regions already<br />
occupied with a history of impacts, traces left by human action. When a CA is established, it is<br />
expected that its impacts are at least reduced through management actions, hoping that the<br />
reversibility of the process occurs toward conservation. Therefore, decisions must be taken<br />
according to the impacts observed over a temporal sequence of human action. Should be<br />
considered, for example, that an Ecological Station cannot have human occupation, according to<br />
SNUC (National System of Conservation Units), however it is inevitable that the area bring the<br />
impacts that have been made by human occupation in the past <strong>and</strong> it reflect in the present<br />
observed. In addition, each CA has its own characteristics, with specific objectives to achieve a<br />
degree of conservation. So, the actions of management will be different between an Ecological<br />
Station <strong>and</strong> a Sustainable Development Reserve. But there is another side to consider - the<br />
efficiency of the legal action after decree. In summary, l<strong>and</strong>scapes are complexes <strong>and</strong> involve a<br />
system of multiple overlapping of l<strong>and</strong> use <strong>and</strong> legal decisions. Therefore, the objective of this<br />
study was interpret the effect chains for two decades to estimate accumulation of these impacts<br />
in the past <strong>and</strong> present <strong>and</strong> relate the results against environmental laws in force in that period.<br />
2. Method<br />
The study area is located at the southern of Sao Paulo state, <strong>and</strong> covers parts of three<br />
distinct adjacent regions: the oldest Sustainable Development Reserve of Despraiado (SDRD),<br />
the Juréia-Itatins State Ecological Station (JISES) <strong>and</strong> buffer zone (BZ) adjacent to these two<br />
conservation areas (Figure 1). These three regions have an area of about 100ha each one.<br />
The impacts were inferred by the analysis of overlapping l<strong>and</strong> use from the scenarios of<br />
past. The overlapping was made by the tool spatial statistics available in the software Arc Gis<br />
9.2.<br />
The scenarios were constructed from the photointerpretation of 11 types of l<strong>and</strong> use,<br />
namely: agriculture; grazing fields; fields like lawns/gardens <strong>and</strong> grounds around the building<br />
originating fields; fields of infrastructure; construction; water tanks; Tropical Rainforest<br />
Secondary Initial; Tropical Rainforest Secondary Medium; Tropical Rainforest in areas with<br />
bananas; crop rotation/ab<strong>and</strong>oned areas; access roads. The scenarios were constructed for 1980<br />
<strong>and</strong> the 2007. The aerial photograph of 1980 was acquired in digital format arising directly from<br />
the roll of photographic film, scanned in photogrammetric scanner Vexcel Ultrascan 5000, with<br />
1200 dpi resolution. For the scenario of 2007 was used a satellite image of World View with<br />
spatial resolution of 0.5 PAN (provided by the Foundation <strong>Forest</strong>-Brazil).<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
T.N. Terra & R.F dos Santos 2010. Legal efficiency <strong>and</strong> cumulative effects in environmentally protected area<br />
314<br />
Figure 1: Localization of study area.<br />
3. Result <strong>and</strong> Discussion<br />
In 1980, the predominant element in the both conservation areas was the Tropical<br />
Rainforest both in Sustainable Development Reserve of Despraiado like in Juréia-Itatins State<br />
Ecological Station (Figure 2). After 27 years of the federal act of the JISES was observed that<br />
the l<strong>and</strong> uses increased <strong>and</strong> vegetation cover decreased dramatically. In this unit left 34% of the<br />
Tropical Rainforest <strong>and</strong> had an increased by 47% in agriculture <strong>and</strong> 83% the banana inserted<br />
into the forest. The data indicate that most of the forested areas have been transformed by man<br />
in uses, such as for crops, pastures, buildings <strong>and</strong> access roads.<br />
On the other h<strong>and</strong>, the agriculture gained area in the JISES <strong>and</strong> in the SDRD. Observed that<br />
in SDRD, the area of Tropical Rainforest Secondary Medium lost area for the agriculture, for<br />
the Tropical Rainforest Secondary Initial <strong>and</strong> for the forest with bananas. The fact is this area<br />
has been suffered strong influence of human activities <strong>and</strong> the legal acts have not been respected<br />
(Figure 3).<br />
The buffer zone is an area that has strong impact since 1980. The probable reasons are the<br />
little distance from an important highway, the road Padre Manoel da Nóbrega. Moreover, it is<br />
surrounded by many little cities. In 1980 can be observed a big area for agriculture like as<br />
banana plantation <strong>and</strong> in 2007 the area decreased. In terms of gains <strong>and</strong> losses relating, this area<br />
presents a lose in terms of Tropical Rainforest but gained in terms of uses that caused impacts in<br />
the area.<br />
In this way, we can conclude that the main goal of the creation of conservation areas has not<br />
been reached, in other words, recovery, conservation <strong>and</strong> protection of the forest, which was<br />
established by National System of Conservation Units.<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
T.N. Terra & R.F dos Santos 2010. Legal efficiency <strong>and</strong> cumulative effects in environmentally protected area<br />
315<br />
Figure 2: Maps of l<strong>and</strong>-use <strong>and</strong> l<strong>and</strong>-cover change in 1980 <strong>and</strong> 2007, scale 1:35.000.<br />
Figure 3: Relative change in the use <strong>and</strong> occupancy of the study area between 1980 <strong>and</strong> 2007.<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
T.N. Terra & R.F dos Santos 2010. Legal efficiency <strong>and</strong> cumulative effects in environmentally protected area<br />
316<br />
References<br />
Chen, C. - C., 2006. Development of a framework for sustainable uses of resources: More paper<br />
<strong>and</strong> less plastics Environment International, 32: 478-486.<br />
Coelho, M.C.N., 2001. Impactos Ambientais em Áreas Urbanas. In: Antônio José Teixeira<br />
Guerra e S<strong>and</strong>ra Baptista da Cunha. (Org.). Impactos Ambientais Urbanos no Brasil. 1ª<br />
ed. Rio de Janeiro, Brazil: Bertr<strong>and</strong> Brasil: 19-45.<br />
Halpern, S.B. et al. 2008. Managing for cumulative impacts in ecosystem-based management<br />
through ocean zoning. Ocean & Coastal Management, 51: 203-211.<br />
Hegmann, G., Cocklin, C., Creasey, R., Dupuis, S., Kennedy, A., Kingsley, L., Ross, W.,<br />
Spaling, H. <strong>and</strong> Stalker, D., 1999. Cumulative effects assessment practitioners guide.<br />
Hull, Quebec: AXYS Environmental Consulting Limited, CEA Working Group for the<br />
Canadian Environmental Assessment Agency.<br />
MacDonald, L.H., 2000. Evaluating <strong>and</strong> Managing Cumulative Effects: Process <strong>and</strong><br />
Constraints. Environmental Management, 26: 3: 299-315.<br />
NEPA. 1997. Considering cumulative effects under the National Environmental Policy Act.<br />
National Ennvironmental Politic Act.<br />
Santos, M.A.; Santos, R.F. Construção de cenários por análises temporais e métricas espaciais.<br />
Revista do Instituto Florestal, 2008.<br />
Santos, M.A.; Santos, R.F., 2008. Aplicación de índices de cambios para evaluación de las<br />
auteraciones en el uso de las tierras. Investigaciones Geográficas. Instituto de Geografía.<br />
Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México. “No Prelo”.<br />
Thomaziello, S., 2007. Usos da terra e sua influência sobre a qualidade ambiental. In:<br />
Vulnerabilidade Ambiental: Desastres naturais ou fenômenos induzidos Brasilia: MMA:<br />
23-38.<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
E. Tetetla-Rangel et al. 2010. Relationships among l<strong>and</strong>scape structure, climate <strong>and</strong> rare woody species richness<br />
317<br />
Relationships among l<strong>and</strong>scape structure, climate <strong>and</strong> rare woody<br />
species richness in the tropical forests of the Yucatan Peninsula,<br />
Mexico<br />
Erika Tetetla-Rangel * , J. Luis Hernández-Stefanoni & Juan Manuel Dupuy<br />
Centro de Investigación Científica de Yucatán A.C. Unidad de Recursos Naturales,<br />
Calle 43 # 130. Chuburná de Hidalgo. C.P. 97200, Mérida, Yucatán, México<br />
Abstract<br />
Two key concerns about the tropical forests of the Yucatan Peninsula are: the effects of l<strong>and</strong>-use<br />
<strong>and</strong> climate change on biodiversity, <strong>and</strong> the scant knowledge about rare plants species, which<br />
are most vulnerable to these changes. We assessed the association of rare woody species<br />
richness of tropical forests of the Yucatan Peninsula, classified in three levels of rarity (low,<br />
medium <strong>and</strong> high), with l<strong>and</strong>scape structure, climate <strong>and</strong> spatial dependence. We estimated the<br />
number of rare species within 25km 2 l<strong>and</strong>scape units, which were characterized using climate,<br />
altitude <strong>and</strong> l<strong>and</strong>scape configuration. Principal Neighbor Coordinate of Matrices (PCNM) <strong>and</strong><br />
regression analyses were performed to decompose variation of rare species richness into<br />
environmental <strong>and</strong> spatial components. Space was the most important variable related to the<br />
number of rare species in each of the three levels of rarity. These results suggest that dispersal<br />
limitation or other environmental variables not considered drive richness of rare woody species.<br />
Keywords: L<strong>and</strong>scape structure; rare woody plant species; spatial dependence; Tropical forest.<br />
1. Introduction<br />
Tropical forests of the Yucatan Peninsula have been converted to other l<strong>and</strong> uses with unknown<br />
effects on biodiversity. The floristic diversity of these ecosystems is mainly composed of rare<br />
species –those having small populations, high habitat specificity <strong>and</strong>/or restricted distribution–<br />
which are most vulnerable to extinction due to transformation <strong>and</strong> loss of habitat (Rabinowitz<br />
1981).<br />
To preserve rare plant species we need to know where they occur <strong>and</strong> what factors determine<br />
their presence <strong>and</strong> abundance. Many factors affect the distribution of rare species, such as<br />
historic events, climate, biotic interactions <strong>and</strong> spatial structure. Several studies have<br />
demonstrated that environmental conditions (climatic, topographic <strong>and</strong> soil factors) constrain<br />
the abundance or restrict the distribution range of these species. However, the factors that<br />
determine species distribution vary depending on the way in which rarity is defined (Gaston<br />
1994).<br />
Several studies report a significant relationship between l<strong>and</strong>scape configuration <strong>and</strong> plant<br />
species diversity (Bascompte <strong>and</strong> Rodríguez 2001; Hern<strong>and</strong>ez-Stefanoni, 2005). However, few<br />
studies have related l<strong>and</strong>scape structure <strong>and</strong> habitat heterogeneity to rare plant species, due to<br />
difficulties involved in obtaining field information of this group of species (Luoto 2000).<br />
* Corresponding author.<br />
Email address: tetetla@cicy.mx<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
E. Tetetla-Rangel et al. 2010. Relationships among l<strong>and</strong>scape structure, climate <strong>and</strong> rare woody species richness<br />
318<br />
The aim of this study was to evaluate the association of rare woody species richness at different<br />
levels of rarity with l<strong>and</strong>scape structure, climate <strong>and</strong> spatial dependence, to generate scientific<br />
knowledge necessary to promote the conservation <strong>and</strong> management of biodiversity of tropical<br />
forests.<br />
2. Methodology<br />
2.1 Study area<br />
The study area is located at the Yucatan peninsula in SE Mexico (17° 50´ to 21° 30´ north<br />
latitude <strong>and</strong> 87° 00´ to 91° 00´ east longitude), covering a total area of 141,523 km 2 (Figure 1).<br />
The peninsula is constituted almost entirely of limestone Karsts from the Eocene. Around 95%<br />
of the territory consists of flat lowl<strong>and</strong>s < 100 m above sea level, but some hills reach 275<br />
meters (Ferrusquía-Villafranca 1993). Seven types of tropical forests, in different stages of<br />
secession, cover the peninsula (Flores <strong>and</strong> Carvajal 1994; Durán et al. 1999) <strong>and</strong> their<br />
distribution patterns are determined by precipitation <strong>and</strong> soil type (Carnevali et al. 2003).<br />
.<br />
Mexico<br />
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Rarewoody species records<br />
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Figure 1: Study area <strong>and</strong> rare woody species records within 25 km 2 l<strong>and</strong>scapes.<br />
2.1.2 Rare woody species richness<br />
Using herbarium records (Centro de Investigación Científica de Yucatán CICY) we identified<br />
rare woody species, which were classified in three levels of rarity – low, medium <strong>and</strong> high–<br />
according of their frequency, habitat specificity <strong>and</strong> range of potential distribution (modelled in<br />
DOMAIN, Carpenter et al. 1993). To calculate rare woody species richness we generated a 25<br />
km 2 grid (l<strong>and</strong>scapes) covering the whole study area (Figure 1).<br />
2.1.3 Environmental variables<br />
Three groups of environmental variables were considered as explanatory variables in the<br />
regression models in those l<strong>and</strong>scapes containing at least one rare species registered: (1) climate,<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
E. Tetetla-Rangel et al. 2010. Relationships among l<strong>and</strong>scape structure, climate <strong>and</strong> rare woody species richness<br />
319<br />
(2) topography <strong>and</strong> (3) l<strong>and</strong>scape configuration. Several digital climatic maps were interpolated<br />
using kriging <strong>and</strong> the software GS+ (Version 9) to extract information of the average, st<strong>and</strong>ard<br />
deviation <strong>and</strong> coefficient of variation of annual precipitation as well as mean, maximum <strong>and</strong><br />
minimum annual temperature. We also extracted the altitude from a digital elevation model<br />
(DEM). We calculated the following l<strong>and</strong>scape metrics: number of patches (NP), patch density<br />
(PD), largest patch index (LPI), edge density (ED), l<strong>and</strong>scape shape index (LSI), total edge<br />
contrast index (TECI), patch richness (PR), Shannon’s diversity index (SHDI) <strong>and</strong> Simpson’s<br />
diversity index (SIDI) using FRAGSTATS 3.0 (McGarical et al. 2002).<br />
2.1.4 Data analyses<br />
To determine the spatial structure of l<strong>and</strong>scape locations <strong>and</strong> include this as a variable to predict<br />
rare woody species richness, we used principal coordinate of neighbor matrices (PCNM, Bocard<br />
et al. 2004). To partition the variability into environmental <strong>and</strong> space components, we used<br />
three sets of multiple linear regression models using different independent variables: (1) PCNM<br />
vectors, (2) environmental variables, <strong>and</strong> (3) all selected variables in (1) <strong>and</strong> ( 2).<br />
3. Results<br />
To divide rare species into groups, we first selected those species representing the 25th<br />
percentile of frequency distribution of herbarium records to identify species having low<br />
frequency. We then assigned these species into 2 categories of habitat specificity according to<br />
information from the CICY <strong>and</strong> Missouri herbariums: high habitat specificity (species restricted<br />
to 1 or 2 vegetation types) <strong>and</strong> low specificity (species reported in > 2 vegetation types). Finally,<br />
we used the 25th percentile of the modelled area of potential distribution to assign species into<br />
narrow <strong>and</strong> broad classes (Table 1).<br />
Table 1: Criteria used to define rarity levels of woody species.<br />
Frequency Specificity Distribution Rarity level<br />
Low (< 5 records) Low (3 - 6 habitat types) Wide (> 9886.25 km²) Low<br />
Low (< 5 records) High (1 - 2 habitat types) Wide (> 9886.25 km²) Medium<br />
Low (< 5 records) Low (3 - 6 habitat types) Narrow (< 9886.25 km²) Medium<br />
Low (< 5 records) High (1 - 2 habitat types) Narrow (< 9886.25 km²) High<br />
We found 242 rare woody plant species (133 trees, 85 shrubs <strong>and</strong> 31 lianas) out of the 955<br />
woody species registered in the herbarium for the Yucatan peninsula. Due to the lack of data to<br />
model the potential distribution of rare woody species, we only used 138 species (76 trees, 45<br />
shrubs <strong>and</strong> 17 lianas) to generate the potential distribution maps of these rare species, since the<br />
remaining 104 species had only 1 herbarium sample. We found 18 species belonging to the low<br />
level of rarity, <strong>and</strong> 34 <strong>and</strong> 86 belonging to the medium <strong>and</strong> high levels, respectively.<br />
Total variation in rare species richness explained by environmental variables ranged from 3 to<br />
16% (Table 2). The medium level of rarity had the highest percentage of variation explained <strong>and</strong><br />
was associated with the highest number of environmental variables. Species richness was<br />
negatively associated with maximum temperature <strong>and</strong> positively related to precipitation.<br />
Relationships involving TECI <strong>and</strong> LSI were negative, indicating that rare species richness<br />
decreases as the contrast of patches increases <strong>and</strong> as the shape of a l<strong>and</strong>scape becomes more<br />
irregular. On the other h<strong>and</strong>, the number of patches <strong>and</strong> edge density were positively related to<br />
rare species of this level.<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
E. Tetetla-Rangel et al. 2010. Relationships among l<strong>and</strong>scape structure, climate <strong>and</strong> rare woody species richness<br />
320<br />
On the other h<strong>and</strong>, variation partitioning revealed that spatial dependence was the variable most<br />
strongly associated with rare species richness; the amount of variation explained by this variable<br />
ranged from 13 to 17% for the different levels of rarity (Figure 2). Environmental variables<br />
explained a higher percentage of variation for the low <strong>and</strong> medium levels of rarity, compared to<br />
the high level <strong>and</strong> to all rare species.<br />
Table 2: Regression st<strong>and</strong>ardized coefficients <strong>and</strong> partial multiple correlations for predicting rare woody<br />
species richness from environmental attributes.<br />
CLIMATE AND<br />
Level of rarity<br />
LANDSCAPE STRUCTURE All rare spp. Low Medium High<br />
(R 2 = 0.05)* (R 2 = 0.08)* (R 2 = 0.16)* (R 2 = 0.03)*<br />
MEAN PRECIPITATION -0.22 (0.05) 0.17 (0.03) 0.17 (0.03)<br />
MEAN TEMPERATURE MAXIMUM -0.17 (0.03) -0.20 (0.03)<br />
SD ALTITUDE -0.17 (0.03)<br />
TECI 0.25 (0.03) -0.27 (0.02)<br />
LSI -0.20 (0.02) -0.46 (0.03)<br />
ED 0.58 (0.03)<br />
NP 0.24 (0.03)<br />
* Coefficient of determination for the model.<br />
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a)<br />
c)<br />
Environmental Space Shared Total<br />
Environmental Space Shared Total<br />
b)<br />
25<br />
20<br />
15<br />
10<br />
5<br />
0<br />
Environmental Space Shared Total<br />
d)<br />
25<br />
20<br />
15<br />
10<br />
5<br />
0<br />
Environmental Space Shared Total<br />
Components<br />
Figure 2: Partitioning of the variation of rare species richness by environmental <strong>and</strong> space components.<br />
All species (a), low level of rarity (b), medium level of rarity (c), <strong>and</strong> high level of rarity (d).<br />
4. Discussion<br />
The most important variable explaining variation in rare woody species richness was spatial<br />
dependence (Figure 2). This result suggests that the distribution of these species is strongly<br />
affected by dispersal limitation (Hubbell 2001). Alternatively, rare species distribution may be<br />
influenced by other environmental variables operating at local scales, such as physical <strong>and</strong><br />
chemical soil properties, <strong>and</strong> microclimate (Jones et al. 2008; Lindo <strong>and</strong> Winchester 2009).<br />
However, the relative contribution of spatial <strong>and</strong> environmental components varied among the<br />
different levels of rarity. We found that as the level of rarity increases, the amount of variation<br />
explained by environmental variables decreases. This suggests that dispersal limitation or local<br />
environmental factors may be most important for species with the highest level of rarity, that is,<br />
those with low frequency, high levels of habitat specificity, <strong>and</strong> restricted distribution. Since the<br />
majority of rare species studied belonged to the highest level of rarity, the patterns shown by all<br />
rare species were very similar to those of species with the highest level of rarity.<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
E. Tetetla-Rangel et al. 2010. Relationships among l<strong>and</strong>scape structure, climate <strong>and</strong> rare woody species richness<br />
321<br />
On the other h<strong>and</strong>, we suspect that l<strong>and</strong>scape structure <strong>and</strong> climate are more relevant for species<br />
with low <strong>and</strong> medium levels of rarity. In particular, species with medium level of rarity were<br />
positively associated with precipitation <strong>and</strong> negatively associated with maximum temperature.<br />
This result suggests that rare species tend to be more common in mesic environments. For<br />
example, Gaston (1994) reported that precipitation is an excellent predictor variable of patterns<br />
of distribution of rare species. In this study the highest number of rare species was found in the<br />
south of the Peninsula, according to the precipitation gradient from the North-West (lowest) to<br />
the South-East (highest).<br />
We found apparently contradictory results regarding the relationship between l<strong>and</strong>scape<br />
structure <strong>and</strong> the number of species with medium level of rarity (Table 2). On the one h<strong>and</strong>, rare<br />
species richness decreased as the contrast among patch types increased <strong>and</strong> as their shape was<br />
more irregular, suggesting that l<strong>and</strong>scape heterogeneity has a negative effect on rare species<br />
richness. On the other h<strong>and</strong>, edge density <strong>and</strong> number of patches were positively related to rare<br />
species richness, suggesting an increase in the number of species in more heterogeneous<br />
l<strong>and</strong>scapes. These results may indicate that small disturbances promote spatial variation of<br />
patches, which create habitat diversity allowing an increase in the number of species. However,<br />
large amounts of disturbance increase the contrast of patches, indicating a major degree of<br />
fragmentation that negatively impacts rare plant species (Honnay et al. 2003).<br />
Finally, our results indicate that most of the variation in rare woody species richness was<br />
unexplained indicating the need for more detailed studies to elucidate the factors determining<br />
rare species distribution <strong>and</strong> richness. However, we did find some relationships between<br />
environmental factors studied <strong>and</strong> rare woody species richness, which can contribute to the<br />
conservation <strong>and</strong> management of these species.<br />
References<br />
Bascompte, J. <strong>and</strong> Rodríguez, M.A., 2001. Habitat patchiness <strong>and</strong> plant species richness.<br />
Ecology Letters, 4: 417-420.<br />
Bocard, D., Legendre, P., Avois-Jacquet, C. <strong>and</strong> Tuomisto, H ., 2004. Dissecting the spatial<br />
structure of ecological data at multiple scales. Ecology, 85:1826-1832.<br />
Carnevali, G., Ramírez, M.I. <strong>and</strong> González-Iturbe, J.A., 2003. Flora y Vegetación de la<br />
Península de Yucatán. In: Colunga-GarcíaMarín, P. <strong>and</strong> Savedra, L.A (Eds.). Naturaleza<br />
y sociedad en el área maya, pasado presente y futuro. Academia Mexicana de las<br />
Ciencias/ Centro de Investigación Científica de Yucatán.<br />
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mapping potencial distributions of plants <strong>and</strong> animals. Biodiversity <strong>and</strong> Conservation,<br />
2:667-680.<br />
Durán, G.R., González-Iturbe, A.J., Granados, C.J., Olmsted, C.I. <strong>and</strong> Tun, D.F., 1999.<br />
Vegetación. In: Garcia, A. <strong>and</strong> Cordoba, J. (Eds.). Atlas de procesos territoriales de<br />
Yucatán. 184-194.<br />
Ferrusquía-Villafranca, I., 1993. Geology of Mexico: A Synopsis. In: Ramamoorthy, P.T., Bye,<br />
R., Lot, A. <strong>and</strong> Fa, J. (Eds.). Biological Diversity of Mexico: Origins <strong>and</strong> Distribution.<br />
Oxford. New York.<br />
Flores, S.J <strong>and</strong> Carvajal, E.I., 1994. Descripción de los tipos de vegetación de la península de<br />
Yucatán. In: Gómes-Pompa, A., Flores, S.J., Sosa, O.V., Caballero, N.J., Chiang, C.F.,<br />
Diego, P.N., Ortíz, D.J.J., Martínez, A.M.A. <strong>and</strong> Guevara, S.S. (Eds.). Etnoflora<br />
yucatanense. Universidad Autónoma de Yucatán, México.<br />
Gaston, J. K., 1994. Causes of rarity. In: Usher, B.M. <strong>and</strong> DeAgelies, L.D (Eds.). Rarity.<br />
Chapman <strong>and</strong> Hall, London, UK<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
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Hernández-Stefanoni, J.L., 2005. Relationships between l<strong>and</strong>scape patterns <strong>and</strong> species richness<br />
of trees, shrubs <strong>and</strong> vines in a tropical forest. Plant Ecology, 179: 53-65.<br />
Honnay, O., Piessens, K., Van L<strong>and</strong>uyt, W., Hermy, M. <strong>and</strong> Guilinck, H. 2003. Satellite based<br />
l<strong>and</strong> use <strong>and</strong> l<strong>and</strong>scape complexity indices as predictors for regional plant species<br />
diversity. L<strong>and</strong>scape <strong>and</strong> Urban Planning. 63(4): 241-250.<br />
Hubbell, S. P. 2001. The unified neutral theory of biodiversity <strong>and</strong> biogeography. Princeton<br />
University Press, Princeton. 390 pp.<br />
Jones, M.M., Tuomisto, H. <strong>and</strong> Bocard, D., 2008. Explaining vatiation in tropical plant<br />
community composition: influence of environmental <strong>and</strong> spatial data quality. Community<br />
Ecology, 155: 593-604.<br />
Lindo, Z. <strong>and</strong> Winchester, N.N., 2009. Spatial <strong>and</strong> environmental factors contributing to<br />
patterns in arboreal <strong>and</strong> terrestrial oribatid mite diversity across spatial scales. Community<br />
Ecology, 160: 817-825.<br />
Luoto, M., 2000. Modelling of rare plant species richness by l<strong>and</strong>scape variables in an<br />
agricultura area in Finl<strong>and</strong>. Plant Ecology, 149: 157-168.<br />
McGarigal, K., Cushman, S.A., Neel, M.C. <strong>and</strong> Ene, E., 2002. FRAGSTAST: Spatial pattern<br />
analysis program for categorical maps. University of Massachusetts.<br />
Rabinowitz, D., 1981. Seven forms of rarity. In: Synge, H. (Ed.). The biological aspects of rare<br />
plant conservation. pp. 205-217. Engl<strong>and</strong>, Kew: The herbarium, Royal Botanic Gardens<br />
press: 189-217.<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
M. Tsibulnikova 2010. Economic estimations in using of the l<strong>and</strong>scapes planning<br />
323<br />
Economic estimations in planning of using <strong>and</strong> preservation of<br />
natural l<strong>and</strong>scapes<br />
M. Tsibulnikova<br />
Tomsk State University<br />
Abstract<br />
The very important task in preserving the natural l<strong>and</strong>scapes is to include the non-economical<br />
values in territory development management. Economical value definition of the natural<br />
resources based on market <strong>and</strong> non-market methods allow us to take into account ecological <strong>and</strong><br />
social aspects in economical estimation of the territory natural resources <strong>and</strong> to choose natural<br />
l<strong>and</strong>scapes using directions.<br />
Article is short presentation of results of the economic-geographical analysis of wildlife<br />
management in the Tomsk region.<br />
Taking into account a social factor, natural resources monetary estimations reflect economicalgeographical<br />
features of the territory, <strong>and</strong> indicate the stability of wildlife management <strong>and</strong> can<br />
be used in the natural l<strong>and</strong>scapes management.<br />
Keywords: economical estimation, natural capital, l<strong>and</strong>scape<br />
1. Introduction<br />
In accordance with the concept of sustainable development, striving for favourable living<br />
conditions <strong>and</strong> natural environment should be the basis of economic policy.<br />
Natural resources (mineral <strong>and</strong> raw material resources, forest <strong>and</strong> water, biological <strong>and</strong> other<br />
resources) are of great importance for social <strong>and</strong> economic development of Tomsk region.<br />
Tomsk region is located on West Siberian plain in the middle stream of River Ob’, its area<br />
making up about 316.9 thous<strong>and</strong> square kilometers. The climate of Tomsk region is continental<br />
due to its geographical location (temperate zone, in latitude 55-61° North). The average annual<br />
temperature is negative: –0.5°С to –3.5°С. At the same time the temperature may go up to more<br />
than +30°С in summer months, <strong>and</strong> go down to – 30°С in winter months. The population of the<br />
region is about 1.04 million people, including 67 % of city-dwellers.<br />
Tomsk region is an industrial region with highly developed technology, gas-<strong>and</strong>-oil production,<br />
petrochemistry, science, culture, <strong>and</strong> agriculture in southern areas.<br />
Total geological resources of oil <strong>and</strong> gas in Tomsk region are estimated at 5.4 billion ton<br />
st<strong>and</strong>ard units. (1 ton of oil is equal to 1 thous<strong>and</strong> cubic meter of gas <strong>and</strong> comprises 1 ton<br />
st<strong>and</strong>ard units of raw hydrocarbon).<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> covers about 61 % of the territory. Pine nut resources in average productivity years<br />
comprise up to 58.7 thous<strong>and</strong> ton. 16 sorts of mushrooms out of 72 sorts growing in the region<br />
are in use. Total regional biological resources of fruit <strong>and</strong> berry of all kinds comprise 58627 ton.<br />
59 sorts of medicinal herbs are found throughout Tomsk region. Raw material of 38 sorts of<br />
medicinal herbs is being prepared for the needs of drugstores, individuals, <strong>and</strong> market sales.<br />
An important contribution of the natural resources component to gross regional product, as well<br />
as potential increase of GRP owing to nature management, are proved by the results of a<br />
number of projects on natural resources evaluation. Natural resources provide stable flow of<br />
economic revenue. Along with the above mentioned, natural resources are of great social<br />
importance in rural areas, as they provide countrymen living. Natural forest resources are the<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
M. Tsibulnikova 2010. Economic estimations in using of the l<strong>and</strong>scapes planning<br />
324<br />
only source of revenue, <strong>and</strong> therefore the only means of subsistence for the majority of<br />
countrymen.<br />
Social <strong>and</strong> ecological significance of natural resources is often underestimated at managerial<br />
decision making due to the absence of any relevant information regarding their full economic<br />
value at the stage of economic analysis (Tsibulnikova, 2003).<br />
2. Methodology<br />
Methodological approaches to natural resources evaluation recommended by UN analysis<br />
department allow to define full economic value of natural objects.<br />
The peculiarity of the methods is that natural resources value is defined as capitalized annual<br />
rent over the period of their full utilization. Estimation of total volume of utilized natural<br />
resources is the key point of this methodology. Nonmarket <strong>and</strong> subjective evaluation methods<br />
allow to define the full volume of utilized resources, including those used by private households,<br />
<strong>and</strong> make overall economic evaluation of territories.<br />
The methods were first approved in Tomsk region for the evaluation of the area between Ob’<br />
<strong>and</strong> Tom’ rivers, with the aim to study the problem of social <strong>and</strong> ecological factors synthesis in<br />
economic evaluation of natural resources capital, <strong>and</strong> develop mechanisms for unique territories<br />
preservation (Adam, Tsibulnikova, 2001).<br />
2.1 Local methodology approbation<br />
To study the problem of combination social <strong>and</strong> ecological factors in the economic estimation<br />
of the territory natural capital the local territory between the rivers Ob <strong>and</strong> Tom'- the unique<br />
natural complex providing a basic need of Tomsk in recreational resources <strong>and</strong> water has been<br />
used. The territory square is 3600 square kilometers, population – 32000 people.<br />
Now there is a real threat of degradation of the territory ecosystem because of amplifying<br />
anthropogenic loading. The natural resources of this territory are a state property, except the<br />
l<strong>and</strong> where there are settlements. About 50 % of the territory is completely limited for any<br />
economical activities.<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> non-wood recourses estimation was based on the survey data that were used to define the<br />
forest products consumption volume <strong>and</strong> Ob-Tomsk inter-river region <strong>and</strong> Tomsk population<br />
expenses to collect <strong>and</strong> deliver the forest products.<br />
There is an opinion, that if the household collecting the wild grow resources for personal needs<br />
it has the income the same as on the market. The results of the research have shown the stable<br />
level of the economical value of the Ob-Tomsk inter-river territory for the local population <strong>and</strong><br />
for the Tomsk city population. That flow is in several times bigger than the wood resources cost.<br />
Also the wildlife resources have the social importance because they provide the major income<br />
for the family budget of the not too wealthy people.<br />
Indirect cost of the Ob-Tomsk inter-river territory using (indirect cost of the forest) is based on<br />
the capacity of the trees to absorb carbon. The calculation was based on the World Bank<br />
methodology.<br />
That’s why in the natural capital estimation of the Ob-Tomsk inter-river territory the major part<br />
of the useful information was received on the base of the questioning. According to the<br />
questioning we could estimate the wood consumption <strong>and</strong> the non wood resources of the forest<br />
<strong>and</strong> also receive information how the local population is ready to bear expenses to preserve this<br />
territory.<br />
Estimation of the animals <strong>and</strong> fish was received on the actual shooting of the animals <strong>and</strong> catch<br />
of the fish data (on the base of the questioning), the market prices, <strong>and</strong> the time spent on the<br />
fishing <strong>and</strong> hunting.<br />
Direct use value of the wood is 125 000 dollars – 3% from the total cost of the forest. The<br />
economical value of the forest is in 4,5 times higher in comparison with the simple wood,<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
M. Tsibulnikova 2010. Economic estimations in using of the l<strong>and</strong>scapes planning<br />
325<br />
because the forest is using by the households as the source of the food products. Applying the<br />
specific estimation methods allow to increase in 30 times the economical value of the forest.<br />
The net value of the Ob-Tomsk inter-river territory forest resources on the base of the survey is<br />
about 2,9 million dollars per year. If the discounting rate will be 3 % <strong>and</strong> the usage time of the<br />
non-wood resources of the forest will be 100 years, the total cost of them is about 91,6 million<br />
dollars. To compare, the total revenue from the complete felling of the Ob-Tomsk inter-river<br />
trees plus the second trees felling 100 years later (the forest renewal period), with the same<br />
discounting rate 3 %, will be 26,9 million dollars.<br />
Comparison ecology services distribution structure shows that practically on all the basic<br />
ecosystem services export to a city essentially exceeds internally consumption. From the<br />
positions of the natural capital movement analysis <strong>and</strong> fair distribution of the natural rent,<br />
directions <strong>and</strong> methods of preservation strategy <strong>and</strong> development of a natural l<strong>and</strong>scape have<br />
been defined. Monetary estimations of territory natural resources have been applied by us as<br />
territorial indicators <strong>and</strong> indicators of steady wildlife management in particular economicgeographical<br />
conditions. (see Figure 1)<br />
After reception of the results the questions of incomes increasing because of the natural capital<br />
<strong>and</strong> creation of conditions for forest products collateral preparation, fishing, cultivations of wild<br />
animals for the hunting tourism became priority.<br />
The received results have allowed to develop actions for preservation <strong>and</strong> development of<br />
territory adjoining to a city because of the reinvestment the natural rent in preservation of a<br />
natural complex, according to sustainable development principles. On the basis of the received<br />
results of that work, an estimation of the area natural resources <strong>and</strong> creation of system of the<br />
ecological-economic account at regional level has been continued.<br />
Figure 1: Economical estimation of the forest natural resources with taking into account<br />
ecological <strong>and</strong> social factor . (Tsibulnikova 2001).<br />
2.2 Development of a system for ecological <strong>and</strong> economical registration in the region<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
M. Tsibulnikova 2010. Economic estimations in using of the l<strong>and</strong>scapes planning<br />
326<br />
Results of the approbation of pecuniary valuation of natural resources in Tomsk region were<br />
spread over the region with the aim to integrate the system of ecological <strong>and</strong> economical<br />
registration into management practice.<br />
Further investigations in the region have shown that fuel-energy resources are most significant<br />
in the structure of natural capital of Tomsk region, comprising up to 96% of its total value.<br />
These factors defined the strategy of Tomsk region development aimed at priority development<br />
of oil <strong>and</strong> gas industry (Adam, Tsibulnikova, 2009).<br />
At the same time, in spite of growing dependence of regional economy on petroleum production,<br />
biological resources significantly account in the structure of natural capital. (see Figure 2).<br />
Such conditions set a task to support stable flow of natural resources <strong>and</strong> ecosystem services of<br />
forest l<strong>and</strong>scapes.<br />
The analysis of information coming from regions has shown that petroleum production does not<br />
play the key role in regional population employment. Petroleum production is realized in three<br />
regions with total population comprising only 9% of Tomsk region population. 25% of the<br />
population of Tomsk region reside in 12 region occupying 50% of the territory of Tomsk region,<br />
where people earn their living mainly by biological resources. Tomsk region is subdivided in 16<br />
municipal regions. Small scale entrepreneurships <strong>and</strong> businessmen are engaged in fishing or<br />
forest resources storage.<br />
In addition to forest foodstuff storage, some regions organize storage of some crude drugs, food<br />
plants, <strong>and</strong> other resources, used by the population in the development of local production. Total<br />
economic value of nonwood forest resources amounts to $979.3 million. The estimation is not<br />
final, as it is made on the basis of 12 regions out of 16. Moreover 8 of them carry out<br />
registration of foodstuff forest resources only, <strong>and</strong> only 2 regions carry out registration of all<br />
kinds of nonwood forest resources. According to peer review, only 30% of total economic value<br />
of forest l<strong>and</strong>scapes is being registered presently.<br />
Economic evaluation of forest resources has proved mushrooms, berries, <strong>and</strong> medicinal herbs to<br />
be the full source of revenue for the local population. Thus, economic value of nonwood forest<br />
resources is 6 times higher than that of wood. At that, mushrooms <strong>and</strong> pine nuts represent the<br />
greatest part in total value (47% <strong>and</strong> 24% of total value accordingly). Due to the absence of<br />
official resources registration system in the state, planning of efficient use <strong>and</strong> preservation of<br />
natural l<strong>and</strong>scapes involve difficulties. As a result, in the course of industrial wood harvest <strong>and</strong><br />
mining, the population loses nonwood resources playing significant role in life support.<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
M. Tsibulnikova 2010. Economic estimations in using of the l<strong>and</strong>scapes planning<br />
327<br />
Figure 2: Natural capital structure of the Tomsk Region (economical value of the natural resources)<br />
(Tsibulnikova 2009)<br />
3. Result<br />
Current investigations change approaches to nature management. Economical information is an<br />
instrument providing calculations necessary for substantiation managerial decisions. Tomsk<br />
region administration directed official letters stating the necessity to organize better registration<br />
of profit gained from forests to municipal regions.<br />
Two municipal regions have rather well organized registration procedures providing relevant<br />
information, <strong>and</strong> give preference to forest preservation rather than wood storage. One region<br />
decided to direct funds for berry plantations quality improvement. Another region decided to<br />
create natural recreation zone.<br />
The necessity to preserve natural l<strong>and</strong>scapes often conflict with the aims of social <strong>and</strong> economic<br />
development of regions. Local authorities empowered to manage natural resources, often fail to<br />
take into account that life of many people is dependent on natural resources (Tsibulnikova<br />
2003).<br />
Working out <strong>and</strong> adoption of Tomsk regional statute obliging mining companies to compensate<br />
for losses of natural resources have become the practical application of natural resources<br />
evaluation methods taking into account both social <strong>and</strong> ecological factors. The amount of<br />
compensation is calculated from the cost of natural resources directly or indirectly involved in<br />
the process of mining.<br />
4. Discussion<br />
1. Application of pecuniary valuation in natural resources evaluation methodology with the<br />
frame of l<strong>and</strong>scape <strong>and</strong> ecological investigations allows to consider full economic value of<br />
nature at managerial decision making.<br />
2. Economic evaluation taking into account social <strong>and</strong> ecological factors allow to define real<br />
material <strong>and</strong> money flows in nature management.<br />
3. Pecuniary valuation of natural resources taking into account social factor show economic <strong>and</strong><br />
geographical peculiarities of the territory, indicate nature management stability, <strong>and</strong> can be used<br />
both for natural <strong>and</strong> anthropogenic l<strong>and</strong>scape management.<br />
4. Economic <strong>and</strong> geographical analysis of nature management in Tomsk region has shown that<br />
in the effort to provide stable development of Tomsk region, preservation of natural ability of<br />
forest to provide foodstuff, crude drug, <strong>and</strong> other forest resources, will contribute to better<br />
economic efficiency<br />
5. The analysis of money flows coming from nonwood forest resources gives the ground for<br />
local authorities to make right choice in territories use <strong>and</strong> define such forest resources as<br />
recreation, creation <strong>and</strong> further utilization of forest plantations, growing of forest fruit, berry,<br />
ornamental plants, <strong>and</strong> medicinal herbs, as priority ones.<br />
6. In the effort to provide stable development of Tomsk region, preservation of natural ability of<br />
forest to provide foodstuff, crude drug, secondary forest resources, <strong>and</strong> accessory products of<br />
forest exploitation without l<strong>and</strong>scape deterioration, will contribute to better economic efficiency.<br />
Such course can provide multiplicative effect from animal <strong>and</strong> fish natural habitat preservation,<br />
<strong>and</strong> forest recreation development for amateur hunting <strong>and</strong> fishing.<br />
7. Evaluation of money flows in nature management allows not only to plan arrangements for<br />
natural resources preservation, but also to define volumes <strong>and</strong> mechanisms for compensation in<br />
case of l<strong>and</strong>scape deterioration.<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
M. Tsibulnikova 2010. Economic estimations in using of the l<strong>and</strong>scapes planning<br />
328<br />
References<br />
Adam A. M., Tsibulnikova M. R., Laptev N. I. Regional ecological policy: Tomsk experience. –<br />
Moscow: Institute for Stable Development/Centre for Ecological Policy of Russia, 2009.-<br />
60 p.<br />
Adam A. M., Tsibulnikova M. R. Application of pecuniary valuation of natural resources as the<br />
indicator of stable nature management. Selected Parers presented at 7 th International<br />
Scientific <strong>and</strong> Practical Conference «Natural <strong>and</strong> intellectual resources of Siberia<br />
(Sibresurs-7-2001)», Tomsk, 2001. P. 154-158.<br />
Economical basis for prevention of disputes in nature management by the example of the area<br />
between Ob’ <strong>and</strong> Tom’ rivers. Scientific paper № 7/2000. Yaroslavl. 2000. 107 p.<br />
Tsibulnikova M. R. The usage of natural resources money estimations in control of nature<br />
management on Ob-Tom interriver. Environment of Siberia, the Far East, <strong>and</strong> the<br />
Arctic/Selected Papers presented at the International Conference, Tomsk, 2001. P. 422-<br />
426.<br />
Tsibulnikova M. R. Natural resources evaluation in social <strong>and</strong> economical development of<br />
regions. Issues of utilization <strong>and</strong> preservation of natural resources of Central Siberia.<br />
Issue 5. Krasnoyarsk: KNIIG&MS, 2003. P. 12-13.<br />
Tsibulnikova M. R. Economical aspects of nature management in regional development/Issues<br />
of geology <strong>and</strong> geography of Siberia. Bulletin of Tomsk State University № 3, TSU,<br />
Tomsk, 2003. P. 69-71<br />
Adam A. M., Tsibulnikova M. R. Use of biological resources as one of the directions for the<br />
increase in Tomsk region development stability. «Natural <strong>and</strong> intellectual resources of<br />
Siberia (Sibresurs-15-2009)». Slected Papers presented at 15 th International Scientific <strong>and</strong><br />
Practical Conference, Irkutsk, October 5-7, 2009./responsible editor V. N. Maslennikov. –<br />
Tomsk: SAN VSh; V-Spektr, 2009. 304 p.<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
Section 5<br />
Monitoring l<strong>and</strong>scape change
M. Akbarzadeh & E. Kouhgardi 2010. Mapping <strong>and</strong> monitoring l<strong>and</strong> cover <strong>and</strong> l<strong>and</strong> –use changing using RS <strong>and</strong> GIS<br />
331<br />
Mapping <strong>and</strong> Monitoring l<strong>and</strong> cover <strong>and</strong> l<strong>and</strong> –use changing using RS<br />
<strong>and</strong> GIS. Case study: Kaleybar, Iran<br />
M. Akbarzadeh 1* & E. Kouhgardi 2<br />
1 Islamic Azad University, Myianeh Branch, East Azarbaijan, Iran.<br />
2 Islamic Azad University, Boushehr Branch, Boushehr, Iran.<br />
Abstract<br />
Arasbaran is located in East Northern part of East Azerbijan province. Because of the having<br />
montainus forests <strong>and</strong> special st<strong>and</strong>ing condition, fragile ecosystem is created.<br />
In this study, maximum likelihood supervised classification <strong>and</strong> post – classification change<br />
detection techniques were applied to l<strong>and</strong> sat images acquired in 1987 <strong>and</strong> 2002, to map l<strong>and</strong><br />
cover changes in the North Western forests of Iran.<br />
A supervised classification was carried out on the six reflective b<strong>and</strong>s for the two images<br />
individually.<br />
Key words: Iran, Arasbaran, Remote sensing, GIS, L<strong>and</strong> cover<br />
1. Introduction<br />
Remote sensing techniques have recently recived lots of attentions in agriculture <strong>and</strong> natural<br />
resources. Natural resources <strong>and</strong> environmental conservation need a lot of attention especially<br />
on under devloped countries. Using remote sensing techniques <strong>and</strong> sateliate data for evaluation<br />
of environmental changes is rapidly growing.<br />
2. Methodology<br />
2.1 Study area<br />
The study area is located in North West of IRAN <strong>and</strong> the North Eastern of the East Azerbijan<br />
province, which called Arasbaran, is a mountainous area with elevation between 300 <strong>and</strong> 2700<br />
meters above the see level <strong>and</strong> very near to the Caspian Sea.<br />
o<br />
o<br />
o<br />
o<br />
The area is located between 38 .48′<br />
<strong>and</strong> 39 .01′<br />
latitude <strong>and</strong> between 47 .14′<br />
<strong>and</strong> 46 .51′<br />
longitude. It covers diversity of elevation, slope, population <strong>and</strong> l<strong>and</strong> use <strong>and</strong> includes a variety<br />
of seashore rivers, etc. There are above 785 plant species in this forest that 97 species of them<br />
are woody (Sagheb et al, 2004).<br />
Arasbaran includes 11 basins. Kaleybar Chay is one of them, which is our study area. Aras river<br />
is in the Northern boundary of the study area.<br />
2.2 Materials<br />
Three sets of material were used here.<br />
* Corresponding author. Tel.: +98914 406 6696 - Fax: +98 423 22 400 85<br />
Email address: m.akbarzadeh@m_iau.ac.ir<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
M. Akbarzadeh & E. Kouhgardi 2010. Mapping <strong>and</strong> monitoring l<strong>and</strong> cover <strong>and</strong> l<strong>and</strong> –use changing using RS <strong>and</strong> GIS<br />
332<br />
First, l<strong>and</strong> sat Thematic Mapper (TM) <strong>and</strong> Enhanced Thematic Mapper (ETM+) images<br />
acquired on 20 July 2002 <strong>and</strong> 19 July 1987, respectively. L<strong>and</strong> sat 4 <strong>and</strong> 5 carry the TM sensors.<br />
Second, digital topographic maps digitized from hard copy topographic maps with scale of<br />
1:50,000 were made of IRANIAN surveying center <strong>and</strong> used mainly for geometric correction of<br />
the satellite data <strong>and</strong> for some ground truth information.<br />
Finally, ground information was collected between 1997 until 2002for the purpose of supervised<br />
classification <strong>and</strong> classification accuracy assessment.<br />
2.3 Geometric correction<br />
Accurate per- pixel registration of multi- temporal remote sensing data is essential for change<br />
detection since the potential exists for registration errors to be interpreted as l<strong>and</strong> cover <strong>and</strong><br />
l<strong>and</strong>- use change, leading to an overestimation of actual <strong>Change</strong>(stow, 1999).<br />
<strong>Change</strong> detection analysis is performed on a pixel – by- pixel basis, therefore a misregistration<br />
greater than one pixel will provide an anomalous result of that pixel. To overcome this problem,<br />
the root mean – square error (RMSE) between any two dates should not exceed 0.5 pixels (Lune<br />
tta& Elvidge 1998).<br />
In this study geometric correction was carried out using ground control points from topographic<br />
maps with scale of 1:5000 produced in 1986 by Iranian Army Surveying Center (IASC).To<br />
geocode the image of 2002, then this image was used to register the image of 1987.<br />
The RMSE between the two images was less than 0.4 pixel which is acceptable. The RMES<br />
could be defined as the deviations between GCP <strong>and</strong> GP locations as predicted by the fitted –<br />
polynomial <strong>and</strong> their actual locations.<br />
The goal of image enhancement is to improve the visual interpretability of an image by<br />
increasing the apparent distinction between the features.<br />
The process of visually interpreting digitally enhanced imagery attempts to optimize the<br />
complementary abilities of the human mind <strong>and</strong> the computer.The mind is excellent at<br />
interpreting spatial attributes on an image <strong>and</strong> is capable of identifying obscure or subtle<br />
features (Lilles<strong>and</strong> & Kiefer, 1994).<br />
Contrast stretching was applied on the two images <strong>and</strong> two false color composites (FCC) were<br />
produced.<br />
These FCC were visually interpreted using on screen digitizing in order to delineate l<strong>and</strong> cover<br />
classes that could be easily interpreted such as village.<br />
Some classes were spectrally confused <strong>and</strong> could not be separated well by supervised<br />
classification <strong>and</strong> hence visual interpretation was required to separate them.<br />
2.4 Image classification<br />
L<strong>and</strong> cover classes are typically mapped from digital remotely sensed data through the process<br />
of a supervised digital image classification (Campbell, 1987), (Zobeyri & Daleki, 1988). The<br />
over all objective of the image classification procedure is to automatically categorize all pixels<br />
in an image <strong>and</strong> to l<strong>and</strong> cover classes or themes (Lilles<strong>and</strong> & Kiefer, 1994).<br />
The maximum likelihood classifier quantitatively evaluates both the variance <strong>and</strong> covariance of<br />
the category spectral response patterns when classifying an unknown pixel so that it is<br />
considered to be one of the most accurate classifiers since it is based on statistical parameters.<br />
Supervised classification was done using ground chek points <strong>and</strong> digital topographic maps of<br />
the study area.<br />
The area was classified into seven main classes: High density forest, low density forest,<br />
rangl<strong>and</strong>s, agriculture, bare l<strong>and</strong>, river, <strong>and</strong> village.<br />
Description of theses l<strong>and</strong> cover classes are presented in Table 1.<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
M. Akbarzadeh & E. Kouhgardi 2010. Mapping <strong>and</strong> monitoring l<strong>and</strong> cover <strong>and</strong> l<strong>and</strong> –use changing using RS <strong>and</strong> GIS<br />
333<br />
In order to increase the accuracy of l<strong>and</strong> cover mapping of the two images, a cillary data <strong>and</strong> the<br />
result of visual interpretation were integrated with the classification result using GIS in order to<br />
improve the classification accuracy of the classified image.<br />
Table1. Classification details of l<strong>and</strong> covers classes in study area<br />
Class<br />
Details<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> st<strong>and</strong>s<br />
Range l<strong>and</strong><br />
Cropl<strong>and</strong><br />
Bare l<strong>and</strong><br />
River<br />
Village<br />
Mountainous forest st<strong>and</strong>s ,which almost coppice<br />
st<strong>and</strong>s <strong>and</strong> low<br />
forests including in study area. The area have the biggest forest st<strong>and</strong> in North<br />
West of Iran.<br />
Areas which no ability for agriculture <strong>and</strong> forestry<br />
grasses. Some range l<strong>and</strong>s is part of<br />
positive line of ecosystem changing.<br />
but have<br />
changing biocenose at<br />
L<strong>and</strong>s which cultivated vegetables, fruits, <strong>and</strong> annual crops. These crops are<br />
irrigated mainly from the water of rivers Aras Ilghine chay , or rain water <strong>and</strong> or<br />
ground water.<br />
L<strong>and</strong> areas of exposed soil surface as influenced by human impact mainly or<br />
natural causes. That is the last trying of ecosystem to protect its biocenose.<br />
Aras <strong>and</strong> Ilghineh chay are two main rivers in study area <strong>and</strong> main resources for<br />
irrigation of cropl<strong>and</strong>s <strong>and</strong> human uses, after this, the area including springs.<br />
The biggest population community where human society is in it, at the study area.<br />
The place of villages did not change during the time of this study so they were<br />
not included in our classifications.<br />
2.5 L<strong>and</strong> cover/use change detection<br />
Regardless of the techniques used, the success of change detection from imagery will depend<br />
on both the nature of the change involved <strong>and</strong> the success of the image pre processing <strong>and</strong><br />
classification procedures. If the nature of change within a particular scene is either abrupt or at a<br />
scale appropriate to the imagery collected then change should be relatively easy to detect.<br />
Problems occur only if spatial changes are subtly distributed <strong>and</strong> hence not obvious within any<br />
image pixel (Milne, 1988, Darvishsefat et al, 2002).<br />
In the case of the study area chosen, field observation <strong>and</strong> measurement have shown that the<br />
change between the image collection dates was both marked <strong>and</strong> abrupt .In this study post -<br />
classification change detection technique was applied. Post classification is the most abvious<br />
method of change detection, which requires the comparison of independently produced<br />
classified images. The CROSSTAB module of Ilwis software was used for performing cross<br />
tabulation analysis. CROSSTAB performs two operations.<br />
The first image cross tabulation in which the categories of one image are compared with those<br />
of a second image <strong>and</strong> of the number of cells in each combination is kept in tabulation. The<br />
result of this operation is a table listing the tabulation totals as well as several measures of<br />
association between the images.<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
M. Akbarzadeh & E. Kouhgardi 2010. Mapping <strong>and</strong> monitoring l<strong>and</strong> cover <strong>and</strong> l<strong>and</strong> –use changing using RS <strong>and</strong> GIS<br />
334<br />
The second operation that CROSSTAB offers is cross- classification. Cross- classification can<br />
be described as a multiple overly showing all combinations of the logical AND operation<br />
(Shalaby.A&Tateishi.R, 2007).<br />
The result is a new image that shows the locations of all combinations of the categories in the<br />
orginal images<br />
A legend is automatically produced showing these combinations' cross- classification thus<br />
produce a map representation of all non- zero entries in the cross- tabulation table.<br />
3. Result<br />
The color composites generated from b<strong>and</strong>s 4, 3 <strong>and</strong> were visually interpreted through on screen<br />
digitizing. The visual interpretation gave a general idea about the forms of l<strong>and</strong> cover changes<br />
over the period. Many farml<strong>and</strong>s <strong>and</strong> new roads <strong>and</strong> range l<strong>and</strong>s were noticed in the image of<br />
2002 <strong>and</strong> not in the one of 1987. A noticeable change is detected in areas of forest st<strong>and</strong>s, lime<br />
stone <strong>and</strong> shale Quarries in the Northern <strong>and</strong> South eastern parts of the study area where part of<br />
the forest st<strong>and</strong>s, range l<strong>and</strong>s <strong>and</strong> cropl<strong>and</strong> were converted to range l<strong>and</strong>, cropl<strong>and</strong> <strong>and</strong> bare<br />
l<strong>and</strong>s. On screen digitizing was carried out for forest, range l<strong>and</strong>s, cropl<strong>and</strong>, bare l<strong>and</strong>, river,<br />
village classes as well as the road network. Supervised classification using all reflective b<strong>and</strong>s<br />
of two images acquired on 20 July 2002 <strong>and</strong> 19 July 1987 was carried out using maximum likeli<br />
hood classifier. In order to increase the accuracy of l<strong>and</strong> cover mapping of the two images,<br />
ancillary data <strong>and</strong> the result of visual interpretation were integrated with the classification<br />
results using GIS. The module used the overlay module in Ilwis 3.0 Academic Software.<br />
Through the overlay proccess, areas which were misclassified in the village forest, range l<strong>and</strong>s<br />
<strong>and</strong> cropl<strong>and</strong> <strong>and</strong> river classes were relabeled to the correct classes using the layer of visual<br />
interpretation.<br />
This overlying of the visual interpretation on the result of the classification led to the increase in<br />
the overall accuracies by about 10 percent for both images.<br />
The lowest accuracy was for range l<strong>and</strong> <strong>and</strong> forest that could be explained by the fact that the<br />
study area is semi – humid <strong>and</strong> the vegetation intensity is between range l<strong>and</strong>s <strong>and</strong> forest st<strong>and</strong>s,<br />
especially in ecotons which gradually led to the confusion with them.<br />
Remote sensing data <strong>and</strong> GIS provide opportunities for integrated analysis of spatial data.<br />
Cross- tabulation performs image Cross- tabulation in which the categories of one image are<br />
compared with those of a second image <strong>and</strong> tabulation is kept of the number of cells in each<br />
combination.<br />
Post - classification change detection technique was carried out, through Cross- tabulation GIS<br />
module for the classification results of 1987 <strong>and</strong> 2002 images in order to produce change image<br />
<strong>and</strong> statistical data about the spatial distribution of different l<strong>and</strong> cover changes <strong>and</strong> nonchange<br />
areas .<br />
We have to take in to consideration the accuracy of the classification of different classes since<br />
the error of the classification will affect the accuracy of the change detection figures.<br />
L<strong>and</strong> degradation processes in the study area are: degradation of range l<strong>and</strong> due to overgrazing<br />
<strong>and</strong> the converting of range l<strong>and</strong> to cropl<strong>and</strong> due to low incoming <strong>and</strong> bad economical condition<br />
of peopls who living in study area.<br />
Mismanagement of natural resources specialy forest st<strong>and</strong>s is another cause of forest<br />
degradation. In this view point people who living in villages need fuel <strong>and</strong> means <strong>and</strong> materials<br />
for their lifes. So with mismanagement of natural resources, the forest st<strong>and</strong>s is the easy <strong>and</strong><br />
best answer for solving their problems.<br />
This could be seen on the l<strong>and</strong> cover / l<strong>and</strong> use map of 2002 where the crop l<strong>and</strong> areas have<br />
increased from 400.52 ha crop l<strong>and</strong> in 1987 to 654.76 ha crop l<strong>and</strong> in 2002.( For more see<br />
table2).<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
M. Akbarzadeh & E. Kouhgardi 2010. Mapping <strong>and</strong> monitoring l<strong>and</strong> cover <strong>and</strong> l<strong>and</strong> –use changing using RS <strong>and</strong> GIS<br />
335<br />
Table2. <strong>Change</strong> detection details of study area<br />
Class Name 1987 (area in ha) 2002(area in ha)<br />
Crop l<strong>and</strong><br />
Bairsoli<br />
H.<strong>Forest</strong><br />
L.<strong>Forest</strong><br />
Rangel<strong>and</strong><br />
River<br />
Total area<br />
400.52<br />
21128.71<br />
5089.26<br />
14036.59<br />
9049.88<br />
303.7<br />
50008.66<br />
654.76<br />
21931.34<br />
4086.3<br />
13987.45<br />
9021.29<br />
327.52<br />
50008.66<br />
The next l<strong>and</strong> degradation process cause in the study area is water erosion <strong>and</strong> wind erosion,<br />
which are so power full, in l<strong>and</strong>s without vegetation cover or low vegetation cover.<br />
Water <strong>and</strong> wind erosion let to the removal of the relatively fertile top soil <strong>and</strong> this could lead to<br />
desertification.<br />
4. Discussion<br />
The objective of this study was to provide a recent prespective for l<strong>and</strong> cover types <strong>and</strong> l<strong>and</strong><br />
cover changes that have taken place in the last fourteen years, to integrate visual interpretation<br />
with supervised classification using GIS <strong>and</strong> to examine the capabilities of integrating remote<br />
sensing <strong>and</strong> GIS in studying the spatial distribution of different l<strong>and</strong> cover changes.<br />
The area of forest st<strong>and</strong>s has decreased considerably. Integrating GIS <strong>and</strong> remote sensing<br />
provided valuable information on the nature of l<strong>and</strong> cover changes especially on the area <strong>and</strong><br />
spatial distribution of different l<strong>and</strong> cover changes.<br />
The main causes of l<strong>and</strong> degradation in the study area are convertion of forest st<strong>and</strong>s to range<br />
l<strong>and</strong>s, range l<strong>and</strong>s to crop l<strong>and</strong>s, <strong>and</strong> convertion of crop l<strong>and</strong>s to bare l<strong>and</strong>s. This problem show<br />
sere to be continued for disclimax <strong>and</strong> needs to be seriously studied, through<br />
References<br />
Akbarzadeh, M., 2007. Using RS <strong>and</strong> GIS for L<strong>and</strong> evaluation in Arasbaran Iran. Ph.D. thesis,<br />
IAU, Science <strong>and</strong> Research University, Tehran, Iran.<br />
Darvish sefat, A., Makhdum, M., <strong>and</strong> Jafarzadeh, H., 2002. Using GIS <strong>and</strong> RS in natural<br />
resources.Tehran University Press, 250 p.<br />
Milne, A., 1988. <strong>Change</strong> detection analysis using L<strong>and</strong>sat imagery a review of methodology.<br />
Proceedings of IGARSS, 88 symposium, 541–544.<br />
Stow, D., 1999. Reducing mis-registration effects for pixel-level analysis of l<strong>and</strong>-cover change.<br />
International Journal of Remote Sensing, 20: 2477–2483.<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
B. Baran-Zgłobicka & W. Zgłobicki 2010. <strong>Forest</strong> patches in agricultural l<strong>and</strong>scapes (loess areas of SE Pol<strong>and</strong>)<br />
336<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> patches in agricultural l<strong>and</strong>scapes<br />
(loess areas of SE Pol<strong>and</strong>)<br />
Bogusława Baran-Zgłobicka & Wojciech Zgłobicki<br />
Department of Geology <strong>and</strong> Lithosphere Conservation,<br />
Maria Curie - Sklodowska University, Pol<strong>and</strong><br />
Abstract<br />
A mosaic of naturally <strong>and</strong> anthropogenically conditioned patches of terrain cover, which are<br />
diversified as regards the kind, size <strong>and</strong> shape, appears in the agricultural l<strong>and</strong>scapes. The<br />
research was carried out in the 2 test areas located in SE Pol<strong>and</strong>. They cover an area of 28 km2<br />
<strong>and</strong> 35 km2. This is the area of the appearance of a specific l<strong>and</strong>scape in the structure of which,<br />
a group of forms characteristic for its loess relief is dominant. The analysis of the changes in the<br />
l<strong>and</strong> use were carried out on the basis of the three maps comparison four maps, representing the<br />
years 1840, 1890, 1935, 1997. The spatial analysis consisted of the assessment of changes of<br />
forest patches areas as well as some chosen statistical parameters prepared for the four time<br />
periods: 1840-1890, 1890-1935, 1935-1997, 1890-1997. The studies revealed differences in the<br />
scope of changes in the percentage of forest cover in the test areas.<br />
Keywords: agricultural l<strong>and</strong>scape, l<strong>and</strong> use changes, loess areas<br />
1. Introduction<br />
Agricultural l<strong>and</strong>scapes are characterised by a mosaic of naturally <strong>and</strong> anthropogenically<br />
conditioned patches of l<strong>and</strong> cover that are diverse in kind, size <strong>and</strong> shape. Human activity is the<br />
main factor influencing the changeability of forms of l<strong>and</strong> use in time <strong>and</strong> space. However, in<br />
many cases the influence of abiotic environment components can also be significant. A good<br />
underst<strong>and</strong>ing of the historical determinants of changes in l<strong>and</strong> usage allows for a better<br />
anticipation of the tendencies developing in a l<strong>and</strong>scape, <strong>and</strong> also enables a more effective<br />
l<strong>and</strong>scape management (Bork 1989, Dotterweich 2008).<br />
The research was carried out in two test areas, Wąwolnica (28 km 2 ) <strong>and</strong> Wilczyce (35 km 2 ),<br />
located in SE Pol<strong>and</strong>. The structure of the unique l<strong>and</strong>scape occurring in this area is dominated<br />
by a group of forms characteristic of loess relief. The deep Bystra <strong>and</strong> Opatówka river valleys<br />
form the morphological axes of the test areas. The plateaus <strong>and</strong> slopes are dissected by a system<br />
of dry valleys <strong>and</strong> gullies. The Wąwolnica area exhibits a greater diversity of relief as steep<br />
slopes <strong>and</strong> gullies occupy a larger part of the l<strong>and</strong>scape (see Table 1). These areas were<br />
cultivated as early as the Neolithic, while the next strong expansion of settlements <strong>and</strong> farming<br />
began in the mediaeval period (Nogaj-Chachaj 2004). Nowadays, arable l<strong>and</strong>s predominate in<br />
the l<strong>and</strong> use structure, occupying from 55% to 63% of the whole area. The percentage of forest<br />
cover is quite high in the Wawolnica test area (18%), while it is significantly lower in Wilczyce<br />
(9%). It is a result of a large proportion of areas where cultivation has been discontinued<br />
because most of them are occupied by gullies <strong>and</strong> steep slopes (Baran-Zgłobicka <strong>and</strong> Zgłobicki<br />
2004).<br />
A typical community growing in gullies <strong>and</strong> on steep slopes nowadays are Tilio-Carpinetum<br />
forests; tree st<strong>and</strong>s are composed of hornbeam (Carpinus betulus) with an admixture of smallleaved<br />
lime (Tilia cordata), Norway maple (Acer platanoides) <strong>and</strong> pedunculate oak (Quercus<br />
robur). Protected species occur among herbal plants (Kucharczyk 1992).<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
B. Baran-Zgłobicka & W. Zgłobicki 2010. <strong>Forest</strong> patches in agricultural l<strong>and</strong>scapes (loess areas of SE Pol<strong>and</strong>)<br />
337<br />
2. Methodology<br />
The analysis of the changes in l<strong>and</strong> use was carried out by comparing three maps: Karte des<br />
westlichen Rußl<strong>and</strong>s 1: 100 000 (representing the year 1890), Tactical map of Pol<strong>and</strong> WIG 1:<br />
100 000 (representing the year 1935), <strong>and</strong> a modern l<strong>and</strong> use map 1: 25 000 (representing the<br />
year 1997, elaborated based on aerial photographs <strong>and</strong> field mapping). The first two maps were<br />
digitized <strong>and</strong> calibrated. The next step consisted of the creation of maps (layers) of wooded<br />
areas with the use of ArcView software. The map compilation <strong>and</strong> the selection of chosen<br />
separations enabled the analysis of how the percentage of forest cover changed over time as<br />
well as the examination of the links between those processes <strong>and</strong> natural determinants. A map<br />
dating back to 1840 was also available but did not lend itself to cartometric analysis. Hence,<br />
only an approximate percentage was calculated for the forest cover in that year.<br />
The above-mentioned cartographic materials indicate that woodl<strong>and</strong>s <strong>and</strong> forests are the only<br />
l<strong>and</strong> use category that could be examined in relation to such a long period of time. At the same<br />
time, they constitute the most “natural” component of the l<strong>and</strong> cover. The spatial analysis<br />
included the assessment of changes in the area of forest patches as well as selected statistical<br />
parameters prepared for three periods: 1890-1935, 1935-1997, 1890-1997. In addition, an<br />
examination has been conducted with respect to the character of the abiotic components in areas<br />
covered by forests in various periods as well as in areas where forestation or deforestation took<br />
place.<br />
3. Results<br />
The studies revealed differences in the scope of changes in the percentage of forest cover in the<br />
test areas.<br />
- In the Wąwolnica test area, the forest cover decreased by 2.8 km 2 over the last 100 years; the<br />
lowest forest cover occurred in 1935 (11%)<br />
- In the Wilczyce test area, the percentage of forest cover increased more than fivefold over the<br />
last 100 years. At the end of the 19 th <strong>and</strong> beginning of the 20 th century it was less than 0.5% (see<br />
Figure 1)<br />
- In Wilczyce, gullies are the only contemporary form of relief with a considerable forest cover.<br />
In Wąwolnica, the percentage of the forest cover on steep slopes is also relatively high.<br />
- In Wąwolnica, an increased number of forest patches was observed, along with a decreased<br />
mean patch area. The diversity of the shapes of the patches has also increased (see Table 2).<br />
Nowadays, the mean patch area is particularly small in the case of Wilczyce.<br />
- The loess plateaus as well as gentle <strong>and</strong> medium slopes were deforested in the Wąwolnica test<br />
area (see Table 3), while in the Wilczyce test area this process was not observed.<br />
- In both test areas, the forests occupied the area of gullies <strong>and</strong> steep slopes.<br />
4. Discussion<br />
The presented results show the rationality of changes as regards the usage of the agricultural<br />
production space. In Wąwolnica, the plateaus <strong>and</strong> gentle slopes, convenient for agricultural<br />
cultivation, were deforested during the last 100 years, whereas in Wilczyce this process took<br />
place before the 19 th century. After World War II, an increase of forest areas occurred in both<br />
test areas. The succession of forests occurred in areas with a significant threat of soil <strong>and</strong> gully<br />
erosion. Nowadays, this process also occurs in connection with a decline in the profitability of<br />
agricultural production.<br />
The differences in the percentage of forest cover between the test areas should be linked with<br />
natural <strong>and</strong> socioeconomic conditions. The clearly larger area covered by forests in Wąwolnica<br />
results from the relief of the area, i.e. a large proportion of steep slopes <strong>and</strong> gullies. The<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
B. Baran-Zgłobicka & W. Zgłobicki 2010. <strong>Forest</strong> patches in agricultural l<strong>and</strong>scapes (loess areas of SE Pol<strong>and</strong>)<br />
338<br />
Wilczyce area was characterised by a more intensive agricultural activity connected with the<br />
existence of vast ecclesiastical estates in this area.<br />
From the perspective of ecology, the current structure of forest patches is not favourable<br />
because forested areas are small <strong>and</strong> diverse in shape. On the other h<strong>and</strong>, forests in gullies <strong>and</strong><br />
on steep slopes represent the only forest enclaves in the agricultural l<strong>and</strong>scape. Such a situation<br />
clearly indicates the role of geodiversity as a determinant of biodiversity.<br />
In some cases, however, the changes in usage structure were not determined by nature-related<br />
factors. In Wąwolnica, considerable deforestation took place within the medium slopes, whereas<br />
in the case of steep slopes the forestation area represented less than 50% of the previously<br />
deforested areas. At the same time, some changes in the agricultural character of l<strong>and</strong> use are<br />
necessary in some parts of the analysed areas – most importantly in order to limit the threat of<br />
erosion.<br />
References<br />
Baran-Zgłobicka B., Zglobicki W. 2004: Structure of the agricultural loess l<strong>and</strong>scape (on the<br />
example of the western fragment of the Naleczow Plateau). Fizyčna geografija ta<br />
geomorfologija. Mižvidomčyj naukovyj zbirnik, 46: 12-18.<br />
Bork H.-R. 1989. Soil erosion during the past Millennium in Central Europe <strong>and</strong> its significance<br />
within the geomorphodynamics of the Holocene. Catena Supplement, 15: 221-131.<br />
Dotterweich M. 2008. The history of soil erosion <strong>and</strong> fluvial deposits in small catchments of<br />
central Europe: Deciphering the long-term interaction between humans <strong>and</strong> the<br />
environment. Geomorphology, 101: 192-208..<br />
Kucharczyk M. 1992. Roślinność i flora. Kazimierski Park Krajobrazowy. In: Tadeusz Wilgat<br />
(Ed.) System obszarów chronionych województwa lubelskiego. UMCS, TWWP, LFOŚN,<br />
Lublin: 76-81.<br />
Nogaj-Chachaj J. 2004: O roli człowieka w przekształcaniu środowiska przyrodniczego w<br />
holocenie na Płaskowyżu Nałęczowskim. In: Jerzy. Libera <strong>and</strong> Anna Zakościelna (Eds.)<br />
Przez pradzieje i wczesne średniowiecze. Wydawnictwo UMCS, Lublin: 63-72.<br />
Table 1: Relief <strong>and</strong> l<strong>and</strong> use within test areas<br />
Wąwolnica Wilczyce<br />
Forms of relief<br />
Bottoms of valleys 9 18<br />
Gentle slopes (3-6 o ) 20 17<br />
Moderate slopes (6-12 o ) 16 23<br />
Steep slopes (> 12 o ) 9 4<br />
Gullies 6 4<br />
Plateau tops 42 34<br />
L<strong>and</strong> use<br />
Arable l<strong>and</strong>s 55 63<br />
Orchards 3 14<br />
Plantations 5 0.5<br />
Grassl<strong>and</strong>s/pastures 14 7<br />
<strong>Forest</strong>s 18 9<br />
Wastel<strong>and</strong>s 2 2<br />
Built-up areas 4 4.5<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
B. Baran-Zgłobicka & W. Zgłobicki 2010. <strong>Forest</strong> patches in agricultural l<strong>and</strong>scapes (loess areas of SE Pol<strong>and</strong>)<br />
339<br />
Table 2: <strong>Change</strong>s in the structure of forest patches<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> area <strong>Forest</strong> Number Mean patch area Mean shape index<br />
[km 2 ] cover [%] of patches [ha]<br />
Wąwolnica test area<br />
1890 7.9 28 12 64 1.9<br />
1935 3.1 11 33 10 1.4<br />
1997 5.1 18 37 13 2.2<br />
Wilczyce test area<br />
1997 3.1 9 87 3.7 1.7<br />
Table 3: <strong>Change</strong>s in the forest cover within different forms of relief (Wąwolnica test area)<br />
Plateau tops<br />
Gentle<br />
slopes<br />
Medium<br />
slopes<br />
Steep slopes Gullies Bottoms<br />
of valleys<br />
1890 21 27 35 39 61 9<br />
1935 9 10 13 20 33 2<br />
1997 8 13 20 30 86 4<br />
Figure 1: Tendencies of changes in the forest cover in the test areas<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
J. Beldade & T. Panagopoulos 2010. Integrating esthetical <strong>and</strong> ecological values at the central Asia l<strong>and</strong>scape change<br />
340<br />
Integrating esthetical <strong>and</strong> ecological values at the central Asia<br />
l<strong>and</strong>scape change<br />
Joana Beldade & Thomas Panagopoulos<br />
Centre of Spatial Research <strong>and</strong> Organizations (CIEO), University of Algarve, Campus<br />
de Gambelas, 8000 Faro, Portugal<br />
Abstract<br />
Desertification is the gradual transformation of usable l<strong>and</strong> into desert; is usually caused by<br />
climate change or by destructive use of the l<strong>and</strong>. The present study examines how a person<br />
interprets desert l<strong>and</strong>scapes using phenomenological methodology. In ecological aesthetics<br />
pleasure is derived from knowing on how the part of the l<strong>and</strong>scape relate to the whole. The<br />
objective of the present paper is to describe how to integrate l<strong>and</strong>scape aesthetics into l<strong>and</strong>scape<br />
planning of the Central Asia Silk Road area. A questioner was used as research tool to measure<br />
l<strong>and</strong>scape preference. The questions were constructed following the principles of<br />
phenomenology. After qualitative <strong>and</strong> quantitative analysis, 7 main categories of cognitive<br />
aspects of natural l<strong>and</strong>scapes were identified. Each l<strong>and</strong>scape evoked each participant's<br />
memories <strong>and</strong> background, <strong>and</strong> altered through these influences, imagination/association,<br />
impression, aesthetic judgments, <strong>and</strong> meaning <strong>and</strong> attractiveness of nature. All the above played<br />
their role in the evaluation of desert l<strong>and</strong>scapes.<br />
Keywords: Desert l<strong>and</strong>scape, aesthetics, l<strong>and</strong>scape assessment, phenomenology<br />
1. Introduction<br />
There is mounting evidence pointing to the relationship between climate change effects <strong>and</strong><br />
l<strong>and</strong>scape preferences (Cambers, 2009). L<strong>and</strong>scape preferences <strong>and</strong> perceptions usually are<br />
influenced by demographic elements such as age, gender <strong>and</strong> ethnicity; as well as culture<br />
(Brunson & Shelby, 1992). With few exceptions, most of those studies have examined<br />
perceptions of environments within relative non-dynamic periods. There is therefore a scarcity<br />
of studies on perceptions of desert l<strong>and</strong>scapes that are undergoing reclamation. In light of<br />
climate change, such investigations are crucial to the underst<strong>and</strong>ing of adaptation processes. It is<br />
argued, that to a great extent, tourists’ perceptions have been left out of the debate on desert<br />
l<strong>and</strong>scape adaptation <strong>and</strong> climate change.<br />
Given that desertification within major tourism destinations is an inevitable consequence of<br />
climate change a deeper underst<strong>and</strong>ing of user perceptions can provide a holistic view to<br />
adaptation processes. As the morphological structure of desert l<strong>and</strong>scapes changes, social<br />
driving forces will have to change not only in the way in which they visualize these areas but<br />
also in how they relate to these natural environments <strong>and</strong> how sense of place changes in those<br />
spaces.<br />
The idea of beauty in l<strong>and</strong>scapes has changed during the history of civilization <strong>and</strong> aesthetics<br />
has been a topic of debate for philosophers, artists <strong>and</strong> architects since at least the time of<br />
Socrates (Thorn <strong>and</strong> Huang, 1991; Carlson, 2002). At present, aesthetics is being taken into<br />
consideration by environmental managers <strong>and</strong> policy makers (Canter, 1996). Symmetry <strong>and</strong><br />
other classical rules such as the ‘golden mean’ were the most important components of<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
J. Beldade & T. Panagopoulos 2010. Integrating esthetical <strong>and</strong> ecological values at the central Asia l<strong>and</strong>scape change<br />
341<br />
l<strong>and</strong>scape beauty in Greek <strong>and</strong> Roman gardens two thous<strong>and</strong> years ago (Botkin, 2001). The<br />
English garden, a much later development, represents the naturalistic (natural-like) idea of<br />
l<strong>and</strong>scape beauty, <strong>and</strong> in the early Renaissance the wilderness <strong>and</strong> the power of nature<br />
symbolized the power of God <strong>and</strong> sublime beauty.<br />
L<strong>and</strong>scape preferences studies usually adopt objective quantification or normative judgments<br />
methods (Burley, 2006, Panagopoulos, 2009). Unfortunately, such methodological approaches<br />
fail to account for people’s subjectivity, a core element that informs their spatial preferences <strong>and</strong><br />
evaluations of l<strong>and</strong>scapes, <strong>and</strong> have resulted in simplistic interpretations of human-place<br />
interactions (Ohta, 2001).<br />
According to Burke (1958) aesthetic of l<strong>and</strong>scapes can be distinguished as “Picturesque”<br />
(dominated from asymmetry, scenes, nostalgic); “Beautiful” (feeling that induce in us a sense of<br />
affection <strong>and</strong> tenderness or “Sublime” (that is a pleasure that arises, from pain or fear). A<br />
violent emotion can be caused from sublime l<strong>and</strong>scapes – especially with heightened spiritual<br />
feelings- <strong>and</strong> the elements of pathos <strong>and</strong> empathy exist in sublimity. During the second half of<br />
the 18th century the meaning of the word “sublime” shifted from rhetorical aesthetic to a<br />
psychological sense. The theory of “Peri Hipsous” had established the distinction between the<br />
elevated style beauty <strong>and</strong> the capacity to raise passion (Kaplan, 1987; Ramos & Panagopoulos,<br />
2007).<br />
Deserts can be valued aesthetically, if they are beautiful, sublime or picturesque. To identify<br />
whether a desert l<strong>and</strong>scape is beautiful or not, a set of variables is to be investigated. These<br />
variables might be physical or not, they can be recognized visually <strong>and</strong> non-visually using our<br />
senses. The aesthetic value of the desert l<strong>and</strong>scape can be recognized when the specialists <strong>and</strong><br />
the community recognize together, the attributes of the aesthetic variables (Lothian, 1999).<br />
Objective of the present study is to find how a person interprets desert l<strong>and</strong>scapes using<br />
phenomenological methodology.<br />
2. Methodology<br />
A questioner was used as research tool to measure l<strong>and</strong>scape preference. The participants were<br />
11 men <strong>and</strong> five women, three of whom participated in preliminary (test) interviews.<br />
Participants ranged between the ages of 19 <strong>and</strong> 65, possessed a high school <strong>and</strong> above education,<br />
originated from Portugal <strong>and</strong> related to l<strong>and</strong>scape planning <strong>and</strong> design. Thirty four color<br />
photographs of natural <strong>and</strong> designed desert l<strong>and</strong>scapes were selected from l<strong>and</strong>scape<br />
photographs. The interview style was semi-structured, beginning with basic open-ended<br />
questions were then made more specific.<br />
The questions were constructed following the principles described by Patton (1980): 1)<br />
Experience/Behavior (what a person does or has done); 2) Opinion/Value questions (aimed at<br />
underst<strong>and</strong>ing the subject's cognitive <strong>and</strong> interpretive processes); 3) Feelings (emotional<br />
responses to experiences <strong>and</strong> thoughts); 4) Aesthetic knowledge (factual information); <strong>and</strong> 5)<br />
Sensory Experience (what is seen, heard, touched, tasted, <strong>and</strong>/or smelled).<br />
The time frame of the questions may vary as necessary at the discretion of the interviewer.<br />
Typical questions for this study include the following: `What do you see on the photo' What<br />
would you feel if you were there' `Have you ever been to a place like this', What element of<br />
the l<strong>and</strong>scape attracted you Other sections of the questionnaire included psychophysical<br />
questions <strong>and</strong> other with sustainability perceptions <strong>and</strong> economic preferences.<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
J. Beldade & T. Panagopoulos 2010. Integrating esthetical <strong>and</strong> ecological values at the central Asia l<strong>and</strong>scape change<br />
342<br />
3. Results <strong>and</strong> Conclusions<br />
Regardless of their fragile ecosystems <strong>and</strong> stigma of l<strong>and</strong>scapes to avoid, decertified areas enjoy<br />
numerous human-based <strong>and</strong> natural attractions that are in some cases unique in natural world.<br />
Finding of this study well reveal that arid areas have a great number of potential capacities.<br />
Natural features like dunes, salt domes, erosion sculpts badl<strong>and</strong>s, salt lakes, fresh <strong>and</strong> saline<br />
water springs, <strong>and</strong> animals well- adapted to hard-to-live circumstances, are just few instances of<br />
wonderful natural phenomena one can see in an arid area. cactus <strong>and</strong> halophyte plants, from<br />
small bushes to 6-meter high shrubs, are other natural picturesque sceneries that only deserts<br />
can offer. Also, human-based attractions like historical monuments, type of architecture <strong>and</strong><br />
materials used for construction purposes, the ways desert-dwellers produce <strong>and</strong> subsist or deal<br />
with drought are other striking views that can attract tourists.<br />
Tabular data relating to the distribution of scenic ratings, <strong>and</strong> the indications of preference<br />
among observers, were generated using SPSS statistical software. After qualitative analysis, 7<br />
main categories of cognitive aspects of natural l<strong>and</strong>scapes were identified. Each l<strong>and</strong>scape<br />
evoked each participant's memories <strong>and</strong> background, <strong>and</strong> altered through these influences,<br />
imagination/association, impression, aesthetic judgments, <strong>and</strong> meaning <strong>and</strong> attractiveness of<br />
nature.<br />
All these played their roles in the evaluation of desert l<strong>and</strong>scapes (Figure 1). Each question<br />
caused that the participants remembered individual memories from their life <strong>and</strong> memories<br />
acquired through media or education. Participant’s background, hobbies <strong>and</strong> personal preference<br />
influenced the l<strong>and</strong>scape cognition. Time of day <strong>and</strong> season were also associated with questions<br />
related to first impressions about the l<strong>and</strong>scape. Imaginative activities <strong>and</strong> modifications<br />
concerning the l<strong>and</strong>scapes as well as the feeling of greatness of nature influence the answers.<br />
Also, because the participants were related to planning <strong>and</strong> design of l<strong>and</strong>scapes they judged the<br />
l<strong>and</strong>scape aesthetically depending on particular elements of the scene <strong>and</strong> they were able to<br />
underst<strong>and</strong> it as a photograph or as an actual scene.<br />
14<br />
Desert Topical Isl<strong>and</strong> Mountain Rural<br />
12<br />
10<br />
8<br />
6<br />
4<br />
2<br />
0<br />
Liberty<br />
Discomfort<br />
Solitude<br />
Admiration<br />
Fear<br />
Enthusiasm<br />
Surprise<br />
Adventurous<br />
Curious<br />
Boring<br />
Sadness<br />
Harmony<br />
Asymmetry<br />
Simplicity<br />
Equilibrium<br />
Power<br />
Vastness<br />
Spiritual<br />
Obscure<br />
Incomprehensible<br />
Happiness<br />
Figure 1. Feelings evoked by each participant when evaluating different types of l<strong>and</strong>scapes.<br />
L<strong>and</strong>scape cognition with photographs showed dynamic <strong>and</strong> complicated interactions of various<br />
mental aspects during the course of each session. Participants had sufficient time for various<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
J. Beldade & T. Panagopoulos 2010. Integrating esthetical <strong>and</strong> ecological values at the central Asia l<strong>and</strong>scape change<br />
343<br />
inner responses to arise naturally during his/her interaction with the l<strong>and</strong>scapes. However, most<br />
conventional quantitative studies of l<strong>and</strong>scape evaluation allow viewing times of only<br />
approximately few seconds per l<strong>and</strong>scape <strong>and</strong> with such a procedure researchers can deal only<br />
with participants' first impressions or fragmented memories (Ohta, 2001).<br />
Desert l<strong>and</strong>scapes show similar results of aesthetic value as a tropical isl<strong>and</strong> l<strong>and</strong>scape, while<br />
they provoke more fear, sense of power, vastness, sense of more spiritual, obscure, <strong>and</strong><br />
incomprehensible l<strong>and</strong>scape than any other compared. In all characteristics of a sublime<br />
l<strong>and</strong>scape, deserts <strong>and</strong> desert storms had the highest score. Also they had high scores in some<br />
attributes of the aesthetic variables for beautiful <strong>and</strong> picturesque l<strong>and</strong>scape like: harmony,<br />
balance <strong>and</strong> simplicity for beautiful, or asymmetry <strong>and</strong> pictorial value.<br />
A large majority of the individuals responded that whishes to buy a holiday house in desert<br />
l<strong>and</strong>scape offering till 200.000 euros, but 25% responded that is not wishing to have house in<br />
this kind of l<strong>and</strong>scape. 19% could spend more than 500 euros to travel in desert l<strong>and</strong>scape <strong>and</strong><br />
another 500 euros for subsistence.<br />
From the field survey it was found that majority of participants (56%) consider that the cost of<br />
reclamation practice at decertified areas should be paid from the residents of those areas or<br />
neighborhood areas because they provoked the desertification. Although, a 38% consider that<br />
desertification is a universal problem <strong>and</strong> is responsibility of everybody to avoid l<strong>and</strong>scape<br />
degradation.<br />
Only 4 out of 16 participants consider that the Mediterranean garden could be the desirable<br />
solution for tourism development in decertified l<strong>and</strong>scapes. Six prefer exotic species gardens<br />
(like oasis) 3 prefer Zen stile spaces (no vegetation) <strong>and</strong> two would rather prefer large loan areas<br />
with few trees. The large majority prefers to develop in those areas naturalistic l<strong>and</strong>scapes or<br />
with minimum human intervention, while none would like to see dominant tourism<br />
development projects to overtake in those l<strong>and</strong>scapes. A large number of participants (68%)<br />
requests that those areas to be preserved as of unique value as l<strong>and</strong>scapes <strong>and</strong> ecosystems.<br />
In Figure 2 can be seen the most preferable l<strong>and</strong>scape aesthetic elements that the participants<br />
consider as most attractive for decertified l<strong>and</strong>scapes. Human presence, luck of vegetation,<br />
geometric lines could be the less attractive elements in desert l<strong>and</strong>scapes, while water presence,<br />
color contrast <strong>and</strong> texture variability, wildlife, panoramic views <strong>and</strong> organic natural lines were<br />
the most attractive. Cultural elements, activities, dense vegetation like oasis, natural sounds <strong>and</strong><br />
silence could also be important to consider for tourism development sites <strong>and</strong> scenes.<br />
The current study contributes to this endeavor by exploring tourists’ perception of the desert<br />
l<strong>and</strong>scapes of central Asia (Aral Sea <strong>and</strong> Silk Road area); a l<strong>and</strong>scape that is suffering severe<br />
Aeolian erosion from dust storms <strong>and</strong> is undergoing various reclamation measures. Exploration<br />
of tourist’s l<strong>and</strong>scape meanings is informed by literature on the interpretation of space <strong>and</strong> place.<br />
Barnes & Duncan, (1992) makes a distinction between three dialectical structures of space,<br />
namely, spatial practices, representations of space <strong>and</strong> spaces of representation. Spatial practices<br />
manifest into social l<strong>and</strong>scapes over time. Representations of space are practices which organize<br />
<strong>and</strong> represent space, particularly through planning <strong>and</strong> design. Spaces of representation are<br />
spatialities ‘‘space as directly lived through its associated images <strong>and</strong> symbols” as understood<br />
by locals, tourists <strong>and</strong> tourism officials who compete for meanings, <strong>and</strong> uses.<br />
The main objective of this study was to create a better underst<strong>and</strong>ing of how a person interprets<br />
desert l<strong>and</strong>scapes, to examine public awareness <strong>and</strong> performance in the promotion of<br />
reclamation projects on decertified environment a to describe how to integrate l<strong>and</strong>scape<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
J. Beldade & T. Panagopoulos 2010. Integrating esthetical <strong>and</strong> ecological values at the central Asia l<strong>and</strong>scape change<br />
344<br />
aesthetics into l<strong>and</strong>scape planning of the Central Asia Silk Road area. From the preliminary<br />
results of the first group of participants (planners <strong>and</strong> designers) it was found that the public<br />
have limited awareness <strong>and</strong> a poor underst<strong>and</strong>ing about sustainable development in global scale.<br />
Even that it was considered that desertification is a universal problem <strong>and</strong> is responsibility of<br />
everybody to avoid l<strong>and</strong>scape degradation, preserve <strong>and</strong> promote the desert l<strong>and</strong>scapes <strong>and</strong><br />
ecosystems as of unique value. Also, it was found that ecological aesthetics pleasure could be<br />
derived from knowing on how part of the l<strong>and</strong>scape relate to the whole.<br />
100%<br />
90%<br />
80%<br />
70%<br />
60%<br />
50%<br />
40%<br />
30%<br />
20%<br />
10%<br />
0%<br />
Human presence<br />
Water presence<br />
No attraction Indifferent Attracts High attraction<br />
Colour contrast<br />
Texture variability<br />
Natural lines<br />
Geometric lines<br />
Cultural elements<br />
Wildlife<br />
Movement<br />
Panoramic view<br />
Light<br />
Shadows<br />
Contained space<br />
large space<br />
Natural sounds<br />
Silence<br />
Disperse vegetation<br />
Dense vegetation<br />
Accessibilities<br />
Planes<br />
High slopes<br />
Heat<br />
Cold<br />
Figure 2. L<strong>and</strong>scape aesthetic elements that may attract to a decertified l<strong>and</strong>scape.<br />
Opinion of the authors is that in the wake of global climate change, society has to address the<br />
dynamic interactions between an increasingly changing environment <strong>and</strong> its politically <strong>and</strong><br />
culturally contested spatial development in decertified l<strong>and</strong>scapes.<br />
Acknowledgements<br />
This work was financed from the European Union for the “Long Term Ecological Research<br />
Program for Monitoring Aeolian Soil Erosion in Central Asia” (CALTER), FP6-2003-INCO-<br />
Russia+NIS (project Nº 516721). The authors also want to gratefully acknowledge the Centro<br />
de Investigação sobre Espaço e Organizações (CIEO) for having provided the conditions to<br />
publish this work.<br />
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<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
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evolutionary perspective. Environment <strong>and</strong> Behaviour, 19:3-32.<br />
Kemal, S., Gaskell, I., 1993. L<strong>and</strong>scape, Natural Beauty <strong>and</strong> the Arts. Cambridge University<br />
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Lothian, A.., 1999. L<strong>and</strong>scape <strong>and</strong> the philosophy of aesthetics: is l<strong>and</strong>scape quality inherent in<br />
the l<strong>and</strong>scape or in the eye of the beholder L<strong>and</strong>scape Urban Planning, 44, 177-198.<br />
Ohta, H., 2001. A phenomenological approach to natural l<strong>and</strong>scape cognition. Journal of<br />
Environmental Psychology, 21: 387-403.<br />
Panagopoulos T., 2009. Linking forestry, sustainability <strong>and</strong> aesthetics. Ecological Economics,<br />
Vol. 68: 2485-2489.<br />
Patton, M. Q., 1980. Qualitative Evaluation Methods. SAGE Publications, Beverly Hills, U.S.A.<br />
Ramos, B. & Panagopoulos, T., 2007. Integrating aesthetic <strong>and</strong> sustainable principles in stream<br />
reclamation projects. WSEAS Transactions on Environment <strong>and</strong> Development, 3, 189-195.<br />
Thorne, J.F. & Huang, C.S., 1991. Toward a l<strong>and</strong>scape ecological aesthetic: methodologies for<br />
designers <strong>and</strong> planners. L<strong>and</strong>scape <strong>and</strong> Urban Planning 21, 61-79.<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
S.M. Carvalho & A.R. de Freitas 2010. The impact of legislation on the dynamics of l<strong>and</strong> use the River Basin Cará-Cará<br />
346<br />
The impact of legislation on the dynamics of l<strong>and</strong> use the River Basin<br />
Cará-Cará, Ponta Grossa-PR/Brazil, in period from 1980 to 2007<br />
Silvia Méri Carvalho 1* & Andreza Rocha de Freitas 2<br />
1 Universidade Estadual de Ponta Grossa – UEPG, Ponta Grossa, Paraná, Brazil<br />
2 Universidade Estadual do Centro-Oeste – UNICENTRO, Irati, Paraná, Brazil<br />
Abstract<br />
The human ownership of area causes transformations that can be accompanied <strong>and</strong> identified by<br />
means of l<strong>and</strong> use, delineation of areas of environmental conflicts <strong>and</strong> categories of hemeroby.<br />
The objective of this work is examine the dynamics of occupation of the l<strong>and</strong> use in Cará-Cará<br />
hydrographic basin located in municipal district of Ponta Grossa, in Parana State – Brazil,<br />
between the years 1980 <strong>and</strong> 2007, <strong>and</strong> the relation of laws in force with the l<strong>and</strong> use. It was<br />
necessary to search <strong>and</strong> draw up maps of relevant legislation, of slope <strong>and</strong> l<strong>and</strong> use that were<br />
overlay until they reach to maps synthesis of conflicts l<strong>and</strong> use. As for l<strong>and</strong> use, the urban class<br />
increased (121.83%) due to the increase in population. Areas that are in conflict regarding the<br />
use represent 21.05%. Classes of hemeroby showed that the l<strong>and</strong>scapes more artificial than<br />
natural occupy 41.94%. It was concluded that the changes in Cará-Cará hydrographic basin<br />
were motivated by guidelines of the Municipal Master Plans.<br />
Keywords: Hydrographic basin, Environmental conflicts, L<strong>and</strong> use, Hemeroby<br />
1. Introduction<br />
The changes caused by human activities in space can be monitored <strong>and</strong> verified through a<br />
survey of l<strong>and</strong> use, the delimitation of areas of environmental conflicts <strong>and</strong> the identification of<br />
areas that suffered most changes in their natural characteristics.<br />
When dealing with topics <strong>and</strong> themes used in environmental planning, Santos (2004, p. 97)<br />
states that l<strong>and</strong> use is a basic theme, it "portrays the human activities that can create pressure on<br />
the natural elements" which describes "not only the current situation, but recent changes <strong>and</strong><br />
history of occupation of the study area".<br />
According to Clawson & Stewart (1965), l<strong>and</strong> use refers to human activity on l<strong>and</strong>, which is<br />
directly connected to earth. With the same thought Campbell (1997) states that l<strong>and</strong> use are the<br />
human activities on l<strong>and</strong> held as needed, <strong>and</strong> the results of these activities are physical changes<br />
that transform the environment.<br />
There is need for strategies to maintain balance <strong>and</strong> dynamics of natural ecosystems present, for<br />
example in hydrographic basin. These strategies can be implemented <strong>and</strong> controlled by<br />
legislation, such as the Municipal Master Plan <strong>and</strong> the <strong>Forest</strong> Code to address the Permanent<br />
Preservation Areas. The occupation of these areas with other uses generates so-called<br />
environmental conflicts.<br />
According to Rocha (1997) environmental conflicts in l<strong>and</strong> use occur when agricultural<br />
* Corresponding author.<br />
Email address: silviameri@brturbo.com.br<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
S.M. Carvalho & A.R. de Freitas 2010. The impact of legislation on the dynamics of l<strong>and</strong> use the River Basin Cará-Cará<br />
347<br />
activities are practiced in inappropriate areas, <strong>and</strong> these activities are most responsible for the<br />
erosion, siltation of rivers, floods <strong>and</strong> droughts.<br />
The effects of the use <strong>and</strong> occupation of areas protected by law may cause the deterioration of<br />
the environment, emerging, so-called environmental conflicts in l<strong>and</strong> use (FERNANDES NETO<br />
& ROBAIANA, 2005).<br />
To study the effects caused by human action on the various biological systems, according to<br />
Dueñas (2004), it is necessary to develop a systematic method, comparative <strong>and</strong> qualitative,<br />
which permits the effect of human disturbance on the different elements of ecosystems.<br />
Arise, thus concepts that serve as the basis for monitoring the developments <strong>and</strong> changes in l<strong>and</strong><br />
use caused. The concept of hemeroby is one. This term was suggested by Jalas (1953) which<br />
determines the degree of alteration of l<strong>and</strong>scapes, in other words, the degree of naturalness <strong>and</strong><br />
artificiality of the medium, considering the following classification: Ahemerobe - natural<br />
l<strong>and</strong>scapes or small human interference, such as rainforest <strong>and</strong> gallery forest; Oligohemerobe -<br />
l<strong>and</strong>scapes more natural than artificial, like dirty fields used for livestock; Mesohemerobe -<br />
l<strong>and</strong>scapes more artificial than natural, such as reforestation, <strong>and</strong> Euhemerobe - artificial<br />
l<strong>and</strong>scapes, such as cultivated areas <strong>and</strong> urban area.<br />
The anthropogenic impact can be evaluated through studies that show where are the areas most<br />
degraded <strong>and</strong> modified, primarily through the analysis <strong>and</strong> temporal-spatial representation of<br />
l<strong>and</strong> use.<br />
Studies of this nature are part of environmental planning because they provide information<br />
needed to develop strategies <strong>and</strong> actions to mitigate the impacts caused by human interference.<br />
It is a study that could help in the delimitation of areas to be occupied or eventually recovered.<br />
Therefore, the general aim of this study is to analyze the impact of the legislation in force in the<br />
dynamics of occupation of l<strong>and</strong> use in the period 1980 to 2007. Thus, it was necessary to draw<br />
up maps of l<strong>and</strong> use, raise the relevant legislation for the period studied <strong>and</strong> elaborate maps of<br />
environmental conflicts in l<strong>and</strong> use.<br />
2. Methodology<br />
The input, storage, processing <strong>and</strong> output data was performed using the software SPRING,<br />
version 4.3.3, developed by the National Institute for Space Research/Division of Image<br />
Processing (INPE / DPI, 1999).<br />
Based on the topographical maps, in digital media, prepared by the Directorate of Geographic<br />
Services (DSG) Army (1980), scale 1:50,000, sheet SG.22-XC-II/2 (Ponta Grossa), data were<br />
taken drainage, contour, perimeter of the basin, roads <strong>and</strong> highways.<br />
After scanning the drainage network buffers were created to set the Permanent Preservation<br />
Areas (PPAs) along the rivers <strong>and</strong> springs, as provided by the <strong>Forest</strong>ry Code (BRASIL, 1965).<br />
For the preparation of maps of l<strong>and</strong> use was used aerial photography from 1980 (Institute of<br />
L<strong>and</strong> <strong>and</strong> Cartography of Parana - ITC) in the scale of 1:25,000, <strong>and</strong> the image CBERS2, March<br />
2007. The composition of b<strong>and</strong>s adopted in the present work was the R (3) G (4) B (2). The<br />
method adopted for the classification of the images was the Supervised Classification by<br />
algorithm MaxVer.<br />
Subclasses themes of l<strong>and</strong> use were adapted from the Technical Manual of L<strong>and</strong> Use from the<br />
Brazilian Institute of Geography <strong>and</strong> Statistics - IBGE (IBGE, 2006). Subclasses were defined<br />
as follows: urbanized area, cultivation (including temporary <strong>and</strong> permanent crops), forest,<br />
grassl<strong>and</strong> <strong>and</strong> water body. In addition to the subclasses suggested was adopted by the IBGE<br />
class industrial area <strong>and</strong> reforestation.<br />
After completion of all maps was used superposition method (Santos, 2004) with the binary<br />
crossing until reach the intermediate maps that were in turn overlapped.<br />
To identify the degree of naturalness/artificiality in the Cará-Cará basin used the scenarios<br />
focusing on l<strong>and</strong> use from 1980 to 2007.<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
S.M. Carvalho & A.R. de Freitas 2010. The impact of legislation on the dynamics of l<strong>and</strong> use the River Basin Cará-Cará<br />
348<br />
After preparation of scenarios of l<strong>and</strong> use adopted the concept <strong>and</strong> classification of hemerobia<br />
of Jalas (1953) in the preparation of letters of artificiality in the Cará-Cará basin. The Categories<br />
adopted are: ahemerobe, oligohemerobe, mesohemerobe <strong>and</strong> euhemerobe.<br />
3. Result<br />
Two scenarios l<strong>and</strong> use were constructed for Cará-Cará basin for the years 1980 <strong>and</strong> 2007<br />
(Figure 1), where they were identified in the first scenario five classes of l<strong>and</strong> use <strong>and</strong> seven<br />
classes in the second (Table 1).<br />
Figure 1. Maps of l<strong>and</strong> use of Cará-Cará Hydrographic Basin of 1980 <strong>and</strong> 2007<br />
Table 1. Quantification of l<strong>and</strong> use classes<br />
Classes<br />
1980 2007<br />
Area (ha) % Area (ha) %<br />
Industrial area - - 314.59 4.30<br />
Urbanized area 343.72 4.70 762.48 10.42<br />
Campestral 3,802.30 51.96 3,069.06 41.94<br />
Industrial area<br />
Continental water - - 2.64 0.04<br />
body<br />
Cultivation 2,126.42 29.06 2,423.79 33.12<br />
<strong>Forest</strong>ry 363.42 4.97 274.36 3.75<br />
Reforestation 681.66 9.31 470.60 6.43<br />
Total 7,317.52 100 7,317.52 100<br />
To map the areas of environmental conflicts, we used the proposal to Beltrame (1994)<br />
represented by the classes corresponding use <strong>and</strong> areas over-used <strong>and</strong> under-utilized. In this<br />
study, the corresponding use areas are being used as the relevant legislation. The over-used<br />
areas are those where the activities are being carried out in permanent preservation areas or not<br />
provided for in the Zoning Plan. Underutilized areas in the Cará-Cará Hydrographic basin are<br />
represented by areas for urbanization <strong>and</strong> industry, not yet occupied by these activities (Figure<br />
2) (Table 2).<br />
Table 2. Environmental conflicts in the Cará-Cará hydrographic basin<br />
Classes<br />
1980 2007<br />
Area (ha) % Area (ha) %<br />
Over-used 409.62 34.26 153.39 9.96<br />
Underused 786.15 65.74 1,387.06 90.04<br />
Total 1,195.77 100 1,540.45 100<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
S.M. Carvalho & A.R. de Freitas 2010. The impact of legislation on the dynamics of l<strong>and</strong> use the River Basin Cará-Cará<br />
349<br />
Figure 2. Maps of environmental conflicts of Cará-Cará Hydrographic Basin of 1980 <strong>and</strong> 2007.<br />
As a result of the maps of artificiality of the medium we obtained two letters of hemerobia for<br />
Cará-Cará Hydrographic basin dated of 1980 <strong>and</strong> 2007 (Figure 3), which were analyzed<br />
according to the degree of anthropogenic interference existing.<br />
Figure 3. Maps of hemerobia of Cará-Cará Hydrographic Basin of 1980 <strong>and</strong> 2007.<br />
Were identified <strong>and</strong> mapped four classes of hemerobia: ahemerobe, oligohemerobe,<br />
mesohemerobe <strong>and</strong> euhemerobe (Table 3).<br />
4. Discussion<br />
Table 3. Quantification of hemerobe classes of Cará-Cará Hydrographic Basin<br />
Classes<br />
1980 2007<br />
Area (ha) % Area (ha) %<br />
Ahemerobe 363.42 4.97 274.36 3.75<br />
Oligohemerobe 3,802.30 51.96 3,069.06 41.94<br />
Mesohemerobe 2,808.08 38.37 2,897.03 39.59<br />
Euhemerobe 343.72 4.70 1,077.07 14.72<br />
Total 7,315.52 100 7,315.52 100<br />
Between the years 1980 <strong>and</strong> 2007, three classes of l<strong>and</strong> use had exp<strong>and</strong>ed, namely: industrial<br />
area, urbanized area <strong>and</strong> cultivation. In 1980 the industrial district was already defined in the<br />
Cará-Cará basin, however there were no industries located. The area dedicated to industrial<br />
activities at this time was occupied by reforestation (Pinus spp.) raw material for wood<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
S.M. Carvalho & A.R. de Freitas 2010. The impact of legislation on the dynamics of l<strong>and</strong> use the River Basin Cará-Cará<br />
350<br />
industries located in the vicinity.<br />
The urbanized area, was the class with the biggest increase during the study period (121.83%)<br />
<strong>and</strong> is located in the northwest portion of the Cará-Cará basin. These areas were employed due<br />
the implementation of subdivisions <strong>and</strong> areas intended for urban expansion planned in the city<br />
plan.<br />
The cultivation class, represents areas occupied by temporary <strong>and</strong> perennial crops, mainly<br />
soybean planting, followed by corn <strong>and</strong> wheat. These areas are located mainly in central <strong>and</strong><br />
have advanced to the northeast of the basin, using areas that were once occupied by the field <strong>and</strong><br />
forests. For the period studied there was an increase of 13.98% in total area.<br />
The areas occupied by native vegetation, represented by the forest <strong>and</strong> grassl<strong>and</strong> were the most<br />
had a reduction in area, <strong>and</strong> the forest showed a decrease of 24.51% for the period analyzed, due<br />
to the expansion of urban activities, industry <strong>and</strong> farming . The forest areas are distributed on<br />
the banks of some rivers, especially in the southern portion near the mouth of the Cará-Cará<br />
River <strong>and</strong> north in the area belonging to the 13th BIB, where there was the recomposition of<br />
forest <strong>and</strong> the area is used in training the army. The campestral class was affected by the<br />
occupation of other activities, decreasing by 19.28% the area occupied between 1980 <strong>and</strong> 2007.<br />
The reforestation class, representing the areas reforested with eucalyptus (Eucalyptus spp) <strong>and</strong><br />
pine (Pinus spp), was unstable between the years 1980 <strong>and</strong> 2007. This occurred because in the<br />
80, industrial output surpasses agriculture, <strong>and</strong> this transition the so-called traditional industries<br />
(textiles, wood, food, furniture, etc..) lose relative importance in the economy of the state of<br />
Parana. The wood <strong>and</strong> textile sectors were the most reduced their participation in the GDP of<br />
the state (Migliorini, 2006).<br />
As can be observed during the study period, the class with the biggest increase was the<br />
urbanized area (121.83%) due to population increases <strong>and</strong>, consequently, the expansion of the<br />
town of Ponta Grossa, in the east of the Cará-Cará Hydrographic Basin. The increased area<br />
occupied by urban activities took place, not only by increasing the population of the city, but<br />
also by urban voids used for speculation.<br />
In relation to environmental conflicts, over-used areas characterized by the illegal occupation in<br />
areas that should be protected or not built that were more varied. Between the years 1980 <strong>and</strong><br />
2001 the variation was 7.99% this is due to the establishment of areas of Funds Master Plan for<br />
the Vale of Ponta Grossa that were being occupied by urban <strong>and</strong> agricultural activities.<br />
Areas of environmental conflict deemed over-use continues to increase, so even if incipient, on<br />
permanent preservation areas <strong>and</strong> not building l<strong>and</strong> in the central portion of the basin.<br />
The other conflicting class is regarded as underutilized, where the areas that should be being<br />
used by certain activities have not yet been occupied. In the period studied the class that this<br />
was more varied <strong>and</strong> increased (76.44%) due to changes in local laws, especially in residential<br />
zoning <strong>and</strong> industrial <strong>and</strong> extinction of Special L<strong>and</strong>scape Areas.<br />
The maps of environmental conflicts assist in identifying areas where there is greater human<br />
interference in Cará-Cará Hydrographic Basin, making it more natural <strong>and</strong> less artificial. To<br />
facilitate the analysis of the anthropogenic impact were prepared letters of hemerobia.<br />
The ahemerobe class corresponds to remnants of Araucaria forests in different successional<br />
stages. Ahemerobe areas are occupied by urban activities, industry <strong>and</strong> culture, representing a<br />
decrease of 24.51% of the basin area, being more significant in the northern (13 º BIB) <strong>and</strong> on<br />
the banks of rivers in the south.<br />
The oligohemerobe class, represented by dirty fields used for grazing cattle, also showed<br />
decreased area occupied (19.28%) due to the advancement of industrial, urban <strong>and</strong> agricultural<br />
l<strong>and</strong>s.<br />
Unlike previous classes, the classes mesohemeorbe <strong>and</strong> euhemerobe had exp<strong>and</strong>ed between<br />
1980 <strong>and</strong> 2007. The mesohemerobe class is characterized largely by corn, wheat <strong>and</strong> soybeans<br />
at EMBRAPA <strong>and</strong> reforestation of pine (Pinus spp) <strong>and</strong> eucalyptus (Eucalyptus spp) in IAPAR.<br />
It may be noted that this class has exp<strong>and</strong>ed only 3.17%.<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
S.M. Carvalho & A.R. de Freitas 2010. The impact of legislation on the dynamics of l<strong>and</strong> use the River Basin Cará-Cará<br />
351<br />
The euhemerobe class represents the areas more artificial of Cará-Cará Hydrographic Basin, or<br />
those occupied by industrial <strong>and</strong> urban activities. The class has advanced over 200% compared<br />
to 1980.<br />
The changes in the use of l<strong>and</strong>, which formed the basis for determining the hemerobe classes<br />
were given due to changes in territorial planning of the city of Ponta Grossa.<br />
References<br />
Beltrame, Â. V. Diagnóstico do meio físico de Bacias Hidrográficas: modelo e aplicação.<br />
Florianópolis: Ed. da UFSC, 1994.<br />
Brasil, Lei n.º 4.771, de 15 de setembro de 1965. Institui o Código Florestal.<br />
Campbell, J. B. L<strong>and</strong> Use <strong>and</strong> Cover Inventory. In: Manual of Photographic Interpretation. 2a<br />
ed. USA: ASPRS, 1997. 335 a 360p.<br />
Clawson, M.; STEWART, S. I. L<strong>and</strong> use information - A critical survey of us statistics<br />
including possibilites for greater uniformity. Baltimore, Md: The John Hopkins Press for<br />
Resources for the Future, Inc, 1965.<br />
Dsg/Codepar. Folha de Ponta Grossa. Rio de Janeiro: [s. n.], 1980. 1 mapa: SG.22-X-C-II-2.<br />
Escala 1:50.000; Lat. 25º 00’ – 25º 15’; Long. 50º 00’ – 50º 15’. Região Sul do Brasil.<br />
Dueñas, W. A. M. Estudio integrado del grado de antropización (INRA) a escala del paisaje:<br />
propuesta metodológica y evaluación. IASCP, Colômbia, 2004.Disponível em:<br />
Consultado em 28/06/2007.<br />
Fern<strong>and</strong>es Neto, S.; Robaina, L. E. Conflito de Uso da Terra – Oeste do RS. In: SIMPÓSIO<br />
BRASILEIRO DE GEOGRAFIA FÍSICA APLICADA, 11, 2005, São Paulo. Anais…<br />
São Paulo: USP, 2005. p. 2728-2741.<br />
IBGE. Instituto Brasileiro de Geografia e Estatística. Manual Técnico de Uso da Terra. Série<br />
Manuais Técnicos em Geociências, Rio de Janeiro, n.º 7, 2 ed., 2006.<br />
INPE-DPI. SPRING, Manual do usuário, São José dos Campos, 1999.<br />
(http://www.inpe.br/spring).<br />
Jalas, J. Hemerokorit ja hemerobit.- Luonnon Tutkija, 1953, 57, p. 12-16.<br />
Migliorini, S. M. S. Indústria paranaense: formação, transformação econômica a partir da<br />
década de 1960 e distribuição espacial da indústria no início do século XXI. Revista<br />
Eletrônica Geografar, Curitiba, v.1, n.1, p. 62-80, jul./dez. 2006<br />
Rocha, J. S. M. Manual de Projetos Ambientais. Imprensa Universitária, Santa Maria, 1997.<br />
Santos, R. F. Planejamento Ambiental: teoria e prática. São Paulo: Oficina de Textos, 2004.<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
R.A. Diaz-Varela et al. 2010. Quantitative assessment of temporal dynamics in altitudinal-driven ecotones<br />
352<br />
Quantitative assessment of temporal dynamics in altitudinal-driven<br />
ecotones in a section of Valtellina Italian Alps<br />
Ramón Alberto Diaz-Varela 1* , Silvia Calvo-Iglesias 2 , Michele Meroni 3 & Roberto<br />
Colombo 3<br />
1 University of Santiago de Compostela, Spain<br />
2 University of Vigo, Spain<br />
3 University of Milano-Biccoca, Italy<br />
Abstract<br />
Mountain ecotones are sensitive to climate <strong>and</strong> global change <strong>and</strong> their historical dynamics can<br />
be used as a record <strong>and</strong> indicator of such events. Nevertheless there are relatively few studies<br />
aiming at the quantification of their dynamics in a spatial explicit way at a detailed scale. In this<br />
work we quantified the altitudinal shifts <strong>and</strong> spatial pattern of mountain ecotones. We applied a<br />
novel procedure to delineate the current <strong>and</strong> former location of three characteristic mountain<br />
ecotones, formalised as forest, tree <strong>and</strong> tundra lines in a section of Valtellina (Italian Alps). We<br />
estimated the medians of overall decadal altitude increments in 25 m for forest line, 13 m for<br />
tree line <strong>and</strong> 11 m for tundra line. The method also allowed us to differentiate between ecotone<br />
advance <strong>and</strong> retreat events. We also conducted an analysis of vegetation patches morphology at<br />
the ecotone locations, which showed significant implications in their dynamics.<br />
Keywords: Mountain ecotones, Alps, <strong>Global</strong> change, Spatially explicit model, Digital elevation<br />
model<br />
1. Introduction<br />
Mountain <strong>and</strong> boreal ecosystems are among the environments most susceptible to climate <strong>and</strong><br />
l<strong>and</strong> use changes (Theurillat <strong>and</strong> Guisan 2001; Didier 2001). Both phenomena have the general<br />
effect of raising of altitude driven ecotones (Didier 2001; Körner 1998; 1999). Despite the<br />
considerable number of works dealing with the definition <strong>and</strong> environmental implications of the<br />
upper limits of mountain vegetation, there are few works that focus on its spatially explicit<br />
delineation. Besides, the literature offers many examples of woodl<strong>and</strong> upper limits while less<br />
attention has been paid to alpine treeless vegetation <strong>and</strong> its limits with non-vegetated rocky <strong>and</strong><br />
nival habitats.<br />
The main aim of this paper is to analyse the spatial <strong>and</strong> temporal dynamics of forest line, tree<br />
line <strong>and</strong> tundra line ecotones in alpine areas <strong>and</strong> to evaluate their fluctuations in the context of<br />
climatic <strong>and</strong> l<strong>and</strong> use change.<br />
We tested the method in the Val Masino catchment in the Central Alps (province of Sondrio,<br />
Lombardy region, Italy). The study area comprises two sub-catchments (Valle dei Bagni <strong>and</strong><br />
Val di Mello) of the Masino creek basin, comprising 83.4 km 2 of surface <strong>and</strong> with a range of<br />
altitudes from 909 to 3432 m a.s.l. (Fig. 1). Vegetation types <strong>and</strong> patterns are closely related to<br />
altitudinal gradients. The uppermost sectors are occupied by glaciers, bare or sparse vegetated<br />
surfaces on rocky habitats such as screes, rocky slopes or cliffs. Below this belt different kinds<br />
* Corresponding author. Tel.: +34 982 285 900 ext. 22482 - Fax: +34 982 285 985<br />
Email address: ramon.diaz@usc.es<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
R.A. Diaz-Varela et al. 2010. Quantitative assessment of temporal dynamics in altitudinal-driven ecotones<br />
353<br />
of herbaceous formations, dwarf scrubs <strong>and</strong> thickets take place. Woodl<strong>and</strong>s with variable<br />
density of scattered <strong>and</strong> often stunted individuals of pine (Pinus sylvestris, P. mugo), spruce<br />
(Picea abies) <strong>and</strong> larch (Larix decidua) occur between this treeless area <strong>and</strong> dense forest<br />
formations. These species also dominate the high altitude forests, while the lower parts are<br />
covered by different tree formations dominated by deciduous broadleaved species. Hay<br />
meadows are the most common agricultural l<strong>and</strong>, occupying only a small surface at valley<br />
bottoms, while arable l<strong>and</strong> is virtually absent in the area.<br />
2. Methodology<br />
We started with the stereoscopic analysis <strong>and</strong> visual interpretation of aerial photos from 1954<br />
<strong>and</strong> 2003 to generate a raster map with the distribution of close forest, scattered trees <strong>and</strong> alpine<br />
tundra for each of the dates. We then used a spatial overlay technique to analyse the temporal<br />
change of the three classes. The overlay outputs were arranged in a 44 contingency matrix<br />
using as input the 1954 (columns) <strong>and</strong> 2003 (rows) raster maps, <strong>and</strong> considering 4 classes,<br />
namely: “Dense forest”, “Scattered trees”, “Tundra” <strong>and</strong> “Other”. Overall Kappa <strong>and</strong> Kappa<br />
indices for each l<strong>and</strong> cover class (Cohen 1960) were used as estimators of the rate of change, as<br />
suggested in other studies (Calvo-Iglesias et al. 2006).<br />
We then applied an algorithm developed by Diaz Varela et al. (2010) to identify the uppermost<br />
pixel of targeted ecotones for each of these maps. The method used to delineate forest line, tree<br />
line <strong>and</strong> tundra line ecotones follows the general definition of tree line by Körner (1999) <strong>and</strong><br />
aims at performing the automatic discrimination of elements (outpost) with an uppermost<br />
extreme position on a certain slope. Outposts corresponded to the uppermost pixels of each of<br />
the three l<strong>and</strong> cover classes <strong>and</strong> they were used to represent <strong>and</strong> map the ecotones. That is, for<br />
the l<strong>and</strong> cover class “forest”, outposts define the forest line; the “dense forest” plus “scattered<br />
trees” class outposts define the tree line <strong>and</strong> the “tundra” class outposts define the tundra line.<br />
An outpost is herein defined according to this example regarding trees: an operator in the field<br />
will define a tree as belonging to the tree line if he encounters no other tree while walking<br />
upward in the direction of maximum slope for as long as possible (i.e. until a summit is reached).<br />
Therefore, the trajectory from a given point will move upward following a maximum slope path<br />
until it encounters another element of the same class or finishes at a summit large enough to<br />
define a slope or series of slopes with similar exposure at a certain scale (cf. fig 2). Extending<br />
this concept from single trees to a the maps of forests, trees <strong>and</strong> tundra, the algorithm was<br />
implemented in ITT-IDLTM V. 6.3 to label the cells of a binary l<strong>and</strong> cover map (in this case<br />
tree – no tree) as belonging to the ecotone or not (see Diaz-Varela et al. 2010 for a more<br />
thorough description of the method).<br />
The temporal evolution of the different ecotones was analysed by extending the algorithm to a<br />
diachronic map. For the identification of ecotone altitude advances we ran upward flow paths<br />
from any upslope outpost pixel for 1954 until a 2003 upslope outpost pixel or a summit was<br />
reached. Altitude retreats were computed with the same scheme but using 2003 <strong>and</strong> 1954<br />
ecotone pixels as starting <strong>and</strong> end points, respectively. Therefore, where the ecotone location in<br />
1954 appeared in a higher position than in 2003 along a given maximum slope line, it was<br />
possible to trace <strong>and</strong> quantify the retreat or negative altitudinal shift.<br />
To characterise morphologically the spatial pattern of the outposts for the three ecotones in the<br />
period of reference <strong>and</strong> to assess changes in vegetation dispersion strategies, we used the<br />
GUIDOS software (Graphical User Interface for the Description of image Objects <strong>and</strong> their<br />
Shapes). This software was recently developed for morphological spatial pattern analysis<br />
(MSPA) of forest functional connectivity in the context of biodiversity studies (Vogt et al. 2008,<br />
Vogt et al., 2009). The output of the MSPA is a raster layer where patch cells are assigned to<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
R.A. Diaz-Varela et al. 2010. Quantitative assessment of temporal dynamics in altitudinal-driven ecotones<br />
354<br />
seven morphological spatial pattern classes: edge, core, perforated, islets, bridge, loop <strong>and</strong><br />
branch. We ran the software using the default parameters for the computation of MSPA,<br />
considering an edge width of 20 m.<br />
3. Results<br />
For the period analysed, tundra remained mostly stable while forest <strong>and</strong> scattered tree classes<br />
experienced more intense dynamics, as indicated by kappa values of Table 1. From the<br />
contingency matrix shown in this table, we observed that tundra also experienced some<br />
expansion colonising rocky areas <strong>and</strong> bare soils while in other areas it was colonised by<br />
scattered trees. The increase of dense forest occurred at the expenses of areas occupied by<br />
scattered trees in 1954.<br />
The totals <strong>and</strong> altitudinal distribution of the outpost is shown in Fig. 3. The forest line was<br />
located between 1350 <strong>and</strong> 1950 m, rarely reaching more than 2000 m. The tree line showed a<br />
slightly elevated position (around 100-150 m higher) on the slopes, while the tundra line lay<br />
clearly much higher, with maxima up to 2600 m.<br />
Figure 4 shows the altitude distribution, along with the horizontal <strong>and</strong> vertical increments of<br />
outpost altitudinal shifts, distinguishing positive (advance) <strong>and</strong> negative (retreats) altitude<br />
increments. A total of 225, 352 <strong>and</strong> 645 paths showing positive altitudinal shifts were recorded<br />
for forest line, tree line <strong>and</strong> tundra line respectively, with median values of 26, 17 <strong>and</strong> 15 m of<br />
decadal altitude increment respectively. Retreats were far less common than advances for the<br />
three ecotones under analysis. Putting together advances <strong>and</strong> retreats gives an overall view of<br />
the altitudinal shifts: the forest, tree <strong>and</strong> tundra lines showed a net advance, with medians of 25,<br />
13 <strong>and</strong> 11 m of altitude shifts respectively. Altitude plays a major role in the occurrence <strong>and</strong><br />
magnitude of the shifts. Advances of forest line took place mainly from 1300 to 1700 m. The<br />
altitude advance magnitude shows a clear trend to decrease with the rise in altitude. Thus, shifts<br />
that started from lower positions attained the most important advances, up to 600 m, while those<br />
starting near the top of the altitudinal limit for the class reached much lower values (e.g. less<br />
than 20 m on average in the interval 1900-2000). This tendency is less clear in the case of tree<br />
line, which showed more regular behaviour along its altitudinal range <strong>and</strong> altitudinal shifts<br />
which were generally lower than 200-300 m. The tundra line advance also shows the same trend<br />
to decrease its magnitude proportional to the altitude gradient, starting from large shifts (400-<br />
800 m) occurring at the lower locations (1600-1900 m) to small ones (less than 50 m) near its<br />
altitudinal limit (2700-2800 m). Retreat paths showed less clear patterns in terms of variation of<br />
magnitude along the altitudinal gradient.<br />
Similarly to l<strong>and</strong> cover dynamics, the spatial pattern of tundra experienced little variation (cf.<br />
Fig. 5, being characterised by a high amount of core <strong>and</strong> little proportion of edge <strong>and</strong> other<br />
morphological classes, though there is some increase of branches <strong>and</strong> islets reflecting the<br />
expansion <strong>and</strong> colonisation of new areas. Scattered trees <strong>and</strong> forest classes experienced an<br />
increase in core <strong>and</strong> decrease in edge <strong>and</strong> branches, as a result of their expansion they became<br />
more compact.<br />
4. Discussion<br />
The application of the method on multi-date l<strong>and</strong> cover datasets (1954 <strong>and</strong> 2003) in a study<br />
area of the Southern Alps, allowed the monitoring of spatiotemporal dynamics of forest,<br />
woodl<strong>and</strong> <strong>and</strong> tundra formations <strong>and</strong> pointed out significant upward shifts of their ecotones,<br />
formalised as forest, tree <strong>and</strong> tundra lines.<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
R.A. Diaz-Varela et al. 2010. Quantitative assessment of temporal dynamics in altitudinal-driven ecotones<br />
355<br />
Analysis of l<strong>and</strong> cover dynamics by spatial overlay of multi-temporal l<strong>and</strong> cover maps showed<br />
that forest <strong>and</strong> scattered tree formations tend to exp<strong>and</strong> their areas, while tundra was more stable<br />
in time. However, the application of analyses addressing ecotone dynamics more specifically<br />
proved that the uppermost location of these formations underwent significant changes <strong>and</strong><br />
showed a general trend to advance in altitude.<br />
Ecotone dynamics typically correspond to a balance between colonization <strong>and</strong> extinctions,<br />
which in the case of mountain altitude-driven ecotones can be formalised as advances or retreats<br />
on the slopes. Therefore, to identify unambiguously if the changes correspond to an effective<br />
advance or retreat in altitude, we performed a directional analysis of the altitudinal shifts of<br />
extreme outposts along the maximum slope path. Results showed that most of the ecotone<br />
dynamics corresponded to advances or overpasses of outposts. <strong>Forest</strong> line retreats were virtually<br />
absent, corresponding at almost all outpost changes to advances in altitude. Tree <strong>and</strong> tundra<br />
lines showed a certain amount of retreats concentrated at the top of their current altitudinal<br />
distribution, but had a much higher rate of advance than retreat. The median values for the forest,<br />
tree <strong>and</strong> tundra line advances corresponded to decadal upward shifts of 26, 17 <strong>and</strong> 15 m<br />
respectively. Absolute altitudinal shift (considering together advances as positive values <strong>and</strong><br />
retreats as negatives in the same frequency distribution for each ecotone) had similar median<br />
values of 25, 13 <strong>and</strong> 11 m respectively.<br />
Spatial pattern analysis at the ecotone locations provided complementary information for a<br />
better underst<strong>and</strong>ing of their dynamics. Thus forest <strong>and</strong> tree lines tended to show a more<br />
compact arrangement in 2003 than in 1954, with a significant decrease in islets, indicating a<br />
decrease in long-distance dispersion <strong>and</strong> suggesting a stabilisation of its advance in the form of<br />
massive colonisation along wide advance fronts. Alternatively, the tundra line increased the<br />
number of islets, pointing towards an increase in long-distance colonisation. This fact, along<br />
with the intense dynamics deduced from the results of advance <strong>and</strong> retreat paths, points out this<br />
ecotone as prone to undergo significant future changes in the case of the continuing of present<br />
trends in environmental dynamics.<br />
References<br />
Calvo-Iglesias, M. S.; Fra-Paleo, U.; Crecente-Maseda, R. <strong>and</strong> Díaz-Varela, R. A., 2006.<br />
Directions of <strong>Change</strong> in L<strong>and</strong> Cover <strong>and</strong> L<strong>and</strong>scape Patterns from 1957 to 2000 in<br />
Agricultural <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> in NW Spain. Environmental Management, 38: 921-933.<br />
Cohen, J., 1960. A coefficient of agreement for nominal scales. Educational <strong>and</strong> Psychological<br />
Measurement, 20, 37–40<br />
Díaz-Varela, R. A.; Colombo, R.; Meroni, M.; Calvo-Iglesias, M. S.; Buffoni, A. <strong>and</strong><br />
Tagliaferri, A., 2010. Spatio-temporal analysis of alpine ecotones: A spatial explicit<br />
model targeting altitudinal vegetation shifts. Ecological Modelling, 221: 621-633.<br />
Didier, L., 2001. Invasion patterns of European larch <strong>and</strong> Swiss stone pine in subalpine pastures<br />
in the French Alps. <strong>Forest</strong> Ecology <strong>and</strong> Management, 145: 67-77.<br />
Körner, C., 1998. A re-assessment of high elevation treeline positions <strong>and</strong> their explanation.<br />
Oecologia 115, 445-459.<br />
Körner, C., 1999. Alpine Plant Life: Functional Plant Ecology of High Mountain Ecosystems.<br />
Springer, cop., Berlin, 330 pp.<br />
Theurillat, J.-P. <strong>and</strong> Guisan, A., 2001. Potential Impact of Climate <strong>Change</strong> on Vegetation in the<br />
European Alps: A Review. Climatic <strong>Change</strong>, 50: 77-109.<br />
Vogt, P., 2008. User guide of GUIDOS. Version 1.1. Institute for Environment <strong>and</strong><br />
Sustainability, European Commission, Joint Research Centre. Ispra (Italy).<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
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Vogt, P.; Ferrari, J. R.; Lookingbill, T. R.; Gardner, R. H.; Riitters, K. H. <strong>and</strong> Ostapowicz, K.,<br />
2009. Mapping functional connectivity. Ecolgical Indicators, 9: 64-71<br />
Table 1. <strong>Change</strong> matrix between 1954 <strong>and</strong> 2003. Cell values are per-class areas (ha) resulting from the<br />
spatial overlay of 1954 <strong>and</strong> 2003 l<strong>and</strong> cover maps. Main diagonals correspond to stable areas while<br />
marginals correspond to changes. Per class Kappa indices are shown in the last column<br />
2003<br />
1954<br />
Dense forest Scattered trees Tundra Other Kappa<br />
Dense forest 259.84 101.04 19.12 203.04 0.43<br />
Scattered trees 0.96 87.76 89.72 26.20 0.42<br />
Tundra 1.08 17.16 1563.40 198.64 0.86<br />
Other 1.88 1.80 30.44 8979.28 0.98<br />
Figure 1: Study area<br />
Figure 2: Simplified representation of the conceptual approach for the definition of extreme outposts for a<br />
slope section<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
R.A. Diaz-Varela et al. 2010. Quantitative assessment of temporal dynamics in altitudinal-driven ecotones<br />
357<br />
Figure 3: Altitudinal distribution of the extreme outpost (forest line, tree line <strong>and</strong> tundra line ecotones) for<br />
the 1954 <strong>and</strong> 2003. Between brackets overall frequencies of raster map cells labelled as ecotones<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> line advance Tree line advance Tundra line advance<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> line retreat Tree line retreat Tundra line retreat<br />
Figure 4: Advances <strong>and</strong> retreats of the three ecotones in the period 1957-2003. In each graphic the X axis<br />
represents the initial altitude, Y axis the increment in horizontal distance <strong>and</strong> Z the increment in altitude<br />
(positive in advances <strong>and</strong> negative in retreats) for each of the events of altitudinal shifting<br />
80,00<br />
70,00<br />
60,00<br />
TREE54<br />
TREE03<br />
90,00<br />
80,00<br />
70,00<br />
TUNDRA54<br />
TUNDRAO3<br />
60,00<br />
50,00<br />
50,00<br />
40,00<br />
40,00<br />
30,00<br />
30,00<br />
20,00<br />
20,00<br />
10,00<br />
10,00<br />
0,00<br />
0,00<br />
core edge branch bridge islet loop<br />
core edge branch bridge islet loop<br />
Figure 5: Percentages of the different spatial pattern morphology classes for the targeted ecotone types<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
I. Duarte & F.C. Rego 2010. L<strong>and</strong> use changes in Portugal between 1990 <strong>and</strong> 2005<br />
358<br />
L<strong>and</strong> use changes in Portugal between 1990 <strong>and</strong> 2005<br />
Inês Duarte 1,2* & Francisco Castro Rego 2<br />
1 Centro de Investigação em Ciências do Ambiente e Empresariais, INUAF, Convento<br />
Espírito Santo, 8100-641 Loulé, Portugal<br />
2 Centro de Ecologia Aplicada Prof. Baeta Neves, Tapada da Ajuda, 1300 Lisboa,<br />
Portugal<br />
Abstract<br />
In the last decades, changes occurred in all Mediterranean territory. Social <strong>and</strong> economical<br />
trends changed <strong>and</strong> the related l<strong>and</strong> use accompanied this alteration. We used different<br />
Portuguese cartography (1990 <strong>and</strong> 2005), made them comparable <strong>and</strong> identified the changes on<br />
the territory. Despites all the incentives for forestation in the last decades, results showed that<br />
shrubl<strong>and</strong>s advanced on the territory. Eucalyptus forests <strong>and</strong> irrigated agriculture increased too<br />
with less significance. The general trends verified were for shrubl<strong>and</strong>s increase <strong>and</strong> lost of<br />
traditional uses.<br />
Keywords: Portugal, L<strong>and</strong> use changes, L<strong>and</strong> use types, <strong>Forest</strong>s, Agriculture, Shrubl<strong>and</strong>s,<br />
Oaks, Transition<br />
1. Introduction<br />
The l<strong>and</strong>scape is a reflection of the aims of the society. Neolithic man began changing the<br />
l<strong>and</strong>scape through the invention of agriculture (Pasquale et al, 2004). In XIX century he made<br />
long railways <strong>and</strong> enlarged constructed surfaces. Portugal, like all Mediterranean countries,<br />
have a l<strong>and</strong>scape with centuries of history from intervention, cutting, grazing, fire, <strong>and</strong> the<br />
socio-economical trends always were related with agriculture, forestry <strong>and</strong> livestock (Duarte et<br />
al, 2009; Acácio, 2009; Lloret, 2003). The traditional l<strong>and</strong> use has last for centuries, or<br />
millennia, but recently major changes have been occurring (Paqualle et al, 2004). Many<br />
agricultural l<strong>and</strong>s were ab<strong>and</strong>oned, due to migration of people to urban areas in search of better<br />
socio-economic conditions. The silvicultural practices, related with the traditional economie, as<br />
also decreased largely. Grazing became negligible. All these events determined the increase in<br />
shrubl<strong>and</strong> areas <strong>and</strong> forest cover, continue, reducing the fragmentation of the l<strong>and</strong>scape<br />
(Paqualle et al, 2004; Hill et al, 2004; Regato-Pajares et al, 2004).<br />
In the first half of the XX century, in Portugal, the agriculture exp<strong>and</strong>s with the campaign of<br />
wheat (Duarte et al, 2009). Then, in the second half of the century, the forests take a lot of his<br />
place <strong>and</strong> shrubl<strong>and</strong>s increased because of the ab<strong>and</strong>onment of the l<strong>and</strong> (Ferreira el al, 2004).<br />
More recently, agricultural l<strong>and</strong> increased again with the irrigation possibilities <strong>and</strong><br />
diversification of productions (Pinto Correia et al, 2006; Ferreira et al, 2004). But forests still<br />
the more representative l<strong>and</strong> use types (Ferreira et al, 2004).<br />
There has been some studies about changes in l<strong>and</strong> use in the Portuguese territory (Ferreira at<br />
all, 2004; Pinto Correia et al, 2006) that shows this occurrences in the portuguese context.<br />
* Corresponding author. Tel.:+351 961 947 466 - Fax:+351 289 420 478<br />
Email address: inesmarquesduarte@gmail.com<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
I. Duarte & F.C. Rego 2010. L<strong>and</strong> use changes in Portugal between 1990 <strong>and</strong> 2005<br />
359<br />
However, with the XXI century arrival, it matters to underst<strong>and</strong> if the trends are maintaining or,<br />
if something changed in the l<strong>and</strong>-cover relation with society.<br />
With this study, we pretend to identify (1) the main changes in l<strong>and</strong> use in Portugal between<br />
1990 <strong>and</strong> 2005, (2) the general trends <strong>and</strong> (3) the dynamic relationship between the l<strong>and</strong> use<br />
types.<br />
2. Methodology<br />
We used as a basis for study two cartografic elements: Carta de Ocupação de Solo -1990<br />
(COS90) from the responsibility of the Portuguese Geographic Institute (IGP) <strong>and</strong> the National<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> Inventory 2005 (IFN05) of the National <strong>Forest</strong> Authority (Ministry of Agriculture <strong>and</strong><br />
Fisheries). However, these mappings have been developed with different objectives. The first,<br />
inspired in the nomenclature of CORINE l<strong>and</strong>cover, aims to give greater accuracy <strong>and</strong> detail to<br />
the Corine coverage, in Portugal (Caetano et al, 2007), assumed at the time as a tool to support<br />
planning studies, <strong>and</strong> decision making. IFN05 was conceived for supporting policies <strong>and</strong> forest<br />
management (DGRF, 2007).<br />
Thus, COS90 is presented on the form of polygons <strong>and</strong> is based on a alphanumeric information<br />
legend as type of occupation, first <strong>and</strong> second dominant species <strong>and</strong> a reference to density. In<br />
this map we obtain the total of 638 different l<strong>and</strong> use type combinations. The IFN05, is<br />
presented on the form of 334390 points, in a grid of 2km for 2km, covering all continental<br />
Portuguese territory. This legend, also alphanumeric, but with a different nomenclature, was<br />
established for purposes of identification of type of use, dominant species, second <strong>and</strong> third<br />
dominant species, vertical structure, density <strong>and</strong> presence of other uses. Overall, we obtain 2163<br />
l<strong>and</strong> use type combinations.<br />
Methodology begans on data transformation in order to compare both cartografic elements. We<br />
used ArcGis 9.3 program package, to join tables, getting a grid of points with the information<br />
contained in each of the mappings in accordance with their original captions.<br />
Then we reclassified all the 334390 points, covering the whole territory, for the year 1990 <strong>and</strong><br />
for the year 2005, with a general common nomenclature. This new classification was based, on<br />
the first level, on the type of l<strong>and</strong> use: <strong>Forest</strong>, agriculture, shrubl<strong>and</strong>s, other (artificial) <strong>and</strong><br />
wetl<strong>and</strong>s. On the second level, considered the dominant specie (forest) or type of agriculture. In<br />
the class shrubl<strong>and</strong>s were included also clear cut, burnt, sown <strong>and</strong> young plantation areas as<br />
well as recently soil mobilized. We removed wetl<strong>and</strong>s <strong>and</strong> remaining 328029 points.<br />
The comparability has made possible, such as the construction of the transition matrix, using the<br />
Microsoft Office Excel 2007.<br />
3. Results<br />
To identify the l<strong>and</strong> use changes between 1990 <strong>and</strong> 2005, we produced a transition matrix that<br />
explains the alterations between classes, showed in table 1. With this matrix, <strong>and</strong> figure 1<br />
support, we can clearly verify the (1) significant increasing of shrubl<strong>and</strong>s, (2) the visible<br />
increase of Eucalyptus, irrigated agriculture <strong>and</strong> artificial occupancy, <strong>and</strong> (3) the losses of Pine,<br />
Cork & Holm oaks <strong>and</strong> unirrigated <strong>and</strong> other agricultures.<br />
The persistence index calculated was only 51%. This means that 49% of Portuguese territory<br />
suffered a transition for one other class, during the 15 years in analysis.<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
I. Duarte & F.C. Rego 2010. L<strong>and</strong> use changes in Portugal between 1990 <strong>and</strong> 2005<br />
360<br />
Table 1: Transition matrix between 1990 <strong>and</strong> 2005<br />
Shrub Artificial Cork<br />
&<br />
Other<br />
forest<br />
Eucalyptus Pine Oaks Irrigated<br />
agriculture<br />
Unirrigated<br />
agriculture<br />
Other<br />
agriculture<br />
Total<br />
2005<br />
Holm<br />
oaks<br />
sp<br />
Shrubl<strong>and</strong>s 31052 3544 7112 2497 2561 16540 2501 728 9876 9597 86008<br />
Artificial 1097 7502 251 240 428 1273 67 481 1860 2172 15371<br />
Cork &<br />
846 45 26247 775 465 1892 289 85 2045 1671 34360<br />
Holm oaks<br />
Other forest 968 133 1179 2313 278 1323 436 257 1284 1214 9385<br />
sp<br />
Eucalyptus 2296 346 645 524 15144 7874 118 265 1353 1012 29577<br />
Pine 3708 278 514 1482 2014 19927 478 254 1376 1151 31182<br />
Oaks 986 54 551 655 48 1042 1563 104 703 493 6199<br />
Irrigated 315 359 1228 163 130 273 21 5850 10486 2807 21632<br />
agriculture<br />
Unirrigated 2692 864 5759 548 359 1108 347 4171 32302 9938 58088<br />
agriculture<br />
Other<br />
1827 1055 1234 393 229 1161 230 1298 9441 19359 36227<br />
agriculture<br />
Total 1990 45787 14180 44720 9590 21656 52413 6050 13493 70726 49414 328029<br />
Analyzing the data, in figure 2, it is perceptible the gains <strong>and</strong> losses from each l<strong>and</strong> use type<br />
from <strong>and</strong> to each other. So, shrubl<strong>and</strong>s, including clear cut, burnt, sown <strong>and</strong> young plantation<br />
areas, were the most significant transition report. The gains came mostly from Pine, unirrigated<br />
<strong>and</strong> other agricultures. The losses, with low proportions, were curiously with the same classes<br />
<strong>and</strong> with Eucalyptus. The exchanges with Cork & Holm were significant too, with just one way<br />
to shrubl<strong>and</strong>s <strong>and</strong> no return.<br />
100000<br />
L<strong>and</strong> use variation between 1990 <strong>and</strong> 2005<br />
90000<br />
80000<br />
70000<br />
Nr. points<br />
60000<br />
50000<br />
40000<br />
30000<br />
20000<br />
10000<br />
0<br />
Shrubl<strong>and</strong>s<br />
Artificial<br />
Cork &<br />
Holm oaks<br />
Other<br />
forest sp<br />
Eucalyptus Pine Oaks<br />
Irrigated<br />
agriculture<br />
Unirrigated<br />
agriculture<br />
Other<br />
agriculture<br />
1990 46207 14368 44513 9654 21670 52448 6063 13615 71357 49573<br />
2005 86325 15499 34429 9512 29605 31240 6216 21816 58196 36264<br />
Figure 1: Comparison, for each l<strong>and</strong> use type, between 1990 <strong>and</strong> 2005<br />
Also in figure 2, despite Artificial l<strong>and</strong> cover, mostly urban areas, had a slightly increase, the<br />
transitions with it were significant. The transitions from this one to shrubl<strong>and</strong>s were notable.<br />
This is probably a sign of ab<strong>and</strong>onment. In the other way, a lot of agricultural <strong>and</strong> Pine forests<br />
switches to artificial areas.<br />
Cork & Holm oak forests decreased, turning into shrubl<strong>and</strong>s or unirrigated agriculture. The first<br />
one, due to ab<strong>and</strong>onment, the second, probably correlated with the mortality of Cork & Holm,<br />
leaving only the agricultural part of the system.<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
I. Duarte & F.C. Rego 2010. L<strong>and</strong> use changes in Portugal between 1990 <strong>and</strong> 2005<br />
361<br />
Shrubl<strong>and</strong>s<br />
Artificial<br />
20000<br />
3000<br />
15000<br />
2000<br />
1000<br />
10000<br />
To Shrublans<br />
0<br />
To artificial<br />
5000<br />
From Shrublans<br />
‐1000<br />
From Artificial<br />
0<br />
‐2000<br />
‐3000<br />
‐5000<br />
‐4000<br />
Eucalyptus forests<br />
Pine forests<br />
10000<br />
5000<br />
8000<br />
0<br />
6000<br />
4000<br />
To Eucalyptus<br />
‐5000<br />
To Pine<br />
2000<br />
From Eucalyptus<br />
‐10000<br />
From Pine<br />
0<br />
‐2000<br />
‐15000<br />
‐4000<br />
‐20000<br />
Cork & Holm oaks<br />
Other oaks forests<br />
4000<br />
2000<br />
2000<br />
1500<br />
1000<br />
0<br />
‐2000<br />
‐4000<br />
To Cork & Holm oaks<br />
From Cork & Holm oaks<br />
500<br />
0<br />
‐500<br />
‐1000<br />
‐1500<br />
To Other Oaks<br />
From Other Oaks<br />
‐6000<br />
‐2000<br />
‐2500<br />
‐8000<br />
‐3000<br />
Other forests species<br />
Irrigated agriculture<br />
2000<br />
12000<br />
1500<br />
10000<br />
1000<br />
8000<br />
500<br />
0<br />
‐500<br />
‐1000<br />
‐1500<br />
To Other forests<br />
From Other forests<br />
6000<br />
4000<br />
2000<br />
0<br />
To Irrtigated agriculture<br />
From Irrigated agriculture<br />
‐2000<br />
‐2000<br />
‐2500<br />
‐4000<br />
‐3000<br />
‐6000<br />
Other Agriculture<br />
Unirrigated agriculture<br />
15000<br />
15000<br />
10000<br />
10000<br />
5000<br />
5000<br />
0<br />
To Other agriculture<br />
From Other agriculture<br />
0<br />
To Unirrigated agriculture<br />
From Unirrigated agriculture<br />
‐5000<br />
‐5000<br />
‐10000<br />
‐10000<br />
‐15000<br />
‐15000<br />
Figure 2: Representative graphs of gains <strong>and</strong> losses in each l<strong>and</strong> use type, related with each one other<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
I. Duarte & F.C. Rego 2010. L<strong>and</strong> use changes in Portugal between 1990 <strong>and</strong> 2005<br />
362<br />
Many Eucalyptus areas turned over into Pine forests. Furthermore, areas of Pine forests were<br />
converted into Eucalyptus, or degraded forests (shrubl<strong>and</strong>s). This can be justified by the forest<br />
fires that had been occur frequently over Pine forest in Portugal during this years (Acácio,<br />
2009).<br />
Has showed in figure 2 other oak forests are being turned into shrubl<strong>and</strong>s (ab<strong>and</strong>onment or fire)<br />
or into Pine forests. The last case can be justified with the introduction of Pine into oak systems,<br />
gettin dominance over the years.<br />
Between the agricultural types of l<strong>and</strong> uses, switches occured, with irrigated agriculture areas<br />
growing, <strong>and</strong> a part of the others loosing areas to shrublans once again.<br />
Figure 3 represents the dinamic changes between the studied l<strong>and</strong> uses. On this figure were<br />
considered only transitions with more meaningful values, i.e. greater than 10% of each class or<br />
higher than 3000 points. The only exceptions considered were the transitions from shrubl<strong>and</strong>s to<br />
Pine forest or Eucalyptus forest because they are significant on these forest systems dynamics.<br />
It is clear to identify a group of agricultural uses <strong>and</strong> one other of forest uses. Cork & Holm had<br />
caracters from both, staying undistiguished from them. On this representation it is notable the<br />
magnetic effect of Shul<strong>and</strong>s, that justifies the values obtained on table 1 <strong>and</strong> figure 1.<br />
On the agricultural part of studied l<strong>and</strong> uses, many changes occured, maybe related with<br />
rotational l<strong>and</strong> programs, between irrigated, unirrigated <strong>and</strong> other types of agriculture. The last<br />
two, with frequent losses for the class of shrubl<strong>and</strong>s.<br />
Figure 3: Representation of the dynamic changes of l<strong>and</strong> use<br />
Artificial areas losses were significant to shrubl<strong>and</strong>s, however, as shown in figures 1 <strong>and</strong> 2, less<br />
significant gains of other l<strong>and</strong> uses justified an increase in the total value of artificial areas.<br />
4. Discussion<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
I. Duarte & F.C. Rego 2010. L<strong>and</strong> use changes in Portugal between 1990 <strong>and</strong> 2005<br />
363<br />
On this study, we analyze the changes on soil occupancy in continental Portugal. The index of<br />
persistence obtained was 51%. Pinto Correia et al (2006), calculated between 1990 <strong>and</strong> 2000,<br />
for the same territory, a persistence index of 86,7 %. It means that in the last five years, changes<br />
were accelerated.<br />
The general trends, despite all the incentives for forestation in recent decades, were for the<br />
decrease of forest area <strong>and</strong> increase of shrubl<strong>and</strong>s areas. Eucalyptus <strong>and</strong> irrigated agriculture<br />
also increased. Also occurred one slight increase in artificial areas, such as in other agriculture.<br />
The dynamical model identified let us concerned about the trends in portuguese <strong>and</strong> all<br />
mediterranean territory, because of the forest degradation <strong>and</strong> losses of natural values as corks<br />
forests <strong>and</strong> unirrigated agriculture. On the other h<strong>and</strong>, perhaps this is a time of change, of<br />
reflection, similar to the socio-economic reflexion of the day.<br />
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F. Recent Dynamics of the Mediterranean Vegetation <strong>and</strong> Lanscape. Engl<strong>and</strong>, John<br />
Wiley & Sons: 3-12<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
