Insect-pests - Biology East Borneo

Insect Pests and Diseases 

in Indonesian Forests 

An assessment 

of the major threats, 

research efforts 

and literature 

K.S.S. Nair (Editor)


in Indonesian Forests 

AN ASSESSMENT OF THE MAJOR THREATS, 

RESEARCH EFFORTS AND LITERATURE 

Editor 

K.S.S. Nair

© 2000 by Center for International Forestry Research 

All rights reserved. Published in December 2000 

Printed by SMT Grafika Desa Putera, Indonesia 

Cover photos by Levania Santoso 

ISBN 979-8764-52-8 

Nair, K.S.S. (ed.). 2000. Insect pests and diseases in Indonesian forests: 

an assessment of the major threats, research efforts and literature. 

Center for International Forestry Research, Bogor, Indonesia. 101p. 

Published by 

Center for International Forestry Research 

Bogor, Indonesia 

P.O. Box 6596 JKPWB, Jakarta 10065, Indonesia 

Tel.: +62 (251) 622622; Fax: +62 (251) 622100 

E-mail: cifor@cgiar.org 

Web site: http://www.cifor.cgiar.org

Contents 

Acknowledgements 

Abstract 

vi 

vii 

1. Introduction 

K.S.S. Nair 

1.1. Background 1 

1.2. Objectives 1 

1.3. Methodology 2 

1.4. Presentation 2 

2. The State of the Forest and Plantation Trends 

C. Cossalter and K.S.S. Nair 

2.1. A time of change 3 

2.2. Forest types, area and policies 3 

2.3. Forest concession right and plantation development 4 

2.4. Plantation trends-areas and species 6 

2.5. Forest plantations in perspective 8 

3. General Scenario of Pests and Diseases in Natural Forests 

and Plantations in Indonesia 

K.S.S. Nair and Sumardi 

3.1. Natural forests 11 

3.2. Plantations 12 

3.3. Comparison between plantations and natural forests 12 

4. Insect Pests and Diseases of Major Plantation Species 


4.1. Acacia mangium and other Acacia spp. 15 

4.2. Agathis dammara 19 

4.3. Alstonia spp. 20 

4.4. Anthocephalus cadamba 20 

4.5. Azadirachta excelsa 21 

4.6. Dalbergia spp. 21 

4.7. Dipterocarpaceae (Dipterocarps) 22

4.8. Dyera spp. 24 

4.9. Eucalyptus spp. 24 

4.10. Eusideroxylon zwageri 26 

4.11. Gmelina arborea 26 

4.12. Gonystylus bancanus 27 

4.13. Koompassia species 28 

4.14. Maesopsis eminii 28 

4.15. Mangrove species 28 

4.16. Melaleuca cajuputi 29 

4.17. Ochroma pyramidale 30 

4.18. Octomeles sumatrana 30 

4.19. Paraserianthes falcataria 31 

4.20. Peronema canescens 33 

4.21. Pinus merkusii 33 

4.22. Schleichera oleosa 35 

4.23. Swietenia macrophylla 35 

4.24. Tectona grandis 37 

5. General Conclusions 


5.1. Summary of present problems and future threats 39 

5.2. The research scenario 43 

5.3. Outlook for future 44 

Literature Cited 45 

6. Bibliography of Insect Pests and Diseases 

L. Santoso and K.S.S. Nair 

6.1. Insect Pests 57 

6.2. Diseases 70 

6.3. Bibliography Indexes 79 

Indexes 87

List of Tables 

Table 2.1. Forest categories as per forest land use by consensus 4 

Table 2.2. Forest plantations in Java in 1995 6 

Table 2.3. Industrial forest plantations (HTI) in the outer islands of Indonesia 6 

Table 2.4 Utilisation of HTI area for different purposes to 1998-99 7 

Table 2.5. Main species planted in the HTI in the outer islands 7 

Table 2.6. Species and area planted by some HTI companies 7 

Table 2.7. Projected wood production in 2018-19 from different sources 8 

Table 4.1. Insect pests of Acacia mangium in Indonesia 16 

Table 4.2. Diseases of Acacia mangium in Indonesia 17 

Table 4.3. Insect pests of dipterocarps in Indonesia 23 

Table 4.4. Diseases of dipterocarps in Indonesia 23 

Table 4.5. Insect pests of eucalypts in Indonesia 25 

Table 4.6. Diseases of eucalypts in Indonesia 25 

Table 4.7. Insect pests of mangroves in Indonesia 29 

Table 4.8. Insect pests of Paraserianthes falcataria in Indonesia 32 

Table 4.9. Diseases of Paraserianthes falcataria in Indonesia 32 

Table 4.10. Insect pests of Pinus merkusii in Indonesia 34 

Table 4.11. Diseases of Pinus merksii in Indonesia 35 

Table 4.12. Insect pests of teak in Indonesia 37 

Table 5.1. Summary of pest and disease problems for long-standing 

plantation species 40 

Table 5.2. Summary of pest and disease problems for 

new plantation species 41 

List of Figures 

Figure 2.1. The spread of forest plantations across Indonesia and 

the species planted in each province 9

Acknowledgements 

We thank Mr. E.A. Husaeni and Prof. Gunarwan Suratmo of Bogor Agricultural University; 

Prof. Ahmad Sultoni, Mr. Subyanto and Ms. Sri Rahayu of Gadjah Mada University; 

Dr. Daddy Ruhiyat, Mr. Encep Iskandar and Mr. CH. Soeyamto of Mulawarman University; 

Ms. Mieke Suharti and Mr. Erdy Santoso of Forestry and Estate Crops Research and 

Development Agency (FERDA); and Dr. John Poulsen of CIFOR for helpful discussions. 

We are grateful to all of them for enriching this study by sharing information and their 

personal experience. We also thank Dr. Ken MacDicken, Director of Research, CIFOR and 

Dr. J.W. Turnbull, whose editorial comments helped to improve the presentation. We received 

useful information on pests and diseases from Mr. S.S. Maurits and Mr. S.N. Sunaryo of 

PT Surya Hutani Jaya; and Mr. Canesio Munoz, Mr. Cheah Leong Chew and 

Mr. Lee Foo Wah of PT. Riau Andalan Pulp and Paper. Representatives of several 

plantation companies helped this study by providing statistics on plantations as well as 

information on pests and diseases. We thank all of them.

Abstract 

Major pests and diseases of natural and planted 

Indonesian forests have been reviewed, threats assessed 

and a bibliography compiled. Indonesia has about 96 

million hectares of natural forests, dominated by 

dipterocarps, and 4 million ha of forest plantations. 

About half the plantations are in Java, consisting of 

long-established species including Tectona grandis, 

Pinus merkusii, Agathis dammara, Swietenia 

macrophylla, Dalbergia latifolia and Melaleuca 

cajuputi, and half in Sumatra and Kalimantan, mainly 

fast growing pulpwood species. Major plantation 

species are: Tectona grandis, Pinus merkusii, Acacia 

mangium, Agathis dammara, Paraserianthes falcataria, 

Swietenia macrophylla, Gmelina arborea, mangrove 

species, Eucalyptus spp., Dalbergia spp., Melaleuca 

cajuputi and Azadirachta excelsa. Only small-scale 

plantations exist for the other species reviewed, viz., 

Alstonia spp., Anthocephalus sp., Dipterocarpaceae, 

Dyera spp., Eusideroxylon zwageri, Gonystylus 

bancanus, Koompassia spp., Maesopsis eminii, 

Ochroma pyramidale, Octomeles sumatrana, Peronema 

canescens and Schleichera oleosa. Occasional and 

unpredictable insect outbreaks have occurred in natural 

stands of Pinus merkusii, Plaquium sp., Casuarina 

junghuhniana, mangroves, etc., but plantations of teak, 

pine, mahogany and Paraserianthes falcataria etc., are 

damaged by pests every year. In natural forests high 

host density appears to be a predisposing factor for pest 

build-up. Serious pests occur on Tectona grandis, Pinus 

merkusii, Paraserianthes falcataria and Swietenia 

macrophylla, with the most damaging being the 

Paraserianthes trunk borer, Xystrocera festiva. Disease 

problems are less significant than pests in the natural 

forests and no major disease outbreak has occurred in 

plantations, although many fungal diseases are prevalent 

in nurseries. No major pest or disease has been recorded 

on the minor plantation species, but their history is too 

short and planted areas too small to draw reliable 

conclusions on their susceptibility. There are indications 

of impending problems, e.g. root rot in Eucalyptus spp. 

and root and stem rot in Acacia mangium. There is also 

the risk of new pests in Acacia mangium, Gmelina 

arborea, Shorea spp. and Peronema sp. Research 

capacity in Indonesia is inadequate to meet the existing 

and future challenges and more collaboration between 

Government, universities and plantation companies is 

needed for pest and disease surveillance and research in 

the rapidly expanding forest plantations.

Chapter 1 

Introduction 

K.S.S. Nair 

1.1. Background 

Indonesia is a ‘forest country’. In 1993, the 

Indonesian Ministry of Forestry estimated (MoF 1993) 

that about three-quarters of the 193 million hectares 

(ha) of the land area, i.e., about 144 million ha, are 

covered by forest. FAO estimates in 1996 showed the 

forest area to be 96.2 million ha, i.e., about half of the 

land area, and there has been further reduction in 

forested land since then (Fox et al. 2000). This trend 

of deforestation has been continuing for some time. 

Shifting agriculture by indigenous communities and 

logging by forest concessionaires have created about 

30 million ha of secondary forests in the outer islands, 

particularly Sumatra and Kalimantan. These are often 

further degraded into grasslands. Apart from the early 

planting of nearly 2 million ha of teak, pine, mahogany, 

agathis and other species in Java for industrial 

purposes, planting programmes to rehabilitate 

degraded lands were initiated in the 1970s. In the 

1980s, the Government initiated an ambitious 

programme of Industrial Forest Plantations (Hutan 

Tanaman Industri, or HTI). Under this programme, 

intended to meet the raw material demands of forestbased 

industries, ‘Concession’ areas were granted to 

both foreign and national companies, and incentives 

were offered, e.g. capital in the form of Government 

equity, interest free loans, etc., in order to promote 

plantation development. Although the Government 

target (MoF 1993) of 6.2 million ha of industrial forest 

plantations by year 2000 was not reached, it is 

estimated that at least 4 million ha have been planted 

(including plantations in Java) (see Chapter 2). In the 

outer islands, fast growing species such as Acacia 

mangium, Eucalyptus spp., Gmelina arborea and 

Paraserianthes falcataria are planted. 

Replacement of natural mixed forests over vast areas, 

with plantations, raises several important questions. 

Apart from the uncertainty in sustainability of 

production over successive short rotations and the 

environmental impact (loss of biodiversity, soil 

compaction, disturbance to water balance, etc.), 

outbreaks of serious pests and diseases may be a major 

threat. Devastating outbreaks of the psyllid, 

Heteropsylla cubana in plantations of Leucaena 

leucocephala in South and Southeast Asia, conifer 

aphids in plantations in East Africa and eucalypt leaf 

diseases are only recent history. What is the risk of 

such new pest and disease outbreaks, in the rapidly 

expanding forest plantations in Indonesia 

This study is an attempt to assess the present pest 

and disease situation in Indonesian forests, particularly, 

in forest plantations, and evaluate the future risks. 

1.2. Objectives 

The specific objectives were: 

i. to prepare a bibliography of pests and diseases literature 

pertaining to Indonesian forests, including 

informal publications (grey literature), like consultant 

reports and student theses; 

ii. to interpret the literature and summarise the main 

findings, and

2 

Introduction 

iii. to derive general conclusions on the impact of 

pests and diseases, and make informed judgment 

on the future risks. 

University. In addition, there was correspondence with 

representatives of several plantation companies to elicit 

information on pest and disease outbreaks. 

1.3. Methodology 

Information was gathered from published and grey 

literature, field visits and discussions with Indonesian 

entomologists and pathologists. The TREECD 

database published by the Commonwealth Agricultural 

Bureau International (1939-1998(4)) was screened for 

abstracts of formal publications. Most relevant 

publications were in the Indonesian language (Bahasa 

Indonesia) and many in conference proceedings, 

student theses and departmental and consultant 

reports. Full text of most of the relevant publications, 

both in English and Bahasa Indonesia, was read to 

extract information. 

Field visits were made to plantations of Tectona 

grandis, Paraserianthes falcataria and other species 

in Java, and of Acacia mangium, Gmelina arborea 

and Eucalyptus spp. in East Kalimantan. Discussions 

were held with specialist scientists at CIFOR, FERDA 

(Forestry and Estate Crops Research and Development 

Agency of Indonesia), IPB (Bogor Agricultural 

University), Gadjah Mada University and Mulawarman 

1.4. Presentation 

The results of the study are presented in five chapters. 

Chapter 2 presents an overview of the state of the 

forest and plantation trends in Indonesia and Chapter 

3 a general comparison of the pest and disease 

problems in natural forests and plantations. In Chapter 

4, the insect pests and diseases of major plantation 

species in Indonesia are discussed in detail by tree 

species. This sets the background for Chapter 5 in 

which general conclusions are drawn on the impacts 

of pests and diseases, the current status of research 

on the subject and constraints to research and 

management of pests and diseases. Based on the 

available information and the personal experience of 

the authors, an assessment is made of the future 

threats of pest and disease outbreaks in plantations. 

Suggestions are made to meet the challenges. 

In addition to the cited references, there is a separate 

bibliography of published and grey literature for insect 

pests and diseases, which includes documents in 

English, Bahasa Indonesia and Dutch.

Chapter 2 

The State of the Forest 

and Plantation Trends 

C. Cossalter and K.S.S. Nair 

2.1. A time of change 

Indonesian forests are in a state of transition. The 

traditional low-level exploitation of forests by 

indigenous communities has been supplemented, over 

the past 30 years, by increased logging operations for 

selected timbers which has led to degradation of foests 

over large areas. Presently, there is large-scale 

replacement of degraded natural forests with short 

rotation industrial tree crops, raised and managed by 

commercial companies. Estate crops such as rubber 

and oil palm have also replaced part of the natural 

forests. What drives these changes is not the 

Indonesian consumer demands, but the rapidly rising 

international demand for engineered wood products, 

e.g. medium density fibre board and pulp and paper; 

and rubber and palm oil. 

2.2. Forest types, area and policies 

Nature has endowed the country with a rich variety of 

tropical forests. Dominated by dipterocarps, these 

include the monsoon forests, hill rainforests, lowland 

rainforests, peat-swamp forests, swamp forests, littoral 

forests and mangrove forests (Handadhari 1997). 

Forest area statistics given by different authors are 

often conflicting. In addition to degradation due to 

shifting agriculture and selective logging, since the 

1970s, large areas have been converted to agricultural 

land, estates and human settlements. Estimates based 

on remote sensed data, show that the forest area of 

Indonesia is about 124 million ha and the rate of 

deforestation during 1972–1990 was about 840 000 

ha per year (Sumahadi et al. 1997). As noted earlier, 

in 1996 FAO estimated forest area as 96.2 million 

ha, and there has been further reduction since then 

(Fox et al. 2000). Most Government sources 

continue to give higher figures with estimates of 

92-124 million ha in many publications. Often there 

is confusion between land area classified as forest in 

Government records and the land area actually 

covered by forest. Since most forest policy decisions 

of Government have been made on the basis of the 

older figures, it is difficult to use more recent figures 

in the following discussion. 

The 1945 Constitution of the Republic of Indonesia 

dictates that all forests of the country are to be 

governed by the State and there are a number of 

Acts and Rules that set principles and guidelines for 

their management. In 1984, the Government 

classified the forests into five categories, based on 

land-use preference established by a consensus of 

provincial Government agencies (Handadhari 1997, 

Gautam et al. 2000). Data in Table 2.1 show about 49 

million ha reserved for conservation purposes (first and 

second categories), 34 million ha for production and 

about 30 million ha for limited production. About 30 

million ha are designated as convertible forest area for 

long-term non-forestry uses. The areas assigned to each 

category are only estimates, as all lands not otherwise 

identified with existing agricultural or urban land uses 

in records available to provincial offices at that time 

were designated as forests (Gautam et al. 2000). 

The estimates were often contended and adjustments

4 The State of the Forest and Plantation Trends 

Table 2.1. 

Forest categories as per forest land use by consensus 

Category 

Purpose 1 

Area 2 (million ha) 

% Area 

Nature Reserve and 

Recreation forest 

Conservation, including wildlife, 

national parks and tourism 

18.8 

13 

Protection forest 

Watershed protection 

30.3 

21 

Production forest 

Selective timber harvesting 

33.9 

24 

Limited production forest 

Harvest restricted to protect 

environment 

30.5 

21 

Convertible forest 

Conversion for estate crops, 

smallholdings, future agricultural 

use, etc. 

30.5 

21 

Total 

- 

144.0 

100 

1 

vide Gautam et al. (2000); 2 Area in 1984 

Source: Handadhari (1997) 

were made. Due to this, the area figures given by 

various authors in the above categories often differ 

(e.g. see Leech et al. 1996; MoFEC 1999). 

The 64 million ha of production forest (including the 

30 million ha of limited production forest) is a massive 

resource for wood production. Ensuring the 

sustainability of production in these forests, and 

arresting forest conversion within the set limit of 

about 30 million ha are the main challenges of 

Indonesian forestry today. The basic principles to 

guide sound forest management have been identified 

as national interest, sustainability of yield, multisectoral 

benefits, equality and justice for all provinces 

and peoples within the country, social participation, 

and encouragement of agroforestry and smallholder 

forestry. However, there are constraints putting these 

principles into practice, which have been identified 

as conflict of interest among development sectors 

and the irresponsible attitude of forest 

concessionaires (see MoF 1993; Handadhari 1997). 

2.3. Forest concession right and 

plantation development 

Management of Indonesian forests has traditionally 

been vested with forest concessionaires. In Java, a 

Government-owned company, Perum Perhutani, has 

been given the responsibility for management of about 

3 million ha of State-owned forests. The mandate 

includes planning, management, exploitation and 

protection of all forests in Java and Madura, except 

nature reserves and parks. Thus, Perum Perhutani 

manages about 1 million ha of naturalised teak forests 

that have been planted and managed since the Dutch 

colonial times (1870s), in addition to nearly another 

million hectares of plantations of Pinus, Agathis, 

Dalbergia spp. and other species were raised later. 

Teak plantation are managed in Java under the taungya 

system, in which local farmers are permitted to plant 

food crops between rows of forest trees during the 

initial years of tree growth. 

In 1967, Forest Concession Right (Hak Pengusahaan 

Hutan, or HPH) was granted to private and State-owned 

enterprises, to exploit natural forests in the outer 

islands. In the “production” and “limited production” 

forests, besides exploiting the timber, forest 

concessionaires were required to undertake 

rehabilitation planting in the logged area. There was a 

rapid increase in the number of concessionaires, from 

64 in 1970, with a concession area of 7.8 million ha to 

462 in 1979, with a concession area of about 50 million 

ha (MoF 1993). Simultaneously, shifting agriculture 

by indigenous communities and excessive logging by 

the concessionaires created vast areas of degraded, 

secondary forests, which were often converted into

C. Cossalter and K.S.S. Nair 5 

unproductive grassland, dominated by Imperata 

cylindrica. Such lands were estimated at about 30 

million ha (Supriana and Natawiria 1987a) and 

intensive efforts were made to reforest them. As many 

native tree species were suppressed by the grass, the 

exotic Acacia mangium emerged as a promising 

species for afforestation of such lands. In 1980, in 

order to meet the increasing raw material demand of 

forest industries, the Government of Indonesia 

initiated a programme to develop industrial forest 

plantations (HTI). This was justified by the anticipated 

pressure on natural forest resources and the need to 

rehabilitate denuded areas. The Government assisted 

the concessionaires by providing capital in the form 

of Government equity amounting to 14% and interestfree 

loan up to 32.5% of the plantation cost (MoF 

1993). The period of concession was 35 years, plus 

one rotation length of the tree species planted, with 

provision for further extension. Concession areas 

were granted to foreign and Indonesian entrepreneurs. 

The Government set a target of about 6 million ha of 

HTI by the year 2000. 

The Government also initiated a Forest Village 

Development Programme, with social benefit 

schemes adapted to local conditions and 

requirements, in an attempt to encourage the native 

shifting cultivators to become settled farmers. The 

settled manpower was also expected to assist in 

the development of HTI and the forest 

concessionaires were assigned the responsibility for 

implementation of the Forest Village Development 

Programme. Other forest development programmes 

included transmigration settlements, in which people 

from densely populated areas were translocated to 

the sparsely populated outer islands, with benefits 

such as housing, land for agriculture, etc. They 

were also expected to provide the labour force for 

development of HTI. In addition, several schemes 

were introduced to encourage agroforestry on 

forest and non-forest land and for development of 

smallholder forestry. 

