Part I

Draft Black Sea Regional Transmission Project ESIA 

Prepared for: 

Ministry of Energy of the 

Republic of Georgia 

DRAFT 

ENVIRONMENTAL AND SOCIAL IMPACT ASSESSMENT 

OF THE BLACK SEA REGIONAL TRANSMISSION PROJECT 

Prepared by: 

May 2009


TITLE PAGE 

Project Title: 

Contract: 

Document Title: 

Prepared by: 

Environmental and Social Impact Assessment for the Black 

Sea Regional Transmission Project -- Georgia 

D18507 

Draft Environmental and Social Impact Assessment for the 

Black Sea Regional Transmission Project 

Black & Veatch Special Projects Corp. 

Date Prepared: May 2009 

Principal authors: 

B&V Project Manager: 

Ministry of Energy of 

Georgia Project Manager: 

Jemal Gabechava, Giorgi Ghambashidze, David Girgvliani, 

Vakhtang GvakhariaMike Johnsen, Andrei Kandaurov, 

Mariam Kimeridze, Mary Matthews, Ivan Maximov, Jack 

Mozingo, Maia Ochigava, Dane Pehrman, Manana 

Petashvili, Maka Stamateli, Nika Tsirghiladze 

Jack Mozingo 

Mariam Valishvili 

i


TABLE OF CONTENTS 

Title Page.................................................................................................................................. i 

Table of Contents......................................................................................................................ii 

Appendices .............................................................................................................................. iii 

List of Tables............................................................................................................................ iii 

List of Figures .......................................................................................................................... iv 

1.0 Introduction and Background ...........................................................................................1 

1.1 Introduction..............................................................................................................1 

1.2 Purpose and Need for the Project ...........................................................................1 

1.3 Scope of the ESIA ...................................................................................................2 

1.4 Methodology for the ESIA .......................................................................................4 

1.4.1 Scoping......................................................................................................5 

1.4.2 Baseline Data Collection ...........................................................................7 

1.4.3 Assessment of Impacts .............................................................................7 

1.4.4 Environmental Mitigation and Enhancement ............................................10 

1.4.5 Environmental Monitoring.........................................................................10 

1.5 Organization of this Report.....................................................................................10 

2.0 The Proposed Project Line and Alternatives...................................................................12 

2.1 Alternative 1: Black Sea Regional Transmission Project ......................................12 

2.1.1 Substations...............................................................................................13 

2.1.2 Transmission Lines...................................................................................14 

2.1.3 Proposed Maintenance Techniques .........................................................19 

2.2 Alternative 2 – Modified Route Near Ktsia-Tabatskuri Managed Reserve 

and through Borjomi-Kharagauli National Park......................................................20 

2.3 Alternative 3 – Modified Route in Near Ktsia-Tabatskuri Managed Reserve 

and around Borjomi-Kharagauli National Park .......................................................21 

2.4 Alternative 4: No Action Alternative........................................................................21 

3.0 Legal and Institutional Framework ..................................................................................24 

3.1 National Legal and Regulatory framework .............................................................24 

3.1.1 Administrative framework .........................................................................24 

3.1.2 Environmental legal framework ................................................................25 

3.1.3 Environmental permit issuance procedure ...............................................28 

3.1.4 Land use and labor laws applicable to the project....................................28 

3.1.5 Other relevant national strategies and plans ............................................30 

3.2 International requirements......................................................................................30 

3.2.1 Requirements of International Finance Institutions ..................................30 

3.2.2 International conventions and agreements...............................................31 

4.0 Baseline Environmental and Socioeconomic Conditions ................................................33 

4.1 Environmental Baseline..........................................................................................33 

4.1.1 Meteorology and Climate..........................................................................33 

4.1.2 Major Landscapes and Ecosystems.........................................................37 

4.1.3 Geology/geomorphology ..........................................................................46 

4.1.4 Hydrology/Hydrogeology ..........................................................................51 

4.1.5 Geohazards ..............................................................................................54 

4.1.6 Flora and vegetation.................................................................................57 

4.1.7 Fauna .......................................................................................................79 

4.1.8 Environmental pollution along the line route.............................................85 

4.2 Baseline Socioeconomic Conditions ......................................................................91 

4.2.1 Demographics .........................................................................................92 

4.2.3 Infrastructure ............................................................................................96 

4.2.4 Economic conditions.................................................................................97 

4.2.5 Health ......................................................................................................100 

4.2.6 Cultural Resources ..................................................................................101 

4.2.7 Tourism....................................................................................................103 

ii


5.0 Potential Environmental and Socioeconomic Impacts ...................................................104 

5.1 Potential environmental impacts ...........................................................................104 

5.1.1 Potential impacts on land use..................................................................104 

5.1.2 Potential impacts on air quality................................................................109 

5.1.3 Potential impacts on geology, soils, and geohazards..............................113 

5.1.4 Potential impacts on surface water and groundwater..............................120 

5.1.5 Potential impacts on ecosystems, animals, and plants ...........................124 

5.1.6 Potential effects on landscape appearance.............................................134 

5.1.7 Potential impacts to soil...........................................................................147 

5.2 Potential socioeconomic impacts ..........................................................................152 

5.2.1 Number of communities and people potentially affected.........................153 

5.2.2 Demographics and economics ................................................................156 

5.2.3 Infrastructure ...........................................................................................158 

5.2.4 Community ..............................................................................................158 

5.2.5 Cultural resources ...................................................................................159 

5.2.6 Public and occupational health and safety ..............................................160 

5.2.8 Order of Magnitude Cost Evaluation .......................................................164 

5.3 Summary of potential impacts and preferred alternative.......................................165 

5.3.1 Summary of potential impacts .................................................................165 

5.3.2 Preferred alternative ................................................................................166 

6.0 Environmental and Social Management and Monitoring Plan .......................................175 

6.1 Environmental and Social Management Plan .......................................................175 

6.2 Environmental and Social Monitoring Program .....................................................175 

7.0 References Cited ...........................................................................................................210 

APPENDICES 

Appendix A 

Appendix B 

Appendix C 

Appendix D 

Appendix E 

List of Preparers 

Milestones and Schedule for Preparation and Completion of ESIA 

Public Consultation and Disclosure Plan 

Report on Literature Review and Field Survey of Flora and Vegetation along 

the Black Sea Regional Transmission Project Route 

Feasibility study from animal biodiversity conservation standpoint 

LIST OF TABLES 

Table 1-1 Determination of Environmental Impact Significance 

Table 1-2 Duration of Impacts 

Table 1-3 Determination of Social Impact Significance 

Table 2-1 Current Status of Foundations and Towers Constructed before 1992 

Table 3-1 Environmental Laws and Regulations in Georgia 

Table 4.1-1 Geologic structure of Gardabani region 

Table 4.1-2 Most important areas for biodiversity preservation along the transmission line 

corridor 

Table 4.1-3 Likely occurrence of Red List fauna along the transmission line corridor 

Table 4.1-4 Baseline air quality 

Table 4.1-5 Benchmark values of pollutant concentrations based on population 

Table 4.1-6 Concentrations of air pollutants in Rustavi, 1999 to 2002 

Table 4.2-1 Population of Regions and Districts along the proposed transmission corridor 

Table 4.2-2 Population of communities within three kilometers of the proposed 

transmission line corridor 

Table 4.2-3 Ethnicity of Georgia and of Districts along the transmission line corridor 

Table 4.2-4 Georgia economic and employment contributions by sector 

Table 4.2-5 Unemployment rates by administrative region/district near transmission line 

Table 4.2-6 Principal income sources in selected communities near transmission line 

iii


Table 4.2-7 Distances of the proposed line from national monuments and the direction of 

nearest approach 

Table 5.1-1 Land use sensitivity to change 

Table 5.1-2 Land uses affected by the transmission line route 

Table 5.1.3 Land affected in protected areas 

Table 5.1-4 Summary of Significance of Potential Impacts to Land Use 

Table 5.1-5 Air Quality Sensitivity to Change 

Table 5.1-6 Summary of Significance of Potential Impacts to Land Use 

Table 5.1-7 Mitigation of potential air quality impacts 

Table 5.1-8 Impacted Soil Types and the Areal Extent of Impact 

Table 5.1-9 Significance of Potential Impacts on Soils 

Table 5.1-10 Examples of General Sensitivity of the Water Environment 

Table 5.1-11 Significance of Environmental Impact: Surface Water and Groundwater 

Quality 

Table 5-1-12 Sensitivity of Ecological Receptors 

Table 5.1-13 Ecosystem impacts 

Table 5.1-14 Magnitude of Change – Ecosystems 

Table 5.1-15 Significance of potential impacts to ecosystems, flora, and fauna 

Table 5.1-17 Lands within protected areas from which project may be seen 

Table 5.1-18 Significance of potential effects on landscape appearance 

Table 5.1-19. Types of soil and area that could be affected 

Table 5.1-20 Significance of Potential Impact: Soils 

Table 5.2-1 Buildings within 100 Meters of the Transmission Line 

Table 5.2-2 Comparative cost evaluation of project alternatives 

Table 5-3-1 Summary of Potential Impacts 

Table 6-1 Environmental Management Plan: Mitigation and Enhancement Measures to 

Prevent or Reduce Potential Impacts 

Table 6-2 Social Management Plan: Mitigation and Enhancement Measures to Prevent 

or Reduce Potential Impacts 

Table 6-3. Environmental and Social Monitoring Program for Black Sea Regional 

Transmission Project 

LIST OF FIGURES 

Figure 1-1 Black Sea Regional Transmission Project: Project Overview 

Figure 1-2 ESIA Process 

Figure 1-3 Leaders and citizens in village Ilmazlo receiving and giving information during 

a visit by the ESIA social team 

Figure 2-1 Alternative 1: Black Sea Regional Transmission Project - Original 

Transmission Line Route and Regional Grid Connection 

Figure 2-2 Vegetation clearing of a narrow corridor 

Figure 2-3 Typical installation of foundations and setting towers 

Figure 2-4 Raising tower in mountainous terrain 

Figure 2-5 Types of towers 

Figure 2-6 Ground-based conductoring 

Figure 2-7 Example of vegetation clearing for corridor maintenance in forested terrain 

Figure 2-8 Alternative 2: Black Sea Regional Transmission Project - Modified route near 

Ktsia-Tabatskuri Managed Reserve and through Borjomi-Kharagauli National 

Park 

Figure 2-9 Alternative 3: Black Sea Regional Transmission Project - Modified route near 

Ktsia-Tabatskuri Managed Reserve and around Borjomi-Kharagauli National 

Park 

Figure 4.1-1. Air Temperature Profile along Transmission Line 

Figure 4.1-2 Multiyear Average Annual Soil Temperature 

Figure 4.1-3. Precipitation Profile along Transmission Line 

Figure 4.1-4 Average Annual and Maximum Wind Speed 

iv


Figure 4.1.5 Marneuli area 

Figure 4.1.6 Tetritskaro region mountains and foothills 

Figure 4.1.7 Typical view in Tsalka area 

Figure 4.1.8 Winter in Tabatskuri Lake area 

Figure 4.1-9 Unmaintained road through Gardabani Managed Reserve 

Figure 4.1-10 Wetlands along river meander near Nariani 

Figure 4.1-11 Montane forest in Borjomi-Kharagauli National Park 

Figure 4.1-12 Khrami River gorge 

Figure 4.1-13 Tugai forest in Gardabani Managed Reserve 

Figure 4.1-14 Altered steppe near Marneuli 

Figure 4.1-15 Tetritskaro upper edge forest 

Figure 2.1-16 Tabatskuri east 

Figure 4.1-17 Nariani veli wetland in September 

Figure 4.1-18 Subalpine meadow near Samsari Ridge 

Figure 4.1-19 Wet meadow in Borjomi-Kharagauli National Park 

Figure 4.1-20 Concentrations of major air pollutants in Zestaphoni, 2001 to 2006 

Figure 4.2-1 Population density of the Republic of Georgia 

Figure 4.2-2 Typical secondary road along the transmission line route 

Figure 4.2-3 Cultivated land under proposed line near Ilmazlo 

Figure 4.2-4 Cultivated land near proposed corridor 

Figure 4.2-5 Basalt processing plant near proposed transmission line 

Figure 4.2-6 Old Muslim cemetery under proposed transmission line near Ilmazlo 

Figure 4.2-7 Visitors to protected areas of Georgia 

Figures located after Chapter 4 

Figure 4-1 

Relief map 

Figure 4-2a to 4-2h Ecosystems map 

Figure 4-3a to 4-3h Land use 

Figure 4-4a to 4-4i Geological map 

Figure 4-5a to 4-h5 Soil map 

Figure 4-6a to 4-6i Agrobotany map 

Figure 4-7 

Map of landslide hazard 

Figure 4-8 

Map of mudflow hazard 

Figure 4-9 

Map of seismic hazard 

Figure 4-10a to 4-10e Groundwater map 

Fgiure 4-11a to 4-11h Floral sensitivity map 

Figure 4-12 

Risk areas for terrestrial animals 

Figure 4-13 

Risk areas for migrating birds and bird wintering areas 

Figure 4-14 

Risk areas for terrestrial animals 

Figure 4-15 

Risk areas for biodiversity 

Figure 4-16 

Spring migration routes for birds 

Figure 4-17 

Autumn migration routes for birds 

Figure 4-18 

Protected areas 

Figures 4-19a to 4-19g Cultural heritage sites 

Figure 5.0-1 Political boundaries, population centers, and other major features along the 

proposed transmission line corridor 

Figure 5.1-1 Area showing impacted soil from off-road traffic adjacent to paved roadway. 

Figure 5.1-2 View of rolling grasslands typical of the eastern portion of the transmission 

line corridor 

Figure 5.1-3 Arid grasslands and terraced slopes typical of the environs near Akhaltsikhe 

Figure 5.1-4 Alternative 1 Viewshed 

Figure 5.1-5 Alternative 1 and 2 Viewsheds, Borjomi-Kharagauli National Park 

Figure 5.1-6 Alternative 1 and 3 Viewsheds, Borjomi-Kharagauli National Park 

Figure 5.1-7 Alternative 1, 2, and 3 Viewsheds, Ktsia-Tabatskuri Managed Reserve 

Figure 5.1-8 Akhaltsikhe Substation Viewshed 

Figure 5.2-1 Ilmazlo is the village that lies closest to the line 

Figure 5.2-2 Greenhouse and foundation for new house near the line in Ilmazlo 

v


1.0 INTRODUCTION AND BACKGROUND 

1.1 Introduction 

The Ministry of Energy of the Republic of Georgia intends to expand and upgrade country’s 

electricity grid, and as part of this process has decided to complete a high-voltage 

transmission line across southern Georgia that connects Gardabani and Zestaphoni and that 

runs from near Akhaltsikhe to the Turkish border, where it would connect to a line on the 

Turkish grid. The Ministry has approached the European Bank for Reconstruction and 

Development (EBRD) and other lenders for financing, possibly including the European 

Investment Bank (EIB) and Kreditanstalt für Wiederaufbau (KfW). Under Georgian law, the 

potential environmental impacts of the project must be evaluated in an Environmental Impact 

Assessment. As part of their decisionmaking process, EBRD and other international lenders 

require that the proposed project be evaluated in an Environmental and Social Impact 

Assessment (ESIA) that meets EBRD and other international guidelines. The draft ESIA is 

being disclosed to project stakeholders and the public in compliance with Georgian law and 

EBRD guidelines. All stakeholder and public comments on the draft ESIA will be considered 

in developing the final ESIA, and will be considered in the final decisions made by the 

Ministry of Energy and then by EBRD and other lenders. 

1.2 Purpose and Need for the Project 

Power generation potential in the Republic of Georgia comes from both renewable sources 

of energy such as hydro and wind power and from thermal generating capacity. The 

country’s hydropower potential is estimated at up to 80 billion kWh per year, of which up to 

40 billion kWh may be economically attractive. The current system consists of about 60 

hydropower stations with a maximum output capability of 6.8 billion kWh annually (that is, 

about 17 percent of the economically feasible potential) plus about 650 MW of thermal 

capacity at Gardabani, southeast of Tbilisi. In addition, the construction of two units (150- 

160 MW) of Combined Cycle Gas Turbine power plants is envisaged. Thermal generation is 

mostly used in winter to balance low water availability, but it would also be available for 

export in off-peak demand season (spring-summer). 

Georgia has one 500 kilovolt (kV) transmission line that runs east to west, connecting 

Gardabani in the east to Ksani (northeast of Tbilisi) to Zestaphoni in the west. In the 1980s, 

another line was designed and partly constructed, this one connecting Gardabani and 

Zestaphoni by way of Alkaktsikhe, which is far south of the existing line. Over half of the 

foundations and towers for the new line were constructed between 1989 and 1991, when the 

project was abandoned. 

There is a significant generation-load imbalance in the Georgian power system: two-thirds of 

Georgia’s energy resource is located in the northwest of the country, while two thirds of 

domestic demand is located in eastern Georgia, and most of the potential export market is 

located in countries south of Georgia (for example, Turkey, Iran, and Iraq, all of which are 

experiencing rapid economic development and growth in electricity demand). Power 

delivery to any of these markets requires a reliable high voltage transmission network. At 

present, only one strong line connects West and East Georgia, the 500kV transmission line 

“Imereti” – “Kartli-II” – “Kartli-I”. Any fault on this line, especially during autumn and winter, 

causes a large power deficit in the East, and this has resulted in frequent total system 

blackouts. Apart from reducing domestic grid reliability, this also limits existing and future 

power swap or export potential. In addition to being an exporter of electricity, Georgia 

wishes to seize an opportunity for acting as a transit country, notably for electricity exports 

from Azerbaijan to Turkey. 

In recent years, the Ministry of Energy has examined the need to integrate the national grid 

into the regional system, both for economic and national security reasons. Fichtner (2007) 

1


completed a study for the Ministry that evaluated the concept of developing an extremely 

high-voltage interconnected system in Caucasus nations. The intent would be to allow easy 

and efficient cross-border exchanges and make better use of regional energy resources. 

The study considered Georgia, Armenia, Azerbaijan, Iran, and Turkey. The study 

recommended going forward with the two projects studied in detail, which were to develop 

lines to connect Armenia and Georgia, and to connect Turkey and Georgia. The study 

concluded that Georgia (and Armenia) would profit from and share in development 

momentum that would be gained by Turkey, Iran, Azerbaijan, and Russia. 

The Ministry of Energy also commissioned a study (Ministry of Energy of Georgia, undated) 

to determine whether there is adequate demand in Turkey for electricity exported from 

Georgia and Azerbaijan and whether there is sufficient existing and feasible electricity 

generation projects in Azerbaijan and Georgia to supply the Turkish markets using a newly 

constructed transmission line. The study determined that this was feasible, given a 

competitive price and additional investment in hydropower generation facilities in Georgia. 

The study also noted that the hydropower investment would likely depend on there being a 

firm commitment to the transmission line, whereas financing for the transmission line would 

depend on commitments to generation projects. 

Finally, the Ministry of Energy sponsored a feasibility study funded by the United States 

Trade and Development Agency to determine the least-cost technical options to make power 

transmission more reliable in Georgia (Kuljian, 2008). Specifically, the study examined the 

construction of a new 500kV line that would further integrate the west and east Georgian 

Power System and operate in parallel with the existing Zestaphoni – Ksani – Gardabani 

500kV transmission line. The study also examined the feasibility of having this new line, 

which would be a completion of the old Soviet-era planned line, also have a new high 

voltage interconnection to Turkey by way of a new substation at Akhaltsikhe. Although there 

has been some deterioration and scavenging, much of the constructed route remains 

suitable for use after some rehabilitation. 

Subsequently, the Ministry of Energy made a decision to go forward with completion of the 

line and approached lenders for financing. The Project Execution Agency for the project is 

the Georgia State Electrosystem (GSE), which will be responsible for designing and 

constructing the line together with the Technical Consultant hired through international 

tender specifically for the Black Sea Transmission Project. As the project progresses, GSE 

may pass along responsibility as the execution agency to EnergoTrans, the daughter 

company (100 percent ownership), which is the legal entity that owns portions of the line that 

have already been acquired and will own the entire line once the right-of-way is fully 

acquired. 

1.3 Scope of the ESIA 

This Environmental and Social Impact Assessment (ESIA) evaluates the following project 

components, as shown on Figure 1-1: 

 

 

 

 

Rehabilitation and reconstruction of foundations and/or towers that have 

deteriorated or been damaged along the 260-kilometer route from Gardabani to 

Zestaphoni. 

Construction of foundations and towers for sections of the line that were not built 

on the Gardabani to Zestaphoni route and on the 30-kilometer route from 

Akhaltsikhe to the Turkish border. 

Conductoring (that is, placing lines to conduct electricity) the entire line. 

Slight expansions of existing 500kV substations near Gardabani and Zestaphoni. 

2

Ajameti 

Managed 

Reserve 

!( 

!H 

Baghdati 

IMERETI 

TURKEY 

Terjola 

!H 

!( 

!H 

!H 

Akhaltsikhe 

Zestaphoni 500 kV 

Substation (existing) 

Zestaphoni 

!H 

Borjomi-Kharagauli 

National Park 

!( 

Kharagauli 

Borjomi 

Nature 

Reserve 

!H 

Aspindza 

!H 

Borjomi 

Akhaltsikhe 500/400 kV 

Substation (new) 

Tetrobi 

Managed 

Reserve 

SAMTSKHE-JAVAKHETI 

Akhalkalaki 

!H 

!H 

Khashuri 

Ktsia-Tabatskuri 

Managed Reserve 

!H 

Kareli 

Tskhinvali 

!H 

SHIDA KARTLI 

!H 

Gori 

Tsalka 

KVEMO KARTLI 

!H 

Kaspi 

!H 

AlgeTi 

National Park 

Tetri Tskaro 

!H 

Akhalgori Black 

Sea 

!H 

Bolnisi 

!H 

Dusheti 

Akhaltsikhe 

!H 

TBILISI 

!H 

TBILISI 

!H 

Marneuli 

TBILISI !H 

^_ 

MTSKHETA-MTIANETI 

Mtskheta 

GEORGIA 

TURKEY 

Zestaphoni 

!( 

!H 

!( 

!H 

!( 

Proposed 

transmission line 

RUSSIA 

Tianeti 

Gardabani 

!( !H 

ARMENIA AZERBAIJAN 

Tbilisi 

National Park 

!H 

Rustavi 

Gardabani 

!( 

!H 

!H 

Dmanisi 

Gardabani 


o 

0 

5 10 15 20 

Kilometers 

WGS 1984 UTM Zone 38N 

!H 

Ninotsminda 

!H District 

Capital 

Regions 

Districts 

National Protected Areas 

National Park 


Strict Nature Reserve 

AZERBAIJAN 

Black Sea Regional Transmission Project Figure 

Project Overview 1-1 

!H 

New 500 kV Line (partly constructed) 

New 400 kV Line 

New 500 kV Line (partly constructed) 

400 kV Connection 

to Turkish Line 

Gardabani 500 kV 


PROJECTS\Georgia\MapDocs\Figure1-1_Schematic_042909.mxd April 29, 2009


 

Construction of a new 500/400/220kV substation near Akhaltsikhe 

In the future, additional lines may be constructed from Azerbaijan to connect to the 

substation at Gardabani, and from the Georgia border to a substation near Borchka, Turkey. 

Any potential impacts from construction and operation of these lines would be covered in 

future impact assessments. 

This ESIA is intended to meet the requirements of Georgian law, as described in section 3, 

and also will have to meet requirements established by the European Bank for 

Reconstruction and Development and other lenders for Category A projects. Prior to making 

a funding decision, the lenders and the Georgian Ministry of Environment Protection and 

Natural Resources have to be satisfied that: 

 

 

 

The elements of the investment program they have been asked to help finance 

would meet Georgian national requirements and existing European Union, 

EBRD, and international financial institution standards, as described in section 3. 

The project includes all necessary mitigation measures to minimize any 

significant adverse change in environmental, health and safety, and 

socioeconomic conditions. 

Appropriate public consultation and disclosure are undertaken in line with 

Georgian national law as well as EBRD Environmental Policy (EBRD, 2003), thus 

ensuring all reasonable public opinions are adequately considered prior to a 

commitment for financing. 

In keeping with Georgian law and EBRD requirements, the overall scope of the ESIA will 

include: 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Scoping and identification of key environmental and socioeconomic issues. 

Definition of baseline conditions of key environmental and social resources that could 

be affected by the project. 

Assessment of positive and negative impacts of the proposed project on 

environmental and socioeconomic resources. 

Consultation with people who may be affected by the project and other stakeholders. 

Development of design and operating practices that are sufficient to avoid, reduce, or 

compensate for significant adverse environmental and social impacts. 

Development of such monitoring programs as are necessary to verify mitigation is 

effective in accomplishing its goals, and to develop and refine the effectiveness of 

mitigation measures. 

1.4 Methodology for the ESIA 

This section describes the ESIA process in the context of the Black Sea Regional 

Transmission Project. The overall approach for the ESIA and reporting used the following 

sources of guidance 

Law of Georgia on Protection of Environment (enacted 1996, amended 2000, 

2003, 2007). 

Law of Georgia on Environmental Impact Permit (adopted October 15, 1996, 

replaced by the law adopted in 2007). 

 

European Union Council Directive 85/337/EEC on the assessment of the effects 

of certain public and private projects on the environment, as amended by Council 

4


directive 97/11/EC (Council 

of the European Union, 

1985; 1997). 

EBRD policies, including 

Environmental Policy 

(EBRD, 2003) and Public 

Information Policy (EBRD, 

2006). 

EIB’s environmental and 

social requirements in their 

Environmental and Social 

Practices Handbook 

(http://www.eib.org/about/p 

ublications/environmentaland-social-practiceshandbook.htmEIB, 

2007) 

KfW’s requirements 

contained in Financial 

Cooperation 

with 

Development Countries 

(KfW, 2003) and 

Environmental Guideline for 

Investment Finance by KfW 

(KfW, 2002). 

The overall ESIA process is shown 

in Figure 1-2. 

1.4.1 Scoping 

Scoping – 

identification of key 

issues and impacts 

Baseline data 

collection/compilation 

Impact Assessment – 

prediction, analysis 

and determination of 

significance 

Mitigation – avoid, 

reduce, compensate, 

remediate, enhance 

Environmental 

Action/Management 

Plan and Monitoring 

Plan– feeds into 

project construction 

Production of the EIA 

Report 

Figure 1-2. The ESIA Process 

Consultation 

The method used for scoping the potentially significant impacts of this project comprised: 

 

 

 

 

Visits by the social team in February 2009 to western sections of the line (from 

Marneuli to the west), to the Borjomi-Kharagauli National Park and Akhaltsikhe 

areas, and to the new corridor between Akhaltsikhe and the Turkish border. 

Visits by the environmental team to as much of the line as was accessible during 

visits in February and March 2009. These consisted of several days of observing 

constructed foundations and towers along the entire route, including damaged or 

destroyed ones, as well as observing the land and resources where the line has 

yet to be completed. 

Detailed reviews of other studies conducted in the areas where the line will run, 

including the BTC Pipeline ESIA (BTC Co., 2002) and the Samtskhe – Javakheti 

Roads Rehabilitation Project EIA (x xx, 2006). 

Meetings with officials in the Ministry of Environment Protection and Natural 

Resources, including representatives of the Agency for Protected Areas and the 

EIA department, as well as inquiries to the Ministry of Culture. 

5


Scoping meeting held in Gudauri on 27-28 March, which was attended by the 

Ministry of Energy, the Ministry of Environment Protection and Natural 

Resources, and three NonGovernmental Organizations (NGOs), including the 

Caucasus Environmental NGO.Network, the Informational Center of Kvemo 

Kartli, Geo Information Laboratory, LTD, and the Green Movement. 

Followup meetings in Tbilisi with various NGOs, including the Green Movement of 

Georgia and Green Alternative. 

Visits by the social 

team to a total of 16 

villages along the 


corridor. These visits 

included presentations 

to 400 people as well 

as interviews and 

discussions with 

several dozen people. 

In most cases, 

municipal authorities 

were notified of the 

meetings but could not 

attend. Figure 1-3 

shows discussions 

during a visit to a 

village near Gardabani. 

Figure 1-3. Leaders and citizens in Ilmazlo village receiving 

and giving information during a visit by the ESIA social team 

Government officials, NGOs, 

and citizens were very 

interested in hearing about the project, and were generally supportive, although there were 

some concerns. The major concerns that were raised during scoping, positive and negative, 

fell into several major categories: 

 

 

 

Environmental: 

- Concern about impacts on flora and/or fauna in Borjomi-Kharagauli National 

Park. 

- Concerns about the potential impacts of crossing the Kura River. 

Social: 

- Concern about potential health effects of high-voltage transmission lines on 

residents who live in houses near the line or other people who spend time near 

the lines. 

- Concern about having to relocate to a house farther away from the line. 

- Concern about damage to existing houses from derelict towers. 

Economic: 

- Concern that construction and maintenance of the line could damage crops or 

interfere with grazing. 

- Concern about loss of land to foundations and towers and to access roads. 

- A desire that local workers be hired for rehabilitation and construction of the 

foundations and towers (some people who were interviewed had worked on the 

original construction). 

- Concern about impacts on recreation in Borjomi-Kharagauli National Park. 

6


 

 

Cultural: 

- Concerns about impacts on the Ilmazlo cemetery, including damages to graves. 

Other: 

- Surprise that the line would be completed and placed into service, since some 

people had thought it had been abandoned permanently. 

- Concern that the Government will do whatever it wants without considering other 

opinions. 

- Appreciation of the benefit of linking Georgia powers grid to Turkey (a key NATO 

ally) and reducing the importance of linkage to the Russian grid. 

- Hope and appreciation that electricity might become more reliable and/or more 

affordable. 

1.4.2 Baseline Data Collection 

The study area was defined initially by the originally designed transmission line corridor, for 

which GSE provided GPS coordinates for all the foundations and towers that had already 

been constructed and the approximate corridor where new foundations and towers would 

need to be constructed. Baseline data collection for the project included a combination of 

desk studies and site visits. Desk studies used existing sources of information, including 

data available on the internet; reports and the scientific literature; recent ESIAs/EIAs for 

projects in areas near the corridor; data provided by the Ministry of Energy, the Ministry of 

Environment and Natural Resources, and the Ministry of Culture. Site visits were made 

from February through April 2009 to supplement and verify information provided by desk 

studies. 

Chapter 4 of this ESIA provides information on the baseline environment, including natural 

processes that may affect the baseline over the course of project development. Where there 

are gaps or uncertainties with the baseline data, or where assumptions have been made, 

this is stated in the text. 

1.4.3 Assessment of Impacts 

Chapter 5 of this ESIA identifies potential socioeconomic impacts, determines whether the 

potential impact is likely to be significant, and compares the potential impacts for various 

alternatives. A number of criteria were used to determine whether or not a potential impact 

of the proposed scheme could be considered “significant.” These are outlined with reference 

to specific environmental and social issues in the subsequent topic sections of this ESIA. 

Wherever possible, a quantitative assessment of the impacts was undertaken. Where this 

was not possible, a qualitative assessment of impacts was undertaken, based on existing 

information available for the corridor, and experience with other transmission line projects. 

The ESIA covers the direct impacts and any indirect, secondary, cumulative, short-, mediumand 

long-term, permanent and temporary, reversible and irreversible, beneficial and adverse 

impacts of the proposed scheme. 

Where relevant, the anticipated impact was compared against appropriate legal 

requirements and standards. Where no such standards exist, assessment methods 

involving interpretation and the application of professional judgement were employed. The 

assessment of significance in all cases took into account the impact’s deviation from the 

established baseline conditions and the sensitivity of the environment. 

7

1.4.3.1 Methodology for Assessing Environmental Impacts 


A general method for grading the significance of environmental impacts was adopted to 

ensure consistency in the terminology of significance, whether for a beneficial or an adverse 

impact. The two principal criteria determining significance are the sensitivity of the receptor 

and the magnitude of the change arising from the scheme, as shown in Table 1-1. 

Table 1-1 shows that the significance of impacts was classed as major, moderate, minor or 

none; and either positive (beneficial) or negative (adverse). This categorization is widely 

recognized and accepted in the field of environmental impact assessment. Where 

appropriate, topic-specific assessment methods and criteria for determining significance are 

described in Chapter 5. 

Table 1-1. Determination of Environmental Impact Significance 

Magnitude of 

change 

High 

(e.g. >75% of 

area or receptor 

affected) 

Medium 

(e.g. 25-75% of 


affected) 

Low 

(e.g. 5 to 25% of 


affected) 

Very Low 

(e.g. >0, but 


intended and unintended, positive and negative. For significant impacts, the developer would 

implement a variety of mitigation measures, and these are discussed in Chapter 6. 

Nature of 

change 

Temporary 

Table 1-2. Duration of Impacts 

Duration 

Short-term 

Medium-term 

Long-term 

Permanent - 

Definition/ Description 

Impact continues during construction (1-2 yrs) 

and up to 1 year following construction 

Impact continues 1-5 years following 

construction 

Impact continues 5-10 years after construction 

Due to the length of time period for human 

beings, impacts over 10 years can subjectively 

be defined as permanent. 

Generally, the social impact assessment process involves the following major tasks: 

 

 

 

 

Identifying types of adverse and beneficial impacts of the proposed action. 

Assessing the level of socioeconomic risks in terms of frequency (how likely is 

it to happen) and consequences. 

Assessing the acceptability of the risks. 

Introducing mitigation measures to reduce risks to acceptable level. 

The social impact assessment typically addresses the following issues: 

Demographics, including changes in local population size, 

emigration/immigration in the area, migration of people in search of work, and 

other issues. 

Economic issues, including supply chain impacts, local sourcing 

opportunities, potential impacts on local markets for goods and services, 

employment opportunities for construction, operation and decommissioning 

phases of the project. 

 

 

 

 

 

Health issues, including risks of new diseases to indigenous communities, 

impacts on health of operations personnel and local communities, impact of 

local diseases on workers. 

Social infrastructure, including adequacy of health care and education 

facilities, transport and roads, power supply, fresh water supply to support 

project activities and personnel as well as the local communities. 

Resources, including land use changes, increased access to rural or remote 

areas, use of natural resources. 

Cultural, including issues associated with sites that have archaeological, 

historical, religious, cultural, or aesthetic values. 

Social equity, including local social groups who will gain or lose as a result of 

the project or operation. 

As with environmental impacts, a general method for grading the significance of 

socioeconomic impacts was adopted to ensure consistency in the terminology of 

significance, whether for a beneficial or an adverse impact. The two principal criteria used 

9


were the nature of the impact and the magnitude of the change arising from the scheme, as 

shown in Table 1-3. 

1.4.4 Environmental Mitigation and Enhancement 

Where potential impacts could be significant, mitigation measures were developed. These 

measures are intended to avoid, reduce, compensate, and/or remediate adverse impacts, or 

to enhance potentially beneficial impacts. Wherever possible, this is undertaken as part of 

the project design, so the measures will feed back into impact assessment. An example of 

this would be to include erosion control measures into the design of roads. 