J.S.V. Filho & M.L. Leite 2010. Simulation of climate scenarios for the region of Campos Gerais, State of Parana, Brazil<br />
364<br />
Simulation of climate scenarios for the region of Campos Gerais, State<br />
of Parana, Brazil<br />
Jorim Sousa das Virgens Filho 1* & Maysa de Lima Leite 2<br />
1<br />
Departamento de Matemática e Estatística, Universidade Estadual de Ponta Grossa,<br />
Brazil<br />
2<br />
Departamento de Biologia Geral, Universidade Estadual de Ponta Grossa, Brazil<br />
Abstract<br />
This study aimed to simulate climate scenarios based on possible change to the region of<br />
Campos Gerais, state of Parana, Brazil. Originally defined as a phytogeographical region, the<br />
Campos Gerais underst<strong>and</strong> the grassl<strong>and</strong>s <strong>and</strong> savanna parks situated on the edge of the Second<br />
Paraná Plateau. In the forests of Campos Gerais, the Araucaria angustifolia is the main tree<br />
species, occupying portions of the plateau state of Parana whose floristic composition is<br />
strongly influenced by low temperatures <strong>and</strong> frost occurrence. Thus, using daily weather series,<br />
stochastic climate models were parameterized to simulate the climate scenarios, based on<br />
projections of the IPCC. The results achieved through analysis of graphs, presenting essential<br />
elements for a systematic reflection on the future of the floristic diversity of Campos Gerais,<br />
showed that an environment in the near future may be unfavorable to the development of<br />
species that today fully supplies the forests in this region.<br />
Keywords: simulation, climate scenarios, temperature, precipitation, Araucaria angustifolia.<br />
1. Introduction<br />
The Earth has been undergoing continuous natural oscillations along its evolution, creating new<br />
organizations <strong>and</strong> changing ecosystems. Among the components that operate in this dynamic<br />
system in itself, the weather is a factor that interferes directly or indirectly in these<br />
transformations, causing instability in the natural l<strong>and</strong> surface <strong>and</strong> oceans. Thus, as<br />
recommended by Claussen in 2004, it is expected that an important aspect of global climate<br />
change, is their likely impact on natural ecosystems considering that climate influences soil <strong>and</strong><br />
biota in the same way that it can also be strongly modulated by biological processes of<br />
vegetation, phytoplankton <strong>and</strong> other characteristics of the biosphere. Within a bioclimatological<br />
perspective, according to Worbes 2002, in tropical forests, seasonal precipitation regimes or<br />
flooding is described as the major determinants of the seasonality of growth. However, in<br />
subtropical forests, the annual variation of air temperature may have great influence on the<br />
regulation of cambial activity. Originally defined as a phytogeographical region, the Campos<br />
Gerais of Parana underst<strong>and</strong> grassl<strong>and</strong>s <strong>and</strong> forests galleries or geldings isolates, mixed in a<br />
temperate rainforest, located on the edge of the Second Parana Plateau (Maack 1948). This<br />
forest type can be defined as a mixing of floras from different sources, with typical<br />
phytophysiognomic patterns in a characteristically rainy climatic zone, without direct influence<br />
of the ocean, but with well distributed precipitation throughout the year. According to Roderjan<br />
et al. 2002, forests in Campos Gerais, the Araucaria or Pinheiro-do-Paraná (Araucaria<br />
angustifolia (Bertol.) Kuntze) is the main tree species, occupying portions of the State of Parana<br />
Plateau whose floristic composition is strongly influenced by low temperatures <strong>and</strong> the<br />
* Corresponding author. Tel.: +55 (42) 3220 3050<br />
Email address: jvirgens@uepg.br<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
J.S.V. Filho & M.L. Leite 2010. Simulation of climate scenarios for the region of Campos Gerais, State of Parana, Brazil<br />
365<br />
occurrence of regular frosts in winter. The Araucaria occurs in regions with annual average<br />
temperatures ranging from 12°C to 18°C, supporting frost until -10°C, characterized therefore<br />
as a species of temperate climate. The climate of the region of Campos Gerais, Parana,<br />
according to Köppen may occur variably in some places, from subtropical (Cfa) to temperate<br />
(Cfb), with an average temperature of the coldest month below 18°C <strong>and</strong> average temperature in<br />
warmest month above 22°C, with frequent frosts in winter <strong>and</strong> trend of concentration of<br />
precipitation during the summer months, but without a dry season (IAPAR 2000). According to<br />
Salazar et. al 2007, the geographic distribution of vegetation <strong>and</strong> its relationship to climate, has<br />
been object of analysis through models of biomes or biogeographic models, which in turn use it<br />
as the central paradigm assumption that climate has a dominant control on distribution of<br />
vegetation, simulating potential vegetation, based on some climatic parameters like temperature<br />
<strong>and</strong> precipitation. In this context, on the premise that the crops may be considered relevant<br />
probabilistic variables <strong>and</strong> depend on climatic factors during the growing season, it becomes<br />
important to the development of simulation models that generate synthetic data of climate, in<br />
order to reproduce, probabilistically, the occurrence of climatic components. Several climatic<br />
data generators are cited in the literature, in order to simulate sets of climate data, <strong>and</strong> create<br />
climate scenarios in order to provide alternative methods for measuring the risk of climate<br />
uncertainty that is related to alternative managements of enterprises conducted in<br />
agroecosystems (Virgens Filho 2001). Given the climatic transition projected by the<br />
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate <strong>Change</strong> (IPCC) that will affect natural resources,<br />
economics <strong>and</strong> societies around the world, actually unknown in magnitude, this study aimed to<br />
simulate climate scenarios based on possible climate change in the Region of Campos Gerais,<br />
Parana State, Brazil.<br />
2. Methodology<br />
This research was conducted at the State University of Ponta Grossa (UEPG), Parana State,<br />
Southern Brazil, where there were used historical series of climatic data of temperature <strong>and</strong><br />
precipitation, obtained from the Instituto Agronômico do Paraná (IAPAR) <strong>and</strong> the Instituto<br />
Nacional de Meteorologia (INMET) as shown in Table 1 for four cities in the region of Campos<br />
Gerais, Parana State (Figure 1). For the simulation of climate scenarios, it was used a beta<br />
version of the Stochastic Generator of Climatic Scenarios PGECLIMA_R, developed by the<br />
Computational <strong>and</strong> Applied Statistics Laboratory, in UEPG. The scenarios generated for the air<br />
temperature were based on climate projections for 2100, published in 2001 in the Third<br />
Assessment Report of the IPCC, in which its worst scenario is estimated to increase average<br />
global temperature of 5.8ºC <strong>and</strong> at its best scenario, an average increase of 1.4°C (IPCC 2001).<br />
The scenarios for the simulation of precipitation, were created from the variation of 10% for<br />
each degree Celsius in 2100, as suggested by Pike in 2005. Therefore, as the scenarios of air<br />
temperature were simulated for an increase of 1.4°C <strong>and</strong> 5.8°C, the average increase in<br />
precipitation was 14% <strong>and</strong> 58% in the total annual in 2100, for the worst <strong>and</strong> best climatic<br />
scenario, respectively. The analysis <strong>and</strong> discussion of the results were based on graphics, which<br />
projected the trend of the next 99 years (2002-2100), for simulated scenarios for temperature<br />
<strong>and</strong> precipitation.<br />
3. Result<br />
Figure 2 shows the graphics with the trends of annual mean air temperature for the four cities<br />
located in the Campos Gerais region of Parana, <strong>and</strong> for each site are presented separately, the<br />
worst <strong>and</strong> best simulated scenarios. It is observed by the simulated trends (gray line), that for<br />
the city of Telêmaco Borba, which has an average annual temperature of 19.5°C in the worst<br />
scenario, the projected average temperature for 2052 was approximately 21.5°C, while close to<br />
year 2100 it is projected to be around 25.6°C. In the best scenario, the temperature values in<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
J.S.V. Filho & M.L. Leite 2010. Simulation of climate scenarios for the region of Campos Gerais, State of Parana, Brazil<br />
366<br />
2052 <strong>and</strong> 2100 were approximately 20.1°C <strong>and</strong> 21°C, respectively. For the city of Castro, with<br />
an average annual temperature of 18°C, in the worst scenario for 2052, simulated temperature<br />
was 20°C, while close to year 2100, it was around 23.9°C. In the best scenario, the approached<br />
temperature for the years 2052 <strong>and</strong> 2100 were 18.5°C <strong>and</strong> 19.5°C, respectively. Note by the<br />
simulated trends, that for the city of Ponta Grossa, with an average annual temperature of<br />
18.7°C , in the worst scenario, the average temperature expected for 2052 was approximately<br />
20.5°C, while close to the year 2100 to it was projected to be around 24.6°C. In its best scenario<br />
the temperature in 2052 <strong>and</strong> 2100 will be close of 19.1°C <strong>and</strong> 20°C, respectively.<br />
Table 1 - Geographical coordinates of the cities <strong>and</strong> information related to the climatological series.<br />
Municipal<br />
District<br />
Latitude Longitude Elevation (m) Period<br />
Telêmaco Borba - 24°20’ - 50°37’ 768.0<br />
1972-<br />
2001<br />
Castro - 24°47’ - 50°00’ 1008.8 1972-<br />
Ponta Grossa - 25°13’ - 50°01’ 880.0 1972- 2001<br />
Lapa - 25°47’ - 49°46’ 910.0 1972- 2001<br />
2001<br />
Data<br />
Source<br />
IAPAR<br />
INMET<br />
IAPAR<br />
IAPAR<br />
Figure 1 - Location of the cities in the Region of Campos Gerais, Parana State, Brazil.<br />
For the city of Lapa, which average annual temperature is 17.9°C, in the worst scenario the<br />
average temperature generated for 2052 was 19.8°C, while in the year 2100 it was around<br />
23.8°C. In the best scenario, the temperature approached 18.3°C <strong>and</strong> 19.2°C for the years 2052<br />
<strong>and</strong> 2100, respectively. Figure 3 shows the graphics with the trends of annual totals of<br />
precipitation for the four cities in the region of Campos Gerais, Parana, <strong>and</strong> for each site are<br />
presented separately, the worst <strong>and</strong> best simulated scenarios. It was found by the simulated<br />
trends (gray line), that for the city of Telêmaco Borba, which has a historical average annual<br />
total precipitation of 1630 mm, that for the worst scenario, the projected annual total for 2052,<br />
was approximately 2049 mm, while next to the year 2100 it was projected to be around 2541<br />
mm. In its best scenario, the annual total in 2052 <strong>and</strong> 2100 was around 1571 mm <strong>and</strong> 1880 mm,<br />
respectively. For the city of Castro, with a historical average annual total precipitation of 1414<br />
mm, in the worst scenario, the annual total raised to 1922 mm in 2052, while in the year of<br />
2100 it was around 2273 mm. In the best scenario, annual total in 2052 <strong>and</strong> 2100 approached to<br />
1602 mm <strong>and</strong> 1710 mm, respectively. Note by the simulated trends, that for the city of Ponta<br />
Grossa, which has an annual historical average total of 1613 mm, in the worst scenario, the<br />
expected annual total for 2052 was approximately 2002 mm, while next to the year 2100, it was<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
J.S.V. Filho & M.L. Leite 2010. Simulation of climate scenarios for the region of Campos Gerais, State of Parana, Brazil<br />
367<br />
around 2493 mm. In its best scenario, the annual total in 2052 <strong>and</strong> 2100 was around 1776 mm<br />
<strong>and</strong> 1882 mm, respectively. For the city of Lapa, where the annual historical average total was<br />
1651 mm, in the worst simulated scenario, the annual total for 2052 was 1932 mm, while in the<br />
year of 2100, it approached 2246 mm. In the best scenario, the annual total in 2052 <strong>and</strong> 2100<br />
approached, 1911 mm <strong>and</strong> 1955 mm, respectively.<br />
Figure 2 - Mean air temperature scenarios simulated by PGECLIMA_R for the year 2100, considering the<br />
best <strong>and</strong> worst outlook projected by the IPCC.<br />
4. Discussion<br />
Given the fact that the region of Campos Gerais of Parana is located in a climatic zone,<br />
dominated in some places by the subtropical climate (Cfa) <strong>and</strong> others by temperate climate<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
J.S.V. Filho & M.L. Leite 2010. Simulation of climate scenarios for the region of Campos Gerais, State of Parana, Brazil<br />
368<br />
(Cfb), with precipitation concentrated during summer months, without dry season <strong>and</strong> with<br />
regular occurrences of frost in winter, it is expected that from a perspective of regional climate<br />
change, the increase in temperature causes significant changes in the l<strong>and</strong>scape since the<br />
floristic composition of the forest <strong>and</strong> grassl<strong>and</strong> are strongly influenced by temperature <strong>and</strong><br />
precipitation.<br />
Figure 3 - Precipitation scenarios simulated by PGECLIMA_R for the year 2100, considering the best <strong>and</strong><br />
worst outlook projected by the IPCC.<br />
In the case of Araucaria <strong>Forest</strong>, which is a forest formation adapted to conditions of humid<br />
altitude, its main plant species, the Araucaria, have their reproductive phenology affected<br />
mainly by abiotic factors such as temperature <strong>and</strong> photoperiod (Liebsch <strong>and</strong> Mikich 2009).<br />
According to Zanon 2007, the increase in temperature <strong>and</strong> precipitation have a positive<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
J.S.V. Filho & M.L. Leite 2010. Simulation of climate scenarios for the region of Campos Gerais, State of Parana, Brazil<br />
369<br />
influence on the annual growth rings, but the occurrence of precipitation coupled with low<br />
temperatures reduces the growth of them. With the simulated climate scenarios, presented in<br />
this research, for the four cities of Campos Gerais, Parana State, one can deduce that at best,<br />
which projected an average increase of 1.4°C in the average temperature <strong>and</strong> 14% increase in<br />
precipitation, future changes will be possibly positive as regards the development of Araucaria<br />
<strong>Forest</strong>. However, for a scenario with an increase of 5.8°C in the average temperature <strong>and</strong> 58%<br />
increase in the amount of precipitation, extreme events may occur daily for these climatic<br />
elements which, according to Kramer <strong>and</strong> Kozlowski 1960, influence negatively the hydration<br />
<strong>and</strong> dehydration of the trees, which may result in variations in the diameter growth during the<br />
twenty-four hours a day.<br />
Acknowlegments<br />
The authors thank to the Instituto Agronômico do Paraná (IAPAR) <strong>and</strong> Instituto Nacional de<br />
Meteorologia (INMET) for the authorization to access the climatic data, <strong>and</strong> to the CNPq e<br />
Fundação Araucária, by the research support.<br />
References<br />
Claussen, M., 2004. Does l<strong>and</strong> surface matter in weather <strong>and</strong> climate In: Kabat, P., Claussen,<br />
M., Dirmeyer, P.A., Gash, J.H.C., Bravo de Guenni, L., Meybeck, M., Pielke Sr, R.A.,<br />
Vörösmarty, C.J., Hutjes, R.W.A. <strong>and</strong> Lütkemeier, S. (Eds.). Vegetation, water, humans<br />
<strong>and</strong> climate: a new perspective on an interactive system. IGBP <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong> Series. New<br />
York, Springer-Verlag: part A, p. 5-6.<br />
IAPAR - Instituto Agronômico do Paraná, 2000. Cartas climáticas do Estado do Paraná.<br />
IAPAR, Londrina, Brasil, CD-ROM Versão 1.0.<br />
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate <strong>Change</strong> – IPCC, 2001. Climate <strong>Change</strong> 2001: The<br />
Scientific Basis-Contribution of Working Group 1 to the IPCC Third Assessment Report.<br />
Cambridge Univ. Press, Cambridge, UK, 17 p.<br />
Kramer, P.J. <strong>and</strong> Kozlowski, T., 1960. Fisiologia das árvores. Fundação Caloustre. Gulbenkian<br />
Lisboa, Portugal, 745 p.<br />
Liebsch, D. <strong>and</strong> Mikich, S.B., 2009. Fenologia reprodutiva de espécies vegetais da Floresta<br />
Ombrófila Mista do Paraná, Brasil. Revista Brasileira de Botânica, 32: 375-391.<br />
Maack, R., 1948. Notas preliminares sobre clima, solos e vegetação do Estado do Paraná.<br />
Arquivos de Biologia e Tecnologia, 2: 102-200.<br />
Pyke, C.R., 2005. Interactions between habitat loss <strong>and</strong> climate change: implications for fairy<br />
shrimp in the central valley ecoregion of california, USA. Climatic <strong>Change</strong>, 68: 199–218.<br />
Roderjan, C.V., Galvão, F., Kuniyoshi, Y.S. <strong>and</strong> Hatschbach, G.G., 2002. As unidades<br />
fitogeográficas do Estado do Paraná, Brasil. Ciência & Ambiente, 24: 78-118.<br />
Worbes, M., 2002. One hundred years of tree-ring research in the tropics - a brief history <strong>and</strong> an<br />
outlook to future challenges. Dendrochronologia, 20: 217-231.<br />
Virgens Filho, J. S., 2001. Ferramenta computacional para simulação de séries climáticas<br />
diárias, baseada na parametrização dinâmica das distribuições de probabilidade. Tese<br />
(Doutorado em Agronomia/Energia na Agricultura) – UNESP, Botucatu-SP, Brasil, 92 p.<br />
Zanon, M.L.B., 2007. Crescimento da Araucaria angustifolia (Bertol.) Kuntze. diferenciado por<br />
dioicia. Tese (Doutorado em Engenharia Florestal) – UFSM, Santa Maria-RS, Brasil, 110 p.<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
F.J. Gómez et al. 2010. L<strong>and</strong> use changes <strong>and</strong> mixed forest dynamics. The case of Montiferru Mountains<br />
370<br />
L<strong>and</strong> use changes <strong>and</strong> mixed forest dynamics. The case of Montiferru<br />
Mountains (Sardinia, Italy) (1955-2006)<br />
Francisco Javier Gómez * , Martí Boada & Diego Varga<br />
Institute of Environmental Science <strong>and</strong> Technology, Autonomous University of<br />
Barcelona (ICTA-UAB), Spain<br />
Abstract<br />
L<strong>and</strong> cover dynamics in forest l<strong>and</strong>scapes are altered by the role of human-induced processes<br />
linked to global change, especially to l<strong>and</strong> use changes as a driving force <strong>and</strong> primary sector<br />
activities as key factors. This study was conducted at oak (Quercus pubescens Mill.) <strong>and</strong> holm<br />
oak (Quercus ilex L.) mixed forest patches located at Montiferru mountains (Sardinia, Italy).<br />
The aim was to analyze l<strong>and</strong> use & l<strong>and</strong> cover changes during the last five decades, especially<br />
reforestation due to forestl<strong>and</strong> use decrease <strong>and</strong> ab<strong>and</strong>onment circumstances linked to<br />
traditional rural economies’ crisis. <strong>Change</strong>s observed have become apparent at different<br />
biodiversity levels. Firstly, at ecological level mixed forestl<strong>and</strong> surface has grown by mean 13%<br />
<strong>and</strong> reforestation reached upper levels (ca. 25-30%) in areas characterized by low use recurrence.<br />
Secondly, at species level despite the increase of deciduous oaks population in contrast to<br />
previous decades, evergreen oaks tends to dominate mixed forest composition <strong>and</strong> regeneration<br />
dynamics.<br />
Keywords: L<strong>and</strong> use & cover changes, reforestation, mixed forest, Sardinia<br />
1. Introduction<br />
1.1 The role of l<strong>and</strong> use changes into l<strong>and</strong>scape dynamics<br />
Classically l<strong>and</strong> cover dynamics had been exclusively considered under biologist criteria but<br />
nowadays this order is altered by human-induced processes in terms of global change (Turner et<br />
al. 1995), especially by l<strong>and</strong> use <strong>and</strong> its changes as key factors due to contemporaneous human<br />
transformation capacity oversize (Vitousek et al. 1997; Folke et al. 2004). Recent Mediterranean<br />
mountain l<strong>and</strong>scape dynamics are highly determined by two basic premises related to l<strong>and</strong> use<br />
& cover changes. Firstly, the evolution of socioeconomic driving forces merge into strong l<strong>and</strong><br />
use changes during the last half of XX th century, the most important is the decrease, <strong>and</strong> in most<br />
cases, ab<strong>and</strong>onment of primary sector activities. Secondly, the main response of these<br />
l<strong>and</strong>scapes is the increase of forestl<strong>and</strong> surface. Some authors (Rudel et al. 2005) explain this<br />
pattern as the last part of the forest transition; in that paradigm forestl<strong>and</strong> surface becomes<br />
historically reduced until a no-return point when trend reverses <strong>and</strong> forestl<strong>and</strong> cover begins to<br />
increases due to remove l<strong>and</strong> use from disturbance regime (Perry 1998; Folke et al. 2004). One<br />
of the principal phenomena derived from forest transition is reforestation defined as the<br />
reestablishment of forest cover either naturally (by natural seedling, coppice, or root suckers) or<br />
artificially (by direct seedling or planting) (IUFRO Silva Term database). In that sense, natural<br />
reforestation is the most habitual l<strong>and</strong> cover change related to l<strong>and</strong> use change in some<br />
Mediterranean mountain socioecosystems like the Montiferru mountains at Sardinia (Italy)<br />
(Longitude 8º 33’ a 8º 39’ E; Latitude 40º 08’ a 40º 11’ N) where this study was conducted.<br />
* Corresponding author. Tel.: +34935812532 - Fax: +34935813331<br />
Email address: franciscojavier.gomez@uab.es<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
F.J. Gómez et al. 2010. L<strong>and</strong> use changes <strong>and</strong> mixed forest dynamics. The case of Montiferru Mountains<br />
371<br />
1.2 Brief Montiferru’s environmental history<br />
The Montiferru Mountains are an archetypical Mediterranean mountain socioecosystem due to<br />
its biodiversity <strong>and</strong> environmental history. Its contemporaneous development starts at XIX th<br />
century when early signs of non domestic l<strong>and</strong> uses increase become apparent, mainly due to<br />
navy <strong>and</strong> pre-industrial activities (glass, leather workshops, etc.) (Beccu 2000). During this<br />
period, characterized by organic economy strong dependent of wood for construction <strong>and</strong><br />
firewood <strong>and</strong> charcoal for fuel, forest raw material consumption grows drove by the expansion<br />
of iron <strong>and</strong> steel industries, railway <strong>and</strong> sea transport <strong>and</strong> due to population growth <strong>and</strong> its<br />
dem<strong>and</strong>. Linked to these <strong>and</strong> other factors like the increase of l<strong>and</strong> plough derived from<br />
agricultural <strong>and</strong> subsistence crisis, forestl<strong>and</strong> covers become highly reduced in all Italy <strong>and</strong><br />
especially in mountain systems like Sardinian ones at latest XIX th <strong>and</strong> the beginning of XX th<br />
century.<br />
First signs of l<strong>and</strong> use shift scenario, based on industrial <strong>and</strong> inorganic-based model, arrived in<br />
the decade of 1930-40 when firewood <strong>and</strong> charcoal consumption drops while fossil fuels<br />
increases (Agnoletti 2003), this trend arrives to mountain socioecosystems later meaning the<br />
beginning of rural economies crisis. It was then when changes in primary sector activities<br />
become apparent, showed in forestry in two general ways; models specialized in fast-growth<br />
wood <strong>and</strong> dedicated to paper <strong>and</strong> pulp emergent industry rise <strong>and</strong> the most extended traditional<br />
uses linked to slow-growth wood, firewood <strong>and</strong> charcoal decrease <strong>and</strong> in most cases become<br />
ab<strong>and</strong>oned few decades later. Other indicators, like rural exodus processes, reinforce this<br />
socioeconomic scenario shift characterized by traditional rural economies’ crisis; at Montiferru<br />
population decreased ca. 24% since 1960s (Mura 1995).<br />
In the last decades of XX th century the massif shows incipient signs of another socioeconomic<br />
scenario shift like the increase of biodiversity management <strong>and</strong> protection measures <strong>and</strong> the rise<br />
of third economic activities. As a result, nowadays the Montiferru still conserves aspects of its<br />
traditional Mediterranean mountain area character but post-industrial socioeconomic scenario<br />
tends to be predominant.<br />
2. Methodology<br />
2.1 Object of study<br />
In the massif of Montiferru oak (Quercus pubescens Mill.) <strong>and</strong> holm oak (Quercus ilex L.)<br />
mixed forest patches occurs in the geographic transition from the upper mesomediterranean to<br />
submediterranean wet-temperate climate conditions, in the altitudinal range comprised between<br />
750 <strong>and</strong> 950 meters a.s.l. In the context of Mediterranean basin, these forestl<strong>and</strong> covers begin its<br />
actual dynamics after Youger Dryas (11.000 B.C.) <strong>and</strong> undergo different fluctuations in its<br />
composition until the frontier between Subboreal <strong>and</strong> Subatlantic (aprox. 3.000 B.C.), when<br />
palinological records show an evident decline of Q.pubescens <strong>and</strong> a increase of Q.ilex (Suc<br />
1984). Two hypotheses try to explain this event; biotic arguments related to the capacity of<br />
holm oak to compete with other trees, <strong>and</strong> the consideration of human-induced effects (Pons <strong>and</strong><br />
Quézel 1985; Barbero et al 1990). At this point, centuries of human intervention on<br />
Mediterranean forestl<strong>and</strong> upsets the balance between oak <strong>and</strong> holm oak populations, favoring<br />
Q.ilex mainly due to its fuel value <strong>and</strong> its food value for cattle in detriment of Q.pubescens,<br />
taxon that in the case of Sardinia <strong>and</strong> Corsica becomes very reduced (Gamisans 1977). In that<br />
sense, more or less isolated character of mixed forest areas contributes to assume the role of<br />
these entities as indicators of global change manifestations, especially of l<strong>and</strong> use changes<br />
processes derived from socioenomic scenario shifts (Lomolino, 2000).<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
F.J. Gómez et al. 2010. L<strong>and</strong> use changes <strong>and</strong> mixed forest dynamics. The case of Montiferru Mountains<br />
372<br />
2.2 Material <strong>and</strong> methods<br />
The analysis of l<strong>and</strong> use <strong>and</strong> l<strong>and</strong> cover change processes requires the ecological <strong>and</strong> social<br />
criteria integration, linking socioeconomical <strong>and</strong> biophysical driving forces, so as to unravel<br />
l<strong>and</strong>scape dynamics complexity; in this aim hybrid methodologies based on holistic approaches<br />
are basic tools to interpret them (Naveh 2000). In our case, there has been posed a diachronic<br />
model <strong>and</strong> a synchronic model to analyze l<strong>and</strong> use & cover changes.<br />
Diachronic analysis comprises historical records related to l<strong>and</strong> use <strong>and</strong> cartography for the<br />
period 1965-2006. Information about forest use was taken from the review of Corpo <strong>Forest</strong>ale<br />
Regionale of Sardinia archive. Historical series was, in general, vague <strong>and</strong> unsystematic; for this<br />
reason data was treated to homogenize records <strong>and</strong> to set (i) year <strong>and</strong> type of intervention<br />
(familiar or commercial thinning) (ii) species <strong>and</strong> quantity of wood or firewood removed (using<br />
dendrometric rates for Sardinian Quercus sp. <strong>and</strong> normalizing non explicit records into habitual<br />
oak <strong>and</strong> holm oak cutting shift documented for the Montiferru). Besides, oral sources of<br />
information were consulted to improve environmental history of the studied sites. Several<br />
interviews were made to social actors related to Montiferru forestl<strong>and</strong> sphere, especially<br />
primary sector workers (woodcutters, shepherds, etc.) <strong>and</strong> forest owners <strong>and</strong> traders; a wide<br />
majority of people interviewed were elderly men, owners of non written <strong>and</strong> usually non enough<br />
considered information, but very valuable, regarding to relations between human <strong>and</strong><br />
environment. Four sampling stations were selected attending to differences on l<strong>and</strong> use patterns<br />
<strong>and</strong> classified in terms of intensity, considered high when commercial thinning is predominant<br />
<strong>and</strong> low when are related to domestic use (up to 5 m³ per year); <strong>and</strong> recurrence, considered high<br />
when there were more than 20 interventions during recorded period (1965-2006) <strong>and</strong> low in the<br />
other cases (Table 1). Besides, diachronic model comprises the analysis of aerial photographs of<br />
1955, 1977 <strong>and</strong> 2006. Spatial characteristics of mixed forestl<strong>and</strong> patches corresponding to<br />
sampling stations <strong>and</strong> its dynamics have been analyzed by GIS during this period.<br />
Synchronic model comprises the analysis about mixed forestl<strong>and</strong> mass’ ecological dynamics.<br />
For this objective, 20 experimental 10x10 meters plots were r<strong>and</strong>omly distributed into each<br />
sampling station. In each plot, number <strong>and</strong> diameter at breast height (dbh) of oak <strong>and</strong> holm oak<br />
(live <strong>and</strong> dead trees) were measured <strong>and</strong> classified into thee size class: saplings (dbh
F.J. Gómez et al. 2010. L<strong>and</strong> use changes <strong>and</strong> mixed forest dynamics. The case of Montiferru Mountains<br />
373<br />
Table 2: <strong>Change</strong>s in mixed forestl<strong>and</strong> area 1955-2006<br />
Sampling<br />
station<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> patches<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> gaps<br />
1955-1977<br />
(hectares)<br />
1977-2006<br />
(hectares)<br />
balance<br />
(ha)<br />
% of change<br />
(1955-2006)<br />
1955-2006<br />
(hectares)<br />
MA 6,70 7,18 13,88 28,2 -2,28 -52,0<br />
BM -19,50 0,18 -19,32 -25,3 4,36 69,8<br />
SP -0,17 12,66 12,49 26,2 -1,91 -30,4<br />
AS -3,92 8,25 4,33 7,1 -1,23 -16,4<br />
% of change<br />
(1955-2006)<br />
At species level, 299 oaks <strong>and</strong> 1.673 holm oaks live trees were counted <strong>and</strong> measured (per 45<br />
<strong>and</strong> 430 death, respectively). Widespread, holm oak presents higher observed tree densities <strong>and</strong><br />
upper values of basal area (BA) in all the sampling stations than oak that are by mean older;<br />
also, another trend in species composition, documented by the oral sources of information, sets<br />
that nowadays oak density is higher than in previous decades. For l<strong>and</strong> use regimes, the largest<br />
BA <strong>and</strong> average diameter of trees (<strong>and</strong> consequently age) are related to high use intensity.<br />
However, certain values of density <strong>and</strong> basal area take remarkable records in low use recurrence<br />
<strong>and</strong> ab<strong>and</strong>oned areas (SP & MA) where reforestation is higher (Table 3).<br />
Table 3: Estimated mean values for Q.pubescens (Qp) <strong>and</strong> Q.ilex (Qi) density, BA, dbh <strong>and</strong> age<br />
specie MA BM SP AS<br />
Density Qp 485 (330) 270 (211) 295 (216) 445 (349)<br />
(ind/ha) Qi 2.140 (850) 1.580 (494) 2.065 (980) 2.580 (886)<br />
BA Qp 7,23 (8,66) 8,78 (8,75) 5,50 (4,52) 8,22 (5,64)<br />
(m²/ha) Qi 22,33 (8,96) 33,74 (12,71) 28,82 (13,55) 26,36 (10,87)<br />
Mean dbh Qp 7,86 (11,34) 15,2 (12,08) 9,88 (11,56) 12,92 (8,56)<br />
(cm) Qi 7,26 (8,98) 12,5 (10,48) 7,68 (10,22) 8,16 (6,88)<br />
Mean age Qp 18,8 28,7 21,1 24,7<br />
(yr) Qi 17,4 24,6 18,3 18,5<br />
In terms of age structure, significant differences become apparent between use recurrence for<br />
both species (Mann Whitney test for Qp, Z=-2,824 p=0,0047; <strong>and</strong> Qi, Z=-2,786, p=0,0053) due<br />
to younger age size class: low use recurrence areas presents higher sapling frequencies than pole<br />
ones in contrast to high use recurrence regimes where this pattern reverses (Figure 1). Also, as<br />
proposed indicator of mature forest structure (Barbour et al. 1987) areas of high use recurrence<br />
have better adjustments to reverse J-shaped curves than low use ones where reforestation is<br />
higher. The Differences observed in tree-mortality related to l<strong>and</strong> use regime were statistically<br />
non-significant in both species (Kruskal-Wallis test for Qp, H=1,378, df=3, p=0,7106; <strong>and</strong> Qi,<br />
H=7,804, df=3, p=0,0502)<br />
Related to regeneration dynamics 139 oak <strong>and</strong> 1.706 holm oak total ramets were counted (12<br />
<strong>and</strong> 115 death ones, respectively), <strong>and</strong> 666 Q.pubescens <strong>and</strong> 1.298 Q.ilex seedlings too.<br />
As a rule, holm oak presents more resprouting capacity than oak (Mann Whitney test, Z=-7,399,<br />
p
F.J. Gómez et al. 2010. L<strong>and</strong> use changes <strong>and</strong> mixed forest dynamics. The case of Montiferru Mountains<br />
374<br />
related to adult trees presence (Mann Whitney test for Qp Z=-0,775, p= 0,4385; <strong>and</strong> for Qi Z=-<br />
1,587, p=0,1124). For l<strong>and</strong> use regimes, differences between areas in terms of seedlings/plot<br />
ratios are significant (Kruskal-Wallis test for Qp, H=4,476, df=3, p
F.J. Gómez et al. 2010. L<strong>and</strong> use changes <strong>and</strong> mixed forest dynamics. The case of Montiferru Mountains<br />
375<br />
increase of deciduous oaks populations regarding decades ago. In terms of global change<br />
(Peñuelas et al 2007) <strong>and</strong> assuming the uncertainty linked to the complexity of the phenomenon,<br />
it could indicate competitive exclusion episodes of deciduous oaks as shift biome processes.<br />
In conclusion, the analysis of driving forces of l<strong>and</strong> use & cover process highlights limiting<br />
factors <strong>and</strong> conservation risks <strong>and</strong> make it clear the need to integrate l<strong>and</strong> use as an active<br />
management tool to maintain Mediterranean mountain l<strong>and</strong>scapes <strong>and</strong> its biodiversity. However,<br />
in actual global change scenario more future researches are necessary to improve our knowledge<br />
about biodiversity responses, especially to l<strong>and</strong> use <strong>and</strong> climate change components, as a way to<br />
guarantee its conservation.<br />
References<br />
Agnoletti, M., 2003. Bosques e industria de la Madera en Italia, de la unificación al fascismo<br />
(1861-1940). In J.A.Sebastián <strong>and</strong> R. Uriarte (Eds): Historia y economía del bosque en la<br />
Europa del Sur (s. XVIII-XX). Zaragoza: Monografías de Historia Rural. Seminario de<br />
Historia Agraria. Prensas Universitarias de Zaragoza.<br />
Barbero, M. Bonin, G. Loisel, R. Quézel, P., 1990. <strong>Change</strong>s <strong>and</strong> disturbances of forest<br />
ecosystems caused by human activities in the western part of the Mediterranean basin.<br />
Vegetatio, 87:151-173.<br />
Barbour, M.G. Burk, J.H. Pitts, W.D.,1987. Terrestrial Plant Ecology. Benjamin/Cummings<br />
Menlo Park, California.<br />
Beccu, E., 2000. Tra cronaca e storia le vicende del patrimonio boschivo della Sardegna. Carlo<br />
Delfino Editore. Roma.<br />
Folke, C. Carpenter, S. Walker, B. Scheffer, M. Elmqvist, T. Gunderson, L. Holling, C.S., 2004.<br />
Regime shifts, resilience, <strong>and</strong> biodiversity in ecosystem management. Annu. Rev. Ecol.<br />
Syst, 34 :557-581.<br />
Gamisans, J., 1977. La végétation des montagnes corses. Quatrième partie. Phytocoenologia,<br />
4(3): 317-376.<br />
IUFRO Silva Term database (on web). http://www.iufro.org/science/special/silvavoc/silvaterm/<br />
Lomolino, M.V., 2000. A call for a new paradigm of isl<strong>and</strong> biogeography. <strong>Global</strong> Ecology <strong>and</strong><br />
Biogeography, 9:1-6.<br />
Mura, B., 1995. La popolazione in Sardegna. Dati e proiezioni dal 1962 al 2000.Vol IV. Num.<br />
7. Osservatorio Economico e Finanziario della Sardegna.Oristano<br />
Naveh, Z., 2000. What is holistic l<strong>and</strong>scape ecology A conceptual introduction. L<strong>and</strong>scape <strong>and</strong><br />
Urban Planning, 50:7-26.<br />
Perry, D.A., 1998. The scientific basis of forestry. Annual Review of Ecology <strong>and</strong> Systematics,<br />
29:435-466.<br />
Peñuelas, J. Ogaya, R. Boada, M. Jump. A.S., 2007. Migration, invasion <strong>and</strong> decline: changes in<br />
recruitment <strong>and</strong> forest structure in a warming-linked shift of European beech forest in<br />
Catalonia (NE Spain). Ecography, 30(6): 829-837.<br />
Pons, A. Quézel, P., 1985. The history of flora <strong>and</strong> vegetation <strong>and</strong> past <strong>and</strong> present human<br />
disturbance in the Mediterranean area. In C.Gómez-Campo (Ed). Plant conservation in<br />
the Mediterranean area. Dordrecht: Junk Pub.<br />
Rudel, T.K. Coomes, O.T. Moran, E. Achard, F. Angelsen, A. Xu, J. Lambin, E., 2005. <strong>Forest</strong><br />
transitions: towards a global underst<strong>and</strong>ing of l<strong>and</strong> use change. <strong>Global</strong> Environmental<br />
<strong>Change</strong>, 15:23-31.<br />
Suc, J.P., 1984, Origin <strong>and</strong> evolution of the Mediterranean vegetation <strong>and</strong> climate in Europe.<br />
Nature 307(5950): 429-432.<br />
Tuner II, B.L. Gómez-Sal, A. González-Bernáldez, F. Di Castri, F. (Eds), 1995. <strong>Global</strong> L<strong>and</strong><br />
Use <strong>Change</strong>. A perspective from the Columbia Encounter. CSIC. Madrid.<br />
Vitousek, P.M. Money, H.A. Lubchenco, J. Melillo, J.M., 1997. Human domination of Earth’s<br />
ecosystems. Science, 277: 494-499.<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
M.L. Leite & J.S.V. Filho2010. Analysis of rainfall in the Vila Velha State Park, State of Parana, Southern Brazil<br />
376<br />
Analysis of rainfall in the Vila Velha State Park, State of Parana,<br />
Southern Brazil, in the period between 1954 <strong>and</strong> 2001<br />
Maysa de Lima Leite 1* & Jorim Sousa das Virgens Filho 2<br />
1 Departamento de Biologia Geral, Universidade Estadual de Ponta Grossa, Av. Carlos<br />
Cavalcanti, 4748, 84.030-900, Paraná, Brazil<br />
2 Departamento de Matemática e Estatística, Universidade Estadual de Ponta Grossa,<br />
Paraná, Brazil<br />
Abstract<br />
The aim of this study was to perform a temporal analysis involving frequency, intensity <strong>and</strong><br />
variability of rainfall for the city of Ponta Grossa, between 1954 <strong>and</strong> 2001. Data of daily rainfall<br />
(mm) were analyzed <strong>and</strong> obtained from the Meteorological Station, situated in the area of the<br />
State Park of Vila Velha, Paraná State, Southern Brazil. The Park constitutes a Conservation<br />
Unit with a total area of 3122.11 hectares <strong>and</strong> presents vegetation of open grassl<strong>and</strong> <strong>and</strong><br />
scattered clumps of forest, with the focus on the Paraná Pine (Araucaria angustifolia). The<br />
annual average rainfall observed for the series was 1546.2 mm, revealing a growing trend over<br />
the years. The month with the highest average rainfall was January <strong>and</strong> the lowest average was<br />
observed in August. Summer was the most rainy season, including the highest number of days<br />
with rain. The range of “drizzle” showed the highest frequency in all months.<br />
Keywords: temporal analysis, intensity, variability, rainfall.<br />
1. Introduction<br />
Rainfall is one of the meteorological elements that most influence on environmental conditions<br />
<strong>and</strong> has a great importance because it is directly related to many sectors of the society, since the<br />
rainfall affects the economy, the environment <strong>and</strong> the society as a whole (Silva et al., 2007).<br />
The spatial-temporal distribution of rainfall is a very important regional characteristic, both for<br />
society <strong>and</strong> for the economy. Knowledge of this feature can guide decisions on the measures<br />
necessary to minimize the damage from irregular rainfall (Piccinini, 1993 apud Minuzzi et al.,<br />
2007). According to Nery et al. (2002 apud Nery et al., 2004), information about the number of<br />
days with rainfall are useful both in agricultural planning in a short-term (which agronomic<br />
practices for soil <strong>and</strong>/or air moisture are conditioning factors), as a long-term conditions<br />
(definitions of regions <strong>and</strong> times most suitable for the sowing of crops <strong>and</strong>/or for maintenance<br />
of perennial species). To Assis (1991 apud Ribeiro <strong>and</strong> Lunardi, 1997), the frequency, i.e. the<br />
number of days within a month or season in which rainfall occurs, perhaps is the most important<br />
aspect in relation to rain for vegetation in general, besides quantity <strong>and</strong> variability. The<br />
objective of this study was to evaluate the frequency <strong>and</strong> intensity of rainfall from the<br />
Meteorological Station located in the Vila Velha State Park, near the city of Ponta Grossa, State<br />
of Parana, Southern Brazil, over the period of 1954 to 2001.<br />
* Corresponding author. Tel.: +55 (42) 3220 3126 Fax: +55 (42) 3220-3102<br />
Email address: mleite@uepg.br<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
M.L. Leite & J.S.V. Filho2010. Analysis of rainfall in the Vila Velha State Park, State of Parana, Southern Brazil<br />
377<br />
2. Methodology<br />
Daily rainfall data (mm) were obtained from the Meteorological Station, belonging to the<br />
Instituto Agronômico do Paraná (IAPAR), located in the State Park of Vila Velha, on the<br />
geographical coordinates of 25°13'S, 50°01' W <strong>and</strong> 880 m of altitude. The data were collected<br />
from January 1954 to December 2001, constituting a series of 48 years. The State Park of Vila<br />
Velha, has an area of 3,122.11 hectares <strong>and</strong> is situated in the city of Ponta Grossa, State of<br />
Paraná, Southern Brazil (see Figure 1). The main access is the BR-376, an important road<br />
junction that connects the shores, Curitiba (the State capital) <strong>and</strong> the North of the Paraná State.<br />
Ponta Grossa is located in the Second Parana Plateau <strong>and</strong> is situated in an area of grassl<strong>and</strong><br />
(short grass steppe) with clumps of forest of Araucaria. Because of this phytogeographical<br />
feature, the region where Ponta Grossa is located is called the Campos Gerais Region of Paraná<br />
State (Maack, 1981). Initially, the daily rainfall data were subjected to screening <strong>and</strong> assessment<br />
of consistency of time series. To assess whether there was any particular trend related to the<br />
annual totals of rainfall, there was used the concept of moving average, calculated by cycles of<br />
five years. After that, it was proceeded the frequency analisys of the days with rain in each<br />
month of the series. The days with climatological drought (Leaves & Fisch, 2006) were<br />
excluded <strong>and</strong> the remaining data were divided into class intervals of rainfall. From there, they<br />
were classified in relation to the intensity of cumulative daily rainfall as: drizzle (0.1 to 2.5 mm),<br />
light rain (2.5 to 10.0 mm), moderate rain (10.0 to 25.0 mm), heavy rain (from 25.0 to 50.0 mm)<br />
<strong>and</strong> extreme rain (above 50 mm) (Calvetti et. al., 2006). It was also evaluated the annual totals<br />
of rainfall <strong>and</strong> annual totals of days with rain <strong>and</strong> climatological drought.<br />
Figure 1: Location of Vila Velha State Park<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
M.L. Leite & J.S.V. Filho2010. Analysis of rainfall in the Vila Velha State Park, State of Parana, Southern Brazil<br />
378<br />
3. Result<br />
Figure 2 shows the annual totals of rainfall (mm) for the city of Ponta Grossa (PR) from 1954<br />
to 2001. It is observed that the year with the higher total of rainfall was 1998 with 2494 mm,<br />
<strong>and</strong> the year with the lowest total was 1985, with 910.3 mm. For the series studied, it was<br />
obtained an annual average total of rainfall of 1546.2 mm. The estimate of the moving average<br />
for the total annual rainfall, considering cycles of five years throughout the series, evidenced the<br />
existence of a positive trend over the annual totals of rainfall, as explained by the regression line<br />
with the time variable (r 2 = 0.5264 ). The graph in Figure 1 also shows the alternation between<br />
high <strong>and</strong> low annual totals of rainfall, which can partly be explained by the occurence of El<br />
Niño <strong>and</strong> La Niña. Analyzing the data in a monthly scale, it can be observed that the month with<br />
the highest average rainfall was January (185.4 mm) <strong>and</strong> the month with the lowest average was<br />
August (78.9 mm). Considering the occurrence of rain, the year 1983 was the year with more<br />
rainy days (168 days), while 1968 was the year that had the lowest total of days with rain (only<br />
73 days). The average for the studied period was 126 days with rain per year, showing also a<br />
tendency to increase this number of days in the course of time.<br />
Rainfall (mm)<br />
2700<br />
2500<br />
2300<br />
2100<br />
1900<br />
1700<br />
1500<br />
1300<br />
1100<br />
900<br />
1635<br />
1638<br />
1504<br />
1432<br />
2080 1302 1308<br />
1731<br />
1578<br />
968<br />
925<br />
Annual totals of rainfall (mm)<br />
r² = 0,5264<br />
1537<br />
1420<br />
1637<br />
1701<br />
1539<br />
1515<br />
1381 2217 1362<br />
2055<br />
1532<br />
1567<br />
1605<br />
1330<br />
1301<br />
1180<br />
910<br />
1927<br />
2494<br />
1839<br />
1415<br />
2000<br />
1800<br />
1600<br />
1400<br />
1200<br />
1000<br />
800<br />
600<br />
400<br />
200<br />
0<br />
Rainfall (mm) - Moving Average<br />
Total rainfall (mm) Moving average - 5 years Linear (Moving average - 5 years)<br />
Figure 2. Annual totals <strong>and</strong> moving averages of rainfall (mm) over the period of 1954 to 2001.<br />
On Table 1, which classifies the rainfall intensity, it can be seen the percentage that each class<br />
interval represents, over the total number of days with rainfall, for each month of the year. The<br />
predominant class interval throughout the year is light rain (2.5 - 10.0 mm accumulated in a<br />
day), being the most frequent during nine months of the year, ranging from 29.46% attendance<br />
in June to 33.66 % in March. The range of drizzle (0.1 - 2.5 mm) was more frequent in April<br />
(30.08%) <strong>and</strong> the range of moderate rainfall (10 - 25 mm) was the most frequent in October<br />
(29.76%). In May, drizzle <strong>and</strong> light rain had the same percentage (29.11%). The range of heavy<br />
rain (25 - 50 mm) ranged from 8.73% of frequency in November to 14.79% in April. With<br />
respect to the rain considered extreme (over 50 mm a day), it was observed that this range was<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
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379<br />
less frequent in all months, exceeding 5% frequency only in May (5.57%) <strong>and</strong> with the lowest<br />
frequency in February (1.18%).<br />
Table 1. Percentage corresponding to the class intervals of rainfall over the total number of days with<br />
rainfall for each month analyzed. CRI = Classification of Rainfall Intensity; RI = Rainfall Intensity.<br />
CRI RI (mm) J (%) F (%) M (%) A (%) M (%) J (%)<br />
Drizzle 0,1 ├ 2,5 28,47 28,11 31,23 30,08 29,11 26,73<br />
Light rain 2,5 ├ 10,0 31,11 32,25 33,66 27,57 29,11 29,46<br />
Moderate rain 10,0 ├ 25,0 25,42 26,18 23,14 25,81 24,05 25,50<br />
Heavy rain 25,0 ├ 50,0 11,94 12,28 9,55 14,79 12,15 13,37<br />
Extreme rain > 50,0 3,06 1,18 2,43 1,75 5,57 4,95<br />
TOTAL 100,00 100,00 100,00 100,00 100,00 100,00<br />
CRI RI (mm) J (%) A (%) S (%) O (%) N (%) D (%)<br />
Drizzle 0,1 ├ 2,5 25,78 27,11 22,45 24,86 26,79 28,34<br />
Light rain 2,5 ├ 10,0 33,14 32,23 33,06 28,49 32,14 31,76<br />
Moderate rain 10,0 ├ 25,0 24,65 26,51 26,94 29,76 30,16 26,87<br />
Heavy rain 25,0 ├ 50,0 12,46 12,35 14,29 13,97 8,73 9,77<br />
Extreme rain > 50,0 3,97 1,81 3,27 2,90 2,18 3,26<br />
TOTAL 100,00 100,00 100,00 100,00 100,00 100,00<br />
4. Discussion<br />
The phenomenon called El Niño Southern Oscillation (ENSO), considered as the main cause of<br />
climate variability in various regions of the globe is a phenomenon of ocean-atmosphere<br />
interaction that occurs in the tropical Pacific Ocean <strong>and</strong> has two extreme phases: a warm phase<br />
known as El Niño <strong>and</strong> a cold phase called La Niña (Berlato & Fontana, 2003). Among the<br />
consequences of El Niño, is the increase in rainfall in southern South America, reaching<br />
catastrophic proportions, as occurred in 1983 <strong>and</strong> 1998. In those years, there were registered the<br />
two largest annual totals of rainfall in the series studied in Ponta Grossa (2494 mm in 1998 <strong>and</strong><br />
2217 mm in 1983). The other three largest totals of rainfall (2080.1 mm in 1957, 2071.1 mm in<br />
1993 <strong>and</strong> 2054.7 mm in 1990) also occurred in El Niño years, although that the event was not as<br />
strong as in 1983 <strong>and</strong> 1998. Furthermore, the La Niña phenomenon, opposite to El Niño, which<br />
corresponds to the anomalous cooling of surface waters in the equatorial Pacific, Central <strong>and</strong><br />
Eastern, may explain the lowest rainfall observed in the series studied (910.3 mm in 1985).<br />
From the st<strong>and</strong>point of hydrology, rainfall up to 10 mm have little impact, except to moisten the<br />
soil to the point of reaching its field capacity, increasing the efficiency of runoff into rivers.<br />
Despite of the reduced frequency observed, the “very heavy” rains can cause further damage<br />
such as l<strong>and</strong>slides, floods, etc.. as a result of the use <strong>and</strong> occupation of l<strong>and</strong>. It is very important<br />
to make a suitable plan for l<strong>and</strong> use, paying particular attention to areas of risk, as close to river<br />
banks or slopes, which are greatly affected sites when it rains heavily. The uncertainty related to<br />
global changes connected to precipitation, originated from natural phenomenas <strong>and</strong>/or<br />
anthropogenic activities, makes it currently impossible to establish categorically the effects of<br />
climate change on ecosystems <strong>and</strong> on agricultural activities more broadly. Nevertheless, studies<br />
on various scales, including regional scale, will enable the underst<strong>and</strong>ing of how natural<br />
ecosystems can respond <strong>and</strong> adapt to these climatic variability, becoming an increasingly<br />
urgent need. Identified potential vulnerabilities, one should start the search for strategies <strong>and</strong><br />
technologies for adaptation, including taking advantage of possible climate changes that may be<br />
considered beneficial.<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
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380<br />
Acknowlegments<br />
The authors thank to the Instituto Agronômico do Paraná (IAPAR) for the authorization to<br />
access the rainfall data, <strong>and</strong> to the SETI – Fundação Araucaria, by the research support.<br />
References<br />
Berlato, M.A. <strong>and</strong> Fontana, D.C., 2003, El Niño e La Niña: impactos no clima, na vegetação e<br />
na agricultura do Rio Gr<strong>and</strong>e do Sul; aplicações de previsões climáticas na agricultura.<br />
Porto Alegre: Editora da UFRGS. 110 p.<br />
Calvetti, L., Beneti, C., Gonçalves, J.E., Moreira, I.A., Duquia, C., BREDA, A., ALVES, T.A.,<br />
2006. Definição de classes de precipitação para utilização em previsões por categoria e<br />
hidrológica. In: Congresso Brasileiro de Meteorologia, 14, Florianópolis, Anais...<br />
Florianópolis, SBMet.:100-105.<br />
Folhes, M.T., Fisch, G., 2006. Caracterização climática e estudo de tendências nas séries<br />
temporais de temperatura do ar e precipitação em Taubaté (SP). Revista Ambiente e Água –<br />
An interdisciplinary journal of Applied Science, 1, n. 1: 61-71.<br />
Maack, R. Geografia física do Estado do Paraná, 1981. 2. ed. Rio de Janeiro: J. Olympio;<br />
Curitiba: Secretaria da Cultura e do Esporte do Governo do Estado do Paraná, 450 p.<br />
Minuzzi, R.B., Sediyama, G.C., Barbosa, E.M., Melo Júnior, J.C.F., 2007. Climatologia do<br />
comportamento do período chuvoso da Região Sudeste do Brasil. Revista Brasileira de<br />
Meteorologia, Rio de Janeiro, 22, n. 3: 338-344.<br />
Nery, J.T., Martins, M.L.O.F., Roseghini, W.F.F., Roseghini, F.F., 2004. Variabilidade da<br />
precipitação pluvial e disponibilidade hídrica na Região Noroeste do Estado do Paraná.<br />
Revista Brasileira de Agrometeorologia, Santa Maria, 12, n. 2: 289-297.<br />
Ribeiro, A.M.A., Lunardi, D.M.C.,1997. A precipitação mensal provável para Londrina – PR,<br />
através da função Gama. Energia na Agricultura, Botucatu, 12, n. 4: 37-44.<br />
Silva, J.C., Heldwein, A.B., Martins, F.B., Trentin, G., Grimm, E.L., 2007. Análise de<br />
distribuição de chuva para Santa Maria, RS. Revista Brasileira de Engenharia Agrícola e<br />
Ambiental, Campina Gr<strong>and</strong>e, 11, n. 1: 67–72.<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
M.L.Leite & J.S.V. Filho 2010. Identification of climatic trends for some localities in the Southern Region of Campos Gerais<br />
381<br />
Identification of climatic trends for some localities in the Southern<br />
Region of Campos Gerais <strong>and</strong> surroundings, State of Parana, Brazil,<br />
through the analysis of historical data of rainfall <strong>and</strong> temperature<br />
Maysa de Lima Leite 1* & Jorim Sousa das Virgens Filho 2<br />
1 Departamento de Biologia Geral, Universidade Estadual de Ponta Grossa, Av. Carlos<br />
Cavalcanti, 4748, 84.030-900, Paraná, Brazil<br />
2 Departamento de Matemática e Estatística, Universidade Estadual de Ponta Grossa,<br />
Paraná, Brazil<br />
Abstract<br />
This study aimed to assess possible changes in climate localities in the southern region of<br />
Campos Gerais (Fern<strong>and</strong>es Pinheiro, Lapa, Ponta Grossa), Parana, Brazil. The forest vegetation<br />
occupies 22% of the area of Campos Gerais, including different types <strong>and</strong> successional stages.<br />
These forests are naturally fragmented, forming isolated groves of various sizes <strong>and</strong> extensions,<br />
located on the slopes, small depressions or tracks that come in rivers, streams <strong>and</strong> springs. To<br />
investigate possible changes in climate, daily temperature <strong>and</strong> precipitation data were analyzed,<br />
by the use of Mann-Kendall test. Data analysis revealed an increase in average <strong>and</strong> minimum<br />
temperatures in the three localities. For the maximum temperature, the city of Ponta Grossa<br />
showed negative trend, a fact explained by the increase in cloudiness in the region. For the<br />
rainfall data, the city of Ponta Grossa <strong>and</strong> Fern<strong>and</strong>es Pinheiro showed a positive trend, while for<br />
the city of Lapa, it was negative.<br />
Keywords :precipitation, temperature, climatic trends<br />
1. Introduction<br />
The climate is characterized by the interaction between various climatic variables, especially<br />
among precipitation <strong>and</strong> temperature. Both are closely related <strong>and</strong> these changes may cause<br />
major changes in regional climate. There are few studies on long-term variability of extreme<br />
weather <strong>and</strong> climate in Brazil <strong>and</strong> South America. In addition, studies in some regions of Brazil,<br />
or in the rest of South America, have used different methodologies, which does not allows<br />
intercomparisons or geographical integration. The lack of meteorological information of good<br />
quality related to daily series in large areas of Brazil, <strong>and</strong> the very restricted access to daily<br />
weather information stored in databases of meteorological services, have not allowed<br />
identification of climatic extremes <strong>and</strong> their variability, especially in tropical South America. To<br />
the South of Brazil <strong>and</strong> Northern Argentina, the works of Marengo <strong>and</strong> Camargo (2006) <strong>and</strong><br />
Rusticucci <strong>and</strong> Barruc<strong>and</strong> (2004) showed negative trends in diurnal temperature range due to<br />
positive trends registered in minimum temperature. They also observed an increased frequency<br />
of hot days in winter. Compared to the air temperature, a larger number of studies of trends in<br />
precipitation have been developed due to the greater availability of data on rainfall than<br />
temperature. Groisman et al. (2005) found positive trends of systematic increases of rainfall <strong>and</strong><br />
extremes of rainfall in the subtropical region, in the South <strong>and</strong> Northeast of Brazil. The authors<br />
considered that the Southeast, since 1940, has shown systematic increases in the frequency of<br />
heavy rainfall, up almost 58% in recent years. This study aimed to examine the climatological<br />
* Corresponding author. Tel.: +55 (42) 3220 3126 - Fax: +55 (42) 3220 3102<br />
Email address: mleite@uepg.br<br />
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Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
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382<br />
variables, temperature <strong>and</strong> precipitation <strong>and</strong> check for possible changes <strong>and</strong> climate trends<br />
observed in the cities of Fern<strong>and</strong>es Pinheiro, Lapa <strong>and</strong> Ponta Grossa, Southern of the Campos<br />
Gerais Region <strong>and</strong> surroundings, State of Parana, Brazil.<br />
2. Methodology<br />
The cities of Ponta Grossa <strong>and</strong> Lapa are located in the phytogeographical region known as<br />
Campos Gerais of Paraná, while Fern<strong>and</strong>es Pinheiro is located in a surrounding area, Paraná<br />
State, Southern Brazil. These cities are represented on the map in Figure 1.<br />
Figure 1 – Location of the cities: Fern<strong>and</strong>es Pinheiro, Lapa <strong>and</strong> Ponta Grossa, State of Parana, Southern<br />
Brazil.<br />
The region of Campos Gerais holds unique l<strong>and</strong>scapes such as escarpments, caves, canyons,<br />
rivers with rocky beds, waterfalls, ruiniform reliefs, remarkable displays of rocks <strong>and</strong> fossils<br />
<strong>and</strong> diverse floral species. The forest vegetation occupies about 22% of the area of Campos<br />
Gerais, including different types <strong>and</strong> successional stages. Such forests have been naturally<br />
fragmented, forming isolated copses of various sizes <strong>and</strong> extensions, located on the slopes,<br />
small depressions or in b<strong>and</strong>s accompanying rivers, creeks <strong>and</strong> springs. However, the<br />
occupation of areas previously considered unproductive, the rise of mechanized agriculture <strong>and</strong><br />
the use areas for the production of wood, have become factors that could cause preoccupation,<br />
<strong>and</strong> cause, over time, major changes in the regional ecosystem, requiring studies of diverse<br />
natures. The data used in this study were provided by the Instituto Agronômico do Paraná<br />
(IAPAR) <strong>and</strong> consisted of records of the climatological variables temperature (maximum,<br />
minimum <strong>and</strong> average) (ºC) <strong>and</strong> precipitation (mm). Initially, the daily data were subjected to<br />
screening <strong>and</strong> assessment of consistency of time series <strong>and</strong> then arranged in annual, quarterly<br />
<strong>and</strong> monthly series. The nonparametric test of Mann-Kendall, initially proposed by Sneyers<br />
(1975), was applied in a significance level of 0.05 <strong>and</strong> 0.01%, in order to identify possible<br />
climate changes over time, which could be presented as positive or negative trends within the<br />
period analyzed. The data series have different durations for each city <strong>and</strong> location details can<br />
be found in Table 1.<br />
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383<br />
Table 1 . Length of series <strong>and</strong> location of the municipalities of Fern<strong>and</strong>es Pinheiro, Lapa <strong>and</strong> Ponta<br />
Grossa – State of Parana, Brazil.<br />
City Latitude Longitude Altitude (m) Series<br />
Fern<strong>and</strong>es<br />
Pinheiro<br />
Number of<br />
years<br />
-25°27’ -50°35’ 893 1963-2007 45<br />
Lapa -25°47’ -49°46’ 910 1989-2007 19<br />
Ponta Grossa -25°13’ -50°01’ 880 1954-2001 48<br />
3. Result<br />
The climatological data were analyzed with the nonparametric Mann-Kendall test, producing<br />
the results shown in Table 2.<br />
Table 2 . Results of the Mann-Kendall Test applied on the climatological data of rainfall <strong>and</strong> temperature<br />
in the cities of Fern<strong>and</strong>es Pinheiro, Lapa <strong>and</strong> Ponta Grossa, State of Parana, Brazil.<br />
Localidade Variável Teste de Mann-<br />
Kendall (U calculado)<br />
0,05% de<br />
significância<br />
0,01% de<br />
significância<br />
Fern<strong>and</strong>es Precip itação 0,35 NS NS<br />
Pinheiro<br />
Fern<strong>and</strong>es Temperatura<br />
3,30 S S<br />
Pinheiro Máxima<br />
Fern<strong>and</strong>es Temperatura<br />
5,81 S S<br />
Pinheiro Média<br />
Fern<strong>and</strong>es Temperatura<br />
5,38 S S<br />
Pinheiro Mínima<br />
Lapa Precip itação -1,92 NS NS<br />
Lapa<br />
Lapa<br />
Lapa<br />
Ponta<br />
Grossa<br />
Ponta<br />
Grossa<br />
Ponta<br />
Grossa<br />
Ponta<br />
Grossa<br />
Temperatura<br />
Máxima<br />
2,41 S NS<br />
Temperatura<br />
2,27 S NS<br />
Média<br />
Temperatura<br />
2,27 S NS<br />
Mínima<br />
Precip itação 2,06 S NS<br />
Temperatura<br />
Máxima<br />
Temperatura<br />
Média<br />
Temperatura<br />
Mínima<br />
-3,18 S S<br />
1,88 NS NS<br />
4,85 S S<br />
With respect to the rainfall data, a positive trend was observed for the city of Ponta Grossa,<br />
while for the other two cities, the results were not estatistically significant. For temperatures<br />
(maximum, average <strong>and</strong> minimum), significant trends were detected for all the cities, at least<br />
with 0.05% of significance. For the maximum temperature there was a positive trend for the<br />
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384<br />
cities of Lapa <strong>and</strong> Fern<strong>and</strong>es Pinheiro, the latter being significant at 0.01%, while for the city of<br />
Ponta Grossa, the maximum temperature had a significant negative trend of 0.01%. For<br />
minimum temperature, all the cities had significant positive trends, showing a rise in the<br />
minimum temperature in the region. These results of a temperature rise in the southern region of<br />
Campos Gerais, in the State of Parana, is reinforced by analyzing the average temperature in the<br />
three localities, which showed positive trends. Finally, for the city of Ponta Grossa, in despite of<br />
having observed an average temperature rise, this was not significant for the studied period.<br />
4. Discussion<br />
According to Silva (2004) the rainfall in southern Brazil are distributed regularly throughout the<br />
year, compared to other regions of the country, but in recent years the phenomenon El Nino has<br />
served continuously in this region. This climatic phenomenon, when actuates, significantly<br />
alters the levels of rainfall, which are increased during the year. Whereas this phenomenon has<br />
been acting steadily in the region, the increase in the totals of annual rainfall <strong>and</strong> the positive<br />
trend observed for the city of Ponta Grossa may be correlated with the performance of such a<br />
frequent phenomenon in the region. Back (2001) also found elevated totals of annual rainfall for<br />
the city of Urussanga, State of Santa Catarina, identifying a significant positive trend. The<br />
decrease of the maximum temperature in Ponta Grossa, along with higher minimum temperature,<br />
can be partially explained as a consequence of increased cloudiness in the region. Due to this<br />
rise in the levels of cloudiness during the day, a smaller amount of sunlight can reach the earth's<br />
surface, occurring a decrease in maximum temperature. During the night, with lots of clouds,<br />
there is greater retention of radiation, complicating its loss to space, thereby increasing the<br />
minimum temperature at location (Silva & Guetter, 2003). In a previous study, Silveira & Gam<br />
(2006), analyzing changes in minimum temperatures in southern Brazil, found that the<br />
minimum temperature in the state of Rio Gr<strong>and</strong>e do Sul also showed a positive trend over the<br />
study period under review. The same increases were verified by Obregon & Marengo (2007),<br />
which developed a major study on climate throughout the Brazilian territory, in order to<br />
determine possible changes in climate variables. In this study the annual minimum temperatures<br />
in the city of Curitiba, Brazil, showed a significant positive trend at 0.05%, reinforcing the<br />
findings of elevated temperatures in the State of Parana. One reason for this increase in<br />
temperatures can also be correlated to the increase in the totals of areas destinated to<br />
urbanization in the last years (Sansigolo et al., 1992). In some regions, deforestation <strong>and</strong><br />
changes in l<strong>and</strong> use, as a result of human activities have increased rapidly in recent decades, <strong>and</strong><br />
there are evidences that these actions can modify the thermodynamic characteristics of the<br />
lower atmosphere. These changes are the result of complex interactions between climate,<br />
hydrology, vegetation <strong>and</strong> management of water resources <strong>and</strong> l<strong>and</strong>.<br />
Acknowlegments<br />
The authors thank to the Instituto Agronômico do Paraná (IAPAR) for the authorization to<br />
access the rainfall data, <strong>and</strong> to the SETI – Fundação Araucaria, by the research support.<br />
References<br />
Back, J.A., 2001. Aplicação de análise estatística para a identificação de tendências climáticas.<br />
Pesq. Agropec. Bras., 36, n. 5: 717-726.<br />
Groisman, P., Knight, R., Easterling, D., Karl, T., Hegerl, G., Razuvaev, V., 2005. Trends in<br />
tense precipitation in the climate record. Journal of Climate, 18: 1326-1350.<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
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Marengo, J., Alves, L., Camargo, H., 2005. An overview of global climate predictability at<br />
seasonal to interannual time scales. <strong>Global</strong> Energy <strong>and</strong> Water Cycle Experiment -<br />
GEWEX Newsletter, 15, n. 4: 5-7.<br />
Obregon, G. & Marengo, J.A., 2007. Caracterização do clima no século XX no Brasil:<br />
Tendências de chuvas e temperaturas médias extremas. CPTEC/INPE, 4: 1-3.<br />
Rusticucci, M., Barruc<strong>and</strong>, M., 2004: Observed trends <strong>and</strong> changes in temperature extremes<br />
over Argentina. Journal of Climate, 17: 4099-4107.<br />
Sansigolo, C., Rodriguez, R., Chichury, P., 1992. Tendências nas temperaturas médias do Brasil.<br />
In: Congresso Brasileiro de Meteorologia, 7, São Paulo. Anais. São Paulo: 367-371.<br />
Silva, M.E.S. & Guetter, A.K., 2003. Mudanças Climáticas regionais observadas no estado do<br />
Paraná. Terra Livre., 1, n. 20: 111-126.<br />
Silva, I.R., 2001. Variabilidade sazonal e interanual das precipitações na região sul do Brasil<br />
associadas às temperaturas dos oceanos Atlântico e Pacífico. São José dos Campos,<br />
SP: INPE, 98p.<br />
Silveira, V.P. & Gam, M.A., 2006. Estudo de tendências das temperaturas mínimas na Região<br />
Sul do Brasil. In: Congresso Brasileiro de Meteorologia, 14, Florianópolis. Anais.<br />
Florianópolis: 189-195.<br />
Sneyers, R. Sur l.analyse statistique des series d.observations, 1975. Genève : Organisation<br />
Météorologique Mondial, (OMM Note Technique, 143), 192 p.<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
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Monitoring vulnerability of the Spanish forest l<strong>and</strong>scapes: the<br />
SISPARES approach<br />
Marta Ortega 1* , Valentín Gomez 1 , Jose Manuel García del Barrio 2 & Ramon Elena-<br />
Rosselló 1<br />
1 University School of <strong>Forest</strong> Technical Engineers, Polytechnic University of Madrid,<br />
Spain<br />
2 National Institute of Research <strong>and</strong> Agrarian <strong>and</strong> Food Technology, Madrid, Spain<br />
Abstract<br />
SISPARES is a system devoted to study the ecological evolution of the Spanish Rural<br />
<strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> including their characterisation, classification, <strong>and</strong> recent past <strong>and</strong> future changes. It<br />
is based on a sampling network of 215 permanent 4x4 km plots surveyed by using aerial<br />
photographs of three dates: 1956, 1984 <strong>and</strong> 1998. Currently, a new survey is going on. The<br />
network design was based on an environmental stratification of Spain well linked to the<br />
European Environmental Stratification.<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> L<strong>and</strong>scape Vulnerability (FLV) is defined as the risk of human disturbance, especially<br />
forest fires. We assessed FLV using an index based on <strong>Forest</strong> L<strong>and</strong>scape Fragility (FLF)<br />
weighted by Road Accessibility. FLF is defined as the risk of l<strong>and</strong>scape disturbance caused by a<br />
high degree of interspersion <strong>and</strong> juxtaposition between patches of forest <strong>and</strong> non forest l<strong>and</strong><br />
uses: The non forest l<strong>and</strong> uses, such urban, crop <strong>and</strong> managed grassl<strong>and</strong>, are considered as<br />
potential sources of human disturbances, for the forest l<strong>and</strong> use patches, including woodl<strong>and</strong>,<br />
“matorral”, “dehesa”, tree plantation <strong>and</strong> riparian woodl<strong>and</strong>.<br />
From 1956 till 1998, a significant increase of FLV has been observed in SISPARES l<strong>and</strong>scape<br />
plots. This increase is related to the increment of forest fires in Spain during the last 40 years.<br />
Keywords: L<strong>and</strong>scape, monitoring, vulnerability, SISPARES system, Spain<br />
1. Introduction<br />
L<strong>and</strong>scape vulnerability is defined as the risk of severe disturbances <strong>and</strong> could be consider as a<br />
character of l<strong>and</strong>scape patterns (composition <strong>and</strong> configuration). In recent years, l<strong>and</strong>scape<br />
character assessment in Europe has become central to sustainable development <strong>and</strong> the<br />
management of l<strong>and</strong>. It is recognised as an important tool for policy stakeholders, which<br />
provides them with quantitative <strong>and</strong> qualitative evidence to reach a dynamic management,<br />
adjustable to new dem<strong>and</strong>s of regional identity (Washer 2005). But only, Denmark (Nordic<br />
Council of Ministers 1987), Austria (Wrbka et al. 1999) <strong>and</strong> Spain (Elena-Rosselló et al. 2005)<br />
have developed national approaches for delimitation <strong>and</strong> mapping local spatial units on the basis<br />
of a range of l<strong>and</strong>scape features (geophysical, cultural <strong>and</strong> historic, perception <strong>and</strong> aesthetics<br />
<strong>and</strong> natural value) as a basis for vulnerability assessment. However, in many other countries all<br />
over the world, local approaches exist <strong>and</strong> some of them have been specifically designed to<br />
evaluate l<strong>and</strong>scape vulnerability to forest fire (e.g. Preston et al. 2009, Sorrensen 2009). They<br />
are important tools for preventing the risk of forest fire.<br />
* Corresponding author.<br />
Email address: marta.ortega.quero@upm.es<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
M. Ortega et al. 2010. Monitoring vulnerability of the Spanish forest l<strong>and</strong>scapes: the SISPARES approach<br />
387<br />
In Spain, the SISPARES national approach is an ongoing project designed to study the<br />
ecological value <strong>and</strong> dynamics of rural l<strong>and</strong>scapes in Spain, including their characterisation <strong>and</strong><br />
classification (Elena-Rosselló et al. 2005). <strong>Forest</strong> L<strong>and</strong>scape Vulnerability (FLV) is among of<br />
the ecological l<strong>and</strong>scape characteristics assessed <strong>and</strong> then monitored. FLV has been defined as<br />
the “risk of human disturbance” <strong>and</strong> measured as “the interspersion among forested <strong>and</strong> non<br />
forested patches weighted by road accessibility”. According to its definition, we might<br />
hypothesize that FLV is a good indicator of forest fire risk. Therefore, it is necessary to prove<br />
that hypothesis by studying its relationship with forest fire incidence.<br />
This paper compares the FLV values in Spain among 1956 to 1998 with the annual national<br />
burnt area <strong>and</strong> forest fire frequency (Spanish Environmental Ministry 2005) trying to find out<br />
their relationship type. An increase of FLV could be determining a higher number of forest fires<br />
<strong>and</strong>/or an increase of burnt areas.<br />
2. Material <strong>and</strong> methods<br />
The vulnerability of Spanish forest l<strong>and</strong>scapes has been monitored by using the SISPARES<br />
approach which has a stratified simple sampling design based on the Biogeoclimatic L<strong>and</strong><br />
Classification of Spain, known by its acronym CLATERES (Elena-Rossello et al. 1997). This<br />
stratification was constructed using a divisive multivariate classification approach adapted from<br />
the Country Survey l<strong>and</strong> classification system (Bunce et al. 1996a, 1996b, 1996c), applied to<br />
climatic, physiographic <strong>and</strong> geological data. The initial stage was the establishment of a<br />
representative Spanish Rural L<strong>and</strong>scape Network (REDPARES) that has 206 4x4 km squares in<br />
Iberian Peninsula <strong>and</strong> Balearic Isl<strong>and</strong>s. All the squares were surveyed using aerial photographs<br />
at three dates: 1956, 1984 <strong>and</strong> 1998 to derive measurements of 11 major l<strong>and</strong> cover (Table 1). A<br />
new survey is currently in progress to updating the samples by interpretation of air photos from<br />
2007, but the data are not let ready to be presented in this work.<br />
Each square of SISPARES represents the l<strong>and</strong>scape of one geoclimatic class <strong>and</strong> was analysed<br />
by delimiting patches of l<strong>and</strong> cover <strong>and</strong> linear elements of road network from aerial photo<br />
interpretation <strong>and</strong> field surveys during the nineties. The scale of photos is 1:30.000 <strong>and</strong> the<br />
minimum patch size that it has been interpreted is 1 ha. The patches are relatively homogeneous<br />
portions of l<strong>and</strong> that represent different l<strong>and</strong> covers that are adjacent <strong>and</strong> make up the l<strong>and</strong>scape.<br />
Table 1: Types of l<strong>and</strong> cover detected by interpretation of aerial photographs <strong>and</strong> their correspondence<br />
with l<strong>and</strong> cover CORINE classification (EEA 1995)<br />
Type of l<strong>and</strong> cover<br />
CORINE/level<br />
<strong>Forest</strong><br />
Matorral<br />
Dehesa<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> plantation<br />
Pastures<br />
Crops<br />
Riparian woodl<strong>and</strong><br />
Rock<br />
Water body<br />
Urban <strong>and</strong> industrial use<br />
<strong>Forest</strong>/3.1<br />
Shrub <strong>and</strong>/or herbaceous vegetation<br />
associations/3.2<br />
Agro-forestry areas/2.4.4<br />
Young Broad-leave forests/3.1.1. <strong>and</strong> Young<br />
Coniferous forests/3.1.2<br />
Pastures/2.3.1<br />
Arable l<strong>and</strong>/2.1 <strong>and</strong> permanent crops/2.2<br />
Riparian woodl<strong>and</strong>/3.1.1.5<br />
Bare rock/3.3.2<br />
Water bodies/5.1.2<br />
Artificial surfaces/1<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
M. Ortega et al. 2010. Monitoring vulnerability of the Spanish forest l<strong>and</strong>scapes: the SISPARES approach<br />
388<br />
2.1 Data analysis<br />
In each square FLV has been calculated as:<br />
FLV=FLF*RD/100 (1)<br />
Where RD is road density in the square <strong>and</strong> FLF is an index of forest l<strong>and</strong>scape fragility, which<br />
has been calculated as:<br />
FLF=IJI*WFN (2)<br />
Where IJI is an index of interspersion <strong>and</strong> juxtaposition that considers the neighbourhood<br />
relations between patches. Each patch is analysed for adjacency with all other patch types <strong>and</strong><br />
measures the extent to which patch types are interspersed i.e. equally bordering other patch<br />
types. The IJI is a relative index that represents the observed level of interspersion as a<br />
percentage of the maximum possible given the total number of patch types (McGarigal et al.<br />
1995).<br />
m = number of patch types,<br />
(3)<br />
E ik = length of edge between patch type i <strong>and</strong> patch type k.<br />
IJI approaches 0 when the distribution of adjacencies among unique patch types becomes<br />
increasingly uneven. IJI = 100 when all patch types are equally adjacent to all other patch types<br />
(i.e., maximum interspersion <strong>and</strong> juxtaposition.<br />
WFN in equation 2 is the contrast between forest <strong>and</strong> non forest areas in the square <strong>and</strong> is<br />
measured as:<br />
(1-| <strong>Forest</strong> area – Non <strong>Forest</strong> area|)/100 (4)<br />
A l<strong>and</strong>scape square will be more fragile when a higher WFN <strong>and</strong> a higher IJI have.<br />
Besides if the square has a higher road density it will be a high value of vulnerability.<br />
Fragstat software was used to calculate the IJI index. Repeated measures ANOVA was used to<br />
analyse FLV, FLF, IJI, WFN <strong>and</strong> RD of 206 squares of SISPARES in three dates: 1956, 1984<br />
<strong>and</strong> 1998 by means of Statistica softhware.<br />
3. Results <strong>and</strong> discussion<br />
FLV index showed a significant increase in Spain along the study period (F=3.36; p=0.04) as it<br />
is observed in the figure 1. The increase between 1956 <strong>and</strong> 1984 was 2% <strong>and</strong> during the last 24<br />
years of this study period the mean number of forest fires was 3,940 per year (Table 2).<br />
Between 1984 <strong>and</strong> 1998 data, the increase of FLV was 12% more <strong>and</strong> only during these 14<br />
years the mean number of forest fires was 15,844 per year. In the same way the burnt areas were<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
M. Ortega et al. 2010. Monitoring vulnerability of the Spanish forest l<strong>and</strong>scapes: the SISPARES approach<br />
389<br />
near twice over in the second period, mainly caused by the increase in the mean of burnt non<br />
forest areas per year (Table 2).<br />
Per zones, FLV has been higher in northwest of Spain because to a typical complex l<strong>and</strong>scape<br />
structure that provides higher levels of l<strong>and</strong>scape fragility, interspersion of patch types <strong>and</strong><br />
contrast between forest <strong>and</strong> non forest areas (Fig 1a). Lower FLV has been observed in aridity<br />
Figure 1: Monitoring of <strong>Forest</strong> L<strong>and</strong>scape Vulnerability (FLV) in 206 squares of SISPARES approach<br />
along three dates: (a) 1956, (b) 1984 <strong>and</strong> (c) 1998. The point size indicates the value of FLV.<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
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390<br />
zones because to a typical agricultural l<strong>and</strong>scape that determines low fragility, interspersion of<br />
patch types <strong>and</strong> contrasts.<br />
But this framework of 1956 changed with the ab<strong>and</strong>on of crops productions <strong>and</strong> the increase of<br />
forest plantation between 1956 <strong>and</strong> 1984 mainly (Ortega et al., 2008). These changes of l<strong>and</strong><br />
use has produced a decrease of FLF along the study period (F=17.55; p
M. Ortega et al. 2010. Monitoring vulnerability of the Spanish forest l<strong>and</strong>scapes: the SISPARES approach<br />
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over time <strong>Forest</strong> Systems (Investigación Agraria: Sistemas y Recursos <strong>Forest</strong>ales), 17(2),<br />
114-129<br />
Preston, B.L., Brooke, C., Measham, T. G., Smith, T. F. <strong>and</strong> Gorddard, R, 2009. Igniting<br />
change in local government: lessons learned from a bushfire vulnerability assessment.<br />
Mitig Adapt Strateg Glob <strong>Change</strong>, 14: 251–283.<br />
Sorrensen, C., 2009. Potential hazards of l<strong>and</strong> policy: Conservation, rural development <strong>and</strong> fire<br />
use in the Brazilian Amazon. L<strong>and</strong> Use Policy, 26: 782-791.<br />
Spanish Environmental Ministry, 2005. Los incendios forestales de España. Centro de<br />
coordinación de la información nacional sobre incendios forestales. 106 pp.<br />
Wascher, D.M. (ed). 2005. European L<strong>and</strong>scape Character Areas – Typologies, Cartography<br />
<strong>and</strong> Indicators for the Assessment of Sustainable <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong>. Wageningen, The<br />
Netherl<strong>and</strong>s. Alterra Report No.1254, 150 pp.<br />
Wrbka, T., Szerencsits, E., Reiter, K.<strong>and</strong> Plutzar, C. 1999. Which attributes of l<strong>and</strong>scape<br />
structure can be used as indicators for sustainable l<strong>and</strong> use Experiences from alpine <strong>and</strong><br />
lowl<strong>and</strong> l<strong>and</strong>scapes in Austria. In: Kover, P. et al. (Eds) Nature <strong>and</strong> culture in l<strong>and</strong>scape<br />
ecology. Proceedings of the CZ-IALEConference “Present <strong>and</strong> historical nature-culture<br />
interactions in l<strong>and</strong>scapes – experiences for the 3 rd Millennium”. Prague, Charles<br />
University: 80–94.<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
G. Puddu et al. 2010. L<strong>and</strong>scape transformations seen through the historical cartography: Sardinia as case study<br />
392<br />
L<strong>and</strong>scape transformations seen through the historical cartography:<br />
Sardinia as case study<br />
Giuseppe Puddu 1,2* , Raffaele Pelorosso 2 , Federica Gobattoni 2 & Maria Nicolina Ripa 2<br />
1<br />
Monterano Regional Reserve, Canale Monterano, Italy<br />
2 Department of Environmental <strong>and</strong> <strong>Forest</strong>ry (D.A.F.), Tuscia University, Viterbo, Italy<br />
Abstract<br />
L<strong>and</strong> Cover <strong>Change</strong>s are directly linked to l<strong>and</strong>scape transformations due to human activities. In<br />
the last century l<strong>and</strong> changes dynamics have increased just like the attention towards the need of<br />
l<strong>and</strong>scape conservation. L<strong>and</strong>scape, as a collector of “environmental objects <strong>and</strong> relations<br />
existing between them”, can be considered a privileged point of view in order to underst<strong>and</strong> the<br />
territorial dynamics. <strong>Forest</strong>ry systems, as biodiversity collectors, have suffered the biggest<br />
changes in terms of loss/increase of surface. This work regarding Sardinian isl<strong>and</strong>, can be<br />
considered the first one, at this scale, about changes analysis focused on forestry l<strong>and</strong>scape.<br />
Recovering historical cartography, <strong>and</strong> integrating the obtained data with different data-sources,<br />
a new frame is designed to underline the increase of forestry surface. The obtained results could<br />
be a reliable <strong>and</strong> useful tool to direct new studies on forestry l<strong>and</strong>scape, especially for<br />
Mediterranean <strong>and</strong> Apennine regions <strong>and</strong> to manage new scenarios on biodiversity conservation.<br />
Keywords: Sardinia, L<strong>and</strong> Use & L<strong>and</strong> Cover <strong>Change</strong>, <strong>Forest</strong>ry l<strong>and</strong>scape, Historical<br />
maps, Deforestation,<br />
1. Introduction<br />
Sardinia is the second largest isl<strong>and</strong> in the Mediterranean (after Sicily) with a total area of<br />
roughly 24,000 km 2 . With a resident population of more than 1,600,000 inhabitants (43% of<br />
which concentrated in two main urban areas), Sardinia is one of the Italian regions with the<br />
lowest demographic density. The isl<strong>and</strong> has a complex topography, with more than 80% of the<br />
region occupied by hilly <strong>and</strong> mountainous areas (>300 m a.s.l.), <strong>and</strong> with a maximum elevation<br />
of 1,834 m a.s.l. The highest human population densities occur in the main plains where large<br />
agricultural areas are also located. In Sardinia, forests had always played a key role with an<br />
essential importance for local community to strengthen the isl<strong>and</strong> culture <strong>and</strong> identity <strong>and</strong> to<br />
reflect <strong>and</strong> spread the “idea” of Sardinia as a flourishing l<strong>and</strong> in people coming from foreign<br />
l<strong>and</strong>s. <strong>Forest</strong>s have been seen as a refuge <strong>and</strong>, on the opposite side, as also a precious natural<br />
resource, as “wood”, leading to a conflict between the different interests in forest floor<br />
exploitation since the first travels through the Mediterranean Sea by navigators such as the<br />
Phoenician people. The presence of woodl<strong>and</strong> has always been considered as an obstacle to<br />
extensive <strong>and</strong> subsistence farming but also to the intensive one that ran over plains <strong>and</strong> hills on<br />
the isl<strong>and</strong> arousing the need to reduce <strong>and</strong> destroy forests where l<strong>and</strong>s could be managed, with a<br />
more or less income, for agriculture. In the meantime, forest mantles were the appropriate space<br />
to support the presence of herds during the dry summer periods that isl<strong>and</strong> climate usually<br />
shows as, <strong>and</strong> often, lead to the cut of lower branches to get green forage until rare <strong>and</strong><br />
* Corresponding author. Tel.: +39 0761 357359 - Fax: +39 0761 357250<br />
Email address: puddu.foresta@tiscali.it<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
G. Puddu et al. 2010. L<strong>and</strong>scape transformations seen through the historical cartography: Sardinia as case study<br />
393<br />
umbrella-shaped formations took place <strong>and</strong> became a typical character of Sardinia inl<strong>and</strong> as<br />
they are many times cited to represent the old residue of primordial formations or ancient<br />
Mediterranean forests in the Isl<strong>and</strong>. According to Le Lannou (1941) “There are few regions, in<br />
Europe, where natural green l<strong>and</strong>scapes- if with this term we refer to l<strong>and</strong>scapes that had not<br />
changed under l<strong>and</strong> cultivation- have a so important role as in Sardinia.” All different observers<br />
writing on Sardinia, describe the nineteenth century as a century that deeply altered the<br />
“complex l<strong>and</strong>scape” in the Isl<strong>and</strong>, changing it from a l<strong>and</strong> covered by woods with a mosaic of<br />
surfaces dedicated to sheep farming, passing through management models characterized by a<br />
dichotomy between agriculture <strong>and</strong> forestry, to much more sophisticated agro-silvo-pastoral<br />
systems. Even if it’s not clearly delineated in l<strong>and</strong>scaping, this issue has been quite focused in<br />
terms of l<strong>and</strong>scape, if this word refers to a “wide container of objects <strong>and</strong> systemic<br />
relationships”, since woods <strong>and</strong> forest have always been complex territorial objects, with a<br />
multitasking character covering private <strong>and</strong> “public heritage” concerns even if under a private<br />
property. L<strong>and</strong> governing coming from legislation (with dichotomies right/wrong in the<br />
question statement <strong>and</strong> in the imposed solutions, <strong>and</strong> applied/not-applied for what regarding the<br />
proper realization of laws expectations on territory), is the actual source of observed reality,<br />
giving evidence of social movements <strong>and</strong> economical drivers replying to legal acts.<br />
2. Methodology<br />
To underst<strong>and</strong> the actual l<strong>and</strong>scape it’s then necessary to ensure a diachronic interpretation of it<br />
through time because only with the comprehension of territorial motivations of the past, the<br />
dynamics <strong>and</strong> the identity of the present can be really realized <strong>and</strong> acquired. This historical<br />
lecture of the presence <strong>and</strong> distribution in forests on the isl<strong>and</strong>, turns to fix a new attempt of<br />
analysis in comparison to the what have been done <strong>and</strong> is archived in literature, <strong>and</strong> sets the aim<br />
of this work. In Sardinia, L<strong>and</strong>scape Issues (Conservation <strong>and</strong> Management) had often assumed<br />
the distinguishing feature of “Identity Definition” in community talks <strong>and</strong> social living during<br />
the end of nineteenth century <strong>and</strong> he beginning of the twentieth, leading to a contrast between<br />
two different economic scenarios for forest management:<br />
1. <strong>Forest</strong> cut was configured as a generalized deforestation, with an undue removing of<br />
woods <strong>and</strong> a disfigurement of Sardinia<br />
2. <strong>Forest</strong> cut was configured a san economical operation needed to increase the<br />
government income <strong>and</strong> to let modernity come in the Isl<strong>and</strong> updating its services to the<br />
rest of the isl<strong>and</strong><br />
2.1.1 The “<strong>Forest</strong> Map” made by National <strong>Forest</strong> Militia<br />
To analyze the effects of forest management at regional scale along a time period of more than a<br />
century (1850-2010), it’s necessary to integrate <strong>and</strong> complete different sources of data so that to<br />
delineate a trend of areas covered by woods as fully as possible. In particular, historical maps,<br />
never analyzed before, have been recovered; these maps have been realized in the period 1930-<br />
35 <strong>and</strong>, called as “<strong>Forest</strong> Map”, reports location <strong>and</strong> composition of woodl<strong>and</strong>s at 1:100000<br />
scale. This cartography is one the first forest inventory, elaborated at a national scale (where<br />
Italy is represented in 267 sheets <strong>and</strong> Sardinia in 26 sheets with an extension of 30 degrees in<br />
longitude <strong>and</strong> 20 degrees in latitude). To restore all the thematic information through<br />
digitalization, single sheets have been georeferenced by “rubber sheeting” with three layers<br />
(coats of the isl<strong>and</strong>, administrative boundaries <strong>and</strong> roads) so that to obtain a great number of<br />
control points (at least 100 points per sheets) <strong>and</strong> produce a direct georeferentiation in WGS84<br />
(Geri et al. 2008). This method, even if it’s not so correct from a formal point of view, allows a<br />
large computational time saving in comparison to the georeferentiation in the native system (not<br />
so clear because of geographical metadata lack) <strong>and</strong> re-projection in other systems <strong>and</strong>, in<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
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particular, (due to the great number of points) has introduced errors that have been estimated<br />
lower than map scale precision.<br />
2.1.2 Map of l<strong>and</strong> utilization made by National Research Counsil, Italian Cadastre, <strong>and</strong><br />
Italian Touring Club.<br />
The second map used in this work, is called “Map of l<strong>and</strong> utilization” realized by a cooperation<br />
between National Research Council (CNR), Italian Cadastre (Catasto) <strong>and</strong> the Italian Touring<br />
Club (TCI) <strong>and</strong> it has been released in 1952-1960. This map can be assimilated to a l<strong>and</strong> use <strong>and</strong><br />
l<strong>and</strong> cover map, even if the legend, made by 21 items, cannot be completely compared with that<br />
one of the European CORINE Project (Falcucci et al. 2007). Different opinions exist about its<br />
original setting <strong>and</strong>, actually, the real thematic aggregation criteria, that led to the final map<br />
(1:200000 scale) starting from all he information contained in the single sheets of the Italian<br />
Cadastre (1:1000; 1:2000; 1: 4000 scales), are not known<br />
2.1.3 The CORINE L<strong>and</strong> Cover map<br />
The third map used for comparisons, is derived from CORINE Project, that, for Italy, produced<br />
a digital map at the nominal scale of 1:100000 with 44 legend items.<br />
2.2 Model development<br />
To develop a model for a diachronic comparison between different cartographic maps, it’s<br />
necessary to obtain the best compatibility between them, even heterogeneous in legend <strong>and</strong><br />
elaboration methods (topographic survey vs aerial <strong>and</strong> satellite photos analysis) that can be<br />
realized according to the procedures of map generalization (Weibel <strong>and</strong> Jones 1998)<br />
summarized in three consequential phases (Petit <strong>and</strong> Lambin 2002; Pelorosso et al. 2009). Due<br />
to the different structure of legends in the maps used, thematic generalization could be obtained<br />
only reducing all the items into two classes: wood vs non-woods. Spatial resolution<br />
generalization was derived by a rasterization on the same DTM at a 20x20 m of resolution. For<br />
every map, consequential aggregations were achieved starting from 40 m cells with a step of 20<br />
m until 500 m cells were reached using the majority rule <strong>and</strong> giving rise to 24 maps for each of<br />
the national cartographies. Using five l<strong>and</strong>scape indexes (Riitters 1995) every aggregated map<br />
can be analyzed <strong>and</strong> a distance can be elaborated in 5-dimensional space of l<strong>and</strong>scape metrics<br />
between the generalized <strong>and</strong> the target map. In this way, the best resolution can be identified to<br />
make a comparison between target map (CLC, 1990) <strong>and</strong> generalized maps (<strong>Forest</strong> Map 1930-<br />
1935; Map of L<strong>and</strong> Utilization 1952-1960). See Table 1:<br />
Table 1. Comparison framework between maps.<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> Map (1930-35) vs Map of L<strong>and</strong> Utilization (1952-60) MIL 040 ÷ MIL 500 → CNR-TCI 040<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> Map (1930-35) vs CORINE (1990) MIL 040 ÷ MIL 500 → CORINE 1990 040<br />
Map of L<strong>and</strong> Utilization (1952-60) vs CORINE (1990) CNR 040 ÷ CNR 500 → CORINE 1990 040<br />
3. Results<br />
The first obtained results, show a great reduction of forest extensions after the Second World<br />
War, in a quite justifiable way. This collapse could be coherent with the extinction risk found<br />
for different animal species linked to forestal ecosystems (e.g. Corsican Red Deer, Fallow Deer,<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
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Golden Eagle). Table 2 shows the results from the analysis, giving evidence to the consistent<br />
decrease occurred between ‘30ies <strong>and</strong> ‘60ies, according to Falcucci et al. 2007 for Sardinia.<br />
Table 2. First results from map comparisons.<br />
Cartographic data <strong>Forest</strong> extensions %<br />
Milizia (1930-35) 2,473.9 km 2<br />
CNR-TCI (1952-60) 1,911.9 km 2 - 22,7<br />
Corine L<strong>and</strong> Cover IT (1990) 3,853.5 km 2 101,6<br />
Corine L<strong>and</strong> Cover IT (2000) 3,879.2 km 2 0,7<br />
Corine L<strong>and</strong> Cover Sar (2008) 5,034 km 2 29,8<br />
Figure 1. <strong>Forest</strong> contraction/expansion trend in Sardinia during the twentieth century.<br />
Analyzing maps, two by two, with crosstab operation, <strong>Forest</strong> Map 1930-35 had much more<br />
similarities with CLC-1990 map than with CNR-TCI-Catasto map 1952-1960, in spite of the<br />
less elapsed time (for crosstabulation results, see Figure 2).<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
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Figure 2. Results of crosstabulation between map<br />
Recurring to other sources of information analysis, with a particular reference to National<br />
statistics <strong>and</strong> forest studies about Italian southern regions (D’Autilia et al. 1967; Merendi 1954;<br />
Quattrocchi 1950; IFN 1985) an alternative scenario can be delineated, in which the extensions<br />
have not decreased (Table 3), but, on the contrary, they show a slow <strong>and</strong> constant increase as<br />
Figure 3 shows.<br />
Table 2. Other results from comparison between historical maps <strong>and</strong> inventory <strong>and</strong> statistical data.<br />
Cartographic data <strong>Forest</strong> extensions %<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> Map (1930-35) 2,473.9 km 2<br />
Merendi (1954) 2,956.4 19,5<br />
1° National Inventory <strong>Forest</strong> 2,925 km 2 -1,1<br />
Corine L<strong>and</strong> Cover IT (1990) 3,853.5 km 2 101,6<br />
Corine L<strong>and</strong> Cover IT (2000) 3,879.2 km 2 0,7<br />
Corine L<strong>and</strong> Cover Sar (2008) 5,034 km 2 29,8<br />
4. Discussion<br />
Figure 3.<strong>Forest</strong> expansion trend in Sardinia during the twentieth century.<br />
If these interpretation analysis is correct, forests in Sardinia remained constant or increased<br />
along twentieth century, because of the main law on <strong>Forest</strong>s (Law 3267, 1923) that imposed an<br />
accurate direct management of forests. According to what is reported in Beccu, 2000, Sardinia,<br />
before 1877 (when a permissive law on woods-cut was delivered) had more than 4,000 km 2 of<br />
woodl<strong>and</strong> that actually seem to be fully restored.<br />
Table 3. Comparison between forests datasets in Sardinia<br />
Beccu, 2000 (woodl<strong>and</strong> at <strong>Forest</strong> Map, 1930-35 CLC Sardinia, 2008<br />
‘800)<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> 4,2566 km 2 <strong>Forest</strong> 2,473.9 km 2 <strong>Forest</strong> 5,034 km 2<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
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2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
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The most known picture of Sardinia in terms of l<strong>and</strong>scape, is linked to pastoral customs <strong>and</strong><br />
habits, in which the aesthetic component is the diffusion of pasture l<strong>and</strong>, <strong>and</strong> the increase of<br />
forests implies a strong environmental change that have to be taken into account in territorial<br />
planning strategies, since it’ll lead to the new (“old”) forest issue of relation between pasture<br />
<strong>and</strong> wood. Given that, in less than a century, the biological <strong>and</strong> ecological drives led forest<br />
systems to occupy spaces <strong>and</strong> territories (when these would be able to support forest growth),<br />
then a remark on “Habitat Directive” model in Sardinia (but also in Mediterranean basin) is due<br />
since a wide protection is reserved to semi-natural open areas, derived from (continuous)<br />
anthropic rehashing, even to the detriment of woods. If the dreaded destruction of forest habitat<br />
seems not to be occurred in 60’s, as several Authors identified as the main cause of extinction<br />
<strong>and</strong>/or reducing in animal biodiversity on the Isl<strong>and</strong>, then the reasons of this extinction should<br />
be better analyzed <strong>and</strong> understood (e.g. trespassing, agriculture industrialization, urban<br />
expansion, industrial development).<br />
References<br />
Beccu, E., 2000. Tra cronaca e storia le vicende del patrimonio boschivo della Sardegna. Carlo<br />
Delfino Editore, Sassari.<br />
D’Autilia, M., Sommazzi, S. <strong>and</strong> Arrigoni, P.V., 1967. Estensione e produzione dei boschi della<br />
Sardegna. Atti Convegno Prosettive economico-industriali della produzione legnosa in<br />
Sardegna, Cagliari. 33-75 p.<br />
Falcucci, A., Maiorano L., <strong>and</strong> Boitani, L., 2007. <strong>Change</strong>s in l<strong>and</strong>-use/l<strong>and</strong>-cover patterns in<br />
Italy <strong>and</strong> their implications for biodiversity conservation. L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology, 22:617-631.<br />
Geri, F., Giordano, M., Nucci, A., Rocchino, D. <strong>and</strong> Chiarucci A., 2008. Analisi Multitemporale<br />
della Provincia di Siena mediante l’utilizzo di cartografie storiche. <strong>Forest</strong>@, 5:82-91.<br />
Le Lannou, M., 1941. Pâtres et paysans de la Sardaigne. Arrault <strong>and</strong> Cie, Tours, VIII-364 p.<br />
Merendi, A., 1954. Aspetti del problema forestale e montano nel mezzogiorno d’Italia. Italia<br />
<strong>Forest</strong>ale e Montana, IX:129-139.<br />
Pelorosso, R., Leone A. <strong>and</strong> Boccia L., 2009. L<strong>and</strong> cover <strong>and</strong> l<strong>and</strong> use change in the Italian<br />
central Apennines: a comparison of assessment methods. Applied Geography, 29:35-48.<br />
Petit, C.C. <strong>and</strong> Lambin, E.F., 2001. Impact of data integration technique on historical l<strong>and</strong>use/l<strong>and</strong>-cover<br />
change: Comparing historical maps with remote sensing data in the<br />
Belgian Ardennes. L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology, 17:117-132.<br />
Quattrocchi, G., 1950. Le superfici boscate in Italia al 30 giugno 1947. Istituto Poligrafico dello<br />
Stato, Roma.<br />
Riitters, K.H., O’Neil, R.V., Hunsaker, C.T., Wickham, J.D., Yankee, D.H., Timmins, S.P.,<br />
Jones, K.B. <strong>and</strong> Jackson, B.L., 1995. A factor analysis of l<strong>and</strong>scape pattern <strong>and</strong> structure<br />
metrics. L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology, 10:23-39.<br />
Weibel, R. <strong>and</strong> Jones, C.B., 1998 Computational perspective on map generalization.<br />
GeoInformatica, 2(4):307-314.<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
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Multi-scale analysis of carbon stocks <strong>and</strong> deforestation monitoring –<br />
Case of the Eastern tropical humid forest of Madagascar<br />
Harifidy Rakoto Ratsimba 1 *, L.G. Rajoelison 1 , F.M. Rabenilalana 1 , J. Bogaert 2 &<br />
E. Haubruge 3<br />
1 Département des Eaux et Forêts, Ecole Supérieure des Sciences Agronomiques,<br />
Université d’Antananarivo, Madagascar<br />
2 Service d’Ecologie du Paysage et systèmes de production végétale - Université Libre<br />
de Bruxelles, Belgium<br />
3 Gembloux Agro-Bio Tech, Université de Liège, Belgium<br />
Abstract<br />
Carbon accounting <strong>and</strong> deforestation monitoring constitute the most important<br />
instruments in implementing the Reducing Emission from Deforestation <strong>and</strong> Degradation<br />
(REDD) mechanism in developing countries like Madagascar. Furthermore, most of the<br />
researches <strong>and</strong> calculations have been established at different scales. The present research<br />
develops a methodology to assess the aboveground biomass at a large scale through vegetation<br />
indices. Thus, biomass inventory in the field provides data for calibration <strong>and</strong> classification of<br />
the Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI) combined with the Enhanced Vegetation<br />
Index (EVI) on Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer Image. The results<br />
demonstrate that NDVI <strong>and</strong> EVI provide an accurate classification of forest carbon at a large<br />
scale. Moreover, the use of vegetation indices enables the replication of the classification over<br />
time, useful for the detection of changes <strong>and</strong> the establishment of a deforestation baseline.<br />
Keywords: vegetation indices, tropical humid forest, deforestation monitoring, carbon<br />
accounting, Madagascar.<br />
1. Introduction<br />
The estimation of this last decade shows that tropical forests represent 25% of the terrestrial<br />
biosphere’s carbon (Bonan, 2008). This forest ecosystem plays a very important role in the<br />
global carbon cycle by storing about 80% of all above-ground terrestrial organic carbon (IPCC,<br />
2001). For this reason, the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate <strong>Change</strong> (1998)<br />
<strong>and</strong> its Kyoto Protocol (2003) recognized the role of forests in carbon sequestration. In this way,<br />
the deforestation <strong>and</strong> degradation processes in tropical regions become more <strong>and</strong> more<br />
important: l<strong>and</strong> conversion is the main reason for 93.4% of the annual net forest loss (FAO,<br />
2001). The Bali Action Plan, adopted by UNFCCC at the thirteenth session of its Conference of<br />
the Parties (COP 13 – 2007), m<strong>and</strong>ates Parties to negotiate a post 2012 tool, including possible<br />
incentives for forest-based climate change mitigation actions. This COP 13 has adopted a<br />
decision on “Reducing emissions from deforestation <strong>and</strong> degradation in developing countries” <strong>and</strong><br />
encourages Parties to explore a range of actions, identify options <strong>and</strong> undertake efforts to address<br />
the drivers of deforestation <strong>and</strong> forest degradation. Moreover, it points out the need of<br />
methodologies related to REDD emissions reporting.<br />
Satellite remote sensing technologies are currently widely tested <strong>and</strong> suggested as a tool in<br />
REDD monitoring, reporting <strong>and</strong> verification. However, there is a debate as to the overall<br />
feasibility <strong>and</strong> cost-benefit ratio of remote sensing approaches, depending on the wide range of<br />
*Corresponding author. Tel.: +261 34 08 00 627<br />
Email address: rrharifidy@moov.mg<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
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ecosystem <strong>and</strong> l<strong>and</strong> use conditions as well as the range of approaches to carbon credit<br />
accounting (Holmgren et al., 2008).<br />
This study is carried out in the tropical humid forest of Madagascar which is located in the<br />
eastern part of the isl<strong>and</strong>. The objective is to propose a methodology of upscaling process in<br />
deforestation <strong>and</strong> degradation assessment through satellite images (different resolutions)<br />
analysis <strong>and</strong> biomass inventory in the field. A spatial modelling approach is applied to search<br />
specific factors correlated to biomass stock, to identify vegetation indices in order to simulate<br />
the forest area across large regions, <strong>and</strong> to estimate the deforestation trend.<br />
2. Methodology<br />
2.1. Study area<br />
Madagascar should be considered among the highest conservation priorities (Myers, 1988;<br />
McNeely et al., 1990; Mittermeier et al., 1992). However, the poverty remains one of the main<br />
causes of deforestation <strong>and</strong> degradation. The average income is around $200 per year<br />
(Population Reference Bureau, 1992). Moreover, more than 70 % are from the rural regions<br />
which are facing low agricultural productivity (CIA, 2009). These situations have led to a<br />
continuous deforestation <strong>and</strong> degradation process in the whole country.<br />
The eastern part of Madagascar is characterized by a tropical humid climate with over 2000 mm<br />
mean rainfall per year <strong>and</strong> about 26°C annual mean temperature. The vegetation of this region is<br />
divided into three primary categories corresponding to elevation b<strong>and</strong>s: "lowl<strong>and</strong> rain forest" (0<br />
to 800 m), "moist montane forest" (800 to 1,300 m), <strong>and</strong> "sclerophyllous montane forest" (1,300<br />
to 2,300 m) (White, 1983). The third category is not considered in this study due to its limited<br />
repartition (the patches are to small to be evaluated in a 232 m * 232 m pixel of MODIS).<br />
There are some general trends in forest characteristics with increasing elevation: decreasing<br />
stature, fewer straight unbranched <strong>and</strong> boled trees, less stratification, more epiphytes, more<br />
bryophytes <strong>and</strong> lichens, a better developed <strong>and</strong> more diverse herb layer, <strong>and</strong> floristic changes<br />
(Lewis et al. 1996). Dense evergreen trees characterize the lowl<strong>and</strong> forest up to 800 m, with a<br />
canopy exceeding 30 m. The mid-altitude moist forest is as rich in species as the lowl<strong>and</strong> forest,<br />
but tends to have a shorter canopy of 20 to 25 m.<br />
The main threat is from subsistence agriculture through slash <strong>and</strong> burn activities (“tavy”) <strong>and</strong><br />
illegal logging which are the main causes of deforestation <strong>and</strong> degradation (Humbert, 1927;<br />
Rauh, 1979; Jolly <strong>and</strong> Jolly, 1984; Sussman et al., 1985; Jenkins, 1987).<br />
All of these aspects make REDD monitoring, reporting <strong>and</strong> verification very important for the<br />
country by creating clear <strong>and</strong> simple methods <strong>and</strong> tools to evaluate deforestation threat across a<br />
l<strong>and</strong>scape especially for policy makers <strong>and</strong> forest managers.<br />
2.2. Biomass <strong>and</strong> forest carbon accounting<br />
Biomass is defined as “organic material both above-ground <strong>and</strong> below-ground, <strong>and</strong> both living<br />
<strong>and</strong> dead, e.g., trees, crops, grass, tree litter, roots etc.” (Samalca et al., 2007). The IPCC<br />
(Intergovernmental Panel on Climate <strong>Change</strong>, 2003, 2006), has defined five different carbon<br />
pools for Greenhouse Gas (GHG) inventory : (1) living above-ground biomass (AGB), (2)<br />
living below-ground biomass (BGB), (3) dead organic matter in wood (DOM), (4) dead organic<br />
matter in litter (DOM), <strong>and</strong> (5) soil organic matter (SOM). Biomass is converted into carbon by<br />
multiplying its weight with a carbon fraction of dry matter which is usually 0.5 (IPCC, 2006).<br />
Many biomass estimation researches are focused on above-ground forest biomass (Aboal et al.,<br />
2005; Kraenzel et al., 2003; Laclau, 2003; Losi et al., 2003; Rakoto Ratsimba et al., 2010)<br />
because it represents the majority of the total biomass.<br />
This study focuses on the link between the assessment of above-ground forest biomass based on<br />
Rakoto Ratsimba et al. methods (2010) <strong>and</strong> recorded vegetation indices on satellite images.<br />
2.3. Stratification <strong>and</strong> r<strong>and</strong>omized plot based sampling<br />
Rakoto Ratsimba et al. (2010) in their study on deforestation <strong>and</strong> degradation show that the<br />
differentiation between “low degraded forest” <strong>and</strong> “degraded forest” is possible in tropical<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
H.R. Ratsimba et al. 2010. Multi-scale analysis of carbon stocks <strong>and</strong> deforestation monitoring<br />
400<br />
humid forest with SPOT 5 image. Their remote sensing analysis was combined with biomass<br />
inventory relating the difference between the carbon stocks between the two classes. It also<br />
demonstrates that this situation was possible at small scale analysis (SPOT images cover about<br />
60 km * 60 km area). However, it is not always possible to cover the whole country with SPOT<br />
image (problem of cost) for the change monitoring. In this way, this research is dealing with<br />
lower resolution image in the South East part of Madagascar as test region (see Figure 1):<br />
- a preclassification is realized on a L<strong>and</strong>ast-7 ETM+ 2005 image to have the different forest<br />
type according an a priori classification : “low degraded forest” <strong>and</strong> “degraded forest”. The<br />
other l<strong>and</strong> use is only put in a “non forest” class including the different secondary formations,<br />
- a biomass inventory through Rakoto Ratsimba et al. (2010) methods is realized with a local<br />
allometric equation establishment (through tree based sampling <strong>and</strong> wood density analysis) <strong>and</strong><br />
a r<strong>and</strong>omized plot sampling (see Figure 1),<br />
Figure 1: Test site (left) <strong>and</strong> distribution of the biomass inventory plots (right)<br />
L<strong>and</strong>sat 7 ETM+ 2005, composite image RGB: 4 – 2 – 1<br />
Projection: Laborde (Hotine Mercator Oblique) – Ellipsoïde International 1924<br />
- a correlation between the biomass plot stock <strong>and</strong> value of vegetation indices is set up. In fact,<br />
this correlation is not possible with L<strong>and</strong>sat image because of sensor problems (black pixels<br />
throughout the image). Thus, Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI) combined with<br />
the Enhanced Vegetation Index (EVI) of Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer<br />
(MODIS) Image (see Figure 2) are derived from the same period of the biomass inventory<br />
(2009). The Figure 2 summarizes the research approach.<br />
3. Result<br />
3.1. <strong>Forest</strong> biomass stock variation<br />
The assessment of carbon stocks in the field shows that due to the accuracy of the stratification,<br />
the biomass stock is very low (4 t/ha) but can reach over 500 t/ha (at plot scale). It shows that<br />
the above-ground biomass estimate uncertainty is attributed to stratification error in this phase<br />
of the methodology. It is related to the spatial resolution of L<strong>and</strong>sat <strong>and</strong> the time period<br />
difference between the image (2005) <strong>and</strong> the biomass inventory (2009). In fact, the distribution<br />
of the points in the Figure 4 illustrates that the vegetation indices have not significant variations<br />
<strong>and</strong> gives the default value for the classification of NDVI <strong>and</strong> or EVI image.<br />
Thus, assessing above-ground biomass using vegetation indices derived from MODIS image<br />
proved that monitoring carbon at large scale is possible. The Figure 5 shows the map derived<br />
from the combined classification from EVI <strong>and</strong> NDVI. Data from the fields indicate that this<br />
map is corresponding to forest that has 126 ± 12 t/ha stocks of carbon.<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
H.R. Ratsimba et al. 2010. Multi-scale analysis of carbon stocks <strong>and</strong> deforestation monitoring<br />
401<br />
Figure 2: (1) MODIS (left) mosaic composite image RGB 2009: 3 – 2 – 1 (2)<br />
derived EVI image (up right) <strong>and</strong> (3) derived NDVI image (down right)<br />
Projection: Laborde (Hotine Mercator Oblique) – Ellipsoïde International 1924<br />
Spatial analysis<br />
Biomass inventory<br />
Allometric equation<br />
L<strong>and</strong>sat-7 ETM+ 2005<br />
Preclassification<br />
Modis EVI / NDVI<br />
Stratification<br />
Plot based sampling<br />
Tree based sampling<br />
EVI/NDVI values for classification<br />
Post classification: Biomass map<br />
Plot based biomass<br />
stock<br />
Wood density / weight<br />
Allometric equation<br />
Accuracy assessment<br />
Figure 3: Research Approach<br />
Vegetation indices (*1000)<br />
1000<br />
Biomass (t/ha)<br />
600<br />
750<br />
400<br />
500<br />
250<br />
200<br />
0<br />
0<br />
1 51<br />
Biomass (t/ha)<br />
101 151<br />
NDVI*1000<br />
201 251<br />
EVI*1000<br />
301 351<br />
Observations<br />
Figure 4: Repartition of NDVI <strong>and</strong> EVI with plot biomass stock<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
H.R. Ratsimba et al. 2010. Multi-scale analysis of carbon stocks <strong>and</strong> deforestation monitoring<br />
402<br />
4. Discussion<br />
Although deforestation occurs in practically all developing countries (FAO, 2006), the actual<br />
rate of deforestation makes REDD initiatives more <strong>and</strong> more important to maximize reductions<br />
of greenhouse gases. In this way, it is important to create methodologies to assess <strong>and</strong> to<br />
monitor the deforestation <strong>and</strong> the carbon stock together. The REDD initiatives suppose that<br />
countries has to be able to assess both degradation <strong>and</strong> deforestation processes. However, the<br />
degradation analysis seems to have some limitations regarding the cost effectiveness of the<br />
methodology. Rakoto Ratsimba et al. (2010) have shown that this kind of assessment is possible<br />
at a small scale (local level) while the upscaling process demonstrates that only deforestation<br />
monitoring is possible over large areas. It is due to loss of spatial accuracy (the diversity of<br />
value of 23 * 23 pixels of SPOT image are included in a single pixel of MODIS image).<br />
This study reports that it is possible to report a forest map through biomass stock assessment. It<br />
gives the opportunity for policy makers to have not only the total area of the forest (2 754 905<br />
ha for the humid forest of the Eastern of Madagascar), but also the mean carbon stock per area<br />
(126 ± 12 t/ha) (see Figure 5). If we refer to other studies done in the region, Sussman et al.<br />
(1994) estimated the forest area of the region at 3 800 000 ha in 1985. Moreover, the same<br />
assessment can be done in other images (2000 for example) in order to model the deforestation<br />
process. The accuracy assessment gives a total value of 28,85 % which is an acceptable value<br />
regarding other carbon assessment (Samalca et al., 2007 – 41,27 % ; Rakoto Ratsimba et al.,<br />
2010 – 31,35 %). Thus, depending on REDD objective in Madagascar <strong>and</strong> the country priority, a<br />
small scale or larger scale initiative could be implemented.<br />
Figure 5: <strong>Forest</strong> map of the Eastern Humid <strong>Forest</strong> of Madagascar (biomass stock 126 ± 12 t/ha)<br />
Projection: Laborde (Hotine Mercator Oblique) – Ellipsoïde International 1924<br />
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<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
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<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
M.C. Rodrigues et al. 2010. Characterization of a Maculinea alcon population in the Alvão Natural Park (Portugal)<br />
404<br />
Characterization of a Maculinea alcon population in the Alvão Natural<br />
Park (Portugal) by a mark-recapture method<br />
Maria Conceição Rodrigues 1,2 , Patrícia Soares 3 , José Aranha 1,2 & Paula Seixas<br />
Arnaldo 1,2*<br />
1<br />
Departamento de Ciências Florestais e Arquitectura Paisagista, Universidade de Trásos-Montes<br />
e Alto Douro, 5001-801 Vila Real, Portugal<br />
2<br />
CITAB, Universidade de Trás-os-Montes e Alto Douro, 5001-801 Vila Real, Portugal<br />
3<br />
GETER, Grupo de Estudos Territoriais, Universidade de Trás-os-Montes e Alto Douro,<br />
5001-801 Vila Real, Portugal<br />
Abstract<br />
The blue alcon, Maculinea alcon located at the Alvão Natural Park was studied by markrecapture<br />
methods in order to estimate population size <strong>and</strong> flight range of the butterflies.<br />
Sampling was made between 2007 <strong>and</strong> 2009. The results showed that maculinea population size<br />
has increased along the studied period with an estimated density at the peak of the flight period<br />
of 190 butterflies in 2007, 392 in 2008 <strong>and</strong> 1653 in 2009. The number of captured males was<br />
higher at the beginning of the flight period while females increase gradually over the flight<br />
period. The average value of the sex ratio was 0.9 in 2007, 1.4 in 2008 <strong>and</strong> 1.2 in 2009. The<br />
flight range of the butterflies did not show significant differences between sexes <strong>and</strong> an average<br />
value of about 12 m were recorded. Thus the results indicate that this population is in expansion<br />
<strong>and</strong> not threatened by extinction.<br />
Keywords: Maculinea alcon L, population estimate, mark-recapture method<br />
1. Introduction<br />
As a result of their extraordinary life cycle, Maculinea butterflies are typical representatives of<br />
the most threatened species in Europe (Wynhoff 1998; Mungira <strong>and</strong> Martin 1999; Van Swaay<br />
<strong>and</strong> Warren 1999). Like most other Lepidoptera species, Maculinea alcon lays the eggs on a<br />
selected host plant, the Gentiana pneumonanthe. However, caterpillars do not complete<br />
development on the plant. Instead they are voluntarily carried by Myrmica ants to their nests.<br />
Once in the nest, caterpillars are fed by the ants until complete larval development (Thomas<br />
1995). Thus, protecting the butterfly is protecting the whole complex systems because, both the<br />
host plant <strong>and</strong> the ant nests are essential for the successful development of Maculinea alcon. In<br />
Portugal, the Alvão Natural Park is the only known place where is it possible to see Maculinea<br />
alcon flying. In the past, several populations of the blue alcon were reported by local people but<br />
with the habitat fragmentation <strong>and</strong> ab<strong>and</strong>onment of extensive management many of those<br />
populations disappeared. However, there still exist some small populations that need to be<br />
studied. Therefore, the population density, the probability of survival <strong>and</strong> the dispersal ability<br />
are important study population features that can lead to programmes of conservation. In this<br />
study we examined population size, sex ratio <strong>and</strong> movements that characterize a Maculinea<br />
alcon population located at the Alvão Natural Park, which is a part of a Site of Community<br />
Importance (SCI) for the Mediterranean biogeographical region, listed in 2006 by the European<br />
Commission.<br />
* Corresponding author. Tel.: + 00 351 259 350 555<br />
Email address: parnaldo@utad.pt<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
M.C. Rodrigues et al. 2010. Characterization of a Maculinea alcon population in the Alvão Natural Park (Portugal)<br />
405<br />
2. Methodology<br />
The method of repeated marking-release-recapture was used during June, July <strong>and</strong> August<br />
between 2007 <strong>and</strong> 2009 in order to estimate the parameters characterizing the maculinea<br />
population. This method consists in the capture of as many individuals as possible. Each<br />
captured adult was sexed <strong>and</strong> market with a number on the underside of the right hind wing,<br />
using a black permanent pen. Immediately after that, the butterfly was released at the same point<br />
of capture. After three days, sampling was repeated <strong>and</strong> the basic parameters of population<br />
dynamics were estimated on the basis of the rate marked vs unmarked M. alcon captured.<br />
Number of sampling days varied along the studied years. Jolly-Seber method was used to<br />
estimate population size <strong>and</strong> survival probability on those years. In 2009, at each point of<br />
capture <strong>and</strong> recapture, GPS coordinates were recorded <strong>and</strong> used to calculate the flight range of<br />
the butterflies.<br />
3. Results<br />
In 2007, the capture took place between 11 to 31 July <strong>and</strong> a total of 265 butterflies were marked,<br />
154 males <strong>and</strong> 111 females. Of the market butterflies, 70 (26.4%) were recaptured only once<br />
<strong>and</strong> 8 (3.0%) were recaptured twice during the sampling period. The recapture rate was 29.4%.<br />
In 2008, a total of 263 were marked between 14 July <strong>and</strong> 7 August, 141 males <strong>and</strong> 122 females.<br />
Only 17 of the total market butterflies were recaptured (6.5%). In 2009, 566 butterflies were<br />
marked between 13 July <strong>and</strong> 10 August with 318 males <strong>and</strong> 248 females. Of the market<br />
butterflies, 43 (7.6%) butterflies were recaptured only once <strong>and</strong> 2 butterflies were recaptured<br />
twice. Sex ratio was calculated for each sampling day (see Figure 1). Results showed<br />
differences in the way males <strong>and</strong> females behave during the study years. The total number of<br />
captured males was higher than females during the studied years. However, the sex ratio varied<br />
across the sampling days. Although in 2007 the sex ratio was always higher than 1, favourable<br />
to males, the rate of females increased gradually which could be registered on the last two years<br />
with an inversion of the sex ratio at the middle of the flight period with more females after 24<br />
July. The result of the population size indicates that Maculinea alcon population has gradually<br />
increased along the study period (see Figure 2). In 2009, at the peak of the flight period, the<br />
estimated number of the butterflies was four times higher than in 2008 <strong>and</strong> even higher than in<br />
2007. The flight range of the butterflies measured by using capture <strong>and</strong> recapture GPS<br />
coordinates (see Figure 3) showed that from the 43 recaptured butterflies in 2009 only 14<br />
moved more than 0,05m (5 males <strong>and</strong> 9 females). On average, distances of about 11.7±3.2 m<br />
were recorded with maximum values of about 80 m with no significant differences between<br />
males <strong>and</strong> females flight range (F=0.13; gl=43; Sig=0.911).<br />
4. Discussion<br />
Results showed differences in population characteristics across the studied years. Although the<br />
beginning of the flight period were almost the same (second week of July), the end differed<br />
between years with a shorter flight period in 2007. This could be due to weather conditions<br />
which was very rainy in the beginning of August 2007. Also, differences were obtained for sex<br />
ratio <strong>and</strong> behaviour characteristics of males <strong>and</strong> females. In the last two years, the rate of<br />
females increased gradually <strong>and</strong> the approximately 1:1 sex ratio was observed in the last third of<br />
the flight period. This is important in the balance of the population because at the beginning of<br />
the flight period the host plant used by females to lay the eggs is not flowering yet <strong>and</strong> that can<br />
compromise the success of larvae development. Identical results were obtained by Árnyas et al<br />
(2005) in a Maculinea rebeli population in Hungary. The mobility results of the butterflies<br />
indicate that their dispersal ability is very low. According to Thomas (1991) this could be a<br />
serious problem for their survival in the modern European l<strong>and</strong>scape. The ability of dispersion<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
M.C. Rodrigues et al. 2010. Characterization of a Maculinea alcon population in the Alvão Natural Park (Portugal)<br />
406<br />
is very important in the successional habitats that this species inhabits (Johnson 2000). When<br />
the habitat becomes unsuitable it is necessary migration movements <strong>and</strong> available suitable sites<br />
within very short distances are desirable<br />
References<br />
Árnyas, E., Bereczki, J., Tóth, A., Varga, Z., 2005. Results of the mark-release-recapture<br />
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reference to successional l<strong>and</strong>scape. Oikos 88:67-74.<br />
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Thomas, J.A., 1995. The ecology <strong>and</strong> conservation of Maculinea arion <strong>and</strong> other European<br />
species of large blue butterfly. In: A.S. Pullin, editor. Ecology <strong>and</strong> Conservation of<br />
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Van Swaay, C.A.M. <strong>and</strong> Warren, M.S., 1999. Red Data Book of European Butterflies<br />
(Rhophalocera). Nature <strong>and</strong> Environment 99. Council of Europe Publishing, Strasbourg<br />
Wynhoff, I. 1998. The recent distribution of the European Maculinea species. J. Insect<br />
Conservation, 2: 15-27.<br />
Acknowledgement<br />
Authors would like to express their thanks to CITAB - UTAD who supported this work <strong>and</strong> a<br />
special gratitude to the Natural Park of Alvão <strong>and</strong> habitants of Lamas de Olo village for their<br />
contributions in our investigations.<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
M.C. Rodrigues et al. 2010. Characterization of a Maculinea alcon population in the Alvão Natural Park (Portugal)<br />
407<br />
2007<br />
sex ratio<br />
4<br />
3<br />
2<br />
1<br />
0<br />
06-Jul 11-Jul 16-Jul 21-Jul 26-Jul 31-Jul 05-Ago<br />
day<br />
2008<br />
2009<br />
sex ratio<br />
4<br />
3<br />
2<br />
1<br />
0<br />
11-Jul 16-Jul 21-Jul 26-Jul 31-Jul 05-Ago 10-Ago<br />
day<br />
sex ratio<br />
8<br />
6<br />
4<br />
2<br />
0<br />
11-Jul 16-Jul 21-Jul 26-Jul 31-Jul 05-Ago 10-Ago 15-Ago<br />
day<br />
Figure 1: Sex ratio for each sampling day in 2007, 2008 <strong>and</strong> 2009<br />
2007<br />
Estimated population (N)<br />
600<br />
400<br />
200<br />
0<br />
-200<br />
-400<br />
12 1,0<br />
136,5 15 8 ,1 82,3<br />
170,3<br />
0,0 9,3<br />
22,5<br />
0,0<br />
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9<br />
Days<br />
2008<br />
2009<br />
Estimated population (N)<br />
2000,0<br />
1500,0<br />
1000,0<br />
500,0<br />
0,0<br />
-500,0<br />
-1000,0<br />
-1500,0<br />
35,3 19 ,0<br />
392,0<br />
0,0 36,0 48,0 31,5<br />
0,0<br />
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8<br />
Days<br />
Estimated population (N)<br />
4000<br />
3000<br />
2000<br />
1652,8<br />
1000<br />
0<br />
153,6 60,8<br />
115,5 17 4 ,2 303,0<br />
36,0 0,0<br />
-1000 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9<br />
Days<br />
Figure 2: Estimates of the number of individuals <strong>and</strong> st<strong>and</strong>ard error of estimation in 2007, 2008 <strong>and</strong> 2009<br />
by the Jolly-Seber method.<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
M.C. Rodrigues et al. 2010. Characterization of a Maculinea alcon population in the Alvão Natural Park (Portugal)<br />
408<br />
Figure 3: Capture <strong>and</strong> recapture coordinates used to calculate dispersal ability of Maculinea alcon<br />
butterflies.<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
M.T.C. Rodrigues & V. Silva 2010. L<strong>and</strong>scape changes in a watershed in the southwest of Portugal<br />
409<br />
L<strong>and</strong>scape changes in a watershed in the southwest of Portugal<br />
Maria Teresa Calvão Rodrigues * & Vanessa Silva<br />
Faculdade de Ciências e Tecnologia/Universidade Nova de Lisboa, Portugal<br />
Abstract<br />
Over the centuries human intervention has altered the l<strong>and</strong>scape of the south of Portugal, the<br />
most dramatic changes having taken place during the last one hundred <strong>and</strong> fifty years: the<br />
dominant component of the l<strong>and</strong>scape has changed first from natural/semi-natural shrubby<br />
communities to cereal crops <strong>and</strong> later to oak tree montados through processes of farml<strong>and</strong><br />
ab<strong>and</strong>onment, reforestation, change in the type of crops <strong>and</strong> trees grown, cutting or burning. All<br />
of these changes affected l<strong>and</strong>scape composition <strong>and</strong> configuration <strong>and</strong> thus the functioning of<br />
natural systems.<br />
The objective of this paper is to study l<strong>and</strong>scape dynamics of a watershed in the southwest of<br />
Portugal over a century, using data from different time periods <strong>and</strong> the consequences of<br />
changes. Within the context of a GIS l<strong>and</strong>-use changes were quantified through the analysis of<br />
l<strong>and</strong> use maps <strong>and</strong> ortophotomaps.<br />
Keyword: L<strong>and</strong> cover change, l<strong>and</strong>scape<br />
1.Introduction<br />
Human intervention significantly altered the l<strong>and</strong>scape of southern Portugal, the primitive<br />
forests having disappeared long ago. The l<strong>and</strong>scape of the South of the country suffered major<br />
changes in its structure <strong>and</strong> composition over the past 150 years. In the late nineteenth century<br />
the l<strong>and</strong>scape matrix essentially consisted of shrubl<strong>and</strong>s (Feio 1998). From that date on<br />
significant modifications that contributed decisively to soil degradation occurred. Successive<br />
campaigns to promote the production of cereals in the first half of the twentieth century led to a<br />
sharp increase of the cultivated area at the expense of farming on unsuitable l<strong>and</strong>: steep slopes,<br />
rocky soils, shallow <strong>and</strong> of low infiltration capacity. As Feio (1998) points out, within a time<br />
period of about 50 years the shrubl<strong>and</strong>s almost disappeared from the l<strong>and</strong>scape of southern<br />
Portugal while at the same time the plowed area with grain duplicated.<br />
However, crop cultivation on unsuitable l<strong>and</strong> led to intense erosion which in short time<br />
conditioned new sowings <strong>and</strong> consequently led to the ab<strong>and</strong>onment of the sites less apt for<br />
agriculture or its replacement by other forms of soil use. Thus, “Carta Agrícola e Florestal” for<br />
the decade 50-60, shows that in areas of steeper slopes, agriculture had been replaced by forests<br />
(montados) or left ab<strong>and</strong>oned, leading to a progressive recovery of the natural vegetation. In the<br />
70s there was a strong expansion of the eucalyptus culture. In most cases, the deployment of<br />
plantations was not well conducted, which once again led to soil degradation. From the 90s on a<br />
tendency for the ab<strong>and</strong>onment of cultivation of eucalyptus began to occur, or at least a lack of<br />
significant new investments due to the low economic profitability.<br />
* Corresponding author. Teresa Calvão Tel.: 212948397 - Fax: 212948554<br />
Email adress: mtr@fct.unl.pt<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
M.T.C. Rodrigues & V. Silva 2010. L<strong>and</strong>scape changes in a watershed in the southwest of Portugal<br />
410<br />
2. Methodology<br />
2.1 Study area<br />
The area selected for this study corresponds to the watershed of Ribeiro do Canas, a sub-basin<br />
of the Sado River Basin (Fig. 1). It is small a watershed (5335 ha) that corresponds to about<br />
0.8% of the Sado Basin. The climate is mediterranean with average annual temperature being<br />
approximately 16.3 °C <strong>and</strong> annual precipitation around 575 mm.<br />
According to the biogeographic map of Costa et al. (2002) the territory in analysis is included in<br />
the Mediterranean West Iberian Province (Lusitan-Extremadurean Subprovince, Marianic-<br />
Monchiquensean Sector <strong>and</strong> Baixo Alentejano-Monchiquense Subsector). The head of the<br />
natural potential climatophillous vegetation series consists of the association Pyro<br />
bourgaeanae-Quercetum rotundifoliae that is, sclerophyllous forests dominated by Holm Oak<br />
(Quercus rotundifolia). The regressive succession consists of three stages. The first substitution<br />
stage of the forests (Hyacinthoido hispanicae-Quercetum cocciferae) is dominated by Kermes<br />
Oak (Quercus coccifera); the next regression stage consists of shrubl<strong>and</strong>s Retameto<br />
sphaerocarpae-Cytisetum bourgaei; a scrub community dominated by Gum Rockrose (Cistus<br />
ladanifer), the association Genisto hirsutae-Cistetum ladaniferi, represents the maximum<br />
degradation stage (Costa et al. 1998).<br />
The changes that occurred in part of the study area, namely alongside Ribeiro do Canas, can be<br />
observed on aerial photographs from 1947 (Fig. 2A) <strong>and</strong> 2004/05 (Fig. 2B). In 1947 even the<br />
most steep terrain was then cultivated with cereals. Only some scattered ork oak treas were left.<br />
It can also be observed that at that time riparian vegetation had been largely destroyed. In<br />
2004/05 a remarkable recovery not only of riparian vegetation but also of vegetation occupying<br />
the slopes can be noticed. An increase in biomass <strong>and</strong> structural diversity of plant communities<br />
is clearly evident. Nowadays the progressive succession has led to the appearance of tall shrub<br />
communites dominated by Kermes Oak, that is to say, the vegetation has almost reached the<br />
climax stage.<br />
2.2 Methods<br />
L<strong>and</strong> cover of the study area was characterized for four time periods: 1895, 1963, 1990 <strong>and</strong><br />
2004/05. L<strong>and</strong> cover was obtained by digitizing existing maps in analogical format for 1895<br />
(Carta Agrícola) <strong>and</strong> 1963 (Carta Agrícola e Florestal) <strong>and</strong> color orthophotomaps for 2004/05.<br />
L<strong>and</strong> cover for 1990 already existed in the form of a polygon shapefile (Carta de Ocupação do<br />
Solo). Eight L<strong>and</strong> Cover classes were considered: Agriculture, <strong>Forest</strong>, Semi-natural vegetation,<br />
Bare soil, Water, Urban, Eucalypt plantations <strong>and</strong> Olive st<strong>and</strong>s <strong>and</strong> Orchards. However, the last<br />
five classes had areal percentage values always fewer than 4% during the time period of<br />
analysis <strong>and</strong> will not be presented in this paper.<br />
A Digital Elevation Model was produced which allowed the determination of slope, solar<br />
radiation <strong>and</strong> topographic wetness index (Beven <strong>and</strong> Kirby 1979). The information from these<br />
biophysical parameters was intersected with the information of l<strong>and</strong> cover. All the analysis were<br />
performed in ArcGis 9.2 (ESRI) except the computation of solar radiation which was performed<br />
in ArcView 3.2 (ESRI) using the extension Solar Analyst (Fu <strong>and</strong> Rich 2002).<br />
3. Results<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
M.T.C. Rodrigues & V. Silva 2010. L<strong>and</strong>scape changes in a watershed in the southwest of Portugal<br />
411<br />
The changes in l<strong>and</strong> cover of the study area, over time, referring to the three most representative<br />
classes are presented in Figure 3. It can be observed that the study area witnessed the most<br />
important alterations between 1895 <strong>and</strong> 1963 while it changed less markedly from 1963 to<br />
2004/05. It may also be noticed that the "matrix" of the l<strong>and</strong>scape, which consisted of the class<br />
Semi-natural vegetation in 1895, changed to <strong>Forest</strong> thereafter.<br />
The Semi-natural vegetation in 1895 occupied most of the watershed (65%), having suffered a<br />
dramatic decline between 1895 <strong>and</strong> 1963. Henceforth this l<strong>and</strong> cover class did not undergo<br />
considerable changes, constituting about 5% of the study area. As regards Agriculture, this class<br />
occupied then a very low percentage of the area (about 2%) <strong>and</strong>, within 68 years, it increased<br />
substantially, reaching 29%. From 1963 to 2004/05 this class knew a decrease in its<br />
representativeness, more significant between 1990 <strong>and</strong> 2004/05. In the latter date the<br />
agricultural areas made up about 17% of the total area. The class <strong>Forest</strong> had a marked increase<br />
between 1895 <strong>and</strong> 1963, an insignificant decrease from 1963 to 1990 <strong>and</strong> a considerable<br />
increase between 1990 <strong>and</strong> 2004/05.<br />
In Figures 4, 5 <strong>and</strong> 6 an analysis of l<strong>and</strong> cover by biophysical parameters is presented.<br />
Agriculture in general was practiced in less steep terrain. By contrast, semi-natural vegetation,<br />
except in 1895, occupied areas with more pronounced slope. The <strong>Forest</strong>s were always located in<br />
all slope classes. In 1990 <strong>and</strong> 2004/05 semi-natural vegetation occupies, to a large extent, areas<br />
with high soil moisture content. Overall, agriculture is not practiced in areas with high soil<br />
moisture. In general semi-natural vegetation occurs in areas receiving low radiation.<br />
4. Discussion<br />
The l<strong>and</strong>scape transformations described in the present study are consistent with those that<br />
occurred in the south of the country, portrayed in various studies by other authors. After<br />
agriculture ab<strong>and</strong>onment in the less suitable areas shrub cover increased. Semi-natural<br />
vegetation at present occupies areas that receive a smaller amount of solar radiation <strong>and</strong> to a<br />
considerable extent areas of high moisture availability. That is to say, vegetation has mainly<br />
recovered along the steep slopes of the rivers. These communities are structurally compex <strong>and</strong><br />
consist of tall shrubs typical of the potential vegetation. This aspect has important consequences<br />
at the l<strong>and</strong>scape level as these communities may constitute ecological corridors <strong>and</strong> thus allow<br />
the increase of diversity.<br />
References<br />
Beven, K. J. <strong>and</strong> Kirby, M. J., 1979. A physically based, variable contributing area model for<br />
basin hydrology. Hydrological. Sciences Bulletin, 24: 43-69.<br />
Costa, J. C., Aguiar, C., Capelo, J. H., Lousã, M. <strong>and</strong> Neto, C., 1998. Biogeografia de Portugal<br />
Continental. Quercetea, 0: 5-56.<br />
Costa, J. C., Capelo, J., Espírito Santo, M. D. <strong>and</strong> Lousã, M., 2002. Aditamentos à vegetação do<br />
Sector Divisório Português. Silva Lusitana, 10: 199-128.<br />
Feio, M., 1998. A Evolução da Agricultura no Alentejo Meridional. As Cartas Agrícolas de G.<br />
Pery. As Difíceis Perspectivas Actuais na Comunidade Europeia. Edições Colibri, Lisboa,<br />
112 p.<br />
Fu, P. <strong>and</strong> Rich, P.M., 2002. A geometric solar radiation model with applications in agriculture<br />
<strong>and</strong> forestry. Computers <strong>and</strong> Electronics in Agriculture, 37: 25-35.<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
M.T.C. Rodrigues & V. Silva 2010. L<strong>and</strong>scape changes in a watershed in the southwest of Portugal<br />
412<br />
Study area<br />
Sado river basin<br />
Figure 1: Location of the study area<br />
B<br />
Figure 2: Part of the study area in 1947 (A) <strong>and</strong> in 2004/05 (B)<br />
80<br />
70<br />
Area (%)<br />
60<br />
50<br />
40<br />
30<br />
20<br />
10<br />
<strong>Forest</strong><br />
Agriculture<br />
Semi‐natural<br />
vegetation<br />
0<br />
1895 1963 1990 2004/05<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
M.T.C. Rodrigues & V. Silva 2010. L<strong>and</strong>scape changes in a watershed in the southwest of Portugal<br />
413<br />
Figure 3: L<strong>and</strong> cover changes of the three most representative l<strong>and</strong> use cover classes.<br />
Area (%)<br />
100<br />
80<br />
60<br />
40<br />
20<br />
1895<br />
0-5%<br />
5-8%<br />
8-12%<br />
12-15%<br />
15-25%<br />
>25%<br />
Area (%)<br />
100<br />
80<br />
60<br />
40<br />
20<br />
1963<br />
0-5%<br />
5-8%<br />
8-12%<br />
12-15%<br />
15-25%<br />
>25%<br />
0<br />
Agriculture Semi-natural vegetation <strong>Forest</strong><br />
0<br />
Agriculture Semi-natural vegetation <strong>Forest</strong><br />
Area (%)<br />
100<br />
80<br />
60<br />
40<br />
20<br />
1990<br />
0-5%<br />
5-8%<br />
8-12%<br />
12-15%<br />
15-25%<br />
>25%<br />
Area (%)<br />
100<br />
80<br />
60<br />
40<br />
20<br />
2004/05<br />
0-5%<br />
5-8%<br />
8-12%<br />
12-15%<br />
15-25%<br />
>25%<br />
0<br />
Agriculture Semi-natural vegetation <strong>Forest</strong><br />
0<br />
Agriculture Semi-natural vegetation <strong>Forest</strong><br />
Figure 4: Slope values by l<strong>and</strong> cover class.<br />
100<br />
80<br />
Extremely dry<br />
Ve ry dry<br />
Dry<br />
1895<br />
100<br />
80<br />
Extremely dry<br />
Ve ry dry<br />
Dry<br />
1963<br />
Area (%)<br />
60<br />
40<br />
Moderate<br />
We t<br />
Ve ry we t<br />
Area (%)<br />
60<br />
40<br />
Moderate<br />
We t<br />
Ve ry we t<br />
20<br />
20<br />
0<br />
Agriculture Semi-natural vegetation <strong>Forest</strong><br />
0<br />
Agriculture Semi-natural vegetation <strong>Forest</strong><br />
Area (%)<br />
100<br />
80<br />
60<br />
40<br />
Extremely dry<br />
Ve ry dry<br />
Dry<br />
Moderate<br />
We t<br />
Ve ry we t<br />
1990<br />
Area (%)<br />
100<br />
80<br />
60<br />
40<br />
Extremely dry<br />
Ve ry dry<br />
Dry<br />
Moderate<br />
We t<br />
Ve ry we t<br />
2004/05<br />
20<br />
20<br />
0<br />
Agriculture Semi-natural vegetation <strong>Forest</strong><br />
0<br />
Agriculture Semi-natural vegetation <strong>Forest</strong><br />
Figure 5: Topographic wetness index by l<strong>and</strong> cover class.<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
M.T.C. Rodrigues & V. Silva 2010. L<strong>and</strong>scape changes in a watershed in the southwest of Portugal<br />
414<br />
100<br />
80<br />
Ve ry lo w R a dia tio n<br />
Lo w R a dia tio n<br />
Medium Radiatio n<br />
1895<br />
100<br />
80<br />
Ve ry lo w R a dia tio n<br />
Lo w R a dia tio n<br />
Medium Radiation<br />
1963<br />
Area (%)<br />
60<br />
40<br />
High radiation<br />
Very high Radiation<br />
Area (%)<br />
60<br />
40<br />
High radiatio n<br />
Very high Radiation<br />
20<br />
20<br />
0<br />
Agriculture Semi-natural vegetation <strong>Forest</strong><br />
0<br />
Agriculture Semi-natural vegetation <strong>Forest</strong><br />
100<br />
80<br />
Ve ry lo w R a dia tio n<br />
Lo w R a dia tio n<br />
Medium Radiation<br />
1990<br />
100<br />
80<br />
Ve ry lo w R a dia tio n<br />
Lo w R a dia tio n<br />
Medium Radiation<br />
2004/05<br />
Area (%)<br />
60<br />
40<br />
High radiation<br />
Very high Radiation<br />
Area (%)<br />
60<br />
40<br />
High radiation<br />
Very high Radiation<br />
20<br />
20<br />
0<br />
Agriculture Semi-natural vegetation <strong>Forest</strong><br />
0<br />
Agriculture Semi-natural vegetation <strong>Forest</strong><br />
Figure 6: Solar radiation by l<strong>and</strong> cover class.<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
J. Schaefer-Santos & C. Lingnau 2010. <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> in Transition – Monitoring in Areas of L<strong>and</strong>slides<br />
415<br />
<strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> in Transition – Monitoring in Areas of L<strong>and</strong>slides<br />
Jorgeane Schaefer-Santos * & Christel Lingnau<br />
Curitiba Federal University, Brazil<br />
Abstract<br />
The satellite images have been very effective for monitoring the l<strong>and</strong>scapes dynamics.<br />
<strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> vulnerable to disasters can be monitored by change detection techniques. We<br />
applied these techniques in areas affected by l<strong>and</strong>slides in November 2008 in Morro do Bau,<br />
Santa Catarina State, which led to material <strong>and</strong> human losses. The study used four images from<br />
different dates between 1992 <strong>and</strong> 2009. Vegetation index were developed using b<strong>and</strong>s 7 <strong>and</strong> 4,<br />
minimizing the atmospheric <strong>and</strong> radiometric effects. The techniques used were effective to<br />
detect changes caused by the disaster, such as soil exposure <strong>and</strong> deposition; during the study<br />
period there was no deforestation in the area of l<strong>and</strong>slides; the event had magnitude greater than<br />
the forests protection could promote, mainly high rainfall, combined with the high potential<br />
erosion of these mountains sediments. These l<strong>and</strong>scapes are subject to natural relief<br />
accommodation events that will inevitably be disaster if associated with human occupation.<br />
Keywords: change detection techniques; l<strong>and</strong>slides; environmental disaster; Itajaí Valley;<br />
l<strong>and</strong>scape dynamic.<br />
1. Introduction<br />
The Itajaí Basin covers an area economically very important for the State of Santa Catarina,<br />
southern Brazil. The mountainous relief prints fragility of l<strong>and</strong>slides exacerbated by other<br />
regional environmental problems as water pollution, illegal occupations <strong>and</strong> sewer without<br />
treatment. Over time, with the rural exodus <strong>and</strong> urban growth, the region became even more<br />
subject to problems of burial <strong>and</strong> flooding produced by inadequate occupation of urban l<strong>and</strong> <strong>and</strong><br />
silting <strong>and</strong> contamination results in erosion <strong>and</strong> lack of rural waste treatment <strong>and</strong> urban<br />
(Schaefer-Santos, 2003).<br />
All these changes in l<strong>and</strong> cover <strong>and</strong> l<strong>and</strong> use can be detected through time series of satellite<br />
images with the application of techniques of change detection. The mapping can be<br />
accomplished from the comparison of classified images, subtraction of b<strong>and</strong>s of the same area at<br />
different times, vegetation indices, principal component analysis <strong>and</strong> neural networks (Carvalho<br />
Jr & Silva, 2007).<br />
Some changes, such as the increase or decrease in forest cover, can be evaluated based on<br />
vegetation index. Caring for the use of vegetation index should be taken, especially the false<br />
changes that may be related to phenological changes, which are those that occur with various<br />
species, such as leaf drop, flowering time, appearance of new leaves in spring (Matínez &<br />
Gilabert, 2009). In a long term, these changes found may be related to climate change <strong>and</strong> largescale<br />
disturbances antrogênicos (Bradley et al., 2007).<br />
To be chosen images from similar periods of the year, representing the same seasonal cycle of<br />
the forest, the effects of phenological changes are minimized as the effects generated by the<br />
shadow of a region with rugged. Janoth et al. (2007) say that images L<strong>and</strong>sat–TM <strong>and</strong> SPOT XI<br />
* Corresponding author. Tel.: 55 41 3360-4218 - Fax: 55 41 3360 4211<br />
Email address: eng_jorgeane@yahoo.com.br<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
J. Schaefer-Santos & C. Lingnau 2010. <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> in Transition – Monitoring in Areas of L<strong>and</strong>slides<br />
416<br />
showed reliable results for detecting changes in forest areas damaged by wind <strong>and</strong> snow sliding<br />
snow in Sweden <strong>and</strong> Finl<strong>and</strong>. The procedures used by the authors based on the simple<br />
difference of multitemporal images of the spectral b<strong>and</strong>s of red <strong>and</strong> of mid infrared <strong>and</strong> change<br />
detection pixel to pixel <strong>and</strong> neighborly relations. The mid infrared, especially, pointed to change<br />
in areas of climax forest in which there was the removal of timber, <strong>and</strong> therefore this technique<br />
very effective for monitoring forest. In this study we sought, through the vegetation index found<br />
that deforestation could be a predominant factor in l<strong>and</strong>slides occurred in the study area in<br />
November 2008 which caused the death of 135 people for burial <strong>and</strong> for such were used images<br />
L<strong>and</strong>sat 5 TM.<br />
2. Methodology<br />
The study area is located in the Itajaí Basin, which lies between latitudes 26º20’ e 27º50’ e<br />
longitudes 48º40’ e 50º20’, extending for 150 km north to south <strong>and</strong> 155 km from east to west<br />
(Gaplan, 1988). The study area is located from the middle course of the river Itajaí, <strong>and</strong> it parts<br />
of the Middle subbacia Itajaí <strong>and</strong> part of Rio subbacia Luis Alves, encompassing the areas of<br />
disaster in 2008 (Figure 1). In the watershed area of the Rio Itajaí various formations are found<br />
among the Dense Atlantic Rain <strong>Forest</strong> <strong>and</strong> some nuclei of Araucaria <strong>Forest</strong> in the high Itajaí<br />
Valley. In the middle <strong>and</strong> lower regions of Itajai Valley, there is the Dense Atlantic Rain<br />
<strong>Forest</strong>, especially characterized by high density <strong>and</strong> high species richness of trees, saplings <strong>and</strong><br />
shrubs, <strong>and</strong> high density of epiphytes. (Klein, 1978).<br />
The study used 4 images as mentioned below:<br />
1. 10/6/1992;<br />
2. 30/6/1999;<br />
3. 4/6/2007;<br />
4. 1/2/2009.<br />
The images were so selected because they are of the same month (June) acquisition, except the<br />
last. The choice of images from the same month, minimized the differences in reflectance due to<br />
the effects of phenology of forest <strong>and</strong> shade relief. The relief shading in images acquired in<br />
similar periods of the year, for example, in the same month, the shaded areas are virtually<br />
coincident, due to the similarity of the angle of inclination <strong>and</strong> azimuth of the sun. The image<br />
had to be t4 February, for not having another cloudless after the environmental disaster.<br />
Figura 1: Study area localization.<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
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2.1 <strong>Change</strong> Detection<br />
The purpose of applying the techniques of change detection is within a set of pixels, identifying<br />
those that are significantly different between the first <strong>and</strong> last image in sequence (Radke et al.<br />
2005). Select the image start (t1) <strong>and</strong> the final image (t2), where the procedure is repeated<br />
between pairs “t 2 – t 3 ” e “t 4 – t 3 ” , generating three classified images (<strong>Change</strong> Detection 1 – CD 1 ,<br />
<strong>Change</strong> Detection 2 – CD 2 e <strong>Change</strong> Detection 2 – CD 3 ). The classification of this study followed<br />
values change between -5 <strong>and</strong> +5. <strong>Change</strong>s close to zero (from -2 to +2) were ignored,<br />
representing "no change", <strong>and</strong> "abrupt change" were identified as increased <strong>and</strong> reduced<br />
biomass. We used the simple difference method <strong>and</strong> the percentage difference between<br />
Vegetation Index on four occasions (t1, t2, t3 <strong>and</strong> t4) as follows (1):<br />
D( x)<br />
= t2 ( x)<br />
− t1(<br />
x)<br />
(1)<br />
Onde:<br />
D(x) = classified image by simple difference;<br />
t 2 (x) = vegetation index in the final time of the analysis;<br />
t 1 (x) = vegetation index in the inicital time of analysis.<br />
3. Results<br />
In the study area can easily locate the areas of l<strong>and</strong>slides <strong>and</strong> areas with sediment deposition by<br />
staining differentiated image 4 (2009), with values close to zero, which represents a lack of<br />
vegetation. In this same place, it was observed that the vegetation index have no color<br />
differentiation mean that deforestation in the years before the l<strong>and</strong>slide (Figure 2). Figure 3<br />
shows the image obtained of the changes between 2007 <strong>and</strong> 2009 (CD 3) which can be observed<br />
in the l<strong>and</strong>slide area <strong>and</strong> increasing the forest cover.<br />
Figura 2: <strong>Change</strong> detection occurred in the area of l<strong>and</strong>slides since 1992 to 2009.<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
J. Schaefer-Santos & C. Lingnau 2010. <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> in Transition – Monitoring in Areas of L<strong>and</strong>slides<br />
418<br />
Figura 3: <strong>Change</strong> detection between years 2007 <strong>and</strong> 2009.<br />
4. Discussion<br />
The l<strong>and</strong>scape had some changes during the study period. Over time, the study area showed an<br />
increase in forest cover (Schaefer-Santos, 2003). In this study we observed that between 1992<br />
<strong>and</strong> 1999 (CD 1), there were small increases in forest cover <strong>and</strong> in some places, small losses<br />
(Figure 2). Moreover, it is observed between 1999 <strong>and</strong> 2007 (CD 2) that there is greater<br />
movement in the l<strong>and</strong>scape, leading to an increase forest cover in general, since the<br />
displacement curve to the area gain of vegetation. Already between 2007 <strong>and</strong> 2009 (CD 3), as<br />
shown in Figure 2 <strong>and</strong> detailed in Figure 3 is possible to identify the great movement that<br />
occurred in the l<strong>and</strong>scape, as areas of l<strong>and</strong>slides are very clearly identified, ie, loss the area<br />
forests caused by l<strong>and</strong>slides. These l<strong>and</strong>slides clearly seen on L<strong>and</strong>sat TM 5 may be considered<br />
high intensity occurred in as many areas of surfaces greater than 800m in length. Among the<br />
largest, most convergence was associated with water, especially ending in rivers. In this study<br />
area, population density is low, however, the weathering mantles are very deep <strong>and</strong> very fine<br />
sediments associated with the relief <strong>and</strong> deep valleys (Gaplan, 1988), which receive large<br />
amounts of marine moisture leading to a natural process of denudation. These circumstances<br />
lead to the natural conditions for l<strong>and</strong>slides. Small human changes that have occurred were not<br />
detected in this analysis. These possible anthropogenic changes certainly added to the natural<br />
conditions may have led to an increased risk factor for disasters. However, the masses of soil<br />
were soaked for 04 months due to heavy rains, which were associated with a weather system<br />
that meant that only between 21st to 22nd November 2008, occurred rainfall of 300 mm of rain<br />
in the Valley Itajaí, with accumulated of 1000 mm in November, the normal precipitation is<br />
1.800 mm in a year (Dias, 2009). This precipitation was two times greater than the rainfall<br />
occurred in April 2010 in Rio de Janeiro, however, due to population density, in Rio de Janeiro<br />
there were about 250 deaths, as in Santa Catarina, the number was only 135 people killed due to<br />
l<strong>and</strong>slides. Natural factors associated with high precipitation were prevalent for the occurrence<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