Involvement of a large number of plantation 

companies in the management of state-owned 

forests, creates its own problems. Although it brings 

in the much-needed investment and expertise, the 

short-term financial interests of the investors rather 

than long term ecological, economic and social 

prosperity of the country are likely to be given 

precedence. Liberal government incentives to promote 

forest-based industries have led to large-scale clearing 

of productive secondary forest, in some cases to 

procure land tenure rather than to produce an 

economic crop, and to deprivation of local people of 

their traditional rights on the land (Turnbull et al. 

1998). There is fear of long-term ecological 

deterioration caused by over-logging and inadequate 

regeneration efforts in natural forests, and 

inappropriate management practices in plantation 

areas. Although the policies and prescriptions are 

adequate, there are problems in implementation at all 

levels, and a large number of forest concessionaires 

who are managing natural forest areas, are not 

implementing the prescribed forest management 

systems correctly (Djakaria et al. 1997). It is public 

knowledge that the forest concession system has been 

plagued by political patronage. Rules and regulations 

have been grossly violated. Concessions and 

conversion rights were often granted in areas set aside 

for conservation. Such patronage has often led to 

conflicts between local communities, logging 

concessionaires, plantation companies, 

transmigrants and other state-sponsored activities 

(Gautam et al. 2000). It has been alleged that some 

plantation companies, particularly those engaged in 

oil palm cultivation, clandestinely abet the devastating 

forest fires that have erupted almost every summer 

in recent years, for easy clearance of natural growth 

for raising plantations. Given the vastness of the 

forest area, monitoring to ensure compliance with 

the prescriptions is difficult. In many cases, 

concession rights have been revoked due to poor 

performance but significant damage has already been 

done. The magnitude of the problem can be judged 

from the fact that after 20 years, the concession 

rights of only 96 out of the 359 HPH companies 

were renewed (Gautam et al. 2000). This means that 

a large proportion of the allotted area was not 

managed properly.


2.4. Plantation trends – areas and 

species 

Indonesia has a long plantation history, starting with 

teak (Tectona grandis) cultivation. Believed to have 

been introduced to Java some 400 - 600 years ago 

(Phengklai et al. 1993), teak has been planted 

systematically since the 1870s and in 1995 there were 

about 1 million ha of well-managed plantations, in Java 

and the adjacent island of Madura (Perum Perhutani 

1995). Table 2.2 shows the areas of major tree species 

planted in Java managed by the Government-owned 

company, Perum Perhutani. 

Table 2.2. Forest plantations in Java in 1995 

Species 

Area (ha) 

Tectona grandis 1 066 532 

Pinus merkusii 583 974 

Agathis dammara 66 013 

Swietenia macrophylla 54 383 

Dalbergia latifolia 25 502 

Melaleuca cajuputi 11 848 

Paraserianthes falcataria 6 064 

Schleichera oleosa 3 732 

Rhizophora spp. 49 662 

Others 89 063 

Total 1 956 775 

Source: Perum Perhutani (1995) 

Pine (Pinus merkusii) plantations comprise the second 

largest area, about 0.6 million ha, after teak. Native to the 

northern part of Sumatra, this species is primarily utilised 

for resin tapping in Java and yields a general-purpose 

timber, although it was originally planted for pulpwood 

production. Agathis dammara is also tapped for resin. 

Melaleuca cajuputi is planted for extraction of essential 

oil from the leaves and Schleichera oleosa for cultivation 

of lac. There is currently an expansion of Paraserianthes 

falcataria plantations by smallholders throughout Java. 

Among the major plantation species, only Melaleuca 

cajuputi and the mangroves Rhizophora spp. are strictly 

native to Java. Teak (Tectona grandis), mahogany 

(Swietenia macrophylla) and rosewood (Dalbergia 

latifolia) are exotic to Indonesia, although teak is 

naturalised. Other species have been introduced to Java 

from other parts of Indonesia where they occur naturally. 

Plantation forestry in the outer islands began in the 1970s, 

with attempts to afforest the extensive Imperata 

cylindrica grasslands, particularly in Sumatra and 

Kalimantan. Opening up of HPH to foreign investors in 

1967, with the issuance of Foreign Investment Law (UU 

PMA) in forestry sector, accelerated the expansion of 

plantations. By 1989, 565 units of HPH holders operated 

in about 58 million ha of forest land (MoF 1993: Fact Sheet 

No. 12). Apart from rehabilitation planting carried out by 

these companies in the logged areas, over 7 million ha 

have been allotted (Table 2.3), to about 100 companies for 

raising HTI. About 67% of the allotted HTI area is for 

pulpwood production, 23% for sawlog production and 

10% for transmigration settlements (Table 2.4). The area 

allotted to individual companies ranges from about 4000 

ha to 300 000 ha. 

In the outer islands, over 60% of the geographical 

area consists of ‘forest land’. Forest land is land that 

has been legally defined as forest land and is not 

synonymous with ‘land under forest cover’ for which 

there are no reliable data. Of the forest land, nearly 

7% has been allotted for HTI and by 1998-99 about 

22% of the allotted area (about 1.6 million ha) has 

been utilised by the concessionaires (Table 2.3). It is 

Table 2.3. Industrial forest plantations (HTI) in the outer islands of Indonesia 

Region 

Geographical 

area (ha) 

Forest 

area (ha) 

Area allotted 

for HTI (ha) 

Area planted up 

to 98-99 (ha) 

Sumatra 47 050 873 23 877 500 2 525 486 888 354 

Kalimantan 54 824 700 35 745 200 3 129 781 802 505 

Sulawesi 19 227 076 11 473 400 187 146 27 931 

Irian Jaya 41 066 000 30 611 800 1 389 200 0 

Nusa Tenggara 6 744 235 2 732 400 55 074 5 945 

Moluccas 8 572 800 4 201 600 74 568 33 264 

Total 178 485 684 108 641 900 7 361 255 1 757 999 

Source: Statistik Pengusahaan Hutan 1998/1999, Dirjen Pengusahaan Hutan Produksi, Dephutbun (1999); Geographical area and 

forest area from MoFEC (1999); HTI area and planted area from Dit. Bina Pengusahaan Hutan, MoFEC


estimated that the planted area may have reached at 

least 2 million ha by year 2000. No information is 

available on the extent of area cleared of forest but 

apparently it is much more than the area planted. 

summarised in Table 2.6. The overriding dominance 

of Acacia mangium and the relative importance of 

other pulpwood species are highlighted by this data. 

Table 2.5. Main species planted in the HTI in the outer islands 

Table 2.4. Utilisation of HTI area for different purposes to 

1998-99 

Pulpwood 

species 

Timber or plywood 

species 

Category 

Area allotted 

(million ha) 

Pulp 4.94 (67%) 1.04 (64%) 

Construction wood 1.65 (23%) 0.32 (20%) 

Transmigration 0.76 (10%) 0.26 (16%) 

Total 7.34 (100%) 1.63 (100%) 

Source: Dit. Bina Pengusahaan Hutan, MoFEC 

Area planted 

up to 98/99 

The 1998 Government reorganisation of the Ministries 

of Forestry and Agriculture to bring estate crops under 

the purview of the new MoFEC is indicative of a 

change in the Government’s strategy. There is strong 

interest among private investors for diverting forest 

land for oil palm cultivation, encouraged by the 

Government’s incentives for investment in oil palm. 

The Government has also granted permission to stateowned 

forestry companies to convert 30% of their 

concession areas within production forest boundaries 

to oil palm. It is estimated that currently 330 000 ha of 

forest land is being converted annually to oil palm 

plantations (Gautam et al. 2000). These policy changes 

are still evolving and are likely to impact significantly 

on the future forest plantation scenario. 

The spread of forest plantations across Indonesia and 

the species planted in each province, including the 

three provinces in Java, is shown in Fig.2. Unlike in 

Java (Table 2.2), detailed information on the species 

planted and the area under each is not available for 

other regions. However, most area in the outer islands 

is used for pulpwood species (Table 2.4), mainly, 

Acacia mangium. The main species planted are listed 

in Table 2.5. Twenty-eight of the 42 companies from 

whom we requested information provided details; the 

species and area planted by these companies are 

Acacia mangium 

Other Acacia spp. 

Eucalyptus spp. 

Gmelina arborea 

Paraserianthes falcataria 

Alstonia sp. 

Anthocephalus sp. 

Azadirachta excelsa 

Dyera sp. 

Eusideroxylon zwageri 

Gonystylus bancanus 

Koompasia sp. 

Maesopsis eminii 

Ochroma pyramidale 

Octomeles sumatrana 

Peronema canescens 

Pinus merkusii 

Shorea spp. 

Tectona grandis 

Table 2.6. Species and area planted by some HTI companies 

Species Area (ha) Percentage 

Acacia mangium 443 535 64.2 

Other Acacia spp. 24 023 3.5 

Paraserianthes falcataria 48 401 7.0 

Gmelina arborea 47 790 6.7 

Eucalyptus spp. 29 821 4.3 

Azadirachta excelsa 18 463 2.7 

Hevea braziliensis 8 293 1.2 

Peronema canescens 4 963 0.7 

Octomeles sumatrana 4 456 0.7 

Dipterocarps 2 977 0.4 

Tectona grandis 1 966 0.3 

Maesopsis eminii 282 >0.1 

Swietenia macrophylla 244 >0.1 

Miscellaneous species 55 213 8.0 

Total 690 528 100.0 

Source: Data supplied by 28 responding Companies under Adindo 

Hutani Lestari, Barito Timber Pacific, Hutrindo, Indah Kiat, Korindo, 

Musi Hutan Persada, Raja Garuda Mas, Sumalindo and Uniseraya 

Groups.


2.5. Forest plantations in perspective 

The total extent of forest plantations in Indonesia is 

about 4 million ha including 2 million ha in Java and 

about 2 million ha in the outer islands. Plantations in 

the outer islands are poised for huge expansion – from 

2.0 million ha to 7.4 million ha in the coming years 

(see Table 2.3). Based on current trends, much of this 

will consist of Acacia mangium, followed by Gmelina 

arborea, Paraserianthes falcataria and Eucalyptus spp. 

Indigenous timber species will constitute a small 

proportion – about 20%. Although there is concern 

among environmental groups about such expansion 

of industrial plantations of a few species, the fact 

remains that these plantations account for only about 

10%of the total extent of Indonesian forests (9.4 

million ha out of 96.2 million ha). What is of greater 

concern is the degradation of the natural forest in the 

rest of the 64 million ha of production forests entrusted 

to private and quasi-Government enterprises for logging 

and management, and the increasing rate of 

conversion of forest land into oil palm estates. 

The Government expects plantation-grown wood to 

satisfy much of the future wood demand by increasing 

the area of plantations and improving plantation 

productivity. At present, the mean annual increment of 

most plantations of fast growing tree species in 

Indonesia is 15-25 m 3 ha -1 , and efforts are under way 

to increase the productivity through use of genetically 

improved planting stock, including hybrids, and nutrient 

management (Natadiwirya 1998; Tiarks et al. 1999). 

Projections by the Ministry of Forestry of future wood 

production indicates almost a doubling of the present 

wood production by 2018-19. This will be 

accomplished by an increase of 52 million m 3 of annual 

wood production from plantations, while there will be 

a decrease of 3.23 million m 3 of annual wood production 

from natural forests (Table 2.7). Plantation forestry in 

Indonesia has to meet this challenge. 

Table 2.7. Projected wood production in 2018-19 from different sources 

Year 

Natural 

forest 

For 

pulpwood 

Plantation forest 

For construction 

timber 

Community 

forest 

Total 

million m 3 

1999 - 2000 34.79 15.52 1.70 1.49 53.50 

2018 - 2019 31.56 42.58 26.73 2.86 103.73 

Difference -3.23 +27.06 +25.03 +1.37 +50.23 

Source: Natadiwirya (1998)


Figure. 2.1. The spread of forest plantations across Indonesia and the species planted in each province 

NORTH SUMATRA 

- Acacia mangium 

- other Acacia spp. 

- Anthocephalus spp. 

- Azadirachta excelsa 

- Duabanga moluccana 

- Eucalyptus spp. 

- Gmelina arborea 

- Maesopsis eminii 

- Paraserianthes falcataria 

- Peronema canescens 

- Pinus merkusii 

- Swietenia macrophylla 

D.I. ACEH 





RIAU 



- Anthocephalus spp. 

- Azadirachta excelsa 


- Maesopsis eminii 

- Octomeles sumatrana 



WEST KALIMANTAN 


- Alstonia spp. 





- Shorea spp. 

CENTRAL KALIMANTAN 


- Anthocephalus 

- Dyera spp. 

spp. 


- Koompassia spp. 

- Ochroma spp. 



- Shorea spp. 

WEST SUMATRA 



D.I.ACEH 

JAMBI 



- Dyera spp. 



- Gonystylus bancanus 



- Shorea 

spp. 

NORTH 

SUMATRA 

WEST 

SUMATRA 

RIAU 

JAMBI 

SOUTH 

SUMATRA 

LAMPUNG 

WEST 

KALIMANTAN 

CENTRAL 

KALIMANTAN 

EAST 

KALIMANTAN 

SOUTH 

KALIMANTAN 

SOUTH 

SULAWESI 

CENTRAL 

SULAWESI 

SOUTHEAST 

SULAWESI 

MOLLUCAS 

SOUTH SUMATRA 


- Alstonia spp. 



- Shorea spp. 

WEST 

JAVA 

CENTRAL 

JAVA 

EAST JAVA 

EAST 

NUSA TENGGARA 

LAMPUNG 




- Shorea spp. 

WEST JAVA 


- Agathis spp. 

- mangrove species 


- Shorea spp. 


- Tectona grandis 

CENTRAL JAVA 


- Dalbergia spp. 

- mangrove species 

- Melaleuca cajuputi 

- Pinus Merkusii 



EAST JAVA 


- Melaleuca cajuputi 



- Schleichera oleosa 



SOUTH SULAWESI 



SOUTHEAST SULAWESI 





Source: Dit. Bina Pengusahaan Hutan, MoFEC 

EAST KALIMANTAN 



- Eusideroxylon zwageri 




- Shorea spp. 



CENTRAL SULAWESI 

- Ochroma spp. 


MOLLUCAS 




SOUTH KALIMANTAN 



- Eusideroxylon zwageri 




- Shorea spp. 


EAST NUSA TENGGARA 


- Tectona grandis

Chapter 3 

General Scenario of Pests 

and Diseases in Natural Forests 

and Plantations in Indonesia 


Conventional wisdom suggests that natural stands of 

tropical forests, characterised by high species 

diversity, are free of pests and diseases. Tropical 

forests are often quoted as examples that demonstrate 

the strong correlation between diversity and stability, 

in relation to pest and disease outbreaks. However, a 

critical study of the literature shows that there is more 

discussion than data on this relationship (Nair et al. 

1986). Plantations, on the other hand, characterised 

by even-aged stands of the same tree species are 

generally believed to be pest and disease prone. There 

is enough data to support this generalisation, although 

monocultures of some species may be pest or disease 

free. An overview of the general situation in natural 

forests and plantations in Indonesia is given below. 

3.1. Natural forests 

Published information on pests and diseases in natural 

forests of Indonesia is scarce. Kalshoven (1953) 

recorded some of the early instances of insect pest 

outbreaks, the highlights of which are given below. 

Natural stands of Pinus merkusii, Casuarina 

junghuhniana (syn. C. montana), Palaquium sp., 

Actinophora fragrans and mangroves have suffered 

occasional pest outbreaks. Outbreaks of three species 

of insects are on record in pine stands, which cover 

an area of about 100 000 ha in North Sumatra, mainly 

in stands subjected to resin tapping. An undetermined 

species of the genus, Pteroma (a small bagworm 

belonging to the lepidopteran family Psychidae), has 

been the most serious. Severe outbreaks occurred in 

1924, 1933, and 1934-38, causing defoliation over 

large areas. The 1934-38 outbreak continued over a 

four-year period, during which repeated defoliation 

occurred, month after month. The damage was more 

serious on poorer sites. Another pine pest was a larger 

bagworm, Eumeta (Clania) variegata, a well-known 

polyphagous insect, but its outbreaks were less 

frequent. The third pest was also a lepidopteran 

(Geometridae) defoliator, Milionia basalis. Repeated 

outbreaks of this insect have been recorded, smaller 

outbreaks developing simultaneously in different places 

all over the pine stands. Our knowledge about these 

early outbreaks of pine insects was due to regular 

observations made by the resin and turpentine industry. 

No systematic observations are available for later 

periods, although outbreaks of other pests have been 

recorded in pine plantations. 

Occasional severe outbreaks of the caterpillar Voracia 

casuariniphaga (Lepidoptera, Lasiocampidae) occur 

in natural stands of Casuarina junghuhniana growing 

on mountain ridges and peaks in East Java. In an 

outbreak in February 1938 on Mt Lawu, 800 ha were 

totally stripped. Outbreaks of the caterpillar, Ophiusa 

serva (Noctuidae) have been recorded on Palaquium 

sp., which often constitutes 50% or more of the crop 

in some primary forests in South Sumatra. On the 

mangrove, Sonneratia acida, in an estuary at the Barito 

River in Southeast Kalimantan, a caterpillar 

provisionally identified as Lymantria galinara 

(Lymantriidae) caused defoliation of all trees on one 

occasion. More recently there was a near total 

defoliation of a mangrove species, Excoecaria

12 General Scenario of Pests and Diseases in Natural Forests and Plantations in Indonesia 

agallocha (Whitten and Damanik 1986) This was 

caused by the caterpillar, Ophiusa melicerta (syn. 

Achaea janata) (Lepidoptera, Noctuidae) and covered 

about 500-1000 ha of forest south of Belawan in North 

Sumatra, where the tree occurs essentially as singlespecies 

stands. 

In lowland forests in Java, outbreak of a small 

woodborer, Agrilus kalshoveni (Coleoptera, 

Buprestidae) caused large-scale mortality of scattered 

trees of all sizes of Actinophora fragrans (Tiliaceae), 

in 1926-28. 

In a recent study in Wanariset and Bukit Soeharto 

forest area in East Kalimantan, Rahayu et al. (1998) 

recorded damage to Shorea spp. by leaf feeding 

caterpillars. Three diseases were also recorded: 

prolepsis (excessive proliferation of shoot tissue 

caused by a bacterium, resulting in stunted growth), 

leaf spot (leaf blight) and stem canker induced by 

fungi. However, these pests and diseases were of 

minor importance. Seed pests are known to make a 

significant impact in natural dipterocarp forests. Larvae 

of some small moths and curculionid beetles attack 

the fruits on the tree and on the ground (Elouard 1998, 

Natawiria et al. 1986) and feed on the cotyledons so 

preventing seed germination. Curran and Leighton 

(1991) observed the 1996 seed crop of about 100 000 

seeds ha -1 was entirely destroyed by insects in the 

lowland forest of West Kalimantan. The well-known 

phenomenon of mass fruiting of dipterocarps is 

thought to be a strategy to escape complete seed 

destruction by satiating the seed pests (Janzen 1974). 

3.2. Plantations 

More data are available on pests and diseases of 

plantation trees than for native forests. However, as 

most plantations in the outer islands are still young, 

plantation experience is limited to species planted in 

Java. These include teak, pine, mahogany, rosewood, 

and species of Melaleuca, Paraserianthes, Schleichera 

and Rhizophora. Teak plantations have suffered 

chronic damage from the defoliator, Hyblaea puera, 

throughout the plantations in Java. In some locations, 

the termite Neotermes tectonae that infests the trunk 

and branches of living teak trees has caused economic 

damage. However, because the trees are not killed, 

the pests have not been recognised as serious. 

Mahogany plantations suffer severely from the shoot 

borer, Hypsipyla robusta, which has been a factor 

limiting plantation establishment. Paraserianthes 

falcataria is killed by the stem borer, Xystrocera festiva. 

Shoot borers damage pine plantations in Sumatra, but 

these insects have not been encountered in pine 

plantations in Java. Other species have suffered no 

major pest damage. 

Diseases have not become a serious threat in any of 

the plantations in Java, although many fungal diseases 

have been noted in nurseries. 

It is concluded that some tree species are susceptible 

to pest damage in plantations but others are not. 

Diseases have made much less impact, except in 

nurseries. Pests and diseases of each tree species are 

discussed in detail in Chapter 4. 