The mitigation and enhancement which should be undertaken as part of the project are set 

out as an Environmental and Social Management Plan which can then be applied in order to 

manage different phases of the project. For this project, the plan presented in Chapter 6. 

Table 1-3. Determination of Social Impact Significance 

Magnitude of 

Nature of impact 

change Avoidance Disruption/Habituation Permanence 

Negligible 

No 

needed 

avoidance 

No noticeable under 

normal conditions 

Not noticeable 

Minor 

Mitigation or design 

change prevents 

Impact(s) 

No effect on daily life or 

routine of affected party 

Ephemeral:


 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Chapter 4 describes the environmental setting of the transmission line corridor and 

the baseline environmental and socioeconomic conditions of the area. 

Chapter 5 describes the potential impacts that may result from construction, 

operation, and maintenance of the transmission line. 

Chapter 6 is the Environmental and Social Action Plan that will be implemented, 

which includes measures that are needed to prevent, mitigate, or otherwise address 

potentially significant impacts. 

Chapter 7 is the monitoring program that will be implemented to verify the 

conclusions of this ESIA and to allow refinement of future mitigation efforts. 

Chapter 8 provides references used in preparing the ESIA. 

Appendix A identifies the people who prepared the ESIA and summarizes their 

qualifications. 

Appendix B shows the milestones and schedule for completing the ESIA process. 

Appendix C is the Public Consultation and Disclosure Plan that was used to ensure 

the involvement of stakeholders in the ESIA process. 

11


2.0 THE PROPOSED PROJECT LINE AND ALTERNATIVES 

This chapter describes the proposed transmission line and several alternatives. The action 

alternatives include the regional project as described in Chapter 1 and also modified corridor 

routes to reduce impacts on protected areas. The alternatives considered include three 

action alternatives and the no action alternative: 

 

 

 

 

Alternative 1: completion of the 500kV line as proposed in the late 1980s and partly 

constructed through 1991, plus a new substation at Akhaltsikhe and a new 400kV 

line to the Turkish border. Construction would begin in 2010 and last through 2012. 

Alternative 2: the same as Alternative 1 except a modified route near Ktsia- 

Tabatskuri Managed Reserve and through Borjomi-Kharagauli National Park. 

Alternative 3: the same as Alternative 2 except a modified route that does not cross 

Borjomi-Kharagauli National Park. 

Alternative 4: No action. This alternative would involve not completing the line but 

instead leaving the foundations and towers as they are, and not completing the Black 

Sea Regional Transmission Project described in Chapter 1. 

2.1 Alternative 1: Black Sea Regional Transmission Project 

This alternative includes the following key elements as shown on Figure 1-1 in Chapter 1: 

 

 

 

 

Rehabilitation and/or construction of approximately 260 kilometers of 500kV 

transmission line connecting the existing 500kV substations at Zestaphoni and 

Gardabani. 

Construction of a new 500/400 kV and 400 kV substation at Akhaltsikhe. 

Approximately 30 kilometers of 400 kV transmission line from the new substation 

at Akhaltsikhe to the Turkish border (to be connected to the Borchka substation in 

Turkey at a later date). 

Expansion of the substations at Zestaphoni and Gardabani to accommodate the 

new 500kV circuit. 

Work on strengthening the transmission network in the Caucasus began in the 1980s. The 

proposed 500 kV line that is the subject of this ESIA was originally designed as part of a 

larger plan to connect the electricity systems of Russia and all three Trans-Caucasian 

Republics, and to improve reliability of the Georgian power system. Construction of the 

section from Gardabani to Zestaphoni started in 1989 and continued until 1991. However, 

after 1992 further construction became impossible due to political events in Georgia, and 

sections of the line whose foundations and towers had been constructed were left 

unenergized and unprotected. The project that was partly constructed at that time is now 

proposed to be completed and extended. The proposed project would extend Georgia’s 

main 500kV system by adding two new 500kV links from Gardabani and Zestaphoni to 

a new substation near Akhaltsikhe. The new Akhaltsikhe substation will be connected to 

the Turkish grid at Borchka using a 400kV overhead line. The 400kV line from the Georgian 

border to Borchka in Turkey has not yet been designed or constructed. A companion project 

to facilitate the transit element is the completion of a new 500kV connection between 

Georgia and Azerbaijan, which is also to be completed at a later date. 

Before construction was ended in 1991, a total of 554 foundations and towers were 

constructed over the 283-kilometer corridor. Table 2-1 shows the status of the existing 

towers. Of these, slightly over half will need rehabilitation of some sort, ranging from 

complete replacement to repairs to existing tower components. The proposed project will 

12


include construction of an additional 309 foundations and towers (assuming that towers are 

placed 400 meters apart), and conductoring of high-voltage lines between all the towers. 

Figure 2-1 shows the portions of the line that have been constructed and that have not yet 

been constructed, and also shows the locations of the individual towers that have been 

constructed. Table 2-2 shows the length of the line and the numbers of towers that will be 

used for this alternatives and also Alternatives 2 and 3. 

Table 2-1. Current Status of Foundations and Towers 

Constructed before 1991 

Status 

Number 

Existing tower/foundation sites 

554 

Towers missing 

118 

Severely damaged, major repair required 

99 

Minor damage, relatively simple rehabilitation 

74 

Good condition, minor or no repairs needed 

263 

Source: Information received from GSE 

Table 2-2. Corridor length and tower status for all alternatives 

(all distances in kilometers) 

Alternative 

1 2 3 4 

Total length of line 283.1 294.3 315.2 0 

Total constructed length 161.4 156.6 135 161.4 

Total length not constructed 121.7 137.7 180.2 0 

Number of constructed towers used 554 514 366 0 

Number of towers to be abandoned 0 40 188 554 

Length of Ktsia-Tabatskuri crossing 12.1 10 10 0 

Length of Borjomi-Kharagauli crossing 11.5 4.7 0 0 

Length of Gardabani crossing 3.1 3.1 3.1 0 

2.1.1 Substations 

The new Akhaltsikhe substation will include construction of new 500kV and 400kV outdoor 

conventional air-insulated (AIS) substations at a single site on approximately six hectares of 

land approximately 15 kilometers northeast of Akhaltsikhe along the existing 500kV route. 

The main elements of this substation will include: 

 

 

 

 

500kV substation. 

400kV substation. 

Back-to-back HVDC 500/400 Converter Station. 

Control and monitoring equipment (SCADA). 

The civil works that will be completed as part of substation design, procurement, and 

construction include: 

 

Subsoil investigation, topographical & contour survey, as required. 

13


 

 

 

 

Earthworks and rock excavation including dewatering if required, filling and 

grading and paving as needed. 

Steel structures. 

Foundations for substation control building and structures. 

Infrastructure works such as perimeter fencing, access and service roads and 

paths, water supply, storm drainage, cable ducts/trenches, doors and windows, 

and finishing work including masonry, plastering, filing, and painting. 

Design and execution will be based on applicable international regulations and standards in 

conjunction with Georgia norms and standards. The existing substations at Zestaphoni and 

Gardabani will be extended slightly to accommodate the new 500kV circuits at each location. 

This will require minimal additional land space since most of the new equipment will be 

installed within the existing substations. 

2.1.2 Transmission Lines 

As mentioned previously, a transmission line has been planned on the same proposed route 

from Gardabani to Zestaphoni since the late 1980s. Activities including right-of-way 

acquisition, land clearing, construction of foundations and construction of towers were 

conducted between 1989 and 1991 along about 65 percent of this route. As noted above, 

many of these towers have been damaged or completely removed by scavengers and many 

foundations are in precarious condition. 

The segments of the transmission line include: 

 

 

 

Segment 1 - Gardabani to Akhaltsikhe. Right-of-way acquisition, land-clearing, and 

tower construction were completed along 114.8 kilometers of this 187.5-kilometer 

route (61 percent) in three main areas as shown on Figure 2-1: from kilometer 0 at 

Gardabani to kilometer 40.4 west of Marneuli (40.4 kilometers); from kilometer 53.9 

east of Tetri-Tskaro to kilometer 99.5 near Tsalka (45.6 kilometers); and from 

kilometer 158.9 near Alastani to kilometer 187.5 (28.8 kilometers) at the proposed 

Akhaltsikhe substation. 1 

Segment 2 – Akhaltsikhe to Zestaphoni. Right-of-way acquisition, land-clearing, and 

tower construction were completed along 48.0 of this 61.1-kilometer route (79 

percent) in two main areas as shown on Figure 2-1: from kilometer 187.5 at the 

proposed Akhaltsikhe substation to kilometer 197.8 (10.3 kilometers) just inside the 

southern boundary of what is now Borjomi-Karagauli National Park; and from 

kilometer 210.9 just outside the northern boundary of the Borjomi-Karagauli National 

Park to kilometer 248.6 at the Zestaphoni substation (37.7 kilometers). Additionally, 

the right-of-way that connects these two segments through the National Park was 

initially cleared but has since largely re-grown. Remnants of some of the access 

roads are still present through these areas and are used as a local access route for 

recreational activities such as hiking and horseback riding. 

Segment 3 - Akhaltsikhe to Borchka (terminating near Vale on the Turkish Border). 

No activities have previously occurred on this segment, so this will be all new 

construction. 

1 The distance in kilometers is measured from the origin at the Gardabani substation. 

14

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Tsinubanistskali 

Ku 

rikhana 

Beiukchai 

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Kojori 

Oshiristskali 

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Kura 





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TBILISI 

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Status Segments unique 

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line are shared with 

! 

Existing Towers 

another alternative) 

5 10 15 

Kilometers 


Settlements 

!H City 

!H Town 

!H Village 

National Protected Areas 

National Park 


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Regions 

Districts 

Rivers 

Lakes 

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Tetri Tskaro 

Kazreti 

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Black 

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Bolnisi 

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Akhaltsikhe 

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Proposed 


RUSSIA 

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Gardabani 

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Didi Lilo 

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Figure 

2-1 

PROJECTS\Georgia\MapDocs\Figure2-1_Alt1_050509.mxd May 5, 2009


2.1.2.1 Routing for New Construction 

Detailed planning for routes and construction of transmissions line towers and lines will be 

required at two sections of the Gardabani to Akhaltsikhe segment, one section of the 

Akhaltsikhe to Zestaphoni segment, and the entire Akhaltsikhe to Turkey segment. An 

additional 300 or more new towers will be required. A total of about 300 new foundations and 

towers will need to be designed and constructed, in addition to the 554 existing ones. The 

route runs 11.5 kilometers through Borjomi-Kharagauli National Park, most of which will be 

new construction, and 12.1 kilometers through Ktsia-Tabatskuri Managed Reserve, all of 

which will be new. 

2.1.2.2 Access Roads 

Access roads will be needed to obtain access to the existing and new tower locations. 

During construction of the line from 1989 through 1991, access roads were used to bring 

workers and materials to the tower sites to conduct tree-cutting operations (where needed), 

construct foundations, and assemble and raise the towers. Since 1991, many of these 

access roads have grown over and are now not visible. Other access roads have been used 

by the local population and are now well-established. Some of the access roads into 

Borjomi-Kharagauli National Park are now used by hikers. Where needed, clearing for 

access roads will be 4 to 5 meters wide; in general, vehicles and equipment will travel across 

unprepared ground, with no preparation or road construction unless efforts are needed to 

control erosion or excess land disturbance. 

2.1.2.3 Restoration of Previously Installed Foundations and Towers 

As noted previously, foundations and towers have recently been evaluated by GSE to 

determine their current condition. The results were shown in Table 2-1. The existing towers 

are generally in areas that are largely accessible without the need for significant clearing or 

access roads. Where necessary, foundations and towers will be demolished or rehabilitated 

to meet design performance standards. 

2.1.2.4 Installation of New Foundations and Towers 

Clearing of trees and removal of other 

obstructions, where present, will occur within 

about 50 meters of the transmission line, 

forming a clear corridor about 100 meters 

wide. 2 Figure 2-2 shows typical vegetation 

clearing. Debris will be removed or burned 

(where allowed by authorities) so it does not 

present a fire hazard. In some cases, where 

the line traverses a valley, vegetation clearing 

may be limited or even unnecessary since the 

line may pass over existing vegetation with 

sufficient clearance and the towers can be 

accessed independently. Where the route 

crosses agricultural land, clearance 

requirements are expected to be maintained 

Figure 2-2. Vegetation clearing of a narrow 

corridor 

2 The actual width of the corridor in which trees will be cleared will governed by a complex formula in 

Rules of Installation of Electric Equipment-, Annexes 1 and 2 (Ministry of Energy, undated-2). 

The formula is based on the distance between the outermost lines, the distance between a line and 

the tops of trees, the possible horizontal movement of slack lines, and tree crown radius after 25 

years of growth. 

16


easily, so there should be no restrictions on ongoing agricultural activities. In general, 

construction will follow the Georgia norms specified in Ministry of Energy (undated-2). 

New steel towers will be placed at intervals ranging from 400 to 1500 meters depending on 

topography; towers will be closer when there is little or no relief and farther apart in hilly or 

mountainous terrain. The interval will be determined during the design in order to ensure the 

line will maintain a minimum clearance of eight meters from ground obstructions, roads, or 

trees. In-line towers will be 35 meters high and corner towers will be 30 meters high. At the 

minimum interval of 400 meters, a total of 309 new towers would need to be constructed 

(current intervals average 290 meters, but improved methods will allow a larger average 

interval.) In many locations, blasting will be needed to prepare sites for installation of 

foundations. Figures 2-3 and 2-4 shows typical foundation and tower construction activities. 

Four different types of towers 

may be used, depending on 

location, function, and 

availability of the towers. The 

types of towers are shown in 

Figure 2-5 and include: 

 

 

 

Corner towers have a 

triple lattice tower 

arrangement with 12 

points of ground contact 

(that is, three fourlegged 

towers), anchor 

wires, and a 

requirement of 741 

square meters of area. 

Two types of H-frame 

structures (that is, 

shaped like an “H”) with 

two points of ground 

contact (two “legs”), 

anchor wires, and a 

requirement of 228 

square meters of area. 

A single lattice tower 

structure with four 

points of ground contact 

(that is, a single fourlegged 

tower), anchor 

wires, and a 

requirement of up to 

440 square meters of 

area. 

Figure 2-3. Typical installation of foundations 

and setting towers 

Access to tower locations will 

be made by driving on 

unimproved access “roads” 

from existing road crossings 

over the ground to the right-ofway. 

Neither permanent nor 

temporary paved/gravel access 

roads are proposed in the right- 

Figure 2-4. Raising tower in mountainous terrain 

17

H-Frame 2-point contact steel 

lattice tower. Used primarily for 

in-line conductors. 

Single 4-point contact steel 

lattice tower. Used primarily for 

in-line conductors 

H-Frame 2-point contact tower. 

Used primarily for in-line 

conductors. 

Triple 4-point contact steel 

lattice towers. Used primarily 

for direction changes and high 

conductor stress situations. 

Types of Towers 


Figure 

2-5


of-way. Helicopter landing/staging pads may need to be constructed in rugged terrain where 

helicopters may be used for construction activities. 

2.1.2.5 Installation of Conductors (Transmission Lines) 

In most locations, there are no line conductors between the existing towers; however, line 

conductors and ground conductors are present in some locations. GSE will evaluate 

existing conductors to determine if they are still usable. It is anticipated that most, if not all, 

of the line and ground conductors used will be new. 

Based on the type and size of conductors used in existing 400kV and 500kV systems in 

Georgia, the following conductor sizes will be used to maintain uniformity in operation and 

maintenance practices, including maintaining optimum spare parts inventory: 

 

 

 

3xAC 400/51, 3XAC 500/64 aluminum conductor steel reinforced (ACSR) line 

conductors per phase for 500kV transmission line. 

Two (2) 380/50 square millimeter DIN48204 rated ACSR line conductors for 400kV 

transmission line per phase. 

Two (2) ground conductors will be provided. One composite fiber-optic overhead 

ground wire will be used to serve dual function; optical fiber telecom link and 

ground wire on overhead transmission lines and the other will be ACSR. The 

optical fiber telecom link are designed with mechanical and electrical 

characteristics similar to conventional ground wires. 

The ground wires are constructed to protect the electrical line from the effects of short 

circuits on the power system and lightning strikes. 

Line conductor installations will be accomplished 

using two basic techniques. In drivable terrain, the 

conductors will be on rollers at the end of a section. 

The line conductor will be played out between the 

towers using a four-wheel drive vehicle with a 

specialized pole that will pull the line conductor 

from tower to tower while driving along the right-ofway. 

In highly rugged terrain, it is anticipated that 

vegetation clearing will be minimal and helicopters 

will be used the run the line conductor between 

towers. Once the line conductor is played out, it 

will be pulled to the required tension to maintain a 

minimum clearance requirement of eight meters 

over the highest vegetation. Figure 2-6 shows 

typical ground-based conductoring. In rugged 

terrain where vehicle access is difficult or 

impossible, helicopters may be used to place 

conductor lines. 

2.1.3 Proposed Maintenance Techniques 

2.1.3.1 Substations 

Figure 2-6. Ground-based 

conductoring 

Ongoing operations and maintenance at substations will primarily include accessing the 

substations by truck or car to monitor and occasionally service equipment and the facilities. 

Additional maintenance activities would include landscaping activities such as grass mowing 

and regular mechanical weed control around the fences. 

19


2.1.3.2 Transmission Lines 

In forested areas, the right-of-way will require vegetation control measures to maintain 

clearance for transmission lines and to maintain access to the towers. Vegetation control 

will be conducted mechanically, with cutting 

activities occurring every 6 to 8 years. 

Herbicides will not be used for vegetation 

control. An example of a cleared corridor in 

forested terrain is shown in Figure 2-7. 

Access to towers locations will be achieved by 

driving to existing road crossings and entering 

the right-of-way by driving over the ground or 

by driving along dirt access roads (where they 

exist along the existing sections of the line). 

Neither permanent nor temporary 

paved/gravel access roads will be established 

and maintained in the right-of-way. 

In some locations (including that portion of the 

route traversing the Borjomi-Karagauli 

National Park), construction and maintenance 

access is will be by helicopter. Vegetation 

Figure 2-7. Example of vegetation clearing 

for corridor maintenance in forested terrain 

control at the tower locations will be conducted manually by workers every six to eight years. 

Because of the placement of the towers on high points, vegetation control in these areas of 

the right-of-way may not always be required in order to maintain adequate clearance 

between vegetation and lines. 

2.2 Alternative 2 – Modified Route Near Ktsia-Tabatskuri Managed Reserve and 

through Borjomi-Kharagauli National Park 

Alternative 2 uses most of the original project route described in Alternative 1. However, 

Alternative 2 involves a realignment of the route near Ktsia-Tabatskuri Managed Reserve in 

order to reduce potential impacts to that protected area. It also involves crossing Borjomi- 

Kharagauli National Park at its narrowest point and at areas quite distant from recreational 

traffic. This alternative can also include some technological alternatives to minimize landclearing 

in the National Park, which would further mitigate potential impacts. This alternative 

is shown in Figure 2-8. 

The modified route is 294 kilometers long, about 11 kilometers longer than Alternative 1, and 

would involve constructing 350 or more new towers in addition to using 514 of the existing 

towers. It also would involve abandoning 40 existing towers. The crossing of Borjomi- 

Kharagauli would be 4.7 kilometers long, compared to 11.5 kilometers in Alternative 1. The 

crossing of Ktsia-Tabatskuri would be 10 kilometers long, compared to 12.1 kilometers in 

Alternative 1. 

This alternative was developed based on consultations with the Agency for Protected Areas 

in the Ministry of Environment Protection and Natural Resources In a series of meetings, the 

Agency expressed concern over visual impacts to recreational bird-watching and impacts to 

bird species near Tabatskuri Lake, an alpine lake. As a result, this alternative creates a new 

alignment that roughly parallels the recently installed BTC pipeline and avoids the areas of 

concern to the Agency for Protected Areas. In addition, the Agency expressed concern over 

potential impacts in Borjomi-Kharagauli National Park, so the route was modified so it would 

cross the park at its narrowest point. 

20


2.3 Alternative 3 – Modified Route in Near Ktsia-Tabatskuri Managed Reserve and 

around Borjomi-Kharagauli National Park 

Alternative 3 uses most of the original project route in Alternative 1. However, Alternative 3 

involves the same realignment of the route near Ktsia-Tabatskuri Managed Reserve as in 

Alternative 2. It also involves a realignment that completely avoids crossing Borjomi- 

Kharagauli National Park. This alternative is shown in Figure 2-9. 

The modified route is 315 kilometers long, about 32 kilometers longer than Alternative 1 and 

21 kilometers longer than Alternative 2. This alternative would involve constructing 400 or 

more new towers in addition to using 366 of the existing towers. It also would involve 

abandoning about 188 existing towers. There would be no crossing of Borjomi-Kharagauli 

since the line would go around the western edge of the park. The crossing of Ktsia- 

Tabatskuri would be 10 kilometers long, compared to 12.1 kilometers in Alternative 1. 

Similar to Alternative 2, this alternative was developed based on consultations with the 

Agency for Protected Areas in the Ministry of Environment Protection and Natural Resources 

and based on the same concerns. As does Alternative 2, this alternative creates a new 

alignment that roughly parallels the recently installed BTC pipeline and avoids the areas of 

concern to the Agency for Protected Areas. In addition, the route was modified so it would 

not cross Borjomi-Kharagauli National Park at all. 

2.4 Alternative 4: No Action Alternative 

The “no action” alternative does not include any additional transmission line construction and 

leaves the existing towers and rights-of-way as they currently exist. The “no action” 

alternative is a required alternative that should be considered in the development of any EIA. 

21

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2-9 



3.0 LEGAL AND INSTITUTIONAL FRAMEWORK 

This chapter describes the national and international legal framework of the Black Sea 

Regional Transmission Project, including standards and policies applicable to the Project. 

3.1 National Legal and Regulatory framework 

The legal framework for environmental protection is based on the Constitution of Georgia. 

Though the Constitution does not directly address environmental matters, it does confirm the 

right of any person to live in a healthy environment, use the natural and cultural environment, 

at the same time obliging any person to take care of the natural and cultural environment 

(Article 37, Part 3). The Constitution also down the legal framework that guarantees public 

access to information, stating that an individual has the right to obtain full, unbiased, and 

timely information regarding his working and living environment (Article 37, Part 5). 

3.1.1 Administrative framework 

The Ministry of Environment Protection and Natural Resources is responsible for all 

environmental protection issues in Georgia. Their activities are implemented through a 

central office and six regional units: east central, west central, Kakheti, Kvemo Kartli, 

Samtskhe-Javakheti, Samegrelo and Zemo Svaneti. 

The responsibilities of the Ministry as the competent authority are: 

 

 

 

 

To intermit, limit or stop any activity having or likely to have adverse impact on the 

environment, as well as unreasonable use of natural resources. 

To issue a series of licenses and permits (including for environmental impact). 

To control the execution of mitigation measures by the developer (in this case, 

GSE, the Project Execution Agency). 

To receive free and unrestricted information from the developer about the 

utilization of natural resources, monitoring systems, waste management etc. and 

explanations from authorities concerned by the Project. 

The regional executive bodies perform the main administrative functions in each district. 

There are several key agencies within the Ministry of Environment Protection and Natural 

Resources. 

 

 

Agency of Protected Areas. This Agency is responsible for state reserves, 

national parks, natural monuments, managed reserves, protected landscapes, 

biosphere reserves, world heritage districts and wetlands of international 

importance. The main tasks of the agency are to control territories of multilateral 

usage, to implement activities of looking after protected areas, to supervise, 

preserve, rehabilitate and protect them. 

National Environmental Agency (established 29 August 2008) is responsible for 

preparing informational documents, forecasts and warnings regarding to existing 

and expected hydro-meteorological and geodynamic processes, also 

environment pollution conditions in order to provide state security, existing and 

expected hydro meteorological forecasting of rivers, water reserves and the Black 

Sea territorial waters, to assess conditions of geodynamic processes, engineering 

and geo-ecological conditions of environment and to prepare and spread 

information on environmental conditions, to create database of engineering 

infrastructure of coastal zone, to manage united state fund information on 

24


 

 

minerals, to establish and manage informational fund in geological, geodesic, 

cartographic and land resources state fund, to create and manage informational 

database on Georgian forest resources, to inventor and register industrial and 

scientific geological activities, to create and renew state balance and cadastre 

database on mineral deposits and exposures, to create environmental 

information database, to monitor coastal zone, to provide civil aviation with 

meteorological information. 

Inspectorate of Environmental Protection (established 20 September 2005). This 

Agency It replaced the ecological police that previously functioned under the 

Ministry of Internal Affairs as an agency of the Ministry of the Environment 

Protection and Natural Resources. The Inspectorate monitors and enforces 

environmental laws and permit requirements, reviews reports submitted by 

permittees/licensees, and plans and coordinates state control and oversight of 

permittees/licensees. The Inspectorate periodically issues reports on its activities. 

Each of the seven regional bureaus of Inspection holds a ‘Division of Early 

Response’ and a ‘Division of Inspection’. The Inspectorate also controls the 

implementation of international commitments related to environment protection 

The Parliamentary Committee on Environment is in charge of legislative activities. 

Other departments within the Ministry of Environment Protection and Natural Resources and 

other Ministries that will play a role in the approval/agreement process for the Project, 

include but are not limited to: 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Department of Forestry, within the Ministry of Environment Protection and Natural 

Resources. 

Department of Protected Area, within the Ministry of Environment Protection and 

Natural Resources. 

Service of Land Us, within the Ministry of Environment Protection and Natural 

Resources. 

Service of Geology, within the Ministry of Environment Protection and Natural 

Resources. 

Department of Cultural Heritage Preservation, within the Ministry of Culture. 

Department of Urbanization and Construction, within the Ministry of Economy. 

Ministry of Economic Development. 

Ministry of Labor, Health and Social Affairs. 

Ministry of Agriculture. 

3.1.2 Environmental legal framework 

Key environmental laws and regulations in Georgia are listed in Table 3-1. 

Table 3-1. Environmental Laws and Regulations in Georgia 

(as of March 2008) 

Year 

Law / Regulation 

1994 Law on Soil Protection (amend.1997, 2002) 

1994 Law on Protection of Plants from Harmful Organisms (amend. 1999) 

1996 Law on System of Protected Areas (amend.2003, 2004, 2005, 2006, 2007) 

1996 Law on Natural Resources 

1996 Law on Protection of Environment (amend. 2000, 2003, 2007) 

25




Year 


1997 Law on Wildlife (amend. 2001, 2003, 2004) 

1997 Law on Tourism and Recreation 

1997 Law on Water (amend.2003, 2004, 2005, 2006) 

1997 Law on State Ecological Expertise 

1998 Law on Sanitary Protection Zones and Resort Areas 

1998 Law on Regulation of Forest Use 

1998 Law on Hazardous Chemicals (amend. 2006,2007) 

1998 Law on Pesticides and Agrochemicals 

1998 Law on Establishment and Management of Kolkheti Protected Areas 

1999 Law on State Complex Expertise and Approval of Construction Projects 

1999 Law on Protection of Ambient Air (amend. 2000, 2007) 

1999 Forest Code 

1999 Law on Protection of Cultural Heritage (amend.2006) 

1999 Law on Compensation of Damage from Hazardous Substances (amend 2002, 

2003) 

1999 Law on Licensing Design-Construction Activities 

2000 National Environmental Action Plan of Georgia 

2000 Law on Regulating and Engineering Protection of Coastline and River Banks 

2000 Law on Special Protection of Vegetation in the Boundaries of Tbilisi and the 

Forest Fund (amended 2005, 2007) 

2000 Law on Melioration of Lands 

2001 Law on Expanding Borjomi-Kharagauli Natural Park Area 

2002 Law on Environmental Impact Assessment 

2003 Law on Red List and Red Book of Georgia (amend.2006) 

2003 Law on Establishment and Management of Tusheti, Batsara-Babaneuri, 

Lagodekhi and Vashlovani Protected Areas 

2003 Law on Soil Conservation and Improvement of Fertility 

2005 Law on Licences and Permits 

2005 Law on State Control of Nature Protection 

2006 Law on Biological Reproduction 

2006 Law on Mtirala National Park 

2006 Law on Protection of New Species of Plants 

2007 Law on Tbilisi National Park 

2007 Law on Status of Protected Areas 

2007 Law on Ecological Examination 

2007 Law on Service of Environmental Protection 

2007 Law on Environmental Impact Permit 

2007 Law on Establishment and Management of Borjomi-Kharagauli National Park 

26




Year 


2008 Ministry of Environment Protection and Natural Resources Order 96 On 

Approval of Regulation of Protected Areas Agency 

2008 Ministry of Environment Protection and Natural Resources Order 97 On 

approval of Typical Regulation of the Territorial Administration of the Protected 

Areas Agency 

Environmental considerations for the Black Sea Regional Transmission project will primarily 

be guided by the following key laws: 

Law of Georgia on Protection of Environment (enacted 1996, amended 2000, 

2003, 2007). This law regulates the legal relationship between the bodies of the 

state authority and the physical persons or legal entities (without distinction-legal 

form) in the scope of environmental protection and in the use of nature on all 

Georgia’s territory, including its territorial waters, airspace, continental shelf and 

special economic zone. The law deals with education and scientific research in 

the scope of environment, environmental management aspects, economic 

mechanisms, licensing, standards, EIA, and related issues. The law considers 

different aspects on protection of ecosystems, protected areas, issues of global 

and regional management, protection of ozone layer, biodiversity, protection of 

the Black Sea and international cooperation aspects. 

Law of Georgia on Environmental Impact Permit (adopted October 15, 1996, 

replaced by the law adopted in 2007). The law gives a complete list of activities 

subject to obligatory ecological examination. The law sets the legal basis for 

issuance of an environmental permit, implementation of ecological examination, 

as well as public awareness and public participation in these processes. In this 

law, an Environmental Impact Permit is defined as perpetual authorization for 

implementation of the planned development. A permit is issued by the Ministry of 

Environment Protection and Natural Resources after review and evaluation of the 

documents and application presented by developer, which would include review 

of this ESIA. 

Law of Georgia on Ecological Examination (adopted on October 18, 1996, 

replaced by the law adopted in 2007). This law makes ecological assessment an 

obligatory step in the impact permit or permit issuance process. The objective of 

an ecological assessment is to preserve an ecological balance with consideration 

of environmental requirements, sound use of natural resources, and sustainable 

development principles. A positive conclusion of the ecological assessment is 

mandatory to obtain an environmental permit. Ecological assessments are the 

responsibility of the Ministry of Environment Protection and Natural Resources. 

 

Law of Georgia on Licenses and Permits (adopted 23 June, 2005) and 

subordinate legislation. The law regulates the issuance of licenses or permits, 

gives an exhaustive list of licenses and permits, and sets the rules for issuing, 

amending, and cancelling permits. The law defines three new principles for 

issuance of the license: 

- “One-window” principle (“one-shop stop”) – this was a new concept 

established by this law and means that the administrative body issuing the 

license must ensure the approval of additional licensing conditions by the 

other administrative bodies. 

- “Silence gives consent” – the administrative body issuing the license is 

obliged to make a decision in due term after the submission of the application. 

27


Otherwise, the license is deemed issued if a decision is not made in the 

determined time period. 

- An “umbrella principle” – the holder of the general license is not obliged to 

apply for a specialized license. 

In compliance with this law, the license or permit issued by a foreign country under 

an international agreement or law is recognized by Georgia and has a status 

similar to that granted to the documents issued in Georgia. 

3.1.3 Environmental permit issuance procedure 

The permit application/issuance procedure, including EIA coordination and establishment of 

the timeframes for information disclosure and public review and discussion under Georgian 

Law, will include the following steps for the Black Sea Regional Transmission Project: 

Step 1. The GSE publishes information on the project in central and regional newspapers. 

The advertisement will include the project title, location, place, and deadline of the 

activities. It will also identify locations where the ESIA can be reviewed and where 

comments may be submitted. 

Step 2. Within one week after publishing the information in the newspaper(s), The GSE will 

submit the ESIA report (paper and electronic copies) to the Ministry of Environment 

Protection and Natural Resources. For 45 days after publishing the information, 

GSE will receive public comments on the ESIA. Between 50 and 60 days after 

publication, GSE will hold a series of meetings to receive comments from any 

stakeholder, which may include government agencies, local authorities, 

nongovernmental organizations, or citizens. There will be a meeting in each of the 

three regions the line crosses (Kvemo Kartli, Samtskhe-Javakheti, and Imereti), and 

a meeting in Tbilisi. Within five days of the meetings, GSE will submit to the 

Ministry of Environment Protection and Natural Resources a summary of all 

comments and discussions during the meetings. 

Step 3. All comments received in writing or at the meetings will be reviewed and considered 

in the final ESIA. GSE will prepare a document that shows every comment and the 

response that was taken, including whether there has been a change in the final 

ESIA. If a requested change is not accepted, the comment-response document will 

explain the reason, and the person who made the comment will be notified in 

writing. A draft of this comment-response document will be submitted to the Ministry 

of Environment Protection and Natural Resources. A copy of all written comments, 

the meeting summary, and the comment-response document will be included in the 

final ESIA as an appendix. Finally, the final ESIA will be submitted to the Ministry of 

Environment Protection and Natural Resources and made available to the public, 

along with a project location map, an executive summary, of the planned 

development, reports on emissions and allowable limits. The permit will then be 

issued or denied within 20 days from registration of the submission. 

3.1.4 Land use and labor laws applicable to the project 

3.1.4.1 Land use legislation 

Several laws govern the use of land, including: 

Law on Land Registration of 1996. 

Law on Agricultural Ownership of 1996. 

Law on Privatization of State-Owned Agricultural Lands of 2005. 

28


Law on Soil Protection of 1994. 

Two key laws could have direct implications for the project: 

 

 

Law of Georgia on the Procedure for Expropriation of Property for Necessary 

Public Needs (adopted 23 July 1999. The Republic of Georgia has the 

constitutional power to seize any property by means of expropriation for projects 

of imminent public necessity. The decision is made only through a Regional Court 

that must be preceded by a Presidential Decree justifying the imminent nature of 

the public necessity. The decision must include a description of the property to be 

expropriated and an instruction on the necessity to pay due compensation. The 

expropriator has to make every reasonable effort to acquire property by 

negotiation and is required to value the property in accordance with the fair 

market value before negotiations (and at its own expense). The Ministry of 

Energy and GSE do not intend to use this law to expropriate any lands, but will 

instead use other means to acquire rights-of-way that it does not already hold. 

Law of Georgia on Payment of Substitute Land Reclamation Cost and Damages 

in Allocating Farm Land for Non-Farming Purposes (adopted 2 October 1997). 

This law specifies requirements for compensating the government (a land 

replacement fee, which is fixed and variable according to location and quality of 

land) and affected private landowners and users for property loss, plus lost profits 

by the beneficiary, of an allocation of agricultural land for nonagricultural 

purposes. In the event that agricultural land is taken out of agricultural use, the 

law requires that a land replacement fee be paid to cover costs of cultivating a 

parcel of agricultural land of equivalent size and quality, and that the owner/user 

of such land be fully compensated for damages. This law could apply if GSE 

intends to place foundations and towers on agricultural lands, and also if 

agricultural land or crops are damaged during construction or maintenance 

activities. 