J. Schaefer-Santos & C. Lingnau 2010. <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> in Transition – Monitoring in Areas of L<strong>and</strong>slides<br />
419<br />
of l<strong>and</strong>slides in Santa Catarina in November 2008, leading one to believe that these events are<br />
natural <strong>and</strong> are part of the natural transformation of the l<strong>and</strong>scape.<br />
References<br />
Bradley, B.A; JACOB, R. W.; Hermance, J. F. & Mustard, J. F. A curve fitting procedure to<br />
derive inter-annual phonologies from time series of noisy satellite NDVI data. In: Remote<br />
Sensing of Environment (2007). doi:10.1016/j.rse.2006.08.002.<br />
Carvalho JR, O. A. & Silva, N. C. da. Detecção de Mudança Espectral uma nova metodologia<br />
para análise de séries temporais. In: Anais XIII Simpósio Brasileiro de Sensoriamento<br />
Remoto, Florianópolis, Brasil, 21-26 abril 2007, INPE, p. 5635-5641.<br />
Dias, A. F. S. As chuvas de novembro de 2008 em Santa Catarina: um estudo de caso vis<strong>and</strong>o<br />
a melhoria do monitoramento e da previsão de eventos extremos. Dias, A. F. S (editor<br />
responsável). Nota Técnica do IPNE, INMET, EPAGRI. Disponível em meio digital:<br />
www.ciram.com.br/ciram _arquivos/arquivos/gtc/downloads/NotaTecnica_SC.pdf<br />
GAPLAN – Gabinete de Planejamento do Estado de Santa Catarina. Atlas de Santa Catarina.<br />
Rio de Janeiro: Aerofoto Cruzeiro. 1986. 173p.<br />
Janoth, J.; Eisl, M.; Klaushofer, F. & Luckel, W. Procedimentos baseados em segmentação para<br />
análise de mudanças e classificação florestais com dados de alta resolução. In:<br />
BLASCHKE, T& KUX, H. (Org.) Sensoriamento Remoto e SIG Avançados: novos<br />
sistemas sensores e métodos inovadores / versão brasileira; tradução de Hermann Kux. –<br />
2ª ed. – São Paulo: Oficina de Textos, 2007. p. 99 a 107.<br />
Klein, R.M. Mapa Fitogeográfico de Estado de Santa Catarina. Itajaí: Herbário Barbosa<br />
Rodrigues, 1978. Escala 1:1.000.000. 24p.<br />
Martinez, B. & Gilabert, M. A. Vegetation dynamics from NDVI times series analysis using the<br />
wavelet transform. In: Remote Sensing of Environment (2009). doi:<br />
10.1016/j.rse.2009.04016.<br />
Radke, R. J., Al-Kofahi, O. & Roysam, B. Image <strong>Change</strong> Detection Algorithms: A Systematic<br />
Survey. In: IEEE Transaction on Geoscience <strong>and</strong> Remote Sensing, vol. 14, n° 03. March<br />
2005. doi: 10.1109/TIP.2004.838698.<br />
SCHAEFER-SANTOS, J. Ocupação do solo e comportamento hidrológico da sub-bacia do Rio<br />
Luis Alves, bacia do Rio Itajaí, Santa Catarina. Dissertação de Mestrado, Curso de Pós-<br />
Graduação em Engenharia Florestal, UFPR: Curitiba, PR. 199p.<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
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420<br />
The process of urbanization <strong>and</strong> the environment - the case of<br />
irregular occupations in the city of Ponta Grossa, PR, Brazil<br />
S<strong>and</strong>ra Maria Scheffer & Édina Schimanski<br />
State University of Ponta Grossa, Brazil<br />
Abstract<br />
This article analyzes the process of urbanization as a social <strong>and</strong> historical construction,<br />
<strong>and</strong> housing problems arising from this process, through the installation of homes in<br />
illegal occupations in the city of Ponta Grossa - Paraná. Trying to underst<strong>and</strong> the<br />
dynamics of this phenomenon it explores the socio spatial location as the process of<br />
degradation of the environment, researching the specifics that arise for public policy.<br />
The methods used were a literature search <strong>and</strong> document research-based Plan for Social<br />
Housing. Thus, it identifies the planning of urban space by a team of professionals from<br />
diverse fields as fundamental to promote alternative solutions with adequate<br />
infrastructure <strong>and</strong> legality for the families as well as environmental improvement<br />
projects that provide improvements to support the inclusion social <strong>and</strong> sustainability.<br />
Keywords: urbanization, illegal occupations, environment<br />
1 - The process of urbanization<br />
The urbanization process is a dynamic process, arising from social relations in each<br />
historical context related changes in processes of social production <strong>and</strong> the manner of<br />
insertion of each society in general dynamics of capitalism. CASTELLS in his<br />
conception over the urban phenomenon means that the analysis of urbanization should<br />
follow the knowledge of its social process. It states that: "Explaining the social process<br />
that underlies the organization of space is not simply to place the urban phenomenon in<br />
context. A sociological problems of urbanization should consider it as a process of<br />
organization <strong>and</strong> development, <strong>and</strong> therefore, based on relationship between the<br />
productive forces, social classes <strong>and</strong> cultural forms (among which the space). " (1983,<br />
p.36)<br />
The human world changes <strong>and</strong> transformations are becoming more intense <strong>and</strong> fast.<br />
This is also reflected in the organization of space, which is being organized as diverse<br />
<strong>and</strong> complex. Many of their reorganizations made themselves <strong>and</strong> continue to happen,<br />
given the claims of production. Thus, the area is also historic, transforming itself<br />
through the social changes occurring over time.<br />
Urbanization has become a reality in Brazil, especially since the second half of the<br />
twentieth century, it was from the 1970s that the rural-urban ratio began to reverse the<br />
concentration of population to urban. The phenomenon of population concentration in<br />
urban areas has changed the dynamics of Brazilian society, resulting in a new lifestyle,<br />
urban style.<br />
With differences in each region <strong>and</strong> each municipality, the phenomenon of<br />
urbanization has spread throughout the national territory. Ponta Grossa, inl<strong>and</strong> city of<br />
Paraná State, was not immune to the phenomenon of urbanization. Although the Paraná<br />
be a state with a strong presence in agricultural production <strong>and</strong> Ponta Grossa have this<br />
characteristic was from the 1960s it became clear the population concentration in urban<br />
space.<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
S.M. Scheffer & E. Schimanski 2010. The process of urbanization <strong>and</strong> the environment<br />
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In the history of Ponta Grossa, you can verify outst<strong>and</strong>ing phases of development<br />
that contributed to the emergence <strong>and</strong> expansion of population <strong>and</strong> its urbanization<br />
process, as the occupation by the troopers, the construction of railroads accelerating<br />
process of urbanization, migration movements, especially foreigners, broadening the<br />
demographic structure, increasing industrialization through industrial development<br />
plans, among other factors.<br />
Among the most significant characteristics of the municipality, is its privileged<br />
geographical position, since its emergence as a way for troopers to the installation of<br />
major highways <strong>and</strong> railroads. It is considered a major road <strong>and</strong> rail junctions in the<br />
south of the country, due to its physical location <strong>and</strong> its access roads that allow the<br />
various regions of the state <strong>and</strong> interstate.<br />
The fact that they constitute a road-rail junction favored high density because it<br />
facilitated the transit of persons between the cities, especially those in nearby regions.<br />
In 2009, according to the IBGE, the municipality of Ponta Grossa had a population of<br />
314,681 inhabitants. Of the total population of the municipality, the rural end-grossense<br />
corresponds to 2.54% of total population <strong>and</strong> 97.46% of the population resides in urban<br />
area.<br />
These indices are above the national average, where 81.23% of the population is<br />
urban, which reflects on the one h<strong>and</strong> an accelerated process of urbanization <strong>and</strong> the<br />
other shows, that the city in recent decades had characterized the growth <strong>and</strong> / or<br />
maintenance a significant rural population.<br />
Thus, the urban space becomes the venue of expression of social struggles <strong>and</strong> conflicts<br />
of the capitalist order which generate dem<strong>and</strong> for the state, among them the dem<strong>and</strong> for<br />
housing.<br />
2 - The irregular occupations in Ponta Grossa <strong>and</strong> its socio-spatial<br />
The city resulting in the spatial form of the urbanization process has as one of its<br />
most striking characteristics, diversity. The city has its own dynamics, <strong>and</strong> in this<br />
context that the social needs arise more acutely among those to housing.<br />
The dynamics of urban social expresses itself in different forms of sociospatial<br />
structuration. Analyze how people try to solve their housing problem allows us to<br />
reflect on the factors that are engendered <strong>and</strong> which the contradictions that run through<br />
urban space.<br />
Urbanization as a social <strong>and</strong> historical process, it expresses the logic of the use<br />
<strong>and</strong> occupation of urban l<strong>and</strong>. The population dem<strong>and</strong>s the fulfillment of their needs to<br />
live in the urban environment. Not being met, suffer the consequences, among other<br />
factors, lack of infrastructure, competition for urban space being marked mainly by<br />
occupations public areas, which in the case of Ponta Grossa is facilitated by the relief<br />
which is very bumpy <strong>and</strong> full of streams.<br />
Lack of access to housing has led the impoverished segments of the urban<br />
population living in subhabitações so disorderly <strong>and</strong> without infrastructure, on l<strong>and</strong><br />
belonging to the government or unoccupied areas owned by individuals. This expresses<br />
the precariousness of insertion in the labor market, not from the incorporation of the<br />
entire workforce in the formal sector of the market, favoring the inclusion of a<br />
significant portion of the population in the informal sector <strong>and</strong> underemployment,<br />
accentuating social inequalities.<br />
In Ponta Grossa, the location of irregular occupation has a tendency to settle on the<br />
banks of streams in areas for permanent preservation, causing the destruction of riparian<br />
vegetation, thus altering the original l<strong>and</strong>scape. This tendency causes many problems<br />
for environmental preservation areas <strong>and</strong> for families living in these places because<br />
often suffer life-threatening situations <strong>and</strong> unsanitary.<br />
According to data from the Municipal Plan for Social Housing - 2010, Ponta<br />
Grossa has 8.778 housing units in the situation of illegal occupation in 162 points<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
S.M. Scheffer & E. Schimanski 2010. The process of urbanization <strong>and</strong> the environment<br />
422<br />
distributed within the city limits, with a large percentage in the valleys, areas with no<br />
conditions for building <strong>and</strong> sanitation. On the other side also contribute to loss of<br />
biodiversity <strong>and</strong> / or change with the removal of riparian vegetation which results in<br />
pollution of local water contamination of streams, erosion of hillsides, l<strong>and</strong>slides, <strong>and</strong><br />
other factors that affect social development <strong>and</strong> conservation of natural habitat <strong>and</strong><br />
environment.<br />
To illustrate the situation, shown in Figure 1 to identify the illegal occupations in<br />
the urban area of Ponta Grossa.<br />
Figure 1 - Irregular occupations in the urban area of Ponta Grossa - 2010<br />
Source: Plan for Social Housing Ponta Grossa – 2010<br />
Some occupations are more recent, but others have already been established for<br />
decades in places. As Lowen SAHR (2001), the former slum in Ponta Grossa emerged<br />
in the 1950s, intensifying in the following decades, representing 0.8% of urban<br />
population in 1960 to 1.9% in 1970, 6.3% in 1980 14% in 1991<strong>and</strong> according to data<br />
from the Municipal Housing Plan, 11,03% in 2010 .<br />
Important to note that not all families living in irregular occupations live in<br />
conditions that can be considered slums because not every area of occupation reveals<br />
the precariousness of living conditions. Some occupations, even though in irregular<br />
areas, belonging to the municipality have a better quality of habitability <strong>and</strong><br />
environmental suitability.<br />
According to the Municipal Plan for Social Housing in the city of Ponta Grossa,<br />
we evaluated the inadequacy of environmental variable <strong>and</strong> for each illegal occupation<br />
of the urban area of Ponta Grossa was awarded points if you are on APP-Area<br />
Preservation <strong>and</strong> case is about risk area. The sum of two sub-components reflects the<br />
degree of inadequacy with regard to environmental conditions.<br />
Of the 162 points of irregular occupation, 80 points are in conditions considered<br />
high or very high environmental inadequacy, which corresponds to 49,4% of all<br />
occupations, alarming to propose coping strategies.<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
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3 - Environment <strong>and</strong> irregular occupations<br />
Analyze the relationship between urbanization <strong>and</strong> the environment is fundamental<br />
to underst<strong>and</strong> the mediations that arise between the need of social housing <strong>and</strong><br />
environmental respect.<br />
In the case of Ponta Grossa, its urban area has about only 150 km of streams in<br />
urban <strong>and</strong> largely due to its topography in the valleys, the irregular occupations that are<br />
located in these locations.<br />
The preservation of the environment is an essential theme <strong>and</strong> special Ponta<br />
Grossa, this ecological consciousness brings with it a need for a process of<br />
environmental education.<br />
Thus, planning the organization of urban space must be examined by a team of<br />
professionals in various areas in partnership with the communities concerned to<br />
promote alternative solutions with adequate infrastructure <strong>and</strong> legally for the families as<br />
well as environmental remediation projects that provide improvements to support social<br />
inclusion <strong>and</strong> sustainability.<br />
Thus, including the population living in irregular occupations, located in the<br />
vicinity of streams, in all steps to propose <strong>and</strong> implement improvements would create<br />
an interaction between nature <strong>and</strong> man <strong>and</strong> not treating them as distinct, but as<br />
interacting components in environment.<br />
As the prerogative of the Brazilian Agenda 21, sustainable development seeks to<br />
improve the lives of all people without increasing the use of natural resources beyond<br />
the capacity of the earth.<br />
Thus, the urban planning is crucial to the process of urbanization can be worked in<br />
order to avoid further problems <strong>and</strong> deterioration in physical space. With the relocation<br />
of families that generate environmental degradation of streams <strong>and</strong> riparian areas <strong>and</strong><br />
consequently live in areas at risk <strong>and</strong> secondly the regularization of lawfully made<br />
possible thereby, whether it was complying with an integrated planning in the city <strong>and</strong><br />
thinking of all points that comprise the process for solving problems arising from the<br />
socio historical process of urbanization in Ponta Grossa <strong>and</strong> consequent environmental<br />
degradation.<br />
It is also essential to undertake actions consistent to prevent new jobs mainly in<br />
environmental areas <strong>and</strong> providing housing programs to meet the housing law. With<br />
these proposals would preserve the care of social rights as constitutionally protected<br />
environmental law <strong>and</strong> housing rights, which have the same conceptual core, which is<br />
the socio-environmental function of property.<br />
The great challenge for the actors involved in the urban setting is to reconcile these<br />
two rights <strong>and</strong> build a scenario. It is necessary to adopt an inclusive model of urban<br />
growth where the humans can live in nature in a sustainable way in terms of<br />
promotions.<br />
References<br />
Castells, Manuel. The urban question. Translation of Arlene Caetano. Rio de Janeiro:<br />
Paz e Terra, 1983. 590 p.<br />
Brazilian Instituteof Geography <strong>and</strong> Statistics - IBGE. 2007 municipal population data.<br />
Rio de Janeiro: IBGE, 2001.<br />
Lowen Sahr, Ciciliano Luiza. Internal structure <strong>and</strong> social dynamics in the city of Ponta<br />
Grossa. In: DITZEL, Carmencita of Holleben Mello; LOWEN SAHR, Ciciliano<br />
Luiza (eds) Space <strong>and</strong> culture. Ponta Grossa <strong>and</strong> the Campos Gerais. Ponta<br />
Grossa: Editora UEPG, 2001. p. 13-36<br />
Oliveira, Isabel Eiras de. Status of the city, to underst<strong>and</strong> ... Rio de Janeiro: IBAM<br />
/DUMA, 2001. 64 p.<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
S.M. Scheffer & E. Schimanski 2010. The process of urbanization <strong>and</strong> the environment<br />
424<br />
Rolnik, Rachel; Nakano, Kazuo. Old questions, new challenges. In: Another urban<br />
world is possible: Notebooks Le Monde Diplomatique, Abaporu Institute, São<br />
Paulo, n. 2, p. 30-33, jan. 2001<br />
Santos, Milton. The Brazilian urbanization. São Paulo: Hucitec, 1993. 157p.<br />
Scheffer, S<strong>and</strong>ra Maria. Urban Space <strong>and</strong> Housing Policy: An Analysis on the Program<br />
of Plots of Prolar - Ponta Grossa. Master Thesis in Applied Social Sciences. Ponta<br />
Grossa: UEPG, 2003.<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
J. Superson et al. 2010. The deforestation of loess upl<strong>and</strong>s of SE Pol<strong>and</strong> <strong>and</strong> its stages as documented by valley deposits<br />
425<br />
The deforestation of loess upl<strong>and</strong>s of SE Pol<strong>and</strong> <strong>and</strong> its stages as<br />
documented by valley deposits (case study: Bystra river valley,<br />
Lublin Upl<strong>and</strong>)<br />
Józef Superson, Jan Reder <strong>and</strong> Wojciech Zgłobicki<br />
Institute of Earth Sciences, Maria-Curie Sklodowska University, Lublin, Pol<strong>and</strong><br />
Abstract<br />
Agriculture developing in the loess upl<strong>and</strong>s of SE Pol<strong>and</strong> caused the reduction of woodl<strong>and</strong><br />
areas, which resulted in an increased intensity of erosion processes. A greater amount of mineral<br />
deposits was supplied to the bottoms of river valleys. The objective of this study is to link these<br />
deposits with stages of prehistoric settlement <strong>and</strong> deforestation in the Bystra drainage basin.<br />
Sediments stored in the valley bottom were analysed in details. Several phases of deforestation<br />
related to human activity were described. An attempt to correlate changes of type,<br />
characteristics <strong>and</strong> geochemistry of analysed sediments with stages of deforestation was made.<br />
Keywords: deforestation, loess areas, Pol<strong>and</strong>, valley deposits<br />
1. Introduction<br />
In loess areas, forests are the best form of l<strong>and</strong> cover preventing soil erosion <strong>and</strong> gully erosion<br />
(Rodzik et al. 2009). Agriculture developing in the loess upl<strong>and</strong>s of SE Pol<strong>and</strong> from as early as<br />
the Neolithic caused the reduction of woodl<strong>and</strong> areas, which resulted in an increased intensity of<br />
erosion processes. In consequence, mainly as a result of gully erosion, a greater amount of<br />
mineral deposits was supplied to the bottoms of river valleys. Favourable natural conditions, as<br />
well as the long-term <strong>and</strong> multi-stage nature of erosion processes related to deforestation <strong>and</strong><br />
agricultural use of l<strong>and</strong>, have caused the accumulation of thick series of deposits in the bottom<br />
of valleys. They are represented by terrace deposits <strong>and</strong> alluvial fan deposits covering them<br />
(Superson, Zglobicki 2005).<br />
The objective of the study is to link these deposits with the archaeologically documented stages<br />
of prehistoric settlement <strong>and</strong> deforestation in the Bystra drainage basin based on the findings of<br />
archaeological research conducted so far <strong>and</strong> the authors’ own geomorphological studies.<br />
Deposits filling the bottom of the Bystra valley may be used as a peculiar geoarchive<br />
documenting the development stages of the environment in the area under study, including the<br />
changes in the forest cover.<br />
2. Research area <strong>and</strong> methods<br />
Bystra is a small river flowing into the Vistula in the area where the latter breaks through the<br />
upl<strong>and</strong> belt of central Pol<strong>and</strong> (Figure 1). The lower reaches of the Bystra drainage basin are<br />
situated within the loess-covered meso-region, the Naleczow Plateau (Lublin Upl<strong>and</strong>). One of<br />
the Plateau’s characteristic features is the occurrence of the loess cover that is up to 30 m thick.<br />
This meso-region is an undulating plateau with the highest elevations ranging from 180 to 220<br />
m a.s.l. The Plateau is dissected by the valleys of the Bystra <strong>and</strong> its tributaries, up to 125 m a.s.l.<br />
deep, as well as numerous trough-shaped valleys <strong>and</strong> a very dense network of gullies – up to 11<br />
km·km -2 (Maruszczak 1973). The loess areas, from the Boreal period of the Holocene, were<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
J. Superson et al. 2010. The deforestation of loess upl<strong>and</strong>s of SE Pol<strong>and</strong> <strong>and</strong> its stages as documented by valley deposits<br />
426<br />
covered by multi-species, broad-leaved climax forests consisting of elm, lime, oak, ash <strong>and</strong><br />
hazel (Ralska-Jasiewiczowa 1991). A typical community growing in gullies nowadays are Tilio-<br />
Carpinetum forests; tree st<strong>and</strong>s are composed of hornbeam (Carpinus betulus) with an<br />
admixture of small-leaved lime (Tilia cordata), Norway maple (Acer platanoides) <strong>and</strong><br />
pedunculate oak (Quercus robur). The Bystra drainage basin has been used for agriculture since<br />
the early Neolithic (Gurba 1960). Prehistoric settlement networks in this meso-region,<br />
reconstructed through archaeological research, rank among the most developed in the Lublin<br />
Upl<strong>and</strong>, in Pol<strong>and</strong> <strong>and</strong> even in Central Europe.<br />
Based on the available archaeological material, an attempt was made to determine the stages of<br />
the deforestation of the Bystra basin. The intensity of this process in the past may only be<br />
established in qualitative terms <strong>and</strong> only based on the ascertained or supposed features of<br />
agriculture in individual cultures. More detailed quantitative analyses of changes of forested<br />
areas are only possible for the last 200 years because relatively precise comparative<br />
cartographic material is available for this period. Deposits in the bottom of the Bystra valley<br />
were studied during detailed geomorphological <strong>and</strong> geological investigations (numerous<br />
drillings), on the basis of which the character <strong>and</strong> age of the deposits was determined<br />
(radiocarbon dating). The vertical grain-size distribution of mineral deposits <strong>and</strong> selected<br />
geochemical characteristics (heavy metal content) were also determined.<br />
3. Results <strong>and</strong> discussion<br />
3.1 Stages of deforestation<br />
The deforestation of the Bystra drainage basin began in the later stage of the Atlantic period of<br />
the Holocene. It was linked with the influx of the early Neolithic people of the Lublin-Volhynia<br />
culture into this area, dated at approximately 3400 BC (Kadrow <strong>and</strong> Zakoscielna 2000). Those<br />
people cultivated small areas located in the neighbourhood of settlements, i.e. raised terraces<br />
<strong>and</strong> lower-lying, flattened promontories of the loess plateau adjoining the valley. Deforestations<br />
in that period were linked with a tremendous amount of effort. Since the use of slash-<strong>and</strong>-burn<br />
methods was limited by the natural humidity of valley bottoms <strong>and</strong> slopes, mechanical treefelling<br />
methods were used. It can be assumed that the agricultural activity of the Lublin-<br />
Volhynia culture did not cause considerable changes in the l<strong>and</strong>scape of loess promontories.<br />
The deforestation affected small areas in the immediate neighbourhood of settlements.<br />
Approximately 2900 BC, the Funnelbeaker culture people arrived in the Bystra basin. The<br />
economic activity of those people encompassed the entire area of the basin. Vast forest areas<br />
were burnt out, <strong>and</strong> fallowing was used to a great extent. The extensive use of the slash-<strong>and</strong>burn<br />
agriculture resulted in an increased area of cultivated l<strong>and</strong> <strong>and</strong> dispersal of settlements.<br />
Deforestation occurred throughout the Bystra drainage basin, but it was not permanent.<br />
In contrast with the dense Neolithic settlement in the Bystra basin, the settlement process in the<br />
Bronze Age was less intensive <strong>and</strong> developed in two stages: the early Bronze Age, after 1700<br />
BC (Trzciniec culture), <strong>and</strong> the late Bronze Age, after 1300 BC (Lusatian culture). A small<br />
number of dispersed settlements developed in a few places on terraces <strong>and</strong> in the immediate<br />
neighbourhood of the valley bottom. Their economic activity was dominated by animal<br />
husb<strong>and</strong>ry (particularly in the later stage), while farming played a secondary role. Settlement<br />
sites of the Trzciniec culture usually occur in places that were not occupied by previous<br />
Neolithic settlements, which may indicate that the previously used l<strong>and</strong> became overgrown on a<br />
considerable scale (Taras 1995). Areas affected by deforestation were small, but the process<br />
may have been relatively permanent.<br />
In the Early Iron Age (from 650 BC to 400 AD), the loess areas in the Bystra basin remained<br />
beyond the reach of the regular ecumene. Settlement sites are very sparse, located exclusively<br />
along the Bystra river, which is interpreted as proof of a very limited human penetration of the<br />
drainage basin <strong>and</strong> a migratory nature of settlement (Stasiak-Cyran 2000).<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
J. Superson et al. 2010. The deforestation of loess upl<strong>and</strong>s of SE Pol<strong>and</strong> <strong>and</strong> its stages as documented by valley deposits<br />
427<br />
Early medieval settlement in the Bystra basin dates back to the 7 th century. In the pre-statehood<br />
period (until the 11 th century), numerous, sometimes large settlements were established in the<br />
bottom of the Bystra valley <strong>and</strong> its tributaries, <strong>and</strong> deforestation in these areas must have been<br />
significant. An abrupt increase in the number of settlements can be observed from the mid-11 th<br />
century. They encroached on the loess plateau top, which resulted in relatively extensive<br />
deforestations at this l<strong>and</strong>scape level (Hoczyk-Siwkowa 1991).<br />
Starting from the 14 th century, the agricultural use of l<strong>and</strong> in the Bystra basin can be observed,<br />
varying over time, but increasingly intensive. Trees were felled in order to acquire new arable<br />
l<strong>and</strong> as well as for building <strong>and</strong>, later, industrial purposes, which led to a considerable<br />
deforestation of the drainage basin as early as the 15 th <strong>and</strong> 16 th centuries. It is estimated that the<br />
deforestation rate in the Lublin region was approximately 20% in 1340 <strong>and</strong> as much as 50% in<br />
1580 (Maruszczak 1988).<br />
3.2. Information recorded in deposits<br />
Anthropogenic changes in the l<strong>and</strong> cover of the Bystra drainage basin influenced the intensity of<br />
the supply of mineral deposits to the valley bottom. Geological <strong>and</strong> geomorphological studies<br />
show that the top of the peat layer, dating back to the Atlantic period, was partially covered as<br />
early as the Neolithic by the loam deposits of alluvial fans <strong>and</strong> by alluvial soils. Neolithic<br />
alluvial fan deposits, up to 5 m thick, were found at the mouth of extensive gully systems in the<br />
Celejow area. The sedimentation of these deposits should be linked with the deforestation of<br />
part of the drainage basin, resulting from the large-area slash-<strong>and</strong>-burn farming conducted by<br />
the people of the Funnelbeaker culture. It was probably then that the first gullies, linked with<br />
paths to water sources, formed along the axis of the trough-shaped valleys (Rodzik et all. 2009).<br />
Those gullies dissected the valley loams that subsequently were deposited in the form of alluvial<br />
fans covering a peat layer.<br />
The subsequent stage of filling the valley bottom with mineral deposits was not initiated until<br />
the early Middle Ages, which is indicated by radiocarbon dating carried out for organic<br />
formations covered by the alluvial fan at the southern valley side of the Bystra. For a long time,<br />
from the end of the Neolithic to the early Middle Ages, mineral deposits probably did not reach<br />
the bottom of the river valley or reached it in small quantities. It resulted from the sparse<br />
settlement network in the Naleczow Plateau in that period.<br />
The deposits forming the alluvial fans <strong>and</strong> the floodplain of the Bystra valley in the early<br />
Middle Ages are lithologically varied <strong>and</strong> correspond to the deposits on the slopes of the valley.<br />
These facts indicate short-distance, transverse transport as well as a varied erosion dynamics of<br />
water. At that time, gullies that had formed in the Neolithic probably became deeper, while new<br />
gullies developed in the deforested areas.<br />
The considerable deforestation of the Bystra drainage basin in the 15 th <strong>and</strong> 16 th centuries led to<br />
the formation of dense net of gullies along the axis of dry <strong>and</strong> trough-shaped valleys. Due to the<br />
absence of a consistent <strong>and</strong> permanent vegetation cover on vast areas <strong>and</strong> owing to the humidity<br />
of the medieval Climate Optimum, large amounts of material, mainly loams <strong>and</strong> s<strong>and</strong>y loams,<br />
were deposited in the bottom of the Bystra valley. These deposits form the bulk of alluvial fans<br />
<strong>and</strong> the so-called anthropogenic alluvial soil. The Heldensfeld map of 1804 shows that most<br />
contemporary gully systems were already established by then, which attests to the very high<br />
intensity of gully erosion in the Middle Ages. The map also indicates that the afforestation of<br />
certain gully system basins was considerably higher than today. The cutting down of forests in<br />
those basins in the 19 th <strong>and</strong> 20 th centuries is reflected in the deposits that make up the alluvial<br />
fans, namely the top layer of loams that, in some places, overlies poorly developed fossil soils.<br />
The last millennium was a period of substantial changes in the environment of the western part<br />
of the Lublin Upl<strong>and</strong> as well as other parts of Pol<strong>and</strong> (Maruszczak 1988). Progressive<br />
deforestation has resulted in increased dynamics of geomorphological processes in slope<br />
systems. The intensity of gully erosion, that represents the main source of material supplied to<br />
river valleys, has increased noticeably (Maruszczak 1973, 1988, Schmitt et all. 2006, Zglobicki<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
J. Superson et al. 2010. The deforestation of loess upl<strong>and</strong>s of SE Pol<strong>and</strong> <strong>and</strong> its stages as documented by valley deposits<br />
428<br />
<strong>and</strong> Rodzik 2007). <strong>Change</strong>s in the l<strong>and</strong> cover have been reflected both in the sedimentological<br />
features of deposits as well as their geochemistry (heavy metal content). Deforestation along<br />
with the accompanying denudation is an important factor causing an increase in the content of<br />
elements in deposits.<br />
The last millennium has seen the sedimentation of mineral deposits, i.e. loams, s<strong>and</strong>y loams <strong>and</strong><br />
silty s<strong>and</strong>s in the Bystra river valley bottom. The characteristic feature was the occurrence of<br />
recurrent episodes of changes in certain parameters of the deposits, which can be linked with<br />
episodes of intensive gully erosion (Figure 2). Deposits older than 1000 years were<br />
characterised by a larger mean grain-size, ranging from 2 to 4 Φ (s<strong>and</strong>), whereas in the upper<br />
parts of the profiles (younger than 1000 years), the mean size was between 4 <strong>and</strong> 7 Φ (loams).<br />
Diversity also occurred in the case of st<strong>and</strong>ard deviation. In the lower part of the profiles, the<br />
sorting was very poor, 2-3 Φ, whereas in younger deposits it was poor or very poor, 1-3 Φ.<br />
Similar patterns were observed in the case of other valleys in the western part of the Lublin<br />
Upl<strong>and</strong> (Table 1). A small decrease in grain-size <strong>and</strong> slightly better sorting may suggest a<br />
modification of the source of material supplied to the fluvial systems under study, which results<br />
from the intensive supply of gully erosion products with the predominant silt fraction to the<br />
bottoms of river valleys.<br />
It was established that heavy metal content in deposits, particularly lead <strong>and</strong> copper, has<br />
increased over the last millennium in all studied profiles. Minor changes occurred in the case of<br />
cadmium <strong>and</strong> zinc. It has to be emphasized that the geochemical background was distinctly<br />
exceeded only in the case of surface samples (0-10 cm), which should be linked with the<br />
geochemical contamination of the environment caused by the development of industry in the<br />
area (the last 50 to 80 years). Heavy metal enrichment rates in the last millennium were as<br />
follows (the ratio between concentration at the top <strong>and</strong> concentration at the bottom of a layer<br />
dating back to the last 1000 years): Cd 1.9-2.3; Cu 1.4-2.6; Pb 1.4-3.1 <strong>and</strong> Zn 0.7-2.4 (Zglobicki<br />
2008). The concentration of the heavy metals in deposits aged more than 1000 years<br />
corresponded quite well with values characteristic of the geochemical background. The mean<br />
value of changes in geochemical characteristics, although distinct in vertical profiles, was not<br />
significant in terms of absolute values. An analysis of curves representing the trends of changes<br />
in heavy metal concentration in river deposits in the western part of the Lublin Upl<strong>and</strong> over the<br />
last 1000 years shows that compared to the 10 th century, the contemporary values of heavy<br />
metal content are between 2.5 (Pb) <strong>and</strong> 15 (Cd) times higher. In the case of lead <strong>and</strong> cadmium,<br />
the geochemical background value was exceeded around the 10 th -11 th century, which can be<br />
directly linked to the reduction of the forest cover in the area under study (Figure 3).<br />
References<br />
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Hoczyk-Siwkowa S. 1991. Malopolska polnocno-wschodnia w VI-X wieku. Struktury osadnicze.<br />
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Kadrow S. <strong>and</strong> Zakoscielna A. 2000. An outline of the evolution of Danubian Cultures in<br />
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Leszek Starkel (Ed.) Przemiany środowiska geograficznego Polski. Ossolineum, 109-135.<br />
Ralska-Jasiewiczowa M. 1991. Ewolucja szaty roslinnej. In: Leszek Starkel (Ed.) Geografia<br />
Polski.. Środowisko przyrodnicze. PWN, Warszawa, 106-127.<br />
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Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
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Rodzik J., Furtak T. <strong>and</strong> Zglobicki W. 2009. The impact of snowmelt <strong>and</strong> heavy rainfall runoff<br />
on erosion rates in a gully system, Lublin Upl<strong>and</strong>, Pol<strong>and</strong>. Earth Surf. Procesess <strong>and</strong><br />
L<strong>and</strong>forms, 34: 1938–1950.<br />
Schmitt A., Rodzik J., Zgłobicki W., Russok Ch., Dotterweich M. <strong>and</strong> Bork H.-R. 2006. Time<br />
<strong>and</strong> scale of gully erosion in the Jedliczny Dol gully system, south-east Pol<strong>and</strong>. Catena,<br />
68: 24-132.<br />
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Lublin: 33-40.<br />
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Upl<strong>and</strong> (E Pol<strong>and</strong>). Catena, 71: 84-95.<br />
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Table 1: The diversity of mean grain-size distribution <strong>and</strong> geochemical parameters of alluvia in the<br />
western part of the Lublin Upl<strong>and</strong> (Zgłobicki 2008)<br />
Parameter Contemporary alluvia Alluvia aged up to<br />
1000 years<br />
Alluvia older than<br />
1000 years<br />
Mean grain-size [Φ] 5.2 5.9 4.5<br />
St<strong>and</strong>ard deviation [Φ] 1.9 1.7 2.3<br />
Cd content [mg/kg] 0.8 0.3 0.4<br />
Cu content [mg/kg] 14.7 10.7 6.8<br />
Pb content [mg/kg] 32.4 16.0 20.0<br />
Zn content [mg/kg] 42.9 34.7 34.0<br />
Figure 1: Location of studied area<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
J. Superson et al. 2010. The deforestation of loess upl<strong>and</strong>s of SE Pol<strong>and</strong> <strong>and</strong> its stages as documented by valley deposits<br />
430<br />
Figure 1: Vertical distribution of heavy metals content <strong>and</strong> selected indexes of grain size distribution in<br />
profile Rablow 1 (Zglobicki 2008)<br />
Figure 2: <strong>Change</strong>s in heavy metal content in sediments of western part of Lublin Upl<strong>and</strong> <strong>and</strong> main stages<br />
of deforestation (grey arrows) during last 10 000 years (Zglobicki 2008)<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
A.L. Teixido et al. 2010. Impacts of changes in l<strong>and</strong> use <strong>and</strong> fragmentation patterns on Atlantic coastal forests<br />
431<br />
Impacts of changes in l<strong>and</strong> use <strong>and</strong> fragmentation patterns on Atlantic<br />
coastal forests in northern Spain<br />
Alberto L. Teixido * , Luis G. Quintanilla, Francisco Carreño & David Gutiérrez<br />
1 Área de Biodiversidad y Conservación, Departamento de Biología y Geología,<br />
Universidad Rey Juan Carlos, Tulipán s/n, Móstoles, E-28933 Madrid<br />
Abstract<br />
In managed northern coast of Spain, negative consequences of forested l<strong>and</strong>scape changes have<br />
not been quantified. In one coastal forest we evaluated the l<strong>and</strong>scape transitions <strong>and</strong><br />
fragmentation patterns over time (1957-2003) by digitalising orthoimages with a high spatial<br />
resolution. Major changes on l<strong>and</strong> cover were transitions to eucalypt plantations, which showed<br />
the largest increase in area (197%). <strong>Forest</strong> declined 20% <strong>and</strong> represented 30% of l<strong>and</strong>scape area<br />
in 2003. <strong>Forest</strong> decline was mostly due to eucalypt plantations <strong>and</strong> to a water reservoir, although<br />
there were some gains by shrubl<strong>and</strong> <strong>and</strong> cultural fields been recolonised. <strong>Forest</strong> patches<br />
declined in size <strong>and</strong> core area, <strong>and</strong> increased in edge length, mean distance <strong>and</strong> in adjacency,<br />
mainly to eucalypts. The results suggested an increase in the degree of forest fragmentation <strong>and</strong><br />
changes in the matrix surrounding forest patches. This study also shows that l<strong>and</strong> use changes,<br />
mostly from eucalypt plantation intensification, negatively affected forested habitats.<br />
Keywords: Eucalypt plantations, <strong>Forest</strong> patches, L<strong>and</strong> cover classes, Riparian forest,<br />
Transitions<br />
1. Introduction<br />
Fragmentation <strong>and</strong> forest loss are one of the most threats for biodiversity (Fahrig 2003). Both<br />
processes involve patch size decrease, edge length increase <strong>and</strong> isolation, modifying the<br />
viability of populations (Hanski 1999). Despite of several studies have quantified these changes<br />
on different types of forests (e.g. Echeverria et al. 2006; Gaveau et al. 2007), in Spain montane<br />
<strong>and</strong> Mediterranean forests have been only considered (e.g. García et al. 2005), whereas Atlantic<br />
coastal forests have suffered a large fragmentation not quantified. These forests have been<br />
historically altered due to traditional l<strong>and</strong> uses <strong>and</strong> eucalypt plantations (Eucalyptus spp.)<br />
(Saura <strong>and</strong> Carballal 2004). Fragas do Eume Natural Park (NW Spain) is one of the biggest<br />
Atlantic coastal forests in Europe <strong>and</strong> has suffered a large fragmentation. In addition, a water<br />
reservoir building has altered the riparian forests, which contain several threatened species. The<br />
objectives of this study are: (1) to contribute to the underst<strong>and</strong>ing of the patterns of forest loss<br />
<strong>and</strong> fragmentation in the coastal l<strong>and</strong>scapes in northern Spain, (2) to quantify changes <strong>and</strong><br />
transitions that occurred among l<strong>and</strong> cover classes between 1957 <strong>and</strong> 2003 to underst<strong>and</strong> how<br />
they have affected to space-temporal configuration of forest <strong>and</strong>, (3) to characterise forest<br />
fragmentation patterns using st<strong>and</strong>ard l<strong>and</strong>scape metrics <strong>and</strong> adjacency with other l<strong>and</strong> cover<br />
classes as well as to determine the temporal change of those patterns.<br />
* Corresponding author. Tel.: +34 91 488 8290 - Fax:+34 91 664 7490<br />
Email address: alberto.teixido@urjc.es<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
A.L. Teixido et al. 2010. Impacts of changes in l<strong>and</strong> use <strong>and</strong> fragmentation patterns on Atlantic coastal forests<br />
432<br />
2. Methodology<br />
2.1 Study area<br />
Fragas do Eume NP covers 8 962 ha <strong>and</strong> it is located in the Galician dorsal range. The reserve<br />
spans 43º20’-43º26’N, <strong>and</strong> 7º52’-8º08’W. There are three native forest types depending on<br />
geomorphology: (1) oak forests, located on slopes; (2) alder forests, located on riversides with<br />
flooding sediments; <strong>and</strong> (3) hazel forests, located on steep riversides with rocky river-beds.<br />
Alder <strong>and</strong> hazel forests represent the riparian forests, <strong>and</strong> they contain threatened species such<br />
as the vertebrates Chioglossa lusitanica <strong>and</strong> Galemys pyrenaicus, <strong>and</strong> the ferns Culcita<br />
macrocarpa, Trichomanes speciosum <strong>and</strong> Woodwardia radicans.<br />
2.2 Aerial image processing <strong>and</strong> l<strong>and</strong> cover classes<br />
We used American Army’s aerial photographs from flights for the years 1956-1957 (hereafter<br />
1957) <strong>and</strong> digital orthoimages of the Geographic Information System of Agrarian Plots for the<br />
years 2002-2003 (hereafter 2003). The 1957 aerial photographs consisted of 28 contact copies<br />
(24×24 cm) with a scale of ca. 1:30 000. The photographs were scanned at ca. 2.55 m resolution,<br />
<strong>and</strong> they were subsequently georeferenced with the software ERDAS IMAGINE 8.7 using 30-<br />
40 ground control points for each frame. Orthoimages from 2003 had a spatial resolution of 0.25<br />
m. The imagery set was implemented into a GIS based on ArcGIS 9.1.<br />
Two maps were drawn showing the different l<strong>and</strong> cover classes in the Fragas do Eume NP in<br />
1957 <strong>and</strong> 2003. L<strong>and</strong> cover classification followed the system of the CORINE L<strong>and</strong> Cover 5th<br />
level project (IGN 2002). Table 1 shows the classes we digitised. Riparian forests consisted of<br />
extremely thin patches that it was practically impossible to digitise them as polygons. However,<br />
given the importance of that habitat for the persistence of key red-listed <strong>and</strong> protected species,<br />
we conducted a specific analysis for riparian forests by digitising the intersection between<br />
forests <strong>and</strong> river courses as polylines to generate a map of riparian forest length.<br />
2.3 <strong>Forest</strong> fragmentation analysis<br />
Quantification <strong>and</strong> temporal comparison of the spatial configuration of forest patches were<br />
conducted based on a set of st<strong>and</strong>ard l<strong>and</strong>scape metrics reported in recent forest fragmentation<br />
studies (e.g. Echeverria et al. 2006): (1) largest patch index (%), (2) mean patch size (ha), (3)<br />
total edge length (km), (4) total core area (ha), (5) largest patch core area (ha), (6) mean distance<br />
(m) <strong>and</strong> (7) adjacency index (total -km- <strong>and</strong> relative -%-). To calculate core area, the interior<br />
forest was defined at a distance to edge of 50 m. In the case of riparian forest, quantification <strong>and</strong><br />
temporal comparison was based on lineal segments rather on areas. For each of the two dates,<br />
we calculated the number of segments <strong>and</strong> the absolute <strong>and</strong> relative length of riparian forest<br />
from the polyline maps. We quantified all absolute <strong>and</strong> relative changes in l<strong>and</strong> cover areas <strong>and</strong><br />
lengths by calculating the difference between the values in 2003 <strong>and</strong> 1957.<br />
3. Results<br />
14 classes in 1957 <strong>and</strong> 12 in 2003 were identified (Table 1, Fig. 1). <strong>Forest</strong> suffered a 20%<br />
decrease in area <strong>and</strong> more than a two-fold increase in the number of patches between over time.<br />
In contrast, eucalypt plantations exhibited a 200% increase in area, accompanied by a moderate<br />
increase in the number of patches. Table 1 shows the overall l<strong>and</strong> cover patterns <strong>and</strong> changes.<br />
In 1957, 86% of total forest area concentrated on a large patch of 2 848 ha located along the<br />
Eume river gorge (Fig. 1); the remaining forest area occurred in patches that were smaller than<br />
1000 ha, with only ca. 4% in patches under 100 ha. The 2 848 ha patch from 1957 suffered 28%<br />
area loss as well as fragmentation into three patches of 273, 751 <strong>and</strong> 1 003 ha. The 1 003 ha<br />
patch was the largest one in 2003 <strong>and</strong> was located along the low Eume River gorge (Fig. 1). The<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
A.L. Teixido et al. 2010. Impacts of changes in l<strong>and</strong> use <strong>and</strong> fragmentation patterns on Atlantic coastal forests<br />
433<br />
Table 1: Number of patches, absolute (ha) <strong>and</strong> relative (%) areas for each l<strong>and</strong> cover class in Fragas do<br />
Eume Natural Park in 1957 <strong>and</strong> 2003. Net change (absolute <strong>and</strong> relative) in number of patches <strong>and</strong> area is<br />
also shown. <strong>Change</strong> values greater than 0 indicate gains, <strong>and</strong> those less than 0 indicate losses. * indicates<br />
that relative change was not calculated because that l<strong>and</strong> cover class was absent in 1957<br />
L<strong>and</strong> cover class (abbreviation) 1957 2003 <strong>Change</strong> 1957-2003<br />
Patches Area Patches Area Patches Area<br />
(ha) (%) (ha) (%) Absolute<br />
Relative<br />
(%)<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> (<strong>Forest</strong>) 64 3,306.5 36.9 137 2,659.5 29.7 +73 -647.0 -19.6<br />
Eucalypt plantations (Eucal) 162 615.3 6.9 200 1,829.7 20.4 +38 +1,214.4 +197.4<br />
Pine plantations 0 0.0 0.0 96 144.9 1.6 +96 +144.9 *<br />
Transitional woodl<strong>and</strong> (Trans) 0 0.0 0.0 267 302.9 3.4 +267 +302.9 *<br />
Gorse <strong>and</strong> heathl<strong>and</strong> (Gorse) 169 3,483.0 38.9 213 2.386.2 26.6 +44 -1,096.8 -31.5<br />
Bare rocks (Bare) 356 254.6 2.8 255 94.2 1.1 -101 -160.4 -63.0<br />
Water courses 1 59.5 0.7 1 24.5 0.3 0 -35.0 -58.8<br />
Water reservoir (Water) 0 0.0 0.0 1 400.1 4.4 +1 +400.1 *<br />
Meadows <strong>and</strong> pastures (Mead) 23 121.2 1.4 30 268.0 3.0 +7 +156.8 +129.4<br />
Complex cultivation patterns<br />
(Comp) 89 1,080.0 12.0 139 799.8 8.9 +50 -280.2 -25.9<br />
Discontinuous urban fabric 69 17.7 0.2 72 26.0 0.3 +3 +8.3 +46.9<br />
Roads 51 11.1 0.1 60 17.9 0.2 +9 +6.8 +61.3<br />
Construction sites 1 10.8 0.1 0 0.0 0.0 -1 -10.8 -100.0<br />
Mineral extraction sites 1 1.6 0.0 4 7.4 0.1 +3 +5.8 +362.5<br />
Industrial or commercial units 1 0.5 0.0 1 0.7 0.0 0 +0.2 +40.0<br />
Total 928 8,961.8 100.0 1,476 8,961.8 100.0 +489 0.0 0.0<br />
Figure 1: Spatial configuration of l<strong>and</strong> cover classes in Fragas do Eume Natural Park in 1957 <strong>and</strong> 2003<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
A.L. Teixido et al. 2010. Impacts of changes in l<strong>and</strong> use <strong>and</strong> fragmentation patterns on Atlantic coastal forests<br />
434<br />
Table 2: L<strong>and</strong>scape metrics of forest in Fragas do Eume Natural Park in 1957 <strong>and</strong> 2003. The absolute <strong>and</strong><br />
relative change of each l<strong>and</strong>scape metric is also shown. <strong>Change</strong> values greater than 0 indicate gains, <strong>and</strong><br />
those less than 0 indicate losses<br />
L<strong>and</strong>scape metric 1957 2003 <strong>Change</strong> 1957-2003<br />
Absolute Relative (%)<br />
Largest patch index (%) 32 11 -22 -34.4<br />
Mean patch size ± SD (ha) 52 ± 344 19 ± 110 -33 -63.5<br />
Total edge length (km) 367 484 +118 +32.1<br />
Total core area (ha) 2,054 1,178 -876 -42.6<br />
Largest patch core area (ha) 1,842 530 -1312 -71.2<br />
Mean distance ± SD (m) 489 ± 315 641 ± 546 +152 +31.1<br />
number of patches under 10 ha, <strong>and</strong> particularly those under 1 ha, increased from 1957 to 2003<br />
<strong>and</strong> represented a higher proportion of the total number of patches.<br />
There was an increase in total edge length <strong>and</strong> a decline in total core area <strong>and</strong> also a decline in<br />
largest patch core area. Mean distance among patch edges increased 31%. <strong>Forest</strong> patches also<br />
showed an increase of 32% in the total adjacency index between 1957 <strong>and</strong> 2003 (Table 2).<br />
In 1957, a large proportion (89%) of total water course length was covered by riparian forests,<br />
including the whole length of the Eume River (Fig. 2). In 2003, riparian forest length decreased<br />
34%. Losses were associated to eucalypt plantations (11%), <strong>and</strong> mostly to the building of the<br />
water reservoir (23%).<br />
Figure 2: <strong>Change</strong>s in the spatial distribution of riparian forest in Fragas do Eume Natural Park<br />
4. Discussion<br />
Our results showed a high spatial heterogeneity in l<strong>and</strong> cover over the whole area in both study<br />
periods, with most l<strong>and</strong> cover classes consisting of a large number of patches interspersed with<br />
other different classes (Fig. 1). L<strong>and</strong> cover area comparisons <strong>and</strong> detailed transition analyses<br />
showed that the l<strong>and</strong>scape was highly dynamic over the 50-year period, mostly due to<br />
intensification of exotic species plantations (especially eucalypt), farming ab<strong>and</strong>onment <strong>and</strong> the<br />
building of a water reservoir. Eucalypt plantations were mostly introduced in northern Spain<br />
during the second half of the 20th century because of their high pulp productivity. Farming<br />
ab<strong>and</strong>onment also represented large l<strong>and</strong>scape changes due to depopulation of these rural<br />
lowl<strong>and</strong>s during the second half of the 20th century (Calvo-Iglesias et al. 2006).<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
A.L. Teixido et al. 2010. Impacts of changes in l<strong>and</strong> use <strong>and</strong> fragmentation patterns on Atlantic coastal forests<br />
435<br />
The forest loss was associated with eucalypt plantations <strong>and</strong>, in lesser degree, with the building<br />
of a water reservoir. This contrasts with the high forest losses reported over the last decades,<br />
which were mostly due to logging <strong>and</strong> agriculture, particularly for tropical areas (e.g. Gaveau et<br />
al. 2007). Those factors were also important for European forests, but in historical times prior to<br />
the period of our study (Santos et al. 2002). <strong>Forest</strong> cover was similar to those for other<br />
fragmented temperate forests (Fuller 2001; García et al. 2005; but see Santos et al. 2002). Our<br />
results also showed changes in forest spatial patterns, thus suggesting an increase in the degree<br />
of forest fragmentation over time <strong>and</strong> they were qualitatively similar to those reported for other<br />
forest studies (Fuller 2001; Echeverria et al. 2006). At this point is worth noting the importance<br />
of the fine resolution (0.01 ha) used to map patches in this study More than 20% of patches<br />
were smaller than 0.1 ha <strong>and</strong> more than 60% smaller than 1 ha in any of the study years.<br />
Temporal changes in forest patterns also implied changes in the nature of the adjacent l<strong>and</strong><br />
cover classes. The more relevant changes were the increase in adjacency with eucalypts <strong>and</strong> the<br />
water reservoir. It is known that exotic eucalypts easily spread around <strong>and</strong> into native forest<br />
patches due to their high growth rate <strong>and</strong> ability to alter forest floor quality (Fabião et al. 2002).<br />
<strong>Change</strong>s in forest patterns over time <strong>and</strong> increase in forest edge length adjacent to eucalypt<br />
plantations may have negative ecological implications on forest specialists. Eucalypt plantations<br />
generate ecological disturbances, such as increases in soil dryness <strong>and</strong> erosion, which may result<br />
in declines in plant species diversity (Fabião et al. 2002) <strong>and</strong> density of some animals as the<br />
northern-Iberian endemic amphibian C. lusitanica (Vences 1993). However, a recent genetic<br />
study in the area showed low among-population genetic variation for the protected <strong>and</strong> forest<br />
specialist ferns Culcita macrocarpa <strong>and</strong> Woodwardia radicans (Quintanilla et al. 2007).<br />
Riparian forests appeared to be relatively well-conserved, because 76% of total river course<br />
length was still covered by riparian forest in 2003. However, it was one of the l<strong>and</strong> cover classes<br />
that suffered a larger decline over the study period (34%). Thus, evaluation of conservation<br />
status for habitats based only on a snapshot of the l<strong>and</strong>scape could lead to equivocal conclusions.<br />
Riparian forests have a range of ecological properties which makes them particularly important<br />
components of l<strong>and</strong>scapes. Firstly, riparian forests have been acknowledged as dispersal<br />
corridors, hence facilitating individual exchange between natural habitat patches (Naiman et al.<br />
1993). Secondly, riparian forests may act as buffers for some forest specialists in fragmented<br />
l<strong>and</strong>scapes, as for instance mitigating the impacts derived from forest harvesting <strong>and</strong> exotic<br />
plantations (Homyack <strong>and</strong> Haas 2009).<br />
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knowledge as a source of information on past <strong>and</strong> present cultural l<strong>and</strong>scapes: A case<br />
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Fabião, A., Martins, M.C., Cerveira, C., Santos, C., Lousã, M., Madeira, M. <strong>and</strong> Correia, A.,<br />
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Fahrig, L., 2003. Effects of habitat fragmentation on biodiversity. Annual Review of Ecology<br />
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Fuller, D., 2001. <strong>Forest</strong> fragmentation in Loudoun County, Virginia, USA evaluated with<br />
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García, D., Quevedo, M., Ramón-Obeso, J. <strong>and</strong> Abajo, A., 2005. Fragmentation patterns <strong>and</strong><br />
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<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
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Gaveau, D.L.A., W<strong>and</strong>ono, H. <strong>and</strong> Setiabudi, F., 2007. Three decades of deforestation in<br />
southwest Sumatra: Have protected areas halted forest loss <strong>and</strong> logging, <strong>and</strong> promoted regrowth<br />
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Hanski, I., 1999. Metapopulation ecology. Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK.<br />
Homyack, J.A. <strong>and</strong> Haas, C.A., 2009. Long-term effects of experimental forest harvesting on<br />
abundance <strong>and</strong> reproductive demography of terrestrial salam<strong>and</strong>ers. Biological<br />
Conservation, 142: 110-121.<br />
IGN, 2002. CORINE 2000. Descripción de la nomenclatura del CORINE L<strong>and</strong> Cover al nivel<br />
5º (Diciembre 2002). CORINE L<strong>and</strong> Cover. Actualización 2000. I<strong>and</strong>CLC2000. Instituto<br />
Geográfico Nacional, Centro Nacional de Información Geográfica, Ministerio de Fomento,<br />
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regional biodiversity. Ecological Applications, 3: 209-212.<br />
Quintanilla, L.G., Pajarón, S., Pangua, E. <strong>and</strong> Amigo, J., 2007. Allozyme variation in the<br />
sympatric ferns Culcita macrocarpa <strong>and</strong> Woodwardia radicans at the northern extreme of<br />
their ranges. Plant Systematics <strong>and</strong> Evolution, 263: 135-144.<br />
Santos, T., Tellería, J.L. <strong>and</strong> Carbonell, R., 2002. Bird conservation in fragmented<br />
Mediterranean forests of Spain: effects of geographical location, habitat <strong>and</strong> l<strong>and</strong>scape<br />
degradation. Biological Conservation, 105: 113-125.<br />
Saura, S. <strong>and</strong> Carballal, P., 2004. Discrimination of native <strong>and</strong> exotic forest patterns through<br />
shape irregularity indices: an analysis in the l<strong>and</strong>scapes of Galicia, Spain. L<strong>and</strong>scape<br />
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H. Viana & J. Aranha 2010. Assessing multi-temporal l<strong>and</strong> cover changes in the Mata Nacional da Peneda Geres<br />
437<br />
Assessing multi-temporal l<strong>and</strong> cover changes in the Mata Nacional da<br />
Peneda Geres National Park (1995 <strong>and</strong> 2009), Portugal - a l<strong>and</strong> change<br />
modeler approach for l<strong>and</strong>scape spatial patterns modelling <strong>and</strong><br />
structural evaluation<br />
Helder Viana 1,3 & José Aranha 2,3*<br />
1<br />
Centro de Estudos em Educação, Tecnologias e Saúde, Agrarian <strong>Superior</strong> School,<br />
Polytechnic Institute of Viseu, Quinta da Alagoa, 3500-606 Viseu, Portugal<br />
2<br />
Departamento de Ciências Florestais e Arquitectura Paisagista, Universidade de Trásos-Montes<br />
e Alto Douro, 5001-801 Vila Real, Portugal<br />
3<br />
CITAB, Universidade de Trás-os-Montes e Alto Douro, 5001-801 Vila Real, Portugal<br />
Abstract<br />
The present study sought to evaluate l<strong>and</strong> cover evolution between 1995 <strong>and</strong> 2009, within the<br />
Mata Nacional of Peneda Geres (Portugal). This study was based on L<strong>and</strong>sat TM images<br />
classification <strong>and</strong> GIS procedures, such as L<strong>and</strong> <strong>Change</strong> Modeller approach. L<strong>and</strong>scape<br />
diversity <strong>and</strong> structural changes were analysed by means of Mean Shape Index, Shannon’s<br />
Diversity Index <strong>and</strong> Patch analysis, in order compare l<strong>and</strong>scape metrics <strong>and</strong> to calculate l<strong>and</strong><br />
cover dynamics. The achieved results enable to state that l<strong>and</strong> cover classes presented<br />
significant structural changes. The most significant changes occur in the l<strong>and</strong> cover classes of<br />
Pinus pinaster; Quercus robur; Acacia dealbata; <strong>and</strong> shrub l<strong>and</strong>. The most worrying result was<br />
achieved for the Acacia dealbata, which presented a strong invasive behaviour. L<strong>and</strong>scape<br />
metric analysis showed a significant stratification increasing <strong>and</strong> a dramatic reduction of patch<br />
surfaces. In spite of spatial changes observed, the achieved biodiversity indexes are very alike<br />
for both dates.<br />
Keywords: L<strong>and</strong>scape ecology, Spatial patterns analysis, <strong>Change</strong>s prediction, L<strong>and</strong>sat, Gerês<br />
1. Introduction<br />
Natural or National Parks use to be created as way to preserve wild areas <strong>and</strong> to give a chance to<br />
nature undergo its trend. However, due to centuries of anthropogenic action, nature must be<br />
under human surveillance in order to redress previous misuse or to guide ecosystem recovery.<br />
Over the last 50 years, natural areas have suffered significant changes, which are visible from<br />
l<strong>and</strong> cover <strong>and</strong> l<strong>and</strong> use changes. These changes are due to several causes: human exodus from<br />
rural areas, which leaded to uncontrolled shrub growing <strong>and</strong>, this way, to wild fire starting <strong>and</strong><br />
spread, alien species introduction <strong>and</strong> spread, climatic changes <strong>and</strong> unbalanced forestry<br />
composition.<br />
The Peneda Geres National Park is a good <strong>and</strong> living example of previous state. From the last<br />
200 years, rural population used wild l<strong>and</strong> for grazing cattle, to cut shrubs for cattle’s beds, to<br />
grow timber <strong>and</strong> to cut wood for fireplaces, during rigorous inter. However, from the last 30<br />
years, human action within the Park decreased drastically, both by changes in Portuguese way<br />
of life <strong>and</strong> restrictive policy imposed by law. This actions combination is now very visible in<br />
* Corresponding author. Tel.: + 00 351 259 350 856 - Fax: + 00 351 250 350 480<br />
Email address: j.aranha.utad@gmail.com<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
H. Viana & J. Aranha 2010. Assessing multi-temporal l<strong>and</strong> cover changes in the Mata Nacional da Peneda Geres<br />
438<br />
l<strong>and</strong>scape <strong>and</strong> leaded to changes in ecosystem balance. Due to a strong anthropogenic pass, this<br />
area must be under continuous surveillance in order to avoid irreversible ecosystem losses <strong>and</strong><br />
unbalanced evolution.<br />
This is also visible throughout Europe, at different scales <strong>and</strong> domains, due to changes in<br />
technologies, policy <strong>and</strong> economical growing up (Verburg et al. 2008).<br />
L<strong>and</strong> cover <strong>and</strong> l<strong>and</strong> use dynamic analysis <strong>and</strong> evolution qualification has to be used as a way to<br />
estimate environmental consequences due to l<strong>and</strong>scape changes (López et al. 2001, Flamenco-<br />
S<strong>and</strong>ovala, et al. 2007; Rutherford et al., 2008). Multi temporal spatial pattern analysis <strong>and</strong><br />
quantitative l<strong>and</strong>scape structural analysis have been successful used to derive research in this<br />
domain (O´Neill et al. 1988; Bresee et al. 2001, Tischendorf 2001).<br />
This research was derived using Remote Sensing <strong>and</strong> Geographic Information Systems methods,<br />
in order to assess the l<strong>and</strong>scape dynamics in Gerês National <strong>Forest</strong>. We evaluated the global<br />
l<strong>and</strong>scape composition <strong>and</strong> structure from 1995 to 2009 <strong>and</strong> made projections for 2015 based on<br />
transition observed from the past to 2009.<br />
Was selected Geres National Park, as it is a protected area of high l<strong>and</strong>scape value <strong>and</strong><br />
ecological, part of the Peneda-Geres (PNPG). The Geres National Park contains one of the most<br />
important oak woods, consisting predominantly of a centuries-old oak forest (carvalhal da<br />
Albergaria) where is noticed the presence of fauna <strong>and</strong> flora species characteristic of gerensiana<br />
formation. PNPG, it is classified as a Zone of Partial Protection of Natural Environment Area<br />
<strong>and</strong> Rede Natura 2000 (Anonymous, 1995). In general, this area can be classified as an area of<br />
mountainous altitude, since about 82% of the territory, has altitudes ranging between 700 <strong>and</strong><br />
1400 m.<br />
Due to its morphological characteristics, which result from the conjunction of four mountains<br />
(Peneda, Soajo, Amarela e Gerês), this area creates a natural barrier to hot <strong>and</strong> wet air coming<br />
from Atlantic Ocean. This results in high values of mean annual rainfall, ranging from 2400 mm<br />
to 2800 mm, or 3000 mm in very wet years. This is the wettest area in Portugal <strong>and</strong> even in<br />
Europe (Fontes, 2005). In this territory we can find several forest species, with high<br />
productivities as pines, eucalyptus, oaks <strong>and</strong> much other conifers <strong>and</strong> deciduous species. The<br />
most species are well adapted <strong>and</strong> in equilibrium in the ecosystem, however, many introduced<br />
species became invaders (e.g. Acacia dealbata, Acacia melanoxilon).<br />
2. Methodology<br />
Figure 1: Study area location<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
H. Viana & J. Aranha 2010. Assessing multi-temporal l<strong>and</strong> cover changes in the Mata Nacional da Peneda Geres<br />
439<br />
They were used satellite images (L<strong>and</strong>sat-5 TM, 5/July/1995, L<strong>and</strong>sat-5 ETM+, 1/April/2001,<br />
L<strong>and</strong>sat-5 TM, 4/August/2006 <strong>and</strong> L<strong>and</strong>sat-5 ETM+, 16/June/2009), ancillary data such as:<br />
topographic maps at the scale of 1:25 000 with a 10m contour interval, orthophotomaps from<br />
1995, 2000 <strong>and</strong> 2005 at a scale of 1:10 000, cartographic elements in vector format such as<br />
roads, rivers, administrative boundaries <strong>and</strong> environmental characteristics.<br />
In previous intensive fieldwork, information about l<strong>and</strong> cover classes <strong>and</strong> ground control points<br />
(GCP) were collected using a DGPS (Differential GPS). The GCP were collected in road<br />
crosses, barrages or other notable points perfectly visible in the images (Toutin 2004). This data<br />
was used as auxiliary tools in the geometric correction, in the definition of training classes <strong>and</strong><br />
in the validation stage (Lilles<strong>and</strong> et al. 2004, Toutin 2004, Eastman 2006, Scally 2006, D’ Iorio<br />
et al. 2007, Tsai 2007<br />
A digital elevation model (DEM) was created from 10m interval contours, collected from the<br />
1:25000 topographic maps of representing the study area, in order to calculate slope <strong>and</strong> aspect<br />
<strong>and</strong> to apply images topographic normalization.<br />
The conceptual framework of the research included pre-processing stage, image enhancement,<br />
image transformation (RGB composition, vegetation indices calculation <strong>and</strong> principal<br />
component analysis), image classification <strong>and</strong> interpretation <strong>and</strong> accuracy assessment. It was<br />
used IDRISI 32 (Eastman 2006) image processing software for image data processing, <strong>and</strong><br />
ArcGis 9.x (ESRI 2004) software for GIS based analyses procedures.<br />
During previous field work for data collection, it was used a DGPS (Differential <strong>Global</strong><br />
Positioning System) in training areas mapping (e.g. coniferous st<strong>and</strong>s, burnt areas, acacia areas,<br />
etc.) <strong>and</strong> ground control points collection (e.g. roads intersection). DGPS data was corrected<br />
with Trimble® GPS Pathfinder® Office software.<br />
The adopted l<strong>and</strong> use/cover scheme, used in image classification, was based upon Corine L<strong>and</strong><br />
Cover classification (CLC2000).<br />
In a first image classification stage, they were used nine l<strong>and</strong> cover classes, in order to create a<br />
general l<strong>and</strong> cover map. In a second stage, using a local scale <strong>and</strong> after fieldwork with a DGPS<br />
(Differential <strong>Global</strong> Positioning System) for accuracy assessment, l<strong>and</strong> cover maps were<br />
updated during, in order to assign the correct forestry class name to each l<strong>and</strong> cover class. In<br />
total, fifteen l<strong>and</strong> use/cover classes were considered in this study:<br />
• Shrubs,<br />
• Pinus sylvestris,<br />
• Acacia dealbata,<br />
• Quercus robur;<br />
• Mixed Broadleaves;<br />
• Mixed Coniferous;<br />
• Mixed Coniferous <strong>and</strong> Broadleaves;<br />
• Chamaecyparis lawsoniana,<br />
• Mixed Shrubs <strong>and</strong> Quercus sp.;<br />
• Fagus sylvatica;<br />
• Acacia melanoxylon;<br />
• Pinus pinaster;<br />
• Pinus nigra;<br />
• Arbutus unedo; <strong>and</strong><br />
• Betula celtiberica.<br />
They were performed several automatic classification methods, including unsupervised models<br />
<strong>and</strong> Principal Component Analysis (Asner 1998, Song et al 2001, D’ Iorio et al. 2007, Tsai et al.<br />
2007). Supervised classification of multispectral images was performed, running the Maximum<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
H. Viana & J. Aranha 2010. Assessing multi-temporal l<strong>and</strong> cover changes in the Mata Nacional da Peneda Geres<br />
440<br />
Likelihood classifier (MLC) <strong>and</strong> the Minimum Distance to Means classifier (MDMC)<br />
(Lilles<strong>and</strong> et al. 2004, Eastman 2006, Scally 2006).<br />
The accuracy of a classified image refers to the extent to which it agrees with a set of reference<br />
data. Thus, an error matrix was created in order to compare the accuracy of maps obtained from<br />
satellite images classification. The error matrix provides a mean to calculate the overall<br />
accuracy <strong>and</strong> to compute accuracies of each category (Congalton <strong>and</strong> Green 1999).<br />
It was calculated Kappa statistic (Cohen, 1960), because of its ability to provide information<br />
about a single matrix <strong>and</strong> to statistically compare matrices, in order to get another measure of<br />
agreement between the predicted values <strong>and</strong> the observed values, the, (Cohen, 1960, Rosenfield<br />
<strong>and</strong> Fitzpatrick-Lins 1986, Congalton <strong>and</strong> Green 1999, Meidinger, 2003).<br />
For l<strong>and</strong> cover changes detection, it was used a pixel-to-pixel comparison of classified images,<br />
because it is a method widely used <strong>and</strong> easily understood. This step preformed by L<strong>and</strong> <strong>Change</strong><br />
Modeler (LCM - IDRISI Andes, Eastman, 2006) <strong>and</strong> aimed to compare the images generated<br />
for the different years of study.<br />
L<strong>and</strong> <strong>Change</strong> Modeller (LCM - IDRISI Andes, Eastman, 2006) enable l<strong>and</strong>scape changes<br />
analysis; Shaping the potential transition of the l<strong>and</strong> cover classes, provide the direction of<br />
changes in the future, assessment to their implications for biodiversity <strong>and</strong> to evaluate plans of<br />
action for ecological sustainability maintenance.<br />
At the final stage, l<strong>and</strong> cover maps, created from 1995 to 2009 satellite images, were submitted<br />
to pattern analysis in order to assess l<strong>and</strong>scape structural quantification. This stage was<br />
performed by means of Patch Analyst 4 (Rempel, 2008), which is a working modulo available<br />
in ArcGIS 9.x GIS software.<br />
3. Result<br />
The observed changes, in terms of net percentage change, are more significant in classes: mixed<br />
conifer, Shrubs with oaks self seeding, Arbutus unedo, Betula Celtiberica, Acacia dealbata,<br />
melanoxylon Acacia, Quercus robur.<br />
The most important modification was recorded in oak areas (Quercus robur) with an effective<br />
reduction of about 444 ha, representing a decrease of 113.9%. Classes of increasing l<strong>and</strong> cover<br />
are: Acacia dealbata increased more than 200ha, <strong>and</strong> Acacia melanoxylon, with more than 30ha.<br />
The substitution of pure Quercus robur st<strong>and</strong>s by shrubs, in a such large area, was due to strong<br />
shrub’s developed, which is replacing the younger oak areas. It was also noticed that some<br />
Quercus robur some pure st<strong>and</strong>s, classified in 1995, were classified in 2009 as deciduous <strong>and</strong><br />
coniferous mixed st<strong>and</strong>s, which can lead to gradual replacement of deciduous trees on these<br />
areas.<br />
Analysing the global balance of Acacia dealbata changes (gains <strong>and</strong> losses), Acacia dealbata<br />
increased its area over Pinus pinaster pure st<strong>and</strong>s (80ha) <strong>and</strong> shrub areas (120ha).<br />
The Acacia melanoxylon increasing area was made, as for Acacia dealbata, by the replacement<br />
of Pinus pinaster pure st<strong>and</strong>s (30ha), <strong>and</strong> these changes correspond to about 8% decrease of<br />
pine in the global balance of gains <strong>and</strong> losses in forest occupation of this class<br />
Despite the total area assigned to Pinus pinaster st<strong>and</strong>s (polygons <strong>and</strong> 35 319ha in 1995 to 64<br />
292ha in 2009 polygons) <strong>and</strong> to shrub l<strong>and</strong> (3580ha polygons <strong>and</strong> 88 in 1995; 3232ha polygons<br />
<strong>and</strong> 522 in 2009) had not varied greatly, in absolute values, the spatial distribution has suffered<br />
a large increasing in fragmentation. In the case of shrub l<strong>and</strong>, it was observed that some areas<br />
have be replaced by a mix of young oaks <strong>and</strong> shrubs. The Pinus pinaster st<strong>and</strong>s were replaced<br />
by scattered trees <strong>and</strong> shrubs, as well by Acacia dealtata, as previous presented. In Table 1 are<br />
presented the calculated results for metrics of diversity <strong>and</strong> inter dispersion for 1995 <strong>and</strong> 2009.<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
H. Viana & J. Aranha 2010. Assessing multi-temporal l<strong>and</strong> cover changes in the Mata Nacional da Peneda Geres<br />
441<br />
4. Discussion<br />
Table 2: Metrics of diversity <strong>and</strong> inter dispersion for 1995 <strong>and</strong> 2009<br />
Metrics Acronym 1995 2009<br />
Mean shape index MSI 1.56 1.60<br />
Area weighted mean shape index AWMSI 5.22 6.42<br />
Mean polygon fractal dimension MPFD 1.07 1.08<br />
L<strong>and</strong>scape shape index LSI 8.46 10.42<br />
Metrics of diversity <strong>and</strong> inter dispersion<br />
Mean distance to nearest neighbour (m) MNN 282.50 186.50<br />
Mean proximity index MPI 771.39 1680.10<br />
Index of dispersion <strong>and</strong> overlapping (%) IDO 43.61 59.20<br />
Shannon diversity index SDI 1.02 1.13<br />
Simpson diversity index SIDI 0.47 0.46<br />
Shannon equity diversity index SEI 0.38 0.42<br />
Simpson equity diversity index SIEI 0.50 0.49<br />
Modified Simpson diversity index MSIDI 0.63 0.61<br />
Modified Simpson equity diversity index MSIEI 0.23 0.23<br />
Results from this research showed that the vegetal l<strong>and</strong> cover within Mata Nacional of Peneda<br />
Geres National Park is under high changing dynamic. For the period in analysis, some l<strong>and</strong><br />
cover classes evidenced significant lost (e.g. Quercus robur) <strong>and</strong> significant gains (e.g. Acacia<br />
dealbata).<br />
The achieved results for Quercus robur, the ex-libres of Mata Nacional of Peneda Geres<br />
National Park showed a strong area decrease, with tendency to be smaller in a new future. This<br />
is a strong cut in l<strong>and</strong>scape value <strong>and</strong> biodiversity.<br />
Open areas within Quercus robur st<strong>and</strong>s mapped in 1995 were now occupied by Pinus pinaster,<br />
Fagus sylvatica, shrubs <strong>and</strong> Acacia dealbata.<br />
In general, Pinus pinaster <strong>and</strong> shrubs presented a stabilised l<strong>and</strong> cover area, these classes<br />
evidenced some dynamic, but the total areas assigned to both classes are near the same in both<br />
dates.<br />
One of the most significant results was achieved for alien trees (Acacia dealbata <strong>and</strong> Acacia<br />
melanoxylon). According to prediction maps, these species are those with higher potential to<br />
enlarging their actual area. These tow trees species are well known because of their strong<br />
invasive behaviour, which leads to additional worry, as they can quickly colonize almost all<br />
Mata Nacional, leading to a severe ecosystem disturbance.<br />
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Acknowledgement<br />
Authors woul like to expresse is acknowledge to Fundação para a Ciência e Tecnologia (FCT),<br />
project REEQ/1163/AGR/2005, CITAB - UTAD <strong>and</strong> programme SFRH/PROTEC/49626/2009<br />
who support this work.<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
H. Viana & J. Aranha 2010. Mapping invasive species (Acacia dealbata Link)<br />
443<br />
Mapping invasive species (Acacia dealbata Link) using<br />
ASTER/TERRA <strong>and</strong> LANDSAT 7 ETM+ imagery<br />
Helder Viana 1,3 & José Aranha 2,3*<br />
1<br />
Centro de Estudos em Educação, Tecnologias e Saúde, Agrarian <strong>Superior</strong> School,<br />
Polytechnic Institute of Viseu, Quinta da Alagoa, 3500-606 Viseu, Portugal<br />
2<br />
Departamento de Ciências Florestais e Arquitectura Paisagista, Universidade de Trásos-Montes<br />
e Alto Douro, 5001-801 Vila Real, Portugal<br />
3<br />
CITAB, Universidade de Trás-os-Montes e Alto Douro, 5001-801 Vila Real, Portugal<br />
Abstract<br />
The rapid spread of invasive alien species (IAS) is now recognised as one of the greatest threats<br />
to the ecological <strong>and</strong> economic well being of the planet. This study shows a comparison<br />
between ASTER/TERRA <strong>and</strong> ETM+/LANDSAT 7 sensors data suitability for mapping the<br />
Acacia dealbata Link spots. The work was carried out in central Portugal (Viseu region) where<br />
the presence of invader species in pure st<strong>and</strong>s is quite significant. The images were orthorectified<br />
<strong>and</strong> submitted to supervised classifications techniques. The achieved results showed an<br />
overall accuracy of 89.42% over the ETM+ image <strong>and</strong> 86.69% over the ASTER image. For the<br />
class Acacia dealbata Link, the producer’s precision was 100% for both images but the user’s<br />
accuracy was only 23% in ETM+ <strong>and</strong> 12% in ASTER image. The obtained results suggest good<br />
perspectives for the use of this type of satellite images in order to detect <strong>and</strong> map this invasive<br />
species.<br />
Keywords: Alien species, Acacia dealbata, l<strong>and</strong> cover classification, L<strong>and</strong>sat ETM+, ASTER<br />
1. Introduction<br />
The rapid spread of invasive alien species (IAS) is causing irreparable damage to global<br />
ecosystems. Variously referred to as exotic, non-native, alien, noxious, or non-indigenous<br />
weeds, these species are causing enormous damage to biodiversity <strong>and</strong> to the valuable natural<br />
agricultural systems, which we depend on (Coimbra 1999; Liberal & Esteves 1999; Aguiar et al.<br />
2001; Aguiar & Ferreira 2005, Viana 2005). In Portugal, the establishment <strong>and</strong> spread of<br />
invasive species, particularly Acacia dealbata Link, has increased over time. They were<br />
introduced deliberately as silvicultural, for soil fixing, as ornamental or by another pretext,<br />
being now a serious problem for the ecosystems, with difficult control <strong>and</strong> even impossible<br />
eradication. Identifying those areas is essential to quantify the real dimension of the problem<br />
(Coimbra 1999; Liberal & Esteves 1999; Bargeron et al. 2003; Viana 2005).<br />
With the coming in sight of new image sensors, with different characteristics, <strong>and</strong> data<br />
availability, it is important to test the potentialities for specific uses as IAS detection <strong>and</strong><br />
mapping (Asner 1998; Bargeron et al. 2003; Leitão et al. 2003; Brundu 2005; Chikhaoui et al.<br />
2005; Viana 2005; D’Iorio et al. 2007).<br />
The Advanced Space borne Thermal Emission <strong>and</strong> Reflection Radiometer (ASTER) is a<br />
research facility launched on NASA’s Earth Observing System, on board of TERRA satellite<br />
(previously called EOS AM-l), in December 1999. As expected ASTER data has been used in<br />
specific areas of scientific investigation, including vegetation <strong>and</strong> ecosystem dynamics, hazard<br />
* Corresponding author; Telf. + 00 351 259 350 856 - Fax. + 00 351 250 350 480<br />
Email address: j.aranha.utad@gmail.com<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
H. Viana & J. Aranha 2010. Mapping invasive species (Acacia dealbata Link)<br />
444<br />
monitoring, geology <strong>and</strong> soils, l<strong>and</strong> surface climatology, hydrology, <strong>and</strong> l<strong>and</strong> cover change<br />
(Abrams 2000; NASA 2004; Tangestani 2004; Chikhaoui et al. 2005; Euroimage 2008).<br />
The L<strong>and</strong>sat programme constitutes the longest data register of the L<strong>and</strong> surface from the Space.<br />
The Enhanced Thematic Mapper-Plus (ETM+) was launched on April 15, 1999 on board of<br />
L<strong>and</strong>sat7 <strong>and</strong>, as TM sensor data, imagery have been extensively used for agricultural<br />
evaluation, forest management inventories, geological surveys, water resource estimates, coastal<br />
zone appraisals, <strong>and</strong> a host of other applications (Song et al. 2001; Darvishsefat 2003;<br />
Thenkabail et al. 2004; Peterson 2005; Viana 2005; NASA 2006; NASA 2007;).<br />
Given the characteristics of ASTER sensor systems, which provide imagery data at higher<br />
spatial resolution (15m on VNIR) than ETM+ (30m), the same temporal resolution-16 days, <strong>and</strong><br />
with a unique combination of wide spectral coverage, in this study we tested <strong>and</strong> compared both<br />
imagery performance in the mapping of a specific class of forest l<strong>and</strong> cover (Acacia dealbata<br />
Link).<br />
Study Area was a 64Km x 60Km rectangle in the region of Viseu (centre of Portugal) (see<br />
Figure 1). It’s a heterogeneous area with a complex topography <strong>and</strong> fragmented l<strong>and</strong> cover, with<br />
elevation in the range of 100 to 1800m; high climatic variability, with annual mean precipitation<br />
in the range of 800 to 2800 mm <strong>and</strong> annual mean temperatures of < 7.5 to 16 ºC.<br />
Figure 1: Study area location.<br />
2. Methodology<br />
2.1. Data acquisition<br />
The study was developed using multispectral images covering Viseu’s region, in Portugal,<br />
provided from the sensor ETM+/L<strong>and</strong>sat 7, <strong>and</strong> sensor ASTER/Terra (L1b format), on the<br />
VNIR b<strong>and</strong>s. The acquisition date of ETM+ was on 24, January 2003, period in which these<br />
plants were flowery <strong>and</strong> ASTER on 7, October 2003, since it was the available image closest to<br />
the ETM+ acquisition date. Topographic maps 1:25000 <strong>and</strong> orthophotomap 1:10000 were used<br />
as auxiliary tools in the definition of training classes <strong>and</strong> in the validation stage. The collection<br />
of spatial information as cartographic elements e.g. l<strong>and</strong> cover classes, roads <strong>and</strong> ground control<br />
points (GCP) was done by GPS. A total of 85 plots of Acacia dealbata were measured in a sum<br />
of 66.6 hectares, with a mean area around 0.78 hectares, later used for training classes. The GCP<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
H. Viana & J. Aranha 2010. Mapping invasive species (Acacia dealbata Link)<br />
445<br />
were collected in road crosses, barrages or other notable points visible in the images (Lilles<strong>and</strong><br />
et al 2004; Viana 2005, Eastman 2006).<br />
2.2. Data processing<br />
The conceptual framework of the research followed 5 central steps: geometric correction, Image<br />
enhancement, image transformation (vegetation indices <strong>and</strong> principal component analysis),<br />
classification <strong>and</strong> interpretation <strong>and</strong> validation. DGPS (Differential <strong>Global</strong> Positioning System)<br />
data was corrected with Pathfinder Office, image data were processed with IDRISI 32, <strong>and</strong> GIS<br />
based analyses was done with ArcGis software.<br />
In first place the ASTER data (level 1B) of VNIR b<strong>and</strong>s (1, 2, 3N), with 15m spatial resolution,<br />
in the HDF format, <strong>and</strong> ETM+ data of pan b<strong>and</strong> with 15 m <strong>and</strong> multispectral b<strong>and</strong> (1~5, 7) with<br />
30 m spatial resolution were imported to IDRISI. The ASTER image <strong>and</strong> pan ETM+ images<br />
were registered with GCP, <strong>and</strong> the multispectral ETM+ b<strong>and</strong>s were based on image-to-image<br />
method, using the already registered images as reference.<br />
For image classification, it was adopted a l<strong>and</strong> use/cover scheme based upon the Corine L<strong>and</strong><br />
Cover classification (CLC2000). They were performed automatic classification methods,<br />
unsupervised models <strong>and</strong> Principal Component Analysis (Song et al. 2001, Tsai et al. 2007).<br />
Supervised classification of multispectral images was performed, running the Maximum<br />
Likelihood classifier (MLC) <strong>and</strong> the Minimum Distance to Means Classifier (MDMC)<br />
(Lilles<strong>and</strong> et al. 2004, Eastman 2006, Scally 2006). The accuracy of a classified image refers to<br />
the extent to which it agrees with a set of reference data. Thus, an error matrix was created in<br />
order to compare the accuracy of maps obtained from satellite images classification. The error<br />
matrix provides a mean to calculate the overall accuracy <strong>and</strong> to compute accuracies of each<br />
category (Congalton <strong>and</strong> Green 1999). Kappa statistic (Cohen 1960), because of its ability to<br />
provide information about a single matrix <strong>and</strong> to statistically compare matrices, was calculated<br />
in order to get another measure of agreement between the predicted values <strong>and</strong> the observed<br />
values, the, (Cohen 1960, Rosenfield <strong>and</strong> Fitzpatrick-Lins 1986, Congalton <strong>and</strong> Green 1999,<br />
Meidinger, 2003).<br />
For l<strong>and</strong> cover changes detection, it was used a pixel-to-pixel comparison of classified images,<br />
because it is a method widely used <strong>and</strong> easily understood.<br />
3. Result<br />
After supervised image classification, the resulting images area very alike. These results were<br />
evaluated using a set of 2304 validation points <strong>and</strong> error matrix. The overall statistics of<br />
classifications are summarised in the Tables 1 <strong>and</strong> 2.<br />
Table 1: Producer’s <strong>and</strong> User’s for ETM+ <strong>and</strong> ASTER imagery classification<br />
Producer’s accuracy (%) User’s accuracy (%)<br />
L<strong>and</strong> cover class<br />
ETM+ ASTER ETM+ ASTER<br />
<strong>Forest</strong>ed areas 93.1 94.7 99.9 97.8<br />
Meadow 81.8 56.0 96.8 84.8<br />
Acacia dealbata 100.0 100.0 22.4 11.1<br />
As previous presented table show, both images provided quite similar results. The best<br />
classification was achieved with the Maximum Likelihood classifier (Table 2). Although the<br />
ETM+ image achieve a higher overall accuracy, <strong>and</strong> superior user’s accuracy, for all the<br />
considered l<strong>and</strong> cover classes, only the Md class had higher producer accuracy (81.8% <strong>and</strong><br />
56.0%, respectively).<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
H. Viana & J. Aranha 2010. Mapping invasive species (Acacia dealbata Link)<br />
446<br />
Table 2: Overall accuracy of ETM+ <strong>and</strong> ASTER imagery classification<br />
Method Overall accuracy (%) Kappa statistics<br />
ETM+ - MLC 89.42 0.8543<br />
ETM+ - MDMC 63.53 0.5190<br />
ASTER - MLC 86.69 0.8121<br />
ASTER - MDMC 69.21 0.5688<br />
For the l<strong>and</strong> cover class Fr the reliability of ETM+ image (93.1%) was minor than ASTER<br />
(94.7%). In the best classification (MLC), the class “acacias” had shown a Producer’s accuracy<br />
of 100% in both ETM+ <strong>and</strong> ASTER images. This happened due to the commission error being<br />
77.57% in ETM+ <strong>and</strong> 88.89% in ASTER image (Table 3). This means that the vector shapes<br />
considered in the creation of this spectral signature were representative of the Ac class, <strong>and</strong> had<br />
been well created, however given the nature of this l<strong>and</strong> cover class (permanent leaf <strong>and</strong> closed<br />
canopy) some pixels belonged to other l<strong>and</strong> cover class were classified as Ad, principally Md<br />
class in reason of their similar spectral response.<br />
All Ad (Acacia dealbata) spots mapped with a DGPS were well classified by satellite image<br />
classification. However, do to small spot dimension <strong>and</strong> fragmented l<strong>and</strong>scape, some Md<br />
(Meadow) were misclassified as Ad (Acacia dealbata) areas.<br />
4. Discussion<br />
In this paper/work we have compared ASTER <strong>and</strong> ETM+ data in forest applications. The<br />
accuracy of image classification <strong>and</strong> interpretation was tested <strong>and</strong> compared. The resulting<br />
conclusions are:<br />
- ASTER data can be registered with elevated accuracy with error less than half pixel.<br />
- ASTER is better than ETM+ data in visual surface feature identification.<br />
- ASTER classification has the same effect as ETM+ with high accuracy;<br />
- With ASTER it was possible to classify l<strong>and</strong> cover shapes with smaller areas in reason of their<br />
superior spatial resolution.<br />
- A superior resolution in ASTER (15m) is not an evident advantage when mapping features<br />
with reduced dimension such as Ad (Acacia dealbata), given that the spectral confusion, fact<br />
amplified in fractionated l<strong>and</strong>scapes as in the Centre of Portugal.<br />
- The Maximum Likelihood classifier gave better results than the Minimum Distance to Means<br />
classifier in the supervised classification, involving l<strong>and</strong> cover classes (acacias) distributed in<br />
parcels with small areas.<br />
- Given the uncertainty about follow-on L<strong>and</strong>sat ETM+ sensor, ASTER imagery could be<br />
supply suitable images for monitoring applications, with similar results.<br />
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Acknowledgement<br />
Authors woul like to expresse is acknowledge to Fundação para a Ciência e Tecnologia (FCT),<br />
project REEQ/1163/AGR/2005, CITAB - UTAD <strong>and</strong> programme SFRH/PROTEC/49626/2009<br />
who support this work.<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
Section 6<br />
Tools of l<strong>and</strong>scape assessment <strong>and</strong> management
N. Avani et al. 2010. Investigation on mountain l<strong>and</strong>scape parameters on Juniper species growth<br />
450<br />
Investigation on mountain l<strong>and</strong>scape parameters on Juniper species<br />
growth (case study: Firozkooh region, Tehran)<br />
Nazi Avani 1* , Hamid Jalilv<strong>and</strong> 1 & Vahid Etemad 2<br />
1<br />
Maz<strong>and</strong>aran University, Iran<br />
2<br />
Faculty of Natural resources, Tehran University, Iran<br />
Abstract<br />
It is generally agreed that sustainable development <strong>and</strong> management of upl<strong>and</strong> natural resource<br />
for the welfare of local population should be the key objective of watershed management, which<br />
includes sustainable utilization <strong>and</strong> conservation of forest resource of community or watershed<br />
level as one of its important components. Juniperus polycarpus L. is one of the species that<br />
grows in the mountain areas, <strong>and</strong> has important role in mountain l<strong>and</strong>scape. Our purpose of this<br />
study is study of l<strong>and</strong>scape parameters on Juniper growth, that which parameters have the best<br />
effect on this species growth. Therefore in different slope <strong>and</strong> aspects, we measured parameters<br />
include total height, canopy height, canopy diameter <strong>and</strong> basal diameter. To order of study of<br />
grow of juniper species in different slopes <strong>and</strong> aspects in Aminabad region of Firozkooh<br />
(Tehran province), thrown inventory network to systematic r<strong>and</strong>om, then in study area, number<br />
of 40 sample plots (0.5 ha) was taken. Then parameters include total height, canopy height,<br />
canopy diameter <strong>and</strong> basal diameter were measured. Slope <strong>and</strong> aspect maps were supplied with<br />
GIS. The results show that greatest diameter of trees was in southeastern <strong>and</strong> the greatest height<br />
was in west aspect, <strong>and</strong> the most height <strong>and</strong> diameter was in average slopes. Therefore, for<br />
planting with this species, at first west, southeastern aspects <strong>and</strong> average slopes were suggested.<br />
Keywords: mountain l<strong>and</strong>scape, Juniperus polycarpus L., Firozkooh, Iran<br />
Introduction<br />
Iran is located in 26 until 39 degree that is sub-arid, arid <strong>and</strong> desert region in the world. In the<br />
mountain areas in Iran because of humid climate, shrub <strong>and</strong> tree species are grown. Among tree<br />
species, genus of Pistacia with famous species P. mutica L. has the largest area in Iran. After<br />
that genus of Juniperus with species J. excelsa <strong>and</strong> J. polycarpus cover the large area of<br />
elevations in Iran. *<br />
Genus of Juniperus in Iran has six species <strong>and</strong> sub- species that grow in mountain l<strong>and</strong>scapes.<br />
Juniperus occupied arid lime areas <strong>and</strong> we can see them in Alborz, Khorasan, Azarbaijan, Arak,<br />
Kerman, Balochestan <strong>and</strong> etc.<br />
Many studies were done in the world about effect of ecologic factors on evergreen <strong>and</strong> conifer<br />
species. Fisher & Gardner (1995), with studying on juniper forests in the north of Oman show<br />
that topography, hydrology <strong>and</strong> climate condition has large effect on Juniper species growth.<br />
Kanji (2000), with studying on forests in the north of Japan show that conifers just grow in the<br />
south, west or west southern aspects. Razzag (1986), soil depth, rainfall, <strong>and</strong> aspect are the<br />
effective factors on growth of Pinus eldarica. Johnson & Miller (2006), they study factors such<br />
* Corresponding Author. Tel: 00989128046062<br />
Email Address: avani.nazi@yahoo.com<br />
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Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
N. Avani et al. 2010. Investigation on mountain l<strong>and</strong>scape parameters on Juniper species growth<br />
451<br />
as topography <strong>and</strong> elevation on the growth of J. occidntalis in the USA. The results show that<br />
settlement <strong>and</strong> density of trees in upper elevations <strong>and</strong> in the north aspects has been increased.<br />
Moemeni moghadam (2002), the number of ecologic characteristics of Juniper species was<br />
studied in Shirvan (Khorasan province), <strong>and</strong> then the results show that slope effect on survival,<br />
number in hectare <strong>and</strong> form quotient <strong>and</strong> aspect effect on canopy height to total height <strong>and</strong> form<br />
quotient <strong>and</strong> biodiversity.<br />
Our purpose of this study is study of l<strong>and</strong>scape parameters on Juniper growth, that which<br />
parameters have the best effect on this species growth. Therefore in this study the effect of slope<br />
<strong>and</strong> aspect on the growth of Juniper species was studied.<br />
Material <strong>and</strong> methods<br />
In the way of Firozkooh (Tehran province) after Hom<strong>and</strong>, in the slopes <strong>and</strong> elevations of this<br />
region, the st<strong>and</strong>s of Juniper species were determined. Soil depth is low that is 15 to 30 cm, the<br />
altitude is 2600 until 2710 m, dominant species is Juniper in this region. The amount of bearing<br />
fruit trees is very much, but there are very low seedlings in the region. The study area is located<br />
in the Hableroad watershed, in 35◦ 42´ to 35◦ 44´ northern latitude <strong>and</strong> 52◦ 33´ to52◦ 35´ eastern<br />
longitude.<br />
For doing this study, at the first we distinguished the region in the topography map, then thrown<br />
the inventory network with 100*500 dimension <strong>and</strong> 40 plots with 0.5 ha area. After that height<br />
<strong>and</strong> diameter growth variables in the different slopes <strong>and</strong> aspects were measured. The data were<br />
analyzed in the SAS software <strong>and</strong> with SNK test.<br />
Results<br />
The results show that the most basal diameter was in southeastern (44.67 cm) <strong>and</strong> the least basal<br />
diameter was in northwestern (31.57 cm) (figure 1). The results of the means comparison show<br />
that aspect had the significant effect on the height of trees in 1% level of probability <strong>and</strong> the<br />
most height was in west (6.19m) <strong>and</strong> the least height was in southwestern (5.12m) (figure 2).<br />
The results of the means comparison in different slopes show that slope had significant effect on<br />
basal diameter of trees in 5% level of probability, <strong>and</strong> the most basal diameter was in 80% of<br />
slope (40.03 cm) <strong>and</strong> the least was in 20% of slope (27.84 cm) (figure 3).<br />
In 5% level of probability, slope had the significant effect on height of trees <strong>and</strong> the most height<br />
was in 55% of slope (7.26m) <strong>and</strong> the least height was in 15% of slope (5.03 m) (figure 4).<br />
Canopy height had the different significant in different aspects in 1% level <strong>and</strong> the most canopy<br />
height was in west (6 m) <strong>and</strong> the least canopy height was in southwestern (5.2 m) (figure 5). The<br />
most canopy diameter was in west (4.57 m) <strong>and</strong> the least was in west southern (3.57 m) (figure<br />
6).<br />
The results show that slope had the significant effect on the canopy diameter of trees in 5%<br />
level that the most canopy diameter was in 55% of slope (4.57 m) <strong>and</strong> the least was in 20%<br />
slope (3.6 m) (figure 7). Slope in 5% level of probability had the significant effect on canopy<br />
height <strong>and</strong> the most was in 55% of slope (7.3 m) <strong>and</strong> the least was in 15% of slope (5.04 m)<br />
(figure 8).<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
N. Avani et al. 2010. Investigation on mountain l<strong>and</strong>scape parameters on Juniper species growth<br />
452<br />
Discussion <strong>and</strong> conclusion<br />
Because these species was grown in mountain regions <strong>and</strong> in the hard condition as climatic <strong>and</strong><br />
etc., in these regions for assessment growth variables, factors such as basal diameter because of<br />
b coppice, canopy diameter <strong>and</strong> height because of much distance between trees that cause<br />
increasing diameter growth, were measured.<br />
The results of this study shows that aspect <strong>and</strong> slope as mountain l<strong>and</strong>scape parameters had the<br />
significant effect on basal diameter, total height, canopy height <strong>and</strong> canopy diameter. The<br />
highest trees were in the west <strong>and</strong> the most diameters were in southeastern aspect. Jonhson<br />
(2006), in his study on Western Juniper shows that topography is the effective factor on its<br />
growth.<br />
Kanji (2000) conifers grow in the west, south <strong>and</strong> south western. In our study too, we show that<br />
the most growth was in the west.<br />
Fisher <strong>and</strong> Razzag (1995 & 1998) topography factors <strong>and</strong> aspect have significant effect on the<br />
growth of Juniper species <strong>and</strong> Pinus eldarica. In our study too, aspect had the significant effect<br />
on the Juniper growth.<br />
Therefore we can suggest that for planting with Juniper species in the mountain area for<br />
sustainable development of these regions <strong>and</strong> better management, at the first, west aspect then<br />
eastern <strong>and</strong> in average slopes was selected.<br />
References<br />
Fisher, M. & Gardner, A.S., 1995. The status <strong>and</strong> ecology of Juniperus excelsa sub. P.<br />
polycarpus woodl<strong>and</strong> in the northern of Oman. Vegation. 779: 33-48.<br />
Johnson, D.D. & Miller, R.F., 2006. Structure <strong>and</strong> development of exp<strong>and</strong>ing western juniper<br />
woodl<strong>and</strong>s as influenced by two topographic variables. <strong>Forest</strong> ecology <strong>and</strong> management.<br />
229: 7-15.<br />
Kanji, N., 2000. Edaphic controls on mosaic structure of the mixed deciduous<br />
broadleaf/conifer forest in northern Japan. <strong>Forest</strong> ecology <strong>and</strong> management. 127: 169-<br />
179.<br />
Moemeni Moghadam, T., 2002. Investigation some ecologic <strong>and</strong> silviculture characteristics of<br />
natural habitat of Juniperus in Koopedagh (Shirvan). Tarbiat Modares University.<br />
Razzag, A.A., 1986. The influence of habitat on afforestation success in Jordan. Gottinger<br />
Beitrage zur L<strong>and</strong> und <strong>Forest</strong>wirtschaft in den Tropen und Subtropen. 25:105-109.<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
N. Avani et al. 2010. Investigation on mountain l<strong>and</strong>scape parameters on Juniper species growth<br />
453<br />
Figure 1: basal diameter of trees in different aspects<br />
Figure 2: total height of trees in different aspects<br />
Figure 3: basal diameter in different slopes<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
N. Avani et al. 2010. Investigation on mountain l<strong>and</strong>scape parameters on Juniper species growth<br />
454<br />
Figure 4: height of trees in different slopes<br />
Figure 5: canopy height in different aspects<br />
Figure 6: canopy diameter in different aspects<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
N. Avani et al. 2010. Investigation on mountain l<strong>and</strong>scape parameters on Juniper species growth<br />
455<br />
Figure 7: canopy diameter in different slopes<br />
Figure 8: canopy height in different slopes<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
J.C. Azevedo et al. 2010. Spatial dynamics of chestnut blight disease at the plot level using the Ripley’s K function<br />
456<br />
Spatial dynamics of chestnut blight disease at the plot level using the<br />
Ripley’s K function<br />
João C. Azevedo 1* , Valentim Coelho 1 , João P. Castro 1 , Diogo Spínola 2 & Eugénia<br />
Gouveia 1<br />
1<br />
CIMO, Centro de Investigação de Montanha, <strong>Escola</strong> <strong>Superior</strong> Agrária, Instituto<br />
Politécnico de Bragança, Portugal<br />
2 Universidade Federal de Viçosa, Brazil<br />
Abstract<br />
We used the Ripley’s K function to describe the spatial dynamics of chestnut blight<br />
(Cryphonectria parasitica (Murrill) Barr) in sweet chestnut orchards to look at pattern in the<br />
pathogen distribution over time <strong>and</strong> the effect of the location of infected trees on the pattern of<br />
disease spread. We used data on infected <strong>and</strong> dead trees in 2003, 2004, 2005, <strong>and</strong> 2009 in 4<br />
orchards located in Curopos parish, Portugal. We found both r<strong>and</strong>om <strong>and</strong> aggregated patterns of<br />
infected trees in the beginning of the study period <strong>and</strong> significant association of infected trees<br />
between successive dates, particularly at short distances. Two of the 4 studied orchards showed<br />
significant clustering of infected <strong>and</strong> dead trees in any of the dates observed but r<strong>and</strong>om spatial<br />
pattern in the remaining two which can possibly be explained by both natural propagation of the<br />
disease <strong>and</strong> management practices.<br />
Keywords: Cryphonectria parasitica, chestnut blight, Ripley’s K function, Portugal<br />
1. Introduction<br />
Although the recognition of the importance of the spatial dimension in the study of infectious<br />
diseases is not new, only recently significant developments in spatial pathology <strong>and</strong><br />
epidemiology took place. L<strong>and</strong>scape <strong>and</strong> spatial epidemiology emerged in the 2000’s from the<br />
application of l<strong>and</strong>scape ecological concepts <strong>and</strong> methods in the analysis of disease dispersal in<br />
animal, human, <strong>and</strong> plant hosts (Ostfeld 2005, Plantegenest et al. 2007). Similarly, l<strong>and</strong>scape<br />
pathology has grown within l<strong>and</strong>scape ecology <strong>and</strong> forest pathology dealing with large scale<br />
disease propagation processes <strong>and</strong> the ways they affect <strong>and</strong> are affected by l<strong>and</strong>scape<br />
heterogeneity (Holdenrieder et al. 2004).<br />
The spatial propagation of pathogens at small scales (e.g., forest st<strong>and</strong>) is also ecologically<br />
relevant, although seldom approached in the literature. The underst<strong>and</strong>ing of small scale<br />
epidemiology processes is of interest in explaining, modeling <strong>and</strong> forecasting pathogen related<br />
spatial processes at this particular scale as well as at larger scales such as national- or regionallevel<br />
pathogen dispersal (e.g., Kelly <strong>and</strong> Meentemeyer 2002).<br />
In this study, we analyzed spatial patterns of chestnut blight (Cryphonectria parasitica (Murrill)<br />
Barr) infected trees at the orchard level over time. The objectives were to i) investigate pathogen<br />
spread temporal <strong>and</strong> spatial pattern, <strong>and</strong> ii) analyze the effect of the location of infected trees on<br />
the spatial pattern of disease spread.<br />
* Corresponding author. Tel.: (+351) 273 303 341 - Fax: (+351) 273 325 405<br />
Email address: jazevedo@ipb.pt<br />
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Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
J.C. Azevedo et al. 2010. Spatial dynamics of chestnut blight disease at the plot level using the Ripley’s K function<br />
457<br />
2. Methodology<br />
We used data from 4 orchards located in the Curopos parish, Vinhais, Portugal, that have been<br />
monitored for individual tree health condition based on field surveys in 2003, 2004, 2005 <strong>and</strong><br />
2009 (Table 1; Fig 1). Common management practices in these plots included pruning, excision<br />
of cankers <strong>and</strong> replacement of dead trees.<br />
Table 1: Area of study plots <strong>and</strong> number of dead <strong>and</strong> infected trees per plot <strong>and</strong> year<br />
Plot 1 Plot 2 Plot 3 Plot 4<br />
Area (ha) 1.34 1.85 0.92 1.05<br />
Dead <strong>and</strong> infected trees (no.)<br />
2003 21 37 12 71<br />
2004 38 60 18 88<br />
2005 14 54 11 94<br />
2009 96 148 118 104<br />
We analyzed the spatial pattern of dead trees <strong>and</strong> trees presenting symptoms of blight disease<br />
with the Ripley’s K function (Ripley 1976). This second-order analysis method allows<br />
summarizing spatial patterns, fitting models to describe patterns <strong>and</strong> comparing patterns among<br />
events at variable scales (Dixon 2002). Although the method fits the point-set structure of trees<br />
at the plot level the use of Ripley’s K is very rare in plot level pathology studies.<br />
The Ripley’s K(t) is estimated as (Haase, 1995):<br />
−2<br />
−1<br />
() t = n A∑∑<br />
wij<br />
It<br />
( uij<br />
)<br />
Kˆ (1)<br />
i≠<br />
j<br />
where<br />
n is the number of individuals (locations) in the plot,<br />
A is the area of the plot (m 2 )<br />
I t is a counting variable,<br />
u ij is the distance between i <strong>and</strong> j locations, <strong>and</strong><br />
w ij is a weighting factor for edge correction purposes.<br />
The bivariate form of K(t) is estimated as (Dixon, 2002):<br />
() −<br />
n1 n2<br />
1<br />
= ∑∑<br />
− 1<br />
t n1n<br />
2<br />
A wij<br />
It<br />
( uij<br />
)<br />
K ˆ<br />
(2)<br />
i<br />
j<br />
where n 1 <strong>and</strong> n 2 are the number of individuals in the populations under comparison.<br />
K can be normalized as L(t)=√K(t)/π <strong>and</strong> represented graphically as L(t)-t as a function of t.<br />
Positive values of L(t)-t indicate aggregation of events while negative values indicate a regular<br />
pattern. In the bivariate form, positive values indicate association between populations of events<br />
<strong>and</strong> negative values indicate segregation. Zero values indicate complete spatial r<strong>and</strong>omness<br />
(Poisson) in the univariate case <strong>and</strong> no pattern in the bivariate case. Confidence intervals are<br />
created to test for significance of pattern.<br />
We used RIPPER (Feagin & Wu, personal communication) to calculate Ripley’s K with the<br />
edge correction method of Getis & Franklin (1987). Maximum distance was half side of the plot<br />
<strong>and</strong> the same box size was used in each plot for all the dates considered. 95% confidence<br />
intervals were established based upon 200 Monte Carlo simulations.<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
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J.C. Azevedo et al. 2010. Spatial dynamics of chestnut blight disease at the plot level using the Ripley’s K function<br />
458<br />
Plot 1 Plot 2<br />
Plot 3 Plot 4<br />
Figure 1. 2003, 2004, 2005, <strong>and</strong> 2009 health status of individual trees in 4 plots in the Curopos parish,<br />
Portugal.<br />
3. Resuls<br />
In Plot 1, there was statistically significant clustering of infected trees at distances above 10m in<br />
any of the surveyed years (Figure 2). The same pattern was observed in Plot 4 although the<br />
strength of clustering was much lower. Plots 2 <strong>and</strong> 3 showed weak aggregation, often nonstatistically<br />
significant. In Plot 2 there was slightly significant clustering for distances from15 to<br />
25m in 2004 <strong>and</strong> 2005 <strong>and</strong> above 10m in 2009. In Plot 3 there was significant clustering from<br />
25 to 50m in 2005 <strong>and</strong> above 10m in 2009 (Figure 3).<br />
Plots 1 <strong>and</strong> 4 revealed association of infected trees at all distances between all compared dates<br />
with the exception of the 2005-2009 period in Plot 1, where statistically significant association<br />
was observed below 10m only (Figure 4). Plot 2 showed significant association for distances<br />
shorter than 35m for all comparisons. Plot 3 showed significant association for short distances<br />
(20m) for 2003-2004 <strong>and</strong> 2004-2005 <strong>and</strong> for almost all distances for the 2005-2009 comparison.<br />
4. Discussion<br />
As suggested in previous research on this host-pathogen relationship in the same region <strong>and</strong> at<br />
the same scale (Gouveia et al. 2005), the infection pattern of chestnut blight at the orchard level<br />
is r<strong>and</strong>om at the beginning of the disease spread process. It becomes later aggregated when<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
J.C. Azevedo et al. 2010. Spatial dynamics of chestnut blight disease at the plot level using the Ripley’s K function<br />
459<br />
contamination occurs from the initially infected trees either naturally <strong>and</strong> by means of<br />
management practices, such as pruning, that increases infection at near distances. In this study<br />
we analysed data from a period of time larger than in Gouveia (2005), in a stage of dispersal<br />
when blight is present in the entire region <strong>and</strong> when spread within orchards at short distances<br />
already took place. Therefore, clustered patterns were to be expected for infected trees in all<br />
plots. This happened only in Plots 1 <strong>and</strong> 4, however. Plots 2 <strong>and</strong> 3, showed a pattern generally<br />
r<strong>and</strong>om in 2003, 2004 <strong>and</strong> 2005. The reasons for this are still unknown.<br />
2003 2004<br />
20<br />
20<br />
15<br />
15<br />
10<br />
10<br />
L(t) - t<br />
5<br />
0<br />
L(t) - t<br />
5<br />
0<br />
-5<br />
-5<br />
-10<br />
-10<br />
-15<br />
0 10 20 30 40 50<br />
-15<br />
0 10 20 30 40 50<br />
Distance (m)<br />
Distance (m)<br />
2005 2009<br />
20<br />
20<br />
15<br />
15<br />
10<br />
10<br />
L(t) - t<br />
5<br />
0<br />
L(t) - t<br />
5<br />
0<br />
-5<br />
-5<br />
-10<br />
-10<br />
-15<br />
-15<br />
0 10 20 30 40 50<br />
0 10 20 30 40 50<br />
Distance (m)<br />
Distance (m)<br />
Figure 2. L(t)-t plots (solid lines) for 2003, 2004, 2005 <strong>and</strong> 2009 dead <strong>and</strong> infected chestnut trees in Plot 1.<br />
Dashed lines are 0.025 <strong>and</strong> 0.975 quantiles of L(t) - t estimated from 200 Monte Carlo simulations.<br />
2003 2004<br />
20<br />
20<br />
15<br />
15<br />
10<br />
10<br />
L(t) - t<br />
5<br />
0<br />
L(t) - t<br />
5<br />
0<br />
-5<br />
-5<br />
-10<br />
-10<br />
-15<br />
-15<br />
0 10 20 30 40 50<br />
0 10 20 30 40 50<br />
Distance (m)<br />
Distance (m)<br />
2005 2009<br />
20<br />
20<br />
15<br />
15<br />
10<br />
10<br />
L(t) - t<br />
5<br />
0<br />
L(t) - t<br />
5<br />
0<br />
-5<br />
-5<br />
-10<br />
-10<br />
-15<br />
0 10 20 30 40 50<br />
-15<br />
0 10 20 30 40 50<br />
Distance (m)<br />
Distance (m)<br />
Figure 3. L(t)-t plots (solid lines) for 2003, 2004, 2005 <strong>and</strong> 2009 dead <strong>and</strong> infected chestnut trees in Plot 3.<br />
Dashed lines are 0.025 <strong>and</strong> 0.975 quantiles of L(t) - t estimated from 200 Monte Carlo simulations.<br />
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Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
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J.C. Azevedo et al. 2010. Spatial dynamics of chestnut blight disease at the plot level using the Ripley’s K function<br />
460<br />
It should also be expected that the location of infected trees in one date was associated with the<br />
location of infected tree in the previous date. We observed significant association in most of the<br />
cases, stronger for shorter distances. This seems to corroborate the previously presented<br />
hypothesis, according to which infected trees are spreading blight to the nearer neighbouring<br />
trees. In any case the spread of chestnut blight was very fast at the orchard level. Notice the<br />
infection <strong>and</strong>/or death in the 2005-2009 period (Table 1; Fig 1).<br />
The role of management practices in the spread of the disease is still unclear but it is certain that<br />
fast spread of blight as observed here could be also due to anthropogenic factors such as the<br />
infection of adjacent trees with infected tools.<br />
2003-2004 2004-2005<br />
20<br />
20<br />
15<br />
15<br />
10<br />
10<br />
L(t) - t<br />
5<br />
0<br />
L(t) - t<br />
5<br />
0<br />
-5<br />
-5<br />
-10<br />
-10<br />
-15<br />
0 10 20 30 40 50<br />
-15<br />
0 10 20 30 40 50<br />
Distance (m)<br />
Distance (m)<br />
2005-2009<br />
20<br />
15<br />
10<br />
L(t) - t<br />
5<br />
0<br />
-5<br />
-10<br />
-15<br />
0 10 20 30 40 50<br />
Distance (m)<br />
Figure 4. L(t)-t plots (solid lines) for comparisons of dead <strong>and</strong> infected trees in Plot 1 for the 2003-2004,<br />
2004-2005 <strong>and</strong> 2005-2009 periods. Dashed lines are 0.025 <strong>and</strong> 0.975 quantiles of L(t) - t estimated from<br />
200 Monte Carlo simulations.<br />
5. Conclusion<br />
In this study we found that in 2 of the 4 studied orchards there was significant clustering of<br />
infected trees in any of the dates observed. In the other two cases infected <strong>and</strong> dead trees<br />
showed a r<strong>and</strong>om pattern. Infected trees in one date were spatially associated with trees infected<br />
the previous date. The results indicate that fast short distance spread of chestnut blight occurs<br />
within orchards.<br />
References<br />
Dixon, P.M., 2002. Ripley’s K function. P. 1796–1803 in Encyclopedia of Environmetrics,<br />
Volume 3, A.H. El-Shaarawi e W.W. Piegorsch (Eds.). John Wiley & Sons, Ltd,<br />
Chichester.<br />
Haase, P., 1995. Spatial pattern analysis in ecology based on Ripley's K-function: introduction<br />
<strong>and</strong> methods of edge correction. Journal of Vegetation Science 6: 575-582.<br />
Getis, A. & Franklin, J., 1987. Second-order neighborhood analysis of mapped point patterns.<br />
Ecology 68: 473-477.<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
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Gouveia, E., V. Coelho & J. Azevedo, 2005. Epidemiologia do cancro do castanheiro. Dinâmica<br />
da distribuição espacial de Cryphonectria parasitica (Murrill) Barr. In Páscoa, F. & Silva,<br />
R. (eds.) Actas do 5º Congresso Florestal Nacional, Sociedade Portuguesa de Ciências<br />
Florestais, Lisboa. 12 pp.<br />
Ripley, B.D., 1976. The second order analysis of stationarity processes. Journal of Applied<br />
Probability 13: 255-266.<br />
Ostfeld RS, Glass GE, Keesing F (2005). Spatial epidemiology: an emerging (or re-emerging)<br />
discipline. Trends in Ecology & Evolution 20: 328-336.<br />
Holdenrieder O, Pautasso M, Weisberg PJ, Lonsdale D (2004). Tree diseases <strong>and</strong> l<strong>and</strong>scape<br />
processes: the challenge of l<strong>and</strong>scape pathology. Trends in Ecology & Evolution 19: 446-<br />
452.<br />
Kelly M, Meentemeyer RK (2002). L<strong>and</strong>scape dynamics of the spread of sudden oak death.<br />
Photogramm. Eng. Remote Sens. 68: 1001-1009.<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
T. Batista et al. 2010. The third dimension in l<strong>and</strong>scape metrics analysis applied to central Alentejo – Portugal<br />
462<br />
The third dimension in l<strong>and</strong>scape metrics analysis applied to central<br />
Alentejo - Portugal<br />
Teresa Batista 1,3* , Paula Mendes 2 & Luisa Carvalho 3<br />
1<br />
ICAAM, University of Évora, Portugal<br />
2<br />
University of Évora, Portugal<br />
3<br />
Intermunicipal Community of Central Alentejo (CIMAC), Portugal<br />
Abstract<br />
L<strong>and</strong>scape metrics have been widely developed over the last two decades, although the question<br />
remains: How does l<strong>and</strong>scape metrics relates with ecological processes<br />
One of the major recent developments in l<strong>and</strong>scape metrics analysis was the third dimension<br />
integration. Topography has an extremely important role on ecosystems function <strong>and</strong> structure,<br />
even though the common analysis in l<strong>and</strong>scape ecology only conceives planimetric surface<br />
which leads to some erroneous results, particularly in mountain areas.<br />
The analytical process tested patch, class <strong>and</strong> l<strong>and</strong>scape metrics behavior in 11 sample areas of<br />
100 sqkm each in several topographical conditions of Central Alentejo. It is presented the<br />
significance analysis of the results achieved in planimetric <strong>and</strong> 3D environments.<br />
Keywords: L<strong>and</strong>scape metrics; 3D, topography, Local L<strong>and</strong>scape Units, Alentejo, OTALEX<br />
1. Introduction<br />
L<strong>and</strong>scape ecology studies l<strong>and</strong>scape structure, functions <strong>and</strong> changes. L<strong>and</strong>scape structure is<br />
characterized by the composition <strong>and</strong> configuration of l<strong>and</strong>scape patterns. One of the main<br />
premise is that l<strong>and</strong>scape structure is connected with l<strong>and</strong>scape functions <strong>and</strong> processes (Turner<br />
1989, von Drop & Opdam 1987, McIntyre & Wiens 1999). 3D-issue in L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
have been studied <strong>and</strong> applied by several researchers in the past 10 years, in many different<br />
approaches (Dorner et al 2002, Bowden et al 2003, Jenness 2004, Lefsky et al 2002, MacNab<br />
1992, Pike 2000, Sebastiá 2004, McGarigal et al 2008). Topography is actually a key factor for<br />
many ecological processes, such as erosion, flow direction <strong>and</strong> accumulation, temperature <strong>and</strong><br />
biodiversity distribution <strong>and</strong> fire (Swanson et al 1988, Burnett et al 1998, Bolstad et al 1998,<br />
Davis & Goetz, 1990 <strong>and</strong> Blaschke et al 2004 ). However it is not taken in to account in most<br />
l<strong>and</strong>scape ecological studies. Only a few recent studies applied 3D to l<strong>and</strong>scape metrics<br />
(Hoechstetter et al 2006, Hoechstetter et al 2008, Hoechstetter 2009, Jenness 2004, Jenness<br />
2010, Walz et al 2010). Others issues like viewsheds <strong>and</strong> l<strong>and</strong>scape preferences have been<br />
studied by Sang et al (2008).<br />
This paper presents part of the l<strong>and</strong>scape studies carried out by the Environmental Indicators<br />
Working Group (EIWG) of OTALEX - Alentejo Extremadura Territorial Observatory<br />
(www.ideotalex.eu) (in OTALEX II Project co-financed by Operational Program for<br />
Cooperation between cross border Regions of Spain <strong>and</strong> Portugal - POCTEP), in Central<br />
Alentejo (Portugal). The main questions are analyzed:<br />
• Are there significant differences in l<strong>and</strong>scape metrics calculated using real surface area<br />
(3D) instead of planimetric area (2D)<br />
• Are there significant differences between the sample areas<br />
* Corresponding author. Tel.:+351266749420 - Fax:+351266749425<br />
Email address: tbatista@cimac.pt<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
T. Batista et al. 2010. The third dimension in l<strong>and</strong>scape metrics analysis applied to central Alentejo – Portugal<br />
463<br />
2. Methodology<br />
2.1 Characterization of study area<br />
The study area is located in Central Alentejo, South of Portugal. It covers about 7.400 sqkm <strong>and</strong><br />
has about 175000 inhabitants, concentrated in small <strong>and</strong> median villages <strong>and</strong> cities. Altimetry<br />
varies between 7 <strong>and</strong> 648 m. We selected 11 sample areas, of 100 sqkm each, located along<br />
Central Alentejo, representing 15% of the total area (figure 1).<br />
2.2 Local L<strong>and</strong>scape Units (LLU)<br />
The definition of l<strong>and</strong>scape units (paths) was based on Corinne L<strong>and</strong> Cover level 5 (CLC N5)<br />
map at scale 1:10.000 (Batista in press), altimetry (MDT 25m) <strong>and</strong> soil units (at sale 1:25.000).<br />
L<strong>and</strong> cover (LC) map applies hierarchical CLC N5 legend developed by Guiomar et al (2006,<br />
2009), with 295 LC classes. The l<strong>and</strong> cover map was elaborated using digital ortophotomaps<br />
from 2005 (from DGRF 2006) <strong>and</strong> field validation at the end of 2008. The LC map has been<br />
previously generalized to create the LLU map. From the overlay of these maps derived 103<br />
Local L<strong>and</strong>scape Units (LLU) (figura 2).<br />
2.3 True Surface Area <strong>and</strong> Perimeter Calculation <strong>and</strong> L<strong>and</strong>scape Metrics<br />
3D applied to l<strong>and</strong>scape metrics implies to calculate those using true surface area <strong>and</strong> perimeter<br />
measurements (Hoechstetter 2009). Surface area provides a better estimate of the l<strong>and</strong> area<br />
available than planimetric area, <strong>and</strong> the ratio of this surface area to planimetric area provides a<br />
useful measure of topographic roughness of the l<strong>and</strong>scape (Jenness 2004).<br />
It was used L<strong>and</strong>Metrics-3D developed by Walz et al (2010), which is an ARCGIS extension<br />
that integrates the available tools for calculating true surface area developed by Jenness (2004,<br />
2010) (http://www.jennessent.com/arcgis/surface_area.htm, last modified April 8, 2010) <strong>and</strong> the<br />
fragstats l<strong>and</strong>scape metrics of McGarigal et al (2002). The application uses a moving window<br />
algorithm <strong>and</strong> estimates the true surface area for each grid cell using a triangulation method<br />
(Figure 3). Each of the triangles is located in three-dimensional space <strong>and</strong> connects the focal cell<br />
with the centre points of adjacent cells. The lengths of the triangle sides <strong>and</strong> the area of each<br />
triangle can easily be calculated by means of the Pythagorean Theorem. The eight resulting<br />
triangles are summed up to produce the total surface area of the underlying cell (for details see<br />
Hoechstetter et al 2008, Hoechstetter 2009 or Jenness 2010).<br />
The analytical process integrates the calculation of Patch, Class <strong>and</strong> L<strong>and</strong>scape metrics for the<br />
11 sample areas, for 2D <strong>and</strong> 3D. The metrics analyzed where: Patch Geometry - Patch Area<br />
(Area) <strong>and</strong> Perimeter (Perim), Shape Metrics - Fractal Dimension (FractDim), Perimeter /Area<br />
Racio (Racio), Shape Index (Shape), Density/Edge Metrics - Edge Density (EdgeDens), Edge<br />
Contrast (Edgecont), number of patches (Numofp), Surface Metrology – Average Roughness<br />
(Avrough) <strong>and</strong> RMS Roughness (RMSrough).<br />
3. Results<br />
The statistical analysis involved 221.382 records generated by 3D-L<strong>and</strong>Metrics software, for the<br />
2 dimensions (2D <strong>and</strong> 3D), 11 sample areas <strong>and</strong> 9 l<strong>and</strong>scape metrics. An ANOVA with multiple<br />
comparing of means (LSD de Fisher method) was run (table 3), resulting in pairwise<br />
comparison, for p
T. Batista et al. 2010. The third dimension in l<strong>and</strong>scape metrics analysis applied to central Alentejo – Portugal<br />
464<br />
analysis. However these results should be carefully interpreted as in previous research<br />
developed by Hoechstetter (2009), certain metrics groups do not reveal a significant difference<br />
between their 2D- <strong>and</strong> 3D-versions (e.g. shape metrics), <strong>and</strong> some of the algorithms (especially<br />
for the distance metrics) involve a considerable computational effort.<br />
Figure 1: Sample areas localization. Central Alentejo – Portugal<br />
Figure 2: Sample areas local l<strong>and</strong>scape units<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
T. Batista et al. 2010. The third dimension in l<strong>and</strong>scape metrics analysis applied to central Alentejo – Portugal<br />
465<br />
Figure 3: Method to determine true surface area <strong>and</strong> true surface perimeter of patches. (figure redrawn<br />
according to Jenness 2004 by Hoechstetter et al 2008).<br />
Table 2: Subject factors for significance analysis<br />
Between-Subjects Factors<br />
Value Label Nº<br />
Dimension<br />
1 2D 110691<br />
2 3D 110691<br />
Area<br />
1 Quadr2 (A1) 18990<br />
2 Quadr4 (A2) 31842<br />
3 Quadr5 (A3) 25578<br />
4 Quadr6 (A4) 20538<br />
5 Quadr7 (A5) 18054<br />
6 Quadr8 (A6) 17892<br />
7 Quadr9 (A7) 22626<br />
8 Quadr10 (A8) 22158<br />
9 Quadr11 (A9) 9882<br />
10 Quadr12 (A10) 19980<br />
11 Quadr13 (A11) 13842<br />
Metrics<br />
1 EgdeDens_LSC 24598<br />
2 AvgRough_LSC 24598<br />
3 RMSRough 24598<br />
4 EdgeCont_LSC 24598<br />
5 Shape_LSC 24598<br />
6 NumOfP_LSC 24598<br />
7 Perim_P 24598<br />
8 Ratio_LSC 24598<br />
9 FractDim_LSC 24598<br />
Table 3: ANOVA results<br />
Df Sum Sq Mean Sq F value Pr(>F)<br />
Dimension 1 4,18E+13 4,18E+13 62459,7 < 2.2e-16 ***<br />
SampleArea 10 1,36E+12 1,36E+11 203,75 < 2.2e-16 ***<br />
Metrics 8 6,23E+14 7,79E+13 116345,7 < 2.2e-16 ***<br />
Dimension/Area 10 7,48E+11 7,48E+10 111,66 < 2.2e-16 ***<br />
Dimension/Metrics 8 8,11E+13 1,01E+13 15147,26 < 2.2e-16 ***<br />
Residuals 221344 1,48E+14 6,70E+08<br />
Signif. Codes: 0'***'; 0,001 '**'; 0,01 '*'; 0,05 '.'; 0,1 ' ' ; 1<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
T. Batista et al. 2010. The third dimension in l<strong>and</strong>scape metrics analysis applied to central Alentejo – Portugal<br />
466<br />
Dependent Variable:Rank of Results<br />
Table 4: Pairwise comparison between 2D <strong>and</strong> 3D<br />
95% Confidence Interval for Difference a<br />
(I) Dimension (J) Dimension Mean Difference (I-J) Std. Error Sig. a Lower Bound Upper Bound<br />
2D 3D -27062,292 * 112,650 ,000 -27283,082 -26841,502<br />
3D 2D 27062,292 * 112,650 ,000 26841,502 27283,082<br />
Based on estimated marginal means<br />
*. The mean difference is significant at the ,05 level.<br />
a. Adjustment for multiple comparisons: Least Significant Difference (equivalent to no adjustments).<br />
Table 5: Results of pairwise comparison between the sample areas<br />
Differes from:<br />
Quadrado 2 – A1 Quadrado 4,6,7,10,11,12,13<br />
Quadrado 4 – A2 Quadrado 2,5,6,7,8,10,11,12,13<br />
Quadrado 5 – A3 Quadrado 4,6,7,9,10,11,12,13<br />
Quadrado 6 – A4 Quadrado 2,4,5,7,8,9,10,12,13<br />
Quadrado 7 – A5 Todas as áreas<br />
Quadrado 8 – A6 Quadrado 4,6,7,10,11,12,13<br />
Quadrado 9 – A7 Quadrado 5,6,7,10,11,12,13<br />
Quadrado 10 – A8 Todas as áreas<br />
Quadrado 11 – A9 Todas as áreas excepto a do quadrado 6<br />
Quadrado 12 – A10 Todas as áreas<br />
Quadrado 13 – A11 Todas as áreas<br />
Acknowledgments<br />
The authors would like to thank to Sebastian Hoechstetter the availability of L<strong>and</strong>Metrics-3D<br />
<strong>and</strong> precious comments, <strong>and</strong> to Nuno Neves the text revision.<br />
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Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
V. Caboun 2010. New classification <strong>and</strong> utilization of forest functions in l<strong>and</strong>scape<br />
468<br />
New classification <strong>and</strong> utilization of forest functions in l<strong>and</strong>scape<br />
Vladimir Caboun *<br />
National <strong>Forest</strong> Centre – <strong>Forest</strong> Research Institute in Zvolen, T.G. Masaryka 22,<br />
960 92 Zvolen, Slovak Republic<br />
Abstract<br />
Main aim of the research task is scientific assessment of acquired knowledge on functional<br />
effects of forests under real ecological, forest management <strong>and</strong> socio-economic conditions of<br />
the regions of Slovakia. Constructed is new classification system in which we divided strictly<br />
tree species functions underst<strong>and</strong>ing how influences or effects on particular compounds of<br />
environment (- ecological sphere) <strong>and</strong> their utilization by a human society in economic <strong>and</strong><br />
social sphere. In this way can be offered integrated functions of tree species <strong>and</strong> their<br />
communities how goods or service.<br />
To the forest function (tree species function) <strong>and</strong> its classification we access individual. Here<br />
are important indicators structure <strong>and</strong> ecological stability of tree species community. To the<br />
possibilities of utilization of forest functions we use integration of forest functions <strong>and</strong><br />
economic access.<br />
Current ecological or ecosystem approach to the forest functions <strong>and</strong> possibilities of their<br />
utilization changed actual access to forest functions.<br />
Key words: <strong>Forest</strong> functions, classification of forest functions, utilization of the functions of<br />
forest tree species<br />
1. Introduction<br />
<strong>Forest</strong>s <strong>and</strong> other communities of tree species play irreplaceable functions in the l<strong>and</strong>scape from<br />
the viewpoint of the ecological stability of the l<strong>and</strong>scape, its rational utilization <strong>and</strong> sustainable<br />
development. <strong>Forest</strong>s represent a basic l<strong>and</strong>scape forming <strong>and</strong> ecological <strong>and</strong> stabilizing<br />
element of the l<strong>and</strong>scape. They are the most important source of renewable resources <strong>and</strong> thanks<br />
to their functions they play an important role also in the formation <strong>and</strong> protection of individual<br />
components of natural environment as well as the environment changed by anthropogenic<br />
activities <strong>and</strong> anthropic (artificial environment created by a man).<br />
1. 1 Aim of scientific-research activities<br />
Main aim of the research task is to assess recent knowledge on functional effects of forests in<br />
real ecological, forest management <strong>and</strong> socio-economic conditions of individual regions of<br />
Slovakia with the utilization of the latest knowledge of present ecology <strong>and</strong> economics of<br />
natural resources. On the basis of that was created new classification, a classification system,<br />
methodology of the valuation of forest functions <strong>and</strong> it will be proposed the methodology of<br />
determining the rate of ecological-stabilization effect of forests in the l<strong>and</strong>scape.<br />
Main objectives of research task dealing with forest functionsare dissemination of scientific<br />
knowledge on forest functions <strong>and</strong> possibilities of their utilization in the l<strong>and</strong>scape, construction<br />
of classification system of forest functions, construction of a system of assessment <strong>and</strong><br />
valuation of forest functions <strong>and</strong> tree species communities from the viewpoint of their<br />
multifunctional utilization.<br />
* Email address: caboun@nlcsk.org<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong> - New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape<br />
Ecology International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.) 2010,<br />
Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Portugal.
V. Caboun 2010. New classification <strong>and</strong> utilization of forest functions in l<strong>and</strong>scape<br />
469<br />
1.2 Significance of the issues solved<br />
The importance of these issues follows also from the fact the European Commission issued<br />
COM no. (88) 255 concerning the strategy <strong>and</strong> action plan of the Community in forestry <strong>and</strong> set<br />
up in total 6 objectives for forest sector, of them 4 are directly related to the solved issue:<br />
• Support the participation of the whole forest sector in planning the utilization of the<br />
l<strong>and</strong>scape <strong>and</strong> thus to contribute to rural development<br />
• Contribute to the protection <strong>and</strong> improvement of the environment<br />
• Secure dynamic development of forestry that would enable better fulfilment of<br />
individual forest functions<br />
• Enhance importance of forests as a natural environment for recreation.<br />
It follows from the mentioned above that the future of forestry depends on the importance of the<br />
forests in a society. Interrelations of human society <strong>and</strong> tree species <strong>and</strong> their utilization of their<br />
functions have changed in time <strong>and</strong> space. A man used the functions of tree species <strong>and</strong> their<br />
communities in the l<strong>and</strong>scape in dependence on the number of a concrete human population,<br />
natural conditions, <strong>and</strong> way of living as well as in dependence on social, economic <strong>and</strong> cultural<br />
development of a society.<br />
In accordance with EU forestry strategy one of basic goals of forest policy in Slovakia is<br />
enhancement of multifunctional (functionally integrated) management of forests <strong>and</strong> protection<br />
of the potential of their functions. We must h<strong>and</strong>le functional potential of forests as the natural<br />
wealth <strong>and</strong> to preserve <strong>and</strong> improve it by proper management.<br />
Among the most serious problems limiting effective applying the system of multifunctional<br />
forest management is mainly discordance between social order for forest functions <strong>and</strong> their<br />
economic funding.<br />
2. Methodology<br />
2.1 Theoretical <strong>and</strong> methodical starting points<br />
Despite the fact the issues of forest functions were solved mainly in the 70-80s of the past<br />
century the solution has not been completely <strong>and</strong> satisfactorily finished what concerns the<br />
functions of tree species <strong>and</strong> their communities in new ecological <strong>and</strong> socio-economic<br />
conditions of Slovakia. Recently prevailing perception of the nature <strong>and</strong> forest, which served the<br />
man <strong>and</strong> his requirements caused that forest functions were considered services with purposeful<br />
selection <strong>and</strong> social utilitarian prioritisation.<br />
Modern ecological approach to forest <strong>and</strong> forest functions in the l<strong>and</strong>scape must consider the<br />
latest knowledge on ecosystem research of forest. This view at forest ecosystems must<br />
necessarily consider long-term time factor bringing about various dynamics of the changes of<br />
ecological, economic <strong>and</strong> social conditions, but mainly different view at forest functions <strong>and</strong><br />
their utilization. From this viewpoint the way of functional integration seems to be substantially<br />
more effective <strong>and</strong> more pragmatic than the way of purposeful differentiation <strong>and</strong> prioritisation<br />
of some of the functions.<br />
To be able to use this approach it is necessary to extend greatly scientific knowledge on forest<br />
functions <strong>and</strong> possibilities of their utilization in the l<strong>and</strong>scape as well as to construction a new<br />
classification system of forest functions that would consider ecological approach to forest as to<br />
ecosystem.<br />
This approach presupposes construction of basic typology <strong>and</strong> the system of the evaluation of<br />
forest functions potential <strong>and</strong> assessment of real fulfilment of the functions by forest growing<br />
under various site conditions, various types of the l<strong>and</strong>scape (with various use <strong>and</strong> degree of<br />
anthropic changes), with regard to the health condition of a real forest, its current tree species<br />
composition, age <strong>and</strong> spatial arrangement of forest as well as to with regard to its ecological<br />
stability considering expected global <strong>and</strong> regional (mainly climatic) changes with regard to<br />
social requirements <strong>and</strong> the interests of forest owners.<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong> - New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape<br />
Ecology International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.) 2010,<br />
Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Portugal.
V. Caboun 2010. New classification <strong>and</strong> utilization of forest functions in l<strong>and</strong>scape<br />
470<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> management as a production sector lives on the sale of own products. From this<br />
viewpoint production forest functions brings profit <strong>and</strong> all other forest functions are<br />
only a load for forest manager, it means they are not equal to production function. The<br />
core of the integration of forest functions is namely mutual comparison <strong>and</strong> evaluation<br />
of various forest functions, their reflection in the system of management in forest <strong>and</strong><br />
assessment of benefits resulting from various ways <strong>and</strong> interlinking of forest functions<br />
use into optimal proportions. <strong>Forest</strong> manager must know which forest benefits the<br />
society needs to be able to set the goals of management.<br />
Our task was not simple as it is to construct the classification system of the assessment of the<br />
potential of forest functions <strong>and</strong> real fulfilment of the functions by forest growing in various site<br />
conditions <strong>and</strong> types of the l<strong>and</strong>scape with various utilization <strong>and</strong> degree of anthropic changes<br />
with regard to real state of forest, its current tree species composition, age <strong>and</strong> spatial structure,<br />
ecological stability considering not only historical development <strong>and</strong> present state but also<br />
expected global <strong>and</strong> regional (mainly climatic) changes <strong>and</strong> anthropogenic effects as well as<br />
with regard to social requirements <strong>and</strong> interests of the owners.<br />
2.2 Analysis of ecological-stabilization <strong>and</strong> functional effectiveness of forest<br />
ecosystems in the l<strong>and</strong>scape<br />
On the basis of available literature experimental results there was carried out primary analysis of<br />
the functional effectiveness of forest ecosystems in the l<strong>and</strong>scape <strong>and</strong> the system for its<br />
detection <strong>and</strong> classification was worked out. This system follows up the system of the<br />
classification of ecological stability (Caboun 2002, 2003), as long-term ecological stability is a<br />
basic precondition for securing long-term functionality of forests.<br />
We underst<strong>and</strong> ecological stability as an ability of the ecosystem to resist or compensate<br />
external as well as internal effects without any marked permanent disturbing of the functional<br />
structure of this system.<br />
Natural ecosystem develops in accordance with given conditions <strong>and</strong> usual abiotic <strong>and</strong> biotic<br />
factors. These conditions <strong>and</strong> factors form ecosystem (the effect of the environment) what<br />
appears also for the given conditions in its specific structure (tree species composition, age <strong>and</strong><br />
spatial structure) <strong>and</strong> subsequently in its ecological stability. Optimal solution from the<br />
viewpoint of ecological stability, <strong>and</strong> thus also optimal functionality of the ecosystem is on the<br />
basis of our knowledge solution of nature through natural ecosystems. A man from the<br />
viewpoint of the need of satisfying own needs influenced the structure of forests to different<br />
extent, <strong>and</strong> thus he influenced also their ecological balance, ecological stability <strong>and</strong><br />
subsequently resulting fulfilment of the forest functions.<br />
Graphs of percent reduction of partial ecological stability in dependence on the degree of<br />
difference of the studied indicator of a real (assessed) forest ecosystem in comparison with<br />
optimal forest ecosystem corresponding to the site are a part of the classification system of<br />
partial ecological stability of individual indicators. Construction of models or their specification<br />
to the level of forest types or types of forest is a dem<strong>and</strong>ing <strong>and</strong> long-term task of further<br />
research in cooperation with the people who implemented <strong>and</strong> verified the proposed system.<br />
The determination of the ecological stability for individual time horizons is based on individual<br />
development phases or their changes during the studied period as well as presupposed site<br />
changes during this time.<br />
For each development phase it is possible to determine in general the range of its primary –<br />
initial ecological stability on the basis of hypothetical models of ecological stability <strong>and</strong> its<br />
components of individual development phases of tree species.<br />
The sense <strong>and</strong> practical importance of ecological stability lies in the fact that on the basis of<br />
found facts <strong>and</strong> values it is possible to propose <strong>and</strong> optimal way of management in accordance<br />
with natural regularities in a way to strengthen the required component of ecological stability –<br />
resistance or flexibility with regard to the fulfilment of the required forest functions, the time of<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong> - New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape<br />
Ecology International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.) 2010,<br />
Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Portugal.
V. Caboun 2010. New classification <strong>and</strong> utilization of forest functions in l<strong>and</strong>scape<br />
471<br />
fulfilment of these functions <strong>and</strong> mainly with regard to expected decisive factors influencing the<br />
existence <strong>and</strong> ecological stability of a concrete forest. Interlinking of functional effectiveness<br />
<strong>and</strong> ecological stability through the structure corresponding to site follows up with the proposal<br />
of starting points for the construction of the classification system of forest functions.<br />
3. Results: <strong>Forest</strong> functions – classification <strong>and</strong> possibilities of their utilization<br />
In the proposal of the classification system of forest functions there are clearly distinct forest<br />
functions being perceived as the effect of forest on individual components of the environment<br />
from the utilization of these functions by a man. Systematic solution of the methodological<br />
approach to forest functions <strong>and</strong> their classification is presented in Figure 1.<br />
Figure 1 Ecosystem approach to forest <strong>and</strong> other communities of tree species in the l<strong>and</strong>scape, their<br />
functions <strong>and</strong> possibilities of functions utilization in economic <strong>and</strong> social fields (Caboun 2005)<br />
We distinguish basic forest functions affecting abiotic components of the environment (air,<br />
water, soil) <strong>and</strong> biotic components (plants, animals, microorganisms, man).<br />
In this way tree species <strong>and</strong> their communities fulfil in the l<strong>and</strong>scape edaphic, atmospheric,<br />
hydric <strong>and</strong> lithic function what concerns abiotic components of the ecosystem, <strong>and</strong> phytobiotic,<br />
zoobiotic, microbiotic <strong>and</strong> anthropic function what concerns biotic components of the<br />
ecosystem. In other words it is the quality <strong>and</strong> quantity of the effect of tree species <strong>and</strong> their<br />
communities on the soil, climate, water, rocks, plants, animals, microorganisms <strong>and</strong> man.<br />
These functions are divided into partial functions. For example edaphic function comprises soil<br />
forming, soil reclamation <strong>and</strong> soil protection functions, which consists of erosion control, anti<br />
deflation, anti slides function, avalanche control <strong>and</strong> bank protection function.<br />
A human society may use a complex of these functions for economic purposes or in a social<br />
area. Then forestry, water management, game management, agriculture, energy industry, food<br />
industry, building industry, chemical industry, cosmetics, pharmacy etc. belong to anthropic<br />
fields using forest functions in economic area. Similarly, forest functions may be used in social<br />
area, it means for recreation, curing, hygiene, for nature protection, formation <strong>and</strong> protection of<br />
the environment, science <strong>and</strong> research, education <strong>and</strong> training, aesthetics <strong>and</strong> arts, culture <strong>and</strong><br />
history <strong>and</strong> others.<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong> - New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape<br />
Ecology International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.) 2010,<br />
Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Portugal.
V. Caboun 2010. New classification <strong>and</strong> utilization of forest functions in l<strong>and</strong>scape<br />
472<br />
This classification of forest functions creates a basic information base for the possibility of the<br />
utilization of the functions of tree species <strong>and</strong> their communities in the l<strong>and</strong>scape by human<br />
society.<br />
The aim is to construct the classification system for the assessment of the potential of forest<br />
functions <strong>and</strong> real fulfilment of the functions of a forest growing in different site conditions <strong>and</strong><br />
types of the l<strong>and</strong>scape with various use <strong>and</strong> degree of anthropic changes. An emphasis will be<br />
put on the real state of forest, its current tree species composition, age <strong>and</strong> spatial structure,<br />
ecological stability considering not only historical development but also present state as well as<br />
its expected development, global <strong>and</strong> regional (mainly climatic) changes <strong>and</strong> anthropogenic<br />
effects, <strong>and</strong> social requirements <strong>and</strong> the interests of the forests owners.<br />
A new important element in the utilization of forest functions is financial reimbursement paid to<br />
the forest owner for the provided services<br />
Philosophy of practical use <strong>and</strong> methodology in detecting, classifying <strong>and</strong> valuation of forest<br />
functions in the l<strong>and</strong>scape is expressed briefly in following points:<br />
• Setting apart a part of the l<strong>and</strong>scape for the assessment <strong>and</strong> valuation of forest functions<br />
• Ecological-functional typifying of determined part of the l<strong>and</strong>scape <strong>and</strong> attributing of<br />
corresponding (potential) communities of tree species<br />
• Evaluation of the difference of the structure of real forests with optimal structure of<br />
potential forests in the determined part of the l<strong>and</strong>scape<br />
• Determination of ecological-stabilization rate (effect) of real forests in the determined part<br />
of the l<strong>and</strong>scape (classification of ecological stability of forests <strong>and</strong> particular part of the<br />
l<strong>and</strong>scape)<br />
• Assessment of real functionality of forests <strong>and</strong> communities of tree species in the<br />
determined part of the l<strong>and</strong>scape from the viewpoint of their structure<br />
• Assessment of social requirements on the use of the determined part of the l<strong>and</strong>scape <strong>and</strong> on<br />
fulfilment of the functions by forest tree species <strong>and</strong> their communities<br />
• Appraisal <strong>and</strong> valuation of forest functions with regard to the type of the determined part of<br />
the l<strong>and</strong>scape <strong>and</strong> requirements on fulfilment <strong>and</strong> utilization of forest functions in the<br />
determined part of the l<strong>and</strong>scape<br />
• Proposal of management <strong>and</strong> measures to optimise the structure of forests <strong>and</strong> their<br />
functions in the determined part of the l<strong>and</strong>scape with regard to the state, ecological stability<br />
<strong>and</strong> financially grounded requirements on the use of forest functions <strong>and</strong> the functions of<br />
communities of tree species in this particular part of the l<strong>and</strong>scape.<br />
From the viewpoint of prediction of the development of fulfilment <strong>and</strong> utilization of the<br />
functions of tree species communities in the l<strong>and</strong>scape it must be noted that as it is possible with<br />
ecological stability to determine its probable development on the basis of supposed changed of<br />
site conditions <strong>and</strong> the structure of forest ecosystem, it is also possible to predict the<br />
development of the capability of this ecosystem to fulfil individual functions in the l<strong>and</strong>scape or<br />
environment. But it is very difficult to predict the need, capability <strong>and</strong> social willingness of the<br />
utilization of these functions with their adequate financial reimbursement.<br />
It is possible <strong>and</strong> appropriate to present in graph the comparison of potential <strong>and</strong> present<br />
fulfilment of the functions by tree species <strong>and</strong> their communities in the studied area.<br />
Similarly, real utilization of the functions of tree species <strong>and</strong> their communities on the studied<br />
territory as well as comparison of real utilization of the functions with social order can be<br />
illustrated in graph.<br />
4. .Discussion <strong>and</strong> conclusion<br />
From insinuated way is possible to compare real possibilities of particular ecosystem to fulfil<br />
required functions what subsequently shows the need of the management of this ecosystem. The<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong> - New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape<br />
Ecology International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.) 2010,<br />
Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Portugal.
V. Caboun 2010. New classification <strong>and</strong> utilization of forest functions in l<strong>and</strong>scape<br />
473<br />
management comprises influencing the structure of community <strong>and</strong> thus also ecological stability<br />
<strong>and</strong> fulfilment of individual functions. With regard to the fact that in our solution we prefer<br />
integration of functions <strong>and</strong> not their prioritisation, a more complex utilization of forest<br />
functions will be aimed at close to nature management, potential – optimal forest community.<br />
The presented approach has not only maximal economic benefit but ecological stability of<br />
concrete ecosystem as a part of the l<strong>and</strong>scape where it is located is increasing <strong>and</strong> the<br />
importance of tree species <strong>and</strong> their communities, mainly of forest in the l<strong>and</strong>scape, will<br />
increase substantially as well.<br />
The core <strong>and</strong> substance of the integration of forest functions is namely mutual comparison <strong>and</strong><br />
evaluation of various forest functions, their reflection in the system of management in forest <strong>and</strong><br />
considering benefits following from various ways <strong>and</strong> degrees of interlinking of forest functions<br />
<strong>and</strong> their utilization into optimal proportions. <strong>Forest</strong> manager must know what forest benefits<br />
the society needs to be able to set properly the objectives of management in the given area that<br />
will secure optimal utilization of forest functions with their concrete structure <strong>and</strong> with regard to<br />
their ecological stability for clearly defined time period.<br />
Then priorities will follow from the proposal of the management <strong>and</strong> measures for optimisation<br />
of the structure of forests <strong>and</strong> their functions in determined part of the l<strong>and</strong>scape with regard to<br />
the state, ecological stability <strong>and</strong> financially reasoned requirements on the utilization of the<br />
functions of forests <strong>and</strong> tree species communities in this l<strong>and</strong>scape.<br />
On the basis of current knowledge <strong>and</strong> the latest approaches to forest functions, functions of<br />
forest tree species <strong>and</strong> their communities the way of functional integration seems to be more<br />
effective <strong>and</strong> more pragmatic than the way of purposeful differentiation <strong>and</strong> prioritisation of<br />
some of the functions.<br />
Extending of scientific knowledge on forest functions, forest tree species <strong>and</strong> their communities<br />
<strong>and</strong> possibilities of their use in the l<strong>and</strong>scape will enable not only their real use in the<br />
environment but also construction of a new classification system of the functions of forests,<br />
forest tree species <strong>and</strong> their communities considering ecological <strong>and</strong> subsequently economic<br />
approach.<br />
This approach presupposes construction of basic typology <strong>and</strong> the system of the assessment of<br />
forest functions potential as well as the assessment of real fulfilment of the functions of forest<br />
growing in various site conditions, various types of the l<strong>and</strong>scape (various use <strong>and</strong> degree of<br />
anthropic changes), with regard to the health condition of real forest, its present tree species<br />
composition, age <strong>and</strong> spatial structure, its ecological stability that considers expected global <strong>and</strong><br />
regional (mainly climatic) changes with regard to social requirements <strong>and</strong> the interests of the<br />
owners of forests.<br />
References<br />
Caboun, V., 2002. System of indicators of forest ecological stability <strong>and</strong> its classification.<br />
Proceedings from the international scientific symposium on “New trends in detecting <strong>and</strong><br />
monitoring the state of forest”, Technical University Zvolen, p. 116-135, in Slovak<br />
Caboun, v., 2003. Classification of ecological equilibrium <strong>and</strong> ecological stability on an<br />
example of a model territory. Ecological research <strong>and</strong> protection of the nature of the<br />
Carpathian Mts. Proceedings of the international scientific conference, TU Zvolen,<br />
Lesoprojekt Zvolen, Slovak Ecological Society at SAV (Slovak Academy of Sciences),<br />
2003, p. 134 – 140.<br />
Caboun, v., 2005. Spatial arrangement of the territory – determining of ecological– functional<br />
areas within the project “Revitalization of forest ecosystems on the territory of the High<br />
Tatra Mts. affected by wind calamity on 19.11.2004. Ecological Studies VI.<br />
Metamorphoses of the nature protection in the Tatra Mts. Slovak Ecological Society at<br />
SAV (Slovak Academy of Sciences), ISBN 80-968901-1-3-1, p. 126-136.<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong> - New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape<br />
Ecology International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.) 2010,<br />
Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Portugal.