3.3. Comparison between 

plantations and natural 

forests 

A comparison of the pest and disease problems in 

plantations with those in natural forests indicates that 

pests have a greater impact in plantations. However, 

pest outbreaks have also occurred in natural forests. 

Most of these outbreaks have been recorded in tree 

species that occur gregariously, like in a monoculture 

plantation. Examples are Pinus merkusii, Casuarina 

junghuhniana, Palaquium sp., and Excoecaria 

agallocha. A high host density appears to be a key 

factor promoting pest outbreaks. Most insects that 

have acquired pest status are ubiquitous components 

of the normal insect fauna that are present in low 

numbers in natural forests. They become pests when 

a high host density as in plantations or other factors 

cause a large increase in insect populations. 

Many species that are grown in plantations in Indonesia 

are exotic. Some of them have also suffered damage 

from pests and diseases, as discussed in the next 

chapter. By definition, indigenous species are those 

that occur as part of the natural vegetation within the 

geographic boundaries of a country. In the case of 

Indonesia, which has 17 500 islands extending across

K.S.S. Nair and Sumardi 13 

5100 km from the Indian Ocean to the Pacific 

Ocean, between 5 0 N and 11 0 S latitude and 94 0 – 

141 0 E longitude (Whitten et al. 1996), and the 

Wallace’s line separating a small eastern part, the 

conventional definition of indigenous species has little 

relevance. For instance, the natural distribution of 

Pinus merkusii is limited to northern Sumatra and that 

of Acacia mangium and Paraserianthes falcataria to 

some small areas of the eastern islands, and therefore 

it is not appropriate to consider them as indigenous to 

Indonesia as a whole. Designating a species as 

exotic is a matter of definition. If instead of the 

political boundary of the country, we accept a 

narrower spatial scale like the major island groups 

and their surroundings as the spatial unit to define 

indigenous and exotic species, most plantation 

species in Indonesia will have to be treated as exotic. 

A comparison between indigenous and exotic species 

is best made after a detailed consideration of pests 

and diseases in plantations.

Chapter 4 


of Major Plantation Species 


In this Chapter, the pests and diseases of 24 forest trees, 

including pulpwood and timber species, planted in 

Indonesia are discussed. The species are based on 

information supplied by plantation companies and include 

some species planted only on an experimental scale, so 

there is little information on their pests and diseases. 

A brief introductory paragraph gives general 

information on the species, including its natural 

distribution, planting locations within Indonesia (see 

also Fig. 2.1) and uses. This is followed by a brief 

description of the damage caused by the main insect 

pests and diseases. Then information is provided on 

pests and diseases in neighbouring countries and a 

critical look at the threat posed by the pests and 

diseases in Indonesia. 

4.1. Acacia mangium and other 

Acacia spp. 

Indonesian common name: Akasia 

Plantation forestry in Indonesia is dominated by 

Acacia mangium due largely to its ability to compete 

with grasses in the unproductive Imperata 

cylindrica grasslands. Large-scale planting began 

in 1986 under the Industrial Plantation Scheme and 

there has been a massive expansion of the area since 

then (Turnbull et al. 1998). Now there are at least 

500 000 ha of A. mangium, mostly in Sumatra and 

Kalimantan. It has been planted in the provinces of 

West Java, Aceh, North Sumatra, Riau, Jambi, South 

Sumatra, Lampung, West Kalimantan, Central 

Kalimantan, East Kalimantan, South Kalimantan and 

Moluccas (see Fig. 2.1). Ten companies had planted 

426 000 ha of A. mangium by 1996 (Turnbull et al. 

1998). PT Musi Hutan Persada has reported that 

90% of its 200 000 ha of forest plantations in South 

Sumatra is A. mangium (Siregar et al. 1999). Second 

rotation plantations exist in some areas. 

Acacia mangium is native to three small islands in the 

Moluccas and parts of Irian Jaya in eastern Indonesia 

(Pinyopusarerk et al. 1993). 

Insect pests 

There is little published information on the pests of 

A. mangium in Indonesia. The following data (Table 4.1) 

have been assembled from a variety of sources, 

including unpublished reports and information obtained 

from companies through visits and correspondence. 

Nursery seedlings of A. mangium are attacked by a 

number of insects including plant bugs, 

grasshoppers and bagworms, causing variable 

damage. A subterranean termite, Coptotermes 

curvignathus (Isoptera, Rhinotermitidae), which eats 

into the taproot and stem is reported to kill 10-50% of 

saplings in plantations in Central Sumatra in their first 

year (Wylie et al.1998). In Malaysia, this insect infests 

even older trees (Chew 1987). Control should be 

possible by using appropriate prophylactic insecticidal 

treatment (Varma and Nair 1997).

16 Insect Pests and Diseases of Major Plantation Species 

Table 4.1. Insect pests of Acacia mangium in Indonesia 

Type of damage 

Scientific name 

Common name 

Notes 

Root-feeding 

Coptotermes curvignathus 

(Isoptera, Rhinotermitidae) 

Termite 

Causes death of saplings 

Leaf-feeding 

Pteroma plagiophleps and 

other bagworms 

(Lepidoptera, Psychidae) 

Bagworms 

Unidentified caterpillar 

(Lepidoptera, Noctuidae) 

Caterpillar Plusia 

On young saplings 

Valanga nigricornis 

(Orthoptera, Acrididae) 

Grasshopper 

Sap-sucking 

Helopeltis theivora and 

other Helopeltis spp. 

(Hemiptera, Miridae) 

Mosquito bug 

On young saplings 

Twig-boring 

Xylosandrus sp. and 

Xyleborus fornicatus 

(Coleoptera, Scolytidae) 

Pinhole borers 

Attacked small branches 

often dry up and break 

Trunk-boring 

Xytrocera festiva 

(Coleoptera, Cerambycidae) 

Stem borer 

The leaf-feeding bagworm, Pteroma plagiophleps has 

been recorded in many plantations. It is a polyphagous 

caterpillar, which is generally a minor pest on most of its 

hosts although localised outbreaks have occurred in 

Paraserianthes falcataria and some other hosts (Nair and 

Mathew 1992). Other unidentified bagworms are 

commonly seen on A. mangium but all are minor leaffeeders. 

The grasshopper, Valanga nigricornis, also a 

polyphagous leaf-feeder, is often seen in A. mangium 

plantations in fairly large numbers. It appears sporadically 

and eats even the shoot tips. In teak plantations in Java, 

it causes recognisable damage periodically but has not 

become a serious pest. It is particularly active in the border 

zone between forests and open ground (Hutacharern 

1993). Locusta sp., with similar feeding habits, occurs less 

frequently. Other leaf feeding insects are also occasional 

minor pests. Caterpillars of an unidentified moth, 

tentatively called, ‘Plusia’, feeds on the leaves (phyllodes) 

of young saplings (PT. Riau Andalan Pulp and Paper, 

personal communication). 

The sap-sucking bug Helopeltis spp. is the principal pest 

in plantations in Sumatra. These are well-known pests of 

several horticultural and tree crops in the tropics, such 

as, tea, cacao, cinchona, cashew and neem. Localised 

damage by Helopeltis sp. to A. mangium has been 

reported from Malaysia (Hamid 1987) and Philippines 

(Luego 1990) and it regularly causes severe damage in 6- 

18-month-old plantations in North and Central Sumatra 

(Wylie et al. 1998). The principal species is H. theivora, 

but H. fasciaticollis and H. sumatranus have also been 

recorded (Wylie personal communication). Feeding by 

Helopeltis spp. causes necrotic spots on the leaves and 

often dieback of tender shoots. Shoot dieback is probably 

caused by injection of toxic saliva or pathogenic 

organisms in the feeding process. Some companies have 

applied urea to boost the growth of attacked saplings 

and in rare cases insecticides like deltamethrin have been 

used. More systematic observations are needed to assess 

the quantitative impact and some plantation companies 

are doing this. In cashew plantations in Kerala, India, 

damage by H. theivora is most serious during the flushing 

and flowering season, causing the top layer of the crown 

to dry out and necessitating regular prophylactic 

insecticidal sprays to prevent yield loss. 

Pinhole borers, Xyleborus fornicatus and Xylosandrus 

sp., attack small branches which often dry up and


break off at the point of attack (Hardi and Intari 1990; 

Riyantoko 1998; Zulfiyah 1998). Usually the intensity 

of attack is low and is not a threat to plantations. The 

borer Xystrocera festiva, primarily a pest of 

Paraserianthes falcataria, attacks A. mangium in 

agroforestry plantations in East Java and in industrial 

plantations in South Sumatra where up to 11% of trees 

have been infested (Matsumoto 1994). It is unlikely to 

become a major pest of Acacia as the life cycle is annual 

and the attacked trees generally survive. A related 

species, X. globosa, occurs on Albizia spp. and 

A. mangium in Malaysia. Matsumoto (1994) recorded 

this species on A. mangium, A. auriculiformis and 

Paraserianthes falcataria in East Java and South 

Sumatra but the larvae of X. globosa feed less 

gregariously than X. festiva and had a much lower 

population level. 

Diseases 

In general, Acacia mangium plantations in Indonesia 

have suffered little from diseases. Following the 

threat of widespread occurrence of heart rot 

disease of A. mangium in Malaysia, detailed studies 

were carried out on diseases of acacias in the region, 

including Indonesia, and excellent reviews written 

(Old 1998; Old et al. 2000). 

Four major categories of diseases have been recognised 

– foliar diseases, stem canker, heart rot and root rots 

(Table 4.2). Among the foliar diseases, leaf rust caused 

by a fungus distorts the growing points in nursery plants 

and young plantations. This has caused concern, 

particularly in Sumatra and Kalimantan, as there is no 

effective control method. An epidemic leading to 

premature leaf shedding occurred in 15-month-old trees 

in South Kalimantan. The fungus is similar to 

Atelocauda digitata which is common in northern 

Australia and affects nursery stock and trees of a wide 

range of age classes. There is considerable variation 

between provenances in susceptibility which suggests 

potential for selecting resistant genotypes (Old 1998). 

Other leaf diseases (Table 4.2) are of minor importance. 

Table 4.2. Diseases of Acacia mangium in Indonesia 

Disease 

Foliar diseases 

Rust 

Powdery mildew 

Black mildew 

Leaf spot 

Stem cankers 

Pink disease 

Black canker 

Heart rot 

Root rots 

Red root rot 

White root rot 

Causative agent 

(Near) Atelocauda digitata 

Oidium spp. 

Meliola spp. 

Cercospora, Pestalotiopsis and 

Collectotrichum spp. 

Corticium salmonicolor 

Pytophthora palmivora 

Cytospora sp. 

Hypoxylon mammatum 

Phellinus noxius 

Rigidoporus hypobrunneus 

Tinctoporellus epimiltinus 

Ganoderma philipii 

(syn. G. pseudoferreum) 

Rigidoporus microporus 

(syn. Leptoporus lignosus) 

(syn. Fomes lignosus) 

Notes 

< 2% of 5-year old trees were affected 

in Sumatra 

Present in older plantations in Sumatra 

and Java 

Minor 

Minor


Among the stem canker diseases, pink disease caused 

by Corticium salmonicolor, a basidiomycete fungus 

infecting a wide range of hosts in high rainfall areas in 

the tropics, is common in Indonesia and is most 

prevalent in denser stands (Zulfiah and Gales 1997). 

It causes necrosis of the bark tissue on small stems, 

and branches, often leading to their breakage. Heart 

rot, caused by a complex of Phellinus noxius and other 

unidentified basidiomycete fungi entering through 

wounds, occurs in East Kalimantan (Lee and Sikin 

1999). However, the proportion of infected trees is 

small compared to some plantations in Malaysia. In 

Malaysia, more than 50% of trees have been infected 

in some places, but the wood volume damaged was 

small. It is not considered to be a major problem when 

the end use is pulpwood rather than timber (Old et al. 

2000). The hybrid, A. mangium x A. auriculiformis, 

is resistant to heart rot, as is A. auriculiformis (Ito 

and Nanis 1997). White root rot, caused by 

Rigidoporus microporus (syn. Fomes lignosus), has 

been recorded in plantations in Jambi and South 

Sumatra. The red root rot, Ganoderma philipii, 

formerly C. pseudoferreum, has been isolated from an 

A. mangium plantation in Yogyakarta. 

Threat Assessment 

In making an assessment of threat, the problems 

experienced in neighbouring countries must also be 

taken into consideration. For insect pests, Wylie et al. 

(1998) have reviewed the problems and listed 22 

species as main pests in the region covering Australia, 

Indonesia, Malaysia, Thailand and Vietnam. These 

pests can be categorised into five groups - leaf feeders 

(7 spp.), root or stem feeding termites (5 spp.), trunk 

borers (4 spp.), twig borers (4 spp.), and sapsuckers 

(2 spp.). Seven important pests in Indonesia were 

identified in an assessment made in May 1997 (Wylie 

et al. 1998). They were a root feeding termite (1 sp.), 

a twig borer (1 sp.), leaf feeders (4 spp.) and a sap 

sucker (1 sp.). In order of importance they are: 

Coptotermes curvignathus (root-feeding termite), 

Xylosandrus sp. (stem-boring scolytid beetle), Pteroma 

plagiophleps (leaf-feeding bagworm), unidentified 

caterpillar (leaf-feeding), Valanga nigricornis (leaffeeding 

grasshopper), Locusta sp. (leaf feeding), and 

Helopeltis theivora (sap-sucking bug). In a global 

review, Hutacharern (1993) considered there were 

only four serious pests of A. mangium. These were 

the termite, C. curvignathus; the buprestid root collar 

borer, Sternocera spp.; the bostrychid twig borer, 

Sinoxylon sp.; and the cossid stem borer, Zeuzera 

coffeae. Among the seven serious pests recognised 

by Wylie et al. (1998) for Indonesia, only the termite, 

C. curvignathus, was in Hutacharern’s list . 

We rate the sap-sucking bug, Helopeltis sp., as 

potentially the most serious pest, based on current 

knowledge of pest incidence in A. mangium plantations 

in Indonesia and the insect’s habits and past history in 

other crops. Two species of Helopeltis are reported 

to occur in forest plantations in Indonesia - H. antonii 

in Eucalyptus spp. (Rahardjo 1992) and H. theivora 

in Eucalyptus spp. and A. mangium (Hardi 1993; 

Wylie et al. 1998). In addition, H. fasciaticollis and 

H. sumatranus have been identified recently from 

A. mangium. Both H. theivora and H. antonii are 

serious pests of cashew in India. Helopeltis spp. have 

acquired pest status on various tree crops in Australia, 

China (Hainan Island), Malaysia, Philippines, Sri Lanka, 

Thailand and some countries in Africa. Many species 

of Helopeltis occur in Indonesia on a variety of crops 

and severe outbreaks occurred in the 1960s on tea in 

North Sumatra before the advent of modern 

insecticides (Kalshoven 1981). Difficulty in controlling 

them, other than through repeated chemical sprays, 

adds to the seriousness of the problem. It is already 

recognised as serious in young plantations in Sumatra. 

It was not found in a plantation examined by one of 

us (K.S.S.N.) in East Kalimantan, but it could build 

up there as it already occurs in adjacent Sarawak (East 

Malaysia). Careful monitoring of Helopeltis spp. as a 

potentially serious pest of A. mangium is 

recommended. 

Root-feeding termites are the next most serious threat, 

during the establishment stage of the crop, as 

experienced in Sumatra, but they can be controlled 

effectively using insecticidal spot treatment. 

The risk of new pests emerging over time cannot be 

ignored. In 1992 a new pest, Spirama retorta 

(Lepidoptera, Noctuidae), attacked 800 ha of a 1-yearold 

A. mangium plantation in Peninsular Malaysia 

(Sajap et al. 1997b). Little was known about this insect 

which had been recorded on Albizia lebbek in India 

(Beeson 1941) and on an unknown host in Thailand 

(Hutacharern and Tubtim 1995). It has been recorded 

recently on A. mearnsii in China (Wang et al. 1998).


Another new noctuid pest, Ericeia sp., has damaged 

A. mangium in Malaysia (Sajap et al. 1997a). The 

unidentified caterpillar, ‘Plusia’, found in young 

plantations in Sumatra is also a noctuid. The 

lepidopteran family, Noctuidae, contains several wellknown 

pests with outbreak potential. They include 

Achaea janata, Helicoverpa armigera (Heliothis 

armigera), Plecoptera reflexa, Prodenia litura and 

Selepa celtis. Therefore, there is a high risk of 

emergence of new noctuid pests on A. mangium. 

Old (1998) reviewed the risks of diseases in Indonesia 

and the neighbouring countries. Foliar rust, root rots 

and heart rot are potentially dangerous. However, there 

are indications of presence of genotypes resistant to 

the rust and heart rot. Avoiding wounds to the stem 

also reduces the risk of heart rot. The heart rot problem 

may be the result of mismatching of the tree species 

with the sites (Arentz 1996; Lee and Arentz 1997). In 

its natural habitat A. mangium grows in areas with a 

seasonal dry period. It has been hypothesised that 

absence of a dry period may hinder the self-pruning 

ability of branches, permitting the development of entry 

points for decay fungi into the main stem through the 

dying branches. The situation needs monitoring. The 

A. auriculiformis x A. mangium hybrid may prove 

resistant to heart rot. Root rot appears to be potentially 

more damaging, as the pathogens spread by root 

contact between diseased and healthy trees. Old et al. 

(2000) have concluded that planting successive 

rotations of acacias on the same site will provide 

conditions favourable for the build-up of root rot 

diseases; particularly if there is no post-harvest burn 

as the inoculum may build-up in the slash. Careful 

monitoring of root rot diseases is also necessary as 

there is no practical means of control. 

Other Acacia species 

After A. mangium, A. auriculiformis is the most 

widely planted acacia in industrial plantations, 

followed by A. crassicarpa and A. aulacocarpa (syn. 

A. perigrina from Papua New Guinea). Acacia 

auriculiformis seedlings in nurseries are attacked by 

the stem boring scolytid beetle, Xylosandrus 

compactus. It has been reported from Java, Sumatra, 

Kalimantan, and Sulawesi (Intari and Santoso 1990; 

Natawiria 1990). Related scolytid and bostrychid 

borers have also been noted on Acacia spp. in Malaysia 

and Thailand. The stem borers Xystrocera festiva and 

X. globosa also attack A. auriculiformis but the 

incidence is rare. In general, these Acacia species have 

no major pest problems, although occasional leaf 

feeding by polyphagous insects is common. 

Among diseases, rust occurs on A. auriculiformis 

and pink disease (Corticium salmonicolor) in 

A. crassicarpa and A. aulacocarpa plantations (Hadi 

and Nuhamura 1997). Canker caused by unknown 

agents has been noted in all the three species. Root 

rot caused by Ganoderma pseudoferreum has been 

reported on A. auriculiformis (Widyastuti et al. 1998b). 

Acacia auriculiformis is resistant to heart rot and except 

for this disease the risk rating for these other acacias is 

the same as for A. mangium. 

4.2. Agathis dammara 

Indonesian common name: Damar 

Agathis dammara (Lambert) Rich (syn. 

A. loranthifolia) is a conifer native to Indonesia and 

occurs naturally in Sulawesi and the Moluccas. It also 

occurs in the Philippines. Agathis borneensis Warb. 

occurs in Sumatra and Borneo, and Peninsular 

Malaysia; some authors treat it as synonymous with 

A. dammara. About 66 000 ha of A. dammara 

plantations have been established in the provinces of 

Central and East Java, particularly in mountainous 

areas, over the past few decades (Perum Perhutani 

1995). It provides a general-purpose timber and is 

tapped for resin (copal). 


No major insect pest problem has occurred on 

A. dammara, in Indonesia. Two unidentified beetles 

have been recorded from seeds (Zethner et al. 1996). 

Diseases 

In nurseries, damping off caused by species of 

Fusarium, Rhizoctonia and Pythium has been caused 

up to 90% mortality of seedlings (Suharti et al. 1991) 

but effective fungicidal control methods are available. 

In nurseries and young plantations, rust caused by 

Aecidium fragiformae has been noted (Hadi et al. 

1996). It causes reddish brown raised lesions on the 

leaves. Although it may cause some growth 

retardation, it is not considered a serious problem.


Pink disease (Corticium salmonicolor) can occur in 

young plantations (Suharti 1983), particularly when 

the canopy closes and the humidity increases. 

Thinning reduces the incidence of disease by lowering 

humidity. 

Threat assessment 

Outside Indonesia, decay of mature trees has been 

recorded in the Philippines and moths (Agathiphaga 

spp.) can destroy the seeds (Bowen and Whitmore 

1980) but A. dammara has been grown successfully 

in Java for many years and there is no major threat of 

pests and diseases. 