3.1.4.2 Labor legislation 

Two laws would apply to project-related labor and employment: 

 

 

Labor Code of Georgia (adopted 28 June 1973, amended in 2006) regulates 

labor relations between all workers and employees working in Georgia in all 

enterprises, institutions, and organizations, regardless of their ownership and 

organizational form. It supports the realization of human rights and freedoms 

through fair reimbursement and the creation of safe and healthy working 

conditions. Several provisions are stipulated in the law, including employment 

guarantees, working time, health and safety conditions, government social 

insurance, benefits and pensions. In general, foreign citizens and stateless 

persons living in Georgia have the rights and obligations equal to the rights and 

obligations of citizens of Georgia. 

Law of Georgia on Employment (adopted 28 September 2001) also governs 

employment policy. This law includes the economic, social, organizational and 

legal fundamentals for protecting the unemployed. The law extends to all the 

citizens of Georgia and stateless persons who are deemed to be on equal footing 

with citizens of foreign states in obtaining jobs in Georgia. Under the law, State 

authorities are to establish employment programs (special, local, regional and 

national) which give priority to “less competitive human resources” (including the 

unemployed, large families and single parents). The law sets forth policy on the 

free choice of work regardless of color, race, sex, religion, political and social 

status, etc. 

29


The Ministry of Energy, the Georgian State Electrosystem (GSE), GSE’s state-owned power 

company “Energotrans Ltd.”, and any contractors who are involved in project construction or 

operation will comply with all Georgia labor laws. 

3.1.5 Other relevant national strategies and plans 

Other relevant strategies and plans include two related to environmental issues and one to 

energy issues. Those related to environmental issues include: 

 

 

Establishing a National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan is an obligation 

under the Convention on Biological Diversity (see section 3.2 below), which aims 

to protect its biodiversity, to ensure its sustainable use and to enable fair access 

to benefits of biodiversity. The Action Plan was adopted by the Cabinet of 

Ministers in 2005 (resolution # 27, 19.02.05). The Plan puts forward a set of 

national policies and plans which will be needed to meet Georgia’s 

responsibilities under the CBD, as well as providing a framework through which to 

coordinate priority conservation activities, and to share information on biodiversity 

and key threats on the natural environment. 

The new Georgian Red List was approved in May 2006 and is legally enforceable. 

The new GRL has been organized in accordance with the guidelines and principles 

of the International Union for the Conservation of Nature. 

The Black Sea Regional Transmission Project is part of the broader Energy Strategy of 

Georgia (Ministry of Energy, 2009), whose key goals include: 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Develop local generation sources to replace current imports. 

Replace all current thermal generation with hydropower, with the ultimate goal of 

having 100 percent of Georgia’s electricity generated with this renewable source. 

Develop a reserve capacity of at least 10 percent. 

Provide further deregulation. 

Expand the high-voltage network. The Black Sea Energy Transmission Project 

will contribute to this goal. 

Increase exports of electricity. The Black Sea Energy Transmission Project will 

help achieve this goal. 

Rehabilitate energy infrastructure. 

Participate in regional transmission and transit projects. The Black Sea Energy 

Transmission Project is an important part of this goal. 

3.2 International requirements 

3.2.1 Requirements of International Finance Institutions 

As noted above, the Government of Georgia, through the Ministry of Energy, is negotiating 

financing of the Black Sea Regional Transmission Project with a number of international 

finance institutions (IFIs). International lenders, including the European Bank for 

Reconstruction and Development (EBRD), the European Investment Bank (EIB), and 

Kreditanstalt für Wiederaufbau Bankengruppe (KfW) all require that projects they finance be 

in compliance with both national standards as well as environmental and social policies and 

guidelines adopted by the lenders. 

30


EBRD has adopted a comprehensive set of specific Performance Requirements that clients 

are expected to meet, covering a range of key areas of environmental and social impacts, 

occupational and public health and safety, resettlement and other issues and actions 

involved in the project development and operation. The policies that will apply to the project 

will be set out in an Environmental and Social Action Plan (ESAP) that will be included as 

part of the Environmental and Social Impact Assessment and in the project loan 

documentation. 

Therefore, in addition to strictly complying with Georgian legal requirements, the project will 

also need to meet a number of international guidelines, regulations and policies: 

 

EBRD 2003 Environmental Procedures (EBRD, 2003). The project was screened 

before November 2008, so this 2003 policy applies. 

EBRD’s 2008 Environmental and Social Policy (EBRD, 2008). Although the 2003 

policy applies, the Performance Requirements in the 2008 policy will be used as 

benchmarks for resettlement and social engagement. 

 

EBRD Public Information Policy (EBRD, 2008a). 

The EU Environmental Impact Assessment Directive (1997). 

EBRD Energy Operations Policy (EBRD, 2006). 

EBRD Strategy for Georgia (November, 21, 2006) 

 

 

KfW Bankengruppe Environmental Guideline for Investment Finance by KfW 

(KfW 2002). 

KfW Bankengruppe. Financial Cooperation with Development Countries (KfW, 

2003). 

European Investment Bank Environmental and Social Practices (EIB, 2007). 

These are all specific policies, procedures, strategies and regulations designed for 

promoting sustainable development. These procedures include a detailed environmental 

review process prior to final approval of financing for the project, detailed environmental 

guidelines, detailed health and safety requirements, procedures for social impact 

assessment and public consultation and information disclosure and many other issues, 

associated with project construction and operation. 

3.2.2 International conventions and agreements 

Environmental agreements and conventions to which Georgia is party include: 

 

United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (acceded by the 

Resolution #302 of the Cabinet of Ministers of Georgia). 

Convention on Biological Diversity (acceded 1994). 

 

Convention on the Conservation of Migratory Species of Wild Animals (date of entry 

into force 01/06/2000). 

Agreement on the Conservation of Bats in Europe (EUROBATS) (ratified 2001). 

 

Agreement on the Conservation of African-Eurasian Migratory Waterbirds (ratified 

2001). 

Kyoto Protocol to UNFCCC (acceded by the Parliamentary Resolution #1995). 

 

Montreal Protocol on Substances That Deplete the Ozone Layer (and it’s London, 

Copenhagen and Montreal Amendments) (acceded by Resolution #711 of the 

Cabinet of Ministers of Georgia, acceded to London, Copenhagen and Montreal 

amendments by Parliamentary Resolutions #376, 377, 378). 

31


Vienna Convention on the Protection of the Ozone Layer (acceded by the Resolution 

#711 of the Cabinet of Ministers of Georgia). 

Geneva Convention on Long-Range Transboundary Air Pollution (acceded by the 

Presidential Decree #8). 

Ramsar Convention on Wetlands of International Importance Especially as 

Wildfowl Habitat (acceded by the Parliamentary Resolution #201, as amended by 

the Parliamentary Resolution #1039). 

UN (Rio) Convention on Biological Diversity (ratified by Parliamentary 

Resolution). 

Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Flora and 

Fauna (CITES) (acceded by Presidential Decree #524). 

Paris Convention on the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage 

(acceded by Parliamentary Resolution). 

European Convention on the Protection of the Archaeological Heritage . 

 

 

Convention for the Protection of the Architectural Heritage of Europe. 

Aarhus Convention on Access to Information, Public Participation in Decision- 

Making and Access to Justice in Environmental Matters. Georgia was an original 

signature to the Convention in 1998 and ratified it on 11 April 2000. 

NonGovernmental Organizations are very active in using the Aarhus Convention 

to protect their rights to access information and the decisionmaking process. 

There are several Aarhus Centers in the towns and provinces crossed by the 

proposed line, including Gardabani, Rustavi, and Marneuli in the Kvemo Kartli 

province. 

32


4.0 BASELINE ENVIRONMENTAL AND SOCIOECONOMIC CONDITIONS 

This chapter describes existing conditions in the districts along the transmission line route. 

Section 4.1 describes various environmental conditions, and section 4.2 describes 

socioeconomic conditions. Figure 4.0-1 provides an overview of major features along the 

transmission line route. 

4.1 Environmental Baseline 

4.1.1 Meteorology and Climate 

Overview. The climate in Georgia is diverse, with two distinctive climatic zones: humid 

subtropical in the west of the country and dry subtropical transiting to continental in the east. 

The Greater Caucasus Range plays an important role in the climatic regime, preventing 

intrusion of cold air from the north and producing a warmer regime with a small number of 

extreme meteorological events. Another significant factor in climate formation is the Black 

Sea in the west, which contributes to increased humidity in western Georgia. This influence 

is softened toward eastern Georgia by the natural barrier of the Surami and the Adjara- 

Traleti Ranges. Since humid air masses predominantly transfer from west to east, 

orographic lifting makes excessive moisture precipitate on the west slopes of these 

mountains. Consequently, the eastern side of the mountain ranges experience lower 

precipitation and lower relative humidity, resulting in a transition to a dry-subtropical climate 

eastwards, which are also affected by the dry plains of Azerbaijan. 

Climate along the route may be further sub-divided into several climatic regions, mainly 

owing to the different relief features, large variation of altitude, and proximity to the Black 

Sea. These subregions, beginning from the east at Gardabani, include: 

 

 

 

 

 

Dry-subtropical climate with warm summers (> 22°C) and mild winters 

(approximately 0 to -3°C) in the west near the Azerbaijan-Georgia border. It is 

characterized by a notably warmer and drier climate compared to the rest of the 

route. The climate becomes increasingly humid as the pipeline route approaches 

the Bedeni Plateau. 

A transitional climate between the dry-subtropical in the east, and the humidsubtropical 

mountainous steppe climate to the west, over the area spreading from 

the Bedeni Plateau to the feet of the Trialeti Range. Altitude gradually increases 

by approximately 800 meters over a short distance, which causes lower 

temperatures and higher wind speeds. Generally, the region experiences cold 

and occasionally snowy winters, and long mild summers. Precipitation along this 

section is the highest along the route. 

The humid-subtropical mountainous climate with cold winter ( 20°C). The climate is similar to the transient 

climatic zone, spread over the area between the Trialeti and the Samsari 

Mountain Ranges, though more moderate due to lower elevation and proximity to 

the Black Sea. 

A very humid subtropical warmer climate after crossing the Meskheti Range to 

Zestaphoni, when the route transits to the Western Georgia. The climate of the 

region is dominated by influences of the Black Sea and mountainous relief. 

33

Baghdati 

Ajameti 

Managed 

Reserve 

!H 

IMERETI 

Pirveli Sviri 

! 

! !!! 

Zeda Zegani 

!H 

! ! 

!!!!! ! !! !!!!!!!!!! 

!H 

!H 

! ! !H 

! 

! 

! 

! 

!H 

Khani 

!H 

! ! 

!H 

Argveta 

!H 

Shua Kvaliti 

Zestaphoni 

substation 

(existing) 

!H 

Sakraula 

!H 


National Park 

!H 

!H 

!H 

!H 

!H 

!H 

!H 

!H 

!H 

!H 

!H 

!H 

!H 

!H 

!H 

!H 

!H 

TURKEY 

!H 

!H 

!H 

!H 

! ! 

!H 

Klde 

! 

! 

! 

! 

! ! 

Persa 

!H 

!H 

Agara 

!! ! !! ! ! !! 

!H 

! !!!!!! 

!H 

!H 

!H 

! !!!!!!!!!!!! 

!! !!!! 

!!!!!!! 

!H !!!!! 

! !!!!! 

Borjomi 


Akhaltsikhe 

substation 

(new) 

Indusa !H Oshora 

! !! 

!!!! 

!!!!!!! ! !! ! 

! !! 

!!!! !! 

!H 

!H 

Damala 

!H 

! !! ! !!!! ! !!!!! ! !! !!!! 

Tetrobi 

Managed 

Reserve 

!H 

!H 

!H 

!H 

!H 

!H 



!H 

Moliti 

!H 

Modega 

!H !H Chikharula 

!H 

!H !H Bezhano 

!H Alatumani 

Ghado 

Kochio 

!H 

!H 

Tarsoni 

!H 


!H 

!H 

Ashkala Santa 

Avranlo 

Kariaki 

!H 

!! !!!!! ! !!!!! 

!!! ! ! ! !!! ! 

! ! ! 

! 

!H 

Beshtasheni 

!H 

!H 

Imera 

!H 

! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! !!!! 

!! !!!!!!!!!!!! 

!H 

Shipiaki 

!H Bediani !H 

!H 

AlgeTi 

National 

Park 

!H 

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! ! 

!! 

!! ! 

! 

! !! 

! 

!H 

!! !!!!! 

! 

! !!!! 

!H 

!H 

!! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 

!H 

Dagheti 

!H 

!H 

!H 

!H 

!H 

! !!! 

! 

! 

! 

!! !!! 

! 

!!!!!! !!!!!!! 

!! !!! 

! !!! !!!!!!!!! !! !!! ! 

!! 

!H 

!H 

!H !H 

Kosalari 

Jandari 

!H 

!H Marneuli 

Tamarisi 

! ! 

!!!! !!!!!!! 

!! !!!!!! 

! ! ! 

!! ! !! ! 

! !!!!!! 

!!! !!! ! 

!!!! !!!!!! 

! ! 

!H 

!H 

!H 

!H 

!H 

!! !! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 

! 

! 

! 

! 

Tbilisi 

National 

Park 

Gardabani 

Managed 

Reserve 

Gardabani 

substation 

(existing) 

!H 

AZERBAIJAN 

! 

! 

! 

! 

! 

!! ! 

! 

! 

! 

! 

! 

! 

! 

! 

! 

! 

! 

! 

! 

! 

! 

! 

! 

!! 

! 

! 

! 

! 

! 

!! 

! 

! 

! 

! 

! 

! 

!! 

! 

! 

! 

! 

! 

! 

!! 

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! 

! 

!! 

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! !!!! 

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!!!! 

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Kv 

irila 


Alternative 3 

Route 

Venakhchala 

Terjola 

Zestaphoni 

Kharagauli 

Surami 

Akhaldaba 

Khashuri 

Kornisi 

Agara 

Kareli 

Tskhinvali 

SHIDA KARTLI 

Gori 

Kaspi 

Black 

Akhalgori Sea 

Alternative 

2 and 3 routes 

Dusheti 

GEORGIA 

Zhinvali 

Akhaltsikhe 

TURKEY 

Zestaphoni 

!H 

!H 


RUSSIA 

Proposed 


Tianeti 

TBILISI 

^_ 

Gardabani 

!H 


Sioni 

Alternative 2 

Route 

Mtkvari 


K u 

rikhana 

Mugareti 

Alternative 1 

Route 

Alternatives 

2 and 3 Route 

Beiukchai 

Baratkhevi 

Ktsia 

Tabatskuri 

Oshiristskali 

Benara 

Abastumani 

Varkhani 

Tsakhani 

Vale 

Tskruti 

Akhaltsikhe 

Tsinubani 

Sakuneti 

Tkemlana 

Borjomi 

Azavreti 

Tsalkis 

Tskalsatsavi 

Mtkva ri 

Kldeisi 

Aspindza 

Algeti 

Gokio 

Alastani 

Tsaghveri 

Bakuriani 

Tabatskuri 

Paravani 

Paravani 

Bareti 

Kumisi 

ibareti 

Ch 

Kura 

Khrami 

Mash avera 

Status (all routes) 

Constructed 

Not Constructed 

! 


o 

0 

Bakurianis Andeziti 

Ninotsminda 

Alternative 1 

Route 

SAMTSKHE-JAVAKHETI KVEMO KARTLI 

Alternative Routes 

Akhalkalaki 

Alternative 1 

Alternative 2 

Alternative 3 

5 10 15 


Kizilkilisa 


!H City 

!H Town 


!H Village Strict Nature Reserve 

Tsalka 

Trialeti 

Bashkoi 

Dmanisi 

Manglisi 

Tetri Tskaro 

Kazreti 

Chkhikvta 

Bolnisi 

Matsevani 

Mtskheta 

Kojori 

Shaumiani 

Zahesi 

TBILISI 

TBILISI 

National Park 

Districts 

Kilometers Black Sea Regional Transmission Project 

Rivers 

Lakes 

Didi Lilo 

Keshalo 

Rustavi 

Ilmazo 

Kapanachkhi 

Gardabani 

Figure 

4.0-1 

PROJECTS\Georgia\MapDocs\Figure4.0-1_Overview_050509.mxd May 5, 2009


A more detailed description of the climate along the proposed transmission corridor is 

provided below. The climate is characterized in terms of historical data on ambient air and 

soil temperature, wind speed and direction, relative humidity and precipitation. 

Temperature. Temperatures on the transmission route are strongly affected by the elevation, 

which ranges from 280 to 2500 meters, and by local relief features and prevailing flow of air 

masses. 

The eastern end of the transmission route is relatively low elevation and is influenced by 

Azerbaijan dry plains due to mainly north-west winds (Chart 6). These factors lead to 

generally warmer temperatures and low precipitation throughout the year. Average air 

temperature ranges from 25.3°C in July to 0.3°C in January in the lowlands, and from 10°C 

in July and -50C in January in mountainous areas. Mean annual air temperature is 13°C for 

lowlands and 5-60C for uplands. Average annual precipitation reaches 400 mm. 

The next zone extends from the Bedeni Plateau to the eastern slope of the Javaketi and 

Samsari range. Here, the route gradually rises to approximately 2,300 meters above sea 

level. High elevation and air masses moving from south and east make this a transition zone 

between the semi-dry subtropical climate in the east and the cold mountainous climate to the 

west. Summers are temperate and winters are long and harsh. Mean temperature is 

estimated at 12°C, with a maximum monthly average of 20-23°C in August, and a minimum 

monthly average of -5/-9°C in January; with an absolute minimum of -34°C and maximum of 

+33°C in Tsalka Plateau. This route section is relatively humid, with about 700 millimeters of 

precipitation, compared to the eastern zone. 

Further west, the proposed line enters the high-mountain region of the Javaketi, Samsari, 

and Trialeti Range, with the highest point along the route reaching 2,900 meters in the 

Samsari Range. The high-mountain profile of the area accounts for its extreme climatic 

conditions. The estimated mean annual temperature for the area is about 5°C, with an 

estimated average of –11.8°C in January and 23.8°C in August. 

After the Samsari Range to the Erusheti Range, up to Georgia-Turkey border and the 

Meskheti Range, relief of the corridor is relatively low. This section may be called a 

transitional climatic zone as the climate changes from semi-dry sub-tropical to the east 

(Aspindza) to semi-continental (Akhaltsikhe). The temperature gradually increases, owing to 

lower altitude and increasing proximity to the Black Sea. The temperature is estimated to be 

similar to those experienced in the transitional climate zones: average annual air 

temperature is approximately 9°C, with an average winter temperature of – -6°C and 

average summer temperature – 26-28°C. 

Approaching the Mestkheti Range and especially after crossing it, the route passes through 

a zone of excessively humid sub-tropical climate. Average annual precipitation is 1100-1300 

millimeters and has almost uniform seasonal distribution. Despite high mountainous relief, 

temperatures are warmer, with an average annual temperature of about 14°C and annual 

average maximum of 30°C in August and average minimum of 1°C in January. 

Figure 4.1-1 shows temperature profiles along the proposed transmission line. Although 

approximate, it shows the clear transition between various climatic sub-zones and seasonal 

variation of air temperature. 

Soil Temperature. Soil temperature along the transmission corridor generally correlates with 

air temperature, as shown by comparing Figures 4.1-2 and 4.1-1. .Annual average ground 

surface temperature in the east (on the left of Figure 4.1-2) is 15°C, and ranges from 6°C in 

winter to 32°C in summer . 

35


1500 20 

1300 

15 

1100 

900 

10 

700 

500 5 

300 

0 

-5 

Gardabani Gardabani 

Marneuli Margneuli 

Tetritskaro Tetritskaro 

Tsalka Tsalka 

Akhalkalaki Akhalkalaki 

Aspindza Aspindza 

Akhaltsikhe 

Akhaltsikhe 

Baghdati 

Baghdati 

Zestafoni 

Zestafoni 

500 

45025 

400 

35020 

300 

25015 

200 

150 10 

10 0 

505 

0 

0 

-5 

-10 

Annual Average Precipitation (mm) 

Seasonal Precipitation (mm) 

Aver. Wint Aver. Spring 

Aver. Annual 

Aver. Min 

Aver. Max 

Aver. Summer Aver. Autumn 

Figure 4.1-3. Precipitation Profile along Transmission Line 

Multiyear Average Annual Temperature, (east °C to west Multiyear = left to Seasonal right) Average Temperature, °C 

Gardabani Gardabani 

Margneuli Margneuli 

Tetritskaro Tetritskaro 

Tsalka Tsalka 

Akhalkalaki Akhalkalaki 

Aspindza 

Aspindza 

Akhaltsikhe 

Akhaltsikhe 

Baghdati 

Baghdati 

Zestafoni 

Zestafoni 

Winter Spring Summer Autumn 

Figure 4.1-1. Air Temperature Profile along Transmission Line 

For the transitional section of 

the pipeline route between east 

and west, where the area 

between the Bedeni plateau 

and the Javaketi Range lies, 

the annual mean ground 

surface temperature is 13.2°C. 

The annual mean ground 

surface temperature farther 

west decreases to 7-8°C, 

owing to generally cooler air 

temperatures in these climatic 

regions. Then, soil temperature 

rises further to the west. 

35 

30 

25 

20 

15 

10 

5 

0 

-5 

Gardabani 

Precipitation. There is a 

distinct increase in the amount 

Aver. Annual Aver. Max 

of annual precipitation from the 

Aver. Min 

east to the west of the country, 

as shown in Figure 4.1-3. At Figure 4.1-2: Multiyear Average Annual Soil Temperature, °C 

the Azerbaijan-Georgia border 

average monthly rainfall is 35 

mm, which is well distributed round the year. Winter, with 16-17 millimeters, is the driest 

period. Average annual precipitation is below 400 millimeters. 

Mean annual precipitation in the transitional climate region is approximately 700 millimeters, 

with a maximum in spring and summer. Further to the west (to the right of figure 4.1-3), 

precipitation decreases to abut 500 mm until the corridor reaches higher elevations in the 

west, where it abruptly increases to 1300 millimeters annually. Compared to the east, 

where maximum precipitation falls in spring and summer, in the western Georgia major 

precipitation occurs in autumn and winter. 

In general, wind speeds along corridor range vary between an average minimum of 1 meters 

per second (m/sec) to an average maximum of 3.8 m/sec. Akhaltsikhe district has the 

36 

Margneuli 

Tetritskaro 

Tsalka 

Akhalkalaki 

Aspindza 

Akhaltsikhe 

Baghdati 

Zestafoni


lowest winds, with an average speed of 1.6 meters per second (m/sec). Akhalkalaki and 

Baghdati districts are the windiest, with average speeds of 3 m/sec and 2.8 m/sec 

respectively. Along the eastern section of the route, winds are more intensive in spring and 

summer, while the remainder of the route is windiest in winter and spring (see the right chart 

in Figure 4.1.1-4).. 

Maximum wind rates are 10-15 times the average speed: maximum wind rates of 17-20 

m/sec (left chart in Figure 4.1-5) may occur along the route perhaps once a year, while much 

higher wind speeds, up to 33 m/sec, may occur at much longer intervals. 

35 

4 

30 

3.5 

25 

3 

20 

15 

2.5 

2 

1.5 

10 

1 

5 

0.5 

0 

Gardabani 

Margneuli 

Tetritskaro 

Tsalka 

Akhalkalaki 

Aspindza 

Akhaltsikhe 

Baghdati 

Zestafoni 

0 

Gardabani 

Margneuli 

Tetritskaro 

Tsalka 

Akhalkalaki 

Aspindza 

Akhaltsikhe 

Baghdati 

Zestafoni 

Av er. Annual 

Per 5 Years 

Per 15 Years 

Per 1 Year 

Per 10 Years 

Per 20 Year 

Av er. Annual 

Spring 

Autumn 

Winter 

Summer 

Maximum Wind Rate in Expectance Period 

Average Annual and Average Seasonal Wind Rate 

Figure 4.1.1-4. Average Annual and Maximum Wind Speed (m/sec) 

4.1.2 Major Landscapes and Ecosystems 

The ecosystems of the entire Caucasus area are highly diverse and include a broad range of 

landscapes, from semi-deserts and arid shrublands to mesophylic relict broadleaf forests 

and alpine grasslands. These landscapes and ecosystems harbor a variety of plant and 

animal species representing a mixture of Mediterranean, Eastern European, and Near 

Eastern floras and faunas, combined with a high proportion of regional endemics (reaching 

20-30 percent of the total species number in certain taxonomic groups) (UNDP, 2007) 

The Caucasus Ecoregion has been identified by Conservation International as one of the 

world’s 25 biodiversity hotspots due to high species diversity and significantly threatened 

local ecosystems (UNDP, 2007). This demonstrates the ecological importance and fragility 

of this area. This diversity of the ecoregion is well-reflected over the corridor of the 

transmission line which passes through three administrative regions and nine administrative 

district as it covers 283 kilometers as it runs from semi-arid Gardabani lowland through highmountainous 

Javakheti until it reaches the humid subtropical mountains of Baghdati and 

Zestaphoni in western Georgia. 

The first subsection below describes many of the ecosystems and sensitive sites along the 

transmission line route, from east to west 3 . The second subsection (4.1.2.2) describes the 

three protected areas crossed by the line. 

3 This section relies heavily upon BTC Co. (2002) for details of ecosystem and plant assemblages in 

each District. 

37


4.1.2.1 Overview of the transmission line route 

The principle landscapes and ecosystems of the Gardabani district, are dry subtropical and 

relatively low zone, which are characteristic of subtropical plains, moderately dry plateaus, 

and moderately humid mountainous forests. Among them are landscapes of: 

 

 

 

 

Semi-deserts and dry steppes spread over plains (including Gardabani plain) and 

plateaus. They are sparsely covered by xerophytes (plants that can tolerate dry 

periods). 

Foothills mainly covered by shrubs and sparse woods. 

Sparse mountain forests characterized by oak (Quercus spp.), oak-hornbeam 

(Quercus- Carpinus), and hornbeam (Carpinus) communities that grow on 

hillsides. Also present are beech (Fagus spp.), ash (Fraxinus spp.), maples (Acer 

spp.), and other hardwoods. In addition, the Mtkvari valley accommodates 

riparian (tugai) forest. 

Mountain meadows containing marshes around lakes where grow wetland maple, 

lime-tree, and oak with shrub substory. 

The easternmost part of the route begins at the edge of Gardabani Managed Reserve in the 

floodplain of the Kura River. The Reserve is known for its riparian forests that provides 

habitat to many floral and faunal 

species with conservation value. As 

the line runs west, it passes to semidesert 

and arid steppes landscapes, 

which at higher elevations 

interchange with mountainous-forest 

and mountainous meadows, covered 

with shrubby, sparse woods and 

other arid and semi-arid natural 

landscapes. 

Most relief around Marneuli is 

characterized by higher land at 270- 

400 meters above sea level that lies 

between the valleys of the Algeti, 

Khrami and Debedi Rivers. North of 

Figure 4.1-5. Marneuli area 

the plain is the Ialguja Range, which 

rises to 760 meters. The primary landscapes of the district are related to the dry subtropical 

plain and moderately humid mountains (Figure 4.1-5). They are similar to Gardabani and 

include: 

 

 

 

 

Dry steppes and semi-deserts formed by a complex of brown and salty soils that 

support xerophytes and ephemeral formations. 

Foothills covered hornbeams-oak groves and meadow shrubberies, grown over 

brown forest soils. 

Mountain landscapes presented by hornbeam-oak in lower zone and beech in 

upper. 

Remnants of riparian (tugai) forest on the river banks. 

Sensitive sites that fall within the transmission corridor includes the environs of Kumisi Lake, 

with beard-grass steppes rich in biodiversity, and in the vicinity of village Jandari, which has 

high-value and high-density natural riparian forests of White willow (Salix alba), Black poplar 

38


(Populus nigra) Gray poplar (Populus canescens), Common Sea-buckthorn (Hippophaë 

rhamnoides). 

The relief of Tetritskaro district is mainly hilly 

and mountainous (Figure 4.1-6). Elevations 

there range between 1400-1900 meters. The 

primary landscapes are to dry and 

moderately humid subtropical plains and 

foothills, upland steppes, and temperately 

humid mountainous forests, including: 

 

 

 

 

 

Dry steppe plain with shrubbery and 

thorns. 

Foothills covered by shrubbery and 

forests of oak, hornbeam, etc. 

Hilly plateau with shrubbery, oak, 

thorns and steppe grasses. 

Mountain forest of oriental oak, beech 

and coniferous (fir, pine) groves. 

Figure 4.1-6. Typical view of Tetritskaro region 

mountains and foothills 

Mountainous steppe-meadows and subalpine meadows with forests and 

xerophytes. 

In the outskirts of Tetritskaro, the 

forests of oak, oak-hornbeam and 

beech have medium and high value; 

they are continuous in sections and 

supports faunal diversity including 

endangered species of large mammals 

such as the brown bear. 

The Tsalka district (Figure 4.1-7) is 

characterized by high mountains, 

mainly characterized by mountain 

steppes and meadows, including: 

 

 

Figure 4.1-7. Typical view in Tsalka Area 

 

Lava plateau with mountain 

steppe vegetation. 

Foothills with steppe 

meadows. 

Mid-mountain zone with mixed forests, mostly beech mixed with oak, hornbeam, 

and maple. The forests are mostly found in the valley of the Khrami River. 

Subalpine and alpine meadows. 

There are several sensitive and high-value habitats along this section of the transmission 

corridor. The Bedeni plateau has high mountain meadows of high conservation value that 

support abundant floral biodiversity. The areas around the lakes of Cherepanovskoe and 

Bedeni are characterized by tussock sedge and aquatic plant communities, including several 

rare plants of Georgia, such as Lesser bladderwort (Utricularia minor) and bogbean 

(Menyanthes trifoliata). The area around Tsalka reservoir and the nearby villages Shipiaki, 

Kariaki and Santa supports middle-density artificial pine forest that are important for soil 

protection and water regulation. Finally, the area around villages Kariaki, Shua Kharaba, and 

Santa, including the area near Lake Baretskoe, supports mountainous sedge wetlands. 

39


Akhalkalaki district occupies volcanic plateau of Javakheti, having wavy surface and 

containing hills and canyon-like gorges. Most of the area has only grassy vegetation. Major 

landscapes include: 

 

 

 

 

 

Canyon-like gorges. 

Lava plateaus with mountainous steppe vegetation. 

Foothills with steppe-meadows. 

Complex of wetlands and meadows on the banks of lakes, or former lakes, with 

water and wetland vegetation. 

Subalpine and alpine meadows with grass located over 2200 meters. 

Along this section important 

landscapes include Ktsia-Tabatskuri 

Managed Reserve, which 

encompasses Lake Tabatskuri 

(Figure 4.1-8.), wetlands of highconservation 

value (Nariani Veli and 

Ktsia wetlands), and Mt. Tavkvetili. 

These areas provide habitat to rich 

biodiversity and endemic species of 

flora and fauna, including many 

important nestling and migratory 

birds. This section also includes 

Tetrobi Managed Reserve, which 

supports ecosystems and 

biodiversity similar to those of Ktsia- 

Tabatskuri. The areas around the 

lakes of Panishgel and Jamushgel, 

Figure 4.1-8. Winter in Tabatskuri Lake area 

and near the nearby village 

Kizilkilsa, are characterized by high-mountain sedge-dominated wetlands. Finally, there are 

a few groves of artificial pine forest intended for soil protection and water regulation near 

village Kizilkilsa. 

The rugged relief of Aspindza district is richly vegetated by tree and grass plants, forming the 

following landscapes: 

 

 

 

Terrace bottom of river valleys with mountain steppes and shrubs. 

Middle-mountains with oak-hornbeam, beech, mixed deciduous-coniferous (pinebeech-dark 

coniferous) and pine forests. Oak and beech characterize the lower 

forests, pines the upper forest. 

Subalpine and alpine meadows with steppe grasses. 

Sensitive sites in this section in Aspindza district include the outskirts of the villages of 

Damala and Oshora, where the line crosses forested areas. 

The main landscapes of Akhaltsikhe district are moderately dry sub-tropical plains, humid 

and moderately humid mountain forest, mountain steppe, and subalpine zones. These 

include: 

 

 

 

River floodplains with riparian (tugai) forests. 

Terraced river valleys, with mountain steppe and phryganoid vegetation. 

Middle mountains with hornbeam-oak and beech forests. 

40


 

 

Volcanic mountains with beech-coniferous and pine forest 

Subalpine meadows. 

In Akhaltsikhe district the route crosses the expansion zone of Borjomi-Kharagauli National 

Park, inhabited by arboreal plant communities of high conservation value. 

Other important ecosystems include an area south of Atskuri, which has a high abundance 

of populations of Sea buckthorn (Hippophae rhamnoides), which is listed in the Georgian 

Red Data Book. IN addition, the surroundings of village. Klde support riparian natural forests 

of Tamarisk, or Salt cedar (Tamarix ramosissima) White willow (Salix alba), Sea buckthorn, 

Black poplar, and Gray poplar. The Akhaltsikhe (Meskheti) Depression near Skhvilisi is an 

area of high endemism that is regarded as the local centre for species formation; it supports 

numerous endemic and relict species and communities. Finally, the area near Vale town 

has riparian forest of black poplar, willow, salt cedar, white willow, and other species. In 

addition, Globe Daisy (Globularia trichosantha), a Georgian Red Data Book species, and 

Eastern thorn (Crataegus orientalis), a regionally rare species, both occur here. 

The Baghdati district occupies high, middle and low mountainous areas, including the 

Meskheti Range. The primary landscapes are of subtropical plains, humid mountainous 

forests and mountainous meadows, including: 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Low plain with Colchic vegetation and oak forests. 

Foothills with Colchic vegetation. 

Colchic middle mountains with beech, beech-dark coniferous forests, with 

evergreen understorey. 

Caucasian upper-mountain landscape with beech and pine forests. 

Caucasian sub-alpine landscapes with combination of meadows, high-herb 

communities, elfin woods and thickets. 

Alpine meadows. 

Zestaphoni district is characterized by humid subtropical plains, foothills, and mountains, in 

particular: 

 

 

 

 

Humid subtropical floodplains with meadow-forest vegetation (alder tree) 

Sloped terraced low-plain and foothills with polydominant Colchic forests of 

hornbeam, oak, beech, zelkova, chestnut, alder-tree with evergreen and 

deciduous substorey (ilex, nut, hawthorn, lianas) 

Humid subtropical hilly plateau with oak-hornbeam forests 

Humid low mountains with beech forests. 

4.1.2.2 Protected areas 

The corridor of the proposed transmission line passes through three protected areas: 

Borjomi-Kharagauli National Park and two managed reserves, Gardabani and Ktsia- 

Tabatskuri. Each is described below, again from east to west. 