A.M. Carvalho et al. 2010. Connecting l<strong>and</strong>scape conservation <strong>and</strong> management with traditional ecological knowledge<br />
474<br />
Connecting l<strong>and</strong>scape conservation <strong>and</strong> management with traditional<br />
ecological knowledge: does it matter how people perceive l<strong>and</strong>scape<br />
<strong>and</strong> nature<br />
Ana M. Carvalho 1* , Margarida T. Ramos 2 & Amélia Frazão-Moreira 3<br />
1<br />
CIMO/<strong>ESA</strong>B, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Portugal<br />
2<br />
Projecto Cultibos, yerbas i saberes, FRAUGA <strong>and</strong> IPB, Portugal<br />
3<br />
CRIA/Faculdade Ciências Sociais e Humanas da Universidade Nova de Lisboa,<br />
Portugal<br />
Abstract<br />
Ethnobotanical surveys conducted in Trás-os-Montes (Portugal) highlighted a renewed interest<br />
in cultural values of l<strong>and</strong>scapes. Long term interactions between traditional ecological<br />
knowledge (TEK) <strong>and</strong> natural processes provided l<strong>and</strong>scapes characterized by high diversity<br />
<strong>and</strong> relative stability. Rural contexts are facing social <strong>and</strong> economical constraints <strong>and</strong><br />
l<strong>and</strong>scapes are change accordingly.<br />
On a basis of ethnographic methodologies (consented interviews <strong>and</strong> participant observation),<br />
recent l<strong>and</strong>scape changes at a local level <strong>and</strong> people’ perceptions are briefly described <strong>and</strong><br />
discussed as important tools for l<strong>and</strong>scape conservation <strong>and</strong> management.<br />
Young <strong>and</strong> some middle aged people value some of these changes, which they consider less<br />
hard-working <strong>and</strong> a symbol of modernity. Others see actual transformations as a waste of<br />
resources <strong>and</strong> ab<strong>and</strong>onment <strong>and</strong> thus l<strong>and</strong>scape is perceived as unproductive, which is<br />
considered reprehensible. Most of the informants are aware of a dynamic process taking place<br />
<strong>and</strong> conscious that l<strong>and</strong>scape, like themselves, must adapt to changing times.<br />
Keywords: TEK, Portuguese ethnobotany, cultural l<strong>and</strong>scapes, rural l<strong>and</strong>scapes dynamics<br />
1. Introduction: Cultural l<strong>and</strong>scape <strong>and</strong> traditional ecological knowledge (TEK)<br />
Traditional rural l<strong>and</strong>scapes are culturally relevant <strong>and</strong> a consequence of an integration of<br />
natural <strong>and</strong> anthropogenic processes that resulted in a great diversity of sustainable l<strong>and</strong>scapes<br />
(Council of Europe 2000; Antrop 2005).<br />
Human influence, especially related to agriculture <strong>and</strong> l<strong>and</strong>-use patterns, have determined<br />
greater impacts on rural l<strong>and</strong>scape than the ecological features <strong>and</strong> processes over the last<br />
decades. In Europe, long <strong>and</strong> complex history of l<strong>and</strong> uses have promoted a rich diversity of<br />
cultural l<strong>and</strong>scapes that have been shaped by local practices, believes <strong>and</strong> specific purposes, <strong>and</strong><br />
maintained in those areas where physical, socio-economic <strong>and</strong> political constrains have<br />
prevented modernization <strong>and</strong> changing in farming systems until recent times (Vos <strong>and</strong> Meekes<br />
1999; Antrop 2005; Plieninger, Hochtl <strong>and</strong> Spek 2006; Calvo-Iglesias, Fra-Palelo <strong>and</strong> Diaz-<br />
Varela 2009).<br />
Ethnobotanical studies deal with local people knowledge <strong>and</strong> perceptions of nature <strong>and</strong><br />
environment. Traditional ecological knowledge (TEK) has great cultural significance <strong>and</strong> refers<br />
to the use of many wild or domesticated resources <strong>and</strong> the management of natural habitats <strong>and</strong><br />
* Corresponding author. Tel.: +351 273324524<br />
Email address: anacarv@ipb,pt<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
A.M. Carvalho et al. 2010. Connecting l<strong>and</strong>scape conservation <strong>and</strong> management with traditional ecological knowledge<br />
475<br />
agroecosystems. TEK refers, as well, to some other important rural activities <strong>and</strong> practices, such<br />
as cattle transhumance, agricultural techniques (e.g. crop rotation, irrigation methods, multi use<br />
parcels <strong>and</strong> partial harvest), l<strong>and</strong> management (e.g. l<strong>and</strong> holding fragmentation, terraces, natural<br />
or artificial boundaries), rituals <strong>and</strong> ceremonies, oral traditions <strong>and</strong> symbolism, communitarian<br />
features <strong>and</strong> settlement patterns (Martin 1995; Cunningham 2001).<br />
Coherent relations between the physical environment, TEK <strong>and</strong> local adaptation result in wellestablished<br />
regionally differentiated patterns of settlements, l<strong>and</strong> use systems <strong>and</strong> field structure<br />
that characterize European cultural l<strong>and</strong>scapes (Vos <strong>and</strong> Meekes 1999). Local people<br />
knowledge <strong>and</strong> traditional rural l<strong>and</strong>scapes are fundamental for the conservation of biodiversity<br />
<strong>and</strong> also a source of information on the past <strong>and</strong> present cultural l<strong>and</strong>scapes, focusing on the<br />
l<strong>and</strong>-use system, management techniques, cultural heritage, <strong>and</strong> farmers’ perception of changes<br />
(Antrop 2005; Calvo-Iglesias, Fra-Palelo <strong>and</strong> Diaz-Varela 2009).<br />
Cultural l<strong>and</strong>scapes dynamics pressuposes change according to changing TEK, values <strong>and</strong><br />
policies. For many centuries these changes had local impact <strong>and</strong> thus cultural l<strong>and</strong>scapes were<br />
perceiveid as rather stable (Vos <strong>and</strong> Meekes 1999; Antrop 2005; Calvo-Iglesias, Crecente-<br />
Maseda, Fra-Paleo, 2006; Carvalho 2010).<br />
Nowadays, rural contexts face sudden <strong>and</strong> faster social <strong>and</strong> economical transformations <strong>and</strong><br />
rural l<strong>and</strong>scapes are rapidly changing <strong>and</strong> diversifying. The geographical <strong>and</strong> social conditions<br />
that led to the isolation of some European regions are no longer prevalent, <strong>and</strong> so changes in the<br />
cultural, economic <strong>and</strong> political contexts of plant use <strong>and</strong> l<strong>and</strong>scape are coming faster <strong>and</strong> faster.<br />
The current reduction in the human population, due to out-migration <strong>and</strong> a general drop in the<br />
birth rate, <strong>and</strong> the ab<strong>and</strong>onment of agriculture have been critical for rural areas <strong>and</strong> ways of life<br />
<strong>and</strong> have promoted the loss of cultural traditions. These changes are affecting the system of<br />
local knowledge of plant resources <strong>and</strong> the maintenance of traditional plant use practices<br />
(Carvalho <strong>and</strong> Morales 2010). L<strong>and</strong>scape changes observed <strong>and</strong> locally perceived are some of<br />
the topics addressed in this paper, based on research in such a region of northeastern Portugal.<br />
2. Methodology<br />
The l<strong>and</strong>scape topic emerged from several ethnobotanical surveys carried out in Trás-os-Montes<br />
(a Portuguese region) for almost nine years (2000-2009) within the scope of three different<br />
research projects that aimed to record <strong>and</strong> document traditional knowledge on plant resources<br />
use, related technologies <strong>and</strong> management.(Ramos, 2008; Frazão-Moreira, Carvalho <strong>and</strong><br />
Martins 2009; Carvalho 2010).<br />
The study area is located in the most northeastern part of the Trás-os-Montes region <strong>and</strong><br />
included in two important natural protected areas (the Natural Park of Montesinho <strong>and</strong> the<br />
Natural Park of Douro Internacional) corresponding to Vinhais, Bragança <strong>and</strong> Mir<strong>and</strong>a do<br />
Douro municipalities. Mostly a mountainous <strong>and</strong> very isolated rural area, with small villages<br />
(many of them less than 100 inhabitants) scattered all over the l<strong>and</strong>scape. The local economy<br />
was/is based on small farming systems, with an important crop production diversity, a high<br />
level of subsistence strategies avoiding productive risks, <strong>and</strong> mostly affected by agriculture<br />
ab<strong>and</strong>onment <strong>and</strong> both population ageing <strong>and</strong> erosion, due to several migratory flows.<br />
Traditional l<strong>and</strong>scapes are characterized by a mosaic composed of different patches finely<br />
linked to each other, particularly highlighted by the seasonal contrasts of the vegetation <strong>and</strong><br />
agricultural activities (e.g. fallows, manure, hay or grazed meadows, orchards, gardens).<br />
Within the research projects, we used a r<strong>and</strong>om stratified sampling of approximately 40% of the<br />
villages in the study area which had a history of agropastoral activities <strong>and</strong> homegardens until<br />
very recently (at least 2005). In every case study, consented semi-structured interviews as well<br />
as participant observation were conducted during all seasons of the year. Informants (a total of<br />
165) were selected using r<strong>and</strong>om sample <strong>and</strong> snow-ball methods (Martin 1995; Alexiades 1996).<br />
In-depth interviews have been held with 30 local experts or key informants (informants with<br />
profound knowledge of a particular aspect of local culture, e.g. shepherds, smugglers, hunters,<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
A.M. Carvalho et al. 2010. Connecting l<strong>and</strong>scape conservation <strong>and</strong> management with traditional ecological knowledge<br />
476<br />
healers), a sub-group selected from those informants considered knowledgeable by their<br />
neighbors (Martin 1995; Carvalho 2010).<br />
For the purpose of this paper we have only considered the information provided by key<br />
informants (18 women <strong>and</strong> 12 men, nearly all over 60 years old) that have lived most of their<br />
lives in the selected villages, were acquainted with forestry, animal husb<strong>and</strong>ry, agricultural<br />
practices <strong>and</strong> local farming systems <strong>and</strong> culture, <strong>and</strong> that were able to remember or have<br />
participated in different management scenarios of natural <strong>and</strong> traditional l<strong>and</strong>scape (e.g. plows,<br />
clearings, common l<strong>and</strong>s, forestation, road system, irrigation canals <strong>and</strong> mining, for instance).<br />
As a photographic collection <strong>and</strong> an ethnobotanical database were created, it was possible to<br />
compare structural components of traditional l<strong>and</strong>scapes <strong>and</strong> some elements such as l<strong>and</strong> cover,<br />
building <strong>and</strong> infrastructural construction for a time period of almost a decade.<br />
3. Results<br />
A descriptive <strong>and</strong> qualitative analysis of the reported data show that l<strong>and</strong>scape changing in<br />
structure <strong>and</strong> l<strong>and</strong> use has been locally detected in the last two decades in all the studied areas.<br />
Key informants considered that the main signs of l<strong>and</strong>scape structural changing are:<br />
• The emergence of a road system since the 1990s allowing a better physical communication<br />
between some villages <strong>and</strong> nearest towns, as it was very inefficient or nonexistent in many of<br />
cases;<br />
• The village planning since 1975. For instance, sewage system, water distribution network,<br />
paving, small medical centers, rebuilding <strong>and</strong> scattered secondary housing, formal meeting<br />
places;<br />
• Rebuilding <strong>and</strong> preservation of collective facilities (e.g. water mill, forge, press,<br />
communitarian stable) with no current use or considered obsolete;<br />
• Stagnation, ab<strong>and</strong>onment <strong>and</strong> aging, more relevant after 2005. Building increased but houses<br />
are closed. Small medical centers <strong>and</strong> schools, local <strong>and</strong> regional services for farmers were<br />
disabled <strong>and</strong> relative recent infrastructures are closed <strong>and</strong> ab<strong>and</strong>oned. A great majority of the<br />
inhabitants is older than 60 <strong>and</strong> there is serious lack of children <strong>and</strong> young.<br />
Informants have also reported noticeable changes in l<strong>and</strong> use <strong>and</strong> cover such as no cattle grazing,<br />
quite ab<strong>and</strong>oned meadows <strong>and</strong> arable l<strong>and</strong>s, the absence of once usual crops, for instance, flax<br />
<strong>and</strong> hops, the afforestation of individual fields, more diverse homegardens adjacent to houses,<br />
the presence of many cultivated <strong>and</strong> exotic ornamentals, <strong>and</strong> fenced fields <strong>and</strong> plots.<br />
Some of these topics that were also identified <strong>and</strong> perceived as probable causes of l<strong>and</strong>scape<br />
changing are detailed <strong>and</strong> summarized as follows.<br />
3.1 Cultural heritage <strong>and</strong> aesthetical values<br />
For a long time, villages’ subsistence was based mainly on forestry, pastoralism (cattle, sheep<br />
<strong>and</strong> goats) <strong>and</strong> sustainable farming systems with specific gardening techniques. People’s food<br />
<strong>and</strong> medical needs relied on materials found in the natural surroundings, on small-scale animal<br />
breeding, on fishing <strong>and</strong> hunting <strong>and</strong> on self-sufficient <strong>and</strong> subsistence oriented agriculture.<br />
Wild-gathered species were an important supplement <strong>and</strong> alternative to the regular diet <strong>and</strong><br />
often used to prepare homemade remedies for primary healthcare <strong>and</strong> treatment of human <strong>and</strong><br />
animal diseases. Arable crops, scrubl<strong>and</strong> <strong>and</strong> woods provided food <strong>and</strong> supplied other basic<br />
needs, such as fuel, domestic tools, textiles <strong>and</strong> building raw materials. At times, surpluses of<br />
grains, chestnuts, potatoes, livestock, textiles, h<strong>and</strong>icrafts, charcoal <strong>and</strong> wood were traded or<br />
sold, to generate extra income. Mining, smuggling <strong>and</strong> other men activities complemented the<br />
household income.<br />
According to informants’ testimony, those were days of great activity in the villages; women<br />
<strong>and</strong> children were active plant gatherers <strong>and</strong> foragers, while most of the men cultivated field<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
A.M. Carvalho et al. 2010. Connecting l<strong>and</strong>scape conservation <strong>and</strong> management with traditional ecological knowledge<br />
477<br />
crops, worked in the woods or had jobs outside the community in farming, mining, road works<br />
<strong>and</strong> reforestation programs. Over time, this close relationship between people <strong>and</strong> their natural<br />
<strong>and</strong> agricultural environment has led to the development of a rich knowledge base on plants,<br />
plant uses <strong>and</strong> related practices (Carvalho <strong>and</strong> Morales 2010).<br />
Key informants have emphasized that over the recent two to five decades people’s adaptive<br />
management of natural resources has built a multifunctional, productive <strong>and</strong> diverse l<strong>and</strong>scape.<br />
L<strong>and</strong>-use system respected a circular configuration with settlements in the middle; surrounding<br />
the houses, homegardens, arable l<strong>and</strong>s, scrubl<strong>and</strong>, woods <strong>and</strong> crop rotation (rye - more or less<br />
long fallow) following a decreasing gradient of soil fertility but increasingly slope <strong>and</strong> distance<br />
to center; meadows were <strong>and</strong> still are transversal to theses aureoles (Aguiar et al. 2009).<br />
This traditional l<strong>and</strong>scape is considered part of their cultural heritage <strong>and</strong> has embedded<br />
intangible values such as dwelling <strong>and</strong> aesthetical values, local tradition, neighborly <strong>and</strong> intergenerational<br />
relations.<br />
3.2 Disabling traditional agricultural activities<br />
Cereal production, crop rotation <strong>and</strong> animal husb<strong>and</strong>ry are locally considered as linked practices<br />
<strong>and</strong> skills that may not last alone because they are meaningless without each other. As they<br />
explained growing wheat or rye usually provided three sub-products: straw for litter <strong>and</strong> basket<br />
weaving, grain for selling in the market <strong>and</strong> to keep at home, stubbles <strong>and</strong> fallows for feeding<br />
sheep in late summer <strong>and</strong> after the first autumn rains.<br />
People were able to remember the enlargement of the areas assigned to rye, wheat <strong>and</strong> fodder<br />
production during the 1950s, as well as, the satisfactory performances of local varieties well<br />
adapted <strong>and</strong> the consequent increase of cattle <strong>and</strong> sheep, which in turn, also concerned the<br />
management of the scrubl<strong>and</strong>s, meadows <strong>and</strong> pastures, fallows <strong>and</strong> stubbles. Cycles of slash<strong>and</strong>-burn,<br />
cultivation, <strong>and</strong> scrub were still common in the 1970s. Species from the scrubl<strong>and</strong><br />
were used as fertilizer, litter, pasture, firewood, <strong>and</strong> some to make charcoal.<br />
Considering the informants reports, there is a general idea that traditional agricultural farming<br />
systems have been affected by a succession of CAP (Common Agricultural Policy) reforms <strong>and</strong><br />
‘flanking’ measures, beginning in 1992 <strong>and</strong> continuing for twelve years, that cancelled or<br />
reduced some crop subsidies, introduced new varieties <strong>and</strong> imposed strict production conditions.<br />
These measures disappointed many local farmers <strong>and</strong> caused the ab<strong>and</strong>onment of several crops<br />
(such as cereal grain, potatoes, fodder, fibers <strong>and</strong> hop). Breeders experienced some difficulties<br />
to meet municipal ordinances <strong>and</strong> innovative requirements concerning animal welfare <strong>and</strong><br />
veterinary care, which require continued technical assistance. New policies constrained the<br />
ability of small farmers to diversify <strong>and</strong> reduced the mosaic of farming activity. Agriculture was<br />
suddenly viewed as an impossible task without competitive advantages because of rising<br />
production costs versus low profits <strong>and</strong> uncertain wages.<br />
Perceived main indicators of l<strong>and</strong>scaping changing due to non prevailing agricultural practices<br />
are ab<strong>and</strong>oned arable l<strong>and</strong>s <strong>and</strong> meadows that progressively exhibit a different floristic<br />
composition <strong>and</strong> scrubl<strong>and</strong> represented by a tallest stratum with increased risk of wildfires.<br />
As meadows are not cut for hay or grazed the early colonizers will be shaded out when woody<br />
plants become well-established. Several medicinal plants often gathered in these fields are no<br />
more available.<br />
3.3 Perennial rather than seasonal crops<br />
In general, afforestation of farml<strong>and</strong> is regard as a good alternative to seasonal crops <strong>and</strong><br />
ab<strong>and</strong>onment because it allows absenteeism, provides income <strong>and</strong> represents a patrimony for<br />
future generations.<br />
Chestnut, walnut tree, cherry tree <strong>and</strong> red oak are the most mentioned species for afforestation.<br />
Arable l<strong>and</strong>s, dry prairies <strong>and</strong> common l<strong>and</strong>s have been afforested for both timber <strong>and</strong> fruit<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
A.M. Carvalho et al. 2010. Connecting l<strong>and</strong>scape conservation <strong>and</strong> management with traditional ecological knowledge<br />
478<br />
production. In wet meadows, fast-growing hybrid poplars are grown on plantations <strong>and</strong> sold for<br />
pulpwood <strong>and</strong> as inexpensive hardwood timber, used for pallets <strong>and</strong> cheap plywood.<br />
Altough it seems a good alternative, several informants comented that there is a risk of plant<br />
diseases, especially ink-desease in chestnut. Moreover, seasonal labor for fruit recollection <strong>and</strong><br />
species management is considered expensive, scarce <strong>and</strong> difficult to hire.<br />
Afforestation changes the traditional lanscape mosaic, as there are scattered afforested patches,<br />
combined with annual crops, meadows <strong>and</strong> scrubl<strong>and</strong>.<br />
3.4 New food plants <strong>and</strong> new herbaceous <strong>and</strong> woody ornamentals<br />
Floral composition of homegardens <strong>and</strong> new green spaces inside the settlements are also signals<br />
of trasnformation in l<strong>and</strong> use <strong>and</strong> traditional l<strong>and</strong>scape. According to female informants, the<br />
number of cultivated species has increased with the introduction of a wide range of greens <strong>and</strong><br />
ornamental species in the last three decades. These plants or propagation materials have been<br />
brought from remote areas, exchanged between relatives <strong>and</strong> neighbours or bought from<br />
retailers at the local markets. For instance, the gathering <strong>and</strong> consumption of wild edible plants<br />
is in steady decline throughout the area; therefore women have brought some of the most<br />
popular plants used as food additives <strong>and</strong> beverages from the wild to grow in their homegardens,<br />
in order to make them easily available.<br />
Both a decline of agriculture <strong>and</strong> recent demographic trends have generated new approaches to<br />
homegardens. In former times they were less diverse because other agricultural activities such<br />
as forestry, grain production <strong>and</strong> animal husb<strong>and</strong>ry were considered much more important for<br />
the household economy. Food production in homegardens was very limited <strong>and</strong> they were<br />
mainly used to grow fodder <strong>and</strong> flax to make linen.<br />
In order to replicate urban lifestyles, villages’authorities created new areas <strong>and</strong> gardens where<br />
they have introduced exotic herbaceous <strong>and</strong> woody ornamentals which are, whenever possible,<br />
quickly propagated <strong>and</strong> used in homegardens. These ornamentals are also use in rituals <strong>and</strong><br />
cerimonies <strong>and</strong> have taken the place of wild species previously harvested from the forest by<br />
women <strong>and</strong> children.<br />
More diverse homegardens <strong>and</strong> new ornamental gardens are also perceived as new structural<br />
components of l<strong>and</strong>scapes<br />
4. Discussion<br />
Along the interviews, new farming practices, ab<strong>and</strong>onment of farming <strong>and</strong> husb<strong>and</strong>ry activities,<br />
a better mobility <strong>and</strong> a new concept of residential housing were the most mentioned causes for<br />
l<strong>and</strong>scape changing. Key informants perceive that young <strong>and</strong> some middle aged people value<br />
some of these changes, which they consider less hard-working <strong>and</strong> a symbol of modernity<br />
allowing a more like urban lifestyle (e.g. weekends <strong>and</strong> holidays). Others regret actual<br />
l<strong>and</strong>scape transformations which they view as a signal of ab<strong>and</strong>onment, waste of resources,<br />
reprehensibly unproductive. Nevertheless, most of the informants are aware of a dynamic<br />
process that is taking place <strong>and</strong> conscious that l<strong>and</strong>scape, like themselves, must adapt to<br />
changing times.<br />
Beginning as children, some people have learned how to discover <strong>and</strong> underst<strong>and</strong> the signs of<br />
nature <strong>and</strong> to observe changes in the l<strong>and</strong>scape. However, they have also shaped l<strong>and</strong>scape<br />
according to their own beliefs <strong>and</strong> material needs. This adaptive knowledge is often a practical<br />
one, based on empirical observation <strong>and</strong> long experience, <strong>and</strong> transmitted through oral traditions.<br />
Such knowledge is not merely of academic or historical interest but is fundamental to<br />
maintaining cultural continuity <strong>and</strong> identity <strong>and</strong>, possibly, could play a role in achieving<br />
sustainable use of plant resources in the future. It is also useful for providing more realistic<br />
evaluations of environment, natural resources <strong>and</strong> production systems. TEK may improve<br />
success by involving local people in the planning processes. Therefore TEK <strong>and</strong> local<br />
conceptions can be considered important tools for l<strong>and</strong>scape conservation <strong>and</strong> management.<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
A.M. Carvalho et al. 2010. Connecting l<strong>and</strong>scape conservation <strong>and</strong> management with traditional ecological knowledge<br />
479<br />
By interviewing specifically on folk nomenclature <strong>and</strong> identification of useful plants we<br />
observed that the loss of TEK <strong>and</strong> loss of vocabulary begin with people aged less than 50 years.<br />
The lost of traditional knowledge <strong>and</strong> local categorization <strong>and</strong> naming are not completely<br />
coupled: a few interviewees of the middle generation seem to be often able to remember the<br />
names of plants, but not to identify them or to explain their traditional use or to find the sites<br />
were these plants were usually gathered.<br />
It became clear that in the past thirty years, homegardens have become areas of in situ <strong>and</strong> ex<br />
situ conservation for both nostalgic <strong>and</strong> pragmatic reasons. Some crops <strong>and</strong> l<strong>and</strong>races are no<br />
longer cultivated in arable fields <strong>and</strong> wild species are threatened by new access roads, wild fires,<br />
<strong>and</strong> reforestation activities.<br />
Although some of the components may stay unchanged, much of aesthetic, historical or<br />
cultural value of rural l<strong>and</strong>scapes remains to be inventoried <strong>and</strong> recorded which is<br />
urgent before it disappears.<br />
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Urban Planning, 70: 21–34.<br />
Calvo-Iglesias, M. S., Fra-Paleo, U. <strong>and</strong> Diaz-Varela, R. A., 2009. Changins in farming system<br />
<strong>and</strong> population as drivers of l<strong>and</strong> cover <strong>and</strong> l<strong>and</strong>scape dynamics: the case of enclosed <strong>and</strong><br />
semi-openfield systems in Northern Galicia (Spain). L<strong>and</strong>scape <strong>and</strong> Urban Planning, 90:<br />
168-177.<br />
Carvalho, A. M. <strong>and</strong> Morales, R., 2010. Persistence of Wild Food <strong>and</strong> Wild Medicinal Plant<br />
Knowledge in a North-Eastern Region of Portugal. In: M. Pardo de Santayana, A.<br />
Pieroni, <strong>and</strong> R. Puri (Eds.). Ethnobotany in the New Europe: People, Health <strong>and</strong> Wild<br />
Plant Resources. Oxford, UK: Berghahn Books.<br />
Carvalho, A. M., 2010. Plantas y sabiduría popular del Parque Natural de Montesinho. Un<br />
estudio etnobotánico en Portugal. Biblioteca de Ciencias, Consejo <strong>Superior</strong> de<br />
Investigaciones Científicas, Madrid, 450 p.<br />
Council of Europe, 2000. European L<strong>and</strong>scape Convention. ETS No. 176, Publishing Division,<br />
Strasbourg.<br />
Cunningham, A. B., 2001. Applied ethnobotany. People, wild plant use <strong>and</strong> conservation.<br />
Earthscan Publications, London, 300 p.<br />
Frazão-Moreira, A., Carvalho, A. M. <strong>and</strong> Martins, M. E., 2009. Local ecological knowledge<br />
also ‘comes from books’: cultural change, l<strong>and</strong>scape transformation <strong>and</strong> conservation of<br />
biodiversity in two protected areas in Portugal. Anthropological Notebooks 15 (1): 27–36.<br />
Martin, G., 1995. Ethnobotany: a methods manual. Earthscan Publications, London, 268 p.<br />
Plieninger, T., Hochtl, F. <strong>and</strong> Spek, T., 2006. Traditional l<strong>and</strong>-use <strong>and</strong> nature conservation in<br />
European rural l<strong>and</strong>scapes. Environmental science & pol icy, 9: 317-321.<br />
Ramos, M. T., 2008. Património vegetal e etnobotãnico no Planalto Mir<strong>and</strong>ês. Master degree<br />
Thesis in Gestão e Conservação da Natureza, Universidade dos Açores & Instituto<br />
Politécnico de Bragança, Portugal, 80p.<br />
Vos, M. <strong>and</strong> Meekes H., 1999. Trends in European cultural l<strong>and</strong>scape development:<br />
perspectives for a sustainable future. L<strong>and</strong>scape <strong>and</strong> Urban Planning, 46: 3-14.<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
M. Deconchat et al. 2010. Identification <strong>and</strong> characterization of forest edge segments for mapping edge diversity<br />
480<br />
Identification <strong>and</strong> characterization of forest edge segments for<br />
mapping edge diversity in rural l<strong>and</strong>scapes.<br />
Marc Deconchat, Audrey Alignier, Philippe Espy & Sylvie Ladet<br />
UMR1201, Dynafor, INRA, INPT, F-31326 Castanet tolosan, France<br />
Abstract<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> edges are key components of rural l<strong>and</strong>scapes <strong>and</strong> they influence major ecological<br />
processes. There is a variability of forest edges, according to their physiognomy, orientation,<br />
history <strong>and</strong> topography, but few methods are available to identify automatically these different<br />
types of edges <strong>and</strong> to map them at a large scale. We propose to identify edge segments based on<br />
morphological subdivision of forest boundaries. These segments can be mapped <strong>and</strong><br />
characterized by other spatial data. A procedure based on Arcgis tools, applied on the output<br />
from GUIDOS tools, is used to identify edge segments. We provide examples of edge segments<br />
descriptors obtained from a digital elevation model <strong>and</strong> from a l<strong>and</strong>cover map. Results showed<br />
the feasibility of the automatic mapping of edge variability over a large scale. It opens new<br />
perspectives for the analysis of l<strong>and</strong>scape dynamics <strong>and</strong> their effects on biodiversity.<br />
Keywords: <strong>Forest</strong> edge, GIS, edge segment, morphology<br />
1. Introduction<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> edges are key components of rural l<strong>and</strong>scapes by their influence on major ecological<br />
processes important for biodiversity conservation (Murcia, 1995). A better underst<strong>and</strong>ing <strong>and</strong><br />
measurement of the extent <strong>and</strong> of the variability of edge effects in rural l<strong>and</strong>scapes is required<br />
by l<strong>and</strong> managers to base their decisions on accurate estimations.<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> edge influence on both microenvironmental conditions <strong>and</strong> vegetation depends on edge<br />
type (Alignier & Deconchat, 2010). There is a variability of forest edges, according to their<br />
physiognomy, orientation, history <strong>and</strong> topography, but few methods are available to identify<br />
automatically these different types of edges <strong>and</strong> to map them at a large scale. Essen et al (2006)<br />
proposed a method based on aerial photography interpretation with a systematic sampling of<br />
edges by a square grid. This method suffers from the difficulty to be applied on very large areas,<br />
the bias associated to the size of the sampling grid <strong>and</strong> the impossibility to produce a synthetic<br />
map of edge diversity. GUIDOS is a GIS tool developed for the European Union in order to<br />
measure <strong>and</strong> map habitat fragmentation (Vogt et al., 2007). In this method, edges are defined as<br />
the contour of large tracks of forest, they can be mapped but there is no evaluation of their<br />
diversity. Fragstat (McGarigal et al., 2002) is a set of GIS tools aiming at measuring<br />
fragmentation by patch metrics. It includes several outputs describing edge characteristics, but<br />
with few possibilities to take into account their diversity. Zeng & Wu (2005) introduced the<br />
concept of edge segment as the basic component for computing edge-based metrics to describe<br />
l<strong>and</strong>scape fragmentation. This approach open up new perspective <strong>and</strong> define the basis for a<br />
systematic <strong>and</strong> coherent method to map edge diversity in rural l<strong>and</strong>scape.<br />
The aim of the presentation is to introduce the details of a GIS method to identify <strong>and</strong><br />
characterize edge segments in l<strong>and</strong>scape, defined from morphological subdivision of forest<br />
boundaries, in the same general framework proposed by GUIDOS. This method, called<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
M. Deconchat et al. 2010. Identification <strong>and</strong> characterization of forest edge segments for mapping edge diversity<br />
481<br />
Mapedge, is a step toward l<strong>and</strong>scape metrics that put more emphasis on interactions between<br />
l<strong>and</strong> covers than classical area-based metrics (McGarigal et al., 2009).<br />
2. Methodology<br />
The central idea of the method is to subdivide the contours of the forest patches in a set of<br />
segments that can be characterized by them or by GIS queries on other data maps (i. e. digital<br />
elevation model <strong>and</strong> l<strong>and</strong> cover map).<br />
Segmentation of edges<br />
There are several ways to cut forest contours in a set of edge segments. We chose to base our<br />
segmentation on forest edge morphology. We followed on this point the position adopted by<br />
GUIDOS authors who define different parts of forest cover according to morphological<br />
parameters (area, shape index, etc.) (Vogt et al., 2007). With this option, our method is forestcentered<br />
<strong>and</strong> edge segments are defined only by forest characteristics <strong>and</strong> not by elements<br />
outside the forest. Each step needs to select one or several parameters that may change the final<br />
result.<br />
In a first step (Figure 1), the input of Mapedge is a forest/non-forest cover map, obtained in our<br />
case from a remote sensed image (SPOT) classified with supervised control. In a second step<br />
(Figure 1), this map is processed through a GUIDOS tool, MPSA (for “Morphological Spatial<br />
Pattern Analysis”) in order to identify true forest patches <strong>and</strong> to discard the other smaller<br />
forested l<strong>and</strong>scape elements (i. e. hedgerows, branches) for which edge segmentation is not<br />
relevant. By convenience, we selected a depth of edge of 20 m (2 pixels) (Table 1). The output<br />
of MSPA was a classified forest map from which forest edges <strong>and</strong> cores were extracted.<br />
After that, the method is based on Arcgis 9.3 tools <strong>and</strong> several additional extensions<br />
(ETGeowizards 9.7; Hawth’s analysis tools 3.27; EasyCalculate 5.0) or free download scripts<br />
(Vba <strong>and</strong> Python languages). In a near future, all the processing operations will be encapsulated<br />
in a single application turned under Model Builder.<br />
The contours of the forest patches are then vectorized <strong>and</strong> generalized in order to obtain a<br />
smooth shape of the patches (Figure 1). The parameter of this step is T (Tolerance for<br />
generalization) (Table 1). The forest patch polygons are converted to polylines. Polylines are<br />
then split in segments <strong>and</strong> each segment is numbered <strong>and</strong> oriented, allowing to know on which<br />
side the forest is. Orientation, length, etc. of the segments can be extracted easily from the map<br />
<strong>and</strong> tabulated in order to provide edge-based metrics of the l<strong>and</strong>scape structure. An attribute<br />
table is attached to the map of edge segments <strong>and</strong> contains a set of variables describing each<br />
segment. This table can be filled by data obtained from map queries <strong>and</strong> introduced in statistical<br />
analysis of l<strong>and</strong>scape structure.<br />
Map queries<br />
We decided that the query of other maps will be based on transects perpendicular to the medium<br />
point of the edge segments towards the open habitat. We chose a fixed length of transect based<br />
on depth of edge (2*DE)(Table 1).<br />
As topography is known to be of prime importance for ecological edge effects, we combined the<br />
map of edge segments with a Digital Elevation Model (DEM). According to the difference of<br />
elevation along the transect <strong>and</strong> along the edge segment, we measured the position of the edge<br />
relatively to the main slope. We were then able to identify 3 classes: 1) edge where the open<br />
habitat is at a higher elevation than the edge (downslope), 2) edge where the open habitat is at a<br />
lower elevation than the edge (upslope) <strong>and</strong> 3) the other cases where the slope of the edge<br />
segment is higher than the slope of the transect (inslope).<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
M. Deconchat et al. 2010. Identification <strong>and</strong> characterization of forest edge segments for mapping edge diversity<br />
482<br />
Adjacent l<strong>and</strong> cover was measured with a spatial query between the summit of the transect <strong>and</strong> a<br />
l<strong>and</strong> cover map obtained in our case from the same remote sensed image treatment as the input<br />
forest map.<br />
Legend<br />
In order to be able to map the diversity of edge segment, for visual interpretations <strong>and</strong><br />
communication, we defined a system of symbols for edge segments based on the transects. They<br />
appeared on the map as pin-like symbols, with a color <strong>and</strong> a shape of the pin-head defined<br />
according to the characteristics of the edge segment (Figure 1).<br />
3. Results<br />
Figure 2 is an example of a result map with a focus on small area in order to show clearly the<br />
symbols that were used to display the different types of edge segments. Visual interpretation of<br />
the map, which would be statistically confirmed by an analysis of the attribute table, indicates<br />
that, in this very small area, meadow seemed to be the more frequent as an adjacent l<strong>and</strong> cover<br />
for woods 3 <strong>and</strong> 4 than for the others, more in contact with crops. Wooded elements of the<br />
l<strong>and</strong>scape (loop, branch, forest defined according to GUIDOS) were in the near vicinity of all<br />
the woods.<br />
4. Discussion<br />
Interfaces <strong>and</strong> interactions between forests <strong>and</strong> the other l<strong>and</strong> covers in l<strong>and</strong>scape are becoming<br />
focus questions for l<strong>and</strong> management in the perspective of global changes. Our method,<br />
Mapedge, contributes to provide managers with a new set of tools to take these interactions into<br />
account in their decisions. For example, metrics based on edges can provide measures of<br />
l<strong>and</strong>scape fragmentation to be compared with area based metrics (McGarigal et al., 2009). Some<br />
edge types may be more sensitive to l<strong>and</strong>scape changes than other (Taylor et al., 2008). The<br />
feasibility of edge diversity mapping has been demonstrated with our first results.<br />
Mapedge is an efficient method to identify <strong>and</strong> characterize edge segments in l<strong>and</strong>scape.<br />
Despite the need to combine several tools to process the data, the Mapedge methodology is<br />
rather simple <strong>and</strong> easy to apply. The number of parameters has been reduced as much as<br />
possible <strong>and</strong> rules have been defined to select their values. We are now testing several sets of<br />
parameters in order to assess how they influence the final output of the method (sensibility<br />
analysis). In a near future, we will set up a unique tool that will apply all the treatments which<br />
are separated for the moment. From a l<strong>and</strong>scape ecology point of view, our method will provide<br />
new l<strong>and</strong>scape descriptors that will give a higher role to interfaces in l<strong>and</strong>scape analysis.<br />
References<br />
Alignier, A., Deconchat, M., 2010. Variability of forest edge effect on vegetation implies to<br />
reconsider its assumed hypothetical pattern. Applied Vegetation Science (submitted).<br />
Esseen, P.A., Jansson, K.U. <strong>and</strong> Nilsson, M., 2006. <strong>Forest</strong> edge quantification by line intersect<br />
sampling in aerial photographs. <strong>Forest</strong> Ecology <strong>and</strong> Management, 230:32-42.<br />
McGarigal, K., S. A. Cushman, M. C. Neel, <strong>and</strong> E. Ene. 2002. FRAGSTATS: Spatial Pattern<br />
Analysis Program for Categorical Maps. Computer software program produced by the<br />
authors at the University of Massachusetts, Amherst. Available at the following web site:<br />
www.umass.edu/l<strong>and</strong>eco/research/fragstats/fragstats.html<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
M. Deconchat et al. 2010. Identification <strong>and</strong> characterization of forest edge segments for mapping edge diversity<br />
483<br />
McGarigal, K., Tagil, S. <strong>and</strong> Cushman, S., 2009. Surface metrics: an alternative to patch metrics<br />
for the quantification of l<strong>and</strong>scape structure. L<strong>and</strong>sc. Ecol., 24:433-450.<br />
Murcia, C., 1995. Edge effects in fragmented forests - implications for conservation. Trends in<br />
Ecology & Evolution, 10:58-62.<br />
Taylor, R.S., Oldl<strong>and</strong>, J.M. <strong>and</strong> Clarke, M.F., 2008. Edge geometry influences patch-level<br />
habitat use by an edge specialist in south-eastern Australia. L<strong>and</strong>sc. Ecol., 23:377-389.<br />
Vogt, P., Riitters, K.H., Estreguil, C., Kozak, J. <strong>and</strong> Wade, T.G., 2007. Mapping spatial patterns<br />
with morphological image processing. L<strong>and</strong>sc. Ecol., 22:171-177.<br />
Zeng, H. <strong>and</strong> Wu, X.B., 2005. Utilities of edge-based metrics for studying l<strong>and</strong>scape<br />
fragmentation. Computers, Environment <strong>and</strong> Urban Systems, 29:159-178.<br />
Table 1: Description of the paramaters used in the different step of the process of Mapedge.<br />
Step Process Parameter Value<br />
1 Classification Resolution of SPOT 5 10 m<br />
Foreground Connectivity, for a set of 3 x 3 pixels the<br />
center pixel is connected to its adjacent neighboor pixels<br />
by having either.<br />
Connectivity<br />
= 8 pixels<br />
2<br />
Treatment under<br />
Guidos :<br />
Morphological Spatial<br />
Pattern Analysis<br />
3 Generalization<br />
5<br />
Creation of transect 90°<br />
Calculation<br />
L<strong>and</strong><br />
cover<br />
Edge Depth.<br />
Transition pixels are those pixels of an edge or a<br />
perforation where the core area intersects with a loop or<br />
a bridge. If Transition is set to 0 then the perforation <strong>and</strong><br />
the edges will be closed core boundaries.<br />
Intext allows distinguishing internal from external<br />
features, where internal features are defined as being<br />
enclosed by a Perforation. The default is to enable this<br />
distinction which will add a second layer of classes to the<br />
seven basic classes.<br />
Generalize tolerance reduces the number of vertices<br />
required to represent a polygon, the features of a polygon<br />
layer using the Douglas-Poiker algorithm.<br />
Script python what create perpendicular lines, takes a<br />
line shapefile <strong>and</strong> generates perpendicular lines to each<br />
record with length expected.<br />
Intersects the end-point of transect to l<strong>and</strong> cover at a<br />
point distance expected.<br />
Get Z characteristics with Digital Elevation Model<br />
Compare the edge to the transect segment with same<br />
Slope of length<br />
the edge Result :<br />
- Inslope with tolerance<br />
- Downslope<br />
- Upslope<br />
Cardinal<br />
Calculates the angle of a polyline in degrees<br />
orientation<br />
Size = 2<br />
pixels<br />
Transition =<br />
0<br />
Intext = 0<br />
20 meters<br />
40 meters<br />
40 meters<br />
25 meters<br />
resolution<br />
40 meter<br />
Tolerance 1<br />
meter<br />
360 degrees<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
M. Deconchat et al. 2010. Identification <strong>and</strong> characterization of forest edge segments for mapping edge diversity<br />
484<br />
Figure 1 : GIS method in Arcgis using default functionalities of ArcToolbox <strong>and</strong> additional tools<br />
(extensions <strong>and</strong> scripts). In part A, we give the most important steps of the Mapedge method on small<br />
image composed with 2 woodlots. In step 1, input data come from supervised classification of satellite<br />
images (SPOT 5). In step 2, we used GUIDOS tool to make MPSA (Morphological Spatial Pattern<br />
Analysis). In step 3, we combine the 2 raster layers <strong>and</strong> convert to vector data <strong>and</strong> generalize to simplify<br />
features. In step4, we check direction of vertices <strong>and</strong> label them. In step 5, we create transect features<br />
from rotation of vertices <strong>and</strong> use them to calculate edge descriptors (about interface with adjacent l<strong>and</strong><br />
cover; about topography with Digital Elevation Model <strong>and</strong> orientation). We will apply the same method<br />
at l<strong>and</strong>scape level (several hundred polygons of woodlots) <strong>and</strong> transfer output results to statistical<br />
analyses. In Part B, we give legend of symbols.<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
M. Deconchat et al. 2010. Identification <strong>and</strong> characterization of forest edge segments for mapping edge diversity<br />
485<br />
Figure 2: Overview map of all descriptors calculated for test image made with 4 woodlots. We obtain 34<br />
edge segments. We symbolize cardinal orientation on edge segment, slope of edge on<br />
perpendicular transect <strong>and</strong> l<strong>and</strong> cover on pin-head of the transect.<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
J. Gaspar et al. 2010. Visibility analysis <strong>and</strong> visual diversity assessment in rural l<strong>and</strong>scapes<br />
486<br />
Visibility analysis <strong>and</strong> visual diversity assessment in rural l<strong>and</strong>scapes<br />
José Gaspar 1* , Beatriz Fidalgo 1 , David Miller 2 , Luis Pinto 3 & Raúl Salas 1<br />
1<br />
Instituto Politécnico de Coimbra, <strong>Escola</strong> <strong>Superior</strong> Agrária, Coimbra, Portugal<br />
2<br />
Macaulay L<strong>and</strong> Use Research Institute, Aberdeen, Scotl<strong>and</strong>, United Kingdom<br />
3<br />
Independent Consultant, Aveiro, Portugal<br />
Abstract<br />
Analysing the visibility of l<strong>and</strong>scape features is usually based on methods which calculate the<br />
number of locations from which such features are visible. However, visibility analysis using<br />
Geographic Information Systems (GIS) suffers from several limitations which can significantly<br />
influence the results. In this study the authors have tested the differences in visibility through<br />
time, <strong>and</strong> used a Digital Elevation Model which includes the heights of l<strong>and</strong> cover features.<br />
The results provided information about the visibility of each l<strong>and</strong> cover type, at each of three<br />
dates: 1954, 1974 <strong>and</strong> 1995. The derived maps of visibility were used as inputs to analysis of<br />
the visual content of the l<strong>and</strong>scape, which were then used to evaluate the visual diversity at each<br />
date, <strong>and</strong> to provide an input to the derivation of information on l<strong>and</strong>scape visual quality. The<br />
results show significant differences in both visual content <strong>and</strong> diversity through time, <strong>and</strong><br />
illustrate a difference between the potential perceptions of change, <strong>and</strong> the real extent of change<br />
in an area.<br />
Keywords: visibility analysis, l<strong>and</strong>scape visual diversity, l<strong>and</strong>scape content<br />
1. Introduction<br />
The planning <strong>and</strong> management of l<strong>and</strong> use requires an underst<strong>and</strong>ing of the benefits <strong>and</strong> impacts<br />
of change with respect to environmental, economic <strong>and</strong> social objectives. One aspect of<br />
management which links across these three broad headings is in relation to the visual l<strong>and</strong>scape,<br />
<strong>and</strong> the contributions made by the extent <strong>and</strong> distribution of different types of l<strong>and</strong> cover, <strong>and</strong><br />
associated uses. An analysis of diversity in the visual l<strong>and</strong>scape, <strong>and</strong> how it changes through<br />
time (Antrop, 2005), is an aid to underst<strong>and</strong>ing the wider significance of the impacts of drivers<br />
of ch’ange (Bell, 2001) (e.g. climate change; demographic change) <strong>and</strong> the consequent changes<br />
in l<strong>and</strong> cover (e.g. forest fire; urbanisation) than only the areas they occupy.<br />
An analysis of the visibility of l<strong>and</strong> cover types, <strong>and</strong> associated uses was undertaken, based on<br />
the methodology applied by Miller (2001), Gaspar et al. (2002) <strong>and</strong> Ode (2003). The outputs<br />
provided a basis for deriving indicators of visual diversity in the l<strong>and</strong>scape, <strong>and</strong> the visual<br />
complexity <strong>and</strong> content in the view.<br />
* Corresponding author. Tel.:+351 239802940 - Fax:+351 239802979<br />
Email address: jgaspar@esac.pt<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
J. Gaspar et al. 2010. Visibility analysis <strong>and</strong> visual diversity assessment in rural l<strong>and</strong>scapes<br />
487<br />
2. Methodology<br />
The methodology uses data on elevation, l<strong>and</strong> use <strong>and</strong> the height of features, focusing on forest<br />
areas, to derive <strong>and</strong> analyse the visibility of each l<strong>and</strong> use. The method is based on the<br />
measurment of the extent of l<strong>and</strong> from which different l<strong>and</strong> cover types may be visibile (Bolós,<br />
1992), on a cell-by-cell basis. The visibility calculations use a Digital Terrain Model (DTM), to<br />
which the height of the different forest species derived from growth models or inventory data<br />
were added, in order to obtain visibility results for each l<strong>and</strong> cover class across the municipality.<br />
Data were compiled for three dates: 1954, 1974 <strong>and</strong> 1995. The 1954 <strong>and</strong> 1974 data were<br />
digitised from paper maps of the l<strong>and</strong> use as mapped by the agriculture surveying services. The<br />
1995 data were produced by aerial photo-interpretation of false color imagery.<br />
The calculation of visibility is applied to the coverage of each type of l<strong>and</strong> cover, for each date,<br />
thus enabling an analysis of the combinations of visual influences of different types of l<strong>and</strong><br />
cover at any point in the l<strong>and</strong>scape (Miller, 2001; Gaspar <strong>and</strong> Fidalgo, 2002). Due to the extent<br />
of the study site, this study does not consider the effects of distance decay (Bolós, 1992) on the<br />
visibility of features (Gaspar et al., 2004).<br />
The individual visibility maps are combined to derive the l<strong>and</strong> cover types visible from each<br />
point in the municipality, as represented by a regular grid across the area. Three different levels<br />
of l<strong>and</strong>scape content were used to characterise the diversity of the views.<br />
3. Results<br />
To enable comparisons between l<strong>and</strong> use maps from different sources <strong>and</strong> with different<br />
classification schemes, a general classification scheme was developed with 9 classes (Gaspar,<br />
2005).<br />
Table 1. Extent of l<strong>and</strong> cover classes for 1954, 1974 <strong>and</strong> 1995.<br />
L<strong>and</strong> cover class<br />
1954 1974 1995<br />
Dry cropl<strong>and</strong> 13,7% 10,1% 8,5%<br />
Irrigated crops 7,5% 7,9% 2,7%<br />
Maritime pine 49,5% 64,4% 22,9%<br />
Eucalyptus 0,0% 1,7% 11,4%<br />
Broadleaved species 1,6% 1,4% 3,9%<br />
Other needle leaved species 0,1% 0,1% 0,2%<br />
Water 0,4% 0,4% 1,3%<br />
Other l<strong>and</strong> uses 26,7% 13,1% 47,5%<br />
Social areas 0,5% 0,9% 1,8%<br />
Total 100% 100% 100%<br />
The 1954 to 1974 period was marked by the progressive ab<strong>and</strong>onment of agriculture areas <strong>and</strong><br />
large plantations of Maritime pine (Pinus pinaster) (Table 1). Although tourism is now<br />
considered as one path towards a prosperous future, one of the main sources of income for the<br />
population is forest production, mainly associated to the paper industry, with the lower valleys<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
J. Gaspar et al. 2010. Visibility analysis <strong>and</strong> visual diversity assessment in rural l<strong>and</strong>scapes<br />
488<br />
being occupied by Eucalyptus (Eucalyptus globulus) (Table 1). However, forest fires are a<br />
major driver of change of the l<strong>and</strong>scape.<br />
The results of the visibility analysis for each of the l<strong>and</strong> cover classes were combined to derive<br />
the values of visual diversity (Figure 1).<br />
Figure 1 L<strong>and</strong>scape visual diversity: number of l<strong>and</strong> cover types visible for 1954, 1974 <strong>and</strong><br />
1995.<br />
The changes in visual diversity through time shows a comparatively small change between 1954<br />
<strong>and</strong> 1974, but more significant changes by 1995, with an increase of the higher diversity values<br />
(7, 8 <strong>and</strong> 9), <strong>and</strong> a decrease of the lower diversity values. These changes will be influenced by<br />
the reduction in the overall number of patches of l<strong>and</strong> cover classes between 1954 <strong>and</strong> 1974, but<br />
an increase in the area <strong>and</strong> patches of Maritime pine <strong>and</strong> Other l<strong>and</strong> uses. The combination of<br />
these changes has led to an increase in the mean patch size, <strong>and</strong> the increase in the distance<br />
between patches of the same l<strong>and</strong> cover classes having a significant influence on the distribution<br />
of the visual diversity.<br />
The period between 1974 <strong>and</strong> 1995 shows a significant increase in higher visual diversity values,<br />
which can be explained by the increase of fragmentation, but also the new patches of Eucalyptus<br />
<strong>and</strong> Broadleaved species in highly visibile areas. The effect of forest fires also had a srong<br />
effect in terms of patch fragmentation, <strong>and</strong> provided conditions to increase the visibility of<br />
ab<strong>and</strong>oned agriculture areas.<br />
Table 2 L<strong>and</strong>scape content.<br />
L<strong>and</strong> cover class visibility<br />
1954 1974 1995<br />
30% 50% 70% 30% 50% 70% 30% 50% 70%<br />
Dry cropl<strong>and</strong> 1.0 1.2 0.6 0.3 0.6 0.5<br />
Irrigated crops<br />
Maritime pine 59.4 68.9 38.2 81.3 86.7 55.4 21.3 14.5 4.6<br />
Eucalyptus 0.6 0.8 9.2 6.9 1.5<br />
Broadleaved species 0.5 0.5<br />
Other conifers<br />
Water<br />
Other l<strong>and</strong> uses 14.2 17.8 10.7 4.2 7.0 3.3 41.1 40.7 26.8<br />
Social areas<br />
Maritime pine + Dry cropl<strong>and</strong> 1.9 1.4 0.3<br />
Maritime pine + Irrigated crops 0.5<br />
Maritime pine + Eucalyptus 1.1 4.6<br />
Other l<strong>and</strong> uses + Maritime pine 21.3 10.6 13.3<br />
Other l<strong>and</strong> uses + Eucalyptus 4.6<br />
Other l<strong>and</strong> uses + Broadleaved species 0.4<br />
Other l<strong>and</strong> uses + Water 0.3<br />
Total 98.3 87.9 49.6 99.3 94.8 58.8 96.2 63.1 32.9<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
J. Gaspar et al. 2010. Visibility analysis <strong>and</strong> visual diversity assessment in rural l<strong>and</strong>scapes<br />
489<br />
The analysis of the changes in l<strong>and</strong>scape content for each cell through time was derived using<br />
the individual visibility maps (Table 2, <strong>and</strong> Figures 2, 3 <strong>and</strong> 4). Three levels of viewshed<br />
content were considered. The lower value considered was 30% of the cell visibility content, the<br />
intermediate value 50% <strong>and</strong> the highest 70%.<br />
The analysis of the results shows a significant dominance in the l<strong>and</strong>scape of the Maritime pine<br />
(1954 <strong>and</strong> 1974) (Table 2). For example, in 1974, this cover type was present in 55.4% of the<br />
area with a 70% level of l<strong>and</strong>scape content (Table 2). There is also an increase in the area where<br />
only one l<strong>and</strong> cover type dominates the l<strong>and</strong>scape view content.<br />
The l<strong>and</strong> cover change between 1974 <strong>and</strong> 1995 (Table 2) provided conditions for significant<br />
variations in terms of l<strong>and</strong>scape visual content. The l<strong>and</strong>scape is dominated by the Other l<strong>and</strong><br />
uses class in all levels of l<strong>and</strong>scape content (Figures 2, 3 <strong>and</strong> 4).<br />
The Maritime pine areas are the second largest class in terms of levels of visibility, which can<br />
be due to the presence in highly visible areas, <strong>and</strong> the significant increase in Eucalyptus in terms<br />
of both area <strong>and</strong> visibility.<br />
Figure 2 L<strong>and</strong>scape content 30% in 1995.<br />
The number of classes visible at the 30% level shows an increase in number <strong>and</strong> type when<br />
compared to the data for 1954 <strong>and</strong> 1974, which could be due to the increase of number of<br />
patches in each class, <strong>and</strong> related to the spatial distribution of these patches across the l<strong>and</strong>scape.<br />
Figure 3 L<strong>and</strong>scape content 50% in 1995.<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
J. Gaspar et al. 2010. Visibility analysis <strong>and</strong> visual diversity assessment in rural l<strong>and</strong>scapes<br />
490<br />
Figure 4 L<strong>and</strong>scape content 70% in 1995.<br />
4. Discussion<br />
This paper presents an approach to analysing visual diversity <strong>and</strong> content of l<strong>and</strong> cover <strong>and</strong><br />
change, using GIS tools. The l<strong>and</strong>scape diversity <strong>and</strong> content maps provide information for use<br />
in forest management <strong>and</strong> planning. The final analysis <strong>and</strong> evaluation of the results is ongoing,<br />
based on expert experience <strong>and</strong> opinion. This will include an assessment of their value in terms<br />
of parameters for use in planning tourist routes.<br />
References<br />
Antrop, M., 2005. Why l<strong>and</strong>scapes of the past are important for the future. L<strong>and</strong>scape <strong>and</strong><br />
Urban Planning, 70 (3-4), 21-34.<br />
Bell, S., 2001. L<strong>and</strong>scape pattern, perception <strong>and</strong> visualisation in the visual management of<br />
forests. L<strong>and</strong>scape <strong>and</strong> Urban Planning, 54(1-4), 201-211.<br />
Bólos, M., 1992. Manual de ciencia del paisage - teoría, métodos y aplicaciones. Masson,<br />
Barcelona, 273 p.<br />
Fidalgo, B., 2005. Planeamento com análise multicritério em Paisagens Florestais. PhD<br />
Thesis in <strong>Forest</strong> Engineering, Universidade Técnica de Lisboa, Instituto <strong>Superior</strong> de<br />
Agronomia, Lisbon.<br />
Fidalgo, B., Gaspar, J., 2001. Utilização da fotointerpretação e indicadores cartográficos<br />
na caracterização do mosaico florestal à escala do município. IV Congresso Florestal<br />
Nacional (Évora 28-30 November 2001).<br />
Gaspar, J., 2005. A gestão da floresta e o planeamento do uso do solo, PhD Thesis in Applied<br />
Environmental Science, Universidade de Aveiro, Aveiro, 273 p.<br />
Gaspar, J., Fidalgo, B., Pinto, L., 2004. Visibilidade do uso do a diferentes distâncias – O<br />
contributo do projecto VisuL<strong>and</strong>s. ESIG 2004 (Lisbon 2-4 June 2004), 6 p.<br />
Gaspar, J, Fidalgo, B., 2002. Evolução do Uso do Solo e Avaliação do Valor Paisagístico e de<br />
Recreio na Área de Paisagem Protegida da Serra do Açor. Silva Lusitana, Vol. 10 (2),<br />
179-194.<br />
Gaspar, J., Miller, D., Fidalgo, B., 2001. Modelling the visual l<strong>and</strong>scape of protected areas. 2º<br />
Congresso Nacional da Conservação da Natureza (Lisbon October 2001).<br />
Miller, D., 2001. A method for estimating changes in the visibility of l<strong>and</strong> cover. L<strong>and</strong>scape<br />
<strong>and</strong> Urban Planning, Vol. 54, 91-104.<br />
Ode, Ǻ., 2003. Visual aspects in urban woodl<strong>and</strong> management <strong>and</strong> planning. Doctoral Thesis,<br />
Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Alnarp, Sweden, 110 p.<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
A.M. Geraldes 2010. L<strong>and</strong>scape runoff, precipitation variation <strong>and</strong> reservoir limnology<br />
491<br />
L<strong>and</strong>scape runoff, precipitation variation <strong>and</strong> reservoir limnology<br />
A.M. Geraldes *<br />
CIMO, <strong>Escola</strong> <strong>Superior</strong> Agrária do Instituto Politécnico de Bragança Campus de<br />
Santa Apolónia, Bragança, Portugal<br />
Abstract<br />
L<strong>and</strong>scape runoff potential impact on reservoir limnology was indirectly evaluated by assessing<br />
the effect of precipitation variation on several water quality parameters, on Anabaena<br />
(Cyanophyta) <strong>and</strong> crustacean zooplankton abundances. The obtained results showed that total<br />
phosphorus increased with strong precipitation events whereas water transparency presented an<br />
opposite trend. Wet periods followed by long dry periods favored Anabaena dominance, which<br />
induced an accentuated decreasing on all crustacean zooplankton species abundance. Therefore,<br />
in a climate changing scenario these data are crucial to monitor <strong>and</strong> predict the effect of<br />
l<strong>and</strong>scape changes on aquatic ecosystem integrity <strong>and</strong> ultimately in water quality.<br />
Keywords:L<strong>and</strong>scape runoff impact,Precipitation,Reservoir limnology ,Water quality<br />
1. Introduction<br />
In Mediterranean region, both intensity <strong>and</strong> quantity of precipitation can vary markedly from<br />
one year to another. Such variability can generate different kinds of seasonal patterns,<br />
modifying water turnover time <strong>and</strong> changing the intensity of environmental <strong>and</strong> biological<br />
processes occurring in the water column of aquatic systems. Furthermore, the external loading<br />
of nutrients, organic matter <strong>and</strong> pollutants often increases with intensive precipitation events.<br />
The intensity <strong>and</strong> the magnitude of these loadings depend on l<strong>and</strong> use, vegetation cover <strong>and</strong><br />
l<strong>and</strong>scape patchiness. Azibo Reservoir is located in the Iberian Peninsula on the Portuguese part<br />
of international River Douro catchment. In this region, most precipitation occurs between<br />
October <strong>and</strong> March in a very irregular pattern from one year to another (Fig. 1). Total annual<br />
precipitation varies between is around 760 mm, <strong>and</strong> in a “normal” autumn/winter season total<br />
precipitation is around 500 mm (Instituto de Meteorologia, 2009). In contrast to what happens<br />
in other reservoirs in the region, water level fluctuations caused by human activity are not very<br />
accentuated in Azibo. Thus, this reservoir provides a good environment to study the potential<br />
effects of quantity <strong>and</strong> intensity of precipitation without the interference of internal disturbances<br />
generated by extreme anthropogenic water level fluctuations. The objective of the present<br />
research is to evaluate the potential impact of l<strong>and</strong>scape runoff on reservoir limnology.<br />
This was achieved indirectly through the assessment of the effects of precipitation<br />
variation on (1) environmental variables such as total phosphorous (TP), dissolved oxygen<br />
(DO), conductivity, pH, water transparency <strong>and</strong> chlorophyll a (Chl a); (2) Anabaena <strong>and</strong><br />
crustacean zooplankton species abundance.<br />
* Corresponding author. Tel.:351273303217 - Fax:351273331570<br />
Email address: geraldes@ipb.pt<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
A.M. Geraldes 2010. L<strong>and</strong>scape runoff, precipitation variation <strong>and</strong> reservoir limnology<br />
492<br />
2. Methodology<br />
Water, Anabaena <strong>and</strong> crustacean zooplankton samples were collected in the deepest point of the<br />
reservoir in four distinct hydrological years: (1) 2000/2001; (2) 2001/2002; (3) 2007/2008 <strong>and</strong><br />
(4) 2008/2009. Details on sampling methodology <strong>and</strong> laboratorial procedure are described in<br />
Geraldes <strong>and</strong> Boavida (2004; 2007). As most precipitation occurs between October <strong>and</strong> March<br />
samples collected during this period were classified as “winter season” the others were<br />
considered as “summer station”. A Kruskal-Wallis test was performed for each environmental<br />
variable <strong>and</strong> Anabaena abundance to determine whether mean values obtained for each year<br />
were significantly different. Non-metric Multidimentional Scaling (N-MSD) was used for<br />
expressing similarity between zooplankton samples. In this method samples are arranged in a<br />
continuum in such a way that those close together are similar <strong>and</strong> those which are far apart are<br />
dissimilar The statistical analysis were performed using SPSS 16 <strong>and</strong> CAP 3, respectively.<br />
3. Results<br />
The total precipitation recorded during the period of study is presented in Table 1. Significant<br />
inter-annual differences were found for TP (χ= 10.01; p= 0.001), for conductivity (χ= 34.71; p=<br />
0.000), for water transparency (χ= 19.74; p= 0.000) <strong>and</strong> for Anabaena densities (χ= 13.97; p=<br />
0.003). The maxima of TP <strong>and</strong> the minima of water transparency was recorded in the winter<br />
2000/2001. The low value of water transparency observed in winter 2001/2002 was a<br />
consequence of the increasing of Anabaena abundances (Table 1). The lowest densities for all<br />
crustacean zooplankton species was coincident with this period <strong>and</strong> with winter 2001/2002<br />
(Table 2). N-MSD for zooplankton samples also indicate the existence of seasonal <strong>and</strong> annual<br />
differences in crustacean zooplankton abundances (Figure 2).<br />
4. Discussion<br />
The observed variations in TP, water transparency <strong>and</strong> in Anabaena <strong>and</strong> crustacean zooplankton<br />
abundances were related to changes in rainfall/ l<strong>and</strong>scape runoff intensity. Similar results were<br />
obtained by authors studying reservoirs located in other regions influenced by Mediterranean<br />
climate (e.g. Armengol et al. 1999; Soria et al. 2000). The variation of l<strong>and</strong>scape runoff<br />
concomitantly with precipitation intensity was evidenced by the notice that TP concentrations in<br />
water samples obtained downstream of one of Azibo Reservoir tributary were 103μg l -1 at the<br />
beginning of the rainfall period decreasing subsequently to 76 μg l -1 <strong>and</strong> to 16 μg l -1 by the end<br />
of rainfall period (Geraldes, unpubl. data). Besides, the lowest mean values of TP <strong>and</strong> the<br />
highest values of water transparency noticed in the reservoir during the years with low<br />
precipitation reinforce the above evidence. The dominance of Anabeaena from October 2001 to<br />
December 2001 (dry winter) occurred subsequently to a wet winter. The nutrient increasing<br />
scenario created during the wet period (Winter 2000/01) followed by the environmental<br />
conditions (e.g. absence of water turbulence, larger water residence time <strong>and</strong> higher irradiance)<br />
created by the subsequent dry periods (summer 2001 <strong>and</strong> winter 2001/2002), had lead to<br />
Anabaena dominance over the other groups of phytoplankton assemblage. As this alga is not<br />
edible by the most of the species of crustacean zooplankton their densities decreased accentually.<br />
<strong>Change</strong>s in limnological parameters are related to variations in precipitation intensity, which<br />
ultimately influence l<strong>and</strong>scape runoff. Therefore, long term data series on reservoir abiotic <strong>and</strong><br />
biotic components will allow to underst<strong>and</strong> how changes in surrounding l<strong>and</strong>scape will<br />
influence reservoir ecological processes <strong>and</strong> consequently water quality.<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
A.M. Geraldes 2010. L<strong>and</strong>scape runoff, precipitation variation <strong>and</strong> reservoir limnology<br />
493<br />
References<br />
Armengol J., Garcia J. C., Comerma M., Romero M., Dolz J., Roura M., Han B. H., Vidal A<br />
<strong>and</strong> Šimek K.,1999. Longitudinal processes in Canyon type reservoirs : The case of Sau<br />
(N. E. Spain). J. G Tundisi & M. Straškraba (Eds.) Theoretical Reservoir Ecology<br />
International Institute of Ecology, Brazilian Academy of Sciences. São Carlos: 313-345.<br />
Geraldes, A.M. <strong>and</strong> Boavida, M. J., 2007. Zooplankton assemblages in two reservoirs: One<br />
subjected to accentuated water levels fluctuations, the other with more stable water<br />
levels. Aquatic Ecology 41:273-284.<br />
Geraldes, A.M. <strong>and</strong> Boavida, M. J., 2004. Limnological variations of a reservoir during two<br />
successive years: One wet, another dry. Lakes <strong>and</strong> Reservoirs: Research & Management.<br />
9:143-152.<br />
Instituto de Meteorologia, 2009. Boletins Climáticos URL: http://www.meteo.pt tecnico-<br />
/pt/publicacoes/cientif/noIM/boletins/index.jspcmbDep=cli&cmbTema=pcl&idDep=cl<br />
i&idTema=pcl&curAno=-1<br />
Soria J. M., Vicente E. <strong>and</strong> Miracle M. R., 2000. The influence of flash floods on the<br />
limnology of the Albufera of Valencia Lagoon (Spain). Verh. internat. Verein.<br />
Limnol. 27: 2232-2235.<br />
500<br />
450<br />
p<br />
re<br />
cip<br />
ita<br />
tio<br />
n<br />
(m<br />
m<br />
)<br />
400<br />
350<br />
300<br />
250<br />
200<br />
150<br />
100<br />
50<br />
0<br />
Oct. Nov. Dec. Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. May Jun. Jul. Aug. Sep.<br />
2000/2001 2001/2002 2007/2008 2008/2009 mean value (1970‐2000)<br />
Figure1: Precipitation noticed for hydrological years of 2000/2001, 2001/2002, 2007/2008 <strong>and</strong> 2008/2009<br />
in the Bragança city (Agroclima Lab-<strong>ESA</strong>B unpubl. data) the other data (Instituto de Meteorologia, 2009)<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
A.M. Geraldes 2010. L<strong>and</strong>scape runoff, precipitation variation <strong>and</strong> reservoir limnology<br />
494<br />
2<br />
y<br />
1,5<br />
W0102<br />
1<br />
S0001<br />
Axis 2<br />
0,5<br />
0<br />
S0809 S0102<br />
S0708<br />
W0708<br />
-0,5<br />
W0809<br />
W0001<br />
-1<br />
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Axis 1<br />
Figure 2: N-MDS analysis for crustacean zooplankton data.<br />
1<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
A.M. Geraldes 2010. L<strong>and</strong>scape runoff, precipitation variation <strong>and</strong> reservoir limnology<br />
495<br />
Table 1: Total precipitation, mean <strong>and</strong> st<strong>and</strong>ard deviation (in brackets) of environmental variables<br />
Variables 2000/2001 2001/2002 2007/2008 2008/2009<br />
Winter Summer Winter Summer Winter Summer Winter Summer<br />
Total precipitation (mm) 1482 156.9 423.5 217.7 245.5 263.9 315.9 97.7<br />
TP (μg/l) 66.96 (21.70) 64.30(18.15) 60.29(9.85) 61.45(7.15) 47.53(10.06) 31.56(7.16) 46.67(18.62) 31.67(24.01)<br />
Water temperature (ºC) 10.68 (2.66) 20.33(3.19) 10.09 (3.77) 18.87(4.72) 10.54(3.27) 18.38(3.55) 10.58(3.65) 20.00(4.04)<br />
Conductivity (μS cm -1 ) 54.67(10.67) 58.92(6.65) 48.42(4.92) 64.33(9.17) 91.60 (2.78) 90.35(3.19) 89.92(4.56) 98.78(1.16)<br />
DO (mg/l) 9.06 (1.39) 9.70(1.42) 8.71(0.46) 8.48(0.76) 8.58(1.16) 8.58(1.29) 9.67(0.67) 9.44(1.07)<br />
pH 6.6-7.0 7.0-8.4 6.9-8.3 7.5-7.9 6.0-6.4 6.3-7.2 6.0-6.8 6.5-8.2<br />
Water transparency (m) 2.83(1.51) 4.33(0.44) 3.00(0.71) 4.21(1.74) 4.30(0.67) 5.75(0.42) 5.42(1.07) 6.42(1.5)<br />
Chl a (μg/l) 2.05(0.95) 1.16(0.77) 3.31 (1.68) 1.10(0.48) 2.54(1.46) 1.58(1.33) 1.31(3.45) 2.67(1.50)<br />
Anabaena (ind l -1 x 10 3 ) 0.23(0.26) 14.97(33.76) 90.07(97.91) 0.29(0.43) 0.0 0.0 0.0 4.78(7.84)<br />
Table 2: Mean densities <strong>and</strong> st<strong>and</strong>ard deviation (in brackets) of the crustacean zooplankton species.<br />
Species (ind m 3 x 10 3 ) 2000/2001 2001/2002 2007/2008 2008/2009<br />
Winter Summer Winter Summer Winter Summer Winter Summer<br />
Cladocera<br />
Daphnia longispina/pulex 0.90 (0.98) 1.89(3.72) 0.30(0.19) 0.54(0.69) 0.62(0.71) 2.16(2.07) 3.41(2.51) 1.30(1.69)<br />
Ceriodaphnia pulchella 2.98 (5.79) 3.19(3.70) 0.14 (0.24) 3.93(4.33) 1.19(1.35) 3.52(6.47) 2.32(4.30) 3.60(7.87)<br />
Diaphanosoma. brachyurum 0.0 0.31(0.54) 0.0 0.71(1.13) 0.21(0.31) 1.24(2.11) 0.40(0.83) 1.21(1.16)<br />
Bosmina longirostris 0.07 (0.09) 0.22(0.18) 0.06(0.02) 0.17(0.16) 0.06(0.08) 0.06(0.05) 0.07(0.04) 0.19(0.32)<br />
Copepoda<br />
Acanthocyclops robustus 0.04(0.04) 0.21(0.16) 0.10 (0.12) 0.09(0.66) 0.11(0.06) 0.07(0.04) 0.05(0.07) 0.13(0.14)<br />
Copidodiaptomus numidicus 2.65(2.20) 3.47(2.84) 0.86(0.86) 5.67(0.92) 3.07(2.02) 4.39(1.36) 3.66(3.20) 4.52(1.50)<br />
Nauplii 0.22(0.28) 1.97(1.53) 0.88(0.67) 2.56(1.50) 1.65(1.63) 1.63(0.82) 2.18(2.34) 3.18(3.37)<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
A.M. Geraldes & M.J. Boavida 2010. Reservoirs: Mirrors of the surrounding l<strong>and</strong>scape<br />
496<br />
Reservoirs: Mirrors of the surrounding l<strong>and</strong>scape<br />
A.M. Geraldes 1* & M. J. Boavida<br />
1<br />
CIMO, <strong>Escola</strong> <strong>Superior</strong> Agrária do Instituto Politécnico de Bragança Campus de<br />
Santa Apolónia, Bragança, Portugal<br />
2<br />
Centro de Biologia Ambiental, Departamento de Biologia Animal, Faculdade de<br />
Ciências da Universidade de Lisboa Campo Gr<strong>and</strong>e, Portugal<br />
Abstract<br />
To assess in what extent the environmental quality of aquatic systems reflect l<strong>and</strong>scape features<br />
several water quality parameters were determined in two reservoirs. Concomitantly, the<br />
surrounding l<strong>and</strong>scape was characterized <strong>and</strong> the existing potential sources of phosphorous <strong>and</strong><br />
nitrogen runoff were identified <strong>and</strong> when possible estimated. Located in a mountainous area<br />
with negligible direct human influence, it was expected to find lower amounts of suspended<br />
organic matter <strong>and</strong> nutrients in Serra Serrada Reservoir. Water level fluctuations caused by<br />
intensive human water use, grazing <strong>and</strong> frequent l<strong>and</strong> fires in the surrounding l<strong>and</strong>scape can<br />
explain the unexpected high values of the mentioned parameters. In Azibo Reservoir the factors<br />
with greatest influence on water parameters seem to be allochthonous sources of nutrients<br />
originated from agriculture <strong>and</strong> grazing in the catchment area <strong>and</strong> recreational activities.<br />
However, in this particular case the potential sources of nutrients could have been minimized by<br />
the patchy structure of the surrounding l<strong>and</strong>scape.<br />
Keywords: L<strong>and</strong>scape, Water quality L<strong>and</strong> use, Phosphorous <strong>and</strong> Nitrogen sources<br />
1. Introduction<br />
Pressure caused by human activities in the catchment area <strong>and</strong> reservoir vicinity generally leads<br />
to an intensification of surface runoff, causing an increase in eutrophication, thus threatening<br />
water quality. Runoff rates depend mainly on l<strong>and</strong> use, vegetation cover <strong>and</strong> l<strong>and</strong>scape mosaic.<br />
The present study was carried out for two years on S. Serrada <strong>and</strong> Azibo reservoirs located at<br />
the Portuguese part of the international Douro catchment basin, in Trás-os-Montes region (NE<br />
Portugal). Location, morphological <strong>and</strong> hydrological characteristics of both reservoirs are<br />
shown in Table 1. Serra Serrada Reservoir was built to supply water to the city of Bragança <strong>and</strong><br />
to generate hydroelectric power. Consequently, pronounced water level fluctuations occur,<br />
ranging between 8 <strong>and</strong> 10 m. Direct human influence on this reservoir impoundment is<br />
considered negligible. There are no villages, there has been no agricultural activity for<br />
approximately 20 years <strong>and</strong> recreational activities are not significant. However, in the catchment<br />
basin grazing can be very intense in summer months. All over the year there are only about 200<br />
sheep grazing in the S. Serrada catchment, yet from May to August about 5,000 sheep from<br />
lowl<strong>and</strong>s are transported from the surrounding lowl<strong>and</strong>s to graze in the catchment <strong>and</strong> reservoir<br />
surroundings. Consequently, this area is very often subjected to wildfires which are mainly<br />
induced by shepherds to obtain better graze. Azibo Reservoir was built for water supply <strong>and</strong><br />
irrigation, but those activities are not significant <strong>and</strong> the reservoir is used mainly for recreation.<br />
In Azibo direct influence of human activities is greater during summer when reservoir <strong>and</strong><br />
* Corresponding author. Tel.:351273303217 - Fax:351273331570<br />
Email address: geraldes@ipb.pt<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
A.M. Geraldes & M.J. Boavida 2010. Reservoirs: Mirrors of the surrounding l<strong>and</strong>scape<br />
497<br />
surroundings are used by about 10,000 people for recreation such as swimming, camping <strong>and</strong><br />
boating. Angling is also an important activity. The watershed area is occupied by meadows<br />
(1286 ha), woodl<strong>and</strong>s <strong>and</strong> scrub (935 ha) <strong>and</strong> extensive agriculture (2235 ha). The latter is<br />
found all over the year <strong>and</strong> the main crops are olives (657 ha), chestnuts (650 ha), cereals (546<br />
ha), vineyards (144 ha) <strong>and</strong> potato (85 ha). In the reservoir shore there are intensive crops,<br />
which are less than 1% of all crops (INE, 1999). Extensive grazing also occurs in this drainage<br />
basin. In Azibo catchment area there are several small villages. The total of inhabitants is about<br />
1,500 <strong>and</strong> most of them are more than 50 years old (INE, 2001). Passing nearby <strong>and</strong> over of one<br />
stream that feed this reservoir there is a highway, IP4. In this highway the average daily traffic<br />
volume is 6,000 vehicles (Barbosa <strong>and</strong> Hvitved-Jacobsen, 1999). There is no industrial activity<br />
in both reservoir catchments. Therefore, the purpose of this research was to find out whether in<br />
what extent the environmental quality of aquatic systems reflect l<strong>and</strong>scape occupation by<br />
assessing several water quality parameters.<br />
2. Methodology<br />
Water samples were collected monthly in winter <strong>and</strong> biweekly in summer, from January 2000 to<br />
December 2001 in both reservoirs. Details concerning sampling methodology, laboratorial<br />
procedure, statistical analysis <strong>and</strong> the determination of potential allochthonous sources of<br />
phosphorus <strong>and</strong> nitrogen can be found in Geraldes <strong>and</strong> Boavida (2003).<br />
3. Results<br />
Maximum <strong>and</strong> minimum ranges as well as mean <strong>and</strong> st<strong>and</strong>ard deviation values for water<br />
temperature, dissolved oxygen, conductivity, pH <strong>and</strong> water colour observed for both S. Serrada<br />
<strong>and</strong> Azibo are presented on Table 2. Both reservoirs were classified as meso-eutrophic. The<br />
potential allochthonous sources of phosphorus <strong>and</strong> nitrogen are presented in figure 1. In S.<br />
Serrada, grazing can contribute 30,450 kg of N <strong>and</strong> 13,050 kg of P per year. Wildfires can also<br />
contribute with substantial loads. However, for this region there are no data allowing<br />
quantification of this source. In Azibo trophic state is possibly influenced by agriculture,<br />
grazing, sewage, as well as by angling <strong>and</strong> bathing. Agriculture can contribute 36,394 kg of N<br />
<strong>and</strong> 49,192 kg of P per year, grazing 172,956 kg of N <strong>and</strong> 60,786 kg of P per year <strong>and</strong> sewage<br />
4,927 kg of N <strong>and</strong> 1,752 Kg of P per year. Angling <strong>and</strong> bathing can contribute 28,080 kg of N<br />
<strong>and</strong> 5,184 kg of P <strong>and</strong> 900 kg of N <strong>and</strong> 41.5 kg of P per year, respectively. Results of MDS are<br />
depicted on figure 2. In this kind of diagram sample to sample dissimilarity is represented by the<br />
distance between points. So, the gradation in the spread of the points indicated the existence of<br />
two groups: One formed by samples obtained at S. Serrada <strong>and</strong> one formed those obtained at<br />
Azibo. This means that there is an inter-reservoirs variability related with some of the studied<br />
parameters. In fact, according to Kolmogorov - Smirnov test, nutrient <strong>and</strong> CHL a concentrations<br />
showed no significant differences between reservoirs in spite of differences in l<strong>and</strong>scape<br />
occupation, water use <strong>and</strong> exposure to different degrees of disturbance. However, differences<br />
between reservoirs were found for conductivity (D m = 1; P
A.M. Geraldes & M.J. Boavida 2010. Reservoirs: Mirrors of the surrounding l<strong>and</strong>scape<br />
498<br />
disturbance. The observed differences in water temperature, conductivity <strong>and</strong> pH might be the<br />
result of the synergistic effect of reservoir altitude, <strong>and</strong> geological zone.<br />
S. Serrrada is a highly disturbed system if compared with other located in similar geological <strong>and</strong><br />
climate regions (Negro et al., 2001). There are two sorts of disturbance: One internal because of<br />
water level fluctuation, <strong>and</strong> the other external originating by the combined effect of grazing <strong>and</strong><br />
fire. Furthermore, the areas of both reservoir <strong>and</strong> catchment are small. Thus, the intensity of use<br />
of water <strong>and</strong> grazing activity which could not have had a strong impact in systems with larger<br />
areas, in this reservoir could have induced a severe reduction in water quality. In fact, the<br />
observed ressuspension of bottom sediments <strong>and</strong> organic matter following water runoff input<br />
after the first rains, plus the turbulence generated by water level rising <strong>and</strong> the periodical<br />
exposure of littoral sediments to cycles of drying <strong>and</strong> wetting could explain the high phosphorus<br />
concentrations. On the other h<strong>and</strong>, grazing is not only a source of nutrients but also the main<br />
cause of fires in this region, since those are induced by shepherds to obtain better graze.<br />
Actually, this catchment is one of the areas with more fires per year in the Montesinho Natural<br />
Park (Rainha <strong>and</strong> Cabral, 2001). There are no studies quantifying the nutrient inputs to this<br />
reservoir because of the erosive impact of rainfall on post-burned soils. However, considering<br />
the high slope <strong>and</strong> the dominant soil type in this area, which according to Agroconsultores <strong>and</strong><br />
Coba (1991) bear a high potential risk of erosion, high rates of soil erosion <strong>and</strong> consequently<br />
high surface runoff are expected. Besides, some research developed in other regions has shown<br />
that the consequences of a fire can be the increase in trophic state <strong>and</strong> the subsequent decrease<br />
of water quality in the adjacent water bodies. Those effects are more accentuated in sloppy areas<br />
<strong>and</strong> after intense precipitation events.<br />
In Azibo internal disturbance caused by water level fluctuation is minimal. Moreover,<br />
the areas of reservoir <strong>and</strong> catchment are larger, l<strong>and</strong>scape is patchy <strong>and</strong> fires are not frequent.<br />
However, other sources of disturbance such as agriculture, mainly the intensive cultures in<br />
reservoir shore, grazing <strong>and</strong> recreational activities, can explain the trophic state classification.<br />
According to estimations of the potential allochthonous sources of nutrients, agriculture <strong>and</strong><br />
grazing seemed to be the greatest sources of N <strong>and</strong> P in the Azibo catchment. The intensity of<br />
exportation of nutrients from those activities <strong>and</strong> from sewage seems to be highly seasonal. In<br />
fact, in the beginning of the wet season the nutrient concentrations in water runoff were higher<br />
than in the water runoff generated by end of season rains. However, agricultural <strong>and</strong> grazing<br />
sources of nutrients can decrease within few years, since most of the farmers are more than 50<br />
years old nowadays (INE, 1999; 2001) <strong>and</strong> that there is a considerable tendency for human<br />
desertification because of the low rentability of agricultural practices. Besides, the l<strong>and</strong>scape in<br />
this catchment is very patchy <strong>and</strong> consequently there are numerous buffer areas such as<br />
woodl<strong>and</strong>s, meadows <strong>and</strong> riparian vegetation that can minimise those potential sources of<br />
nutrients. Thus, intensive agriculture practices in the reservoir shore <strong>and</strong> recreational activities<br />
in summer are or might become in a near future the main nutrient sources to Azibo Reservoir. In<br />
fact, the values of nutrient concentrations obtained in summer can be related to those activities,<br />
which are more intensive in this period. Another, a possible source of pollutants that can also<br />
affect the water quality in Azibo is the highway IP4. According to Barbosa <strong>and</strong> Hvitved-<br />
Jacobsen (1999) the average concentration levels of Pb, Zn <strong>and</strong> Cu in the IP4 highway runoff<br />
are 10.8, 172 <strong>and</strong> 10.7 µg/l, respectively. Besides, the projected golf course in Azibo Reservoir<br />
shores if implemented might be a important new source of phosphorous <strong>and</strong> nitrogen. From the<br />
obtained data it seems undeniable that reservoirs can be regarded as mirrors of the surrounding<br />
l<strong>and</strong>scape. However, there is a lack of data concerning for instance soil nutrient retention<br />
capacity <strong>and</strong> erosion rates. Such data are fundamental to develop export coefficient models<br />
adapted to these areas, allowing the correct estimation of nutrient <strong>and</strong> pollutant inputs, <strong>and</strong> to<br />
make possible the development of correct management measures for these reservoirs <strong>and</strong> the<br />
surrounding l<strong>and</strong>scape.<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
A.M. Geraldes & M.J. Boavida 2010. Reservoirs: Mirrors of the surrounding l<strong>and</strong>scape<br />
499<br />
References<br />
Agroconsultores <strong>and</strong> Coba 1991. Carta de Solos. Projecto de Desenvolvimento Rural Integrado<br />
de Trás-os-Montes. UTAD, Vila Real.<br />
Barbosa A. E. <strong>and</strong> Hvitved-Jacobsen,T. 1999. Highway runoff <strong>and</strong> potential for removal of<br />
heavy metals in an infiltration pond in Portugal. Sci. Tot. Environ. 235: 151-159.<br />
Geraldes, A.M. <strong>and</strong> Boavida, M. J., 2003. Distinct age <strong>and</strong> l<strong>and</strong>scape influence on two<br />
reservoirs under the same climate. Hydrobiologia 504:277-288<br />
INE, 1999. Censos da Agricultura 1999. Instituto Nacional de Estatística.<br />
INE, 2001. Censos da População 2001. Instituto Nacional de Estatística.<br />
Negro, A. I., C. De Hoyos, C. <strong>and</strong> Vega, J. C., 2000. Phytoplankton structure <strong>and</strong> dynamics in<br />
Lake Sanabria <strong>and</strong> Valparaíso reservoir (NW Spain). Hydrobiologia 424: 25-37.<br />
Rainha, M. <strong>and</strong> Cabral, P., 2001. Incêndios ocorridos na área do Parque Natural de Montesinho<br />
(1994-2001). Parque Natural de Montesinho (Internal Report)<br />
Table 1: Main general features of S. Serrada <strong>and</strong> Azibo reservoirs.<br />
S.Serrada<br />
Azibo<br />
Location<br />
Latitude: 41º57’12’’(N)<br />
Longitude: 6º 46’ 44’’ (W)<br />
Latitude: 41º32’50’’(N)<br />
Longitude: 6º 53’ 38’’ (W)<br />
Altitude (m) 1300 500<br />
Geology granitic bedrock schistic bedrock<br />
Mean annual precipitation (mm) 1300 800-1000<br />
Watershed area (Km 2 ) 6.7 89.0<br />
Reservoir area (Km 2 ) 0.25 4.10<br />
Total capacity (m 3 ) 1680 x 10 3 54470 x 10 3<br />
Max. Depth (m) 18 30<br />
Mean depth (m) 6.72 13.2<br />
Water residence time (years) 0.36 2.22<br />
Year of filling 1995 1982<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
A.M. Geraldes & M.J. Boavida 2010. Reservoirs: Mirrors of the surrounding l<strong>and</strong>scape<br />
500<br />
Table 2: Physical factors recorded for S. Serrada <strong>and</strong> Azibo reservoirs. Are shown minimum-maximum<br />
range; mean <strong>and</strong> st<strong>and</strong>ard deviation in brackets.<br />
2000 2001<br />
S. Serrada<br />
Water temperature (ºC) 1.46-21.39 (12.51/6.59) 2.70-20.19 (12.90/6.46)<br />
Dissolved oxygen (mg/l) 7.38-12.42 (8.55/1.45) 6.20-10.72 (8.55/1.49)<br />
Conductivity (µS/cm) 4-10 (6.94/1.84) 3-8 (5.95/1.61)<br />
Water transparency (m) 4.50-1.00 (2.66/1.09) 1-5 (2.85/1.14)<br />
pH 5.77-6.56 (6.18/0.28) 5.95-8.34 (6.89/1.03)<br />
Water colour (Pt units) 0.44-46.35 (17.39/14.27) 5.24-35.45 (18.55/9.36)<br />
Azibo<br />
Temperature (ºC) 5.58-24.7 (16.52/6.13) 8.06-23.83 (17.16/5.73)<br />
Dissolved oxygen (mg/l) 7.54-11.53 (9.09/1.06) 7.21-10.78 (8.99/1.33)<br />
Conductivity (µS/cm) 51-81 (69.87/11.09) 43-66 (56.23/7.64)<br />
Water transparency (m) 1.5-6.0 (4.72/1.25) 1.5-5.5 (3.50/1.14)<br />
pH 6.71-8.05 (7.33/0.37) 6.64-8.36 (7.40/0.81)<br />
Water colour (Pt units) 0.0-9.02 (2.82/3.02) 0.0-21.81 (6.21/5.66)<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
A.M. Geraldes & M.J. Boavida 2010. Reservoirs: Mirrors of the surrounding l<strong>and</strong>scape<br />
501<br />
kg/year x 10 3<br />
200<br />
160<br />
120<br />
80<br />
40<br />
B<br />
0<br />
Agriculture<br />
Grazing<br />
Sewage<br />
Angling<br />
Bathing<br />
Wildfires<br />
N<br />
P<br />
Figure 1: Potential external sources of nitrogen <strong>and</strong> phosphorus to S. Serrada (A) <strong>and</strong> Azibo (B)<br />
reservoirs ( means non quantified source).<br />
Figure 2: Results of MDS ordination (ss-Samples performed in S. Serrada; az-Samples performed in<br />
Azibo).<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
K. Koschke et al. 2010. Using a multi-criteria approach to fit the evaluation basis of “Pimp Your L<strong>and</strong>scape”<br />
502<br />
Using a multi-criteria approach to fit the evaluation basis of the<br />
modified 2-D cellular automaton “Pimp Your L<strong>and</strong>scape”<br />
Lars Koschke * , Christine Fürst, Carsten Lorz, Susanne Frank & Franz Makeschin<br />
Institute for Soil Science <strong>and</strong> Site Ecology, Dresden University of Technology,<br />
Germany<br />
Abstract<br />
This contribution presents an evaluation approach that is used within the framework of the l<strong>and</strong>use<br />
management support tool “Pimp your l<strong>and</strong>scape”. “Pimp your l<strong>and</strong>scape” is a modified 2-D<br />
cellular automaton, which enables a multi-criteria impact assessment of l<strong>and</strong>-use management<br />
planning decisions. To evaluate l<strong>and</strong>-cover changes, values are assigned to each l<strong>and</strong>-use type;<br />
these values describe its contribution to regionally specific sets of ecosystem services <strong>and</strong> / or<br />
environmental risks.<br />
A major problem is that universally valid indicators that facilitate the estimation of such values<br />
are rare. Indicators taken from sectoral evaluation approaches, such as those that are available<br />
from forest or agricultural research, often times address different target scales, thus negating<br />
their suitability for a holistic evaluation on l<strong>and</strong>scape level.<br />
We focus here on the question of how to quantify the impact of planning measures. A<br />
combination of participatory multi-criteria <strong>and</strong> indicator-based analysis is developed to arrive at<br />
a comprehensive evaluation.<br />
Keywords: Pimp Your L<strong>and</strong>scape, ecosystem services, l<strong>and</strong>-use type, l<strong>and</strong>scape evaluation,<br />
criteria <strong>and</strong> indicators<br />
1. Introduction<br />
L<strong>and</strong>-use pattern change is one of many important factors that generate climate change. L<strong>and</strong>management<br />
affects ecosystem functioning in many ways. Therefore, management measures<br />
<strong>and</strong> planning targets connected to climate change adaption are related to alterations in l<strong>and</strong>-use<br />
types or management intensity. These changes will impact ecosystem services (MEA 2005). For<br />
the current project region in Saxony, Germany, we have chosen six ecosystem services:<br />
ecological functioning, aesthetical value, human health <strong>and</strong> well being, CC mitigation, bioresource<br />
provision <strong>and</strong> economic wealth.<br />
In our approach we aim at estimating the consequences of l<strong>and</strong> cover <strong>and</strong> management changes<br />
on l<strong>and</strong>scape level. We intend to support decision makers who are confronted with the challenge<br />
to take into account multiple objectives. For this purpose the tool Pimp your l<strong>and</strong>scape (PYL)<br />
has been developed. PYL is software that simulates <strong>and</strong> visualizes the impact of management or<br />
planning scenarios on ecosystem services at the l<strong>and</strong>scape level; these include structural<br />
l<strong>and</strong>scape aspects <strong>and</strong> environmental data (climate, soil, topography). The end-user receives<br />
feed-back in real-time <strong>and</strong> can easily simulate <strong>and</strong> compare manifold scenarios. The software is<br />
based on a cellular automaton approach including GIS-features. The cell size is fixed at 100 x<br />
100m. To each cell, the predominant l<strong>and</strong>-use type (LUT) taken from the CORINE l<strong>and</strong>-cover<br />
(CLC) 2000 or regional l<strong>and</strong> cover data is assigned (Fürst et al. 2010).<br />
* Corresponding author. Tel.: +49 35203 38 31377 - Fax: +49 35203 38 31388<br />
Email address: Lars.Koschke@tu-dresden.de<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
K. Koschke et al. 2010. Using a multi-criteria approach to fit the evaluation basis of “Pimp Your L<strong>and</strong>scape”<br />
503<br />
2. Methodology<br />
Within PYL the provision of ecosystem services is evaluated in a first step for each l<strong>and</strong>-use<br />
type <strong>and</strong> infrastructural element. In a second step, the value at the l<strong>and</strong>scape level is calculated<br />
as the average of all cell values; this includes an additional correction of the result from the<br />
point of view of positive or negative aspects gleaned from the l<strong>and</strong>scape structure (cf. Fig. 1 in<br />
Fürst et al., 2010).<br />
Within PYL the l<strong>and</strong> use classification st<strong>and</strong>ards of CLC 2000 <strong>and</strong> the environmental services<br />
(<strong>and</strong> functions) (LUF) set previously described (Pérez-Soba et al. 2008) are available as initial<br />
settings. The user can modify these initial settings or adopt completely different settings<br />
according to the regional application targets. After having selected a set of LUTs <strong>and</strong> LUFs, the<br />
resulting value matrix must be filled out. Evaluation of the l<strong>and</strong>-use types follows classification,<br />
on a relative scale from 0 (worst case) to 100 (best case), of the specific regional contribution of<br />
a LUT to a LUF. The introduction of this relative scale aims to facilitate the multi-criteria<br />
evaluation of planning measures.<br />
The value matrix contains initial impact values of the l<strong>and</strong> use types <strong>and</strong> infrastructural elements<br />
on the environmental services. The initial value of a l<strong>and</strong> use type for an environmental service<br />
represents the maximum in the regional context, which can only be reduced (a) with regard to<br />
environmental cell attributes from additional information layers such as height above sea level,<br />
mean annual precipitation, temperature, soil type <strong>and</strong> exposition. (b) The impact of the cell<br />
environment (homogeneous l<strong>and</strong> use types vs. different l<strong>and</strong> use types) <strong>and</strong> neighbourhood type<br />
(edge to edge vs. corner to corner) can impact the original maximum value. The influence of<br />
structural features on the final evaluation is discussed elsewhere (cf. contribution of<br />
Frank et al.).<br />
2.1 Indicator-based assessment<br />
2.1.1 Statistical indicators<br />
Evaluation of ecosystem services is commonly based on indicators. For our assessment the<br />
challenge is to find or generate indicators associated to LUTs which can then be processed in an<br />
aggregation framework to estimate comparative scores.<br />
Despite the general scarcity of indicators, a few economic-evaluation indicators are available<br />
that allow for a comparison of LUT-related l<strong>and</strong> prices. We used st<strong>and</strong>ard ground value, l<strong>and</strong><br />
rent <strong>and</strong> market price to compute l<strong>and</strong>-use dependent value points. We had two prerequisites for<br />
the choice of an indicator. The first condition was a thematic relation to at least two LUTs.<br />
Second, data had to be available on a per unit area basis due to 100 x 100m grid cells used as<br />
the reference unit in PYL. Quotients of indicator values were calculated to reflect the value of<br />
an LUT in comparison to another LUT (see table 1). For each LUT the mean of quotient-values<br />
was determined <strong>and</strong> normalised to the scoring scale (0 – 100 value points) using equation 1. The<br />
st<strong>and</strong>ard ground value acts as a “cross link” as it integrates information about semi-natural <strong>and</strong><br />
artificial (urban) LUTs.<br />
Tab. 1<br />
2.1.2 Measured <strong>and</strong> modeled indicators<br />
Other sources of indicators are regional studies with a l<strong>and</strong>-use oriented background. Data<br />
relating to N-export (LfULG 2009), soil sealing <strong>and</strong> run-off coefficient (Arlt 2001) could be<br />
derived from such studies (table 2). Indicator values were normalized using equation 1 or 2.<br />
When an indicator’s link to the performance of an LUF was negative, equation 2 was utilized. In<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
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504<br />
this concept, an indicator can be applied to one or more LUFs. Since the impact of an indicator<br />
on an LUF may vary, weights need to be indicated.<br />
(1)<br />
(2)<br />
where is the indicator value for a given LUT normalised to a score between 0 <strong>and</strong> 100<br />
<strong>and</strong> is the value of the indicator assigned to the LUT. <strong>and</strong> correspond to the<br />
minimum <strong>and</strong> maximum of indicator values.<br />
Tab. 2<br />
2.2 Participatory-based assessment<br />
A preliminary study showed that l<strong>and</strong>scape assessment based on an evaluation of LUTs cannot<br />
be achieved by using quantitative indicators only (cf. chapter 2.1). With measured or calculated<br />
indicator values most evaluation-criteria cannot be assessed across l<strong>and</strong>-uses. For this, CLC<br />
(2000) classes are too coarse in terms of spatial <strong>and</strong> thematic resolution. At the l<strong>and</strong>scape level a<br />
more general approach is required.<br />
Multi-Criteria Analysis (MCA) involving expert consultation is a suitable tool for support of the<br />
evaluation. Because of their comprehensive character, MCA techniques are often used to rank<br />
alternatives for decision-making or to assign values, if there are multiple objectives involved.<br />
LUFs were broken down to a set of criteria which are actually evaluated. Table 3 illustrates a<br />
draft of a matrix showing LUFs (environmental services) <strong>and</strong> connected criteria which are<br />
relevant in the context of the REGKLAM-project. LUTs are placed on the y-axis, while<br />
environmental services are arranged on the x-axis. The matrix will be used to appraise the<br />
capacity of the LUTs to provide goods <strong>and</strong> services.<br />
Tab. 3<br />
We combine normalized indicator values <strong>and</strong> expert estimation within the matrix. The expert<br />
group should (i) discuss relevant functions <strong>and</strong> criteria, <strong>and</strong> (ii) interpolate gaps between<br />
indicator values for LUTs that have not been ascertained. In addition (iii) the respondents will<br />
be asked to evaluate the LUTs in terms of other criteria, the description of which cannot be<br />
related to any measurable indicator values.<br />
The contribution of an indicator depends on regional significance <strong>and</strong> the number of indicators/<br />
criteria that correspond to an LUF. Hence, prior to an aggregation framework, stakeholders (iv)<br />
have to assign weights to the criteria, whereby preferences are expressed as well. According to<br />
the preliminary matrix, experts would have to make 529 decisions.<br />
3. Results <strong>and</strong> Discussion<br />
Indicator-based assessment of capacities of LUTs to provide certain services has proven<br />
difficult. When using an indicator set for evaluation of the economic value, an extreme<br />
imbalance between the value of urban <strong>and</strong> semi-natural (rural) areas results. As a consequence,<br />
for example, the contribution of forest <strong>and</strong> agricultural areas to the regional economy is mostly<br />
underestimated. In addition, the utilisation of indicators which are highly aggregated is critical.<br />
L<strong>and</strong> rent <strong>and</strong> market value are indirectly contained in the st<strong>and</strong>ard ground value, in the<br />
calculation of which market-driven factors are also considered. The scores of table 1 reflect the<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
K. Koschke et al. 2010. Using a multi-criteria approach to fit the evaluation basis of “Pimp Your L<strong>and</strong>scape”<br />
505<br />
disproportionality of surface share <strong>and</strong> marketed economic value of LUTs dominated by<br />
agricultural or silvicultural use in comparison to built-up areas. This discrepancy is confirmed<br />
by sectoral accountings.<br />
The use of modelled <strong>and</strong> measured indicators is very restricted, not only regarding economic<br />
aspects. Data about N-Export, soil sealing <strong>and</strong> run-off coefficient as estimated for different<br />
LUTs in other studies can be used in the evaluation matrix (table 3). N-export <strong>and</strong> soil sealing<br />
act as proxies for l<strong>and</strong>-use intensity <strong>and</strong> the functioning of ecological processes. Soil sealing<br />
also has an impact on l<strong>and</strong>scape aesthetics, assuming that a high share of sealed surface area<br />
causes a decreasing visual attractiveness. Run-off coefficient is connected to water retention<br />
potential which is important for the risk of flooding during heavy rainfalls. Therefore this<br />
indicator is considered as a criterion for CC mitigation. For assessing ecological functioning<br />
species richness, percentage of dead wood or other non-structural indicators are not convenient.<br />
Depending on environmental conditions <strong>and</strong> habitat composition, such indicators behave<br />
differently <strong>and</strong> are thus not appropriate to be assigned to LUTs.<br />
The drawbacks <strong>and</strong> restrictions related to the integration of indicators of multiple scales <strong>and</strong><br />
dimensions resulted in the consideration of stakeholder involvement to obtain a comprehensive<br />
evaluation. Participatory methods are often considered the most suitable approach in terms of<br />
l<strong>and</strong>scape analysis (eg. de Groot 2006). They have been widely <strong>and</strong> successfully applied in<br />
l<strong>and</strong>scape/ environmental modelling (Dai et al. 2001; Vacik <strong>and</strong> Lexer 2001). Due to weighting<br />
<strong>and</strong> aggregation issues, indicator-based approaches <strong>and</strong> collaborating techniques are both prone<br />
to biases. MCA approaches also suffer from concerns such as the selection of participants, their<br />
respective background <strong>and</strong> interests (Danae <strong>and</strong> Stelios 2004). We therefore intend to<br />
incorporate available indicator values as reference points for experts during the evaluation<br />
process.<br />
4. Conclusion<br />
Some pre-analysis in our work proved that a purely indicator based approach for a holistic<br />
l<strong>and</strong>scape evaluation in Pimp your l<strong>and</strong>scape will fail, because fitting indicators are rare <strong>and</strong><br />
sectoral indicator approaches are not suitable for up-scaling the evaluation results (Fürst et al.,<br />
subm.). A comprehensive evaluation of LUTs in the context of l<strong>and</strong>scape management <strong>and</strong><br />
planning was founded on several data sources. We suggest a mixed indicator-based <strong>and</strong> expert<br />
opinion evaluation approach.<br />
Next steps are expert-evaluation which may be followed up by another round in order to<br />
estimate the performance of LUTs under future scenarios, which is important for the<br />
introduction of time slots. Thus, based on CC projections also ecosystem dynamics can be<br />
regarded. Since we de facto assess l<strong>and</strong>-cover types as supported by CLC (2000) which are<br />
related to but not fully congruent with LUTs, an incorporation of l<strong>and</strong> management types into<br />
PYL is planned in order to address the impact of adaptation options to CC at the farm level<br />
(irrigation, crop rotation, tillage, changing tree species composition etc.).<br />
Despite several shortcomings <strong>and</strong> limitations inherent in the approach, we believe that<br />
comprehensive assessments are of great importance for environmental managers <strong>and</strong> for the<br />
consideration of ecosystem services in l<strong>and</strong>scape planning processes.<br />
Reference<br />
Arlt, G. 2001. Auswirkungen städtischer Nutzungsstrukturen auf Bodenversiegelung und<br />
Bodenpreis, pp. 183. Institut für Ökologische Raumentwicklung, Dresden.<br />
Dai, F.C., Lee, C.F., <strong>and</strong> Zhang, X.H. 2001. GIS-based geo-environmental evaluation for urban<br />
l<strong>and</strong>-use planning: a case study. Engineering Geology 61: 257-271.<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
K. Koschke et al. 2010. Using a multi-criteria approach to fit the evaluation basis of “Pimp Your L<strong>and</strong>scape”<br />
506<br />
Danae, D., <strong>and</strong> Stelios, G. 2004. Multicriteria analysis. European Commission Externalities of<br />
Energy Research Network Working Paper. Greece: National Technical University<br />
Athens.<br />
de Groot, R. 2006. Function-analysis <strong>and</strong> valuation as a tool to assess l<strong>and</strong> use conflicts in<br />
planning for sustainable, multi-functional l<strong>and</strong>scapes. L<strong>and</strong>scape <strong>and</strong> Urban Planning<br />
75: 175-186.<br />
Fürst, C., Lorz, C., Pietzsch, K., Koschke, L., Frank, S., <strong>and</strong> Makeschin, F. 2010. Pimp your<br />
l<strong>and</strong>scape – a cellular automaton approach to estimate the effects of l<strong>and</strong> use pattern<br />
changes on environmental services. Proceedings of the International Conference on<br />
Integrative L<strong>and</strong>scape Modelling LANDMOD 2010. .<br />
LfULG. 2009. Atlas der Nährstoffeinträge in sächsische Gewässer. Sächsisches L<strong>and</strong>esamt für<br />
Umwelt L<strong>and</strong>wirtschaft und Geologie (LfULG).<br />
MEA. 2005. Ecosystems <strong>and</strong> human well-being: Synthesis. A Report of the Millenium<br />
Ecosystem Assessement. . Isl<strong>and</strong> Press, Washington, pp. 155.<br />
Pérez-Soba, M., Petit, S., Jones, L., Bertr<strong>and</strong>, N., Briquel, V., Omodei-Zorini, L., Contini, C.,<br />
Helming, K., Farrington, J.H., Mossello, M.T., et al. 2008. L<strong>and</strong> use functions - a<br />
multifunctionality approach to assess the impact of l<strong>and</strong> use changes on l<strong>and</strong> use<br />
sustainability. In Sustainability Impact Assessment of L<strong>and</strong> Use <strong>Change</strong>s. (eds. K.<br />
Helming, M. Pérez-Soba, <strong>and</strong> P. Tabbush), pp. 375-404. Springer, Berlin-Heidelberg.<br />
Vacik, H., <strong>and</strong> Lexer, M.J. 2001. Application of a spatial decision support system in managing<br />
the protection forests of Vienna for sustained yield of water resources. <strong>Forest</strong> Ecology<br />
<strong>and</strong> Management 143: 65-76.<br />
Tables<br />
Table 1: Simple relational matrix of cross-linked indicators (vertical bars) for assessing the economic<br />
wealth. Quotients of initial indicator values (vertical column on the left) are depicted in the matrix. They<br />
are assigned to a limited number of LUTs. Quotients allow for comparison of l<strong>and</strong> prices among LUTs.<br />
The mean value of each LUT was normalised to a score between 0 (least valuable) <strong>and</strong> 100 (most<br />
valuable) (grey row at the bottom).<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
K. Koschke et al. 2010. Using a multi-criteria approach to fit the evaluation basis of “Pimp Your L<strong>and</strong>scape”<br />
507<br />
Table 2: Compilation of data derived from different studies with corresponding value points assigned to<br />
LUTs. LUTs for which no data were available are not depicted.<br />
L<strong>and</strong>-use function (LUF)<br />
Ecological<br />
Functioning<br />
Ecological<br />
functioning/Aesthetics<br />
CC Mitigation<br />
Associated indicator<br />
N-export 1 Soil sealing 2 Run-off<br />
coefficient 2<br />
(kg N ha -1 a -1 ) Points (%) Points (Ψ) Points<br />
Continuous urban fabric 20 0 73 0 0.7 13<br />
Discontinuous urban fabric - ‐ 31 58 0.325 59<br />
Road <strong>and</strong> rail networks - ‐ - - 0.8 0<br />
Mineral extraction sites 9.1 98 - - - -<br />
Non-irrigated arable l<strong>and</strong> - ‐ 0 100 0.15 81<br />
Vineyards 11.2 79 0 100 - -<br />
Fruit trees & berry plantations 11.3 78 0 100 - -<br />
Pastures - ‐ 0 100 0.1 88<br />
Agro-forestry areas - ‐ 0 100 - -<br />
Broad-leaved forest 8.9 100 0 100 - -<br />
Coniferous forest 13.7 57 0 100 - -<br />
Mixed forest - ‐ 0 100 -<br />
Natural grassl<strong>and</strong>s - ‐ 0 100 - -<br />
Water bodies 15.9 37 0 100 0 100<br />
1 (LfULG 2009), 2 (Arlt 2001)<br />
Table 3: Draft matrix for the assessment of regionally relevant l<strong>and</strong>-cover types. Displayed indicator<br />
scores (light grey <strong>and</strong> grey fields) st<strong>and</strong> for an LUTs capacity to sustain specific ecosystem services.<br />
Original statistical <strong>and</strong> measured (modelled) data values were normalized to the scoring scale (0-100). For<br />
incommensurable criteria, values will be estimated <strong>and</strong> existing data gaps (dark grey fields) completed<br />
using expert knowledge. The weighted mean of criteria scores corresponds to the final evaluation <strong>and</strong> will<br />
be displayed in the black fields.<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
J.-F. Mas et al. 2010. Assessing “spatially explicit” l<strong>and</strong> use/cover change models<br />
508<br />
Assessing “spatially explicit” l<strong>and</strong> use/cover change models<br />
Jean-François Mas 1* , Azucena Pérez Vega 2 & Keith Clarke 3<br />
1<br />
Centro de Investigaciones en Geografía Ambiental - Universidad Nacional Autónoma<br />
de México, Mexico<br />
2<br />
Departamento de Ingeniería Civil - Universidad de Guanajuato, Mexico<br />
3<br />
Department of Geography – University of California - Santa Barbara, USA<br />
Abstract<br />
Spatially explicit l<strong>and</strong> use/cover change (LUCC) models aim at predicting the location <strong>and</strong><br />
pattern of LUCC. The simulation involves a spatial procedure which identifies the potential<br />
locations of change <strong>and</strong> eventually replicates the patterns of the l<strong>and</strong>scape. Generally,<br />
evaluation is based upon the comparison of the simulated map <strong>and</strong> a true map of the same date.<br />
However, most of the evaluation techniques only evaluate the spatial coincidence between<br />
simulated <strong>and</strong> true changes <strong>and</strong> do not assess the ability of the model to simulate the l<strong>and</strong>scape<br />
patterns. Simulated maps obtained by two models (DINAMICA <strong>and</strong> L<strong>and</strong> <strong>Change</strong> Modeler)<br />
were evaluated using a fuzzy similarity index <strong>and</strong> l<strong>and</strong>scape metrics. Results show that more<br />
realistic simulated l<strong>and</strong>scape are often obtained at the expense of location coincidence. When<br />
patterns of l<strong>and</strong>scape is an important issue (e.g. Fragmentation), indices taking into account<br />
spatial patterns, <strong>and</strong> not just location, should be used to assess model performance.<br />
Keywords:l<strong>and</strong> use/cover change, modeling, l<strong>and</strong>scape metrics, assessment<br />
1. Introduction<br />
Over the last decades, a range of “spatially explicit” computational models of LUCC have been<br />
developed for the projection of alternative scenarios into the future, for conducting experiments<br />
that test our underst<strong>and</strong>ing of key processes, <strong>and</strong> for describing the latter in quantitative terms<br />
(Veldkamp <strong>and</strong> Lambin 2001; Xiang <strong>and</strong> Clarke 2003). Among these models, process-based<br />
models, closely related with geographic information systems, view l<strong>and</strong> use <strong>and</strong> cover changes<br />
as transition process from one state to other states. Typical examples are models based on<br />
cellular automata <strong>and</strong> Markov process models, such as the two models used in the present study.<br />
2. Material<br />
We used the programs DINAMICA EGO <strong>and</strong> L<strong>and</strong> <strong>Change</strong> Modeler in IDRISI for LUCC<br />
modeling. DINAMICA EGO is a cellular automata-based model which has been applied in a<br />
variety of studies, including modeling tropical deforestation (Soares-Filho et al. 2002 <strong>and</strong> 2006;<br />
Cuevas <strong>and</strong> Mas 2008) <strong>and</strong> urban growth <strong>and</strong> dynamics (Godoy <strong>and</strong> Soares-Filho 2008). L<strong>and</strong><br />
<strong>Change</strong> Modeler (available in IDRISI) provides tools for the assessment <strong>and</strong> projection of l<strong>and</strong><br />
cover change, <strong>and</strong> their implications for species habitat <strong>and</strong> biodiversity (Eastman 2006; Gontier<br />
et al. 2009; Koi <strong>and</strong> Murayama 2010). Statistical analysis <strong>and</strong> graphs were created using R (R<br />
Development Core Team 2009).<br />
* Corresponding author. Tel.: +52 443 328 38 35 - Fax: +52 443 38 80<br />
Email address: jfmas@ciga.unam.mx<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
J.-F. Mas et al. 2010. Assessing “spatially explicit” l<strong>and</strong> use/cover change models<br />
509<br />
Modeling was carried out using the data set supplied with the IDRISI tutorial which consists of<br />
l<strong>and</strong> cover (LC) maps <strong>and</strong> ancillary information from a rapidly changing area in the Bolivian<br />
lowl<strong>and</strong>s (Eastman 2009). The data used in the present study are the LC maps of 1986 <strong>and</strong> 1994<br />
<strong>and</strong> several maps used as explanatory variables (maps of distance from urban areas, distance<br />
from roads, slope, distance from disturbance, elevation).<br />
3. Methodology<br />
The present study aimed at: 1) creating modeled LC maps using DINAMICA <strong>and</strong> LCM; <strong>and</strong><br />
2) assessing these maps using two approaches, a) based on the spatial coincidence,, <strong>and</strong><br />
b) computing l<strong>and</strong>scape metrics.<br />
3.1. LUCC Modeling<br />
LUCC are modeled empirically by using past change to develop a mathematical model; <strong>and</strong> GIS<br />
data layers influence the transition potential. The simulation procedures can be sub-divided into<br />
the following basic steps:<br />
1) Calibration: The model is calibrated using a map of LUCC obtained through the comparison<br />
of LC maps at two different dates (1986 <strong>and</strong> 1994 in the present case). The quantity of each type<br />
of change is computed from a Markov matrix, which is the st<strong>and</strong>ard procedure in DINAMICA<br />
<strong>and</strong> LCM. A spatial analysis allows the identification of more likely change locations using a<br />
set of explanatory variables. Based upon the relationship between the different transitions <strong>and</strong><br />
the explanatory variables, maps of change potential are produced for each transition. In the<br />
present study, the DINAMICA model uses the map of probability elaborated by the LCM<br />
artificial neural network (ANN) in order to obtain comparable results.<br />
2) Simulation: A prospective LC map is created based upon the expected quantity of changes<br />
(Markov matrix). DINAMICA <strong>and</strong> IDRISI use a cellular automata approach in order to obtain a<br />
proximity effect <strong>and</strong> eventually simulate l<strong>and</strong>scape pattern. In IDRISI, the process involves a<br />
3x3 filter which reclassifies pixels to incorporate the effects of neighboring pixels on a current<br />
pixel value <strong>and</strong> there is no option to control the CA behavior. DINAMICA uses two<br />
complementary transition functions: 1) the Exp<strong>and</strong>er; <strong>and</strong> 2) the Patcher. The first process is<br />
dedicated only to the expansion or contraction of previous patches of a certain class. The second<br />
process generates new patches through a seeding mechanism. The user can set parameters to<br />
control the size <strong>and</strong> shape of the simulated patches, such as mean patch size, patch size<br />
variance, <strong>and</strong> isometry. Additionally, a “prune factor” allows simulated changes to occur in less<br />
likely areas.<br />
3.2. Model assessment<br />
The evaluation of the LC prospective map was based on the comparison between the simulated<br />
<strong>and</strong> the observed (true) map using two approaches: a) the spatial coincidence between modeled<br />
<strong>and</strong> true change; <strong>and</strong>, b) the spatial pattern of modeled <strong>and</strong> true change patches.<br />
In order to assess the spatial coincidence between simulated <strong>and</strong> true changes, we used the<br />
fuzzy similarity test based on the concept of fuzziness of location, in which a representation of a<br />
cell is influenced by the cell itself <strong>and</strong> by the cells in its neighborhood (Hagen 2003). Two-way<br />
comparison was conducted, applying the fuzziness to the simulated <strong>and</strong> the true maps of change<br />
in turn. As r<strong>and</strong>om maps tend to score higher, we picked up the minimum fit value from the<br />
two-way comparison. In order to assess the spatial configuration of simulated <strong>and</strong> true changes,<br />
we calculated, for each transition, the amount of change with respect to the map of change<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
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probability. For this, a map of susceptibility categories was first obtained by reclassifying<br />
susceptibility maps into 10 categories <strong>and</strong> overlaying this with the maps of changes.<br />
Additionally, some metrics used to characterize l<strong>and</strong>scape were computed, such as the number<br />
<strong>and</strong> the size of the patches (mean <strong>and</strong> st<strong>and</strong>ard deviation) <strong>and</strong> total edge (mean <strong>and</strong> st<strong>and</strong>ard<br />
deviation). In the present study, as we are interested in assessing l<strong>and</strong>scape pattern simulation<br />
rather than predictive performance, we simulated a 1994 LC map from the model calibrated<br />
over the period 1986-94 (i.e. the simulation <strong>and</strong> calibration periods are the same).<br />
4. Result<br />
4.1. LUCC Modeling<br />
During 1986-94, the main LUCC transitions were the conversion to anthropogenic disturbance<br />
of:<br />
Transition 1:Deciduous mature forest.<br />
Transition 2: Savanna.<br />
Transition 3: Amazonian mature forest.<br />
Transition 4: Woodl<strong>and</strong> savanna.<br />
Only these 4 principal transitions were modeled using as explanatory variables the distance<br />
from 1986 urban areas, the distance from roads, the slope, the distance from 1986 disturbance,<br />
the elevation <strong>and</strong> the 1986 LC map. The two programs were used to build 1994 simulated LC<br />
maps (Figure 1). In the case of DINAMICA, various settings of prune factors, patch sizes <strong>and</strong><br />
isometry were tested.<br />
True 1994 LC map<br />
Simulated 1994 LC map (DINAMICA)<br />
Simulated 1994 LC map (LCM)<br />
Figure 1: True 1994 LC map <strong>and</strong> modeled maps by DINAMICA <strong>and</strong> LCM (Zoom on the Southeastern<br />
part of the study area, only the category anthropogenic disturbance is represented)<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
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4.2. Model assessment<br />
The fuzzy similarity index indicates that coincidence between the true changes <strong>and</strong> the changes<br />
modeled by LCM is much higher than with DINAMICA using little tolerance (fuzzy tolerance<br />
distance < 1000 m). This result was expected as LCM tends to collocate simulated changes only<br />
in the areas with higher change potential. Since DINAMICA makes an attempt to create patches<br />
<strong>and</strong> simulates change in less likely areas (if the prune factor value is set high), the coincidence<br />
between the true <strong>and</strong> simulated changes is likely to be lower. However, with higher fuzzy<br />
tolerance values, DINAMICA presents a higher score because it has some (fuzzy) coincidence<br />
of simulated patches located in less likely areas. This does not occur with LCM that restricts the<br />
simulated change to the more susceptible areas only. Therefore, DINAMICA presents a better<br />
coincidence “as a broad picture” whereas LCM exhibits a better coincidence on a per-pixel<br />
comparison or with little fuzzy tolerance.<br />
Table 1 shows that with DINAMICA it was possible to obtain for each transition simulated<br />
patches of change that present broadly the same size as true patches of change. In the case of<br />
LCM, the simulation produced some very large patches corresponding to the higher<br />
susceptibility areas, resulting in larger values for the mean <strong>and</strong> the st<strong>and</strong>ard deviation of patch<br />
size. A similar pattern can be observed for patch edge lengths. However, there are fewer patches<br />
on the true change map than on either of the simulated change maps. The map modeled with<br />
LCM has 47% fewer patches than the true map.<br />
Table 1: L<strong>and</strong>scape metrics for true <strong>and</strong> simulated maps<br />
Metric Transition True <strong>Change</strong>s DINAMICA LCM<br />
Number of patches Transition 1 332 204 192<br />
Transition 2 326 208 190<br />
Transition 3 666 615 299<br />
Transition 4 1017 804 547<br />
Patch size (mean / Transition 1 5.7 / 6.9 9.3 / 9.3 9.7 / 36.2<br />
st<strong>and</strong>ard deviation)<br />
Transition 2 9.8 / 18.4 15.4 / 21.3<br />
16.7 / 41.7<br />
Transition 3 17.1 / 46.3 18.5 / 23.5 36.1 / 162.1<br />
Transition 4 19.4 / 45.6<br />
35.4 / 151.6<br />
24.5 / 32.4<br />
Patch edge length Transition 1 1058.1 / 802.4 1551.5 / 1262.8 1417.2 / 2936.7<br />
(mean / st<strong>and</strong>ard<br />
Transition 2<br />
2097.1 / 2056.8 2133.2 / 3690.2<br />
deviation)<br />
1465 / 1835.6<br />
Transition 3 1856.8 / 2604.1 2245.4 / 2240.3 3107.9 / 9325.7<br />
Transition 4 2233.2 / 3343.9 2889 / 3184.5 3240.2 / 9436.7<br />
Figure 2 shows that true changes do not occur only in more susceptible areas <strong>and</strong> that this<br />
tendency depends on the transition. For example, transition 3 occurred mainly in the more<br />
susceptible area whereas transition 2 is frequent even in areas with medium susceptibility. The<br />
changes simulated by LCM are limited to the areas with higher susceptibility. The setting of the<br />
prune factor allowed DINAMICA to generate a map with a distribution of change closer to the<br />
observed change.<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
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Figure 2. Distribution of change in categories of change susceptibility.<br />
5. Discussion<br />
DINAMICA was able to generate more realistic prospective LC maps with respect to l<strong>and</strong>scape<br />
pattern because it provides parameters to control the CA behavior. However, the best manner of<br />
producing a prospective LC map, where simulated changes fit better with the true changes, is by<br />
thresholding the susceptibility map, because the majority of the changes occur in the more likely<br />
locations. The realism of the l<strong>and</strong>scape pattern in the prospective LC map is obtained at the<br />
expense of the accuracy of the locations of the change. This is particularly obvious when<br />
models simulate the occurrence of changes in unlikely areas. The prune factor in DINAMICA<br />
also allows the occurring of change in less likely areas. When modeling aims at producing LC<br />
maps that can represent a possible future given a certain scenario, the accuracy of the spatial<br />
allocation of change is not necessarily a critical issue. For example, in the assessment of LUCC<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
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on biodiversity, it can be important to know that homogeneous forest areas will be perforated by<br />
small agriculture fields although the exact location of the fields remain unknown.<br />
However, the common procedures of assessment of a prospective LC map are based upon the<br />
spatial coincidence of the simulated map <strong>and</strong> a “true” observed map. Therefore, the modeling<br />
<strong>and</strong> the assessment procedures have to be adapted to the critical feature the model has to<br />
achieve. When l<strong>and</strong>scape pattern is an important feature, the computing of l<strong>and</strong>scape metrics<br />
can provide valuable insights to evaluate the model performance.<br />
6. Acknowledgements<br />
This research has been supported by the Consejo Nacional de Ciencia y Tecnología -<br />
CONACyT (Sabbatical <strong>and</strong> posdoctoral stays at the University of California - Santa Barbara of<br />
the first <strong>and</strong> second author respectively) <strong>and</strong> the Dirección General de Asuntos del Personal<br />
Académico (DGAPA) at the Universidad National Autónoma de México (additional support for<br />
the sabbatical stay)<br />
References<br />
Cuevas, G <strong>and</strong> Mas, J-.F., 2008. L<strong>and</strong> use scenarios: a communication tool with local<br />
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Dynamics, Springer-Verlag. pp. 223-246.<br />
de Sherbinin, A., 2002. CIESIN Thematic Guide to L<strong>and</strong> L<strong>and</strong>-Use <strong>and</strong> L<strong>and</strong> L<strong>and</strong>-Cover<br />
<strong>Change</strong> (LUCC). Center for International Earth Science Information Network (CIESIN)<br />
Columbia University Palisades, NY, USA.<br />
http://sedac.ciesin.columbia.edu/guides/lu/CIESIN_LUCC_TG.pdf.<br />
Eastman, J.R. 2009. IDRISI taiga Tutorial. Accessed in IDRISI 16.05. Worcester, MA: Clark<br />
University: 333 p.<br />
Eastman, J.R., Van Fossen, M.E. <strong>and</strong> Solarzano, L.A., 2005. Transition Potential Modeling for<br />
L<strong>and</strong> Cover <strong>Change</strong>, in: D. Maguire, M. Goodchild <strong>and</strong> M. Batty (Eds). GIS, Spatial<br />
Analysis <strong>and</strong> Modeling,., ESRI Press Redl<strong>and</strong>s, California.<br />
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Hagen, A., 2003. Fuzzy set approach to assessing similarity of categorical maps. International<br />
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Tam Dao National Park Region, Vietnam. Remote Sensing, 2, 1249-1272.<br />
R Development Core Team, 2009. R: A language <strong>and</strong> environment for statistical computing. R<br />
Foundation for Statistical Computing,Vienna, Austria, URL http://www.R-project.org.<br />
Soares-Filho, B.S., Pennachin, C.L. <strong>and</strong> Cerqueira, G., 2002. DINAMICA – a stochastic cellular<br />
automata model designed to simulate the l<strong>and</strong>scape dynamics in an Amazonian<br />
colonization frontier. Ecological Modelling, 154(3):217-235.<br />
Soares-Filho, B.S., Nepstad, D., Curran, L., Voll, E., Cerqueira, G., García, R.A., Ramos,<br />
C.A., Mcdonald, A., Lefebvre, P. <strong>and</strong> Schlesinger, P., 2006. Modelling conservation in<br />
the Amazon basin. Nature, 440:520-523.<br />
Veldkamp, A. <strong>and</strong> Lambin, E., 2001. Predicting l<strong>and</strong>-use change. Agriculture, Ecosystems <strong>and</strong><br />
Environment, 85:1-6.<br />
Xiang, W-N <strong>and</strong> Clarke, K.C., 2003. The use of scenarios in l<strong>and</strong>-use planning. Environment<br />
<strong>and</strong> Planning B: Planning <strong>and</strong> Design, 30(6) 885-909.<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
A. Matos et al. 2010. Economic valuation of environmental goods <strong>and</strong> services<br />
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Economic valuation of environmental goods <strong>and</strong> services<br />
Alda Matos 1* , Paula Cabo 2 , Isabel Ribeiro 2 & António Fern<strong>and</strong>es 2<br />
1<br />
Polytechnic Institute of Bragança, Portugal<br />
2<br />
CIMO - Mountain Research Centre, Portugal<br />
Abstract<br />
The economic valuation of environmental goods <strong>and</strong> services (EVEG&S) results of the<br />
increasing concern with the quality of industrial products <strong>and</strong> the reduction of social welfare.<br />
The EVEG&S presents the direct <strong>and</strong> indirect costs <strong>and</strong> benefits of quantitative <strong>and</strong> qualitative<br />
environmental changes in goods <strong>and</strong> services <strong>and</strong> corresponding impacts. This is particularly<br />
important in the valuation of investment projects <strong>and</strong> governmental policies. This study consists<br />
in a survey of environmental appraisal methods, focusing into the hypothetical <strong>and</strong><br />
complementary market based ones. The review reveals that evaluation of environmental quality<br />
is very complex. In fact, for each criterion there are several assumptions that are inapplicable to<br />
all situations. Effectively, despite the evident complementarity of conventional goods<br />
environmental quality, the values attributed to these resources could be underestimated <strong>and</strong><br />
complementary <strong>and</strong> substitute markets can be inefficient parameters.<br />
Keywords: Economic valuation, natural resources, markets, environmental goods<br />
1. Introduction<br />
The economic growth is based on wealth creation, based on a process of dominance <strong>and</strong><br />
transformation of the Nature. The modern society is guilty of wild exploitation of natural<br />
resources, neglecting the damages of productive activities. The dem<strong>and</strong> <strong>and</strong> improper use of the<br />
natural resources increases daily. With this speedy environmental harm, environmental<br />
protection st<strong>and</strong>s out as one of the current <strong>and</strong> future major challenges for humanity. The<br />
economic appraisal of environment results of the increasing concern with protection <strong>and</strong><br />
preservation of natural resources <strong>and</strong> consumers’ requests for quality industrial products,<br />
simultaneous with the reduction of social welfare, as consequence of the quality <strong>and</strong> amount of<br />
these resources. The economic appraisal emerges as a measuring tool of environmental goods<br />
<strong>and</strong> services <strong>and</strong> of the impacts of environmental degradation <strong>and</strong> depletion, determining the<br />
direct <strong>and</strong> indirect costs <strong>and</strong> benefits of qualitative <strong>and</strong> quantitative changes. It is gathering<br />
importance in the evaluation of investment projects, governmental policies <strong>and</strong> international<br />
trade. This paper focuses on this problematic. The paper consists of a critical analysis of the<br />
economic appraisal criteria of environmental goods <strong>and</strong> services. Particularly of the methods<br />
that make use of hypothetical <strong>and</strong> complementary market goods.<br />
2. Economic Valuation of Environmental Goods <strong>and</strong> Services<br />
Based on the externality notion, Foladori (1997) defends that negative trends inherent to free<br />
market can be beated through environmental appraisal with the inclusion of prices in economic<br />
analysis, via policies that attenuate environmental problems. Schweitzer (1990) beliefs that<br />
environmental appraisal is fundamental to prevent the depletion of natural resources.<br />
The environmental appraisal emerges as a set of techniques <strong>and</strong> methods to quantify the<br />
expectations of benefits/costs derived from the use of environmental assets, carrying out<br />
* Corresponding author. Tel.: (+351) 273 303 242 - Fax: (+351) 273 325 405<br />
Email address: alda@ipb.pt<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
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benefittings or infliction of environmental damages. The economic value of an environmental<br />
good consists of the estimate of a monetary value for this good, in opposition to other available<br />
goods. However, some times, it’s difficult to aggregate all the effects in a single indicator.<br />
The economic value of environmental resources (EVER) results from its attributes, <strong>and</strong> these<br />
can be associated to the use (direct, indirect <strong>and</strong> option) or non-use of the resource, i.e., its<br />
simple existence. EVER purposes a fee for environmental resources’ use <strong>and</strong>/or preservation.<br />
The genesis is the protection of current <strong>and</strong> future generations’ interests. Thus, use value (UV)<br />
is the value attributed by people who use or usufruct of the environmental good to satisfy their<br />
needs. The non use value (NUV) is dissociate of the use because it derives from a moral,<br />
cultural, ethical or altruistic position regarding the rights of existence of other living species or<br />
the preservation of natural assets although that do not represent current or future use for them.<br />
While slightly different classifications exist, they result the same. Still, controversy subsists<br />
regarding existence (EV) <strong>and</strong> option (OV) values, since the EV represents the individual will to<br />
preserve a set of environmental resources for future generations’ direct <strong>and</strong>/or indirect use. Thus,<br />
the conceptual question is if a value defined like so is closer associated with the OV or the EV.<br />
Equally, the legacy value (in this definition mixed with the EV) can be independent (Figure1).<br />
However, for EVER matters that the individuals point out the most trustworthy values possible,<br />
independently of the current or future use.<br />
Economic Value of Environmental Resources<br />
Non Use Value<br />
Direct Use Value<br />
Indirect Use<br />
Value<br />
Option Value Existence Value Legacy Value<br />
Figure 1: Different economic values of environmental resources<br />
The environmental appraisal difficulty increases inversely as function of the resources’ use. The<br />
choice of the criterion depends on the knowledge of the ecological dynamics of the study object,<br />
the purpose of the valuation, the availability of information <strong>and</strong> the hypotheses adopted.<br />
Environmental economics classifies the valuation techniques in production function methods –<br />
marginal productivity method <strong>and</strong> markets of substitute goods method – <strong>and</strong> dem<strong>and</strong> function<br />
methods – methods that utilize markets of complementary goods (hedonic prices <strong>and</strong> travel<br />
costs methods) <strong>and</strong> hypothetical markets (method of contingent valuation). May <strong>and</strong> Motta<br />
(1994) refer that production function methods analyze environmental resources associated to the<br />
production of a private good <strong>and</strong>, generally, assume that supply variations do not influence<br />
market prices. The dem<strong>and</strong> function methods admit that changes in resource availability modify<br />
individual wellbeing <strong>and</strong>, therefore, it’s possible to identify individual measures of Willingness<br />
to Pay (WTP) or Willingness to Accept (WTA) regarding to these variations. These are the<br />
methods under this study review.<br />
2.1. Analysis of the Dem<strong>and</strong> Function Methods<br />
To Dixon et al. (2001), subjective valuation methodologies can assess consumers revealed or<br />
expressed preferences, in real or fictitious markets, relating it with individuals’ utility functions.<br />
Mainly, these methodologies use substitute market prices or contingent values (Table 1)<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
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Table 1: Subjective valuation criteria<br />
Complementary Goods Market<br />
Hedonic Prices<br />
Property value Revealed behaviour Substitute market prices<br />
Wages differential Revealed behaviour Substitute market prices<br />
Travel Costs Revealed behaviour Substitute market prices<br />
Hypothetical Markets<br />
Contingent Valuation Expressed behaviour Contingent value<br />
Revealed preferences analysis is based on real markets of goods <strong>and</strong> services (MG&S) affected<br />
by environmental impact, in which folks pick between levels of environmental quality <strong>and</strong> other<br />
goods. When resources are not marketly traded, the economic analysis aims to estimate the<br />
economic value as if the market exists. The analysis of expressed behaviours is used when is not<br />
possible to valuate the environmental impacts, even dissimulatly, through real markets.<br />
2.1.1. Markets of Complementary Goods<br />
The urban amenities are not restricted to natural features, as green areas, beaches <strong>and</strong> climate.<br />
The concept also adds the goods (or evils) created by men, as traffic, pollution, recreation areas<br />
<strong>and</strong> safety. The study of these environmental attributes permits to underst<strong>and</strong> the impact (<strong>and</strong><br />
the changes) of the cities physical space on their inhabitants’ wellbeing, as well as the effect on<br />
the real estate market value. To quantify urban amenities is not a simple task. Although the real<br />
estate market has supply, dem<strong>and</strong> <strong>and</strong> an equilibrium price, it’s not possible to visualize the<br />
market prices of environmental amenities, since trade of oxygen, l<strong>and</strong>scape, recreation areas, or<br />
traffic, pollution <strong>and</strong> noise, does not exist.<br />
The hedonic prices (MHP) <strong>and</strong> travel costs (TCM) models are the more adjusted criteria to<br />
decode this information. They are based in the preferences revealed by consumers in a substitute<br />
market, <strong>and</strong> use it to assess individuals’ wellbeing, in view of environmental quality changes.<br />
The MHP has been widely used in the real estate market to measure the marginal value of<br />
natural or structural attributes, <strong>and</strong> estimate the correlated social-environmental variables. This<br />
method is based on the recognition of the complementary attributes of a specific private<br />
composed good to environmental goods or services (Motta, 1998). This complementarity<br />
discloses the price of the environmental attribute implicit in the market price.<br />
The method of property value (<strong>and</strong> wages differential method) solely valuates UV. It only looks<br />
into the appraisal of environmental functions/services that directly affect the market prices of<br />
related goods. The MHP considers a heterogeneous good as a closed package, with specific<br />
attributes, where the marginal price of each one is estimated, based on the analysis of the good<br />
observed value <strong>and</strong> attributes’ respective amounts (Rosen, 1974). It presumes that families,<br />
when look for housing, are worried about what exists inside <strong>and</strong> outside (the amenities) of the<br />
property. These amenities (distance to workplace, proximity of parks, beach, schools, quality of<br />
air, water, sonorous pollution, l<strong>and</strong>scape, etc.) will imply variations in the asset usufruct.<br />
Similarly, the price of a specific l<strong>and</strong> does not depend solely on its patrimonial value, but also<br />
on the actual value of the net benefits generated by soil productivity over time. Thus, because<br />
productivity levels differ, different l<strong>and</strong> fractions have different price levels. Additionally, the<br />
environmental features, as air quality, water disposal (for irrigation) or erosion, affect the soil<br />
quality for agriculture, <strong>and</strong> thus, its price. The MHP estimates the quantitative differences of the<br />
attributes, using market prices of goods or costs of services essentials in the formation of these<br />
prices/costs. These discrepancies are valued by individuals, reflecting their WTP when the<br />
environmental attributes vary. According to this paradigm, two houses with identical physical<br />
attributes, situated in different ecological <strong>and</strong> social contexts, will have different prices.<br />
The MHP catches only the use values. EV is not catched because of the weak complementarity.<br />
When the dem<strong>and</strong> for a specific environmental attribute is null, the dem<strong>and</strong> for the composed<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
A. Matos et al. 2010. Economic valuation of environmental goods <strong>and</strong> services<br />
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good is also null. Redondo (1999) refers that MHP reproduces the changes in the UV of a<br />
specific place inhabitants, but are merely informative in the “passer-bys” case (individuals that<br />
do not have fixed residence there, but sporadically travel to it) <strong>and</strong> reveal nothing about NUV<br />
(associated with individuals that do not use the place). The adoption of this criterion requires the<br />
existence of a reasonable mobility in real state market, so that folks can reveal their WTP in an<br />
environmental context where is possible to choose between houses with different attributes <strong>and</strong><br />
without prohibitive transaction costs (costs of house search <strong>and</strong> changing, taxes <strong>and</strong> duties<br />
associated with the sale/purchase). The improve of life quality conditions in a specific<br />
neighbourhood, does not necessarily imply a change in housing prices, due to the people weak<br />
mobility to try another neighbourhood <strong>and</strong> their WTP for usufruct of it.<br />
Dixon et al. (1994), Comune et al. (1995), Motta (1998), Redondo (1999), among others,<br />
emphasize that MHP efficient results require the assembling of detailed <strong>and</strong> faithful information<br />
on the characteristics of the asset under valuation. An exhaustive survey on the environmental<br />
indicators is crucial. Namely, the attributes that influence the assets price: property features<br />
(size, degree of conservation, benefittings); commercial, transport <strong>and</strong> education services; local<br />
community quality (neighbouring, criminality) <strong>and</strong> social-economic information of a sample<br />
representative of local owners. Additionally, the attribute under valuation must be clearly <strong>and</strong><br />
precisely defined, in order to successfully isolate it from the subject other attributes. The same<br />
authors refer the operative difficulties in the econometrical estimation of the hedonic functions<br />
due to the omission of relevant variables, attributes’ multicollinearity, <strong>and</strong> functional form<br />
identification, among others. Additionally, property prices can be underestimated due to minor<br />
property tax transfer or to attenuate the effect of patrimonial variations. The alternative would<br />
be to use leasing values. So, this method must only be used in case of high correlation between<br />
property price <strong>and</strong> environmental attribute, when is possible to catch all the attributes<br />
influencing the real estate market equilibrium price <strong>and</strong> when the hypotheses adopted for the<br />
estimate of the consumer surplus are realistic.<br />
The TCM is used in the valuation of environmental resources as parks <strong>and</strong> recreational sites, but<br />
also to quantify externalities of urban collective transport projects. The TCM basic premise is<br />
that the costs of accessing to a place directly influence its visits number. This method associates<br />
the environmental resources value to its recreation value. The benefits of a specific investment<br />
are quantified in function of the (estimated costs by the) curve of dem<strong>and</strong> of the activity, based<br />
on the study of their users’ expenditures (in time <strong>and</strong> transportation costs).<br />
The TCM is based on a preferences approach. The individual reveals his choices buying specific<br />
goods associated with the use of an environmental good. This approach requires interviews to<br />
the visitors in order to determine their st<strong>and</strong>ard use <strong>and</strong> to gather information on the number of<br />
visitors; visitors’ geographic, social <strong>and</strong> economical characteristics; motive, duration <strong>and</strong><br />
frequency of the visit; transportation mean <strong>and</strong> costs associated to the trip... The data collected<br />
will be used to estimate a visitation rate by region of origin, the total travel costs <strong>and</strong> link it with<br />
the visits frequency, establishing a dem<strong>and</strong> correspondence. Each individual income matches a<br />
dem<strong>and</strong> function, given that each person is WTP a determined price in exchange for an amount<br />
of the product. The curve of dem<strong>and</strong> for visit for each region <strong>and</strong> the aggregated dem<strong>and</strong> curve<br />
are determined. Then, visitation dem<strong>and</strong> function is used to estimate the consumer surplus,<br />
which represents the economic value of the recreational site.<br />
The disadvantages of the TCM application are related with the individual visits’ duration, the<br />
possibility of resources deterioration, the distance (it’s expected that distant residents visit less<br />
the recreational site, while they can actually have longer visits), the difficulty in the exclusion of<br />
services not associated to the site (multiple trip objectives <strong>and</strong> destinations), the merely capture<br />
the visits direct <strong>and</strong> indirect UV <strong>and</strong> the monetary value of the time spent by the visitor<br />
(overvaluing the recreation cost, due to price distortions in the labour market). Other<br />
disadvantages are related with the premises assumed in the estimation of the curve of dem<strong>and</strong>;<br />
the need of reliable data; high application costs; dependency of statistical methods; <strong>and</strong> the no<br />
consideration of NUV components.<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
A. Matos et al. 2010. Economic valuation of environmental goods <strong>and</strong> services<br />
518<br />
2.1.2. Hypothetical markets<br />
To Hicks (1939), the estimation of a change in consumer wellbeing can be carried out by its<br />
income variation, introducing two measures of value that support the economic valuation of<br />
environmental impacts. The measures are compensatory <strong>and</strong> equivalent variations <strong>and</strong> are<br />
linked with variations in consumers’ utility <strong>and</strong> preferences (WTP <strong>and</strong> WTA).<br />
According to Comune et al. (1995), the Method of Contingent Valuation (MCV) aggregates a<br />
set of techniques used in research to estimate the EVEG&S, based on consumers’ preferences.<br />
These techniques are based on individual budgetary evaluations, given an increase or decrease<br />
in the quality or amount of an environmental good or service, in a hypothetical scenario. This is<br />
the only method that allows valuating the UV <strong>and</strong> NUV of environmental resources. Its domain<br />
of application is the valuation of wildlife, protection of habitats <strong>and</strong> measurement of the UV of<br />
leisure <strong>and</strong> recreational sites. According to Dixon et al. (1994), the MCV constitutes the only<br />
alternative to attain economic value estimates when in presence of distortions in environmental<br />
MG&S, there are no effective market nor substitute markets for it. Walnut et al. (2000) explain<br />
that the theoretical concept of MCV is consumer theory (consumer choice <strong>and</strong> consumer<br />
surplus). The individual WTP discloses, through the graduation of the marginal utility, the best<br />
estimate of its dem<strong>and</strong> scale, <strong>and</strong> thus, quantifying social welfare measures. The consumer<br />
choices are based on the utility maximization premise, under budgetary restriction. The<br />
consumer surplus valuates the different degrees of individuals’ preferences for various goods<br />
<strong>and</strong> services revealed when consumers go to the market <strong>and</strong> pay a specific amount for them.<br />
The MCV uses questionnaire techniques to valuate consumers expressed preferences, <strong>and</strong><br />
clearly describe the good to quantify. In order to the respondents declare <strong>and</strong> quantify their real<br />
preferences, this method simulates scenarios with characteristics analogous to the existing in the<br />
real world. Based on personal opinions, constructs a hypothetical market <strong>and</strong> quantify WTP<br />
(payment for a wellbeing improvement) <strong>and</strong> WTA (reimbursement for a wellbeing loss)<br />
according to variations in the availability of environmental resources. The intended result is to<br />
reach maximum WTP for a given benefit, the minimum compensation to abdicate of the benefit<br />
or WTA for environmental damage. Finally, average WTP/WTA is calculated, the populations<br />
are added <strong>and</strong> thus obtaining the estimates of the value attributed to the environmental good.<br />
Comune et al. (1995: 64) point out that one of the advantages of this type of methodology<br />
consists, precisely, of producing estimates of values that could not be obtained by other ways.<br />
To Macedo (2002), the limitations of these methods derive from individuals apparently<br />
contradictory behaviours, according with the roles adopted in face of the environmental good.<br />
The author refer that most of the folks is propense to establish extremely high values to admit<br />
the loss of a natural resources <strong>and</strong> excessively low values in the hypothesis of having to pay to<br />
assure the it protection.<br />
The MCV can bear ambiguous results due to bias, resulting from the market fictitious feature<br />
<strong>and</strong> from quality of the individuals’ information. The respondents can not reveal the real WTP<br />
or WTA due to their reduced experience, mostly for the WTA case. Moreover, the interviewer<br />
can induce answers. And, having no commitment with an effective payment, the vehicle used<br />
can affect the result.<br />
3. Final remarks<br />
This paper describes several methodologies of evaluation of environmental goods, showing that<br />
the quantification of environmental quality is not simple to get. None of the different existing<br />
methods adjust to all situations. Each criterion is limited to specific conditions, <strong>and</strong> therefore<br />
unacceptable <strong>and</strong> inapplicable in others.<br />
The economic indicators are precious tools for unique decision making, however, as society<br />
general knowledge of ecosystem functions is reduced, they become limited, consequently<br />
overvaluing individual preferences, that is, overvalue a subsystem in detriment of another<br />
possibly more valuable for the project. Therefore, the EVEG&S incurs in an implicit<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
A. Matos et al. 2010. Economic valuation of environmental goods <strong>and</strong> services<br />
519<br />
subjectivity of the importance of the scale <strong>and</strong> the definition of object of study. With the<br />
existing subjectivity, we can argue about the multiplicity of the value, since different exercises<br />
of quantification origin distinct results, according to the purpose <strong>and</strong> the methodology applied.<br />
Such multiplicity does not reduce the importance of the valuation as an analysis technique, but,<br />
each result can be influenced by different perspectives, <strong>and</strong>, thus alerting to the values’ partiality.<br />
The EVEG&S should be executed in partnership by environmental, social scientists <strong>and</strong><br />
economists, with inter, trans <strong>and</strong> multidisciplinary dimension to avoid the risk of<br />
indiscriminately choose methods inadequate to the reality in study. The EVEG&S is of extreme<br />
utility for the decision making, but has limits of scientific uncertainty that go beyond economic<br />
science. Therefore, it would be of all interest a bigger scientific cooperation in this area, in order<br />
to increase quality to the current state of the art, since the resources’ values can be<br />
underestimated <strong>and</strong> the complementary or substitute markets can be inefficient parameters.<br />
References<br />
Comune, A.; Grasso. M.; Tognella, M. <strong>and</strong> Schaeffer, Y.,1995.Aplicação de Técnicas de<br />
Avaliação Econômica ao Ecossistema Manguezal. Valor<strong>and</strong>o a Natureza.<br />
Dixon, J.; Scura, L.; Carpenter, R. <strong>and</strong> Sherman, P.,1994. Economic Analysis of Environmental<br />
Impacts. Earthscan Publications Ltd. London.<br />
Foladori, G., 1997. A Economia Frente à Crise Ambiental. Revista de Economia, 23(21).<br />
Hicks, J., 1939. The Foundations of Welfare Economics. Economic Journal, 49:696-712.<br />
Loomis, J. <strong>and</strong> González-Cabán, A., 1998. A Willingness to Pay for Protecting Acres of Spotted<br />
Owl Habitat from Fire. Ecological Economics, 25:315-322.<br />
Loomis, J.; González-Cabán, A. <strong>and</strong> Gregory, R., 1996. A Contingent Valuation Study of the<br />
Value of Reducing Fire Hazards to Old-growth <strong>Forest</strong>s in the Pacific Northwest. Pacific<br />
Southwest Research Station. USDA, <strong>Forest</strong> Serv. Berkeley. CA.<br />
Macedo, Z., 2002. Os Limites da Economia na Gestão Ambiental. Margem, 15:203-222.<br />
May, P. <strong>and</strong> Motta, R., 1994. Valor<strong>and</strong>o a Natureza: Análise Económica para o<br />
Desenvolvimento Sustentável. Editora Campus. Rio de Janeiro.<br />
Motta, R., 1998. Manual para Valoração Económica de Recursos Ambientais. Ministério do<br />
Meio Ambiente, dos Recursos Hídricos e da Amazônia Legal, Brasília, 218p.<br />
Moura, L., 2000. Economia Ambiental: Gestão de Custos e Investimentos. Ed. Juarez de<br />
Oliveira, S. Paulo, 200p.<br />
Munasinghe, M., 1992. Environmental Economics <strong>and</strong> Valuation of Development Decisions.<br />
Banco Mundial.<br />
Nogueira, J.; Medeiros, M. <strong>and</strong> Arruda, F., 2000. Valoração Econômica do Meio Ambiente:<br />
Ciência ou Empirismo Cadernos de Ciência e Tecnologia, 17(2):81-115.<br />
Pearce, D. <strong>and</strong> Turner, R., 1990. Economics of Natural Resources <strong>and</strong> the Environment.<br />
Harviester Wcatsheag, The Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore.<br />
Redondo, O., 1999. Entre la Economia y la Naturaleza. La Controversia sobre la Valoración<br />
Monetaria del Medio Ambiente y la Sustentabilidad del Sistema Económico. Los Libros<br />
de la Catarata, Madrid.<br />
Rosen, S., 1974. Hedonic Price <strong>and</strong> Implicit Markets: Product Differentiation in Pure<br />
Competition. Journal of Political Economics, 82:34-55.<br />
Santos, R.; Martinho, S. <strong>and</strong> Antunes, P., 2001. Avaliação Económica dos Impactes Ambientais<br />
do Sector Eléctrico. Estudo Sobre o Sector Eléctrico e Ambiente. 2º Relatório. Centro de<br />
Economia Ecológica e Gestão do Ambiente, Universidade Nova de Lisboa.<br />
Schweitzer, J., 1990. Economics, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Development: a Perspective from USAID.<br />
In: Vicent, J.; Crawfor, E. <strong>and</strong> Hoehn, J. (eds). Valuing Environmental Benefits in<br />
Developing Countries: Proceedings. East Lansing, Michigan State University.<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
A. Migliozzi et al. 2010. L<strong>and</strong>-use management <strong>and</strong> changes in Campania Region (Southern Italy)<br />
520<br />
L<strong>and</strong>-use management <strong>and</strong> changes in Campania Region (Southern<br />
Italy): examples from ten regional State <strong>Forest</strong>s<br />
A. Migliozzi 1 , F. Cona 1 , A. di Gennaro 2 , A. Mingo 1 , A. Saracino 1 & S. Mazzoleni 1<br />
1<br />
Department ARBOPAVE, University of Napoli “Federico II”, Via Università 100,<br />
80055 Portici (NA), Italy<br />
2<br />
Risorsa s.r.l., Via Raffaello 15, 80129 Napoli, Italy<br />
Abstract<br />
In the last 50 years the Italian territory has undergone a remarkable transformation as a<br />
consequence of anthropogenic activity . In the Campania Region, the main causes of change are<br />
urban expansion, ab<strong>and</strong>onment of mountainous <strong>and</strong> marginal agricultural areas <strong>and</strong> expansion<br />
of industrial settlements. We document l<strong>and</strong> use variation during the last 50 years <strong>and</strong> the<br />
changes occurred in ten Regional <strong>Forest</strong>s which contain mainly natural l<strong>and</strong> use patches<br />
The main problems of l<strong>and</strong> <strong>and</strong> forest management are discussed in the light of actions<br />
promoted by the promulgation of two important legislative instruments, the “Piano Territoriale<br />
Regionale (PTR)” <strong>and</strong> the “Piano <strong>Forest</strong>ale Generale (PFG)”, for the socio-economic<br />
revitalization of rural areas <strong>and</strong> for the sustainable management of agro-forestry systems.<br />
Keywords: Systems of L<strong>and</strong>s, Urban Sprawl, <strong>Forest</strong>ry, GIS<br />
1. Introduction<br />
In the last fifty years the agro-forestry l<strong>and</strong>scape of the Campania Region (Southern Italy) has<br />
undergone a remarkable transformation under the pressure of two opposing forces: urban sprawl<br />
(almost fivefold) <strong>and</strong> intensification <strong>and</strong> specialisation of agriculture in the coastal plains <strong>and</strong><br />
hills, contemporary to l<strong>and</strong> ab<strong>and</strong>onment in the mountain areas <strong>and</strong> in the inl<strong>and</strong> hills (Di<br />
Gennaro <strong>and</strong> Innamorato, 2005, Mazzoleni et al. 2004, Motti et al.2004, Migliozzi et al. 2001).<br />
The key areas of major l<strong>and</strong>scape transformation are situated along the sea coast, where the<br />
rapidly increasing urbanisation eroded the cultivated l<strong>and</strong> areas <strong>and</strong> the residual plain forests.<br />
The consequent congestion of the flat areas is a completely unbalanced use of soil, water <strong>and</strong><br />
l<strong>and</strong> resources. This is highlighted by the centrifugal expansion of urban areas at the expense of<br />
cultivated fields <strong>and</strong> natural vegetation <strong>and</strong> the contemporary centripetal recolonisation by<br />
wildl<strong>and</strong> vegetation of the ab<strong>and</strong>oned cultivated l<strong>and</strong>.. The soil loses its primary function <strong>and</strong><br />
becomes a free building space. The areas recolonised by natural vegetation, tends to interface<br />
directly with the exp<strong>and</strong>ing urban areas. Therefore water supply, pollution, management <strong>and</strong><br />
transport of solid <strong>and</strong> liquid waste increase. Furthermore natural vegetation dynamics on the<br />
ab<strong>and</strong>oned crops determines a homogenisation of the l<strong>and</strong>scape <strong>and</strong> modifies of the<br />
hydrological processes, leading to an increase of the hazard management issues (fire <strong>and</strong><br />
l<strong>and</strong>slide) at the urban-forest interface (Mazzoleni et al. 2004). The epochal dimension of this<br />
change, is the following: from 1960 to 2000 the urban space has increased from 20,000 ha to<br />
about 93,000 ha <strong>and</strong> the LUW ( L<strong>and</strong> Used Wholly) has decreased by 16%.<br />
The urban centers of the coastal strip has welded together in a metropolitan continuum that<br />
extends to approximately 15% of the region, from Caserta (North Campania) to Battipaglia<br />
(South Campania), but hosts 72% of the population of the Campania Region. The result was the<br />
abnormal consumption <strong>and</strong> waste of soil in the more fertile areas, as well as the loss of rural<br />
l<strong>and</strong>scapes of inestimable value. Several factors contributed to this unbalanced outcome: the<br />
inadequacy of public policies, a lack of participation of the public opinion, the influence of<br />
organized lawlessness (Totò 1952; di Gennaro, 2005).<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
A. Migliozzi et al. 2010. L<strong>and</strong>-use management <strong>and</strong> changes in Campania Region (Southern Italy)<br />
521<br />
Since 2004 a series of legislative measures have outlined the regional legal instruments capable<br />
of inverting this trend by offering an integrated strategy for the management <strong>and</strong> restoration of<br />
the urban, rural <strong>and</strong> forest ecosystems,. Within the framework of the l<strong>and</strong>ascape restoration the<br />
Piano Territorale Regionale (PTR) <strong>and</strong> the the Piano <strong>Forest</strong>ale Generale (PFG) was<br />
promulgated. Among the objectives of the latter are the protection, conservation <strong>and</strong><br />
enhancement of ecosystems, forest resources <strong>and</strong> hydro-geological aspects, <strong>and</strong><br />
theimprovement of the socio-economic conditions for the populations of the hill <strong>and</strong> mountains<br />
areas.<br />
The study of 10 state forests in the Campania Region was an applied research aimed to highlight<br />
both local <strong>and</strong> regional l<strong>and</strong>scape changes, for a more appropriate definition of the PFG<br />
recently approved by the Regional Council of Campania.<br />
In a first step the present work focuses on the change at l<strong>and</strong>scape scale occurring in the last 50<br />
years in Campania. Then, physiographic units were employed as a basis to describe the 10 state<br />
forests of the Campania Region. The main problems of sustainable forest management <strong>and</strong><br />
agro-forestry in Campania are highlighted in relation to actions proposed by the PRT <strong>and</strong> PFG.<br />
2. Methodology<br />
Two different approaches were followed: At a l<strong>and</strong>scape level, carriers responsible for the<br />
transformation of Campania’s l<strong>and</strong>scape agroforestry were identified, covering the last fifty<br />
years. A l<strong>and</strong>-systems map was used as background to focus on ten different forests,<br />
highlighting their status <strong>and</strong> management perspectives.<br />
2.1 L<strong>and</strong>scape changes towards 40 years<br />
The analysis of l<strong>and</strong>–use changes was carried out comparing, in GIS environment (ArcGIS -<br />
ESRI inc.), the l<strong>and</strong>-use map of ltaly (CNR TCI 1956-1960) with the Corine l<strong>and</strong> cover map<br />
(level IV – 2000 EU) integrated by the map of rural soil use, edited by the National Institute of<br />
Agricultural Economics (INEA CEC-2001), which allowed a more accurate cartographic<br />
restitution of farml<strong>and</strong>. Comparison was made with reference to physiographic areas (L<strong>and</strong>s<br />
systems) characterised by a particular combination of environmental factors (climate,<br />
morphology <strong>and</strong> soil) which can influence at the medium <strong>and</strong> long term sustainable use of<br />
resources by the man.<br />
Finally, the cartographic analysis data was integrated with socio-economic statistics <strong>and</strong> census<br />
(a more accurate description of the used approach is available at www.risorsa.info). The<br />
implementation of geographic database in GIS environment, has assumed the reference of all<br />
cartographic documents to a single geographic projection system (Gauss Boaga for Italy – Zone<br />
2).<br />
2.2 State <strong>Forest</strong>s characterisation<br />
A detailed survey of forest types was conducted within the 10 State <strong>Forest</strong>s of the Campania<br />
Region (Figure 1).<br />
State of art <strong>and</strong> bibliographic acquisition<br />
All the existing bibliographic <strong>and</strong> cartographicinformation on flora <strong>and</strong> vegetation <strong>and</strong> forest<br />
management plans related to the geographical areas where forests are located, was acquired <strong>and</strong><br />
archived according the guidelines for the sustainable management of forest <strong>and</strong> pastoral<br />
resources in Protected Areas. To assess the constraints on the management of the habitats of<br />
these areas, overlaps with the Site of Community Importance Special Protection Areas (SPAs)<br />
<strong>and</strong> Special Areas of Conservation (SACs), included in the network "Bioitaly-Nature 2000"<br />
were considered.<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
A. Migliozzi et al. 2010. L<strong>and</strong>-use management <strong>and</strong> changes in Campania Region (Southern Italy)<br />
522<br />
Figure 1: Location <strong>and</strong> list of the 10 State <strong>Forest</strong>s in Campania Region (Southern Italy)<br />
Ortho-Photo interpretation <strong>and</strong> mapping of the forest types<br />
The main forest formations were identified through the interpretation of digital orthophotos<br />
(1px / m resolution; max strain = 2m).It was possible to obtain a more precise classification of<br />
forest types in relation to the tone <strong>and</strong> texture of the pictures. The forest polygons were acquired<br />
directly from georeferenced digital orthophotos in a GIS environment (ArcView 3.2 ESRI inc.).<br />
Contextually, a geographic database for further processing was built. The polygon video scale<br />
capture was not less than 1:3,000 scale ratio.<br />
Field investigations<br />
In order to determine the main structural aspects of each forest type found on the digital<br />
orthophotos, a combined approach based on floro-vegetational, phyto-sanitary,<br />
phytosociological <strong>and</strong> physiognomical characteristics was carried out. Measurement on<br />
sampling areas, also documented by a detailed photographic survey, was performed by targeting<br />
plots, which allowed the compilation of field data sheets, useful for subsequent phases, <strong>and</strong> for<br />
outlining the current woodl<strong>and</strong> management .<br />
Field investigations regarded: 1) Biotic <strong>and</strong> abiotic environmental characteristics (st<strong>and</strong> site<br />
analysis); 2) Qualitative <strong>and</strong> quantitative features of the st<strong>and</strong>; 3) Productivity <strong>and</strong> nonproductivity<br />
functions of the woodl<strong>and</strong>s .<br />
3. Results<br />
L<strong>and</strong>scape changes through 40 years<br />
L<strong>and</strong> cover changes at regional scale can be summarized through a model based on three<br />
compartments (Figure 2):<br />
Figure 2: L<strong>and</strong> cover changes through 40 years in Campania Region. LAW (L<strong>and</strong> Used Wholly)<br />
contributes to almost all of the increase in urban areas<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
A. Migliozzi et al. 2010. L<strong>and</strong>-use management <strong>and</strong> changes in Campania Region (Southern Italy)<br />
523<br />
The figure shows that LAW is affected by a net decrease of 175,322 ha, corresponding to 15.8%<br />
of the agricultural area used in 1960. This trend is opposed by the increase of 103,874 hectares<br />
of forest <strong>and</strong> shrub area (+43%), <strong>and</strong> of71,447 ha of urban areas (+321%).<br />
The overlay operation between l<strong>and</strong>-use dynamics maps <strong>and</strong> l<strong>and</strong>-systems map allowed to<br />
analyse the geographical distribution of l<strong>and</strong> cover dynamics in relation to: a) differences<br />
between the great systems of l<strong>and</strong> <strong>and</strong> the general physiographical partitions; b) differences<br />
within the major l<strong>and</strong> systems.<br />
Figure 3 shows a summary of these findings. 40% of LAW decrease is found on mountains,<br />
28% on hills, 10% in the volcanic complexes, 22% on plains.<br />
Figure 3: Result of the intersection between l<strong>and</strong>-systems <strong>and</strong> l<strong>and</strong>-use dynamics maps<br />
The net loss of LAW accounted 40% for urbanization <strong>and</strong> the remaining 60% for the<br />
recolonisation of natural vegetation by agricultural areas <strong>and</strong> grassl<strong>and</strong>s.<br />
<strong>Forest</strong>s State characterization<br />
The <strong>Forest</strong>s State of Campania are distributed in environments with different climate <strong>and</strong><br />
vegetation, between the the sea coast <strong>and</strong> the mountain belt (Figure). The territorial districts fall<br />
within both SCI <strong>and</strong> SPA areas of Natura 2000 network in the Regional Parks of Picentini,<br />
Partenio <strong>and</strong> Campi Flegrei <strong>and</strong> in the National Park of Cilento <strong>and</strong> Vallo di Diano.<br />
The forest type of the <strong>Forest</strong>s State consist in:<br />
1. coppices mostly exceeding the usual coppice cycle or on the way to conversion into<br />
high forest. They are classified into monospecific coppices of Quercus ilex, Q.<br />
pubescens Q. cerris <strong>and</strong>Castanea sativa coppices pure or mixed with oak, hornbeam,<br />
maples <strong>and</strong> ash trees;<br />
2. high st<strong>and</strong> forests consisting of deciduous trees (Fagus sylvatica, Quercus cerris <strong>and</strong><br />
other mesophilous species) <strong>and</strong> conifers such as Abies alba with groups of deciduous<br />
pioneers such as Betula pendula, Populus tremula <strong>and</strong> Alnus cordata. ) are introduced<br />
in different periods. Plantations of native woody species (Q cerris, Q. pubescens,<br />
Prunus avium) <strong>and</strong> alien species (e.g. Eucalyptus spp. Pseudotsuga menziesii.) were<br />
realised during the last 50-60 years ;<br />
3. coastal plain forests with extrazonal broadleaved species <strong>and</strong> riparian woodl<strong>and</strong>s<br />
dominated by willows <strong>and</strong> poplars.<br />
Due to the previous intensive forest management <strong>and</strong> grazing in the forest these st<strong>and</strong>s needs<br />
different sustainable management options. To each forest one or more functions (scientific,<br />
educational, touristic <strong>and</strong> recreational, protective <strong>and</strong> productive) can be assigned .<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
A. Migliozzi et al. 2010. L<strong>and</strong>-use management <strong>and</strong> changes in Campania Region (Southern Italy)<br />
524<br />
The forest types identified refer to the following Categories <strong>and</strong> Types for Sustainable <strong>Forest</strong><br />
Management, Reporting <strong>and</strong> Policy (European forest types - EEA Technical Report No.<br />
9/2006):<br />
Table 1: Sustainable <strong>Forest</strong> Management types found in the Regional State <strong>Forest</strong>s<br />
7. Montane beech forest 7.3 Apennine‐Corsican montane beech forest<br />
8. Thermophilous deciduous forest<br />
9. Broadleaved evergreen forest<br />
10. Coniferous forests of the Mediterranean, Anatolian<br />
<strong>and</strong> Macaronesian regions<br />
12. Floodplain forest<br />
13. Non riverine alder, birch, or aspen forest<br />
14. Plantations <strong>and</strong> self sown exotic forest<br />
8.2 TURKEY OAK, HUNGARIAN OAK AND SESSILE OAK FOREST<br />
8.7 Chestnut forest<br />
8.1 Downy oak forest<br />
8.8 Other thermophilous deciduous forests<br />
9.1 Mediterranean evergreen oak forest<br />
9.5 Other sclerophlyllous forests<br />
10.6 Mediterranean <strong>and</strong> Anatolian fir forest<br />
12.1 Riparian forest<br />
12.2 Fluvial forest<br />
13.2 Italian alder forest<br />
13.4 Southern boreal birch forest<br />
13.5 Aspen forest<br />
14.1 Plantations of site‐native species<br />
14.2 Plantations of not‐site‐native species <strong>and</strong> self‐sown<br />
exotic forest<br />
4. Discussion<br />
A sustainable forest management of the 10 Regional State <strong>Forest</strong>s could be implemented also<br />
in the other forested areas. Among the factors of the degradation are the pressure of<br />
urbanization on environment <strong>and</strong> l<strong>and</strong>scape, pollution, widespread vulnerability of the soil<br />
(erosion <strong>and</strong> geological instability), coastal erosion <strong>and</strong> desertification, the increasing fire<br />
frequency, unsustainable touristic activities, lack of plans <strong>and</strong> forestry regulations at<br />
municipalitiy level, lack of forest grazing regulations, poor dissemination <strong>and</strong> applications of<br />
technological innovations in forestry. Nevertheless in these areas forested surfaces increased in<br />
the last years. They are located within protected areas (Natura 2000, Regional <strong>and</strong> National<br />
Parks, Marine Reserves <strong>and</strong>other Protected Areas) with high values of biodiversity (Figure 4) in<br />
relation to the variety of habitats.<br />
The main objectives to be pursued in the management of the State <strong>Forest</strong>s, contained in the PFG,<br />
concern the protection <strong>and</strong> improvement of biodiversity, in order to increase the stability <strong>and</strong><br />
bio-ecological features of the forest st<strong>and</strong>s <strong>and</strong> to preserve the soil from erosion <strong>and</strong><br />
degradation.<br />
The approval of the PTR <strong>and</strong> PFG provides the government of the Campania region the tools<br />
for a sustainable management of urban, rural <strong>and</strong> mountain areas according to guideline aimed<br />
at the protection of the l<strong>and</strong>scapes. Sustainably managed State <strong>Forest</strong>s could be used as pilot<br />
areas for monitoring natural forest processes, testing different management options <strong>and</strong><br />
disseminating the results. Their geographic distribution makes these areas representative of the<br />
major physiographic <strong>and</strong> ecological features present in the Campania Region.<br />
References<br />
di Gennaro A. (2005) (a cura di). Piani imperfetti. Il caso del piano urbanistico della provincia<br />
di Napoli. Clean Edizioni, Napoli.<br />
di Gennaro A., Innamorato F.P. 2005. La Gr<strong>and</strong>e Trasformazione – Il territorio rurale della<br />
Campania 1960-2000. Clean Edizioni, Napoli.<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
A. Migliozzi et al. 2010. L<strong>and</strong>-use management <strong>and</strong> changes in Campania Region (Southern Italy)<br />
525<br />
Mazzoleni S., Di Pasquale G., Mulligan M., Di Martino P., <strong>and</strong> Rego F. 2004 - Recent<br />
Dynamics of Mediterranean Vegetation L<strong>and</strong>scape. John Wiley & Sons, Ltd, 306 pp<br />
Mazzoleni S., Di Martino P., Di Pasquale G., Migliozzi A., Strumia S.(2001) "Urban forest<br />
management <strong>and</strong> slope stability: a study case in Napoli area". Atti della IUFRO<br />
Conference "Collecting <strong>and</strong> analyzing information for sustainable forest management <strong>and</strong><br />
biodiversity monitoring with special reference to mediterranean ecosystems" - Palermo 4-<br />
7 Dicembre 2001<br />
Motti R., Maisto A., Migliozzi A., Mazzoleni S. (2004).- Le trasformazioni del paesaggio<br />
agricolo e forestale dei Campi Flegrei nel XX secolo. Informatore Botanico Italiano 36<br />
(2) 577-583.<br />
Mingo A., Migliozzi A. & Maugeri G. 2008 - Integrated multi-scale approach to Mediterranean<br />
grassl<strong>and</strong>s. A case-study on the Nebrodi Mounts (Sicily). Options Mediterraneennes,<br />
Series A, No 79: 79-83. ISSN: 1016-121-X ISBN: 2-85352-378<br />
Acknowledgments<br />
The research project on the State <strong>Forest</strong>s of Campania Region has been supported by the<br />
Department of Agriculture of Campania Region <strong>and</strong> by the Consortium for Applied Research in<br />
Agriculture (CRAA). We thank dr.Gennaro Grassi, Dr. Daniela Lombardo <strong>and</strong> dr. Matilde<br />
Mazzaccara Assessorato all’Agricoltura REGIONE Campania - Settore <strong>Forest</strong>e Caccia e Pesca).<br />
We thank Francesco Paolo Innamorato (Risorsa s.r.l.) for the support to input data at regional<br />
scale <strong>and</strong> for graphic preparation.<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
M.L Porto et al. 2010. Naturalness <strong>and</strong> diversity of biotopes: their impact on l<strong>and</strong>scape quality 525 i<br />
Naturalness <strong>and</strong> diversity of biotopes: their impact on l<strong>and</strong>scape<br />
quality-a mathematical model<br />
Maria Luiza Porto 1* , Horst H. Wendel 2 , Jairo J. Zocche 3 , Gilberto G. Rodrigues 4 ,<br />
Marisa Azzolini 1 <strong>and</strong> Rogério Both 1 .<br />
1 Laboratory of L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology, Department of Ecology, University Federal do Rio<br />
Gr<strong>and</strong>e do Sul, Av. Bento Gonçalves, 9500, PO Box: 15007, Porto Alegre, RS, Brazil<br />
2 Universität Ulm, D-89069 Ulm, Germany<br />
3 Laboratory for L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology, Dept. of Biological Sciences, University of<br />
Extremo Sul Catarinense-UNESC, Av. Universitária, 1105, PO Box: 3167, Cricíuma,<br />
SC, Brazil<br />
4 Departament of Zoology, Center of Biological Sciences, University Federal de<br />
Pernambuco, Av. Prof. Morais Rego, 1235, Cidade Universitária. PO 50670-420,<br />
Recife, PE Brazil<br />
Abstract<br />