4.3. Alstonia species 

Indonesian common name: Pulai 

Two species of Alstonia (Apocynaceae) are of 

commercial importance in Indonesia (Whitten et al. 

1996). Alstonia scholaris is common in drier areas 

and A. spatulata in swamps. Alstonia scholaris is 

mainly planted, particularly in West Kalimantan, and 

yields good pulp and plywood timber. 


No information is available on pests in Indonesia, 

except that the freshly felled logs are attacked by 

pinhole borers of the families Scolytidae and 

Platypodidae (Sukartana 1996). 

Diseases 

No diseases have been reported. 


A few insect pests have been reported on living trees 

outside Indonesia. In Guangxi, China, the psyllid, 

Pseudophacopteron alstonium (Homoptera) produces 

galls on the leaf (Yang and Li 1983). In India, 

caterpillars of a pyralid moth, Glyphodes bicolor have 

been recorded (Beeson 1941) and in Kerala an 

unidentified Glyphodes sp. which feeds in folded leaves 

causes sporadic damage to isolated trees under seminatural 

conditions (K.S.S. Nair unpublished). While 

there is no indication of threat from diseases, the 

plantation history of A. scholaris is too short to draw 

a similar conclusion for insect pests. 

4.4. Anthocephalus cadamba 

Indonesian common name: Jabon 

Anthocephalus cadamba (Roxb.) Miq. (syn. 

A. chinensis auct.non (Lamk.) Rich. ex Walp.; 

Neolamarckia cadamba ((Roxb.) Bosser) (Rubiaceae) 

is a fast growing, medium- to large tree. Some authors 

prefer to use the new generic name, Neolamarckia. It 

has a light coloured wood used for plywood, light 

construction and pulping. Another species of the genus, 

A. macrophyllus, occurs naturally in Sulawesi and the 

Moluccas (Smits et al. 1993). 

Anthocephalus cadamba is planted mainly in HTI 

plantations in North Sumatra, Riau and Central 

Kalimantan. It is also planted in Java to replace poor 

teak plantations after harvest. 

Insect Pests 

White grubs (larvae of some groups of beetles) feeding 

on the roots damage 1-2-year-old trees planted under 

taungya system in Java (Intari and Natawiria 1973). 

Selander (1990) reported heavy defoliation of 

experimental plantations of A. cadamba in South 

Kalimantan by an unidentified caterpillar and Ngatiman 

and Tangketasik (1987) recorded some unidentified 

insects (presumably, caterpillars) in plantations in East 

Kalimantan. Suratmo (1987) refers to Margaronia sp. 

(Lepidoptera, Pyralidae) as a defoliator of A. cadamba. 

Suratmo (1996) observed that plantations raised in small 

areas have been seriously attacked by an undetermined 

defoliator, which has prevented further planting of this 

otherwise promising fast growing species. 

Diseases 

No diseases have been reported on A. cadamba in 

Indonesia. 


In India, a longhorn beetle, Batocera numitor 

(Coleoptera, Cerambycidae) bores into the base of the 

stem of unhealthy trees; and a caterpillar, Margaronia 

hilaralis (Lepidoptera, Pyralidae) skeletonises leaves 

(Beeson 1941). Other polyphagous, leaf feeding, 

caterpillars have also been noted in India, but no serious 

pest situation has developed. Leaf feeding caterpillars 

are potential threats but the plantation history is too 

short to make informed judgment. The main diseases


reported outside Indonesia are on nursery seedlings 

and include damping-off by Fusarium and Pythium 

spp. in Malaysia (Chin 1995) and leaf blight by 

Rhizoctonia in India (Mehrotra 1993). Apart from 

nursery diseases, which can be controlled by 

appropriate nursery practices and fungicides, there 

appears to be no major threat of diseases. 

4.5. Azadirachta excelsa 

Indonesian common name: Nimba, Nimbo 

Azadirachta excelsa (Meliaceae) is native to Southeast 

Asia. Its valuable timber is used for light construction 

and veneering. Plantations of A. excelsa have been 

established in Sumatra. 


No information is available on pests of A. excelsa in 

Indonesia. 

Diseases 

No information is available. 

4.5.3. Threat assessment 

Four species of thrips (Thysanoptera, Thripidae) and 

a moth caterpillar, Loboschiza vulnerata (Lepidoptera, 

Tortricidae) have caused minor damage to A. excelsa 

plantations in Malaysia (Intachat 1997). The teamosquito 

bug, Helopeltis antonii (Heteroptera, 

Myriidae) has attacked tender shoots of the related 

species, A. indica (neem) in India. Azadirachta excelsa 

leaves contain insecticidal and insect repellent 

chemicals, as in neem, and is resistant to most insects. 

There is no indication of a threat by pests and diseases. 

4.6. Dalbergia spp. 

Indonesian common names: Sonokeling 

(D. latifolia), Sonosissoo (D. sisso) 

Dalbergia latifolia and D. sissoo (Leguminosae) have 

been raised in plantations in Indonesia. Both species 

yield construction and specialty timber and D. latifolia 

(Indian rosewood) is highly prized for furniture and 

decorative veneers. 

There are over 25 000 ha of Dalbergia plantations in 

Java, mostly in Central Java, but the proportion of 

each species is not available. 


Prawirohatmodjo et al. (1993) observed that various 

insects such as leaf miners, defoliators and stem borers 

cause minor damage to Dalbergia trees in Java, but 

details are not available. Root feeding by the termites, 

Macrotermes gilvus and Odontotermes grandiceps 

occurs but damage is negligible (Intari et al. 1995). 

Diseases 

There is a high rate of mortality of nursery seedlings 

caused by damping-off fungi. In 1973, about 300 ha of 

a 15-year-old D. latifolia plantation in East Java was 

severely damaged by a disease characterised by inrolling 

of young leaves and discoloration of older leaves, 

followed by red streaks on the outer layers of sapwood, 

finally resulting in the death of the trees (Suharti and 

Hadi 1974). The disease was attributed to Fusarium 

solani. Root rot caused by Ganoderma sp. resulted in 

the death of trees in plantations and along roadsides in 

Yogyakarta (Widyastuti and Sumardi 1998). 


Several insect pests of Dalbergia spp. have been 

recorded outside Indonesia. In India, Pakistan and 

Nepal they include root-feeding termites, lepidopteran 

defoliators, curculionid defoliators, leaf miners and 

tree hoppers. Of these, the defoliator, Plecoptera 

reflexa (Lepidoptera, Noctuidae) has caused regular 

defoliation in plantations in northern India and Pakistan. 

Epidemics of the leaf miner, Leucoptera sphenograpta, 

have occurred occasionally in nurseries in India and 

Pakistan. As this insect outbreaks took place in 

northern latitudes with cooler climates, they are 

unlikely to be a threat in Indonesia. 

A large number of diseases, including damping-off, root 

rot and leaf blight of nursery seedlings; and leaf and 

twig rust, root rot, stem canker and leaf spot of older 

plants caused by a variety of fungi have been reported 

on D. sissoo in India. Some of these have also been 

recorded on D. latifolia. A wilt disease, similar to that 

reported by Suharti and Hadi (1974) on D. latifolia in 

Indonesia (see above), damaged D. sissoo in India 

(ICFRE 1995). Trees aged 15-25 years were 

susceptible. It was concluded that the soil borne


fungus, Fusarium solani, invades the root system, 

destroys the root hairs, the finer rootlets and the 

bacterial nodules, and travels a short distance along 

the stem, clogging vessels and tissues in the sapwood 

(which develops pinkish brown stain) and stopping 

the flow of sap to the crown and finally causing the 

tree to die. Although this appears to be a serious 

disease, no incidence of this disease has been reported 

in Indonesia since the first episode in 1973. As 

Dalbergia ssp.have been grown successfully in 

Indonesia for a long time, more critical study is 

needed on the differential susceptibility of D. sissoo 

and D. latifolia to F. solani wilt. 

4.7. Dipterocarpaceae 

(Dipterocarps) 

Indonesian common names: Meranti, Balau, 

Sengkawang, etc. 

Natural forests in Indonesia are dominated by 

dipterocarps but they have not received much attention 

as plantation species. Apart from experimental plantings 

in West Java since the 1950s, most planting has been 

enrichment planting of logged-over forests using 

wildlings. There is renewed interest in dipterocarps and 

plantations are being established, mainly in the provinces 

of West, Central, East and South Kalimantan, South 

Sumatra and Jambi (see Fig. 2.1). In addition, Perum 

Perhutani intends to use them to replace poor pine 

plantations in West Java. 

The species planted are mainly Shorea and 

Dipterocarpus spp. The genus Shorea consists of many 

species commercially grouped on wood characteristics 

into red meranti, white meranti, yellow meranti, balau 

and red balau. Most Shorea spp. have been tried in 

experimental plantations and the relatively fast-growing 

S. leprosula, S. selanica, S. javanica, S. smithiana and 

S. parviflora are receiving more attention. The rates 

of growth of these species differ between regions but 

S. leprosula grows faster in most places. In cooperation 

with Japanese plantation companies (Japan is the main 

importer of Indonesian dipterocarp timber), FERDA 

(Forestry and Estate Crops Research and Development 

Agency of Indonesia) and some universities have 

compared the performance of Shorea spp. seedlings 

and rooted cuttings and established experimental 

plantations. There will be about 500 ha of plantations in 

West Java and Sumatra (Riau and Jambi), mostly S. 

leprosula and S. selanica. 


Major insect pests recorded on dipterocarps are listed in 

Table 4.3. Various species of weevils (Coleoptera) and 

small moths (Lepidoptera) attack the seeds when the 

fruits are on the tree and after they are shed (Curran and 

Leighton 1991). They damage 40-90% of seeds of 

several Shorea spp., Dipterocarpus cornutus and Hopea 

odorata (Natawiria et al. 1986). Nursery seedlings of 

Shorea leprosula and S. parviflora in East Kalimantan 

are killed by gall forming mites (Rahayu et al. 1998). In 

Sumatra, a sap-sucking bug, Mucanum sp. (Hemiptera, 

Pentatomidae) kills Shorea javanica seedlings in nurseries 

(Intari 1996) and the sap-sucking cicada, Lawana 

candida, is an occasional pest of 7- to 9-year-old S. 

leprosula in East Kalimantan (Rahayu et al. 1998). 

Unidentified bagworms and other caterpillars have caused 

serious damage to 5-7-year-old trees of several Shorea 

spp. in East Kalimantan (Rahayu et al. 1998). The 

polyphagous caterpillar Calliteara cerigoides is a serious 

defoliator of dipterocarps in Indonesia (Messer et al. 1992, 

Matsumoto 1994). The species attacked include Shorea 

leprosula, S. pinanga, S. selanica, S. stenoptera, Hopea 

mengrawan and H. odorata. Some defoliated saplings of 

H. mengrawan succumbed to the damage. Minor leaf 

damage by caterpillars and scarabaeid beetles has been 

noticed in plantations of S. leprosula and S. selanica in 

West Java (K.S.S. Nair, unpublished observations). 

Termites attack living dipterocarps and may cause death 

of trees (Nuhamara 1977; Elouard 1998). 

Diseases 

Several fungi, including Cylindrocarpon sp. and 

Curvularia sp. attack dipterocarp seeds and reduce 

germinability. Seedlings and saplings suffer leaf spots, 

root and collar rots, defoliation, and darkening of root 

and twig bark, caused by a variety of fungi, notably, 

Fusarium spp. (Table 4.4). Information on fungi on 

dipterocarps in Indonesia and the diseases they cause 

is available in Elouard (1991, 1998). Gall formation on 

shoots of seedlings and saplings of Shorea spp. is 

attributed to the bacterium Agrobacterium tumefaciens 

in Java, Sumatra and Kalimantan and an insectvector is 

suspected (Elouard 1998). Recently, Rahayu et al. 

(1998) noted a similar disease resulting in abnormal 

tissue proliferation (prolepsis) and stunting of Shorea


Table 4.3. Insect pests of dipterocarps in Indonesia 



Common name 

Tree species 

Notes 

Seed damage 

Nanophyes shoreae 

(Coleoptera, Curculionidae) 

weevil 

Shorea spp. 

Hopea odorata 

Alcidodes dipterocarpi 


weevil 

Shorea smithiana and 

Dipterocarpus cornutus 

Unidentified pyralid (Lepidoptera) 

moth larva 

Shorea spp. 

Sap sucking 

Mucanum sp. 

(Hemiptera, Pentatomidae) 

plant bug 

Shorea javanica 

On seedlings in 

nurseries 

Lawana candida 

(Homoptera, Cicadidae) 

cicada 

Shorea leprosula 

Occasional pest on 

older plants 

Leaf feeding 

Calliteara cerigoides 

(Lepidoptera, Lymantriidae) 

hairy caterpillar 

Several species of Shorea 

and Hopea 

Serious pest 

Unidentified bagworm 

bagworm 

Shorea smithiana 

Unidentified beetles 

(Coleoptera, Scarabaeidae) 

scarabaeid 

beetles 

Shorea spp. 

Table 4.4. Diseases of dipterocarps in Indonesia 


Flower destruction and seed abortion 

Necrosis/decay of seeds 

Leaf spots, root and collar rot, bark 

necrosis and defoliation of seedlings 

Leaf spot and defoliation in saplings 

Gall formation on shoots of seedlings 

and saplings 

Heart rot of trees 


Curvularia harveyi 

Cylindrocarpon destructens (Nectria radiocola) 

Complex of bacteria and fungi 

Fusarium spp. 

Asterina, Capnodium, Cercospora, 

Collectotrichum and Pestalotia 

Agrobacterium tumefaciens 

- 

Species affected 

Shorea pinanga 

Shorea pinanga 

several 

Shorea spp. 

Many 

Shorea spp. 

S. javanica 

assamica and S. lamellata seedlings in East Kalimantan. 

They also found leaf spots, leaf blight and stem cankers 

on saplings of Shorea spp., but the damage was not 

serious. There is heart rot in about 10% of Shorea 

javanica tapped for resin in Sumatra (Elouard 1991). 


Insects in Indonesian dipterocarp plantations are 

polyphagous and none seems to be specially adapted to 

dipterocarps. The hairy caterpillar, Calliteara cerigoides 

has been consistently associated with experimental 

dipterocarp plantings but there is no serious pest 

problem in about 11 000 ha of Shorea johorensis, 

S. leprosula and S. parviflora plantations of PT. Kiani 

Hutani Lestari in East Kalimantan (Suhendi and 

Sembiring 1998). Except for Helopeltis clavifer 

(Hemiptera, Miridae) damage to seedlings, there has 

been no major pest problem in Malaysia where


dipterocarps have been planted for a longer period. An 

exception is Shorea robusta (sal) in India, where 

devastating outbreaks of a borer, Hoplocerambyx 

spinicornis (Coleoptera, Cerambycidae) have 

occurred periodically in northern latitudes (Roonwal 

1978). There was a large outbreak of a hairy 

caterpillar in over 12 000 ha of natural peat swamp 

forest of Shorea albida in Sarawak and Brunei during 

the 1950s (Anderson 1961). This may be an 

exceptional situation but details are sketchy. While 

there is no indication of any serious emerging pest 

problem in dipterocarps, the situation needs 

monitoring. In general, the resin present in 

dipterocarps may afford protection against insects. 

Diseases do not seem to be a major threat. 

4.8. Dyera spp. 

Indonesian common name: Jelutung 

At least three species of Dyera (Apocynaceae): 

D. costulata, D. polyphylla and D. lowii occur in 

Indonesia (Whitten et al. 1987; Kessler and Sidiyasa 

1994). In Kalimantan, D. costulata and D. polyphylla 

occur in lowland swamp forests and they have been 

tapped for latex and their soft timber used for 

manufacturing plywood, toys, boards, etc. 

Plantations of Dyera spp. are being established South 

Kalimantan and Jambi provinces. 


No information is available. 

Diseases 

No information is available except for the occurrence 

of sapstain fungi on freshly cut logs (Martono 1989). 


Little information is available from other countries. 

In Malaysia, where there are trial plantations of 

D. costulata (Appanah and Weinland 1993), seeds 

were damaged by ants (Duncan 1977) but no major 

pests recorded. The timber is susceptible to damage 

by powder-post beetles. It appears that there is no 

major threat of pests and diseases for plantations of 

Dyera spp. Perhaps the latex affords protection as it 

does in most other Apocyanaceae. 

4.9. Eucalyptus spp. 

Indonesian common names: Empupu, Leda, 

Ekaliptus 

As in many tropical countries, Eucalyptus spp. 

(Myrtaceae) have been planted over large areas in 

Indonesia for pulpwood production. The main species 

planted are E. deglupta and E. urophylla, which are 

native to Indonesia although their natural distribution 

is in the eastern islands. Many other species have been 

tried in small-scale experimental plantations, notably, 

E. camaldulensis, E. grandis, E. pellita, E. tereticornis 

and E. torelliana. Most plantations are in Sumatra 

(Aceh, North Sumatra, Jambi) and Kalimantan (West, 

East and South Kalimantan). 


In the nursery, eucalypt seedlings may be attacked by 

several insects, including a pyralid leaf roller (probably 

Archips micaceana), the jassid bug, Kolla bataviae, the 

curculionid shoot borer, Alcides sp. and the teamosquito 

bug, Helopeltis spp. (Table 4.5) (Hardi 1993; 

Rachmatsyah and Haneda 1998). Generally, they have 

not posed a major threat, and chemical control methods 

have been tested (Hardi 1993). Transplanted saplings 

are attacked, particularly during the field establishment 

phase, by species of subterranean termites that often 

cause substantial mortality unless prophylactic chemical 

protection is given (Intari and Natawiria 1976; Selander 

1990; Santoso and Hardi 1991). Older plants are 

attacked by Helopeltis spp., which cause dieback of 

young shoots and are a serious pest in North Sumatra 

where up to 57% of trees may be infested (Hardi and 

Intari 1990). Saplings are attacked by Zeuzera coffeae 

(Lepidoptera, Cossidae), which bore into the stem and 

often cause it to break; Suratmo (1996) reported that 

12-30% of saplings might be infested in Sumatra and 

Kalimantan. Recently, an unidentified borer killed 1000 

ha of 2-3-year-old E. deglupta plantation of PT. Hutan 

Kusuma (Soepangkat 1998). Most probably, this 

damage was caused by the varicose borer, Agrilus 

sexsignatus (Coleoptera, Buprestidae) which devastated 

some plantations in the Philippines in the 1970s. 

Eucalyptus deglupta trees weakened by other 

causes and the Papua New Guinea provenances 

are very susceptible to this borer whose density in 

attacked plants has reached 37 larvae m -2 of wood 

surface in the Philippines (Braza 1988, 1992).


Table 4.5. Insect pests of eucalypts in Indonesia 

Category 


Common name 

Notes 

Nursery pests 

Helopeltis spp. 


Tea mosquito bug 

Unidentified 

(Lepidoptera, Pyralidae) 

Leaf roller 

Alcides sp. 


Shoot borer 

On young transplants 

Several species (Termitidae) 

Subterranean termites 

Causes plant mortality 

Saplings 

Helopeltis spp. 


Tea-mosquito bug 

Causes die-back of 

shoots 

Zeuzera coffeae 

(Lepidoptera, Cossidae) 

Red borer 

Unidentified borer (probably Agrilus 

sp., Coleoptera, Buprestidae) 

Only on weakened trees, 

causes heavy mortality 

In general, there are no major pest problems in older 

eucalypt plantations. 

Diseases 

In the nursery, eucalypt seedlings are susceptible to 

damping-off by Pythium and Fusarium spp. (Sitepu 

and Suharti 1998). The diseases can be managed by 

appropriate nursery techniques (controlling soil 

quality, water regime and crowding of seedlings) and, 

when necessary by fungicides. Older seedlings and 

saplings are affected by leaf spot diseases caused 

by several fungi (Table 4.6). Stem canker of saplings 

caused by Corticium salmonicolor (pink disease) has 

occurred in North Sumatra but little information is 

available on its severity and extent of incidence. 

Death of older trees caused by root rot has often 

been noted and the associated pathogens were 

Pythium sp., Phytophthora sp. and Botryodiplodia 

sp. (Anggraeni and Suharti 1997). In a 7-year-old 

plantation of E. urophylla examined by one of us 

(K.S.S.N.) at Sebulu, East Kalimantan, several trees 

in patches were found dead due to root disease. In 

future plantings in this area E. urophylla is being 

replaced with E. pellita which is less susceptible to 

diseases (S.S. Maurits personal communication). 