4.1.2.2.1 Gardabani Managed Nature Reserve 

Managed reserves are defined by the Law of Georgia on Protected Areas System (see 

Chapter 3). The law gives details regarding their management plans and activities permitted 

in protected areas. According to the law, activities permitted within Managed Reserves 

comprise manipulative management to maintain or improve the value. Non-permissible 

41


activities are those negatively altering the environment, exploitation of natural resources, 

damaging via contamination, introduction of exotic species, transportation of explosive or 

toxic material into the area, and any other activities prohibited by the Management Plan. 

Under the Law on Protected Area Systems, designated Managed Reserves correspond to 

IUCN Category IV Habitat/Species Management Areas (that is, protected area managed 

mainly for conservation through management intervention). 

Established in 1996, Gardabani 

Managed Nature Reserve covers an 

area up to 3,484 hectares. The Reserve 

is located in Gardabani and Marneuli 

districts, Kvemo Kartli Region, near the 

Azerbaijan border. Gardabani Managed 

Nature Reserve (Figure 4.1-9) was 

designated in order to protect and 

improve forest, groves and their 

inhabitants. As described in section 

4.1.6, the main floral value of 

Gardabani Managed Reserve is riparian 

forests, where generally grow Gray 

poplar (Populus hybrida), Black poplar 

(Populus nigra), White willow (Salix 

alba), Aspen (Populus tremula), riparian Figure 4.1-9. Unmaintained road through 

long-stalk oak (Quercus longipes), 

Gardabani Managed Reserve 

Wych elm (Ulmus glabra) and Field elm (Ulmus minor). In sub-forests grow the hawthorn, 

tamarisk, cornel-elder and Butcher's broom; among lianas there are Clematis, Silk vine and 

Common hop. Adjacent to the riparian forests are steppe plants, mainly fragments of 

nipplewort. 

As described in more detail in section 4.1.7, many vertebrates inhabit Gardabani Managed 

Nature Reserve, including: 

 

 

 

 

26 species of mammals, including wild boar, hare, jackal, Red fox, Jungle cat, 

badger, marten and Red deer (Cervus elaphus); the latter is included in the Red 

List of Georgia; 

135 species of birds, including Hoopoe, Magpie, Blackbird, Chafffinch, Goldfinch 

and Nightingale. Among Georgia’s Red List species are White-tailed eagle 

(Haliaeetus albicilla), Imperial eagle (Aquila heliaca), Egyptian vulture (Neophron 

percnopterus), Greater spotted eagle (Aquila clanga), Levant sparrow hawk 

(Accipiter brevipes) and Saker falcon (Falco cherrug). 

21 species of fish, including Silver bream (Blicca bjoerkna transcaucasica Berg), 

carps (Cyprinus carpio) breams (Abramis brama), Wels catfishes (Silurus glanis), 

Caucasian goby (Gobius cephalarges constructo Nordmann), barbell (Barbus 

barbus); as well, Georgian Red List entries: Wels catfishes (Silurus glanis), Black 

Sea Roach (Rutilus frisii) and Aral Spined loach (Cobitis aurata). 

4 species of reptiles, including lizards, Greek tortoise, viper, Grass snake, Fourstriped 

snake (Elaphe quatuorlineata). 

4.1.2.2.2 Ktsia-Tabatskuri Nature Managed Reserve 

Ktsia Valley, Lake Tabatskuri and the associated wetlands are all part of the proposed Ktsia- 

Tabatskuri Managed Reserve. The Reserve is situated in Borjomi and Akhalkalaki districts, 

in Samtskhe-Javakheti Region. It is part of the Support Zone of Borjomi-Kharagauli National 

42


Park. The Reserve was proposed by the resolution (No. 447, 1995) of Georgian Cabinet of 

Ministers on Creation of Borjomi-Kharagauli National Park and Activities Facilitating 

Establishment of Protected Areas System. 

The site is currently not listed on the IUCN international list of protected areas although the 

Ministry of Environment Protection and Natural Resources states that it is intended to be 

included on the IUCN list. BirdLife International puts Lake Tabatsuri on the list of Important 

Bird Areas. Some areas of the Reserve may also be proposed as a Wetland Site of 

International Importance under the Ramsar Convention due to their high-conservation value 

wetland ecosystems. A number of the species recorded for the site are noted on the Red 

Lists of endangered/rare species of IUCN and Georgia. 

Resolution No. 447 allowed for the definition of temporary boundaries for the proposed 

Reserve with the expectation that the boundary would be formally defined following the 

elaboration of a Management Plan. In 2006-2008, BTC Company provided funding for 

development of the management plan and a draft was prepared in 2008 (IUCN et al., 2008). 

The proposed area covers 22,000 hectares and includes high-mountainous wetlands in the 

vicinity of Lake Tabatskuri (Narianis Veli wetlands) and headwaters of the River Ktsia (Ktsia 

Valley wetlands) at 2,000 to 2,800 meters above sea level. Lake Tabatskuri, at 1991 meters 

above sea level, is the largest waterbody in the area, with an area of 14.2 square kilometers. 

The Ktsia-Nariani wetlands system is severely modified and only a few fragments of seminatural 

wetland remain there due to heavy anthropogenic impacts. 

The wetlands of Narianis Veli and Ktsia have high protection value because they provide 

important habitats for breeding waterfowl and serve as a staging post to migratory birds. The 

management objectives for the site are: 

 

 

 

Protection of unique high-mountainous wetlands located in the vicinity of the 

River Ktsia (Figure 4.1-10). 

Protection of fresh water ecosystem of Lake Tabatskuri, which provides refuge to 

migratory birds. 

Protection of bird species (black stork (Ciconia nigra), white stork (Ciconia 

ciconia), grey crane (Grus grus), mute swan (Cygnus olor), whooper swan 

(Cygnus cygnus), great white egret (Egretta alba)) and their habitats, including 

the unique mountain wetlands along the headwaters of the River Ktsia and 

around Lake Tabatskuri. 

Figure 4.1-10. Wetlands along river meander near 

Nariani 

Vegetation of the Reserve is unusual 

and differs from floristic species of 

other Georgian regions, as described 

in more detail in section 4.1.7. There 

grow plant communities characteristic 

to wetland, upland steps and 

meadows, as well as shrubs and 

remnants of relict forest. Forests are 

composed of sub-alpine crooked 

beech, aspen, and mountain oak. The 

latter is on the Red List of Georgia. 

Shrubby plants include rhododendron 

(Rhododendron caucasicum) and 

cowberry, over large areas. 

Rhododendron and fragments of 

mountain oak forest have especially 

high conservation value. 

43


Wetland landscapes are common in the Managed Reserve. These wetlands mostly 

associate with Lake Tabatskuri and Ktsia-Nariani hydrographic system. Special attention 

should be given to the wetlands dominated by Carex wiluica, as belonging to rare cenoses of 

the Caucasus and spreading only in Javakheti upland. 

Caucasian endemic vegetation of the Reserve include Squill (Scilla rosenii) and Chervil 

(Chaerophyllum humile), highly ornamental Fritillary (Fritillaria lutea) and Saffron (Colchicum 

speciosum), and representatives of the orchid family - Coeloglossum viride and Dactylorhiza 

urvilleana. 

As described in more detail in section 4.1.7, animal populations are especially abundant, 

including: 

 

 

 

45 species of mammals, including Brown Bear (Ursus arctes), Lynx (Linx linx), 

Wild Cat (Felis silvestris), Wolf (Canis lupus), Red Fox (Vulpes vulpes), 

European Hare (Lepus europaeus), as well as different species of voles and 

moles. Seven of these 45 species are on the Red List of Georgia, including 

Brown Bear and Marbled Polecat (Vormela peregusna), both of which are 

classified as endangered); Common Otter (Lutra lutra), Nehring’s Mole Rat 

(Nannospalax nehringi), Brandt’s Hamster (Mesocricetus brandti) and Grey 

Hamster (Cricetulus migratorius), classified as vulnerable; and Lynx (Linx lynx), 

classified as Critically Endangered. 

Nearly 150 species of birds, with waterfowl and birds of prey especially abundant. 

Nearly 150 species can be found there seasonally. These include Corn Crake 

(Crex crex), Caucasian Black Grouse (Tetrao mlokosiewiczi), Common Quail 

(Coturnix coturnix), Grey Partridge (Perdix perdix), Great White Pelican 

(Pelecanus onocrotalus), Dalmatian Pelican (Pelecanus crispus), Imperial Eagle 

(Aquila heliaca), Greater Spotted Eagle (Aquila clanga), the above mentioned 

black stork (Ciconia nigra), white stork (Ciconia ciconia), crane (Grus grus), mute 

swan (Cygnus olor), whooper swan (Cygnus cygnus), great white egret (Egretta 

alba), etc. Imperial Eagle, Caucasian Black Grouse and Greater Spotted Eagle 

are on the Georgian Red List as well as the IUCN Red List of Threatened 

Species. 

Six amphibian and ten reptile species, with amphibians represented by Southern 

Crested Newt (Tryturus karelini), Caucasian Parsley Frog (Pelodytes caucasicus), 

Green Toad (Bufo viridis), European Tree Frog (Hyla arborea), Eurasian Marsh Frog 

(Rana ridibunda) and Long-legged Wood Frog (Rana macrocnemis). Out of these 

Caucasian Parsley Frog (Pelodytes caucasicus) is endemic. Two reptile species - 

Adjar Lizard (Darevskia mixta) and Giant Green Lizard (Lacerta media) - are on the 

Red List of Georgia. 

4.1.2.2.3 Borjomi-Kharagauli National Park 

Borjomi-Kharagauli National Park was designated in 1995 under Resolution No. 447 of 

Georgian Cabinet of Ministers. At present its area comprises some 50,400 hectares and is 

supplemented with more 150,000 hectares of the so-called Support Zone. In 2007 the 

Borjomi-Kharagauli National Park became a member of European network of Protected 

Areas – PAN Park. 

In December 1998, the governments of Germany and Georgia signed a bilateral agreement 

regarding financial co-operation for the project concerning “Environment and Protection of 

44


Natural Resources Borjomi-Kharagauli National Park”4. The German government provides 

funds for three programs in the Park: implementation of infrastructure, training/education, 

and a Support Zone development program. 

The main purpose of the designation is the conservation of existing ecosystems; restoration 

of degraded areas; facilitation and control of sustainable use of renewable resources; public 

awareness / educational activities and ecotourism. Based on the level of protection and 

purpose, the Park is divided into a number of zones, including: natural strict protection zone, 

natural managed protection zone, visitors’ zone, restoration zone, historical and cultural 

zone, administrative zone, and traditional use zone. There is a support zone that reaches 

into the five districts sharing common boundaries with the Park. The transmission line would 

run through the natural managed protection zone. 

The National Park occupies the central part of the Lesser Caucasus, namely the central subzone 

of Achara-Trialeti range. The area is mainly formed with what is known as Borjomi 

flysch sediments of lower Eocene (marl clays, marls, limestone sandstones and marl 

limestones). Formations also include Oligocene and Neogene deposits and volcanic rocks. 

Borjomi-Kharagauli contains primary 

forest and sub-alpine meadows typical of 

the central region of the Lesser 

Caucasus and supports a good variety of 

flora and fauna including several rare, 

endangered, relict, and endemic species. 

The National Park contains dark 

coniferous, deciduous and mixed forests. 

Mixed deciduous forests (Figure 4.1-11) 

are characterized by chestnut (Castanea 

sativa), beech (Fagus orientalis), 

hornbeam (Carpinus orientalis), 

Caucasian lime (Tilia begoniifolia), 

Colchis oak (Quercus hartwissiana), 

Caucasian 

rhododendron 

(Rhododendron caucasica) and ash 

(Fraxinus excelsior). Highland forests of 

Figure 4.1-11. Montane forest in 

Borjomi-Kharagauli National Park 

the park are mainly formed by dark coniferous groves of spruce and silver fir, in particular 

Oriental spruce (Picea orientalis), Nordmann fir (Abies nordmanniana) and pine (Pinus 

sosnowskyi). The sub-alpine zone is presented by sub-alpine forests, shrubberies and 

meadows vegetated by abundant sub-alpine high grasses. 

Between vegetation of the Park distinguished are chestnut (Castanea sativa), Colchis oak 

(Quercus hartwissiana), yew (Taxus baccata), Steven’s peony (Paeonia steveniana) and 

Vinogradov’s iris (Iridodictyum winogradowii), as put on Georgia’s Red Data Book because 

of their rarity and endemicity. 

Fauna of Borjomi-Kharagauli is diverse as well. Large mammals include Gray wolf (Canis 

lupus), lynx (Lynx lynx) and Brown bear (Ursus arctos), Roe deer (Capreolus capreolus), 

Caucasian Red deer (Cervus elaphus) and Wild boar (Sus scrofa). Most of the large 

mammals of the Park are Georgian Red List entries. Among small mammals several 

species of mice, dormouse, weasel, Pine marten, Stone marten, Caucasian squirrel. Nearly 

everywhere can be found Red fox (Vulpes vulpes) and hare (Lepus europaeus). 

4 Details may be found in the Decree of the President of Georgia (13 th July 2001) on “Coordinated 

Planning and Implementation of Ongoing and Prospective Programs of Borjomi-Kharagauli National 

Park and Support Zone”. 

45


Many reptiles are found in the National Park, including the Caucasian agama (Laudakia 

caucasica) and Greek Tortoise (Testudo graeca). Birds include the rare species of Golden 

eagle (Aquila chrysaetos), Griffon vulture (Gyps fulvus), Black vulture (Aegypius monachus) 

and Caucasian Black grouse (Tetrao mlokosiewiczi). 

The Support Zone includes all districts that border the National Park and is considered for 

various land uses and accommodates agricultural, industrial, and infra-structural lands and 

natural and semi-natural habitat. Land and resource use in the Support Zone needs to be 

compatible with the conservation objectives for the Park. The rationale for the establishment 

of the Support Zone is to ensure the sustainable protection of the Park. To achieve this, 

economic support and assistance is delivered to the Park’s neighbors, sacrificing certain 

user rights for areas converted to the National Park. In addition, the neighbors, are involved 

in the Park’s planning and management processes. The Support Zone does not correspond 

to an IUCN category and as such is not listed on the IUCN international list of protected 

areas. 

4.1.3 Geology/geomorphology 

This section describes the geology and geomorphology of the districts the line crosses, from 

east to west. Map 4-4 shows the geology of the various areas. Topographical relief is shown 

in Figure 4-1 (at the end of the chapter). Geological formations along the route are shown 

on Figures 4.1-4a through 4.1-4i (also at the end of hte chapter. 

4.1.3.1 Gardabani district 

Stratigraphy. The geological structure of this region is represented by rock complexes from 

Upper Jurassic to Quaternary sediments. Characteristics of them are given in Table 4.1-1. 

Tectonics. This region belongs to the East immersion zone of Georgian lump and includes 

tectonic substage of Gare-Kakheti. The substage is characterized by narrow, south-inverted 

and tectonically transgressed anticlines and suppressed plate-shaped synclines. Structures 

are aligned in deep and received monocline shapes. 

The folds of the subject region and nearby regions include the Faldo syncline, Katar-Kali 

anticline, Ole syncline, Naomari syncline and other. 

Geomorphology. The north part of the region is represented by the Tsivgombori ridge, which 

is directed from north-west to southeast and reaches steppe of Didi Shiraki. To the south is a 

denudation plateau at elevation of 800-900 meters. Relief decreases to the southeast. The 

Table 4.1-1. Geological structure of Gardabani region 

# Age Index Lithology and spreading 

1 

2 

3 

4 

Upper Jurassic I 3 limestones, coarse and fine Breccias 

Cretaceous K Terrigenous and carbonate facies 

limestones, marls, rarely clays 

Oligocene-Lower 

Miocene-Upper Eocene 

N 1 1 +P 2 

3 

Miopliocene N 2 1-N 1 

3 

Dark, gray, brownish clays with 

sandstone stuff, rarely marly clays with 

concretions of carbonate sandstones 

Sandy-Clayey sediments with 

conglomerate stuff, conglomerates (at 

south part and right bank of Iori River) 

Depth 

(m) 

400-500 

450 

600- 

1000 

1600- 

1900 

46


Table 4.1-1. Geological structure of Gardabani region 

# Age Index Lithology and spreading 

5 

6 

7 

Apsheron-Aghchagil 

stage 

N 2 3 ak-ap 

Gray sandstone clays, boulder, boulderpebbles, 

coarse-grained conglomerates 

Non-parted Quaternary alQ 1+3 Alternate of clays, sands, boulders and 

conglomerates (south of Mughanlo village 

and Iori River bank) 

Recent Quaternary alQ 4 Alluvial sediments – pebbles, rarely with 

sands and sand lenses; 

Deluvial-Proluvial sediments – clay soil 

and clays with boulder stuff and lenses; 

Deluvial-Eluvial sediments - clay soil with 

sandy and gravel stuffs. 

Depth 

(m) 

700-900 

5-100 

3-7 

10-60 

2-5 

Sagarejo syncline is sharply marked out by morphology and is crossed by Iori River. The 

lowland width is 10 kilometers and length is 20 kilometers and it is constructed with the 

Shiraki layer, Sarmat and Aghchagil-Apsheron sediments. 

4.1.4.2 Marneuli district 

The larger part of the center part of this area is occupied by the Marneuli accumulated plain, 

which ranges in altitude from 270-400 meters and is constructed by quadruple sediments, 

conglomerates, sand, and clay. Recent alluvium -- pebbles and sands -- are observed along 

the river valley. On the same area there is the tail of volcanic rocks flown from Javakheti 

plateau. The surface of the plain is flat and is divided by the valleys of the Algeti, Khrami, 

and Debedi rivers. Erosive necks and natural bridges are formed in some places in clayey 

soil. 

The northern part of the region is occupied by the Iagluja highland, which is 17 kilometers 

long, 10-11 kilometers wide and at an elevation that averages 300-400 meters. The northern 

part of the highland forms Iagluja Peak. A plateau bisected by dry ravines is located in the 

southern part. The southern and eastern slopes of the Iagluja highlands are also bisected by 

dry gorges. 

Loki ridge and Babakari peak are located in the southern part of Marneuli region. A part of 

the northern slope of the Loki ridge is also located within the region territory (Shulaveri river 

basin). The altitude of the ridge is under 1400 meters above sea level. It is constructed with 

Cretaceous age limestone, tuff-breccias, tuff-sandstone and porphyry. The lower part is 

partitioned by the valleys of Shulaveri River tributaries. The eastern part from River Debeda 

is also presented by Cretaceous limestones and volcanic rock formations; the southern 

slope is very fractured and cut with gorges, and typical badlands can be observed here. An 

important natural resource of the Marneuli region is Sadakhlo marble. 

4.1.4.3 Tetritskaro district 

The Tetritskaro region is mostly mountainous. The part of corrugated Trialeti ridge of middle 

height is located in the northern part of the region, which is constructed by middle Eocene 

volcanogenic rock. The flattened landscape of the southern pediment of the region is located 

in the Tetritskaro region. The middle southern part is occupied by the Kvemo Kartli plateau, 

which consists of upper Pliocene dolerites. The height of the plateau increases from east 

(450 meters above sea level) to west (1400 meters) and is crossed by the canyon of the 

Khrami River. 

47


Upper Cretaceous volcanic and sedimentary formations are located in the southwestern part 

of the Tetritskaro region as well as the Shua Khrami mountain complex formed by old 

crystalline rocks. Bedeni massive is the biggest with branches spreading to the south and 

west, including Gelindagi, Tavshishvela and Gomeri. The Iragi grotto is located between 

Tavshishvela ridge and Kvemo Kartli lava plateau. The bottom of the Irago grotto is formed 

by argillaceous soil and gravels. 

4.1.4.4 Tsalka region 

This regions has diverse landscape, ranging from mountains, high ridges, volcanic cones, 

grotto, flatlands, canyon-type ravines, and other landscape types. The asic orthographic unit 

is the Samsari (abul-samsari) meridian volcanic ridge, which is constructed from neogenic 

quadruple effusive rock, lava of multiple composition, tuff-breccias and tuffs. Peaks include 

Tavkvetili (2583 meters), Shavnabada (2930 meters), and Samsar (3285 meters). 

The southern part of the Javakheti meridian volcanic ridge is located in this region. Volcanic 

peaks located on the ridge include Dalidalo (2661 meters), Biketi (2277 meters), Chochiani 

(2417 meters). Tikmatashi pass is located in the lowest part of the ridge (2178 meters) 

Another large orthographic unit is Tsalka grotto (plateau), which is surrounded by the Trialeti 

ridge from the south and by Samsari and Javakheti ridge from the west. Its upper level is at 

1500-1800 meters range and is divided into several small grottos, of which Beshtasheni is 

the larges and is used as Tsalka water reservoir. The Chochiani plateau-grotto is located on 

the eastern pediment of Javakheti ridge. The eastern part of the region is occupied mostly by 

the southern pediment of Trialeti ridge which is fractured with ravines of the following rivers 

and their tributaries: Beshtashenis Tskali and Gumbati (Khrami basin). Noteworthy 

landscape forms are canyon-type ravines, including Avranlo canyon. 

4.1.4.5 Ktsia-Tabatskuri area 

The Ktsia-Tabatskuri Managed Reserve is located in the south, partly central subzone of the 

Lesser Caucasus. Notable features include Samsari ridge, Tavkvetili cone, Savnabada 

volcanic massif, patara Shavnabada, Shuamta, volcanic cones of Mshrali Mta, and Trialeti 

ridge. 

The east periphery of the reserve is represented by crest and west slopes of the Samsari 

ridge. The area also includes the north part of the ridge. The ridge is 42 kilometers long in 

meridianal directionm with a total area of 920 square kilometers. Volcanoes of the ridge form 

22 massifs with elevations from 2500 to 3300 meters. The heighest (3301 meters) is Didi 

Abuli peak. 

North to the Samsari ridge is Tavkvetili massif. The massif is located between the west end 

of Kamechi meadow and the Ktsia River gorge and the saddle. The massif consists of two 

peaks: Didi Tavkvetili on the east at 2587 meters, and Patara Tavkvetili cone to the west at 

2340 meters. 

North of the Patara Tavkvetili is the Nariani lowland, which divides Samsari and Trialeti 

ridges. South to the Tavkvetili is Shavnabada volcano massif, separated from the Tavkvetili 

by the Kamechi Meadow depression. The massif consists of two base-joint cones sited on 

one the same meridian line. The basis of the north, the Didi Sahvnabada cone (absolute 

height 2929 meters, relative height 950 meters, basis diameter 3 kilometers) is composed of 

Goderdzi suite dacites. Its north and west slopes is gullies , inclination 30-35 0 . 

Patara Shavnabada (2798 meters above sea level) is a flat, truncated cone with a ctaret-like 

hollow. Northeast of Savnabada massif and close to the study area is Beberdagi (Egeisari) 

volcanic massif. It consists of three extrusive domes with elevations from 2400 to 2513 

meters. North and north-east of Lake Tabatskuri are volcanic cones (Shuamta at 2381 

48


meters and Mshrali mta at 2405 meters) with the Ktsia river in between, with some 

waterlogged areas. 

Trialeti ridge forms the east part of the Adjara-Trialeti system. The higest peak of the Trialeti 

ridge is Shavi Klde (2853 meters) belonging to the Tsikhisjvari branch (the peak is located 

near village Tsihisjvari). Other peaks are 2500-2800 meters high, including Arjevani, 

Sakvelosmta, Kodiana, Oshora, Tskhratskaro, Ortavi. 

The main watershed of the Trialeti ridge starts in the Mtkvari River gorge (village Minadze). 

In this section it is directed east-south-west, and farther out it turns and becomes 

transversal. The north slope of the Trialeti ridge is divided by the rivers Toseli, Dviri, 

Chobiskhevi, Borjomula and Gujaretis Tskali. 

4.1.4.6 Adigeni district 

Adigeni district is located at the west part of the Akhaltsikhe cavity. The region is crossed by 

the Kvabliani River, whose tributaries are the Otskhe, Ghadzvi and Dzindze. The Akhaltsikhe 

cavity (Samtskhe cavity) represents a tectonic erosive intermountain cavity in the upper 

basin of the Mtkvari River. From the north it is limited by Meskheti ridge, from the south by 

Erusheti ridge, on the west by Arsiani ridge slopes, and from the east bounded by the wester 

edge of Trialeti ridge. The bottom of the cavity are at 900 to 1000 meters above sea level. 

Cavity slopes are formed with Mid Eocene volcanogenic sediments; and the central part is 

formed with Upper Eocene gypsum sandy-clayey layer, Oligocene clays and sandy-clayey 

sediments and also Mio-Pliocene Tuffogenic (Goderdzi) layer. Quaternary sediments are 

distributed at the bottoms of Mtkvari River and its tributary valleys. 

In the center of the cavity a flat terrace is located. On the rocks (1200-1300 m above sea 

level) hilly erosion landscape is developed mainly with soft relief forms; relief is rocky on 

volcanogenic layers. Above 1200-1300 m sufficiently breaking up mountain-valley relief of 

Meskheti, Erusheti and Arsiani ridge slopes is developed. 

The Meskheti ridge is mainly formed with Eocene volcanogenic layers. Western part of the 

ridge is limited by more recent rocks; to the south with Neogene lavas. Slopes are jagged 

with deep valleys of Khanistskali, Suloria, Sufsa, Natanebi, Kintrishi, Chakvistskali and other 

rivers. 

The Arsiani ridge is formed with shales, sandstones, Upper Tertiary Goderdzi layers and 

Eocene volcanogenic sediments. Slopes of the ridge are deeply incised with valleys of 

Chorokhi, Adjaristskali, Kvabliani, Potskhovi and other rivers. At the top there are signs of 

old glaciation. 

4.1.4.7 Akhaltsikhe district 

Middle and Upper Eocene sediments are the most distributed in Akhaltsikhe district. Middle 

Eocene (P 2 2 b) is represented with massive rough fragmented volcanic breccias, tuff, lava 

layers, mostly sub-alkaline, alkaline and limy base basaltoides, rarely andesites and 

andesite basaltoides, dolerites, trachytes, tuff conglomerates, olistostromes, tephrite and 

sandy-aleuritic turbidites and also dellenites. 

Upper Eocene (P 2 3 ) is represented by foraminiferal and lirelepic marl, rough grained quartzarkose 

and graywacke sandstones, clay (carbonized, bituminized, shale), conglomerate 

middle layers, conglomerate-breccias, marl, andesite basalt, limestone, sub-alkaline basalt, 

tracyites, lava and pyroclastolites. 

49


Quaternary sediments are represented mostly by boulder-pebbles and are characterized by 

high water content. The Uraveli River basin is formed mostly with recent Quaternary and 

Eocene age so-called Kisatibi (Goderdzi) layers and lava and tuff formations. These 

sediments are presented by (form bottom to top): 

 

 

 

 

 

Psammite tuffs with insertions of red conglomerate lenses. 

Andesite-basalt and basalt layers. 

Conglomerates, andesite-dacite tuffs. 

Thick layers of tuff-breccias, tuff-conglomerates and tuff ashes. 

Thick layers of andesites and andesite-dacites. 

4.1.4.8 Baghdati district 

Stratigraphy. The geological structure of this area is represented by meso-Cainozoic and 

Quaternary thick terrigenous, carbonaceous and effusive formations. The Quaternary and 

Cainozoic sediments have the widest distribution. Lower Cretaceous (K 1 ) rocks have 

transgressive overlapping over the Jurassic sediments and they are represented with 

dolomites, limestones, marls, and clays over 600 meters deep. Upper Cretaceous (K 2 ) 

sediments outcrop in foothills and mountainside banks of Adjara-Trialeti ridge. They are 

represented with limestones, guffogenes and others to a depth of 500-600 meters. 

Paleocene (P) system is represented with Paleocene-Lower Miocene (P 1 -P 2 ), Mid Eocene 

(P 2 1 ), Upper Eocene (P 2 3 ) and Oligocene-Lower Miocene (P 3 -N 1 1 ) rocks. First three stages 

are represented with Clayey Limestones, Marls, Tuffs and Clays in general, with overall 

depths about 1500 m; and the Oligocene-Lower Miocene – with non-carbonaceous layered 

Clays with depths of 600 meters. 

The Neogene (N) system is represented with all stages of Eocene and partly with Pliocene. 

These layers are formed with compact sandstones, calcareous sandstones, clays and 

limestones with an overall depth of 1000 meters. 

Quaternary sediments (Q) have a wide distribution in the region and represent continental 

formations. They are described with facial changes and miscellaneous geological-structural 

and geomorphologic features. 

The depth of Quaternary sediments decreases from west to east and ranges from several 

meters to 300 meters. Recent sediments are divided into River, Alluvial, Prolluvial and 

Delluvial formations by genetic features. 

Recent Quaternary sediments (aQ IV ) are distributed in river valleys and represented with 

riverbed and floodplain facieses; their depth is changing within 2-20 m limits. These 

decrease from east to west. Delluvial-Prolluvial sediments (d-aQ IV ) are distributed at the 

bottoms of banks and represented with pebbles-detritus clays and clayey soil. Finally, 

Elluvial-Delluvial sediments (e-aQ IV ) are distributed in watersheds and hillock banks and 

clays and sandstones one to two meters deep. 

Tectonics. This region belongs to Georgian lump and Adjara-Trialeti fold system contact 

zone. In the territory of Georgian lump, the Kolkheti lowland and Imereti submountain bend 

are delineated. The Kolkheti lowland is the most submerged structure of Georgian lump, 

which is filled with thick Quaternary formations. Its fundament is parted with deep tectonic 

fractures. The Adjara-Imereti submountain bend is the south sequential of Kolkheti lowland. 

It includes sediments from Upper Cretaceous to post Pliocene. It is characterized by linearly 

extended brachyfolds and arch boosts. 

50


Geomorphology. This region belongs to the Kolkheti sector of the Georgian intermountain 

immersion zone. Here, Kolkheti accumulative (Alluvial) lowland area and South Kolkheti hilly 

line region are marked out. The Kolkheti accumulative lowland covers a wide area, relief is 

plain and its elevation is less than 200 meters above sea level. 

4.1.4.9 Zestaphoni district 

Four orographic zones are represented in the Zestaphoni district. The Kolkheti lowland 

includes the Kvirila river adjacent zone from the railway station Adjameti to the west. The 

elevation of this area ranges from 90 to 200 meters. To the south and east, the hilly zone 

has elevations of 200 to 250 metres. The upper Imereti plateau is located to the west and to 

the south the watershed ridge separates the water basins of Kvirila-Sakreula rivers (peaks 

include Safishlis tavi at 1088 meters and Kvitsqnari at 1013 meters). The north slope of the 

ridge is in Zestaphoni region. 

Alluvial sediments are presented primarily on the lowland territory, which is generated by 

River Kvirila as shallow terraces. The relief is crossed by large number of gorges and river 

channels. Oligocene and Miocene clays, sandstones, and marls are present on the hilly 

zone. The surfaces are crossed by the tributaries of the Kvirila River. Many landslides are 

present on the slopes of hills. The plateau is developed on the crystalloid massif of the 

Dzirula River, which is presented on the right bank of Kvirila River until the river Dzusa. The 

plateau within the borders of Zestaphoni region is present by crystalline slates and granite 

type rocks of Cambrian and Paleozoic age. The south part of the plateau is represented by 

Liace age volcanogenic rocks and sediments, porphyries, tuffs, and tuff-breccias. 

The top layer of crystalline and Jurassic sediments is cut by narrow rocky gorges 250 to 300 

meters deep, narrow. The watershed ridge is mainly presented by Eocene age tuff-breccias 

and marvels. The geology of the region is mainly represented by early and recent 

Quaternary rocks. The early Quaternary sediments are present as sand, gravel, and clays 

and are found on the upper terraces of the Kvirila River. Old terraces of Kvirila River are 

present up to an elevation of 300 meters, and are about 10 to 15 meters deep. 

4.1.4 Hydrology/Hydrogeology 

The transmission line will cross many of Georgia’s rivers. In summary, the number of 

crossings will include: 

 

 

 

For Alternative 1, 12 river crossings, including Kvirila, unknown name, Mtkvari (Kura), 

Oshiristskali, Chibareti, Ktsia, Beiukchai, Kldeisi, Algeti, Mtkvari (Kura), 

Tsinubanistskali, Koblianichai. 

For alternative 2, 14 river crossings, including Kvirila, unknown name, Baratkhevi, 

Tsinubanistskali, Mtkvari (Kura), Oshiristskali, Chibareti, Ktsia, Beiukchai, Kldeisi, 

Algeti, Mtkvari (Kura), Tsinubanistskali, Koblianichai. 

For Alternative 3, 18 river crossings, including Kvirila, unknown name, unknown 

name, Kurikhana (3 time), Baratkhevi, Tsinubanistskali, Mtkvari (Kura), Oshiristskali, 

Chibareti, Ktsia, Beiukchai, Kldeisi, Algeti, Mtkvari (Kura), Tsinubanistskali, 

Koblianichai. 

4.1.4.1 Gardabani district 

A shallow aquifer in this area comprises floodplain alluvial sediments (pebbles, sand, and 

clay) of the Iori River and its outfall. Most springs flow at 0.2 to 2 liters per second, although 

a group of springs on the left bank of the river 15 kilometers southeast of Sagarejo have a 

total flow of over more than 200 liters per second. Alluvial sediments of the Lakbe River 

valley are characterized with water-rich flows and represented with pebbles with sand. Flows 

51


of springs range from 8 to 10 liters per second.. Both these aquifers recharge from 

precipitation and river flows. 

Another aquifer in Quaternary 

sediments is widely distributed in the 

region. It ranges from 5 to 100 meters 

deep and represent river terraces and 

valley trains. Again, recharge is 

primarily from precipitation. 

Between the Shibliani and 

Dedoplistskaro meridians at the south 

bank of Kakheti ridge are sporadically 

productive Apsheron-Aghchagil 

marine sediments that are largely 

unconfined. There are a large number 

of downstream springs that are not too 

productive, at 0.1 to 0.4 liters per 

second. 

Figure 4.1-12. Khrami River gorge 

Another limited aquifer is in Lower 

Miocene-Oligocene waterproof rocks in a line from the Krasnogorski village to the south part 

of Ialno ridge. This aquifer reaches 300 meters deep and flows up to 0.2 liters per second. 

An aquifer used widely as drinking water is in upper Jurassic carbonate sediments. 

Withdrawal rates can reach 2 to 10 liters per second. 

4.1.4.2 Marneuli district 

The Marneuli district is rich with rivers, the biggest being Mtkvari and Khrami rivers. River 

Khrami forms some islands on its way, while the Debeda river, which is the right tributary of 

the Khrami, is a typical ravine river. The Marneuli plateau is also crossed by Algeti River 

(the right tributary of Mtkvari), the Shulaveri River (the right tributary of Khrami), and 

Banoshistskali River (the right tributary of the Debedi). Flooding is observed during the 

spring while low water levels occur mostly during summer and winter. The rivers supply 

water for irrigation. 

4.1.4.3 Tetritskaro district 

Underground waters in this district are seen in the Eluvial zone of denuded rock. Eluvial 

sediments of upper cretaceous carbonate rocks are characterized with high water content. 