A novel mathematical tool serves to quickly grading l<strong>and</strong>scapes from the point of view of<br />
environ-mental value. Model is founded on five building blocks: (i) A l<strong>and</strong>scape is considered<br />
to be mosaic of biotic patches; (ii) each patch displays the characteristics of a single<br />
representative biotope out of a finite set of generic biotopes; (iii) generic biotope´s<br />
environmental value depends on its degree of na-turalness (flora, fauna) <strong>and</strong> diversity which are<br />
determined in field surveys; (iv) a l<strong>and</strong>scape´s environ-mental value is a simple function of the<br />
environmental values of its constituent biotopes; (v) the influence of shape <strong>and</strong> corrugated<br />
surface of a patch on the environmental value of the associated l<strong>and</strong>scape is reflected by an<br />
amplification factor. By accounting for the biotic properties (naturalness / biodiversity) <strong>and</strong> for<br />
the structure of the l<strong>and</strong>scape the model lends itself to comparative <strong>and</strong> trade off analyses in<br />
l<strong>and</strong> use management <strong>and</strong> urban development projects.<br />
Keywords: modelling, indices, naturalness of biotopes, diversity of biotopes, l<strong>and</strong>scape<br />
valuation<br />
1. Introduction<br />
According to Farina & Belgrano (2004), l<strong>and</strong>scape is the cognitive dimension of ecological<br />
complexity: Patterns <strong>and</strong> processes are distributed in a cognitive geographic space, the “ecofield”.<br />
The new paradigm allows to describe the biotic <strong>and</strong> abiotic characteristics of the<br />
physicoecological space. To underst<strong>and</strong> its foundations the notion of biotope is most helpful.<br />
Commonly conservational recommendations are based on a l<strong>and</strong>scape´s naturalness <strong>and</strong><br />
biodiversity. In view of what was said above this approach must be rolled out to its constituent<br />
biotopes.<br />
Efforts in describing l<strong>and</strong>scape´s naturalness <strong>and</strong> biodiversity were carefully reviewed in a<br />
recent paper of ours (Porto et al., 2010). Especially we pointed out that up to now theore-tical<br />
*Corresponding author: E-mail:mlporto@ecologia.ufrgs.br<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
M.L Porto et al. 2010. Naturalness <strong>and</strong> diversity of biotopes: their impact on l<strong>and</strong>scape quality 525 ii<br />
models focused on structural aspects only (Papadimitriou, 2002, 2009). They did not link to the<br />
biota of the l<strong>and</strong>scape.<br />
Here we present a simple mathematical model which avoids the deficiencies stated above. It<br />
calculates one index only <strong>and</strong> thus lends itself to quick preselective l<strong>and</strong>scape assessment.<br />
Model uses empirical data <strong>and</strong> determines the ecological value of a l<strong>and</strong>scape through the<br />
degree of naturalness of its biotopes, i.e. structure <strong>and</strong> composition of their plant communities<br />
<strong>and</strong> structure <strong>and</strong> composition of the assemblage of their epigeic fauna. It accounts for<br />
indicators of disturbance, for the diversity of fauna <strong>and</strong> flora, <strong>and</strong> area <strong>and</strong> shape of the patches<br />
constituting the l<strong>and</strong>scape.<br />
2. Methodology<br />
In general a l<strong>and</strong>scape X is a cluster of patches distinct from the point of view of fauna <strong>and</strong><br />
flora. Mathematically the patches make up for a partition P of the l<strong>and</strong>scape X<br />
P = {X i , i = 1,2,…, n/Xi c X; Xi≠ Ø; X i ∩X j = Ø, i ≠ j; X 1 UX 2 U...UX n = X} , (1)<br />
where, ∩ is the intersection of two patches, U their union <strong>and</strong> X i c X indicates that X i is a subset<br />
of X. Each patch X i has an area A i <strong>and</strong> a perimeter P i . The sum of all subset areas is equal to the<br />
area of the l<strong>and</strong>scape,<br />
A tot = Σ A i . (2)<br />
In order to express the degree of naturalness of a biotope our model introduces an index of<br />
naturalness associated with that biotope. The part INT flor due to the flora prevailing in that<br />
biotope follows the equation<br />
INT flor = ((1 - IVI/IVI max ) + (1 - DR exot /DR maxexot )) . (3)<br />
IVI is the index of value of importance (Curtis <strong>and</strong> MacIntosh, 1951), for the species of the<br />
plant communities of the patch. DR exot is the relative density of exotic species of the biotope.<br />
In order to obtain the index of environmental value of the biotope as a function of its naturalness<br />
<strong>and</strong> its diversity, its index of naturalness is multiplied by the Shannon measure of diversity H',<br />
i.e. Peet (1974).<br />
IVA flor = INT flor * H´flor , (4)<br />
H´flor = -Σ (p i * lnp i ) flor . (5)<br />
(p i ) flor is the probability of occurrence of species i <strong>and</strong> ln denotes the natural logarithm. Eq. (4) is<br />
derived by pure arguments of mathematical plausibility: naturalness of a biotope whose species<br />
were planted is zero by definition <strong>and</strong> thus its environmental value equals zero. Nevertheless it<br />
still may exhibit a nonnegligible diversity, i.e. H´> 0. A good example for this is man-made<br />
soils where for purposes of restoration different species of herbs were planted. Equ. (4) accounts<br />
for this scenario.<br />
Design of the index of environmental value due to the biotope fauna (IVA faun ), follows a track<br />
similar to the one for deriving (IVA flor ): index of naturalness of the fauna of the biotope<br />
(INT faun ), thus is<br />
INT faun = ((1 - DR/DR max ) + (1- DR spider /DR maxspider )) (6)<br />
DR is the largest relative density of the epigeic fauna of a specific biotope <strong>and</strong> DR max its<br />
maximum value across all biotopes of the l<strong>and</strong>scape under consideration. DR spider is the relative<br />
density of spiders in a biotope. DR maxspider is the maximum relative spider density across all<br />
biotopes of the l<strong>and</strong>scape<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
M.L Porto et al. 2010. Naturalness <strong>and</strong> diversity of biotopes: their impact on l<strong>and</strong>scape quality 525 iii<br />
As before multiplication of Eq. (6) by the diversity H' yields the index of environmental value<br />
of a biotope due to its fauna.<br />
IVA faun = INT faun *H´faun . (7)<br />
The index of environmental value of a circular biotope X i based on its naturalness <strong>and</strong> diversity,<br />
IVA oi , is the sum of its values IVA flor <strong>and</strong> IVA faun.<br />
IVA oi = IVA flor (i) + C*IVA faun (i). (8)<br />
C is the relative weight with which fauna <strong>and</strong> flora, respectively, contribute to the total<br />
environmental value of biotope i.<br />
To account for the fact that in general biotope Xi has a non-circular shape we introduce the<br />
factor<br />
(K F ) i = 2*(Π * A i ) ½ / P i (9)<br />
(K F ) i varies between 0 (biotope with extremely corrugated edge) <strong>and</strong> 1 (circular biotope). With<br />
this factor we define the index of environmental value of a biotope Xi to be<br />
IVA i = ((2 - (K F ) i ) * IVA oi (10)<br />
The index of environmental value of a l<strong>and</strong>scape based on the naturalness of its constituent<br />
biotopes, IVA tot , corresponds to the weight average of the environmental values of the biotopes:<br />
IVA tot = (A tot ) -1 * Σ A i * IVA i = (A tot ) -1 * Σ A i *((2 - (K F ) i ) * IVA oi (11)<br />
The weight with which biotope i enters this equation corresponds to its relative biotope area<br />
A i *(A tot ) -1 . (K F ) i is defined by Eq. (9), IVA oi through Eq. (8), <strong>and</strong> Σ represents a sum over all n<br />
biotopes that shape the l<strong>and</strong>scape.<br />
3. Result <strong>and</strong> Discussion<br />
We applied the model to a circular test sample of 200 m radius. Sample was chosen out of an<br />
area of survey located in the city of Treviso, State of Santa Catarina, southern Brazil. Its<br />
covering is hetero-genous: remnants of original vegetation (humid atlantic coastal forest), areas<br />
used for agriculture (livestock, fruit plantations), large waste deposits of coal mines <strong>and</strong> areas<br />
reforested with Eucalyptus. The area was found to be describable on the basis of five resilient<br />
natural biotopes: climax forest (GB1), early secondary forest (GB2), late secondary forest<br />
(GB3), eucalyptus plantation with forest regeneration (GB4), anthropogenic grassl<strong>and</strong>s (GB5),<br />
Fig 1. For each generic biotope we carried out phytossociological surveys <strong>and</strong> calculated the<br />
appropriate indices of importance, relative densities, <strong>and</strong> Shannon´s indices of diversity (Porto<br />
et al.. 2010) needed for executing Eq.(11). Structural information such as area <strong>and</strong><br />
circumference of the patches constituting the test sample was extracted from the digital image of<br />
the area of investigation. The resulting indices of environmental value, IVA, for the generic<br />
biotopes are shown in Fig. 2.<br />
According to our model, assumption of high diversity implying automatically high<br />
environmental quality is not valid (Fig. 2). On the scale of biotope for example, generic<br />
biotopes 4 <strong>and</strong> 5 exhibit relative high values of diversity both in fauna <strong>and</strong> flora. Their<br />
respective indices of environmental value though are lowest in the set of the five generic<br />
biotopes. This is because the corresponding indices of naturalness compensate the high values<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
M.L Porto et al. 2010. Naturalness <strong>and</strong> diversity of biotopes: their impact on l<strong>and</strong>scape quality 525 iv<br />
of diversity, in our model. As a matter of fact our data revealed specific areas which originally<br />
were areas of native forest but now after reforestation represented Eucalyptus monocultures. In<br />
addition undergrowth had developed which showed a high degree of species diversity. For sure<br />
these areas show high diversity but are of low environmental value.<br />
References<br />
Curtis, J.T., McIntosh, R.P., 1951. An upl<strong>and</strong> forest continuum in the prairie-forest border<br />
region of Wisconsin. Ecology 32, 476-496.<br />
Farina, A. & Belgrano, A. (2004) The eco-field: A new paradigm for l<strong>and</strong>scapeecology.<br />
Ecological Research, 19, 107-110.<br />
Papadimitriou, F. (2002) Modelling indicators <strong>and</strong> indices of l<strong>and</strong>scape complexity: an<br />
approach using G.I.S. Ecological Indicators, 2, 17-25.<br />
Papadimitriou, F. (2009) Modelling spatial l<strong>and</strong>scape complexity using the Levenshtein<br />
algorithm. Ecological Informatics, 4, 48-55.<br />
Peet, R.K., 1974. The measurement of species diversity. Annu. Rev. Ecol. Syst. 5, 285-307.<br />
Maria Luiza Porto, Horst H. Wendel, Jairo J. Zocche, Gilberto G. Rodrigues, Marisa Azzolini<br />
<strong>and</strong> Rogério Both (2010) Index of Environmental Value: How Naturalness <strong>and</strong> Diversity<br />
of Biotopes Translate into L<strong>and</strong>scape Quality – A Mathematical Model, submitted to<br />
Journ. Ecol. Indic.<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
M.L Porto et al. 2010. Naturalness <strong>and</strong> diversity of biotopes: their impact on l<strong>and</strong>scape quality 525 v<br />
Figure 1. Part of the l<strong>and</strong>scape for which empirical data were collected. The circular area represents the<br />
sample of diameter of 400 m used to test the mathematical model. Indicated are also the different types of<br />
soil covering of the 27 biotopes of the sample.<br />
7<br />
Numerical Value of H´, IVA<br />
6<br />
5<br />
4<br />
3<br />
2<br />
1<br />
0<br />
GB1 GB2 GB3 GB4 GB5<br />
Generic Biotope<br />
H´flor H´faun IVA<br />
Figure 2. Indices of environmental value (solid line) , IVA, Shannons´s diversity index of the fauna<br />
(dash-dotted line), H´faun , <strong>and</strong> the flora (dashed line), H´flor , respectively, for the five generic biotopes of<br />
the sample of Fig.1.<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
M. Rehor & V. Ondracek 2010. Application of modern, non traditional restoration methods on brown coal localities<br />
526<br />
Application of modern, non traditional restoration methods on brown<br />
coal localities of Czech Republic<br />
Michal Rehor 1* & Vratislav Ondracek 2<br />
1 Brown Coal Research Institute, Most, Czech Republic<br />
2 North Bohemian Mines, Chomutov, Czech Republic<br />
Abstract<br />
Over 70% brown coal reserves have been exploited in the North-Bohemian Basin today.<br />
Opencast mining of brown coal naturally led to vast l<strong>and</strong>scape damages. Therefore reclamation<br />
work has acquired a great significance. The research methodology of the areas of interests <strong>and</strong><br />
the reclamation works themselves described in this article arises from North Bohemian Mines<br />
locality reclamation philosophy. Apart from the earlier published methodology of fertilizable<br />
soils application used today in operation, experiments with filling areas left for natural<br />
succession <strong>and</strong> pilot application of power plant stabilizer <strong>and</strong> ash in phyto-toxic areas. The<br />
results are stated in the paper.<br />
Key words: Restoration, dump, geology, methodology<br />
1. Introduction<br />
The North-Western Bohemia region takes a unique position in the history of mining in<br />
the Czech Republic. Several ore districts are situated here, the welfare of which influenced the<br />
development of the Czech state in some periods. Some precious stones mining was also<br />
significant. Today the North-Bohemian Basin area is known for its largest Czech brown coal<br />
deposit. Whereas ore mining in the region extinguished <strong>and</strong> the other raw materials mining has<br />
relatively small significance, coal mining <strong>and</strong> the restoration of damages caused by mining<br />
activity still have an essential meaning.<br />
Severoceské doly, a.s. Chomutov (North Bohemian Mines, j.s.c. Chomutov), the<br />
greatest mining company of the Czech Republic, was founded within the privatization of the<br />
North-Bohemian Brown-Coal Mines concern privatization on 1.1.1994. Today the allotments of<br />
the share holding company include geological reserves of about 1200 million tonnes <strong>and</strong> the<br />
recoverable reserves amounting 700 million tonnes. The annual production amounts to ca 22<br />
million tonnes of brown coal representing almost 50% Czech market with this coal, <strong>and</strong> the<br />
annual volume of overburden stripping is 100 million m 3 of clayey rocks. This is currently the<br />
largest mining company in the Czech Republic. The reclamation of vast areas affected with<br />
brown coal mining is, of course, an important part of its activities.<br />
Current task of Severoceské doly, a.s. reclamations is to make reclamation works more<br />
efficient using locally available fertilizable rocks <strong>and</strong> other materials, <strong>and</strong> to be maximaly<br />
environmentally friendly. The core of the article is the characteristics of new reclamation<br />
methods used mainly for reclamation of sterile <strong>and</strong> phyto-toxical areas of both localities of<br />
Severoceské doly, a.s. <strong>and</strong> for the protection, research <strong>and</strong> relevant development of remarkable<br />
ecosystems arising in the dumps.<br />
* Corresponding author. Tel.: +420603935808<br />
Email address: rehor@vuhu.cz<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
M. Rehor & V. Ondracek 2010. Application of modern, non traditional restoration methods on brown coal localities<br />
527<br />
2 . New Concept of Technical Reclamation in the North Bohemian Brown<br />
Coal Basin<br />
Mining <strong>and</strong> reclamation works of Severoceské doly, a.s. proceed in two considerably<br />
different geological areas. It concerns Nástup Tusimice Mines with the mining locality of the<br />
Libous mine <strong>and</strong> the Bílina Mines with the mining locality of the Bílina mine. Based on the<br />
different type of overburden rocks in both mining localities different requirements for the areas<br />
reclamation appear. In case of the Bílina Mines the main issue is the occurrence of extremely<br />
acid phyto-toxical areas (high contents of coal – ca 5%), in the case of the Nástup Tusimice<br />
Mines the main issue is the occurrence of sterile areas (high content of physical clay). The<br />
research methodology of the areas of interests <strong>and</strong> the reclamation works themselves described<br />
in this article arises from Severoceské doly, a.s. locality reclamation philosophy. It is based on<br />
the knowledge of overburden minerals properties <strong>and</strong> detailed survey of each reclaimed sites<br />
provided in co-operation with the Severoceské doly, a.s., Výzkumný ústav pro hnedé uhlí, a.s.<br />
(Research Institute of Brown Coal, j.s.c. Most), Výzkumný ústav meliorací a ochrany půdy<br />
Praha (Research Institute of Ameliorations <strong>and</strong> Soil Protection Praha) <strong>and</strong> Zemedelská<br />
universita Praha (Agricultural University of Prague). Experiments have been started recently<br />
with areas left for natural succession, with application of power plant stabiliser (this product is<br />
described in greater detail in chapter five) <strong>and</strong> power plant ash in phyto-toxic areas apart from<br />
the methodology of fertilizable soils application earlier published by (Ondrácek 2003),<br />
(Safárová 2003) <strong>and</strong> being used in operation today.<br />
3. Application of Fertilizable Rocks in Reclaimed Localities of the North Bohemian<br />
Brown Coal Basin<br />
Top soil, loess <strong>and</strong> loess loam, marlite <strong>and</strong> bentonite are the most important rocks used<br />
for reclaimed purposes in the localities of Severoceské doly, a.s.<br />
The application of fertilizable rocks is the most efficient in areas consisting of highly<br />
arenaceous to phyto-toxical rocks. In this case marlaceous minerals or bentonite minerals are<br />
applied in the amount 3000-3500 m 3 .ha -1 with the following homogenation (inmixture) or cross<br />
ploughing from 0,5 to 0,6 m. Surface overlay in the area of interest with loess loam <strong>and</strong> the<br />
thickness to 0,5 m is an option of this procedure. The application of organic substances<br />
(composts) with the adjusted ratio C : N (25) in the amount 400 t.ha -1 , embedded into 0,30-0,50<br />
m reclaimed surface of the dump <strong>and</strong> the follow-up two-year preparatory agricultural cycle<br />
(growing plants for green manure) is requested as an additional measure.<br />
The stated methodology was successfully used in a lot of sites of the Bílina Mine.<br />
Anthropogenic soil profile created by bentonite application in the Strimice dump, an<br />
anthropogenous soil profile created with the application of marl in the Radovesice dump <strong>and</strong> the<br />
anthropogenous soil profile created with the application of loess loams at the inner dump of the<br />
Bílina Mine can be used as an example. Several results are shown in the table No. 1.<br />
4. Filling Areas Left for Natural Succession at Radovesice Dump<br />
The areas left for natural succession have been tentatively filled in the areas where<br />
functional ecosystems spontaneously started to develop under specific conditions where<br />
protection <strong>and</strong> research of some biological, geological <strong>and</strong> paleontological phenomenon is<br />
necessary <strong>and</strong> where future access to public may be assumed within the overall concept of the<br />
locality reclamation. The selection of these areas proceeds based on the research of dumps.<br />
After the area is filled <strong>and</strong> plotted into the planning maps detail research is provided based on<br />
which entry documentation is created. Thus long-term research of the area starts evaluating its<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
M. Rehor & V. Ondracek 2010. Application of modern, non traditional restoration methods on brown coal localities<br />
528<br />
pedological <strong>and</strong> biological development. The article briefly characterizes the areas filled at the<br />
Radovesice dump which is the largest reclaimed dump of the Bílina Mines <strong>and</strong> also the largest<br />
dump in the Czech Republic.<br />
Based on the extended survey of the non-cultivated part of the dump (ca 670 ha)<br />
consisting of terrain mapping, evaluation of top soil profile sampled with a boring bar <strong>and</strong><br />
laboratory analyses of the selected samples two quite large areas were selected to be left for<br />
natural succession in the year 2004.<br />
Succession area 1 (32 ha) was selected in the southern part of the dump. Heterogeneous<br />
dump mixture of brown clay, grey claystone <strong>and</strong> grey s<strong>and</strong> claystone with higher content of<br />
brown clay was a prevailing mineral type. Brown-grey kaolinitic- illitic clays appear. In the<br />
eastern part of the area s<strong>and</strong>y minerals are more significantly represented creating natural border<br />
of the area. A lot of natural water bodies <strong>and</strong> wetl<strong>and</strong> occur here (see figure No. 1).<br />
Succession area 2 (20) ha was selected in the northern part of the dump. The mineral<br />
consumption of the upper horizon is similar as in case of the area No 1. Southern border of the<br />
area is created with “s<strong>and</strong> dunes”. Two large natural water bodies <strong>and</strong> several small water<br />
bodies <strong>and</strong> wetl<strong>and</strong>s occur here. Some small water bodies verge in the wetl<strong>and</strong> during the year.<br />
Plant <strong>and</strong> animal species composition was evaluated in both areas. It is recommended to<br />
leave the area for natural development without reclamation impacts. The area should be<br />
monitored in the future <strong>and</strong> serve for research purposes. It is interesting to monitor the way how<br />
several kinds (mainly from plant l<strong>and</strong>) comply to a certain, not very typical environment for<br />
these species. With respect to the area situation it will also serve as a natural corridor for the<br />
animals movement in necessary technical works in the surrounding part of the dump.<br />
Pedological properties of the prevailing mineral type are shown in the table No. 2.<br />
5. Experimental Application of Power Plant Stabilizer in Inner Dump of Bílina<br />
Mine<br />
In the year 2006 the application of power plant ash application to various types of dump<br />
soils was tested in the inner dump of the Bílina mine. Extremely acid (sterile from the<br />
reclamation point of view) coal claystones from the Ledvice preparation plant which created<br />
large phytotoxic area was one of these types. Stabilizer from the Ledvice power plant was used<br />
for the experiment (the desulphurization product here). The objective of the work was to<br />
evaluate the chances to make the technical reclamation of phyto-toxic area more efficient – see<br />
(Rehor 2004).<br />
The used stabilizer is the product of desulphurisation in Ledvice plant. It contains<br />
CaSO 3 (cca 50%), CaCO 3 (cca 25%), Ca(OH) 2 (cca 20%), <strong>and</strong> others less significant<br />
components. Dangerous contents of risky trace elements were not found out. It is very alcalic,<br />
that is why the possibility was tested of its application on extremely acidic phyto-toxic area of<br />
coal claystones.<br />
The values of the soil reaction in the water extract were, for the above stated coal<br />
claystones, usually about 3,8 – 4,5. After the application of power plant stabilizer in the amount<br />
600 t.ha -1 soil reaction of the resulted mixture was about 9-10. From whence it followed the<br />
need to optimize the stabilizer doses to reach the soil reaction of the resulted mixture ca 6,5 –<br />
7,5.<br />
In the task solution first samples of clean power plant stabilizer <strong>and</strong> coal claystone in<br />
which the value of soil reaction in soil extract were taken. Then an experimental area with the<br />
dimensions 0,5 x 0,5 m was established to which various doses of stabilizers were embedded<br />
<strong>and</strong> then the soil reaction of the mixture detected. The embedded dose of stabilizer was<br />
calculated per 1 hectare of the area. The results are stated in the table No. 3 below. The samples<br />
were taken immediately after the application of stabilizer <strong>and</strong> after every 2 years.<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
M. Rehor & V. Ondracek 2010. Application of modern, non traditional restoration methods on brown coal localities<br />
529<br />
Optimum dosing ranges between 100 – 300 t.ha -1 , for further application the dose 200<br />
t.ha -1 can be recommended. The mixtures A-F were tested for the presence of risk trace<br />
elements, all samples comply with the valid legislation of the Czech Republic. The experiment<br />
proved substantial improvement of the sterile coal claystones properties <strong>and</strong> the method is, with<br />
respect to great production of stabilizer, very prospective. Before its practical use other tests in<br />
larger areas will be necessary.<br />
6. Experimental Application of Power Plant Ash in Brezno Dump<br />
Application of power plant ash from the Tusimice power plant was tested in the<br />
experimental areas of the Brezno dump. It concerns the external dump of the Libous. mine.<br />
Experimental areas were found on the yellow overburden clays from the Libous mine. Some<br />
other details are stated by (Rehor 2004).<br />
These rocks are homogeneous, strongly viscid <strong>and</strong> cast. With respect to extremely<br />
unfavourable physical properties <strong>and</strong> water regime they are not suitable for reclamation use.<br />
Their hydrophysical soil properties do not change even after longer period of depositing on the<br />
surface of the dump. They create permanently strained soil structure with unfavourable<br />
infiltration capabilities.<br />
The target of the experiment was to improve grain composition of the upper horizon of<br />
the tested areas. Power plant ash in the amount 200 t.ha -1 was put on three areas with the<br />
acreage 1 ha <strong>and</strong> embedded with cultivator to the top horizon. Then the grain composition of the<br />
former yellow clays <strong>and</strong> the generated mixture was detected. The results of the grain analyses<br />
are stated in the table No. 4. Apart from that the sample with the applied ash was tested for the<br />
presence of risky trace elements. It has been confirmed that it complies with the valid legislation<br />
of the Czech Republic.<br />
The results show significant improvement of the grain compositions of the mineral after<br />
the application of power plant ash. While former yellow clay can be ranked, from the grain size<br />
point of view, to the clay category, the mixture with power plant ash can be ranked as a clayey<br />
soil. But equal embedding of ash into clay is an issue. Gross description of samples however<br />
showed that ash creates rather single isolated clumps.<br />
Despite of these issues the method is prospective, further research will focus on<br />
preparing optimum methodology of embedding power plant ash into the upper horizon of the<br />
reclaimed localities.<br />
7. Discussion<br />
The shareholding company Severoceské doly, a.s. Chomutov is today the largest mining<br />
company in the Czech Republic. Big volumes of stripped rocks <strong>and</strong> the extent of areas<br />
designated for reclamation require the application of new, efficient reclamation methods.<br />
The application of fertilizable minerals remains the basic methods of technical<br />
reclamation proving its success at the localities of Strimice, Radovesice <strong>and</strong> the inner dump of<br />
the Bílina mine. But the first attained results of the research prove that some new progressive<br />
methods can become a significant complement of this method. Application of power plant<br />
stabilizer into extremely acid phyto-toxic minerals in Bílina Mines could be a prospective<br />
method where some non-traditional erosion control measures applied well. In the Nástup<br />
Tusimice Mines areas of interest, in case of resolving the issue of homogenation, the application<br />
of power plant ash into the heavy grain clays can be significant. Thanks to great morphological<br />
<strong>and</strong> geological variety of non-reclaimed areas of the Severoceské doly, a.s. there is enough<br />
space for filling the areas left for natural succession the target of which is the protection of<br />
unique ecosystems developing in the dumps.<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
M. Rehor & V. Ondracek 2010. Application of modern, non traditional restoration methods on brown coal localities<br />
530<br />
The conclusions stated in this article are documented with the results of samples taken<br />
in Strimice, Radovesice, inner dump Bílina, Brezno <strong>and</strong> the overburden cuts of the Bílina Mine.<br />
This work has been prepared with the support of the Czech Ministry of Education,<br />
Youth <strong>and</strong> Physical Training within the research work No. MSM 4456918101 “Research of<br />
Physical <strong>and</strong> Chemical Properties of Substances Affected with Coal Mining <strong>and</strong> Use <strong>and</strong> Their<br />
Impact on Environment in North-Western Bohemia Region“.<br />
References<br />
Ondrácek, V., Rehor, M., Safárová, M., Lang, T.: Historie, Gegenwart und Perspektiven der<br />
rekultivierung auf dem Gebiet des Bergbaubetriebes Doly Bílina Surface Mining<br />
magazine - Braunkohle: p. 90-100, ISSN 0931 – 3990, No 1, 2003, Deutschl<strong>and</strong><br />
Ondrácek, V., Cermák, P., Rehor, M.: Reducing Danger of Wind <strong>and</strong> Water<br />
Erosion <strong>and</strong> Their Application in Bílina Mines Localities Coal, ores, geological survey<br />
magazine: p.12-16, ISSN 1210 – 7697, No 5, Prague 2006<br />
Rehor, M., Safárová, M., Ondrácek: Application of Some Coal Treatment Products for<br />
Reclamation of Localities in the North Bohemian Basin 21th. Pittsburg Coal Conference,<br />
Osaka, 2004<br />
Safárová, M., Rehor, M., Lang, T.: Application of Modern Restoration Methods in Vicinity of<br />
Bilina Mines Journal of the Polish Mineral Engineering Society, 2: p. 9-27, PL ISSN<br />
1640 – 4920, No 2, 2003<br />
Table No. 1: Features of Reclaimed Soil Profile after Application of Fertilizable<br />
Rocks<br />
N C ox CaCO 3 pH/ Acceptable nutrients Adsorbing capability<br />
H (mg.kg -1 2 0<br />
) mmol/100 g (%)<br />
Taking<br />
interval<br />
(m)<br />
(%) (%) (%)<br />
P K Mg S T V<br />
Strimice locality<br />
0,00-,60 0,07 1,24 0,98 6,79 10 190 102 13,4 19,7 68<br />
0,60-0,90 0,07 0,68 9,93 8,23 1 218 949 36,3 36,3 100<br />
0,90-1,10 0,05 2,94 0,24 4,50 1 103 304 3,1 8,2 39<br />
Radovesice locality<br />
0,00-0,30 0,12 0,83 9,41 7,93 1 148 96 16,8 16,8 100<br />
0,30-0,90 0,09 0,44 39,42 8,25 0 112 26 15,6 15,6 100<br />
0,90-1,10 0,10 1,03 1,068 7,90 0 196 269 7,9 7,9 100<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
M. Rehor & V. Ondracek 2010. Application of modern, non traditional restoration methods on brown coal localities<br />
531<br />
Table No. 2: Pedological Properties of Upper Horizon of Area Left f or Natural<br />
Succession<br />
Taking N Cox. CaCO 3 pH/ Acceptable nutrients Adsorbing capability<br />
interval<br />
H 2 O (mg.kg -1 ) mmol/100 g (%)<br />
P K Mg S T V<br />
(m) (%) (%) (%)<br />
0,00-0,90 - 5,6 0,1 2,5 2 11 27 0 12 0<br />
Table No. 3: Recommended Doses of Stabilizer <strong>and</strong> Final Values of Soil Reaction<br />
Sample Stabilizer dose / 1 ha<br />
(t)<br />
pH/H 2 O<br />
- after application<br />
pH/H 2 O<br />
- after 2 years<br />
Clean<br />
- 12,1<br />
stabilizer<br />
A 600 9,63 8,52<br />
B 500 8,86 8,00<br />
C 400 8,57 7,80<br />
D 300 8,12 7,50<br />
E 200 7,25 7,20<br />
F 100 7,00 7,00<br />
Coaly clay 0 4,11<br />
Figure 1:<br />
Demonstration of Small Water Bodies <strong>and</strong> Wetl<strong>and</strong> Spontaneously<br />
Developed in Successive Areas of Radovesice<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
J. Russell et al. 2010. Developing models <strong>and</strong> processes to aid decision support for integrated l<strong>and</strong> management<br />
532<br />
Developing models <strong>and</strong> processes to aid decision support for integrated<br />
l<strong>and</strong> management in the Canadian boreal forest<br />
Jonathan Russell 1 , Ellie Prepas 2,3* , Gordon Putz 4 , Daniel W. Smith 3 & James Germida 4<br />
1<br />
Millar Western <strong>Forest</strong> Products Ltd., Whitecourt, Alberta, Canada<br />
2<br />
Lakehead University, Thunder Bay, Ontario, Canada<br />
3<br />
University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta, Canada<br />
4<br />
University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, Saskatchewan, Canada<br />
Abstract<br />
<strong>Forest</strong>ed l<strong>and</strong>s encompass nearly half of the surface area of Canada <strong>and</strong> are exposed to dem<strong>and</strong>s<br />
from a growing human population. Industrial forested l<strong>and</strong>s support multiple uses (e.g., forestry,<br />
oil <strong>and</strong> gas <strong>and</strong> urban development) within the same space <strong>and</strong> time. Planning processes need to<br />
consider these cumulative, long-term impacts. A novel forest management planning initiative is<br />
presented that considers forested l<strong>and</strong>scape conditions within the context of climate change <strong>and</strong><br />
cumulative impacts from forestry related <strong>and</strong> non-forestry related disturbances, as well as<br />
habitat supply <strong>and</strong> water quantity <strong>and</strong> quality. These measures are analyzed under various<br />
models to produce an optimum long-term forest strategy that satisfies current economic drivers<br />
<strong>and</strong> the new paradigm of intrinsic values that are naturally contained within the forest.<br />
Keywords: integrated l<strong>and</strong> management, cumulative effects assessment<br />
1. Introduction<br />
Canada is approximately 10 million km 2 in area, of which >30% is boreal forest (Fig. 1). More<br />
than 90% of the boreal forest is classified as Provincial Crown L<strong>and</strong> (under the jurisdiction of<br />
Provincial Governments in the name of the Crown) (NRC 2009). Within provinces, mechanisms<br />
exist to develop ~20-year leases on Crown L<strong>and</strong> to allow forest products companies to establish,<br />
grow <strong>and</strong> harvest timber. <strong>Forest</strong> Management (FM) plans must be developed by the companies<br />
<strong>and</strong> approved by the Province (usually every 10 years), with a 200-year forest harvest volume<br />
projection. There is usually a specific spatial harvest sequence for the first 5-10 years, which<br />
details where forestry operations will be undertaken. In Alberta (Fig. 1), the FM planning<br />
process, managed through the Ministry of Sustainable Resource Development, is centered on<br />
timber supply analysis <strong>and</strong> has a limited focus on issues like water, wildlife <strong>and</strong> the physical<br />
environment. Further, it virtually ignores the issues of Integrated L<strong>and</strong> Management (ILM) <strong>and</strong><br />
Cumulative Effects Assessment (CEA), as well as oil <strong>and</strong> gas activities, which can have as big a<br />
footprint as the forest industry. <strong>Forest</strong> operations on adjacent FM areas are also not considered,<br />
eliminating any potential to mitigate large l<strong>and</strong>scape issues that encompass multiple FM areas.<br />
This study is based primarily in the FM area (productive l<strong>and</strong> base 2950 km 2 ) leased by Millar<br />
Western <strong>Forest</strong> Products Ltd., a small pulp <strong>and</strong> solid wood products company. The research<br />
group embarked upon a process that would help push the intent of FM planning by engaging the<br />
company, government <strong>and</strong> researchers in an ILM approach (Russell et al. 2008). This FM plan<br />
would be based on science, data <strong>and</strong> state-of-the-art modelling <strong>and</strong> would address issues like<br />
* Corresponding author. Tel.: 807-343-8623 - Fax: 807-343-8116<br />
Email address: eprepas@lakeheadu.ca<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
J. Russell et al. 2010. Developing models <strong>and</strong> processes to aid decision support for integrated l<strong>and</strong> management<br />
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ILM <strong>and</strong> CEA. The plan would demonstrate that it was feasible to produce an ILM/CEA<br />
structure, models could be developed or adapted, <strong>and</strong> outcomes could be tested over time.<br />
2. Methodology<br />
In 1995, Millar Western developed permanent vegetation sample plots that focused on tree<br />
growth, as well as free-to-maneuver flying space, bat crevices, tree lichen cover <strong>and</strong> downed<br />
woody debris. Additional research included creel censuses, thinning trials to evaluate tree<br />
growth <strong>and</strong> habitat use, tree retention in clearcut st<strong>and</strong>s, animal surveys <strong>and</strong> habitat supply<br />
model verification. In 1997, expert panels were assembled to develop models for: l<strong>and</strong>scape<br />
projection under various climate change scenarios; coarse <strong>and</strong> fine filter habitat supply <strong>and</strong>;<br />
surface water quantity <strong>and</strong> quality. Research outcomes <strong>and</strong> the mechanisms developed would be<br />
incorporated into a timber supply model as constraints against the allowable cut.<br />
2.1 L<strong>and</strong>scape Projection<br />
The L<strong>and</strong>scape group used the Special Report on Emissions Scenario A1 (IPCC 2001) to predict<br />
impacts on the forest of climate change, namely a doubling in atmospheric CO 2 concentrations,<br />
<strong>and</strong> an increase of 7ºC in temperature <strong>and</strong> 8% in precipitation between 1999 <strong>and</strong> 2100 (Millar<br />
Western <strong>Forest</strong> Products 2007). To project climate conditions, the CCSR-NIES <strong>Global</strong><br />
Circulation Model (Ozawa et al. 2001) was selected. To downscale climate data, local weather<br />
was adjusted with global circulation model data. The FORECAST model (Kimmins et al. 1999)<br />
was used to predict forest growth <strong>and</strong> the Athabascan Plains L<strong>and</strong>scape model was used to<br />
predict forest succession changes (Yamasaki et al. 2008). Nine scenarios were tested <strong>and</strong><br />
biodiversity <strong>and</strong> productivity were evaluated within these l<strong>and</strong>scape projections (Yamasaki et al.<br />
2008). The study area sits at the northern limit of the Aspen Parkl<strong>and</strong> ecoregion <strong>and</strong> research<br />
has suggested that climate change may result in the conversion of forested l<strong>and</strong> to aspen<br />
parkl<strong>and</strong> (Hogg <strong>and</strong> Hurdle 1995). Therefore this analysis included prediction of how much<br />
forested l<strong>and</strong> would shift to aspen parkl<strong>and</strong> under climate change Scenario A1 (IPCC 2001).<br />
Daily fire weather indices were calculated once weather streams under historical <strong>and</strong> climate<br />
change conditions were obtained. The Fire Behavior Prediction System (<strong>Forest</strong>ry Canada Fire<br />
Danger Group 1992) was used to derive daily values for the Fine Fuel Moisture Code, Build Up<br />
Index <strong>and</strong> Fire Weather Index for the period 1 January 1961 to 31 December 1990 <strong>and</strong> the<br />
corresponding 30-year period under climate change. This fire record, which corresponds to the<br />
30-year baseline most commonly used in climate research, serves as the basis for fire modelling<br />
with the Athabascan Plains L<strong>and</strong>scape Model. To simulate 200 years of fires, the model cycles<br />
through this 30-year record almost seven cycles. Fire duration, extent, frequency <strong>and</strong> seasonality<br />
were all statistically modelled as dependents of the Fire Behavior Prediction indices above <strong>and</strong><br />
annual, seasonal <strong>and</strong> daily measures of temperature, precipitation <strong>and</strong> wind. A link detected<br />
among fire occurrence, weather <strong>and</strong> human population was also included in the analysis.<br />
As an example of a dominant non-forestry related human disturbance in the FM area, patterns of<br />
oil <strong>and</strong> gas development were analyzed <strong>and</strong> future developments were simulated. The number of<br />
current wells was determined from the forest inventory. It was also possible to generate a time<br />
series of number of new well sites annually, <strong>and</strong> the area each represents. This was also<br />
completed for pipelines <strong>and</strong> seismic lines that are projected to being developed in the FM area.<br />
2.2 Habitat Supply<br />
Coarse filter analysis was divided into two areas within the Biodiversity Assessment Project<br />
(BAP): ecosystem diversity <strong>and</strong> l<strong>and</strong>scape configuration (Van Damme et al. 2003). Ecosystem<br />
diversity analysis assumes that silvicultural practices will modify the distribution of ecosystems<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
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across space <strong>and</strong> time. To monitor changes in the composition of the forecasts, BAP tracks the<br />
proportion of habitat types <strong>and</strong> diversity of the forest using the following metrics. 1) Areaweighted<br />
age is a single value at each time step during the simulation, indicating the average<br />
age of the entire forest. 2) Tree species distribution separates the forest into hardwood st<strong>and</strong>s,<br />
hardwood-dominated mixedwood st<strong>and</strong>s, softwood st<strong>and</strong>s <strong>and</strong> softwood-dominated mixedwood<br />
st<strong>and</strong>s. It provides an indication of the proportion of the FM area expected to support each<br />
habitat type at each time step. 3) Species presence indicates the extent of coverage of each tree<br />
species over the l<strong>and</strong>scape. 4) Species dominance takes into account both tree species presence<br />
<strong>and</strong> relative dominance. 5) Habitat diversity was computed using a matrix showing similarity<br />
between habitat types as a weighting factor. The habitat diversity index considers the relative<br />
position of broad habitat types using a rating of similarity between the habitat types as a<br />
weighting factor. The diversity equation generates a single unitless value between 0 <strong>and</strong> 1 at<br />
each time step; 0 represents a very uniform l<strong>and</strong>scape <strong>and</strong> 1 indicates the most diverse<br />
l<strong>and</strong>scape possible. Incorporated into the index are both the number of habitat types present<br />
within the FM area <strong>and</strong> the proportion of the l<strong>and</strong>scape covered by each habitat type.<br />
<strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> containing many habitat types distributed evenly across the area are considered<br />
more diverse than those dominated by one habitat type, yet containing small portions of others.<br />
Within the l<strong>and</strong>scape configuration analysis, habitat types were used as class attributes because<br />
they can be weighted by contrast. As well, different levels of distinction among habitats can be<br />
used following the classification hierarchy. The l<strong>and</strong>scape configuration analysis was comprised<br />
of several types of biostatistical analyses:<br />
• Patch – areas of similar characteristics based on age <strong>and</strong> species composition.<br />
• Edge – mean edge contrast index <strong>and</strong> contrast weighted edge length.<br />
• Core area – The impact of edge on wildlife was expected to be linearly related to the<br />
abruptness of the habitat structure change at the edge <strong>and</strong> therefore the buffer width would<br />
change with contrast between adjacent habitat patches.<br />
• Adjacency – It was expected that the spatial distribution of habitat types would differ in a<br />
managed scenario relative to a natural scenario. Consequently the proportion of adjacencies<br />
might be different. Many species use a combination of different habitats to fulfill their<br />
needs; therefore the adjacency of these habitats is important.<br />
• Nearest neighbor – It was understood that a population using an isolated habitat is highly<br />
prone to local extinction. In addition, an organism using dispersed habitat patches may not<br />
be able to defend a sufficiently large territory from which to extract its needed resources.<br />
The nearest neighbor metric gives an indication of the dispersion of similar habitat types.<br />
Fine filter analysis was undertaken by developing species-specific habitat supply models. It was<br />
recognized that the species selected would comprise an imperfect representation of the large<br />
array of species that occupy the FM area. The selection process was based on the following<br />
premises. 1) It is not possible to create models for all species. 2) Coarse filter analysis can<br />
account for habitat requirements for many species. 3) Models created for a carefully selected list<br />
of species will adequately represent the habitat needs of many other species. 4) Terrestrial<br />
vertebrates will be selected because: they use a large range of forest features; are good<br />
indicators of change; are the subjects of concern by the public <strong>and</strong>; approaches for analyzing<br />
forests in terms of vertebrate habitat potential are relatively well developed. Species were<br />
selected that represented the following classes: large terrestrial carnivorous mammals, large<br />
ungulates, medium-sized herbivores/omnivorous mammals, medium-sized carnivorous<br />
mammals, small mammals, raptors, birds in the order Gallinaceae <strong>and</strong> passerines (perching<br />
birds). The following criteria were used, with the numbers relating to the weighting scheme for<br />
each element: sensitivity to disturbance – 4; species status – 3; ability to monitor the species – 3;<br />
habitat specificity – 2; special habitat elements – 2; functionally essential species – 2; l<strong>and</strong>scape<br />
configuration – 2; socioeconomic value – 2 <strong>and</strong>; available information – 1.<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
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Habitat supply models were developed for each of 17 species selected to evaluate the potential<br />
of the FM area to provide suitable habitat (Van Damme et al. 2003). The models define habitat<br />
suitability based on the provision of habitat elements required for survival <strong>and</strong> reproduction.<br />
Within the models, special habitat element models were developed to characterize changes in<br />
condition (i.e. abundance, density) of habitat elements through forest succession <strong>and</strong> disturbance.<br />
Specific (i.e. canopy closure, tree height), general (i.e. perches, hiding cover) <strong>and</strong> habitat uses<br />
(i.e. food) were included in the analysis. Habitat supply models projected suitability based on<br />
home range size for each species <strong>and</strong> were used to assess each forest harvest scenario at 5-year<br />
time steps. Additionally, the special habitat elements were analyzed within the habitat supply<br />
model to determine a subset of elements that were most critical for the 17 species. These were<br />
then associated with silvicultural practices, seral stages <strong>and</strong> dominant species groups <strong>and</strong><br />
embedded within the timber supply model as constraints.<br />
2.3 Water<br />
The <strong>Forest</strong> Watershed <strong>and</strong> Riparian Disturbance (FORWARD) project developed hydrologic<br />
models at two spatial scales (first- <strong>and</strong> third-order watershed) to predict how forest harvesting<br />
would change precipitation-normalized stream runoff at the watershed outlet (i.e. corrected for<br />
both watershed area <strong>and</strong> precipitation inputs). This variable, termed a runoff coefficient, was<br />
predicted for a given set of watershed attributes under forested conditions using a variant of the<br />
Soil <strong>and</strong> Water Assessment Tool (SWAT) (Arnold et al. 1998). The data to populate these<br />
runoff coefficient models were collected before <strong>and</strong> after experimental harvest from treatment<br />
<strong>and</strong> reference watersheds. Data included streamflow at a high temporal resolution, as well as<br />
improved digital elevation model, slope, soil <strong>and</strong> wetl<strong>and</strong> coverage, <strong>and</strong> watershed boundaries.<br />
SWAT simulations are still underway to compare measured to predicted runoff coefficients with<br />
time after harvest <strong>and</strong> to calibrate the model for future FM planning cycles (Watson et al. 2008).<br />
Water quality is being incorporated into SWAT modelling, as well as artificial neural network<br />
modelling (Nour et al. 2006). The FORWARD project established indicators <strong>and</strong> ranges of<br />
acceptability in changes in streamflow based upon changes in runoff coefficients (Prepas et al.<br />
2008). Thus, potential changes to streamflow could be given equal or varying weight as<br />
compared to other forest values during the development of a FM plan.<br />
3. Results <strong>and</strong> Discussion<br />
The structure of the FM planning analysis is hierarchical. The first task was to set the future<br />
l<strong>and</strong>base condition that included climate <strong>and</strong> vegetation change, human population change,<br />
wildfire response to these two conditions <strong>and</strong> oil <strong>and</strong> gas activities (Fig. 2). This produced a<br />
l<strong>and</strong>scape change outside the normal projection (i.e. these issues are not included in a st<strong>and</strong>ard<br />
timber supply model). These conditions act as forest l<strong>and</strong>base constraints: over the st<strong>and</strong>ard<br />
planning period of approximately 200 years these conditions enact significant changes in the<br />
forest l<strong>and</strong> base <strong>and</strong> forest growth patterns. This then produced future l<strong>and</strong> base series on which<br />
we could overlay a timber supply analysis. This analysis includes the constraints of biodiversity<br />
(BAP) <strong>and</strong> water (FORWARD) (Fig 2). This was conducted for multiple future scenarios at two<br />
basic levels of projection: multiple scenarios of each component part (e.g., different oil <strong>and</strong> gas<br />
scenarios could be incorporated into the model leaving all other components static) <strong>and</strong><br />
projections with various elements turned on or off, dependent upon what multiple effects needed<br />
to be focused upon for analysis. In this manner any number of iterations could be undertaken to<br />
arrive at an underst<strong>and</strong>ing of how each element affects the system at certain levels or how<br />
various combinations of elements can affect the system based on projected future scenarios.<br />
The system described above is a logical evolution from the st<strong>and</strong>ard timber supply analysis<br />
employed in much of Canada to a more holistic model concept that looks at all issues facing a<br />
forest state. It is critical to model elements of varying forest values outside of traditional<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
J. Russell et al. 2010. Developing models <strong>and</strong> processes to aid decision support for integrated l<strong>and</strong> management<br />
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economic considerations when developing a timber supply analysis, because these cannot alone<br />
be addressed by best management practices that are based on good intentions, with little data,<br />
science or modelling expertise behind them. It was found that these values can be incorporated<br />
into the process as post-projection analyses of the scenarios. However, the optimal approach is<br />
to include the elements as constraint conditions within a planning system that weighs <strong>and</strong><br />
analyzes all elements at the same time. This approach demonstrates that the technical capacity is<br />
readily available to produce a true ILM/CEA plan. With all the pressures facing the forest l<strong>and</strong><br />
state, there is a definite need to produce plans such as these <strong>and</strong> what is needed now is the<br />
political <strong>and</strong> industrial will to carry such endeavors forward.<br />
4. Acknowledgments<br />
The FORWARD project (2001 to 2006) was funded by the Natural Sciences <strong>and</strong> Engineering<br />
Research Council of Canada, Millar Western <strong>Forest</strong> Products Ltd., the Canada Foundation for<br />
Innovation, Blue Ridge Lumber Inc., Alberta Newsprint Company, V<strong>and</strong>erwell Contractors<br />
(1971) Ltd., the Living Legacy Research Program, <strong>and</strong> the Ontario Innovation Trust. We thank<br />
Janice Burke (Lakehead University) for review of earlier drafts of this manuscript.<br />
5. References<br />
Arnold, J.G., Srinivasan, R., Muttiah, R.S. <strong>and</strong> Williams, J.R., 1998. Large area<br />
hydrologic modeling <strong>and</strong> assessment. Part I: Model development. Journal of the<br />
American Water Resources Association, 34: 73-89.<br />
<strong>Forest</strong>ry Canada Fire Danger Group, 1992. Development <strong>and</strong> structure of the Canadian<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> Fire Behavior Prediction System. Ottawa, Ontario: <strong>Forest</strong>ry Canada. 64 p.<br />
Hogg, E. <strong>and</strong> Hurdle, P., 1995. The aspen parkl<strong>and</strong> in western Canada: A dry climate<br />
analogue for the future boreal forest Water, Air <strong>and</strong> Soil Pollution, 82: 391-400.<br />
IPCC (Intergovernmental Panel on Climate <strong>Change</strong>), 2001. Climate change 2001:<br />
Impacts, adaptation <strong>and</strong> vulnerability. J.J. McCarthy, O.F. Canziani, N.A. Leary, D.J.<br />
Dokken <strong>and</strong> K.S. White (Eds.). Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.<br />
Kimmins, J.P., Mailly, D. <strong>and</strong> Seely, B., 1999. Modelling forest ecosystem net primary<br />
production: the hybrid simulation approach used in FORECAST. Ecological<br />
Modelling, 122: 195-224.<br />
Millar Western <strong>Forest</strong> Products, 2007. Millar Western <strong>Forest</strong> Products Ltd. Detailed<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> Management Plan 2007–2016. Edmonton, Alberta: The <strong>Forest</strong>ry Corp. 451 p.<br />
NRC (Natural Resources Canada), 2009. The state of Canada’s forests. Ottawa,<br />
Ontario: Natural Resources Canada. 64 p.<br />
Nour, M.H., Smith, D.W., Gamal El-Din, M. <strong>and</strong> Prepas, E.E., 2006. Neural networks<br />
modelling of streamflow, phosphorus, <strong>and</strong> suspended solids: application to the<br />
Canadian Boreal forest. Water Science <strong>and</strong> Technology, 53(10): 91-99.<br />
Ozawa, T.N., Mori, S.E., Umaguti, A.N., Sushima, Y.T., Akemura, T.T., Akajima, T.N.,<br />
Beouchi, A.A. <strong>and</strong> Imoto, M.K., 2001. Projections of future climate change in the<br />
21 st century simulated by the CCSR/NIES CGCM under the IPCC SRES scenarios.<br />
In: T. Matsuno <strong>and</strong> H. Kida (Eds.). Present <strong>and</strong> future of modeling global<br />
environmental change: Toward integrated modeling. Tokyo, Japan: Terrapub: 15-28.<br />
Prepas, E.E., Putz, G., Smith, D.W., Burke, J.M. <strong>and</strong> MacDonald, J.D., 2008. The<br />
FORWARD Project: Objectives, framework <strong>and</strong> initial integration into a Detailed<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> Management Plan in Alberta. <strong>Forest</strong>ry Chronicle, 84: 330-337.<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
J. Russell et al. 2010. Developing models <strong>and</strong> processes to aid decision support for integrated l<strong>and</strong> management<br />
537<br />
Russell, J.S., Smith, D.W., Putz, G. <strong>and</strong> Prepas, E.E., 2008. Science <strong>and</strong> the industrial<br />
planning process in the western Canadian boreal forest: a case study. Journal of<br />
Environmental Engineering <strong>and</strong> Science, 7 (Suppl. 1): 1-12.<br />
Van Damme, L., Russell, J.S., Doyon, F., Duinker, P.N., Gooding, T., Hirsch, K.,<br />
Rothwell, R. <strong>and</strong> Rudy, A., 2003. The development <strong>and</strong> application of a decision<br />
support system for sustainable forest management on the Boreal Plain. Journal of<br />
Environmental Engineering <strong>and</strong> Science, 2 (Suppl. 1): 23-34.<br />
Watson, B.M., McKeown, R.A., Putz, G. <strong>and</strong> MacDonald, J.D., 2008. Modification of<br />
SWAT for modelling streamflow from forested watersheds on the Canadian Boreal<br />
Plain. Journal of Environmental Engineering <strong>and</strong> Science, 7 (Suppl. 1): 145-159.<br />
Yamasaki, S., Duchesneau, R., Doyon, F., Russell, J. <strong>and</strong> Gooding, T., 2008. Making<br />
the case for cumulative impacts assessment: Modelling the potential impacts of<br />
climate change, harvesting, oil <strong>and</strong> gas, <strong>and</strong> fire. <strong>Forest</strong>ry Chronicle, 84: 349-368.<br />
Figure 1: Map of Canada showing the approximate location of boreal forest <strong>and</strong> the location of the study<br />
area in the province of Alberta (inset).<br />
Figure 2: Schematic of the hierarchical <strong>Forest</strong> Management planning analysis. PFMS: Preferred<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> Management Strategy.<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
Section 7<br />
Management <strong>and</strong> sustainability of changing l<strong>and</strong>scapes
P. Angelstam & M. Elbakidze. 2010. Sustainable forest management, multi-stakeholder governance <strong>and</strong> spatial planning<br />
539<br />
Sustainable forest management requires multi-stakeholder governance<br />
<strong>and</strong> spatial planning: Kovdozersky state forest management unit in<br />
northwest Russia<br />
Per Angelstam * <strong>and</strong> Marine Elbakidze<br />
Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Faculty of <strong>Forest</strong> Sciences,<br />
School for <strong>Forest</strong> Engineers, PO Box 43, SE-739 21 Skinnskatteberg, Sweden<br />
Abstract<br />
Large-scale clear-felling of naturally dynamic forests during the Soviet period has left many<br />
remote forest l<strong>and</strong>scapes in the Russian Federation with limited wood resources for decades to<br />
come. Ideas about rural development based on forest non-wood goods, ecosystem services as<br />
well as natural <strong>and</strong> cultural l<strong>and</strong>scape values are thus emerging. To underst<strong>and</strong> stakeholders’<br />
needs for regional development based on both use <strong>and</strong> non-use values of forest l<strong>and</strong>scapes we<br />
interviewed 31 stakeholders from private, public <strong>and</strong> civil sectors in the Kovdozersky state<br />
forest management unit in southernmost Murmansk oblast. While about half of the stakeholders<br />
were confined to the Kovdozersky forest management unit (~500,000 ha), the spatial scales of<br />
stakeholder activities ranged from local villages to the entire catchment of Kovda River in the<br />
Russian Federation <strong>and</strong> Finl<strong>and</strong> (~2,600,000 ha). To avoid future negative externalities <strong>and</strong><br />
risks for conflicts there is a need to (1) communicate the state <strong>and</strong> trends about sustainability<br />
dimensions of forest l<strong>and</strong>scapes at multiple levels, (2) encourage collaborative learning<br />
processes about natural resource management based on principles of adaptive governance <strong>and</strong><br />
adaptive management, <strong>and</strong> (3) plan at multiple spatial scales to satisfy <strong>and</strong> reconcile the needs<br />
<strong>and</strong> interests of different l<strong>and</strong>scape stakeholders. The development of traditional <strong>and</strong> new<br />
products from forest l<strong>and</strong>scape’s goods, ecosystem services <strong>and</strong> values, <strong>and</strong> of local <strong>and</strong><br />
regional forest governance requires exchange of experiences with development initiatives<br />
toward an integrated l<strong>and</strong>scape approach in other regions <strong>and</strong> countries.<br />
Keywords: spatial planning, natural resource governance, rural development, boreal forest<br />
1. Introduction<br />
The circumboreal boreal forest ecoregion is an important provider of natural resources in terms<br />
of wood, minerals <strong>and</strong> hydroelectric energy supporting human welfare <strong>and</strong> quality of life. Being<br />
relatively little impacted by anthropogenic change, there is opportunity for biodiversity<br />
conservation including viable populations, ecological integrity <strong>and</strong> resilience (Angelstam et al.<br />
2004). Northern forest ecosystem also form a biomass sink (Myneni et al. 2001).<br />
According to international <strong>and</strong> national policy documents sustainable forest management (SFM)<br />
aims at satisfying economic, ecological <strong>and</strong> socio-cultural values, <strong>and</strong> should be based on the<br />
principles of sustainable development as good governance including representation of actors<br />
<strong>and</strong> stakeholders (Lammerts van Buren <strong>and</strong> Blom 1997; Mayers <strong>and</strong> Bass 2004). The effects of<br />
multi-level external factors from local <strong>and</strong> regional to national <strong>and</strong> global levels that affect<br />
ecosystems, including climate change, <strong>and</strong> social systems, need to be understood (Angelstam et<br />
al. 2005). Finally, the actors, stakeholders <strong>and</strong> organisations exercising government <strong>and</strong><br />
governance need to be well informed to connect forests <strong>and</strong> markets.<br />
* Corresponding author. Tel.: +46 (0)70-2444971 e-mail: per.angelstam@smsk.slu.se<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
P. Angelstam & M. Elbakidze. 2010. Sustainable forest management, multi-stakeholder governance <strong>and</strong> spatial planning<br />
540<br />
A framework for building capacity for multi-level governance <strong>and</strong> planning towards sustainable<br />
forest l<strong>and</strong>scapes is to view l<strong>and</strong>scapes as interconnected social-ecological systems. This is<br />
often termed “l<strong>and</strong>scape approach”, meaning that that there is a need to exp<strong>and</strong> the area for<br />
planning from st<strong>and</strong>s <strong>and</strong> local areas, <strong>and</strong> to support participation of representative stakeholders<br />
(World <strong>Forest</strong>ry Congress 2009). The social dimensions involve the institutions <strong>and</strong> all<br />
stakeholders involved with the use of natural resources. Thus, sustainable l<strong>and</strong>scapes are<br />
integrated systems encompassing diverse cultural, natural <strong>and</strong> social functions through balanced<br />
governance empowering the involvement of all actors <strong>and</strong> stakeholders (Norton 2005; Baker<br />
2006). To describe the ecosystem providing renewable natural resources, its composition,<br />
structure <strong>and</strong> function at multiple scales need to be understood. Similarly, the actions of the<br />
social system’s actors <strong>and</strong> stakeholders from different sectors <strong>and</strong> governance levels should be<br />
mapped. Angelstam et al. (2003) coined the term two-dimensional gap analysis to better<br />
underst<strong>and</strong> policy implementation processes in integrated social-ecological systems.<br />
Many special initiatives have appeared globally that aim at implementing sustainability <strong>and</strong><br />
sustainable development on the ground (Axelsson et al. 2008). The Model <strong>Forest</strong> (MF) concept,<br />
which originated in Canada in the beginning of the 1990s, is one example (IMFN 2008). A MF<br />
can be seen as a social process aimed at forming a partnership <strong>and</strong> a platform for discussing <strong>and</strong><br />
solving a wide spectrum of issues related to sustainable management in a forest l<strong>and</strong>scape by<br />
implementing new ideas approved by MF partners, <strong>and</strong> thus developing the adaptive capacity in<br />
an area to deal with uncertainty <strong>and</strong> change (LaPierre 2002).<br />
This study focuses on the southern part of the Murmansk region in the northwest of the Russian<br />
Federation. Mining <strong>and</strong> forest logging began in the late 19th century <strong>and</strong> hydro-electrical power<br />
stations were built from the 1950s. While mining <strong>and</strong> hydropower production continues,<br />
forestry has declined dramatically (Elbakidze et al. 2007). As a consequence, rural settlements<br />
are declining, <strong>and</strong> people rely on local use of a wide range of wood <strong>and</strong> non-wood resources,<br />
<strong>and</strong> emerging tourism based on natural <strong>and</strong> cultural values (e.g., Lehtinen 2006). To adapt<br />
governance <strong>and</strong> management of forest l<strong>and</strong>scapes to this situation a partnership of stakeholders<br />
was created in 2006 in the Kovdozersky forest management unit in the southernmost part of<br />
Murmansk region termed the Kovdozersky Model <strong>Forest</strong> (MF) (Elbakidze et al. 2007). We<br />
mapped l<strong>and</strong>scape stakeholders <strong>and</strong> their use of l<strong>and</strong>scape goods, services <strong>and</strong> values in the MF<br />
area. Our study shows the need for spatial planning at four spatial scales to communicate the<br />
present, past <strong>and</strong> future states <strong>and</strong> trends of forest goods, ecosystem services <strong>and</strong> values to<br />
different stakeholders at multiple level of organisation. We discuss the need to promote new<br />
forms of forest l<strong>and</strong>scape governance promote collaboration among stakeholders.<br />
2. Methodology<br />
2.1. Study area<br />
The Kovdozersky state forest management unit (400,626 ha) is located in the southern part of<br />
the Murmansk region in the north-west of the Russian Federation (Elbakidze et al. 2007).<br />
Geographically, it occupies the lower part of the Kovda river catchment, which has its<br />
headwaters on both sides of the Russian-Finnish border, <strong>and</strong> flows to the K<strong>and</strong>alaksha Bay of<br />
the White Sea, <strong>and</strong> borders with the Karelian Republic in the south. <strong>Forest</strong>s are dominated by<br />
Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris) at lower altitude <strong>and</strong> Norway spruce (Picea abies) on higher hills.<br />
There are eight settlements <strong>and</strong> many ab<strong>and</strong>oned logging villages from the period of<br />
exploitative logging in the area. Local people in rural settings have retained their traditional<br />
l<strong>and</strong>-use practices, which are based on forest resources. In 2006 the total number of people<br />
living in the area was about 15,000, <strong>and</strong> the population density was 3.7 people sq. km<br />
(Elbakidze et al. 2007).<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
P. Angelstam & M. Elbakidze. 2010. Sustainable forest management, multi-stakeholder governance <strong>and</strong> spatial planning<br />
541<br />
2.2. Methods<br />
To identify the stakeholders of the Kovdozersky MF <strong>and</strong> their use of forest l<strong>and</strong>scapes, both<br />
qualitative <strong>and</strong> quantitative methods were used 2006-2008. A total of 36 open-ended qualitative<br />
interviews were conducted with stakeholders in the Kovdozersky MF. All interviews were taken<br />
face to face <strong>and</strong> lasted between 60 <strong>and</strong> 180 minutes. The interviews focused on the natural<br />
resource use profiles of stakeholders from civil, private <strong>and</strong> public sector actors, trends in forest<br />
management <strong>and</strong> transport logistics, as well as economic <strong>and</strong> social development in the area of<br />
the Kovdozersky MF. To quantify the state <strong>and</strong> trend of economic, ecological <strong>and</strong> socio-cultural<br />
dimensions of SFM in the Kovdozersky MF the interviews were complemented with analyses of<br />
socio-economic statistical data from the All-Russian Population Census (2002), <strong>and</strong> archives of<br />
local <strong>and</strong> regional administrations. To make a survey of the products derived from different<br />
kinds of natural resources we divided them into use values <strong>and</strong> non-use values (Merlo <strong>and</strong><br />
Croitoru 2005). Direct use values include (1) consumptive (e.g., wood <strong>and</strong> non-wood goods) as<br />
well as (2) non-consumptive direct use values in terms of l<strong>and</strong>scape quality for recreation <strong>and</strong><br />
tourism. Indirect use values include ecosystem services such as watershed protection, water<br />
purification <strong>and</strong> carbon sequestration. Non-use values are closely linked to conservation<br />
interests of the l<strong>and</strong>scape.<br />
3. Results<br />
3.1. L<strong>and</strong>scape stakeholders<br />
In total we identified 31 stakeholders operating in the area of the Kovdozersky management unit.<br />
There were 13 l<strong>and</strong> leasers, 9 forest contractors, 6 other forest users, <strong>and</strong> 3 potential forest<br />
contractors whose rights to use forests was under negotiation with the state as a main l<strong>and</strong> <strong>and</strong><br />
forest owner (Figure 1). Stakeholders from all societal sectors used l<strong>and</strong>scape goods, services<br />
<strong>and</strong> values to create products through different kind of activities. However, private sector<br />
stakeholders were the main group (55% of the total number of stakeholders in the area). The<br />
representatives of the private sector were mainly small-scale forest logging companies, tourist<br />
enterprises, <strong>and</strong> an agricultural company. The smallest group was civil sector stakeholders,<br />
represented by the local gardening society. Stakeholders from the public sector managed the<br />
most of the l<strong>and</strong>, forests <strong>and</strong> water in the area of Kovdozersky MF. This group included the<br />
Kovdozersky state forest management unit, the hydropower stations, <strong>and</strong> the protected areas.<br />
The distribution of stakeholders among different groups indicated that it was an interest from<br />
the private sector to develop business. According to the interviews with the stakeholders, we<br />
concluded that the business interests were very diverse, ranging from small-scale forest industry<br />
based on local forest resources, tourism (nature-based, sport, fishing <strong>and</strong> hunting), maintenance<br />
<strong>and</strong> restoration of fish population, small scale farming <strong>and</strong> fisheries, <strong>and</strong> construction of bioenergy<br />
production facilities.<br />
3.2. Spatial planning scales<br />
The spatial levels of stakeholder activities covered a wide spectrum, from international to local.<br />
However, almost 50% of all stakeholders focused their activity in the Murmansk region, i.e. the<br />
regional level. Based on interviews we found that four spatial scales of stakeholders’ activities<br />
need to be considered in different types of spatial planning (Table 1). This means that although<br />
the different stakeholders which leased or used forest l<strong>and</strong> in the same forest management unit,<br />
the creation of products from l<strong>and</strong>scapes’ goods, services <strong>and</strong> values took place at different<br />
spatial scales.<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
P. Angelstam & M. Elbakidze. 2010. Sustainable forest management, multi-stakeholder governance <strong>and</strong> spatial planning<br />
542<br />
4. Discussion<br />
4.1. Spatial planning at multiple scales<br />
Today the main planning unit in the Kovdozersky MF is the 400,000 ha state forest<br />
management unit. An important task is to support co-existence of forest l<strong>and</strong> leasers operating at<br />
different spatial scales with planning for multiple uses within <strong>and</strong> among leasing areas. A total<br />
of 17 stakeholders lease parts of this management unit for wood harvesting, hunting <strong>and</strong><br />
recreation businesses. To secure sustainable use of forest l<strong>and</strong>scape goods, ecosystem services<br />
<strong>and</strong> values their spatial distribution needs to be mapped. Assessment is needed of wood<br />
resources for timber <strong>and</strong> bioenergy, habitat suitability for game <strong>and</strong> fish, nature <strong>and</strong> culture<br />
tourism, hydro-electric development <strong>and</strong> for nature conservation. Some users have also a need<br />
for regional trans-boundary planning at the scale of the entire Kovda river catchment (2,610,000<br />
ha) in Murmansk oblast, Republic of Karelia <strong>and</strong> Finl<strong>and</strong>. Three examples are hydro-electric<br />
development, conservation of the last intact forest areas in Fennosc<strong>and</strong>ia, as well as tourism<br />
linked to the Finnish <strong>and</strong> Russian cultural heritage. Given the importance of hydroelectric<br />
development for l<strong>and</strong>scape stakeholders <strong>and</strong> fish populations a catchment perspective is logic. It<br />
would be appropriate to include the entire Kovda river catchment into the Kovdozersky MF.<br />
4.2. Need for multi-stakeholder partnership for sustainability<br />
Implementing policies about sustainability on the ground is highly dependent on biophysical<br />
conditions, the environmental history, <strong>and</strong> the systems of government <strong>and</strong> governance.<br />
Stakeholders <strong>and</strong> actors at multiple levels use goods, services <strong>and</strong> values of forest l<strong>and</strong>scapes to<br />
develop products at several temporal <strong>and</strong> spatial scales. Consequently, when developing local<br />
<strong>and</strong> regional governance arrangements towards SFM policy implementation on the ground,<br />
stakeholders have to collaborate <strong>and</strong> develop capacity for learning to deal with uncertainties <strong>and</strong><br />
risks in governance <strong>and</strong> management of forest l<strong>and</strong>scapes. The development of collective action<br />
towards sustainable forest l<strong>and</strong>scapes differs in different situations <strong>and</strong> places. Different<br />
stakeholders may also have different interests <strong>and</strong> needs for taking part in collective action<br />
(Elbakidze et al. 2010). In the Russian Federation the first MF initiative appeared in 1994, <strong>and</strong><br />
in 2006 there were already five MFs. According to the “Initiative Network of Russian Model<br />
<strong>Forest</strong>s”, the Russian MFs are long-term projects, which develop on the basis of generally<br />
recognized international <strong>and</strong> Russian principles of SFM (Elbakidze <strong>and</strong> Angelstam 2008). At<br />
the end of 2007, the Russian Federation’s <strong>Forest</strong> Agency, inspired by the MF concept, planned<br />
to create 31 Model <strong>Forest</strong>s in addition to the five existing ones (Zheldak 2008). The vision was<br />
that the suite of MFs should represent all forest zones in the Russian Federation, <strong>and</strong> would<br />
become examples of SFM based on Russian <strong>and</strong> international experiences (Elbakidze <strong>and</strong><br />
Angelstam 2008). However, since then no official information has been provided about any<br />
governmental actions towards development of a MF network in Russia. Nevertheless, given the<br />
interest to base regional development on forest resources in Russia, applying integrated<br />
l<strong>and</strong>scape approaches, such as the MF concept, to support SFM implementation remains is an<br />
urgent task (World <strong>Forest</strong>ry Congress 2009).<br />
4.3. Knowledge production using transdisciplinary approaches<br />
To realise the vision of SFM a societal learning process it is crucial to explore different<br />
l<strong>and</strong>scape approaches in order to develop (i) an accounting system as a “map <strong>and</strong> a compass”<br />
that tells natural resource managers, policy-makers, media, authorities exercising governance,<br />
<strong>and</strong> the general public where we are going, <strong>and</strong> (ii) ways of establishing societal arenas for local<br />
<strong>and</strong> regional governance as a “gyroscope” that allows us to make informed decisions based on<br />
knowledge. This requires new forms of knowledge production that integrate different<br />
disciplines as well as academic <strong>and</strong> non-academic actors, i.e. transdisciplinary approaches (e.g.,<br />
Gibbons et al. 1994).<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
P. Angelstam & M. Elbakidze. 2010. Sustainable forest management, multi-stakeholder governance <strong>and</strong> spatial planning<br />
543<br />
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Angelstam, P., Boutin, S., Schmiegelow, F., Villard, M.-A., Drapeau, P., Host, G., Innes, J.,<br />
Isachenko, G., Kuuluvainen, M., Mönkkönen, M., Niemelä, J., Niemi, G., Roberge, J.-M.,<br />
Spence, J., Stone, D. 2004. Targets for boreal forest biodiversity conservation – a rationale<br />
for macroecological research <strong>and</strong> adaptive management. Ecological Bulletins, 51: 487-509.<br />
Angelstam, P., Mikusinski, G., Rönnbäck, B.-I., Östman, A., Lazdinis, M., Roberge, J.-M.,<br />
Arnberg, W., Olsson, J. 2003. Two-dimensional gap analysis: a tool for efficient<br />
conservation planning <strong>and</strong> biodiversity policy implementation. Ambio, 33(8): 527-534.<br />
Angelstam, P., Kopylova, E., Korn, H., Lazdinis, M., Sayer, J.A., Teplyakov, V. <strong>and</strong> Törnblom,<br />
J. 2005. Changing forest values in Europe. In: Sayer, J.A., Maginnis, S. (Eds) <strong>Forest</strong>s in<br />
l<strong>and</strong>scapes. Ecosystem approaches to sustainability. Earthscan: 59-74.<br />
Axelsson, R., Angelstam, P., Elbakidze, M. 2008. L<strong>and</strong>scape approaches to sustainability. In:<br />
Frostell, B., Danielsson, Å., Hagberg, L., Linnér, B.-O. & Lisberg Jensen E. (Eds.) Science<br />
for sustainable development. The social challenge with emphasis on the conditions for<br />
change. VHU, Uppsala, pp. 169-177.<br />
Baker, S. 2006. Sustainable development. Routledge, London <strong>and</strong> New York. 245 pp.<br />
Elbakidze, M., Angelstam, P. <strong>and</strong> Axelsson, R. 2007. Sustainable forest management as an<br />
approach to regional development in the Russian Federation: state <strong>and</strong> trends in<br />
Kovdozersky Model <strong>Forest</strong> in the Barents region. Sc<strong>and</strong>inavian Journal of <strong>Forest</strong> Research,<br />
22: 568-581.<br />
Elbakidze, M. <strong>and</strong> Angelstam, P. 2008. Model <strong>Forest</strong>s in the Russian Federation’s northwest: a<br />
view from the outside. Sustainable <strong>Forest</strong> Management, 17(1): 39-47. (In Russian).<br />
Elbakidze,M., Angelstam, P., S<strong>and</strong>ström, C. <strong>and</strong>. Axelsson, R. 2010. Multi-stakeholder<br />
collaboration in Russian <strong>and</strong> Swedish Model <strong>Forest</strong> initiatives: adaptive governance<br />
towards sustainable forest l<strong>and</strong>scapes Ecology <strong>and</strong> Society in press.<br />
Gibbons, M., L. Limoges, H. Nowotny, S. Schwartman, P. Scott, <strong>and</strong> Trow, M. 1994. The New<br />
Production of Knowledge. The Dynamics of Science <strong>and</strong> Research in Contemporary<br />
Societies. Sage, London.<br />
IMFN. 2008. Model <strong>Forest</strong> development guide. International Model <strong>Forest</strong> Network Secretariat.<br />
Lammerts van Buren, E.M., Blom, E.M. 1997. Hierarchical framework for the formulation of<br />
sustainable forest management st<strong>and</strong>ards. Principles, criteria, indicators. Tropenbos<br />
Foundation, Backhuys Publishers, AH Leiden, The Netherl<strong>and</strong>s. 82 pp.<br />
LaPierre, L. 2002. Canada’s Model <strong>Forest</strong> program. The <strong>Forest</strong>ry Chronicle, 78, 613-617.<br />
Lehtinen, A. A. 2006. Postcolonialism, multitude, <strong>and</strong> the politics of nature. On the changing<br />
geographies of the European North. University Press of America, Lanham.<br />
Mayers, J., Bass, S. 2004. Policy that works for forests <strong>and</strong> people. Real prospects for<br />
governance <strong>and</strong> livelihoods. Earthscan, London, UK. 324 pp.<br />
Merlo, M., Croitoru, L. 2005. Concepts <strong>and</strong> methodology: a first attempt towards quantification.<br />
In: Merlo, M., Croitoru, L. (Eds.) Valuing Mediterranean forests. Towards total economic<br />
value. CABI Publishing: 17-36.<br />
Myneni, R. B., Tucker, C. J., Kaufmann, R. K., Kauppi, P. E., Liski, J., Zhou, L., Alexeyev, V.,<br />
Hughes, M. K. 2001. A large carbon sink in the woody biomass of Northern forests. PNAS,<br />
98(26):14784–14789.<br />
Norton, B.G. 2005. Sustainability. A philosophy of adaptive ecosystem management. The<br />
University of Chicago press, Chicago <strong>and</strong> London. 607 pp.<br />
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Actions. Findings <strong>and</strong> Strategic Actions, see:<br />
http://foris.fao.org/meetings/download/_2009/xiii_th_world_forestry_congress/misc_docum<br />
ents/wfc_declaration.pdf<br />
Zheldak, V. 2008. Development of Model <strong>Forest</strong> in Russia. Ustoychivoe lesopolzovanie, 2 (18),<br />
12-17 (In Russian).<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
P. Angelstam & M. Elbakidze. 2010. Sustainable forest management, multi-stakeholder governance <strong>and</strong> spatial planning<br />
544<br />
Table 1: Spatial scales for different types of spatial planning identified from interviews with 31 users of<br />
forest l<strong>and</strong>scapes’ goods, ecosystem services <strong>and</strong> values in the Kovdozersky Model <strong>Forest</strong> l<strong>and</strong>scape as<br />
determined by the stakeholders’ use profiles.<br />
Spatial scale Type of planning L<strong>and</strong>scape actor<br />
Trees in st<strong>and</strong>s<br />
Operational planning (e.g., <strong>Forest</strong> leasers that harvest wood<br />
(~1-100 ha)<br />
general considerations in<br />
forest management, stream<br />
<strong>and</strong> riparian management)<br />
St<strong>and</strong>s in management sub-unit<br />
(=l<strong>and</strong>scape, old lesnichestvo,<br />
leasing area)<br />
(~2,000 to 100,000 ha)<br />
<strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> in a management<br />
unit (lesnichestvo under the<br />
2007 <strong>Forest</strong> Code)<br />
(~500,000 ha)<br />
River catchment in the boreal<br />
forest<br />
(~5,000,000 ha)<br />
Tactical planning (e.g., forest<br />
management, l<strong>and</strong>scape<br />
planning for game species)<br />
Strategic planning in the<br />
Kovdozersky MF (e.g., to<br />
assure co-existence of use of<br />
wood, non-wood goods,<br />
energy, tourism)<br />
Regional planning for<br />
sustainable development (e.g.,<br />
hydro power, tourism,<br />
conservation of ”green belt”<br />
forest)<br />
Kovdozersky forest management<br />
unit, nature protection units<br />
Kovdozersky forest management<br />
unit<br />
Hydroelectricity production,<br />
authorities working with<br />
nature conservation<br />
Hydropower station<br />
Kutsa zakaznik<br />
Research station<br />
of the MSU<br />
Gardening local societies<br />
Former sovhoz ”Khyazhegubsky”<br />
Mobile stations<br />
Zelenoborsky<br />
Lesozavodskoy<br />
Tourism enterprises<br />
Lesnichestvo<br />
Fish breeding factory<br />
Prison<br />
Zhyleks<br />
Murmanautodor<br />
Regiment OU<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> enterprises (7)<br />
Oktyabrskaya<br />
Railway road<br />
K<strong>and</strong>alaksha<br />
zapovednik<br />
Figure 1: Management interactions between l<strong>and</strong>scape stakeholders in the Kovdozersky Model <strong>Forest</strong> in<br />
the summer of 2008. Arrows show management interactions among different l<strong>and</strong>scape stakeholders.<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
M. Castro et al. 2010. Relationship between small ruminants behaviour <strong>and</strong> l<strong>and</strong>scape features in Northeast of Portugal<br />
545<br />
Relationship between small ruminants behaviour <strong>and</strong> l<strong>and</strong>scape<br />
features in Northeast of Portugal<br />
Marina Castro 1,2* , José Ferreira Castro 1 & António Gómez Sal 3<br />
1<br />
<strong>Escola</strong> <strong>Superior</strong> Agrária - Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Campus de Santa<br />
Apolónia, Apartado 172, 5301-854 Bragança, Portugal<br />
2<br />
CIMO – Centro de Investigação de Montanha - Instituto Politécnico de Bragança,<br />
Portugal<br />
3<br />
Dpto. Interuniversitario de Ecología, Universidad de Alcalá. Edif. de Ciencias,<br />
Campus Universitario, 28871 Alcalá de Henares, Madrid, Spain<br />
Abstract<br />
The small ruminant production systems in Northeastern Portugal are mainly based on the<br />
extensive exploitation of the spontaneous plant production. The shepherds direct their flocks on<br />
daily grazing itineraries across different patches of l<strong>and</strong> use.<br />
Sheep <strong>and</strong> goats flocks were monitored monthly for a year. Data collected consists of<br />
geographical position <strong>and</strong> the type of l<strong>and</strong> use crossed. Also, essential livestock activities were<br />
monitored.<br />
The corrected frequencies (preference indexes) approach was used for the data analysis.<br />
The principal aims were to examine the relationships between livestock behaviour <strong>and</strong> l<strong>and</strong> use<br />
types, <strong>and</strong> to check how they change throughout the year <strong>and</strong> the time of day. Our results<br />
showed a strong dependence between l<strong>and</strong> use types <strong>and</strong> livestock activities <strong>and</strong> suggested a<br />
considerable coherence between human management, the spontaneous behaviour <strong>and</strong><br />
physiological needs of animals <strong>and</strong> the agroecosystems capacity to supply the livestock needs.<br />
Keywords: preference indexes, sheep <strong>and</strong> goat, livestock behaviour, l<strong>and</strong> use types<br />
1. Introduction<br />
The small ruminant production systems in Northeastern Portugal are mainly based on the<br />
extensive exploitation of the spontaneous plant production. The shepherds direct their flocks on<br />
daily grazing itineraries across different patches of l<strong>and</strong> use (Barbosa <strong>and</strong> Portela 2000; Castro<br />
et al. 2004). These circuits strongly differ throughout the year in duration <strong>and</strong> design. The<br />
places visited <strong>and</strong> the time spent in each one depends on the natural conditions <strong>and</strong> nutritional<br />
needs of the animals.<br />
The relationship between environmental factors <strong>and</strong> animal-behavior was studied by various<br />
authors (De Miguel et al. 1997; Oom et al. 2004; Horne et al. 2008). Most of them are focus on<br />
wild ungulate herbivorous or free-ranging domestic herbivorous. Livestock systems with human<br />
control such as itinerant shepherding haven’t been to a great extent studied from these point<br />
view. However, according (Baumont et al. 2000) shepherding consists in interacting with<br />
spontaneous animal’s decisions <strong>and</strong> the herder’s interventions could be considered simply as<br />
new constraints to the expression of the behavioral trends of the flock. As a result, in this feature,<br />
* Corresponding author. Tel.351 273 303345<br />
Email address: marina.castro@ipb.pt<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
M. Castro et al. 2010. Relationship between small ruminants behaviour <strong>and</strong> l<strong>and</strong>scape features in Northeast of Portugal<br />
546<br />
a study of livestock activities or movements across the l<strong>and</strong>scape permits underst<strong>and</strong>ing the<br />
animal’s perception of l<strong>and</strong>scape.<br />
Several animal attributes <strong>and</strong> environmental characteristics affect livestock movements, for<br />
instance, species or breed (Bailey et al. 2001), prior experience with a l<strong>and</strong>scape(Bailey et al.<br />
1996), degree of slope (Ganskopp <strong>and</strong> Vavra 1987), diurnal temperature dynamics of the<br />
l<strong>and</strong>scape(George et al. 2007), presence of trails (Ganskopp et al. 2000), resources availability<br />
<strong>and</strong> quality.<br />
Animal activities (grazing, resting <strong>and</strong> walking) were also affected by l<strong>and</strong>scape attributes<br />
(Ganskopp <strong>and</strong> Bohnert 2009). The research provided an underst<strong>and</strong>ing of how to animals use<br />
the l<strong>and</strong>scape, what kind of requirements they search when they visit a particular l<strong>and</strong> use type.<br />
Having an underst<strong>and</strong>ing of animal l<strong>and</strong>scape use could help to develop strategies to better<br />
management the l<strong>and</strong>scapes <strong>and</strong> its temporal changes.<br />
In this paper we show that relationships between animal behavior <strong>and</strong> environment can be easily<br />
highlighted by preference indexes values (Godron 1965). This method produces a general<br />
descriptive overview of the environmental factors associated with each type of behavior, <strong>and</strong><br />
provides information about the importance of each factor in conditioning animal activities.<br />
The principal aims were to examine the relationships between livestock behavior <strong>and</strong> l<strong>and</strong> use<br />
types, <strong>and</strong> to check how they change throughout the year <strong>and</strong> the time of day (temperature <strong>and</strong><br />
vegetation moisture effect). Our results showed a strong dependence between l<strong>and</strong> use types <strong>and</strong><br />
livestock activities <strong>and</strong> suggested a considerable coherence between human management, the<br />
spontaneous behavior <strong>and</strong> physiological needs of animals <strong>and</strong> the agroecosystems capacity to<br />
supply the livestock needs.<br />
2. Methodology<br />
The experiment was carried out in Trás-os-Montes region; from May 1999 to May 2000.<br />
Fieldwork was conducted over the territory of four villages located near Bragança, northeast<br />
Portugal (41°46’N latitude <strong>and</strong> 6°45’W longitude) at 700 to 1000 meters above sea level. The<br />
climate is humid Mediterranean with yearly mean temperature of 11.6°C <strong>and</strong> precipitation of<br />
972.1 mm, which occurs mainly from October until May (INMG 1991). The dominant soils are<br />
umbric leptosols <strong>and</strong> dystric leptosols, depending on the l<strong>and</strong> use.<br />
Four flocks (two of goat <strong>and</strong> two of sheep) were monitored every month for a year. Each flock<br />
was observed for a complete day by an operator using a GPS. Data collected consists of<br />
geographical position <strong>and</strong> type of l<strong>and</strong> use crossed (annual <strong>and</strong> perennial crops; meadows,<br />
forestl<strong>and</strong>s <strong>and</strong> scrubl<strong>and</strong>s). Also, animal behaviour was monitored.<br />
Behavioural activities (grazing, browsing, resting <strong>and</strong> walking) <strong>and</strong> the grazed species were<br />
noted every 15 minutes by direct observation (instantly recorded). Within each day, the<br />
frequency of animals involved in each activity was calculated for each individual observation of<br />
sheep or goat behaviour. The calculation of frequencies involved all the activities sampled,<br />
namely grazing, browsing, resting <strong>and</strong> walking.<br />
The corrected frequencies (preference indexes) approach was used for the data analysis. The<br />
frequency of sheep <strong>and</strong> goats in each activity was computed, in addition to each l<strong>and</strong> use type<br />
<strong>and</strong> part of the day. Also, the seasonal variations were computed of animal frequencies in each<br />
l<strong>and</strong> use in each time of the day (table 1).<br />
Table 1: Details of different frequencies considered<br />
Animals observed in each activity<br />
Animals observed in each l<strong>and</strong> use type<br />
* L<strong>and</strong> use type<br />
*Period of the year (cool days, warm days, summer,<br />
winter)<br />
*Part of day (morning, middle-day, afternoon) in different<br />
periods of year (cool days, warm days, winter, summer)<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
M. Castro et al. 2010. Relationship between small ruminants behaviour <strong>and</strong> l<strong>and</strong>scape features in Northeast of Portugal<br />
547<br />
The day was classified into morning, middle-day <strong>and</strong> afternoon, by dividing the daylight period.<br />
The year was classified into four periods; the summer corresponds to the months of June, July,<br />
August <strong>and</strong> September; cool days to the November, January, February, March; warm days to the<br />
April. May, October <strong>and</strong> winter December <strong>and</strong> January.<br />
Animal-environmental interactions were analysed by comparing the expected <strong>and</strong> observed<br />
frequencies (observed / expected). This approach shows the main patterns of association<br />
between animal activities <strong>and</strong> environmental variables. In addition, the relationship between<br />
physical variables <strong>and</strong> l<strong>and</strong> use types permits the analysis of the l<strong>and</strong>scape organisation <strong>and</strong> the<br />
animals ‘perception of the environment’.<br />
Numerical output allows us to identify the level of the relationship between variables: the<br />
association is positive or preferred when the quotient is higher than to 1.24; indifferent, when<br />
there is a value between 0.75 <strong>and</strong> 1.24, <strong>and</strong> negative or not preferred, when the corrected<br />
frequency value is lower than 0.75).<br />
3. Result<br />
The animals’ perception of the environment are focused on habitat types or l<strong>and</strong> uses types.<br />
Table 2 shows the preference index values for the four principal activities <strong>and</strong> five principal<br />
l<strong>and</strong> uses types (annual crops, perennial crops, meadows, scrubl<strong>and</strong>s <strong>and</strong> forestl<strong>and</strong>s). Stables<br />
<strong>and</strong> paths were also considered.<br />
Table 2: Preference index values of activities in different l<strong>and</strong> uses <strong>and</strong> stable <strong>and</strong> path<br />
Activities Annual Perennial Meadows Shrubs <strong>Forest</strong> Stable Path<br />
crops<br />
Sheep<br />
grazing 1.63 1.03 1.94 0.12 0.10 0.07 0.00<br />
resting 0.22 0.45 0.20 1.97 2.54 2.82 0.08<br />
walking 0.63 1.46 0.25 0.14 0.07 0.05 7.24<br />
browsing 1.35 2.61 0.13 3.66 0.82 0.00 0.37<br />
Goats<br />
grazing 3.21 0.62 2.36 0.73 0.13 0.00 0.16<br />
resting 0.37 1.23 0.62 0.26 1.69 4.11 0.21<br />
walking 0.48 0.49 0.40 0.88 0.34 0.22 4.05<br />
browsing 0.78 1.25 0.99 1.57 1.24 0.00 0.34<br />
The relationship between animal activities <strong>and</strong> l<strong>and</strong> use types permits the investigation of the<br />
animal habitat preferences <strong>and</strong> activity patterns.<br />
Grazing activities are positively related to annual crop l<strong>and</strong> use (1.63; 3.21) <strong>and</strong> meadows (1.94;<br />
2.36) in both kinds of flocks.<br />
Browsing activities are positively related to annual <strong>and</strong> perennial crop areas <strong>and</strong> scrubl<strong>and</strong>s in<br />
the case of sheep, whereas goat flocks concentrate browsing activities on scrubl<strong>and</strong>s (3.66).<br />
Resting activities are positively related to patches of forestl<strong>and</strong>s (2.54), scrubl<strong>and</strong>s (1.97) <strong>and</strong><br />
stables (2.82) in sheep flocks. Goat flocks rest in stables or forestl<strong>and</strong>s (1.69).<br />
Sheep <strong>and</strong> goat flocks use mainly the path to walk; nevertheless perennial crop l<strong>and</strong>s are used<br />
by sheep to move into other l<strong>and</strong> use types.<br />
Annual crop l<strong>and</strong> uses are used by sheep for grazing <strong>and</strong> browsing; activities of resting <strong>and</strong><br />
walking are not frequent in this l<strong>and</strong> use type. Goats use preferentially annual crops for grazing.<br />
These results suggest that some ancient areas of annual crops were converted into long-term<br />
fallow or have been ab<strong>and</strong>oned. For that reason, sheep flocks use this l<strong>and</strong> use type for grazing<br />
<strong>and</strong> browsing.<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
M. Castro et al. 2010. Relationship between small ruminants behaviour <strong>and</strong> l<strong>and</strong>scape features in Northeast of Portugal<br />
548<br />
Perennial crop l<strong>and</strong>s are used by sheep, mainly for moving up from some l<strong>and</strong> use types to<br />
others (1.46) <strong>and</strong> browsing (2.61). Goats use them to browse (1.25). There isn’t an association<br />
between perennial crop areas <strong>and</strong> resting activity (0.45 <strong>and</strong> 1.23 for sheep <strong>and</strong> goats,<br />
respectively). It relates to the organisation <strong>and</strong> specific function of each l<strong>and</strong> use type, for<br />
example, the flocks rest in forest l<strong>and</strong>s <strong>and</strong> not in chestnut orchards, despite their availability<br />
<strong>and</strong> good shade.<br />
<strong>Forest</strong>l<strong>and</strong>s are used by goats (1.24) for browsing <strong>and</strong> resting (1.69), whereas sheep use this<br />
l<strong>and</strong> use for resting (2.54). Scrubl<strong>and</strong>s are used to feed sheep (3.66) <strong>and</strong> goats (1.57); they are<br />
also places for resting by sheep (1.97). Meadows are used only to feed in both species.<br />
Table 3 shows the preference index values from the five principal l<strong>and</strong> use types (also stable <strong>and</strong><br />
paths) in different periods of the year (cool days, warm days, winter, summer) of sheep <strong>and</strong><br />
goats flocks.<br />
Table 3: Preference index values of l<strong>and</strong> uses (also stable <strong>and</strong> path) in different periods of the year.<br />
Sheep<br />
Goats<br />
L<strong>and</strong> uses cool warm winter summer cool warm winter summer<br />
annual 1.56 1.46 0.62 0.63 1.63 0.88 0.95 0.77<br />
perennial 1.50 1.44 2.04 0.40 0.23 1.48 3.39 0.36<br />
meadows 1.24 0.83 2.03 0.84 1.08 0.47 1.54 1.20<br />
shrubs 1.00 0.26 0.00 1.63 1.50 1.35 1.11 0.45<br />
forest 0.07 0.20 0.11 1.92 0.13 1.00 0.47 1.60<br />
path 0.97 1.04 1.87 0.83 0.98 0.64 1.49 1.14<br />
stable 0.04 0.96 0.00 1.50 0.04 0.91 0.00 1.85<br />
In the case of sheep flocks, cool days are positively related to annual (1.56) <strong>and</strong> perennial crops<br />
(1.50) <strong>and</strong> negatively related to forestl<strong>and</strong>s. Goat flocks on cool days prefer to use annual crops<br />
(1.63) <strong>and</strong> scrubl<strong>and</strong>s (1.50). On warm days, sheep show the same pattern (annual <strong>and</strong> perennial<br />
crops) <strong>and</strong> goats replace annual with perennial crops (1.48). In the winter period goats <strong>and</strong><br />
sheep show the same pattern, using for the most part perennial crop l<strong>and</strong>s <strong>and</strong> meadows. In<br />
summer, itinerant sheep are strongly connected with forest (1.92) <strong>and</strong> shrub (1.63) l<strong>and</strong> use<br />
types. Itinerant goats are positively connected with forest l<strong>and</strong>s (1.60) <strong>and</strong> negatively related to<br />
shrub (0.45) <strong>and</strong> perennial (0.36) l<strong>and</strong> use types.<br />
The relationship between animal activities <strong>and</strong> time of day, as well as period of year, permits the<br />
investigation of how the animals underst<strong>and</strong> their environmental constraints <strong>and</strong> opportunities.<br />
There is a general widespread pattern for both species (table 4). In the morning, animals<br />
preferentially walk <strong>and</strong> browse. The mid-day period is used for resting. The afternoon period is<br />
used for grazing.<br />
Resting in both species is connected with the higher temperatures of mid day, in all periods of<br />
the year. The resting activity in goats in winter is unreliable. Sheep flocks show a stronger<br />
reluctance for morning grazing on cool days <strong>and</strong> in winter. In the case of goats, only in summer<br />
periods they are reluctant to graze in the mornings. In summer, all activities excluding repose<br />
are negatively connected with mid-day time.<br />
4. Discussion<br />
The relationship between activity preference <strong>and</strong> time of the day, l<strong>and</strong> use type, <strong>and</strong> their<br />
seasonal variation suggest a complex pattern of use of l<strong>and</strong>scape by the flocks.<br />
During their daily itineraries, the flocks use different l<strong>and</strong> use types for different purposes; they<br />
can be used for browsing, grazing, resting, or walking. Also, these uses can change throughout<br />
the year <strong>and</strong> day. The results confirm those found by (Castro 2004) with different<br />
methodologies; in particular, using the time spent in each l<strong>and</strong> use type.<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
M. Castro et al. 2010. Relationship between small ruminants behaviour <strong>and</strong> l<strong>and</strong>scape features in Northeast of Portugal<br />
549<br />
The data indicate that flocks move over the l<strong>and</strong>scape with a special perception of benefits <strong>and</strong><br />
requirements. The displacement is guided by a complex interpretation of l<strong>and</strong> uses type profits<br />
(fodder, shade or transit between habitats), environmental constraints like temperature of midday,<br />
moisture of pasture in the morning, <strong>and</strong> l<strong>and</strong> use types occurring near villages.<br />
Table 4: Seasonal variation of preference index activity values in different periods of day<br />
Sheep<br />
Goats<br />
warm days<br />
Activities morning mid-day afternoon morning mid-day afternoon<br />
grazing 1.06 0.76 1.32 0.51 0.78 1.52<br />
resting 0.07 1.80 0.43 0.44 1.61 0.46<br />
walking 1.42 0.82 0.99 1.29 0.75 1.20<br />
browsing 3.20 0.57 0.21 1.23 0.92 1.00<br />
summer<br />
grazing 1.17 0.00 1.76 0.90 0.53 1.62<br />
resting 0.63 1.92 0.52 0.09 2.29 0.35<br />
walking 1.91 0.00 0.99 1.20 0.21 1.24<br />
browsing 1.99 0.00 0.91 1.35 0.12 1.02<br />
cool days<br />
grazing 0.59 0.73 1.25 0.34 0.91 1.55<br />
resting 0.64 2.09 0.33 0.00 1.90 0.60<br />
walking 1.72 0.86 0.97 1.35 0.60 1.24<br />
browsing 3.36 1.68 0.14 1.48 1.00 0.67<br />
winter<br />
grazing 0.33 1.02 1.17 0.37 1.03 1.33<br />
resting 0.00 1.87 0.66 0.81* 0.75* 1.44*<br />
walking 1.81 0.70 0.99 1.34 0.54 1.39<br />
browsing 2.13 0.99 0.70 1.41 1.36 0.30<br />
*not reliable, because only six animals were observed in this activity<br />
The seasonal variation of frequencies in different l<strong>and</strong> use types for sheep <strong>and</strong> goats suggest that<br />
the itineraries vary during the year, regarding different needs of animals <strong>and</strong> dissimilar<br />
opportunities for exploitation of resources. Shepherds recognize these different habits <strong>and</strong> use<br />
them accordingly to manage their production systems (Meuret 1996; Baumont et al. 2000).<br />
The occurrence of resting was markedly associated with the places in which shelter was<br />
provided <strong>and</strong> the period of the year where the temperature increased. Various authors (De<br />
Miguel et al. 1997) described the same pattern.<br />
The feed activities (grazing <strong>and</strong> browsing) are related in the case of sheep to annual <strong>and</strong><br />
perennial crops, meadows <strong>and</strong> shrubs. Frequently, the meadows are enclosed by hedgerows or<br />
splashed by scattered riparian trees. In the case of goats, they related to annual crops, meadows<br />
<strong>and</strong> scrubl<strong>and</strong>s. An interesting aspect is the different value of browsing activity in meadows for<br />
sheep <strong>and</strong> goats. In the first case, they are negatively related. In the case of goats, the value<br />
(0.99) shows that browsing activity can take place in meadows (presence of isolated trees or<br />
hedges); also interesting is the value of browsing activity on scrubl<strong>and</strong>s for sheep (3.66) <strong>and</strong><br />
goats (1.57), showing goats browsing a bit everywhere while sheep browse specially on<br />
scrubl<strong>and</strong>s. These results agree with those reported by authors that pointed out the different<br />
foraging styles between sheep <strong>and</strong> goats.<br />
The complex pattern of l<strong>and</strong>scape use by flocks described in this paper, show the importance of<br />
each l<strong>and</strong> use type for a particular animal activity. The natural complexity of Mediterranean<br />
l<strong>and</strong>scapes has been increased by traditional pastoral activity. Several structures of the<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
M. Castro et al. 2010. Relationship between small ruminants behaviour <strong>and</strong> l<strong>and</strong>scape features in Northeast of Portugal<br />
550<br />
l<strong>and</strong>scape, such us hedgerows, scattered trees on the arable fields, forage trees, have been<br />
preserved over time by their functional value. However, part of these structures is threatened by<br />
the ab<strong>and</strong>onment of agriculture <strong>and</strong> rural areas. Also, this specific pastoral system is strongly<br />
threatened. As a result, specific measures for its conservation should be taken as soon as<br />
possible, in accordance with European L<strong>and</strong>scape Convention assumptions.<br />
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<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
M. Elbakidze et al. 2010. Does forest certification contribute to boreal biodiversity conservation<br />
551<br />
Does forest certification contribute to boreal biodiversity<br />
conservation Swedish <strong>and</strong> Russian experiences<br />
Marine Elbakidze¹ * , Per Angelstam¹, Kjell Andersson¹, Mats Nordberg¹ & Yurij Pautov²<br />
¹ School for <strong>Forest</strong> Engineers, Faculty of <strong>Forest</strong> Sciences, Swedish University of<br />
Agricultural Sciences, SE-739 21 Skinnskatteberg, Sweden<br />
² Silver Taiga Foundation, P.O. Box 810 Syktyvkar, 167 000 Komi Republic, Russian<br />
Federation<br />
Abstract<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> Stewardship Council (FSC) is one of the leading forest certification schemes, which<br />
encourages sustainable forest management. While many studies have been done concerning the<br />
political <strong>and</strong> social outcomes of FSC, little is known about the contribution of certification for<br />
biodiversity conservation on the ground. We analysed the FSC st<strong>and</strong>ard content for biodiversity<br />
conservation at different spatial scales, <strong>and</strong> outcomes of FSC implementation for boreal<br />
biodiversity conservation on-the-ground using concrete forests management units in Russia <strong>and</strong><br />
Sweden. Focusing on state forest management units in both countries we evaluated the<br />
connectivity of set-aside forests by applying morphological spatial pattern analyses. The<br />
Russian st<strong>and</strong>ard included spatial scales from tree <strong>and</strong> st<strong>and</strong> to l<strong>and</strong>scape <strong>and</strong> ecoregion, while<br />
the Swedish st<strong>and</strong>ard focused on finer scales. Areas set-aside for FSC were similar in both<br />
countries, but formal protection in the Russian study area was three times higher than in Sweden.<br />
Swedish set-aside core areas were two orders of magnitude smaller, had much lower<br />
connectivity <strong>and</strong> were located in a fragmented forestl<strong>and</strong> holding. To conclude, the potential of<br />
FSC for biodiversity conservation depends on the amount of formal protection, the spatial<br />
configuration of forest management units, <strong>and</strong> the functionality of habitat networks. Thus the<br />
areas certified according has limited information contents.<br />
Keywords: structural <strong>and</strong> functional connectivity, Sveaskog Co, Komi Republic, formally <strong>and</strong><br />
informally protected areas<br />
1. Introduction<br />
At the beginning of the 1990s different forest certification schemes appeared in order to<br />
promote implementation of sustainable forest management (SFM) policies in both developed<br />
<strong>and</strong> developing countries (e.g., Gulbr<strong>and</strong>sen 2005). The <strong>Forest</strong> Stewardship Council (FSC) <strong>and</strong><br />
the Program for the Endorsement of <strong>Forest</strong> Certification schemes (PEFC) are the two leading<br />
forest certification schemes, <strong>and</strong> both aim to encourage SFM implementation at different levels<br />
from local to global (Cashore et al. 2003, 2005; Auld et al. 2008; Gullison 2003).<br />
In this paper we focus on the certified forests in the boreal biome on the European continent.<br />
The FSC scheme is the only international certification system with wide geographical coverage<br />
in boreal forests in Europe, <strong>and</strong> the vast majority of the FSC certified forests in Europe are<br />
located in the boreal ecoregion. Sweden <strong>and</strong> the Russian Federation have the largest areas of<br />
FSC-certified forest in Europe, <strong>and</strong> both use wood to create forest products sold on international<br />
markets where certification matters to customers.<br />
* Corresponding author. Tel.: +46(0)581-660433 E-mail address: marine.elbakidze@smsk.slu.se<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
M. Elbakidze et al. 2010. Does forest certification contribute to boreal biodiversity conservation<br />
552<br />
Many studies have been made concerning the political <strong>and</strong> social outcomes of FSC (e.g.,<br />
Cashore et al. 2003, 2005; Gulbr<strong>and</strong>sen 2005). In spite of ecological issues being the main<br />
concern at the initiation of the FSC system, little is known about the contribution of certification<br />
for biodiversity conservation on-the-ground (Brawn et. al. 2001; Gulisson 2003; Gulbr<strong>and</strong>sen<br />
2005; Rametsteiner <strong>and</strong> Simula 2003). The aim of this paper is to analyse the potential of FSC<br />
certification in terms of st<strong>and</strong>ard content <strong>and</strong> outcomes for boreal biodiversity conservation onthe-ground<br />
using large concrete forest management units in Sweden <strong>and</strong> the Russian Federation<br />
as study areas. We first analyse <strong>and</strong> compare the biodiversity conservation requirements at<br />
different spatial scales in national FSC st<strong>and</strong>ards in Sweden <strong>and</strong> Russia. Secondly, focusing on<br />
two large state forest management units we evaluate the structural connectivity of forests set<br />
aside for biodiversity conservation by applying morphological spatial pattern analyses (Vogt et<br />
al. 2007 a,b). Finally, we discuss the potential of FSC certification for biodiversity conservation<br />
with different levels of ambition in managed boreal forests in Russia <strong>and</strong> Sweden.<br />
2. Methodological framework<br />
2.1. Study areas<br />
Our study areas were the Bergslagen management unit (hereafter Bergslagen) of Sveaskog Co<br />
in south-central Sweden <strong>and</strong> the Priluzje forest management unit (hereafter Priluzje) in the<br />
Komi Republic in the Russian Federation. Bergslagen (59º N, 16º E) encompasses a total area of<br />
563,629 ha of forest l<strong>and</strong> ownership, including water <strong>and</strong> mires. The forested area consists of<br />
many forest polygons distributed in an area exceeding 4,000,000 ha within 9 counties in southcentral<br />
Sweden. The main forest tree species are Norway spruce (Picea abies) <strong>and</strong> Scots pine<br />
(Pinus silvestris). <strong>Forest</strong>s with domination of birches <strong>and</strong> aspen in younger succession stages<br />
occupy less then 8% of the total forested l<strong>and</strong>. Priluzje (60ºN; 49º E) occupies 810,252 ha, <strong>and</strong><br />
it forms one contiguous block of forested l<strong>and</strong>. The main tree species are Norway spruce (Picea<br />
abies) <strong>and</strong> Scots pine (Pinus silvestris). <strong>Forest</strong>s with domination of birches (Betula spp.) <strong>and</strong><br />
aspen (Populus tremula) occupy almost 40% of the total forested l<strong>and</strong> as a consequence of<br />
previous large-scale disturbances by fire <strong>and</strong> logging. Priluzje still hosts pristine forests with<br />
natural dynamics, <strong>and</strong> consequently near-natural composition, structure <strong>and</strong> functions.<br />
2.2. Analyses of the FSC st<strong>and</strong>ard content on biodiversity considerations<br />
There are, at least, four levels of ambitions for biodiversity conservation (Angelstam et al. 2004),<br />
viz.: (1) species may be present, but not in viable populations; (2) viable populations may be<br />
present, but only those that are not specialised on natural forest structures or having large area<br />
requirements; (3) communities of all naturally occurring species of the representative<br />
ecosystems of an eco-region are present, but large scale disturbances <strong>and</strong> global change can<br />
threaten their ecological integrity, <strong>and</strong> (4) ecosystems <strong>and</strong> governance systems have adaptive<br />
capacity <strong>and</strong> form resilient social-ecological systems (=l<strong>and</strong>scapes).<br />
The level of ambition for biodiversity conservation is correlated with the spatial scale of forest<br />
management. There are, as a minimum, four relevant spatial scales: (1) Trees in a st<strong>and</strong> cover<br />
individual trees <strong>and</strong> groups of trees within a forest st<strong>and</strong> (Eriksson <strong>and</strong> Hammer 2006). On this<br />
spatial scale species with very small habitat requirement could be maintained for a limited time,<br />
thus satisfying relatively low ambitions in biodiversity conservation (the first level of ambition<br />
above). (2) St<strong>and</strong>s in a l<strong>and</strong>scape correspond to the scale of a delimited area of similar tree<br />
composition, age structure, diameter <strong>and</strong> height (Eriksson <strong>and</strong> Hammer 2006). This spatial scale<br />
matches the maintenance of species with small area requirements such as vascular plants, but<br />
not viable populations of fungi <strong>and</strong> lichens in the long term (i.e., the first <strong>and</strong> second levels of<br />
ambitions). (3) <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> in an eco-region large enough to accommodate the needs of species<br />
with relatively large area requirements <strong>and</strong> habitat patch dynamics for species that track certain<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
M. Elbakidze et al. 2010. Does forest certification contribute to boreal biodiversity conservation<br />
553<br />
successional stages (i.e., the third level of ambition). (4) Finally, eco-regions on the global level<br />
encompass the spatial scale which allows maintenance of ecosystem composition, structures,<br />
<strong>and</strong> functions linked to natural processes (Angelstam et al., 2004; Cabarle et al. 2005) (the<br />
highest level of ambition).<br />
The Russian <strong>and</strong> Swedish FSC st<strong>and</strong>ards (Russian National FSC 2008, Swedish National FSC<br />
2010) contain criteria <strong>and</strong> indicators (C&I), concerning ecological, economic <strong>and</strong> social-cultural<br />
dimensions of SFM. We assessed the extent to which current criteria <strong>and</strong> indicators capture the<br />
four spatial scales of biodiversity conservation in both st<strong>and</strong>ards.<br />
2.3. Area proportion of set-aside forests<br />
The study areas contained formally (according to the national legislation) <strong>and</strong> informally<br />
(voluntary within the FSC <strong>and</strong> company policy frameworks) protected forests, which were set<br />
aside for biodiversity conservation. To estimate the area <strong>and</strong> area proportion of formally <strong>and</strong><br />
informally protected areas for biodiversity conservation we selected all forests which are<br />
protected from relevant digital spatially explicit data bases used by the forest companies in<br />
Priluzje <strong>and</strong> Bergslagen. Spatial analyses were made for st<strong>and</strong> types with different age <strong>and</strong> tree<br />
species. In Priluzje the latest forest inventory was done in 1992 <strong>and</strong> was updated in 2002. In<br />
Bergslagen the last forest inventory was done in 1990, <strong>and</strong> it was then updated yearly taking<br />
into account the forest management activities undertaken.<br />
2.4. Assessment of structural connectivity of forest habitats<br />
The spatial configuration of forests set aside for biodiversity conservation is important to satisfy<br />
the requirements of species with different levels of ambitions for biodiversity conservation.<br />
According to Taylor et al. (1993, 2006), there are two kinds of l<strong>and</strong>scape connectivity:<br />
structural <strong>and</strong> functional. Structural connectivity describes only physical relations among habitat<br />
patches <strong>and</strong> does not provide functional connectivity if corridors are not used by target species.<br />
Functional connectivity is species-oriented <strong>and</strong> increases when some change in the l<strong>and</strong>scape<br />
structure increases the degree of movement or flows of organisms through the l<strong>and</strong>scape.<br />
To assess structural connectivity created by the forests set aside for biodiversity conservation in<br />
our two case studies we used Morphological Spatial Pattern Analyses (MSPA) (Vogt et al.<br />
2007a, 2007b; Ostapowicz et al. 2008). Following (Vogt et al. 2007a, 2007b), we considered<br />
seven classes of forest pattern: core, islet, edge, perforation, loop, bridge <strong>and</strong> branch. The<br />
informally <strong>and</strong> formally protected forests were merged to create the focal forest polygons for<br />
assessment of structural connectivity of forest habitats. All focal forest polygons were classified<br />
according to their age class <strong>and</strong> tree species composition. The vector forests maps derived from<br />
GIS were converted into raster maps with 25-m pixels. According to Ostapowicz et al. (2008),<br />
the MSPA classes on output maps depend on the size parameter used in the morphological<br />
model. From a biological perspective several studies show that the edges affect the environment<br />
in forest patches. We used the results of studies presented in (Aune et. al. 2005) that indicates<br />
that in the boreal forests edge effects vary among species groups, but that they generally extend<br />
at least 25 m into the forest <strong>and</strong> greater than 50 m for some groups. Therefore, in MSPA<br />
processing we quantify connectivity in our study areas twice with edge width of 25 <strong>and</strong> 50 m.<br />
3. Results<br />
3.1. FSC requirements for biodiversity conservation in Russian <strong>and</strong> Swedish st<strong>and</strong>ards<br />
In the Russian FSC st<strong>and</strong>ard biodiversity considerations were included into 14 criteria with 48<br />
indicators, <strong>and</strong> in the Swedish FSC st<strong>and</strong>ard to 12 criteria with 55 indicators. Multiple<br />
indicators considered different aspects of biodiversity conservation. The C&I in both st<strong>and</strong>ards<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
M. Elbakidze et al. 2010. Does forest certification contribute to boreal biodiversity conservation<br />
554<br />
were thus relevant for biodiversity conservation at different spatial scales. Some indicators<br />
referred to only one spatial scale of biodiversity considerations, while other corresponded to<br />
several spatial scales. Our analyses showed that in the Russian st<strong>and</strong>ard four spatial scales were<br />
reflected, <strong>and</strong> the majority of C&I corresponded to the scales of st<strong>and</strong>s in a l<strong>and</strong>scape <strong>and</strong><br />
l<strong>and</strong>scapes in an ecoregion. In the Swedish st<strong>and</strong>ard three spatial scales were considered, <strong>and</strong><br />
the majority of C&I were relevant to the scales of trees in a st<strong>and</strong> <strong>and</strong> st<strong>and</strong>s in a l<strong>and</strong>scape.<br />
3.2. Area proportion of set-aside forests<br />
In Bergslagen the formally protected forests included Natura 2000 sites with high conservation<br />
interest at the EU level, nature reserves created for the purpose of conserving biological<br />
diversity, protecting <strong>and</strong> preserving valuable natural environments or satisfying the need of<br />
areas for outdoor recreation; <strong>and</strong> nature of national interest with high natural or cultural value<br />
which must be protected from actions that may significantly damage the natural environment.<br />
The formally protected forests occupied around 4% of total forested area in Bergslagen. There<br />
were also several types of informally protected forests such as: (a) forests belonging to the<br />
management objective class NO which are left untouched in order to protect its high natural<br />
values; (b) forests of the NS class to be managed in a way to maintain a high nature values, <strong>and</strong><br />
(c) forests of the PF class where the aim is to combine wood production with set-aside of trees<br />
<strong>and</strong> small patches of some nature/culture value. The informally protected forests in Bergslagen<br />
covered almost 9% of the total forested area.<br />
In Priluzje formally protected forests fell into the following categories: (a) forests with water<br />
protective functions along rivers <strong>and</strong> streams; (b) forests along roads; (c) forests along fish<br />
spawning places; <strong>and</strong> (d) special protected areas. The formally protected forests amounted to<br />
almost 12% of the total forest area in Priluzje. The informally protected forests included pristine<br />
forests, <strong>and</strong> forests with high social <strong>and</strong> cultural values for local people, which are excluded<br />
from commercial use. Together these forests occupied approximately 10% of total forested area.<br />
3.3. Structural connectivity<br />
In Bergslagen pine, coniferous <strong>and</strong> spruce forests together occupied 84% of the total forested<br />
area set aside for biodiversity conservation. The majority of the forest pattern classes (core, edge,<br />
bridge <strong>and</strong> branch) were associated with these forest types, <strong>and</strong> the mostly with pine forests.<br />
Mixed <strong>and</strong> deciduous forests were underrepresented, <strong>and</strong> the main pattern classes created by<br />
these forests were edges <strong>and</strong> branches. By contrast, in Priluzje deciduous <strong>and</strong> mixed forests<br />
were the dominant forest types set aside for biodiversity conservation, <strong>and</strong> occupied 61% of the<br />
total area of formally <strong>and</strong> informally protected forests. More than half of the core areas were<br />
represented by deciduous <strong>and</strong> mixed forests. Edges were the second pattern class by the size of<br />
occupied area, <strong>and</strong> were represented mainly by deciduous <strong>and</strong> mixed forests.<br />
In Bergslagen core <strong>and</strong> edge were the two dominant classes in the forest pattern when the edge<br />
width was defined as 25 m. Taken together these two classes occupied 69% of forested area set<br />
aside for biodiversity conservation. When the edge width was increased to 50 m the forest<br />
pattern became very different. The area of core decreases almost three times (from 35 to 12%),<br />
<strong>and</strong> islet increased almost four times <strong>and</strong> became the single dominant pattern class. In Priluzje<br />
the forest pattern was very different. With an edge width of 25 m, core was the only dominant<br />
class, occupying 70% of the total area of forest set aside for biodiversity. The total area of two<br />
classes in Priluzje (core <strong>and</strong> edge) was equal to the sum of areas of four classes (core, edge,<br />
branch <strong>and</strong> islet) in Bergslagen. This could indicate that in Bergslagen the forests set aside for<br />
biodiversity were more fragmented than in Priluzje. With an edge width of 50 m the forest<br />
pattern changed. The core areas decreases to 47%, <strong>and</strong> the area of branch <strong>and</strong> edge increased.<br />
However, these changes in proportion of forest classes were much less pronounced than in<br />
Bergslagen.<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
M. Elbakidze et al. 2010. Does forest certification contribute to boreal biodiversity conservation<br />
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The total number of cores in the forest pattern of Bergslagen was 11,172 (with edge of 25 m)<br />
<strong>and</strong> 3,662 (with edge of 50 m). The size of cores ranged from 0.06 to 941 ha. The majority of<br />
cores (almost 70% of the total number) were less than 1 ha large. Core areas from 10 to 100 ha<br />
constituted only 6% of the total number core areas, but included more than 40% of the total core<br />
area. The total number of core areas in Priluzje was much smaller than in Bergslagen, <strong>and</strong><br />
amounted to 227 with 25-m edge <strong>and</strong> 207 with 50-m edge. The minimum size of a core was<br />
0.06 ha <strong>and</strong> the maximum was 37,397 ha. The majority of cores ranged from 0.1 to 10 ha.<br />
However, more than 90% of the total core area were more than 1,000 ha large.<br />
Based on analyses of the habitat selection of red-listed species (e.g., Berg et al. 1994) <strong>and</strong> the<br />
focal species approach (e.g., Lambeck 1997) applied to boreal focal species, we selected the<br />
most valuable cores of different forest types for focal species depending on old <strong>and</strong> old-growth<br />
forests. We selected cores of spruce, pine, coniferous, mixed <strong>and</strong> deciduous forests in the age of<br />
more than 110 years, which belong to the groups of old <strong>and</strong> old-growth forests in Bergslagen<br />
<strong>and</strong> Priluzje.<br />
There were 3,668 valuable cores in Priluzje <strong>and</strong> 4,940 cores in Bergslagen with an edge width<br />
of 25 m. Almost 80% of old <strong>and</strong> old-growth forests’ cores in Priluzje were a part of larger cores<br />
of forest area which were set aside for biodiversity conservation. The total number of valuable<br />
cores in Bergslagen decreases to 1,207 if the edge width equals to 50 m, <strong>and</strong> in Priluzje the<br />
same changes occur but not so extreme – down to 3,233 valuable cores. The total area of<br />
valuable cores in Priluzje was almost 6 times larger then in Bergslagen (39,413 ha in Priluzje<br />
<strong>and</strong> 6,299 ha in Sweden with the edge of 25 m). These differences increase with edge width of<br />
50 m. The area of valuable cores decreases in both study areas but more in Bergslagen (down to<br />
24,617 ha in Priluzje <strong>and</strong> to 2,289 ha in Bergslagen). These changes indicate that the edge size<br />
affects the number <strong>and</strong> area of valuable habitats in Bergslagen much stronger than in Priluzje.<br />
The sizes of valuable cores for biodiversity varied considerable in our study areas. For example,<br />
in Priluzje total number of cores was bigger in the size interval from 1 to 10 ha.However, the<br />
largest area of old <strong>and</strong> old-growth forests’ cores lay in the size interval from 10 to 100 ha. In<br />
Bergslagen the core distribution was different. The majority of cores were between 0.1 to 1 ha,<br />
<strong>and</strong> the most of the old <strong>and</strong> old-growth forest core areas were from 1 to 10 ha.<br />
4. Discussion<br />
Analysis of the content of the Russian <strong>and</strong> Swedish FSC st<strong>and</strong>ards showed that the Russian<br />
st<strong>and</strong>ard contained higher biodiversity conservation ambitions, thus including maintenance of<br />
communities of all naturally occurring species of the representative ecosystems of an eco-region.<br />
By contrast the C&I of the Swedish FSC st<strong>and</strong>ard were more focused on the maintenance of<br />
species, which are not specialised on natural forest structures or have large area requirements.<br />
The total area of formally <strong>and</strong> informally protected areas as a proportion of the total forested<br />
area of the forest management units in Priluzje was almost 70% larger than in Bergslagen, <strong>and</strong><br />
approximately half of these forests in Priluzje were set aside according to the national<br />
legislation. In Bergslagen the area of voluntary protected forests was almost twice as large as<br />
the area of formally protected forests. The large difference in the spatial configuration of the<br />
forest holdings in the Bergslagen case study (a dispersed archipelago of forest holdings) <strong>and</strong> the<br />
Priluzje case study (one contiguous patch) should be noted.<br />
A review of the patch size requirements of individuals of different groups of species indicate<br />
that the core patch size distribution was satisfactory in the Swedish case study mainly for plants,<br />
fungi <strong>and</strong> lichens, but not for birds <strong>and</strong> mammals. By contrast, the majority of core areas in the<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
M. Elbakidze et al. 2010. Does forest certification contribute to boreal biodiversity conservation<br />
556<br />
Russian case study had the potential to host viable populations also of the most area-dem<strong>and</strong>ing<br />
focal species.<br />
To conclude, biologically relevant analyses are needed to assess functionality of set-asides for<br />
biodiversity conservation. We conclude that the potential of FSC for biodiversity conservation<br />
is dependent both on the amount of formal protection, the spatial configuration of forest<br />
management units, <strong>and</strong> the functionality <strong>and</strong> renewal of habitat networks.<br />
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Ostapowicz, K., Vogt, P., Ritters, K., Kozak, J. <strong>and</strong> Estreguil, C. 2008. Impact of scale on<br />
morphological spatial pattern of forest. L<strong>and</strong>scape ecology, 23: 1107-1117.<br />
Rametsteiner, E. <strong>and</strong> Simula, M. 2003. <strong>Forest</strong> certification – an instrument to promote<br />
sustainable forest management Journal of environmental management, 67: 87-98.<br />
Russian National <strong>Forest</strong> Stewardship st<strong>and</strong>ard. 2008.<br />
Swedish FSC st<strong>and</strong>ard for forest certification. 2010.<br />
Taylor P., Fahrig, L. <strong>and</strong> With,K. 2006. L<strong>and</strong>scape connectivity: a return to the basics. In:<br />
Crooks, K. <strong>and</strong> Sanjayan, M. (Eds). Connectivity conservation. Cambridge University<br />
Press: 29 - 43.<br />
Taylor, P. <strong>and</strong> Fahrig, L., Henein, K., Merriam, G. 1993. Connectivity is a vital element of<br />
l<strong>and</strong>scape structure. Oikis, 68 (3): 571-572.<br />
Vogt, P., Riitters, K., Estreguil, C., Kozak, J., Wade, T. <strong>and</strong> Wickham, J. 2007. Mapping spatial<br />
patterns with morphological image processing. L<strong>and</strong>scape ecology, 22:171-177.<br />
Vogt, P., Riitters, K., Iwanowski, M., Estreguil, C., Kozak, J. <strong>and</strong> Soille, P. 2007. Mapping<br />
l<strong>and</strong>scape corridors. Ecological Indicators, 7 (2): 481-488.<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
F. Fonseca & T. de Figueiredo 2010. Impact of tree species replacement on carbon stocks in forest floor <strong>and</strong> mineral soil<br />
557<br />
Impact of tree species replacement on carbon stocks in forest floor <strong>and</strong><br />
mineral soil<br />
Felícia Fonseca * & Tomás de Figueiredo<br />
Centro de Investigação de Montanha (CIMO), Instituto Politécnico de Bragança<br />
(<strong>ESA</strong>B/IPB), Apartado 1172, 5301-855 Bragança, Portugal<br />
Abstract<br />
This study aims at evaluating the influence of replacing areas of Quercus pyrenaica, which<br />
represents native vegetation of Serra da Nogueira, NE of Portugal, by Pseudotsuga menziesii on<br />
carbon stocks in forest floor <strong>and</strong> mineral soil. Three sampling areas were selected in adjacent<br />
locations with similar soil <strong>and</strong> climate conditions. The first area, covered by Quercus pyrenaica<br />
(QP), represents the original soil. The second area is in a 40 years old st<strong>and</strong> of Pseudotsuga<br />
menziesii (PM40), <strong>and</strong> the third one, also under Pseudotsuga menziesii, is 15 years old (PM15).<br />
In each sampling area, at 10 r<strong>and</strong>omly selected points, samples were collected in the forest floor<br />
(0.49 m 2 quadrat) <strong>and</strong> in the soil (at 0-5, 5-10 <strong>and</strong> 10-20 cm depth). The forest floor stores 17,<br />
13 <strong>and</strong> 6% of total carbon for PM40, PM15 <strong>and</strong> QP, respectively. Four decades after species<br />
replacement, a soil organic carbon loss is observed, although no significant differences were<br />
found when comparing soil under introduced (PM) with original species (QP). A carbon loss of<br />
around 30%, in PM15, <strong>and</strong> gains of about 10%, in PM40, are computed when considering<br />
mineral soil <strong>and</strong> forest floor together.<br />
Keywords: Quercus pyrenaica; Pseudotsuga menziesii; forest floor; soil organic carbon.<br />
1. Introduction<br />
The increase in atmospheric carbon content, as expected considering actual trends, draws<br />
attention to the highly valuable role of forest ecosystems in the global carbon cycle (Eswaran et<br />
al., 1993). The majority of the native vegetation in Iberian peninsula (Portugal <strong>and</strong> Spain) have<br />
been replaced by other forest species, particularly fast-growing conifers plantations. Although<br />
this replacement may have beneficial economic consequences, it is essential to underst<strong>and</strong><br />
environmental effects such as in carbon sequestration for mitigation of greenhouse gases. The<br />
knowledge of the differences among species in what regards C sequestration should be a<br />
decision support tool when introducing new forest species <strong>and</strong> can be used strategically to reach<br />
environmental goals (Oostra et al., 2006; Schulp et al., 2008; Vallet et al., 2009).<br />
Species replacement implies changes in carbon stocks in forest floor <strong>and</strong> soil organic<br />
matter (Peltoniemi et al., 2004) because tree species litter quantity, quality <strong>and</strong> distribution in<br />
soil horizons have high influence in carbon storage (Oostra et al., 2006). Decomposition rate of<br />
plant residues can be slower or faster, depending on their nature. In general, it is accepted that<br />
organic residues from coniferous species decompose more slowly than broadleve species, for<br />
example, due to the presence of non-hydrolyzable polyphenolic compounds in litter (Faulds <strong>and</strong><br />
Williamson, 1999). On the other h<strong>and</strong>, fast-growing species would accumulate carbon more<br />
rapidly than slow-growing species, but several studies shown that substitution leads to a carbon<br />
* Corresponding author.<br />
Email address: ffonseca@ipb.pt<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
F. Fonseca & T. de Figueiredo 2010. Impact of tree species replacement on carbon stocks in forest floor <strong>and</strong> mineral soil<br />
558<br />
loss (Schroth et al., 2002; Wang <strong>and</strong> Wang, 2007; Vallet et al., 2009). Carbon stored in forest<br />
ecosystems depends fundamentally on forest age <strong>and</strong> management pratices (Post <strong>and</strong> Kwon,<br />
2000; Paul et al., 2002; Pregitzer <strong>and</strong> Euskirchen, 2004). Species choice is actually a<br />
management option to increase carbon storage (Vallet et al., 2009).<br />
The main objective of the present study was to quantify the impact of replacing a native<br />
hardwood species (Quercus pyrenaica) by a fast-growing conifer plantation (Pseudotsuga<br />
menziesii) on carbon stocks in forest floor <strong>and</strong> mineral soil, <strong>and</strong> its persistence through time.<br />
2. Methodology<br />
The study area was located in Serra da Nogueira, northeast of Portugal (41º 45'N <strong>and</strong> 6°<br />
52'W), in the range between 1000 <strong>and</strong> 1100 m altitude. The annual average temperature is 12º C<br />
<strong>and</strong> annual average precipitation is 1100 mm, concentrated from October to March (INMG,<br />
1991). The native vegetation is Quercus pyrenaica (QP), which occupies about 6,000 ha <strong>and</strong><br />
represents the area of QP most extensive in Portugal. Over the last decades, some of the QP<br />
area have been replaced by fast-growing species, mainly Pseudotsuga menziesii, process where<br />
the fires have had an important role. Soils are classified as Orthi-Dystric Leptosols derived of<br />
schists (Agroconsultores <strong>and</strong> Coba, 1991).<br />
To assess the impact of species replacement on carbon stocks in forest floor <strong>and</strong> mineral<br />
soil three sampling areas were selected in adjacent locations with similar soil <strong>and</strong> climate<br />
conditions. Selected study species were 15 year old (PM15) <strong>and</strong> 40 year old (PM40) st<strong>and</strong>s of<br />
Pseudotsuga menziesii <strong>and</strong> st<strong>and</strong>s of QP, the latter representing the original soil. The st<strong>and</strong>s<br />
characterization is presented in Table 1.<br />
St<strong>and</strong>s<br />
Table 1: Mean st<strong>and</strong> characteristics for Pseudotsuga menziesii <strong>and</strong> Quercus pyrenaica.<br />
Number of stems<br />
Age<br />
Dominant height<br />
Mean diameter<br />
Basal area<br />
(trees ha -1 ) (years) (m)<br />
(cm) (m 2 ha -1 )<br />
P. menziesii (PM40) 3800 40 20.1 27.7 229.3<br />
P. menziesii (PM15) 6700 15 13,9 16.6 144.3<br />
Q. pyrenaica (QP) 19300 - 8.5 7.3 81.6<br />
In each one of the three st<strong>and</strong>s (PM15, PM40, QP) 10 areas of 70 x 70 cm (0,49 m 2 ) were<br />
r<strong>and</strong>omly established. In each one of these, the forest floor, defined as organic material<br />
deposited over mineral soil, was collected. <strong>Forest</strong> floor samples were dried at 65 ºC for 72 h to<br />
determine dry mass.<br />
Total soil organic C down to 20 cm depth (sampled in the same points where forest floor<br />
had been removed) was calculated from C concentrations determined in samples collected in the<br />
0-5, 5-10 <strong>and</strong> 10-20 cm soil layers. Bulk density (BD) was estimated at the same depths using<br />
the equation:<br />
BD = 100 / (%OM / BD OM ) + ((100 – %OM) / BD min soil ) (1)<br />
where OM is soil organic matter, BD OM the bulk density of organic matter (assumed to be<br />
0.244), BD min soil the mineral soil bulk density (assumed to be 1.64) (Post <strong>and</strong> Kwon, 2000; Paul<br />
et al., 2002).<br />
Samples for soil C were air dried <strong>and</strong> sieved to determine the coarse fraction (> 2 mm).<br />
All samples of forest floor <strong>and</strong> mineral soil were analyzed for total C by dry combustion (ISO,<br />
1994). Soil samples were tested with an acid-drop but no carbonates were detected, thus the<br />
total soil C was assumed to be comparable to soil organic C. <strong>Forest</strong> floor mass values were<br />
converted to carbon (t C ha -1 ) multiplying these values by the C concentration in dry matter.<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
F. Fonseca & T. de Figueiredo 2010. Impact of tree species replacement on carbon stocks in forest floor <strong>and</strong> mineral soil<br />
559<br />
Soil organic carbon (SOC, t C ha -1 ) was calculated multiplying C concentration by bulk density<br />
<strong>and</strong> thickness of the mineral soil layer with a correction for coarse elements content.<br />
3. Results <strong>and</strong> discussion<br />
Carbon concentration is significantly higher in forest floor under native species (QP), but<br />
the amount of organic residues accumulated on the soil surface is higher under the introduced<br />
species (PM40 <strong>and</strong> PM15). The carbon stocks under PM40 is about three times higher than the<br />
original soil, following the pattern PM40 > PM15 > QP (Figure 1). These results seem to be<br />
related to the decomposition rate, since under coniferous it is evident, on the surface, the<br />
presence of a large amount of slightly decomposed organic debris, unlike under the deciduous<br />
there is less amount of organic material, which suggests a more rapid decomposition <strong>and</strong><br />
subsequent connection to the mineral fraction. Similar results were obtained by Rapp (1984)<br />
<strong>and</strong> Fonseca (1999). Among the conifers, differences also appear to be due to the age of the<br />
st<strong>and</strong>s <strong>and</strong> the increase in density of canopy cover observed from PM15 to PM40. In temperate<br />
forests, forest floor remain relatively constant or increase with age, reaching a peak after about<br />
70 years of st<strong>and</strong> development (Pregitzer <strong>and</strong> Euskirchen, 2004).<br />
Figure 1: <strong>Forest</strong> floor mass (t ha -1 ), C concentration (%) <strong>and</strong> C stocks (t ha -1 ) in forest floor. For each<br />
variable, averages with the same letter are not significantly different (P
F. Fonseca & T. de Figueiredo 2010. Impact of tree species replacement on carbon stocks in forest floor <strong>and</strong> mineral soil<br />
560<br />
The 0-20 cm soil profile contained an average of 55.9, 82.1 <strong>and</strong> 86.3 t C ha -1 in the PM15,<br />
PM40 <strong>and</strong> QP, respectively (Figure 2). The proportion of soil organic carbon storage in relation<br />
to total (forest floor plus mineral soil 0-20 cm) was 87.5% for PM15, 84.5% for PM40 <strong>and</strong><br />
94.6% for QP. All soil layers show significantly lower carbon storage values under PM15, than<br />
under PM40 or QP. Despite the statistically non-significant differences found between PM40<br />
<strong>and</strong> QP in soil layers, after 40 years of species replacement there are still carbon losses in<br />
PM40, when compared to native vegetation (Figure 3). The differences observed in soils under<br />
PM15 are mainly due to the shorter recovery time since disturbance caused during st<strong>and</strong><br />
installation (Dick et al., 1998).<br />
Figure 2: Total forest floor <strong>and</strong> soil organic carbon storage (numbers above bars in t C ha -1 ) according to<br />
species. Numbers below bars indicate total soil organic carbon storage in t C ha -1 . For each layer,<br />
averages with the same letter are not significantly different (P
F. Fonseca & T. de Figueiredo 2010. Impact of tree species replacement on carbon stocks in forest floor <strong>and</strong> mineral soil<br />
561<br />
The replacement of native vegetation (QP) by a fast-growing specie (PM) has effects on<br />
C stocks that depend on the time scale considered. The additional C storage of the PM40 st<strong>and</strong>s<br />
compared to QP is 5.3 t C ha -1 . After 15 years (PM15) the C loss reaches 27.8 t C ha -1 . There are<br />
many factors <strong>and</strong> processes that determine the distribution <strong>and</strong> rate of change in soil organic<br />
carbon storage when the type of vegetation <strong>and</strong> soil management practices are changed, among<br />
which st<strong>and</strong>s age may assume great importance, as shown in this study.<br />
References<br />
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Post, W.M., Kwon, K.C., 2000. Soil carbon sequestration <strong>and</strong> l<strong>and</strong>-use change: processes <strong>and</strong><br />
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Rapp, M., 1984. Répartition et flux de matière organique dans un écosystème à Pinus pinea L.<br />
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Schroth, G., D’Angelo, S.A., Teixeira, W.G., Haag, D., Lieberei, R., 2002. Conversion of<br />
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Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
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Schulp, C.J.E., Nabuurs, G-J., Verburg, P.H., de Waal, R.W., 2008. Effect of tree species on<br />
carbon stocks in forest floor <strong>and</strong> mineral soil <strong>and</strong> implications for soil carbon inventories.<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> Ecology <strong>and</strong> Management, 256: 482–490.<br />
Vallet, P., Meredieu, C., Seynave, I., Bélouard, T., Dhôte, J.F., 2009. Species substitution for<br />
carbon storage: Sessile oak versus Corsican pine in France as a case study. <strong>Forest</strong><br />
Ecology <strong>and</strong> Management, 257: 1314–1323.<br />
Wang, Q.K., Wang, S.L., 2007. Soil organic matter under different forest types in Southern<br />
China. Geoderma, 142: 349–356.<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
A. Gil-Tena et al. 2010. Disentangling recent changes in forest bird ranges in Mediterranean forests (NE Spain)<br />
563<br />
Disentangling recent changes in forest bird ranges in Mediterranean<br />
forests (NE Spain): Assessing global change impacts <strong>and</strong> guiding<br />
l<strong>and</strong>scape management<br />
Assu Gil-Tena 1, 2* , Lluís Brotons 2, 3 & Santiago Saura 4<br />
1 Departament d’Enginyeria Agroforestal, ETSEA, Universitat de Lleida, Spain<br />
2 Àrea de Biodiversitat, Centre Tecnològic <strong>Forest</strong>al de Catalunya, Spain<br />
3 Institut Català d’Ornitologia, Museu de Ciències Naturals, Zoologia, Spain<br />
4 Departamento de Economía y Gestión <strong>Forest</strong>al, E.T.S.I. Montes, Universidad<br />
Politécnica de Madrid, Spain<br />
Abstract<br />
In Mediterranean Europe, after the widespread afforestation <strong>and</strong> forest maturation following a<br />
large-scale decline in traditional uses, many forest bird species have exp<strong>and</strong>ed their ranges in<br />
the last decades of the 20th century. In order to disentangle the processes mediating recent range<br />
changes of forest birds in the Mediterranean region of Catalonia (NE Spain) <strong>and</strong> to provide<br />
forest management guidelines, we studied the relationships between variations in forest bird<br />
species richness at 10x10 km <strong>and</strong> forest l<strong>and</strong>scape dynamics associated with l<strong>and</strong> ab<strong>and</strong>onment<br />
(afforestation <strong>and</strong> maturation), fires <strong>and</strong> management. The widespread afforestation <strong>and</strong> forest<br />
maturation appeared to counteract the potentially negative effects of fires on species richness,<br />
being the impact of forest management on birds much smaller than the impact of the former.<br />
Nevertheless, forest practices of moderate intensity <strong>and</strong> an adequate management of l<strong>and</strong>scape<br />
connectivity pattern may be beneficial, allowing species to better face range changes associated<br />
with global change.<br />
Keywords: afforestation, fires, forest maturation, species richness variation, sylvicultural<br />
treatments<br />
1. Introduction<br />
Ecosystems of Mediterranean Europe appear to be especially susceptible to the impacts of<br />
global change (Metzger et al. 2008) since many large-scale factors such as climate <strong>and</strong> l<strong>and</strong>-use<br />
changes or modifications in the perturbation regime are expected to simultaneously impact these<br />
regions, with largely unknown overall effects on current biodiversity patterns (Sala et al. 2000).<br />
However, forest management could help to buffer the expected negative impacts of global<br />
change in the years to come. For instance, forest management could mitigate climate change by<br />
modifying wildfire behaviour (De Dios et al. 2007). Therefore, providing guidelines for a<br />
proactive management is of fundamental in ecological research.<br />
As opposed to the current biodiversity crisis due to global change, many forest birds in<br />
Catalonia (NE Spain) have exp<strong>and</strong>ed or maintained their ranges in the last years of the 20th<br />
century (Estrada et al. 2004). Particularly, in this Mediterranean European region, l<strong>and</strong><br />
ab<strong>and</strong>onment has boosted afforestation (Poyatos et al. 2003) <strong>and</strong> forests have also significantly<br />
* Corresponding author. Tel.: +34 973702876 - Fax: +34 973702673<br />
Email address: agil@eagrof.udl.cat<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
A. Gil-Tena et al. 2010. Disentangling recent changes in forest bird ranges in Mediterranean forests (NE Spain)<br />
564<br />
aged (Spanish National <strong>Forest</strong> Inventory; Ministerio de Medio Ambiente 1997-2007), although<br />
fires burnt approximately 240,000 ha between 1975 <strong>and</strong> 1998 (Díaz-Delgado et al. 2004).<br />
In order to provide effective forest management guidelines to better face global change impacts<br />
in Mediterranean Europe, this study aimed at determining the influence of forest l<strong>and</strong>scape<br />
dynamics at 10x10 km associated with l<strong>and</strong> ab<strong>and</strong>onment (afforestation <strong>and</strong> maturation), fires<br />
<strong>and</strong> management on the variation of forest bird species richness in Catalonia in the two last<br />
decades of the 20th century. For this purpose, we considered data from bird atlases, forest<br />
inventories, fire perimeters’ <strong>and</strong> l<strong>and</strong>-use maps.<br />
2. Methodology<br />
2.1 <strong>Forest</strong> bird changes<br />
Data on changes in the ranges of forest birds were gathered from the Catalan Breeding Bird<br />
Atlases (CBBA; Estrada et al. 2004). The CBBA data are derived from a series of large-scale<br />
surveys covering the whole extent of Catalonia in two different periods: 1975–1983 (Atlas1)<br />
<strong>and</strong> 1999–2002 (Atlas2). A total of 385 10x10 km UTM squares were surveyed in each of the<br />
different time periods. The field work was conducted by volunteers from March to July,<br />
recording evidence of breeding either by sound or sight.<br />
We considered the variation of species richness between atlases from the species occurrence<br />
data for each Atlas period. The analyzed species did not include: (1) the most common species<br />
(>90% of total squares in Atlas 2) or very scarce (7.5 cm) that had been inventoried in the NFI2 but that were not present in the<br />
same permanent plots in the NFI3. We considered only the silvicultural treatments that can<br />
affect st<strong>and</strong> basal area, differentiating between regeneration (clearcutting, shelterwood <strong>and</strong><br />
selective cutting) <strong>and</strong> st<strong>and</strong> improvement treatments (precommercial thinning <strong>and</strong> thinning).<br />
Plots affected by fires (612 plots) were excluded from the analysis to avoid confounding effects<br />
between silvicultural treatments <strong>and</strong> fires in those plots.<br />
To quantify afforestation, we calculated the absolute variation of forest area (Δ<strong>Forest</strong>) obtained<br />
from the L<strong>and</strong>-use Map of Catalonia for 1987 <strong>and</strong> 1997 (see methods in Viñas <strong>and</strong> Baulies<br />
1995), subtracting the amount of burnt forest area gathered from the government data of fire<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
A. Gil-Tena et al. 2010. Disentangling recent changes in forest bird ranges in Mediterranean forests (NE Spain)<br />
565<br />
perimeters. Fires were assessed by means of the accumulated amount of burnt forest area<br />
(Burnt) during the first <strong>and</strong> second edition of the CBBA. Furthermore, to determine whether the<br />
initial conditions of forest influence bird range changes, we also computed the initial state of<br />
both basal <strong>and</strong> forest area (G <strong>and</strong> <strong>Forest</strong>, respectively).<br />
2.3 Analysis<br />
We performed Pearson’s correlations between the variation of forest bird species richness <strong>and</strong><br />
the initial forest conditions (<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>and</strong> G), the variation of basal area (ΔG) <strong>and</strong> forest area<br />
(Δ<strong>Forest</strong>), burnt forest (Burnt) <strong>and</strong> the removed basal area in improvement <strong>and</strong> regeneration<br />
treatments (IMP <strong>and</strong> REG Removed G, respectively). Excluding the case of variation of forest<br />
area that in Catalonia is mainly associated with afforestation in formerly cultivated areas, we<br />
computed partial correlations controlling for the effect of initial forest conditions since changes<br />
in forest structure due to forest maturation, fires <strong>and</strong> forest management may be strongly<br />
influenced by them. In the case of partial correlations of the initial forest conditions, for forest<br />
area we considered the influence that may have the initial basal area <strong>and</strong> vice versa. We also<br />
calculated a multivariate general linear model for assessing forest bird species richness variation<br />
as a function of the former independent variables. We used a hierarchical modeling approach<br />
(two steps; see also Gil-Tena et al. (2009, 2010)) to progressively consider initial forest<br />
conditions (Step 1) <strong>and</strong> forest dynamics (Step 2). Significant variables at Step 1 were introduced<br />
in Step 2 <strong>and</strong> their contribution to the model evaluated by means of st<strong>and</strong>ardized partial<br />
regression coefficients (β). In each step, we used a forward stepwise selection process (p-toenter=0.05).<br />
3. Result<br />
The variation of forest bird species richness during the period between Atlases was positive for<br />
much of the study area covered by forests (59% of UTMs covered by forests increased species<br />
richness) whereas the negative values mainly corresponded with poorly forested areas (Figure 1).<br />
Agreeing with this, initial forest conditions were significantly related to the variation of forest<br />
bird species richness (Table 2). In the case of initial forest area (<strong>Forest</strong>), Pearson’s correlation<br />
was significantly different from partial correlation controlling by the effect of initial basal area<br />
(G; p=0.005). This agrees with the positive correlations between variation of species richness<br />
<strong>and</strong> initial basal area (Table 2) <strong>and</strong> with the fact that the difference between Pearson’s <strong>and</strong><br />
partial correlations was lower than for initial forest (p=0.026), indicating that the variation of<br />
species richness was mainly associated with forests with a certain structural development (in<br />
terms of G).<br />
Variation of species richness was also associated with forest dynamics, particularly with<br />
variation of basal area (ΔG). According to the difference between Pearson’s <strong>and</strong> partial<br />
correlations when controlling for the effect of initial basal area (p=0.007), the maturation in<br />
previous forest areas with a developed structure strongly influenced species richness variation.<br />
Afforestation, in terms of increment of forest area, was also positively related with species<br />
richness variation but to a lesser extent than maturation (Table 2). Burnt forest area showed a<br />
non-significant positive correlation with species richness variation that only turned significant<br />
when considering initial forest conditions (Table 2). Regarding forest management influence on<br />
bird species variation, sylvicultural treatments seem not to preclude species richness variation,<br />
which is particularly true for regeneration treatments (Table 2). These results were quite<br />
independent of the initial forest conditions (in all the cases, p>0.05 when comparing Pearson’s<br />
<strong>and</strong> partial correlations).<br />
The results obtained in the multivariate model (R 2 = 0.24; Table 3) confirmed the importance, for<br />
species richness variation, of the maturation produced in forests with a developed structure (in<br />
terms of G). Afforestation also seems to be favoring species richness variation but changes in<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
A. Gil-Tena et al. 2010. Disentangling recent changes in forest bird ranges in Mediterranean forests (NE Spain)<br />
566<br />
forest structure due to management did not appear to have any influence. The weak positive<br />
influence of burnt forest area may indicate that species richness varied despite fires.<br />
4. Discussion<br />
Although the unexplained variation of the models may evidence that other factors not<br />
considered here affected forest bird range changes at the study scale or others, our results<br />
demonstrated that the general positive variation of forest bird species richness (Figure 1) was<br />
significant in forested areas with a developed structure that matured during the 20 last years of<br />
the 20th century. Afforestation was also shown as potentially influence species variation. These<br />
results agree with previous studies at the same scale <strong>and</strong> area (Gil-Tena et al. 2009, 2010) which<br />
showed that forest maturation <strong>and</strong> afforestation, mainly due to l<strong>and</strong> ab<strong>and</strong>onment, have favored<br />
ranges of many forest birds <strong>and</strong> overridden the potentially negative effects of fires. Nevertheless,<br />
we cannot discount different levels of impact of forest fires on forest birds at smaller scales<br />
(
A. Gil-Tena et al. 2010. Disentangling recent changes in forest bird ranges in Mediterranean forests (NE Spain)<br />
567<br />
Gil-Tena, A., Brotons, L. <strong>and</strong> Saura, S., 2009. Mediterranean forest dynamics <strong>and</strong> forest bird<br />
distribution changes in the late 20th century. <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong> Biology, 15: 474-485.<br />
Gil-Tena, A., Brotons, L. <strong>and</strong> Saura, S., 2010. Effects of forest l<strong>and</strong>scape change <strong>and</strong><br />
management on the range expansion of forest bird species in the Mediterranean region.<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> Ecology <strong>and</strong> Management, 259: 1338-1346.<br />
Gil-Tena, A., Saura, S. <strong>and</strong> Brotons, L., 2007. Effects of forest composition <strong>and</strong> structure on<br />
bird species richness in a Mediterranean context: Implications for forest ecosystem<br />
management. <strong>Forest</strong> Ecology <strong>and</strong> Management, 242: 470-476.<br />
Metzger, M.J., Bunce, R.G.H., Leemans, R. <strong>and</strong> Viner, D., 2008. Projected environmental shifts<br />
under climate change: European trends <strong>and</strong> regional impacts. Environmental<br />
Conservation, 35: 64-75.<br />
Ministerio de Medio Ambiente, 1997-2007. Tercer Inventario <strong>Forest</strong>al Nacional. Dirección<br />
General de Conservación de la Naturaleza, Madrid.<br />
Opdam, P. <strong>and</strong> Wascher, D., 2004. Climate change meets habitat fragmentation: linking<br />
l<strong>and</strong>scape <strong>and</strong> biogeographical scale levels in research <strong>and</strong> conservation. Biological<br />
Conservation, 117: 285-297.<br />
Poyatos, R., Latron, J. <strong>and</strong> Llorens, P., 2003. L<strong>and</strong> use <strong>and</strong> l<strong>and</strong> cover change after agricultural<br />
ab<strong>and</strong>onment: the case of aMediterranean Mountain area (Catalan Pre-Pyrenees).<br />
Mountain Research <strong>and</strong> Development, 23: 362-368.<br />
Sala, O.E., Chapin III, F.S., Armesto, J.J., Berlow, R., Bloomfield, J., Dirzo, R., Huber-<br />
Sanwald, E., Huenneke, L.F., Jackson, R.B., Kinzig, A., Leemans, R., Lodge, D.,<br />
Mooney, H.A., Oesterheld, M., Poff, N.L., Sykes, M.T., Walker, B.H., Walker, M., Wall,<br />
D.H., 2000. <strong>Global</strong> biodiversity scenarios for the year 2100. Science, 287: 1770-1774.<br />
Saura, S. <strong>and</strong> Torné, J., 2009. Conefor Sensinode 2.2: A software package for quantifying the<br />
importance of habitat patches for l<strong>and</strong>scape connectivity. Environmental Modelling<br />
Software, 24: 135-139.<br />
Ukmar, E., Battisti, C., Luiselli, L. <strong>and</strong> Bologna, M.A., 2007. The effects of fire on<br />
communities, guilds <strong>and</strong> species of breeding birds in burnt <strong>and</strong> control pinewoods in<br />
central Italy. Biodiversity <strong>and</strong> Conservation, 16: 3287-3300.<br />
Viñas, O. <strong>and</strong> Baulies, X., 1995. 1:250,000 l<strong>and</strong>-use map of Catalonia (32,000 km2) using<br />
multi-temporal L<strong>and</strong>sat-TM data. International Journal of Remote Sensing, 16: 129-146.<br />
Table 1: Considered forest bird species. According to the CBBA, the trend considering sampling effort is<br />
also reported in brackets. +, - <strong>and</strong> =: exp<strong>and</strong>ing, contracting <strong>and</strong> maintenance trend.<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> bird species (trend)<br />
Accipiter gentilis (-), Aegithalos caudatus (=), Anthus trivialis (=), Caprimulgus europaeus (+),<br />
Circaetus gallicus (+), Corvus corax (=), Corvus corone (=), Dendrocopos major (+), Dendrocopos<br />
minor (+), Dryocopus martius (+), Erithacus rubecula (+), Falco subbuteo (+), Fringilla coelebs (=),<br />
Hieraaetus pennatus (+), Lullula arborea (+), Otus scops (-), Parus ater (+), Parus caeruleus (-), Parus<br />
cristatus(+), Parus palustris (=), Phylloscopus collybita (+), Picus viridis (-), Regulus ignicapilla (+),<br />
Sitta europaea (+), Strix aluco (=), Sylvia atricapilla (+), Sylvia cantillans (+), Troglodytes troglodytes<br />
(-), Turdus philomelos (+), Turdus viscivorus (-)<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
A. Gil-Tena et al. 2010. Disentangling recent changes in forest bird ranges in Mediterranean forests (NE Spain)<br />
568<br />
Table 2: Pearson’s <strong>and</strong> partial correlations, when controlling by the effect of the initial forest area (r forest )<br />
<strong>and</strong> basal area (G; r G ), between the change in forest bird species richness <strong>and</strong> forest dynamics, fires <strong>and</strong><br />
management. Δ: <strong>Change</strong>; IMP <strong>and</strong> REG: improvement <strong>and</strong> regeneration treatments, respectively; *, **<br />
<strong>and</strong> ***: p≤0.05, p≤0.01 <strong>and</strong> p≤0.001, respectively.<br />
Variable<br />
Correlation<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> r=0.37***, r G =0.16**<br />
G r=0.41***, r forest =0.25***<br />
∆<strong>Forest</strong><br />
r=0.22***<br />
∆G r=0.44***, r forest =0.31***, r G =0.25***<br />
Burnt r=0.06, r forest =0.11*, r G =0.12*<br />
IMP Removed G r=0.17**, r forest =0.08, r G =0.06<br />
REG Removed G r=0.27***, r forest =0.13*, r G =0.12*<br />
Table 3: Analysis of the factors behind changes in forest bird species richness between the two atlas<br />
periods. The general linear model was conducted in two steps according to a hierarchical process. The<br />
information in the table concerns to that of each variable in their corresponding step of assessment.<br />
β<br />
p<br />
STEP 1: Initial conditions G 0.297
M.B. Horta & E. Keizer 2010. Assessment of human <strong>and</strong> physical factors influencing distribution of vegetation degradation<br />
569<br />
Assessment of human <strong>and</strong> physical factors influencing<br />
spatial distribution of vegetation degradation -<br />
Environmental Protection Area Cachoeira das Andorinhas, Brazil<br />
Marise Barreiros Horta 1* & Edwin Keizer 2<br />
1 Companhia Botânica, Brazil<br />
2<br />
Instituto Nacional de Pesquisas da Amazônia (INPA), Brazil<br />
Abstract<br />
This study examined human <strong>and</strong> physical factors influencing the spatial distribution of<br />
vegetation degradation in a protection area. A map data set was used for the human <strong>and</strong> physical<br />
factors investigation. Those factors comprised: roads network, rural settlements/village/city,<br />
tourist sites, mining sites, agricultural areas, drainage, slope <strong>and</strong> geology. The vegetation<br />
degradation diagnosis was made with utilization of five ecological indicators: cover of invasive<br />
species, understory, canopy, bare soil <strong>and</strong> dead shrub percentage. Regression <strong>and</strong> correlation<br />
analyses were used to investigate the relationship between vegetation degradation <strong>and</strong> factors.<br />
The factor slope presented significantly negatively correlated to vegetation degradation in forest<br />
areas. Distance to tourist sites showed significant negative correlation in the savannah <strong>and</strong> rocky<br />
shrubl<strong>and</strong>s. Those factors can enhance humans <strong>and</strong> livestock accessibility to natural vegetation<br />
areas, which may increase intensity of damaging activities. The information can contribute to<br />
conservation strategies improvements in the protection area.<br />
Keywords: vegetation degradation, change, spatially explicit factors, ecological indicators,<br />
conservation<br />
1. Introduction<br />
Vegetation degradation, unlike deforestation, is not a very obvious phenomenon. The changes<br />
are revealed gradually, sometimes not in terms of decrease of area, but represented by<br />
qualitative losses, for example, through the reduction of species diversity, increase of invasive<br />
species, decrease of the shrub layer, reduction of woody species <strong>and</strong> biomass decline (Hargyono<br />
1993).<br />
The investigations of spatially explicit factors (such as slope, roads) influencing vegetation<br />
degradation processes rely on the fact that those factors can represent an expression to some<br />
underlying structural driving forces, such as demographic <strong>and</strong> political forces (Mather 1990).<br />
Most of the investigation of factors influencing vegetation degradation in the spatial context has<br />
been directed at arid l<strong>and</strong>scapes associated with l<strong>and</strong> degradation, desertification <strong>and</strong> soil<br />
erosion processes (Guerrero-Campo <strong>and</strong> Montserrat-Marti 2000, Kembron 2001). The situation<br />
has generated studies that combine vegetation degradation with other processes, such as, soil<br />
erosion. In general, however, they lack considerations of the quality <strong>and</strong> quantity of vegetation<br />
(Eswaran 2001).<br />
* Corresponding author. Tel.: 55 31 33445037; 55 31 88835937<br />
Email address: marisehorta@companhiabotanica.com.br<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
M.B. Horta & E. Keizer 2010. Assessment of human <strong>and</strong> physical factors influencing distribution of vegetation degradation<br />
570<br />
The present study examined the vegetation degradation phenomenon in a protected area,<br />
characterized by subtropical moderately humid climate, where degradation affects not only<br />
forest, but also other vegetation types. The main objectives of this study were:<br />
1. assess the variations of vegetation degradation;<br />
2. investigate the association between spatial distribution of vegetation degradation <strong>and</strong><br />
human (roads network, rural settlements/village/city, tourist sites, mining sites,<br />
agricultural areas) <strong>and</strong> physical factors (slope, geology, drainage).<br />
2. Methodology<br />
2.1 Study area <strong>and</strong> map data set<br />
The Environmental Protection Area (EPA) Cachoeira das Andorinhas comprises an area of<br />
18.700 ha. It is located in the north of the Ouro Preto Mountain Range, Minas Gerais state, in<br />
the west extreme of the Brazilian Atlantic <strong>Forest</strong> dominion, setting bounds with the Savannah<br />
dominion (Rizzini 1979). The climate is subtropical moderately humid. The mean annual<br />
temperature varies from 19.5ºC to 21.8ºC.<br />
The data sources utilized for the map data set composition comprehended: L<strong>and</strong>sat TM image<br />
30m resolution; topographic map (for roads, rural settlements, villages, <strong>and</strong> city); contour map;<br />
geology map; <strong>and</strong> drainage map. Data collection in the field was carried out for the ground truth<br />
<strong>and</strong> localization of tourist <strong>and</strong> mining sites. The DEM (Digital Elevation Model) was obtained<br />
from a digitized contour map aiming the creation of the slope map. The classification of the<br />
L<strong>and</strong>sat TM image into l<strong>and</strong> cover classes was carried out through a cluster of steps of<br />
supervised classification. The overall classification accuracy obtained was 82%.<br />
2.2. Data collection <strong>and</strong> analysis<br />
Data collection in the field was carried out in a total of 47 sample plots (25 x 25m) using<br />
stratified r<strong>and</strong>om sampling. For the establishment of vegetation degradation levels in the area 5<br />
ecological indicators (I) were selected according to the literature (De Pietri 1992; De Pietri<br />
1995; Hargyono 1993). The classes of vegetation degradation defined comprehended: not<br />
degraded (0), low degraded (1), moderately degraded (2), highly degraded (3) <strong>and</strong> extremely<br />
degraded (4). The direction of the influence of each indicator in the vegetation degradation<br />
process was defined through the use of multivariate analysis (Principal Component Analysis).<br />
Higher proportion of invasive species cover (%), lower estimation of canopy cover (%) <strong>and</strong><br />
lower proportion of understory cover (%) meant higher level of degradation in the forest areas.<br />
The higher degradation condition in the savannah <strong>and</strong> rocky shrubl<strong>and</strong>s was determined<br />
according to the higher proportion of invasive species cover (%), higher proportion of bare soil<br />
(%) <strong>and</strong> higher percentage of dead shrubs. The invasive species considered were: Arundinaria<br />
effusa, Eupatorium sp., Gleichenia sp., Lantana lilacina, Melinis minutiflora, Panicum sp.,<br />
Pteridium aquilinuum, Rhynchospora exaltata, Solanum sp., Vernonia scorpiodes; Poaceae 1;<br />
Poaceae 2.<br />
Principal Component Analysis (PCA) was implemented for the definition of scores that<br />
represented the vegetation degradation variations <strong>and</strong> for checking redundancy in the data. For<br />
the forest areas the human factors distance to agricultural areas <strong>and</strong> distance to tourist sites<br />
presented clustered to village/city/ rural settlements, <strong>and</strong> were removed from the analysis. For<br />
the savannah <strong>and</strong> rocky shrubl<strong>and</strong>s the variable distance to village/city/ rural settlements was<br />
clustered to mining sites <strong>and</strong> removed from the analysis.<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
M.B. Horta & E. Keizer 2010. Assessment of human <strong>and</strong> physical factors influencing distribution of vegetation degradation<br />
571<br />
The presence <strong>and</strong> absence of damaging activities was verified through the marks <strong>and</strong> signs of<br />
fire, cutting, free grazing, fences, tracks <strong>and</strong> garbage. In order to investigate the relationship<br />
among the variations in vegetation degradation (scores) <strong>and</strong> human <strong>and</strong> physical factors,<br />
regression <strong>and</strong> correlation analysis were performed using SPSS software. The significant factors<br />
comprised those that presented p values significant at α = 0.05, for a one-tailed test.<br />
3. Result<br />
The results of the categorization of the 28 sample plots of the forest areas into vegetation<br />
degradation conditions are presented in the Table 1. From the total of areas sampled, 28% were<br />
classified as extremely degraded (4), 36% as highly degraded (3), <strong>and</strong> 36% were found<br />
moderately degraded (2). The forest intermediate stage (FIS) presented 60% of the sample plots<br />
classified as highly degraded <strong>and</strong> 40% as moderately degraded. The forest advanced stage<br />
(FAS), otherwise, comprehended 40% of sample units classified as highly degraded <strong>and</strong> 60% as<br />
moderately degraded. The scrub areas (S) were all (100%) classified as extremely degraded.<br />
For the savannah (SA) <strong>and</strong> rocky shrubl<strong>and</strong>s formations (RS), in the totality of 19 sample plots,<br />
10 % were found extremely degraded (4), 6% presented highly degraded (3), 37% were<br />
classified as moderately degraded (2), 37% low degraded (1) <strong>and</strong> 10% not degraded (0) (Table<br />
2). The savannah had 9% of the sample plots classified as highly degraded, 46% as moderately<br />
degraded, 36% as low degraded <strong>and</strong> 9% as not degraded. The rocky shrubl<strong>and</strong>s comprehended<br />
25% classified as extremely<br />
The results of the correlation analysis, obtained from linear regression, for investigation of the<br />
relationship among vegetation degradation scores <strong>and</strong> human <strong>and</strong> physical factors, in the forest<br />
areas, are shown in the Table 3. The physical factor slope presented a significant negative<br />
correlation coefficient (R2 = - 0.223; p = 0.011) to vegetation degradation in the forest areas.<br />
The correlation analysis results for the savannah <strong>and</strong> rocky shrubl<strong>and</strong>s formations (Table 4)<br />
showed that the human factor distance to tourist sites was the one that presented a significant<br />
correlation (R2 = - 0.250; p = 0.029) to vegetation degradation.<br />
Activities of cutting <strong>and</strong> grazing were found in higher proportion in the FIS (60% <strong>and</strong> 50%<br />
respectively) <strong>and</strong> FAS (40% <strong>and</strong> 70%), while the presence of fire was evidenced only in the FIS<br />
(10%). Signs of fire occurred in higher proportion in the scrub (100%), savannah (100%) <strong>and</strong><br />
rocky shrubl<strong>and</strong>s (100%). Grazing activities were also testified as important in those areas,<br />
occurring in 88% of the scrub, 90% of the savannah <strong>and</strong> 75% of the rocky shrubl<strong>and</strong>s areas.<br />
Indicators of mining activities, on the other h<strong>and</strong>, were restricted to the rocky shrubl<strong>and</strong>s areas<br />
(25%), due to the presence of the rock substrate, especially quartzite, target of exploitation.<br />
Besides that, garbage signs (cans, plastics, etc) resulted from tourist activities were observed<br />
only in the rocky shrubl<strong>and</strong>s (25%). From the 47 sampled areas 87% showed the presence of<br />
tracks, <strong>and</strong> 81% the absence of fences.<br />
Table 1: Categorization of sample plots of the forest areas according to vegetation degradation indicators<br />
(Ia – Invasive Species Cover; Ib - Understory Cover; Ic – Canopy Cover)<br />
Sample<br />
Vegetation Degradation Vegetation Degradation<br />
Type Ia Ib Ic<br />
Plots<br />
Scores<br />
Classes<br />
1 FIS 2 3 2 -6.816 3<br />
2 FIS 2 2 2 -10.504 2<br />
3 FIS 3 3 2 20.553 3<br />
4 FIS 3 3 2 27.488 3<br />
5 FIS 2 3 3 6.914 3<br />
6 FIS 1 3 2 -21.307 2<br />
7 FIS 3 3 2 29.753 3<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
M.B. Horta & E. Keizer 2010. Assessment of human <strong>and</strong> physical factors influencing distribution of vegetation degradation<br />
572<br />
8 FIS 2 1 2 -19.634 2<br />
9 FIS 1 3 2 -19.053 2<br />
10 FIS 2 3 2 0.049 3<br />
11 FAS 3 3 2 20.553 3<br />
12 FAS 3 3 2 32.007 3<br />
13 FAS 1 2 1 -47.215 2<br />
14 FAS 1 1 2 -37.944 2<br />
15 FAS 1 3 1 -30.508 2<br />
16 FAS 1 3 2 -15.294 2<br />
17 FAS 2 3 2 8.456 3<br />
18 FAS 1 3 2 -7.658 2<br />
19 FAS 2 3 2 3.085 3<br />
20 FAS 1 3 2 -3.057 2<br />
21 S 4 0 3 51.892 4<br />
22 S 4 0 3 58.792 4<br />
23 S 4 0 3 58.792 4<br />
24 S 3 0 4 37.400 4<br />
25 S 3 0 4 41.219 4<br />
26 S 4 0 4 64.910 4<br />
27 S 4 0 4 61.092 4<br />
28 S 4 0 4 61.092 4<br />
Table 2: Categorization of sample plots of the savannah <strong>and</strong> rocky shrubl<strong>and</strong>s according to vegetation<br />
degradation indicators (Ia – Invasive Species Cover; Id – Bare Soil Cover; Ie – Dead Shrubs Percentage )<br />
Sample<br />
Vegetation Degradation Vegetation Degradation<br />
Type Ia Id Ie<br />
Plots<br />
Scores<br />
Classes<br />
1 SA 3 2 2 70.965 3<br />
2 SA 3 1 1 62.608 2<br />
3 SA 0 0 3 1.425 1<br />
4 SA 3 0 1 48.332 2<br />
5 SA 2 1 0 30.965 1<br />
6 SA 1 1 2 20.719 2<br />
7 SA 0 2 2 22.127 2<br />
8 SA 2 1 1 34.830 2<br />
9 SA 1 1 1 0.570 1<br />
10 SA 0 1 0 3.640 1<br />
11 SA 0 0 0 0.000 0<br />
12 RS 1 0 1 3.815 1<br />
13 RS 0 0 2 1.083 1<br />
14 RS 0 0 3 1.824 1<br />
15 RS 0 0 0 0.000 0<br />
16 RS 1 2 2 29.471 2<br />
17 RS 1 2 2 36.360 2<br />
18 RS 2 4 2 100.823 4<br />
19 RS 2 4 4 93.542 4<br />
Table 3: Correlation coefficients among human <strong>and</strong> physical factors <strong>and</strong> vegetation degradation<br />
scores in forest areas (bold entry indicate result significant at ∞ = 0.05)<br />
Distance to<br />
village/city/<br />
settlement<br />
Human Factors<br />
Distance to the<br />
roads<br />
Independent Variables<br />
Distance to<br />
mining<br />
sites<br />
Slope %<br />
Physical Factors<br />
Geology<br />
Classes<br />
Distances<br />
to drainage<br />
-0.086 -0.001 -0.021 -0.223 0.072 0.100<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
M.B. Horta & E. Keizer 2010. Assessment of human <strong>and</strong> physical factors influencing distribution of vegetation degradation<br />
573<br />
Table 4: Correlation coefficients among human <strong>and</strong> physical factors <strong>and</strong> vegetation degradation<br />
scores in savannah <strong>and</strong> rocky shrubl<strong>and</strong>s (bold entry indicate result significant at ∞ = 0.05)<br />
Independent Variables<br />
Distance to<br />
agricultural<br />
areas<br />
4. Discussion<br />
Human Factors<br />
Distance to the<br />
roads<br />
Distance to<br />
mining<br />
sites<br />
Distance to<br />
tourist sites Slope %<br />
Physical Factors<br />
Geology<br />
Classes<br />
Distances<br />
to drainage<br />
-0.069 -0.137 -0.056 -0.250 -0.181 -0.061 -0.001<br />
The results of categorization of vegetation in degradation classes showed that the majority of<br />
sampled sites were found degraded. The findings have certainly relation with the large amount<br />
of damaging activities signs found in the sampled areas. Different authors refer to the<br />
contribution of activities such as grazing, cutting <strong>and</strong> fire to processes of vegetation degradation<br />
(Kakembo 2001; Hofstad 1997; De Pietri 1995; Kumar <strong>and</strong> Bh<strong>and</strong>ari 1992; De Pietri 1992;<br />
Talbot 1986). Regarding the fencing system Kumar & Bh<strong>and</strong>ari (1992) found inside a<br />
protection site, higher degradation due to free grazing in unfenced areas in relation to the fenced<br />
ones.<br />
The forest areas presented higher levels of degradation while undisturbed <strong>and</strong> low degraded<br />
situations were found only in the savannah <strong>and</strong> rocky shrubl<strong>and</strong>s. The large availability of<br />
resources, especially wood for fuelwood <strong>and</strong> building materials in the forest areas (Michael<br />
Arnold & Dewees 1997), can be a source of major attraction for damaging activities in those<br />
areas.<br />
In the savannah areas of the EPA the trees are short <strong>and</strong> occur in low proportion, sparsely<br />
distributed through the grass layer, <strong>and</strong> consequently they do not have the potential for cutting<br />
<strong>and</strong> charcoal production activities, characterized as the highest important disturbance pressure in<br />
most of the savannah areas in Brazil (Mistry 2000). Disturbances caused by fire, although can<br />
occur in savannah areas in cases of accidental or criminal intensive burning, are not a major<br />
problem when that factor is kept in periodical lower frequencies (Coutinho 1990). Since fire is<br />
an old component of savannah ecosystems the vegetation has developed resistance <strong>and</strong><br />
dependency on this factor (Mistry 2000; Coutinho 1990; Rizzini 1979). Perhaps grazing can<br />
contribute more to degradation processes in the savannah of the EPA, <strong>and</strong> the highest level of<br />