Stem canker was also observed on some trees. Stem 

canker on Eucalyptus has been attributed to Nectria 

sp. (Nazif and Suharti 1990) and in Riau, Sumatra, 

52% of 5-year-old trees in a 10 ha E. urophylla 

plantation had stem canker (Nectria sp.) and nearly 

5% were killed (Suharti and Santoso 1995). 


Pests are not a major constraint to eucalypt 

plantations. Nursery pests, and termites that attack 

the out-planted saplings during plantation 

establishment stage, can be effectively managed. 

Table 4.6. Diseases of eucalypts in Indonesia 

Disease 

Damping-off 

Leaf spot 

Leaf blight 

Pink disease 

Root rot 

Stem canker 


Pythium sp., 

Fusarium sp. 

Pestalotia sp., 

Curvularia sp., 

Mycosphaerella spp. 

Cylindrocladium 

multiseptatum 

Kirramyces 

destructens 

Corticium 

salmonicolor 

Phytophthora sp., 

Botryodiplodia sp. 

Nectria sp. 

Notes 

In nurseries 

On seedlings 

and saplings 

On saplings 

On saplings 

On saplings 

On older trees 

On older trees


Experience with extensive eucalypt plantations outside 

Indonesia is similar. The buprestid borer, Agrilus 

sexsignatus, which affected some plantations in the 

Philippines, was restricted to plantations growing on 

poor sites and a particular provenance. Two serious 

pests of eucalypts of Australian origin, Phoracantha 

(borer) and Gonipterus (defoliator), were accidentally 

introduced into some eucalypt growing countries in 

Africa and the Mediterranean where they spread rapidly 

causing economic damage. Therefore, vigilance is 

necessary against accidental introduction of these pests. 

Nursery diseases can be kept in check by using 

fungicides and appropriate nursery management 

techniques. However, root disease affecting older trees 

is a serious problem which is likely to be aggravated in 

the future because inoculum build up will occur over 

successive short rotations and there is no effective control 

method. Root isolation by trenching around diseased trees 

is practised but is costly and not fully effective. 

Phytophthora sp. is one of the causative agents identified. 

Phytophthora cinnamomi is a serious and widespread 

pathogen of E. marginata (jarrah) forests in Australia, 

with a wide host range (Keane et al. 2000). There is 

urgent need for an in-depth study of the fungi associated 

with root rot of eucalypts in Indonesia and to screen 

Eucalyptus species and provenances for resistance to 

root rot. Leaf diseases, e.g. Cylindrocladium spp., have 

been a serious problem in humid tropical environments 

in parts of Asia, but while some have been recorded in 

Indonesia, e.g. Macrophoma sp., they are not yet 

considered a potential threat. 

4.10. Eusideroxylon zwageri 

Indonesian common name: Ulin 

Eusideroxlon zwageri (Lauraceae), also called ironwood, 

is a highly valued indigenous timber species in Indonesia. 

It is a monotypic species distributed in Sumatra, 

Kalimantan and some adjacent islands (Kostermans et 

al. 1993). It is one of the heaviest and highly durable 

timbers and has a variety of uses. In Sumatra and 

Kalimantan it is traditionally used for roof shingles. 

Plantations are being established in South Kalimantan. 


There are no records of pests on the living tree, but 

seeds are damaged by insects (Kostermans et al. 

1993). The wood is highly resistant to termite attack. 

Diseases 

No disease of the living tree is on record. 


Although there is very little plantation experience with 

this species, available information suggests that there 

is no threat of pests and diseases. 

4.11. Gmelina arborea 

Indonesian common name: Gmelina 

Gmelina arborea (Verbenaceae) is exotic to 

Indonesia, although the related G. moluccana occurs 

naturally in the Moluccas (Yap et al. 1993). It is a 

relatively fast growing species, which produces a 

lightweight hardwood suitable for construction, 

carving, etc. It also yields good quality pulp. There 

are large-scale plantations in Sumatra (Riau, West 

Sumatra, Jambi, South Sumatra and Lampung), 

Kalimantan (West, Central, South and East 

Kalimantan) and the Moluccas (Fig. 2.1). Small 

plantations have been raised in Java. 


No major insect pests have been found on G. arborea 

plantations in Indonesia, although there are minor pests. 

One of the insects consistently associated with it is a 

carpenter worm, Prionoxystus sp. (Lepidoptera, 

Cossidae). The larva bores into the stem of saplings, 

feeds from within and weakens the tree. In East 

Kalimantan, 5-70% of saplings may be infested 

(Ngatiman and Tangketasik 1987) and it also occurs in 

Java and Sumatra. Injecting the larval tunnel with 

lubricant oil and plugging the hole was effective for 

control (Pramono et al. 1998). One of us (K.S.S.N.) 

observed at Sebulu, East Kalimantan about 80% of 

saplings stumped to produce multiple shoots in a clonal 

multiplication area, were infested by this borer. The 

infestation is conspicuous because the larval frass 

accumulates on the ground, at the base of the plant. 

However, the damage is not serious. Multiple infestations 

may weaken the saplings, but they are not killed, and 

the insect does not build up in large numbers because it 

passes through only one generation per year. Shoot 

cuttings kept in the nursery for rooting were attacked 

by an unidentified borer, possibly, Alcidodes ludificator 

(syn. Alcides gmelinae) (Coleoptera, Curculionidae). 

This small curculionid beetle bores into the young green


shoots of G. arborea in India and Myanmar (Beeson 

1941). In a review paper, Suratmo (1996) listed 

Alcidodes ludificator and Apion argulicolle (Coleoptera, 

Curculionidae) as pests of G. arborea in Indonesia. He 

also listed Xyleborus fornicatus (Coleoptera, 

Scolytidae), Selepa celtis (Lepidoptera, Noctuidae) and 

Calopepla leayana (Coleoptera, Chrysomelidae) among 

pests of G. arborea and observed that in 2-3-year-old 

trees 100% defoliation has been recorded. However, 

Sitepu and Suharti (1998) have listed only Prionoxystus 

sp. as a pest of G. arborea. Other insects recorded 

include the well-known teak beehole borer, Xyleutes 

ceramicus (Rachmatsyah and Haneda 1998). 

Diseases 

In nurseries, damping off caused by Pythium, 

Phytophthora and Rhizoctonia spp. is common 

(Rahayu 1999). Anthracnose disease characterised by 

sudden death of seedlings, caused by Colletotrichum 

sp., has been reported (Kobayashi and Zinno 1984). 

Root rot disease caused by Botryodiplodia sp. has 

affected young plantations in South Kalimantan, Jambi 

and Sumatra (Anggraeni and Suharti 1997). 

Ganoderma sp. has been isolated from the roots of 

dead trees of G. arborea in the campus of Gajah Mada 

University in Yogyakarta. 


Gmelina arborea has several serious pests in countries 

where it is native. The most damaging is the beetle 

defoliator, C. leayana. Suratmo (1996) lists it as a pest 

of G. arborea in Indonesia but no details are available 

and other reviewers do not mention it. Since this is a 

potentially dangerous pest which has become a limiting 

factor for large-scale cultivation of G. arborea in its 

native range, more investigation is needed on the 

occurrence and severity of this pest in Indonesia. Other 

serious pests of G. arborea outside Indonesia include 

the sap-sucking bug, Tingis beesoni (Hemiptera, 

Tingidae) which builds up in outbreak proportions in 

young plantations, causing defoliation and shoot dieback 

in India (Beeson 1941; Nair and Mathew 1988); 

the defoliator, Ozola minor (Lepidoptera, Geometridae) 

in the Philippines (Yemane 1990); and the stem borer, 

Glena indiana (Coleoptera, Cerambycidae) in Thailand 

(Hutacharern 1990). None of these has been reported 

in Indonesia. At present, there are no major pest 

problems in G. arborea plantations in Indonesia. This is 

a similar situation to Brazil and some African countries 

where G. arborea has been planted as an exotic. Two 

common minor pests in Indonesia are the cossid borer, 

Prionoxystus sp., attacking saplings and the unidentified 

curculionid borer attacking green shoots in the nursery. 

In clonal multiplication orchards and high value 

plantations, where attention can be given to individual 

plants, Prionoxystus sp. can be controlled by injecting 

a suitable insecticide solution to the larval tunnel or by 

pricking the larva using a wire probe. The curculionid 

borer in nurseries can also be controlled by using 

insecticides. Except for nursery diseases, for which 

effective control measures are available, there is no 

threat of diseases for G. arborea. 

4.12. Gonystylus bancanus 

Indonesian common name: Ramin 

Gonystylus bancanus (Thymelaeceae) is the most 

popular of the several species of Gonystylus endemic 

to the Malesian region. It is a characteristic associate 

of the dipterocarp forests in the lowland swamps in 

Sumatra and Kalimantan and is highly prized for its 

smooth whitish timber suitable for a variety of light 

construction, including cabinets (Soerianegara et al. 

1993). In addition to enrichment planting in logged 

over forests, industrial plantations of G. bancanus are 

being established in Jambi province in Sumatra. 

Pests 

No information is available on pests of G. bancanus, 

except that freshly felled timber is susceptible to 

pinhole borers. 

Diseases 

A disease of unknown etiology, affecting the 

heartwood of G. bancanus and G. macrophyllus, is 

known to produce ‘garrowood’, a highly valued 

resinous product used in perfumery (Sumadiwangsa 

1997). Although garrowood produced by Aquilaria 

spp. is the most highly prized, Gonystylus also shows 

potential. Except for this ‘beneficial disease’, no other 

disease is known. 


Gonystylus bancanus appears to be free of pests and 

diseases, but the plantation history is too short to 

become complacent. Continued monitoring is 

necessary.


4.13. Koompassia species 

Indonesian common name: Kempas 

The leguminous Koompassia spp. are characteristic 

associates of dipterocarp forests in the lowlands and 

lower hills. The three Indonesian species are 

Koompassia excelsa and K. malaccensis in Sumatra 

and Kalimantan and K. grandiflora in Irian Jaya. The 

dominant Koompassia trees in the upper storey are 

well known for sustaining the combs of the wild 

honeybee, Apis dorsata. The timber is durable and is 

used for a variety of purposes, including railway 

sleepers, flooring and furniture. Koompassia spp. in 

natural forests are now protected from cutting and 

the Ministry of Forestry and Estate Crops is 

encouraging the forest concessionaires to raise 

plantations of these species. Plantations have been 

established in Central Kalimantan. 


No information is available on pests of the living tree. 

Diseases 

No information is available on diseases of the living 

tree. 


Koompassia spp. appear to be free of pests and diseases 

but the plantation history is too short to draw valid 

conclusions. 

4.14. Maesopsis eminii 

Indonesian common name: Kayu afrika, Misopsis 

Maesopsis eminii (Rhamnaceae), a native of tropical 

Africa, was introduced into Java in 1920s and grown 

in home gardens. It has a light, general-purpose timber. 

Plantations have been raised in Sumatra. 


No insect pests have been recorded. 

Diseases 

No diseases have been recorded. 


In Uganda, a canker, caused by Fusarium solani was 

described in young trees growing stunted in poor soil 

(Schabel and Latiff 1993). There is no threat of pests 

and diseases to this species that has been grown 

successfully for a long time in agroforestry systems 

in Java. 

4.15. Mangrove species 

Indonesian common name: Mangrove 

Natural mangrove forests are common along the very 

long Indonesian coastline. Plantations have been raised 

mainly to restore the natural vegetation in heavily 

degraded areas, to prevent coastal erosion, to facilitate 

coastal fisheries and to protect swamps. The 

commonly planted species are in the genera Avicennia, 

Bruguiera, Rhizophora and Sonneratia. Large 

plantations have been raised only in Java, while local 

people have undertaken small-scale planting in Bali and 

other places. Nearly 50 000 ha of plantations of 

Rhizophora spp. have been established in West and 

Central Java (Perum Perhutani 1995). 


The most common pests of mangroves in Indonesia 

are scale insects that attach themselves to the shoots 

and feed on the plant sap, often causing the leaves to 

wilt. Two species have been recorded: Chionaspis 

sp. (Intari 1997) and Aulacaspis marina (Takagi and 

Williams 1998) (Table 4.7). The stem borer, Zeuzera 

conferta (Lepidoptera, Cossidae) and the twig borer, 

Xyleborus sp. (Coleoptera, Scolytidae) occur and in 

combination often infest nearly 50% of stems of 

Avicennia spp. (Hardi 1997). Other pests, noted 

occasionally, include an unidentified leaf-feeding 

beetle, which damaged up to 80% of 3-month-old 

seedlings (Intari 1986) and the bagworms, 

Acanthopsyche sp. (Intari 1982) and Pteroma 

plagiophleps (Sitepu and Suharti 1998). A notable, 

non-insect pest is the crab, Sesarma sp. that cuts off 

the tops of seedlings in the nursery and new 

outplantings, often causing considerable mortality 

(Intari 1988).


Table 4.7. Insect pests of mangroves in Indonesia 



Common name 

Tree species affected 

Notes 

Sap sucking 

Chionaspis sp. 

(Homoptera, Coccoidea, 

Diaspididae) 

Scale insect 

Rhizophora spp. and 

Bruguiera gymnorhiza 

Aulacaspis marina 

(Homoptera, Coccoidea, 

Diaspididae) 

Scale insect 

Rhizophora spp. 

Leaf feeding 

Unidentified beetle 

(Coleoptera) 

Beetle 

Bruguiera spp. 

On seedlings 

Pteroma plagiophleps 

(Lepidoptera, 

Psychidae) 

Bagworm 


Acanthopsyche sp. 

(Lepidoptera, 

Psychidae) 

Bagworm 

Bruguiera sp. 

Stem boring 

Zeuzera conferta 


Beehole borer 

Avicennia sp. and 


Stem borer 

Xyleborus spp. 


Scolytid borer 

Avicennia sp. and 


Twig borer 


Among the insect pests in Indonesia, the borer, 

Z. conferta, has also been recognised as a pest of 

mangroves in Bangladesh (Chowdhury 1996). Most 

pests recorded affect the establishment stage and 

have seriously threatened the cultivation of 

mangroves. Rhizophora spp. have been grown 

successfully in Java for a long time. Defoliation 

during every summer, as occurs in Avicennia marina 

in Hong Kong (Anderson and Lee 1995), is rare. 

There are occasional defoliator outbreaks in natural 

stands of mangroves. In 1983, 500-1000 ha of an 

almost pure stand of Excoecaria agallocha 

(Euphorbiacae) was mass defoliated by caterpillars 

of Ophiusa melicerta (syn. Achaea janata) 

(Lepidoptera, Noctuidae) in North Sumatra (Whitten 

and Damanik 1986). Other such outbreaks include 

mass defoliation of the same species by Achaea serva 

(Lepidoptera, Noctuidae) in central Queensland, 

Australia (McKillup and McKillup 1997); of 

Avicennia alba by larvae of Cleora injectaria 

(Lepidoptera, Geometridae) in Thailand 

(Piyakarnchana 1981); and of A. marina by Hyblaea 

puera (Lepidoptera, Noctuidae) in India (Anonymous 

1996). These outbreaks are occasional events and 

are not a threat to mangrove plantations, particularly 

as the trees are not killed by defoliation. 

The only serious disease reported from the tropics is 

top death of Heritiera fomes over extensive areas of 

the mangrove forests of Sunderbans in Bangladesh 

(Rahman 1996), the etiology of which is not fully 

understood although some fungi and bacteria were 

implicated. There is no threat of diseases to mangrove 

plantations in Indonesia. 

4.16. Melaleuca cajuputi 

Indonesian common name: Kayu putih 

Melaleuca cajuputi, formerly known as M. leucodendron 

(Myrtaceae) (Blake 1968; Turnbull 1986), is native to 

Indonesia and planted in Java and Buru island in the 

Moluccas, particularly in degraded areas. It yields 

cajuput oil, which is distilled from the leaves. There 

are about 11 800 ha of plantations in the three provinces 

of Java (Perum Perhutani 1995).



Several species of subterranean termites are reported 

to attack young trees, up to 6 years old, often causing 

mortality up to 80% (Intari 1979; Intari and 

Wiriadinata 1984). Insecticidal treatments have been 

standardised for control. Among non-insect pests, a 

mite causes leaf gall. 

Diseases 

No disease has been encountered. 


Melaleuca cajuputi (as M. leucodendron) has been 

cultivated successfully in Indonesia for a long time. 

Apart from the subterranean termites that can be 

controlled effectively by soil treatment with suitable 

insecticides, there is no major threat of pests and 

diseases. The leaves contain chemical components 

that act as a feeding repellent to some insects 

(Doskotch et al. 1980; Alonso et al. 1996). 

4.17. Ochroma pyramidale 

Indonesian common name: Balsa 

Ochroma pyramidale (syn. O. lagopus; O. 

grandiflora) (Bombacaceae) has been planted in small 

areas in Indonesia, particularly, Java. A typical 

pioneering species native to Central and South America 

(Wiselius 1998), it has been planted mainly in degraded 

lands in Java and plantations are being established in 

Central Kalimantan. 


The red borer, Zeuzera coffeae (Lepidoptera, 

Cossidae) has been reported in a plantation 1.5 years 

old in Java (Wiselius 1998). This moth caterpillar is 

known to attack coffee, tea, cinchona and a few other 

small trees. The larvae bore into woody stems and 

branches and make a longitudinal tunnel along the pith, 

often causing death of the distal part of the branch. In 

most species it has not been a serious threat. No other 

pest has been noted on this species in Indonesia. 

Diseases 

No disease of O. pyramidale has been reported from 

Indonesia. 


Pests of O. pyramidale, recorded outside Indonesia, 

include a shoot borer, Anadasmus porinodus 

(Lepidoptera, Stenomidae) in Costa Rica (Becker 

1974) and a leaf roller, Sylepta derogata (Lepidoptera, 

Pyralidae), a common pest of malvaceous plants, in 

Kerala, India (Mathew 1980). All the known pests, 

including Z. coffeae in Indonesia, are polyphagous 

insects and there is no major threat to plantations of 

O. pyramidale in Indonesia. 

Diseases recorded outside Indonesia include a brown 

root rot in areas previously planted with cocoa in Papua 

New Guinea, caused by Phellinus noxius (Dennis 

1992); a bark canker in Ecuador, with which the 

hyphomycetes fungus Stilbella ecuadorensis was 

associated (Morgan et al. 1991); and a die-back in 

Kerala, India with which the fungi, Calonectria 

rigidiuscula and Fusarium moniliformae were 

associated (Sharma et al. 1985). However, there is no 

threat of disease in Indonesia where the tree has been 

grown successfully for a considerable time. 

4.18. Octomeles sumatrana 

Common name in Indonesia: Benuang 

Octomeles sumatrana (Datiscaceae) occurs naturally 

in Indonesia, except in Java and Nusa Tenggara 

(Fundter et al. 1997). It is fast growing and produces 

a light timber which is used for indoor construction. 

Plantations are being raised in Sumatra under the HTI 

scheme. 


The leaves are attacked by a moth caterpillar, 

Characoma sp. (Fundter et al. 1997). No information 

is available on the seriousness of damage. 

Diseases 

No diseases are known. 


No reliable judgment can be made as the plantation 

history is so short.


4.19. Paraserianthes falcataria 

Indonesian common name: Sengon laut 

Paraserianthes falcataria (Leguminosae) is an 

exceptionally fast growing tree, native to the eastern 

islands of the Indonesian archipelago and New Guinea. 

It is widely planted in Indonesia, in industrial 

plantations in Java, Sumatra, Kalimantan, Sulawesi, 

Nusa Tenggara and Moluccas (Fig. 2.1), and in 

smallholder plantations in Java. The rotation period is 

usually 8 years. The area of large and small plantations 

has increased steadily over recent years. Wood from 

industrial plantations is used for pulp, whereas that 

from smallholder plantations has a variety of uses, 

including chopsticks, packing cases and furniture for 

local use. 


The major pests recorded on P. falcataria are listed in 

Table 4.8. The most notable is Xystrocera festiva 

(Coleoptera, Cerambycidae), which is becoming more 

serious as the area planted to the host increases. First 

reported in 1897 (Hardi et al. 1996), it is present in 

most areas where P. falcataria is grown in Indonesia, 

although most reports are from Java and Sumatra. In 

1990 it was not noted in trial plantations in South 

Kalimantan (Selander 1990) although Ngatiman and 

Tangketasik (1987) detected it in East Kalimantan. The 

severity of incidence appears to be higher in Java 

where the host has been cultivated for a long period. 