Groundwaters useful for drinking water are also widely spread in the sand-gravel sediments 

of river groves. These waters are characterized by good drinking properties. Deeper 

groundwaters are mostly in middle Eocene and upper cretaceous sediments. 

In the places, where upper cretaceous rocks are close to the surface, mostly in natural 

landscape depression areas, artesian springs that flow from 4 to 5 liters per second. The 

springs are related with groundwater from above mentioned rocks, they have artesian 

pressures and flows in the range of 4-5 liters per sec and is often carbonated. 

4.1.4.4 Tsalka District 

This area is rich with water resources. The Khrami is the main river, and is known as Qtsia 

River in its upper part (Figure 4.1-12). Its right tributaries are the Chochiani, Beiukderesi, 

Mirzaoglikhrami, Aiazmidere, and Nardevani, among others. Left tributaries are the Tarsoni, 

52


Sulakhi, Gumbati, and Tusrebi. The Beshtashentskali and Korsu rivers flow directly into the 

Tsalka water reservoir. 

There are a few lakes in this region, including Bashkoi, Uzungioli, Janmushgioli, Khadiki, 

Leliani, Grdzeli, and others. Floods occur mostly during spring and early summer. Low 

water levels are observed during the winter. Rivers in this region are widely used for 

hydropower energy generation. 

4.1.4.5 Ktsia-Tabatskuri area 

The primary water feature in this region is Lake Tabatskuri. The lake covers 14.2 square 

kilometers and reaches a depth of 40.2 meters, with an average depth of 15.5 meters. 

Lowest water levelis are seen from Jabuary to March. The increase in water level in spring 

coincides with spring thaw and snowmelt, with highest inflows in June. Tabatskuri is a 

young oligotrophic lake that is oxygen-rich and nutrient-poor, and is used for drinking water 

and irrigation. The lake is a major tourist attraction, and it is reported to be at risk from 

uncontrolled activities of local communities. 

4.1.4.6 Adigeni area 

The Akhaltsikhe cavity is traversed by the Mtkvari River and its tributaries: Potskhovi (with 

Kvabliani tributary), Uraveli, Tsinubnistskali and other rivers. In addition, there are Tsunda 

and Satakhve lakes. Mineral springs have been developed in Abastumani (Otskhe), 

Akhaltsikhe, Aspindza, Uraveli and other places. 

4.1.4.7 Akhaltsikhe district 

This basin is located in structure-morphological depression of the same name and is 

surrounded by Meskheti, Trialeti and Arsiani ridges. The region is not rich with underground 

waters due to low humidity and the small amount of precipitation. Slightly more resources 

are concentrated in recent Quaternary sediments, andesite-basalt depleted upper zone and 

eluvial formations of volcanogenic rock. 

4.1.4.8 Baghdati district 

This area is within the southern periphery of the Tskaltubo artesian water basin. By the 

stratigraphical-genetic signs, chemical composition and circulation type of groundwater 

divides into several aquifer and complex. Aquifers include recent alluvia sediments, recent 

deluvial proluvial sediments, and non-parted Quaternary alluvial sediments. 

Comparatively high mineralized water is found in a complicated circulation zone. Upper 

Cretaceous sediments with carbonic and thermal waters show mineralization up to 17 g/l. 

Chemical composition of water in this zone is various, but chloride-sodium, chloride-hydro 

carbonate-sodium and hydro carbonate-chloride-sodium are common. 

4.1.4.9 Zestaphoni district 

This district is part of the River Kvirila crystalline massive fractured and fractured-cavern type 

groundwater region. The region also is rich with rivers, with the principal ones being the 

Kvirila, Dzirula, Cholaburi, Chkherimela, and their tributaries. River flow is highest in spring, 

with flooding occurring mostly in summer and autumn periods. Most groundwater is in 

shallow alluvial sediments less than 2 meters deep. 

53


4.1.5 Geohazards 

4.1.5.1 Types of geohazards 

Geohazards identified along the proposed corridor include: processes caused by gravity 

transport of weathering products (slope erosion (gullying), mudflows, debris flows, scree or 

rock avalanches and landslides caused by the mass movements of unstable materials) and 

seismic hazards. Other potential geohazards such as solifluction, swamping and salinisation 

have been noted in the area, but owing to their limited importance they are not consider to 

be a significant concern. 

Gullying is caused when surface runoff of unconsolidated materials such as silt rich soils, 

shales, and marls occurs in concentrated flow paths. The runoff in these paths may cause 

erosion (washes and wash outs) and finally form channels that collapse to form gullies. This 

gullying process occurs mainly in alluvial-proluvial and alluvial-lacustrine deposits. Gullying 

has been noted to occur in the vicinity of Lake Jandari to Akhali Samgori, where the depths 

of gullies reach 3 to 5 meters in some places. 

Mud & debris flows occur when large quantities of water disrupt the soil or clay to water ratio, 

causing the mud or rock to flow. These flows usually occur suddenly, have a high velocity, 

and are highly efficient eroding agents that may transport large boulders considerable 

distances before settling and forming a cohesive deposit. Mudflows have been noted in dry 

gorges along the proposed route. Well-defined mudflows are noted in the vicinity of Samgori 

and Gamarjveba, on the slopes of Ialghuja and in the vicinity of Krtsanisi. Figure 4-8 shows 

areas that are susceptible to mudflows. 

Rock /scree slides & falls occur following the de-stabilising of a mass of rock or scree 

fragments, generally as a result of gravity or a sudden excess of water. The rate of 

displacement will vary from slow creep to rapid movements (for example, mudslides) to 

sudden collapses (for example, rockfalls). Volcanogenic, carbonaceous and terrigenous 

formations are vulnerable to destabilisation primarily owing to mechanical weathering 

caused by freezing and thawing of interstitial water weakening the rocks internal structure. 

Chemical weathering is common in volcanic rocks along the pipeline corridor where 

hydrothermal changes result in deposits become more clayey in character. Loose rock and 

scree is noted on slopes along the pipeline route and rock falls have been observed on the 

western slopes of Ialghuja Ridge, the Trialeti range and on the slopes of the Javakheti 

volcanic mountainous massif. 

Landslides that cause ground displacement form when a sliding movement of a mass of rock 

or soil takes place on a definite plane. This displacement may occur along a structural plane 

such as bedding, joints or schistosity or along a curved shear plane causing rotation, heave 

or slumping of the ground. Landslides commonly occur following movement along a 

lubricated bedding plane, often at the interface of permeable and impermeable rock types. 

Slumping in clays involves a rotary movement along a curved shear surface. The ground 

movement may be initiated by gravity; tectonic effects or water and the rate of displacement 

may vary from slow creep to a sudden event. Landslide processes are particularly frequent 

in the areas where the geological underground is formed by Eocene and Oligocene clay 

layers, which are specifically sensitive to the interaction between high precipitation rates, 

frost and unsuitable anthropogenic land-use. 

Landslides are common in rock deposits that are fairly unstable, on slopes such as 

lacustrine alluvial deposits, scree slopes, and eroded slopes. Numerous landslides occur in 

areas of outcrop with visible landslides observed on the right bank of the River Mtkvari, and 

in the middle reaches of the Rivers Khrami and Mtkvari. Landslides also occur on the banks 

of the River Algeti and on the left bank of the River Khrami. The landslides are observed in 

54


proximity to Tabatskuri, Vest to Vale, in some sections along the Algeti. Figure 4-7 (at the 

end of this chapter) shows areas most at risk of landslides. 

4.1.5.2 Gravity processes 

The transmission line crosses Imereti, Samtskhe-Javakheti, Shida and Kvemo Kartli regions 

of Georgia. Geohazards from gravity process in each region are characterized in this 

subsection. 

Kvemo Kartli region in southeast Georgia includes Tetritskaro, Marneuli, and Tsalka districts 

along the transmission line corridor. In this region erosion, landslide and mudflow processes, 

rock and scree avalanches and floods are not common, although risk is uneven across the 

region. There is active erosion along rivers. Development of hazardous geological processes 

in the region is not uniform. Hillsides and mountains, as well as agricultural and pasture 

lands, are subject to severe erosion and gullying. In addition, wind erosion can be severe 

around Bolnisi district. 

In the middle zone of the Kvemo Kartli erosion-gravitation processes are observed. In the 

mountain and high mountain zones - dominating are Scree and rockfalls occur along 

Bolnisi-Kazreti and Manglisi-Tsalka roads and in river headwaters. Landslides in the area 

are triggered by heavy precipitation, with peaks in early spring and summer. Erosion is seen 

along the riverbeds of the Mtkvari tributaries, Algeti river (Akhalsopeli khevi, Enegeti khevi) 

and Khrami river basins, and the south slopes of Iagluja mountain. 

The area has zero to medium mudflow risk area (risk category 0; medium 0.3-0.1) and zero 

to low risk of landslides (risk category 0; low 01-0.01). 

Samtskhe-Javakheti region includes three districts cross by the line, including Aspindza, 

Akhalkalaki, and Akhaltsikhe. In Akhaltsikhe and Aspindza districts there have been 

observed hazardous geological processes including landslides, mudflows, erosion, flooding, 

scree and rock avalanches, and gullying. The diversity and widespread nature of the risks is 

the result of the complex geological - tectonic composition of the region and 

geomorphological conditions in the area. The geological processes that dominate the area 

include landslides, which are mainly observed in the river gorges. In addition, within 

riverbeds there are frequent mudflow, erosion ,and flooding processes. In the Velikhevi, 

Kvibiststskali, Likanistskali, Borjomula, Gujaretistskali, Chobiskhevi and Oshora ravines 

there is accumulating a large amount of material, which is creating a risk of mudflow 

processes occurring. In addition, riverbanks are actively eroding, with erosion of banks 

observed in practically all riverbeds. 

Jabvakheti is less hazardous in terms of geological processes and related damage, again 

the result of morphology, stability of rocks, and climate in the region. Here, risks are mainly 

related to earthquakes, since the area belongs is an 8-9 seismic risk zone. Earthquakes 

activate scree and rock avalanches, and other kinds of soil surface deformation. Other 

processes include slope erosion and flooding, with flooding causing the most significant 

impact on the region. 

The area belongs to mudflow risk area from significant to very low (risk category significant 

0.5-0.30; medium 0.3-0.1; very low


lowland zone, scouring, flooding-accumulation dominate, while landslide and gullying 

processes are negligible. In the hilly foothills the major processes are landslide and erosion. 

In the low and medium mountains a zone-wide spectrum of geodynamic processes can be 

observed. 

The risk of earthquakes is high in this region, with seismic activity in the 7-8 magnitude zone 

(Dzirula crystalline massif, Adjara-Imereti ridge, Okriba mountain massif). Landslides poses 

serious risks to industrial and economical activities in the region, with the landslide damage 

coefficient for Imereti estimated as 0.7-0.9. 

Bank erosion (scouring) is observed in 229 areas in the region, with a total length of 

527kilometers. Erosion affects arable lands, roads, bridges, irrigation hydrotechnical and 

bank protection facilities, oil and gas pipelines, and cause damages to some. Gullying is 

registered in 484 areas, with a total length of 257.3 kilometers. 

Rock and scree avalanches (16 and 254 units respectively), are mainly concentrated in the 

mountain regions in river headwaters and rocky areas of the ravines, as well as along the 

slopes cut during road construction. Mudflows are less frequent, with 136 mudflow gullies 

having been observed. Activation of the mudflow processes endangers some residential 

areas including Chiatura and Sachkhere, as well as Baghdati, Sairme, Baghdadi- Sakreula, 

Bagdati-Khani , Shorapan-Salieti, Sestaphoni-Rikoti, Khvani, Sachkhere road sections, 

Tsipa-Lashi, Shorapan-Chiatura individual sections of the railroad, where stone-mud flows 

hinder traffic. 

Flooding and accumulation processes (spring-autumn) are observed in separate sections of 

Sachkherte, Kolkheti and Akhalsopeli lowlands. There are 32 sections subject to flooding in 

the region,. Floods damage arable lands, irrigation and hydrotechnical facilities, pipelines, 

roads, protective engineering constrictions, industrial objects, settlements (including 

Sachkhere, Zestaphoni, Kutaisi, Vani, and Samytredia residential areas and infrastructure). 

In total flooded areas may reach hundreds of hectares. 

In areas with carbonate rocks, karst processes are observed, with 121 units with different 

forms of karst processes being registered in Khoni, Tskhaltubo, Terjola, Tkibuli, Chiatura, 

Sachkhere and Kharagauli. They are rare in Vani and Samtredia areas. 

Avalanches are occasionally observed in unpopulated high mountain areas of Kharagauli, 

Badati, Vani, Tkibuli, Chiatura and Sachkhere regions. The area belongs to medium 

mudflow risk (risk category 0.3-0.1) and high risk of landslides (risk category 0.9-0.7). 

4.1.5.3 Seismic hazards 

The Greater and Lesser Caucasus form the central Asian segment of the ‘Alpine-Himalayan 

Fault and Fold Belt’Akhaltsikhe Basin. This belt extends from the Swiss Alps in southern 

Europe to the Himalayan ranges of India and Nepal. The region is actively being deformed 

by the collision of the African, Arabian, and Indian tectonic plates with the southern margin of 

the Eurasian continent. The east-west trending faults are characterized by compressive 

thrust movements. The north-east or north-west trending faults generally exhibit lateral 

strike-slip movements. 

Two types of fault movement are commonly observed along the study area, namely Reverse 

and Thrust Faulting. Both are compressive styles of faulting and involve one fault block 

pushing up and over the second fault block. The ‘thrust’ and ‘reverse’ designations are 

distinguished by the dip angle of the fault plane. Thrust faults are characterized by dip 

angles of less than 45 degrees, and Reverse faults exhibit dip angles of greater than 45 

degrees. 

56


The proposed route crosses several tectonic faults. The faults that are deemed active based 

on the interpretation of existing literature, topographic maps and aerial photos include: 

 

 

 

 

Rustavi fault: a reverse fault with NNW-ESE surface orientation and an estimated 

potential vertical displacement during a seismic event of 0.9 meters. 

Manglisi fault: a reverse fault with a NNW-ESE surface orientation and an 

estimated potential displacement of 0.6 meters. 

Tsalka-Bedeni fault: a reverse fault with W-E orientation and an estimated 

potential displacement of 0.9 meters. 

Vale fault: a reverse fault with a W-E surface orientation and an estimated 

potential displacement of 2.0 meters. 

According to the seismic zoning map of the Georgia the line will be located in 7-8 magnitude 

zone. Seismic zones are shown in Figure 4-9 (at the end of this chapter). 

4.1.6 Flora and vegetation 

This section describes flora and vegetation within a corridor that extends within about five 

kilometers on either side of the transmission line corridor, with particular attention to the area 

within 250 meters of the route, to allow sensitive communities and habitats to be identified. 

The section is based on literature review and field surveys. It is noted that published 

materials concerning the immediate corridor were scarce or nonexistent in some cases, so 

several brief field visits were made to ensure full coverage of the route 

The transmission line corridor crosses a number of different botanic-geographic regions 

(Gardabani, Kvemo (Lower) Kartli, Trialeti , Javakheti, Kartli, Meskheti and Imereti) with a 

great diversity of flora and vegetation due to geological, geomorphological, hydrological, 

climate and soil conditions. In particular, the corridor steppes, semideserts, spiny-shrubwood 

steppes, low mountain broadleaved forests, middle mountain broadleaved forests, mountain 

broadleaved forests, mountain mixed forests, subalpine forests (park forests), subalpine tall 

herbaceous vegetation, mountain steppes of southern Georgia, high mountain grasslands 

and shrubs, subalpine meadows, sedge and grasses marshes (bogs), agricultural lands, and 

many other more or less transformed areas. 

Along the transmission line corridor, there are many communities and species of different 

conservation value (designated herein as Georgian Red List-GRL, RDB, endemic, rare) as 

well as economic plants (medicinal, aromatic, wild fruits, fibers, rootcrops, ornamental, 

beverages, timber, fuel wood, forage (fodder) and pasture, wild relatives of crop species, 

etc.). In addition, there are several orchids that are CITES species: Corallorhiza trifida, 

Dactylorhiza euxina, Gymnadenia conopsea, Neotia nidus-avis, as well as Dactylorhiza 

urvilleana; Dactylorhiza latifolia. 

Figures 4-6a through 4-6h (at the end of Chapter 4) show the various types of agricultural 

and other vegetation zones that are crossed by the line, from east to west. In addition, 

Figures 4-11a through 4-11h (also at the end of Chapter 4) show areas of medium and high 

sensitivity as a result of their vegetation and ecosystems. Finally, Figures 4-2a through 4-2h 

(also at the end of the chapter) show the different types of ecosystems in the vicinity of the 

transmission line corridor. 

4.1.6.1 Gardabani plain to Jandari Lake-Jagluja Hills 

Three figures show aspects of vegetation and flora in this section: Figure 4-2a shows 

ecosystems, Figure 4-6ba shows various types of agricultural and other vegetation zones, 

and Figure 4-11a shows areas of medium and high sensitivity. All these figures are at the 

end of Chapter 4. 

57


4.1.6.1.1 Gardabani Managed Reserve 

The transmission line crosses a narrow part of Gardabani Management Reserve very near 

the line’s origin at the Gardabani substation. The zone of significant ecological risk is 

associated with the floodplain forests in the Managed Reserve, which include relict mature 

floodplain forests formed either by floodplain oak (Quercus pedunculiflora), poplar (Populus 

hybrida), or both species. Associated components of the forests are comprised of 

approximately 30 species of trees and shrubs including many relict species, such as ivy 

(Hedera helix, H. pastuchowii), wild vine (Vitis sylvestris), greenbrier (Smilax excelsa), 

common privet (Ligusrrum vulgare), etc. Figure 4.1-13 shows an example of this forest. 

Such relict floodplain forests are very 

rare in Georgia. As a result, the forest 

in Gardabani Managed Reserve has 

the highest conservation value in the 

entire lowland. Apart from main 

components forming the forest being 

relicts (upper layer - Quercus 

pedunculiflora, Populus hybrida P. 

nigra, Ulmus minor, Salix 

wilhelmsiana, Crataegus curvisepala, 

C. pentagyna; lower layer - Hedera 

pastuchowii, H. helyx, Smilax excelsa, 

Vitis sylvestris, Clematis vitalba, 

Tamarix ramosissima, Cornus mas, 

Prunus spinosa, Ligustrum vulgare, 

Lonicera caprifolium, Elaeagnus 

angustifolia), the forest itself is unique 

in phytocoenological terms. 

Figure 4.1-13. Tugai forest in 

Gardabani Managed Reserve 

It is important to note that foundations for the line in the Managed Reserve were constructed 

from 1989 to 1991, so foundations should already exist in this area, and possibly towers as 

well. The Reserve is considered to be of high sensitivity (Figure 4-11a at the end of this 

chapter), but no other areas in this section are considered to be high or medium sensitive. 

4.1.6.1.2 Other lowland and foothill areas 

The lowland areas of Gardabani and Kvemo Kartli section of the Project Corridor are 

represented mainly by agricultural lands and their associated irrigation systems (canals- 

Marini canal). 

The natural vegetation in these areas is very changed and reduced due to agricultural 

activities. The semidesert wormwood (Artemisia fragrans) communities are dominant here. 

Together with pure and mixed variants of worm-wood communities there also occur 

intermediate types mixed diffusely or completely with the variants of saltwort (Salsola spp.) 

desert. From other components one can see here Agropyron cristatum, Alhagi pseudalhagi, 

Bothriochloa ischaemum, Kochia prostrata, Limonium meyeri, Salicornia europaea, Salsola 

dendroides, etc. 

Wormwood communities with ephemers are found in Gardabani and Marneuli districts. They 

are dominated by the following ephemers: Adonis aestivalis, Astragalus brachyceras, 

Koelpinia linearis, Medicago minima, Queria hispanica (Minuartia hamata), etc. The foothill 

landscapes of Rustavi and Marneuli environs as well as eastern part of Trialeti region are 

characterized by semidesert, steppe vegetation and partly fragments of open woodlands 

(“light forests”). Present-day expansion of steppes is due to the anthropogenic influence on 

58


forests arid light forest and even on secondary shrubwoods (Sakhokia, 1961). The dominant 

species of steppe vegetation is beard-grass, Bothriochloa ischaemum (Andropogon 

ischaemum).. 

Beard-grass steppes are composed of 150-200 species of higher plants (Ketskhoveli, 1960; 

Gagnidze et al., 1996) and they are typologically very diverse. In pure beard-grass steppes 

the co-dominant positions are occupied by Eryngium campestre, Festuca valesiaca (F. 

sulcata), Cynodon dactylon, Glycyrrhiza glabra, Teucrium chamaedris, Teucrium polium, 

Thymus tiflisiensis, Galium verum, etc. 

The Gardabani plain foothill areas are 

Bothriochlota–Festuceta steppe, 

distinguished with greater species 

diversity (figure 4.1-14). In this 

community the co-dominant species 

are Festuca valesiaca, Medicago 

caucasica, Teucrium polium. There 

also occur Scorzonera eriosperma, 

Eryngium campestre, Thymus 

tiflisiensis, Onobrychis radiata, 

Medicago minima, Sideritis montana, 

etc. Undulate plain near Kvemo 

Samgoris Arkhi (Kvemo Samgori 

Canal) are represented by beard-grass 

(Bothriochloa ischaemum) – speargrass 

(Stipa capillata, S. lessingiana) 

Figure 4.1-14. Altered steppe near Marnueli 

steppe and Shibliak. Besides, there 

are fragments of hemixerophilic shrubwoods dominated by the single trees and shrubs 

(Celtis caucasica (GRL, RDB), Pyrus salicifolia, Rhamnus pallasii, Ulmus carpinifolia, 

Spiraea hypericifolia, etc.). From herbaceous components there are also Festuca valesiaca, 

Stipa lessingiana, S. stenophylla, Astragalus microcephalus, Gypsophila acutiloba, etc. 

Together with Celtis caucasica are found single GRL, RDB plants, viz. Pistacia mutica, 

Celtis glabrata and Astragalus caucasicus. Fragments of Festuceto (Festuca sulcata) – 

Bothriochlota communities, which are restricted to the slopes of hills, remain only at Jagluja 

(Nakhutsrishvili, 1999). In addition, hemixerophilic shrubwoods (like shibliak) fragments and 

almost semidesert wormwood (Artemisia fragrans) communities occur here. Leading species 

in these communities, Artemisia fragnans, is associated by the following perennials: Salsola 

dendroides, Bothriochloa ischaemum, Elytrigia repens, Agropyron cristatum, Glycyrrhiza 

glabra, Cynodon dactylon, Petrosimonia brachiata, Daucus carota, Falcaria vulgaris, 

Limonium meyeri, etc. The geophytes are represented by the species of Iris, Tulipa, Gagea, 

Allium. Among the RDB plants, Iris iberica and Tulipa biebersteiniana are notable. 

The components of the xerophilic and hemixerophilic shrubwoods include such droughtresistant 

species as Paliurus spina-christi, Spiraea hypericifolia, Rhamnus pallasii, 

Astragalus microcephalus, Lonicera iberica, Caragana grandiflora. 

4.1.6.2 Jagluja Hills – Tetritskaro 

In this section, the corridor passes from steppe vegetation influenced by humans to oakhornbeam 

broadleaved forests. Three figures show aspects of vegetation and flora in this 

section: Figure 4-2b shows ecosystems, Figure 6b shows various types of agricultural and 

other vegetation zones, and Figure 4-11b shows areas of medium and high sensitivity. All 

these figures are at the end of Chapter 4. As can be seen, a small length of the corridor east 

of Tetritskaro passes through an area considered to be of medium sensitivity. 

59


4.1.6.2.1 Fragments of steppe vegetation and arid open woodlands 

Isolated fragments of steppe 

vegetation here, with some thorn 

steppe and arid open woodlands 

(Figure 4.1-15), are found up to near 

Tetritskaro and particularly on the 

Disveli watershed plateau, between 

the Ktsia and Algeti rivers, where more 

notable are GRL, RDB species: Acer 

ibericum, Celtis caucasica and single 

individuals of Pistacia mutica 

(Ketskhoveli, 1960). 

4.1.6.2.2 Thorne steppe with forest 

elements 

These communities are considered to Figure 4.1-15. Tetritskaro upper edge forest 

be derivative of forests. They are 

developed on the area between the 

foothills north-west of Kumisi village to near Tetritskaro (Durnuki plateau). Paliurus spinachisti 

is the dominant species. Other components of this vegetation are Acer ibericum, Celtis 

caucasica, Pistacia mutica, Crataegus pontica, Amygdalus georgica (GRL, RDB species), 

Rhamnus pallasii, Crataegus monogyna, Spiraea hypericifolia, Catoneaster spp., Cerasus 

incana, Carpinus orientalis, Quercus iberica, etc. Herbaceous plants include Bothriochloa 

ischaemum, Festuca sulcata, Stipa capillata, Thymus tiflisiensis, Artemisia fragrans and 

other steppe species. 

4.1.6.2.3 Oak and hornbeam forests 

Oak forests, dominated by Georgian oak, Quercus iberica from about Tsintskaro village to 

the Tetritskaro section, the area with significant indications of the anthropogenic impact. 

According to Ketskhoveli (1960), floristic composition of one of the variants of oak forests 

(Tetritskaro environs, Nachivchavebi, 1100 meters above seal level) includes Quercus 

iberica, Carpinus caucasica, Carpinus orientalis, Fraxinus excelsior, Acer campestre, Pyrus 

caucasica, Malus orientalis, Sorbus torminalis, Cerasus avium, Prunus divaricata, Prunus 

spinosa, Grossularia reclinata, Cornus mas, Swida (Cornus) australis. Northeast of 

Tetritskaro between villages Bogvi and Chkhikvta, at 800 meters above sea level, the same 

author described oak forest stand as being very changed by man’s intervention. As a result 

of degradation of this natural stand the components of arid open woodlands, viz. Paliurus 

spina-christi, Rhamnus pallasii, Spiraea hypericifolia, etc. were admixed. 

In this area there are also well developed oak-hornbeam forests. As an example the 

following floristic composition can be shown (Korkhrami, left tributary of the Ktsia river): 

Carpinus caucasica, Quercus iberica, Acer campestre, Fraxinus excelsior, Acer ibericum, 

Sorbus graeca, Pyrus caucasica, Malus orientalis, Celtis caucasica, Crataegus curvisepala, 

(as C. kyrtostyla,) Crataegus pentagyna, Cornus mas, Cornus (Swida) australis, Rosa 

canina, Prunus divaricata. 

In the area of the upper Korkhrami River, where climate conditions are more humid, oriental 

beech (Fagus orientalis) appears. The floristic composition of this forest includes Carpinus 

caucasica, Fagus orientalis, Quercus iberica, Fraxinus excelsior, Acer campestre, Acer 

platanoides, Sorbus graeca, Pyrus caucasica, Malus orientalis, Sorbus aucuparia (as S. 

caucasigena), Corylus avellana, Tilia begoniifolia (as T. caucasica), Sambucus nigra, Salix 

caprea, Ostrya carpinifolia, Ulmus scabra, Crataegus monogyna, Crataegus pentagyna, 

60


Cerasus avium, Lonicera caprifolium, Lonicera iberica, Philadelphus caucasicus, Cornus 

mas, Euonymus europaea, Swida australis, Crossularia reclinata, Mespilus germanica, etc. 

Hornbeam forests of the territory under review differ from other types of Georgian hornbeam 

forest in having in its floristic composition such GRL, RDB trees as Celtis caucasica and 

Acer ibericum. The following is the original variant of hornbeam forest described in the 

environs of Samshvilde village situated in the Ktsia river gorge: Carpinus caucasica, Acer 

campestre, Acer ibericum, Celtis caucasica, Fraxinus excelsior, Rhus coriaria, Cornus mas, 

Crataegus pentagyna (as C. melanocarpa), Crataegus monogyna, Swida (Cornus) australis, 

Mespilus germanica, etc. 

There are also hornbeam forests that have been changed due to man’s activity. As a result 

of such changes, oriental hornbeam (Carpinus orientalis), Georgian oak (Quercus iberica), 

as well as Christis thorn (Paliurus spina-christi) and other xerophilic shrub species appear. 

4.1.6.2.4 Oriental oak mixed broadleaf forests 

Northwest of Tetritskaro town the transmission line corridor passes through mixed broadleaved 

oak forest massif covering the area from Tetritskaro-Tsalka road north side to Bedeni 

plateau at altitudes of about 1150-1700 meters. 

GRL, RDB species include oriental or high mountain oak, with Quercus macranthera 

dominant. Other GRL, RDB species are elms, Ulmus glabra, Ulmus elliptica. Iberian hazelnut, 

Corylus iberica may also be found here. 

In addition to Quercus macranthera, the main woody species of the areas include hornbeam, 

Carpinus caucasica, oriental beech, Fagus orientalis, oriental hornbeam, Carpinus orientalis, 

Georgian (Iberian) oak, Quercus iberica (sometimes referred to as Q. petraea subsp. iberica 

(Karagöz, 2001)). Other broad leaved species include cer campestre, Acer laetum, Acer 

trautvetteri, Fraxinus excelsior, Betula pendula, Populus tremula. Some others have 

scattered distribution but are nevertheless valuable for their structural-functional role in the 

species-mixed forest ecosystem. 

Flora in this forest area is also remarkably rich in biodiversity and contributes to an 

ecosystem of high conservation value. The transmission line route follows the bank of the 

gorge of river Chiv-chavi from Tetritskaro to Bedeni plateau. The upper vertical zone of the 

Chiv-chavi gorge (800-1,300 meters above sea level) supports middle mountainous zone 

forests, which are dependent on microrelief and slope exposure and are comprised of 

Georgian oak (Quercus iberica), hornbeam (Carpinus caucasica), field maple (Acer 

campestre), etc. In floodplain forests, white willow (Salix alba) communities have a 

fragmentary distribution although typical floodplain forests are not developed in this gorge. 

4.1.6.3 Bedeni Plateau to Ktsia upper reaches 

Several figures show aspects of vegetation and flora in this section: Figures 4-2b and 4-2c 

show ecosystems, Figures 4-6b and 4-6c show various types of agricultural and other 

vegetation zones, and Figures 4-11b and 4-11c show areas of medium and high sensitivity. 

All these figures are at the end of Chapter 4. As can be seen, an area just west of Tetritskaro 

is considered to be highly sensitive, as are areas farther west, near Tsalka Reservoir. 

4.1.6.3.1 Bedeni Plateau wetland area 

As the corridor reaches Bedeni plateau at altitudes 1690-1730 meters, orchid species 

distinguish about 5 hectares of sensitive wetlands of high conservative value. Dactylorhiza 

urvilleana (In soviet botanical sources (Flora, 1941; Identification guide, 1969; Cherepanov, 

1981), Dactylorhiza urvilleana is referred to as D. triphylla, Orchis amblyoloba (O. 

61


carthaliniae), O. triphylla) occurring in this area in large population are unique in Georgia. 

Single individuals of another orchid, Orchis coriophora also occurs here. 

From the Chiv-chavi gorge the corridor ascends Bedeni volcanic plateau, passing in the 

vicinity of Cherepanov, Bedeni, Barevskoe lakes, and enters the Tsalka basin. Sedge 

(including tussock sedge) and aquatic plant communities characteristic of the southern 

volcanic plateau are developed on the shores of these lakes. Carex dichroandra is a 

dominant species of the tussock sedge wetlands. In addition, the following species occur: 

Carex diandra, Carex disticha, Carex vesicaria. Apart from the sedges, the following species 

are present: Poa palustris, Valeriana officinalis, Calamagrostis neglecta, Polygonum 

amphibium, Alopecurus aequalis, Ranunculus flammula, Triglochin palustre, etc. Lemna 

trisulca is found in some places between the tussocks. 

Relatively dry types of the lacustrine wetlands support mesophilious meadow and wetland 

species such as Luzula spicata, Polygonum carneum, Geum rivale, Ranunculus lingua, 

Caltha palustris, Epilobium palustre, etc. 

Bedeni plateau vegetation cover is mostly represented by secondary meadows such as 

meadows with Lady's mantle and brome (Brometum variegatal Alchemillosum), grass forb 

meadows with Lady's mantle (Alchimilletum-graminoso-mixtoherbosum), sedge meadows 

with Lady's mantle and brome (Brometum-alchemilloso-caricosum), etc. 

4.1.6.3.2 Bedeni Plateau to Tsalka Reservoir mountain steppes and secondary meadows 

Mountain steppes are found only in south Georgia. They cover the high volcanic plateau of 

Trialeti, Gomareti, Dmanisi and Bedeni. Steppe vegetation in this extensive area develops 

mainly on chernozems and chernozems-like soils and is distinguished by its phytocenotic 

diversity. The polydominant grass-forb steppes prevail here. More characteristic species of 

these communities are: Festuca ovina, F. sulcata, Stipa tirsa, S. pulcherrima, Bothriochloa 

ischaemum, Filipendula hexapetala, Falcaria vulgaris, Galium cruciatum, Koeleria 

macrantha, Medicago hemicycla, Phleum phleoides, Polygala anatolica, Thymus 

caucasicus, etc. 

In addition, there are secondary meadows, in some cases overgrazed, that have developed 

mainly on sites once occupied by primary forests. Like previous communities these 

meadows are mainly composed of variants of polydominant grass-forb vegetation with 

participation of Agrostis planifolia, Alchemilla erythropoda, Brachypodium sylvaticum, 

Bromopsis variegata, Calamagrostis arundinacea, Centaurea salicifolia, Dactylis glomerata, 

Lotus caucasicus, Trifolium ambiguum, T. canescens, etc. From monodominant meadows 

can be mentioned communities (variants) with such dominant species as Nardus 

glabriculmis (dzigviani in Georgian), Anemone fasciculata (frintiani), Agrostis planifolia 

(namikrephiani), Brachypodium sylvaticum (barseliani), Bromo psis variegata (shvrieliani), 

etc. (Kvachakidze, 1996). 

4.1.6.3.3 Tsalka Reservoir to Khando village 

This section of the corridor is primarily agricultural. The natural herbaceous vegetation of 

Tsalka depression and adjacent areas has been transformed and is represented by various 

modifications of secondary steppe meadows and mountainous polidominants steppes. 

Steppefied meadows are comprised of Carex humilis, Festuca valesiaca, F. ovina, 

Filipendula hexapetala, Polygala anatolica, Stipa tirsa, etc. Secondary post-forest meadows 

are dominated by Agrostis planifolia, Alchemilla erythropoda, Bromopsis variegata, 

Calamagrostis arundinacea, Dactylis glomerata, Geranium sylvaticum, Lotus caucasicus, 

Ranunculus caucasicus, Trifolium canescens, etc. The southern slopes are occupied by 

polydominant steppes mainly formed by grasses Festuca ovina, F. valesiaca, Stipa 

62


pulcherrima, Stipa tirsa, Koeleria macrantha, Phleum phleoides. Forbs are represented by 

Filipendula hexapetala, Cruciata laevipes, Medicago hemicycla, Thymus rariflorus, etc. 