degradation was found in one plot with presence of grazing marks <strong>and</strong> livestock.<br />
The rocky shrubl<strong>and</strong>s are attractive especially for mining activities, but the impacts, although<br />
large, are restricted to the mining location. Similarly, the impacts of tourist activity on the rocky<br />
shrubl<strong>and</strong>s are limited to those areas close to waterfalls <strong>and</strong> cities. Grazing activities, although<br />
evidenced might be limited by the presence of large rock blocks, escarpments <strong>and</strong> deep holes<br />
(Verweij 1995).<br />
The results of correlation analysis for the forest areas showed that slope is a significant physical<br />
factor influencing the vegetation degradation distribution in the EPA Cachoeira das Andorinhas.<br />
The negative association of this factor with forest degradation agrees with Mather (1990). This<br />
author argues that slope is a proximate factor that can increase accessibility of humans to forest<br />
areas. Verweij (1995) argued that cattle also tend to choose relatively easy walking routes to<br />
meet their goals. In the study area, activities of cutting <strong>and</strong> grazing might be hindered by the<br />
slope steepness, with presence of higher degradation levels in the areas with lower slopes.<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
M.B. Horta & E. Keizer 2010. Assessment of human <strong>and</strong> physical factors influencing distribution of vegetation degradation<br />
574<br />
In the savannah <strong>and</strong> rocky shrubl<strong>and</strong>s formations the human factor distance to tourist sites<br />
presented a significant negative correlation with vegetation degradation. The tourist visitation is<br />
higher in the southern part of the EPA, where Ouro Preto county <strong>and</strong> the Andorinhas waterfall<br />
are located. In protected areas in Costa Rica <strong>and</strong> Belize, Farrell <strong>and</strong> Marion (2001) also found<br />
that intense tourist visitation can degrade natural resources <strong>and</strong> contribute to vegetation damage<br />
<strong>and</strong> loss. The authors argued that successful ecotourism <strong>and</strong> protected area management needs<br />
effective management of natural areas for visitor enjoyment <strong>and</strong> resource protection.<br />
References<br />
Coutinho, L. M., 1990. Fire in Ecology of the Brazilian Cerrado. In: J. G. Goldammer (Ed.).<br />
Fire in the Tropical Biota - Ecosystem Processes <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> Challenges (Vol. 84).<br />
Berlin: Springer-Verlag.<br />
De Pietri, D. E., 1992. The search for ecological indicators: is it possible to biomonitor forest<br />
system degradation caused by cattle ranching activities in Argentina Vegetatio : acta<br />
geobotanica, 101(2), 109-121 (114).<br />
De Pietri, D. E., 1995. The spatial configuration of vegetation as an indicator of l<strong>and</strong>scape<br />
degradation due to livestock enterprises in Argentina. Journal of Applied Ecology, 32,<br />
857-865.<br />
Eswaran, H., Lal, R. <strong>and</strong> Reich, P. F., 2000. L<strong>and</strong> degradation: An overview. In: E. Michael<br />
Bridges, R. N. Leslie, T. Compo <strong>and</strong> A. Prueskspong (Eds.). Response to L<strong>and</strong><br />
Degradation. Enfield, New Hampshire: Science Publishers, Inc.<br />
Farrell, T. A. <strong>and</strong> Marion, J. L., 2001. Identifying <strong>and</strong> assessing ecotourism visitor impacts at<br />
eight protected areas in Costa Rica <strong>and</strong> Belize. Environmental Conservation, 28(3), 215-<br />
225.<br />
Guerrero-Campo, J. <strong>and</strong> Montserrat-Martí, G., 2000. Effects of soil erosion on the floristic<br />
composition of plant communities on marl in northeast Spain. Journal of Vegetation<br />
Science, 11, 329-336.<br />
Hargyono., 1993. Occurence <strong>and</strong> prediction of forest degradation : a case study of Upper Konto<br />
watershed, East Java, Indonesia. Unpublished MSc-thesis, ITC - International Institute<br />
for Aerospace Survey <strong>and</strong> Earth Sciences, Enschede.<br />
Hofstad, O., 1997. Degradation processes in Tanzanian woodl<strong>and</strong>s. Forum for Development<br />
Studies, 1, 95-115.<br />
Jongman, R. H., ter Braak, C. J. F. <strong>and</strong> van Tongeren, O. F. R., 1987. Data analysis in<br />
community <strong>and</strong> l<strong>and</strong>scape ecology. Wageningen: Pudoc.<br />
Kakembo, V., 2001. Trends in vegetation degradation in relation to l<strong>and</strong> tenure, rainfall, <strong>and</strong><br />
population changes in Peddle district, Eastern Cape, South Africa. Environmental-<br />
Management, 28(1): 39-46.<br />
Kembron, T., 2001. Natural regeneration of degraded hillslopes in Southern Wello, Ethiopia: a<br />
study based on permanent plots. Applied Geography, 21(3), 275-300.<br />
Mather, A. S., 1990. <strong>Global</strong> forest resources. London: Belhaven Press.<br />
Michael Arnold, J. E. <strong>and</strong> Dewees, P. A., 1997. Farms, Trees & Farmers. Response to<br />
Agricultural Intensification. London: Earthscan Publications LTD.<br />
Mistry, J., 2000. World Savannas - Ecology <strong>and</strong> Human Use. Harlow, Engl<strong>and</strong>: Pearson<br />
Education Limited.<br />
Rizzini, C. T., 1979. Tratado de Fitogeografia do Brasil. Aspectos sociológicos e florísticos.<br />
( Vol. 2). São Paulo: Hucitec - Edusp.<br />
Talbot, L. M., 1986. Demographic factors in resource depletion <strong>and</strong> environmental degradation<br />
in east African rangel<strong>and</strong>. Population <strong>and</strong> developement review, 12(3), 441-451.<br />
Verweij, P.A., 1995. Spatial <strong>and</strong> Temporal Modelling of Vegetation Patterns – Burning <strong>and</strong><br />
grazing in the paramo of Los Nevados National Park, Colombia. Phd-thesis, ITC -<br />
International Institute for Aerospace Survey <strong>and</strong> Earth Sciences, Enschede.<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
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575<br />
Role of planted forests <strong>and</strong> trees outside forests in sustainable forest<br />
management in Iran<br />
E. Kouhgardi 1* & M.Akbarzadeh 2<br />
1 Islamic Azad University, Boushehr Branch, Boushehr, Iran.<br />
2 Islamic Azad University, Myianeh Branch, Myianeh, East Azarbaijan, Iran<br />
Abstract<br />
From a forestry point of view, Iran is divided into five vegetation regions <strong>and</strong> during the period<br />
1960-1999, afforestation amounted to 2,221,000 ha total area planted. The annual rate forest<br />
plantations establishment is 63,000 ha, the majority being implemented under government<br />
investment. The state grants substantial support to promote private investment in fast growing<br />
tree species plantations, which amount to 150,000 ha of which, 35% are young st<strong>and</strong>s. The<br />
present evaluation of Trees outside forests in Iran is incomplete for lack of comprehensive data<br />
<strong>and</strong> information. Collaborative efforts between government, municipalities, NGOs <strong>and</strong> citizens’<br />
groups have led to the establishment of a quite dense network of urban <strong>and</strong> peri-urban forests in<br />
Iran, estimated in 1996 to be 530,288 ha. Result show that the current situation of Iran’s natural<br />
resources is a reflection of its past <strong>and</strong> present social, ecological, technological, economic,<br />
political <strong>and</strong> administrative measures. Technical or engineering solutions are not enough; they<br />
need to take into account the needs, priorities <strong>and</strong> aspirations of the rural poor.<br />
Keywords: Plantation, <strong>Forest</strong>, Tree, Urban, Establishment<br />
1. Introduction<br />
Iran covers an area of 1.65 million km2, enclosed within 8,731 km of frontiers, of which 2,700<br />
of coastline boundaries, <strong>and</strong> 6,031 of l<strong>and</strong> borders. Almost 60% of the country is mountainous,<br />
while deserts of the High Central Plateau cover one third of the territory. Environmental<br />
characteristics are Owing to its highly contrasted topography, Iran displays a variety of climates<br />
ranging from hyper arid (centre <strong>and</strong> east regions) to Mediterranean semi-arid <strong>and</strong> sub-humid<br />
(mountain regions) <strong>and</strong> humid (Caspian coastal area, west Azerbaijan <strong>and</strong> southwest Zagros<br />
mountain range). With its mean annual rainfall of 253 mm, Iran is drought-prone; precipitations<br />
being erratic <strong>and</strong> highly variable.<br />
Being endowed with a rich diversity of ecosystems, plant <strong>and</strong> animal species, Iran is one of the<br />
world’s most important gene pools; it counts 8,200 plant species (1,900 endemic), over 500 bird<br />
species <strong>and</strong> 160 species of mammals. Five plant species, 20 mammals, 14 birds, 8 reptiles, 2<br />
amphibians, 7 fish <strong>and</strong> 3 invertebrates are considered either endangered, or threatened <strong>and</strong><br />
vulnerable. Historical evidence indicates that the vast, arid areas of central Iran were once<br />
covered with valuable range <strong>and</strong> forest vegetation. Human activities are believed to have<br />
strongly contributed to desertification. The main l<strong>and</strong> use categories of Iran are the following:<br />
<strong>Forest</strong>s [12.4 million ha - 7.4% of territory]; Rangel<strong>and</strong>s [90 million ha - 55% of the country];<br />
Deserts [34 million ha - 21% of the country]; Cultivated l<strong>and</strong>s [23.6 million ha – 14.4 % of<br />
territory]) exceed by far the forest l<strong>and</strong> area; Urban <strong>and</strong> rural settlements, infrastructures <strong>and</strong><br />
* Corresponding author. Tel.: +98 917 775 9894 - Fax: +98 771 568 3700<br />
Email address: kouhgardi@iaubushehr.ac.ir<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
E. Kouhgardi & M. Akbarzadeh 2010. Role of planted forests <strong>and</strong> trees outside forests in sustainable forest management<br />
576<br />
water bodies (4 million ha - 2.2% of the national territory). The total potential arable l<strong>and</strong><br />
amounts to 37 million ha (17 million ha under irrigation – 20 million ha rain fed).<br />
From view point of surface water <strong>and</strong> groundwater resources it’s divided into 37 basins <strong>and</strong> 174<br />
watersheds, the country is drained by 3,450 permanent <strong>and</strong> seasonal rivers. The Persian Gulf<br />
<strong>and</strong> the Caspian Sea receive the highest flows. In 1996-97 precipitation generated 330 billion<br />
cubic metres (BCM) of surface water, 130 BCM renewable water <strong>and</strong> 126 BCM harvestable<br />
water resources, of which 87.5 BCM were harvested (94 % used by agriculture). About 70<br />
BCM groundwater, were discharged in 1996 by 275,300 semi-deep wells, 100,700 deep wells,<br />
46,700 springs <strong>and</strong> 32,000 qanats.<br />
2. Methodology<br />
2.1 <strong>Forest</strong>s <strong>and</strong> rangel<strong>and</strong>s global estate<br />
As a result of losing ownership <strong>and</strong> usufruct rights, the ex-owners <strong>and</strong> the traditional forest<br />
dwellers/users lost interest <strong>and</strong> sense of responsibility towards sustaining <strong>and</strong> protecting forests<br />
<strong>and</strong> rangel<strong>and</strong>s, used since without restraint to face growing dem<strong>and</strong>s that came with population<br />
growth. <strong>Forest</strong>s occupy 12.4 million ha (7.4 % of country) <strong>and</strong> include 1.9 million ha of<br />
productive commercial forests. The rest amounts to 5.5 million ha (West <strong>and</strong> Zagros),<br />
2.5 million ha (South <strong>and</strong> desert), <strong>and</strong> 2.5 million ha in other regions. Rangel<strong>and</strong>s include l<strong>and</strong>s<br />
covered by natural grassl<strong>and</strong>, shrub-l<strong>and</strong> <strong>and</strong> a combination of both. Iran’s rangel<strong>and</strong>s occupy<br />
90 million ha (54.8% of country area); the condition of 16% of the rangel<strong>and</strong>s is excellent,<br />
whereas 66% are in favorable to fair condition <strong>and</strong> 18% are in poor <strong>and</strong> degraded form.<br />
2.2 Deforestation<br />
The overall deforestation figure for the period 1958–1994 is widely accepted as being equal to<br />
about 5.6 million ha. The presentation that follows gives the rates of deforestation according to<br />
the widely accepted classification of forests in Iran: Caspian broadleaf deciduous forest (1.5<br />
million ha); Arasbaran broadleaf deciduous forest (100,000 ha); Zagros natural forests (1.7<br />
million ha); Irano-Touranian Central <strong>Forest</strong>s (2 million ha); <strong>and</strong> Semi-savannah subtropical<br />
forests (300,000 ha).<br />
2.3 <strong>Change</strong> in vegetation cover<br />
No assessment has been made with regard to the forest annual cover change. However,<br />
considering that the present deforestation is limited, the average annual plantation rate of<br />
63,000 ha should result in a slight positive change in national vegetation cover.<br />
2.3.1 Natural forests<br />
From a forestry point of view, Iran is divided into five vegetation regions as follows: Hyrcanian<br />
broadleaved forests [1.905,000 ha] along the Caspian coast; Arasbaran forests [150,000 ha] of<br />
North Western Iran; Irano-Touranian arid forests [2,895,000 ha] in the Central Plateau Region;<br />
Zagrosian forests [5,050,000 ha]; <strong>and</strong> Persian Gulf <strong>and</strong> Sea of Oman tropical arid forests<br />
[2,400,000 ha].<br />
2.3.2 Planted forests<br />
During the period 1960-1999, afforestation amounted to 2,221,000 ha total area planted (all<br />
categories inclusive). The annual rate forest plantations establishment is 63,000 ha, the majority<br />
being implemented under government investment. Tree species planted are generally limited to<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
E. Kouhgardi & M. Akbarzadeh 2010. Role of planted forests <strong>and</strong> trees outside forests in sustainable forest management<br />
577<br />
indigenous or acclimatized exotic species. To ensure maximum success, most plantations are<br />
irrigated during 2-3 seasons. Water shortages are a major constraint to planting, particularly in<br />
arid zones. Site preparation costs are high, <strong>and</strong> establishment of irrigation facilities very<br />
expensive. The State grants substantial support to promote private investment in fast growing<br />
tree species plantations (poplar), which amount to 150,000 ha of which, 35% are young st<strong>and</strong>s.<br />
2.3.3 Trees outside forests<br />
The present evaluation of trees outside forests in Iran is incomplete for lack of comprehensive<br />
data <strong>and</strong> information. In 2000 it was estimated that orchards accounted for 1,704,000 ha, about<br />
14 % of the total forest area of Iran. Collaborative efforts between government, municipalities,<br />
NGOs <strong>and</strong> citizens’ groups have led to the establishment of a quite dense network of urban <strong>and</strong><br />
peri-urban forests in Iran, estimated in 1996 to be 530,288 ha (mean annual area treated 3,760<br />
ha). Urban <strong>and</strong> peri-urban forestry is gaining momentum in the country <strong>and</strong> many provinces<br />
have developed their own urban forestry establishment program.<br />
2.4 <strong>Forest</strong>, range <strong>and</strong> environmental protection strategies<br />
<strong>Forest</strong>s <strong>and</strong> range: The government is pursuing a strategy of multiple forest utilization <strong>and</strong> is<br />
launching a vigorous national reforestation <strong>and</strong> afforestation program to reclaim degraded<br />
forests <strong>and</strong> rangel<strong>and</strong>s, protect watersheds <strong>and</strong> manage industrial forests on a sustained-yield<br />
basis. It also aims to involve private enterprises to obtain long-term concessions for large forest<br />
areas, with the objective of industrial utilization <strong>and</strong> sustained yield management. In the tree<br />
plantation program, the objective is to move towards more people participation <strong>and</strong> involvement<br />
as several programs are carried out on sub-contract basis with private enterprises.<br />
Environmental protection: The national environmental protection strategy’s goal is to put 10%<br />
of the national l<strong>and</strong> area under protection. At present, 8.2 million ha are being protected by the<br />
Department of Environment, which manages the following categories of protected areas:<br />
National parks (11 sites – 1.3 million ha); Wildlife refuges (25 sites – 1.9 million ha); Protected<br />
areas (47 sites – 5.3 million ha); National nature monuments (5 sites); <strong>and</strong> Biosphere reserves (9<br />
sites – 1.9 million ha).<br />
3. Result<br />
1.1 Causes <strong>and</strong> effects of deforestation <strong>and</strong> degradation<br />
Some of the salient indirect causes to deforestation <strong>and</strong> degradation are:<br />
L<strong>and</strong> <strong>and</strong> water tenure <strong>and</strong> users' rights <strong>and</strong> incentives: These include: Incentives granted to<br />
enhance agricultural production, which have constituted an encouragement to extend the areas<br />
cultivated by converting, with the State’s consent significant forest <strong>and</strong> rangel<strong>and</strong>s to agriculture<br />
l<strong>and</strong>; Indirect incentives granted for forest <strong>and</strong> rangel<strong>and</strong> exploitation, through omitting to tax<br />
products <strong>and</strong> incomes derived from such operations; Promoting excessive water mobilization as<br />
an encouragement to the extension of productive irrigated agriculture, mostly implemented<br />
through forest <strong>and</strong> rangel<strong>and</strong> clearing; <strong>and</strong> L<strong>and</strong> nationalization, which is held responsible for<br />
the breakdown of traditional systems of forest <strong>and</strong> range management, resulting in the<br />
disintegration of the forest <strong>and</strong> range resources.<br />
Poverty triggering factors: These include: Unchecked population growth which inevitably<br />
results in extreme pressure being exerted on the limited natural resource base available to the<br />
country; Poverty, which concerns 40 % of the rural population that attempt to maintain basic<br />
living st<strong>and</strong>ards by increasing livestock numbers on the already overcrowded rangel<strong>and</strong>s; <strong>and</strong><br />
Lack of investments <strong>and</strong> on off-farm job <strong>and</strong> revenue opportunities that compel more people to<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
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depend increasingly on marginal l<strong>and</strong>s, at the expense of former forest <strong>and</strong> rangel<strong>and</strong>s for their<br />
crop production.<br />
Response capacity to forest <strong>and</strong> range misuse issues: The response capacity is weak because:<br />
Inability to react on a timely basis to misuse <strong>and</strong> calamity impacts, for lack of timely <strong>and</strong><br />
reliable data <strong>and</strong> information; Top-down approach adopted to trigger community involvement in<br />
the process of natural resources rehabilitation has not set in motion the required sense of<br />
ownership of, <strong>and</strong> responsibility for, the resource that may lead to sustainable success; <strong>and</strong><br />
Some gaps in knowledge related to natural resources, participatory procedures.<br />
Legal/regulatory tools did not incorporate the human dimension <strong>and</strong> consequently failed to<br />
promote the protection <strong>and</strong> sustainable management of the l<strong>and</strong> resources; The form of<br />
conservatism that prevails within the forestry <strong>and</strong> range sector makes it impossible to delegate<br />
fully the responsibility to its traditional users to administer, manage <strong>and</strong> sustain the resource;<br />
<strong>and</strong> Despite commendable efforts, the government’s commitment to sustainable natural<br />
resources management remains insufficient.<br />
The main direct causes to deforestation <strong>and</strong> range degradation are: climatic conditions, which<br />
limit vegetation’s establishment <strong>and</strong> resilience <strong>and</strong> constitute hostile conditions for<br />
rehabilitation; accentuated topography, which triggers acute erosion processes; properties of soil<br />
which often hamper the emergence <strong>and</strong> survival of natural regeneration; natural destructive<br />
calamities, such as floods, wind, temperature <strong>and</strong> drought extremes; <strong>and</strong> pests <strong>and</strong> diseases.<br />
Allocation of forest, woodl<strong>and</strong> <strong>and</strong> rangel<strong>and</strong> for the purpose of agricultural <strong>and</strong> urban<br />
development; Misuse of forest resources through excessive fuel wood, construction, wood<br />
gathering, grazing <strong>and</strong> browsing; Misuse of rangel<strong>and</strong> resources resulting from increased<br />
livestock numbers, well beyond carrying capacity; Inadequate agricultural practices, particularly<br />
abusive utilization of unsuitable farm machinery for subsistence shifting cultivation combined<br />
with “free grazing” on marginal steep sloped l<strong>and</strong>s; Agricultural l<strong>and</strong> ab<strong>and</strong>onment;<br />
Infrastructure construction; <strong>and</strong> Man-made catastrophes such as fires, wars, refugee influxes.<br />
Deforestation <strong>and</strong> degradation result in loss of l<strong>and</strong> productivity, which is translated by decline<br />
in biomass, in species diversity <strong>and</strong> in genetic resource; decline in habitat caused by loss of<br />
vegetative cover, erosion, salinization, water logging, lowering of water tables ; <strong>and</strong> soil erosion<br />
increase.<br />
Natural resources degradation results in poverty expansion. Besides the traditional “underclass”<br />
often identified among forest <strong>and</strong> rangel<strong>and</strong> dwellers, the new population groups affected by<br />
poverty are the rural-to-urban migrants, the l<strong>and</strong>less <strong>and</strong> near l<strong>and</strong>less, the disabled, <strong>and</strong> the<br />
rural female group. The collapse of various production systems, which are not economically<br />
viable anymore, forces more rural population to migrate to cities. Regarding the extent of<br />
deforestation, clearing forest for agriculture, forage production <strong>and</strong> firewood <strong>and</strong> charcoal has<br />
reduced forests by 30 % over the last 40 years.<br />
4. Discussion<br />
4.1 Development choices<br />
Iranian foresters have gained much valuable experience in such fields as s<strong>and</strong> dune fixation,<br />
mangrove regeneration, poplar <strong>and</strong> other fast-growing species plantation, management of nonwood<br />
forest products, development of extensive urban <strong>and</strong> peri-urban forests, development of<br />
intermediary forms of participation to forest <strong>and</strong> range sustainable management ; Despite<br />
imposing resource rehabilitation programs, government has not significantly <strong>and</strong> sustainable<br />
contributed to poverty alleviation among forest <strong>and</strong> rangel<strong>and</strong> dwellers; Following<br />
nationalization of all l<strong>and</strong>s, rapid population growth as well as unsustainable human activities<br />
<strong>and</strong> other natural causes, Iranian forests <strong>and</strong> rangel<strong>and</strong>s have lost very substantial areas in the<br />
last decades.<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
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Planning <strong>and</strong> decision-making are highly centralized, leaving little space for provincial <strong>and</strong><br />
local initiatives to program <strong>and</strong> project formulation, planning <strong>and</strong> decision-making;<br />
Need to re-assess the country’s training needs for participatory forest <strong>and</strong> range protection,<br />
rehabilitation, management <strong>and</strong> development;<br />
4.2 Natural resources use <strong>and</strong> management<br />
Socio-economic value of forests <strong>and</strong> rangel<strong>and</strong>s is very significant as more than 5 million<br />
people live in forests or in their vicinity, while 450,000 persons live permanently on the<br />
rangel<strong>and</strong>s; <strong>and</strong> Planted forests are established without any preconceived idea of their future<br />
sustainable management. Trees outside forests are not yet well perceived in terms of their actual<br />
or potential contribution to the national economy <strong>and</strong> to the well being of people.<br />
The current situation of Iran’s natural resources is a reflection of its past <strong>and</strong> present social,<br />
ecological, technological, economic, political <strong>and</strong> administrative measures. Technical or<br />
engineering solutions are not enough; they need to take into account the needs, priorities <strong>and</strong><br />
aspirations of the rural poor.<br />
So, it's recommended that: Adopt participatory planning <strong>and</strong> resource management approaches<br />
to sustainable forest resources management, with due regard for biodiversity conservation;<br />
Assessing <strong>and</strong> monitoring ecosystems; Participatory planning <strong>and</strong> management become a<br />
st<strong>and</strong>ard approach to underst<strong>and</strong> the needs <strong>and</strong> aspirations of communities <strong>and</strong> individual<br />
families to contribute in those matters that directly impact upon their sustainable livelihoods;<br />
Poverty alleviation <strong>and</strong> support to local communities: Enhance <strong>and</strong> promote long-term<br />
employment <strong>and</strong> revenue opportunities among forest <strong>and</strong> rangel<strong>and</strong> dwellers by strengthening<br />
stakeholders’ interest <strong>and</strong> investments in sustainable resources management; <strong>and</strong> Development<br />
<strong>and</strong> widespread distribution of alternative domestic energy: Provide alternative domestic energy<br />
sources to cover the entire rural countryside.<br />
Promote more environmentally <strong>and</strong> people friendly approaches to agricultural development <strong>and</strong><br />
expansion, by adopting efficient <strong>and</strong> non-destructive production systems, particularly in<br />
mountain areas, <strong>and</strong> rehabilitating l<strong>and</strong>s that have been exhausted of their productive potential,<br />
to their initial l<strong>and</strong>-use choice; <strong>and</strong> Improve l<strong>and</strong> productivity <strong>and</strong> soil fertility in rehabilitation<br />
of degraded l<strong>and</strong>s, including incorporating trees <strong>and</strong> planted forests in the l<strong>and</strong>scape.<br />
4.3 Enhancing the role of planted forests<br />
Integrated planted forests in a broader l<strong>and</strong>-use context in an attempt to respond to the priority<br />
needs <strong>and</strong> aspirations of people; Maintain or increase the present rate of<br />
afforestation/reforestation; <strong>and</strong> government prepare arid, semi-arid <strong>and</strong> tropical silvicultural <strong>and</strong><br />
management models as well as guidelines for the rehabilitation, silvicultural treatment,<br />
management <strong>and</strong> development of mangroves, fodder tree plantations, <strong>and</strong> Haloxylon persicum<br />
st<strong>and</strong>s developed through plantations <strong>and</strong> seeding.<br />
Grant more support to farmers to maintain <strong>and</strong> exp<strong>and</strong> poplar <strong>and</strong> fast growing species’<br />
plantings for shade, shelter <strong>and</strong> other uses; Promote trees outside forests in private holdings,<br />
particularly in agroforestry where trees support agriculture <strong>and</strong> livelihoods; Develop an adapted<br />
silviculture for the specific needs of urban/peri-urban forests <strong>and</strong> publish silvicultural guidelines<br />
for various species in different ecological contexts; Consider the productive capacity of the<br />
urban <strong>and</strong> peri-urban forests <strong>and</strong> prepare management plans accordingly; Promote the planting<br />
of trees outside forests, mainly fodder trees in sylvo-pastoral systems; <strong>and</strong> Arrange a short<br />
training course on the silvicultural treatments of fodder tree <strong>and</strong> shrub species <strong>and</strong> on sylvopastoral<br />
management of recently rehabilitated wooded rangel<strong>and</strong>s.<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
E. Kouhgardi & M. Akbarzadeh 2010. Role of planted forests <strong>and</strong> trees outside forests in sustainable forest management<br />
580<br />
References<br />
Carle, J., Sadio, S., Bekele, M., <strong>and</strong> Rouchiche, S., 2003. Enhancing the Role of Planted <strong>Forest</strong>s<br />
<strong>and</strong> Trees Outside <strong>Forest</strong>s in Low <strong>Forest</strong> Cover Countries, World <strong>Forest</strong>ry Congress,<br />
Qubec, Canada.<br />
Rouchiche, S. <strong>and</strong> Abid, H., 2003. Role of Planted <strong>Forest</strong>s <strong>and</strong> Trees Outside <strong>Forest</strong>s in<br />
Sustainable <strong>Forest</strong> Management: Republic of Tunisia – Country Case Study. Planted<br />
<strong>Forest</strong>s Working Paper FP/27E, FAO, Rome, Italy.<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
E. Kouhgardi et al. 2010. Values of mangroves <strong>and</strong> its interaction with marine ecosystem<br />
581<br />
Values of mangroves <strong>and</strong> its interaction with marine ecosystem<br />
E. Kouhgardi 1* , E. Shakerdargah 1 & M. Akbarzadeh 2<br />
1 Islamic Azad University, Boushehr Branch, Boushehr, Iran.<br />
2 Islamic Azad University, Myianeh Branch, East Azarbaijan, Iran<br />
Abstract<br />
Mangrove forests have been traditionally utilized by the local people for a variety of purposes in<br />
Nayb<strong>and</strong> national park. Values of mangroves are recognized as various benefits: Lumber or<br />
similar construction wood; Poles, fuel wood, fishing gear; Raw materials for the wood-based<br />
industry of various nature <strong>and</strong> including board mills, rayon mills, match factories <strong>and</strong> charcoal<br />
products; Non-timber products including tannin to supply raw materials for leather tanning<br />
industries, fishing net processing units, thatching material for roofing <strong>and</strong> raw materials for<br />
indigenous medicine; Edible products including honey <strong>and</strong> wax, game animals, meat <strong>and</strong> fish,<br />
fruits, drinks <strong>and</strong> sugar, natural spawning ground for fish <strong>and</strong> crustaceans, especially for<br />
shrimps <strong>and</strong> prawns; Contribution to mud flat formation <strong>and</strong> control of erosion; Capability to<br />
check inl<strong>and</strong> salinity intrusion; Enhanced capability to combat the impact of cyclone <strong>and</strong> tidal<br />
surge; Enhanced capability to function as a shelter belt during storms <strong>and</strong> cyclones. So in view<br />
point of these various use <strong>and</strong> benefits for human <strong>and</strong> marine ecosystem, conservation of<br />
mangrove forests would be a main strategy in the area.<br />
Keywords: Marine ecosystem, Benefits, Restoration, Yield, Strategy, Impact<br />
1. Introduction<br />
Mangroves are woody trees or shrubs that grow in Intertidal region along tropical <strong>and</strong><br />
subtropical coasts. With favorable geomorphic conditions, mangroves commonly form<br />
extensive tidal forests in moist, humid equatorial climates. Under these conditions, individual<br />
trees may attain heights of 40-45 meters <strong>and</strong> have stem diameters of more than 1 meter. Tidal<br />
mangrove forests under the favorable conditions of humid production climates <strong>and</strong> low to<br />
moderate soil salinity commonly have high rates of primary production <strong>and</strong> growth that are<br />
equivalent to those of the best terrestrial forests. On the other h<strong>and</strong>, under less favorable<br />
conditions, such as high soil salinity or arid climates, rates of primary production <strong>and</strong> growth<br />
are generally somewhat less. There are approximately 60 species of mangroves World-wide.<br />
About 45 of these occur in the South-east Asian/Western Pacific region, commonly referred to<br />
as the New World. The Old World region of Central <strong>and</strong> South America has 45-species, while<br />
there are about 10-12 species of Africa <strong>and</strong> Arabia. Asia <strong>and</strong> the Western Pacific are thus rich in<br />
terms of mangrove flora.<br />
In addition to differences in species richness between major continental regions, their is also a<br />
marked reduction in the number of species with increasing latitude. Thus, while there are about<br />
35 species on the North-eastern tip of Cape York Peninsula, only 4-5 species of mangrove occur<br />
near Brisbane, reducing to a solitary species, Avicennia marina, at the Southernmost limit of<br />
distribution of mangroves at Corner Inlet on the Southern coastline of mainl<strong>and</strong> Australia. There<br />
* Corresponding author. Tel.: +98 917 775 9894 - Fax: +98 771 568 3700<br />
Email address: kouhgardi@iaubushehr.ac.ir<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
E. Kouhgardi et al. 2010. Values of mangroves <strong>and</strong> its interaction with marine ecosystem<br />
582<br />
is a similar reduction in the number of species with increasing latitude in the Northern<br />
hemisphere.<br />
Mangrove forests are important for a number of reasons:<br />
1. Mangrove forests <strong>and</strong> estuaries are the primary nursery area for a number of commercially<br />
important shrimp, crab <strong>and</strong> fish species. They are also important nursery areas for other<br />
species which are they not used commercially, but which for, part of the food chain for<br />
commercial species offshore.<br />
2. Mangrove vegetation stabilizes shorelines <strong>and</strong> the banks of rivers <strong>and</strong> estuaries, providing<br />
them with some protection from tidal bores, ocean currents <strong>and</strong> storm surges.<br />
3. In many countries of South-east Asia <strong>and</strong> the Pacific, mangroves are used commercially<br />
for the production of timber for building, firewood <strong>and</strong> charcoal. Experience has shown that<br />
when these activities are managed appropriately it is possible to derive timber products from<br />
mangrove forests without significant environmental degradation, <strong>and</strong> while maintaining their<br />
value as a nursery <strong>and</strong> source of food for commercial capture fisheries.<br />
2. Methodology<br />
2.1 Mangrove ecosystem<br />
Due to the projected sea level rise, changes are being caused in the mangrove swamps of Sunder<br />
bans. In some areas, mangroves have died out while in other areas mangrove swamps have<br />
become more saline <strong>and</strong> the composition of species of both fauna <strong>and</strong> flora is changing. It is<br />
therefore proposed to study the ecology of mangroves of various salinity levels-low, medium<br />
<strong>and</strong> high. In these areas it is proposed to study the physicochemical conditions, productivity of<br />
benthos, phyto <strong>and</strong> zooplankton, availability of juveniles of prawns <strong>and</strong> fish <strong>and</strong> use them for<br />
growing. In addition, it is also proposed to study the role of different kinds of ecosystems, for<br />
the kind of species they will support for breeding <strong>and</strong> reproduction, as nursery grounds <strong>and</strong> as<br />
habitat for growing adult fish.<br />
2.2 Function <strong>and</strong> uses of mangroves<br />
Mangrove forest ecosystems fulfill a number of important functions <strong>and</strong> provide a wide range of<br />
services at the local <strong>and</strong> national levels (Box). Fishermen, farmers <strong>and</strong> other rural populations<br />
depend on them as a source of wood (e.g. timber, poles, posts, fuel wood, charcoal) <strong>and</strong> nonwood<br />
forest products (food, thatch – especially from nipa palm – fodder, alcohol, sugar,<br />
medicine <strong>and</strong> honey). Mangroves were also often used for the production of tannin suitable for<br />
leather work <strong>and</strong> for the curing <strong>and</strong> dyeing of fishing nets. However, this production has<br />
declined in recent years, mainly because of the introduction of nylon fishing nets <strong>and</strong> the use of<br />
chrome as the predominant agent for curing leather (FAO, 1994).<br />
Mangroves support the conservation of biological diversity by providing habitats, spawning<br />
grounds, nurseries <strong>and</strong> nutrients for a number of animals. These include several endangered<br />
species <strong>and</strong> range from reptiles (e.g. crocodiles, iguanas <strong>and</strong> snakes) <strong>and</strong> amphibians to<br />
mammals (tigers – including the famous Panthera tigris tigris, the Royal Bengal tiger – deer,<br />
otters, manatees <strong>and</strong> dolphins) <strong>and</strong> birds (herons, egrets, pelicans <strong>and</strong> eagles, to cite just a few).<br />
A wide range of commercial <strong>and</strong> non-commercial fish <strong>and</strong> shellfish also depends on these<br />
coastal forests. The role of mangroves in the marine food chain is crucial. According to<br />
Kapetsky (1985), the average yield of fish <strong>and</strong> shellfish in mangrove areas is about 90 kg per<br />
hectare, with maximum yield of up to 225 kg per hectare (FAO, 1994). When mangrove forests<br />
are destroyed, declines in local fish catches often result. Assessments of the links between<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
E. Kouhgardi et al. 2010. Values of mangroves <strong>and</strong> its interaction with marine ecosystem<br />
583<br />
mangrove forests <strong>and</strong> the fishery sector suggested that for every hectare of forest cleared;<br />
nearby coastal fisheries lose some 480 kg of fish per year (MacKinnon <strong>and</strong> MacKinnon, 1986).<br />
Mangrove ecosystems are also used for aquaculture, both as open-water estuarine mariculture<br />
(e.g. oysters <strong>and</strong> mussels) <strong>and</strong> as pond culture (mainly for shrimps).<br />
Because of its high economic return, shrimp farming has been promoted to boost the national<br />
economy <strong>and</strong> alleviate poverty in several countries. This activity is often an answer to the<br />
financial constraints on many farmers <strong>and</strong> local communities <strong>and</strong> represents a source of<br />
employment. However, if unsustainably planned <strong>and</strong> managed, it can lead to uncontrolled<br />
deforestation <strong>and</strong> to pollution of coastal waters, damaged or totally destroyed coastal<br />
ecosystems <strong>and</strong> the loss of the services <strong>and</strong> benefits provided by mangroves. A series of<br />
international principles for responsible shrimp farming have been prepared (FAO/Network of<br />
Aquaculture Centers in Asia-Pacific/UNEP/ World Bank/Worldwide Fund for Nature, 2006;<br />
FAO, 1995a), with the main aim of offering guidance on reducing the sector’s environmental<br />
impact while boosting its contribution to poverty alleviation. The principles were welcomed by<br />
many countries (FAO, 2006b)) <strong>and</strong> will hopefully provide support to the development of more<br />
ecofriendly shrimp production.<br />
The increasing popularity of ecotourism activities also represents a potentially valuable <strong>and</strong><br />
sustainable source of income for many local populations, especially where the forests are easy<br />
accessible.<br />
Mangroves also help protect coral reefs, sea-grass beds <strong>and</strong> shipping lanes by entrapping upl<strong>and</strong><br />
runoff sediments. This is a key function in preventing <strong>and</strong> reducing coastal erosion <strong>and</strong> provides<br />
nearby communities with protection against the effects of wind, waves <strong>and</strong> water currents. In<br />
the aftermath of the 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami, the protective role of mangroves <strong>and</strong> other<br />
coastal forests <strong>and</strong> trees received considerable attention, both in the press <strong>and</strong> in academic<br />
circles. After more than two years, there are still contrasting views on this issue: eyewitnesses<br />
reported that coastal forests had saved villages from the destruction <strong>and</strong> lives, while some<br />
analyses asserted that elevation <strong>and</strong> distance from the coast were more significant determinants<br />
of protection than the forest cover itself.<br />
Even though additional studies are needed to define specific details <strong>and</strong> limits of this protective<br />
function, the numerous studies <strong>and</strong> workshops undertaken on this topic over the past couple of<br />
years have brought to light a number of interesting factors. Experts <strong>and</strong> scientists agree that<br />
thick <strong>and</strong> dense coastal forest belts, if well designed <strong>and</strong> managed, have the potential to act as<br />
bioshields for the protection of people <strong>and</strong> other assets against some tsunamis <strong>and</strong> other coastal<br />
hazards (i.e. coastal erosion, cyclones, wind <strong>and</strong> salt spray). However, generalizations – <strong>and</strong> the<br />
creation of a false sense of protection provided by these bioshields – should be avoided, because<br />
mangroves <strong>and</strong> other coastal forests are not able to provide effective protection against all levels<br />
of hazards <strong>and</strong> may not be effective as shields against tsunamis as severe as the one that<br />
occurred in 2004. A full description of the factors to be taken into account with regard to<br />
enhancing the protective functions of mangroves <strong>and</strong> other coastal forests goes beyond the<br />
scope of this report. Interested readers are referred to FAO (2007) for further information.<br />
2.3 Undervalued resources<br />
Despite the many services <strong>and</strong> benefits provided by mangroves, these coastal forests have often<br />
been undervalued <strong>and</strong> viewed as wastel<strong>and</strong>s <strong>and</strong> unhealthy environments. The high population<br />
pressures frequently present in coastal zones has in some places led to the conversion of<br />
mangrove areas for urban development. In order to increase food security, boost national<br />
economies <strong>and</strong> improve living st<strong>and</strong>ards, many governments encouraged the development of<br />
shrimp <strong>and</strong> fish farming, agriculture, <strong>and</strong> salt <strong>and</strong> rice production in mangrove areas.<br />
Mangroves have also been fragmented <strong>and</strong> degraded through overexploitation for wood forest<br />
products <strong>and</strong> pollution. Indirectly, habitats have been lost because of dam construction on rivers,<br />
which often diverts water <strong>and</strong> modifies the input of sediments, nutrients <strong>and</strong> freshwater. Even<br />
though dense mangrove forests can be important in coastal protection, natural disasters should<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
E. Kouhgardi et al. 2010. Values of mangroves <strong>and</strong> its interaction with marine ecosystem<br />
584<br />
also be listed among the possible causes of degradation: several tropical countries are frequently<br />
hit by cyclones, typhoons <strong>and</strong> strong winds, <strong>and</strong> the trees in the front lines may be damaged<br />
<strong>and</strong>/or uprooted during these catastrophes.<br />
Over the last few years, however, awareness of the importance <strong>and</strong> value of mangrove<br />
ecosystems has been growing, leading to the preparation <strong>and</strong> implementation of new legislation<br />
<strong>and</strong> to better protection <strong>and</strong> management of mangrove resources. In some countries, restoration<br />
or re-expansion of mangrove areas through natural regeneration or active planting has also been<br />
observed. In addition, many governments are increasingly recognizing the importance of<br />
mangroves to fisheries, forestry, coastal protection <strong>and</strong> wildlife. Despite these positive signs,<br />
much still needs to be done to effectively conserve these vital ecosystems.<br />
3. Result<br />
The mangrove l<strong>and</strong>s that, used to be considered as waste l<strong>and</strong> in the past, have recently been<br />
treated as a valuable ecosystem, especially for their unique features. Mangrove forests have<br />
been traditionally utilized by the local people for a variety of purposes. Values of mangroves are<br />
recognized as various benefits. Study developed in the south west of Iran in Boushehr province<br />
<strong>and</strong> recognized that the forest of the mangrove ecosystem is capable to yield the following<br />
direct benefits:<br />
Lumber or similar construction wood; Poles, fuel wood, fishing gear; Raw materials for the<br />
wood-based industry of various nature <strong>and</strong> including board mills, rayon mills, match factories<br />
<strong>and</strong> charcoal products; Non-timber products including tannin (mostly from bark) to supply raw<br />
materials for leather tanning industries, fishing net processing units, thatching material for<br />
roofing <strong>and</strong> raw materials for indigenous medicine; Edible products including honey <strong>and</strong> wax,<br />
game animals, meat <strong>and</strong> fish, fruits, drinks <strong>and</strong> sugar.<br />
The mangrove ecosystem can yield the following indirect benefits:<br />
Natural spawning ground for fish <strong>and</strong> crustaceans, especially for shrimps <strong>and</strong> prawns;<br />
Contribution to mud flat formation <strong>and</strong> control of erosion; Capability to check inl<strong>and</strong> salinity<br />
intrusion; Enhanced capability to combat the impact of cyclone <strong>and</strong> tidal surge; Enhanced<br />
capability to function as a shelter belt during storms <strong>and</strong> cyclones.<br />
4. Discussion<br />
Sustainable management of mangrove<br />
The mangrove ecosystem is a complex one. It is composed of various inter-related elements in<br />
the l<strong>and</strong> sea interface zone which is linked with other natural systems of the coastal region such<br />
as corals, sea grass, coastal fisheries <strong>and</strong> beach vegetation. The mangrove ecosystem consists of<br />
water, muddy soil, trees, shrubs <strong>and</strong> their associated flora, fauna <strong>and</strong> microbes. It is a very<br />
productive ecosystem sustaining various forms of life. Its waters are nursery grounds for fish,<br />
crustacean <strong>and</strong> mollusk <strong>and</strong> also provide habitat for a wide range of aquatic life, while the l<strong>and</strong><br />
supports a rich <strong>and</strong> diverse flora <strong>and</strong> fauna. It also influences the micro climate, prevents coastal<br />
erosion, enhances accretion <strong>and</strong> combats natural calamities such as cyclones <strong>and</strong> tidal bores.<br />
The concept of mangrove management has considerably evolved, as these formations have<br />
become better understood. Instead of simple management of the first st<strong>and</strong>, it is now realized<br />
that the whole ecosystem must be considered. It was also realized that, due to the diversity of<br />
mangrove formations, specific regulations are essential.<br />
For most of the mangrove areas of the world, "fishery" <strong>and</strong> "forestry" are the two conflicting<br />
dem<strong>and</strong>s on mangrove l<strong>and</strong>s. Apportioning of the mangrove l<strong>and</strong> resource to these two major<br />
uses under the concept of sustainable management of the ecosystem needs further research<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
E. Kouhgardi et al. 2010. Values of mangroves <strong>and</strong> its interaction with marine ecosystem<br />
585<br />
though a ratio of 20:80 is suggested for ponds to mangroves, on 25 ha allocations as "woodlot<br />
silvo-fishery" (Choudhury 1996). It is suggested that the mangrove area that may be sacrificed<br />
for fish ponds, can be calculated by using the following formula (Llaurado <strong>and</strong> Lindquist 1982).<br />
The Max. Area that can be brought under Aquaculture = (S-F) / 2S<br />
where:<br />
S= Value of fish yield per hectare<br />
F= Value of forestry per hectare, which must include the linkage values such contribution<br />
to open fishing, near-shore fishing, erosion control, biodiversity value, eco-tourism,<br />
shelterbelt value, etc.<br />
This formula seems to be too simple <strong>and</strong> is based completely on monetary aspects.<br />
Ecological restoration of mangrove habitat is feasible, has been done on a large scale in various<br />
parts of the world, <strong>and</strong> can be done cost-effectively. The simple application of the five steps to<br />
successful mangrove restoration described here would at least ensure an analytical thought<br />
process <strong>and</strong> less use of “gardening” of mangroves as the solution to all mangrove restoration<br />
problems. At appropriate sites with normal or near-normal tidal hydrology <strong>and</strong> with<br />
establishment of mangroves through natural recruitment or planting, restored mangrove systems<br />
can become indistinguishable from nearby natural mangrove systems within a short time. So in<br />
view point of these various use <strong>and</strong> benefits for human <strong>and</strong> marine ecosystem, conservation of<br />
mangrove forests would be a main strategy in the area.<br />
References<br />
Acosta, A., 1997. Use of multi-mesh gillnets <strong>and</strong> trammel nets to estimate fish species<br />
composition in coral reef <strong>and</strong> mangroves in the southwest coast of Puerto Rico. Caribb<br />
Sciences, 33:45–57.<br />
Alongi, D., 2002. Present state <strong>and</strong> future of the world’s mangrove forests. Environmental<br />
Conservation, 29:331–349.<br />
He, B., Fan, H., <strong>and</strong> Mo, Z., 2001. Study on species diversity of fishes in mangrove area of<br />
Yingluo Bay, Guangxi province. Tropical Oceanography, 20:74–79.<br />
Pittman, S., McAlpine, C., <strong>and</strong> Pittman, K., 2004. Linking fish <strong>and</strong> prawns to their environment:<br />
a hierarchical l<strong>and</strong>scape approach. Marin Ecology, 283:233–254.<br />
Sheaves, M., 2005. Nature <strong>and</strong> consequences of biological connectivity in mangrove systems.<br />
Marin Ecology, 302: 293–305.<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
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586<br />
The importance of Environmental Education to restore <strong>and</strong> preserve<br />
natural <strong>and</strong> cultural heritage: the case of Pirai da Serra – South of<br />
Brazil<br />
Edina Schimanski *<br />
State University of Ponta Grossa, Brazil<br />
Abstract<br />
Pirai da Serra is located in the south of Brazil <strong>and</strong> it represents an impressive natural <strong>and</strong><br />
cultural heritage. The area of Pirai da Serra is characterized by canyons, escarpments, grassl<strong>and</strong><br />
vegetation, araucaria forests, fauna <strong>and</strong> flora diversity, archaeological material (rock art) <strong>and</strong><br />
cultural traditions. In the last decades, despite some efforts to avoid degradation, it is possible to<br />
observe a permanent transformation in the l<strong>and</strong>scape in terms of environmental collapse. Some<br />
examples of local natural dilapidation are a wide use of l<strong>and</strong> to increase agriculture,<br />
development of exotic species of forest, forest burning <strong>and</strong> scarcity of water, among other<br />
environmental impacts. Considering these circumstances, it is urgent the development of<br />
Environmental Education practices which promote the involvement of the local community in<br />
order to prevent a complete devastation. The local community participation (teachers, students,<br />
parents, people from cultural groups, social movements <strong>and</strong> government, among others) is<br />
essential to promote an environmental practice. This kind of practice must be able to<br />
deconstruct non-environmental actions <strong>and</strong> increase the consciousness of people in relation to<br />
restoration <strong>and</strong> preservation of natural <strong>and</strong> cultural heritage of the area.<br />
Keywords: environmental collapse, cultural heritage, environmental education,<br />
1. Introduction<br />
This essay discusses environmental awareness related to the protection of natural <strong>and</strong> cultural<br />
heritage. It argues that environmental education must be understood as a future-orientated<br />
approach to people’s life in relation to preservation of the planet <strong>and</strong> humankind. Environmental<br />
education represents an important tool for the defence of natural <strong>and</strong> ecological reserves such as<br />
Pirai da Serra, located in the South of Brazil. This essay is organized into three parts. The first<br />
part shows some aspects concerning the methodology of the research <strong>and</strong> discusses about the<br />
importance of environmental awareness <strong>and</strong> environmental education. The second part presents<br />
some considerations with regard to the importance of environmental education to preserve <strong>and</strong><br />
restore natural <strong>and</strong> cultural heritage. Finally, the last part brings about some reflections<br />
concerning the idea of critical environmental education <strong>and</strong> the defence of natural <strong>and</strong><br />
cultural heritage.<br />
2. Typifying the methodology of the study <strong>and</strong> introducing some essential concepts<br />
about Environmental Education<br />
Research practice in education, <strong>and</strong> particularly in environmental education, has adopted a<br />
variety of approaches through different theories <strong>and</strong> methodologies. Distinct perspectives have<br />
been used to conceptualise <strong>and</strong> analyse the development of environmental education practice.<br />
* Email address: edinaschi@hormail.com<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
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587<br />
This essay is framed on bibliographical research. In synthesis, bibliographical research can be<br />
understood as a scientific mode to gather data from different theoretical backgrounds. This kind<br />
of research is essential since it permits the identification of the status of knowledge. Indeed, it<br />
provides opportunities for new contributions about the subject.<br />
In addition, the observation methodology was used as a process which operated from an open<br />
system of information. This allowed a significant degree of flexibility in the gathering of<br />
general <strong>and</strong> particular impressions from the fieldwork.<br />
In fact, the use of a flexible design represented an important component of the process. Instead<br />
of formal observation, in which the researcher’s intention is merely to observe the situation<br />
without interfering in the event, this study decided to use participant observation. In the case of<br />
this study, participant observation formed a part of a cognitive process in which the researcher<br />
could realise <strong>and</strong> recognise the main aspects of the context.<br />
2.1Environemtal education to restore <strong>and</strong> preserve natural <strong>and</strong> cultural heritage<br />
“If education is the solution, what is the problem” This enigmatic question, posed by David<br />
Orr 2001, raises a challenge to education in contemporary society. There is no doubt that the<br />
environment <strong>and</strong> the associated harmful consequences of human actions represent one of these<br />
challenges for education. As a result, the reality of the environmental world has emerged as a<br />
complex subject which has to be discussed <strong>and</strong> interpreted in the educational arena.<br />
Nevertheless, the environment <strong>and</strong> education are not simple concepts; rather, both incorporate<br />
distinct notions of the world <strong>and</strong> involve complex political <strong>and</strong> social dimensions. Particularly<br />
these concepts are more intricate when connected to the idea of environmental preservation.<br />
Environmental problems are the result of the collapse of economic rationality in contemporary<br />
society <strong>and</strong> that an environmental crisis has arisen from a crisis of civilisation (Leff 2001). This<br />
implies the recognition that there are some limits to capitalist growth <strong>and</strong> a need for the<br />
construction of a new paradigm of sustainable development.<br />
In fact, despite certain international efforts to reduce environmental problems as well as<br />
inequalities <strong>and</strong> the setting out of guidelines for social <strong>and</strong> ecological welfare, many people<br />
around the world are still living in precarious conditions. Contemporary history has shown that<br />
the promise of a different world (greener world) seems to have been overwhelmed by the<br />
dominant structures of modern economies. Instead of offering alternatives to people <strong>and</strong> nature,<br />
such as the implementation of strategies to avoid consumption, modern society has been<br />
encouraging the exploitation of natural resources <strong>and</strong> is endorsing distinctly imperial positions<br />
in a capitalist society. As an example of this is the growing of cultivated areas of exotic forests<br />
(for wood extraction) in opposition to the safeguarding of native forests.<br />
The contradictions this leads to are evident in this study. No doubt, the world has never before<br />
witnessed such a range of technological advances within ‘the global society’. Rapidly <strong>and</strong><br />
distincly these courses of action interfere in the structure of biodiversity as well as in the<br />
natural organization of ecosystems <strong>and</strong> forest l<strong>and</strong>scapes. In addition, many countries have been<br />
suffering the consequences of centralised politics of exclusion from ‘the global world’ in which<br />
large sectors of the population have not been allowed access to basic environmental resources in<br />
society such as drinkable water.<br />
It is within the complex area that lies between rhetoric <strong>and</strong> the real dimensions of environmental<br />
issues that education has played a role in responding to problematic situations from ecological<br />
<strong>and</strong> social crises. In these circumstances, some specialists have used education as a new<br />
discourse to bring about changes of attitudes <strong>and</strong> behaviour in relation to the natural world. In<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
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588<br />
this scenario, environmental education is undertaking an important task with regard to<br />
ecological sustainability. For instance, Agenda 21 (UNCED 1992) is particularly clear in this<br />
regard when it supports the notion that education is an essential prerequisite before one can<br />
begin to contribute to these changes to be brought about.<br />
The orientations of education towards the idea of sustainability of the planet <strong>and</strong> raising<br />
consciousness of this matter have become prominent issues for educational principles in the area<br />
of environmental education. These principles, which are based on statements from the Tbilisi<br />
Conference (UNESCO 1977), envisage environmental education as an important component for<br />
the creation of a sustainable environment <strong>and</strong> a fairer society. In global terms, environmental<br />
education which is associated with ideas of sustainability plays a crucial role in dealing with<br />
environmental problems <strong>and</strong> it has been backed up by international educational, political <strong>and</strong><br />
social discourses from governments <strong>and</strong> society.<br />
The main goal of the next topic is to endorse the position that promotion of new strategies for<br />
fair <strong>and</strong> consistent education with an emphasis on a critical perspective is particularly important<br />
in realising the potential of people to promote environmental actions toward natural <strong>and</strong> cultural<br />
heritage.<br />
3. Environmental Education <strong>and</strong> the protection of natural <strong>and</strong> cultural heritage:<br />
the case of Piraí da Serra – South of Brazil<br />
Pirai da Serra (Pirai means Fish River in indigenous name <strong>and</strong> Serra means Peak in<br />
Portuguese) is located in Parana State, South of Brazil. The area of Pirai da Serra represents an<br />
impressive natural <strong>and</strong> cultural heritage. The place is characterized by canyons, escarpments,<br />
grassl<strong>and</strong> vegetation, araucaria forests, fauna <strong>and</strong> flora diversity, archaeological material (rock<br />
art) <strong>and</strong> vast culture. The cultural tradition of the region come from the beginning of Brazilian<br />
colonization <strong>and</strong> it has a wide range of customs which are expressed in people’s habits (e.g.<br />
specific dishes, religious events, among others)<br />
In the last decades, despite some efforts to avoid degradation, it is possible to observe a<br />
permanent transformation in the l<strong>and</strong>scape in terms of environmental collapse. Some examples<br />
of local natural dilapidation are a wide use of l<strong>and</strong> to increase agriculture, development of exotic<br />
species of forest (e.g. pinus plantation) <strong>and</strong> forest burning, among other environmental impacts.<br />
From the middle of last century it is possible to observe a rapid expansion of industrialization<br />
processes nearby the region which, no doubt, affects the local environment. Rapidly, people<br />
from community have been experienced these changes in their lives. Particularly, it is possible<br />
to points out the scarcity of water <strong>and</strong> a progressive deterioration of the native l<strong>and</strong>scape.<br />
Considering these circumstances, it is urgent the development of environmental education<br />
practices which promote the involvement of the local community in order to prevent full<br />
devastation of the place. The local community participation (teachers, students, parents, people<br />
from cultural groups, social movements <strong>and</strong> government, among others) is essential to promote<br />
an environmental practice. This kind of practice must be able to deconstruct non-environmental<br />
actions <strong>and</strong> increase the consciousness of people in relation to restoration <strong>and</strong> preservation of<br />
natural <strong>and</strong> cultural heritage of the area <strong>and</strong> present sustainable alternative practices.<br />
Sustainability should be understood through a critical approach in intellectual <strong>and</strong> practical<br />
terms, as a counter-hegemonic discourse. This means that sustainability must be seen as a<br />
process where people are able to participate in the social <strong>and</strong> political construction of their<br />
environment. In this way, environmental education plays a fundamental role <strong>and</strong> must go<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
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589<br />
beyond idealised forms of imposing behaviour <strong>and</strong> attitudes on others; rather it should<br />
incorporate a critical social underst<strong>and</strong>ing of nature <strong>and</strong> environmental problems.<br />
This is what some authors such as Fien 1993 <strong>and</strong> Huckle 1998 regard as ‘education for the<br />
environment’ <strong>and</strong> what Khan 2004 defines as ‘ecopedagogy’. In addition, this is what this essay<br />
endorses as being ‘critical environmental education’ (Schimanski 2005)<br />
It is important to points out that critical environmental education is an essential strategy. In<br />
other words, it may provide the basis for changing behaviour to create new strategies to improve<br />
environmental conditions, leading to a better quality of life <strong>and</strong> to equity. Following this, a<br />
critical interpretation of social <strong>and</strong> ecological concerns is indispensable. This implies breaking<br />
down traditional attitudes, such as the pretence that superiority can be imposed by a dominant<br />
discourse which does not take into account social <strong>and</strong> cultural differences.<br />
In other words, it is necessary to consider the community as a space for praxis. People should<br />
engage with this <strong>and</strong> consequently it is necessary to create new conditions for social<br />
participation at community. To this extent a “new culture of argument” (Myerson & Rydin<br />
1996) linked with critical thinking can be used to usher in a new democratic culture. The<br />
establishment of an emancipatory or critical interest (Habermas 1983) can provide people with a<br />
new underst<strong>and</strong>ing of how to make environmental interpretations of local <strong>and</strong> global changes.<br />
This can be the base on which to create a new “identity <strong>and</strong> ecological democracy” (Huckle<br />
2001). In other words, environmental education is a form of citizenship education, which may<br />
be able to reinforce the ability of people to reflect on <strong>and</strong> act in society. In this sense, some<br />
points are important to reflect about it as follow:<br />
1. It is necessary to formulate new initiatives for support, which encourage critical<br />
thinking in relation to the natural environment <strong>and</strong> cultural heritage;<br />
2. It is necessary to encourage a kind of critical thinking, which can lead to a new<br />
culture of argument <strong>and</strong> a new democratic culture in society concerning environmental<br />
good practices;<br />
3. It is imperative support the growth of creative <strong>and</strong> interdisciplinary critical<br />
approaches for the protection <strong>and</strong> enhancement of natural <strong>and</strong> cultural heritage areas;<br />
4. It is of fundamental importance to clarify that there should be a link between<br />
environmental education <strong>and</strong> citizenship in a political perspective to maximize the<br />
human <strong>and</strong> social potential required in environmental strategies to the defense of nature;<br />
5. Above all, it is essential that community appreciate that there is a connection between<br />
environmental education <strong>and</strong> social justice. This relationship is underpinned by moral<br />
<strong>and</strong> ethical values, can lead to a new way of improving the quality of life for people.<br />
4. Conclusion<br />
Environmental education needs to provide people with the knowledge, underst<strong>and</strong>ing <strong>and</strong><br />
capacity to promote awareness <strong>and</strong> positive attitudes towards environment. In this sense, one of<br />
the main goals of environmental education is focused on the idea of increasing knowledge to<br />
underst<strong>and</strong> ecological processes as well as to stimulate people to get involved in actions which<br />
can help to overcome environmental challenges.<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
E. Schimanski 2010. The importance of Environmental Education to restore <strong>and</strong> preserve natural <strong>and</strong> cultural heritage<br />
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In relation to the defense of natural <strong>and</strong> cultural heritage, environmental education can be an<br />
important strategy to “give voice to people” from community (Armstrong, Moore, Russell <strong>and</strong><br />
Schimanski 2009) This means that environmental education can improve what some authors<br />
call “the sense of place” (see for instance Lesley P. Curthoys & Brent Cuthbertson 2002) in the<br />
community. That is, education plays a fundamental role regarding environmental issues<br />
helping people to improve their sense of being part of the environment.<br />
In the case of Pirai da Serra, the development of environmental education practice should be<br />
able to create new public <strong>and</strong> social spheres in which people feel themselves as subjects <strong>and</strong> not<br />
merely objects in its relation to the nature. In practical terms, this means that environmental<br />
education is the process of becoming enlightened about environmental issues that can give rise<br />
to a more equitable <strong>and</strong> sustainable society by carrying out concrete actions able to produce<br />
good practices in relation to nature.<br />
As a conclusion it is important to asserts that this study regards environmental education as a<br />
process of enlightenment of knowledge through a practice engaged with problem-solving <strong>and</strong><br />
based on participatory actions. In fact, environmental education should go beyond the<br />
development of skills <strong>and</strong> behaviour in issues regarding environmental protection. Protecting<br />
nature is an essential matter but it cannot be undertaken in isolation from an environmental ethic<br />
concerning political, educational <strong>and</strong> social change.<br />
References<br />
Armstrong, F., Moore, M., Russell, O. Schimanski, E. (2009) Action research for creating<br />
inclusive education. IN: Alur, M.& Timmons, V. Inclusive education across cultures.<br />
Crossing Boundaries, Sharing ideas. London: Sage.<br />
Curthoys, L. & Cuthbertson, B.(2002) Listening to the L<strong>and</strong>scape: Interpretive Planning for<br />
Ecological Literacy Canadian Journal of Environmental Education (CJEE), Vol 7, No 2,<br />
Published in cooperation with the Canadian Network for Environmental Education <strong>and</strong><br />
Communication (EECOM) <strong>and</strong> Lakehead University<br />
Fien, J. (1993) Education for the environment. Critical curriculum theorising <strong>and</strong><br />
Environmental Education. Australia: Deakin University<br />
Habermas, J. (1983) Conhecimento e interesse. In: Os pensadores. São Paulo: Abril Cultural<br />
Huckle, J. (1998) Environmental education – between modern capitalism <strong>and</strong> postmodern<br />
socialism. A reply to Lucie Sauvé. www.ec.gc.ca/eco/education/Paper3/Paper3_e.htm<br />
Huckle, J. (2001) Towards ecological citizenship, in LAMBERT, D. & MACHON, P. (2001)<br />
Citizenship through secondary geography .London: Routledge Falmer<br />
Kahn, R. (2004) Towards ecopedagogy: radicalizing environmental education for the<br />
task ahead. http://getvegan.com/ee.htm<br />
Layargues, P. (2000) Solving local environmental problem in Environmental Education:<br />
a Brazilian case study. Environmental Education Research, Vol.6,no.2.London:<br />
Carfax Publishing<br />
Lefff, E. (2001) Educacao ambiental e desenvolvimento sustentavel, in REIGOTA,M (2001)<br />
Verde cotidiano : o meio ambiente em discussao. Rio de Janeiro :DP&<br />
Melo, M. et all. (2007) Projeto de Pesquisa: Diagnóstico ambiental de Piraí da Serra.<br />
Universidade Estadual de Ponta Grossa, Brazil, 14 p.<br />
Myerson, G. & Rydin, I. (1996). The language of environment. A new rhetoric. London:UCL.<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
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591<br />
Orr, D. (2001) Preface of STERLING, S. (2001). Sustainable Education. Bristol: JW<br />
Arrowsmith<br />
Schimanski, E. (2005) Developing environmental education in Brazilian primary schools<br />
focused on emancipatory actions <strong>and</strong> ecological citizenship: an action research approach.<br />
Thesis submitted to the degree of PhD in Education. University of London.<br />
UNCED (1992) Agenda 21. Earth Summit 92 Rio de Janeiro. London: The Regency Press.<br />
UNESCO (1977) First Intergovernmental Conference on Environmental Education. Final<br />
Report, Tbilissi, USSR. Paris:Unesco<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
L.A.M. da Silva & E. Shimanki 2010. The certification of forest management <strong>and</strong> its contribution to the rights of workers<br />
592<br />
The certification of forest management <strong>and</strong> its contribution to the<br />
rights of workers<br />
Lenir Aparecida Mainardes da Silva * & Edina Shimanki<br />
Universidade Estadual de Ponta Grossa, Brazil<br />
Abstract<br />
The certification of forest management must assure that the wood used in products that are<br />
extracted from acceptable environmental st<strong>and</strong>ards of forest organization. In addition, forest<br />
certification must have compliance with related national <strong>and</strong> international law. The FSC (<strong>Forest</strong><br />
Stewardship Council) institutes some criteria to guideline conscientious <strong>and</strong> responsible forest<br />
management. These criteria are grounded by environmental, social, cultural <strong>and</strong> economical<br />
aspects which are essentials to promote a sustainable society. In this sense, this study is framed<br />
on some reflections concerning the certification of forest management in Brazil. Particularly it<br />
addresses the need of assuring the rights of workers, <strong>and</strong> compliance with occupational health<br />
<strong>and</strong> safety measures. The main idea is to present some discussions concerning the respect in<br />
relation to rights of workers in connection with community participation in the management<br />
process to control <strong>and</strong> prevent labor injuries.<br />
Keywords: <strong>Forest</strong> Management; labor legislation <strong>and</strong> certification<br />
1. Introduction<br />
According to the Brazilian Association of Planted <strong>Forest</strong>s (2007), Brazil is one of the sectors<br />
that contribute the most to the country's development in the macroeconomic <strong>and</strong> microeconomic<br />
area. However, keeps in its recent history, the daily experience of child workers, workers in<br />
poor working conditions, health <strong>and</strong> semi-slavery, that are disrespectful to the decent work.<br />
According to Silva (2000) is the dramatic situation of workers in this sector, extensive working<br />
hours, low salaries, the non-compliance with laws, the ignorance from the workers about the<br />
risks they are submitted to, <strong>and</strong> absolute lack of control when it comes to working conditions.<br />
Until recently, accidents <strong>and</strong> occupational diseases from these workes in Brazil were only<br />
partially understood by the public opinion, by institutions that have responsibility in the area<br />
<strong>and</strong> by social workers in general. It is in this context that this paper proposes a reflection about<br />
the socio-cultural aspects observed in the process of certification of forest management in Brazil,<br />
related to the current labor legislation (health <strong>and</strong> safety st<strong>and</strong>ards at work), since under those<br />
rules, are the first steps to the garantee of decent working conditions by male <strong>and</strong> female<br />
workers in the forestry sector or outsourced workers, <strong>and</strong> the relationship with neighboring<br />
communities or close to areas of management. The research has its base on literature <strong>and</strong><br />
documents.<br />
* Corresponding author. Tel.: (42) 3220-3387<br />
Email address: lenir@uepg.br<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
L.A.M. da Silva & E. Shimanki 2010. The certification of forest management <strong>and</strong> its contribution to the rights of workers<br />
593<br />
2. In search of decent work in the Brazilian <strong>Forest</strong> Sector<br />
The concept of forest management has emerged as a form of control of productive forestry<br />
practices, through the recovery in the market for products tha came from responsible forests<br />
management. To the FSC, the certification Principles <strong>and</strong> Criteria to a given <strong>Forest</strong><br />
Management unit, St (P & C FSC) is applicable to all types of forests (tropical, boreal <strong>and</strong><br />
temperate) <strong>and</strong> management types (native or plantation). In this paper, good management means,<br />
as Viana (2002, p.20) which refers to "the best management practices applicable to a particular<br />
forest management unit, considering its characteristics <strong>and</strong> sociocultural constraints,<br />
environmental <strong>and</strong> economic <strong>and</strong> the technical <strong>and</strong> scientific knowledge existing. "<br />
According to the International Labour Organisation, decent work involves the opportunity to<br />
realize a productive work with equitable remuneration, safety at the workplace <strong>and</strong> social<br />
protection for families, better prospects for personal development <strong>and</strong> social integration,<br />
organization <strong>and</strong> participation in decisions affecting their lives. Considering that in the nineties,<br />
Brazil experienced a productive framework for restructuring, with the reduced presence of<br />
workers in society <strong>and</strong> the state with a consequent decrease of social rights.<br />
This problem accompanied by the employment disruption, <strong>and</strong> the precarious working<br />
conditions, such factors contributed to increase the worker´s health injuries. And that was only<br />
in 1988 that Brazil was known as a Democratic State of Law according to its Constitution, <strong>and</strong><br />
that in its Chapter II, about the Social Rights, that rural workers began having the same rights<br />
that the urban workers had.<br />
Considering that the underst<strong>and</strong>ing of society in recent years, is much more improved about<br />
environmental issues, sustainability <strong>and</strong> current resources for environmental monitoring based<br />
on high technologies, have allowed a closer society accompaniment on forest management <strong>and</strong><br />
their environmental impacts.<br />
According to Busch (2008) it is a challenge for entrepreneurs to show the consumers how these<br />
issues have been object of concern. In this sense, the certification process in the forest<br />
management appears as an excellent response to the consumer as well, contributing to garantee<br />
decent working conditions for workers in this sector.<br />
To certify the management, the FSC uses criteria <strong>and</strong> principles which support the responsible<br />
management in compliance with environmental, socio-cultural <strong>and</strong> economic aspects. The<br />
principles to be observed are ten, however, is the principle number 4 (four) entitled: Community<br />
relations <strong>and</strong> workers' rights. Stipulates that forest management should maintain or enhance<br />
long-term social welfare <strong>and</strong> economic development of forest workers <strong>and</strong> local communities.<br />
As the principles are more evident if there is respect for decent work.<br />
The criteria to be observed <strong>and</strong> / or evidenced in this principle:<br />
1.Job opportunities, training <strong>and</strong> other services should be given to the inserted or<br />
communities or the ones that are adjacent to areas of forest management.<br />
2 <strong>Forest</strong> management should achieve or exceed all applicable laws <strong>and</strong> / or regulations<br />
related to health <strong>and</strong> safety of their workers <strong>and</strong> their families.<br />
3. Must be guaranteed the rights of workers to organize <strong>and</strong> voluntarily negotiate with<br />
their employers, as outlined in Conventions 87 <strong>and</strong> 98 of the International Labour<br />
Organisation (ILO).<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
L.A.M. da Silva & E. Shimanki 2010. The certification of forest management <strong>and</strong> its contribution to the rights of workers<br />
594<br />
4. The planning <strong>and</strong> implementation of forest management activities should incorporate<br />
the results of social impact assessments. The consultation process with the population<br />
<strong>and</strong> the groups that are directly affected by the manegement must be maintained.<br />
5. The appropriate mechanisms to resolve complaints <strong>and</strong> provide fair compensation in<br />
case of loss or damage that affects the legal <strong>and</strong> customary rights, the property, the<br />
natural resources or livelihoods of local people should be adopted. The necessary<br />
actions to avoid such losses or damages must be done.<br />
6. The responsible for the forest management must consider initiatives in the social area<br />
field to be included in planning <strong>and</strong> operations of forest management activities. Must be<br />
maintained <strong>and</strong> confirmed the existence of information <strong>and</strong> clear opportunity to<br />
participate from the local community(ies) that is (are) directly affected for forest<br />
management operations, <strong>and</strong> consider their perspectives on the issues that directly affect<br />
their quality of life.<br />
7. There should be mechanisms for dialogue <strong>and</strong> the resolution of complaints between<br />
the worker <strong>and</strong> the responsible for the forest management unit, including the<br />
representation, which is formally recognized by the workers.<br />
8. Workers must pay the minimum consistent with the market average in the region,<br />
according to the productive activity that is performed.<br />
9. Should not be used child labor, in violation of the Law, in the forest management unit.<br />
The work of the young people, that are in the age of apprentices, is only allowed in nonstrenuous<br />
activities considered by the authorities <strong>and</strong> with the guarantee of access to<br />
education.<br />
10. The female labor during pregnancy <strong>and</strong> breastfeeding should be accompanied by<br />
preventive measures of risks <strong>and</strong> dangers that are inherent to the productive activity that<br />
is performed.<br />
11. In the hypothesis of substantial changes in the employment framework of forest<br />
management unit, the preventive actions to minimize the impacts of layoffs on workers<br />
<strong>and</strong> on the local communities must be taken.<br />
12. The adoption of programs or strategies to flexible the work should not result in harm<br />
to the rights lawfully acquired by forestry workers. The person responsible for forest<br />
management unit must undertake sustained efforts to minimize the differences between<br />
workers <strong>and</strong> the contractors themselves <strong>and</strong> avoid the precarious working conditions.<br />
13. The community's access to management <strong>and</strong> non-predatory collection of forest<br />
products derived from wood or not, is allowed <strong>and</strong> regulated in the places where such<br />
access has existed for legal or historical reasons, by formal permission granted by the<br />
responsible from the forest management unit, in compliance with the property rights.<br />
These thirteen criteria, based on indicators, provide an analysis of the reality of the company<br />
being certified. This way, we observe that in Brazil, the companies that are certificated<br />
appropriate themselves to the principles dem<strong>and</strong>s. Particularly in relation to the employees; they<br />
guarantee the proper registration, with wages in accordance with labor agreements; adapt their<br />
structures to provide safe working conditions with a team consisting of doctors <strong>and</strong> labor<br />
engineers, <strong>and</strong> in case of accidents remains the logistic structure suitable for the service.<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
L.A.M. da Silva & E. Shimanki 2010. The certification of forest management <strong>and</strong> its contribution to the rights of workers<br />
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Regarding the hiring workforce, companies rely on public programs that intermediate the<br />
workforce, prioritizing the local recruitment. In small companies without certification, it is<br />
common the variation of the workforce, given to the low qualification <strong>and</strong> education, that is a<br />
commodious situation for the employers from small businesses related to the recruitment<br />
process, therefore, with the structural surplus of the workforce, many are those who expect a job<br />
oppening, what reflects in the decrease of salaries. In times of unemployment prevailing in the<br />
country in the nineties many workers were subjected to work in any conditions <strong>and</strong> for any<br />
salary.<br />
When necessary the larger companies invest their own resources in training, <strong>and</strong> other smaller,<br />
have resources of public policy work. As Silva (2000) in research conducted in the south region<br />
of the country shows that the limited supply of skilled workforce is one of the intrinsic factors to<br />
this sector, <strong>and</strong> the average in years of schooling from the workers are five years.<br />
A worker in the forestry sector is mostly male, so women in this sector are more in the planting<br />
of seedlings in nurseries<br />
Tem seus direitos a maternidade e a infância assegurada pelas políticas públicas de saúde. They<br />
have their rights to maternity <strong>and</strong> childhood assured by public health policies. As for the<br />
presence of the children´s <strong>and</strong> adolescent´s work in this sector, Brazil since the late eighties, put<br />
on his political force to eradicate child labor <strong>and</strong> confrontation, <strong>and</strong> one of the first activities to<br />
be tackled was the work of children in the coal production in which htere were a high number of<br />
working children.<br />
Dealing with situations of child labor has been a subject of discussion between civil society <strong>and</strong><br />
state, with the definition of several enforcement actions by the government, improving<br />
education policy <strong>and</strong> income transfer programs that are articulated with social protection of the<br />
poor families.<br />
3.Conclusion<br />
According to FSC the certification produces benefits, that are: better prices, increasing of the<br />
productivity, the improving of the image; the guarantee of origin, the market recognition, social<br />
responsibility, contribution to the cause.And, for workers there is an improvement in security<br />
conditions at work, in working conditions. Since the indicators used to have certification have<br />
as a reference the international conventions.<br />
O Fórum Mundial subordinado ao tema ‘Trabalho Digno para uma <strong>Global</strong>ização Justa,<br />
iniciativa conjunta da OIT e da Presidência Portuguesa da União Europeia. Realizado em 2007,<br />
propõe uma meta simples: criar as condições para que mulheres e homens de todo o mundo<br />
para ter acesso a um trabalho digno e produtivo, em condições de liberdade, equidade,<br />
segurança e dignidade. Como imperativo ético e de cidadania, e também como base para um<br />
desenvolvimento sustentável.<br />
To ensure the management sets its principles <strong>and</strong> criteria for certficação on a tripod that<br />
supports the responsible care in compliance with environmental, socio-cultural <strong>and</strong> economic<br />
aspects. Therefore, this tripod is paved in sustainability <strong>and</strong> without decent work there is no<br />
economic or environmental sustainability<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
L.A.M. da Silva & E. Shimanki 2010. The certification of forest management <strong>and</strong> its contribution to the rights of workers<br />
596<br />
References<br />
Brazilian Association of Planted <strong>Forest</strong> Producers (ABRAF) Statistical Yearbook of ABRAF:<br />
base year 2006. [Yearbook on the Internet]. Brasília: 2007. [Accessed on 10 Oct. 2007]<br />
available at http://abraflor.org.br/estatística/anuário-ABRAF-2007.pdf<br />
Brazil, the Constitution of the Federative Republic from Brasil.Curitiba: Paraná oficial Press.<br />
Busch, SE, socio 2008.Responsabilidade of suppliers of certified wood-type planting. [PhD<br />
Thesis. Graduate Program in Public Health, University of Paulo.303p.pdf<br />
ILO World Forum on Decent Work for justa.Intervenção Minister of labor <strong>and</strong> social solidarity:<br />
the closing session, November 2, 2007 [accessed on April 16, 2010] Available at:<br />
http://www.ilo.org/public / Portuguese / region / eurpro / lisbon / pdf /<br />
forum_discurso_mtss.pdf<br />
Principles <strong>and</strong> criteria of FSC certification. [Accessed on April 5, 2010] Available at:<br />
http://www.florestavivaamazonas.org.br/2163.php<br />
Silva, L.A.M. 2000. Health risks to the worker for the Timber Industry in the region of Campos<br />
Gerais-Pr. [Dissertation: Program of Postgraduate Studies in Social Work, Catholic<br />
University of São Paulo, 163p.<br />
Viana, V.M, 2002. Brazilian forests <strong>and</strong> the challenges of sustainable development:<br />
management, certification <strong>and</strong> public policy partners. [Associate Professor Thesis: <strong>Forest</strong><br />
Department of <strong>ESA</strong>LQ-USP-.pdf.<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
N. Stryamets et al. 2010. Role of non-wood forest products for sustainable development of rural communities<br />
597<br />
Role of non-wood forest products for sustainable development of rural<br />
communities in countries with a transition: Ukraine as a case study<br />
N. Stryamets 1* , M. Elbakidze 2,3 , P. Angelstam 2 & R. Axelsson 2<br />
1 Ukrainian National <strong>Forest</strong>ry University, Ukraine<br />
2 Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Sweden<br />
3 Ivan Franko National University, Ukraine<br />
Abstract<br />
Sustainable use of non-wood forest products (NWFPs) is a component of sustainable forest<br />
management. NWFPs provide important use <strong>and</strong> non-use values to stakeholders in rural<br />
l<strong>and</strong>scapes. The aim of this study was to analyse the policies with relevance for NWFP in order<br />
to define the potential contribution of these forest resources to rural development in countries in<br />
transition from socialistic planned to market economy, like Ukraine. We analysed national <strong>and</strong><br />
international policy documents, national <strong>and</strong> regional management regulations concerning the<br />
use of NWFPs <strong>and</strong> reviewed relevant literature. We concluded that there were a need to<br />
investigate the role of NWFP in countries with different economic <strong>and</strong> social-cultural conditions<br />
<strong>and</strong> systems of governance of natural resources.<br />
Keywords: non-wood forest products, sustainable forest management, countries in transition,<br />
Ukraine<br />
1. Introduction<br />
<strong>Global</strong>ly forests provide wood resources <strong>and</strong> a large variety of non-wood goods as a resource<br />
base for livelihoods <strong>and</strong> development. Non-wood forest products (NWFPs) are defined as goods<br />
of biological origin other than wood, derived from forests, other wooded l<strong>and</strong> <strong>and</strong> trees outside<br />
forests (Ch<strong>and</strong>rasekharan 1995). Use of NWFPs has a long history as an important component<br />
of the livelihoods of people living in <strong>and</strong> in the vicinity of forest <strong>and</strong> woodl<strong>and</strong> l<strong>and</strong>scapes.<br />
NWFPs were, in fact, one of the first sources of food, medicine, fibre, <strong>and</strong> other substances that<br />
have sustained local communities since the first human settlements (Ryabchuk 1996, Bradley<br />
<strong>and</strong> Bennett 2002). Estimates indicate that 80% of the population in developing countries in the<br />
world use NWFPs to meet some of their nutritional needs (Janse <strong>and</strong> Ottitsch 2005). In addition<br />
to food forests also provide herbal medicine which is vital to poor people that are not a part of a<br />
national healthcare system (Ch<strong>and</strong>rasekharan 1995, Bradley <strong>and</strong> Bennett 2002; Ryabchuk 1996;<br />
Malyk 2006).<br />
NWFPs have attracted considerable interest as an important component of sustainable forest<br />
management (SFM) policies (Elbakidze et al 2007, Elbakidze <strong>and</strong> Angelstam 2007, MCPFE<br />
1993, Siry et al 2005), <strong>and</strong> in different implementation initiatives <strong>and</strong> projects towards<br />
sustainable management of forest l<strong>and</strong>scapes in many countries (Varma et al 2000). There have<br />
been many efforts to complement industrial timber production with an aim to increase the<br />
multiple values of forests for users, owners <strong>and</strong> local communities that depend on them.<br />
* Corresponding author. Tel.: +380979603016<br />
Email address: Natalie.Stryamets@smsk.slu.se<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
N. Stryamets et al. 2010. Role of non-wood forest products for sustainable development of rural communities<br />
598<br />
However, the role of NWFP in the livelihoods of local communities in different contexts has not<br />
been studied in detail. In particular there is a lack of comparative studies which show the<br />
contribution of NWFPs in rural development in countries with different economic <strong>and</strong> socialcultural<br />
conditions as well as systems of nature resource governance. Such knowledge is needed<br />
for policy-makers <strong>and</strong> organisations involved in rural <strong>and</strong> economic development, which put<br />
their efforts to promote new modes of forest use replacing or disrupting existing traditional<br />
livelihood strategies (Hyde <strong>and</strong> Köhlin 2000).<br />
Following the break-up of the Soviet Union, Ukraine re-appeared as an independent new state in<br />
1991. To promote sustainability on national as well as regional <strong>and</strong> local levels Ukraine has<br />
joined the process of developing sustainable forest management principles. In Ukraine these are<br />
oriented towards sustainable yield forestry, maintenance of forest biodiversity <strong>and</strong> socio-cultural<br />
values (<strong>Forest</strong> Code of Ukraine 2006). The strategic objectives of the national forest policy are<br />
related to those enumerated in international agreements of sustainable development (UNCED<br />
1992), sustainable use <strong>and</strong> protection of forests in Europe (MCPFE 1995, MCPFE 2003,<br />
MCPFE 2007). Ukraine has signed the 17 resolutions of the Ministerial Conference on<br />
Protection of <strong>Forest</strong>s in Europe.<br />
The end of Soviet central planning caused a decline of jobs in industry including forestry <strong>and</strong><br />
agriculture (Nordberg, 2007). In many forest <strong>and</strong> woodl<strong>and</strong> regions of Ukraine local people<br />
therefore have had to go back to traditional l<strong>and</strong> use practises due to difficult economic<br />
conditions (Elbakidze <strong>and</strong> Angelstam, 2007). Different NWFPs have thus become a part of the<br />
social fabric <strong>and</strong> livelihood (Bihun, 2005) in many rural areas. There is now often conflict<br />
between increase of harvested timber <strong>and</strong> the emerging sustained yield forestry <strong>and</strong> vital<br />
interests of local people in the sustainable production of NWFP.<br />
The aim of this study was to analyse the policies with relevance for NWFP in order to define the<br />
potential contribution of these forest resources to rural development in countries with different<br />
economic <strong>and</strong> social-cultural conditions <strong>and</strong> systems of governance <strong>and</strong> government of natural<br />
resources. We analysed national <strong>and</strong> international policy documents concerning sustainable<br />
forest management, national <strong>and</strong> regional management regulations related to the use of NWFPs<br />
<strong>and</strong> reviewed relevant literature.<br />
As the next steps we will interview local forest stakeholders in villages located in our case study<br />
areas in Ukraine, study the reasons, places <strong>and</strong> methods of NWFPs collection, amount of<br />
harvested NWFPs by different groups of forest stakeholders, existing practices of NWFP<br />
utilization, including traditional one.<br />
2. Methodology<br />
First we analysed national forest policy documents, management regulations concerning use of<br />
forest resources in Ukraine. A comprehensive literature review was done about NWFPs,<br />
management of forest resources <strong>and</strong> rural development.<br />
3. Result<br />
Sustainable use of non-wood forest products as a component of sustainable forest<br />
management policies<br />
Policies at global, international, EU <strong>and</strong> national levels clearly pronounce the importance of<br />
NWFP. Indeed, NWFP as a relevant attribute to rural development <strong>and</strong> natural resource<br />
conservation have increased globally (Janse <strong>and</strong> Ottitsch, 2005, Ch<strong>and</strong>rasekharan 1995, Ticktin<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
N. Stryamets et al. 2010. Role of non-wood forest products for sustainable development of rural communities<br />
599<br />
2004, Elbakidze <strong>and</strong> Angelstam 2009). At the United Nations Conference on Environment <strong>and</strong><br />
Development (UNCED) in 1992 in Rio de Janeiro it was declared that the promotion of <strong>and</strong> use<br />
of non-wood forest products is an important part of sustainable development (UNCED, 1992).<br />
SFM is supported by different processes <strong>and</strong> organizations, taking into account the specific<br />
forest conditions (The Montréal Process 2007, McDonalda <strong>and</strong> Lane 2004, Rametsteiner <strong>and</strong><br />
Mayer 2004) The Montreal Process (MP) developed SFM principles for the temperate <strong>and</strong><br />
boreal forests of non-European countries (The Montréal Process 2007).<br />
Sustainable forest management (SFM), an important part of sustainable development as a<br />
societal process at the Pan-European level, is described as “the stewardship <strong>and</strong> use of forests<br />
<strong>and</strong> forest l<strong>and</strong>s in a way, <strong>and</strong> at a rate, that maintains their biodiversity, productivity,<br />
regeneration capacity, vitality <strong>and</strong> their potential to fulfil, now <strong>and</strong> in the future, relevant<br />
ecological, economic <strong>and</strong> social functions, at local, national, <strong>and</strong> global levels, <strong>and</strong> that does not<br />
cause damage to other ecosystems” in the Helsinki Resolution which is the European level<br />
process to develop the SFM concept (MCPFE 1993).<br />
Criteria <strong>and</strong> indicators for SFM in European counties were developed by the Ministerial<br />
Conferences on Protection of <strong>Forest</strong> in Europe (MCPFE 1993, MCPFE 1998a, MCPFE 1998b,<br />
McDonalda <strong>and</strong> Lane 2004). The European criteria <strong>and</strong> indicators provide guidelines for SFM<br />
at the national <strong>and</strong> sub-national levels, <strong>and</strong> is an attempt to operationalise <strong>and</strong> complement the<br />
existing definition of SFM (Lazdinis, 2000).<br />
Management of NWFPs is a component of SFM according to international policy documents,<br />
such as, for example, MCPFE resolutions. It is declared in the Helsinki resolution (MCPFE<br />
1993) that the interest of <strong>and</strong> dem<strong>and</strong> for non-wood forest products has been increasing <strong>and</strong><br />
encouraged as a part of sustainable management of forests (MCPFE 1993). It also promotes the<br />
cooperation of the forestry sector in developed countries with countries with economic in<br />
transition (MCPFE 1993).<br />
According to the Resolution L2 (MCPFE 1998a), criteria 3 is to maintain <strong>and</strong> encourage<br />
productive functions of forests, which include both wood <strong>and</strong> non-wood products. The<br />
descriptive indicators of the criteria 3 require the development of management plans for NWFP<br />
(MCPFE 1998a). At the 4th Ministerial conference in Vienna the criteria <strong>and</strong> indicators were<br />
improved with the aim to increase benefits of rural livelihoods from forests (MCPFE 2003,<br />
Rametsteiner <strong>and</strong> Mayer 2004, Wang 2004) <strong>and</strong> included values <strong>and</strong> quantity of non-wood<br />
goods from forests <strong>and</strong> other wooded l<strong>and</strong>s (Rametsteiner <strong>and</strong> Mayer 2004). Vienna Resolution<br />
2 highlighted the importance of the promoting the use of wood <strong>and</strong> NWFPs (MCPFE 2003).<br />
Analysis of national forest policy documents <strong>and</strong> management regulations<br />
Ukraine has recently joined the process of developing national SFM principles, which have<br />
been adopted into the national legislation <strong>and</strong> forest programs (<strong>Forest</strong>ry code of Ukraine 2006,<br />
Lisy Ukrainy, 2009). The main trend of the forest legislation development has been to provide a<br />
balance between the conservation of forest ecosystems, <strong>and</strong> sustainable multi-purpose use of<br />
forests (Angelstam et al. 2009). The outcomes of forest sector reformation, which began in 1991,<br />
were new <strong>Forest</strong> Code adaptation in 2006 <strong>and</strong> elaboration of the State Program “<strong>Forest</strong>s of<br />
Ukraine during 2010-2015” in 2009. In Ukraine forest management is conducted according to<br />
the <strong>Forest</strong> Code <strong>and</strong> within the framework defined by the State Programme “<strong>Forest</strong> of Ukraine<br />
in 2010-2015”.<br />
The <strong>Forest</strong>ry Code of Ukraine (2006) consists of 110 articles, of which four include information<br />
about NWFPs <strong>and</strong> their management, these are called secondary forest products. There is,<br />
however, neither an explanation of what kinds of non-wood products that are included into this<br />
category, nor how they should be managed (<strong>Forest</strong>ry Code of Ukraine 2006). The direct use of<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
N. Stryamets et al. 2010. Role of non-wood forest products for sustainable development of rural communities<br />
600<br />
NWFP includes harvesting of hay, grazing, picking fruits, nuts, mushrooms, berries <strong>and</strong> medical<br />
herb. The collection of NWFP for private needs in state <strong>and</strong> community forests is free to<br />
everyone. Private forests are owned by private persons or companies, <strong>and</strong> may occupy up to 5<br />
ha. In private forest local people have to secure a permit for harvesting of NWFPs from the<br />
owner (<strong>Forest</strong>ry Code of Ukraine, 2006). Collection of NWFPs with the aim to sell them is<br />
called “special use of NWFPs”. Commercial collection of NWFPs by a private person or a<br />
company requires a special permit <strong>and</strong> the collector has to pay a fee to the state or the forest<br />
owner.<br />
The State program “<strong>Forest</strong>s of Ukraine during 2010-2015” is based on the MCPFE criteria <strong>and</strong><br />
indicators, <strong>and</strong> defines the guidelines for forest management towards SFM. Collection of<br />
secondary forest products (NWFPs) in managed forests should be done without harming forest<br />
ecosystems (Cabinet Ministriv of Ukraine 1996). Medical herbs <strong>and</strong> mushrooms which are<br />
listed in the Red Data Book of Ukraine (Cabinet Ministriv of Ukraine 1996, Red Data Book of<br />
Ukraine, 1996) are not allowed to harvest, not even parts of the plants or mushrooms. There is a<br />
list of species that are endangered <strong>and</strong> should be collected under strict control, this include a<br />
special ticket or permit that all collectors has to buy. Harvesting of wild berries is allowed if the<br />
ground covers of berries plant are more than 10%, the cover of medical herbs are more than 5%<br />
of the ground cover in the forest (Cabinet Ministriv of Ukraine, 1996). The requirements<br />
concerning harvesting of medical herbs also include regulations about the parts of the herbs<br />
which could be collected, for example, roots should be harvested less than 10%. For leaves <strong>and</strong><br />
st<strong>and</strong>s of the herb less than 40% of the biological productivity in the forest could be harvested.<br />
The forestry enterprises are obliged to protect forest wood <strong>and</strong> non-wood resources from illegal<br />
or harmful consumption by people.<br />
In protected forests there are many restrictions regarding harvesting of NWFPs. There are<br />
certain limitations on harvesting of NWFPs in other types of protected areas. For example, in a<br />
national nature park the use of NWFPs is prohibited in the management zone of strict nature<br />
protection, however, it is allowed in the management zones where tourist faculties are located<br />
<strong>and</strong> where local people conduct their l<strong>and</strong> use activities. Collection is always prohibited in strict<br />
protected reserves (Law of Ukraine on Nature Protected Areas in Ukraine, 1992).<br />
4. Discussion<br />
The economic importance of the forest <strong>and</strong> forestry wood <strong>and</strong> non-wood products is significant,<br />
especially in rural areas in the north <strong>and</strong> west of Ukraine (Nordberg, 2007). Commercialisation<br />
of NWFPs has a potential to contribute to the livelihoods of rural people in Ukraine. Valueadded<br />
processing of NWFPs could in addition contribute to household income.<br />
Thus, sustainable management of NWFP is potentially important to support rural development<br />
(MCPFE, 1998). NWFP <strong>and</strong> their value-added processing have attracted considerable interest as<br />
a component of different development projects in recent years due to their potential to support<br />
rural livelihoods (Angelstam et al. 2009, Angelstam <strong>and</strong> Elbakidze 2009). At the same time, in<br />
some European regions, NWFPs <strong>and</strong> services provide more revenue than wood sales (MCPFE<br />
2007, Arnold <strong>and</strong> Pe´rez 2001). However, there are many challenges to balance production of<br />
wood as is economically the most important product of forests <strong>and</strong> the increasing dem<strong>and</strong> for<br />
NWFPs from European forests (MCPFE, 2007).<br />
To conclude, there is a need to investigate the role of NWFP in countries with different<br />
economic <strong>and</strong> social-cultural conditions <strong>and</strong> systems of governance of natural resources. The<br />
next step in our studies of NWFP will be to interview local forest stakeholders in villages<br />
located in case studies in Ukraine <strong>and</strong> Sweden. Key topics that will be studied include the<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
N. Stryamets et al. 2010. Role of non-wood forest products for sustainable development of rural communities<br />
601<br />
reasons, places/habitats <strong>and</strong> methods of NWFPs collection, amount of harvested NWFPs by<br />
different groups of forest stakeholders, existing practices of NWFP utilization, including<br />
traditional one.<br />
References<br />
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forest l<strong>and</strong>scapes in Europe’s East <strong>and</strong> West. In: Soloviy, I.P., Keeton, W.S. (eds.).<br />
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<strong>Forest</strong>s in Europe. 2-4 June 1998, Lisbon/Portugal 14p.<br />
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<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
E. Volkova 2010. The regional analysis of forest management risks<br />
603<br />
The regional analysis of forest management risks<br />
(by the example of Russian northern areas)<br />
E. Volkova<br />
Institute of Monitoring for Climatic <strong>and</strong> Ecological Systems SB RAS, Tomsk, Russia<br />
Abstract<br />
The northern taiga areas of Russia are rich of coniferous <strong>and</strong> softwood forests, but a number of<br />
adverse natural-climatic <strong>and</strong> economic factors makes proper forest management difficult.<br />
Additional efforts <strong>and</strong> measures are required to mitigate the impact of the harsh climatic<br />
conditions on the forestry activities. The analysis of natural hazards <strong>and</strong> risks in forest<br />
management, which would also take into account related social <strong>and</strong> economic consequences, is<br />
a prerequisite condition for sustainable usage <strong>and</strong> preservation of forest potential in the northern<br />
territories of Russia. In order to assess <strong>and</strong> estimate the risks in forest management, there was<br />
conducted an integrated analysis based on weighted summation of such quantitative indices as<br />
the amount of forest resources, ecological potential of woods, the degree of natural-climatic<br />
hazards <strong>and</strong> other factors. Based on the calculation of the forest resource balance, the<br />
quantitative estimation of valuable woods loss was made.<br />
Keywords: forest management risks, natural-climatic hazards, economic consequences.<br />
1. Introduction<br />
The efficiency analysis of forest management practices usually includes the assessment of risks<br />
caused by environmental <strong>and</strong> climatic conditions of the territory. The risk level also largely<br />
depends on economic <strong>and</strong> geographical situation in the region: natural resource potential,<br />
remoteness from woodworking centers, development of roads <strong>and</strong> transportation network,<br />
availability of qualified manpower. Environmental conditions are a major factor determining<br />
how fast or slow the territories are settled <strong>and</strong> cultivated, while social <strong>and</strong> economic situation<br />
mainly influences the scale, forms <strong>and</strong> methods of using natural resources <strong>and</strong> economic<br />
opportunities based on them.<br />
The risks in forest management can be defined as the probability of full or partial destruction of<br />
the region’s forest resource base resulting in considerable economic damage <strong>and</strong> caused both by<br />
the action of natural processes <strong>and</strong> the influence of anthropogenic factors. Research in this<br />
sphere is especially topical for those regions where full-scale economic activity <strong>and</strong> sustainable<br />
forest exploitation are restrained by adverse environmental <strong>and</strong> climatic conditions, despite of<br />
the considerable natural resource potential.<br />
In this respect, the Tomsk region (Tomsk oblast, as an administrative unit) presents a classic<br />
example of a northern Russian territory – with intensive usage of forest resources <strong>and</strong> a high<br />
forest resource potential. The region possesses considerable forest resources – the forest fund<br />
l<strong>and</strong>s occupy 90.5% of the territory; of them the forest covered l<strong>and</strong>s make up 67.3%. Total<br />
amount of timber reserves of the territory is 2820.88 mln. m 3 . Over 70% of the forest fund is<br />
formed by commercial forest, about 30% – by protected forest, of which approximately 6%<br />
belong to specially protected natural territories. Approximately a half of the commercial forest<br />
consists of coniferous woods, most valuable tree species here being pine-tree, fur-tree, silver fir<br />
<strong>and</strong> cedar (<strong>Forest</strong> Plan 2008).<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
E. Volkova 2010. The regional analysis of forest management risks<br />
604<br />
Despite such a considerable forest vegetation potential, the share of forestry products in the total<br />
regional product structure accounts only for 6%. In many respects this is due to economic<br />
reasons – general recession in the development of forest industry, distant location of logging<br />
sites, deterioration of the major forest fund <strong>and</strong> other reasons (State of environment 2009).<br />
In addition to economic reasons, severe environmental <strong>and</strong> climatic conditions play there own<br />
restraining role: low winter temperatures, great weather variability, large <strong>and</strong> sudden changes of<br />
daily <strong>and</strong> annual temperatures, severe hydrological situation. All these factors aggravate the<br />
risks of forest exploitation activities in the Tomsk region territory; creation of forestry-based<br />
infrastructure requires involving additional resources in order to minimize the consequences of<br />
adverse weather conditions <strong>and</strong> better adapt to them. Thus, the analysis of natural hazards <strong>and</strong><br />
risks influencing the forest exploitation practices, which would take into account social <strong>and</strong><br />
economic consequences connected with them, is an important <strong>and</strong> essential prerequisite<br />
condition for sustainable usage <strong>and</strong> preservation of the forest resources of the territory.<br />
2. Methodology<br />
This paper presents the analysis of risks in the sphere of forest management, considering both<br />
environmental <strong>and</strong> economic parameters <strong>and</strong> based on the complex analysis of environmental<br />
<strong>and</strong> climatic hazards, as well as resource <strong>and</strong> ecological potential. For the analysis of the study<br />
area the comparative-geographical method was employed. To determine the risks connected<br />
with adverse environmental conditions, we used the methods of qualitative factor analysis <strong>and</strong><br />
ecologo-economic balance of the territory. Also, a considerable amount of reference statistical<br />
<strong>and</strong> cartographic material was used in the research.<br />
Climatic <strong>and</strong> hydrological conditions bearing risks for the forest exploitation in the Tomsk<br />
region can be divided into two classes: the risks connected with plantations loss <strong>and</strong> the risks<br />
connected with forestry works management. The second group of risks associated with<br />
geographical location <strong>and</strong> natural properties of the territory can be divided into hydrological <strong>and</strong><br />
climatic – these risks are mostly indirect, but their socio-economic consequences are no less<br />
important.<br />
To the date, the first group of risks, those leading to the plantations loss, has been studied to<br />
more detail. The greatest risk in the forest exploitation is connected with forest fires, which are<br />
primarily of anthropogenic origin. Also, forest diseases <strong>and</strong> injurious insects have a large<br />
impact. The area of plantings lost for these reasons varies considerably by years <strong>and</strong> different<br />
forestry sites. The loss amount mostly depends on weather conditions of the current year <strong>and</strong>, in<br />
case of harmful insects, also of previous years. Besides, 15% of total risks are connected with<br />
hurricane winds <strong>and</strong> 13% – with forest fires caused by thunderstorms. At this, the main damage<br />
falls onto economic forests of natural origin, where the impact of all adverse factors is revealed<br />
most vividly (Nevidimova <strong>and</strong> Melnik <strong>and</strong> Volkova 2009).<br />
For the analysis of ecological <strong>and</strong> forest resource potential different types of plantings were<br />
chosen, based on the statistical data for the period of 1991-2006 <strong>and</strong> the data received from 21<br />
weather forecast stations located in different climatic areas of the territory.<br />
The assessment of ecological potential included such stratum parameters of dominant species as<br />
productivity class, average volume density <strong>and</strong> average annual growth rate. The tree species<br />
types <strong>and</strong> plantations proportion in the forested area have also been taken into account in the<br />
calculation. Ecological potential can be defined as a set of useful properties of planting<br />
communities, needed to perform their basic environmental, l<strong>and</strong>scape-protecting, l<strong>and</strong>scapestabilizing<br />
<strong>and</strong> economico-ecological functions.<br />
To practically assess the impact of each of these factors on the ecological potential, their<br />
heterogeneous quantitative parameters were converted into scores. Ecological potential (EP)<br />
was calculated by the formula:<br />
n<br />
EP = 2/3 ∑ S<br />
i<br />
( Bi<br />
+ Pi<br />
+ Zi<br />
) +1/3 S<br />
j<br />
( B<br />
j<br />
+ Pj<br />
+ Z<br />
j<br />
)<br />
i=<br />
1<br />
k<br />
∑<br />
j = 1<br />
(1),<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
E. Volkova 2010. The regional analysis of forest management risks<br />
605<br />
where B - average productivity class; P - average volume density, scores; Z - current growth<br />
rate, scores; S - percentage of each species in the forested area. The first component<br />
characterizes the ecological potential of coniferous species, the second one – that of softwood<br />
species. The ratio of deciduous to coniferous woods is one to three, showing a characteristic<br />
share of each species in the Tomsk region. The territorial distribution of the estimated<br />
ecological potential for the Tomsk region is shown in the figure below.<br />
The forest resource potential is understood as a set of useful properties of forest communities<br />
allowing them to provide natural raw materials, food <strong>and</strong> feed resources, to perform industrial<br />
<strong>and</strong> energy supply functions for the economy. When assessing the forest resource potential, the<br />
following indices were considered: average productivity class, average growing stock, average<br />
age <strong>and</strong> species composition of the forest st<strong>and</strong>.<br />
By analogy with the assessment of ecological potential, the forest resource potential (RP) was<br />
calculated based on the growth rate tables <strong>and</strong> using the following formula:<br />
n<br />
∑<br />
RP = 2/3 S<br />
i<br />
( Bi<br />
+ M<br />
i<br />
+ Ai<br />
) +1/3 ∑ S<br />
j<br />
( B<br />
j<br />
+ M<br />
j<br />
+ A<br />
j<br />
)<br />
i=<br />
1<br />
k<br />
j=<br />
1<br />
where B - average productivity class, scores; M - indicator of growing stock, scores; A - average<br />
age, scores; S - percentage of each tree species in the forested area. The first component<br />
characterizes the forest resource potential of coniferous species, <strong>and</strong> the second one – that of<br />
softwood species.<br />
3. Result<br />
Ecological potential <strong>and</strong> resource potential of forests were assessed for all major tree species<br />
present in the Tomsk region. The table 1 shows the assessment of ecological potential <strong>and</strong> forest<br />
resource potential for different forestry sites, based on the example of a pine tree, as one of the<br />
most common tree species in the Tomsk region. Based on the tables of growth rates <strong>and</strong> other<br />
quantitative characteristics, all average stratum parameters used in the analysis were assigned a<br />
score of 1 to 5 (see Table 2).<br />
Integrated risk analysis in forest management largely depends on the resource <strong>and</strong> ecological<br />
potential of forests <strong>and</strong> the impact of climatic factors most dangerous to forests – forest fires,<br />
winds <strong>and</strong> thunderstorms, injurious insects, forest diseases.<br />
The risks of forest fires, winds <strong>and</strong> thunderstorms, pests <strong>and</strong> forest diseases were assessed as a<br />
functional dependence between the level of each type of risks <strong>and</strong> the level of resource <strong>and</strong><br />
ecological potentials of the forests.<br />
Based on the conducted research <strong>and</strong> approbation of the described approach, there was<br />
performed territorial differentiation <strong>and</strong> quantification of the Tomsk region by the risk degree in<br />
forest management (see Fig. 1).<br />
4. Discussion<br />
The research has shown that both the nature <strong>and</strong> the degree of risks in forest management are<br />
determined by climatic <strong>and</strong> forest growing conditions in the Tomsk region. Negative<br />
environmental factors have a large impact, directly affecting the development of forest industry<br />
in the region. However, geographical distribution of forest exploitation activities within the<br />
Tomsk region itself does not largely depend on the climatic conditions, being mainly<br />
determined by the resource potential of forests <strong>and</strong> transport accessibility of the area. Thus, the<br />
main logging activities in the territory of Tomsk region are conducted in the areas with the<br />
highest degree of risks <strong>and</strong> adverse factors in forest exploitation, being drawn by a high timber<br />
resource potential in these areas.<br />
(2),<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
E. Volkova 2010. The regional analysis of forest management risks<br />
606<br />
In addition to the general strategy for sustainable usage of the region’s natural resources based<br />
on the analysis of environmental risks, we have proposed a system of limitations <strong>and</strong> regulations<br />
for forest management practices. To increase the adaptive capacity of forest resources, the<br />
impact of natural risks should be mitigated by taking certain measures. For northern territories,<br />
the following key measures for better adaptation to the major risk factors are recommended:<br />
reduction of deforestation, restoration of cultivated peatl<strong>and</strong>s, tree species improvement with the<br />
purpose to increase the biomass productivity <strong>and</strong> ecological functions of forests, creation of<br />
mineralized strips, periodic tree cuttings for better forest quality <strong>and</strong> thinning, preventive<br />
controlled fires, cleaning the forest from rubbish, creation of prophylactic barriers against the<br />
fire, building roads for fire fighting purposes, extermination of stem pests, etc.<br />
The described above approach can be used in other regions as well, taking into account<br />
specific local environmental conditions.<br />
References<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> Plan of Tomsk oblast, 2008. Tomsk: Department of development <strong>and</strong> business<br />
undertakings: 12-53.<br />
State of environment of Tomsk oblast in 2008, 2009. Tomsk: University Press: 124-205.<br />
Nevidimova O.G., Melnik M.A., Volkova E.S., 2009. Analysis of natural-climatic hazardS oN<br />
Tomsk oblast territory for estimate of the nature management risks. Ecology of the<br />
urbanized territories, 2: 71-77.<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
E. Volkova 2010. The regional analysis of forest management risks<br />
607<br />
Table 1: The assessment of ecological potential <strong>and</strong> forest resource potential of a pine tree for different<br />
forestry sites<br />
The forestry sites<br />
Age<br />
Age , score<br />
Productivity class<br />
Productivity class ,<br />
score<br />
An average volume<br />
density<br />
An average volume<br />
density , score<br />
Growing stock<br />
Growing stock , score<br />
Current growth rate<br />
Current growth rate,<br />
score<br />
Percentage of a pine<br />
tree in the forested<br />
The assessment of<br />
ecological potential<br />
The assessment<br />
resource potential of<br />
forests<br />
Aleks<strong>and</strong>rovskoe 138 4 4 2 0,53 3 221 4 1,2 2 0,39 2,76 3,95<br />
Asinovskoe 85 3 3,8 3 0,68 5 146 2 2,1 3 0,21 2,36 1,72<br />
Bakcharskoe 112 5 5,7 1 0,55 3 95 1 0,9 1 0,26 1,29 1,81<br />
Verhneketskoe 126 4 4,3 2 0,61 5 133 2 1,4 2 0,45 4,05 3,60<br />
Kargasokskoe 122 4 4,9 2 0,56 3 126 2 1,2 2 0,37 2,62 3,00<br />
Vasuganskoe 133 4 5,4 1 0,55 3 114 2 0,9 1 0,26 1,28 1,79<br />
Kolpashevskoe 112 5 5,1 1 0,56 3 103 2 1,1 2 0,32 1,94 2,58<br />
Kriivosheinskoe 107 5 4,9 2 0,61 5 120 2 1,4 2 0,23 2,11 2,11<br />
Molchanovskoe 110 5 4,7 2 0,58 3 116 2 1,5 2 0,35 2,43 3,12<br />
Kedrovskoe 118 5 5,4 1 0,54 3 105 2 0,9 1 0,21 1,06 1,70<br />
Parabelskoe 110 5 4,7 2 0,55 3 117 2 1,2 2 0,35 2,44 3,14<br />
Pervomaiskoe 84 3 3,3 3 0,66 5 169 3 2,6 3 0,09 0,96 0,79<br />
Teguldetskoe 120 5 4,7 2 0,6 5 126 2 1,3 2 0,07 0,65 0,65<br />
Chainskoe 123 4 5,8 1 0,49 3 86 1 0,7 1 0,13 0,66 0,79<br />
Shegarskoe 105 5 4,6 2 0,58 3 112 2 1,5 2 0,14 0,96 1,23<br />
Zuryanskoe 80 2 1,8 5 0,72 5 231 4 3,5 5 0,04 0,58 0,43<br />
Timiryazevskoe 84 3 2,4 4 0,74 5 219 4 2,9 4 0,34 4,44 3,76<br />
Tomskoe 77 2 1,4 5 0,73 5 248 4 3,7 5 0,04 0,54 0,39<br />
Table 2: The scale of average stratum parameters in a scores based on progress of growth of a pine tree<br />
Productivity<br />
class Score Age Score<br />
An average<br />
volume<br />
density<br />
Score<br />
Indicator of<br />
growing<br />
stock<br />
Score<br />
Current<br />
growth rate<br />
1-2 5 101-121 5 0,6-0,79 5 more 250 5 more 3,3 5<br />
2-3 4 121-141 4 0,8-1 4 200-249 4 2,5 -3,2 4<br />
3-4 3 81-101 3 0,4-0,59 3 150-199 3 2-2,4 3<br />
4-5 2 61-81 2 0,2-0,39 2 100-149 2 1-1,9 2<br />
more 5 1 41-61 1 0,1-0,19 1 less 100 1 less 1 1<br />
Score<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
E. Volkova 2010. The regional analysis of forest management risks<br />
608<br />
Figure 1: The risks in forest management in the Tomsk region<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
Section 8<br />
Urban forestry in changing regions
I. Löfström et al. 2010. Biodiversity <strong>and</strong> recreational values in urban participatory forest planning in Finl<strong>and</strong><br />
610<br />
Biodiversity <strong>and</strong> recreational values in urban participatory forest<br />
planning in Finl<strong>and</strong><br />
Irja Löfström 1* , Mikko Kurttila 2 , Leena Hamberg 1 & Laura Nieminen 1<br />
1<br />
Finnish <strong>Forest</strong> Research Institute, P.O. Box 18, FIN-01301, Vantaa, Finl<strong>and</strong><br />
2<br />
Finnish <strong>Forest</strong> Research Institute, P.O. Box 68, FIN-80101, Joensuu, Finl<strong>and</strong><br />
Abstract<br />
In Finl<strong>and</strong> most of the urban green areas are forests with indigenous understorey vegetation.<br />
Urban forests are often located near residential areas, <strong>and</strong> they are actively used for outdoor<br />
recreation. Municipalities own most of these forests in Finl<strong>and</strong>. The aim of this study was to<br />
gain overall picture <strong>and</strong> to discover the main development needs of planning <strong>and</strong> managing<br />
municipality owned urban forest.<br />
Most of the municipalities have inventoried the biodiversity of their forests, <strong>and</strong> used lighter<br />
management methods than for commercial forests. Participatory planning has been commonly<br />
used for taking forest users’ opinions into account <strong>and</strong> for integrating multiple values. Multifunctional<br />
forest planning, multi-criteria decision analysis <strong>and</strong> advanced decision-support tools<br />
are still rather new approaches in the field of urban forestry. However, these modern methods<br />
could be useful for integrating multiple values into planning process <strong>and</strong> thus to improve the<br />
quality of urban forest planning.<br />
Keywords: municipally owned urban forest, participatory planning, biodiversity, recreation<br />
1. Introduction<br />
In Finl<strong>and</strong> about 80 % of urban green areas are forests. According to Finnish law, citizens are<br />
allowed to use forests for recreation freely, <strong>and</strong> therefore outdoor recreation is common<br />
particularly in forests that are located near residential areas. In this article we define urban<br />
forests as forests with indigenous understorey vegetation. Thus, they do not include gardens,<br />
parks <strong>and</strong> street trees.<br />
Urban forestry has been defined on an European level as “planning, design, establishment <strong>and</strong><br />
management of trees <strong>and</strong> forest st<strong>and</strong>s with amenity values, situated in or near urban areas”<br />
(Forrest et al. 1999). In fact, urban forests provide multiple values for inhabitants. Therefore<br />
recreation, aesthetics <strong>and</strong> biodiversity have to be taken seriously into consideration when<br />
planning <strong>and</strong> managing these forests.<br />
Municipalities own most of the urban forests in Finl<strong>and</strong>. Participatory planning has been used<br />
for urban forest planning in municipalities since 1990’s (Löfström 1990, 1996, 2001). The<br />
purpose of the participatory planning is to gather information, wishes <strong>and</strong> preferences from local<br />
inhabitants <strong>and</strong> other users of urban forests to different planning processes that concern the<br />
future use of these forests. In its best, this kind of approach gives people an actual opportunity<br />
to influence the way the urban forests are managed in their surroundings. Participatory planning<br />
* Corresponding author. Tel.: +358 50 391 2418 - Fax: +358 50 391 2202<br />
Email address: irja.lofstrom@metla.fi<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
I. Löfström et al. 2010. Biodiversity <strong>and</strong> recreational values in urban participatory forest planning in Finl<strong>and</strong><br />
611<br />
can also be used to solve local problems <strong>and</strong> even conflicts (Löfström 2006, Löfström etc 2007,<br />
2008a, 2000b, Mikkola etc 2008).<br />
The aim of the study was to gain an overall picture of the planning <strong>and</strong> management of<br />
municipally owned urban forests <strong>and</strong> to discover together with the urban practitioners the main<br />
development needs of planning processes. We studied especially if multiple values, e.g.<br />
recreation <strong>and</strong> biodiversity <strong>and</strong> forest users’ opinions were taken into account. Another aim was<br />
to study the applicability of multi-criteria decision analysis <strong>and</strong> advanced decision-support tools<br />
to urban forest planning.<br />
The aim of our case study in Puijo, located in the city of Kuopio, was to develop optimal<br />
participatory planning process <strong>and</strong> to investigate environmental values, views <strong>and</strong> opinions of<br />
citizens concerning forest management in Puijo.<br />
2. Methodology<br />
The research methods used were mail surveys <strong>and</strong> interviews of urban forest planners, working<br />
groups <strong>and</strong> seminars involving forest planners <strong>and</strong> other stakeholders as well as analysis <strong>and</strong><br />
follow-up of ongoing municipal forest management planning processes. This article consists of<br />
results of several studies which have been carried out during 2005-2009.<br />
In the recent Puijo planning process, the opinions of local people were collected with different<br />
methods. The data were collected in 2009 in the surrounding housing areas of Puijo forest<br />
through both mail survey <strong>and</strong> Internet survey during the participatory forest planning project.<br />
The mail survey was sent to 2000 inhabitants <strong>and</strong> about 25 % of them responded to the inquiry.<br />
3. Result<br />
The majority of the municipalities used lighter <strong>and</strong> a wider range of forest management methods<br />
for recreational forests than are generally in use in commercial forests. In recreational forests<br />
nature-oriented forest management methods were preferred. According to municipalities’ view<br />
old forest st<strong>and</strong>s, broad-leaved trees, <strong>and</strong> natural regeneration increase biodiversity, aesthetic<br />
<strong>and</strong> recreational values. However, municipalities have received also negative feedback from<br />
forest users when they have left decaying trees valuable for biodiversity into urban forests.<br />
Conflicts arising from enhancing both the biodiversity <strong>and</strong> the recreational use of forests may<br />
partly be due to the lack of knowledge. For example decaying wood has been collected for fire<br />
wood. Many forest users preferred forests where walking <strong>and</strong> running is easy, which indicates<br />
that decaying trees should be removed. In addition, safety of recreational forests is important for<br />
municipalities, <strong>and</strong> that has been one reason for removing st<strong>and</strong>ing dying trees. A solution<br />
might be to leave decaying trees into clusters that are not located near pathways.<br />
Municipalities are interested in improving forest biodiversity in the recreational forests they<br />
own. In their forests, many municipalities have actively inventoried the occurrence of<br />
ecologically valuable habitats <strong>and</strong> features important for, e.g. threatened <strong>and</strong> endangered species.<br />
However, municipalities expect more instructions <strong>and</strong> training on how to protect biodiversity in<br />
practice in their forests. They consider that financial incentives are also important for promoting<br />
biodiversity Compensation should be based on diminished returns <strong>and</strong> raised costs for forest<br />
management due to e.g. habitat restoration.<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
I. Löfström et al. 2010. Biodiversity <strong>and</strong> recreational values in urban participatory forest planning in Finl<strong>and</strong><br />
612<br />
Today, more than half of the municipalities use participatory planning for their forests. There<br />
are various approaches for participatory planning. Municipalities arrange meetings for the<br />
general public, invite inhabitants <strong>and</strong> stakeholders to take part in planning groups, or inquire the<br />
expectations <strong>and</strong> wishes of inhabitants by using questionnaires. The use of the Internet as a<br />
means of interaction has also increased. Some municipalities were not very satisfied with the<br />
achievements gained with public participation. One of the practical problems was the<br />
integration of various qualitative feedback truly into forest planning -the question is how to<br />
combine the different wishes of users <strong>and</strong> owners in the actual planning process. In addition<br />
clear objectives for public participation were often lacking.<br />
In Puijo's case the opinions of the users of Puijo <strong>and</strong> citizens living near the area were studied in<br />
the beginning of forest planning process <strong>and</strong> opinions were well taken into account e.g. in the<br />
creation of the plan alternatives. Citizens had different views concerning management methods<br />
that could be applicable to Puijo forest. Some citizens wanted more intensive management in<br />
future <strong>and</strong> accepted even clear cuttings in Puijo, although quite many of the citizens perceived<br />
most of all biodiversity <strong>and</strong> untouched Puijo forest in future. The study showed that many<br />
citizens had emotional relationship to Puijo <strong>and</strong> this makes the attitudes <strong>and</strong> opinions towards<br />
forest management stronger.<br />
The study results also indicate that most municipalities do not have clear objectives for planning<br />
<strong>and</strong> managing urban forests. Most of the municipalities had a management plan for their forests.<br />
In some municipalities, these plans covered only commercial forests. However, there was<br />
considerable variation in the planning st<strong>and</strong>ards <strong>and</strong> practices. In most cases, alternative forest<br />
plans <strong>and</strong> management schedules were missing. Roughly one fifth of the municipalities have<br />
drawn up a strategic urban forest plan for their forests, setting down principles for planning <strong>and</strong><br />
management for the next ten years.<br />
4. Discussion<br />
Nature-oriented forest management was preferred more in municipally owned recreational<br />
forests than in commercial forests. In fact, since the 1980’s, there has been significant shift in<br />
urban forest management practice towards the consideration of forest aesthetics, recreation <strong>and</strong><br />
biodiversity (Löfström 1990). The similar trend has occurred also in the management of urban<br />
forests in the other Nordic countries (Gundersen et al. 2005).<br />
Nature-oriented forest management was regarded as a way to increase both ecological <strong>and</strong><br />
aesthetic values. However, there were some contradictions between the enhancement of<br />
recreational use <strong>and</strong> the biodiversity of the forests. Participatory planning is a rather new tool<br />
for integrating aesthetic <strong>and</strong> ecological values for the management of urban forests. The use of<br />
this method for urban forest planning in municipalities has increased clearly: in the year 2006 it<br />
was three times more common than in 2000 (Löfström 2001, 2006). Thus, the participatory<br />
planning of municipally owned urban forests has become almost a rule in recent years in<br />
Finl<strong>and</strong>. Also a clear strategic viewpoint for owning forests is becoming more widespread. In<br />
the year 2000, only 6 % of municipalities had already completed a strategic urban forest plan for<br />
their forests, whereas the percentage in 2006 was about 20.<br />
Municipalities had actively inventoried biodiversity values of urban forests <strong>and</strong> involved local<br />
inhabitants <strong>and</strong> stakeholders into forest planning processes. However, the practical problems<br />
were e.g. the integration of various qualitative data into forest planning process <strong>and</strong> the lack of<br />
objectives for planning <strong>and</strong> management of forests <strong>and</strong> participation. These problems were<br />
partly due to insufficient resources <strong>and</strong> a lack of forest practitioners in municipalities.<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
I. Löfström et al. 2010. Biodiversity <strong>and</strong> recreational values in urban participatory forest planning in Finl<strong>and</strong><br />
613<br />
Participatory planning of Puijo forest was a challenging process when trying to integrate a range<br />
of different values into the management <strong>and</strong> to cope with the strong emotions, opinions <strong>and</strong><br />
expectations of the citizens. Multiple values, for example recreation, aesthetics <strong>and</strong> biodiversity<br />
have to be taken into consideration when managing Puijo forest in future.<br />
Multi-functional forest planning, multi-criteria decision analysis <strong>and</strong> advanced decision-support<br />
tools are rather new approaches in the field of urban forestry. However, this study showed that<br />
these modern methods could be useful tools for integrating multiple values – such as<br />
recreational, ecologic, cultural, aesthetic values- into planning process <strong>and</strong> thus to improve the<br />
quality of urban forest planning.<br />
References<br />
Forrest, M., R<strong>and</strong>rup, T.B., <strong>and</strong> Konijnendijk, C.-C. (Eds.) 1999. Urban forestry - research <strong>and</strong><br />
development in Europe. Report of COST Action E12 'Urban <strong>Forest</strong>s <strong>and</strong> Trees' on the state<br />
of the art of urban forestry research <strong>and</strong> development in Europe. European Union, COSTprogramme,<br />
Brussels, 363 p.<br />
Gundersen, V., Frivold, L.H., Löfström, I., Jorgensen, B.B., Falck, J. & Oyen, B.-H. 2005.<br />
Urban woodl<strong>and</strong> management - The case of 13 major Nordic cities. Urban <strong>Forest</strong>ry & Urban<br />
Greening, 3(3-4): 189-202.<br />
Löfström, I. 1990. Kaupunkien ja kuntien metsien hoito. Summary: The management of<br />
municipal forests. Ministry of Environment, Environmental Protection Department.<br />
Publication 87, 118 p.<br />
Löfström, I. 1996. The management of urban forests in Finl<strong>and</strong>. In: T.B. R<strong>and</strong>rup <strong>and</strong> K.<br />
Nilsson (Eds.). Urban <strong>Forest</strong>ry in the Nordic Countries. Danish <strong>Forest</strong> <strong>and</strong> l<strong>and</strong>scape<br />
Research Institute.<br />
Löfström, I. 2001. Taajamametsät suunnittelun kohteena. (In English: Planning of urban forests)<br />
In: Kangas, J. & Kokko, A. (Eds.). Metsän eri käyttömuotojen arvottaminen ja<br />
yhteensovittaminen. Metsän eri käyttömuotojen yhteensovittamisen tutkimusohjelman<br />
loppuraportti. Metsäntutkimuslaitoksen tiedonantoja 800: 260-261.<br />
Löfström, 2006. Municipalities keen on biodiversity in their forests. METSO Newsletter 4, 4 p.<br />
Löfström, Mikkola, N. & Tenhola, T. 2007. Kuntien virkistys- ja ulkoilumetsät. Julkaisussa:<br />
Syrjänen, K., Horne, P., Koskela, T. & Kumela, H. (toim). METSOn seuranta ja arviointi –<br />
Etelä-Suomen metsien monimuotoisuusohjelman seurannan ja arvioinnin loppuraportti.<br />
Maa- ja metsätalousministeriö, ympäristöministeriö, Metsäntutkimuslaitos ja Suomen<br />
ympäristökeskus, Vammala: 234–239.<br />
Löfström, Kurttila, M., Mikkola, N., Pykäläinen, J. & Tikkanen, J. 2008a. Multifunctional<br />
planning of municipally owned urban forests in Finl<strong>and</strong>. Julkaisussa: Sipilä, M., Tyrväinen,<br />
L. & Virtanen, E. (toim.). <strong>Forest</strong> Recreation & Tourism Serving Urbanized Societies. Joint<br />
Final Conference of <strong>Forest</strong> for Recreation <strong>and</strong> Tourism (COST E33) <strong>and</strong> 11th European<br />
Forum on Urban <strong>Forest</strong>ry (EFUF) 28.-31.5.2008, Hämeenlinna, Finl<strong>and</strong>. Abstracts. Finnish<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> Research Institute, Hansaprint Oy, Vantaa. p. 25.<br />
Löfström, Mikkola, N., Kurttila, M., Leskinen, P., Hujala, T., Jauhiainen, S. & Räsänen, J.<br />
2008b. Puijon metsäalueen hoidon ja käytön vuorovaikutteinen suunnittelu. Kuopion<br />
kaupunki, 27 p.<br />
Mikkola, N., Pykäläinen, J., Löfström, I., Kurttila, M. ja Tikkanen, J. 2008. Kuntametsien<br />
suunnittelun tiekartta -hankkeen loppuraportti. Metsäntutkimuslaitoksen työraportteja 68.<br />
http://www.metla.fi/julkaisut/workingpapers/2008/mwp068.htm<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
A.C.R. de Oliveira & S.M. Carvalho 2010. Urban tree inventory <strong>and</strong> socio-economic aspects of three villages of Ponta Grossa<br />
614<br />
Urban tree inventory <strong>and</strong> socio-economic aspects of three villages of<br />
Ponta Grossa, PR<br />
Ana Carolina Rodrigues de Oliveira * & Sílvia Méri Carvalho<br />
State University of Ponta Grossa, Ponta Grossa, PR, Brazil<br />
Abstract<br />
This study aimed at an analysis of urban tree road in villages Esmeralda, Jardim Carvalho <strong>and</strong><br />
Vilela, Bairro Jardim Carvalho in Ponta Grossa, identifying the percentage of native <strong>and</strong> exotic<br />
species <strong>and</strong> also relate to afforestation with the socio-economic aspects of the local population.<br />
It also seeks to provide subsidies to the municipal government for the development of an<br />
afforestation plan. Measurements were taken of the sidewalks, as well as analysis of possible<br />
conflicts with the space that is. About individual trees, 27% are native species <strong>and</strong> 73% exotic,<br />
<strong>and</strong> the species Lagerstroemia indica L. (extremosa) the species that stood out with 18%. This<br />
result demonstrates the trend in urban areas the prevalence of exotic species <strong>and</strong> the weak<br />
participation of the green element in the urban l<strong>and</strong>scape. Were identified conflicts with urban<br />
facilities highlighting <strong>and</strong> the need for a correct <strong>and</strong> efficient management.<br />
Key-words: Urban Afforestation, Exotic, Native<br />
1. Introduction<br />
The addition of trees to the ecosystem elements anthropogenically modified, typical of<br />
the environment of cities (Kulchetsck, 2006), brings countless benefits. Mascaró <strong>and</strong> Mascaró<br />
(2002) propose, therefore, trees in cities, highlighting the important role that vegetation is as<br />
soothing urban pollution, in addition to environmental, energy <strong>and</strong> l<strong>and</strong>scape. Soon, vegetation,<br />
justified also by chemical factors, physical, ecological <strong>and</strong> psychological, should be considered<br />
in the order of the priorities of urban planning. Search is thus a return to lost balance <strong>and</strong> a<br />
significant improvement in quality of life.<br />
Factors that should be considered in urban trees are many <strong>and</strong> can be highlighted: the<br />
urban environment, characterized in terms of climate, soils, topography, the physical space<br />
available in relation to the width of streets <strong>and</strong> sidewalks, l<strong>and</strong> clearance, the height the<br />
buildings <strong>and</strong> the presence of electrical cords air, water pipe, sewer, storm sewers, telephone<br />
network, the characteristics of the species to be used, in regard to climatic adaptability,<br />
resistance to pests <strong>and</strong> diseases, tolerance to pollution, lack of principles toxic or allergenic, <strong>and</strong><br />
phenological characteristics (shape, size, root, flowering, fruiting, etc.) <strong>and</strong> morphological<br />
characteristics. Examined the issue of ecological adaptation (acclimatization, naturalization,<br />
housing) should be alert to the readiness of the city for the trees, not introducing the species to<br />
be r<strong>and</strong>om. (Urban Tree, 2004; Sampaio, 2006; Serafim, 2007).<br />
This work is part of a larger project that aims to inventory all city trees, providing support<br />
to the government to implement public policies related to this topic.<br />
* Corresponding author. Tel.: (55) 42 3225-9206<br />
E-mail: krowmanson@hotmail.com<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
A.C.R. de Oliveira & S.M. Carvalho 2010. Urban tree inventory <strong>and</strong> socio-economic aspects of three villages of Ponta Grossa<br />
615<br />
This research aims to analyze the current context of the afforestation of public roads from<br />
villages Esmeralda, Jardim Carvalho <strong>and</strong> Vilela in Ponta Grossa, identifying native <strong>and</strong> exotic<br />
species present, <strong>and</strong> also examine the afforestation as a reflection of the socio- economic aspects<br />
of population.<br />
2. Characterization of study area<br />
Ponta Grossa, located under the average elevation of 975 meters, is included in the<br />
Second Paraná Plateau in the east-central region of Parana State, being an important road <strong>and</strong><br />
rail junction of the state. (IBGE, 2008).<br />
The Jardim Carvalho is located in the northeast of the city <strong>and</strong> houses within its limits<br />
thirteen villages. Were chosen as the spatial area of the district three villages, namely:<br />
Esmeralda, Jardim Carvalho <strong>and</strong> Vilela. We opted for these three towns they are<br />
demographically more concentrated <strong>and</strong> have vast socio-economic disparities, <strong>and</strong> were the<br />
closest to the downtown area.<br />
The three villages comprising 11 census tracts, which total, according to IBGE (2000),<br />
6971 inhabitants, with 2007 inhabitants in the village Jardim Carvalho, 602 in the village<br />
Esmeralda <strong>and</strong> 4362 in Vilela.<br />
As one of the objectives of the research was to investigate the relationship of urban<br />
environmental quality (through the indicator of urban forestry) with socioeconomic indices, data<br />
from the 2000 census were prevalent for the analysis. We selected some variables that<br />
characterize the people responsible for permanent private homes - such as education <strong>and</strong> income<br />
- <strong>and</strong> to those which have stressed the social inequality between the villages Esmeralda / Jardim<br />
Carvalho <strong>and</strong> Vilela.<br />
Looking at Figure 1 it is noted that the rate of people with lower educational level is<br />
higher in Vilela, <strong>and</strong> 2% of the illiterate population, while in villages Esmeralda <strong>and</strong> Jardim<br />
Carvalho that number drops to 0.3 <strong>and</strong> 0.2, respectively . The variable 'Course highest attended -<br />
College' was the one that showed the difference between the two groups this census: Jardim<br />
Carvalho <strong>and</strong> Esmeralda has more than twice as many people with this level of education<br />
compared with Vilela. It should be noted that this village has 1,700 people more than the other<br />
two villages, thus demonstrating how low is that index.<br />
Thus, from the variables ‘Course highest attended – College’ <strong>and</strong> '15 years of study' is<br />
possible to conclude that the villages Esmeralda <strong>and</strong> Jardim Carvalho have better rates of<br />
schooling than Vilela.<br />
People<br />
(%)<br />
12<br />
9<br />
6<br />
3<br />
0<br />
2<br />
0,2 0,3 0,4 0,3<br />
Illiterate<br />
2<br />
Course highest<br />
attended - no<br />
course<br />
12<br />
13<br />
3<br />
Course highest<br />
attended -<br />
college<br />
5 5<br />
1<br />
15 years of study<br />
Jardim Carvalho<br />
Esmeralda<br />
Vilela<br />
Figure 1 - Schooling of heads of permanent private households in villages Esmeralda, Jardim Carvalho<br />
<strong>and</strong> Vilela. Source: IBGE (2000).<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
A.C.R. de Oliveira & S.M. Carvalho 2010. Urban tree inventory <strong>and</strong> socio-economic aspects of three villages of Ponta Grossa<br />
616<br />
In relation to local income, which can be said, reflects the level of education of the<br />
population is concentrated in villages Esmeralda <strong>and</strong> Jardim Carvalho. One sees this phenomenon<br />
in Figure 2, which illustrates, also in proportion to the population, these data. The greater the<br />
number of monthly income of heads of households, increased economic inequality, because these<br />
two villages are increasing numbers with increasing income, unlike Vilela, which the numbers<br />
decrease with the increase of it. This village puts forward in the two graphs were examined, the<br />
worse indices of education <strong>and</strong> monthly income, thus setting a framework for social <strong>and</strong><br />
economic disparities between villages so close.<br />
(%)<br />
People<br />
9<br />
6<br />
3<br />
0<br />
2<br />
0,6 0,6<br />
Without income<br />
6<br />
5<br />
5<br />
4<br />
2 2 2<br />
1 1<br />
1 to 2 minimum<br />
wages<br />
10 to 15<br />
minimum wages<br />
more than 20<br />
minimum wages<br />
Jardim Carvalho<br />
Esmeralda<br />
Vilela<br />
Figure 2– Nominal monthly income of heads of permanent private households in villages Esmeralda,<br />
Jardim Carvalho <strong>and</strong> Vilela. Source: IBGE (2000).<br />
From the data presented was based on the hypothesis that these socioeconomic indices<br />
may reflect quantitative <strong>and</strong> qualitative urban forestry in this area, a phenomenon that will be<br />
addressed before the data obtained from field work.<br />
3. Methodology<br />
We first performed a literature on the subject trees, especially of roads, thereby having<br />
contact with the methodologies already applied. Were also selected data from Census 2000 to<br />
assess the environmental quality while reflecting socio-economic development.<br />
For delimitation of the study area, as well as research planning, cartograms were produced<br />
to map the paths to be scheduled through the software Arc View 3.2 GIS Laboratory,<br />
Department of Geosciences, State University of Ponta Grossa. Were used as the digital<br />
cartographic base of the municipality of Ponta Grossa.<br />
The following worksheets were produced for species identification, linking individual<br />
trees in each side of the road (right / left) <strong>and</strong> the distances in which they were in the building<br />
<strong>and</strong> the curb, apart from possible conflicts with the structures the city (like breaking sidewalks<br />
<strong>and</strong> conflict with the electric grid).<br />
Such information has been verified through research on site, which it based individuals<br />
with PBH (perimeter at breast height), less than 20 cm, <strong>and</strong> they were clearly located on<br />
sidewalks <strong>and</strong> public walkways. When the impossibility of identification in the field, samples<br />
were collected for identification in Herbarium of State University of Ponta Grossa with the aid<br />
of works Lorenzi <strong>and</strong> Souza (1999), Lorenzi (2002) <strong>and</strong> Lorenzi et al (2003).<br />
In the research field were also made photographic records of the species most frequent<br />
conflicts <strong>and</strong> ways identified with potential for afforestation. Finally, with the data already<br />
collected, comparisons were made with other sites of Ponta Grossa already inventoried, to have<br />
a diagnosis of urban forestry roads in the area.<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
A.C.R. de Oliveira & S.M. Carvalho 2010. Urban tree inventory <strong>and</strong> socio-economic aspects of three villages of Ponta Grossa<br />
617<br />
4. Result <strong>and</strong> Discussion<br />
We covered 59 routes, which had 479 individual trees to the total. Of these, 29 were<br />
identified at family level, 19 at genus level <strong>and</strong> 411 species, of which 27% are natives <strong>and</strong> 73%<br />
exotic. Due to the absence of flowers <strong>and</strong> / or fruit (elements necessary for correct<br />
identification) <strong>and</strong> the radical pruning, 20 tree specimens were not identified.<br />
The species most often was the Lagerstroemia indica L., commonly known as the<br />
Extremosa, the family Lythraceae, constituting 18% of total species (74 individuals).<br />
The second species was the most present Ligustrum lucidum, Oleaceae family, with<br />
15.32% followed by the species of Ficus benjamina Moraceae with 10.94%. It is noteworthy<br />
that the species Ligustrum Lucidum had many conflicts with sidewalks, like Ficus benjamina,<br />
which, because of its shallow root is not recommended for narrow forest roads. It is therefore<br />
important to know the characteristics of the species for its correct use. It is also recommended to<br />
research the species native to the area thereby avoiding the excessive use of exotic species.<br />
For Santamur Junior (2002, apud Quadros, 2005) does not exceed more than 10% of the<br />
same species, 20% of the same genus <strong>and</strong> 30% from the same botanical family. According to this<br />
author, the species Lagerstroemia indica <strong>and</strong> Ligustrum lucidum exceeded the limit of tree<br />
species recommended for health (18% <strong>and</strong> 15.32%, respectively). In relation to any botanical<br />
families exceeded this parameter, the most frequent: Bignoniaceae with 16%, 15% Lythraceae,<br />
Fabaceae with 14% <strong>and</strong> 13% to Oleaceae.<br />
As surveyed, there are only 39 species in the arborization of the villages Esmeralda, Jardim<br />
Carvalho <strong>and</strong> Vilela, predominantly exotic on the native. The three most common species<br />
together represent 44.26% of the total cataloged.<br />
The average distance from the curb found for the sampled population was 0.52 m. Value<br />
lower than that found in other locations as those raised by Milano (1984, 1988 apud Loboda et al<br />
2005) <strong>and</strong> Ng (1995 apud Loboda et al 2005), from 1.56 to Curitiba / PR, <strong>and</strong> 1.20 m Maringá /<br />
PR , <strong>and</strong> 2.1 m for Cascavel / PR, respectively. The average distance from buildings (1.20 m) was<br />
also a low rate when compared with the values found by Nunes (1995 apud Loboda et al 2005) in<br />
Apucarana <strong>and</strong> Cascavel, respectively, 2.41 I 3.3 m, <strong>and</strong> Maringá, 1.47 m (ibid.). Data concerning<br />
the average distance of trees to the curb <strong>and</strong> the buildings show an average width of 1.72 m for<br />
the tours of the area sampled. Therefore, tours of small, should include trees, shrubs <strong>and</strong> small<br />
trees, since the limited space hinders the development of afforestation.<br />
The lack of planning of afforestation culminates in conflicts with urban facilities such as<br />
the presence of spinning air, which is one of the most important factors when planning the<br />
arborization. It was observed conflicts with the electric grid in 68 cases (28.57%), often having to<br />
be done pruning, changing the natural shape of the tree also produces an anti-aesthetic.<br />
The lack of free area <strong>and</strong> the choice for species with shallow root system eventually<br />
undermine, among other urban facilities, the sidewalks, which end up <strong>and</strong> breaking. Therefore<br />
one should choose a tree with deep roots, <strong>and</strong> leave at least 1m ² of space pavement that allow the<br />
infiltration of water <strong>and</strong> nutrients (Santos <strong>and</strong> Teixeira, 2001), avoiding situations like breaking<br />
sidewalks, which represent 148 cases (62.18%) found in the study area.<br />
Another practice is deeply rooted in Brazil's painting trunks, <strong>and</strong> found 22 cases in the<br />
sampled area. For Santos <strong>and</strong> Teixeira (2001) this practice provides dubious aesthetic effect <strong>and</strong><br />
can cause damage to health, as the bark of trees has its own defenses.<br />
Among the 479 tree specimens found, 389 are located in the Jardim Carvalho <strong>and</strong><br />
Esmeralda Village, in other words, 81%, leaving only 90 for Vilela, or 19%. Therefore, making<br />
a correlation, one realizes that the urban environmental quality also reflects income inequality,<br />
as stated Berto (2008). With the socio-economic data from the IBGE this paper, the social<br />
disparity between the villages Esmeralda / Jardim Carvalho <strong>and</strong> Vilela was evident, with the<br />
indices of trees obtained confirmed the importance that the income has in the establishment of<br />
environmental quality. Contributed to this analysis the fact the town Vilela have the lowest<br />
levels of education, income <strong>and</strong> only 19% of trees cataloged in the search.<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
A.C.R. de Oliveira & S.M. Carvalho 2010. Urban tree inventory <strong>and</strong> socio-economic aspects of three villages of Ponta Grossa<br />
618<br />
We agree with Seraphim (2007, p. 4) when it concludes that "aspects of environmental<br />
quality may be clear in some localities in urban areas depending on the distribution of<br />
vegetation <strong>and</strong> indicate the quality of life of residents."<br />
In the field research were also identified five pathways (Adjaniro Cardon, Graciliano<br />
Ramos, Rocha Pombo, Monte Alverne <strong>and</strong> Henrique Thielen) who all have potential to be<br />
wooded. In these, the hunt is wider than 3m, the streets are wide, the houses are setback <strong>and</strong><br />
spinning air is absent.<br />
Conclusion<br />
It was evident that the urban environmental quality also reflects the income inequality<br />
since the villages with better socio-economic - <strong>and</strong> therefore more assisted by basic<br />
infrastructure - they also presented a greater number of trees <strong>and</strong> a greater awareness about<br />
environmental issues. So we can conclude that education is strongly related to a condition where<br />
the theme Environmental urban areas.<br />
Through the survey <strong>and</strong> analysis of arborization, we could perceive that there is an<br />
unequal distribution of individual trees, focusing on villages Esmeralda <strong>and</strong> Jardim Carvalho<br />
with 81% of the tree, against only 19% for the village Vilela.<br />
Encouragement of the arborization should be taken, considering that seven streets were<br />
not found any tree, <strong>and</strong> there are roads with trees <strong>and</strong> very few individuals with the potential to<br />
make plantations without risk of conflict with the sidewalk or spinning air.<br />
References<br />
Berto, V. Z. 2008. Análise da Qualidade Ambiental Urbana na Cidade de Ponta Grossa (PR):<br />
Avaliação de algumas propostas metodológicas. Ponta Grossa, Paraná. 150p.<br />
Gallina, M. H. Verona, J. A; Troppmair, H. 2003 Geografia e questões ambientais. Mercator, n.<br />
4, p. 87-97,<br />
IBGE – 2009. Census Data 2000. Avaliable in: www.ibge.gov.br, accessed: August 22.<br />
Loboda, C. R.; De Angelis, B. L. D. 2005 Áreas Verdes Públicas Urbanas: Conceitos, Usos e<br />
Funções. Ambiência Magazine – Pag. 125 to 138.<br />
Lorenzi, H.; Souza, H. M (de).1999. Plantas Ornamentais no Brasil: arbustivas, herbáceas e<br />
trepadeiras. Nova Odessa: Instituto Plantarum, 1088 p.<br />
Lorenzi, H. 2002. Árvores brasileiras: manual de identificação e cultivo de plantas arbóreas do<br />
Brasil. Nova Odessa: Instituto Plantarum, 384p.<br />
Lorenzi, H.; Souza, H.M. De.; Torres, M.A.V.; Bacher, L.B. 2003. Árvores exóticas no Brasil:<br />
madeiras, ornamentais e aromáticas. Nova Odessa: Instituto Plantarum, 368p.<br />
Mascaró, L.; Mascaró, J.2005. Vegetação urbana. Porto Alegre, 204p.<br />
Mir<strong>and</strong>a, T. O. 2008. Arborização Urbana Viária no Bairro da Ronda, Ponta Grossa - PR:<br />
Composição e Avaliação. Ponta Grossa -PR, 95 p.<br />
Quadros, G. P. 2005. Arborização Urbana na Área Central de Ponta Grossa: Implantação,<br />
Preservação e Monitoramento - 2005. Ponta Grossa. 102 p.<br />
Sampaio, A. C. F. 2006. Análise da Arborização de Vias Públicas das Principais Zonas do<br />
Plano Piloto de Maringá-PR. Maringá-PR. 117p.<br />
Santos, N. R. Z.; Teixeira, I. F. 2001. Arborização de Vias Públicas: Ambiente x Vegetação. RS:<br />
Clube da árvore. 135 p.<br />
Serafim, A.R.M.D.B. 2007. O verde na cidade: análise da cobertura vegetal nos Bairros do<br />
centro exp<strong>and</strong>ido da cidade do Recife/PE. Universia.11 p.<br />
Silva, R.K.D. 2006. Arborização Urbana Viária no Bairro de Olarias, Ponta Grossa/PR. Ponta<br />
Grossa, Paraná. 75 p.<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
A.C.R. de Oliveira & S.M. Carvalho 2010. Urban tree inventory <strong>and</strong> socio-economic aspects of three villages of Ponta Grossa<br />
619<br />
Vilela, J. C. 2007. Levantamento Quantitativo e Qualitativo de Individuos Arbóreos Presentes<br />
nas vias do Bairro Estrela em Ponta Grossa/PR. Ponta Grossa, Paraná. 96p.<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
I. Silva et al. 2010. Lisbon’s public gardens, host place for world’s trees<br />
620<br />
Lisbon’s public gardens, host place for world’s trees<br />
Isabel Silva 1 , Elsa Isidro 1 , Ana Luísa Soares 2* & Francisco Moreira 2<br />
1<br />
Secção Autónoma de Arquitectura Paisagista, Instituto <strong>Superior</strong> de Agronomia,<br />
Universidade Técnica de Lisboa, Portugal<br />
2<br />
Centro de Ecologia Aplicada Prof. Baeta Neves, Instituto <strong>Superior</strong> de Agronomia,<br />
Universidade Técnica de Lisboa, Portugal<br />
Abstract<br />
This study aims to contribute to the characterization <strong>and</strong> evaluation of Lisbon’s Gardens. Within<br />
the framework of the 2009 project “Methods of Characterization <strong>and</strong> Classification of Lisbon’s<br />
Public Gardens with heritage interest”, 31 of Lisbon’s Public Gardens were studied <strong>and</strong> a new<br />
methodology was developed to measure their l<strong>and</strong>scape, historical, social <strong>and</strong> cultural value<br />
Garden’s L<strong>and</strong>scape value was evaluated according to several parameters, one of which was the<br />
botanical quality indicator. It determines trees’ richness <strong>and</strong> uniqueness, assessed by botanical<br />
diversity <strong>and</strong> singularity evaluation methods (e.g., surveys, Shannon index, Equitability), <strong>and</strong><br />
trees’ heritage interest, based on their rarity, age, size <strong>and</strong> health.<br />
3751 trees in 31gardens were studied. The following results were obtained: 46 families, 83<br />
genus <strong>and</strong> 139 species. 48% are exotic, 35% naturalized, 13% indigenous <strong>and</strong> 4% exotic<br />
invaders.<br />
Lisbon’s Mediterranean climate allows the coexistence of different tree species, from Northern<br />
Europe to subtropical climates. In addition to its aesthetical value, this botanical diversity plays<br />
a central role in increasing biodiversity <strong>and</strong> promoting urban ecological sustainability.<br />
Keywords: Public Gardens, Heritage Interest, garden’s trees, Botanical Diversity, Lisbon<br />
1. Introduction<br />
Lisbon’s climate allows for the coexistence of various indigenous <strong>and</strong> exotic tree species, from<br />
Northern Europe to subtropical climes. In addition to its great aesthetical value, this botanical<br />
diversity provides a habitat for the fauna <strong>and</strong> plays a key role in increasing biodiversity <strong>and</strong> in<br />
the urban ecology thus contributing to a sustainable city.<br />
This botanical richness is mostly due to the Portuguese Discoveries <strong>and</strong> contact with other<br />
cultures which meant that plant species from around the world were brought to Portugal, in<br />
particularly to Lisbon. These “new” plants, from all over the world, were a challenge for<br />
botanists, gardeners <strong>and</strong> horticulturists, for whom the public <strong>and</strong> private botanical gardens <strong>and</strong><br />
gardens were the “stage” for their experiments.<br />
Many of these species were well suited to our climate, <strong>and</strong> today in Lisbon’s streets, parks <strong>and</strong><br />
gardens we can find specimens such as: Tipuana tipu, Phytollaca dioica, Chorisia speciosa <strong>and</strong><br />
Jacar<strong>and</strong>a mimosifolia from South America; palm trees from the Canaries; Casuarina<br />
cunninghamiana, Grevillea robusta <strong>and</strong> Lagunaria patersonii from Australia, Taxodium<br />
distichum from the USA, Metrosideros excelsa from New Zeal<strong>and</strong>, alongside Portuguese flora.<br />
Some of these trees, which st<strong>and</strong> out because of their size, structure, age, rarity or for historic<br />
<strong>and</strong> cultural reasons, have been classified by the National <strong>Forest</strong>ry Authority, <strong>and</strong> add to<br />
* Corresponding author. Tel.: 00 351 93 232 60 04<br />
Email address: alsoares@isa.utl.pt<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
I. Silva et al. 2010. Lisbon’s public gardens, host place for world’s trees<br />
621<br />
Lisbon’s ecological, l<strong>and</strong>scape, cultural <strong>and</strong> historic heritage. At the present time Lisbon’s tree<br />
collection is made up of 18 clusters, 54 single trees belonging to Lisbon Municipal Council <strong>and</strong><br />
6 privately owned single trees classified as trees <strong>and</strong>/or clusters of Public Interest.<br />
Under the Project “Methods of Characterization <strong>and</strong> Classification of Lisbon’s Public Gardens<br />
of Heritage Interest” (2009) a study was carried out to apply a new methodology to the<br />
measurement of the gardens’ L<strong>and</strong>scape, Historical <strong>and</strong> Socio-cultural value.<br />
The aim of this study is to contribute to the effective characterization <strong>and</strong> evaluation of Lisbon’s<br />
gardens. The overall value attributed to each garden was directly related to its heritage<br />
importance, use as public space <strong>and</strong> other factors.<br />
2. Methodology<br />
Under the Project “Methods of Characterization <strong>and</strong> Classification of Lisbon’s Public Gardens<br />
of Heritage Interest” † , a method was devised that gauges the Historic, L<strong>and</strong>scape <strong>and</strong><br />
Sociocultural Value of the 31 gardens studied (see Table 1). Parametric analysis of each value,<br />
using various quality indicators <strong>and</strong> a scoring system, made it possible to quantify each value<br />
<strong>and</strong> rank Public Gardens of Heritage Interest. The methodology developed <strong>and</strong> tested by the<br />
authors is based, among other principles, on surveys carried out by the National Trust of<br />
Engl<strong>and</strong> <strong>and</strong> English Heritage.<br />
The Historical value of each garden was evaluated by L<strong>and</strong>scape Architects, according to<br />
several indicators: origin, evolution, historic style, architectural <strong>and</strong> artistic integrity.<br />
Public surveys were conducted to determine the Socio-cultural value of the gardens role in<br />
creating healthy communities through recreation <strong>and</strong> economic sustainability (tourism), leading<br />
ultimately to better management.<br />
Table 1 - Methods of Characterization <strong>and</strong> Classification of Lisbon’s Public Gardens of Heritage Interest<br />
† In 2009, under an agreement between the Institute of Agronomy (Technical University of Lisbon) <strong>and</strong> Lisbon Municipal Council,<br />
final year L<strong>and</strong>scape Architecture students, Elsa Isidro <strong>and</strong> Isabel Silva, under the supervision of Professors Ana Luísa Soares <strong>and</strong><br />
Cristina Castel-Branco <strong>and</strong> the L<strong>and</strong>scape Architect Mafalda Farmhouse, developed a Method of Characterization <strong>and</strong> Classification<br />
of Lisbon’s Public Gardens of Heritage Interest, as part of the end of course work.<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
I. Silva et al. 2010. Lisbon’s public gardens, host place for world’s trees<br />
622<br />
In this paper the authors have created a broad scope concept that covers all the garden<br />
components which have been consciously designed to create a piece of L<strong>and</strong>scape art. This<br />
“L<strong>and</strong>scape Value” concept is arrived at through the evaluation of various elements such as<br />
artistic quality, aesthetic beauty, vegetation <strong>and</strong> l<strong>and</strong>scape, <strong>and</strong> built elements.<br />
The L<strong>and</strong>scape value<br />
L<strong>and</strong>scape value is a broad scope concept that includes all the components under the influence<br />
of the garden’s author in a process that leads to a piece of L<strong>and</strong>scape art, through the evaluation<br />
of the aesthetic beauty, artistic quality <strong>and</strong> value of the built elements or vegetation. This value<br />
includes also the garden’s external characteristics, such as the socioeconomic context of the<br />
garden’s location which acts as a parameter restricting the garden’s public to a certain kind of<br />
users, the aesthetic <strong>and</strong> artistic quality of the urban fabric, where we consider the state of<br />
conservation, <strong>and</strong>, finally, the visual relation between the garden <strong>and</strong> the surroundings, through<br />
a study of the series of views.<br />
As regards L<strong>and</strong>scape Value, which is a broad item, features were assessed such as the aesthetic<br />
<strong>and</strong> artistic quality of the built <strong>and</strong> botanical composition elements. As for botanical quality,<br />
following a survey ‡ of the tree species in the garden, their diversity <strong>and</strong> singularity were<br />
evaluated by means of specific scientific formulae. Since plants are a fragile element, easily lost,<br />
altered or replaced over time, it was also important to value those trees which because of their<br />
size, rarity or quality are deemed notable <strong>and</strong> classified as being of Public Interest § . In addition<br />
to these criteria the garden’s scenic quality was assessed by studying its plant composition in<br />
terms of trees, shrubs <strong>and</strong> flowers.<br />
Botanical quality pertains to the vegetation’s richness, uniqueness <strong>and</strong> heritage interest. The<br />
latter is based on each individual specimen’s size, rarity, age <strong>and</strong> health. The richness <strong>and</strong><br />
uniqueness of each specimen was obtained through accepted methods, as explained below.<br />
The Botanical Diversity parameter for each Garden was quantified using a average of four<br />
formulae: the Shannon index (1), the evenness index (2), the proportion of different species in<br />
the garden relative to the total number of specimens, <strong>and</strong> the ratio of the number of species in<br />
the garden compared to the total number of species in the set of gardens studied.<br />
Botanical Diversity Method:<br />
• Index 1: (Total of the tree species/ total of the garden’s tree specimens) (%)<br />
• a) Class 1 Botanical Diversity Index: (1 if [0-33%]; 2 if [34-66%]; 3 if [67-<br />
100%])<br />
• b) Class 1 Botanical Diversity Index: (1 if [0-15%]; 2 if [16-31%]; 3 if [32-<br />
50%])<br />
• Index 2: (Total of the tree species/Total of tree specimens in the set of gardens) (%)<br />
• a) Class 2 Botanical Diversity Index: (1 if [0-0,6%]; 2 if [0,7-1,2%]; 3 if [1,3-<br />
2%])<br />
• Index 3: Shannon index (1)<br />
• Class 3 Shannon Index: (1 if [0-1,33]; 2 if [1,34-2,66]; 3 if [2,67-4])<br />
• Index 4: Evenness (2)<br />
‡ The tree survey was conducted during the academic year 2008/2009 with the assistance of third year L<strong>and</strong>scape Architecture<br />
students at the Institute of Agronomy, Technical University of Lisbon.<br />
§ The classification of trees or groups of trees of Public Interest is governed by Decree-Law nº 20 985 of 1932-03-07 <strong>and</strong> Decree-<br />
Law nº 28 468 of 1938-02-15. The Ministry of Agriculture, Rural Development <strong>and</strong> Fisheries, through the AFN (National <strong>Forest</strong>ry<br />
Authority), is responsible for the classification pursuant to the terms of Regulatory Decree 10/2007 of 2007-02-27, published in the<br />
Official Journal (Diário da República) nº 41.<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
I. Silva et al. 2010. Lisbon’s public gardens, host place for world’s trees<br />
623<br />
• Class 4 Evenness Index (1 if [0-0,33]; 2 if [0,34-0,66]; 3 if [0,67-1])<br />
• Average of Botanical Diversity Indices<br />
ni : number of individuals in each species;<br />
abundance of each species.<br />
S : number of species (richness)<br />
N : total number of all individuals:<br />
p i : relative abundance of each species,<br />
calculated as the proportion of individuals of<br />
one species to the total number of individuals in<br />
the community:<br />
The Botanical Singularity score was based on the occurrence of one, two or three individuals of<br />
a particular species in the set of gardens studied.<br />
Singularity Evaluation Method:<br />
• 3 – contains the only specimen of a species;<br />
• 2 – contains one/two of the only two specimens of a species;<br />
• 1 - contains one/two/three of the only three specimens of a species;<br />
• 0 - if there are more than three specimens of a species<br />
The characterization of 31 public gardens according to the defined indicators enabled the<br />
acknowledgement of their social, historical <strong>and</strong> aesthetic features, <strong>and</strong> their ranking.<br />
3. Result <strong>and</strong> discussion<br />
A total of 3751 trees were recorded in the 31 gardens studied, <strong>and</strong> the following results<br />
were obtained: 46 families, 83 genus <strong>and</strong> 139 different species, of which 58% are<br />
evergreen <strong>and</strong> 42% deciduous. As regards their origin, 48% are exotic, 35% naturalized,<br />
13% indigenous <strong>and</strong> 4% exotic invaders. The dominant species are Celtis australis,<br />
Olea europaea var. sylvestris, Pinus pinea <strong>and</strong> Phoenix canariensis (see figure 1). The<br />
following species st<strong>and</strong> out because of their singularity: Erythrina crista-gallis,<br />
Firminiana simplex, Koelreuteria paniculata, Melaleuca stypheliodes <strong>and</strong> Pawlonia<br />
tomentosa.<br />
Figure 1 - Trees in Lisbon's Public Gardens<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
I. Silva et al. 2010. Lisbon’s public gardens, host place for world’s trees<br />
624<br />
As for the gardens, the following are of special note due to their botanical diversity (see<br />
figure 2): Estrela (Guerra Junqueiro), Príncipe Real, Campo de Santana (Braamcamp<br />
Freire), Amoreiras (Marcelino Mesquita), <strong>and</strong> Vasco da Gama. The least diversity was<br />
found in São Pedro de Alcântara (António Nobre) <strong>and</strong> Campo Pequeno (Marquês de<br />
Marialva).<br />
Figure 2 – Botanical diversity in Lisbon’s Public Gardens<br />
Singularity analysis (see figure 3) showed that most gardens had unique specimens for<br />
different species, thus each garden on its own contributes to the overall diversity of trees<br />
present.<br />
Figure 3 – Botanical Singularity in Lisbon's Public Gardens<br />
4. Discussion<br />
Lisbon’s Mediterranean climate allows for the coexistence of different tree species, in addition<br />
to the gardens aesthetic value, this diversity is key to creating a healthy urban environment, with<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
I. Silva et al. 2010. Lisbon’s public gardens, host place for world’s trees<br />
625<br />
increasing biodiversity <strong>and</strong> sustainability. Besides their historic <strong>and</strong> cultural value, the public<br />
gardens studied are showplaces for plants from all over the world <strong>and</strong> bring an aesthetic value<br />
<strong>and</strong> high bio-climatic comfort to the city, as well as contribute to biodiversity. They have an<br />
unquestionable tourist <strong>and</strong> recreational value.<br />
References<br />
Soares, A.L. <strong>and</strong> Castel-Branco, C., 2007. As Árvores da Cidade de Lisboa. In: SILVA, J.S.<br />
(ed.). Floresta e Sociedade, uma história em comum. Público/FLAD/LPN. Lisboa: 289-<br />
334.<br />
Isidro, E., 2009. Metodologia de Caracterização e Classificação de Jardins Públicos de<br />
Interesse Patrimonial – Aplicação à cidade de Lisboa. Trabalho de Fim de Curso.<br />
Instituto <strong>Superior</strong> de Agronomia, Universidade Técnica de Lisboa, Lisboa (uupublished),<br />
121p.<br />
Silva, A. I., Isidro, E., Soares, A. L. <strong>and</strong> Castel-Branco, C., 2009. O Interesse Patrimonial dos<br />
Jardins Públicos de Lisboa. Actas de Comunicações do 6º Congresso Ibero-Americano de<br />
Parques e Jardins Públicos, Póvoa de Lanhoso: 21-30.<br />
Isidro, E.; Silva, I. <strong>and</strong> Soares, A.L., 2009. Jardim Braancamp Freire: diversidade botânica em<br />
colina histórica. Jardins 84: 10 - 15.<br />
Isidro, E.; Silva, I. <strong>and</strong> Soares, A.L., 2009. Jardim do Torel: um anfiteatro verde com vista sobre<br />
a cidade. Jardins 85: 12 - 15.<br />
Isidro, E.; Silva, I. <strong>and</strong> Soares, A.L., 2009. Jardim das Amoreiras: o jardim que promoveu a<br />
indústria da seda. Jardins 86: 18 - 21.<br />
Silva, I., Isidro, E. <strong>and</strong> Soares, A.L., 2009. Jardim Amália Rodrigues: um anfiteatro com<br />
múltiplos ambientes. Jardins 87: 16 – 19.<br />
Silva, I., Isidro, E. <strong>and</strong> Soares, A.L., 2010. Alameda D. Afonso Henriques: o eixo verde<br />
monumental do Estado Novo. Jardins 88: 12 – 15.<br />
Silva, I., Isidro, E. <strong>and</strong> Soares, A.L., 2010. Praça do Império: o icone verde da exposição do<br />
mundo português. Jardins 89: 10 – 14.<br />
Silva, I., Isidro, E. <strong>and</strong> Soares, A.L., 2010. São Pedro de Alcântara: um ícone da Lisboa<br />
Romântica do século XIX. Jardins 90: 14 – 17.<br />
Silva, I., Isidro, E. <strong>and</strong> Soares, A.L., 2010. Jardim 9 de Abril: homenagem à presença de<br />
Portugal na 1ª guerra mundial. Jardins 91: 16 – 19.<br />
Isidro, E.; Silva, I.. <strong>and</strong> Soares, A.L., 2009. Jardim do Príncipe Real: estilo romântico em<br />
ambiente histórico. Jardins 92: 16 - 19.<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
Section 9<br />
Symposia
Quantifying the effects of forest fragmentation: implications<br />
for l<strong>and</strong>scape planners <strong>and</strong> resource managers
Z.L. Urech & J.P. Sorg 2010. Taking into account local people’s livelihood systems for a better management of fragments<br />
628<br />
Taking into account local people’s livelihood systems for a better<br />
management of forest fragments<br />
Zora Lea Urech * & Jean-Pierre Sorg<br />
Groupe de foresterie pour le développement, ETH Zurich, Switzerl<strong>and</strong><br />
Abstract<br />
During the last few decades, a large extent of tropical rain forest has been cleared in the East of<br />
Madagascar through agricultural activities. Larger cohesive forest massifs are increasingly<br />
fragmented <strong>and</strong> forest fragments of various sizes remain in a l<strong>and</strong>scape mosaic dominated by<br />
agricultural patches. Until now, only little is known about how these fragments are perceived by<br />
the local population <strong>and</strong> what role they play in the local livelihood systems. We therefore tried<br />
to get a holistic underst<strong>and</strong>ing about the human-forest interface in this fragmented l<strong>and</strong>scape<br />
<strong>and</strong> based our methodology on the sustainable livelihood approach. The research has been<br />
conducted in four villages which differ in their distance to the cohesive forest massif <strong>and</strong><br />
therefore in their access to forest resources. We recognized that the perception of forest<br />