It has several other hosts including Acacia spp., 

Pithecellobium sp., Samanea saman, and 

Enterolobium sp. Xystrocera festiva is one of the most 

studied forest insects in Indonesia and detailed 

information is available on its biology and impact. 

Matsumoto (1994) covers some aspects of its ecology 

and Kasno and Husaeni (1998) present a summary of 

its present status, with emphasis on control. The beetle 

lays eggs on fissures in the bark and the larvae initially 

feed underneath the bark, burrowing deeper into the 

wood as they grow to maturity in about 4 months. 

The larvae are somewhat gregarious, with several 

present at each infestation site. Severe infestation 

reduces the yield and quality of the wood, and often 

leads to death of the tree. Infestation usually begins 

when the trees are 2-3 years old and the percentage 

of infested trees increase with age. In East Java, the 

estimated yield loss is about 12% if the trees are 

harvested when 4 years old, and about 74% if 

harvested after 8 years (Notoatmodjo 1963). 

Xystrocera festiva is currently controlled by cutting 

and removing infested trees to prevent build up of the 

beetle population. In Government-owned plantations, 

this is incorporated into the regular thinning operations 

carried out at 3, 4, 5 and 6 years of age, by removing 

infested trees first instead of systematic thinning to 

reduce competition between trees. This has reduced 

the infestation rate to between 4-10% of trees, 

although this is not sufficient (Kasno and Husaeni 

1998). They recommend an integrated control 

strategy, involving, (1) a 3-monthly inspection, during 

which early infestations are detected and the bark 

removed from the infested portion of the trunk to 

expose and kill the early larvae, (2) annual thinning to 

remove infested trees, and (3) release of the egg 

parasitoid, Anagyrus sp. These may prove helpful, 

although detecting early infestations on top portions 

of the trunk is not practicable and release of egg 

parasitoid is not likely to be cost-effective until rearing 

methods for the parasitoid are standardised and field 

effectiveness of parasitoid release demonstrated. 

Further research is also needed to standardise the 

promising method of using green light to attract and 

trap adult beetles (Husaeni et al. 1998). 

A small population of the related species, Xystrocera 

globosa, has been found on P. falcataria (Matsumoto 

1994). This pest is widespread and is known to attack 

several leguminous tree species, particularly, if they 

are unhealthy (Beeson 1941). 

Next in importance is the small bagworm, Pteroma 

plagiophleps (Lepidoptera, Psychidae) that defoliates 

the tree. It is a sporadic pest, but some companies in 

Sumatra, have reported severe infestations. These 

usually occur repeatedly in endemic patches. The 

female moths are wingless and dispersal is limited. 

The larvae live inside conical bags made out of the 

host plant material, and feed on the leaves and bark in 

large numbers. The leaves are skeletonised and 

eventually shed. Repeated heavy infestations may result 

in tree dieback. A 5-year-old plantation in South 

Sumatra had a severe attack from 1994 to 1997 

(Zulfiah 1998).


Another sporadic pest is the yellow butterfly, Eurema 

spp. (mainly E. blanda and to a lesser extent E. hecabe 

and others), whose caterpillars often build up in large 

numbers and cause locally widespread defoliation. 

Severe defoliation occurs occasionally in Java, 

Sumatra, Kalimantan and Sulawesi (Tikupadang et al. 

1993; Irianto et al. 1997; Suhendi and Sembiring 

1998). Although heavy defoliation may cause dieback 

of branches (Irianto et al. 1997), the infestation is 

usually transient and the damage not serious. 

Other minor pests reported on P. falcataria include a 

few species of scarabaeid beetles whose larvae feed 

on the roots of saplings, the bark feeding caterpillar, 

Indarbela quadrinotata, the twig borer, Xylosandrus 

morigerus (Tikupadang et al. 1993) (Table 4.8), and 

other polyphagous, occasional feeders. 

plantations in South Kalimantan and Jambi, Sumatra 

(Anggraeni and Suharti 1997). Older trees are attacked 

by root rot fungi of the genera, Ganoderma (Widyastuti 

et al. 2000) Ustulina and Rosellinia. Dieback due to 

unknown reasons has been reported by some 

companies. Generally, root rot is a problem only in trees 

older than 10 years. Except for nursery diseases that 

can be controlled, P. falcataria does not suffer from 

any major disease. 

Table 4.9. Diseases of Paraserianthes falcataria in Indonesia 

Disease 

Damping-off 


Pythium sp. 

Phytophthora sp. 

Rhizoctonia sp. 

Notes 

On seedlings 

Diseases 

Damping-off caused by Pythium, Phytophthora and 

Rhizoctonia spp. is common in nurseries (Table 4.9). 

Anthracnose disease, characterised by sudden death of 

the seedlings and caused by Colletotrichum sp., has 

been reported (Kobayashi and Zinno 1984). Root rot 

disease caused by Botryodiplodia sp. occurs in young 

Anthracnose 

disease 

Root rot 

Colletotrichum sp. 


Ganoderma sp. 

Ustulina sp. 

Rosellinia sp. 

On seedlings 

On young trees 

On older trees 

Table 4.8. Insect pests of Paraserianthes falcataria in Indonesia 



Common name 

Notes 

Trunk boring 

Xystrocera festiva 

(Coleoptera, Cerambycidae) 

Sengon borer 

(albizia borer) 

Serious pest 

X. globosa 

- 

Minor pest 

Leaf feeding 

Pteroma plagiophleps 


Small bagworm 

Occasionally serious; 

feeds also on bark 

surface 

Eurema blanda 

(Lepidoptera, Pieridae) 

Yellow butterfly caterpillar 

Sporadic 

Root feeding 

Several species 


White grubs 

On saplings 

Bark feeding 

Indarbela quadrinotata 

(Lepidoptera, Indarbelidae) 

Bark caterpillar 

Twig boring 

Xylosandrus morigerus 


Scolytid beetle



The borer X. festiva is a major threat to P. falcataria 

plantations in Indonesia. Regular surveillance and 

removal of infested trees reduces the incidence of attack 

but extension efforts to promote this method and further 

research to develop improved control techniques are 

needed. It is a serious pest of P. falcataria plantations 

in Malaysia but not in the rest of tropical Asia. The 

bagworm, Pteroma plagiophleps and the yellow 

butterfly, Eurema spp. are widespread pests with the 

bagworm potentially capable of causing serious 

damage in endemic patches of infestation. In Kerala, 

India, it caused dieback and death of trees in patches 

where repeated defoliation occurred (Nair and 

Mathew 1992). Vigilance is necessary against this 

insect, particularly because it infests many other tree 

species in Indonesia, facilitating build up to high 

population levels. Appropriate management methods 

need to be developed. The yellow butterfly is also 

capable of causing sporadic, locally widespread 

defoliation, but since the impact is not serious, it is 

not a major threat to plantations. Other pests are of 

minor significance. 

Nursery diseases can be managed effectively. Root 

rot is generally not a serious problem, except in trees 

older than 10 years, and is not a threat to plantations 

managed on shorter rotations. Dieback caused by 

Botryodiplodia theobromae has been noted in Kerala, 

India, but bark injury caused by fire or other agencies 

is considered to be a predisposing factor (Sharma and 

Sankaran 1988). In the Philippines, canker caused by 

Corticium salmonicolor is a common problem, but its 

impact is not serious (Anino 1990). Thus diseases do 

not appear to be a threat to P. falcataria plantations in 

Indonesia. The problems with Botryodiplodia and 

Corticium spp. in other countries may be due to a 

narrow genetic base of the host where P. falcataria is 

an introduced species. 

4.20. Peronema canescens 

Indonesian common name: Sungkai 

Peronema canescens (Verbenaceae) belongs to a 

monotypic genus indigenous to Indonesia (Kalimantan 

and Sumatra) and Malaysia. Often called “jati sabrang” 

(teak across Java) it yields high quality timber, almost 

comparable to teak, used for furniture and decorative 

veneers. It is being planted extensively in Sumatra, 

Kalimantan and West Java and it is also popular as a 

border tree in private holdings in Java. It is highly 

valued for construction timber because it grows faster 

than teak. 


An unidentified shoot-boring insect causes 

deformation of young trees (Graaf et al. 1993). The 

nymphs of an unidentified bug, Clovia sp. 

(Homoptera, Aphrophoridae) suck the sap of young 

leaves, enclosed in a mass of froth on the underside 

of the leaf, but damage is negligible (Matsumoto 1994). 

There has been moderate defoliation of P. canescens 

by an unknown insect (Selander 1990). 

Diseases 

Leaf rust has often been noted on seedlings grown 

under shade. Infestation by a superficial, black mildew 

fungus, probably Meliola sp., is also common 

(Selander 1990). 


There appears to be no threat of pests or diseases, but 

the plantation history is too short to arrive at valid 

conclusions. 

4.21. Pinus merkusii 

Indonesian common name: Tusam 

The tropical pine, Pinus merkusii (Pinaceae), occurs 

naturally in the mountains of northern Sumatra. It has 

been planted widely in Indonesia for afforestation and 

protection of watersheds since the 1960s. It yields a 

general-purpose timber but most plantations were for 

pulpwood production. The estimated area of pine 

plantations in Indonesia is 700 000 ha (Nambiar et al. 

1998). It is planted in Aceh, North Sumatra and in 

West, Central, and East Java. Java has about 584 000 

ha of plantations that are tapped for resin (Perum 

Perhutani 1995). 


There are three main pests of P. merkusii in Indonesia 

(Table 4.10). The most damaging is the tusam pitch 

moth, Dioryctria rubella (Lepidoptera, Pyralidae).


Table 4.10. Insect pests of Pinus merkusii in Indonesia 



Common name 

Notes 

Shoot and stem 

boring 

Dioryctria rubella 


Tusam pitch moth 

Causes shoot die-back and 

stem distortion 

Foliage feeding 

Miliona basalis 

(Lepidoptera, Geometridae) 

Pine looper 

Nesodiprion biremis 

(Hymenoptera, Diprionidae) 

Pine sawfly 



Bagworms 

Generally, minor pests, but 

outbreaks known in natural 

stands 

Root feeding 



White grubs 

On roots of saplings 

Coptotermes sp. 

(Isoptera, Rhinotermitidae) 

Termites 

Feeds on root collar 

The moth lays eggs on young shoots and the larvae 

bore into them. It causes dieback of the shoots and 

stem. It has been considered to be a stem borer rather 

than a shoot borer because of serious damage caused 

to the stem by the larval tunnel extending upto 30 cm 

(Matsumoto 1994). It is a serious pest in North 

Sumatra. Thousands of hectares of young plantations 

were affected in an outbreak in 1982 (Supriana and 

Natawiria 1987b). There is no effective control 

method against this pest. 

The pine looper, Miliona basalis (Lepidoptera, 

Geometridae) feeds on the needles and most damage 

is to young plantations. Frequent, but short-lived, 

outbreaks occurred in the 1950s in plantations in 

North Sumatra, during which the egg parasitoid 

Trichogramma minutus was released for control 

(Supriana and Natawiria 1987b). Sporadic outbreaks 

have continued in the 1970s and 1980s 

(Mangundikoro and Depari 1958; Husaeni 1993). 

It has also been recorded in Aceh. A third pest, 

Nesodiprion biremis (Hymenoptera, Diprionidae) 

causes sporadic light defoliation in North Sumatra. 

Groups of 5-25 larvae feed on the distal three-fourths 

of the needles. Generally, the infestation level is not 

considered serious (Supriana and Natawiria 1987b). 

These three pests have not been reported from Java 

although pine plantations have been raised there for 

many years. 

Other pests on P. merkusii in Indonesia include white 

grubs that attack roots of seedlings in nursery (Intari 

and Natawiria 1973), termites (Coptotermes sp.) that 

attack the root collar and lower stem of saplings 

(Suharti et al.1991) and leaf-feeding bagworms 

(Pteroma plagiophleps, Eumeta sp. and Cryptothelia 

variegata). Outbreaks of bagworms and Miliona 

basalis have occurred in natural pine stands in 

Sumatra (see Section 3.1). 

Diseases 

Damping-off, caused by several species of fungi 

(Table 4.11) is a serious problem in nurseries. 

Fortnightly spraying of Propanocarb and Captanol 

effectively control them (Ibnu and Supriana 1987). 

Soil treatment with Captanol, Captan or Manzzeb also 

controlled the problem (Suharti 1988). The fruit 

extract of Xylocarpus granatum had antifungal activity 

against damping-off (Widyastuti 1996; Widyastuti 

et al. 1999). Leaf blight caused by Cladiospora sp. 

causes the death of up to 70% of seedlings in nurseries 

in Central Java (Sumardi and Widyastuti unpublished); 

and similar disease symptoms have been noted in the 

central pine nursery in North Sumatra. 


Pine shoot moths are important pests of tropical pines 

in Southeast Asia, particularly of young plantations. 

Dioryctria rubella in the Philippines attacks Pinus 

caribaea, P. kesiya and P. merkusii (Lapis 1987),


Table 4.11. Diseases of Pinus merksii in Indonesia 

Disease 

Damping-off 

Blight 

Root rot 


Pythium sp. 

Fusarium sp. 

Rhizoctonia sp. 

Cladiospora sp. 


Notes 

On seedlings 

On seedlings 

Rare incidence in 

nurseries in Java 

D. abietella and D. sylvestrella infest P. merkusii in 

Thailand (Hutacharern 1978) and D. castanea 

damages P. kesiya in Northern India (Singh et al. 

1988). Other shoot borers (Rhyaciona and Petrovia 

spp.) also occur in the Philippines and Thailand. Since 

there is no effective method to control this pest, the 

shoot borer continues to be a threat to pine plantations 

in Sumatra. It does not occur in Java, possibly because 

it can survive only in higher latitudes. 

Milionia basalis and Nesodiprion beremis are also 

confined to Sumatra. Nesodiprion beremis, which is 

not a serious pest in Indonesia, occurs in Thailand 

(Hutcharern 1978) but, in general, they are replaced 

by other species of defoliators (Dendrolimus, 

Neodiprion) in more Northern latitudes. The three 

main pests, D. rubella, M. basalis and N. beremis, 

are confined to Northern Sumatra. This suggests 

there is scope for expanding pine plantations to the 

higher altitudes of lower latitudes in Indonesia without 

the risk of major pests. Other pests such as root 

grubs and termites, which are more prevalent in 

lower latitudes, can be managed effectively and 

therefore are of little economic significance. Bark 

beetles (Scolytidae), which can infest the trees in 

large numbers and kill them, are major pests of pines 

in temperate climates. One species, Ips calligraphus 

has been recorded on P. merkusii in Jamaica 

(Garraway 1986). Bark beetles thrive mainly on 

freshly cut logs and weak trees. As pine plantations 

extend to poorer sites, vigilance is needed to detect 

any new pests. 

Diseases are not a major threat to pine plantations in 

Indonesia, as the nursery diseases are manageable. 

4.22. Schleichera oleosa 

Indonesian common name: Kesambi 

Schleichera oleosa (Sapindaceae) is an introduced 

species that is naturalised in many parts of Indonesia. 

There are about 3700 ha, mainly in East Java, planted 

for lac production (Perum Perhutani 1995). 


No insect pests have been reported from Indonesia 

although some minor pests occur in India. The main 

insect pest of the tree, the lac insect, Laccifer lacca, 

introduced from India, is made used for lac production. 

Diseases 

No diseases have been reported from Indonesia 

although some are known in India. 


There is no threat of pests and diseases to S. oleosa in 

Indonesia. 

4.23. Swietenia macrophylla 

Indonesian common name: Mahoni 

Swietenia macrophylla (Meliaceae), commonly called 

mahogany, is a fairly fast-growing species native to 

tropical America. It is widely planted across the tropics 

for its high quality wood that is used for furniture and 

cabinet making. There are over 54 000 ha of 

plantations in Indonesia, mainly in West Java (Perum 

Perhutani 1995). Plantation trials are under way at 

Pulau Laut, South Kalimantan. 


In common with many other countries, infestation by 

the shoot borer, Hypsipyla robusta (Lepidoptera, 

Pyralidae) has limited expansion of mahogany 

plantations in Indonesia. Its larvae bore into the 

growing shoot of saplings destroying the terminal bud 

causing growth retardation and stem forking. Young 

trees 3-6 years old and 2-8 m tall are the most heavily 

attacked (Morgan and Suratmo 1976), a finding 

supported by Suratmo (1977) who observed about


90% of 3-year-old trees (2.5 m tall) were infested 

but only 5% of trees 14 years old and 13 m tall. 

Older trees are not susceptible to attack. With the 

life cycle lasting between 1 and 2 months there are 

several overlapping generations and repeated attacks 

coincident with flushing. At present, there is no 

effective method to control this pest. It has been 

suggested that planting of trees repellent to the shoot 

borer moth along the plantation border or in a mixture 

will prevent the arrival of moths for egg laying. In 

preliminary trials, planting of Acacia mangium 

around a mahogany plantation prevented H. robusta 

infestation (Matsumoto et al. 1997), and 

interplanting neem, Azadirachta indica, with 

mahogany in uneven admixture reduced shoot borer 

attack (Suharti et al. 1995). These preliminary 

results are encouraging, but more critical, large-scale 

trials are necessary to examine the effectiveness and 

feasibility of this approach. 

The scolytid beetle, Xylosandrus compactus (syn. 

Xyleborus morstatti) (Coleoptera, Scolytidae) lays 

eggs in galleries in the stems of seedlings in the 

nursery leading to their collapse (Suratmo 1982; 

Natawiria 1990; Suharti and Sitepu 1997; Sitepu and 

Suharti 1998). It also infests living twigs and branches 

of older trees (Mayhew and Newton 1998). This 

species also damages mahogany seedlings in Sri 

Lanka and Thailand. Minor pests observed in 

experimental plantings include the leaf-feeding 

caterpillar, Attacus atlas (Lepidoptera, Saturnidae) and 

the leaf-cutter bee, Megachile sp. (Hymenoptera, 

Megachilidae) (Matsumoto 1994). 

Diseases 

The only disease noted in S. macrophylla is bark rot, 

which occurs at the base of the trunk. The lesion 

appears in the middle of the rainy season, spreads 

rapidly from bottom upwards and often kills the trees 

by the end of the season. The lesion always appears 

on the stem surface facing the water flow along the 

slope and it is assumed that the pathogen arrives 

through water and enters through wounds. The 

causative organism remains unidentified. About 40% 

of trees have been affected in some patches of 

S. macrophylla stands in Purwodadi forest district, 

Central Java (Sumardi and Widyastuti unpublished). 

There are no other major diseases, although 

occurrence of the root rot pathogens, Armillaria 

mellea and Phellinus noxius has been reported 

(Mayhew and Newton 1998). 


The shoot borer is the major threat to cultivation of 

mahogany worldwide, with the related species, 

Hypsipyla grandella replacing H. robusta, in the Latin 

American tropics. Although older trees are not 

attacked, many plantation programmes have been 

abandoned due to damage during the establishment 

stage. Development of practical control methods 

using strategies such as chemical application, insect 

parasitoids and shade regulation have been 

unsuccessful. The use of deterrent trees is being 

tested. Recently, the Australian Centre for 

International Agricultural Research has supported 

international cooperation to find a solution to this 

vexing problem. 

The shoot borer does not occur in Fiji, but 

ambrosia beetle and termites have taken a heavy 

toll of S. macrophylla plantations there. Three species, 

Neotermes papua, N. samoanus and an unidentified 

Neotermes sp. infest living trees aged 2 years and older 

(Kamath et al. 1996). They hollow out the trees from 

within the trunk and older infestations become 

manifested as gentle to heavy swellings on the trunk. 

On an average, 7% of trees in plantations are infested. 

This attack is similar to that of Neotermes sp. on teak 

in Indonesia. Vigilance is necessary to detect signs of 

termite infestation of mahogany in Indonesia. 

Two endemic species of ambrosia beetles 

(Crossotarsus externe-dentatus and Platypus 

gerstaeckeri) also infest trees older than 6-8 years in 

Fiji. Such attacks appear to be related to poor tree 

health. Monitoring the possible build up of Xylosandrus 

compactus, which infests twigs of older mahogany 

trees in Indonesia, in trees of poor health is needed. 

The only serious disease is the unidentified pathogen 

spread through flowing water which results in the 

death of trees. Research is needed to determine the 

etiology of this disease. In this context, it is interesting 

to note that the fungus, Phytophthora cinnamomi, 

causing a serious root disease in Eucalyptus marginata 

and other trees in Australia, can disperse through 

flowing subsurface water in lateritic soil on hill slopes 

(Kinal et al. 1993).