From Bedeni plateau to Ktsia-Tabatskuri Managed Reserve the secondary herbaceous 

vegetation comprises communities dominated by Lady's mantle (Alchemilla erythropoda, A. 

sericata, A. caucasica, etc), brome (Bromus variegatus), sedge (Carex huetiana, C. humilis, 

C. dacica, etc), fescue (Festuca valesiaca, F. woronowii), koeleria (Koeleria cristata, K. 

caucasica), mat nardusgrass (Nardus stricta), false hellebore (Veratrum lobelianum), 

anemone (Anemone fasciculata), clover (Trifolium), alfalfa (Medicago). The characteristic 

plant communities of this zone are described below: 

Bedeni plateau, flat mesorelief, 1,600 meters above sea level, coverage is 95 

percent meadow with Lady's mantle, koeleria and brome (Brometum koeleriosoalchemilosum) 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Vicinity of Tsalka, right bank of river Ktsia, 1,700 meters above sea level, western 

exposure, coverage is 90-95 percent grass forb meadow with sedge and Lady's 

mantle (Alchemilletum-caricoso-mixtoherbosum) 

Vicinity of Tsalka, right bank of river Ktsia, 1,700 meters above sea level, western 

exposure, coverage is 85-95 percent grass forb meadow with sedge (Caricetummixtoherboso- 

graminosum) 

Vicinity of Tsalka, right bank of river Ktsia, subalpine zone, vicinity of 

Tikmatasheni pass, northern-eastern exposure, coverage is 95 percent grass forb 

meadow with bentgrass (Graminetum-mixtoherbosum) 

Mt. Dali Daghi (Tsalka area), northern-eastern slope, coverage is 95 percent, 

grass forb subalpine meadow (Graminetum-mixtoherbosum) 

Upper reaches of Ktsia river, vicinity of Tabatskuri (Mt. Mtirala), northern 

mesoslope, 1,900 m AMSL, coverage is 90 percent forb meadow with koeleria 

(Koelerietum-mixtoherbosum) 

Northern slope of Mt. Mtirala, coverage is 90 percent grass forb subalpine 

meadow with false hellebore (Veratrumetam-graminoso-mixtoherbosum) 

Northern shore of Tabatskuri lake, eastern slope, coverage is 95 percent subalpine 

grass forb meadow (Latifolio mixtoherbetum -graminosum) 

The transmission line corridor route passes in the vicinity of forests only in a few locations 

along this section. West of Tsalka forest vegetation is entirely comprised of pine (Pinus 

kochiana) plantations (average age 25-30 years). 

Javakheti upland was formerly covered by forests, but only minor fragments of these 

subalpine forests survive, mostly on northern slopes of high mountainous areas. These 

fragments are formed by species typical for Caucasian subalpine forests: Litvinov's birch 

(Betula litwinowii), mountain ash (Sorbus caucasigena), goat willow (Salix caprea), 

Bieberstein's rock currant (Ribes biebersteinii), alpine currant (Ribes alpinum), in some 

areas - European aspen (Populus tremula), etc. Litvinov's birch and mountain ash form 

communities over small areas in the rocky relief of the Ktsia lower reaches. Rhododendron 

scrub (Rhododendron caucasicum) is frequent in southern Caucasus, but is declining. 

The Tsalka area is rich in small lakes of volcanic origin (Bashkoi, Uzungel, Jamushgel, 

Khadiki, Karagel, Tba, tec). The shores of the lakes support wetland vegetation associations. 

The corridor passes through the Imera, Bareti, Kariaki, Santa environs wetlands, which are 

be considered as of high conservation value. 

According to K. Kimeridze (1966, 1975) wetland vegetation is of highest significance on the 

Javakheti volcanic upland. Tussock sedge (Cariceta) formation communities are found on 

63


silty or coarse-peat wet substrata, which are frequently waterlogged. The surface water level 

changes considerably by seasons and years. Peat formation process is fairly intensive in 

most tussock sedge formations. This process is characterized by certain peculiarities in 

wetlands located in Javakheti volcanic upland, namely - at the early stages of wetland 

formation of this type organic mass is mostly accumulated at the roots of evenly distributed 

main coenotype (sedge - Carex), gradually forming tussocks. Tussock height is dependent 

on the duration of swamping and maximum waterlogging level of the surface. Having 

reached this level, tussock height does not increase and organogenic material is mainly 

accumulated between the tussocks. Tussock sedge communities are characterized by 

mosaic structure due to formation of microrelief. This demonstrates the uniqueness of the 

natural properties idiosyncratic to the eutrophic and oligotrophic wetlands developed on 

Javakheti volcanic upland. Javakheti wetlands are unique ecosystems. 

4.1.6.4 Ktsia-Tabatskuri Managed Reserve 

Several habitat types encompassing various plant communities are found in the Ktsia- 

Tabatskuri reserve. In some cases a habitat type coincides with a high rank syntaxon, for 

example, habitat of Rhododendron caucasicum refers to the scrub community comprised of 

Caucasian rhododendron. Two general habitat categories were defined for the purposes of 

this ESIA, aquatic and terrestrial and, which include qualitatively different habitat types. 

Section 4.1.6.4.1 describes aquatic habitats and 4.1.6.4.2 through 4.1.6.4.4 describes 

terrestrial habitats. 

Three figures show aspects of vegetation and flora in this section: Figure 4-2d shows 

ecosystems, Figure 6d shows various types of agricultural and other vegetation zones, and 

Figure 4-11d shows areas of medium and high sensitivity. All these figures are at the end of 

Chapter 4. Much of this area is considered to be of high sensitivity. 

4.1.6.4.1 Aquatic habitat 

There are extensive as well as fragmented wetlands with associated mosaic plant 

communities in this area. For the purposes of this ESIA, plant communities associated with 

shallow water and moist substrate are considered within these habitat types along with 

hyper-humid habitats proper. In general, the swamps existing within the study zone are not 

diverse typologically, although peat lands, sedge dominated wetland communities, horsetail 

dominated wetland communities and other swamp complexes can nevertheless be 

distinguished. 

Meadow vegetation, which is entirely of secondary origin and represented by diverse 

modifications, occupies the largest area on the studied territory. The following meadow types 

have the principal structural-functional importance: communities of lady’s mantle (Alchemilla 

erythropoda), sheep’s fescue (Festuca ovina), mat-grass (Nardus stricta), tufted hair-grass 

(Deschampsia cespitosa), bent 

(Agrostis planifolia, Agrostis tenuifolia), 

sibbaldia (Sibbaldia semiglabra), 

broad-leaved herbaceous plant and 

forbs (Latifoliomixtohorbosa). In most 

cases these species form meadows 

jointly where they are present in a 

great number of syntaxonomic variants 

(Figure 4.1-16). 

Lady’s mantle meadows are found on 

almost all the exposures and relief 

forms. These meadows are one of the 

most widespread formations. They are 

Figure 2.1-16. Tabatskuri east 

64


of secondary origin and have been for an extended period of time The main cenotype of the 

formation – cenoses of lady’s mantle (Alchemilla erythropoda) -- mostly occurs on smooth 

relief forms. Often the principal species shares its leading role with flat-leaved bent (Agrostis 

planifolia), variegated brome (Bromopsis variegata), sheep’s fescue (Festuca ovina), 

sibbaldia (Sibbaldia semiglabra), mat-grass (Nardus stricta), and with cowberry (Vaccinium 

vitis-idaea) in mesophilous variants; frequently it forms cenoses with green mosses. The 

Lady’s mantle meadows are spatially best pronounced on the south-facing macro-slope of 

the Trialeti range: on Tskhratskaro and Sakvelo mountain massifs as well as on slopes of 

Mts. Shuana Mta, Tavkvetili, Shavnabada, etc. These meadows are found between 2100 

and 2700 meters above sea level on relief that is often slightly undulating or flat. Although of 

secondary original, they can be significant in aspects of both agriculture and biodiversity, 

and they have a positive function in soil protection against erosion. 

Sheep’s fescue meadows are found mostly on dry south-facing slopes between volcanic 

boulders. They are fragmentarily distributed in the form of patches all along this section of 

the corridor, mainly eastwards of Tabatskuri Lake, from slopes of Mt. Shavnabada to the 

abandoned village Merenia. The vertical distribution profile of the sheep’s fescue meadows 

covers an area between 2200 and 2500 meters above sea level. The communities usually 

develop on hilly relief, on east- and south-facing micro-relief forms. Slope inclination is 

different and varies from 10 to 40°. 

Mat-grass meadow is one of the more widespread formations, occurring in fragmentarily 

distributed patches throughout this section of the corridor. The largest occurrences are 

formed on Tskhratskaro and Sakvelo mountain massifs: from the foothills of Mt. Chareli 

(southwards from Tskhratskaro Pass) to the meridian of Mt. Tavkvetili and on the southwestfacing 

slopes of Mt. Tavkvetili itself. Mat-grass meadows are found from 2000 to 2400 

meters above sea level. Smooth relief forms and plain places are characteristic to the 

distribution area of the community. The closed-canopied mat-grass cenoses cover large 

areas at the sources of the river Ktsia. The communities are fragmentarily distributed on the 

eastern side of Tabatskuri Lake. 

Wide distribution of mat-grass meadows within the proposed Managed Reserve and 

generally in the southern mountainous region of Georgia has been caused by century-old 

anthropogenic press; however, this plant community has a significant role in erosion 

prevention in high mountainous regions of the Caucasus. 

Bentgrass meadows occupy fairly large areas, especially in humid habitats. They occur on 

almost all vertical steps of this section of the corridor, but form independent cenoses only on 

the lowlands and at slope bases. Bentgrass is one of the important constituents of shrub 

communities. The bent meadows are characteristic of northern and western exposures. 

They mostly dominate on plain and concave relief forms between 2000 and 2500 meters 

above sea level. The meadows have high agricultural value as both pastures and hay-fields. 

The bent meadows are mostly of secondary origin and develop well in areas formerly 

occupied by woody plants. They are dominated by Agrostis tenuifolia. A community similar 

to these Bentgrass meadows is characterized by another species of bentgrass, Agrostis 

planifolia. 

Sibbaldia cenoses occur on the upper vertical step of this section of the study areas, 

primarily on mountain ridges and upper part of adjacent slopes at 2500 to 2700 meters 

above sea level. They can be found on flat as well as undulating relief forms on almost all 

exposures. Sibbaldia is a constant component of alpine carpets, but in mountainous regions 

where the vegetation structure is severely disturbed due to long-term anthropogenic impact, 

the species occupies even uncharacteristic habitats at the lower vertical step (for example, 

occurs in patches even in the complexes of tall herbaceous vegetation). A similar 

phenomenon is observed on the studied territory of Ktsia-Tabatskuri: fragments of sibbaldia 

cenoses are found at the slope bases and even in depressions. 

65


The sibbaldia formation is most pronounced on the Trialeti range: massifs of Mts. Chareli, 

Tskhratskaro and Sakvelo. It is fragmentarily distributed in degraded and eroded habitats 

throughout this section of the corridor. Due to strong root system, sibbaldia has a special 

role in prevention of erosive processes in the high mountains. 

Subalpine broad-leaved forb meadows are found in the northwestern parts of Mts.Tavkvetili 

and Sakvelo. They are fragmentarily distributed in complexes of volcanogenic boulders and 

skeleton substrate at 2100 to 2400 meters above sea level, usually on the western and 

northern exposures and develop on downhill (25-35°) as well as undulating and concave 

relief forms. 

4.1.6.4.2 Terrestrial habitats 

Terrestrial habitats are widespread on the territory of the Ktsia-Tabatskuri reserve. The 

following terrestrial habitats are found on the study area: meadows/grasslands and mountain 

steppes; shrubbery; and forest. 

In addition to the above habitat types, subalpine tall herbaceous vegetation, volcanogenic 

boulders and scree and man-made habitats are found in the Ktsia-Tabatskuri reserve; 

however, they have no landscape value and are represented only by isolated fragments. For 

the purposes of Ktsia-Tabatskuri reserve management planning only those habitats are 

objects of studies that cover more or less large areas on the study area and/or have high 

conservation value. 

4.1.6.4.3 Mountain steppes 

Mountain steppes occur in fragments in this section, mainly on the south- and east-facing 

micro-relief forms, on downhill and rocky ecotopes, soil weathering crust and complexes of 

volcanogenic boulders. Volga fescue (Festuca valesiaca) is the dominant species. Feather 

grass (Stipa), which is the edificator of the mountain steppe in the southern part of the 

Javakheti upland, does not occur here. 

Fragments comprising Volga fescue can be found on slopes of Mts. Tavkvetili and 

Shavnabada and east of Tabatskuri Lake, at 2200 to 2600 meters, on complex relief forms 

and frequently inaccessible exposed rocks. Volga fescue mountain steppe has insignificant 

distribution in this section of the corridor. 

4.1.6.4.4 Shrub communities 

Caucasian rhododendron communities are found on north- and west-facing slopes of Mt. 

Tavkvetili as well as the plateau of this mountain (in a complex of volcanic basalt 

“avalanches” on relatively smooth relief forms) and Trialeti range, Mt. Sakvelo massif, and 

sources of the left tributary of the river Ktsia. The community occupies a comparatively small 

area on the right bank of the river Ktsia, on a slope of Mt. Shuana Mta. Caucasian 

rhododendron communities are usually formed on the northern and northwestern exposures 

between 2200 and 2400 meters, on undulating meso-relief. Rowan-birch communities with a 

Caucasian rhododendron sub-layer form complexes with pure Caucasian rhododendron 

communities over large areas. Pure Caucasian rhododendron communities with floristic 

composition similar to the above occur on relatively large areas. 

Cowberry communities occupy large areas, in complex with Caucasian rhododendron 

communities as well as independently. Cowberry forms cenoses principally with lady’s 

mantle (Alchemilla erythropoda) and mosses on north-facing slopes between 2200 and 2500 

meters, mainly on smooth relief forms (inclination 20-30°). Within this section of the corridor, 

cowberry communities are pronounced on massifs of Mts. Tavkvetili and Sakvelo as well as 

66


the north-facing slope of Mt. Shuana Mta. Cowberry fruitage is robust, yielding a rich harvest 

of berries. 

Other shrub communities are also fragmentarily distributed on volcanogenic boulders and 

skeleton scree. The communities are mostly xerophytic and comprise different floristic 

components such as wayfaring-tree (Viburnum lantana), Georgian barberry (Berberis 

iberica), raspberry (Rubus idaeus), dog-rose (Rosa pimpinellifolia), mountain currant (Ribes 

alpinum), juniper (Juniperus hemisphaerica), wild cherry (Cerasus avium), bridewort 

(Spiraea hypericifolia), honeysuckle (Lonicera caucasica), etc. 

4.1.6.4.5 Forest ecosystem 

Fragments of the subalpine forest vegetation still survive in this area, and they be regarded 

as remnants of forests once widespread in the southern mountainous region of Georgia. As 

a result, they are considered to be of high conservation value. 

Subalpine crooked beech forests occur at the sources of river Ktsia and on the north-facing 

slope of Mt. Tavkvetili. It borders onto volcanic boulders and Caucasian rhododendron 

communities. Tall herbaceous vegetation that grows at the forest edges include Inula 

orientalis, Veratrum lobelianum, Vicia balansae, Heracleum asperum, Chamerion 

angustifolium, Aconitum orientale, Symphytum caucasicum, Polygonum carneum, Rumex 

alpinus, etc. 

High mountainous oak forests are found in three stands in this section. A field survey 

conducted for this ESIA found for the first time that regeneration of oak is satisfactory 

(saplings as well as seedlings were found) between Tabatskuri Lake and Mt. Tavkvetili, in 

the complex of volcanic boulders, at 2100 meters above sea level. The species is included 

in the Red List of Georgia and all three fragmentary habitats of the oak forest have a high 

conservation value. 

Fragments of the subalpine forest can also be found on the southern side of Tabatskuri Lake 

and the slope of Mt. Shavnabada. The forests mainly comprise high mountain maple (Acer 

trautvetteri), sallow (Salix caprea), birch (Betula litwinowii) and rowan (Sorbus aucuparia) 

with understorey formed by currant (Ribes biebersteinii), raspberry (Rubus idaeus), 

wayfaring-tree (Viburnum lantana), wild cherry (Cerasus avium), etc. 

A large poplar stand occurs (80 X 20 meters) in the surroundings of the Bezhano swamp, on 

southwestern exposure of the elevated terrain. Regeneration was observed to be 

satisfactory, with seedlings of different age present. 

4.1.6.4.6 Wetand vegetation 5 

Hyper-humid landscapes comprised of mosaic plant communities are widespread on the 

territory of Ktsia-Tabatskuri Managed Reserve. They are mostly associated with Tabatskuri 

Lake and Ktsia-Nariani hydrographic system. 

The Northern and northwestern sides of Tabatskuri Lake are swamp: the wetland ecosystem 

occupies a large area between dry land and lakeside dune. Pure communities of Equisetum 

heleocharis as well as Caricetum vesicariae purum are formed within the shoreline of the 

wetland ecosystem. The species that constitute the communities include Alisma plantagoaquatica, 

Heleocharis eupalustris, Utricularia vulgaris, Scolochloa festucacea, Lemna 

trisulca, Potamogeton heterophyllus, etc. 

5 Wetland vegetation survey is based on unpublished data of Dr. Kukuri Kimeridze, late Georgian 

botanist, outstanding expert in the wetland flora and vegetation, the data were kindly provided by his 

daughter Dr. Mariam Kimeridze, Candidate of Biology. 

67


Cariceta dichroandrae predominates in the wetland. Caricetum dichroandrae purum, in 

association with large hillocks, is more common in this complex. It is accompanied by 

Caricetum dichroandrae equisetoso-caricosum vesicariae. Both associations are floristically 

and structurally similar. Horsetail and Carex vesicaria mostly occur between hillocks. 

Thickets of Digraphis arundinacea skirt the lakeside dune in a narrow line, while horsetail 

community predominates with admixture of fairly abundant Scolochloa festucacea and Carex 

vesicaria in places. Scolochloa festucacea forms pure thickets or is accompanied by 

admixture of horsetail, Carex vesicaria, C. dichroandra, Alisma plantago-aquatica, etc. 

In the northwestern part of the hyper-humid complex, pure horsetail association and 

Scolochloetum festucaceae purum are found over the large area. In places with deeper 

water the associations are substituted by two species of the genus Potamogetonetum; 

Polygonum amphibium is admixed to the community. 

In the eastern part of the lake, pure common reedbed community is found on a small area of 

one hectare. In the shoreline Carex vesicaria is admixed to the community from the wetland 

site. Scolochloetum festucaceae purum, Equisetetum heleochariae purum and 

Heleocharietum eupalustre purum are developed on a fairly large area on the eastern side. 

Potamogetonetum natansae purum with admixed Polygonum amphibium occupies large 

area. Scolochloetum festucaceae potamogetonosum and Equisetetum heleocharis 

potamogetonosum can also be found in some areas. 

East of Tabatskuri lake, the wetland encroaches between mountains in a form of a narrow 

line (~400 meters wide), where Scolochloetum festucaceae purum, horsetail dominated 

wetland community and spike-rush dominated community are mainly formed. The surface 

water is deep, about one meter. In places, pondweed (Potamogeton) groupings are found in 

the deep-water part. 

In the swampy southern-western bay of Tabatskuri Lake, Caricetum elatae purum is formed 

in the shoreline part of the wetland. The sedge community covers a fairly large area and is 

topologically associated with Caricetum elatae caricosum vesicariae and Caricetum 

vesicariae purum. pure sedge community with hillocks predominated by Carex wiluica, 

afairly rare community for Georgia and, in general for the Caucasus, is developed on peat 

inside the wetland area. 

In the deep-water part of the bay, opposite the village Moliti, a pure common reed 

community (with predominance of Phragmites communis) is developed on a small area of 

about 0,5 hectare. The water depth is about one meter on average. The plot adjoins 

Potamogetonetum comprised of Potamogeton perfoliatus. The species is also admixed in 

low abundance to the common reed community. In this part of the lake another type of 

Potamogetonetum is also developed, which is made up of Potamogeton heterophyllus, P. 

gramineus. Potamogeton lucens, Batrachium trichopyyllum are admixed. Equisetetum 

heleochariae purum is also developed there. 

The above horsetail association is replaced by Caricetum elatae purum on one side and 

Scolochloetum festucaceae purum on the other. Potamogetonetum perfoliatus purum is 

developed towards the lake. 

Nariani valley wetlands (Figure 4.1-17) are used to grow hay. Ground water is observed on 

the surface seasonally in the southern-western part of the wetlands. 

68

Sedge dominated community with 

hillocks is found on a fairly large area 

southwest of the Nariani valley wetland 

complex. Ligularia sibirica is quite 

abundant (Cop 1 -Sp 3 ) in the community. 

Height of the hillocks is 70 centimeters 

on average and they are entirely formed 

by sedge. Sphagnum platyphyllum, 

Calliergonella cuspidata occur in low 

abundance between hillocks. 

Calamagrostietum glaucae caricosum 

(C. glauca, Carex wiluica) is directly 

associated with the sedge dominated 

community; the former association is 

hillocky and structurally similar to the 

pure sedge community. Geranium 


palustre is abundant there. Festuca rubra, Aconitum nasutum are present in lower numbers. 

Herbage is quite dense. The hillocks are narrow at base and open in the upper part. There is 

no water between the hillocks. Deschampsia cespitosa, Sanguisorba officinalis, atc. are also 

constituents of the described sedge dominated community. The described sedge 

communities are usually floristically poor. 

In the vicinity of the associations described above Caricetum-inflatae purum occurs in the 

deep-water part of the wetland with abundant herbage. Lemna minor – Cop 2 , Utricularia 

vulgaris – Sp 1 are among the constituents. This sedge dominated community adjoins 

Caricetum dichroae purum. Surface water level is 3-5 cm on average. The surface is almost 

completely covered by Lemna minor. Deschampsia cespitosa, Festuca rubra, Carex elata, 

etc. are present in low numbers. Both associations are floristically poor. Height of herbage is 

50 cm and coverage 85% in the latter association, which includes a sub-layer. 

Similar to the above sedge-dominated comunities, Caricetum elatae purum, struclurally and 

floristically similar to the described ones, is fairly widespread in the same part of the wetland. 

Caricetum vesicariae purum occupies much more limited area and is fragmentarily 

distributed in lower depressions, where surface water persists for the major part of the 

vegetation period. This is indicated by participation of Potamogeton heterophyllus and 

Potamogeton lucens in the association. 

A horsetail-dominated community made up of Equisetum heleocharis occupying minor areas 

are frequent on the bank terraces of the river Ktsia. At the base of the east- and northeastfacing 

slopes of Mt. Tavkvetili, in the place of a former lake, a peatbog is developed at 2370 

meters above sea level. Sphagnetum polytrichosum occupies the major part of this peatbog. 

In places only moss cover is developed with the predominant synusia of Vaccinium vitisidaea. 

Sphagnum (Sphagnum papillosum), a mat-grass community covering the entire 

surface, forms a complex with the above association. In places, fescue (Festuca supina)– 

polytrichum–sphagnum community is formed with a similar floristic composition. Sedge 

(Carex canescens) -sphagnum (with admixed Sphagnum centrale) can also be found. All the 

associations are floristically similar. 

Sphagnetum eriophorosum vaginatae occurs in the complex with Sphagnum cuspidatum 

forming moss cover. Taraxacum stevenii, Ranunculus oreophilus, Carum caucasisum, 

Alchimilla sp., are present in low abundance. 

On minor areas, mainly depressed reief, sphagnum (Sphagnum platyphyllum)–sedge (Carex 

inflata) association and Caricetum inflatae drepanocladiosum (Drepanocladus exannulatus, 

with participation of Dicranum bonjeanii, Sphagnum papillosum) are developed. Comarum 

69 

Figure 4.1-17. Nariani veli wetland in September


palustre is present in all the associations in different abundance. Wetland elements are 

found in higher abundance in sedge-dominated communities occurring in places of former 

wetlands. 

Flat hills mainly covered by fescue (Festuca supina) are located around the wetland. Other 

elements of the alpine meadows such as lady’s mantle, caraway, etc. occur between the 

hills. Mosses, including Polytrichum gracile, Aulacomnium palustre and sometimes lichens 

are also found on the hills. Caucasian rhododendron occurs at the hill bases in some areas. 

This type of the peatbogs is rare not only in the Minor Caucasus, but also the Greater 

Caucasus. 

In slow-flowing sections of river Ktsia Batrachietum purum (Batrachium divaricatum) is 

abundant with admixed groups of Potamogeton lucens. The latter species forms pure 

community in places or is admixed to Potamogetonetum natansae purum in quite high 

abundance or in groups. Equisetetum heleochariae purum (Equisetum heleocharis) is also 

frequent on silty substrate of the shoreline. The association is characterized by tall herbage 

and fairly closed canopy. Carex inflata, Polygonum amphibium are admixed in low 

abundance. 

The above associations, as well as Caricetum inflatae purum fragmentarily distributed along 

the shoreline, are floristically and structurally fairly simple. Heleocharietum eupalustrae 

purum also occurs in patches on the lake shores. All the associations are formed on silty 

substrate characterized by presence of surface water over the majority of the vegetation 

period. 

A sedge-dominated complex occupying about 2 hectares is developed on the second order 

terrace of the left bank of river Ktsia. Substrate is made up of silt-coarse peat and is 

seasonally covered by surface water. The following two associations are found: Caricetum 

dichroandrae purum and Caricetum vesicariae purum. Both associations are characterized 

by ample herbage: they form monotypic associations, but mix with each other at low extent. 

Potamogeton heterophyllus, Equisetum heleocharis, etc. are admixed to the above 

association in low numbers. Thin water layer remains in places, while surface of the first 

association is almost dry. meadowsweet (Filipendula ulmaria) is admixed in fairly low 

abundance (Sol). Groups of rush (Juncus filiformis) can be found in some places. Mosses: 

Calliergonella cuspidata, Drepanocladus aduncus occur on elevated micro-relief. 

The above described associations are typologically related to prairieficated wetland and 

meadows developed on moist soils. 

A small (about 1,5 hectares) sedge swamp is found in the place of a former lake on Nariani 

valley, on the third order terrace of the left bank of river Ktsia at 2100 meters above sea 

level. It has a horseshoe shape. Cariceta inflatae predominates in the swamp with Caricetum 

inflatae drepanocladosum (Drepanocladus aduncus, Dr. exannulatus) being dominant from 

this formation. Caricetum inflatae purum, Caricetum inflatae sphagnosum (Sphagnum 

platyphyllum) are fragmentarily distributed. Carex canescens is fairly abundant (Sp 3 ) in the 

latter. Caricetum caespitosae hypnosum can be found in some places along the shoreline. 

The wetland is surrounded by a narrow strip of mat-grass comminity, which adjoins the 

subalpine meadow with sphagnum. Sphagnum, Comarum palustre, Carex caespitosa and 

other mosses occur between the mat-grass comminity and swamp. 

Caricetum diandrae hypnosum (Calliergon richardsonii, Drepanocladus sendtneri) covers 

small areas in the shoreline zone. Caricetum wiluicae hypnosum is also present on a small 

area. Sedge tussocks are usually low here, while fairly high hillocks can be found in some 

parts of the shoreline. The moss synusia of this association is comprised of the following 

species: Hypnum lindbergii, Fissidens adiantoides, Cratoneurum decipiens, Drepanocladus 

70


sendtneri. Aulacomnium palustre, Climacium dendroides, Drepanocladus aduncus can be 

found in lower abundance. 

Caricetum canescenti sphagnosum platyphyllum occurs on a fairly limited area in the 

described wetland complex. Calliergom richardsonii participates in low abundance in the 

moss synusia along with sphagnum. The association is two-layered. The herbage synusia is 

comprised of the following species: Comarum palustre, Carex diandra, Carex inflata, 

Nardus glabriculmis, Calamagrostis neglecta, Filipendula ulmaria, etc. 

Cariceta inflatae appears to be substituted by Carex lasiocarpae in the process of peat 

accumulation. Swertia iberica occurs at the wetland developed in the vicinity of the ground 

water outlet on the shoreline of the swamp found in the place of the former lake. 

A circular wetland with Caricetum inflatae drepanocladiosum (Dr. exannulatus, Dr. aduncus) 

occupying the major part is developed in the place of a former lake. The substrate is coarse 

peat-silty of over one meter thickness. Caricetum inflatae sphagnosum platyphyllum 

(Sphagnum platyphyllum) covers smaller area. Mat-grass also participates in the herbage 

synusia. Caricetum inflatae purum and is present in the deep-water part of the wetland. The 

association is replaced by those of hypnosa order, which are in turn substituted by 

sphagnum-sedge associations. This wetland is located on the second order terrace of the 

left bank of river Ktsia near the river. It is formed in the peripheral part of Nariani valley, 

where river Ktsia flows in a narrow gorge. Communities of Deschampsia and meadows 

developed in the place of former wetlands are found on the second order terrace of the left 

bank of river Ktsia. 

4.1.6.4.5 Summary for Ktsia-Tabatskuri Managed Reserve 

The natural vegetation of Ktsia-Tabatskuri Managed Reserve area is severely modified due 

to the influence of both anthropogenic and natural factors, which makes it especially 

important to identify and preserve areas where natural and near-natural vegetation survives. 

The ecosystems in the basin of the Ktsia River are unique in Georgia in terms of scale and 

structure. 

4.1.6.5 Ktsia-Tabatskuri Managed Reserve to Tkemlan 

The corridor passes through the Samtskhe-Javakheti region, which is a distinct 

geomorphological formation, as described in section 4.1.3. It represents a crossroads of 

geographical-genetic elements characteristic to the Mediterranean, Iran-Turkish and 

northern hemispheric ancient flora. This landscape-geobotanical zone comprises wetlands, 

unique lakes and marshes, various modifications of mountainous steppes, mountainous 

xerophyte shrublands, dry and mesophillous meadows and relict remnants of forests once 

common in Javakheti upland, etc. (Sosnovski, 1933, Ketskhoveli, 1959). Sensitive zones 

are shown in Figures 4.1-11d, 4.1-11e, and 4.1-11f (all at the end of this chapter). . 

Two floristically distinct regions have been described in Samtskhe-Javakheti by A. 

Doluchanov (1989): Adigeni-Borjomi region and Javakheti upland. The first includes northwest 

slopes of Trialeti range, southern slopes of Meskheti range, Akhaltsikhe depression 

and river Kvabliani gorge. River Mtkvari above v. Khashuri divides Adjara-Trialeti mountain 

system into two ranges, Trialeti and Meskheti. Elevation in this section ranges from 750-800 

meters above sea level to 2700 (2900) meters above sea level Most prominent part of 

Mtkvari valley represents Akhaltsikhe depression. Elevation at the base of the depression 

near Akhaltsikhe is 950 to 1000 meters above sea level. It increases to the south to Turkish 

border. 

The following biomes are distinguished in Samtskhe-Javakheti: Riparian forests in 

floodplains (800-1150 meters above sea level), xerophytic shrublands and semi-deserts 

71


(800-1200 meters above sea level), 

Oak–Oriental Hornbeam and Oak- 

Hornbeam forests (900-1200 meters 

above sea level), Beech-coniferous 

forest (1100-2050 meters above sea 

level), treeline ecotone (2050-2200 

meters above sea level), tall 

herbaceous vegetation and subalpine 

meadows (2100-2500 meters above 

sea level) in the subalpine zone 

(Figure 4.1-18); azonal rock 

vegetation, and alpine meadows 

(2500-2900 meters above sea level) 

and snowbed communities in the 

alpine zone. The boundaries of biomes Figure 4.1-18. Subalpine meadow near Samsari 

and vegetation zones vary 

Ridge 

considerably depending on precipitation and slope exposition. 

The Javakheti volcanic upland supports the following biomes: pine forests, xerophytic 

shrublands, high-mountain steppes of South Georgia, subalpine and alpine meadows, rock 

vegetation and wetlands. A small area of subnival vegetation above 2900 meters is 

characteristic of high peaks of Abul-Samsari range (Nakhutsrishvili, 1966). 

4.1.6.5.1 Mountain xerophytic shrublands and arid vegetation 

Mountain xerophytic vegetation is widely distributed in Samtskhe-Javakheti region from 900 

up to 2200 meters above sea level. It mainly occurs in the River Mtkvari gorge and other 

gorges of Meskheti. They are characteristics of limestone Plateau Tetrobi in Javakheti. 

There are tragacanthic, phryganoid, shibliak and semi-desert communities (Khintibidze, 

1990). Tragacanthic community is represented by edificator species: Astracantha 

microcephalus, Acantholimon armenum, A. glumaceum, and elements of shibliak: Paliurus 

spina-christi, Rhamnus pallasii, Cotinus coggygria, Berberis vulgaris, Atraphaxis caucasica, 

Cotoneaster integerrimus, Crataegus orientalis, Amelanchier ovalis, Lonicera iberica etc. 

(Ivanishvili, 1973; Khintibidze, 1990). 

Middle montane and upper montane types of tragacanthic communities are distinguished 

(Khintibidze, 1990). The first with 199 species of vascular plants is spread along the Mtkvari 

River (900-1300 meters above sea level) and in gorges of rivers Uraveli, Otskhe, Potskhovi, 

Kvabliani and Tsinubnistskhali. Tragacanthic vegetation enters pine forest in vicinity of v. 

Damala. This plant community contains rare species Astragalus arguricus, A. raddeanus, 

Onobrychis sosnowskyi, Vicia akhmaganica, Salvia compar, Scutellaria sosnowskyi, 

Psephellus meskheticus etc. In some places tragacanths enter oak forest. The following rare 

species occur in this community: Dianthus calocephalus, Silene brotherana, Erysimum 

caucasicum, Coronilla orientalis, Satureja spicigera, S. laxiflora, Teucrium polium, T. 

nuchense, T. orientale, Sideritis comosa, Bupleurum exaltatum, Convolvulus lineatus, 

Campanula hohenackeri, etc. 

Phryganoid communities support species Ephedra procera and Tanacetum argyrophyllum 

and are spread in eastern part of Akhaltsikhe depression. Peculiar population of Ephedra 

procera occurs in the vicinity of village Khertvisi. Other characteristic species of this 

community are Cytisus caucasicus, Caragana grandiflora, Dianthus calocephalus, 

Hedysarum turkewiczii, Onobrychis meskhetica, Teucrium polium, Thymus sosnowskyi, 

Stachys atherocalyx, S. iberica, Festuca valesiaca, Campanula hohenackeri, C. raddeana, 

C. alliariifolia, Artemisia sosnowskyi, Stipa capillata, S. pulcherrima, Koeleria cristata, 

Elytrigia elongatiformis, E. trychophora, E. caespitosa, Agropyron repens var. subulatus, 

Valerianella plagiostephana. 

72


Semi-desert plant communities are present in R. Mtkvari gorge near v. Rustavi and v. 

Aspindza. Outstanding species in this community is GRL, RDB species Nitraria schoberi 

with other 39 species of the community Reaumuria kuznetzovii, Astragalus cyri, A. 

kozlowskyi, Caccinia rauwolfii var. meskhetica, Ceratocarpus arenarius, Ceratoides 

papposa, Gamanthus pilosus, Kochia prostrata, Camphorosma monspeliaca, Limonium 

meyeri, Picnomon acarna, Sterigmostemum torulosum, S. tomentosum, Tragopogon 

meskheticus, Stizolophus coronopifolius, Callicephalus nitens, Crepis pannonica etc. 