fragments <strong>and</strong> their importance for the local population changed with increasing distance to the<br />
forest massif. Not only they became more important to satisfy people’s daily needs, but they<br />
also had an increasing potential to cause conflicts between villagers. For a possible<br />
improvement of forest management designs, we should therefore take into account what role<br />
forest fragments play in local livelihood systems <strong>and</strong> how they can vary with changing access to<br />
forest resources.<br />
1 Introduction<br />
On a global level, the planet is continuously loosing its original tropical forests. Most tropical<br />
l<strong>and</strong>scapes not only suffer from deforestation but also from fragmentation, which often leads to<br />
decreasing vitality of remaining forest patches (Shvidenko et al. 2008). This is also the case in<br />
Madagascar, where forests are increasingly fragmented by agricultural activities such as slash<strong>and</strong>-burn<br />
cultivation (Harper et al. 2008). Nevertheless, these fragments are of increasing<br />
importance, not only for the diversity of mosaic l<strong>and</strong>scapes but also for the local inhabitants in<br />
the vicinity of these l<strong>and</strong>scapes (Pfund et al. 2006). Currently, in Madagascar forest resources<br />
are managed without separation between larger forests <strong>and</strong> fragments <strong>and</strong> without a broad<br />
consideration of local people’s livelihood strategies. We therefore aimed to explore the effective<br />
importance of forest fragments in local livelihood systems with our research. We combined<br />
quantitative <strong>and</strong> qualitative analyses about opportunities resulting from forest resources for<br />
people’s livelihood <strong>and</strong> the local perception about the importance of forested l<strong>and</strong>scapes. To<br />
explore the role of forested l<strong>and</strong>scapes, we divided them into two different categories; massif<br />
<strong>and</strong> fragments. This short paper will present two aspects of the role of forest l<strong>and</strong>scapes in local<br />
people’s life; the role of monetary income <strong>and</strong> the changing perception of forest fragments<br />
related to the distance to large non-fragmented forests.<br />
* Corresponding author. Phone: +4144 632 49 92<br />
Email address: zora.urech@env.ethz.ch<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
Z.L. Urech & J.P. Sorg 2010. Taking into account local people’s livelihood systems for a better management of fragments<br />
629<br />
2 Methodology<br />
As a basis <strong>and</strong> general framework for our socioeconomic analyses we employed the Sustainable<br />
Livelihood Approach (SLA) (NADEL 2007). This approach allowed us to recognize the<br />
complexity of local people’s livelihood systems <strong>and</strong> strategies at individual, family <strong>and</strong><br />
community levels in relation to forest fragments. Diverse methods were used for data collection,<br />
based on the SLA. In general, our aim was to compare the perception of different l<strong>and</strong>scape<br />
types by the local population with concrete quantitative information, as for example about the<br />
income. We therefore worked with interviews <strong>and</strong> scoring exercises. All in all, we spent 11<br />
months in four villages during the two field periods of the project.<br />
2.1 Village selection<br />
For our research, we worked in four villages situated around the forest massif. The territories of<br />
the four villages have a different forest cover <strong>and</strong> differ especially in their distance to the forest<br />
massif, what correlates to the distance to markets (see Table 1). The villages Ambofampana <strong>and</strong><br />
Maromitety are situated near the massif in a remote area, whereas the villages Bevalaina <strong>and</strong><br />
Antsahabe are farther from the massif in a territory of lower forest cover <strong>and</strong> are less remote.<br />
The category near or far the massif is defined by the walking time to reach the border of the<br />
massif. The differences of the distance to the massif allowed us to analyse the influence of a<br />
changing l<strong>and</strong>scape on the human-forest interface.<br />
Table 1: The four selected villages<br />
Characteristics of village territories Ambofampana Maromitety Bevalaina Antsahabe<br />
Distance to forest massif<br />
[walking time in h] 0.25 0.5 2 3<br />
Category of distance to forest massif near near far far<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> cover [%] 86 75 43 21<br />
Market proximity [walking time in h] 6 8 2 1<br />
Number of households interviewed 25 22 32 31<br />
Number of groups for scoring exercises 6 4 6 6<br />
2.2 Interview methods<br />
We began with open-ended discussions with several households in each of our villages to get a<br />
general overview. We then conducted the first semi-structured household interviews to deepen<br />
particular topics. In these interviews we gathered more specific <strong>and</strong> also quantitative information<br />
about the importance, income, perceptions, products collected from <strong>and</strong> uses of forest<br />
fragments. To complete our data we held discussions with people who have specific knowledge<br />
or play a key role in the social context. These included older persons, loggers or traditional<br />
authorities.<br />
2.3 Scoring exercises<br />
To deepen the information on the perception of importance, we conducted scoring exercises<br />
with focus groups, separated by wealth levels <strong>and</strong> gender (Sheil <strong>and</strong> Liswanti 2006). To express<br />
their own perception of value, each group had to distribute 100 pebbles on 9 different l<strong>and</strong>scape<br />
types (Table 2) according to their importance. This had to be done 8 times for 8 different<br />
categories of goods <strong>and</strong> products (Table 3).<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
Z.L. Urech & J.P. Sorg 2010. Taking into account local people’s livelihood systems for a better management of fragments<br />
630<br />
Table 2: Categories of l<strong>and</strong>scape types<br />
L<strong>and</strong>scape types<br />
River<br />
Irrigated rice fields<br />
Tavy<br />
Safoka<br />
Marsh<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> massif<br />
Fragments<br />
Village garden<br />
Tanimboly<br />
Definition<br />
Water <strong>and</strong> riverside<br />
Irrigated, permanent rice fields<br />
Cultivation of rice <strong>and</strong> other products on slopes after slash-<strong>and</strong>-burn<br />
Secondary vegetation without cultivation<br />
Wet <strong>and</strong> periodically or permanent flooded ground<br />
Permanent natural tree cover connected to the forest massif.<br />
Permanent natural tree cover not connected to the forest massif.<br />
Trees <strong>and</strong> plants cultivated in the village around the houses<br />
Traditional agroforestry system with trees <strong>and</strong> annual crops<br />
Categories<br />
Food<br />
Medicine<br />
House construction<br />
Tools<br />
Fire wood<br />
Weaving<br />
Income<br />
Hunting<br />
Table 3: Categories of goods <strong>and</strong> products<br />
Definition<br />
Plants, products or animals which can be eaten<br />
Natural products used for medicine <strong>and</strong> health<br />
Materials to build houses<br />
Materials to build tools for agriculture, hunting<br />
Fuel<br />
Plants used for weaving products, such as mats, hats, baskets<br />
Products which can be sold<br />
Animals (lemurs, tenreks, fish etc.)<br />
3 Results<br />
3.1 The general importance of fragments<br />
<strong>Forest</strong>ed l<strong>and</strong>scapes are of indisputable high importance for the rural people living in the presented<br />
research area. But the local population perceive the massif <strong>and</strong> fragments as two types of<br />
l<strong>and</strong>scapes with different importance. As illustrated in Figure 1 the importance of fragments becomes<br />
significantly higher with increasing distance to the massif (Analysis of variance: F 3,18 =<br />
4.21, P = 0.02). The relatively high importance of fragments in the nearest village to the massif<br />
(Ambofampana) can be explained by the qualitative <strong>and</strong> quantitative still high availability of<br />
NTFPs <strong>and</strong> timber in these fragments. Because the population density is low, fragments are not<br />
much degraded <strong>and</strong> the difference of diversity between the massif <strong>and</strong> the fragments is not very<br />
high.<br />
Figure 1: The perceived importance of forested l<strong>and</strong>scapes, including all categories of goods <strong>and</strong> products<br />
(see Methodology, 2.3 Scoring exercises)<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
Z.L. Urech & J.P. Sorg 2010. Taking into account local people’s livelihood systems for a better management of fragments<br />
631<br />
Moreover, in our research area we found an important traditional rule concerning the right to<br />
convert forest fragments into agricultural l<strong>and</strong>. Only farmers being owners of the l<strong>and</strong><br />
surrounding the forest fragments have the right to clear these forests. This is a crucial rule as it<br />
is depending on the individual household whether a fragment will be cleared or not. Therefore<br />
we asked households which still have forest fragments situated next to their agricultural<br />
territories why they did not clear their fragment until this day. Figure 2 indicates the obvious<br />
changing interest for forest fragments with increasing distance to the massif. Households near<br />
the massif see fragments mainly as a soil reserve for future conversion into agricultural l<strong>and</strong>.<br />
Interesting is that this can not be a question of l<strong>and</strong> availability, as households near the massif<br />
have around twice as much available agricultural l<strong>and</strong> per households as families far from the<br />
massif do. Thus households far from the massif should be more interested in forest conversion,<br />
but they do not seem to be. Households far from the massif are more interested in the goods<br />
produced by forest fragments.<br />
Therefore our conclusion suggests that the perception of the importance of forest fragments<br />
changed with increasing scarcity of forest resources. On the one h<strong>and</strong>, people living far from the<br />
massif notice the growing concurrence on products from forested l<strong>and</strong>scapes. On the other h<strong>and</strong><br />
they have already been aware that forests are disappearing <strong>and</strong> are exhaustible. People near the<br />
massif generally think that forests are inexhaustible <strong>and</strong> they still have more than enough to<br />
satisfy their principal needs related to forests.<br />
Near massif<br />
Far massif<br />
Figure 2: Reasons for the preservation of forest fragments<br />
3.2 Changing importance of forests for income<br />
In this section we explore the importance of forested l<strong>and</strong>scapes more through the lense of<br />
monetary income resulting from forest products (see Table 1). Especially during periods of rice<br />
shortage, households are strongly depending on alternative income to buy food. Then, logging<br />
<strong>and</strong> timber transport become important sources of income. Farmers living near the forest massif<br />
still find precious wood in the massif, whereas farmers living far from the forest massif have to<br />
find wood in the surrounding fragments, where precious woods are already becoming scarce.<br />
Nevertheless, as shown in Figure 3, farmers living far from the massif have the higher income<br />
by timber activities than farmer living near the massif (Analysis of variance: F 3, 102 = 2.86, P =<br />
0.040).<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
Z.L. Urech & J.P. Sorg 2010. Taking into account local people’s livelihood systems for a better management of fragments<br />
632<br />
This is comprehensible as timber is tradable much better in villages far from the massif than<br />
near the massif. This existing trade far from the massif can be explained by the increasing<br />
scarcity of wood <strong>and</strong> the growing population farther away from the massif. Additionally, timber<br />
can be sold to families in other villages which can not walk this far to find wood. Another<br />
reason for the better trade far from the massif is the proximity to markets. If they live near the<br />
massif, farmers have to walk for 6-8 hours to reach the next market to sell their wood. This is<br />
almost impossible because farmers have to carry the wood on their shoulders.<br />
Contrary to the case of timber, the trade of non-timber-forest-products (NTFPs) is not<br />
significantly related to the massif proximity. On the one h<strong>and</strong>, NTFPs are still available in a<br />
higher amount <strong>and</strong> better quality in the massif than in the fragments (Fedele 2010), what allows<br />
a better trade for people living near the massif. On the other h<strong>and</strong>, NTFPs are easier to carry for<br />
long distances thus people living near the massif can walk 8 hours to the next market.<br />
Figure 3: Income generated by NTFP <strong>and</strong> timber from forested l<strong>and</strong>scapes<br />
From the results presented in Figure 3 we would assume that people far from the massif<br />
perceive forested l<strong>and</strong>scapes more important for income than people living near the massif. But<br />
this is not the case. People living near the massif perceive forested l<strong>and</strong>scapes (including both<br />
categories massif <strong>and</strong> fragments) not less important than people far from the massif. This can be<br />
seen in Figure 4, which shows the results of the distribution of 100 pebbles according to the<br />
perceived importance of different forested l<strong>and</strong>scapes for income (see 2.3 Scoring exercises).<br />
The results showed no significant difference for the relation between distance <strong>and</strong> importance of<br />
forested l<strong>and</strong>scapes. Obviously, the quantification of importance by income (Figure 3) does not<br />
reflect the actual perception of the local population (Figure 4). We asked the different groups<br />
for reasons explaining the given importance of forested l<strong>and</strong>scapes, even though the effective<br />
income from forest was not that high. The explanation was that the continuous availability of<br />
forest products was more crucial than the effective income. Products from forested l<strong>and</strong>scapes<br />
are always available <strong>and</strong>, although to a limited extent, always tradeable. This is a significant<br />
characteristic for crisis <strong>and</strong> periods of rice shortage. <strong>Forest</strong> products can not all be destroyed by<br />
cyclones, whereas crops are always in danger.<br />
Nevertheless, Figure 4 points out the increasing importance of fragments (Analysis of variance:<br />
F 3, 18 = 4.01, P = 0.024) <strong>and</strong> decreasing importance of the massif (Analysis of variance: F 3, 18<br />
= 3.23, P = 0.047) with growing distance between village <strong>and</strong> massif. These trends go into the<br />
same directions as already shown in Figure 1. While the results in Figure 1 are related to the<br />
importance of forested l<strong>and</strong>s for all different categories of goods <strong>and</strong> products, Figure 4 is only<br />
related to products that can be sold.<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
Z.L. Urech & J.P. Sorg 2010. Taking into account local people’s livelihood systems for a better management of fragments<br />
633<br />
Figure 4: The perceived importance of forested l<strong>and</strong>scapes for income, including only the category<br />
income (see 2.3 Scoring exercises)<br />
4 Discussion<br />
This short paper has strived to explain that by the local population, forest fragments <strong>and</strong> forest<br />
massifs are not perceived as the same. The importance of fragments is related to quantitative<br />
opportunities <strong>and</strong> local livelihood strategies, which must be understood in a holistic view of<br />
livelihood systems. We assume that if forest fragments are not taken into account in future<br />
forest management plans, this can lead to social conflicts between villagers. <strong>Forest</strong> management<br />
plans in Madagascar normally consider wider areas, including villages far <strong>and</strong> near the massif in<br />
the same management plans. Furthermore, there is no differentiation between fragments <strong>and</strong> the<br />
massif. But we observed that people make the difference between fragments <strong>and</strong> the massif.<br />
Additionally, farmers do perceive the importance of forest fragments differently with increasing<br />
distance to the massif. These different views <strong>and</strong> following strategies can lead to conflicts<br />
between villages. Therefore, we recommend that in regional planning of natural resources,<br />
different views <strong>and</strong> strategies must be identified <strong>and</strong> considered to counter possible sources of<br />
conflicts. Thus forested l<strong>and</strong>scapes should be explored in a holistic context of local people’s<br />
livelihood.<br />
References<br />
Fedele, G. 2010. Local management strategies <strong>and</strong> their influence on the distribution of<br />
P<strong>and</strong>anaceae in a forest mosaic l<strong>and</strong>scape at the East Coast of Madagascar. Masters<br />
Thesis. ETH, Zurich.<br />
Harper, G. J., M. K. Steininger, C. J. Tucker, D. Juhn, <strong>and</strong> F. Hawkins. 2008. Fifty years of<br />
deforestation <strong>and</strong> forest fragmentation in Madagascar. Environmental Conservation<br />
34:325-333.<br />
Nadel. 2007. Working with a Sustainable Livelihood Approach. NADEL, DEZA, Zürich,.<br />
Pfund, J.-L., T. O'Connor, P. Koponen, <strong>and</strong> J.-M. Boffa. 2006. Transdisciplinary research to<br />
promote biodiversity conservation <strong>and</strong> enhanced management of tropical l<strong>and</strong>scape<br />
mosaics. IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology Conference, Italy.<br />
Sheil, D. <strong>and</strong> N. Liswanti. 2006. Scoring the Importance of Tropical <strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> with<br />
Local People: Patterns <strong>and</strong> Insights. Environmental Management 38:126-136.<br />
Shvidenko, A., J. Sven Erik, <strong>and</strong> F. Brian. 2008. Deforestation. Encyclopedia of Ecology.<br />
Academic Press, Oxford Pages 853-859.<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
Measures of l<strong>and</strong>scape structure as ecological indicators <strong>and</strong><br />
tools for conservation
E.R. Diaz-Varela et al. 2010. Multiscale analysis of l<strong>and</strong> use heterogeneity <strong>and</strong> dissimilarity<br />
635<br />
Multiscale analysis of l<strong>and</strong> use heterogeneity <strong>and</strong> dissimilarity as a<br />
support for planning strategies<br />
Emilio R. Diaz-Varela 1* , Carlos J. Alvarez-López, Manuel F. Marey-Pérez & Pedro<br />
Álvarez-Álvarez 2<br />
1<br />
University of Santiago de Compostela, Spain<br />
2<br />
University of Oviedo, Spain<br />
Abstract<br />
The analysis of l<strong>and</strong>scape structure is commonly oriented to the comprehension of<br />
pattern:process relationships <strong>and</strong> the evolution of such across spatial <strong>and</strong> temporal scales.<br />
Nevertheless, an important – <strong>and</strong> often neglected – aspect of l<strong>and</strong>scape analysis is its potential<br />
to use the derived information as a support for planning, design <strong>and</strong> decision making in<br />
l<strong>and</strong>scape management processes. The results of quantitative analysis of the spatial variation of<br />
l<strong>and</strong>scape’s composition <strong>and</strong> configuration across scales can help to identify areas distinctive<br />
regarding their heterogeneity, thus indicating different needs for spatial planning.<br />
In this work, a methodology is explored for the analysis of forest l<strong>and</strong>scape pattern oriented to<br />
planning applications. In it, a series of sequential steps are taken in order to guide analysis into a<br />
diagnosis useful for decision making. It starts by defining heterogeneity areas at different scales<br />
by means of multiscale approach. It is expected that such an approach, based in a “multi-level”<br />
structural analysis, would be useful for the spatial design of planning strategies.<br />
Keywords: multiscale analysis, l<strong>and</strong>scape metrics, l<strong>and</strong> use heterogeneity, dissimilarity,<br />
l<strong>and</strong>scape ecological planning<br />
1. Introduction<br />
The analysis of the spatial arrangement of l<strong>and</strong>scapes is generally adopted as a major tool for<br />
the comprehension of processes <strong>and</strong> dynamics of the l<strong>and</strong>scapes, <strong>and</strong> the relationship among<br />
their constitutive elements. Beyond the utility of pattern analysis for the underst<strong>and</strong>ing of<br />
l<strong>and</strong>scapes, it can constitute a strong support of l<strong>and</strong>scape planning strategies. In this work, the<br />
utility of two different l<strong>and</strong>scape indices to analyse heterogeneity in order to derive conclusions<br />
for spatial planning is explored. To do so, simulated l<strong>and</strong>scapes are used to test the behaviour of<br />
the indices at multiple scales, <strong>and</strong> ideas of their application to real planning cases are derived.<br />
2. Methodology<br />
2.1. Artificial l<strong>and</strong>scapes<br />
Artificial l<strong>and</strong>scapes were generated using Simmap software (Saura, 2003), based on the<br />
Modified R<strong>and</strong>om Clusters Method (MRC) (Saura <strong>and</strong> Martínez-Millán, 2000). This method<br />
generates more realistic l<strong>and</strong>scapes than other neutral model software (Saura <strong>and</strong> Martínez-<br />
Millán, 2000), due to the patchy, irregular shape of the results, which made it adequate to<br />
simulate l<strong>and</strong> use planning scenarios. The programme allows to control the degree of patchiness<br />
by the variation in the generation parameters p, n, Ai, <strong>and</strong> both the Minimum Mapping Unit <strong>and</strong><br />
* Corresponding author. Tel.: +34 982 285 900 ext. 23629 - Fax: +34 982 285 926<br />
Email address: emilio.diaz@usc.es<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
E.R. Diaz-Varela et al. 2010. Multiscale analysis of l<strong>and</strong> use heterogeneity <strong>and</strong> dissimilarity<br />
636<br />
the extension of the map (Saura, 2003). We generated artificial l<strong>and</strong>scapes for three values of p:<br />
the value above which the size of the largest cluster in the map starts to vary (0.45), an<br />
intermediate value (0.50), <strong>and</strong> the value immediately below the percolation threshold (0.58).<br />
Values beyond the percolation threshold generated almost complete dominance of one of the<br />
l<strong>and</strong> cover classes in preliminary tests.<br />
We considered five l<strong>and</strong> cover classes, the proportion of each class following two types of<br />
distributions: “equiprobable” (each class 20%), <strong>and</strong> “non-equiprobable” (with classes<br />
distributed 50%; 30%; 10%; 5% <strong>and</strong> 5%). In the latter case, the aim was to resemble a real<br />
distribution of l<strong>and</strong> cover with one l<strong>and</strong> cover clearly, but not completely, dominant, being the<br />
respective modeled l<strong>and</strong> cover types Planted forest, Agriculture, Urban, Natural forest, <strong>and</strong><br />
Shrubl<strong>and</strong>. The “equiprobable” distribution is aimed to obtain results for an even distribution of<br />
results which can be used as a theoretical. In the “non-equiprobable” distributions, a more<br />
realistic l<strong>and</strong>scape response is expected. For each of these cases, four different MMUs were<br />
considered, for 1 pixel, 10 pixels, 50 pixels <strong>and</strong> 99 pixels, i.e. a total of 24 different l<strong>and</strong>scape<br />
cases. Each case was coded with a sequential number representing the generation parameters,<br />
e.g.: “N5m1-58a” for 5 classes, MMU=1; p= 0.58; “a” type of class proportion, being “a”<br />
equiprobable, <strong>and</strong> “b” non-equiprobable.<br />
2.3. Analysis of l<strong>and</strong>scape heterogeneity <strong>and</strong> dissimilarity<br />
A common approach for the analysis of l<strong>and</strong>scape heterogeneity is the application of l<strong>and</strong>scape<br />
pattern metrics to a categorical map (O’Neill et al., 1988; Botequilha-Leitao <strong>and</strong> Ahern, 2002;<br />
McGarigal et al., 2002; Botequilha-Leitao et al., 2006). Although l<strong>and</strong>scape metrics are<br />
extensively used, careful consideration is required as to which are the most adequate as regards<br />
the aims of the study <strong>and</strong> the spatial data available (Li <strong>and</strong> Wu, 2004; Corry <strong>and</strong> Nassauer,<br />
2005; Diaz-Varela et al., 2009b; Dramstad, 2009). One of the problems with application of<br />
l<strong>and</strong>scape metrics to an entire study area lies in that metrics do not reveal the spatial distribution<br />
of the variables studied, <strong>and</strong> their scale-dependence, making necessary a system for subdivision<br />
into intermediate scales. Previous studies on the subject made by the authors revealed the utility<br />
of moving-window approaches in calculation of l<strong>and</strong>scape indices (Botequilha-Leitao <strong>and</strong><br />
Díaz-Varela, 2009; Díaz-Varela et al., 2009a), namely those related to information theory, like<br />
the Shannon-Wiener index. The Shannon-Wiener index was developed as a measure of the<br />
information content in a code (Shannon <strong>and</strong> Weaver, 1949), <strong>and</strong> is calculated by the expression<br />
(1):<br />
SHDI<br />
m<br />
= −∑<br />
p i<br />
⋅ log p<br />
i=<br />
1<br />
i<br />
(1)<br />
Where p i is the proportion of the l<strong>and</strong>scape occupied by the class type i, <strong>and</strong> m the total number<br />
of classes.<br />
Dissimilarity was analysed by means of contrast metrics, namely the Contrast Weighted Edge<br />
Density (CWED). CWED is calculated following the expression (2) (McGarigal et al., 2002):<br />
CWED =<br />
m<br />
m<br />
∑∑<br />
( e ik<br />
dik<br />
)<br />
= i<br />
A<br />
(10000)<br />
(2)<br />
i= 1 k + 1<br />
Where e ik is the total length (m) of edge in l<strong>and</strong>scape between patch types (classes) i <strong>and</strong> k;<br />
includes l<strong>and</strong>scape boundary segments involving patch type i; d ik is the dissimilarity (edge<br />
contrast weight) between patch types i <strong>and</strong> k; <strong>and</strong> A, the total l<strong>and</strong>scape area (m 2 ). d ik was<br />
estimated by our subjective criteria over the dissimilarity among l<strong>and</strong> cover types, <strong>and</strong><br />
represented in the following table:<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
E.R. Diaz-Varela et al. 2010. Multiscale analysis of l<strong>and</strong> use heterogeneity <strong>and</strong> dissimilarity<br />
637<br />
Table 1: Contrast weights among modeled l<strong>and</strong> cover types<br />
L<strong>and</strong> cover<br />
Agriculture<br />
Planted<br />
forest<br />
Natural<br />
forest<br />
Urban<br />
Shrubl<strong>and</strong><br />
Agriculture 0.0 0.6 0.4 0.2 0.3<br />
Planted forest 0.6 0.0 0.8 0.7 0.2<br />
Natural forest 0.4 0.8 0.0 0.7 0.3<br />
Urban 0.2 0.7 0.7 0.0 0.1<br />
Shrubl<strong>and</strong> 0.3 0.2 0.3 0.1 0.0<br />
For its calculation, FRAGSTATS software (McGarigal et al., 2002) was used, <strong>and</strong> a circular<br />
window shape was chosen. Window radii of 10, 20, 30… 100 cells were applied in the<br />
calculations. When a window covers no data, a border effect is caused producing null areas<br />
proportional to the window radius. To avoid it, the original map dimension was fixed so as to<br />
obtain at least a result map of 600x600 cells. Further post-processing was carried out with<br />
ESRI’s ArcGIS 9.2 software.<br />
3. Results<br />
A total of 24 of simulated maps were obtained, showing different spatial patterns corresponding<br />
to the initial generation parameters. From them, the calculation of the indices using the moving<br />
window approach resulted in a total of 240 different maps, showing the scale behavior of spatial<br />
distribution of l<strong>and</strong>scape heterogeneity at different scales (see Figure 1 for examples on the<br />
different indices). In those maps generated by lower window sizes, homogeneous zones (i.e.<br />
lower index values) are shown corresponding with patches with extensions larger than the<br />
window size. For the same l<strong>and</strong>scapes, complex borders or fine-scaled l<strong>and</strong>scapes (i.e., areas<br />
with patches with extensions lower than the window size) correspond to peaks in the<br />
heterogeneity values. Maps generated for larger window sizes tend to average local effects.<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
E.R. Diaz-Varela et al. 2010. Multiscale analysis of l<strong>and</strong> use heterogeneity <strong>and</strong> dissimilarity<br />
638<br />
Figure 1: 3D representation of heterogeneity l<strong>and</strong>scape N5m99-58b (see text for interpretation of code) at<br />
diverse scales for SHDI (up) <strong>and</strong> CWED (down). The original l<strong>and</strong>scape <strong>and</strong> the corresponding window<br />
size are illustrated for comparison..<br />
This general response can be summarized as lower mean values for the smaller window sizes,<br />
where also the greater variance is attained, followed by a trend to stabilization in values<br />
corresponding with a decrease in variance, as window sizes grow. Figure 2 shows how this<br />
general trend is reflected in SHDI depending in the generation parameters (i.e., arrangement of<br />
l<strong>and</strong>scape elements) for three different examples. Equiprobable l<strong>and</strong>scapes with low values for<br />
m <strong>and</strong> p show a swift trend to stabilization in index values, following an asymptotic trend (Fig.<br />
2, upper left). A similar trend towards stabilization, but showing least decrease in variance is<br />
shown for non-equiprobable l<strong>and</strong>scapes (Fig. 2, lower). Some situations can also show a<br />
smother trend towards estabilization, corresponding with more complex structures in the<br />
l<strong>and</strong>scapes, as patches diverging in size <strong>and</strong> different interspersion patterns (Fig.2, upper right).<br />
Figure 2: Different scale behaviour of l<strong>and</strong>scapes as shown by changes in SHDI values with the window<br />
size. Dots represent mean values, boxes st<strong>and</strong>ard deviation (SD) values, <strong>and</strong> whiskers 1.96*SD. A portion<br />
of the l<strong>and</strong>scape is illustrated, <strong>and</strong> the window sizes super-imposed for comparison. See text to interpret<br />
the generation parameters by the l<strong>and</strong>scape code.<br />
For the case of CWED, the response shown by the index is slightly different, due to the<br />
calculation parameters of the indices (Figure 3). The maximum value of SHDI is attained for a<br />
equiprobable distribution of l<strong>and</strong> cover proportions. Nevertheless, as CWED calculates edge<br />
density, the effect of growing window area is translated in decreasing values for st<strong>and</strong>ard<br />
deviation, <strong>and</strong> initially decreasing, then increasing values for the mean.<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
E.R. Diaz-Varela et al. 2010. Multiscale analysis of l<strong>and</strong> use heterogeneity <strong>and</strong> dissimilarity<br />
639<br />
Figure 3:Scale behaviour of l<strong>and</strong>scape N5m99-58b as interpreted by CWED. Though stabilization of<br />
values towards the higher window values is evident, this is not clearly asymptotic with a maximum value<br />
as in the case of SHDI. Dots represent mean values, <strong>and</strong> boxes st<strong>and</strong>ard deviation (SD) values<br />
4. Consequences <strong>and</strong> applicability in l<strong>and</strong>scape planning<br />
The utility of the approach is derived from three different consequences of the analysis.<br />
First, the behavior of the indices with changes in scale allows the detection of self-similarity in<br />
l<strong>and</strong>scapes. In figure 2 (upper left), this would correspond with the stabilization of the trend of<br />
the mean values of SHDI. For such cases, the heterogeneity as detected by the index presents<br />
little variation with the scale, thus l<strong>and</strong>scapes can be considered as self-similar. This would<br />
allow to identify characteristic scales for l<strong>and</strong>scapes, <strong>and</strong> areas where planning actions should<br />
be independent from the scale of application. However, this case would be rarely verified in real<br />
scenarios, <strong>and</strong> trends are more similar to the graphic shown in figure 2 upper right. In those<br />
cases, variability as shown by st<strong>and</strong>ard deviation, <strong>and</strong> the smooth trend of the mean can be<br />
interpreted as several types of l<strong>and</strong>scape sharing the same area, which should be identified.<br />
Second, comparison between results of SHDI <strong>and</strong> CWED shows that l<strong>and</strong>scape heterogeneity<br />
analysis could not be confined to spatial composition <strong>and</strong> configuration. The use of dissimilarity<br />
values in the calculation of l<strong>and</strong>scape indices integrates a semantic perspective in the analysis of<br />
l<strong>and</strong>scape pattern, <strong>and</strong> allows for a qualitative approach. By using contrast weights among l<strong>and</strong><br />
cover types, we can identify possible conflicting areas, to which specific planning actions can be<br />
targeted.<br />
Figure 4:Multi-scale application of the heterogeneity analysis. In the upper part, sequential process for<br />
delimitation of heterogeneity trends based in dissimilarity among l<strong>and</strong> cover types. In the part below,<br />
micro-scale heterogeneity detected as high-dissimilarity sites inside low-dissimilarity areas. See text for<br />
details<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
E.R. Diaz-Varela et al. 2010. Multiscale analysis of l<strong>and</strong> use heterogeneity <strong>and</strong> dissimilarity<br />
640<br />
Finally, the third consequence, related to the previous ones, derives from multi-scale effects in<br />
the composition, configuration, <strong>and</strong> semantic structure of the l<strong>and</strong>scape. Figure 4 shows how<br />
high-contrast <strong>and</strong> low-contrast areas can be identified in a l<strong>and</strong>scape, taking the map created<br />
with the window size from which the stabilization trend is established, <strong>and</strong> using the mean value<br />
of CWED as a reference. Nevertheless, for more detailed scales, possible points of conflict can<br />
be detected as high-contrast areas. Such differences in dissimilarity among l<strong>and</strong> cover can be<br />
addressed in planning by the adoption of different strategies corresponding with the planning<br />
spatial level. For instance, the general map can resemble a regional approach to heterogeneity<br />
detection, while the more detailed scale can refer local effects. This kind of analysis presents a<br />
powerful field of application when multi-scale strategies of planning are developed.<br />
References<br />
Botequilha-Leitao, A., Ahern, J., 2002. Applying l<strong>and</strong>scape ecological concepts <strong>and</strong> metrics in<br />
sustainable l<strong>and</strong>scape planning. L<strong>and</strong>scape <strong>and</strong> Urban Planning, 59: 65-93.<br />
Botequilha-Leitao, A., Díaz-Varela, E., 2009. Paradigmas emergentes no Ordenamento do<br />
Território e da Paisagem, e no Urbanismo: Nova oportunidade para a conservaçao do<br />
recurso solo. 2º Encontro Anual da Sociedade Portuguesa de Conservaçao do Solo.<br />
Universidade do Algarve, Campus de Gambelas, 8-10th July, 2009.<br />
Botequilha-Leitao, A., Miller, J., Ahern, J., McGarigal, K., 2006. Measuring l<strong>and</strong>scapes : A<br />
planner’s h<strong>and</strong>book. Isl<strong>and</strong> Press, Washington.<br />
Corry, N.C., Nassauer, J.I., 2005. Limitations of using l<strong>and</strong>scape pattern indices to evaluate the<br />
ecological consequences of alternative plans <strong>and</strong> designs. L<strong>and</strong>scape <strong>and</strong> Urban<br />
Planning, 72: 265-280.<br />
Diaz-Varela, E., Álvarez-López, C.J., Marey-Pérez, M., 2009a. Multiscale delineation of<br />
l<strong>and</strong>scape planning units based on spatial variation of l<strong>and</strong>-use patterns in Galicia, NW<br />
Spain. L<strong>and</strong>scape <strong>and</strong> Ecological Engineering, 5: 1-10<br />
Diaz-Varela, E., Marey-Pérez, M., Rigueiro-Rodríguez ,A., Álvarez-Álvarez, P., 2009b.<br />
L<strong>and</strong>scape metrics for characterization of forest l<strong>and</strong>scapes in sustainable management<br />
framework: Potential application <strong>and</strong> prevention of misuse. Annals of <strong>Forest</strong> Science, 66:<br />
301.<br />
Dramstad, W.E., 2009: Spatial metrics - useful indicators for society or mainly fun tools for<br />
l<strong>and</strong>scape ecologists. Norsk Geografisk Tidsskrift - Norwegian Journal of Geography,<br />
63: 246 — 254<br />
Li, H., Wu, J., 2004. Use <strong>and</strong> misuse of l<strong>and</strong>scape indices. L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology, 19: 389-399.<br />
McGarigal, K., Cushman, S.A., Neel, M.C., Ene, E., 2002. FRAGSTATS: Spatial Pattern<br />
Analysis Program for Categorical Maps. Available on internet, URL:<br />
www.umass.edu/l<strong>and</strong>eco/research/fragstats/fragstats.html [Accessed May 8, 2009]<br />
O’Neill, R.V., Krummel, J.R., Gardner, R.H., Sugihara, G., Jackson, B., DeAngelis, D.L.,<br />
Milne, B.T., Turner, M.G., Zygmunt, B., Christensen, S.W., Dale, V.H., Graham, R.L.,<br />
1988. Indices of l<strong>and</strong>scape pattern. L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology,1: 153-162.<br />
Saura, S. <strong>and</strong> Martínez-Millán, J., 2000. L<strong>and</strong>scape patterns simulation with a modified r<strong>and</strong>om<br />
clusters method. L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology, 15: 661-678.<br />
Saura, S., 2003. SIMMAP 2.0. L<strong>and</strong>scape categorical spatial patterns simulation software.<br />
User’s Manual. Available on the internet, URL: http://www.udl.es/usuaris/saura. [Accessed<br />
November, 21 2008].<br />
Shannon, C.E., Weaver, W., 1949. The mathematical theory of communication. University of<br />
Illinois Press, Urbana, Illinois.<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
J.L. Hernández-Stefanoni et al. 2010. Effects of l<strong>and</strong>scape structure <strong>and</strong> st<strong>and</strong> age on species richness <strong>and</strong> biomass<br />
641<br />
Effects of l<strong>and</strong>scape structure <strong>and</strong> st<strong>and</strong> age on species richness <strong>and</strong><br />
biomass in a tropical dry forest<br />
J. Luis Hernández-Stefanoni * , Juan Manuel Dupuy, Fern<strong>and</strong>o Tun-Dzul & Filogonio<br />
May-Pat<br />
Centro de Investigación Científica de Yucatán A.C. Unidad de Recursos Naturales,<br />
Calle 43 # 130. Colonia Chuburná de Hidalgo. C.P. 97200, Mérida, Yucatán. México<br />
Abstract<br />
Tropical dry forests are the terrestrial ecosystem with the largest extent in the Yucatán Peninsula,<br />
but have been scarcely studied <strong>and</strong> are poorly represented under protected areas. This study<br />
aims to characterize relationships between structure of vegetation <strong>and</strong> l<strong>and</strong>scape structure <strong>and</strong><br />
habitat type (st<strong>and</strong> age) considering different spatial scales. Species richness <strong>and</strong> biomass were<br />
calculated from 276 sampling sites, while l<strong>and</strong> cover classes were obtained from multi-spectral<br />
satellite image classification using Spot 5 satellite imagery. Species richness <strong>and</strong> biomass were<br />
related to patch age, l<strong>and</strong>scape metrics of patch types (area, edge, shape, similarity <strong>and</strong> contrast)<br />
<strong>and</strong> principal coordinate of neighbor matrices (PCNM) variables using regression analysis.<br />
PCNM analysis was performed to interpret results in terms of spatial scales as well as to<br />
decompose variation into spatial, age <strong>and</strong> l<strong>and</strong>scape structure components. Results indicate the<br />
best l<strong>and</strong>scape configuration to promote biodiversity conservation <strong>and</strong> to support carbon<br />
sequestration.<br />
Keywords: Biomass; variation partitioning; Species diversity; Spatial scales; forest succession<br />
1. Introduction<br />
Tropical dry forests (TDF) are the most extensive l<strong>and</strong> cover type in the tropics. More<br />
than half of tropical dry forests occur in the Americas, <strong>and</strong> Mexico contains 38% of the TDF in<br />
the continent. However TDF are the most threatened ecosystem in the world as a consequence<br />
of human activities (Portillo-Quintero <strong>and</strong> Sanchez-Azofeifa, 2010). Consequently, information<br />
about the ecological drivers of community structure at various spatial scales is fundamental to<br />
fully underst<strong>and</strong> <strong>and</strong> design effective strategies for conservation <strong>and</strong> management.<br />
Compared to other ecosystems, ecological studies in TDF are relatively new. In addition,<br />
most studies on the effects of fragmentation <strong>and</strong> l<strong>and</strong>scape patterns on plant communities focus<br />
on particular patches <strong>and</strong> on local species richness (α-diversity), while few studies examine<br />
different patch types at the whole l<strong>and</strong>scape level <strong>and</strong> address effects on attributes of<br />
community structure such as abundance or biomass (Hill <strong>and</strong> Curran, 2003). In this study we<br />
assess woody species density <strong>and</strong> biomass, <strong>and</strong> their response to l<strong>and</strong>scape structure <strong>and</strong> st<strong>and</strong><br />
age to address the following questions: Which l<strong>and</strong>scape configurations <strong>and</strong> stages of forest<br />
succession maximize biological diversity What is the relative importance of l<strong>and</strong>scape<br />
structure <strong>and</strong> st<strong>and</strong> age for carbon storage<br />
Most research examining the effects of l<strong>and</strong>scape structure on species diversity <strong>and</strong><br />
structure of vegetation has focused on a single spatial scale. Yet, the degree to which l<strong>and</strong>scape<br />
* Corresponding author: Email address: jl_stefanoni@cicy.mx<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
J.L. Hernández-Stefanoni et al. 2010. Effects of l<strong>and</strong>scape structure <strong>and</strong> st<strong>and</strong> age on species richness <strong>and</strong> biomass<br />
642<br />
configuration affects the structure <strong>and</strong> composition of plant communities depends on processes<br />
occurring at different spatial scales (Cushman <strong>and</strong> McGarigal, 2004). In order to assess the<br />
relationship between community attributes <strong>and</strong> l<strong>and</strong>scape structure across different scales it is<br />
necessary to consider scale-dependent ecological processes (Bellier et al, 2007). Thus, the goal<br />
of this study was to relate plant species density <strong>and</strong> biomass with l<strong>and</strong>scape structure, st<strong>and</strong> age<br />
<strong>and</strong> spatial variation of ecological structure at different spatial scales.<br />
2. Methods<br />
2.1 Study Area<br />
The study was conducted in a l<strong>and</strong>scape mosaic of 22 x 16 km 2 in Yucatán, México.<br />
The climate is tropical, warm, with summer rain <strong>and</strong> a dry season from November to April.<br />
Mean annual temperature is ca 26ºC, <strong>and</strong> mean annual precipitation between 1000 <strong>and</strong> 1200<br />
mm, concentrated between June <strong>and</strong> October. The l<strong>and</strong>scape consists of Cenozoic limestone<br />
hills with moderate slope (10-25°) alternating with flat areas, <strong>and</strong> the elevation ranges from 60<br />
to 160 m.a.s.l (Flores <strong>and</strong> Espejel 1994). The l<strong>and</strong>scape is dominated by seasonally dry<br />
semideciduous tropical forests of different ages of ab<strong>and</strong>onment after traditional slash-<strong>and</strong>-burn<br />
agriculture (Figure 1).<br />
2.2 Remotely sensed data <strong>and</strong> imagery processing<br />
A Spot 5 satellite image acquired on January 2005 was geo-referenced to Universal<br />
Transverse Mercator Projection (WGS 84) <strong>and</strong> radiometrically corrected to minimize the effect<br />
of atmospheric scattering. A false color composite image was created from b<strong>and</strong>s 2 (red), 3<br />
(near infrared), <strong>and</strong> 4 (mid infrared). This composite image was used as a spatial reference<br />
framework for selecting suitable training sites. At least three training sites were selected for<br />
each of the following l<strong>and</strong>-cover types: 1) 3-8 y-old secondary forest; 2) 9-15 y-old secondary<br />
forest; 3) >15 y-old secondary forest on flat areas; 4) >15 y-old secondary forest on hills; 5)<br />
agricultural fields; 6) urban areas <strong>and</strong> roads. The training areas <strong>and</strong> the false color image were<br />
used to perform a st<strong>and</strong>ard supervised classification of the Spot 5 b<strong>and</strong>s using the maximum<br />
likelihood algorithm (Idrisi Kilimanjaro V14.1, 2004). The overall accuracy <strong>and</strong> Cohen’s Kappa<br />
statistic were used to assess the accuracy of the map (Campbell, 1987).<br />
2.3 Calculation of l<strong>and</strong>scape pattern metrics<br />
We selected the following metrics that have been found relevant in l<strong>and</strong>scape studies<br />
(Mazerolle & Villard, 1999): patch density (PD), edge density (ED), mean area weighted shape<br />
index (SHAPE_AM), mean area weighted proximity index (PROX_AM), mean area weighted<br />
Euclidean nearest neighbor distance (ENN_AM) <strong>and</strong> total edge contrast index (TECI; see<br />
McGarigal et al. 2002 for a description of each metric). To calculate the proximity index, a<br />
search radius of 10 pixels (300 m) was used, which coincides with empirically derived evidence<br />
about the average size of a patch type. The weighted edge contrast between vegetation cover<br />
classes, required to compute the total edge contrast index, was calculated as the inverse of the<br />
Morisita-Horn similarity index between each pair of vegetation cover classes.<br />
2.4 Species density <strong>and</strong> biomass data<br />
Field data were recorded from a hierarchical plant survey conducted during the rainy<br />
season of 2009. First, 23 l<strong>and</strong>scapes of 1 km 2 were selected encompassing the whole range of<br />
forest fragmentation; within each l<strong>and</strong>scape, 12 sample sites were located following a stratified<br />
r<strong>and</strong>om design considering each of the four secondary forest cover classes (276 sampling sites<br />
in total). Each sampling site consisted of two concentric circular plots: all woody plants > 5 cm<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
J.L. Hernández-Stefanoni et al. 2010. Effects of l<strong>and</strong>scape structure <strong>and</strong> st<strong>and</strong> age on species richness <strong>and</strong> biomass<br />
643<br />
in DBH (diameter at breast (1.3 m) height), hereafter referred to as adults, were sampled in a<br />
200 m 2 plot; whereas 1-5 cm DBH woody plants, hereafter referred to as juveniles, were<br />
sampled in a nested 50 m 2 subplot. In each site, we identified all woody plants, <strong>and</strong> measured<br />
their diameter <strong>and</strong> height. The number of adults, juveniles <strong>and</strong> all woody plant species was<br />
computed. To calculate above-ground biomass, two equations were employed: one for<br />
individuals ≥ 10 cm in DBH (Cairns et al, 2003) <strong>and</strong> the other for individuals < 10 cm in DBH<br />
(Hughes et al, 2000).<br />
2.5 Data analysis<br />
Multiple regression <strong>and</strong> variation partitioning methods (Bocard et al, 2004) were used to<br />
quantify the effects of l<strong>and</strong>scape structure <strong>and</strong> spatial dependence on species density <strong>and</strong><br />
biomass. First, a model using l<strong>and</strong>scape structure <strong>and</strong> st<strong>and</strong> age variables was fit to the response<br />
variables using multiple regression. Then, a multiple regression model using spatial variables<br />
derived from a principal coordinate of neighbor matrices (PCNM) analysis of plot locations was<br />
fit to the response variables. Finally, the two models were combined into an overall regression<br />
model <strong>and</strong> variation partitioning was performed to determine the relatively importance of<br />
l<strong>and</strong>scape structure variables, st<strong>and</strong> age, pure spatial dependence <strong>and</strong> shared variation on species<br />
density <strong>and</strong> biomass.<br />
PCNM analysis <strong>and</strong> multiple regressions were used to identify l<strong>and</strong>scape structure <strong>and</strong><br />
st<strong>and</strong> age variables related to response variables at different spatial scales (Bocard et al, 2004).<br />
First, we partitioned the spatial model for each response variable into several additive<br />
submodels, <strong>and</strong> run a variogram analysis of significant PCNM vectors to identify their scale <strong>and</strong><br />
assign them to one of three groups: very board scale (distances of 8001 to 10500 m), broad scale<br />
(distances of 2001 to 8000 m), <strong>and</strong> local scale (distances of 0 to 2000 m). Then, we calculated<br />
predicted values of species density <strong>and</strong> biomass corresponding to each spatial submodel. Finally,<br />
a multiple regression model using st<strong>and</strong> age <strong>and</strong> l<strong>and</strong>scape structure metrics was fit to the<br />
predicted response variables for each submodel (very broad, broad <strong>and</strong> local scale).<br />
3. Results<br />
The l<strong>and</strong> cover thematic map of the study area is shown in Figure 1. This l<strong>and</strong>scape<br />
covers a total area of 37 242 ha; 94.3% is covered by forest in any of the four vegetation classes,<br />
<strong>and</strong> only 5.7% is covered by agriculture, urban areas <strong>and</strong> roads. The overall accuracy calculated<br />
for the map was 75.6%, <strong>and</strong> the Kappa index was 0.7.<br />
Figure 1: Location <strong>and</strong> l<strong>and</strong> cover map of the study area obtained from a supervised classification.<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
J.L. Hernández-Stefanoni et al. 2010. Effects of l<strong>and</strong>scape structure <strong>and</strong> st<strong>and</strong> age on species richness <strong>and</strong> biomass<br />
644<br />
Multiple regression results indicated statistically significant relationships between<br />
species density <strong>and</strong> st<strong>and</strong> age, PD, ED, SHAPE_AM <strong>and</strong> TECI (Table 1). Relationships<br />
involving PD <strong>and</strong> SHAPE_AM were consistently negative, indicating that plant diversity<br />
decreases as the number of patches increases <strong>and</strong> as the shape of a patch type becomes more<br />
irregular. On the other h<strong>and</strong>, biomass was best explained by st<strong>and</strong> age, PROX_AM, ENN_AM<br />
<strong>and</strong> TECI (Table 1). Biomass in all groups consistently responded negatively to ENN_AM <strong>and</strong><br />
TECI <strong>and</strong> positively to PROX_AM, indicating that biomass decreases with distance between<br />
patch types of the same vegetation or as the perimeter of the focal patch type increases its<br />
contrast with other patches types. For all groups of plants, st<strong>and</strong> age was positively associated to<br />
species density <strong>and</strong> biomass, except for juvenile biomass (Table 1).<br />
Table 1: Regression st<strong>and</strong>ardized coefficients for predicting species density <strong>and</strong> biomass from st<strong>and</strong> age<br />
<strong>and</strong> patch type metrics<br />
DEPENDENT PREDICTOR ALL WOODY ADULT JUVENILE<br />
VARIABLE VARIABLE PLANTS PLANTS PLANTS<br />
Biomass (R 2 = 0.68) (R 2 = 0.68) (R 2 = 0.16)<br />
AGE 0.725* 0.734* -0.316*<br />
PD<br />
ED<br />
SHAPE_AM -0.181*<br />
PROX_AM 0.110* 0.110* 0.107***<br />
ENN_AM -0.095** -0.096**<br />
TECI -0.080** -0.081**<br />
Species density (R 2 = 0.26) (R 2 = 0.44) (R 2 = 0.09)<br />
AGE 0.444* 0.634* 0.254*<br />
PD -0.218** -0.128***<br />
ED 0.322* 0.248** 0.190**<br />
SHAPE_AM -0.363* -0.349* -0.260*<br />
PROX_AM<br />
ENN_AM<br />
TECI -0.175**<br />
Variables included in the model with * p
J.L. Hernández-Stefanoni et al. 2010. Effects of l<strong>and</strong>scape structure <strong>and</strong> st<strong>and</strong> age on species richness <strong>and</strong> biomass<br />
645<br />
Figure 2: Partitioning of the variation of species density <strong>and</strong> biomass using l<strong>and</strong>scape structure variables<br />
(L<strong>and</strong>), st<strong>and</strong> age (Age) <strong>and</strong> PCNM variables (space) for different groups of plants<br />
Table 2: Regression st<strong>and</strong>ardized coefficients of predictor variables (age <strong>and</strong> l<strong>and</strong>scape structure) that<br />
explain significant components of spatial patterns of biomass <strong>and</strong> species density at different scales<br />
DEPENDENT PREDICTOR Very Very Very<br />
VARIABLE VARIABLE Broad Broad Local Broad Broad Local Broad Broad Local<br />
Biomass (R 2 = 0.04) (R 2 = 0.07) (R 2 = 0.09) (R 2 = 0.04) (R 2 = 0.07) (R 2 = 0.09) (R 2 = 0.04) (R 2 = 0.04) (R 2 = 0.02)<br />
AGE 0.192* 0.271* 0.192* 0.271* -0.187* -0.202*<br />
PD<br />
ED<br />
SHAPE_AM<br />
PROX_AM 0.112*** 0.112*** 0.124**<br />
ENN_AM -0.147** -0.254* -0.147** -0.254*<br />
TECI -0.105*** -0.105***<br />
Species density (R 2 = 0.14) (R 2 = 0.07) (R 2 = 0.05) (R 2 = 0.05) (R 2 = 0.10)<br />
AGE 0.266* 0.231* 0.154** 0.224* -0.256*<br />
PD -0.134**<br />
ED 0.413* 0.201** 0.332*<br />
SHAPE_AM -0.277* -0.208* -0.231*<br />
PROX_AM<br />
ENN_AM<br />
TECI<br />
Variables included in the model with * p
J.L. Hernández-Stefanoni et al. 2010. Effects of l<strong>and</strong>scape structure <strong>and</strong> st<strong>and</strong> age on species richness <strong>and</strong> biomass<br />
646<br />
structure <strong>and</strong> spatial dependence had a comparable or even stronger effect on species diversity<br />
than st<strong>and</strong> age. These results are consistent with recent findings in tropical forests showing that<br />
long-term monitoring data follow chronosequence patterns for basal area, but not for species<br />
density, indicating that st<strong>and</strong> age largely determines basal area –<strong>and</strong> biomass, whereas species<br />
density seems to be strongly affected by other factors operating at the local <strong>and</strong> l<strong>and</strong>scape level<br />
(Chazdon et al. 2007).<br />
Our results also show that, for juveniles, pure spatial dependence appears to be the most<br />
important predictor of both species density <strong>and</strong> biomass. This result could either imply strong<br />
dispersal/recruitment limitation, or be due to an environmental component that was not<br />
considered, such as topographic or soil variables (Jones et al, 2008).<br />
PCNM submodels allowed us to link the spatial distribution of species density <strong>and</strong><br />
biomass to st<strong>and</strong> age <strong>and</strong> l<strong>and</strong>scape structure at different spatial scales. At the very broad scale,<br />
st<strong>and</strong> age contributed most to biomass, <strong>and</strong> l<strong>and</strong>scape structure to species density. At the broad<br />
scale, st<strong>and</strong> age contributed most to both species density <strong>and</strong> biomass.<br />
Finally, we found a strong negative association between species density <strong>and</strong> PD <strong>and</strong><br />
SHAPE_AM, as well as a positive association between species density <strong>and</strong> edge density (ED).<br />
These results may suggest that moderate levels of disturbance may enhance species richness in a<br />
forest-dominated l<strong>and</strong>scape. However, high levels of disturbance resulting in a high degree of<br />
fragmentation can have a strong negative impact on species richness (Hill <strong>and</strong> Curran, 2003).<br />
References<br />
Bellier, E., Monestiez, P., Durbec, J.P. <strong>and</strong> C<strong>and</strong>au, J.N. 2007. Identifying spatial relationships<br />
at multiple scales: principal coordinate of neighbour matrices (PCNM) <strong>and</strong> geostatistical<br />
approches. Ecography, 30: 385-399.<br />
Borcard D, Legendre P, Avois-Jacquet C, Tuomisto H. 2004. Dissecting the spatial structure of<br />
ecological data at multiple scales. Ecology 85:1826–1832<br />
Cairns, M.A., Olmsted, I., Granados, J., Argaez, J., 2003. Composition <strong>and</strong> aboveground tree<br />
biomass of a dry semi-evergreen forest on Mexico’s Yucatan Peninsula. <strong>Forest</strong>. Ecology<br />
<strong>and</strong> Management . 186, 125–132.<br />
Campbell, J.B. 1987. Introduction to remote sensing. The Guilford Press. New York.<br />
Chazdon, R.L., Letcher, S.G., Breugel, M. van,Martínez-Ramos, M. Bongers, F. <strong>and</strong> Finegan, B.<br />
2007. Rates of change in tree communities of secondary Neotropical forests following major<br />
disturbances. Phil. Trans. R. Soc. B 362: 273-289.<br />
Cushman SA, McGarigal K (2004) Patterns in the speciesenvironment relationship depend on<br />
both scale <strong>and</strong> choice of response variables. Oikos 105:117–124.<br />
Flores, J.<strong>and</strong> Espejel, I. 1994. Tipos de vegetación de la Península de Yucatán. Etnoflora<br />
Yucatanense, Fascículo 3. México 135 p.<br />
Hill J.L., Curran P.J. 2003. Area, shape <strong>and</strong> isolation of tropical forest fragments: effects on tree<br />
species diversity <strong>and</strong> implications for conservation. Journal of Biogeography 30: 1391-<br />
1403.<br />
Hughes, R.F., J.B. Kauffman <strong>and</strong> V.J. Jaramillo-Luque. 1999. Biomass, carbon, <strong>and</strong> nutrient<br />
dynamics of secondary forests in a humid tropical region of México. Ecology 80:1892-<br />
1907.<br />
Jones, MM., Tuomisto, H., Borcard, D, Legendre, P., Clark, DB., <strong>and</strong> Olivas, PC. 2008.<br />
Explaining variation in tropical plant community composition: inXuence of<br />
environmental <strong>and</strong> spatial data quality. Oecologia 155:593–604.<br />
Mazerolle M.J., Villard M.A. 1999. Patch characteristics <strong>and</strong> l<strong>and</strong>scape context as predictor of<br />
species presence <strong>and</strong> abundance: A review. Ecoscience 6(1): 177-124.<br />
McGarigal K., Cushman S.A., Neel M.C., Ene E. 2002. FRAGSTATS: spatial pattern analysis<br />
for categorical maps. University of Massachusetts.<br />
Portillo-Quintero, C.A., Sánchez-Azofeifa, G.A. 2010. Extent <strong>and</strong> conservation of tropical dry<br />
forests in the Americas. Biological Conservation 143 (2010) 144–155.<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
E. Uuemaa et al. 2010. Spatial gradients of l<strong>and</strong>scape metrics as an indicator of human influence on l<strong>and</strong>scape<br />
647<br />
Spatial gradients of l<strong>and</strong>scape metrics as an indicator of human<br />
influence on l<strong>and</strong>scape<br />
Evelyn Uuemaa * , Ramon Reimets, Tõnu Oja, Arno Kanal & Ülo M<strong>and</strong>er<br />
Department of Geography, Institute of Ecology <strong>and</strong> Earth Sciences, University of Tartu,<br />
Estonia<br />
Abstract<br />
L<strong>and</strong>scape metrics have been widely used for mapping of l<strong>and</strong> cover/use change <strong>and</strong> analysing<br />
relationships between l<strong>and</strong>scape pattern <strong>and</strong> processes. Natural factors <strong>and</strong> human activity<br />
diversify <strong>and</strong> homogenize l<strong>and</strong>scape simultaneously. The aim of our study was to analyze the<br />
extent <strong>and</strong> magnitude of human influence on l<strong>and</strong>scape along l<strong>and</strong>scape gradients near main<br />
roads. We calculated several l<strong>and</strong>scape metrics for gradients along main roads of Tartu <strong>and</strong><br />
Tallinn on Estonian Basic Map (1:10 000) from different years (1997/1998 <strong>and</strong> 2004/2005). We<br />
compared the gradients of l<strong>and</strong>scape metrics to determine how the anthropogenic areas have<br />
exp<strong>and</strong>ed in 10 years <strong>and</strong> whether the housing <strong>and</strong> infrastructure tend to exp<strong>and</strong> more quickly<br />
on fertile soils. The results showed that the housing has mostly exp<strong>and</strong>ed on fields eliminating<br />
the possibility to use fertile soils for agriculture or foresting. The pressure on forest areas was<br />
not as intense as on agricultural areas. The gradients enable to compare the changes in l<strong>and</strong>scape<br />
structure in time <strong>and</strong> space at the same time.<br />
Keywords: spatial gradients, l<strong>and</strong>scape metrics, settlement structure<br />
1. Introduction<br />
<strong>Change</strong>s in l<strong>and</strong>scape are caused by natural <strong>and</strong> anthropogenic factors. Natural changes occur<br />
during a long time, mostly due to climate change. The anthropogenic impact on l<strong>and</strong>scapes is<br />
expressed by changes in l<strong>and</strong> use related primarily to changes in the settlement structure.<br />
Natural factors <strong>and</strong> human activity diversify <strong>and</strong> homogenize l<strong>and</strong>scape simultaneously.<br />
L<strong>and</strong>scape metrics that means all parameters that quantify the spatial pattern of l<strong>and</strong>scape from<br />
topographic measures (Vivoni et al. 2005) to proportions of l<strong>and</strong> use/cover, shape <strong>and</strong> area<br />
metrics (Palmer 2004) have been suggested for measuring l<strong>and</strong>scape diversity. These metrics<br />
enable to evaluate habitat suitability for animals <strong>and</strong> birds (Weiers et al. 2004), nutrient fluxes<br />
<strong>and</strong> losses (Uuemaa et al. 2005). Attempts to relate l<strong>and</strong>scape metrics to human perception of a<br />
l<strong>and</strong>scape have been made as well (Antrop <strong>and</strong> Van Eetvelde 2000). Both human activities <strong>and</strong><br />
those of other biota in l<strong>and</strong>scape may be generalised as l<strong>and</strong>scape consumption (Oja, Prede<br />
2004).<br />
Different software has been developed to calculate l<strong>and</strong>scape metrics like FRAGSTATS<br />
(McGarigal <strong>and</strong> Marks 1995) but there are no unambiguously interpretable indicators <strong>and</strong> there<br />
can be found numerous researches on the issue of the use/interpretation of l<strong>and</strong>scape metrics<br />
(Wu 2004, Uuemaa et al. 2005, Oja et al. 2005, Uuemaa et al. 2007).<br />
* Corresponding author. Tel.: +372 52 27 830 - Fax: +372 7375 825<br />
Email address: evelyn.uuemaa@ut.ee<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
E. Uuemaa et al. 2010. Spatial gradients of l<strong>and</strong>scape metrics as an indicator of human influence on l<strong>and</strong>scape<br />
648<br />
L<strong>and</strong> use changes caused by urbanization can severely affect biodiversity, energy flows,<br />
biochemical cycles, <strong>and</strong> climatic conditions (Baker et al. 2001). A systematically effective<br />
approach to analyze the effects of urbanization on ecosystems is to study the changes of<br />
ecosystem patterns <strong>and</strong> processes along an urban-to-rural gradient (McDonnell et al. 1997)<br />
focusing on the recognition of unique urban texture from the l<strong>and</strong>scape types (Weng 2007).<br />
Spatiotemporal gradient analysis enables to determine how urban centres have been enlarged in<br />
space <strong>and</strong> time.<br />
The aim of the study was to analyse how the housing areas have exp<strong>and</strong>ed in 1997−2005 in<br />
Estonia near two Estonian largest cities – Tartu <strong>and</strong> Tallinn <strong>and</strong> how is this process influenced<br />
by major roads. Second aim was to determine whether the new housing areas tend to exp<strong>and</strong> on<br />
fertile soils or not.<br />
2. Methodology<br />
We chose two study areas around two largest cities of Estonia (Figure 1). The size of the study<br />
areas was limited by the availability of the Estonian Basic Map (1:10 000) for two different<br />
years set: 1997/1998 <strong>and</strong> 2004/2005. Estonian Soil Map (1:10 000) was used for soil data. Soils<br />
were reclassified according to their suitability for agriculture (Kõlli 1994). This classification<br />
takes into consideration the fertility of soils <strong>and</strong> how suitable they are for agricultural activities.<br />
For determining whether the new housing has exp<strong>and</strong>ed mainly on fertile soils or not, we<br />
distinguished new settlements by using centroids of the buildings <strong>and</strong> spatial join. Analysis was<br />
performed with vector data as buildings require high accuracy of the map.<br />
For analysis of the influence of the roads on housing structure <strong>and</strong> l<strong>and</strong>scape structure we<br />
calculated several l<strong>and</strong>scape metrics with moving window method in Fragstats 3.3 (McGarigal<br />
<strong>and</strong> Marks 1995). We used edge density (ED), patch density (PD), mean shape index<br />
(SHAPE_MN), Simpson’s diversity index (SIDI) on l<strong>and</strong>scape level <strong>and</strong> patch density on<br />
class level. On these l<strong>and</strong>scape metric maps we calculated gradients along main roads 100m,<br />
200m... 1900m, 2000m from the road for different years to see how the settlement <strong>and</strong><br />
l<strong>and</strong>scape structure has changed in time.<br />
Figure 1. Study areas near Tallinn <strong>and</strong> Tartu<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
E. Uuemaa et al. 2010. Spatial gradients of l<strong>and</strong>scape metrics as an indicator of human influence on l<strong>and</strong>scape<br />
649<br />
3. Results <strong>and</strong> discussion<br />
The analysis showed that on the Tartu study area most of the new buildings were built on fields<br />
(45,5%) in 1997−2005 <strong>and</strong> 33,3% of the new buildings were built on the yards. On the Tallinn<br />
study area most of the buildings were built on the yards (51,4%) <strong>and</strong> only 23,9% on the fields.<br />
74,7% of the Tartu study area had soils with good suitability for agricultural activities <strong>and</strong><br />
81,6% of the new buildings by area were built on these soils. In Tallinn study area only 56,2%<br />
had soils with good suitability for agricultural activities <strong>and</strong> 79,8% of the buildings by area were<br />
built on these soils in 1997−2005. The results showed that most of the new buildings are located<br />
on fields with good suitability for agricultural activities <strong>and</strong> the housing tended to exp<strong>and</strong> near<br />
main roads (Figure 2 <strong>and</strong> Figure 3).<br />
Figure 2. New housing areas on the study area of Tallinn <strong>and</strong> gradients along main roads (Tallinn-Narva,<br />
Tallinn-Tartu, Tallinn-Haapsalu). Soils are classified according to their suitability for agricultural<br />
activities (Kõlli, 1994).<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
E. Uuemaa et al. 2010. Spatial gradients of l<strong>and</strong>scape metrics as an indicator of human influence on l<strong>and</strong>scape<br />
650<br />
Figure 3. New housing areas on the study area of Tartu <strong>and</strong> gradients along main roads (Tartu-Valga,<br />
Tartu-Võru). Soils are classified according to their suitability for agricultural activities (Kõlli, 1994).<br />
The analysis of gradients showed that all the l<strong>and</strong>scape metrics analyzed indicate very well<br />
housing density as edge density, patch density <strong>and</strong> Simpson’s diversity index had higher values<br />
with higher housing densities <strong>and</strong> in case of mean shape index it was vice versa. The distance<br />
from the road appeared to play more important role than distance from the city in existing<br />
patterns of housing (Figure 4). However it can be assumed that housing densities decrease as<br />
we move away from the city <strong>and</strong> from the road but these results not show very clear trends. Part<br />
of it was beacause small settlements near roads that give higher peaks of edge density, patch<br />
density <strong>and</strong> Simpson’s diversity index. Nevertheless the l<strong>and</strong>scape was more fragmented in<br />
300m − 1000m then in 0m − 300m <strong>and</strong> 1000m − 2000m. This shows that the housing tends to<br />
exp<strong>and</strong> not directly near the main road but a little bit farther. People prefer to get quickly out of<br />
the city by main road <strong>and</strong> then move up to 1km away from the main road.<br />
800<br />
700<br />
edge density (m/ha)<br />
600<br />
500<br />
400<br />
300<br />
200<br />
100<br />
100m<br />
300m<br />
500m<br />
1000m<br />
1500m<br />
2000m<br />
0<br />
2000 4000 6000 8000 10000 12000 14000 16000<br />
distance from city (m)<br />
Figure 4. Gradients of edge density for Tartu-Valga road in Tartu study area in year 2005. 100m, 300m,<br />
500m, 1000m, 1500m <strong>and</strong> 2000m mark the distance of the gradient from the road.<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
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The temporal analysis showed that spatial fragmentation has increased significantly from 1997<br />
to 2005 near main roads. The fragmentation has increased more quicly from 0m −1000m of the<br />
road <strong>and</strong> up to 10km from the cities (Figure 5). In distance 2000m from the main road the<br />
l<strong>and</strong>scape structure has not changed significantly (Figure 6).<br />
800<br />
edge density (m/ha)<br />
700<br />
year 1997<br />
600<br />
year 2005<br />
500<br />
400<br />
300<br />
200<br />
100<br />
0<br />
2000 4000 6000 8000 10000 12000 14000<br />
distance from the city (m)<br />
Figure 5. Gradients of edge density for Tartu-Valga road in Tartu study area for years 1997 <strong>and</strong> 2005 at<br />
300m from main road.<br />
800<br />
edge density (m/ha)<br />
700<br />
600<br />
500<br />
400<br />
300<br />
200<br />
100<br />
year 1997<br />
year 2005<br />
0<br />
2000 4000 6000 8000 10000 12000 14000<br />
distance from the city (m)<br />
Figure 6. Gradients of edge density for Tartu-Valga road in Tartu study area for years 1997 <strong>and</strong> 2005 at<br />
2000m from main road.<br />
These results enable to better underst<strong>and</strong> the importance of infrastucture in suburbanisation<br />
process <strong>and</strong> use this knowledge in planning process. Housing areas built on fields have already<br />
faced serious problems because of the ruined amelioration systems <strong>and</strong> these problems with loss<br />
of fertile soils may deepen unless local municipalities do not direct planning process more<br />
effectively.<br />
4. Conclusions<br />
The housing areas have exp<strong>and</strong>ed significantly during years 1997−2005 <strong>and</strong> the l<strong>and</strong>scape<br />
fragmentation has also therefore increased. Housing areas also ted to exp<strong>and</strong> on fertile soils that<br />
are very suitable for agricultural activities. Therefore the area of the fertile soils is decreasing<br />
due to suburbaisation in Estonia. The housing areas exp<strong>and</strong> more quicly within 10km radius of<br />
the cities <strong>and</strong> within 1000m radius of the main roads. These methods <strong>and</strong> results can be used in<br />
planning process for decision suport.<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
E. Uuemaa et al. 2010. Spatial gradients of l<strong>and</strong>scape metrics as an indicator of human influence on l<strong>and</strong>scape<br />
652<br />
Acknowledgements<br />
This study was supported by Estonian Science Foundation grant No.8040 <strong>and</strong> Target Funding<br />
Project No. 0180049s09 of the Ministry of Education <strong>and</strong> Science, Estonia<br />
References<br />
Antrop, M., Van Eetvelde, V., 2000. Holistic aspects of suburban l<strong>and</strong>scapes: visual image<br />
interpretation <strong>and</strong> l<strong>and</strong>scape metrics. L<strong>and</strong>scape And Urban Planning, 50 (1-3), 43-58.<br />
Baker L.A., Hope D., Xu Y., Edmonds J. <strong>and</strong> Lauver L., 2001. Nitrogen Balance for the Central<br />
Arizona-Phoenix (CAP) Ecosystem. Ecosystems, 4, 582-602.<br />
Kõlli, R., 1994. Suitablility classes of soils for agricultural activities. Tartu. In Estonian.<br />
McGarigal, K., Marks, B. 1995. FRAGSTATS: spatial pattern analysis program for quantifying<br />
l<strong>and</strong>scape structure. USDA For. Serv. Gen. Tech. Rep. PNW-351.<br />
McDonnell M.J., Pickett S., Groffman P. <strong>and</strong> Bohlen P., 1997. Ecosystem processes along an<br />
urban-to-rural gradient. Urban Ecosysems, 1, 21-36.<br />
Oja, T. <strong>and</strong> Prede, M., 2004. L<strong>and</strong>scape consumption in Otepää, Estonia. In: Palang, H.,<br />
Sooväli, H., Antrop, M., Setten, G., (Eds). European Rural <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong>: Persistence <strong>and</strong><br />
<strong>Change</strong> in a <strong>Global</strong>ising Environment. Kluwer, pp. 99-112.<br />
Palmer, J. F., 2004. Using spatial metrics to predict scenic perception in a changing l<strong>and</strong>scape:<br />
Dennis, Massachusetts. L<strong>and</strong>scape And Urban Planning, 69 (2-3), 201-218.<br />
Uuemaa, E., Roosaare, J. <strong>and</strong> M<strong>and</strong>er, Ü., 2005. Scale dependence of l<strong>and</strong>scape metrics <strong>and</strong><br />
their indicatory value for nutrient <strong>and</strong> organic matter losses from catchments. Ecological<br />
Indicators 5(4), 350-369.<br />
Vivoni, E.R., Teles, V., Ivanov, V.Y., Bras, R.L. <strong>and</strong> Entekhabi, D., 2005. Embedding<br />
l<strong>and</strong>scape processes into triangulated terrain models. International Journal of<br />
Geographical Information Science, 19(4), 429-457.<br />
Weiers, S., Bock, M., Wissen, M. <strong>and</strong> Rossner, G., 2004. Mapping <strong>and</strong> indicator approaches for<br />
the assessment of habitats at different scales using remote sensing <strong>and</strong> GIS methods.<br />
L<strong>and</strong>scape Urban Planning, 67 (1-4), 43-65.<br />
Wu, J.G., 2004. Effects of changing scale on l<strong>and</strong>scape pattern analysis: scaling relations.<br />
L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology, 19 (2), 125-138.<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
L<strong>and</strong>scape assessment tools for adaptive management of<br />
tropical forested l<strong>and</strong>scapes
E. Penot 2010. Socio-economic diagnosis of a small region using an economic farming system modeling tool (Olympe)<br />
654<br />
Socio-economic diagnosis of a small region using an economic farming<br />
system modeling tool (Olympe). An approach from household to<br />
l<strong>and</strong>scape scales to assist decision making processes for development<br />
projects supporting conservation agriculture in Madagascar<br />
Eric Penot<br />
CIRAD UMR Innovation/URSCA-SCRID, Madagascar<br />
Abstract<br />
Two agricultural development projects based on conservation agriculture <strong>and</strong><br />
agriculture/livestock integration are implemented in Madagascar with both a “watershed<br />
approach” <strong>and</strong> a “farming system approach”: the BV-lac project in the area of Lake Alaotra <strong>and</strong><br />
the BVPI-SEHP project in Vakinankaratra (Central highl<strong>and</strong>s) <strong>and</strong> South-East. A farming<br />
systems reference monitoring network (FSRMN) has been set up with two objectives: i) to help<br />
the project in decision making processes for choosing appropriate technologies that will be<br />
developed according to a farmer’s typology using prospective analysis, ii) to monitor the<br />
project’s economical impact in the short <strong>and</strong> medium term. The farming system modelling<br />
approach is based on a software developed by INRA-CIRAD-IAMM (“Olympe”, JM Attonaty,<br />
INRA), The approach is based on partnership (smallholder, farmers’ organizations, project<br />
operators <strong>and</strong> local administration), farming system analysis, <strong>and</strong> modelling for a Decision<br />
Support Systems (DSS) project orientation. Adoption of conservation agriculture (CA)<br />
represents both a real change of paradigm for local farmers <strong>and</strong> a real challenge for agriculture<br />
<strong>and</strong> natural resources sustainability.<br />
Keywords: Farming system modelling, DSS (decision support system), conservation agriculture,<br />
Madagascar.<br />
Introduction<br />
A model has two main roles: a figurative role in representing the system (how it functions) <strong>and</strong><br />
a demonstrative role (possibilities <strong>and</strong> strategies). Combining these two roles leads to an<br />
explanatory model whose function is to represent a specific phenomenon that derives from<br />
general phenomena (management, accounting, <strong>and</strong> so on) as a function of the local conditions<br />
that characterise the farming systems. To underst<strong>and</strong> farming systems as a “productive system”<br />
<strong>and</strong> the logic behind technical choices recalls the “systemic approach”, widely used in the<br />
classical farming systems approach. The approach described here is based on partnership,<br />
farming system analysis <strong>and</strong> modelling for a Decision Support Systems (DSS) for development<br />
projects. In the past, methods <strong>and</strong> instruments were developed to help individual farmers make<br />
decisions (Attonaty et al., 1999). Today, we are faced with an increasing number of problems in<br />
which the several different stakeholders involved have also different interests. The aim is not to<br />
find THE optimal solution as do models based on linear programming or game theory but to<br />
create models that lead to acceptable compromises between the different stakeholders.<br />
1 Method; rationale for using the software “Olympe” for Farming Systems<br />
Modelling (FSM)<br />
Detailed knowledge of local farming systems <strong>and</strong> farmers’ strategies in different contexts such<br />
as pioneer zones, rehabilitation areas or traditional tree-crop belts can contribute to building<br />
improved <strong>and</strong> better adapted solutions to help farmers make the right decision about their future<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
E. Penot 2010. Socio-economic diagnosis of a small region using an economic farming system modeling tool (Olympe)<br />
655<br />
investments at the right time. In collaboration with INRA <strong>and</strong> IAMM, CIRAD developed a<br />
software called “ Olympe ” that enables the modelling of farming systems (Penot 2003).<br />
Olympe is an economic modelling tool to develop farming simulations in order to help<br />
individual decision-making at farm level <strong>and</strong> may be used for project decision making. There is<br />
also a module at regional level with farm groups that allow the assessment of various types of<br />
flows between groups (farmers’ organisation, villages ….).<br />
Farming systems modelling associated with a farm typology can therefore be used to help<br />
projects in testing scenarios with various types of technologies (<strong>and</strong> risks) in order to assess<br />
what is the right technology for the right farmer at the right time according to farmers’<br />
strategies. Then, it aims to provide guidelines for agricultural <strong>and</strong> development policies for<br />
institutions <strong>and</strong>/or donors. Olympe can be used in a variety of situations <strong>and</strong> with different<br />
methodological approaches: comparison of cropping systems, the economics of farming<br />
systems <strong>and</strong> resource management (“farm management counselling” * ), prospective analysis,<br />
regional approach, <strong>and</strong> even for “role game.”<br />
Olympe simulator has been developed by J-M Attonaty (INRA Grignon, France) <strong>and</strong> associated<br />
partners from CIRAD <strong>and</strong> IAMM. It builds simulations by series of 10 years for one or more<br />
stakeholders, provides results <strong>and</strong> summarizes the results as a function of the needs of each<br />
stakeholder (Figure 1). Olympe is based on the systemic analysis of farming systems. The<br />
overall objectives of using Olympe are the following: i) to identify smallholders’ constraints<br />
<strong>and</strong> opportunities in a rapidly changing environment in preparation for the adoption of new<br />
cropping systems or any other organisational innovation <strong>and</strong> to underst<strong>and</strong> farmers’ strategies<br />
<strong>and</strong> their capacity for innovation., ii) to assess their ability to adapt to changing economic<br />
conditions, price crises <strong>and</strong> technological change, iii) to provide a tool to underst<strong>and</strong> the<br />
farmers’ decision-making process <strong>and</strong> to put information about farming systems in the social<br />
<strong>and</strong> economic context (through a regional approach), <strong>and</strong> iv) to undertake prospective analysis<br />
<strong>and</strong> build scenarios based on climatic risks <strong>and</strong> fluctuating commodity prices.<br />
It is also possible to calculate impact at the regional scale on various groups of farms (as a<br />
function of a given typology). Building scenarios trough prospective analysis allows to test the<br />
robustness of any decision or technical choice. Data analysis obtained with Olympe should be<br />
discussed with farmers in partnership in order to validate scenarios <strong>and</strong> guarantee a high degree<br />
of representativeness <strong>and</strong> accuracy. For instance, a network of selected representative farms can<br />
be monitored for several years to diagnose constraints <strong>and</strong> opportunities <strong>and</strong> to measure the<br />
impact of technical change. One of the main outputs of such an approach is the assessment of<br />
the impact of technical alternatives or choices from an economic <strong>and</strong> environmental point of<br />
view.<br />
Fig. 1: An iterative analysis of the problem.<br />
Data<br />
Scenario<br />
Model<br />
Results<br />
Analysis<br />
PROBLEM<br />
VIEW POINT<br />
Acceptable<br />
Compromise<br />
Possible<br />
Solutions<br />
* “Conseil de gestion” in French.<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
E. Penot 2010. Socio-economic diagnosis of a small region using an economic farming system modeling tool (Olympe)<br />
656<br />
2 Diversification <strong>and</strong> CA (Conservation Agriculture) as alternatives for<br />
sustainable development<br />
The sustainability of agriculture is becoming a major concern. Ecological <strong>and</strong> agricultural<br />
sustainability are linked trough degraded environment, fragile soils, fertility, biodiversity, <strong>and</strong><br />
the protection of watersheds. Crop diversification <strong>and</strong> rapid technical change characterise the<br />
evolution of existing farming systems. It is important therefore to analyze <strong>and</strong> underst<strong>and</strong> the<br />
key elements of the history of innovation processes so as to be in a position to make viable<br />
recommendations for development. Among other technologies, CA techniques are based on 3<br />
main items: no tillage, associated permanent covercrops <strong>and</strong> crop rotation. CA triggers a real<br />
change of paradigm for local farmers. Besides those constraints, CA techniques, though yields<br />
might not be significantly above that of tillage systems, provide a more sustainable production<br />
pattern through the climatic buffer effect of mulching <strong>and</strong> cover-crops.<br />
The notion of “economic sustainability” places emphasis on the profitability of specific<br />
technical choices such as analysis of margins, generation of income, return to labour <strong>and</strong> capital<br />
as a function of a specific activity, analysis of constraints <strong>and</strong> opportunities, etc...From the<br />
point of view of farming systems, both at the regional scale, <strong>and</strong> at the level of the<br />
“community” where there are serious constraints in l<strong>and</strong> availability, <strong>and</strong> in access to capital<br />
<strong>and</strong> information. Analysis of farming systems <strong>and</strong> knowledge about smallholders’ strategies in<br />
the different contexts are key factors that should be taken into account.<br />
Negotiations between stakeholders <strong>and</strong> better knowledge of the relations between the State <strong>and</strong><br />
farmers are essential if we are to improve the effectiveness of future projects <strong>and</strong> development<br />
actions. The main objective of topic-oriented research centred on the analysis of decisionmaking<br />
processes at different levels (farms, community, projects, <strong>and</strong> regional or national<br />
policy makers) would thus be to provide socio-economic information to policy makers to<br />
improve decision-making processes in agricultural development. The processes of innovation<br />
(farmers) <strong>and</strong> of decision-making (both farmers <strong>and</strong> developers) are key research topics in<br />
sustainable development. And the analysis of farming systems, the characterisation of agrarian<br />
systems <strong>and</strong> the identification of stakeholders’ strategies are key components to a better<br />
underst<strong>and</strong>ing of these issues. The factors that determine change in a sustainable development<br />
perspective need to be related to each specific context. Important issues such as the effect of<br />
decentralisation, globalisation <strong>and</strong> its effects on prices, as well as on local economies <strong>and</strong><br />
public policies, environmental topics (biodiversity, sustainability) are impossible to circumvent.<br />
One expected output would be the clear identification of the conditions required to ensure<br />
future projects are viable at the decision-making level. Farming system modelling through a<br />
farming system reference monitoring network provides a tool for technical choices made by<br />
decision makers with respect to agricultural policy.<br />
The main aim of this paper is to describe a possible global approach using a modelling tool<br />
which includes the identification of knowledge gaps <strong>and</strong> opportunities to promote actions <strong>and</strong><br />
projects or the implementation of policies that respect the need for sustainable development, as<br />
well as those of local stakeholders, developers <strong>and</strong> researchers. The historical dimension is very<br />
significant in this type of analysis even if economic commodity cycles can be very rapid. So<br />
far, rebuilding the past with a modelling tool <strong>and</strong> creating new evolution scenarios through<br />
prospective analysis can be linked to improve the efficiency of development-oriented research.<br />
The impact of technical change should take into account the effect of sustainability on both<br />
farmers‘ livelihood <strong>and</strong> on the environment. Success in diversification strategies requires a<br />
certain number of conditions: access to capital or credit, technical options (innovations), access<br />
to information, markets, <strong>and</strong> to farmers’ organisations in order to improve marketing, <strong>and</strong> so<br />
on.<br />
From farmers to developers<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
E. Penot 2010. Socio-economic diagnosis of a small region using an economic farming system modeling tool (Olympe)<br />
657<br />
The use of Olympe enables a comprehensive underst<strong>and</strong>ing of how a given farming system<br />
functions <strong>and</strong> provides as well a tool to model prospective technical choices, price scenarios,<br />
<strong>and</strong> even ecological scenarios to test the robustness of technical choices. These tools can be<br />
used at different scales: that of the local community or that of regional, national or international<br />
scale, depending on the stakeholders <strong>and</strong> on the commodity involved. Emphasis should be on<br />
the farmers <strong>and</strong> on the other people directly involved in the farmers’ environment, including the<br />
government (development policies at the national level). Participatory <strong>and</strong> partnership<br />
approach, Action–Research (RD) are the main methodologies used in the approach.<br />
A prospective tool to assess the resilience of systems in the face of risk<br />
In this case the focus is on providing decision-making aid to administrators, projects, <strong>and</strong><br />
decision makers as well as to farmers themselves. Analysis of climatic events or the impact of<br />
price volatility, or any other economic risk allows the definition of scenarios where the<br />
resilience of a given farming system can be quantified. Care needs to be taken into account for<br />
the possible or induced perverse effects of “playing with scenarios” whose only validity is how<br />
representative they are. Olympe can also be used to reveal such induced or perverse effects. A<br />
typical example is that of the introduction of drop irrigation to save groundwater that eventually<br />
leads to over-consumption of water. The “revealing character” of FSM leads to enhanced<br />
sensitivity by stakeholders to problems that are not initially obvious. In this case, its use is very<br />
close to that of role game. Farming systems modelling can be used as a prospective tool to build<br />
scenarios about potential farm pathways, <strong>and</strong> to define agricultural policies, recommendations,<br />
to test the viability of recommendations as a function of local constraints, to assess different<br />
impacts, <strong>and</strong> the matching of policies to the real situation faced by the farmers. Risks analysis is<br />
a key component in this approach. Farming system modelling through a FSMN enables to<br />
effectively assess at the farm level risks <strong>and</strong> expected outputs from a choice.<br />
3 The References Farming System Monitoring Network (RFSMN): a<br />
comprehension tool of farmers’ strategies <strong>and</strong> follow-up evaluation.<br />
A References Farming System Monitoring Network (RFSMN) is a set of representative farms<br />
that show various agricultural situations dependent on soil/climatic units as well as socioeconomical<br />
situations, resulting from a typology. Farms are surveyed in-depth then followed<br />
<strong>and</strong> updated every year in order to measure i) the impact of the projects’ implementations, ii)<br />
the development policies in progress, iii) the resulting innovations’ processes (Penot, 2008).<br />
The objective through a follow-up is to measure the impact, the evaluation, the prospective<br />
analysis <strong>and</strong> decision-making process inside projects (choice of technologies to be promoted<br />
<strong>and</strong> level of intensification according to farm types for example…). A prospective analysis<br />
allows the comparison between potential scenarios <strong>and</strong> reality. The final objective is to allow<br />
development operators in contract with projects to measure impacts <strong>and</strong> re–orientate rapidly<br />
their actions.<br />
Parallel to the RFSMN, the project sets up procedures of plot <strong>and</strong> farms levels data acquisition<br />
whose objective is to obtain detailed <strong>and</strong> precise data allowing simulation <strong>and</strong> further<br />
prospective analysis,. A “plot database” common to all contracted operators allows the<br />
identification of cropping pattern, with data effectively observed in the fields that will feed the<br />
simulation. With the adoption of “farming system level approach”, rather than the traditional<br />
“plot level”, the project sets up “farming books”, on a voluntary basis in order to record farm<br />
evolution, description of cropping systems <strong>and</strong> main simple economic factors <strong>and</strong> analysis<br />
(gross <strong>and</strong> net margin, return to labour) <strong>and</strong> to observe tendencies <strong>and</strong> farms’ trajectories.<br />
Identification of a regional operational typology:<br />
The criteria of discrimination for the farm typology are the following: i) access to various types<br />
of soil with referring cropping systems (irrigated rice plantation, poor water management rice<br />
fields, upl<strong>and</strong> crops on “tanety”), ii) rice self-sufficiency <strong>and</strong> farm size, iii) level of<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
E. Penot 2010. Socio-economic diagnosis of a small region using an economic farming system modeling tool (Olympe)<br />
658<br />
intensification <strong>and</strong> use of inputs <strong>and</strong> production target (subsistence farming, sale…), iv) offfarm<br />
activities <strong>and</strong> diversification (agricultural productions <strong>and</strong> non agricultural activities, v)<br />
type of labour <strong>and</strong> material (manual, animal traction, motorization or combined traction) <strong>and</strong><br />
type <strong>and</strong> use of labour (familial <strong>and</strong> external).157 farms were surveyed in 2007/2008. For each<br />
identified type, four farms were modelled with the Olympe software, in 2007/2008, <strong>and</strong> were<br />
supplemented by a series of additional farms essential for a good follow-up/evaluation. The<br />
final network was composed of 48 farms. The databases of local operators (AVSF, BRL, SD-<br />
Mad…) provide reliable indicators on farmers’ technical plot pathways which are monitored by<br />
the project so as to build average st<strong>and</strong>ard cropping patterns. We need at least a minimum of 10<br />
plots with a homogeneous average of production (Coefficient of variation lower than 30%). The<br />
most complete database (from BRL/Madagascar), integrates 2800 plots. A complete review of<br />
the main results of these databases led to the identification of more than 120 cropping patterns<br />
that took into account: varieties, plot position on the transect <strong>and</strong> practices.<br />
Construction of st<strong>and</strong>ard cropping patterns according to the system of dichotomic keys.<br />
The use of simple dichotomic keys for selecting the right technologies apparently most adapted<br />
to local plot conditions (soils, climax, etc…) are currently used. Modelling “step by step” with<br />
Olympe is done in the form of a prospective analysis by testing scenarios differentiated<br />
according to the farming <strong>and</strong> socio-economic situations. The definition of the dichotomic keys<br />
remains a big step in the process of choosing technologies promoted by projects. We currently<br />
use several modalities to identify the adapted cropping pattern to be recommended: i) the use of<br />
local plot databases as presented above. ii) the use of the official recommendations from<br />
GSDM, synthesized in tables of description of cropping patterns from the CA h<strong>and</strong>book (O<br />
Husson et al., 2009) with generic dichotomic keys, iii) The use in the long term (2010) of a<br />
software tool specifically developed for selection of cropping patterns according to morphopedological<br />
constraints, “PRACT” developed by K Naudin (CIRAD/URD SCRID) in 2010.<br />
Indicators of management <strong>and</strong> measurement of risk<br />
The software enables the creation of scenarios based on various types of adoption <strong>and</strong><br />
modification of technical patterns (cropping or livestock), more or less intensive. Then, the<br />
objective is to test the robustness of technical choices, <strong>and</strong> then the impact on production<br />
systems caused by climatic risks (cyclones, output lower due to the attack on a plant’s health,<br />
excess or lack of water, etc…) or economic (impact of the volatility of the farm prices <strong>and</strong> the<br />
inputs). Indicators (st<strong>and</strong>ard formula Excel type) allow to calculate ratios <strong>and</strong> traditional<br />
economic variables of management. The identification of simple ratios <strong>and</strong> the consequent<br />
analysis of the financial farm situation after a technical choice, a real or simulated one, largely<br />
facilitated the appropriation by operators <strong>and</strong> led to a better integration of their<br />
recommendations, while taking into account the concepts of risk for the farmer. Such an<br />
approach allows operators to better include <strong>and</strong> underst<strong>and</strong> farmers’ strategies in production<br />
factors allowance <strong>and</strong> finally in the farmers’ priorities of resource allocation according to their<br />
knowledge, their own experimentation, their potential opportunities <strong>and</strong> their current situation.<br />
Risks lead to shocks <strong>and</strong> disturbances. Impact strength can be regarded as the capacity of a<br />
system to overcome disturbances while maintaining its vital functions, its structure <strong>and</strong> its<br />
capacities of control. It is thus important for the capacity of a system to be able to resist by<br />
maintaining the essence of its structure <strong>and</strong> “modus oper<strong>and</strong>i” while including the possibility of<br />
any change. It is based on the conditions which maintain an initial balance though potentially<br />
unstable which can lead to another balance. One can measure it by the magnitude or the level of<br />
disturbances a system can resist or absorb until the rupture or the change of that system’s<br />
structure. The robustness can then be interpreted like a particular impact strength according to a<br />
definition close to that used in statistics. Risks are assessed through the use of the “hazard<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
E. Penot 2010. Socio-economic diagnosis of a small region using an economic farming system modeling tool (Olympe)<br />
659<br />
module” in Olympe which enables the creation of scenarios with any changes in inputs/output<br />
prices as well as production <strong>and</strong> yield.<br />
Conclusion<br />
3 RFSMN’s are currently been set up (lake Alaotra <strong>and</strong> Vakinankaratra). Farming system<br />
analysis, training <strong>and</strong> modelling with a simple tool (Olympe), linked with the use of existing<br />
plot databases managed by operators contributed largely to the effective development of a real<br />
“farming system approach” in these projects. Training <strong>and</strong> the use of the tool lead to a real<br />
pedagogic impact on various operators. Extentionists <strong>and</strong> staff managers start to adapt their<br />
recommendations <strong>and</strong> feel more empowered to take responsibility in their extension activities.<br />
Processes of innovations are better recorded <strong>and</strong> integrated into the analysis. The farming<br />
system approach allow as well to better consider other level of action such as farmers’<br />
organisations for services (required for CA adoption such as information, credit, access to<br />
inputs or marketing…) or the regional level (watershed, village area, community territory…).<br />
The case of CA is a strong example that has also largely contributed to the adaptation of its<br />
very particular <strong>and</strong> specific agricultural systems towards a stronger more encompassing<br />
adaptation (simplification, adaptation, medium/low intensification, increase of the possible<br />
range of the techniques functioning for the local specifics). The idea for support of the different<br />
services for agriculture (dispersion, credit, supply, commercialisation) were changed <strong>and</strong> their<br />
importance finally accepted by the operators whose initial goals were simple <strong>and</strong> concise: to<br />
have the maximum of parcels improved without regard for the type of exploitation. The<br />
installation of tools has therefore vastly contributed to the strengthening of the approach itself<br />
<strong>and</strong> its usage <strong>and</strong> acquisition by the development operators in a type of “learning by doing”<br />
training approach. A key element was equally the participation of the genuine partners since the<br />
beginning of the operation in July 2006 at Lac Alaotra. The concept, the approach, the<br />
donations, <strong>and</strong> the results were all explored, analyzed, <strong>and</strong> validated by the operators which in<br />
turn strengthen their will to underst<strong>and</strong>, master, <strong>and</strong> use the tools presented in this text.<br />
There still is a need to implement a value analysis in the near future of the results obtained from<br />
the more interesting scenarios compared to what effectively happened in the last 5 years.<br />
Bibiography<br />
Attonaty et al., 1999 J.-M. Attonaty, M.-H. Chatelin, <strong>and</strong> F. Garcia, "Interactive simulation<br />
modelling in farm decision-making," Computers <strong>and</strong> Electronics in Agriculture, vol.<br />
22..pp. 157-170.<br />
Husson O.; Charpentier H. ; Razanamparany C. Moussa N.; Razafintsalama H.; Michellon R.;<br />
Naudin K.; Rakotondramanana; Séguy L. . 2007. Les systèmes a proposer en priorité<br />
dans les différents milieux de Madagascar. Manuel pratique du semis direct à<br />
Madagascar, vol II. Antananarivo, Madagascar. GSDM. 165 p.<br />
Penot E. 2008. Document de travail du PROJET BV-LAC N° 4 : Mise en place du réseau de<br />
fermes de références avec les opérateurs du projet.. Projet BV-lac/AFD. 35 pp.<br />
Penot E, Deheuvels O, Attonaty JM, Le Grusse Ph. 2003. Modélisation des exploitation<br />
agricoles : les mutiples usages du logiciel Olympe., Montpellier, CIRAD.<br />
Communication au séminaire modélisation avec Olympe, Montpellier, 2003, 20 pp.<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
Network theory to conserve <strong>and</strong> reconnect forested<br />
l<strong>and</strong>scapes
S. Decout et al. 2010. Connectivity loss in human dominated l<strong>and</strong>scape<br />
661<br />
Connectivity loss in human dominated l<strong>and</strong>scape: operational tools for<br />
the identification of suitable habitat patches <strong>and</strong> corridors on<br />
amphibian’s population<br />
Samuel Decout 1 , Stéphanie Manel 2,3 , Claude Miaud 4 & S<strong>and</strong>ra Luque 1<br />
1 Cemagref, Unité de Recherches Ecosystèmes Montagnards, 2 Rue de la Papeterie,<br />
38402 Saint-Martin d'Hères, France<br />
2 Laboratoire d’Ecologie Alpine, Equipe Génomique des Populations et Biodiversité, BP<br />
53, 2233 Rue de la Piscine, 38041 Grenoble Cedex 9, France<br />
3 Laboratoire Population Environnement Développement, Equipe Ville Environnement<br />
Développement, Université Aix-Marseille 1, 3 place Victor Hugo, 13331 Marseille<br />
cedex 03, France<br />
4 Laboratoire d’Ecologie Alpine, Equipe Génomique des Populations et Biodiversité,<br />
Université de Savoie, Bâtiment Belledonne, 73376 Le Bourget du Lac, France<br />
Abstract<br />
L<strong>and</strong>scape connectivity is a key issue for biodiversity conservation. Many species have to<br />
refrain to move between scattered resources patches. This is particularly the case for the<br />
common frog, a widespread amphibian migrating between forest <strong>and</strong> aquatic habitats for<br />
breeding. Face to the growing need for maintaining connectivity between amphibians’ habitat<br />
patches, the aim of this study is to provide a method based on habitat suitability modelling <strong>and</strong><br />
graph theory to explore <strong>and</strong> analyze ecological networks. We first used the maximum entropy<br />
modelling with environmental variables based on forest patches distribution to predict habitat<br />
patches distribution. Then, with considerations about l<strong>and</strong>scape permeability, we applied graph<br />
theory in order to highlight the main habitat patches influencing habitat availability <strong>and</strong><br />
connectivity by the use of the software’s Conefor Sensinode 2.2 <strong>and</strong> Guidos. The use of the JRC<br />
<strong>Forest</strong>/Non <strong>Forest</strong> European map for the characterisation of common frog terrestrial habitat<br />
distribution combined with the maximum entropy modelling gives promising results for the<br />
identification of habitat discontinuities within a regional perspective. This approach should<br />
provide an operational tool for the identification of the effects of “l<strong>and</strong>scape barriers <strong>and</strong><br />
corridors” on populations structure. Then, the method appears as a promising tool for l<strong>and</strong>scape<br />
planning.<br />
Key words: common frog, l<strong>and</strong>scape connectivity, habitat suitability modelling, graph theory,<br />
maximum entropy modelling<br />
1. Introduction<br />
L<strong>and</strong>scape connectivity is considered a key issue for biodiversity conservation <strong>and</strong> for the<br />
maintenance of natural ecosystems stability <strong>and</strong> integrity. L<strong>and</strong>scape connectivity defines the<br />
degree to which the l<strong>and</strong>scape facilitates or impedes movement among resource patches (Taylor<br />
<strong>and</strong> al. 1993). In fragmented <strong>and</strong> heterogeneous human dominated l<strong>and</strong>scapes, movements<br />
across the l<strong>and</strong>scape matrix area are key process for the survival of plant <strong>and</strong> animals species.<br />
Maintaining or restoring l<strong>and</strong>scape connectivity has become a major concern in conservation<br />
biology <strong>and</strong> l<strong>and</strong> planning (Pascual-Hortal <strong>and</strong> Saura 2008) <strong>and</strong> especially for amphibians.<br />
Indeed, amphibian’s life cycle involves seasonal migrations between terrestrial <strong>and</strong> aquatic<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
S. Decout et al. 2010. Connectivity loss in human dominated l<strong>and</strong>scape<br />
662<br />
habitats which constrain them to regularly cross an inhospitable fragmented l<strong>and</strong>scape matrix<br />
making them vulnerable to l<strong>and</strong> degradation <strong>and</strong> connectivity loss (Allentoft <strong>and</strong> O’Brien 2010).<br />
Anthropogenic barriers as railways <strong>and</strong> major roads limit amphibians’migrations <strong>and</strong><br />
movements. Many species have to refrain to move between small, scattered patches of different<br />
resources, instead of one, large patch. In this sense, habitat fragmentation constitutes the main<br />
driver of gene flow reduction (Allentoft <strong>and</strong> O’Brien 2010). This is particularly the case for the<br />
common frog Rana temporaria, a widespread amphibian in Europe occurring in various habitat<br />
types <strong>and</strong> migrating between forest <strong>and</strong> aquatic habitats for breeding (Miaud <strong>and</strong> al. 1999). The<br />
study focus on habitat availability <strong>and</strong> l<strong>and</strong>scape connectivity, under the assumption that<br />
connectivity is species specific <strong>and</strong> should be measured from a functional perspective (Saura<br />
<strong>and</strong> Torné 2009). The focus is on viable habitat patches, in relation to the ongoing need for a<br />
holistic approach to l<strong>and</strong>scapes <strong>and</strong> habitats. The overall goal is to find a continuum for habitat<br />
suitability of the species in question. Graph theory <strong>and</strong> network analysis have become<br />
established as promising ways to efficiently explore <strong>and</strong> analyze l<strong>and</strong>scape or habitat<br />
connectivity. However, little attention has been paid to making these graph-theoretic approaches<br />
operational within l<strong>and</strong>scape ecological assessments, planning, <strong>and</strong> design. We are working<br />
towards a methodological approach to address habitat quality assessment <strong>and</strong> connectivity from<br />
an operational point of view in order to support planning. To illustrate the basic principles of the<br />
proposed method, an ecological example using the European common frog Rana temporaria, in<br />
the French Alps region is presented. The approach is based on three main steps: i) Achievement<br />
of a probability of occurrence distribution map by the use of presence data <strong>and</strong> maximum<br />
entropy modelling ii) Simulation of dispersal areas in order to define the main connections<br />
between common frog ponds iii) Assessment of the main connected ponds by the use of graph<br />
theory <strong>and</strong> the software Conefor Sensinode 2.2 (Saura <strong>and</strong> Torné, 2009). We present here<br />
preliminary results on undergoing research, in order to exchange ideas in relation with this<br />
approach.<br />
2. Methodology<br />
2.1 Study site <strong>and</strong> sampling<br />
This study focuses on the French departments Isère <strong>and</strong> Savoie (French Alps). This area is about<br />
1415126 km² (see figure 1). The common frog is a typical species within this region where it<br />
breeds in various types of aquatic habitats. Because at the subalpine belt l<strong>and</strong>scape connectivity<br />
is not the main driver of the frog dispersal patterns due to environmental constraints (i.e.<br />
climatic variables), we focused on the common frog populations occurring under the tree line<br />
(1400-1600 meters). The common frog was detected in 97 ponds under the tree line within this<br />
area. The sample design followed a genetic sampling strategy framework based on tadpoles<br />
between 1999 <strong>and</strong> 2002 (Pidancier <strong>and</strong> al. 2002). The geographic location of each sampling is<br />
known. For this preliminary study, we reduced the area to a surface of 4067 km² including 47<br />
located ponds (see figure 1).<br />
Figure 1: The study area.<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
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2.2 Probability of occurrence distribution<br />
We considered the 47 genetic sampling locations as presence data. It must be noted that the<br />
approach is based in present information only of the common frog within the study area. We<br />
used the maximum entropy modelling approach. In order to assess the distribution of the<br />
probability of detection of the common frog, we used in particular the software MaxEnt (Philips<br />
<strong>and</strong> Dudik 2008). Different environmental variables were analyzed <strong>and</strong> used to develop the<br />
probability of occurrence distribution map with MaxEnt. The common frog during its terrestrial<br />
cycle is very sensitive to the type of l<strong>and</strong> cover to cross in order to reach its required forest<br />
habitat for summer <strong>and</strong> winter (Miaud <strong>and</strong> al. 1999). Based on radiotracking surveys <strong>and</strong> expert<br />
knowledge, the common frog seems to be very sensitive to the distribution of small forest<br />
patches around the pond area. Consequently, we computed <strong>and</strong> integrated in the analysis<br />
different environmental variables in relation to ecological <strong>and</strong> spatial requirements of the<br />
common frog. The forest habitat distribution around the aquatic habitat was also considered<br />
within the modelling:<br />
1. L<strong>and</strong> cover based on Corine L<strong>and</strong> Cover 2006 (level 3).<br />
2. Slope <strong>and</strong> elevation derived from a 50m DEM (French National Geographic Institute).<br />
3. L<strong>and</strong>scape indices based on forest patches distribution from the European <strong>Forest</strong>/Non<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> map (resolution: 25m) provided by the Join Research Centre JRC. For this, we<br />
used Fragstats (McGarigal <strong>and</strong> Marks 1995) with a moving window of 3000m <strong>and</strong> we<br />
selected the following basics l<strong>and</strong>scape indices: Mean <strong>Forest</strong> Patch Area, Largest <strong>Forest</strong><br />
Patch Index <strong>and</strong> <strong>Forest</strong> Patch Density.<br />
4. Distance to forest patches crossed by a river derived from a combination of the<br />
hydrological network map (French National Geographic Institute) with the European<br />
<strong>Forest</strong>/Non <strong>Forest</strong> map.<br />
2.3 Connections between ponds<br />
We quantified the connection between the ponds in relation with l<strong>and</strong>scape matrix permeability<br />
by the use of a friction map <strong>and</strong> the least cost modelling. Least cost modelling allows to<br />
simulate the dispersal of the common frog in relation to the l<strong>and</strong>scape matrix permeability<br />
between habitat patches. The matrix permeability is considered with the use of a friction map<br />
that provides inputs in terms of the ability of the common frog to cross the l<strong>and</strong>scape matrix.<br />
The friction map layer is a raster map where each cell (l<strong>and</strong>scape unit) expresses the relative<br />
difficulty of moving through that cell (Fulgione <strong>and</strong> al. 2009). In this study, the present friction<br />
map was computed by inversing the previous probability of occurrence distribution map from<br />
MaxEnt (Fulgione <strong>and</strong> al. 2009). Indeed, a fundamental assumption is that habitat suitability<br />
<strong>and</strong> permeability are synonyms, <strong>and</strong> that both are the inverse of ecological cost of travel (Beier<br />
<strong>and</strong> al. 2007). We added the highways <strong>and</strong> the urbanized areas to this friction map in order to<br />
integrate the main “impermeable barriers” for the common frog (i.e. high friction value). For the<br />
calculation of the least cost paths between each pond, we used the ArcView extension Path<br />
Matrix (Ray 2005).<br />
2.4 Assessment of ponds’ importance for connectivity<br />
We considered all the located ponds as nodes in order to use graph theory, in particular Conefor<br />
Sensinode software (Saura <strong>and</strong> Torné 2009). The least cost paths distances between the ponds<br />
allowed to calculate a set of quantitative connectivity rules between ponds. The software<br />
calculates a Number of Components NC index which identify a set of connected nodes (i.e.<br />
components) in which a path exists between every pair of nodes. The software also allows to<br />
calculate a Probability of Connectivity index (PC), which combines the attribute of the nodes<br />
with the maximum product probability of all the possible paths between every pair of nodes<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
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(Saura <strong>and</strong> Torné 2009). All the more, the software provides to assess node importance for<br />
connectivity by removing systemically each node <strong>and</strong> recalculating the PC when that node is<br />
not present in the l<strong>and</strong>scape. Node importance is quantified by an index dPC which corresponds<br />
to the importance of an existing node for maintaining l<strong>and</strong>scape connectivity according to the<br />
PC index variation when the node is removed (Pascual-Hortal <strong>and</strong> Saura 2008). In our case<br />
study, we used a threshold dispersal distance of 1500m based on radiotracking surveys of<br />
common frog migration pattern between ponds <strong>and</strong> suitable terrestrials’ habitats.<br />
3. Results<br />
3.1 Probability of occurrence distribution map <strong>and</strong> habitat suitability map<br />
The use of 15% of the dataset for cross validation gives an Area under the Curve (AUC) of 0.75<br />
for the ROC curve analysis which corresponds to a good discriminative capability between<br />
predicted presence <strong>and</strong> absence according to Pearce <strong>and</strong> Ferrier (2000). The figure 2 shows the<br />
resulting common frog probability of occurrence distribution map. The environmental variables<br />
with highest gain when used in isolation are Elevation <strong>and</strong> Largest <strong>Forest</strong> Patch Index in the<br />
jackknife test of variable importance in MaxEnt. MaxEnt also calculates several threshold<br />
values at each run <strong>and</strong> values exceeding them may be interpreted as reasonable approximation<br />
of the potential distribution of the considered species suitable habitat. As suggested by Phillips<br />
<strong>and</strong> Dudik (2008), we used the 10 percentile training presence (mean = 0.339) in order to obtain<br />
the potential distribution of the common frog in relation to suitable terrestrial habitat<br />
distribution (see figure 2). The potential distribution of the common frog obtained (see figure 2)<br />
allows to identify the effect of the dense urbanized areas <strong>and</strong> highways as main barriers <strong>and</strong><br />
unsuitable habitats. This distribution also suggests the potential presence of discontinued<br />
potential suitable areas for the frog depending on forest patches distribution impacted by human<br />
activities. In this context, further genetic considerations will help to quantify <strong>and</strong> identify the<br />
disconnections between frog populations in relation to human dominated areas distribution.<br />
Figure 2: Probability of occurrence distribution for the common frog with the maximum entropy<br />
modelling <strong>and</strong> resulting potential distribution of the common frog (10 percentile training presence of<br />
0.339 as the probability threshold) (area of 4067 km²).<br />
3.2 Ponds’ importance for connectivity<br />
The use of the NC index (see figure 3) provides a rapid identification of the connected ponds in<br />
relation with l<strong>and</strong>scape matrix. In our case study, most of the ponds are isolated by distance <strong>and</strong><br />
few ponds can be considered as connected in term of seasonal migration patterns. All the more,<br />
most of the connected ponds identified are located in homogenous suitable habitat. This is due<br />
to the orientation of the ponds location dataset for genetic analysis (genetic isolation by<br />
distance). Within this context, we plan to improve the analysis using a more detailed pond’<br />
distribution dataset in order to assess local connectivity in the near future. On figure 3, some<br />
ponds isolated <strong>and</strong> closed to urbanized areas appear as important for regional connectivity (high<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
S. Decout et al. 2010. Connectivity loss in human dominated l<strong>and</strong>scape<br />
665<br />
dPC value). This may suggest that these ponds could be considered as critical isolated ponds in<br />
relation with barriers in a human dominated l<strong>and</strong>scape context (presence of disconnections<br />
between suitable large areas for the common frog). For the moment, this interpretation of the<br />
dPC has to be considered with caution given that we did not use yet all the exisiting ponds<br />
locations within the area (missing nodes). We plan to complete the study with the computation<br />
of a dPC index based on genetic distance between ponds for the quantification of the potential<br />
genetic connections.<br />
Figure 3: Set of connected ponds (components) identified with the computation of the Number of<br />
Components index (NC) <strong>and</strong> ponds importance for connectivity based on the computation of the dPC<br />
index (warmer colours correspond to a highest importance for connectivity).<br />
4. Discussion<br />
In this preliminary study, the use of the JRC <strong>Forest</strong>/Non <strong>Forest</strong> European map for the<br />
characterisation of common frog terrestrial habitat distribution combined with the maximum<br />
entropy modelling gives promising results for the identification of discontinuities in distribution<br />
within a regional perspective. This approach in t<strong>and</strong>em with genetic considerations should<br />
provide a tool for the identification of the effects of “l<strong>and</strong>scape barriers <strong>and</strong> corridors” on<br />
populations structure in relation to common frog <strong>and</strong> its terrestrial habitat requirements. The use<br />
of a friction map combined with least path modelling appears also as a crucial key issue for the<br />
quantification of connections between habitat patches when dealing with l<strong>and</strong>scape matrix<br />
permeability. Even if an efficient calibration of a friction map is possible for a local approach<br />
(Janin <strong>and</strong> al. 2009), the computation of a relevant regional friction map remains quite difficult<br />
for the common frog given the existence of heterogeneity in dispersal patterns driven by local<br />
environmental conditions. This suggests that it should be more efficient to consider regional<br />
connectivity for amphibians from the point of view of genetic <strong>and</strong> spreading diseases as the<br />
chytrid fungus (Rödder <strong>and</strong> al 2009). L<strong>and</strong>scape connectivity should be better considered for a<br />
local perspective in relation with common frog migration patterns between its aquatic <strong>and</strong><br />
terrestrial habitats. In this context, the use of a graph theoretical approach appears as a<br />
promising tool for the assessment of local l<strong>and</strong>scape connectivity for the common frog given<br />
that the Conefor Sensinode software provides a powerful tool integrating considerations about<br />
habitat patches distribution <strong>and</strong> suitability in a l<strong>and</strong>scape matrix context surrounding habitat<br />
patches. Moreover is proven as an operational tool to identify barriers <strong>and</strong> important patches for<br />
planning purposes.<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
S. Decout et al. 2010. Connectivity loss in human dominated l<strong>and</strong>scape<br />
666<br />
Acknowledgements<br />
This research was supported <strong>and</strong> funded by the Interreg Alpine Space Program Econnect<br />
(reference number: 116/1/3/A). We thank Santiago Saura for his advice on the subject <strong>and</strong> his<br />
help on using the software Conefor Sensinode.<br />
References<br />
Allentoft, M.E. <strong>and</strong> O’Brien, J., 2010. <strong>Global</strong> amphibian declines, loss of genetic diversity <strong>and</strong><br />
fitness: a review. Diversity, 47-71.<br />
Beier, P., Majka, D., Jenness, J., 2007. Conceptual steps for designing wildlife corridor.<br />
www.corridordesign.org, 86 p.<br />
Fulgione, D., Maselli, V., Pavarese, G., Rippa, D., Rastogi, R.K., 2009. L<strong>and</strong>scape<br />
fragmentation <strong>and</strong> habitat suitability in endangered Italian hare (Lepus corsicanus) <strong>and</strong><br />
European hare (lepus europaeus) populations. European Journal on Wildlife Research,<br />
55:3875-396.<br />
Janin, A., Léna, J.-P., Ray, N., Delacourt, C., Allem<strong>and</strong>, P., Joly, P., 2009. Assessing l<strong>and</strong>scape<br />
connectivity with calibrated cost-distance modelling: predicting common toad distribution in a<br />
context of spreading agriculture. Journal of Applied Ecology, 1-9.<br />
McGarigal, K. <strong>and</strong> Mark,s B.J. 1995. FRAGSTATS: Spatial Pattern Analysis Program for<br />
Quantifying L<strong>and</strong>scape Structure. General Technical Report PNW-GTR-351. Pacific Northwest<br />
research Station, <strong>Forest</strong> Service, US Department of Agriculture, Portl<strong>and</strong>, OR.<br />
Miaud, C., Guyétant, R., Elmberg, J., 1999. Variation in life-history traits in the common frog<br />
Rana temporaria (Amphibia: Anura): a literature reviews <strong>and</strong> new data from the French Alps.<br />
Journal of Zoology, 249: 61-73.<br />
Pascual-Hortal, L. <strong>and</strong> Saura S., 2008. Integrating l<strong>and</strong>scape connectivity in broad-scale forest<br />
planning through a new graph-based habitat availability methodology: application to<br />
capercaillie (Tetrao urogallus) in Catalonia (NE Spain). European Journal of <strong>Forest</strong> Research,<br />
127: 23-31.<br />
Pearce, J. <strong>and</strong> Ferrier, S., 2000. Evaluating the predictive performance of habitat models<br />
deleveloped using logistic regression. Ecological Modelling, 133:225-245.<br />
Pidancier, N., Gauthier, P., Miquel, C., Pompanon, F., 2002. Polymorphic microsatellite DNA<br />
loci identified in the common frog (Rana temporaria, Amphibia, Ranidae). Molecular Ecology<br />
Notes, 3: 304-305.<br />
Philips, S.J. <strong>and</strong> Dudik, M., 2008. Modeling of species distributions with Maxent: new<br />
extensions <strong>and</strong> a comprehensive evaluation. Ecography, 31: 161-175.<br />
Ray, N. 2005. PATHMATRIX: a geographical information system tool to compute effective<br />
distances among samples. Molecular Ecology Notes, 5: 177–180.<br />
Rödder, D., Kielgast, J., Bielby, J., Schmidtlein, S., Bosch, J., Garner, T., Veith, M., Walker, S.,<br />
Fisher, M., Lötters, S., 2009. <strong>Global</strong> amphibian risk assessment for the panzootic chytrid<br />
fungus. Diversity, 1: 52-66.<br />
Riitters, K.H., Wickham, J.D., O’Neill, R.V., Jones, K.B., Smith, E.R., 2000. <strong>Global</strong>-scale<br />
patterns of forest fragmentation. Conservation Ecology, 4(2): 3.<br />
Riitters, K., Vogt, P., Soille, P., Estreguil, C., 2009. L<strong>and</strong>scape petterns from mathematical<br />
morphology on maps with contagion. L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology, 24: 699-709.<br />
Saura, S., Torné, J., 2009. Conefor Sensinode 2.2: A sofware package for quantifying the<br />
importance of habitat patches for l<strong>and</strong>scape connectivity. Environmental Modelling <strong>and</strong><br />
Sofware, 24:135-139.<br />
Taylor, P.D., Fahrig, L., Henein, K., Merriam, N.G., 1993. Connectivity is a vital element of<br />
l<strong>and</strong>scape structure. Oikos, 68: 571-573.<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
L<strong>and</strong>scape genetics
S. Joost et al. 2010. GEOME. Towards an integrated web-based l<strong>and</strong>scape genomics platform<br />
668<br />
GEOME<br />
Towards an integrated web-based l<strong>and</strong>scape genomics platform<br />
Stéphane Joost 1* , Michael Kalbermatten 1 & Nicolas Ray 2<br />
1<br />
GIS Research Laboratory (LASIG), Institute of Environmental Engineering (IIE),<br />
School of Architecture, Civil <strong>and</strong> Environmental Engineering (ENAC), Ecole<br />
Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL), Switzerl<strong>and</strong><br />
2<br />
EnviroSPACE Laboratory, Institute for environmental Sciences (ISE),<br />
University of Geneva, Switzerl<strong>and</strong><br />
Abstract<br />
The aim of the GEOME project is to develop a WebGIS-based platform for the integrated<br />
analysis of environmental, ecological <strong>and</strong> molecular data through the implementation of an<br />
original set of combined databases, spatial analysis <strong>and</strong> population genetics tools, in a High<br />
Performance Computing context. GEOME will support tasks of l<strong>and</strong>scape ecologists <strong>and</strong><br />
resource conservation managers who increasingly have to use geo-referenced data but are not<br />
trained to efficiently use Geographical Information Systems together with appropriate geoenvironmental<br />
information <strong>and</strong> spatial analysis approaches. Preliminary developments (three<br />
first applications) are already available here: http://lasigpc8.epfl.ch/geome/<br />
Keywords: l<strong>and</strong>scape genomics, geocomputation, environmental data, adaptation, GIS<br />
1. Introduction<br />
Since 2000, we are witnessing a progressive integration of the fields of ecology, evolution <strong>and</strong><br />
population genetics (Lawry 2010). The combination of l<strong>and</strong>scape ecology with population<br />
genetics led to the advent of l<strong>and</strong>scape genetics whose goal is to underst<strong>and</strong> how geographical<br />
<strong>and</strong> environmental features structure genetic variation in living organisms (Manel 2003).<br />
Recently, l<strong>and</strong>scape genomics (Luikart 2003; Joost 2007; Lawry 2010) emerged as a research<br />
field at the interface of genome sciences, environmental resources analysis <strong>and</strong> spatial statistics.<br />
The combination of these fields permits to assess the level of association between specific<br />
genomic regions <strong>and</strong> environmental factors to identify loci responsible for adaptation to<br />
different habitats (Lawry 2010). Henceforth, knowledge of geo-environmental data <strong>and</strong> skills in<br />
GIS are a necessity to develop research or management activities in these l<strong>and</strong>scape sciences.<br />
To favor the use of l<strong>and</strong>scape genomics <strong>and</strong> to facilitate access to necessary geo-environmental<br />
data, GIS <strong>and</strong> spatial analysis tools, the development of a robust <strong>and</strong> efficient computer<br />
infrastructure is required. Therefore, GEOME will constitute a robust, easy-to-use <strong>and</strong> powerful<br />
internet platform based on High Performance Computing (HPC), able to h<strong>and</strong>le <strong>and</strong> process<br />
very large genome <strong>and</strong> environmental data sets, <strong>and</strong> offering facilities for the statistical <strong>and</strong><br />
(geo)visual analysis of results (http://lasigpc8.epfl.ch/geome/).<br />
The GEOME platform will support access to free geo-environmental data (database) <strong>and</strong><br />
provide dedicated GIS tools to scientists <strong>and</strong> professional users (e.g. l<strong>and</strong>scape ecologists or<br />
resource conservation managers) who often do not have a background nor a training in<br />
* Corresponding author. Tel.:+41216935782 - Fax:+41216935790<br />
Email address: stephane.joost@epfl.ch<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
S. Joost et al. 2010. GEOME. Towards an integrated web-based l<strong>and</strong>scape genomics platform<br />
669<br />
GIScience (Geographic Information Systems <strong>and</strong> spatial analysis), <strong>and</strong> do not have time to<br />
acquire them. To be able to carry out their investigations, these users need support to i) find<br />
appropriate geo-referenced environmental data sets to address their research problematics, ii)<br />
integrate their own data sets (e.g. presence/absence of genotypes, of species) with the geoenvironmental<br />
information mentioned here above, iii) benefit from specific analytical tools<br />
implemented within a simple GIS environment.<br />
Several web-based platforms already exist in the domain of genomics or other genetic topics<br />
(population genetics, phylogenetics). An interesting example is the BIOPORTAL platform<br />
(http://www.bioportal.uio.no), a web-based service platform developed at University of Oslo for<br />
phylogenomic analysis, population genetics <strong>and</strong> high-throughput sequence analysis.<br />
BIOPORTAL is the largest publicly available computer resource with 300 dedicated<br />
computational cores in a cluster named TITAN. Currently, applications in chemistry <strong>and</strong><br />
economics have been integrated, but other applications will be added along the way. Another<br />
example is GeneGrid, a web-based collaborative industrial grid computing solution developed<br />
in the United Kingdom. It was initiated by the Belfast e-Science Centre (BeSC) under the UK e-<br />
Science programme <strong>and</strong> supported by the UK Department of Trade & Industry (DTI). This<br />
platform gives access to collective resources, skills, experiences <strong>and</strong> results in a secure, reliable<br />
<strong>and</strong> scalable manner through the creation of a “Virtual Bioinformatics Laboratory”. GeneGrid<br />
provides seamless integration of a series of heterogeneous applications <strong>and</strong> data sets that span<br />
multiple administrative domains <strong>and</strong> locations across the globe, <strong>and</strong> presents these to the<br />
scientist through a simple user friendly interface (Kelly et al. 2005).<br />
It has to be noted that no existing Web-based platform includes the combination of services to<br />
be implemented within GEOME. This combination will permit to address the issue of local<br />
adaptation through the complementary implementation of a theoretical approach in population<br />
genomics (Foll <strong>and</strong> Gaggiotti 2008) <strong>and</strong> of a spatial analysis approach (Joost et al. 2007).<br />
2. Main issue addressed: local adaptation<br />
In the present context of rapid global climate change, ecologists <strong>and</strong> evolutionists show a<br />
renewed interest to study adaptation (Holderegger et al. 2008). Local adaptation in particular is<br />
an important issue in conservation genetics. For example, this process has to be better<br />
understood in order to correctly consider the effects of transfers of individuals between<br />
populations, which is often a technique proposed to replenish genetic variation <strong>and</strong> to reduce<br />
negative effects of low genetic diversity. The study of local adaptation is also likely to provide<br />
objective <strong>and</strong> unambiguous criteria to characterize conservation areas – in combination with<br />
models of predictive habitat or Species Distribution Models (SDMs, Guisan <strong>and</strong> Thuiller 2005)<br />
– which are the most worthwhile preserving.<br />
In parallel, development of low impact sustainable agriculture as well as husb<strong>and</strong>ry based on<br />
adapted breeds is of priority to most countries in the world, <strong>and</strong> is of key importance to<br />
emerging countries in particular. The genetic basis <strong>and</strong> the level of adaptation of livestock<br />
breeds to their environment has to be investigated, in order to reach better underst<strong>and</strong>ing of the<br />
relationship between environment <strong>and</strong> the adaptive fitness of livestock populations, <strong>and</strong> to favor<br />
sustainable production systems based on adapted breeds.<br />
During the last decade, “tremendous advances in genetic <strong>and</strong> genomic techniques have resulted<br />
in the capacity to identify genes involved in adaptive evolution across numerous biological<br />
systems” (Lowry 2010). There is now an important need to provide tools allowing the<br />
acceleration of the study of how l<strong>and</strong>scape-level geographical <strong>and</strong> environmental features are<br />
involved in the distribution of functional adaptive genetic variation, as highlighted by recent<br />
publications (Lowry 2010). A few years ago, Holderegger <strong>and</strong> Wagner (2008) already stated<br />
that “Novel approaches linking spatially explicit environmental analysis with molecular<br />
genetics could offer effective means to study the spread of adaptive genes across l<strong>and</strong>scapes”.<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
S. Joost et al. 2010. GEOME. Towards an integrated web-based l<strong>and</strong>scape genomics platform<br />
670<br />
L<strong>and</strong>scape genomics is one of these approaches, <strong>and</strong> GEOME will facilitate its use by means of<br />
a database providing access to the many geo-environmental data sets available worldwide.<br />
3. Access to remote environmental data<br />
Joost et al. 2010 provided a non-exhaustive list of the many environmental data sets available<br />
on the Internet. Different initiatives at the regional <strong>and</strong> global levels influence <strong>and</strong> promote the<br />
creation of Spatial Data Infrastructures (SDIs) to access these data. They also work on the<br />
harmonization, st<strong>and</strong>ardization, interoperability, <strong>and</strong> seamless integration of the different GIS<br />
layers constituting these data. An example is the <strong>Global</strong> Earth Observation System of Systems<br />
(GEOSS), which is a worldwide effort to connect already existing SDIs <strong>and</strong> Earth Observation<br />
infrastructures. Through its developing GEO portal <strong>and</strong> related Common Infrastructure, GEOSS<br />
is foreseen to act as a gateway between producers of environmental data <strong>and</strong> end users, with the<br />
aim of enhancing the relevance of Earth observations for global issues <strong>and</strong> to offer public access<br />
to comprehensive information <strong>and</strong> analyses on the environment (GEO secretariat 2007).<br />
Today's effort on the technical development of SDI components clearly focuses on the exchange<br />
of geodata in an interoperable way (Bernard <strong>and</strong> Craglia 2005), which is highlighted by the<br />
concept of web services <strong>and</strong> the related Service Oriented Architecture (SOA). Web services<br />
constitute a “new paradigm" allowing users to retrieve, manipulate <strong>and</strong> combine geospatial data<br />
from different sources <strong>and</strong> different formats using HTTP protocol to communicate (Sahin <strong>and</strong><br />
Gumusay 2008). Web services enable the possibility to construct web-based application using<br />
any platform, object model <strong>and</strong> programming language. The Open Geospatial Consortium<br />
(OGC) has specified a suite of st<strong>and</strong>ardized web services. Two of them are of particular interest<br />
for data providers <strong>and</strong> users: the Web Feature Service (WFS) that provides a web interface to<br />
access vector geospatial data (like country borders, GPS points or roads) encoded in Geographic<br />
Markup Language (GML) <strong>and</strong> the Web Coverage Service (WCS) that defines a web interface to<br />
retrieve raster geospatial data of spatially distributed phenomena such as surface temperature<br />
maps or digital elevation models (DEMs). In addition, the Web Map Service (WMS) defines an<br />
interface to serve georeferenced map images suitable for displaying purpose based on either<br />
vector or raster data. GEOME’s Web services will provide the geocomputational context with<br />
the support of an indispensable High Performance Computing (HPC) infrastructure to enable<br />
the processing of associations models between millions of loci (see section 4) <strong>and</strong> hundreds of<br />
environmental parameters (see section 5).<br />
4. GEOME’s challenge: whole genome scan<br />
One of the next major steps in evolutionary biology is to determine how l<strong>and</strong>scape-level<br />
geographical <strong>and</strong> environmental features are involved in the distribution of the functional<br />
adaptive genetic variation (Lawry 2010). This challenge will take place in a context where the<br />
amount of molecular data to be analyzed will exp<strong>and</strong> very rapidly. Indeed, after the long (13<br />
years) <strong>and</strong> expensive (3 billion dollars) human genome sequencing project (completed in 2003),<br />
the American National Institutes of Health (NIH) proposed in 2004 the challenge to sequence<br />
one human genome for $1’000 (Service 2006). And future generation of sequencers will allow<br />
researchers to get to genomic data faster <strong>and</strong> at a lower cost. For example, the theoretical<br />
potential of single-molecule/nanopore sequencing is undeniable (Tersoff 2001). Based on this<br />
technology, with a 100 nanopores in parallel, a mammalian genome could be sequenced in 24<br />
hours with the main cost being the chip itself, probably around $1'000 (Blow 2008). Several<br />
alternative low cost sequencing technologies are under way, even decreasing to $100 in the case<br />
of the Pacific Biosciences technology (Eid et al. 2009).<br />
Thus, any research project in l<strong>and</strong>scape genomics will very soon be given the opportunity to<br />
investigate the entire genome of sampled individuals, meaning that from now on HPC is<br />
required to process these huge quantities of data when compared to eco-climatic parameters. To<br />
be ready to h<strong>and</strong>le such volumes of data, the GIS laboratory (LASIG) involved in the<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
S. Joost et al. 2010. GEOME. Towards an integrated web-based l<strong>and</strong>scape genomics platform<br />
671<br />
development of GEOME is also a partner within the EU FP7 NEXTGEN, the first project in the<br />
area of conservation genetics that proposes a comparative analysis of whole genome data at the<br />
intraspecific level (http://nextgen.epfl.ch). NEXTGEN will also need GEOME’s expertise in the<br />
area of remote sensing, digital elevation models <strong>and</strong> other environmental data in general.<br />
5. Geo-environmental data in a HPC environment<br />
Environmental sciences are a data-intensive domain in which applications typically produce <strong>and</strong><br />
analyze a large amount of geospatial data. Moreover, due to the multi-disciplinary nature of<br />
environmental sciences (e.g. ecology, climate change, etc.), scientists need to integrate large<br />
amount of data distributed all around the world in different data centers. A local cluster is the<br />
first mean to upscale computational capacities when the workflow can be distributed into many<br />
independent jobs.<br />
When the number of jobs is very large <strong>and</strong>/or users do not belong to the Institution owning the<br />
cluster, grid computing can be an efficient solution. Following Foster et al. (2008), a grid is a<br />
parallel processing architecture in which computational resources are shared across a network<br />
allowing access to unused CPU <strong>and</strong> storage space to all participating machines. Resources could<br />
be allocated on dem<strong>and</strong> to consumers who wish to obtain computing power. Recent studies have<br />
had a successful approach to extend grid technology to the remote sensing community (Muresan<br />
et al. 2006), as well as in the field of disaster management (Mazzetti et al. 2009) making OGC<br />
web service grid-enabled.<br />
One of the largest scientific grid infrastructures currently in operation is the Enabling Grids for<br />
E-sciencE (EGEE) infrastructure bringing together more than 120 organisations to provide<br />
scientific computing resources to the European <strong>and</strong> global research community. The currently<br />
120'000 CPUs available in EGEE are essentially used by the High Energy physics community,<br />
but part of EGEE is also opened to other disciplines such as environmental sciences or genetics.<br />
A grid environment federates its users through Virtual Organizations (VOs), which are sets of<br />
individuals <strong>and</strong>/or institutions defined by a set of sharing rules (e.g. access to computers,<br />
software, data <strong>and</strong> other resources). One particular VO of interest is named Biomed; it has<br />
currently access to 20'000 CPUs <strong>and</strong> is willing to accept the envisioned GEOME on the Biomed<br />
VO.<br />
6. Conclusion<br />
No software tool presently exists to answer challenges of developing better approaches for<br />
linking ecologically relevant data sets to specific loci or genes. Moreover, no software tool can<br />
currently integrate geo-environmental variables <strong>and</strong> molecular data within a WebGIS<br />
environment, with analysis modules included i) to detect loci under selection according to two<br />
complementary approaches, ii) to analyze <strong>and</strong> characterize the spatial distribution of these loci,<br />
<strong>and</strong> iii) to produce predictive habitat maps derived from them.<br />
Thanks to a robust HPC infrastructure, GEOME’s existing <strong>and</strong> future Web services will be<br />
useful to a very large number of users, <strong>and</strong> will possibly contribute in underst<strong>and</strong>ing how<br />
l<strong>and</strong>scape-level geographical <strong>and</strong> environmental features are involved in the distribution of the<br />
functional adaptive genetic variation.<br />
References<br />
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l<strong>and</strong>scape ecology <strong>and</strong> population genetics. Trends in Ecology & Evolution, 18: 189-197.<br />
Mazzetti, P., S. Nativi, Angelini, V. Verlato, M., Fiorucci, P., 2009. A Grid platform for the<br />
European Civil Protection e-Infrastructure: the <strong>Forest</strong> Fires use scenario. Earth Science<br />
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Muresan, O., Pop, F., Gorgan, D., Cristea, V., 2006. Satellite Image Processing Applications in<br />
MedioGRID. Proceedings of The Fifth International Symposium on Parallel <strong>and</strong><br />
Distributed Computing (ISPDC'06), 6-9 July 2006, Timisoara, pp.253-262.<br />
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of population genomics: From genotyping to genome typing. Nature Reviews Genetics, 4:<br />
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<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
Road ecology: improving connectivity
S.R. Freitas et al. 2010. The effect of highways on native vegetation <strong>and</strong> reserve distribution in the State of São Paulo<br />
674<br />
The effect of highways on native vegetation <strong>and</strong> reserve distribution in<br />
the State of São Paulo, Brazil<br />
Simone R. Freitas 1* , Cláudia O. M. Sousa 2 & Jean Paul Metzger 2<br />
1 Universidade Federal do ABC (UFABC), Rua Santa Adélia, 166, 09210-170, Santo<br />
André, SP, Brazil<br />
2 Universidade de São Paulo (USP), Instituto de Biociências, Departamento de Ecologia,<br />
Rua do Matão, 321, travessa 14, 05508-900, São Paulo, SP, Brazil<br />
Abstract<br />
Highways affect the environment in different distances <strong>and</strong> intensities. This work aims to: 1)<br />
estimate areas which have been ecologically affected by highways in the whole state of São<br />
Paulo, for each type of vegetation, <strong>and</strong> in all nature reserves; <strong>and</strong>, 2) investigate the influence of<br />
highway distance on the native vegetation cover <strong>and</strong> on the reserve distribution. The area of<br />
study was the state of São Paulo (southeastern Brazil), where two biodiversity hotspots biomes<br />
occur: the Brazilian Atlantic <strong>Forest</strong> <strong>and</strong> the Brazilian Cerrado. About 10% of São Paulo has<br />
been ecologically affected by highways, being the dense ombrophylous forest <strong>and</strong> most nature<br />
reserves greatly impacted. Native vegetation <strong>and</strong> reserve areas have increased nearly logistically<br />
with the increase of highway distance. We suggest that in order to improve conservation <strong>and</strong><br />
restoration strategies, highways should be carefully considered, prioritizing remote areas.<br />
Keywords: road ecology, tropical forest, biodiversity conservation, tropical savanna, South<br />
America.<br />
1. Introduction<br />
Highways connect cities <strong>and</strong> facilitate transportation of products <strong>and</strong> services. They are a<br />
symbol of development for people living in remote areas (Pfaff et al. 2007). However, highways<br />
also affect air, soil, vegetation, wildlife (Forman et al. 2003). In tropical forest, the first effect of<br />
a highway construction is the forest fragmentation (Freitas et al. 2010), which cause edge effect<br />
<strong>and</strong> isolation of sensible species populations (Murcia 1995; Develey <strong>and</strong> Stouffer 2001;<br />
Fuentes-Montemayor et al. 2009; Laurance et al. 2009). Moreover, highways cause road kill,<br />
pollutants emission <strong>and</strong> facilitate fire events (Forman et al. 2003; Fahrig <strong>and</strong> Rytwinski 2009;<br />
Laurance et al. 2009). Some species show an road avoidance behavior, which reduces functional<br />
connectivity (McGregor et al. 2008; Fahrig <strong>and</strong> Rytwinski 2009), that is, the capacity of<br />
l<strong>and</strong>scape to facilitate biological flux (Taylor et al. 1993).<br />
The extension of the highway effects depends on the considered biotic or abiotic factor (Forman<br />
<strong>and</strong> Deblinger 1999). For instance, exotic plant species can reach up to 100 m from the road,<br />
whereas traffic noise can affect birds a hundred of meters far away from the road (Reijnen et al.<br />
1995; Forman <strong>and</strong> Deblinger 1999; Trombulak <strong>and</strong> Frissel 2000; Palomino <strong>and</strong> Carrascal 2007).<br />
Roads near to forest fragments can affect their species richness <strong>and</strong> composition (Hansen <strong>and</strong><br />
* Corresponding author. Tel.: +55 11 4437 8439<br />
Email address: simonerfreitas.ufabc@gmail.com<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
S.R. Freitas et al. 2010. The effect of highways on native vegetation <strong>and</strong> reserve distribution in the State of São Paulo<br />
675<br />
Clevenger 2005; Palomino <strong>and</strong> Carrascal 2007; Fahrig <strong>and</strong> Rytwinski 2009; Laurance et al.<br />
2009).<br />
Underst<strong>and</strong>ing the relationship between highways <strong>and</strong> native vegetation would improve<br />
methods to select priority areas for conservation <strong>and</strong> restoration <strong>and</strong> the effectivity of those new<br />
wildlife nature reserves. This work aims to: 1) estimate areas which have been ecologically<br />
affected by highways, in the whole state of São Paulo, for each type of vegetation, <strong>and</strong> in all<br />
nature reserves; <strong>and</strong>, 2) investigate the influence of highway distance on the native vegetation<br />
cover <strong>and</strong> on the reserve distribution.<br />
2. Methodology<br />
The study area was the State of São Paulo, in the southeastern of Brazil. In that State, there are<br />
two biomes considered as biodiversity hotspots for conservation: Atlantic <strong>Forest</strong> <strong>and</strong> Cerrado<br />
(Myers et al. 2000).<br />
We used the state’s road map, produced by DER (2008) <strong>and</strong> classified by road types: nonpaved<br />
roads, paved roads with two lanes, highways (paved roads with four lanes) <strong>and</strong><br />
expressways (paved roads with at least four lanes <strong>and</strong> high traffic). We also used a native<br />
vegetation map with the following vegetation types: Savanna <strong>and</strong> Semideciduous Seasonal<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> (both from Cerrado biome), <strong>and</strong> Serra do Mar Coastal <strong>Forest</strong>s, Araucaria Moist <strong>Forest</strong>s,<br />
Mangroves <strong>and</strong> Atlantic Coast Restingas (from Atlantic <strong>Forest</strong> biome).<br />
We included only the nature reserves classified as Full Protection in the Brazilian<br />
Environmental Legislation (SNUC) performing 62 nature reserves in the State of São Paulo.<br />
We estimated the areas which have been ecologically affected by roads in the whole State of<br />
São Paulo, in each type of vegetation <strong>and</strong> in the nature reserves following the methodology<br />
used by Forman (2000). The area ecologically affected by roads was evaluate using the<br />
distance where the sensible bird species are affected because they are negativelly affected by<br />
roads (Reijnen et al. 1995, Forman 2000, Develey e Stouffer 2001). Roads with high traffic<br />
flow were considered those with the higher ecological effect, thus the buffer width varied to<br />
road type (Forman 2000, Liu et al. 2008): non-paved roads have 200 m buffer width, paved<br />
roads 365 m, highways 810 m <strong>and</strong> expressways 1000 m.<br />
The relationship between native vegetation <strong>and</strong> road distance was evaluated using 10 noninclusive<br />
buffers: 0-50 m, 50-100 m, 100-250 m, 250-500 m, 500-750 m, 750-1000 m, 1000-<br />
1250 m, 1250-1500 m, 1500-1750 m, 1750-2000 m. In each buffer, we measured the total area<br />
of native vegetation.<br />
3. Result<br />
Road density in the São Paulo State was 0.145 km/km 2 . Paved roads were the most abundant<br />
(0.070 km/km 2 ), followed by non-paved roads (0.060 km/km 2 ), highways (0.010 km/km 2 ) <strong>and</strong><br />
expressways (0.006 km/km 2 ).<br />
More than 2,375,600 ha (10%) of the territory was affected ecologically by roads. The State of<br />
São Paulo was most affected by paved roads (4.7%), followed by non-paved roads (2.2%),<br />
highways (1.5%) <strong>and</strong> expressways (1.2%).<br />
About 5.4% of the native vegetation cover were affected by roads. The Atlantic <strong>Forest</strong> biome<br />
has about 5.3% of its cover affected by roads, whereas 5.9% of the Cerrado biome were affected<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
S.R. Freitas et al. 2010. The effect of highways on native vegetation <strong>and</strong> reserve distribution in the State of São Paulo<br />
676<br />
by them. Between the ecoregions (Olson et al. 2001), Serra do Mar coastal forests were the most<br />
affected by roads (51%). However, in relation to its cover, mangroves have more of its cover<br />
affected by roads (16%). About 55% of nature nature reserves were affected by roads. Five of<br />
them showed more than 30% of their territory affected by roads.<br />
There is more native vegetation cover as road distance increases (Figura 1). This relationship<br />
was nearly logistic for expressways (Figure 1).<br />
4. Discussion<br />
The State of São Paulo has a lower road density (0.15 km/km 2 ) than that considered as<br />
maximum for sustain populations of big predators (0.60 km/km 2 ; Forman <strong>and</strong> Alex<strong>and</strong>er 1998).<br />
However, those roads affect the distribution of native vegetation <strong>and</strong> threat the efficiency of<br />
nature reserves. Near roads could cause a significant increase of mortality rates for many<br />
wildlife populations, even overcoming hunting (Forman <strong>and</strong> Alex<strong>and</strong>er 1998).<br />
Almost 10% of State of São Paulo is ecologically affected by roads. Forman (2000) found a<br />
double proportion (about 20%) to United States of America. However, the State of São Paulo<br />
has a very lower road density than USA (0.41 km/km 2 ; Forman 2000), indicating that more<br />
native vegetation is under threat of roads in our study area. Even many states of USA have<br />
higher road densities than State of São Paulo (0.15 km/km 2 ): Misouri (1.89 km/km 2 ), Arkansas<br />
(1.23km/km 2 ) <strong>and</strong> Oklahoma (1.18 km/km 2 ; La Rue <strong>and</strong> Nielsen 2008).<br />
Laurance et al. (2009) state that non-paved roads represent a lower impact on vegetation <strong>and</strong><br />
wildlife in tropical forests than paved roads because they usually are inaccessible during raining<br />
season (summer). However, our study showed that non-paved <strong>and</strong> paved roads affect more than<br />
highways <strong>and</strong> expressways because they are more abundant <strong>and</strong> spread all over the territory,<br />
showing higher densities (0.06 km/km 2 <strong>and</strong> 0.07 km/km 2 respectivelly) than highways (0.01<br />
km/km 2 ) <strong>and</strong> expressways (0.01 km/km 2 ).<br />
As expected, the dominant vegetation type - Serra do Mar Coastal <strong>Forest</strong>s - was the most<br />
affected by roads. Serra do Mar Coastal <strong>Forest</strong>s is distributed along coastline as well as many of<br />
road network in Brazil, representing one of the most important connection axis for national<br />
transportation (north-south). However, in proportion mangroves are highly affected by roads for<br />
the same reason.<br />
Half of natural reserves is affected by roads. Five of them have more than 30% <strong>and</strong> three of<br />
them have more than 60% of their territory affected by roads, which represents a threat for their<br />
biodiversity. Roads facilitate hunter access <strong>and</strong> increase the probability of collision by vehicles<br />
(Laurance et al. 2009). Nature reserves near roads are probably under more conflicts with<br />
human population <strong>and</strong> more vulnerable to environmental degradation.<br />
There is more native vegetation as far as the road is. Roads act as atractor to l<strong>and</strong> use <strong>and</strong><br />
deforestation (Nagendra et al. 2003; Freitas et al. 2010). For instance, in the Amazon <strong>Forest</strong>,<br />
about 95% of deforestation occurred at most 50 km far from roads (Laurance et al. 2009).<br />
Expressways are not too densely distributed as other road types, however they show a nearly<br />
logistic relationship to native vegetation cover indicating a strong negative effect to the nearby<br />
native vegetation. Thus, road distance could be used as indicator to predict the distribution of<br />
native vegetation in the future. We suggest that in order to improve conservation <strong>and</strong> restoration<br />
strategies, the effect of highways should be carefully considered, prioritizing remote areas.<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
S.R. Freitas et al. 2010. The effect of highways on native vegetation <strong>and</strong> reserve distribution in the State of São Paulo<br />
677<br />
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(U.S.A.) suburban highway. Conservation Biology, 14: 36-46.<br />
Forman, R.T.T., 2000. Estimate of the area affected ecologically by the road system in the<br />
United States. Conservation Biology, 14: 31-35.<br />
Forman, R.T.T., Sperling, D., Bissonette, J.A., Clevenger, A.P., Cutshall, C.D., Dale, V.H.,<br />
Fahrig, L., France, R., Goldman, C.R., Heanue, K., Jones, J.A., Swanson, F.J., Turrentine,<br />
T. <strong>and</strong> Winter, T.C., 2003. Road ecology: science <strong>and</strong> solutions. Isl<strong>and</strong> Press,<br />
Washington, DC, 481 p.<br />
Freitas, S.R., Hawbaker, T.J. <strong>and</strong> Metzger, J.P., 2010. Effects of roads, topography, <strong>and</strong> l<strong>and</strong><br />
use on forest cover dynamics in the Brazilian Atlantic <strong>Forest</strong>. <strong>Forest</strong> Ecology <strong>and</strong><br />
Management, 259: 410-417.<br />
Fuentes-Montemayor, E., Cuarón, A.D., Vázquez-Domínguez, E., Benítez-Malvido, J.,<br />
Valenzuela-Galván, D. <strong>and</strong> Andresen, E., 2009. Living on the edge: roads <strong>and</strong> edge<br />
effects on small mammal populations. Journal of Animal Ecology, 78: 857-865.<br />
Hansen, M.J. <strong>and</strong> Clevenger, A.P., 2005. The influence of disturbance <strong>and</strong> habitat on the<br />
presence of non-native plant species along transport corridors. Biological Conservation,<br />
125: 249-259.<br />
LaRue, M.A. <strong>and</strong> Nielsen, C.K., 2008. Modelling potential dispersal corridors for cougars in<br />
midwestern North America using least-cost path methods. Ecological Modelling, 212:<br />
372-381.<br />
Laurance, W.F., Goosem, M. <strong>and</strong> Laurance, S.G.W., 2009. Impacts of roads <strong>and</strong> linear clearings<br />
on tropical forests. Trends in Ecology <strong>and</strong> Evolution, 24: 659-669.<br />
Liu, S.L., Cui, B.S., Dong, S.K., Yang, Z.F., Yang, M. <strong>and</strong> Holt, K., 2008. Evaluating the<br />
influence of road networks on l<strong>and</strong>scape <strong>and</strong> regional ecological risk - A case study in<br />
Lancang River Valley of Southwest China. Ecological Engineering, 34: 91-99.<br />
McGregor, R.L., Bender, D.J. <strong>and</strong> Fahrig, L., 2008. Do small mammals avoid roads because of<br />
the traffic Journal of Applied Ecology, 45: 117-123.<br />
Murcia, C., 1995. Edge effects in fragmented forests: implications for conservation. Trends in<br />
Ecology <strong>and</strong> Evolution, 10: 58-62.<br />
Nagendra, H., Southworth, J. <strong>and</strong> Tucker, C., 2003. Accessibility as a determinant of l<strong>and</strong>scape<br />
transformation in western Honduras: linking pattern <strong>and</strong> process. L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology, 18:<br />
141-158.<br />
Palomino, D. <strong>and</strong> Carrascal, L.M., 2007. Threshold distances to nearby cities <strong>and</strong> roads<br />
influence the bird community of a mosaic l<strong>and</strong>scape. Biological Conservation, 140: 100-<br />
109.<br />
Pfaff, A., Robalino, J., Walker, R., Aldrich, S., Caldas, M., Reis, E., Perz, S., Bohrer, C., Arima,<br />
E., Laurance, W. <strong>and</strong> Kirby, K., 2007. Road investments, spatial spillovers, <strong>and</strong><br />
deforestation in the Brazilian Amazon. Journal of Regional Science, 47: 109-123.<br />
Reijnen, R., Foppen, R., Ter Braak, C. <strong>and</strong> Thissen, J., 1995. The effects of car traffic on<br />
breeding bird populations in woodl<strong>and</strong>. III. Reduction of density in relation to the<br />
proximity of main roads. Journal of Applied Ecology, 32: 187-202.<br />
Taylor, P.D., Fahrig, L., Henein, K. <strong>and</strong> Merriam, G., 1993. Connectivity is a vital element of<br />
l<strong>and</strong>scape structure. Oikos, 68: 571-573.<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
S.R. Freitas et al. 2010. The effect of highways on native vegetation <strong>and</strong> reserve distribution in the State of São Paulo<br />
678<br />
Trombulak, S.C. <strong>and</strong> Frissell, C.A., 2000. Review of ecological effects of roads on terrestrial<br />
<strong>and</strong> aquatic communities. Conservation Biology,14: 18-30.<br />
18<br />
native vegetation cover / buffer area * 100<br />
16<br />
14<br />
12<br />
10<br />
8<br />
6<br />
4<br />
50 100 250 500 750 1000 1250 1500 1750 2000<br />
distance from road (m)<br />
expressway highway paved road unpaved road express_logist<br />
Figure 1: Native vegetation cover (%) in different distances from roads for each road type. Native<br />
vegetation cover increases nearly logistically (express_logist) in function to distance of expressways.<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
B. Terrones et al. 2010. Detecting vulnerable spots for ecological connectivity caused by minor road network<br />
679<br />
Detecting vulnerable spots for ecological connectivity caused by minor<br />
road network in Alicante, Spain<br />
Beatriz Terrones 1,2* , Sara Michelle Catalán 1,3 , Aydeé Sanjinés 1,3 , Encarnación Rico-<br />
Guzmán 4 & Andreu Bonet 1,4<br />
1 Department of Ecology. University of Alicante. Spain<br />
2 Font Roja NATURA UA' Scientific Station. University of Alicante. Spain<br />
3 Mediterranean Agronomic Institute of Zaragoza. CIHEAM, Spain<br />
4 "Ramón Margalef" Multidisciplinary Institute for Environmental Research. University<br />
of Alicante, Spain<br />
Abstract<br />
Applying l<strong>and</strong> conservation planning allows to maintain <strong>and</strong> restore the ecological connections<br />
among natural remnants <strong>and</strong> protected areas in the territory. Roads increase the problem of<br />
habitat fragmentation, breaking large habitat areas into smaller ones, creating isolated habitat<br />
patches <strong>and</strong> decreasing connectivity in the territory.<br />
Functional connectivity in Alicante’s Province was analyzed using least-cost models. Applied<br />
connectivity models for the study of ecological processes <strong>and</strong> animal movements is a tool of<br />
great utility for l<strong>and</strong>scape planning <strong>and</strong> Protected Areas management. Connectivity models are<br />
based in the creation of a friction surface that indicates the relative cost of moving target species<br />
across the l<strong>and</strong>scape. Ecological corridors between the main protected areas <strong>and</strong> conflictive<br />
points that intersect with minor road network were identified.<br />
Keywords: ecological connectivity, l<strong>and</strong>scape model, cost-distance, road ecology.<br />
1. Introduction<br />
L<strong>and</strong> use changes in l<strong>and</strong>scape are the main cause of fragmentation processes of natural habitats<br />
<strong>and</strong> populations of wild organisms, <strong>and</strong> it is recognized as one of the most important threats to<br />
the biodiversity maintenance (Harris 1984; Wilson 1988; Saunders <strong>and</strong> Hobbs 1991;<br />
McCullough 1996; Pickett et al. 1997; Fielder <strong>and</strong> Kareiva 1998; Fahrig 2003). Linear<br />
infrastructures like roads <strong>and</strong> railway networks are important barriers that limit movement <strong>and</strong><br />
dispersion of terrestrial vertebrates, increasing the problem of habitat fragmentation <strong>and</strong> creating<br />
isolated habitat patches in the territory. The presence of a road may modify animal’s behaviour<br />
<strong>and</strong> alter patterns of animal movement (Trombulak 2000).<br />
It is fundamental for wildlife survival to maintain <strong>and</strong> restore the ecological connections among<br />
natural remnants <strong>and</strong> Protected Areas in the territory. The concept of ecological connectivity is<br />
shown as an essential element in the l<strong>and</strong>-use planning. L<strong>and</strong>scape connectivity could be<br />
defined as the degree to which the l<strong>and</strong>scape facilitates or impedes movement of organisms<br />
among resource patches (Taylor et al. 1993). This definition considers that connectivity is<br />
* Corresponding author. Tel.: 965 903 732 - Fax: 965 909 832<br />
Email address: beatriz.terrones@ua.es<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
B. Terrones et al. 2010. Detecting vulnerable spots for ecological connectivity caused by minor road network<br />
680<br />
species <strong>and</strong> l<strong>and</strong>scape specific, because it depends not only on characteristics of the l<strong>and</strong>scape,<br />
but also on aspects of the mobility of the organism (Tischendorf <strong>and</strong> Fahrig 2000).<br />
Application of connectivity models for the study of ecological processes <strong>and</strong> species movement<br />
is a useful tool in conservation planning (Adriansen et al. 2003; Nikolakaki 2004; Marulli <strong>and</strong><br />
Mallarach, 2005; Driezen et al. 2007) <strong>and</strong> it can be an interesting tool for predicting the effect<br />
of changes in the l<strong>and</strong>scape on connectivity in a quantitative way (Adriansen et al. 2003). These<br />
models produce a map of the relative cost of reaching particular areas in a l<strong>and</strong>scape from a<br />
source.<br />
This work presents a methodological spatial approach based on Geographical Information<br />
System (GIS) that (1) enables a connectivity diagnose of terrestrial l<strong>and</strong>scape ecosystems <strong>and</strong><br />
(2) makes possible the identification of vulnerable spots that have a critical importance for<br />
ecological connectivity. These results will provide useful guidelines for l<strong>and</strong>scape conservation<br />
planning at local level (Municipalities <strong>and</strong> Local Administrations).<br />
2. Methodology<br />
2.1 Habitat maps<br />
We created a l<strong>and</strong> use map for Alicante’s Province compiling information about l<strong>and</strong> use <strong>and</strong><br />
vegetation cover from different sources. The original map was the Spanish <strong>Forest</strong> Map<br />
(MFE50), which was reclassified. We used CORINE l<strong>and</strong> cover map, road <strong>and</strong> railway network<br />
<strong>and</strong> urban areas cartography to complete it. The final map recognized 32 l<strong>and</strong>-use types, of<br />
which 7 are linear structures. In order to improve a finer analysis resolution <strong>and</strong> to incorporate<br />
barriers <strong>and</strong> connection spots at l<strong>and</strong>scape level, we also created derived cartography, as road<br />
network impact <strong>and</strong> urban areas impact maps (decreasing connectivity), <strong>and</strong> hydrological<br />
network map <strong>and</strong> tunnels <strong>and</strong> bridges map (improving connectivity). These maps were<br />
converted to raster format, with a cell resolution of 20x20 meters.<br />
2.2 Least-cost analysis<br />
Connectivity models are based on the creation of a friction surface that indicates the relative<br />
cost of moving for target species across the l<strong>and</strong>scape (Figure 1). We used raster format, from<br />
ArcGIS software, with a cell resolution of 20x20 meters.<br />
Figure 1: Methodology of the process followed.<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
B. Terrones et al. 2010. Detecting vulnerable spots for ecological connectivity caused by minor road network<br />
681<br />
We defined target species as forest mammals present in Alicante’s Province, such as the stone<br />
marten (Martes foina Erxleben, 1777), the red fox (Vulpes vulpes Linnaeus, 1758), the wildcat<br />
(Felis silvestris Schreber, 1777) <strong>and</strong> the wild boar (Sus scrofa Linnaeus, 1758). These species<br />
use mainly riversides <strong>and</strong> ravines to move along the l<strong>and</strong>scape, while urban areas <strong>and</strong> road<br />
network are the main barriers to their movements. We identified the core areas of target species<br />
as dense forested areas inside Sites of Community Interest (SCI) of Natura 2000, with a<br />
minimum area of 20 ha (McDonald <strong>and</strong> Barret 2008).<br />
We determined the main l<strong>and</strong>scape factors that have more influence on the resistance to forest<br />
mammals movement, creating a final friction map on GIS with a relative set of resistance values<br />
for l<strong>and</strong> use covers <strong>and</strong> the other cartographic information layers (Figure 2), based on previous<br />
works (Sastre et al. 2002; Campeny et al. 2005; Gurrrutxaga 2005).<br />
Figure 2: Friction map for Alicante’s Province, with a relative scale from 0.6 to 701.5.<br />
With this information, we created a cost-distance surface <strong>and</strong> calculated the least-cost route<br />
between natural areas. Finally, we carried out an identification of l<strong>and</strong>scape linkages <strong>and</strong><br />
ecological corridors <strong>and</strong> their intersection with the minor road network, in order to propose<br />
restoration activities to improve connectivity.<br />
3. Results<br />
We obtained a final map of the cost distance from habitat sources for target species (Figure 3).<br />
With this map, we were able to analyze the relative cost of reaching points in the l<strong>and</strong>scape<br />
from a determined source. In this case, we analyzed the problem with connectivity between the<br />
Natura 2000 areas, <strong>and</strong> their intersections with the road network.<br />
Results showed that core areas in the North of the Province were more connected than core<br />
areas in the South, caused by the presence of more natural areas <strong>and</strong> forests in the North.<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
B. Terrones et al. 2010. Detecting vulnerable spots for ecological connectivity caused by minor road network<br />
682<br />
Figure 3: Cost distance map for Alicante’s Province, in a relative scale from 0 to 100.<br />
The cost distance values for the Alicante Province surface are showed in Table 1. The 20% of<br />
the area of Alicante’s Province was classified with a very high level of connection <strong>and</strong> only the<br />
9% of area was disconnected.<br />
Table 1: Cost values in a categorical relative scale (from 0 to 100) of the Alicante’s Province.<br />
Category Cost values Total Area (Km 2 ) %<br />
Very high connectivity 0 – 1 1211.23 20.84<br />
High connectivity 1 – 5 1975.92 33.99<br />
Medium connectivity 5 – 10 1335.85 22.98<br />
Low connectivity 10 – 20 765.31 13.17<br />
No connectivity 20 – 100 524.28 9.02<br />
Based on the cost distance map, we selected the areas with the lowest values in travel cost<br />
between the Natura 2000 areas, <strong>and</strong> then we proposed the main corridors between protected<br />
areas. We detected also the intersections between these corridors <strong>and</strong> the road network. Then,<br />
we used the cartography of transversal structures along the roads (tunnels <strong>and</strong> bridges) as<br />
connection spots, <strong>and</strong> searched for the conflictive areas for connectivity.<br />
A good example of the application of this work, it can be observed in the North area of the<br />
Province, in the Maigmó i Serres de la Foia de Castalla SCI in a fragmented l<strong>and</strong>scape (Figure<br />
4). This Protected Area is surrounding by other natural areas, which are core areas for the target<br />
species. CV-80 <strong>and</strong> A-31 are two highways that limited connections by North <strong>and</strong> West. In<br />
these highways there are several transversal structures that could be adapted for improving<br />
connectivity. In the East area there are two minor roads (CV-802 <strong>and</strong> CV- 803) that are limiting<br />
connectivity, but the cost values are lower than in the other areas.<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
B. Terrones et al. 2010. Detecting vulnerable spots for ecological connectivity caused by minor road network<br />
683<br />
Figure 4: Detail of cost surface map of the Maigmó <strong>and</strong> Serres de la Foia de Castalla SCI, with the road<br />
network in black, bridges as white points, <strong>and</strong> arrows defining the main areas for wildlife movements.<br />
4. Discussion<br />
The methodology we use for evaluating ecological connectivity at a regional scale allows<br />
obtaining quick assessments, which can be very effective for l<strong>and</strong>-use planning, <strong>and</strong> it is also a<br />
flexible research tool. This methodology has a lot of potentials to study connectivity problems<br />
with a wide range of applications (Adriansen et al. 2003; Pinto <strong>and</strong> Keitt 2009).<br />
This analysis allows to identify important points for ecological connectivity such as vulnerable<br />
spots <strong>and</strong> areas with high value for ecological connectivity. The generated maps will provide<br />
useful guidelines for l<strong>and</strong>scape conservation planning at local level (Municipalities <strong>and</strong> Local<br />
Administrations).<br />
Connectivity between Natura 2000 Network sites in Alicante’s Province is heterogeneous. The<br />
North of Province shows the highest values of cost distance, meanwhile there are many areas<br />
disconnected in the South. The 22% of the Province surface have low or no connectivity. These<br />
areas would need the target of restoration <strong>and</strong> permeability actions, but also areas with high<br />
connectivity in order to solve existing conflicts between ecological <strong>and</strong> road network.<br />
Roads <strong>and</strong> urban areas appear as one of the most important problems for connectivity in<br />
Alicante’s Province. The intersection of proposed corridors based on cost distance surface maps,<br />
with the road network cartography would be a good tool for selecting conflict spots in order to<br />
propose restoration activities to improve connectivity.<br />
Acknowledgements<br />
This research was supported by Alicante Natura S.A., Diputación de Alicante <strong>and</strong> the project<br />
“Balances hídricos y recarga de acuíferos en sistemas mediterráneos: Comparación de<br />
escenarios de cambio de usos del suelo y en un contexto de cambio climático (BAHIRA)”<br />
(CGL2008-03649/BTE).<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
B. Terrones et al. 2010. Detecting vulnerable spots for ecological connectivity caused by minor road network<br />
684<br />
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using a graph-theoretic approach. L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology, 24: 253-266.<br />
Sastre, P.; de Lucio, J.V. <strong>and</strong> Martínez, C., 2002. Modelos de conectividad del paisaje a<br />
distintas escalas. Ejemplos de aplicación en la Comunidad de Madrid. Ecosistemas<br />
2002/2.<br />
Saunders, D. <strong>and</strong> R. Hobbs (eds.), 1991. Nature Conservation 2: The Role of Corridors. Surrey<br />
Beatty, Chipping Norton, Australia.<br />
Taylor, P.D.; Fahrig, L.; Henein, K. <strong>and</strong> Merriam, G., 1993. Connectivity is a vital element of<br />
l<strong>and</strong>scape structure. Oikos 68:571–573.<br />
Tischendorf, L. <strong>and</strong> Fahrig, L., 2000. On the usage <strong>and</strong> measurement of l<strong>and</strong>scape connectivity.<br />
Oikos, 90: 7-19.<br />
Trombulak, S.C. <strong>and</strong> Frissell, C. A., 2000. Review of ecological effects of roads on terrestrial<br />
<strong>and</strong> aquatic communities. Conservation Biology, 14(1): 18-30.<br />
Wilson, E.O., 1988. The current status of biological diversity. In: Wilson E.O. (ed.),<br />
Biodiversity. National Academic Press, Washington, DC.<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
A l<strong>and</strong>scape approach to sustainable forest management
M. Kolström et al. 2010. Is it possible to combine adaptation to climate change <strong>and</strong> maintaining of forest biodiversity<br />
686<br />
Is it possible to combine adaptation to climate change <strong>and</strong> maintaining of<br />
forest biodiversity<br />
Marja Kolström * , Terhi Vilén & Marcus Lindner<br />
European <strong>Forest</strong> Institute, Finl<strong>and</strong><br />
Abstract<br />
An EU-level review of the climate change adaptation measures in forestry shows that there are<br />
adaptation measures that support maintaining biodiversity, but also adaptation measures that have<br />
the potential to decrease the level of biodiversity. A choice of the adaptation measure might thus<br />
involve trade-offs between efficient adaptation <strong>and</strong> maintaining biodiversity at the st<strong>and</strong> level. The<br />
l<strong>and</strong>scape approach allows building a combination of highly adaptive st<strong>and</strong>s with simultaneous high<br />
level of biodiversity <strong>and</strong> st<strong>and</strong>s where adaptation measures do not support biodiversity. This is<br />
however a complex task <strong>and</strong> gets even more complicated since also economic <strong>and</strong> social<br />
st<strong>and</strong>points have to be taken into account. A successful realisation is possible only if all policy<br />
makers at different levels, affected stakeholder groups, forest owners <strong>and</strong> forest workers are aware<br />
what measures are suitable <strong>and</strong> why they are used.<br />
Keywords: European forests, climate change, adaptation measures, l<strong>and</strong>scape approach,<br />
biodiversity<br />
1. Introduction<br />
Rising levels of greenhouse gases are already changing the climate. According to the IPCC WGI<br />
Fourth Assessment Report, the global average temperature has increased by about 0.76 ºC from<br />
1850 to 2005, <strong>and</strong> a further increase in temperatures of 1.4°C to 5.8°C by 2100 is projected. Thus,<br />
merely mitigation of the climate change is not enough but also adaptation of forest management is<br />
essential to avoid negative impacts for the forestry sector <strong>and</strong> to ensure the continuation of the<br />
mitigation effect that forests have. In addition to changes in mean climate variables, European<br />
forests will have to adapt also to increased climate variability; there is expected to be greater risk of<br />
extreme weather events like prolonged drought, storms <strong>and</strong> floods (Maracchi et al. 2005, Salinger et<br />
al. 2005).<br />
European forests are diverse, with each region featuring different tree species, ecological<br />
conditions, management goals, <strong>and</strong> required goods <strong>and</strong> services by the society. Thus, the adaptive<br />
capacity of the European forests differs <strong>and</strong> also the climate change adaptation strategies should be<br />
developed in different ways. Main goals of the adaptive management include maintaining the wood<br />
production (boreal region), minimizing the impacts of disturbances (temperate <strong>and</strong> Mediterranean<br />
region) <strong>and</strong> ensuring the ecosystem services (Mediterranean region) (Lindner et al. 2008).<br />
* Corresponding author. Tel.: +358 10 773 4334 - Fax: +358 10 773 4377<br />
Email address: marja.kolstrom@efi.int<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.) 2010,<br />
Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
M. Kolström et al. 2010. Is it possible to combine adaptation to climate change <strong>and</strong> maintaining of forest biodiversity<br />
687<br />
Furthermore, also biodiversity has to be taken into account when planning the adaptive management<br />
of the forests. In addition of having intrinsic value, biodiversity can also play an important role in<br />
enhancing the adaptive capacity of the forest ecosystems, i.e. increasing the ecosystem capacity to<br />
recover <strong>and</strong> adapt to the impacts of climate change (Secretariat of the Convention on Biological<br />
Diversity 2003).<br />
Existing knowledge of the observed <strong>and</strong> projected impacts of the climate change on European<br />
forests, <strong>and</strong> options for forests <strong>and</strong> forestry to adapt to climate change were reviewed on a study<br />
commissioned by the Directorate General for Agriculture <strong>and</strong> Rural Development of the European<br />
Commission (Lindner et al. 2008). This EU-level study shows that there are adaptation measures<br />