4.24. Tectona grandis 

Indonesian common name: Jati 

Teak, Tectona grandis (Verbenaceae), was probably 

introduced to Java 400-600 years ago from India. It 

is now naturalised and occurs over extensive areas in 

Java and Muna Island in Southeast Sulawesi. It 

produces one of the finest of tropical timbers that is 

in high demand for a variety of purposes, from building 

bee hives to ships. Plantation forestry in Java is 

dominated by teak, with about 1 million ha making up 

about 55% of all its forest plantations. The plantations 

are in East Java (570 000 ha), Central Java (312 000 

ha) and West Java (185 000 ha). Some plantations 

exist also in Southeast Sulawesi. Indonesia has a long 

tradition in teak plantation management and supplies a 

significant proportion of teak timber in world trade. 

Teak is managed on a 60-year rotation and plantations 

are usually established by direct seeding in a taungya 

system. Recently, a small area of plantations has been 

established with rooted cuttings and tissue cultured 

plantlets from selected clones. Experimental teak 

plantations have been established in Kalimantan and it 

appears that although the teak grows faster it does 

not produce good quality wood. 


There are three well-known pests of teak in Indonesia 

(Table 4.12). Caterpillars of the moth, Hyblaea puera 

(Lepidoptera, Hyblaeidae), commonly known as the 

teak defoliator, feed on the foliage during the early 

part of the growth season, soon after flushing. It is 

believed to cause one or more total defoliation events 

every year in most teak areas, but systematically 

gathered data are not available. The teak defoliator is a 

migrant pest, with shifting foci of high-density 

infestations during the early outbreak period, which 

coincides with pre-monsoon rains (Nair 1988). This 

is followed by widespread infestation and sudden 

disappearance of the pest population. The dynamics 

of infestation are similar to Indian infestations 

(Kalshoven 1953), but detailed studies are lacking. In 

Indian teak plantations H. puera causes substantial loss 

of growth increment (Nair et al 1996). 

The teak leaf skeletoniser Eutectona machaeralis (syn. 

Hapalia machaeralis, Pyrausta machaeralis) 

(Lepidoptera, Pyralidae) is also present in plantations 

in Java (Suratmo 1987). This caterpillar feeds on the 

leaves, leaving the major veins intact, hence the name, 

‘skeletoniser’. Intachat (1998) identified the species 

in Indonesia, Malaysia and probably Thailand as Paliga 

Table 4.12. Insect pests of teak in Indonesia 



Common name 

Notes 

Leaf feeding 

Hyblaea puera 

(Lepidoptera, Hyblaeidae) 

Teak defoliator 

Paliga damastesalis 


Teak leaf skeletonizer 

Earlier known as 

Eutectona, Pyrausta or 

Hapalia machaeralis 

Valanga nigricornis 

(Orthoptera, Acrididae) 

Grasshopper 

Trunk/stem boring 

Neotermes tectonae 

(Isoptera, Kalotermitidae) 

Inger-inger 

Unique pest of teak in 

Indonesia 

Xyleutes ceramica 


Beehole borer 

Xyleborus destruens 


Ambrosia beetle 

Minor pest 

Zeuzera coffeae 


Red borer 

On saplings


damastesalis, as distinct from Eutectona machaeralis 

present in India, although it has similar habits. She also 

suggests that the correct nomenclature of Eutectona 

machaeralis is Paliga machoeralis. Kalshoven (1953) 

mentions that although present in Java, it does not attack 

teak, but other authors list it as a major pest of teak in 

Java (Natawiria and Tarumingkeng 1971; Mieke 1994; 

Suratmo 1996; Suharti and Sitepu 1997; Sitepu and 

Suharti 1998). Little primary data is available on the 

frequency and intensity of its attack in Java. In India, 

outbreaks of teak leaf skeletoniser occur during the latter 

part of the growth season in most years when the leaves 

are old, and so its impact is negligible (Nair et al. 1996). 

The third notable pest of teak in Java is the termite, 

Neotermes tectonae (Isoptera, Kalotermitidae). Popularly 

known as ‘inger-inger’, this wood-dwelling termite 

hollows out portions of stem and branches. Usually, the 

external symptom, swellings of the trunk and branches, 

becomes visible only 3-5 years after the initiation of 

attack. The termites occupy crevices within the swollen 

stem. Trees over 3 years old are attacked but the 

symptoms appear only later. It is a serious problem in 

Central and East Java (Intari 1990) and various aspects 

have been studied. In some forest districts in Central 

Java, 10-72% of the trees were attacked and the 

production loss (degradation of construction timber to 

fuel wood) estimated at 9-21% (Subyanto 1992; 

Subyanto et al. 1992). Thinning of infested trees is the 

only practical method to reduce the incidence of attack, 

although methods such as introduction of fumigants, 

e.g. phostoxin, into the affected portion of the trunk 

have been tried (Intari and Amir 1975). 

The following teak pests are of lesser importance. 

The ambrosia beetle, Xyleborus destruens, attacks the 

trunk of living teak trees making branching tunnels that 

extend into the heartwood. It is prevalent in areas where 

there is no definite dry season (Kalshoven 1953) so such 

areas are avoided for teak cultivation. The teak beehole 

borer, Xyleutes ceramica (Lepidoptera, Cossidae) which 

infests the trunk is present but not common in Central 

Java (Intari 1975). The red borer, Zeuzera coffeae, has 

infested a small proportion of saplings in an 18-monthold 

teak plantation at Kendal, Boja Forest District, Central 

Java (K.S.S. Nair and Sumardi unpublished observation). 

This plantation was intercropped with corn and other 

agricultural crops under the taungya system. The 

grasshopper, Valanga nigricornis (Orthoptera, 

Acrididae) causes sporadic defoliation and white grubs 

damage seedlings in nurseries. 

Diseases 

Teak is fairly resistant to diseases, although several 

pathogenic organisms have been recorded. A few 

diseases affect young trees in taungya systems, notably, 

an unidentified root wilt and stem canker, Corticium 

salmonicolor (pink disease). In a 31 ha plantation at 

Kendal, Central Java, 6% of 2-year-old saplings were 

killed by the root wilt and 2% were affected by canker, 

which resulted in drying up or breakage of stem above 

the point of canker (about 1.5 m above ground) 

(Sumardi and Widyastuti 2000). These problems appear 

to be associated with high input management, involving 

close cultivation of taungya crops and tillage. Cultivation 

of agricultural crops increases the humidity, favouring 

pink disease. Tillage may cause root injury facilitating 

invasion by the wilt bacterium, which is a wound 

pathogen. The diseases can be managed by appropriate 

silvicultural practices. 


Teak has been grown successfully in Java for over a 

century and there is no threat of pests or diseases that 

will ruin teak plantations. The most acknowledged 

problem is the trunk-infesting termite, Neotermes 

tectonae, unique to teak in Indonesia. It causes 

economic loss due to degradation of the timber. It is 

mostly confined to some endemic patches, particularly 

in Central Java and is kept under reasonable control 

by thinning operations. The impact, in terms of growth 

loss, caused by the teak defoliator, Hyblaea puera, is 

not fully recognised because the loss is not visible. 

Although its control is still not feasible except in young 

plantations, it is necessary to gather information on its 

prevalence and impact in Java. Other pests are of little 

consequence. Information is also needed on the 

prevalence and seasonal incidence of the teak 

skeletoniser, Paliga damastesalis. 

Teak is becoming popular in the agroforestry systems 

in Indonesia because of the availability of fast growing, 

tissue-cultured clones and high returns from planting 

in homesteads. Problems experienced in taungya 

system under forest plantations will become important 

in the homestead agroforestry systems. This will 

include bacterial root wilt, pink disease, red borer and 

the teak defoliator.

Chapter 5 

General Conclusions 


Indonesian forests are in a state of transition (see 

Chapter 2). The rate of conversion of natural forests 

to plantations in recent years has been faster than ever 

before. There is rapid expansion of plantations of new, 

fast-growing species in the outer islands while 

traditional, slow-growing timber species like teak, pine 

and Agathis continue to be grown in Java. One 

species, Acacia mangium, accounts for 64% of the 

area planted in recent times (Chapter 2, Table 2.6). 

Paraserianthes falcataria occupies 7% of the area 

followed by Gmelina arborea and eucalypts. 

Paraserianthes falcataria is being expanded on private 

lands in Java with support by various Government 

agroforestry promotion schemes. Plantation 

development is taking place in a qualitatively different 

direction than previously. Although there is a choice 

for selection from among several species, including 

some indigenous species recommended under the HTI 

scheme, growers choose the few species listed above. 

This is mainly because the emphasis is on fast-growing 

trees suitable for pulpwood, and more information is 

available on silviculture, growth performance and 

suitability for pulping of these species. 

Risk of pest and disease damage should be an important 

criterion for selection of species for large-scale 

planting, but this is seldom done in practice, because 

the plantation industry cannot wait for scientists to 

provide the necessary database to make foolproof 

choices. Scientific method relies on observational and 

experimental data that are acquired over a long period. 

Even then, there are many uncertainties regarding the 

conditions under which pest and disease problems may 

develop. However, an attempt has been made here to 

review existing information and to predict the future 

risk of pests and diseases in Indonesian forest 

plantations. There is unavoidable risk in making these 

judgements but this is typical of many real life situations 

where decisions must be made without sufficient data. 

In fact, the plantation companies have already taken 

the risk. The conclusions drawn here should be taken 

only as a broad guideline. 

5.1. Summary of present problems 

and future threats 

The risk associated with each species has been 

discussed in Chapter 4. What is attempted here is a 

summary and analysis of general features. The species 

fall into two categories: those that have been grown in 

Indonesia for a long time and those that are new. 

Long-standing plantation species 

Species grown in Java are in this category. Risk 

assessments for these species is easier because we 

have the benefit of experience. The species and a 

summary of their present pest and disease problems, 

and future risk is given in Table 5.1. 

There is no serious disease problem other than 

manageable nursery diseases among the ten species 

grown over a longer period. Serious insect pest 

problems exist for Paraserianthes falcataria, 

Swietenia macrophylla and Tectona grandis and they 

cause economic loss, although this is not generally 

recognised in the case of teak. Unfortunately, there is 

no effective control method yet for any of these pests. 

There are also localised problems such as the pine 

shoot borer in Sumatra, ambrosia beetle of teak in

40 General Conclusions 

Table 5.1. Summary of pest and disease problems for long-standing plantation species 

Tree species 

Category 

Current major problem 

Future threat 

Agathis dammara 

Pest 

Disease 

None 

None 

None 

None 

Dalbergia latifolia 

Pest 

Disease 

None 

None 

None 

None 

Mangroves 

(mainly Rhizophora) 

Pest 

Disease 

None 

None 

None 

None 

Maesopsis eminii 

Pest 

Disease 

None 

None 

None 

None 

Melaleuca cajuputi 

Pest 

Disease 

None 

None 

None 

None 

Paraserianthes falcataria 

Pest 

Disease 

1. Trunk borer 

(Xystrocera festiva) 

2. Defoliator 

(Pteroma plagiophleps) 

None 

1. Trunk borer 

(Xystrocera festiva) 

2. Defoliator 

(Pteroma plagiophleps) 

None 

Pinus merkusii 

Pest 

None in Java 

Shoot borer 

(Dioryctria rubella) 

in Sumatra 

None in Java 

Shoot borer 

(Dioryctria rubella) 

in Sumatra 

Disease 

None 

None 

Schleichera oleosa 

Pest 

Disease 

None 

None 

None 

None 

Swietenia macrophylla 

Pest 

Disease 

Shoot borer 

(Hypsipyla robusta) 

None 

Shoot borer 

(Hypsipyla robusta) 

None 

Tectona grandis 

Pest 

Disease 

Defoliator 

(Hyblaea puera) 

None 

Defoliator 

(Hyblaea puera) 

None 

areas not subject to seasonal drought, and wilt of 

Dalbergia in some areas. Avoiding planting in risky 

areas can circumvent these, although in the case of 

pine, it is not feasible to avoid planting it in its native 

range in Sumatra. 

New plantation species 

The risks to the new species are presented in Table 

5.2. No major problem has so far been experienced in 

these 14 species, but there are indications of impending 

problems, such as root rot in Eucalyptus spp. and root


Table 5.2. 

Summary of pest and disease problems for new plantation species 

Tree species 

Category 

Current major problem 

Future threat 

Acacia mangium and 

other Acacia spp. 

Pest 

Disease 

None 

None 

Helopeltis, unpredictable 

caterpillar outbreak 

Root rot, Heart rot of stem 

Alstonia spp. 

Pest 

Disease 

None 

None 

Unpredictable 

None 

Anthocephalus sp. 

Pest 

Disease 

None 

None 

Unpredictable 

None 

Azadirachta excelsa 

Pest 

Disease 

None 

None 

None 

None 

Dipterocarps 

Pest 

Disease 

None 

None 

None 

None 

Dyera spp. 

Pest 

Disease 

None 

None 

None 

None 

Eucalyptus spp. 

Pest 

Disease 

None 

None 

None 

Root rot 

Eusideroxylon zwageri 

Pest 

Disease 

None 

None 

None 

None 

Gmelina arborea 

Pest 

Disease 

None 

None 

Unpredictable 

None 

Gonystylus bancanus 

Pest 

Disease 

None 

None 

Unpredictable 

None 

Koompassia spp. 

Pest 

Disease 

None 

None 

None 

None 

Ochroma pyramidale 

Pest 

Disease 

None 

None 

None 

None 

Octomeles sumatrana 

Pest 

Disease 

None 

None 

None 

None 


Pest 

Disease 

None 

None 

None 

None


and stem rot in Acacia mangium. Other potential 

threats are less obvious. Eucalyptus spp.and Acacia 

mangium have been grown in Indonesia over fairly 

large area for a longer period than other species in this 

group. Many pest problems develop over a long period, 

facilitated by favourable conditions provided by 

extensive monocultures. Therefore, the risk of pests 

and diseases for most species in this group is 

unpredictable. Experience with large monocultures of 

the same species in other countries can provide some 

pointers to the potential problems, although this is not 

fully dependable. For example, Pinus merkusii is 

plagued by shoot borer in Philippines, Thailand, 

Vietnam, India and Northern Sumatra, but not in Java. 

We have the advantage of such experience in the case 

of Eucalyptus spp., Gmelina arborea and to some 

extent, Acacia mangium. 

Eucalypts have been generally pest free, except for 

subterranean termites attacking the tap root during the 

establishment stage. Diseases create problems in 

nursery, but are manageable. Eucalyptus spp. are 

susceptible to foliar diseases caused by fungi in humid 

environments, but selection of resistant species and 

provenances has circumvented this problem. In 

Indonesia, some species e.g. E. urophylla, have been 

found to be susceptible to root rot but others e.g. 

E. pellita, are less so. These problems have led to the 

present trend in Indonesia is to replace Eucalyptus 

spp. with Acacia.spp. 

Gmelina arborea, except for minor problems with a 

stem borer, is currently pest free in Indonesia, as in 

many other countries where it has been planted as an 

exotic, but the situation needs monitoring, as it suffers 

from serious pests in its native range. Some companies 

are now enlarging the area under Gmelina arborea, in 

place of Acacia mangium, although it requires more 

fertile sites than the acacia. 

Acacia mangium suffered a heart-rot problem which 

threatened to proliferate in Malaysia, but it is being 

kept in check by enlarging the genetic base of planting 

stock and by planting the heart rot resistant hybrid, 

A. mangium x A. auriculiformis. It has been 

suggested that the heart and root rot problems are 

the result of mismatching of the species with the 

sites, with the absence of a seasonal dry spell 

facilitating the development of the diseases (Arentz 

1996; Lee and Arentz 1997). The situation therefore 

needs monitoring. Although there are no serious 

insect pest problems at present, the situation also 

needs attention, in view of the potential threat of 

the mosquito bug, Helopeltis spp. becoming adapted 

as more of the Indonesian landscape is planted with 

A. mangium. There is also the treat of unpredictable 

caterpillar outbreaks, as indicated by some instances 

in Malaysia. 

In the case of other new species, most of which are 

indigenous, there are no serious pest or disease 

problems, at present. For some of them, limited 

experience in other countries or the chemical profile 

of the species (e.g. Azadirachta spp.) suggests that 

there is little risk (Table 5.2) but for others the risk is 

unpredictable. 

Future most important pests and diseases 

If one insect pest is to be named as the most dangerous 

to Indonesian forest plantations in future, the choice 

will undoubtedly fall on the sengon borer, Xystrocera 

festiva. Its population is likely to increase further as 

more area is brought under P. falcataria all across 

Indonesia due to its promotion by industrial and 

agroforestry plantation initiatives. Xystrocera festiva has 

a number of alternative hosts, in the family 

Leguminosae, including Albizia spp. and Acacia spp. 

Although A. mangium is not a favoured host of 

X. festiva, its expansion may also help to increase 

X. festiva population. This borer seems to be welladapted 

to Indonesia as it is replaced in neighbouring 

countries by X. globosa, a species also present in low 

numbers in Indonesia. 

Another insect likely to build up in future is Helopeltis. 

Many closely related species of Helopeltis are 

important pests of horticultural plantations in the 

tropics and populations have been increasing in young 

A. mangium plantations, particularly in Sumatra (see 

Section 4.1). It has a history of outbreaks in cashew, 

tea and neem in India and in tea and Eucalyptus spp. 

in Sumatra. Care must be exercised to prevent the 

build up of Helopeltis species. 

Good quality timber will remain in demand despite of 

the present emphasis on pulpwood species. 

Improvements in machinery and utilisation methods 

will enable smaller dimension timbers to be used


increasingly. Teak, Shorea spp. and Peronema sp. are 

likely to fill this need. The teak defoliator and the 

emerging pests of Shorea spp. and Peronema sp. may 

require attention in future. 

The most prevalent diseases for most tree species are 

caused by a host of fungal pathogens in the nursery. 

Fortunately, they can be kept under control by suitable 

practices and need-based use of selected fungicides. 

The most serious threat is the spread of root rot caused 

by several species of fungi. They will assume greater 

importance as the disease inoculum builds up on sites 

where there are consecutive rotations of the same 

species. 

Indigenous versus exotic tree species 

The question is often raised whether exotic tree species 

are at greater risk of pest and disease outbreaks. It is 

difficult to offer a simple answer and designating a 

species as exotic is a matter of definition (see Section 

3.3). If we accept the narrow definition, based on the 

boundaries of the larger island groups than the country, 

most species currently grown extensively in Indonesia 

are exotic. Since a valid discussion of the comparative 

susceptibility of exotic versus indigenous species 

cannot be attempted without a broader coverage of 

species and countries where they are grown, it is not 

attempted here. However, based on Indonesian 

experience it can be said that both exotic and 

indigenous species may have serious pest problems. 

Examples are the indigenous Pinus merkusii in Sumatra 

and the exotic Swietenia macrophylla. The difference 

is that an indigenous species is unlikely to be wiped 

out by a pest because it has evolutionarily outlived 

such an eventuality and it is therefore safer to grow 

them. On the other hand, in theory, an exotic species 

can suffer heavy damage and extinction caused by 

indigenous pests and pathogens. There is also the risk 

of pests and pathogens invading from the area of 

natural occurrence of the exotic host, as in the case 

of Leucaena psyllid, conifer aphids or eucalypt trunk 

borers. This does not always happen, as exemplified 

by the thriving exotic rubber tree, Hevea braziliensis, 

in many countries. A comprehensive risk analysis is 

beyond the scope of this study. We can say that the 

risk is not associated with whether a species is exotic 

or indigenous per se and that risk must also be 

balanced with opportunities. 

5.2. The research scenario 

Existing unsolved pest and disease problems and newly 

emerging problems call for timely attention to research 

and development in this field. Research capacity in 

Indonesia is quite inadequate to meet the challenge. 

Indonesian forest protection research literature is 

characterised by a large number of reviews describing 

or listing the problems (see the bibliography). Most of 

them have been presented in seminars and conferences 

that are often organised with external support. Very 

little new knowledge is generated by the small number 

of researchers in the forest protection field, although 

there are exceptions. Some plantation companies have 

established research units which look at pest and 

disease problems and collaborate with universities, but 

there is scope for strengthening the ties for mutual 

benefit. The main constraints to improving forest 

protection research are: 

Few specialised researchers 

Forestry protection research capacity exists at the 

Forestry and Estate Crops Research and Development 

Agency (FERDA), two universities in Java (IPB and 

Gadjah Mada), three in Kalimantan, (East Kalimantan 

(Mulawarman), Central Kalimantan and West 

Kalimantan), one in Sulawesi and one in Sumatra. The 

total number of researchers in forest protection is only 

about 40, with less than half possessing a Ph.D. degree. 