(Bobrov, 1946; Kikodze, 1967; Khintibidze, 1990). Many species of the genus Artemisia are 

characteristics for this type of vegetation. 

Shibliak is widespread in middle montane zone mixed with tragacantic vegetation. Dominant 

species are Cotinus coggygria, Atraphaxis caucasica, Rhamnus pallasii, Cytisus caucasicus, 

Paliurus spina-christi, etc. 

Yellow blue-stem grass (Bothriochloa ischaemum) community presents mainly secondary 

vegetation developed in disturbed areas replacing natural vegetation. Associated species 

are Veronica orientalis, Galium verum, Achillea micrantha, A. millefolium, Cleistogenes 

bulgarica, Elytrigia repens, Festuca valesiaca, Koeleria macrantha, Poa pratensis etc. 

4.1.6.5.2 Forests 

Riparian forests. The habitat along the rivers Mtkvari, Potskhovi, Kvabliani, Tsinubnistskali 

and Otskhe is characterized by a primary riparian forest and partly by relict tugai forest 

(Kikodze, 2002). These forests are extensively fragmented and do not constitute a 

continuous habitat. They are significantly degraded and not particularly vulnerable to 

additional anthropogenic activities given the existing level of disturbance. In addition large 

areas of forest have been cleared for orchard or agricultural crops. Dominant species in 

riparian forest is Alnus barbata associated with Quercus pedunculiflora, Populus hybrida, P. 

nigra, Crataegus monogyna, C. pentagyna, Cornus mas, Prunus spinosa, Ligustrum vulgare, 

Lonicera caprifolium, etc. (Gvritishvili, Kimeridze, 2001). 

4.1.6.5.3 Oak and Hornbeam Forests 

Oak forests, dominated by Georgian oak (Quercus iberica) occupy western and northern 

slopes of middle montane zone (Dolukhanov, 1989; Khintibidze, 1990). It occurs in slopes of 

Meskheti range, in R. Uraveli and R. Kvabliani gorges. Oak in some areas is mixed with 

Hornbeam (Carpinus betulus) and in others mainly occurs with Oriental Hornbeam Carpinus 

orientalis. The other characteristic species are Acer platanoides, Cornus mas, Corylus 

avellana, Crataegus pentagyna, C. monogyna, Malus orientalis, Pinus kochiana, Pyrus 

caucasica, Swida australis, Ulmus glabra, etc. Outstanding peculiarity of oak forests in 

Samtskhe is the fact that in upper boundary of this type of forests hornbeam is substituted by 

European Hop hornbeam – Ostrya carpinifolia, such forest occupies considerable territory in 

R. Uraveli and R. Kvabliani gorges. The components of shibliak, such as Paliurus spinachristi, 

Rhamnus pallasii, Spiraea hypericifolia etc., are admixed on lower boundary of the 

oak forest, as a result of degradation of this natural stand. Lonicera iberica is rarely found in 

the oak forest. 

4.1.6.5.4 Beech-coniferous forests 

Beach forests (Fagus orientalis) with elements of Kolkhic flora are well developed in the west 

of Meskheti in upper areas of River Kvabliani gorge of the Arsiani range and on the eastern 

slopes of Meskheti range. It forms subalpine krummholz in Goderzi Pass reaching elevation 

of 2100 meters above sea level (Khintibidze, 1990). A small population is found on Oshora 

range above v. Damala (Mukbaniani, 1976). Western and northwestern regions of Meskheti 

are characterized by dark coniferous forests (Dolukhanov, 1989) in upper montane zone 

73


representing by Picea orientalis and Abies nordmanniana mixed with beech. Almost virgin 

dark coniferous forest occurs in Abastumani along the road to the observatory. 

Pine forests (Pinus kochiana) are usually developed on southern slopes of Meskheti, Adjara- 

Imereti and Trialeti ranges (Khintibidze, 1990). Pine forest has more limited distribution than 

spruce forests, although, pine frequently occurs in spruce forests on the northern slopes 

(Khintibidze, 1990). Pine forests on Erusheti and Tetrobi-Chobareti ranges (1800-2000 

meters above sea level) have little distinguished composition. 

Mountain steppes are peculiar to South Georgia, and cover the Javakheti volcanic plateau. 

Steppe vegetation is represented by different plant communities. Most characteristic species 

of polydominant grass-forb steppes are: Festuca ovina, F. sulcata, Stipa tirsa, S. 

pulcherrima, Bothriochloa ischaemum, Filipendula vulgaris, Falcaria vulgaris, Cruciata 

laevipes, Koeleria cristata, Medicago hemicycla, Phleum phleoides, Polygala anatolica, 

Thymus caucasicus, etc. 

There are also secondary meadows, principally on sites once occupied by primary forests. 

Like previous communities, these meadows are composed by the variants of polydominant 

grass-forb vegetation with participation of Agrostis planifolia, Alchemilla erythropoda, 

Brachypodium sylvaticum, Bromopsis variegata, Calamagrostis arundinacea, Centaurea 

salicifolia, Dactylis glomerata, Lotus caucasicus, Trifolium ambiguum, T. canescens, etc. 

From monodominant meadows can be mentioned communities with such dominant species 

as Nardus stricta (dzigviani in Georgian), Anemone fasciculata (frintiani), Agrostis planifolia 

(namikrefiani), Brachypodium sylvaticum (berseliani), Bromopsis variegata (shvrieliani), etc. 

(Kvachakidze, 1996). 

Subalpine Vegetation. The zubalpine zone is represented by krummholz, subalpine 

shrublands, tall herbaceous vegetation and polydominant subalpine meadows. Subalpine 

krummholz is represented by Betula litwinowii and B. pendula, Acer trautvetteri, Sorbus 

caucasigena, Salix caprea etc. Shrubland is composed of Caucasian Rhododendron - 

Rhododendron caucasicum, Vaccinium myrtillus, Empetrum caucasicum etc. Subalpine 

birch and maple forests are found on the northern slopes while pine forests are developed 

on the southern slopes at about 1800 to 1900 meters above sea level 

Only minor fragments of the former Javakheti subalpine forests survive, mostly on northern 

slopes of the high mountainous areas. These fragments are formed by species typical for the 

Caucasian subalpine forests, including Litvinov's birch (Betula litwinowii), mountain ash 

(Sorbus caucasigena), goat willow (Salix caprea), Bieberstein's rock currant (Ribes 

biebersteinii), alpine currant (Ribes alpinum), and in some areas European aspen (Populus 

tremula) and others. Litvinov's birch and mountain ash form communities that cover areas of 

rocky relief. 

Tall herbaceous vegetation is composed of 3-4 meter-high herbs, mainly dicots 

(Nakhutsrishvili, 1999). Typical species forming subalpine tall herbaceous vegetation are as 

follows: Anemone fasciculata, Geranium ibericum, G. platypetalum, G. psilostemon, G. 

ruprechtii, Scabiosa caucasica, Senecio rhombifolius, Stachys macrantha, Campunala 

latifolia, Cephalaria gigantea, Doronicum macrophyllum, Aconitum nasutum, Gadellia 

lactiflora, Delphinium flexuosum, Heracleum wilhelmsii, Grossheimia macrocephala, Lilium 

szovitsianum, etc. 

Subalpine grass and grass forb meadows are found in the subalpine forest complexes. 

Grass meadows are formed by Festuca ovina, F. woronowii, Bromopsis variegata, 

Calamagrostis arundinacea. These species form coenoses both independently and in codominance. 

The subalpine meadows occur above the subalpine forest zone, at the altitudes 

of 2100 to 2200 meters above sea level 

74


Alpine vegetation is composed of Festuca valesiaca, F. ovina, F. woronowii, Alchemilla 

erythropoda, A. caucasica, Sibbaldia semiglabra, Cirsium arvense, sedge - Carex tristis, mat 

nardus grass - Nardus stricta, and various grasses. Snowbed communities support Carex 

meinshauseniana, Festuca supina, F. woronowii, Minuartia circassica, Corydalis alpestris, 

Senecio taraxacifolius, Matricaria caucasica etc. 

Rock – scree vegetation in Samtskhe-Javakheti reveals properties of xerophytic vegetation. 

It is found in Akhaltsikhe depression (900 to 1500 meters above sea level) and in Tetrobi 

Plateau (1800 to 2000 meters). A total of 80 species are present in this biome, including 

Erysimum szowitzianum, Campanula crispa, Veronica livanensis, Centaurea bella, Minuartia 

micrantha, Jurinea carthaliniana, Matricaria rupestris etc. 

4.1.6.6 Borjomi-Kharagauli National Park 

Three figures (all at the end of the chapter) show aspects of vegetation and flora in this 

section: Figure 4-2g shows ecosystems, Figure 4-6g shows various types of agricultural and 

other vegetation zones, and Figure 4-11g shows areas of medium and high sensitivity. All 

these figures are at the end of Chapter 4. As shown on Figure 4-11g, the entire corridor 

through the National Park is considered to be highly sensitive. 

The transmission line corridor passes 

through subalpine polydominant 

meadows, subalpine bushes (thickets) 

of Caucasian rhododendron, 

Rhododendron caucasicum. Also 

present are crowberry, Empetrum 

hermaphroditum and single individuals 

or groups of mountain ash, (Sorbus 

aucuparia) scattered between 

subalpine meadows vegetation (Figure 

4.1-19). 

The areas at lower altitudes are 

covered by subalpine tall herbaceous 

vegetation and park forests with 

significant participation of species of 

meadow and tall herbaceous 

Figure 4.1-19. Wet meadow in Borjomi-Kharagauli 

National Park 

vegetation. Woody species are represented by high mountain maple (Acer trautvetteri) birch 

(Betula litwinowii, Betula pendula), goat willow (Salix caprea), and wild rose (Rosa sp.). 

The area is occupied by subalpine forest and broadleaf and broadleaf-coniferous mixed 

forests composed of Fagus orientalis, Betula litwinowii, Acer trautvertteri, Populus tremula, 

Quercus iberica, Pinus kochiana, Pyrus caucasica, Corylus avellana, Salix spp., etc. This 

forest is considered to be of high conservation value. 

The mixed forest may be the most environmentally, and main woody species include Fagus 

orientalis, Picea orientalis, Pinus kochiana (Pinus sosnowskyi), Abies nordmanniana, 

Carpinus caucasica, Quercus macranthera, Acer trautvetteri. Other trees and shrubs include 

Acer campestre, Acer platanoides, Acer laetum, Cerasus avium, Corylus avellana, 

Euonymus latifolia, Ligustrum vulgare, Lonicera caucasica, Malus orientalis, Populus 

tremula, Pyrus caucasica, Prunus divaricata, Ribes sp., Rosa canina, Salix caprea, 

Sambucus nigra, Viburnum opulus, and Viburnum orientale. In addition to Quereus 

macranthera, another GRL, RDB species, Ulmus glabra, is noteworthy. 

The upper limit of this forest massif is represented by the fragments of subalpine forests 

(Acer trautvetteri, Betula litwinowii, Betula pendula, Salix caprea) together with subalpine tall 

75


herbaceous vegetation and subalpine meadow that is intended for mowing and grazing 

combined use and is rich in biodiverrsity. 

4.1.6.7 Sakire vicinity to Mtkvari River crossing 

Three figures show aspects of vegetation and flora in this section: Figure 4-2e shows 

ecosystems, Figure 4-6e shows various types of agricultural and other vegetation zones, 

and Figure 4-11e shows areas of medium and high sensitivity. All these figures are at the 

end of Chapter 4. More than half of this section crosses areas considered to be highly 

sensitive. 

The area from Kodiani mountain to Sakire village is occupied by coniferous forest with 

oriental spruce (Picea orientalis) and pine (Pinus kochiana, Pinus sosnowskyi), coniferousbroadleaf 

mixed forests with such broadleaf components as Acer trautvetteri, Betula 

pendula, Pyrus caucasica, Malus orientalis, Corylus avellana, Ulmus glabra, etc. 

West of Sakire village up to a nameless pass the corridor an agricultural landscape, after 

which coniferous (spruce and pine) and coniferousbroadleaf forests occur southwest of 

Tiseli village. Broadleaf species include Fagus orientalis, Carpinus caucasica, Quercus 

macranthera, Quercus iberica, Acer campestre, Fraxinus excelsior, Cerasus avium, Corylus 

avellana, Euonymus europaea, Crataegus orientalis, Swida australis, Prunus divaricata, 

Lonicera caucasica, etc. 

After this forested area are intermittent agricultural lands with scattered fragments of forests 

and single trees and shrubs. An area of high conservation value is at the Mtkvari (Kura) river 

gorge southwest of Atskuri village between Tkemlana and Tiseli villages. This is the edge of 

the forest on the north slope, with significant concentrations of such GRL, RDB woody 

species as high mountain oak (Quercus macranthera), in the lower point of its distribution, 

and sea-buckthorn (Hippopha rhamnoides). Other trees and shrub species include Acer 

campeste, Berberis vulgaris, Cornus mas, Corylus avellana, Crataegus sp., Fraxinus 

excelsior, Ligustrum vulgare, Picea orientalis, Prunus divaricata, Prunus spinosa, Pyrus 

caucasica (Pyrus communis), Rosa canina, Salix caprea, Viburnum opulus (rare species). 

4.1.6.8 Mtkvari River crossing near Tsnisi to Turkey border 

Three figures show aspects of vegetation and flora in this section: Figure 4-2f shows 

ecosystems, Figure 4-6f shows various types of agricultural and other vegetation zones, and 

Figure 4-11f shows areas of medium and high sensitivity. All these figures are at the end of 

Chapter 4. Figure 4-11f shows that over 15 kilometers of this section of the corridor crosses 

areas considered to be highly sensitive. 

Within this section the corridor passes through hemixerophilic and xerophilic complexes of 

vegetation, viz. steppes, xerophilic shrubwoods, fragments of arid open woodlands, 

tragacanthic communities. Agricultural landscapes cover much of this area. 

The eastern slope of a foothill close to the irrigation canal west of Vale supports a sensitive 

habitat of high conservative value. This area is populated by the GRL, RDB sea-buckthorn, 

(Hippopha rhamnoides) in association with rare species Ceratoides papposa as well as 

Berberis vulgaris, Rhamnus spathulifolia, Rhamnus cathartica, Crataegus sp., Cotoneaster 

sp., Pyrus salicifolia, Rosa canina, Ligustrum vulgare, Glycyrrhiza glabra, etc. 

Another two sensitive sites in this section are noteworthy. The first is at the Potskhovi river 

crossing north of Vale town and the second is the Potskhovi river crossing near Naokhrebi 

village. Both areas have floodplain forest fragments dominated by poplar-willow and willow 

communities (Populus spp., Salix spp.). It should be noted that these communities are 

distinguished by occurrence of GRL, RDB species, sea-buckthorn (Hippopha rhamnoides). 

76


4.1.6.9 Zemo Imereti plateau 

This area has two main parts, the Dzirula crystal massif with the Surami ridge and the 

Chiatura plateau with a maximum elevation of 1,200 meters on the Surami Ridge. The 

primary vegetation is broad-leaf forest, although most of the area, particularly in the west, it 

is reduced due to settlements, agricultural activities, and the development of secondary 

scrub and meadows. The area is known to be rich in relict and rare species. 

A total of six figures show aspects of vegetation and flora in this section: Figures 4-2g and 

4-2-h show ecosystems, Figures 4-6g and 4-6h show various types of agricultural and other 

vegetation zones, and Figures 4-11g and 4-11h show areas of medium and high sensitivity. 

All these figures are at the end of Chapter 4. The line crosses one areas of medium 

sensitivity, as shown on Figure 4-11g. 

Fagus orientalis forest is mainly on the Surami ridge. The forests of the plateau are a 

mixture of C. caucasica with Cytisus hirsutissimus with Hypericum orientale understories and 

Q. iberica, with some Q. imeretina (Red List of Georgia, RDB) and, on limestone, azalea 

Rhododendron luteum understory. 

On the Chiatura plateau, in the Nigozeti limestone canyons, the rare Imeretian calciphytes 

and endemics Delphinium colchicum, Potentilla imerethica and Symphyandra pendula are 

found. 

On the left bank of the river Budja there is a forest area consisting of C. caucasica with 

chestnut (Castanea sativa) (Red List of Georgia, RDB Georgia) and R. luteum. There are 

also areas of red-soil oakwood with Q. imeretina (Red List of Georgia, RDB Georgia), 

Dorycnium graecum, D. herbaceum, Ruscus ponticus and Pteridium tauricum. 

The pimary understory plants of dry ecotopes in the area are Corylus avellana, R. luteum, 

Crataegus spp. and Staphylea spp. In humid areas these are replaced by Laurocerasus 

officinalis, Ilex colchica and Frangula alnus. 

The gorges located within the Borjomi- Kharagauli zone also lie within the impact zone. In 

addition to the presence of coniferous and mixed coniferous-deciduous forests of high 

conservation value, this area supports numerous endemic, rare and relict taxa. 

4.1.6.10 Kolkheti foothills and lowlands (Zestaphoni vicinity) 

Here, the south Imereti foothills join with the northern slopes of the Achara-Imereti ridge and 

the Guria and Imereti hills. Humidity is lower and the seasonal distribution of precipitation is 

more Mediterranean. The railway corridor passes through the Kolkheti lowland and Rioni 

basin. Along the railway corridor there are patches of natural vegetation, including 

fragments of secondary Carpinus spp. woodland, mixed broad-leaf woodland and Q. 

imeretina (Red List of Georgia, RDB) and Zelkova carpinifolia (Red List of Georgia, RDB 

Georgia) forests. There are large areas of forest preserved on the left bank of the river 

Rioni. 

Three figures show aspects of vegetation and flora in this section: Figure 4-2h shows 

ecosystems, Figure 6h shows various types of agricultural and other vegetation zones, and 

Figure 4-11h shows areas of medium and high sensitivity. All these figures are at the end of 

Chapter 4. Only one small area (about two kilometers) is considered to be of medium 

sensitivity, and it is located just south of Zestaphoni substation near the river Rioni. 

77


4.1.6.11 Summary of sensitive areas 

On the base of literature review and field survey, several areas that would be particularly 

sensitive to disturbance were identified. Figures 4-11a through 4-11h show the areas of 

medium and high sensitivity, from east to west. Areas considered to be highly sensitive 

include: 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Gardabani Managed Reserve: Relict mature floodplain forests formed by 

floodplain oak (Quercus pedunculiflora) or poplar (Populus hybrida). 

Tetritskaro-Bedeni plateau forest massif. Forest ecosystem of high conservative 

value, with GRL, RDB species high mountain oak (Quercus macranthera), elms 

(Ulmus glabra and U. elliptica). Herbaceous cover in this forest area is also rich in 

biodiversity. 

Bedeni plateau wetland habitat. Sensitive wetland area rich in rich in biodiversity 

(about 150 species), with orchid species (Dactylorhiza urvilleana and Orchis 

coriophora) occurring in numbers unique in Georgia. 

Tsalka reservoir environs. Highly sensitive area due to its importance as water 

reservoir. High mountain wetland ecosystem with sedge grasses marshes and 

peat-bog communities. 

Nariani valley (Narianis veli). Wetlands with sedge and grass marshes and 

subalpine wet meadow. Vegetation over large areas of Ktsia-Nariani massif are 

typologically very diverse and rich in species biodiversity (150-200 species). 

Tabatskuri lake environs. Water and bog marsh vegetation. A pure sedge 

community dominated by Carex juncella (C. wiluica) has developed in the inner 

part of the peat-bog 

Borjomi-Kharagauli National Park. Polydominant meadows, subalpine bushes, tall 

herbaceous vegetation, park forest and mountain forest ecosystem with GRL, 

RDB species high mountain oak (Quercus macranthera) and elm (Ulmus glabra) 

West of Vale town. GRL, RDB sea-buckthorn (Hippophaë rhamnoides) in 

association with rare species Ceratoides papposa. 

Damala environs. Tragacanthic vegetation enters pine forest in vicinity of v. 

Damala, with rare species Astragalus arguricus, A. raddeanus, Onobrychis 

sosnowskyi, Vicia akhmaganica, Salvia compar, Scutellaria sosnowskyi, 

Psephellus meskheticus, etc. 

 

 

 

 

 

Idumala-Oshora area 

Indusa (from Idumala up to Sakuneti) environs 

Xanistskali (xani) section. 

Zekari environs, section. 

Zemo Imereti plateau. Forests are a mixture of C. caucasica with Cytisus 

hirsutissimus with Hypericum orientale understories and Q. iberica with some Q. 

imeretina (Red List of Georgia, RDB) and Rhododendron luteum understory. 

Areas of moderate sensitivity include: 

 

 

 

 

Banks of Algeti River banks. Floodplain forest fragments and meadows. 

Tsintskaro-Khando villages environs. Oak and hornbeam forests, with GRL, RDB 

woody species Celtis caucasica and Acer ibericum. 

Bedeni plateau. High mountain steppes and meadows. 

Mtkvari river crossing near Tsnisi.(near Agara). Floodplain trees. 

78


 

 

 

Potskhovi river banks. Floodplain forest fragments and agricultural lands. 

Sakraula river crossing. Floodplain forest fragments. 

Kvirila river crossing. Floodplain forest fragments. 

4.1.7 Fauna 

This section describes animals and birds in Georgia, and their habitats, with emphasis on 

species of special concern that could be affected by the transmission line. 

Many natural habitats provide important environmental services such as improving water 

availability for irrigated agriculture, industry, or human consumption; reducing sedimentation 

of reservoirs, harbors, and irrigation works; minimizing floods, landslides, coastal erosion, 

and droughts; improving water quality; filtering excess nutrients; and providing essential 

natural habitat for economically important aquatic species. Although such environmental 

services are important to humans and thus economically valuable, they are often 

undervalued and overlooked. Maintaining such environmental services is almost always 

much less expensive than replacing them with remedial measures after natural habitat 

conversion. It is also important to note that natural habitats can also provide important 

environmental products, including fish and other wildlife, wild foods, forest products, or 

grazing lands.” Finally, it is an axiom all endangered species that are protected by Georgian 

law or international conventions should be considered without regard to taxonomy, size, or 

other features. 

A total of 135 species and 4 subspecies of animals are protected by Georgia law (Red data 

list of Georgia, 2006). If those protected by international agreements are considered, the 

total number of protected species could up to 200. Perhaps 75 percent of those can be 

found along the transmission line. 

From the physical-geographic point of view, the transmission line starts in the 

Transcaucasian depression. This area is located between mountain ridges of the Great 

Caucasus and the Lesser Caucasus that are bordering from the North the large region of 

Middle East Uplands (Museibov et al., 1986; Devdariani, 1986). 

Georgian territory spreads on almost all biogeographic regions represented throughout the 

Caucasus isthmus. Borders between faunistic regions represented throughout Georgia 

cannot be clearly delineated because of the mutual penetration of species among them. A 

complicated and sometimes a mosaic-like spatial structure of biological communities that 

represent different biogeographic regions is common in the Caucasus, which makes 

accuracy of range maps within the country problematic. 

In contract to other Caucasian countries, a significant part of Georgia is occupied by 

communities of mixed origin which cannot be delineated within a specific area. Relief causes 

relatively clear borders between some biogeographic districts, but these borders remain 

conditional. 

The transmission line crosses many different regions, as described in sections 4.1.2 and 

4.1.6. The characteristics of these regions affect the creatures that live, breed, or pass 

through these regions. The following paragraphs describe main types of ecosystems along 

the transmission line route. 

Rural and agricultural landscapes (“open lowland”) cover a large part of the territory crossed 

by the transmission line route. The largest tracts of arable lands are located in Lower Kartli 

and on Tsalka Plateau in South Georgia. There are some orchards and kitchen-gardens on 

this section, as well as pasturelands. The towers of the transmission line are generally not 

located directly in the cultivated lands, but in the ecotone ecosystems located between 

79


agrocoenosis and natural landscape. In such ecosystems, there is often a high diversity and 

density of animal species. In this area, the transmission line route crosses the home range of 

several rare and threatened species that dwell mostly on mostly on cultivated lands (for 

example, Brandt's hamster (Mesocricetus brandti) and Common Tortoise (Testudo graeca)). 

Brandt's hamster lives in a colonial mode of life. It is everywhere rare and very sensitive to 

human impact, since a colony may occupy an area no larger than a single tower. 

Cultivated lands are a feeding place for many animals, especially for birds nesting in forest 

strips and migrating birds. These areas are not diverse and numerous, but they provide 

constant support. 

Even on pastures and measures that are mown there can be protected species (including 

species in reduced numbers). Species on the Javakheti upland, for example, are everywhere 

sensitive, because of strong human impact 

Also, pastures and arable lands are important for birds of prey. These areas often support 

small birds and mammals which serve as prey for these larger birds. They also attract 

migrating raptors for feeding and for thermals they use for soaring. Migrating and resident 

raptors in these areas would use towers as roosts and hunting perches, and resident birds 

may nest on towers. 

As noted in section 4.1.6, the transmission corridor passes and/or crosses wetlands in 

several areas, including forest swamps in Gardabani district, swampy lake in Tsalka district, 

and peat bogs near Tabatskuri Lake. All wetlands contain a number of rare and endemic 

vertebrate and invertebrate species and coexist with a very vulnerable community of 

animals. They are important for many species as shelter, feeding places, and stopover sites 

during migration and wintering. 

Ecosystems of mountain and foothill deciduous and mixed (coniferous with deciduous) 

forests These ecosystems cover a large portion of the Trialeti ridge that is twice crossed by 

the transmission corridor, mainly in the eastern part, in the Tetritskaro district (“Tetritskaro 

forest”), in the crossing of Borjomi-Kharagauli National Park, and up to village Argveta in the 

Zestaphoni district (both “Mountain forest”).. Mountain forest is the richest ecosystem with 

high diversity and a large number of endemic game and endangered species. At the same 

time, animal communities of these ecosystems are very sensitive for human impact. 

Foothills and hills covered with xerophytic bush vegetation. Ecosystems of this type are quite 

diverse with regard to bush vegetation and species composition of plants and animals, and 

cover a significant part of territory crossed by the transmission line route in the Gardabani 

district on the slopes of Yagluja mountain and between Marneuli and Tetritskaro (see also 

section 4.1.6). They are important for many species as shelter and feeding places in the 

surrounded steppes, but less sensitive to the impact of the transmission line construction. 

Animal communities of these ecosystems can be significantly affected only if large areas of 

shrub will be destroyed (for example, from an accidental fire). 

Freshwater ecosystems: ecosystems of current waters and freshwater lake ecosystems. 

Invertebrate species and amphibian species occur in floodplains and surface water. These 

species are especially sensitive in eastern Georgia in semiarid and arid habitats but also can 

be sensitive at nearly any river crossing or lake edge. 

River bank ecosystems are usually different from their surrounding landscapes by the higher 

humidity, less developed soil layer, higher density of shelters, more developed bush 

vegetation, and less covered with agricultural landscapes. These ecosystems usually form 

narrow belts along rivers up to several hundred meters wide. The most important riverbank 

ecosystems are the tugai forests, located in valleys of large rivers surrounded with arid or 

80


semiarid landscapes; one such ecosystem is crossed by the (already-constructed) 

transmission line corridor at Gardabani Managed Reserve. In this forest live 31 species of 

mammals, of which six are endemic to the Caucasus and five are endangered (Red deer, 

Wild boar, breeding Pheasant, Black stork and White-tailed eagle). The well-being of all of 

them depends on the stability of this forest. In addition, small remnants of tugai vegetation 

remain on the Algeti river near the corridor, close to the village Agara on Mtkvari river and on 

the river Potskhovichay close to the village Arali. . 

Open grassy habitats in mountain areas (“Mountain open landscape”), mountain steppes, 

meadows, wetlands, xerophilous bushes and pine wind-breaking strips between the easternmost 

edge of Bedeni plateau and edge of forest in Borjomi-Kharagauli National Park (Kp Z- 

5) are on the mail route of the transmission line. The entire 400 kV line, from the Akhaltsikhe 

substation to the Turkish border, and part of Alternative route 2, from the starting point to the 

forest edge in the vicinity of the Abastumani, are situated within the range of this complex. 

Overall, the areas along the transmission line corridor that are most important for general 

biodiversity are shown on Table 4.1-2 and Figure 4-15 (the figures are at the end of this 

chapter) 


corridor 

Location 

number 

Locations and environmental receptors 

(Figure 

4-15) 

1 Floodplain forest in Gardabani Managed Reserve (natural tugai 

forest, about 3000 hectares). Habitat of Red Deer (Cervus elaphus - 

RDB of Georgia), the Black Stork (Ciconia nigra - RDB ) and many 

other species. 

2 Open lowland in Lower Kartli from Yagluja Mountain up to 

Tetritskaro area of migration and wintering of many vulnerable to 

electro power line bird species. Habitat of the Brant’s hamster 

3 Tetritskaro vicinity. Territory covered with forest. Sensitive complex 

of mammals and birds. 

4 Samsari Rodge – mountain open landscape, area of nesting and 

migration of many protected bird. Alpine meadows and 

Rhododendron shrubs on mountains. A sensitive complex of the 

alpine species. Habitat of the Caucasian Black Grouse (Tetrao 

mlokosiewiczi). 

5 The shore and the bay of the Tabatskuri Lake. Water is partly is 

covered with sage and other water plants. Resting spot for migrating 

waterfowl. The Red-crested Pochard (Netta rufina) and Ferruginous 

Duck (Aythya nyroca) are nesting here. A trout species (Salmo 

trutta) species is proposed to be included on the Red List of 

Georgia. The Narianis Veli. Very sensitive wetland in upper course 

of the river Ktsia - a subalpine bog in the flood-land of the river. This 

territory is a home range of the Otter (Lutra lutra) and the Common 

Crane (Grus grus). 

Level of 

importance 

(see note) 

6 Forest edge close to Tetrobi Managed Reserve. II 

I 

I 

II 

I 

I 

81



corridor 

Location 

number 

Locations and environmental receptors 

(Figure 

4-15) 

7 The Borjomi-Kharagauli NP and forest behind border of the park. 

The subalpine landscapes forests, meadows and rhododendron 

shrubs; the alpine meadow. The summer pastures. Habitat of large 

mammals: Roe Deer (Capreolus capreolus), Brown Bear (Ursus 

arctos), Red Deer (Cervus elaphus ) and Chamois (Rupicapra 

rupicapra). The home range of the Caucasian Black Grouse (Tetrao 

mlokosiewiczi). Includes habitat of the endemic Rock Lizards (genus 

Darevskia), having narrow ranges). 

Category of importance for biodiversity preservation: 

I = most important 

II = important on the local level 

4.1.7.1 General Characteristics of Animal Species Composition 

Level of 

importance 

(see note) 

Mammals. 108 species of mammals occur in Georgia. These species are associated in 64 

genera of 28 families that belong to 7 orders. Perhaps four are no longer found in Georgia. 

Seven species were acclimatized in Georgia or came to the country after acclimatization on 

adjacent territories. (Bukhnikashvili, Kandaurov 1997, 2002; Gurielidze, 1997). Significant 

parts of key habitats of several endangered species lie along the corridor: Ursus arctos, 

Lutra lutra, Mesocricetus brandti and several species of bats that are included the Red Data 

List of Georgia. During the last decades, habitat range and population substantially 

decreased for all the following species: Lynx lynx, Cervus elaphus, Capreolus capreolus, 

Rupicapra rupicapra, Sciurus anomalus, Cricetulus migratorius, Mesocricetus brandti, and 

Meriones libycus. (Badridze 1995). It should be noted that all bats that occur in Georgia are 

included in the Appendix II of Bonn Convention and protected under EUROBATS 

Agreement. 

Birds. There are approximately 390 bird species recorded for Georgian avifauna. (Boehme 

Et Al., 1987; Abuladze, 1997, Zhordania R.G., 1979). More than 220 of these species breed 

regularly or incidentally in Georgia, others appear in the country only during migrations or in 

wintertime (Abuladze 1997). Among the larger birds are raptors, storks, and other wading 

birds. 

The most important places for breeding birds along the transmission line are: 

I 

 

 

 

 

 

Tugai forest on Gardabani lowland. 

Mountain deciduous forest on the Trialeti ridge nearby of Tetritskaro. 

Mountain forest on the Meskheti ridge, especially in Borjomi-Kharagauli National 

Park. 

Open landscapes (bogs, swamps and meadows) on Javakheti Upland, especially 

in Ktsia Tabatskuri Managed Reserve. 

Southern endpoint of the Trialeti ridge. 

Georgia is important to Western Palaearctic birds, particularly for raptors, passerines, 

wading birds, waterfowl, gulls, terns, as well as for the Common Quail and the Black Stork, 

etc. either as a stopover site on passage and as wintering habitat. 

82


The south-eastern coast of the Black Sea is one of the most important pathways of Western 

Palaearctic birds' migration. Area includes the south-western part of the Colchic Lowland, 

seacoast, coastal lowland from Paliastomi Lake and left bank of Rioni River, in north, to 

Chorokhi River Valley, in south, foothills and pre-mountain area of the western slopes of the 

Meskheti Ridge. The corridor does not run through this area. 

Another migration pathway runs from Kakheti across Iori Tableland, along the Mtkvari river 

valley and the slopes of Trialeti and Surami ridges to South Georgia and Javakheti Highland. 

This pathway is important for raptors (including scavengers, waterfowl, cranes, and 

bustards, especially in the spring. The corridor does cross this pathway. 

The entire east-west transmission line corridor crosses the predominantly north-to-south 

(autumn) and south-to-north (spring) pathways that most migrating birds follow, as can be 

seen by Figure 4-13, which shows risk to migrating along most of the route. Although the 

entire east-west sections will present some risk for birds, the most important migration 

pathways crossed by the transmission line corridor include the following: 

 

 

 

 

Wetlands and meadows in the upper reaches of the Ktsia River and Tabatskuri 

Lake 

Vicinities of Tsalka reservoir and wet meadows on Bedeni plateau 

Mtkvari river valley near Gardabani and near villages Sakuneti and Agara. 

Rivers Khrami and Algheti valley and southern slopes of the mountain Yagluja 

from village Dagheti. 

Reptiles. A total of 54 species of reptiles were recorded for Georgia (Bakradze & 

Chkhikvadze, 1992; Tarkhnishvili et al., in press for the most recent review) and 38 reptiles 

occur along the transmission line corridor. Among them are five rare species (Elaphe 

longissima, Malpolon monspessulanus, Eirenis collaris, Vipera kaznakovi and Vipera 

erivanensis), which have not been documented in the corridor are but could be expected 

from the distribution of appropriate landscapes (Bakradze, 1969, 1975; Muskhelishvili, 1970; 

Tarkhnishvili & GokhelashvilI, 1999). The other species have been recorded throughout the 

corridor (Darevsky, 1967; Muskhelishvili, 1970; Bakradze et al., 1987; Chatwin et al., 1996; 

Tarkhnishvili & Gokhelashvili, 1999; Tarkhnishvili et al., in press). However, the importance 

of populations that are found throughout the Corridor strongly differs between the species. 