that support maintaining biodiversity, but also adaptation measures that have the potential to<br />
decrease the level of biodiversity. A choice of the adaptation measure might thus involve trade-offs<br />
between efficient adaptation <strong>and</strong> maintaining biodiversity at the st<strong>and</strong> level. Consequently, planning<br />
<strong>and</strong> management of the adaptation measures should be carried out at the l<strong>and</strong>scape level. The aim of<br />
this study is to review adaptation options in forestry <strong>and</strong> their effect on biodiversity <strong>and</strong> then assess<br />
how l<strong>and</strong>scape approach might be a solution to combine adaptation to climate change <strong>and</strong><br />
maintaining of forest biodiversity.<br />
2. Adaptation options in forestry <strong>and</strong> interaction with biodiversity<br />
Species or st<strong>and</strong> composition of forest can be manipulated in a regeneration phase. Because the<br />
genetic composition of the populations needs to be enhanced to cope with environmental changes,<br />
diversity should be set at higher levels than under st<strong>and</strong>ard regeneration conditions, i.e. without<br />
environmental change. Thus, in the regeneration phase, a highly recommended option to secure the<br />
adaptive response of established regeneration is to raise the level of genetic diversity within the<br />
seedling population, either by natural or artificial mediated means. In order to raise levels of genetic<br />
diversity, seedlings coming from different seed st<strong>and</strong>s of the same provenance region can be mixed<br />
at the nursery stage. This introducing of new reproductive material should however be seen as<br />
complementing local seed resources, not replacing local material (Lindner et al. 2008).<br />
Adaptation measures in early st<strong>and</strong> development stages i.e. tending <strong>and</strong> pre-commercial thinning)<br />
should support mixed st<strong>and</strong>s of suitable, adapted tree species, inter alia to distribute risk via<br />
diversification (Spiecker 2003). Silvicultural adaptation actions aiming at the establishment of<br />
ecosystems with highly diverse tree composition <strong>and</strong> ground vegetation will be inevitable in pests<br />
<strong>and</strong> disease risk management. Because of increasingly dry periods, fire risk is expected to increase<br />
in the already fire‐prone Mediterranean zone, but also in the boreal <strong>and</strong> central European regions.<br />
Current fire prevention policies need to be adjusted to cope with longer <strong>and</strong> severe fire seasons <strong>and</strong><br />
larger areas exposed to fire risk, especially in the Mediterranean region (Moreno 2005). Adaptation<br />
measures include, for example, modification of forest structure (e.g. tree spacing <strong>and</strong> density,<br />
regulation of age class structure) <strong>and</strong> fuel management, like thinning, pruning <strong>and</strong> biomass<br />
removals. To decrease risk of pests or fire, removal of forest residues, wind throws clearings,<br />
sanitation felling <strong>and</strong> removing st<strong>and</strong>ing dead trees <strong>and</strong> coarse woody debris on the forest floor are<br />
recommended. However, mature trees <strong>and</strong> decaying wood, for instance, are elements favouring<br />
diversity in forest ecosystems.<br />
With term harvesting we refer to production-target oriented cutting of mature trees, ranging from<br />
single individuals (e.g. selection cutting) to larger spatial scales (e.g. clear cut). Small scale<br />
harvesting interventions <strong>and</strong> the promotion of harvesting systems which support natural<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.) 2010,<br />
Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
M. Kolström et al. 2010. Is it possible to combine adaptation to climate change <strong>and</strong> maintaining of forest biodiversity<br />
688<br />
regeneration of suitable species increase spatial heterogeneity (e.g. Spiecker 2003). A dense forest<br />
road network is the prerequisite to small-scale, structurally diverse thinning <strong>and</strong> harvesting practices<br />
under adaptive management. In complex terrain such as mountain forests, the vital forest functions<br />
are depending on such measures (Brang et al. 2006; Woltjer et al. 2008). Moreover, infrastructure<br />
supports the mitigation of large scale disturbance impacts. This however leads to fragmentation of<br />
ecosystems <strong>and</strong> has adverse effects to the biodiversity.<br />
Reducing forest fragmentation by establishing connecting corridors between densely forested<br />
regions contributes to increasing the natural adaptive capacity. Establishing a network of corridors<br />
<strong>and</strong> stepping stones connecting protected areas has been suggested as an adaptive strategy to assist<br />
species as they migrate in response to climate change (Halpin 1997; Harrington et al. 2001).<br />
Corridors should be built to aid in the migration of species to other protected areas when an extreme<br />
event has occurred (Bridgewater <strong>and</strong> Woodin 1990).<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> management planning describes the processes of problem identification, development of<br />
alternatives <strong>and</strong> selection of alternatives, embedded in an adaptive management cycle (cf. Rauscher<br />
1999). One significant selection is the length of rotation, i.e. the period of years between when a<br />
forest st<strong>and</strong> is established <strong>and</strong> when it receives its final harvest. A shortening of rotation length is an<br />
adaptation option in regions with increasing forest growth, like in mountainous or boreal<br />
environments. The reduced rotation length will also lower the risk of financial losses due to<br />
calamities <strong>and</strong> counteract the reduced management flexibilities induced by excessive levels of<br />
sanitation felling (e.g. Wermelinger 2004). However, structural changes of lower rotation lengths<br />
need to be considered with regard to other forest services, like biodiversity via loss of large<br />
diameter trees.<br />
3. L<strong>and</strong>scape approach may be a solution<br />
L<strong>and</strong>scape level approach would allow building a combination of highly adaptive st<strong>and</strong>s with<br />
simultaneous high level biodiversity <strong>and</strong> st<strong>and</strong>s where adaptation measures do not support<br />
biodiversity. This is however a complex task <strong>and</strong> gets even more complicated since also economic<br />
<strong>and</strong> social st<strong>and</strong>points have to be taken into account. The measure might be relevant from<br />
ecological point of view, but not in economic or social point of view.<br />
Since disturbance agents will gain more importance under the climate change, l<strong>and</strong>scape level forest<br />
planning, balancing st<strong>and</strong> level management goals <strong>and</strong> integrated forest protection measures, is of<br />
increasing importance. A key approach in risk management is diversification of tree species<br />
mixtures <strong>and</strong> management approaches between neighbouring forest st<strong>and</strong>s or within a forestry<br />
district to increase adaptive capacity (Lindner 2000; Bodin <strong>and</strong> Wiman 2007; Lindner 2007).<br />
In developing alternative management strategies, forest planning aggregates st<strong>and</strong> scale<br />
management options <strong>and</strong> aims for concerted application at the l<strong>and</strong>scape level. Promotion of<br />
diversity in l<strong>and</strong>scape structure is seen as a strategy to promote resilience of forest ecosystems. At<br />
larger geographical scales of management units <strong>and</strong> forest l<strong>and</strong>scapes, various strategies can be<br />
combined. For example, preferring natural regeneration in mixed forests with long rotation cycles is<br />
incompatible with planting productive genotypes managed in short rotation cycles.<br />
Identifying suitable l<strong>and</strong>scape level management strategies can be facilitated with decision support<br />
systems which include necessary simulation models. Integrated ecosystem models, for instance,<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.) 2010,<br />
Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
M. Kolström et al. 2010. Is it possible to combine adaptation to climate change <strong>and</strong> maintaining of forest biodiversity<br />
689<br />
offer means to consistently project effects of adapted management on a variety of sustainable forest<br />
management indicators. The development of integrated, model-based decision support tools relying<br />
on multi-criteria analysis as a means to integrate stakeholders could offer means to improve the<br />
science – policy –practice interface.<br />
A benefit of the l<strong>and</strong>scape approach is that it includes also socio-economic aspects. The<br />
socioeconomic adaptive capacity of some region can be improved by investing into infrastructure,<br />
research <strong>and</strong> increasing awareness of suitable adaptation measures. One example of a link between<br />
ecological <strong>and</strong> social aspects is conservation areas; two or more protected areas can be linked to one<br />
another with corridors, which aim to help protect the biodiversity. Biological corridors are sections<br />
of l<strong>and</strong> managed via a combination of voluntary agreements or compensation packages with the<br />
owners of the l<strong>and</strong> (McNeely 1994).<br />
4. Discussion<br />
There are quite many examples of adaptive management measures to climate change which are<br />
supporting biodiversity of forests. But there are also measures which are harmful from biodiversity<br />
point of view. Thus, is it possible to combine adaptation to climate change <strong>and</strong> maintaining of forest<br />
biodiversity The l<strong>and</strong>scape approach is a good solution to this complex situation. If a measure<br />
provides win-win –situation for adaptation <strong>and</strong> biodiversity, it should be certainly used. Otherwise<br />
we should choose our object either adaptation or biodiversity for a st<strong>and</strong>, <strong>and</strong> at l<strong>and</strong>scape level<br />
have a good balance of the measures to achieve good level of biodiversity as well as adaptation.<br />
A successful realisation of adaptation measures is possible only if all policy makers at different<br />
levels, affected stakeholder groups, forest owners <strong>and</strong> forest workers are aware what measures are<br />
suitable <strong>and</strong> why they are used. It is of utmost importance to disseminate the knowledge on suitable<br />
adaptation measures <strong>and</strong> their impacts on biodiversity to all stakeholder groups, who need to<br />
implement the measures on the ground. For example, risk management in forestry can be promoted<br />
by educational efforts (Zebisch et al. 2005). Appropriate tools <strong>and</strong> systems are also necessary to<br />
support dissemination.<br />
References<br />
Bodin, P. <strong>and</strong> Wiman, B.L.B., 2007. The usefulness of stability concepts in forest management<br />
when coping with increasing climate uncertainties. <strong>Forest</strong> Ecology <strong>and</strong> Management, 242:<br />
541-552.<br />
Brang, P., Schönenberger, W., Frehner, M., Schwitter, R., Thormann, J. <strong>and</strong> Wasser, B., 2006.<br />
Management of protection forests in the European Alps: An overview. <strong>Forest</strong> Snow <strong>and</strong><br />
L<strong>and</strong>scape Research, 80: 23-44.<br />
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7: 165-168.<br />
Halpin, P.N., 1997. <strong>Global</strong> climate change <strong>and</strong> natural-area protection: Management responses <strong>and</strong><br />
research directions. Ecological Applications, 7: 828-843.<br />
Harrington, R., Fleming, R.A. <strong>and</strong> Woiwod, I.P., 2001. Climate change impacts on insect<br />
management <strong>and</strong> conservation in temperate regions: can they be predicted Agricultural <strong>and</strong><br />
<strong>Forest</strong> Entomology, 3: 233-240.<br />
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Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.) 2010,<br />
Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
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Lindner, M., 2000. Developing adaptive forest management strategies to cope with climate change.<br />
Tree Physiology, 20: 299-307.<br />
Lindner, M., 2007. How to adapt forest management in response to the challenges of climate<br />
change In: Koskela, J., Buck, A., Tessier du Cros, E. (Eds.), Climate change <strong>and</strong> forest<br />
genetic diversity: Implications for sustainable forest management in Europe. Bioversity<br />
International, Rome, Italy, pp. 31-42.<br />
Lindner, M., Garcia-Gonzalo, J., Kolström, M., Green, T., Reguera, R., Maroschek, M., Seidl, R.,<br />
Lexer, M.J., Netherer, S., Schopf, A., Kremer, A., Delzon, S., Barbati, A., Marchetti, M. <strong>and</strong><br />
Corona, P., 2008. Impacts of Climate <strong>Change</strong> on European <strong>Forest</strong>s <strong>and</strong> Options for<br />
Adaptation. Report for DG Agriculture, European <strong>Forest</strong> Institute, Joensuu, Finl<strong>and</strong>. 172 p.<br />
Maracchi, G., Sirotenko, O. <strong>and</strong> Bindi, M., 2005. Impacts of present <strong>and</strong> future climate variability<br />
on agriculture <strong>and</strong> forestry in the temperate regions: Europe. Climatic <strong>Change</strong>, 70: 117-135.<br />
McNeely, J.A., 1994. Protected areas for the 21st century: working to provide benefits to society.<br />
Biodiversity <strong>and</strong> Conservation, 3: 390-405.<br />
Moreno, J.M., 2005. Impacts on natural hazards of climatic origin, C. <strong>Forest</strong> fires risk. In: A<br />
Preliminary Assesment of the Impacts in Spain due to the Effects of Climate <strong>Change</strong>. Ministry<br />
of the Environment, Government of Spain, pp. 559-592.<br />
Rauscher, H.M., 1999. Ecosystem management decision support for federal forests in the United<br />
States: A review. <strong>Forest</strong> Ecology <strong>and</strong> Management, 114: 173-197.<br />
Salinger, M.J., Sivakumar, M.V.K. <strong>and</strong> Motha, R., 2005. Reducing Vulnerability of Agriculture <strong>and</strong><br />
<strong>Forest</strong>ry to Climate Variability <strong>and</strong> <strong>Change</strong>: Workshop Summary <strong>and</strong> Recommendations.<br />
Climatic <strong>Change</strong>, 70:341-362.<br />
Secretariat of the Convention on Biological Diversity, 2003. Interlinkages between biological<br />
diversity <strong>and</strong> climate change. Advice on the integration biodiversity consideration into the<br />
implementation of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate <strong>Change</strong> <strong>and</strong> its<br />
Kyoto Protocol. Ad hoc Technical Expert Group on Biodiversity <strong>and</strong> Climate <strong>Change</strong>. 143 p.<br />
Spiecker, H., 2003. Silvicultural management in maintaining biodiversity <strong>and</strong> resistance of forests<br />
in Europe - Temperate zone. Journal of Environmental Management, 67: 55-65.<br />
Wermelinger, B., 2004. Ecology <strong>and</strong> management of the spruce bark beetle Ips typographus - a<br />
review of recent research. <strong>Forest</strong> Ecology Management, 202: 67-82.<br />
Woltjer, M., Rammer, W., Brauner, M., Seidl, R., Mohren, G.M.J. <strong>and</strong> Lexer, M.J., 2008. Coupling<br />
a 3D patch model <strong>and</strong> a rockfall module to assess rockfall protection in mountain forests.<br />
Journal of Environmental Management, 87: 373-388.<br />
Zebisch, M., Grothmann, T., Schröter, D., Hasse, C., Fritsch, U. <strong>and</strong> Cramer, W., 2005.<br />
Klimaw<strong>and</strong>el in Deutschl<strong>and</strong>, Vulnerabilität und Anpassungsstrategien klimasensitiver<br />
Systeme. Climate <strong>Change</strong> 08/05.<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.) 2010,<br />
Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
Ecosystem services from forests at the watershed scale
S. M. Carvalho-Ribeiro & T. Pinto-Correia 2010. <strong>Forest</strong>s in l<strong>and</strong>scapes: modelling forest l<strong>and</strong> cover patterns suitability<br />
692<br />
<strong>Forest</strong>s in l<strong>and</strong>scapes: modelling forest l<strong>and</strong> cover patterns suitability<br />
for meeting future dem<strong>and</strong>s for l<strong>and</strong>scape goods <strong>and</strong> services<br />
Sónia M. Carvalho-Ribeiro * & Teresa Pinto-Correia<br />
Group on Mediterranean Ecosystems <strong>and</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> (EPM) / Institute for<br />
Mediterranean Agrarian <strong>and</strong> Environmental Sciences (ICAAM) , University of Évora,<br />
Portugal<br />
Abstract<br />
<strong>Forest</strong>s deliver a range of l<strong>and</strong>scape functions being thus of utmost importance to study the<br />
effects of forest l<strong>and</strong> cover patterns on the provision of l<strong>and</strong>scape functions, particularly when<br />
considering both l<strong>and</strong> use <strong>and</strong> climate change scenarios. However, the explicit effects of forest<br />
spatial patterns on l<strong>and</strong>scape functions provided have not been well studied (Turner, 1989,<br />
2005). Based on the Portuguese Cávado <strong>and</strong> Sado catchments as case-studies, the overarching<br />
goal of the research project presented in this paper is to i) link forests spatial patterns with<br />
selected non-commodity functions provided by the l<strong>and</strong>scape: water flow regulation, flood<br />
prevention, carbon sequestration, recreation <strong>and</strong> territorial identity, ii) develop a new framework<br />
for prioritizing a set of l<strong>and</strong>scape functions at river basin scale, considering different scenarios,<br />
that derive from both l<strong>and</strong> use <strong>and</strong> climate change. The conceptual framework, based on the<br />
integration of different disciplines as well as the methodological construction of the work , are<br />
presented <strong>and</strong> discussed. This work is undergoing; therefore, comments <strong>and</strong> suggestions<br />
regarding methodological issues are welcomed.<br />
Keywords: watershed scale, forest l<strong>and</strong> cover, l<strong>and</strong>scape functions, goods <strong>and</strong> services<br />
provided by forests<br />
1. Introduction<br />
Goods <strong>and</strong> services provided by forests can be included in a broader category of goods <strong>and</strong><br />
services provided by the environment (de Groot et al., 2002; Slee, 2007; Turner <strong>and</strong> Daily,<br />
2008). Despite the large body of literature on ecosystem (or l<strong>and</strong>scape) functions, goods <strong>and</strong><br />
services, there is still not a clear consensus on the final definitions of these concepts (de Groot<br />
<strong>and</strong> Hein, 2007). The last report of the Millenium Ecosystem Assessement in 2005 made an<br />
attempt to bring order to the many definitions of “functions”, “goods” <strong>and</strong> “services”.<br />
Agreement was reached to define services as “the benefits people derive from ecosystems”, <strong>and</strong><br />
in order to avoid lengthy texts in scientific literature the term “services” is used, for both goods<br />
<strong>and</strong> services as well as the underlying functional processes <strong>and</strong> components of the ecosystems<br />
providing them (de Groot <strong>and</strong> Hein, 2007). Nevertheless, in other spheres, as management <strong>and</strong><br />
policy design, the term public goods is often used for identifying the non-commodity goods <strong>and</strong><br />
services that society expects from l<strong>and</strong>scapes (Cooper et al 2009). Many authors have<br />
highlighted a principal difference between the function <strong>and</strong> service. For example de Groot et al<br />
(2002:394) defined function as “...the capacity of ecosystems to provide goods <strong>and</strong> services that<br />
satisfy human needs either directly or indirectly”. Functions are seen as the actual (functional)<br />
* Corresponding author<br />
Email address: sribeiro@uevora.pt<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
S. M. Carvalho-Ribeiro & T. Pinto-Correia 2010. <strong>Forest</strong>s in l<strong>and</strong>scapes: modelling forest l<strong>and</strong> cover patterns suitability<br />
693<br />
processes <strong>and</strong> components in ecosystems <strong>and</strong> l<strong>and</strong>scapes that provide or support, directly or<br />
indirectly, goods <strong>and</strong> services which benefit human welfare (de Groot <strong>and</strong> Hein, 2007).<br />
Figure 1 show that the manner in which forest services are provided (P) <strong>and</strong> benefits (B)<br />
delivered may occur in at least three different ways: 1) in situ, 2) omni-directional <strong>and</strong> 3)<br />
directional (Fisher et al., 2004). This is particular relevant for the underst<strong>and</strong>ing of spatial<br />
relations between the l<strong>and</strong>scape pattern <strong>and</strong> the functions.<br />
1. In situ. The services are provided <strong>and</strong> the benefits are realized in the same location (e.g. soil<br />
formation, provision of raw materials).<br />
2. Omni-directional. The services are provided in one location, but benefit the surrounding<br />
l<strong>and</strong>scape without directional bias (e.g. carbon sequestration, pollination)<br />
3. <strong>and</strong> 4. Directional. The service provision benefits a specific location due to the flow<br />
direction. In 3 down slope units benefit from services provided in uphill areas, for example<br />
water. In 4 the service provision unit could be coastal wetl<strong>and</strong>s (or forests) providing storm <strong>and</strong><br />
flood protection to a coastline.<br />
Figure 1. Places where services are provided (P) <strong>and</strong> benefits delivered (B).Source:<br />
Fisher et al (2004) p. 12<br />
The overarching goal of the research project to which this paper refers to, is to link l<strong>and</strong>scape<br />
pattern with l<strong>and</strong>scape function, considering particularly the role of forests for the provision of<br />
l<strong>and</strong>scape functions at the watershed scale. Preventing floods, regulating water flows,<br />
sequestering carbon <strong>and</strong> enhancing recreational activities <strong>and</strong> the role of l<strong>and</strong>scape in local<br />
identity, are likely to be important l<strong>and</strong>scape functions in the future <strong>and</strong> there is a need to model<br />
l<strong>and</strong> cover patterns able to support such l<strong>and</strong>scape functions. Because the former three functions<br />
are ecological <strong>and</strong> the latter two depend on human preferences <strong>and</strong> choices both ecological<br />
modelling <strong>and</strong> public preference methods will be used.<br />
In order to progress in the spatial analysis of l<strong>and</strong>scape functions, the Index of Function<br />
Suitability (IFS) developed by Pinto-Correia et al will be applied <strong>and</strong> tested (Pinto-Correia et<br />
al., 2009a). IFS is an innovative tool aiming at assessing the capacity of different l<strong>and</strong>scapes to<br />
provide different l<strong>and</strong>scape functions(Pinto-Correia et al., 2009a). It is based on the analysis of<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
S. M. Carvalho-Ribeiro & T. Pinto-Correia 2010. <strong>Forest</strong>s in l<strong>and</strong>scapes: modelling forest l<strong>and</strong> cover patterns suitability<br />
694<br />
the l<strong>and</strong> cover pattern, as expression of the l<strong>and</strong>scape composition <strong>and</strong> change. The IFS is<br />
based on the use of indicators for gauging the differences between best possible l<strong>and</strong> cover<br />
pattern for a certain function <strong>and</strong> the l<strong>and</strong> cover patterns likely to occur in contrasting scenario<br />
storylines. Therefore, it is a step further in the provision of ex-ante evaluations of the impacts of<br />
different trends of change in the provision of different functions (Fig 2). By using the same set<br />
of indicators to characterize both the best possible l<strong>and</strong> cover pattern for a certain activity <strong>and</strong><br />
the l<strong>and</strong> cover pattern likely to occur in different scenario storylines, the IFS allows for a<br />
quantification of the distance in the provision of functions, from one to another l<strong>and</strong> cover<br />
pattern. As such, it provides an indication of the suitability of l<strong>and</strong>scapes <strong>and</strong> their respective<br />
l<strong>and</strong> cover combinations, in the future, in delivering selected functions. The IFS is still under<br />
development <strong>and</strong> has so far been used exclusively for amenity functions. Throughout the<br />
present project, an improvement of the tool is expected, as well as a further adaptation to this<br />
Index, incorporating also “ecological” functions such as carbon sequestration, water flow<br />
regulation <strong>and</strong> flood protection by means of ecological modelling <strong>and</strong> expert based knowledge.<br />
Fig. 2 – The Index of Function Suitability is calculated measuring the distance between<br />
thepreferred l<strong>and</strong>scape (denominated as best possible l<strong>and</strong> cover pattern, as it depends on the<br />
existing l<strong>and</strong>s cover classes <strong>and</strong> possible combinations <strong>and</strong> compostions of those) to develop a<br />
given non-commodity function, <strong>and</strong> the l<strong>and</strong>scape being tested.<br />
2. Methodology<br />
This project uses a territorial approach looking at the Cávado <strong>and</strong> Sado catchments as Socio-<br />
Ecological Systems (Folke et al., 2005). The spatial nature of this analysis is needed, as the<br />
goods <strong>and</strong> services here considered are provided at the l<strong>and</strong>scape scale. The watershed has been<br />
defined as the unit of analysis, as it is the most comon <strong>and</strong> acknowledged level of organization<br />
of the l<strong>and</strong>scape per se, when all factors, both physical, biological <strong>and</strong> human, are considered<br />
(Selman, 2006). Both watersheds have rural-urban gradients from inl<strong>and</strong> to sea coast, <strong>and</strong> a<br />
l<strong>and</strong>scape composed of both urban, agricultural <strong>and</strong> forest l<strong>and</strong> covers, with predominance of<br />
forest <strong>and</strong> silvo-pastoral systems. Across these watersheds, the forests contribution for the<br />
lansdcape pattern <strong>and</strong> thus for human well-being certainly differ. By conducting a comparative<br />
study Sado catchment in South, Mediterrranean Portugal, <strong>and</strong> Cávado catchment in the Atlantic<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
S. M. Carvalho-Ribeiro & T. Pinto-Correia 2010. <strong>Forest</strong>s in l<strong>and</strong>scapes: modelling forest l<strong>and</strong> cover patterns suitability<br />
695<br />
Minho) the diversity of roles forest might play are highlighted. It is acknowledged that the<br />
l<strong>and</strong>scape functions forests contribute to will be prioritized in different ways in each of the<br />
catchments. The criteria, factors <strong>and</strong> importance of forests to different l<strong>and</strong>scape functions can<br />
be revealed by contrasting region characteristics.<br />
2.1 Identifying appropriate forest spatial patterns for different l<strong>and</strong>scape functions<br />
2.1.1. Assess the l<strong>and</strong>scape pattern, through the application of l<strong>and</strong>scape metrics for<br />
Cávado <strong>and</strong> Sado catchments. The l<strong>and</strong> cover base maps will be created in Arc/GIS <strong>and</strong><br />
following exported to a spatial pattern software in order to quantify l<strong>and</strong> cover patterns. A set of<br />
l<strong>and</strong>scape metrics (Botequilha Leitao <strong>and</strong> Ahern, 2002) will be computed in FRAGSTAT<br />
(McGarigal et al., 2002) based on the Carta de Ocupacao do Solo COS 90. By computing the<br />
l<strong>and</strong>scape metrics such as mean patch size (PS), number of patches (NP), patch density (PD)<br />
<strong>and</strong> percentage of l<strong>and</strong>scape (PLAND) for agriculture, forests (by tree species) <strong>and</strong> urban, an<br />
underst<strong>and</strong>ing of the l<strong>and</strong>scape pattern of the studied regions will be gained <strong>and</strong> a comparative<br />
analysis become possible. After quantifying the l<strong>and</strong> cover patterns within the two catchments a<br />
modelling approach will be undertaken in order to create the best l<strong>and</strong> cover pattern for different<br />
types of l<strong>and</strong>scape function. This will be carried out in two different ways as there will be focus<br />
on ecological related functions such as water flow regulation, flood protection <strong>and</strong> carbon<br />
sequestration that require expert knowledge in order to identify a best l<strong>and</strong> cover patterns within<br />
the catchments. On the contrary in the case of functions related with public preferences namely<br />
recreation <strong>and</strong> cultural identity a preferred l<strong>and</strong>scape pattern will be based on questionnaire<br />
surveys assessing preferences of different groups of users of the l<strong>and</strong>scape (hunters, farmers).<br />
2.1.2. Expert panels. The best possible l<strong>and</strong>scape patterns for the provision of l<strong>and</strong>scape<br />
functions such as water flow regulation, carbon sequestration <strong>and</strong> flood protection will be<br />
created based on expert panels at the catchment scale. “Experts” are defined as “representatives<br />
of organisations which are affected by, or which significantly affect, interactions between<br />
regional l<strong>and</strong>scapes <strong>and</strong> forests, or have skills <strong>and</strong> knowledge about the issue, or influence<br />
implementation instruments relevant to the topic”. This task will be also based on a literature<br />
review.<br />
2.1.3. Ecological modelling. Based on the data gathered suitability maps for carbon<br />
sequestration, flood protection <strong>and</strong> water regulation, will be created. L<strong>and</strong> use suitability<br />
analysis aims at identifying the most appropriate spatial pattern for l<strong>and</strong> uses according to given<br />
suitability criteria (Malczewski, 2004). Based on the ecological thresholds for different tree<br />
species suitability maps will be first created for broadleaves (oak), coniferous (pine), eucalyptus,<br />
agriculture <strong>and</strong> pastures. The l<strong>and</strong> use modelling criteria, as well as the weightings for factors<br />
will be discussed by the expert panels. These suitability maps will be combined through a<br />
Multi-Objective L<strong>and</strong> Use Allocation (MOLA) comm<strong>and</strong> in the IDRISI ANDES GIS (Eastman,<br />
2006) creating optimal l<strong>and</strong>scape patterns for carbon sequestration, water regulation <strong>and</strong> flood<br />
protection.<br />
2.1.4.) Public preferences. The best possible l<strong>and</strong> cover patterns for recreation <strong>and</strong> for cultural<br />
<strong>and</strong> identity preservation will be assessed through surveys to specific groups of l<strong>and</strong>scape users.<br />
This survey is to be done through direct enquiries based on l<strong>and</strong>scape photos used as visual<br />
stimuli for the expression of preferences. The results will be translated into the best possible<br />
l<strong>and</strong>scape pattern, adapting themethodology of Pinto-Correia et al. (2009b). Data has already<br />
been, or is being collected in research projects such as Agrorreg, Mural, Rosa (Pinto-Correia et<br />
al., 2009b) <strong>and</strong> in the work by Carvalho Ribeiro (Carvalho-Ribeiro, 2009; Carvalho-Ribeiro <strong>and</strong><br />
Lovett, 2009, 2010; Carvalho-Ribeiro et al., 2010) .<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
S. M. Carvalho-Ribeiro & T. Pinto-Correia 2010. <strong>Forest</strong>s in l<strong>and</strong>scapes: modelling forest l<strong>and</strong> cover patterns suitability<br />
696<br />
2.2 Developing new framework for assessing the suitability of different l<strong>and</strong>scapes in<br />
providing l<strong>and</strong>scape functions<br />
After developing best possible forest l<strong>and</strong> cover patterns for different l<strong>and</strong>scape functions a<br />
following step intends to create a framework able to prioritize a set of functions according to<br />
predefined criteria. The conceptual models is based on the premises that not all l<strong>and</strong>scapes are<br />
adequate to provide all functions being thus likely that certain areas are more suited to specific<br />
functions than areas with contrasting characteristics.<br />
The LAM L<strong>and</strong>scape Amenity Model, developed together with the IFS (Pinto-Correia 2009a)<br />
will be further developed <strong>and</strong> tested in this project.. The LAM has been designed as the<br />
modelling tool that allows for a comparison between different l<strong>and</strong> cover petterns, both those<br />
corresponding to the best possible combinations for selected functions <strong>and</strong> those resulting from<br />
identified scenarios of change, being this comparison supported on thre IFS. The l<strong>and</strong>scape<br />
pattern (created from expert knowledge models (2.1.2 <strong>and</strong> 2.1.3) <strong>and</strong> from public preferences<br />
surveys (2.1.4)) will be compared for two scenario l<strong>and</strong>scape patterns by using the LAM. In the<br />
LAM the Index of Function Suitability (IFS) evaluates the adaptatibility of a l<strong>and</strong>scape to<br />
provide a function (Pinto-Correia et al., 2009a). By using the LAM best possible l<strong>and</strong>scape<br />
patterns for different functions will be compared with scenario storylines in order to undertake<br />
an ex-ante evaluations of whether or not future forest l<strong>and</strong> cover will be able to provide a set of<br />
pre-defined l<strong>and</strong>scape functions. Also the suitability of Cávado <strong>and</strong> Sado in providing different<br />
l<strong>and</strong>scape functions will be explored <strong>and</strong> contrasted.<br />
3. Questions still to be solved<br />
When needed, <strong>and</strong> if there will be data or knowledge that allows the identification of other best<br />
possible patterns, for other functions, the evaluation path hereby presented can be exp<strong>and</strong>ed. It<br />
is not the aim here to be exhaustive the functions selected have been chosen due to their<br />
relevance in the study areas considered. In addition to the previous it is also an aim of the<br />
project to contribute for the methodological development, through a successive<br />
conceptualization, testing <strong>and</strong> improvement of research approaches able to grasp with the<br />
linkeages between l<strong>and</strong> cover <strong>and</strong> l<strong>and</strong> function independently if those functions are either<br />
ecological or based on social dem<strong>and</strong>. ,<br />
Identifying best possible l<strong>and</strong>scape patterns, or preferred patterns, can easily be criticised, as<br />
those best patterns dem<strong>and</strong>, on one side, a high degree of simplification concerning the<br />
l<strong>and</strong>scape in itself, <strong>and</strong>, on the other, they are based on the assumption that a generalised best<br />
pattern can be identified, even for functions dependent on public preferences. But still, this<br />
approach has been built up step by step taking care of the relevant literature, <strong>and</strong> has the<br />
advantage of being flexible so that it can be applied to multiple l<strong>and</strong>scapes, multiple functions,<br />
<strong>and</strong> multiple scenarios.<br />
There is still much to play regarding the complex task of linking forest spatial patterns with<br />
l<strong>and</strong>scape functions. This paper presents <strong>and</strong> explains a methodological framework able to deal<br />
with these issues. There is still uncertainty regarding the approach proposed <strong>and</strong> certainly there<br />
will be drawbacks, but the risk is taken in face of the urge imposed to the scientific community<br />
by policy makers. Policy makers are dealing with the formulation <strong>and</strong> targeting of public<br />
policies that should deal with the provision of public goods, <strong>and</strong> thus with their assessment for a<br />
given scale of analysis is of utmost importance. As previously referred this work is still in<br />
progress therefore comments, suggestions <strong>and</strong> discussion of alternative approaches will be very<br />
much appreciated.<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
S. M. Carvalho-Ribeiro & T. Pinto-Correia 2010. <strong>Forest</strong>s in l<strong>and</strong>scapes: modelling forest l<strong>and</strong> cover patterns suitability<br />
697<br />
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sustainable l<strong>and</strong>scape planning, L<strong>and</strong>scape <strong>and</strong> Urban Planning 59(2):65-93.<br />
Carvalho-Ribeiro, S. M., 2009, The role of multifunctional forests in sustainable l<strong>and</strong>scapes: A<br />
case study from Portugal, in: PhD Thesis, School of Environmental Sciences, University<br />
of East Anglia, Norwich.<br />
Carvalho-Ribeiro, S. M., Lovett, A., 2009, Associations between forest characteristics <strong>and</strong><br />
socio-economic development: A case study from Portugal, Journal of Environmental<br />
Management 90:2873-2881.<br />
Carvalho-Ribeiro, S. M., Lovett, A., 2010, Is an attractive forest well managed Correlating<br />
public preferences for forests across rural/urban gradients, Submitted to <strong>Forest</strong> Policy<br />
<strong>and</strong> Economics. Accepted for publication in April 2010.<br />
Carvalho-Ribeiro, S. M., Lovett, A., O'Riordan, T., 2010, Multifunctional forest management in<br />
Northern Portugal: Moving from scenarios to governance for sustainable development,<br />
L<strong>and</strong> Use Policy (in press) doi: 10.1016/j.l<strong>and</strong>usepol.2010.02.008<br />
de Groot, R., Hein, L., 2007, Concepts <strong>and</strong> valuation of l<strong>and</strong>scape functions at different scales,<br />
in: Multifunctional l<strong>and</strong> use: meeting future dem<strong>and</strong>s for l<strong>and</strong>scape goods <strong>and</strong> services<br />
(U. M<strong>and</strong>er, H. Wiggering, K. Helming, eds.), Springer, Berlin, pp. 14-36.<br />
de Groot, R. S., Wilson, M. A., Boumans, R. M. J., 2002, A typology for the classification,<br />
description <strong>and</strong> valuation of ecosystem functions, goods <strong>and</strong> services, Ecological<br />
Economics 41(SPECIAL ISSUE: The Dynamics <strong>and</strong> Value of Ecosystem Services:<br />
Integrating Economic <strong>and</strong> Ecological Perspectives):393–408.<br />
Eastman, J. R., 2006, IDRISI Andes Manual, Clark Labs, Clark University. Worcester. MA.<br />
USA.<br />
Fisher, B., Costanza, R., Turner, K., Morling, P., 2004, Defining <strong>and</strong> Classifying Ecosystem<br />
Services for Decision Making, in: CSERGE Working Paper EDM 07-04 (CSERGE, ed.),<br />
UEA, Norwich.<br />
Folke, C., Hahan, T., Olsson, P., Norberg, J., 2005, Adaptative governance of social- ecological<br />
systems, Annual Review Environmental Resources 30:8.1-8.33.<br />
Malczewski, J., 2004, GIS-based l<strong>and</strong>-use suitability analysis: a critical overview, Progress in<br />
Planning 62:3-65.<br />
McGarigal, K., Cushman, S. A., Neel, M. C., Ene, E., 2002, FRAGSTATS: Spatial pattern<br />
analysis program for categorical maps, Computer software program produced by the<br />
authors at the University of Massachusetts, Amherst.,<br />
www.umass.edu/l<strong>and</strong>eco/research/fragstats/fragstats.htm, 2009/03/09.<br />
Pinto-Correia, T., Machado, C., Picchi, P., 2009a, Assessing how l<strong>and</strong>scapes under different<br />
scenarios of change support amenities: the Index of Function Suitability, L<strong>and</strong> Use<br />
Policy (submitted, July 2009).<br />
Pinto-Correia, T., Machado, C., Picchi, P., Ollson, J. A., Turpin, N., Bousset, J. P., Bockstaller,<br />
C., Bezlepkina, I., 2009b, <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> Amenities Model (LAM), Integrated Project EU<br />
FP 6 (contract n. 010036), SEAMLESS- System for Environmental <strong>and</strong> Agricultural<br />
Modelling; Linking European Science <strong>and</strong> Society.<br />
Selman, P., 2006, Planning at the l<strong>and</strong>scape scale, Routledge, London <strong>and</strong> New York, pp. 213.<br />
Slee, B., 2007, L<strong>and</strong>scape goods <strong>and</strong> services related to forestry l<strong>and</strong> use, in: Multifunctional<br />
l<strong>and</strong> use: Meeting future dem<strong>and</strong>s for l<strong>and</strong>scape goods <strong>and</strong> services (U. M<strong>and</strong>er, H.<br />
Wiggering, K. Helming, eds.), Springer, Berlin, pp. 64-82.<br />
Turner, K. R., Daily, G. C., 2008, The Ecosystem Services Framework <strong>and</strong> Natural Capital<br />
Conservation, Environmental <strong>and</strong> Resource Economics 39:25-35.<br />
Turner, M. G., 1989, L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology: The effect of pattern on process, Annu. Rev. Ecol.<br />
Syst. 20:171-197.<br />
Turner, M. G., 2005, L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology: What is the state of science, Annu. Rev. Ecol. Evol.<br />
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<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
J.P. Nunes et al. 2010. Impacts of wildfires on catchment hydrology<br />
698<br />
Impacts of wildfires on catchment hydrology: results from monitoring<br />
<strong>and</strong> modeling studies in northwestern Iberia<br />
João Pedro Nunes 1* , José Javier Cancelo 2 , María Ermitas Rial 1 , Maruxa Malvar 1 , Filipa<br />
Tavares 3 , Diana Vieira 1 , Frederike Schumacher 3 , Francisco Díaz-Fierros 2 , António<br />
Dinis Ferreira 4 , Celeste Coelho 1 & Jan Jacob Keizer 1<br />
1<br />
University of Aveiro, Portugal<br />
2<br />
University of Santiago de Compostela, Spain<br />
3<br />
Dresden University of Technology, Germany<br />
4<br />
Polytechnic Institute of Coimbra, Portugal<br />
Abstract<br />
Wildfires have significant impacts on vegetation cover <strong>and</strong> soil properties, which in turn can<br />
lead to large increases in runoff, erosion <strong>and</strong> nutrient export from forested hillslopes. However,<br />
the impacts of these changes at the catchment scale are still poorly understood, mostly due to<br />
the difficulty of instrumenting burnt catchments with enough speed to capture hydrological<br />
processes at the early stages of forest recovery. Hydrological modeling remains therefore an<br />
important tool to assess wildfire impacts in ungauged catchments, but most existing models<br />
cannot reproduce hydrological processes in burnt soils.<br />
This work will present results from ongoing research projects in the northwestern Iberian<br />
peninsula, including (i) multi-year runoff, erosion <strong>and</strong> soil properties monitoring in burnt <strong>and</strong><br />
unburnt hillslopes <strong>and</strong> micro-catchments (0.1 to 10 Km 2 ), providing insights into the local-scale<br />
impacts of wildfires on hydrological processes; (ii) modeling approaches to simulate<br />
hydrological processes in burnt areas at the plot <strong>and</strong> watershed scales.<br />
Keywords: hydrological modeling, burnt forests, upscaling<br />
1. Introduction<br />
<strong>Forest</strong>ed watersheds in northwestern Iberia provide important ecosystem services for water<br />
resources provisioning. According to the Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (Pereira et al.,<br />
2004), these include the regulation of runoff (preventing flash floods) <strong>and</strong> maintenance of<br />
downstream water quality. However, the planting of homogenous commercial forests has<br />
significantly increased forest fire risk in the Iberian Peninsula (Puigdefábregas, 1998); climate<br />
change is expected to increase the frequency <strong>and</strong> severity of these fires by enhancing the effect<br />
of environmental drivers behind them (e.g. Carvalho et al., 2001). This could lead to a<br />
disruption of ecosystem services during the post-fire window of disturbance (i.e. as forest<br />
vegetation regrows), leading to an increase in e.g. the likelihood of flooding or a degradation of<br />
water quality (Pereira et al., 2004). However, there is still a lack of knowledge on the effects of<br />
wildfires on hydrological processes, especially at larger spatial <strong>and</strong> temporal scales (Shakesby<br />
<strong>and</strong> Doerr, 2006).<br />
* Corresponding author.<br />
Email address: jpcn@ua.pt<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
J.P. Nunes et al. 2010. Impacts of wildfires on catchment hydrology<br />
699<br />
The impact of wildfires on hydrological processes at small spatial (e.g. microplots, plots,<br />
hillslopes) <strong>and</strong> temporal scales (e.g. rainstorms, a few years) has received much attention from<br />
researchers in recent years. Shakesby <strong>and</strong> Doerr (2006) review some of the main conclusions<br />
from these studies. Wildfires reduce vegetation cover <strong>and</strong> can change soil properties, such as<br />
reducing soil aggregate stability <strong>and</strong> increasing soil water repellence. This can lead to an<br />
increase in overl<strong>and</strong> flow generation <strong>and</strong> sediment detachment, <strong>and</strong> to the formation of an<br />
extensive rill <strong>and</strong> gully system in burnt areas with additional erosion impacts. These impacts<br />
were also observed in northwestern Iberian burnt forests (e.g. Ferreira et al., 2008; Keizer et al.,<br />
2008).<br />
At larger spatial scales, especially catchments, Shakesby <strong>and</strong> Doerr (2006) report that forest<br />
fires can increase peak runoff rates, but there are few studies on consequences for total runoff.<br />
Erosion responses at this scale are more complex, as they appear to depend on smaller-scale<br />
changes to runoff <strong>and</strong> soil erosion, <strong>and</strong> are poorly studied. At larger temporal scales, studies<br />
have focused on the post-fire “window of disturbance” (c. 2 to 5 years in this region) during<br />
vegetation regrowth, but there have been few studies of long-term impacts, particularly the<br />
cumulative consequences of multiple wildfires.<br />
There is therefore a knowledge gap when upscaling measured results to larger scales <strong>and</strong><br />
impacts. Modeling has been viewed as an approach to overcome this difficulty (Shakesby <strong>and</strong><br />
Doerr, 2006). Recent comparisons of existing hydrological models with measured data in burnt<br />
areas, however, have revealed their limitations in representing the most important processes (e.g.<br />
Larsen <strong>and</strong> MacDonald, 2007) although suggesting ways to improve them. This has limited<br />
modeling applications at large spatial <strong>and</strong> temporal scales to perform watershed-scale, long-term<br />
assessments. However, this assessment is feasible provided that existing measured data can be<br />
combined with modeling tools in a coherent approach.<br />
This work will present ongoing research <strong>and</strong> results of research projects studying burnt<br />
catchment hydrology in northwestern Iberia, including:<br />
1. research at the hillslope scale conducted in central Portugal (Albergaria, Vouga basin);<br />
2. research at the micro-catchment scale in central Portugal (Mondego basin) <strong>and</strong> western<br />
Galicia (Esteiro), the latter focusing on a paired catchment study;<br />
3. modeling for meso-scale watersheds in central Portugal (Águeda basin).<br />
The results will be discussed in terms of their indication on the impacts of wildfires on<br />
watershed-scale water resources provisioning,<br />
2. Study areas<br />
The research presented in this work focuses on the northwestern Iberian Peninsula<br />
(Figure 1), a region characterized by a humid climate (aridity index, i.e. the ratio of<br />
rainfall over potential evapotranspiration, above 1) with a south-north transition from<br />
Wet Mediterranean to Maritime Temperate. There are good conditions for vegetation<br />
growth, <strong>and</strong> a large part of this region is covered by forests; in many cases, <strong>and</strong><br />
especially in Portugal, there are large areas of commercial forestry where eucalypt <strong>and</strong><br />
maritime pine are planted. However, the seasonal <strong>and</strong> interannual variability of climatic<br />
conditions, particularly the existence of a dry summer season (Figure 2), leads to the<br />
recurrence of appropriate conditions for wildfires.<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
J.P. Nunes et al. 2010. Impacts of wildfires on catchment hydrology<br />
700<br />
3. Research at the hillslope scale<br />
This research was carried out for six hillslopes close to Albergaria, central Portugal: four burnt<br />
in 2005 (Açores 1&2, Jafafe 1&2) <strong>and</strong> two burnt in 2006 (Soutelo 1&2). All slopes were<br />
covered by eucalypt prior to the wildfires, <strong>and</strong> represent different management options<br />
including terracing <strong>and</strong> downslope ploughing. Meteorology, runoff <strong>and</strong> erosion were monitored<br />
weekly in each slope; soil surface <strong>and</strong> subsurface conditions were monitored bi-weekly using 5-<br />
point transects. Figure 3 shows some measured results for the slope Açores 1, as reported by<br />
Keizer et al. (2008). They illustrate one of the main findings of this study regarding slope-scale<br />
hydrology in burnt hillslopes. Soils in these slopes are highly water repellent immediately after<br />
fires; the repellency decreases at the start of the wet season, <strong>and</strong> reappears during the following<br />
dry season (although it can reestablish during dry spells in the wet season, as shown in the<br />
figure for the winter of 2007). Repellency <strong>and</strong> soil water storage are closely related, <strong>and</strong><br />
reasonable amounts of rainfall falling on repellent soils might not lead to an increase of soil<br />
water. Consequently, rainfall events at the start of the wet season (or during other periods with<br />
high soil water repellency) might lead to increased runoff rates when compared with events in<br />
the middle <strong>and</strong> end of this season; this has the potential for increasing flood risks at the<br />
catchment scale which might be difficult to predict if repellency is not taken into account.<br />
4. Watershed-scale research: micro- <strong>and</strong> meso-scale catchments<br />
Research at the watershed scale is shown for two micro-catchment sites, Colmeal (central<br />
Portugal) <strong>and</strong> Esteiro (Galicia); <strong>and</strong> one meso-catchment site, Águeda (central Portugal).<br />
Colmeal is a micro-catchment (60 ha) which burnt almost completely in 2008; it was<br />
instrumented with a number of slope-scale plots, while runoff <strong>and</strong> sediment data was also<br />
collected at the catchment outlet in a multi-scale sampling approach. Preliminary results<br />
indicate that runoff <strong>and</strong> erosion are concentrated in the first months after the wildfire, at the start<br />
of the vegetation disturbance <strong>and</strong> when soil water repellency is high. They also indicate a nonlinear<br />
relationship between slope-scale <strong>and</strong> catchment-scale runoff, as the latter also depends on<br />
subsurface flow <strong>and</strong> saturation-excess runoff generation close to the water line.<br />
The Esteiro fire occurred in 2007; two paired micro-catchments were instrumented, each with<br />
around 450 ha (Figure 5). The Maior catchment was partially burnt while the Arestiño<br />
catchment was not. Preliminary results indicate that runoff was more irregular in the burnt<br />
catchment, with higher values in the winter immediately following the wildfires <strong>and</strong> lower<br />
values in the subsequent summer (close to zero). These results might indicate an impact of<br />
wildfires on increasing the irregularity of water resources provisioning, although differences in<br />
the underlying geology of both catchments might also play a role in differentiating the<br />
hydrological regimes. The Águeda fire occurred in 1986, <strong>and</strong> burned c. 25% of the upper<br />
Águeda river basin. Given the scarcity of hydrological data for this wildfire (runoff was only<br />
measured at the outlet), a modeling approach is being used to estimate the impacts on runoff <strong>and</strong><br />
water balance on subcatchments with different burnt areas. The approach relies on the SWAT<br />
model (Neitsch et al., 2005), capable of simulating a number of processes inside meso-scale<br />
catchments, including water balance, surface <strong>and</strong> subsurface runoff, soil erosion, nutrient<br />
exports <strong>and</strong> vegetation regrowth (including human management operations). The current<br />
modeling approach relies on simulating 5-10 years in both burnt <strong>and</strong> unburnt conditions,<br />
therefore evaluating the different impacts for dry <strong>and</strong> wet years as well as assess the relative<br />
importance of wildfires <strong>and</strong> climate variability for watershed-scale water yield.<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
J.P. Nunes et al. 2010. Impacts of wildfires on catchment hydrology<br />
701<br />
References<br />
Carvalho, A.C., Carvalho, A., Mir<strong>and</strong>a, A.I., Borrego, C., <strong>and</strong> Rocha, A., 2001. Climatic<br />
<strong>Change</strong> <strong>and</strong> the Fire Weather Risk. In: M. Brunet India <strong>and</strong> D. López Bonillo (Eds.).<br />
Detecting <strong>and</strong> Modelling Regional Climate <strong>Change</strong>. Berlin, Germany: Springer-Verlag:<br />
555-565.<br />
Ferreira, A.J.D., Coelho, C.O.A., Ritsema, C.J., Boulet, A.K., <strong>and</strong> Keizer, J.J., 2008. Soil <strong>and</strong><br />
water degradation processes in burned areas: Lessons learned from a nested approach.<br />
Catena 74: 273-285.<br />
Keizer, J.J., Doerr, S.H., Malvar, M.C., Prats, S.A., Ferreira, R.S.V., Oñate, M.G., Coelho,<br />
C.O.A., <strong>and</strong> Ferreira, A.J.D., 2008. Temporal variation in topsoil water repellency in two<br />
recently burnt eucalypt st<strong>and</strong>s in north-central Portugal. Catena 74: 192–204.<br />
Larsen, I.J., <strong>and</strong> MacDonald, L.H., 2007. Predicting postfire sediment yields at the hillslope<br />
scale: testing RUSLE <strong>and</strong> Disturbed WEPP. Water Resources Research 43: W11412.<br />
Neitsch, S.L., Arnold, J.G., Kiniry, J.R., <strong>and</strong> Williams, J.R., 2005. Soil <strong>and</strong> Water Assessment<br />
Tool Theoretical Documentation (version 2005). Agricultural Research Service, United<br />
States Department of Agriculture, Temple, Texas, 494 p.<br />
Pereira, H.M, Domingos, T., <strong>and</strong> Vicente, L. (editors), 2004. Portugal Millennium Ecosystem<br />
Assessment: State of the Assessment Report. Centro de Biologia Ambiental, Faculdade de<br />
Ciências da Universidade de Lisboa, Lisbon, Portugal, 68 p.<br />
Puigdefábregas, J., 1998. Ecological impacts of global change on dryl<strong>and</strong>s <strong>and</strong> their<br />
implications for desertification. L<strong>and</strong> Degrad. Develop., 9: 393-406.<br />
Shakesby, R.A., <strong>and</strong> Doerr, S.H., 2006. Wildfire as a hydrological <strong>and</strong> geomorphological agent.<br />
Earth-Science Reviews 74: 269-307.<br />
Figure 1: location of the study areas in the Iberian Peninsula, over a map of the aridity index (left).<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
J.P. Nunes et al. 2010. Impacts of wildfires on catchment hydrology<br />
702<br />
Anadia, Portugal (1961-1990)<br />
Santiago de Compostela, Spain (1971-2000)<br />
Rainfall (mm)<br />
300<br />
250<br />
200<br />
150<br />
100<br />
50<br />
0<br />
25<br />
20<br />
15<br />
10<br />
5<br />
0<br />
Temperature (ºC)<br />
Rainfall (mm)<br />
300<br />
250<br />
200<br />
150<br />
PP<br />
100<br />
Tavr<br />
50<br />
0<br />
25<br />
20<br />
15<br />
10<br />
5<br />
0<br />
Temperature (ºC)<br />
PP<br />
Tavr<br />
Jan<br />
Feb<br />
Mar<br />
Apr<br />
May<br />
Jun<br />
Jun<br />
Jul<br />
Jul<br />
Aug<br />
Sep<br />
Oct<br />
Nov<br />
Dec<br />
Jan<br />
Feb<br />
Mar<br />
Apr<br />
May<br />
Jun<br />
Jul<br />
Aug<br />
Sep<br />
Oct<br />
Nov<br />
Dec<br />
Figure 2: monthly climate normal for weather stations in central Portugal (left) <strong>and</strong> Galicia (right).<br />
Rainfall/PET (mm)<br />
400<br />
300<br />
200<br />
100<br />
0<br />
Rainfall<br />
PET<br />
Soil water repellency<br />
(severity)<br />
10<br />
8<br />
6<br />
4<br />
2<br />
0<br />
26<br />
10<br />
24 7<br />
215<br />
199<br />
23 6<br />
20<br />
133<br />
18 8<br />
15<br />
29<br />
12<br />
19<br />
10<br />
24<br />
20<br />
28 9<br />
30<br />
278<br />
225<br />
27<br />
12<br />
26<br />
23 7<br />
213<br />
18<br />
50<br />
40<br />
30<br />
20<br />
10<br />
0<br />
Soil water storage (mm)<br />
SWR Q1 to Q3<br />
SWR Median<br />
Soil w ater<br />
9 10 11 12 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 9 10 11 1 2 3 4 5 6<br />
2005 2006 2007<br />
Figure 3: measured rainfall <strong>and</strong> potential evapotranspiration (top), <strong>and</strong> soil water storage <strong>and</strong> repellency<br />
(bottom) for the Açores 1 slope; soil water repellency is indicated as the severity class associated with the<br />
result of the Molarity of Ethanol Droplet (MED) test, <strong>and</strong> the shaded area represents the interquartile area<br />
(between the 1 st <strong>and</strong> 3 rd quartiles).<br />
Figure 4: Colmeal micro-catchment <strong>and</strong> wildfire limits.<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
J.P. Nunes et al. 2010. Impacts of wildfires on catchment hydrology<br />
703<br />
Figure 5: Esteiro study area, including the Maior (burnt) <strong>and</strong> Arestiño (unburnt) micro-catchments.<br />
Figure 6: Águeda meso-scale catchment, showing the burnt area in the 1986 wildfires.<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
Management <strong>and</strong> conservation of Mediterranean forest<br />
l<strong>and</strong>scapes
P.M. Fern<strong>and</strong>es et al. 2010. Testing the fire paradox: is fire incidence in Portugal affected by fuel age<br />
705<br />
Testing the fire paradox: is fire incidence in Portugal affected by fuel<br />
age<br />
Paulo M. Fern<strong>and</strong>es 1,2* , Carlos Loureiro 1,2 , Marco Magalhães 2 & Pedro Ferreira 2<br />
1<br />
Centro de Investigação e de Tecnologias Agro-Ambientais e Biológicas (CITAB),<br />
UTAD, Apartado 1013, 5001-801 Vila Real, Portugal<br />
2<br />
Departamento de Ciências Florestais e Arquitectura Paisagista, UTAD, Apartado 1013,<br />
5001-801 Vila Real, Portugal<br />
Abstract<br />
A well-known fire paradox states that fire exclusion <strong>and</strong> the resulting fuel accumulation leads to<br />
larger fires. To test this assumption for Portugal we analyzed fire frequency through survival<br />
analysis for the period of 1975-2008. The median fire-free interval is relatively short (12-16<br />
years) but the hazard of burning increases exponentially with time since fire, denoting a fuel-age<br />
dependent system. Time-dependency did not change with fire size class, implying that young<br />
fuels delay l<strong>and</strong>scape fire spread even under extreme meteorological conditions. Fire size <strong>and</strong><br />
maximum fire size tend respectively to be less variable <strong>and</strong> lower where fire recurrence is<br />
higher. Hence, fuels exert a short-term but effective control on l<strong>and</strong>scape fire spread. Our<br />
findings show that crown fire regimes can be time-dependent <strong>and</strong> support fuel treatments as key<br />
component of fire management.<br />
Keywords: burn probability, fire regime, shrubl<strong>and</strong>, Mediterranean-type ecosystems<br />
1. Introduction<br />
Controversy concerning the environmental drivers of wildfire incidence has gained momentum<br />
in recent years. If fire occurrence is time-dependent then exogenous factors such as weather will<br />
play a relatively minor role on fire incidence, which to a great extent will be controlled by the<br />
existing mosaic of fuel ages (Minnich 1983; Minnich <strong>and</strong> Chou 1997). This can be expressed as<br />
a “fire paradox” where fire suppression efforts will lead to increasingly larger fires as fuel<br />
builds up in the l<strong>and</strong>scape. However, the opposing view is now prevailing in the literature <strong>and</strong><br />
defends that fuel age is unrelated to the likelihood of wildfire in crown-fire ecosystems such as<br />
conifer forests <strong>and</strong> Mediterranean-type shrubl<strong>and</strong>s, particularly under extremely dry <strong>and</strong> windy<br />
weather conditions (Keeley et al. 1999; Moritz et al. 2004; Keeley <strong>and</strong> Zedler 2009). Because<br />
the question is difficult to be addressed empirically, more <strong>and</strong> more studies resort to simulation<br />
modeling (e.g. Finney et al. 2007; Cary et al. 2009). Fire frequency analysis has been proposed<br />
to judge whether vegetation is fire-adapted or not (Polakow et al. 1999) <strong>and</strong> has been used to<br />
better underst<strong>and</strong> <strong>and</strong> describe how the fire return interval <strong>and</strong> fuel age affect fire incidence<br />
(Moritz 2003; Moritz et al. 2004; O’Donnell et al. 2008; Van Wilgen et al. 2010). Obviously,<br />
this debate has profound political implications, namely on the recognition (or not) of fuel<br />
management as a valuable component of fire management.<br />
While extreme fire seasons significantly affected the country in 2003 <strong>and</strong> 2005, extensive tracts<br />
of Portugal are under a relatively frequent fire regime, especially in mountains <strong>and</strong> plateaus<br />
* Corresponding author. Tel.: +351 259350885 - Fax: +351 259350480<br />
Email address: pfern@utad.pt<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
P.M. Fern<strong>and</strong>es et al. 2010. Testing the fire paradox: is fire incidence in Portugal affected by fuel age<br />
706<br />
dominated by shrubl<strong>and</strong> where fire is a tool routinely used in traditional l<strong>and</strong> management. The<br />
existing spatial <strong>and</strong> temporal information can thus be analyzed to detect relationships between<br />
fuel age <strong>and</strong> fire incidence. Our objective is to analyze contemporary fire history data to<br />
determine how fire recurrence, hence fuel age, relates with burn probability in Portugal.<br />
2. Methodology<br />
The study area is the entire Portuguese mainl<strong>and</strong>, 89 x 10 3 km 2 . The analysis of burn probability<br />
was based on all wildfire events with an area equal to or larger than 10 ha occurring in Portugal<br />
from 1998 to 2008, i.e. during a 11-year period. We used the mapped fire history of the<br />
Portuguese <strong>Forest</strong> Service <strong>and</strong> GIS software to process the spatial information. Fire recurrence<br />
maps were created for each year under analysis, fire recurrence being the number of fires<br />
experienced by each 625-m 2 pixel (25 x 25 m) since 1975. For the area within each individual<br />
fire perimeter we have determined an area-weighed mean fire recurrence <strong>and</strong> the corresponding<br />
fire return interval (FRI). Then we used survival analysis by fitting a two-parameter Weibull<br />
function to the FRI distribution based on maximum likelihood. We have modelled FRI from<br />
individual fire events, rather than from patches defined by their unique fire history, because the<br />
former offers the possibility of assessing if the time-dependency of burn probability changes<br />
with fire size, i.e. with weather conditions.<br />
A fire interval distribution can be described in a cumulative form, F(t), the probability of fire<br />
occurrence before or at time t, <strong>and</strong> as a probability density, f(t), which reflects the frequency of<br />
burning in a given time interval (e.g. Moritz 2003; Moritz et al. 2009):<br />
F(t) = 1-exp[-(t/b) c ] (1)<br />
f(t) = (ct c-1 /b c ) exp[-(t/b) c ] (2)<br />
where t > 0, b > 0 <strong>and</strong> c ≥ 0. Parameters b <strong>and</strong> c have ecological meaning. The scale parameter<br />
(b) has the dimensions of time <strong>and</strong> is the typical fire return interval (FRI) that will be surpassed<br />
36.79% of the time. The shape parameter (c) is dimensionless <strong>and</strong> describes the change in fire<br />
probability through time. The negative exponential distribution is a special case of the Weibull<br />
model that corresponds to c = 1. The probability of burning increases with time when c > 1,<br />
increasing linearly when c = 2 <strong>and</strong> exponentially when c > 2. Vegetation types that are<br />
simultaneously fire-prone <strong>and</strong> fire-dependent are expected to have high c values (Polakow et al.<br />
1999) <strong>and</strong> c > 4 qualifies a fire regime as highly age-dependent (Moritz 2003). The Weibull<br />
median fire-free interval (MEI) gives a probabilistic estimate of fire-return intervals for<br />
asymmetrical fire interval distributions (Grissino-Mayer 1999). The “hazard of<br />
burning“ function λ(t) gives the instantaneous probability of a fire occurring in a specific time<br />
interval <strong>and</strong> is useful to measure how time since the last fire event affects the subsequent<br />
likelihood of burning:<br />
λ(t) = ct c-1 /b c (3)<br />
Data was truncated to consider only those fires whose majority of pixels had burnt at least twice<br />
since 1975, thus reducing the existing asymmetry that otherwise would have biased parameters<br />
b <strong>and</strong> c (Moritz 2003); note that fire incidence in Portugal was quite low before the 1970s. The<br />
Weibull model was fitted separately to two sub-divisions of Portugal − northern <strong>and</strong> centraleastern<br />
(N-CE) <strong>and</strong> central-western <strong>and</strong> southern (CW-S) − mainly on the basis of their relative<br />
fire incidence, high in N-CE <strong>and</strong> relatively low in CW-S (Verde <strong>and</strong> Zêzere 2010).<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
P.M. Fern<strong>and</strong>es et al. 2010. Testing the fire paradox: is fire incidence in Portugal affected by fuel age<br />
707<br />
3. Results<br />
The Portuguese fire atlas contains 10197 burned patches with ≥10 ha in the 1998-2008 period,<br />
corresponding to a sum of 1.65 x 10 6 ha (of which 58% have burned just once) <strong>and</strong> a mean<br />
annual burned surface of 1.5 x 10 5 ha. The largest patch has 66071 ha <strong>and</strong> the mean <strong>and</strong> median<br />
patch sizes were 162 <strong>and</strong> 31 ha, respectively. The fire frequency analysis was restricted to the<br />
2950 fire scars whose majority of pixels had burned at least twice before.<br />
Examination of FRI data (Figure 1a) indicates a sigmoidal (S-shaped) trend in the cumulative<br />
fire probability curves, which indicates a fuel age effect on burn probability. Resistance to fire is<br />
nevertheless of relatively short duration. Region N-CE displays a steep slope (starting at age 6)<br />
with the result that more than 75% of the total burning is reached by age 15. Region CW-S<br />
exhibits low burn likelihood for about 11 years, followed by a sharp increase up to age 20.<br />
Table 1 <strong>and</strong> Figure 1b respectively present the fitted Weibull model parameters for N-CE <strong>and</strong><br />
CW-S <strong>and</strong> their corresponding hazard functions. The typical fire interval length is higher in<br />
CW-S. The likelihood of burning grows exponentially with time in both sub-divisions of the<br />
country, CW-S having a especially high degree of age dependency (c = 4). In N-CE the hazard<br />
of burning (% per year) increases by a factor of three from age 4 (1.9%) to age 7 (5.7%), <strong>and</strong><br />
again at age 12 (16.8%), while in CW-S those rates are reached approximately at ages 7, 11 <strong>and</strong><br />
15, respectively; N-CE <strong>and</strong> CW-S hazards of burning are equal at age 23. The likelihood of<br />
burning is below that of an age-independent system (i.e. c = 1) for 10 years in N-CE <strong>and</strong> 18<br />
years in CW-S.<br />
Table 1 also includes a fire frequency analysis as a function of wildfire size class (< 100 ha,<br />
100-499 ha, 500-999 ha, ≥ 1000 ha) for N-CE. The Weibull model b <strong>and</strong> c coefficients were<br />
quite similar between fire size classes, with overlapping 95% confidence intervals.<br />
Consequently, extreme fire weather does not change the fuel-age dependency of burn<br />
probability in Portugal. Note also that fuel age dependency is higher in the drier CW-S subdivision.<br />
Table 2 displays additional information regarding the size of the burnt patches for the entire data<br />
set (n=10197). Size variability <strong>and</strong> maximum size are higher for burnt patches belonging to<br />
larger size classes. Again, this points to a fuel age buffering effect against extreme fire weather.<br />
Figure 1: Empirical probability of fire occurrence (a) <strong>and</strong> fitted Weibull hazard of burning (b) for the N-<br />
CE <strong>and</strong> CW-S sub-divisions of Portugal.<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
P.M. Fern<strong>and</strong>es et al. 2010. Testing the fire paradox: is fire incidence in Portugal affected by fuel age<br />
708<br />
4. Discussion<br />
Considering the fire return intervals involved, this study reflects primarily the fire regime of<br />
shrubl<strong>and</strong> <strong>and</strong> regenerating forest. The results are coherent with the fuel dynamics described for<br />
shrubl<strong>and</strong> in northern (Fern<strong>and</strong>es <strong>and</strong> Rego 1998) <strong>and</strong> central Portugal (Fern<strong>and</strong>es et al. 2000)<br />
which indicate increased flammability with time since fire; depending on shrubl<strong>and</strong> type, fine<br />
fuel loads in these systems are at near-equilibrium 9 to 26 years after fire.<br />
While the typical fire return interval is shorter in N-CW, age-dependency is more apparent in<br />
CE-S Portugal. The differences can be explained by distinct fire environments in terms of<br />
physiography, vegetation <strong>and</strong> l<strong>and</strong> use, as well as by differences in climate <strong>and</strong> ignition density.<br />
Topography is rougher <strong>and</strong> vegetation types − namely atlantic <strong>and</strong> sub-atlantic shrubl<strong>and</strong> types<br />
(Ulex, Erica, Pterospartum, Cytisus) <strong>and</strong> Pinus pinaster <strong>and</strong> Eucalyptus globulus forest − are<br />
more flammable in N-CE than in CW-S Portugal. Also, because of drier climate, growth rates<br />
<strong>and</strong> fuel accumulation are expected to be slower over much of CW-S in comparison with N-CE.<br />
Mediterranean shrubl<strong>and</strong> types prevail in CW-S (limestone maquis <strong>and</strong> garrigue, Cistus), <strong>and</strong><br />
because their canopy is poor in dead fuels, exhibit fire behaviour patterns in relation to weather<br />
that are distinct from atlantic <strong>and</strong> sub-atlantic shrubl<strong>and</strong>s <strong>and</strong> that may increase the agedependency<br />
of fire hazard. Density of fire ignitions is also substantially higher in N-CE, where<br />
traditional fire use at short-return intervals for pastoral purposes is common in the mountains.<br />
Higher fire recurrence may promote a fuel complex with a significant grass component that will<br />
burn more readily, hence facilitating more frequent fire.<br />
Table 1: Weibull model parameters (<strong>and</strong> 95% confidence intervals) <strong>and</strong> median fire-free interval (MEI)<br />
for the fire frequency analysis. Fire size class data respect to the N-CE sub-division.<br />
Data set n MEI b c<br />
N-CE 2862 12.1 13.7 (13.5-13.9) 3.0 (2.9-3.1)<br />
CW-S 88 15.5 17.0 (16.1-17.9) 4.1 (3.5-4.7)<br />
Fire size class<br />
10-99 ha 2131 12.3 13.9 (13.7-14.1) 3.0 (2.9-3.1)<br />
100-499 ha 594 11.7 13.2 (12.8-13.6) 3.0 (2.8-3.1)<br />
500-999 ha 88 11.2 12.6 (11.7-13.5) 3.1 (2.6-3.6)<br />
≥ 1000 ha 49 12.2 13.7 (12.4-15.1) 3.2 (2.6-3.8)<br />
Table 2: Burnt patch size statistics by fuel age class.<br />
Fuel age class (yrs.) n Median (ha) CV (%) Max. (ha)<br />
3-4 26 50.2 117.7 379<br />
5-6 197 43.4 146.1 1100<br />
7-8 418 48.3 190.4 2196<br />
9-12 1043 44.0 222.9 5487<br />
13-19 1681 41.8 351.1 13119<br />
≥20 6832 27.3 876.6 66071<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
P.M. Fern<strong>and</strong>es et al. 2010. Testing the fire paradox: is fire incidence in Portugal affected by fuel age<br />
709<br />
In comparison with other Mediterranean regions, the fire-free interval is shorter in Portugal than<br />
in southern California chaparral (Moritz 2003; Moritz et al. 2004) <strong>and</strong> in southwestern Australia<br />
shrubl<strong>and</strong> (O’Donnell et al. 2008), <strong>and</strong> is comparable with South Africa fynbos (Van Wilgen et<br />
al. 2010). In contrast to our findings, shrubl<strong>and</strong> systems in other Mediterranean regions are<br />
generally characterized by weak (Moritz 2003; Moritz et al. 2004; Van Wilgen et al. 2010) to<br />
moderate (O’Donnell et al. 2008) age-dependency. While several factors other than vegetation<br />
type <strong>and</strong> fuel hazard can affect fuel age dependency − fire suppression, l<strong>and</strong>form, l<strong>and</strong>scape<br />
fragmentation, frequency <strong>and</strong> severity of extreme weather events – <strong>and</strong> be involved in the<br />
results, this study shows that not all crown fire regimes are independent of fuel age. The usual<br />
expectation is that extreme weather conditions will prevail over, or will cancel the effect of fuel<br />
on l<strong>and</strong>scape fire spread (Fern<strong>and</strong>es <strong>and</strong> Botelho 2003; Moritz 2003; Keeley <strong>and</strong> Zedler 2009),<br />
but such pattern did not emerge in the analysis. The results imply that the fuel age effect on burn<br />
probability is weather-independent, which is highly relevant for fire management, as it increases<br />
the expectations of effective fuel treatment performance under unfavourable weather scenarios.<br />
Consequently, this study supports a policy where l<strong>and</strong>scape-level, strategically-placed<br />
prescribed burning treatments are an integral component of fire management.<br />
Acknowledgments<br />
This study has been funded by the EC project FIRE PARADOX (FP6-018505).<br />
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Fern<strong>and</strong>es, P.M. <strong>and</strong> Botelho, H.S., 2003. A review of prescribed burning effectiveness in fire<br />
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Fern<strong>and</strong>es, P. <strong>and</strong> Rego, F.C., 1998. <strong>Change</strong>s in fuel structure <strong>and</strong> fire behaviour with heathl<strong>and</strong><br />
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Keeley, J.E., <strong>and</strong> Zedler, P.H., 2009. Large, high-intensity fire events in southern California<br />
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Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
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California <strong>and</strong> northern Baja California. International Journal of Wildl<strong>and</strong> Fire, 7: 221-<br />
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Moritz, M.A., 2003. Spatiotemporal analysis of controls on shrubl<strong>and</strong> fire regimes: age<br />
dependency <strong>and</strong> fire hazard. Ecology, 84: 351-361.<br />
Moritz, M.A., Keeley, J.E., Johnson, E.A. <strong>and</strong> Schaffner, A.A., 2004. Testing a basic<br />
assumption of shrubl<strong>and</strong> fire management: how important is fuel age Frontiers in<br />
Ecology <strong>and</strong> the Environment, 2: 67-72.<br />
Moritz, M.A., Tadashi, J.M., Miles, L.J., Smith, M.M. <strong>and</strong> de Valpine, P., 2009. The fire<br />
frequency analysis branch of the pyrostatistics tree: sampling decisions <strong>and</strong> censoring in<br />
fire interval data. Environmental <strong>and</strong> Ecological Statistics, 16: 271-289.<br />
O'Donnell, A., McCaw, L., Boer, M. <strong>and</strong> Grierson, P., 2008. Wildfire return intervals in semiarid<br />
Southern Western Australia: effects of fuel age <strong>and</strong> spatial structure. In: Fire,<br />
Environment <strong>and</strong> Society: from Research into Practice: the International Bushfire<br />
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hazard in Portugal. Natural Hazards Earth Systems Science, 10: 485-497.<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
Interfaces <strong>and</strong> interactions between forest <strong>and</strong> agriculture in<br />
rural l<strong>and</strong>scapes
E. Andrieu et al. 2010. When forests are managed by farmers<br />
712<br />
When forests are managed by farmers:<br />
Implications of farm practices on forest management<br />
E. Andrieu 1,2 , A. Sourdril 3 , G. du Bus de Warnaffe 4 , M. Deconchat 1,2 , G. Balent 1,2<br />
1 INRA; UMR 1201 DYNAFOR, F-31326 Castanet Tolosan, France<br />
2 Université de Toulouse, UMR DYNAFOR, INRA / INP-ENSAT, BP 32607, 31326<br />
Castanet Tolosan, France<br />
3 INRA, MONA, 65 Boulevard de Br<strong>and</strong>ebourg, 94205 Ivry-sur-Seine Cedex, France<br />
4 Arbre et Bois Conseil, Domaine du Chalet, route de Chalabre, 11 300 Limoux, France<br />
Abstract<br />
Farm forests, i.e. forests managed by farmers, are important components of French l<strong>and</strong>scapes.<br />
Farmers, who do not have knowledge in sylviculture in general, harvest them for firewood <strong>and</strong><br />
timberwood, but also for hunting, mushroom harvesting or grazing. The social <strong>and</strong> ecological<br />
functions of these woods call for a better underst<strong>and</strong>ing of their management. These private<br />
woods are mainly small (< 25 ha) <strong>and</strong> thus are not submitted to French management regulations.<br />
We present the conclusions of three multidisciplinary long term studies, in south west of France,<br />
based on historical, social <strong>and</strong> technical analyses of the particularities of these woodlots. Results<br />
showed that the traditional social system (“house-centered system”) is still influencing forest<br />
management, despite its loosing of importance. Woodlots are parts of the agricultural systems<br />
but some cultural features limit the implementation modern forestry practices. The roles of farm<br />
forests have to be considered on a larger l<strong>and</strong>scape scale perspective.<br />
Keywords: Rural forest, private forest, management pratices, SIG, ethnology<br />
1. Introduction<br />
In France, 28 % of the territory is forested <strong>and</strong> around 75% of this forested area (i.e. 10 millions<br />
of ha) belongs to a multitude of private owners (around 3.5 millions). A large part of these<br />
private woods are farm forests that are forested areas managed <strong>and</strong> used by farmers, whatever<br />
are the legal system <strong>and</strong> the structure of the st<strong>and</strong>s (Norm<strong>and</strong>in 1996). They represent 17% of<br />
French private forest <strong>and</strong> up to 50% in several departements in South-West (Cinotti <strong>and</strong><br />
Norm<strong>and</strong>in 2002). Despite their important cultural <strong>and</strong> ecological functions in agricultural<br />
l<strong>and</strong>scapes (Balent et al. 1996, Sourdril 2008) <strong>and</strong> their potential role in the sustainable<br />
development of rural areas, management modalities of farm forests are still poorly known.<br />
Moreover, their surface area is decreasing because of their conversion into common private<br />
forest, due to sales <strong>and</strong> inheritance to non-farmers (Cinotti <strong>and</strong> Norm<strong>and</strong>in 2002): farming <strong>and</strong><br />
forestry are thus more <strong>and</strong> more disconnected (Larrère <strong>and</strong> Nougarède 1990; Cardon 1999).<br />
A characteristic of French private forest is the small size of the properties: half of them<br />
have an area of less than 25 ha. Yet regularly obligations do not impose particular forest<br />
management in these small properties, unlike in larger ones for which a management schedule<br />
(Plan Simple de Gestion, regulatory document that is both a guide for forest management <strong>and</strong> a<br />
traceability document) approved by the Centre Régional de la Propriété <strong>Forest</strong>ière (public<br />
institution supporting private sylviculturists to manage their forests) is compulsory. As a<br />
consequence, management in small private woods is not described in any document or<br />
inventory that hampers the study of practices <strong>and</strong> the build up of forest management history.<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
E. Andrieu et al. 2010. When forests are managed by farmers<br />
713<br />
The objective of this paper is to present an original combination of retrospective<br />
mapping from aerial photographs of farm forest management for 60 years with anthropological<br />
analysis of the drivers of forest management <strong>and</strong> forestry practices. We thus have to analyze<br />
forestry practices thanks to aerial photographs <strong>and</strong> to interviews analysis. Interviews were also<br />
used to assess forest representational systems that are linked to practices (Lemonnier 1994), <strong>and</strong><br />
the relationships among stakeholders concerned by farming <strong>and</strong> forestry (social networks).<br />
2. Methodology<br />
2.1 Study sites<br />
Studied woods are located in the Long Term Ecological <strong>and</strong> Sociological Research platform «<br />
Vallées et Coteaux de Gascogne » in southwestern France, at ~ 60 km south-west of Toulouse,<br />
in 5 rural parish territories (43° 16’ N, 48° 43' E, 200 - 400 m a.s.l.). This hilly region is<br />
characterized by a temperate climate with oceanic <strong>and</strong> slight Mediterranean influences. Two<br />
types of soil occur in the study site: superficial calcareous soils (superficial terrefort) <strong>and</strong> noncalcareous<br />
acid molasse (brown acid <strong>and</strong> brown washed soils) (CRAMP 1995). The region is<br />
not densely populated <strong>and</strong> is still largely agricultural. The dominant tree species of the woods<br />
are sessile oak (Quercus petraea Lieblein) <strong>and</strong> pedunculate oak (Q. robur L.), mixed with<br />
hornbeam (Carpinus betulus L.) (Cabanettes <strong>and</strong> Guyon 1994). Wood management system is<br />
traditionally coppice (with or without st<strong>and</strong>ard trees) each 30 years by clear cutting mostly to<br />
produce fire wood <strong>and</strong> some st<strong>and</strong>ard trees can be cut to be sold or used as timber wood.<br />
2.2 History of forest logging<br />
We selected a set of woods (total surface area ~ 100 Ha) with a common history, i.e. they were<br />
all included in a whole larger wood two centuries ago that has been fragmented. Aerial<br />
photographs are the most appropriate data that allow reconstructing logging history at a fine<br />
scale. We chose 7 missions conducted by the French National Geographical Institute <strong>and</strong> by the<br />
French National <strong>Forest</strong> Inventory (1942, 1953, 1962, 1977, 1984, 1996, 2006) in order to obtain<br />
a regular temporal sequence. The photographs were analyzed using optical stereoscopy in order<br />
to detect <strong>and</strong> date cuttings. We circumscribed polygons defined by their cover classes, based on<br />
tree height (Bakis <strong>and</strong> Bonin 2000, Muraz et al. 1999): cuttings (C), young coppice (R) <strong>and</strong><br />
mature st<strong>and</strong>s (M) (see De Warnaffe et al. 2006). These cover classes were digitalized on aerial<br />
photographs georeferenced with ArcGis®. We adapted the most frequently used photointerpretation<br />
method (regressive photo-interpretation method, which consists in digitizing from<br />
the most recent to the older photograph (Muraz et al. 1999): indeed, at the fine scale of our<br />
study, superimposed digitalized maps do not fit perfectly because of inherent imprecision of<br />
georeferencing process, which induces artefactual edge changes (see Andrieu et al. 2008).<br />
Resulting maps were crossed in a SIG to obtain a synthesis map summarizing logging history.<br />
Between 1942 <strong>and</strong> 2006, we assessed temporal changes (Mann-Kendall test for<br />
monotonic trends) in cutting system : cutting number, cutting total surface area per year, cutting<br />
mean surface area, ratio of areas coppiced with vs. without st<strong>and</strong>ards, cutting shapes complexity<br />
(Area Weighted Mean Shape Index, <strong>and</strong> Area Weighted Mean Patch Fractal Dimension).<br />
Matches between the shapes of cuttings <strong>and</strong> cadastral parcels were estimated visually. To test<br />
whether both ecological factors <strong>and</strong> forest accessibility can influence the number of cutting<br />
between 1942 <strong>and</strong> 2006 (elevation, slope <strong>and</strong> aspect, distance for streams, forest edge <strong>and</strong> ways,<br />
geology <strong>and</strong> soil type), we built log-linear regression model (log link function) on a r<strong>and</strong>om<br />
sample of 2000 points generated in the study area. Significance of effects was assessed by<br />
comparing deviance reduction of nested models with χ² tests (anova function, stats package, R)<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
E. Andrieu et al. 2010. When forests are managed by farmers<br />
714<br />
<strong>and</strong> contrasts tests were used to compare regression coefficient estimates among levels. We<br />
analyzed wood maturation through changes in the proportion of surface area of cuttings, mature<br />
<strong>and</strong> immature st<strong>and</strong>s. To assess spatio-temporal stability of mature st<strong>and</strong> habitat, we built cores<br />
of mature st<strong>and</strong> areas with potential edge effect of 10 m to 50 m for each period: maps were<br />
pooled in order to detect areas that were continuously mature since 1942.<br />
2.3 Analysis of forest management practices<br />
In order to analyze forest management practices we selected 7 woods with different surface<br />
areas (0.7 – 11.2 ha) on which we had rebuild the history of logging. They belong to 11 private<br />
owners: 4 active farmers, 7 retired farmers <strong>and</strong> 7 non-farmers. We used semi-directive<br />
interviews to analyze practices, know-how <strong>and</strong> ethnobotanical knowledge of private owners,<br />
<strong>and</strong> to define social networks. Both interviews <strong>and</strong> visits in the woods allowed rebuilding<br />
« mental-maps » of cuttings realized by the owners or their family. At home, we asked the<br />
owner to draw on an empty map the shape of the cutting procedure as far as he could remember.<br />
In the wood, the owner completed the information obtained (seeing logging signs helped the<br />
owner remind) <strong>and</strong> modify the previous map drawn. These “as told” practices (mental maps)<br />
where crossed with “observed” practices (from aerial pictures) in a GIS. During the interviews,<br />
the owner was also asked to describe the nature of the cutting procedure, cuttings people<br />
involved, season <strong>and</strong> equipment used, st<strong>and</strong>ards maintained, <strong>and</strong> what use was made of the<br />
wood that was cut since 1938. From these descriptions, two hypotheses have been tested. First,<br />
retired farmers are traditionally the managers of the woodlots after the transfer of the farm<br />
ownership <strong>and</strong> management to their son (Nougarède 1999). We tested thus the hypothesis of<br />
such a separation between knowledge <strong>and</strong> / or practices of forestry <strong>and</strong> farming which can be<br />
led by this transfer (Nougarède 1999; Cardon 1999). Second, the inheritance of woodlots to<br />
non-farmers could lead to a separation of forestry practices between farmers <strong>and</strong> non-farmers,<br />
each having their own knowledge <strong>and</strong> social networks. We tested thus whether the management<br />
of woodlots by non-farmers is disconnected or not from agriculture.<br />
3. Results <strong>and</strong> Discussion<br />
Whereas they constitute a large part of forested area in France, modalities <strong>and</strong> history of<br />
management of small private woods remained widely misunderstood because of the difficulty to<br />
collect <strong>and</strong> analyze historical information. Based on the analysis of historical documents <strong>and</strong> of<br />
semi-directive interviews, our studies show clearly how complex in space <strong>and</strong> time forest<br />
management by private owners can be.<br />
3.1 Comparing mental maps <strong>and</strong> photo-interpreted aerial photography: benefits from the<br />
comparison between “as told” <strong>and</strong> “observed” practices<br />
First, there was a good agreement between the “as told” <strong>and</strong> “observed” practices. Three types<br />
of disagreement were detected: (1) cutting operation is reported at the time of the interview<br />
without being identified on the aerial photograph, generally due to an high density of the<br />
st<strong>and</strong>ards; (2) cutting operation is detected by the aerial photograph but not reported at the time<br />
of the interview, due to an incomplete memory; <strong>and</strong> (3) rarely a great difference in the cutting<br />
areas for a given date or cutting date very different for a given area which can point out the<br />
difficulty of the informant to legend the “mental map”. Since it is not possible to verify the<br />
memory of the owners, we should place greater faith in the aerial photographs to detect the<br />
cutting places; however cutting places choices <strong>and</strong> cutting procedures cannot be understood<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
E. Andrieu et al. 2010. When forests are managed by farmers<br />
715<br />
without the memory of the owners. The combination of the two methods is therefore required to<br />
underst<strong>and</strong> forest management through space <strong>and</strong> time.<br />
Second, photo-interpretation showed some evolutions of management practices between<br />
1942 <strong>and</strong> 2006. In our study site, the management consisted in numerous small cuttings (< 1<br />
ha), mainly coppiced with st<strong>and</strong>ard (65% of the cuttings). The type of management (coppice<br />
with or without st<strong>and</strong>ards), the shape of the cuts, <strong>and</strong> their spatial localization (i.e. their<br />
aggregation) remained stable through time. However, even if the number of cutting remained<br />
stable, their mean size decrease since around 1980 (0.43-0.63 ha - depending on the year -<br />
before 1980, 0.16-0.20 ha after), which caused a decrease of total cut surface area (3.8 to 1.4<br />
ha). This pattern associated to general information collected on rural life changes in the<br />
interviews indicate that the origin of the decrease of total cut surface area is not rural<br />
depopulation <strong>and</strong> the subsequent ab<strong>and</strong>onment of forested parcels. It is very likely to be either<br />
the energetic transition to fossil fuel that decreased the needs in firewood (which is the main use<br />
of wood in our study site), or the lack of time available for forest management activities (<strong>and</strong><br />
more widely the management of semi-natural habitats) in a context of change of farmer<br />
activities during the last decades. An important ecological consequence of the reduction of<br />
wood harvest is the maturation of the st<strong>and</strong>s. In our study site, st<strong>and</strong> age structure changed<br />
drastically <strong>and</strong> we are now assisting to a homogenization of st<strong>and</strong> maturity toward mature trees:<br />
in 1942, 6 % of wood surface area was mature <strong>and</strong> 88% immature whereas in 2006 59 % was<br />
mature <strong>and</strong> 39% immature. Such changes of age structure can lead to a change of biodiversity<br />
patterns, like the replacement of assemblages dominated by early successional species by<br />
assemblages dominated by late successional species.<br />
Photo-interpretation showed that the main part of the woods has been submitted to a<br />
moderate harvest intensity <strong>and</strong> has been cut once (27 % of surface area), twice (38 %) or three<br />
times (16 %) (Fig. 1). In appearance, around 15% of the wood surface area has never been cut<br />
since 1942. However these areas tally mainly with ancient ab<strong>and</strong>oned fields or parts which have<br />
been already cut just before 1942. When these areas are excluded, only 3% of wood surface<br />
areas that were mature in 1942 have never been cut between 1942 <strong>and</strong> 2006. These preserved<br />
areas are scarce <strong>and</strong> small, particularly when a small edge effect of 10 m is attributed to them (9<br />
isolated patches, surface area
E. Andrieu et al. 2010. When forests are managed by farmers<br />
716<br />
l<strong>and</strong>); (2) some stakeholders can manage forests without being owner or decision-maker. We<br />
thus have to consider together property, decision <strong>and</strong> action: our typology is then owner / nonowner,<br />
decision-maker / non-decision-maker <strong>and</strong> action performer / action non-performer.<br />
These characteristics are non exclusive, for example a performer can occasionally make<br />
decisions or an owner decision-maker can occasionally carry out some forest activities. The<br />
term of « manager » is then meaningless in our study context. Therefore, even if the owner is<br />
not a farmer - anymore or at all - farmers can be involved in the forest practices at some point.<br />
Following the idea that forest can be hold by retired father, while the son deal with the<br />
farm, we try to underst<strong>and</strong> with our new typology the different roles shared by fathers <strong>and</strong> sons<br />
in forest management. Four father / son couples have been interviewed. All fathers were retired<br />
farmer, owners <strong>and</strong> decision makers, two were performers (the two other were occasional<br />
performers). No son (active farmers) was owner but all were decision-makers together with<br />
their fathers, three were the main performers <strong>and</strong> one was occasional performer. Retired farmer<br />
always helps their son in the farm. When the woods belong to the father, a strong relationship<br />
between agricultural <strong>and</strong> forestry practices remains, due to the implication of both father <strong>and</strong><br />
son on both agricultural <strong>and</strong> forest l<strong>and</strong>s. Even if they sometimes disagree about the way forests<br />
have to be managed, the management of the forests belonging to retired farmers is not<br />
dissociated from agricultural practices. Moreover most retirees keep considering <strong>and</strong> are<br />
considered to be as farmer as active farmers themselves. In the process of transmission of the<br />
property, if the forest can be separated from the farm for a while because being kept by the<br />
father while the farm is given to the son, this process is never definitive <strong>and</strong> the forest will<br />
automatically be transmitted to the son at the death of his father; it is finally never detached<br />
from the farm except on the paper.<br />
What happens when non farmers are owners of forest l<strong>and</strong> Five non-farmers were<br />
owners <strong>and</strong> two were non-owner but were performers or decision-makers. Whereas non-farmers<br />
have no professional link with farming activities, we found that their forestry practices were<br />
strongly influenced by farming activities because (A) they can have relatives who are farmers<br />
<strong>and</strong> they integrate their practices, know-how <strong>and</strong> representations of the forest; (B) forests are<br />
embedded in an agricultural matrix so logging can be dependent of agricultural practices (for<br />
example, a farmer can ask his neighbors to manage the forest edge adjacent to his field); (C)<br />
techniques can percolate through social networks (neighbors, friends).<br />
To conclude, these multidisciplinary studies illustrate that the specificity of rural forest<br />
management, particularly the high spatio-temporal variability of cuttings, the strong links<br />
between forestry <strong>and</strong> farm practices even when owners are “non-farmers”, <strong>and</strong> the organization<br />
of activities within farming families.<br />
References<br />
Andrieu, E., du Bus de Warnaffe, G., Ladet, S., Heintz, W., Sourdril, A., Deconchat, M., 2008.<br />
Mapping the felling history in small-sized woodl<strong>and</strong>s, Revue <strong>Forest</strong>ière Française, 60:<br />
667-676.<br />
Bakis, H., Bonin, N., 2000. La Photographie aérienne et spatiale. Que sais-je, PUF, Paris.<br />
Balent, G., 1996. La forêt paysanne dans l’espace rural. Biodiversité, paysages, produits.<br />
Etudes et Recherche sur les Systèmes Agraires et le Développement, INRA Editions, 29.<br />
Cabanettes, A., Guyon, J.P., 1994. Relations entre gestion et structure dans les systèmes boisés<br />
d’exploitations agricoles. In Colloque « Agriculteurs, agricultures et forêts », Cemagref<br />
et INRA, Paris, 12-13 décembre 1994.<br />
Cardon, P., 1999. Un capital dormant. La transmission patrimoniale de la forêt paysanne en<br />
Franche-Comté. Terrain, 32.<br />
Cinotti, B., Norm<strong>and</strong>in, D., 2002. Exploitants agricoles et propriété forestière : où est passée la<br />
« forêt paysanne » Revue <strong>Forest</strong>ière Française, 4: 311-327.<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
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Chambre Régionale d’Agriculture de Midi-Pyrénées, 1995. Les gr<strong>and</strong>es ensembles morphopédologiques<br />
de la région Midi-Pyrénées.<br />
De Warnaffe, G., Deconchat, M., Ladet, S., Balent, G., 2006. Variability of cutting regimes in<br />
small private woodlots of south-western France. Annals of <strong>Forest</strong> Science, 63: 915-927.<br />
Larrère, R., Nougarède, O., 1990. La forêt dans l’histoire des systèmes agraires. De la<br />
dissociation à la réinsertion. Cahiers d’Economie et de sociologie rurales, 15-16: 11-38.<br />
Lemonnier, P., 1994. Choix techniques et représentations de l’enfermement chez les Anga de<br />
Nouvelle-Guinée. In Latour B et Lemonnier P (éd.), De la préhistoire aux missiles<br />
balistiques, La découverte, Paris, pp. 253-272.<br />
Muraz, J., Durrieu, S., Labbe, S., Andreassian, V., Tangara, M., 1999. Comment valoriser les<br />
photos aériennes dans les SIG. Ingénieries, 20: 39−57.<br />
Nougarède, O., 1999. La transmission de la forêt paysanne. Les bois dans la vie de la famille<br />
agricole. In: Bois et forêts des agriculteurs, Actes du colloque, Clermont-Ferr<strong>and</strong>, 20-21<br />
oct. 1999, Cemagref Editions, pp. 309-333.<br />
Sourdril, A., 2008. Territoire et hiérarchie dans une société à maison Bas-Commingeoise :<br />
Permanence et changement. Des bois, des champs, des prés (Haute-Garonne), PhD<br />
dissertation Univ. Paris X.<br />
Figure 1: Synthesis map of cutting number between 1942 <strong>and</strong> 2006 (dark green = 0, light green = 1,<br />
yellow = 2, orange = 3, red = 4 <strong>and</strong> more, black lines = delimitation of different cutting events).<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
D. Geni et al. 2010. A framework for characterizing convergence <strong>and</strong> discrepancy in rural forest management<br />
718<br />
A framework for characterizing convergence <strong>and</strong> discrepancy in rural<br />
forest management in tropical <strong>and</strong> temperate environments<br />
D. Genin 1* , Y. Aumeerudy-Thomas 2 , G. Balent 3,4 , G. Michon 5<br />
1 IRD, Laboratoire Population, Environnement Développement, UMR151, Marseille,<br />
France<br />
2 CNRS, Centre d’Ecologie Fonctionnelle et Evolutive, Montpellier, France<br />
3 INRA, UMR DYNAFOR, Toulouse, France<br />
4 Université de Toulouse, UMR DYNAFOR, Toulouse<br />
5 IRD, UR199, Montpellier, France<br />
Abstract<br />
Rural forests are forests that are more or less formally appropriated, managed, shaped or rebuilt<br />
by rural communities, who have developed refined local knowledge <strong>and</strong> practices related to<br />
their use <strong>and</strong> perpetuation. Based on detailed monographs, we compared eleven situations of<br />
rural forests both from developing <strong>and</strong> developed countries, localized within a high diversity of<br />
ecological environments (humid tropics, dry forests, temperate forests) as well as regarding<br />
socio-economical <strong>and</strong> public policies characteristics. Data were pooled within a common<br />
analysis chart <strong>and</strong> processed by means of multivariate analyses. Results show that some<br />
variables are characteristic of all rural forests, such as multiple-use, tree species diversity,<br />
ecosystem stability, or patrimonial functions. Other results point out some specificities of<br />
particular rural forests, depending on the main use of single out of several tree species,<br />
importance of NTFPs, l<strong>and</strong> ownership <strong>and</strong> management, <strong>and</strong> the magnitude of public action.<br />
This framework aims at better characterizing these particular forests in order to think about<br />
alternative forest management policies.<br />
Keywords: rural forests, local practices, local knowledge, multivariate analyses,<br />
1. Introduction<br />
<strong>Forest</strong>s in various parts of the world are not only places for wood production or environmental<br />
services (Myers, 1988; Ros-Tonen et al., 2005). They also play several roles for local people<br />
<strong>and</strong> are deeply integrated within diversified livelihood systems (Pretzsch, 2005; Agrawal, 2007).<br />
Rural forests are all forests more or less formally managed, shaped, transformed or rebuilt by<br />
rural communities, integrated within farming systems which structure l<strong>and</strong>scapes <strong>and</strong> rural<br />
territories. These forests have not only contributed to sustain local livelihoods but are an entire<br />
part of local patrimony <strong>and</strong> identity. They are indeed based on trans generational knowledge <strong>and</strong><br />
know-how that have contributed to social reproduction. However, particularities of these rural<br />
forests are not well defined since they encompass highly diversified situations <strong>and</strong> have not<br />
been of interest for classical forest science. Very few authors have explored the intrinsic<br />
characteristics of rural forests. Balent (1995) talked about peasant forest with examples from the<br />
French situation. Michon et al. (2007) coined a new paradigm for integrating local<br />
communities’ forestry into tropical forest science with the notion of domestic forests. These<br />
authors argued <strong>and</strong> illustrated that domestic forest is “a forest for living, a forest that integrates<br />
* Corresponding author.<br />
Email address: Genin@univ-provence.fr<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
D. Geni et al. 2010. A framework for characterizing convergence <strong>and</strong> discrepancy in rural forest management<br />
719<br />
production <strong>and</strong> conservation with social, political, <strong>and</strong> spiritual dimensions” at local level, <strong>and</strong><br />
constitutes an entity which has to be dissociated from the more classical forests.<br />
There is a real need for a better characterization of these rural forests. Which indicators can be<br />
addressed to underst<strong>and</strong> the specific relationships that have evolved between rural people <strong>and</strong><br />
the forests they have shaped Are there general features found both in northern <strong>and</strong> southern<br />
countries As complex socio-ecological systems, how do social <strong>and</strong> ecological factors<br />
jointly determine their nature Can the concept of rural forest be an empirical model to put<br />
sustainable development in practice<br />
The research program POPULAR “Public policies <strong>and</strong> farmers’ local management of trees <strong>and</strong><br />
forests: sustainable alliance or dupery” (www2.toulouse.inra.fr/popular/), supported by the<br />
French National Research Agency, aims at exploring the links between public policies <strong>and</strong> local<br />
uses <strong>and</strong> management of small-scale forests by rural people, at sharing experiences both from<br />
North <strong>and</strong> South, <strong>and</strong> at going further in the characterization of this almost orphan research<br />
object that constitutes rural forest. As part of this project, we report here on a comparative study<br />
that attempted to show the general characteristics <strong>and</strong> particularities of rural forests from<br />
examples taken both from North (five sites in France) <strong>and</strong> South (Cameroon, India, Indonesia<br />
<strong>and</strong> two sites in Morocco).<br />
2. Material <strong>and</strong> Methods<br />
The eleven sites were chosen in order to cover a large array of situations both ecologically<br />
(humid tropical forest, dry forests, temperate forests) <strong>and</strong> concerning human population pressure,<br />
socio-economic conditions <strong>and</strong> public policies related to forest management.<br />
In France, different cases were developed within a context of centralized forest management <strong>and</strong><br />
both agricultural modernization <strong>and</strong> decline : 1) common small-scale forests privately managed<br />
by traditional farmers from south-west part of France (Gascogne) (Deconchat et al., 2007): 2<br />
<strong>and</strong> 3) the domestic chestnut forests in Corsica <strong>and</strong> Cevennes (South of France) which<br />
experienced several phases of ab<strong>and</strong>onment <strong>and</strong> renovation <strong>and</strong> where confrontations between<br />
local dynamics <strong>and</strong> sustainable development policies are recurrent (Michon & Sorba, 2010); 4)<br />
An example of a multifunctional management of a tree out of forest in the Pyrenees (southwestern<br />
France) which coevolved with changing agricultural systems <strong>and</strong> l<strong>and</strong> use<br />
management : The ash tree (Mottet et al., 2007); <strong>and</strong> 5) the Languedoc Garrigues, a case of<br />
agriculture ab<strong>and</strong>onment where local initiatives emerge to control parts of the territory, such as<br />
truffle forestry (Therville, 2009).<br />
In Morocco, two situations representative of semi arid environment were analyzed : a secular<br />
endogenous community-based forest management named agdal in the High Atlas mountains<br />
(Cordier & Genin, 2008); the argan forest, located in the South West of the Country, with a<br />
unique a semi-arid climate (annual rainfall around 350 mm). Argan tree (Argania spinosa) is an<br />
endemic tree which provides highly valued oil for alimentary <strong>and</strong> cosmetic uses, <strong>and</strong> where<br />
there is large historic trajectory of forest management both from local populations <strong>and</strong> forestry<br />
services (Simenel et al. 2009).<br />
In Southern Cameroon, even if forest ownership is public, management of forest is usually<br />
performed by local communities who partly depend upon the extraction of forest resources for<br />
their livelihood (Lescuyer, 2007).<br />
In the Western Ghâts of India, different situations coexist such as commercial agroforests,<br />
sacred forests both managed by local people, <strong>and</strong> reserved forests managed by forestry services<br />
but where collective l<strong>and</strong> use rights still continue. Two situations were analyzed in this paper:<br />
agroforests <strong>and</strong> reserved forests (Hinnewinkel et al., 2008).<br />
In Indonesia, there is a large experience on indigenous communities’ utilisation of forest<br />
resources. Since the 1970s, the relevance of local management systems for forest science,<br />
conservation <strong>and</strong> development have become well-recognized facts.<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
D. Geni et al. 2010. A framework for characterizing convergence <strong>and</strong> discrepancy in rural forest management<br />
720<br />
In each forest case, an interdisciplinary attempt was made in order to provide a detailed<br />
description of the rural forest, taking into account stakeholders, resources, practices involved,<br />
<strong>and</strong> ecological aspects <strong>and</strong> dynamics. A common analysis grid was previously built in order to<br />
produce a corpus of comparable data. The general aim was to characterize the socio-ecological<br />
systems by putting emphasis on interactions between ecological structures <strong>and</strong> functioning, use<br />
rules <strong>and</strong> intensity of uses of natural resources both in time <strong>and</strong> space. We encompassed five<br />
main themes: 1) physical <strong>and</strong> ecological characterization; 2) Actors <strong>and</strong> use rules; 3) Uses <strong>and</strong><br />
functions of forests <strong>and</strong> forest resources; 4) Naturalist, technical, organisational, spiritual <strong>and</strong><br />
political knowledge linked with the uses of trees <strong>and</strong> forests; 5) Main dynamics <strong>and</strong> challenges<br />
related to forested areas.<br />
In a first step, monographs were analyzed <strong>and</strong> similarities or differences were pointed out by a<br />
qualitative analysis of the results within themes above mentioned. On the basis of this material<br />
<strong>and</strong> team researchers’ expertise, a comparative data base was built, composed of 58 variables.<br />
We rated the outcomes for each variable on a five-point scale: inexistent or very low (1), low or<br />
poorly important (2), neutral or average (3), high or important (4), very high or very important<br />
(5). Assessments were done by a reduced researchers’ group, <strong>and</strong> codification result discussed<br />
with the all team members of the POPULAR project. This process was effective for stimulating<br />
discussions, facilitating consistent <strong>and</strong> comparable information, <strong>and</strong> scoring of the variables. All<br />
variables were treated as having uniform weight, <strong>and</strong> were analysed together through Multiple<br />
Correspondence Analysis (MCA, see Benzecri, 1973). MCA was performed in two stages: first<br />
by fitting a cloud of points in a multidimensional vector subspace, <strong>and</strong> second, by setting a<br />
metric structure on this space. This analysis provided a non-parametric description of the<br />
relationships between modalities of variables <strong>and</strong> an indication of their importance rather than a<br />
measure of significance. It allowed the possibility of treating together both qualitative <strong>and</strong><br />
quantitative data. We performed a Hierarchical Cluster Analysis of both variables <strong>and</strong> case<br />
studies using their scores along the main MCA axes, Euclidian distance <strong>and</strong> Ward linkage<br />
function. The Pearson correlation test was used in order to evaluate similarities between sites,<br />
<strong>and</strong> between variables. Data treatments were carried out using the STATBOX software.<br />
3. Results <strong>and</strong> discussion<br />
The main difficulty in studying rural forests is to deal with the complexity <strong>and</strong> interrelationships<br />
of uses, practices, functions <strong>and</strong> representations associated with forest resources <strong>and</strong> wooded<br />
l<strong>and</strong>scapes. In this sense, a global descriptive approach of this complexity can constitute a first<br />
step in order to filter the main aspects governing the functioning of these systems. The set of<br />
case studies we undertook here, though far from being exhaustive, gives an interesting overview<br />
of this diversity in terms of ecosystem types <strong>and</strong> forest resources, forms of organization <strong>and</strong><br />
operation of local communities, role of public authorities in forest management, <strong>and</strong> functions<br />
devoted to forest areas.<br />
MCA reduction of the initial table in a few number of dimensions led to a synthetic<br />
representation of both forest case <strong>and</strong> influential variables that made possible a comparison of<br />
the similarities <strong>and</strong> dissimilarities between the forest cases. The first four MCA axes covered<br />
more than 50% of the overall observed variance, which is a relatively high score for a<br />
qualitative data set.<br />
The first axis made it possible to discriminate the tropical forests (Cameroon, Indian reserved<br />
forests <strong>and</strong> to a lesser extent Indonesia significantly correlated to little to average domestication<br />
of trees, very strong rate of tree cover associated with a very strong tree species diversity, uses<br />
related to timbering <strong>and</strong> the non timber forest products (NTFP), <strong>and</strong> a strong control of the rules<br />
at the collective level) from the Corsican <strong>and</strong> Cevennes chestnut groves <strong>and</strong> truffle growing<br />
significantly correlated to highly transformed ecosystem, little fragmentation of the l<strong>and</strong>scape,<br />
private l<strong>and</strong>ownership associated with little influence of collective institutions, strong use for<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
D. Geni et al. 2010. A framework for characterizing convergence <strong>and</strong> discrepancy in rural forest management<br />
721<br />
firewood, very strong technical know-how, <strong>and</strong> control of the trees <strong>and</strong> strong transformations<br />
of the social systems .<br />
The second axis allows discriminating the small private forest of Gascogne, the ash tree case<br />
<strong>and</strong> the Indian Reserved forest from the Argan forest <strong>and</strong> Indonesian agroforests. The first<br />
group of forests is correlated to private l<strong>and</strong>ownership except for the Indian reserved forest,<br />
strong compliance with the collective rules (often because they do not exist!), poor commercial<br />
economic functions associated with poor economic issues, little economic valorisation of the<br />
products extracted from the forest, <strong>and</strong> a weak forest/agriculture integration. The second one to<br />
strong domestication of the trees, little fragmentation of the l<strong>and</strong>scape, mixed l<strong>and</strong>ownership<br />
status associating private, collective <strong>and</strong> public ones, strong set of rules established at collective<br />
level <strong>and</strong> associated with a rather strong control of the rules by the State, <strong>and</strong> common use of<br />
non woody forest products.<br />
The third axis allows to discriminate truffles <strong>and</strong> small private forests of Gascogne,<br />
characterized by a domestication at the tree st<strong>and</strong> rather than at the individual tree level, few<br />
new actors intervening who claim or not of being partisans of sustainable development, little<br />
transformation of the forest products, a weak home consumption of forest products <strong>and</strong> a very<br />
little transformation of the social systems, from Corsican <strong>and</strong> Cevennes chestnut cases<br />
characterized by the importance of the use of the forest for animal husb<strong>and</strong>ry, a strong dynamic<br />
of the practices associated with strong transformation of the social systems, a high<br />
transformation of the products resulting from the forest <strong>and</strong> the importance of new actors<br />
intervening in the use of the forest.<br />
On the fourth axis, cases with a high significance were found the Agdals of the High Atlas <strong>and</strong><br />
Indian agro-forests. For the first case, outst<strong>and</strong>ing variable modalities were those related to the<br />
collective l<strong>and</strong>ownership status, the influence of the collective rules for access, uses <strong>and</strong><br />
management of forests; modalities such as the strong use of foliage as fodder, the function of<br />
the rural forest as reserve/safety in cases of climatic hazards, a high home consumption<br />
associated with a very weak commercial activity with the forest products were also significant.<br />
For the Indian agro forests, associated modalities of variables were a very strong<br />
forest/agriculture integration, associated with an agricultural use of the forest <strong>and</strong> the use of<br />
NTFP, a l<strong>and</strong>ownership mainly private, but a very strong political know-how suggesting a<br />
structured local organization; also an increase of surperficie.<br />
The Hierarchical Cluster analysis on the forest cases provided a classification of the studied<br />
rural forests in five groups: High Atlas (group 1); Cameroun, Indonesia, Indian Reserved<br />
<strong>Forest</strong>s (group 2); Indian agro forests (group 3); Corsica, Cevennes, Argan forest (group 4)<br />
Gascogne, truffles, ash tree (group 5).<br />
It pointed out similarities found in tropical forests, globally (group 2), the ones found where a<br />
single tree species represents the main characteristic <strong>and</strong> uses of the forest (chestnut groves,<br />
argan forest) (group 4), <strong>and</strong> the ones with a traditional forest <strong>and</strong> tree management found in<br />
France mainly characterized by almost completely private decisions <strong>and</strong> practices, with very<br />
weak external interventions. Two situations remained individualized: Agdals in the High Atlas<br />
where strong traditional collective rules <strong>and</strong> uses conform the overall forest management, <strong>and</strong><br />
Indian agro forests where there is a mix between individual, collective <strong>and</strong> state interventions,<br />
<strong>and</strong> a high diversity within the transect between natural to highly transformed forest.<br />
The Hierarchical Cluster analysis on the variables data set provided a partition within seven<br />
classes:<br />
Class 4 represents the overall common characteristics of the rural forests (multi-use,<br />
home consumption, importance of use of wood (firewood <strong>and</strong> timber), tree species diversity,<br />
stability of ecosystem, important patrimonial functions as well as their stakes in the construction<br />
of the territories). All the studied forests present important scores for these variables (> 3.5 on<br />
average).<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
D. Geni et al. 2010. A framework for characterizing convergence <strong>and</strong> discrepancy in rural forest management<br />
722<br />
Classes 1 <strong>and</strong> 3 are characteristics of group 4 (Corsica, the Cevennes, Argan forest).<br />
They correspond to rural forests based on the use of a single tree species (chestnut or Argan) for<br />
which the knowledge related to control <strong>and</strong> the domestication of the individuals are important,<br />
as well as the practices of transformation <strong>and</strong> product valorization.<br />
Class 2 represents the reactive variables with the group 5 (Gascogne, truffle, ash tree)<br />
which represents the French small-scale forests integrated to traditional farming systems, very<br />
weakly influenced by the forest public policies <strong>and</strong> managed at the family level to meet various<br />
needs <strong>and</strong> amenities (timber <strong>and</strong> firewood, mushrooms, hunting places, etc).<br />
Class 5 gathers the major variables characterizing tropical rural forests (groups 2 <strong>and</strong> 3),<br />
it said the importance of timbering, an important biodiversity, the use of various non woody<br />
forest products (resins, fruits, medicinal plants, etc).<br />
Class 7 reflects the variables for which the State is very present, at the same time in the<br />
management of the forests <strong>and</strong> its relations with the local populations (High Atlas <strong>and</strong> India<br />
reserved forest).<br />
Class 6 gathers the significant variables linked with the traditional rural forests found in<br />
developing Countries (groups 1, 2 <strong>and</strong> 3) where the influence of diversified collective<br />
institutions (being customary or more or less legally formalized) is critical in the management<br />
of forest areas <strong>and</strong> where these areas have important functions reserve/safety for the livelihood<br />
systems.<br />
Conclusion<br />
In this first attempt to put evidence of what could be the specificities of rural forests, we can<br />
advance that they are, in essence, multi functional areas, of long term usefulness both for<br />
extracting goods, accommodating livelihoods to local environment, taking control of l<strong>and</strong>scapes<br />
<strong>and</strong> territories, <strong>and</strong> building a representation’s world intimately linked to local culture <strong>and</strong><br />
knowledge. Diversity logically characterizes rural forests which are an on-going result of this<br />
multifaceted shaping; it has then to be undertaken in the light of the functioning of rural<br />
societies. As Michon et al. (2007) argued, rural forests present two universal features that could<br />
characterise them. The first one concerns the local managers who are usually farmers.<br />
Management practices are closely related to agriculture (sensus lato) <strong>and</strong> range from local<br />
interventions in the forest ecosystem, to more intensive types of forest cultivation, <strong>and</strong><br />
ultimately to permanent forest plantation showing high similitude with classical agricultural<br />
practices. The second one concerns the continuum of planted forests with the natural forest, in<br />
matters of vegetation’s structure <strong>and</strong> composition, as well as economical traits <strong>and</strong> ecosystems<br />
services. Arnold (1977) claimed that uses-oriented forest management by local people <strong>and</strong> tree<br />
planting can be explained as being one or more of four categories of response to dynamics of<br />
rural change: to maintain supplies of tree products as production from off-farm tree stocks<br />
decline; to meet growing dem<strong>and</strong> for tree products; to help maintain agricultural productivity in<br />
face of declining soil quality; <strong>and</strong> to contribute to risk management <strong>and</strong> securization of the<br />
overall functioning of farming systems. We would like to add: an early perception by local<br />
people of specific forest resources’ potentialities to enhance their livelihoods, the dem<strong>and</strong> for a<br />
local l<strong>and</strong> control both for extraction <strong>and</strong> long term management, <strong>and</strong> a fundamental structural<br />
element of the way local societies perceive their surrounding world <strong>and</strong> their humanity. Hence,<br />
rural forests constitute also a critical element of the biocultural sphere of local societies which<br />
determine in a significant part, both structure of ecosystems <strong>and</strong> the ways rural societies evolve.<br />
Far from being strictly geographically determined, they usually are the result of a deep shaping<br />
of the natural forest, <strong>and</strong> enter in complex domestication processes in order to satisfy changing<br />
rural livelihood requirements. In this sense, a better underst<strong>and</strong>ing of their characteristics <strong>and</strong><br />
functions is required for developing renewed integrated strategies for sustainable development<br />
of rural <strong>and</strong> forest management systems.<br />
References are available upon request to didier.genin@univ-provence.fr<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
D. Geni et al. 2010. A framework for characterizing convergence <strong>and</strong> discrepancy in rural forest management<br />
723<br />
Figure 1: Representation of the 11 case studies of rural forests <strong>and</strong> some significant modalities<br />
of variables on the F1xF2 plan of the Multiple Correspondences Analysis (MCA).<br />
Figure 2: Cluster Analysis of the eleven case studies of rural forests<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
A. Ouin et al. 2010. Do wooded elements in agricultural l<strong>and</strong>scape contribute to biological control in crops<br />
724<br />
Do wooded elements in agricultural l<strong>and</strong>scape contribute to biological<br />
control in crops<br />
A. Ouin 1 , M. Deconchat 2 , P. Menozzi 3 , C. Monteil 1 , L. Raison 2 , A. Roume 2 , J.P.<br />
Sarthou 1 , A. Vialatte 1 & G. Balent 2<br />
1 Université de Toulouse, UMR DYNAFOR, INRA / INP-ENSAT, BP 32607, 31326<br />
Castanet Tolosan, France.<br />
2 INRA, UMR DYNAFOR, INRA / INP-ENSAT, BP 52627, 31326 Castanet Tolosan,<br />
France<br />
3 CIRAD, UPR 10, 34 398 Montpellier, France<br />
Abstract<br />
Wooded l<strong>and</strong>scape elements are supposed to enhance biological control of pest thanks to natural<br />
enemies by provided with alternative preys, nectar <strong>and</strong> pollen resources, <strong>and</strong> refuges against<br />
unfavourable weather conditions. On the basis of two research studies in south western France<br />
we identified key features in woody elements contributing to biological control. The first study<br />
monitored in 14 winter wheat fields during 5 years aphids <strong>and</strong> aphidophagous hoverflies<br />
abundance in two l<strong>and</strong>scapes differing in woodlot density. L<strong>and</strong>scape with the higher (27%)<br />
wood cover sheltered higher hoverfly abundance during the early spring period (beginning of<br />
aphid pullulation), thus providing them with higher potential regulation capabilities. Afterwards,<br />
the difference decreased during the season. The second study dealt with ground beetles<br />
overwintering in woods. Taking advantage of emergence traps, we showed that many carabid<br />
species, including species controlling pest, overwinter in woodlots before colonizing fields.<br />
Within woodlot, distance from edge influenced abundance of overwintering carabids.<br />
Keywords: l<strong>and</strong>scape, hoverfly, carabid, woodlot, pest regulation<br />
1. Introduction<br />
Because most of the natural enemies of crop pests feed in fields but usually carry out other life<br />
cycle steps, like overwintering, in semi-natural habitats of farml<strong>and</strong> (Groeger, 1993), many<br />
studies focus on the important role of the latter, such as hedges, field margins, "beetle banks"<br />
<strong>and</strong> fallows, in increasing their populations <strong>and</strong> in improving their efficiency as control agents<br />
(Russel, 1989; L<strong>and</strong>is et al., 2000; Gurr et al., 2004). This is most probably because these seminatural<br />
habitats have a more buffered micro-climate, are less subject to agricultural disturbance<br />
than fields themselves <strong>and</strong> provide complementary or alternative food resources for larvae <strong>and</strong><br />
adults.<br />
A lot of studies have focused on overwintering of beneficial arthropods in field margins<br />
(Thomas et al., 1992). Fewer studies looked at woodlots as potential overwintering sites.<br />
Nevertheless, in temperate rural l<strong>and</strong>scapes, forest cover can be as high as 30% with a high<br />
proportion of small woodlots. In such situations, woodlots, which are in close contact with<br />
agriculture, are likely to play an important role as a refuge for overwintering beneficial<br />
arthropods (e.g. Sarthou et al., 2005).<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
A. Ouin et al. 2010. Do wooded elements in agricultural l<strong>and</strong>scape contribute to biological control in crops<br />
725<br />
The two studies presented in this paper tested the role of woodlots in controlling the population<br />
densities of beneficial insects at two different spatial scales. In the first study, we tested if there<br />
are more hoverflies <strong>and</strong> potential aphid control in wheat parcels surrounded by woodlots. In the<br />
second study, we estimated the overwintering density of ground beetles in different parts of a<br />
woodlot, from the edge to its core.<br />
2. Methodology<br />
The study region lies between the Garonne <strong>and</strong> Gers rivers, in south-western France (c. lat: 43°,<br />
long: 1°). This region is hilly (200-400m. alt.), dissected by south-north valleys, within a sub-<br />
Atlantic climate zone subject to both Mediterranean <strong>and</strong> montane influences. <strong>Forest</strong> covers 15%<br />
of the area <strong>and</strong> is composed of multiple small, private forest fragments (Balent & Courtiade,<br />
1992). <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> include a mix of cropl<strong>and</strong> (winter cereals, sunflower, rape, <strong>and</strong> maize or soya<br />
in irrigated lowl<strong>and</strong>), pastures, <strong>and</strong> small coppice woodlots. Semi-natural habitats are hedges,<br />
field margins, woodlots, fallow l<strong>and</strong>s <strong>and</strong> stream plus ditch edges.<br />
Spring abundance of hoverflies was studied in wheat fields in two l<strong>and</strong>scapes differing by wood<br />
density: 27% versus 15%. Wood density was determined using a l<strong>and</strong> cover classification based<br />
on four satellite images (Multib<strong>and</strong> mode, April 2001, July 2001, October 2001 <strong>and</strong> January<br />
2002). Aphidophagous hoverfly (larvae <strong>and</strong> eggs) <strong>and</strong> aphid abundances were recorded in<br />
twelve wheat fields (6 in each l<strong>and</strong>scape) in spring 2003 (April, May, June), then 14 were<br />
monitored from spring 2004 to spring 2007.<br />
We selected a woodlot that was representative of the site with respect to area (11 ha), vegetation<br />
composition (dominated by Quercus robur <strong>and</strong> Q. pubescens) <strong>and</strong> management (coppices with<br />
st<strong>and</strong>ing trees), <strong>and</strong> for which we had data on previous logging events. We set up 45 emergence<br />
traps in the woodlot, according to the distance from the boundary. The boundary of the woodlot<br />
was defined as the line joining the bases of the first trees (diameter at 1.3 m > 10 cm) belonging<br />
to the woodlot. We selected three separated zones of the woodlot according to the distance from<br />
its boundary: the edge zone (0 m to 3 m from the boundary, 12 traps), the center (75 m to 100 m,<br />
17 traps) <strong>and</strong> an intermediate zone (25 m to 50 m, 16 traps). To trap ground beetles, we chose<br />
the method of emergence traps because it makes it possible to estimate true densities of insects<br />
in very limited areas without the disadvantage of catching larvae as with soil <strong>and</strong> litter sampling,<br />
larvae being more difficult to identify. The traps were enclosed areas of 1.8 m² <strong>and</strong> were made<br />
of 0.5 mm mesh, looking like tents which sides were buried into the soil (5 cm depth). Each<br />
emergence trap included two recipients for insects: an upper recipient half-filled with 70%<br />
ethanol at the top of the trap to catch flying <strong>and</strong> climbing insects <strong>and</strong> a lower recipient level with<br />
the soil surface with 50% propylene-glycol (i.e. a pitfall trap inside the tent) to catch epigeous<br />
arthropods. The recipients were collected once a month from early March to late October 2008.<br />
Ground beetles were identified to species level (Jeannel, 1942). Then, species were pooled in<br />
three groups according to their habitat preference reported in other studies (Jeannel, 1942;<br />
Thiele, 1977; Thomas et al., 2002; Luff, 2002): forest species, which adults are caught mainly<br />
in wooded habitats with pitfall traps, open habitat species. <strong>and</strong> generalist species, found in both<br />
types of habitat. Variables used in the analysis were thus total densities of ground beetles per<br />
trap, species richness <strong>and</strong> densities of individuals in each of the three groups listed above, per<br />
trap.<br />
3. Result<br />
Spring abundance of hoverflies <strong>and</strong> aphids in wheat fields<br />
Overall, there were more aphids <strong>and</strong> hoverflies in the wooded l<strong>and</strong>scape than in the non wooded<br />
l<strong>and</strong>scape. When summing all the records in a spring, there is no significant difference in<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
A. Ouin et al. 2010. Do wooded elements in agricultural l<strong>and</strong>scape contribute to biological control in crops<br />
726<br />
hoverfly abundance (eggs+larvae) in wheat fields between the wooded <strong>and</strong> non wooded<br />
l<strong>and</strong>scapes. Compared with poorly wooded l<strong>and</strong>scapes, l<strong>and</strong>scapes with 27% of wood l<strong>and</strong>cover<br />
seemed to shelter higher hoverfly abundance during one of the key-periods for the aphid<br />
population dynamics (early spring), thus providing them with higher potential regulation<br />
capabilities. Afterwards, the difference between hoverfly population abundances decreased<br />
during the season (Figure 1).<br />
Density of overwintering ground beetles in a woodlot<br />
We collected a total of 2014 ground beetles during the whole trapping period, belonging to 48<br />
species. The total density of emerging ground beetles was four to five times higherin edges than<br />
in the inner areas of the woodlot <strong>and</strong> the mean number of species per trap was three times<br />
higher in edges than in the inner areas. Open habitats species overwintered only in the edges <strong>and</strong><br />
not in the inner areas while the two other groups of species overwintered in all the woodlot but<br />
with a marked preference for the edges (Figure 2).<br />
4. Discussion<br />
Our results show that woodlot edges are favourable for insect biodiversity in agricultural<br />
l<strong>and</strong>scapes, by (i) favouring abundances of aphidophagous hoverflies in early spring in fields,<br />
<strong>and</strong> (ii) sheltering both high species richness <strong>and</strong> abundances of ground beetles. Positive<br />
influence of woodlot edges on these insect populations seems to occur mainly during the winter<br />
period, probably by offering local environmental conditions favourable to their overwintering.<br />
Identifying such l<strong>and</strong>scape elements which favour overwintering of beneficial insects is of a<br />
particularly interest from the agronomic point of view of biological control of pests, for which<br />
early arrival of a natural enemy is required in spring (Honek, 1983; Tenhumberg & Poehling,<br />
1995; Corbett in Pickett & Bugg, 1998). Aphidophagous hoverflies distribution <strong>and</strong> abundance<br />
prove to be dependent both on l<strong>and</strong>scape parameters (Molthan, 1990), peculiar to forests <strong>and</strong><br />
crop mosaic respectively, which act at different periods through the year <strong>and</strong> sometimes with a<br />
lasting effect. Indeed south forest edges proved to be important l<strong>and</strong>scape elements for the<br />
overwintering of adult females of the beneficial aphidophagous hoverfly Episyrphus balteatus,<br />
particularly when spatially coupled with grassl<strong>and</strong>s <strong>and</strong> fallows rich in floral resources<br />
(Arrignon et al., 2007). As for north forest edges, they also proved to enhance populations of<br />
adult E. balteatus emerging in spring since they are preferential overwintering sites for the<br />
larvae, probably because of higher density of aphid populations in the fall (Sarthou et al., 2005).<br />
For ground beetles, forest edges appeared as a major reservoir of specific diversity (numerous<br />
species <strong>and</strong> their individuals) potentially able to control some pest species in the nearby crop<br />
fields, even the forest species, which are the biggest ones <strong>and</strong> are reported to prey on slugs<br />
(Kromp, 1999; Symondson et al., 2002). Moreover, woodlot edges sheltered ground beetles<br />
species whose adults live <strong>and</strong> exert beneficial influence in crops but are not usually found in<br />
wooded habitats. The impacts of edge management on these populations <strong>and</strong> their ability to<br />
move from forest to crop have to be investigated in the future. These results offer new insights<br />
for pest regulation through l<strong>and</strong>scape management, particularly by pointing the forest edges as<br />
other important l<strong>and</strong>scape elements to add to well-known set-asides <strong>and</strong> hedges in the design of<br />
semi-natural element network in agricultural l<strong>and</strong>scapes (Russel, 1989; L<strong>and</strong>is et al., 2000; Gurr<br />
et al., 2004). Undoubtedly, this 'l<strong>and</strong>scaping' management of agroecosystems will benefit from a<br />
better ecological services-based knowledge of other l<strong>and</strong>scape elements (natural grassl<strong>and</strong>s,<br />
fallows, ditch edges…) at different spatial scales, <strong>and</strong> a better integration of this knowledge in<br />
crop management.<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
A. Ouin et al. 2010. Do wooded elements in agricultural l<strong>and</strong>scape contribute to biological control in crops<br />
727<br />
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Thomas, M. B., Wratten, S. D. & Sotherton N. W., 1992. Creation of “Isl<strong>and</strong>” habitats in<br />
farml<strong>and</strong> to manipulate populations of beneficial arthropods: predator densities <strong>and</strong><br />
species composition. J. Appl. Ecol., 29: 524-531.<br />
Tscharntke T. & Kruess, A., 1999. Habitat fragmentation <strong>and</strong> biological control. In Theoretical<br />
Approaches to Biological Control , Hawkins B.A. & Cornell H.V. (Eds), Cambridge<br />
University Press, Cambridge, 190-205.<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
A. Ouin et al. 2010. Do wooded elements in agricultural l<strong>and</strong>scape contribute to biological control in crops<br />
728<br />
60<br />
early average abundance of<br />
hoverflies (eggs+larvae)<br />
50<br />
40<br />
30<br />
20<br />
10<br />
0<br />
2003 2004 2005 2006 2007<br />
Year<br />
Wooded l<strong>and</strong>scape<br />
Less wooded l<strong>and</strong>scape<br />
Figure 1: Early average abundance (the first four records) of hoverflies in wheat fields in wooded <strong>and</strong> less<br />
wooded l<strong>and</strong>scapes during the five years.<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> species (n=707, s=3)<br />
Generalist species (n=710, s=12)<br />
Open habitat species (n=324, s=21)<br />
0 10 20 30 40 50<br />
0 10 20 30 40 50<br />
0 10 20 30 40 50<br />
Edge Intermediate Center<br />
Edge Intermediate Center<br />
Edge Intermediate Center<br />
Figure 2 : Density of overwintering ground beetles (number of individuals per square meter) in the edge,<br />
intermediate area <strong>and</strong> center of a woodlot, according to habitat preference of the adults. The extent of the<br />
boxes represents the first <strong>and</strong> third quantiles, the bold trait is the median.<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
From ab<strong>and</strong>oned farml<strong>and</strong> to self-sustaining forests:<br />
challenges <strong>and</strong> solution
C. Estreguil & G. Caudullo 2010. Harmonized measurements of spatial pattern <strong>and</strong> connectivity<br />
730<br />
Harmonized measurements of spatial pattern <strong>and</strong> connectivity:<br />
application to forest habitats in the EBONE European Project<br />
Christine Estreguil * & Giovanni Caudullo<br />
Joint Research Centre of the European Commission<br />
Institute for Environment <strong>and</strong> Sustainability<br />
T.P.261, Via Enrico Fermi 1, 21020 Ispra (VA), Italy<br />
Abstract<br />
Within the EBONE European project (“European Biodiversity Observation NEtwork”), finegrained<br />
maps of harmonized “General Habitat Categories” are available for sixty 1 km 2 samples<br />
located in Austria, Sweden <strong>and</strong> France. Three methods were proposed to map <strong>and</strong> assess<br />
automatically the spatial pattern <strong>and</strong> connectivity of habitats. They were demonstrated for forest<br />
phanerophytes habitats. <strong>Forest</strong> spatial pattern maps were obtained from mathematical<br />
morphology (GUIDOS freeware applying a 25 m edge size) to discriminate core forest, their<br />
boundaries, connectors between core areas <strong>and</strong> islets as small non-core elements. L<strong>and</strong>scape<br />
pattern mosaic maps were generated with a L<strong>and</strong>scape Mosaic Index to characterize the forest<br />
surroundings in a disk of 25 m radius. The two pattern maps were overlaid. A “Similarity”<br />
index was proposed to assess the pre-dominance of natural habitats (thus a similar/permeable<br />
forest – non forest interface) <strong>and</strong> of anthropogenic habitats (possibly fragmentation due to<br />
cultivated or artificial l<strong>and</strong> use) in the context of the forest boundaries, connectors <strong>and</strong> islets.<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> interior areas were delineated with edge sizes depending on the similarity with their<br />
adjacent habitats. Finally, two forest connectivity indices (one with CONEFOR freeware) were<br />
computed for species with 500m dispersal capabilities on the basis of habitat availability, matrix<br />
permeability <strong>and</strong> inter-patch least-cost distances. The two indices were compared.<br />
Keywords: spatial pattern, connectivity, forest habitat, European reporting<br />
1. Introduction<br />
The European EBONE project (European Biodiversity Observation Network,<br />
http://www.ebone.wur.nl/UK) aims at European-wide habitat mapping, the delivery of habitat<br />
area estimates <strong>and</strong> the characterization of l<strong>and</strong>scape level habitat pattern, fragmentation <strong>and</strong><br />
connectivity as it is requested in the SEBI 2010 process (Streamlining European 2010<br />
Biodiversity Indicators). Methodologies should be st<strong>and</strong>ardized <strong>and</strong> easily repeatable across<br />
scales, using existing capabilities from national/regional habitat monitoring programmes.<br />
Reporting is expected using the thirteen environmental zones from the European Environmental<br />
Stratification (Metzger et al., 2005) based on climatic <strong>and</strong> topographic data at a 1 km 2 resolution.<br />
The EBONE in-situ database offers harmonized habitat field based maps (seamless vector layer<br />
with 400 m 2 Minimum Mapping Unit) over several 1km 2 samples thanks to the currently ongoing<br />
conversion of national data into the common BioHab General Habitat Categories (GHCs,<br />
Bunce et al., 2005 - figure 1). GHCs are organized in 5 super-categories i.e. whether the l<strong>and</strong><br />
surface element is ‘Urban’, ‘Cultivated’, ‘Sparsely Vegetated’ (vegetation cover below 30%),<br />
* Corresponding author. Tel.: +39 0332 785422 - Fax: +39 0332 786165<br />
Email address: christine.estreguil@jrc.ec.europa.eu<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
C. Estreguil & G. Caudullo 2010. Harmonized measurements of spatial pattern <strong>and</strong> connectivity<br />
731<br />
‘Herbaceous’, ‘Trees or Shrubs’. Each element is described according to 16 life forms based on<br />
plant structural characteristics like plant height <strong>and</strong> leaf retention division. For example,<br />
phanerophytes are classified as forest when above 5 m height.<br />
For this study, available samples including forest phanerophytes were 16 in Sweden (NILS:<br />
National Inventory of <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> http://nils.slu.se), 39 in Austria (SINUS: Spatial INdices for<br />
l<strong>and</strong>-Use Sustainability), <strong>and</strong> 11 in the French Provence Cote d’Azur (PACA) region (Figure1).<br />
DESCRIPTION<br />
CODES<br />
Austria<br />
France<br />
Sweden<br />
URBAN<br />
Artificial (buildings) URB/ART X X<br />
Non vegetated URB/NON X X<br />
Vegetable gardens URB/VEG X X X<br />
Herbaceous (garden, parks) URB/GRA X X<br />
Woddy (garden tree/shrubs) URB/TRE X<br />
CULTIVATED<br />
Herbaceous crops CUL/CRO X X X<br />
Bare ground CUL/SPA X<br />
Woody crops CUL/WOC X X<br />
HERBACEOUS<br />
Leafy Hemicryptophytes HER/LHE X X X<br />
Caespitose Hemicryptophytes HER/CHE X X<br />
Cryptogams HER/CRY X<br />
Helophytes HER/HEL X<br />
Therophytes HER/THE X<br />
TREES/SHRUBS<br />
Shrubby chamaephytes TRS/SCH X<br />
Low Phanerophytes evergreen TRS/LPH X<br />
Mid Phanerophytes TRS/MPH X X<br />
Tall Phanerophytes TRS/TPH X X<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> Phanerophytes TRS/FPH X X X<br />
SPARSELY VEGETATED<br />
Aquatic SPV/AQU X X<br />
Terrestrial SPV/TER X X<br />
UNCLASSIFIED INA X<br />
Figure 1: General Habitat Categories from the available 1km 2 samples per country (left) <strong>and</strong> localization<br />
of the samples (red dots) per environmental zones (right)<br />
Available definitions of habitat pattern are first based on l<strong>and</strong>scape structure <strong>and</strong> further refined<br />
by considering organisms’ behavioral responses to the l<strong>and</strong>scape:<br />
1. The l<strong>and</strong>scape level spatial pattern of a habitat simply refers to the spatial arrangement<br />
or configuration of this habitat across the l<strong>and</strong>scape.<br />
2. Fragmentation refers to the entire process of habitat loss <strong>and</strong> isolation. Isolation means<br />
lack of connectivity <strong>and</strong> is more complicated than simple distance.<br />
3. Connectivity refers to the “degree to which the l<strong>and</strong>scape facilitates or impedes<br />
movement of organisms among resource patches”. It depends on habitat availability<br />
<strong>and</strong> spatial distribution, species’ dispersal abilities <strong>and</strong> response to the nature of the<br />
matrix.<br />
From literature on forest fragmentation, interior forest habitats are remnant minus an edge of a<br />
certain width. They retain similar abiotic <strong>and</strong> biotic conditions to pre-fragmented conditions <strong>and</strong><br />
do not experience strong influences from neighboring patches of other l<strong>and</strong> cover categories.<br />
The width of recently exposed edges, measured by two tree heights, could range from 20 m to<br />
160 m. Adjacent l<strong>and</strong> cover types possibly influence the development of the forest edge<br />
communities <strong>and</strong> interior habitat. Depending on their similarity to the forest habitats, interfaces<br />
are more or less permeable. In temperate regions, shift in l<strong>and</strong> uses at forest edges may be more<br />
important than direct forest loss. <strong>Forest</strong>s fragmented by anthropogenic sources are intuitively<br />
more vulnerable to further fragmentation than forest fragmented by natural causes.<br />
2. Methodology<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
C. Estreguil & G. Caudullo 2010. Harmonized measurements of spatial pattern <strong>and</strong> connectivity<br />
732<br />
Three available methods are tested to characterize spatial pattern <strong>and</strong> functional connectivity for<br />
a focal habitat class <strong>and</strong> demonstrated for the focal forest phanerophytes (FPH) habitat class.<br />
2.1 Morphological Spatial Pattern Analysis (MSPA)<br />
The spatial pattern of a focal habitat class can be automatically characterized <strong>and</strong> mapped at<br />
pixel level thanks to mathematical morphology using the freeware called GUIDOS (Soille <strong>and</strong><br />
Vogt, 2009). Seven mutually exclusive pattern classes are obtained by segmenting a binary<br />
raster map (1: foreground/focal class <strong>and</strong> 0: background):<br />
1. ‘Core’: foreground pixels beyond a distance of a given size s to the background; s is the only<br />
entry parameter of the method; the input map is eroded with a Euclidian disk of radius equal to s.<br />
2. ‘Islet’: foreground pixels that do not contain any core.<br />
3. Boundary ‘Edge of core’: outer boundary pixels of a cluster of core pixels.<br />
4. Boundary ‘Edge of perforation’: inner boundary pixels of a cluster of core pixels when<br />
perforated by background pixels (like ‘holes’ inside a foreground region)<br />
5. Boundary ‘Branch’: foreground pixels with no core that is connected at one end only to a<br />
connector, an edge of core or an edge of perforation.<br />
6,7. ‘Connector’: foreground pixels with no core that connects at least two different core units<br />
(bridge) or connects to the same core unit (loop).<br />
2.2 L<strong>and</strong>scape mosaic index<br />
The l<strong>and</strong>scape context of a focal habitat class can be characterized in a Geographic Information<br />
System by applying a l<strong>and</strong>scape mosaic index (Riitters et al., 2009) on a 3-dimensional raster<br />
input map (for example, natural, agricultural <strong>and</strong> urban). L<strong>and</strong>scape pattern types are defined by<br />
placing a "window" on each pixel of the input map, calculating the proportion of the three<br />
classes within the window, <strong>and</strong> putting the result on a new map at the same location. This new<br />
map has fifteen l<strong>and</strong>scape pattern categories (see Figure 2) <strong>and</strong> the l<strong>and</strong>scape mosaic pattern<br />
map of the focal class is obtained by masking all non-focal classes. The “window” will be a<br />
Euclidian disk of radius s, like in the MSPA method, to further overlay the two pattern maps.<br />
Figure 2: the fifteen l<strong>and</strong>scape pattern types derived with the l<strong>and</strong>scape mosaic index<br />
The MSPA <strong>and</strong> the l<strong>and</strong>scape mosaic pattern maps will then be overlaid to provide the<br />
l<strong>and</strong>scape context composition in terms of mosaic pattern types for each non-core MSPA class<br />
(boundary, connector, <strong>and</strong> islet). A new “similarity” index (SI) is proposed to translate the<br />
anthropogenic or natural dominance in the surroundings. When the mosaic pattern is NN <strong>and</strong><br />
the focal class forest, the context is similarly 100% natural, possibly permeable <strong>and</strong> most<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
C. Estreguil & G. Caudullo 2010. Harmonized measurements of spatial pattern <strong>and</strong> connectivity<br />
733<br />
probably due to natural fragmentation causes. Anthropogenic fragmentation causes in predominant<br />
natural context are pointed at by using patterns N or (Nu, Nua, Na) in the formula.<br />
( MosaicPattern)<br />
MSPAClass<br />
SI ( MosaicPattern)<br />
MSPA Class<br />
= (1)<br />
MSPAClass<br />
“Interior” areas are delineated as core areas plus the NN part of the MSPA boundary edge.<br />
2.3 Connectivity assessment<br />
The Probability of Connectivity (PC) index for a focal class, calculated with the software<br />
Conefor Sensinode (Saura <strong>and</strong> Torne, 2009 at http://www.conefor.org), is based on topology<br />
(inter-patch distances), patch attributes like area <strong>and</strong> species specific dispersal ability. PC will<br />
be processed with the probability of dispersal, being a decreasing exponential function of the<br />
effective distance, matching to a 50% probability for a specific average dispersal distance. The<br />
effective distance is a value of movement cost through different habitats that is obtained through<br />
least-cost path algorithms, thus considering the l<strong>and</strong>scape permeability between the focal<br />
patches. PC has a bounded range of variation from 0 to 1. The cost distance matching the 50%<br />
probability (p = 0.5, cost d50% ) corresponds to the average dispersal distance (d 50% ) multiplied by<br />
the average friction per distance unit (avg_f). The average friction is set at half a logarithmic<br />
scale of frictions, being from 1 to 10,000 (avg_f = 100). PC is made comparable to the available<br />
habitat in the total l<strong>and</strong>scape area, by computing its square root (RPC).<br />
n<br />
n<br />
∑∑<br />
i= 1 j=<br />
1<br />
a ⋅ a ⋅ p<br />
i<br />
PC = (2)<br />
A<br />
2<br />
L<br />
RPC= PC (2bis)<br />
j<br />
ij<br />
with:<br />
a i a j = area of patches<br />
ln(0.5)<br />
A L = total l<strong>and</strong>scape area<br />
k =<br />
cost<br />
p ij = e k • costij d 50%<br />
cost d50% = avg_f • d 50%<br />
Another index, adapted from Hanski (1994), called Isolation Sensitive Index (IsoSi) is proposed.<br />
It is similar to PC but accounts for solely the arrival patch area size for each pair of patches. The<br />
l<strong>and</strong>scape area (A L ) <strong>and</strong> the number of links (node to node) are used for normalization purposes.<br />
IsoSi<br />
=<br />
A<br />
n<br />
∑<br />
L<br />
a ⋅ p<br />
i<br />
i≠<br />
j,i=<br />
1<br />
ij<br />
⋅ (n−1)<br />
(3)<br />
with:<br />
n = number of patches (nodes)<br />
3. Result <strong>and</strong> discussion<br />
3.1 Pattern characterization based on MSPA <strong>and</strong> l<strong>and</strong>scape mosaic index<br />
First, the GHCs vector maps of all available samples (figure 1) were rasterised at 1 m spatial<br />
resolution, re-classified into forest phanerophytes (FPH)-non forest <strong>and</strong> processed with<br />
GUIDOS using a narrow forest edge width (s equal to 25 m). The local morphology of the FPH<br />
habitat cover was mapped according to 4 main pattern classes (upper figure 3) <strong>and</strong> their forest<br />
area share (figure 4 left) was calculated: core, boundary (edges of core, perforation <strong>and</strong> branch),<br />
connector (bridge <strong>and</strong> loop) <strong>and</strong> islet.<br />
Second, the GHCs 1 m raster maps were re-classified into natural (TRS, HER, SPV), cultivated<br />
(CUL) <strong>and</strong> urban (URB) habitat types (figure 1). The fifteen l<strong>and</strong>scape pattern types were<br />
mapped by applying the mosaic index using a 25 m radius disk. The non-FPH classes were<br />
masked. The l<strong>and</strong>scape context map of FPH habitats enables to visualize <strong>and</strong> characterize FPH<br />
interface zones (NN discriminated from Nu for example) (figure 3 bottom), <strong>and</strong> compute forest<br />
proportion of the 4 main l<strong>and</strong>scape FPH pattern types for each available sample (figure 4, right):<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
C. Estreguil & G. Caudullo 2010. Harmonized measurements of spatial pattern <strong>and</strong> connectivity<br />
734<br />
- Two natural forest l<strong>and</strong>scape patterns where FPH habitats have no (NN) or not significant (N)<br />
edge shared with cultivated <strong>and</strong>/or artificial habitats, interface zones are possibly permeable.<br />
- Mixed natural forest l<strong>and</strong>scape pattern (Nu, Nua, Na) where FPH habitats have possibly less<br />
permeable interfaces as being adjacent with cultivated <strong>and</strong> urban types of habitats<br />
- “Some natural” forest l<strong>and</strong>scape (all others) where FPH habitats are pre-dominantly embedded<br />
in non-natural context of cultivated <strong>and</strong> urban types of habitats.<br />
Figure 3: Example of two samples in Austria: <strong>Forest</strong> MSPA (upper) <strong>and</strong> l<strong>and</strong>scape mosaic (bottom) maps<br />
MSPA<br />
Core<br />
Connector<br />
Boundary<br />
Islet<br />
Mosaic<br />
Natural NN<br />
Mixed natural<br />
Natural N<br />
Some natural<br />
100%<br />
100%<br />
90%<br />
90%<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> proportion of MSPA classes<br />
80%<br />
70%<br />
60%<br />
50%<br />
40%<br />
30%<br />
20%<br />
10%<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> proportion of Mosaic classes<br />
80%<br />
70%<br />
60%<br />
50%<br />
40%<br />
30%<br />
20%<br />
10%<br />
0%<br />
0%<br />
au113<br />
au331<br />
au113<br />
au331<br />
Figure 4: MSPA <strong>and</strong> l<strong>and</strong>scape mosaic class proportion for the same two samples in Austria<br />
The MSPA <strong>and</strong> the mosaic pattern maps were overlaid to compute the Similarity Index for noncore<br />
MSPA classes, <strong>and</strong> delineate “interior” forest areas which edge width depends on adjacent<br />
habitats. <strong>Forest</strong> proportion of “interior” <strong>and</strong> core areas can be compared in table 1 for two<br />
samples with different permeable boundary contexts as illustrated by the proportion of NN in<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
C. Estreguil & G. Caudullo 2010. Harmonized measurements of spatial pattern <strong>and</strong> connectivity<br />
735<br />
the boundary MSPA class (SI (NN) Boundary ). Also, boundaries are more exposed to anthropogenic<br />
fragmentation in pre-dominant natural context (SI(NuaNaNu) Boundary ) in the less permeable Au113.<br />
Table 1: <strong>Forest</strong> (FPH) proportion of “interior” <strong>and</strong> Core area, <strong>and</strong> the Similarity Index applied to<br />
boundaries in two samples in Austria (Continental zone).<br />
Samples Id Core FPH Interior FPH SI (NN) Boundary SI (NuaNaNu) Boundary SI (some nat.) Boundary<br />
Au113 40.1% 43.5% 18.6% 36.7% 6.4%<br />
Au331 26.5% 41.3% 58.9% 13.7% 3.6%<br />
3.2 Connectivity<br />
Connectivity indices PC, RPC <strong>and</strong> IsoSi were calculated for species dispersing at 500 m average<br />
dispersal distance. Costs of movement (friction) were assigned to every habitat types using a<br />
logarithmic increment values from FPH (lowest friction 1) to urban habitats (highest friction<br />
10.000). The parameter cost d50% was 50.000. RPC <strong>and</strong> IsoSi behaved differently (see Table 2<br />
with the sample Au113 with fewer nodes <strong>and</strong> a less permeable context than the sample Au331).<br />
Table 2: Connectivity indices in two different spatial configurations <strong>and</strong> permeability contexts<br />
Samples Id FPH area % Nodes number PC RPC IsoSi<br />
Au113 63 % 33 35 % 59 % 50%<br />
Au331 57 % 85 31 % 56 % 55%<br />
IsoSi is more sensitive to the inter-patch l<strong>and</strong>scape matrix permeability, possible barrier effects<br />
<strong>and</strong> is thus more focused on the probability of species movement. This was expected since the<br />
weight for areas (intra-patch) is the same than p ij while it is double in the PC (<strong>and</strong> RPC) index.<br />
In contrast, PC (<strong>and</strong> RPC) reacts better to habitat availability (its intra <strong>and</strong> inter-connectivity).<br />
Are the two indices necessary to correctly describe l<strong>and</strong>scape connectivity <strong>and</strong> its permeability<br />
How sensitive a connectivity index should be to the matrix permeability More research needed.<br />
4. Conclusions<br />
For all sample, harmonized pattern <strong>and</strong> connectivity maps <strong>and</strong> tabular data were organized per<br />
environmental zone. They will be incorporated into the EBONE data management structure<br />
prototype to be ready at the end of the project (2012). The methods here proposed are currently<br />
repeated over the available Earth Observation based l<strong>and</strong> cover maps to prepare the integration<br />
of EO based <strong>and</strong> in situ habitat pattern assessment in the view of extending the geographical<br />
extent of habitat pattern/connectivity information available for biodiversity assessment<br />
(Estreguil <strong>and</strong> Mouton 2009).<br />
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Ecology <strong>and</strong> Biogeography. 14: 549-563.<br />
Riitters K.H., Wickham J.D. <strong>and</strong> Wade T.G., 2009. An indicator of forest dynamics using a<br />
shifting l<strong>and</strong>scape mosaic. Ecological Indicators 9:107-117<br />
Saura, S., Torne´J. , 2009. Conefor Sensinode 2.2: A software package for quantifying the<br />
importance of habitat patches for l<strong>and</strong>scape connectivity, Environ. Model. Softw. (2008),<br />
doi:10.1016/j.envsoft.2008.05.005.<br />
Soille <strong>and</strong> Vogt, 2009. Morphological segmentation of binary patterns. Patterns Recognition<br />
Letters. doi:10.1016/j.patrec.2008.10.015<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
J.M. Rey Benayas 2010. Restoration of biodiversity <strong>and</strong> ecosystem services in cropl<strong>and</strong><br />
736<br />
Restoration of biodiversity <strong>and</strong> ecosystem services in cropl<strong>and</strong>.<br />
Further research is needed but action is desperately needed<br />
José M. Rey Benayas *<br />
Dpto. de Ecología, Universidad de Alcalá, Spain<br />
Abstract<br />
Farml<strong>and</strong> currently extends on more than 40% of the l<strong>and</strong>’s surface. Secondary succession on<br />
ab<strong>and</strong>oned agricultural l<strong>and</strong> is often slow owing to biotic <strong>and</strong> abiotic limitations as it occurs in<br />
e.g. Mediterranean environments. Tree plantations can be expensive if large areas are to be<br />
restored <strong>and</strong> they are often controversial because they negatively impact on species of<br />
conservation concern. We suggest “woodl<strong>and</strong> islets” as an alternative approach to designing<br />
ecological restoration in extensive agricultural l<strong>and</strong>scapes. This approach allows conciliate<br />
farml<strong>and</strong> production, conservation of values linked to cultural l<strong>and</strong>scapes, enhancement of<br />
biodiversity <strong>and</strong> provision of a range of ecosystem services. If “further research is needed”,<br />
“action is desperately needed”. The International Foundation for Ecosystem Restoration is<br />
developing the “Islets <strong>and</strong> coasts in agricultural seas” Initiative to implement demonstration<br />
projects of conciliation of farml<strong>and</strong> production <strong>and</strong> enhancement of biodiversity <strong>and</strong> ecosystem<br />
services. The implemented restoration actions intended to “renaturalize” agricultural l<strong>and</strong>scapes<br />
are accompanied by a variety of social <strong>and</strong> educational values including citizen science.<br />
Keywords: conciliation, ecological <strong>and</strong> societal benefits, secondary succession, tree plantations,<br />
woodl<strong>and</strong> islets<br />
1. Introduction<br />
Human cultural evolution has left an unprecedented ecological footprint on Earth, so as to affect<br />
currently about 80% of the planet’s surface. This implies large losses of biodiversity <strong>and</strong> of the<br />
variety, amount <strong>and</strong> quality of ecosystem services, which compromises the sustainability of ecosociological<br />
systems (Ostrom 2009). Unfortunately, predictions suggest that the ecological<br />
human footprint will exp<strong>and</strong> in the future (Hockley et al. 2008). A large part of global<br />
environmental degradation is due to the expansion of the agricultural <strong>and</strong> livestock boundary in<br />
most parts of the world together with agricultural intensification. Currently, agricultural l<strong>and</strong>s<br />
<strong>and</strong> pasturel<strong>and</strong>s make up over 40% of the terrestrial surface, in detriment of natural vegetation<br />
cover (Foley et al. 2005). On the contrary, large extents of agricultural l<strong>and</strong> <strong>and</strong> pastures have<br />
been ab<strong>and</strong>oned over the last few decades for economic reasons. Any event that spurs an either<br />
“positive” or “negative” effect in these systems can have a relevant ecological <strong>and</strong> socioeconomic<br />
impact.<br />
Ecological restoration aims to recover, at least partially, the characteristics of an ecosystem,<br />
such as its biodiversity <strong>and</strong> function, before degradation or destruction occurred, generally as a<br />
result of human activities (Rey Benayas et al. 2009). Restoration ecology actions have been<br />
increasingly implemented, supported by agreements by global politicians such as the<br />
* Corresponding author. Tel.: +34 91 885 4987 - Fax: +34 91 885 4929<br />
Email address: josem.rey@uah.es<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
J.M. Rey Benayas 2010. Restoration of biodiversity <strong>and</strong> ecosystem services in cropl<strong>and</strong><br />
737<br />
Convention for Biological Diversity <strong>and</strong> the sustained global biodiversity crisis (Sutherl<strong>and</strong> et al.<br />
2009). The scientific community must search for ecological restoration protocols <strong>and</strong> models<br />
that allow a synergy between the exploitation of ecosystems <strong>and</strong> nature conservation, which will<br />
in turn improve the sustainability of systems for the exploitation of natural resources.<br />
2. The agriculture <strong>and</strong> conservation paradox<br />
Few human activities are as paradoxical as agriculture in terms of their role for nature<br />
conservation. On one side, agricultural activities are the main cause of deforestation worldwide,<br />
which has occurred at an estimated global rate of 130,000 km 2 per year over the last five years<br />
(FAO 2006). Traditional agriculture allowed remnants of natural vegetation to remain on steep<br />
hillsides, valleys, rocky outcrops, shallow soils, saline <strong>and</strong> infertile areas, property boundaries<br />
<strong>and</strong> track edges. In recent history farming practices in many areas have become intensified, <strong>and</strong><br />
increasing amounts of water, fuel, fertilizers, pesticides, <strong>and</strong> herbicides are used worldwide to<br />
increase food <strong>and</strong> fiber production. E.g., global area equipped for irrigation exp<strong>and</strong>ed by 0.3%<br />
to 280 million ha between 2004 <strong>and</strong> 2005, <strong>and</strong> at present irrigated area accounts for ca. 20% of<br />
cultivated l<strong>and</strong>. Intensification of l<strong>and</strong> use has brought remnant areas of natural vegetation into<br />
mainstream agriculture <strong>and</strong> many such areas have been lost or severely degraded. The<br />
conversion of natural ecosystems to human l<strong>and</strong>-uses seems to have ensured our food supplies<br />
at a global scale. However, food security has damaged the regulation function of ecosystems.<br />
Whereas the provision of environmental services such as crops <strong>and</strong> livestock production have<br />
increased, hydrological <strong>and</strong> climate regulation, soil retention, <strong>and</strong> greenhouse gas mitigation<br />
have decreased as a consequence of overall degradation of ecosystem services by 60% in the<br />
last 50 years (Millenium Ecosystem Assessment 2005).<br />
However, deforested habitats as a result of agricultural activities have been often granted a<br />
relevant role in nature conservation (Kleijn et al. 2006). Thus, of the seven main categories of<br />
terrestrial habitats in the EU Habitats Directive, four include agricultural <strong>and</strong> livestock l<strong>and</strong> uses<br />
(pastures, scrub, “dehesas” <strong>and</strong> “montados”, etc.). Several species, some of them endangered,<br />
especially birds, depend on agrarian systems (http://www.birdlife.org/). Agricultural<br />
intensification can have a negative impact on these values, but so can agricultural<br />
ab<strong>and</strong>onment <strong>and</strong>, particularly, afforestation of former cropl<strong>and</strong>. It seems that<br />
agriculture, woodl<strong>and</strong>, <strong>and</strong> biological conservation are in a permanent <strong>and</strong> irreconcilable<br />
conflict, the agriculture <strong>and</strong> conservation paradox. This creates a dilemma in woodl<strong>and</strong><br />
restoration projects, which can only be resolved by considering the relative values<br />
associated with woodl<strong>and</strong> vs. agricultural ecosystems. Can we solve this dilemma<br />
3. Contrasting approaches for vegetation restoration in ab<strong>and</strong>oned cropl<strong>and</strong><br />
Ab<strong>and</strong>oned agricultural l<strong>and</strong>, i.e. cropl<strong>and</strong> <strong>and</strong> pastures where extensive livestock farming has<br />
been removed, can be subject of secondary succession or passive vegetation restoration.<br />
Worldwide, l<strong>and</strong> ab<strong>and</strong>onment <strong>and</strong> passive restoration have revegetated a greater surface area<br />
<strong>and</strong> at a smaller cost than active restoration (45,000 Km 2 /year vs. 28,000 Km 2 /year, respectively,<br />
in 2000-2005; in Europe, agricultural l<strong>and</strong> area have declined by ca. 13% between 1961 <strong>and</strong><br />
2000). Passive restoration is cheap <strong>and</strong> genuine since all ecological filters are at play, It is<br />
generally fast in productive environments, but usually slow in low productivity environments<br />
such as the Mediterranean. This is because woody vegetation establishment is limited, since<br />
conditions in bare areas are different to those of places where trees <strong>and</strong> shrubs regenerate<br />
naturally (Rey Benayas et al. 2005). A key bottle-neck that hinders revegetation is lack of<br />
propagules due to absence of mother trees <strong>and</strong> shrubs due to complete destruction of the original<br />
vegetation.<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
J.M. Rey Benayas 2010. Restoration of biodiversity <strong>and</strong> ecosystem services in cropl<strong>and</strong><br />
738<br />
Active restoration basically consists in planting trees <strong>and</strong> shrubs. It is needed when ab<strong>and</strong>oned<br />
l<strong>and</strong> suffers continuos degradation, local vegetation cover cannot be recovered <strong>and</strong> secondary<br />
succession should be accelerated, among others. The European Union has paid farmers for<br />
afforestation since 1990, offering grants to turn farml<strong>and</strong> back into forest <strong>and</strong> payments for the<br />
management of such forest. Between 1993 <strong>and</strong> 1997, EU afforestation policies made possible<br />
the afforestation of over 5,000 Km 2 of l<strong>and</strong>. A second program, running between 2000 <strong>and</strong> 2006,<br />
afforested in excess of ca. 1,000 Km 2 of l<strong>and</strong>. A third such program began in 2007. Much of the<br />
forthcoming afforested l<strong>and</strong> will occur in former vineyards that occupied ca. 3.4 million<br />
hectares in the EU-25 by 2006. In Spain, during the first five years of the 2000 decade, the<br />
recovery of forests has reached 152,400 ha/year, of which 16% are plantations (FAO 2006). On<br />
top of this, 700,000 ha were reforested during 1993-2006 thanks to the incentives of the<br />
Common Agricultural Policy of the European Union. This amount of reforested agricultural<br />
l<strong>and</strong> will increase as removal of vineyards is intended to be 175,000 ha in the 2008-2011 period,<br />
44,090 of which have already been extirpated in 2008-2009.<br />
Most afforestations of former cropl<strong>and</strong> in Mediterranean Europe has based on coniferous<br />
species, though other species such as eucalyptus <strong>and</strong> oaks have been used. There is debate about<br />
the ecological benefits of these afforestations, some of which are controversial. The trade-off<br />
among different types of ecosystem services <strong>and</strong> biodiversity values is at the core of such debate.<br />
For instance, the fast-growing plantations are better for carbon sequestration per time unit than<br />
secondary succession of shrubl<strong>and</strong> <strong>and</strong> woodl<strong>and</strong>, <strong>and</strong> they may provide timber in the future.<br />
However, they may cause damage to open habitat species, especially birds which are of<br />
conservation concern in Europe, by substracting amount of high quality habitat <strong>and</strong> increasing<br />
risk of predation. Further, these plantations have been shown to be suitable habitats just for<br />
generalist forest birds but not for specialist forest birds (Rey Benayas et al. 2010a).<br />
4. Innovating vegetation restoration in agricultural l<strong>and</strong>scapes<br />
The reconstruction of vegetation in a l<strong>and</strong>scape (“where <strong>and</strong> when to revegetate”) is an issue<br />
that deserves to become a research priority (Munro et al. 2009). The problems with existing<br />
methods to restore woodl<strong>and</strong>s in agricultural l<strong>and</strong>scapes should not give rise to pessimism, but<br />
instead inspire researchers to devise new creative solutions. A realistic view of conservation<br />
must acknowledge the conservation value of the agricultural matrix in forest l<strong>and</strong>scapes. A<br />
focus on the matrix is required if we are serious about solving the biodiversity crisis, <strong>and</strong> that<br />
matrix is usually an agro-ecosystem of some sort (V<strong>and</strong>ermeer <strong>and</strong> Perfecto 2007). Thus, agrosuccessional<br />
restoration schemes are proposed, which include agroecological <strong>and</strong> agroforestry<br />
techniques as a step prior to forest restoration (Vieira et al. 2009).<br />
We suggest a different concept for designing restoration of forest ecosystems on agricultural<br />
l<strong>and</strong>, which uses small-scale active restoration as a driver for passive restoration over much<br />
larger areas. This could increase the economic feasibility of large-scale restoration projects <strong>and</strong><br />
facilitate the involvement of local human communities in the restoration process. Establishment<br />
of “woodl<strong>and</strong> islets” is an approach to designing restoration of woodl<strong>and</strong>s in extensive<br />
agricultural l<strong>and</strong>scapes where no remnants of native natural vegetation exist (Rey Benayas et al.<br />
2008). Whereas passive restoration leaves reforestation to chance <strong>and</strong> active restoration usually<br />
requires a large input of resources, the woodl<strong>and</strong> islets approach provides an intermediate<br />
degree of intervention. It allows direction of secondary succession by establishing small<br />
colonisation foci, while using a fraction of the resources required for large-scale reforestation. In<br />
addition it maintains flexibility of l<strong>and</strong> use, which is critical in agricultural l<strong>and</strong>scapes where<br />
l<strong>and</strong> use is subject to a number of fluctuating policy <strong>and</strong> economic drivers. The approach<br />
involves planting a number of small (some tens or a few hundreds of m 2 ), densely-planted (e.g.<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
J.M. Rey Benayas 2010. Restoration of biodiversity <strong>and</strong> ecosystem services in cropl<strong>and</strong><br />
739<br />
one introduced seedling per 2 m 2 ), <strong>and</strong> sparse (some tens or hundreds of m apart) blocks of<br />
native trees within agricultural l<strong>and</strong> that together occupy a tiny fraction of the area of target l<strong>and</strong><br />
to be restored, e.g.
J.M. Rey Benayas 2010. Restoration of biodiversity <strong>and</strong> ecosystem services in cropl<strong>and</strong><br />
740<br />
other benefits than production, such benefits are the primary objective of the woodl<strong>and</strong> islets<br />
approach. A key distinction is the l<strong>and</strong>scape emphasis on a planned planting of islets to<br />
maximise benefits to biodiversity, <strong>and</strong> the potential of allowing the islets to form foci for largerscale<br />
reforestation of intervening l<strong>and</strong>. Furthermore, if the surrounding l<strong>and</strong> is to be farmed, its<br />
management can be designed to make use of the ecosystem services provided by the islets.<br />
5. Action is desperately needed<br />
We have been running research on the woodl<strong>and</strong> islets approach since 1993. As researchers, we<br />
have produced a number of publications that illustrate observations, patterns, processes,<br />
hypotheses, etc. for particular case studies. In most of our publications, as it usually occurs in<br />
the scientific literature, we mention that “further research is needed” to tight up popping up<br />
issues. It is certainly our responsibility as academia professionals to research further but, in my<br />
view, we must transfer as well the created knowledge to projects in the real world.<br />
To target this aim, the International Foundation for Ecosystem Restoration<br />
(www.fundacionfire.org) is developing the “Islets <strong>and</strong> coasts in agricultural seas” Initiative to<br />
implement demonstration projects of conciliation of farml<strong>and</strong> production <strong>and</strong> enhancement of<br />
biodiversity <strong>and</strong> ecosystem services. Restoration actions in these projects include the following.<br />
• Introduction of woodl<strong>and</strong> islets of native plant species as explained above.<br />
• Revegetation of field boundaries <strong>and</strong> way sides (“coasts” in the agricultural “seas”).<br />
• Rehabilitation <strong>and</strong> construction of water spots (ponds, springs, drinking troughs), which<br />
are of critical importance for wildlife, especially for amphibians.<br />
• Installation of nest boxes for birds, particularly those that are useful to farmers<br />
(insectivorous birds, raptors). The young pine plantations on afforested former cropl<strong>and</strong><br />
are suitable habitats for this action.<br />
• Installation of perches for birds in ab<strong>and</strong>oned cropl<strong>and</strong> to enhance seed rain on them.<br />
• Rehabilitation <strong>and</strong> construction of stone mounds <strong>and</strong> walls, as well as constructions of<br />
rural architecture.<br />
• Propagation <strong>and</strong> plantation of singular fruit trees, i.e. old <strong>and</strong> healthy fruit trees of local<br />
varieties that are rapidly going extinct. We use the propagated trees for their plantation<br />
in restored cropl<strong>and</strong> <strong>and</strong> for creating a genetic reserve.<br />
• Plantation of olive groves for CO 2 emission compensation, where we implement the<br />
actions above.<br />
The implemented restoration actions intended to “renaturalize” agricultural l<strong>and</strong>scapes are<br />
accompanied by a variety of social <strong>and</strong> educational benefits. Most work in the field is developed<br />
by volunteers as we pursue environmental education <strong>and</strong> sensibility. These volunteers derive<br />
from environmentalist <strong>and</strong> conservationist groups, schools, <strong>and</strong> companies (corporative<br />
volunteers). We are developing a program of citizen science consisting in the monitoring of<br />
introduced plants <strong>and</strong> nest boxes. Our restoration projects are visited by students from schools,<br />
universities <strong>and</strong> specialized training courses (Rey Benayas et al. 2010b). The nest boxes are<br />
built by h<strong>and</strong>icapped local people under the supervision of professional carpenters. The<br />
propagation of singular fruit trees is done by horticulture schools as well as by professional<br />
nurseries. Some restoration actions <strong>and</strong> their maintenance are contracted to local farmers.<br />
Overall, these projects are producing income <strong>and</strong> opportunities to local communities.<br />
Importantly, l<strong>and</strong> owners must be explicitly rewarded for the restoration actions occurring in<br />
their properties. Beyond the subsidies from agri-environmental schemes, other approaches such<br />
as payment for environmental services <strong>and</strong> tax deduction must be rapid <strong>and</strong> generously<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
J.M. Rey Benayas 2010. Restoration of biodiversity <strong>and</strong> ecosystem services in cropl<strong>and</strong><br />
741<br />
implemented in a time when society dem<strong>and</strong>s from agricultural l<strong>and</strong> <strong>and</strong> farmers much more<br />
than food <strong>and</strong> fiber production.<br />
Acknowledgements. I am indebted to all co-authors in my referred publications in this paper,<br />
particularly J.M. Bullock <strong>and</strong> A.C. Newton. Projects from the Spanish Ministry of Science<br />
<strong>and</strong> Education (CGL2007-60533-BOS) <strong>and</strong> the Government of Madrid (S2009AMB-<br />
1783, REMEDINAL) are currently providing financial support of this body of research.<br />
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<strong>Forest</strong> <strong>L<strong>and</strong>scapes</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation <strong>and</strong> Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.)<br />
2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
IUFRO Unit 8.01.02 L<strong>and</strong>scape Ecology<br />
CIMO - Centro de Investigação de Montanha, Portugal<br />
IPB - Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Portugal<br />
Sociedade Portuguesa de Ciências Florestais<br />
(Portuguese Society of <strong>Forest</strong> Sciences)
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