This is inadequate to meet the entomological and 

pathological research needs. 

Low budget provision 

Staff salaries and research funds are low and often the 

staff have to depend on external support from plantation 

companies and other sources to conduct research. 

Extensive plantations 

Except in Java, most plantations are located far away 

from the staff headquarters and there are inadequate 

travelling and field camping facilities to carry out 

research. 

Inadequate research publication effort 

Most research results remain in the form of student 

theses and project reports, and inadequate attention is 

given to publishing them in peer-reviewed journals. 

The few published papers appear in in-house journals


and symposia proceedings, mostly in Bahasa 

Indonesia, the benefits of broader expert review of 

the research are not captured. While there are 

numerous publications, the scientific quality of many 

is inadequate. Although there are some high quality 

publications that contribute to advancement of 

knowledge or solving problems, there are also many 

publications that are premature, and many 

recommendations that are impracticable, ineffective 

or prohibitively expensive. 

5.3. Future outlook 

To meet the needs of expanding plantations, more 

attention needs to be paid to promoting research on 

pests and diseases. This calls for a dialogue between 

Government, universities and plantation companies 

to formulate appropriate approaches. An immediate 

need is to set up a plantation health monitoring system 

for Indonesia covering pests and diseases, and 

plantation failures due to other causes. This has the 

support of some plantation companies. Some 

fundamental research is needed to complement 

problem-solving research, for example, to create a 

scientific database and expertise for identification of 

disease organisms and insects, many of which are 

poorly identified. Although plantation companies may 

be interested in immediate problem solving research, 

the approach should be to simultaneously strengthen 

indigenous research capability and infrastructure for 

long-term benefits.

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6.3. Bibliography Indexes 

Scientific Indexes 

Tree Species 

Bibliography Number 

Acacia 003 011 016 027 029 094 110 

111 166 171 174 180 184 192 

211 221 228 242 243 244 245 

251 253 284 287 288 290 

Acacia auriculiformis 221 253 

Acacia mangium 003 011 016 027 029 094 110 

111 174 180 184 192 228 242 

243 245 251 284 287 288 

Agathis dammara 070 213 239 

Agathis loranthifolia 266 

Alstonia scholaris 007 

Anacardium occidentale 255 

Avicennia 013 187 

Azadirachta indica 129 

Bruguiera 041 044 

Dalbergia latifolia 060 224 268 

Dipterocarpaceae 063 071 078 086 163 164 209 

258 281 

Eucalyptus 036 056 098 102 103 110 186 

188 189 190 191 215 225 251 

271 272 

Eucalyptus alba 056 225 

Eucalyptus deglupta 098 110 251 271 272 

Eucalyptus urophylla 271 272 

Gmelina arborea 030 072 097 

Gonystylus bancanus 137 145 

Melaleuca cajuputi/leucadendron 040 059 264 265 

Metroxylon sagu 181 

Mikania micrantha 019 

Nylocarpus granatum 282 284


Paraserianthes falcataria 029 050 061 068 082 090 104 

130 132 133 162 167 232 289 

Paulownia kawakamii 263 

Pinanga 200 

Pinus merkusii 005 009 011 043 074 084 114 

119 120 141 143 167 172 174 

175 183 184 194 217 219 220 

222 256 259 260 262 267 270 

Rhizophora 004 013 187 

Rhizophora mucronata 004 

Santalum album 109 250 

Shorea 002 006 051 105 178 182 237 

248 

Shorea acuminatissima 237 

Shorea albida 002 

Shorea javanica 006 051 182 

Shorea smithiana 237 

Swietenia macrophylla 077 080 127 142 147 148 149 

Tectona grandis 010 038 039 042 045 053 065 

122 123 124 126 158 269 

Insects 

Acanthopsyche 041 

Antennopsis gayi 096 

Aulacaspis vitis 157 

Calliteara cerigoides 078 

Chaetocnema 044 

Chionaspis 004 052 

Clouges glauculalis 007 

Curinus coeruleus 117 

Dioryctria 054 057 114 141 

Duomitus ceramicus 038 

Eurema 031 061 134 

Helopeltis 067 102 103 

Helopeltis antonii 103


Hypsipyla robusta 077 080 127 142 147 148 149 

Loranthus 125 

Macrochirus praetor 046 

Metisa plana 106 

Milionia basalis 043 

Mucanum 051 

Neotermes tectonae 010 039 042 045 053 122 123 

124 158 

Paliga damastesalis 037 

Prionoxystus 097 

Scolytids 066 

Xyleutes ceramicus 038 

Xystrocera festiva 033 035 068 076 090 104 130 

132 

Zeuzera coffeae 098 

Diseases 

Aecidium fragiforme 213 239 

Botryodiplodia 177 

Cylindrocarpon 195 

Cylindrocladium quinqueseptatum 186 

Fusarium 195 

Guignardia candeloflamma 200 

Hyphomycetes 190 

Mycosphaerella 188 189 

Mycosphaerella gracilis 188 

Pseudomonas solanacearum 255 

Ramaria canieticolor 243 

Rhizoctonia solani 174 

Trichoderma 175 176 177 283 284 286 287


General Indexes 

In Bahasa Indonesia 

Bibliography Number 

Akasia 003 011 016 027 029 094 110 

111 166 171 174 180 184 192 

211 221 228 242 243 244 245 

251 253 284 287 288 290 

Bercak daun 178 188 200 215 

Boktor 033 035 068 076 090 104 130 

132 

Busuk akar 060 176 179 224 283 286 

Busuk batang 176 266 

Busuk bonggol 181 

Busuk hati 228 288 

Cendana 109 250 

Damar 070 213 239 

Derajat penularan 004 

Dipterocarpa 002 006 015 018 063 071 078 

086 163 164 195 197 198 209 

258 281 

Ekaliptus 036 056 098 102 103 110 186 

188 189 190 191 215 225 251 

271 272 

Ekor serigala 217 270 

Embun tepung 221 

Gaharu 140 278 

Hama persemaian 026 

Hawar daun 186 

Hutan Tanaman Industri 008 021 024 025 026 032 036 

049 058 079 083 088 100 101 

112 115 116 118 121 128 131 

134 136 138 139 154 156 159 

161 162 170 201 205 207 212 

218 223 230 231 233 235 236 

238 240 241 246 247 252 254 

257 261 273 275 276 277 280 

Inger-inger 010 039 042 045 053 122 123 

124 158 

Jamur akar merah 287


Jamur akar putih 284 

Jamur karat 239 253 

Jamur pewarna 229 

Jati 010 038 039 042 045 053 065 

122 123 124 126 158 269 

Jati putih 030 072 097 

Kanker batang 271 272 

Kayu putih 040 059 264 265 

Kerawai 084 

Kumbang ambrosia 012 137 145 160 

Kupu kuning 031 134 

Leda 098 110 251 

Lodoh 172 173 175 222 256 262 267 

282 

Mahoni 077 080 127 142 147 148 149 

Mangrove 004 013 028 052 157 165 187 

Mete 255 

Mimba 129 

Nyiri 282 284 

Oleng-oleng 038 

Penggerek batang 012 030 097 098 

Penggerek lubang jarum 136 

Penggerek pucuk 077 080 127 142 147 148 149 

Penggerek pucuk rotan 046 047 

Penyakit layu 268 274 

Penyakit puru 264 265 

Pulai 007 

Ramin 137 145 

Rayap 010 027 039 040 042 045 053 

056 059 060 070 096 108 122 

123 124 158 224 

Kanker akar 263 

Rotan 046 047 062 

Sagu 181


Sengon 029 049 061 068 082 090 104 

130 132 133 162 167 232 289 

Sonokeling 060 224 268 

Tusam 005 009 011 043 057 074 084 

114 119 120 141 143 167 172 

174 175 183 184 194 217 219 

220 222 256 259 260 262 267 

270 274 282 

Ulat kantung 041 106 

In English 

Agarwood 140 278 

Ambrosia beetle 012 137 145 160 

Bagworm 041 106 

Bark beetle 012 030 

Bark rot 266 

Beehole borer 038 

Cashew 255 

Caueput 040 059 264 265 

Damping-off 172 173 175 222 256 262 267 

282 

Dipterocarp 002 006 015 018 063 071 078 

086 163 164 195 197 198 209 

258 281 

Fox-tail 217 270 

Gall disease 264 265 

Heart rot 228 288 

Industrial plantation forest 008 021 024 025 026 032 036 

049 058 079 083 088 100 101 

112 115 116 118 121 128 131 

134 136 138 139 154 156 159 

161 162 170 201 205 207 212 

218 223 230 231 233 235 236 

238 240 241 246 247 252 254 

257 261 273 275 276 277 280 

Ironwood 137 145 

Leaf blight 186


Leaf spot 178 188 200 215 

Mahogany 077 080 127 142 147 148 149 

Mangrove 004 013 028 052 157 165 187 

Neem 129 

Nursery pests 026 

Pine 005 009 011 043 057 074 084 

114 119 120 141 143 167 172 

174 175 183 184 194 217 219 

220 222 256 259 260 262 267 

270 274 282 

Pine sawfly 084 

Pinhole borer 136 

Powder post beetle 062 

Powdery mildew 221 

Rattan 046 047 062 

Rattan top borer 046 047 

Red root rot 287 

Rhizome rot 181 

Root canker 263 

Root rot 060 176 179 224 283 286 

Rust disease 239 253 

Sago 181 

Sandalwood 109 250 

Sapstain 229 

Scale insect 004 

Stem canker 271 272 

Stem rot 176 

Teak 010 038 039 042 045 053 065 

122 123 124 126 158 269 

Teak skeletonizer 037 

Termite 010 027 039 040 042 045 053 

056 059 060 070 096 108 122 

123 124 158 224 

White grubs 055 

White root rot 284 

Wilt disease 268 274

Indexes 

Tree 

Acacia 17, 19, 31, 41, 42, 46, 50, 54 

A. aulacocarpa 19 

A. auriculiformis 17, 18, 19, 42, 45 

A. crassicarpa 19 

A. mangium 1, 2, 5, 7, 8, 13, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 

36, 39, 41, 42, 45, 46, 47, 48, 49, 51, 52, 54 

A. mearnsii 18, 54 

A. perigrina 19 

Actinophora fragrans 11, 12 

Agathis 3, 39, 45 

A. borneensis 19 

A. dammara 6, 19, 20, 40 

A. loranthifolia 19, 52 

Albizia 17, 42, 48 

A. falcataria 50, 51 

A. lebbek 18 

Alstonia 7, 20, 41 

A. scholaris 20 

A. spatulata 20 

Anthocephalus 7, 41, 52 

A. cadamba 20 

A. chinensis 20, 49 

A. macrophyllus 20 

Aquilaria 27 

Avicennia 28, 29 

A. marina 29, 45 

A. alba 29, 50 

Azadirachta 42 

A. excelsa 7, 21, 41 

A. indica 21, 36, 52 

Bruguiera 28, 29, 47 

B. gymnorhiza 29 

Casuarina 

C. junghuhniana 11, 12 

C. montana 11 

Dalbergia 3, 21, 22, 40 

D. latifolia 6, 21, 22, 40, 48, 51, 52 

D. sissoo 21, 22, 47 

Dipterocarps 7, 41, 46 

Dipterocarpus 22 

D. cornutus 22, 23 

Dyera 7, 24, 41 

D. costulata 24 

D. lowii 24 

D. polyphylla 24 

Eucalyptus 1, 2, 7, 8, 18, 24, 25, 26, 40, 41, 42, 

51 

E. alba 48 

E. camaldulensi 24 

E. deglupta 24, 45 

E. grandis 24 

E. marginata 26, 36 

E. pellita 24, 25, 42 

E. tereticornis 24 

E. torrelliana 24 

E. urophylla 24, 25, 42, 52 

Enterolobium 31 

Eusideroxylon 48 

E. zwageri 7, 26, 41 

Excoecaria agallocha 11, 12, 29, 49 

Gmelina 50, 54 

G. arborea 1, 2, 7, 8, 27, 39, 41, 42 

G. moluccana 26 

Gonystylus 27, 52 

G. bancanus 7, 27, 41 

G. macrophyllus 27 

Hopea 23 

H. mengrawan 22 

H. odorata 22, 23 

Heritiera fomes 29, 51 

Hevea braziliensis 7, 43

88 Indexes 

Koompassia 7, 28, 41 

K. excelsa 28 

K. grandiflora 28 

K. malaccensis 28 

Leucaena leucocephala 1 

Melaleuca 12 

M. cajuputi 6, 29, 30, 40 

M. leucodendron 29, 30, 45, 46, 48 

Maesopsis eminii 7, 28, 40, 51 

Neolamarckia 20 

N. cadamba 20 

Ochroma grandiflora 30 

O. lagopus 30, 45 

O. pyramidale 7, 30, 41, 49 

Octomeles sumatrana 7, 30, 41, 46 

Palaquium 11, 12 

Paraserianthes 12 

P. falcataria 1, 2, 6, 7, 8, 12, 13, 16, 17, 31, 32, 

33, 39, 40, 42, 45, 48, 49 

Peronema 43, 46 

P. canescens 7, 33, 41 

Pinus 3 

P. caribaea 34 

P. kesiya 34, 35 

P. merkusii 6, 7, 11, 12, 13, 33, 34, 35, 40, 42, 43, 

47, 49, 52 

Pithecolobium 31 

Prionoxystus 27 

Rhizophora 6, 12, 28, 29, 40 

Samanea saman 31 

Schleichera 12 

S. oleosa 6, 35, 40 

Shorea 7, 12, 22, 23, 43, 51 

S. albida 24, 45 

S. assamica 23 

S. johorensis 23 

S. javanica 22, 23, 47 

S. lamellata 23 

S. leprosula 22, 23 

S. parviflora 22, 23 

S. pinanga 22, 23 

S. robusta 24 

S. selanica 22 

S. smithiana 22, 23 

S. stenoptera 22 

Sonneratia 28 

S. acida 11 

Swietenia macrophylla 6, 7, 35, 36, 39, 40, 43, 48, 

53 

Tectona grandis 2, 6, 7, 37, 39, 40 

Xylocarpus granatum 34, 54

Indexes 89 

Insect 

Acanthopsyche 28, 29, 47 

Achaea janata 12, 19, 29 

A. serva 29, 49 

Agathiphaga 20 

Agrilus 25 

A. kalshoveni 12 

A. sexsignatus 24, 26 

Alcides 24, 25 

A. gmelinae 26 

Alcidodes 

A. dipterocarpi 23 

A. ludificator 26, 27 

Anadasmus porinodus 30 

Anagyrus 31 

Andrector ruficornis 45 

Apion argulicolle 27 

Apis dorsata 28 

Archips micaceana 24 

Attacus atlas 36 

Aulacaspis 53 

A. marina 28, 29 

A. vitis 53 

Batocera numitor 20 

Calliteara cerigoides 22, 23, 49 

Calopepla leayana 27 

Chaetocnema 47 

Characoma 30 

Chionaspis 28, 29, 47 

Cleora injectaria 29, 50 

Clovia 33 

Coptotermes 34 

C. curvignathus 15, 16, 18 

Crossotarsus externe-dentatus 36 

Cryptothelia variegata 34 

Dendrolimus 35 

Dioryctria 

D. abietella 35 

D. castanea 35, 51 

D. rubella 33, 34, 35, 40, 48 

D. sylvestrella 35 

Duomitus ceramicus 47 

Eurema 32, 33, 53 

E. blanda 32 

E. hecabe 32 

Ericeia 19 

E. subcinerea 51 

Eumeta 34 

E. (Clania) variegata 11 

Eurema 

E. blanda 32 

Eutectona 37 

E. machaeralis 37, 38, 49 

Glena indiana 27 

Glyphodes 20 

G. bicolor 20 

Gonipterus 26 

Hapalia machaeralis 37 

Helicoverpa armigera 19 

Heliothis armigera 19 

Helopeltis 16, 18, 24, 25, 41, 42, 51 

H. antonii 18, 21 

H. clavifer 23 

H. fasciaticollis 16, 18 

H. sumatranus 16, 18 

H. theivora 16, 18 

Heteropsylla cubana 1 

Hoplocerambyx spinicornis 24, 51 

Hyblaea puera 12, 29, 37, 38, 40, 49 

Hypsipyla 

H. grandella 36 

H. robusta 12, 35, 36, 40, 48, 49, 53 

Indarbela quadrinotata 31, 32 

Ips 

I. calligraphus 35, 46 

I. grandicollis 46 

Kolla bataviae 24 

Laccifer lacca 35 

Lawana candida 22, 23 

Leucoptera sphenograpta 21 

Loboschiza vulnerata 21 

Locusta 16, 18 

Lymantria galinara 11 

Macrotermes gilvus 21 

Margaronia 20 

M. hilaralis 20 

Megachile 36 

Milionia basalis 11, 34, 35 

Mucanum 22, 23, 47

90 Indexes 

Nanophyes shoreae 23 

Neodiprion 35 

Neotermes 36 

N. papua 36 

N. samoanus 36 

N. tectonae 12, 37, 38, 47, 52 

Nesodiprion beremis 34, 35 

Odontotermes grandiceps 21 

Ophiusa 

O. melicerta 12, 29 

O. serva 11 

Ozola minor 27 

Paliga 

P. damastesalis 37, 38, 47 

P. machaeralis 38 

Petrova cristata 48 

Petrovia 35 

Phoracantha 26 

Platypus gerstaeckeri 36 

Plecoptera reflexa 19, 20 

Prionoxystus 26, 27 

Prodenia litura 19 

Pseudophacopteron 54 

P. alstonium 20 

Pteroma 11 

P. plagiophleps 16, 18, 28, 29, 31, 32, 33, 34, 40, 

49 

Pyrausta 37 

P. machaeralis 37 

Rhyaciona 35 

Selepa celtis 19, 27 

Sesarma 28, 47 

Sinoxylon 18 

Spirama retorta 18, 51 

Sternocera 18 

Sylepta derogata 30, 49 

Tingis beesoni 27 

Trichogramma minutus 34 

Valanga nigricornis 16, 18, 37, 38 

Voracia casuariniphaga 11 

Xyleborus 28, 29 

X. destruens 37, 38 

X. fornicatus 16, 27 

X. morstatti 36 

Xyleutes ceramica 27, 37, 38 

Xylosandrus 16, 18 

X. compactus 19, 36 

X. morigerus 32 

Xystrocera 

X. festiva 12, 16, 17, 19, 30, 31, 32, 33, 40, 42, 

46, 47, 50 

X. globosa 17, 19, 31, 32, 42 

Zeuzera coffeae 18, 24, 25, 30, 37, 38 

Zeuzera conferta 28, 29

Indexes 91 

Disease 

Aecidium fragiformae 19 

Agrobacterium tumefaciens 22, 23 

Armillaria mellea 36 

Asterina 23 

Atelocauda digitata 17 

Botryodiplodia 25, 27, 32, 33, 51 

B. thoeobromae 33 

Calonectria rigidiuscula 30 

Capnodium 23 

Cercospora 17, 23 

Cladiospora 34 

Collectotrichum 17, 23, 27, 32 

Corticium 33 

C. pseudoferreum 18 

C. salmonicolor 17, 18, 19, 20, 25, 33, 38 

Curvularia 22, 25 

C. harveyi 23 

Cylindrocarpon 22 

C. destructens 23 

Cylindrocladium 25, 26 

Cylindrocladium multiseptatum 25 

Cytospora 17 

Fusarium 19, 21, 22, 23, 25 

F. moniliformae 30 

F. solani 21, 22, 28 

Fomes lignosus 17, 18 

Ganoderma 21, 27, 32 

G. philipii 17, 18 

G. pseudoferreum 17, 19 

Hypoxylon mammatum 17 

Kirramyces destructens 25 

Leptoporus lignosus 17 

Macrophoma 26 

Meliola 17, 33 

Mycosphaerella 25 

Nectria 25 

Nectria radiocola 23 

Oidium 17 

Pestalotia 23, 25 

Pestalotiopsis 17 

Phellinus noxius 17, 18, 30, 36, 45 

Phytophthora 25, 26, 27, 32 

P. cinnamomi 26, 36, 48 

Pythium 19, 20, 25, 27, 32 

Pytophthora palmivora 17 

Rhizoctonia 19, 20, 27, 32, 49 

Rigidoporus hypobrunneus 17 

Rigidoporus microporus 17, 18 

Rosellinia 32 

Stilbella ecuadorensis 30, 49 

Tinctoporellus epimiltinus 17 

Trichoderma 54 

Ustulina 32

Insect-pests - Biology East Borneo

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