Most reptile species are restricted in their distribution to southeastern in the vicinity of 

Gardabani and some distance west. Some have very restricted habitat, particularly in rocky 

areas, and the range of several has been reduced in recent decades (Tarkhnishvili et al. 

2002). Areas of high reptile diversity include the slopes of Yagluja Mountain and the eastern 

shore of Lake Tabatskuri and adjacent parts of Samsari mountains. 

Amphibians. There are 12 species of amphibians found in Georgia (Tarkhnishvili, 1995, 

1996). Eleven of them are in the districts crossed by the transmission line corridor . Three of 

these species (Mertensiella caucasica, Pelodytes caucasicus, Bufo verrucosissimus) are 

endemic to the Caucasus and most of their habitat ranges lay in Georgia. One local 

endemic species (Mertensiella caucasica) is found exclusively in the central part of Georgia 

(Meskheti ridge, Borjomi gorge area). There are three notable species from the corridor of 

interest that are represented in Georgia by narrow-ranged subspecies. In particular, 

subspecies Triturus vulgaris lantzi and Hyla arborea schelkownikowi are regional endemic of 

the Caucasus. Especially high concentrations of Caucasian and Mediterranean endemic 

species are observed around the Lower Kartli (two species) and on the Trialeti Ridge (six 

species). 

Of particular interest is one amphibian species, the Caucasian salamander (Mertensiella 

caucasica Waga, 1876). The range of this species is the most severely fragmented and 

83


narrowest among Caucasian amphibians. This species is distributed in the humid and warm 

forests along Meskheti and Shavsheti ridges in Georgia, as well as western foothills of 

Trialeti ridge (easternmost local population in the Borjomi Gorge) and in north-eastern 

Turkey (Nikolsky, 1913; Bannikov et al., 1977; Atatur & Budak, 1982; Tarkhnishvili, 1994; 

Tarkhnishvili, in press). The main reason for decline is the cutting of trees along the stream 

bank and destroying of habitat as a result of logging. The transmission line corridor crosses 

the area of its habitat. 

The two areas with the most diverse amphibian fauna include: 

 

 

Lake Tabatskuri and adjacent parts of Samsari mountains that provide important 

habitats for the endemic frog Rana macrocnemis camerani. 

Forested areas on Meskheti ridge that provides important habitats for large 

populations of Mertensiella caucasica, Triturus vittatus, T. vulgaris, T. karelinii, 

Pelodytes caucasicus, Bufo verrucosissimus, Hyla arborea schelkownikowi, and 

Rana macrocnemis macrocnemis. 

Freshwater Fish. The present ichthyofauna of Georgia comprises 167 species, 109 genera, 

57 families, 25 orders and 3 classes. Among them 61 are freshwater inhabitants, 76 live in 

marine water and 30 species are anadromous (Ninua N., Japoshvili B., 2008). Although the 

corridor will cross several rivers (section 4.1.4) and pass by several lakes, no towers will be 

placed in water bodies. 

Invertebrates. Invertebrates, particularly insects, are a new group that has been included in 

the Red Data Books in last decades. Thousands of invertebrates species occur in Georgia 

and most of them are very poorly studied. There is only fragmented bibliography on most of 

them. Even taxons such as a classes or orders are not entirely investigated in Georgia. 

Among poorly studied taxons are free-living flat-worms (Plathelminthes), other aquatic freeliving 

worms, Miriapoda (Myriapoda), aquatic snails. Conservation status of the most of 

species can be characterised as DD, except narrow-ranged forms, which are a priori 

threatened. 

4.1.7.2 Species of most concern 

The Caucasus region has very high concentrations of endemic species, exceeding those in 

nearly all other non-tropical regions. The total number of regional endemic species varies 

between 20-30 percent for fish, amphibians, reptiles, and mammals (Tarkhnishvili & Kikodze, 

1986; Chatwin et al., 1986) and is possibly even higher for some groups of invertebrates. 

This is explained largely, by the presence of Pliocene forest refugia in the western 

Caucasus, where many species that are currently absent from elsewhere in the world 

survived both the sharp decrease of humidity five million years ago and the Ice Age 

(Tuniyev, 1990; Tarkhnishvili, 1996, 2004; Tarkhnishvili et al., 2000, 2001). 

The westernmost section of the transmission line corridor lies in the Western Lesser 

Caucasus. This region, with its extremely high humidity level and landscapes similar to the 

North American temperate rainforests, has the highest diversity of forest plants and animals 

in the ecoregion and harbors a high proportion of the regional endemics, including Pliocene 

relict species. Those include 11 endemic species of insectivores and rodents, 1 bird, 11 to 

14 reptiles, 3 amphibians, and 4 fish. This is nearly 50 percent of the vertebrate species 

endemic to the Caucasus ecoregion. The list of the Caucasian endemics found in the 

Western Lesser Caucasus includes 12 species enumerated in the IUCN Red List. 

Of the 73 Red List species recorded within the districts along the transmission line route, 

there are 15 mammals: two are Critical Endangered (CR), three Endangered (EN) and ten 

Vulnerable (VU). Among 23 birds, there are one CR, seven EN, and 15 VU. One reptile is 

EN and seven VU. One amphibian is VU. There are two VU fish species and finally there are 

84


five EN and 19 VU invertebrate species. Table 4.1-3 lists the name of each species (Latin, 

English, and Georgian), the Red List status, and its occurrence in the major habitats. 

4.1.8 Environmental pollution along the line route 

4.1.8.1 Introduction 

In general, the transmission line corridor runs through rural and lightly populated areas of 

southern and western Georgia, where existing environmental pollution is very limited. In 

southeast Georgia, however, the line passes near a few villages and populated areas. 

4.1.8.2 Ambient air quality 

Data are very limited regarding ambient air quality along the corridor. Three stations monitor 

meteorological variables (temperature, precipitation, wind): in Marneuli, close to Gardabani, 

in the east; in Tsalka, about midway between Gardabani and Akhaltsikhe; and in 

Akhaltsikhe. There were also stations that historically measured air quality: in Rustavi, 

Akhaltsikhe and Zestaphoni, the most industrially developed cities near the corridor. The 

historical data cover from 1988 and 1994, and data show relatively poor air quality at the 

time. Although data are very limited, air quality has clearly improved since 1991, with 

reduction in industrial activity and in vehicle traffic. Reliable measurements of air quality after 

1994 are not currently available. 

A series of air quality studies were conducted for the BTC ESIA to characterize baseline air 

quality conditions across the pipeline route, which roughly runs parallel to the transmission 

line corridor. At that time, measurements at different sections of the route showed the values 

in Table 4.1-4, which represent very good air quality (that is, very low concentrations of 

pollutants. 

Table 4.1-4 Baseline air quality, c. 2001 

Range of measured values, 

Polllutant 

micro g/m3 

NO2 1-6 

SO2 2-4 

Benzene (ppb) 0.1 -1.5 

Source: BTC Co., 2002 

The Ministry of Environment Protection and Natural Resources approved a methodology for 

assessing baseline air pollution in rural areas where monitoring data are not available. The 

manual for calculation permissible limits for emissions to atmosphere air (ministry of 

Environment protection and Natural resources of Georgia. The suggested methodology is 

used for calculation atmosphere air baseline pollution levels based on number of population. 

Table 4.1-5 gives suggested benchmark values in case of different population. 

Table 4.1-5. Benchmark values of for pollutant concentrations 

based on population 

Population, 

Background concentration, mg/m3 

(1,000 

inhabitants) NO2 SO2 CO PM 

250-125 0 .03 0 .05 1 .5 0 .2 

125-50 0 .015 0 .05 0 .8 0 .15 

85


50-10 0 .008 0 .02 0 .4 0 .1 


# Latin name English name 

Table 4.1-3. Likely occurrence of Red List fauna along the transmission line corridor 

Habitat type 

Georgian name 

(qarTuli dasaxeleba) 

87 

National 

status Tugai 

Open 

lowland 

Tetritskaro 

forest 

Mountain 

grasslands 

Mammals (ZuZumwovrebi) 

1 Myotis bechsteinii Bechstein's Bat. grZelyura mRamiobi VU V 

2 Barbastella 

Western Barbastelle evropului maCqaTela 

barbastellus 

VU R R 

3 Sciurus anomalus Persian Squirrel kavkasiuri ciyvi VU R C 

4 Nannospalax nehringi Nehring's Mole Rat bruca VU R 

5 Cricetulus migratorius Grey Hamster nacrisferi zazunela VU R U R 

6 Mesocricetus brandti Brandt’s Hamster Amierkavkasiuri zazuna VU R R 

7 Prometheomys schaposchnikovi 

Long-Clawed Mole-Vole promeTes memindvria 

VU V 

8 Clethrionomys glareolus ponticus 

Pontian Bank Vole wiTuri memindvria 

EN V 

9 Meriones tristrami Turkish Jird mcireaziuri meqviSia VU V 

10 Felis chaus Jungle Cat Lelianis kata VU R 

11 Lynx lynx Lynx focxveri CR ? R 

12 Lutra lutra Otter wavi VU R R R 

13 Ursus arctos Brown Bear muri daTTvi EN V V C 

14 Cervus elaphus Red Deer iremi CR R R 

15 Rupicapra rupicapra Chamois arCvi EN R 

Birds (frinvelebi) 

16 Podiceps grisegaena Red-necked Grebe ruxloyela murtala VU VN VN 

17 Pelecanus 

Great White Pelican vardisferi varxvi 

onocrotalus 

VU RN 

18 Pelecanus crispus Dalmatian Pelican qoCora EN VN 

19 Ciconia ciconia White Stork laklaki VU CB 

Mountain 

forest




Georgian name 


National 

status Tugai 

Open 

lowland 

Habitat type 

Tetritskaro 

forest 

Mountain 

grasslands 

Mountain 

forest 

20 Ciconia nigra Black Stork yaryati VU VB V? RB RB 

21 Anser erythropus Lesser White-fronted patara RerReti 

Goose 

EN 

VN VM 

22 Tadorna ferruginea Rudy Duck Witeli ixvi VU VN RB 

23 Melanitta fusca White-winged Scoter garieli RB 

24 Haliaeetus albicilla White-tailed Eagle Tetrkuda fsovi EN RN VN VN 

25 Accipiter brevipes Levant Sparrowhawk qorcqviTa VU RM VB 

26 Buteo rufinus Long-legged Buzzard velis kakaCa VU UB UB RB,CM UM VB,UM 

27 Aquila heliaca Imperial Eagle begobis arwivi VU VB VB VM UM 

28 Aquila chrysaetos Golden Eagle mTis arwivi VU VM RM VN RB,RM VB 

29 Neophron 

Egyptian Vulture faskunji 

percnopterus 

VU RN RB,RM RN RB, RM RB 

30 Gypaetus barbatus Lammergeyer batkanZeri VU VN VN VN 

31 Aegypius monachus Black Vulture svavi EN VN RN,RM VN RN,RM RN,RM 

32 Gyps fulvus Griffon Vulture Orbi VU VN RN,RM VN RN,RM RN,RM 

33 Falco cherrug Saker Falcon Gavazi CR VW VW VM VM VM 

34 Falco vespertinus Red-footed Falcon TvalSava EN VM VM VM RB VM 

35 Aegolius funereus Boreal Owl Woti VU UB UB 

36 Tetrao mlokosiewiczi Caucasian Black kavkasiuri roWo 

Grouse 

VU RB CB 

37 Grus grus Common Crane Ruxi wero EN RM UM RN,CM ? 

38 Panurus biarmicus Bearded Parrotbill ulvaSa wivwiva VU VB 

Reptiles (Qvewarmavlebi) 

39 Testudo graeca Mediterranean tortoise. xmelTaSuazRveTis ku VU C C U R R 

40 Ophisops elegans Snake-eyed Lizard koxta gvelTava VU R 

41 Darevskia dahli Dahli’s Rock Lizard dalis xvliki VU R 

88




Georgian name 


89 

National 

status Tugai 

Open 

lowland 

Habitat type 

Tetritskaro 

forest 

Mountain 

grasslands 

42 Darevskia mixta Adzharian Rock Lizard aWaruli xvliki VU R C 

43 Eryx jaculus Western Sand Boa dasavluri maxrCobela VU V R 

44 Eirenis collaris Collared Dwarf Racer sayeloiani eirenisi VU R R 

45 Malpolon 

Montpellier Snake xvlikiWamia gveli 

monspessulanus 

VU V 

46 Vipera kaznakovi Caucasian viper kavkasiuri gvelgesla EN R 

Amphibians (amfibiebi) 

47 Mertensiella 

Caucasian Salamander Kavkasiuri salamandra 

caucasica 

VU R 

Fish (Zvliani Tevzebi) 

48 Salmo fario Brook Trout mdinaris kalmis VU V C C 

49 Sabanejewia aurata Golden Spined Loach winaaziuri gvelana VU R R 

Invertebrates (Uxerxemloebi) 

50 Phassus shamil Schamyl’s Ghost Moth Kavkasiuri 

wmindadgaxviara 

51 Eudia pavonia Small Night Peacock 

Butterfly 

52 Perisomena 

coecigena 

Ramis mcire 

farSevangTvala 

Rose Peacock Butterfly mkraTvalebiani 

farSevangTvala 

Mountain 

forest 

EN R 

VU R 

VU R 

53 Manduca atropos Death’s Head Sphinx sfinqsi mkvdarTava EN R R ? 

54 Rethera komarovi Komarov’s Sphinx komarovis sfinqsi VU V V ? 

55 Deilephila nerii Oleander Sphinx oleandris sfinqsi EN R 

56 Callimorpha dominula Tiger Moth daTunela hera VU R V R 

57 Parnassius apollo Appolo apoloni VU R 

58 Parnassius 

Nordmann’s Appolo kavkasiuri apoloni 

nordmanni 

EN R 

59 Anthocharis damone Eastern Orange Tip amierkavkasiuri aisi VU R R




Georgian name 


National 

status Tugai 

Open 

lowland 

Habitat type 

Tetritskaro 

forest 

Mountain 

grasslands 

60 Erebia hewistonii Hewistoni’s Mountain hevistonis xaverdula VU R R 

61 Erebia iranica Iranian Brassy Ringlet iranuli xaverdula VU V 

62 Tomares romanovi Romanoff’s Tomares romanovis cisfera VU V V 

63 Polyommates daphnis Meleager’s Blue cisfera meleagri VU V V 

64 Apocolotois smirnovi Smirnov’s Looper Moth smirnovis mbogela VU R 

65 Bombus fragrans Big Steppe Humble-bee velis didi bazi VU V ? 

66 Bombus eriophorus Stone Humble-bee bazi erioforusi VU R R R 

67 Bombus alpigenus - (B.wurflenii) 

Wurfleni Humble-bee alpuri bazi 

VU R R 

68 Bombus persicus Persian Humble-bee iranuli bazi VU R 

69 Xylocopa violaceae Violet Carpenter bee iisferi qsilokopa VU R R 

70 Rosalia alpina Rosalia Longicorn alpuri xarabuza EN R 

71 Onychogomphus Dark pincertail msgavsi nemsiylapia 

assimilis 

VU R R R R R 

72 Calopteryx mingrelica Banded Agrion samegrelos turfa VU R R R R R 

73 Helix buchi Beech Snail buxis lokokina VU R 

Mountain 

forest 

Notes: 

Red List status: CR - Critical Endangered, EN - Endangered and VU - Vulnerable 

Status on the corridor: V – very rare; R - rare; U – uncommon; C – common; A – abundant; ? – status unknown. In addition character of occurrence for 

birds: B – breeding bird (bird breeds within the site); M – migratory species; W – wintering species; N – nomadic visitor or vagrant; National status 

according to the Criteria of Red Data List of Georgia: 

90


10 

8 

9.3 

8.5 

5.6 

6 

4.6 

4 

4 

3.33 

3.53 

3.33 3.33 

2.66 

2.4 

2 2.2 

2.2 

2.2 

2.2 

0.9 

1 

1 

1.15 1.25 

0 

2 0 01 2 0 02 2 0 03 2 0 05 2 0 06 

PM MnO2 NO2 SO2 

Figure 4.1-20. Concentrations of major air pollutants in Zestaphoni, 2001 to 2006 

4.1.8.4 Soil and groundwater pollution 

There are no known areas where soil or groundwater have been contaminated. The may not 

be the case at gasoline stations or other fuel storage facilities, but the lack of industrial 

activity in the largely rural transmission corridor suggests there are no contamination issues 

along the route. 

4.2 Baseline Socioeconomic Conditions 

The area along the route of the transmission line ranges from pastoral lowlands to high 

mountains. The human settlements along the route are relatively sparse with small 

agricultural communities that have an average population of 1150 people. The population is 

a mix of ethnicities, including Azeris, Georgians, Armenians, Meskht, and Greek. Some of 

the communities were settled more than 600 years ago, others were settled as recently as 

1944. Agricultural activities range from cattle, sheep, and goats to short crops such as 

tomatoes, cucumbers and eggplant, to cereals such as wheat and maize, to more deeprooted 

crops such as fruit trees and vineyards. Most agriculture is subsistence, with 

additional sales at local, and regional markets. Much of the area is economically 

disadvantaged, with basic infrastructure in need of repair. Many in the younger generations 

have often migrated to the cities, primarily Tbilisi or abroad, in search of more economic 

opportunities. 

The administrative regions that are crossed by the line are Kvemo Karli, which includes the 

districts of Marneuli, Tetriskaro, and Tsalka; Samtshke-Javakheti, which includes the districts 

of Borjomi and Akhaltsikhe; and the Imereti Region, which includes the Zestaphoni district. 

Information for this baseline characterization draws primarily on the following sources: 

 

Visits to a range of communities along the route. Communities were selected based 

on proximity to the line, representative ethnicity, geographic location and 

characteristics and community size. 

UN Human Development Report 2008 (UN 2008) 

 

National Statistical Office, Ministry of Economic Development of Georgia 

Baku Tbilisi Ceyhan Pipeline ESIA (BTC Co., 2002) 

 

 

Ministry of Culture 

Supplemental information from the Ministry of Energy. 

91


The following sections will describe demographics, social infrastructure, health, and 

economics. 

4.2.1 Demographics 

Demographic data described here include population, age distribution, ethnic makeup, 

literacy and education rates, and migration rates. 

Population. The transmission line route tends to avoid more densely populated areas, and 

as a result, the population density of the districts along the transmission line route is 

relatively low, as shown in Figure 4.2-1. The area along the line is overwhelmingly rural in 

nature, and the total population of districts along the route is about 323,700, just over seven 

percent of the approximately 4,382,100 people in Georgia for 2008 (Table 4.2-1). 

Georgia 

Marneuli 

(District) 

Table 4.2-1. Population of Regions and Districts 

along the proposed transmission Corridor 

Kvemo Kartli Region Samtskhe-Javakheti Region Imereti Region 

Tetritskaro 

(District) 

Tsalka 

(District) 

Borjomi 

(District) 

Akhaltsikhe 

(District) 

Zestaphoni 

(District) 

4,382,100 122,500 25,800 21,700 31,700 46,800 75,200 

Source: Ministry of Economic Development of Georgia, 2009 

The communities that lie closest to the line are listed in Table 4.2-2. The table also shows 

the distance from the center of the community to the centerline of the transmission line 

corridor. Shaded communities are those that were visited during scoping. 

Table 4.2-2. Population of communities within 

three kilometers of the transmission line corridor 

Settlement Distance population 

Agara 0.30 350 

Alastani 2.31 1,133 

Alatumani 1.22 606 

Argveta 1.82 1,692 

Ashkala 1.40 2,043 

Aspindza 2.60 1,941 

Avranlo 1.02 717 

Azavreti 0.79 1,491 

Bashkoi 2.25 207 

Beshtasheni 2.17 373 

Bezhano 0.72 997 

Chikharula 1.81 299 

Chkhikvta 2.47 221 

Dagheti 1.35 235 

Damala 1.24 1,984 

Ghado 1.07 1,491 

Gokio 0.63 549 

Gumbati 1.39 471 

92


Table 4.2-2. Population of communities within 

three kilometers of the transmission line corridor 

Settlement Distance population 

Ilmazlo 0.13 1,033 

Imera 1.05 72 

Indusa 1.49 0 

Jandari/Marneuli 1.99 20,065 

Kapanachkhi 1.60 1,283 

Kariaki 1.88 152 

Keshalo 2.02 3,322 

Khani 2.28 817 

Kizilkilisa 1.58 1,848 

Kochio 2.02 540 

Kosalari 0.67 860 

Matsevani 2.38 110 

Modega 1.76 259 

Oshora 1.63 637 

Pirveli Sviri 1.53 3,068 

Sakraula 2.07 433 

Sakuneti 1.40 593 

Santa 1.54 84 

Shipiaki 2.29 35 

Shua Kvaliti 0.51 3,500 

Tamarisi 2.40 434 

Tarsoni 2.03 9 

Tetritskaro 2.54 4,041 

Tkemlana 2.24 Not determined 

Tsinubani 0.32 425 

Zeda Zegani 2.09 146 

Source: Ministry of Economic Development of Georgia, 2009 

Age Distribution. The 2008 UN Human Development Report states the age distribution for 

Georgia as a whole is trending upward, with a decline in birthrates since 2000. Some 17.5 

percent of the population is under 15 years of age, 67.9 percent is from 15 to 64 years, and 

14.7 percent is over 64 years As of 2007, the average life expectancy at birth is 70.8 years, 

with life expectancy of 75.5 years for women and 67.0 years for men. The probability of not 

surviving past age 40 is 7.9 percent, according to the UN Human Development Report. 

(UNDP, 2009) 

The population across the region spanned by the transmission line is also aging, according 

to extensive surveys conducted for the BTC ESIA (BTC Co., 2002). Data show an aging 

population in Marneuli and Akhaltsikhe districts, 30 percent above retirement age in 

Tetriskaro, and Tsalka. The number of live births per woman is 1.5 for Georgia as a whole, 

which is contributing to the aging demographic of the country. The replacement rate is 2.2 

live births per couple, so the population is aging rapidly (UNDP, 2009). Across the 

transmission line corridor area, the only area where population is believed to be increasing is 

in the Marneuli district, which has 25 percent of the population under the age of 15. It is 

believed that the overall aging is due to migration by younger people combined with (and 

contributing to) lower birthrates. (BTC Co. 2002) Therefore the population in the 

93

o 

Terjola 

(5489) 

!H 

!H 

Zestaponi 

(24158) 

Vale 

(5031) 

(1081679) 

!H !H !H 

Akhaltsikhe 

(18452) 

!H 

Aspindza 

(3243) 

Tsalka 

(1741) 

!H 

Tetri Tskaro 

(4041) 

TBILISI 

!H 

Bolnisi 

(2333) 

!H 

Marneuli 

(20065) 

!H 

Rustavi 

(116384) 

!H 

Gardabani 

(11858) 

Source: UNEP, undated 

0 20 40 60 


Proposed transmission line 

!H City (population) 

Kilometers Lake and reservoir River 

International boundary 

Population Density 

1to10 

10 to 50 

50 to 100 

500 to 5000 

more than 5000 

No data 


Population Density of Georgia 

Figure 

4.2-1 

!H 

PROJECTS\Georgia\MapDocs\Figure4.2-1_PopDensity_042909.mxd April 29, 2009


communities near the transmission line is older, in general, and would be familiar with more 

traditional styles of decision making and government interventions in daily life, including 

disturbances for infrastructure projects. 

Ethnicity. The ethnicities of the communities along the transmission line corridor reflect the 

complexity of the Caucasus. Areas along the eastern portion of the line are inhabited by 

predominantly ethnic Azeris who speak the Azeri language, with Georgian and Russian as 

second languages. This includes the communities of Ilmazlo, Algetis Meurneoba, and 

Kosalari, and the larger communities of Marneuli and Gardabani. These populations are 

predominantly Muslim and tend to adhere to more traditional social norms. The middle and 

northern portions of the lines are predominantly ethnic Georgians. This includes areas 

around Zestaphoni, Pirveli, and Kvaliti. They speak Georgian as a first language and older 

populations may speak Russian. The Georgians are Georgian Orthodox. Communities in the 

southernmost areas along the central portion of the route are ethnic Armenian. This includes 

the community of Tskurti, and portions on Militi and Tabatskuri. They speak Armenian as 

their primary language, with Georgian and Russian as second languages. They adhere to 

the Armenian Orthodox religion and tend, like the Azeris, to adhere closely to their own 

ethnic traditions and social norms. In the communities of Persa the people are Meskhs who 

were forcibly settled there in 1944 during the Stalinist period, after being moved from the 

Georgian coast of the Black Sea near Turkey. They have Turkish roots, speak Georgian and 

Turkish, and are Sunni Muslim (Conquest, 1991). 

Literacy rates/education rates. One legacy of the Soviet system is that literacy rates for 

Georgia are exceptionally high, with official rates are set as high as 99.8 percent nationally, 

and even lower estimates do not range much below 95 percent (UNDP, 2009). 

Migration. As in the rest of the world, the urbanization of Georgia is occurring as many 

people from the countryside come to the larger towns in search of economic opportunities. 

Currently, the percent of population living in urban areas is 52.2 percent, and it is expected 

to rise to 53.8 percent by 2015 (UNDP, 2009). There is significant migration to the cities from 

the areas along the route of the transmission line. The BTC ESIA surveys indicate that 

approximately 30 percent of surveyed households along the BTC route (which runs parallel 

to a sizeable part of the transmission line corridor) have had at least one member of the 

household leave to settle elsewhere. The reasons for leaving are to find employment in 

another country (48 percent), to get married (40 percent), to work in Tbilisi or another part of 

Georgia (15 percent), and for educational opportunities for themselves and their children (9 

percent) (BTC Co. 2002). 

Migration. As in the rest of the world, the urbanization of Georgia is occurring as many 

people from the countryside come to the larger towns in search of economic opportunities. 

Currently, the percent of population living in urban areas is 52.2 percent, and it is expected 

to rise to 53.8 percent by 2015 (UNDP, 2009). There is significant migration to the cities from 

the areas along the route of the transmission line. The BTC ESIA surveys indicate that 

approximately 30 percent of surveyed households along the BTC route (which runs parallel 

to a sizeable part of the transmission line corridor) have had at least one member of the 

household leave to settle elsewhere. The reasons for leaving are to find employment in 

another country (48 percent), to get married (40 percent), to work in Tbilisi or another part of 

Georgia (15 percent), and for educational opportunities for themselves and their children (9 

percent) (BTC Co. 2002). 

95


Georgia total 

Georgian -83.8%, 

Abkhaz – 0.1%, 

Ossetian – 0.9%, 

Russian – 1.5%, 

Ukrainian – 0.2, 

Azerbaijanian – 6.5%, 

Armenian – 5.7%, 

Jewish – 0.1%, 

Greek – 0.3%, 

Kurd – 0.5 

Table 4.2-3. Ethnicity of Georgia and of Districts along the 

transmission line corridor 

Marneuli 

(District) 

Azeri - 

100% 

Kvemo Kartli 

Tetritskaro 

(District) 

Georgian – 

34%, 

Armenian - 

34% and 

other 

ethnicity 

Tsalka 

(District) 

Greek - 

43%, 

Georgian 

and 

Armenian 

– 56% 

Samtskhe-Javakheti 

Borjomi 

(District) 

Georgian - 

70%, 

Armenian and 

Greek – 30% 

Akhaltsikhe 

(District) 

Georgian – 

60%, 

Armenian – 

40% 

Sources: BTC Co., 2002 and Ministry of Economic Development of Georgia, 2009 

Imereti 

Region 

Zestap 

honi 

(District 

) 

Georgia 

n – 

100% 

4.2.3 Infrastructure 

Roads. Secondary roads in the area along the route are generally in poor condition, with 

better-maintained and more traveled primary roads crossing the line near larger towns and 

where the line crosses routes between major towns. The roads that parallel the lines 

themselves are rarely paved and are generally in poor condition. If the secondary roads 

have been asphalted in the past, they have not been well-maintained and have been 

degraded by weather and excessive use. Often the asphalt has become so degraded that 

vehicles travel on paths along the road. This creates erosion and wear on the terrain, and 

additional subsequent paths are taken, resulting in large barren swaths of land up to 500 

meters wide that consists of vehicle tracks that are no longer suitable for any other types of 

use. (See figure 4.2-2). In several cases, in fact, attempts to visit communities were 

hindered by poor road conditions, and this was exacerbated by bad weather. 

Additional roads are being built 

in the southern portion of 

Georgia, funded by the U.S. 

through Millennium Challenge 

Georgia. The Samtskhe- 

Javakheti Road Rehabilitation 

Project aims at restoring the 

road and transport network in 

the region. With a total budget 

of USD 183,6 million, the 

project envisages rehabilitation 

of the 223.9 kilometer road in 

Kvemo Kartli and Samtskhe- 

Javakheti 

regions. 

(Bochorishvili, 2009) The 

transmission line will cross this 

road around Tsalka. (MCG, 

2007) 

Other main roads and railways 

that will be crossed by the line 

Figure 4.2-2. Typical secondary road along the 

transmission line route. Original paved route has been 

abandoned for successive unpaved tracks. 

96


include the Tbilisi Baku Road near Ilmazlo, Tbilisi Yerevan Road and the Tbilisi Yerevan 

railway line north of Marneuli, the railway line from Tbilisi to Akhalkalaki near Tsalka, the 

Borjomi to Akhaltsikhe to Yerevan road at Aspindza and again near Agara. It will also cross 

the Tbilisi to Vale railway near Agara. Gokhelashvili, Ramaz, 2008 

Access to energy. People who were interviewed during scoping reported they generally have 

regular energy supplies. Though there is concern among some residents that the towers are 

worn, and often vulnerable to falling due to storms and high winds. In several communities, 

existing power lines (not the towers constructed for the line being studied here) were 

precariously leaning over homes and other structures. Additionally, residents have voiced 

concern about the condition of existing towers for this line that have been scavenged and 

are not in workable condition at the moment. 

While energy is officially available in 99 percent of households in Georgia (UNDP 2009) the 

main source of heating in many rural areas is firewood, according to those interviewed 

during scoping for this ESIA. Both gas and electricity are felt to be too expensive to heat 

with. It is noteworthy that there are environmental impacts associated with heating with 

wood due to deforestation, which leads in turn to land and mud slides and long term soil 

degradation. It is also noteworthy that the interview subjects did not foresee using electricity 

for heating in the future. 

Hospitals. There are no hospitals within 5 kilometers of the corridor of the transmission line 

corridor. According to the BTC ESIA, hospitals are in larger towns and cities, with medium 

sized towns having clinics. The smaller communities that are located closest to the line may 

have clinics, and some may be served by mobile clinics (BTC Co. 2002 ). 

Schools. The survey of the communities nearest the transmission line did not identify any 

school buildings near the corridor. School buildings were built in accordance with Soviet 

standards and not near high voltage lines. Additionally, efforts were apparently made to 

avoid locating lines near school facilities. 

4.2.4 Economic conditions 

The overall economic conditions in Georgia are improving (UNDP 2009) but largely 

vulnerable to fluctuations in the world market (UNDP, 2009). Since the August 2008 conflict 

with Russia, significant amounts of foreign assistance have come into the country to restore 

and improve infrastructure and provide support to internally displaced people. The resulting 

economic “boom” has been fueled by construction and foreign investment, combined with 

increased government spending and improved tax collection mechanisms.(US Central 

Intelligence Agency, 2009) 

Gross domestic product (GDP) and employment. The GDP rose by close to 10 percent in 

both 2006 and 2007 before slowing to less than 7 percent in 2008, with an anticipated 

decline in 2009 due to the global economic conditions. The growth rate in the economy is 

reflected in the increase in per capita GDP, adjusted for Purchasing Power Parity which 

climbed from US$4000 in 2006 to US$4700 in 2008 (US Central Intelligence Agency, 2009). 

GDP sectoral composition in 2008 was weighted heavily toward the service sector, with 58.8 

percent of GDP being derived from services. Agriculture accounted for 12.8 percent and 

industry for 28.4 percent. This contrasts with sectoral employment, which is 53.4 percent in 

agriculture, 10.5 percent in industry, and 36.1 percent in the services sector. This is 

presented in Table 4.2.4. Each sector is described below. 

97


Table 4.2-4. Georgia economic and employment contributions by 

sector 

Sector Percent of GDP Percent of total 

employment 

Agriculture 12.8 53.4 

Industry 28.4 10.5 

Services 58.8 36.1 

Sources: Ministry of Economic Development of Georgia, 2009 and U.S. 

Central Intelligence Agency, 2009 

The discrepancy of the agricultural sector accounting for 53.4 percent of the employment, 

but contributing only 12.8 percent of the GDP reflects the prevalence of subsistence farming. 

This probably contributes to what was reported in the UN Human Development Reports, 

which is that 54.5 percent of the population was living below the poverty line in Georgia 

between 1990-2004. (UNDP 2009) 

The national employment rate is 86.7 percent of which 31.8 percent are hired workers and 

54.9 percent are self-employed. The rates of unemployment in the rural areas are much 

higher. The national unemployment rate is 13.3 percent, whereas in the areas impacted by 

the transmission line, the unemployment rates range from 30 percent to 39 percent, as 

shown in Table 4.2-5. (Ministry of Economic Development , 2009) 

Table 4.2-5. Unemployment rates by administrative 

region/district near transmission line 

District 

Unemployment rate 

Georgia 13.3% 

Kvemo Kartli 

Marneuli 36% 

Tetritskaro 35% 

Tsalka 34% 

Samtskhe-Javakheti 

Borjomi 39% 

Akhaltsikhe 30% 

Imereti Region 

Zestaphoni 

N/A 

BTC Co. 2002 and Ministry of Economic Development of Georgia, 2009. 

Communities along the transmission line route where scoping interviews were held were 

dependent almost wholly on agricultural activities and on income sent from family members 

working in cities or abroad. Agricultural activities included farming short crops such as 

vegetables and melons, livestock breeding and herding, cereals production, vineyards, and 

fruit orchards. Livestock included cattle, sheep and goats. Horses and donkeys are used as 

beasts of burden, and bred as well. The lands directly under the planned route of the 

completed transmission line were often cultivated near communities, and nearly all land near 

communities were heavily grazed. A significant portion of the farming appeared to be 

subsistence level, with some crops grown for sale in the neighboring towns and cities. 

98


Ilmazlo 

Table 4.2-6. Principal income sources in selected 

communities near transmission line 

Community 

Algetis Meurneoba 

Kosalari 

Jandari area 

Tetritskaro 

Azavreti 

Aspindza (Damala) 

Pirveli Sviri 

Kvaliti 

Moliti 

Tabatskuri 

Persa 

Klde 

Tskruti 

Benara 

Agara 

Source: scoping interviews 

Main economic activities 

Field crops 

livestock 

livestock 

farming and livestock 

Farming; livestock 

livestock 

livestock 

maise wheat and soy 

Vineyards and wheat 

livestock 

livestock 

cultivation 

cultivation 

cultivation 

farming; cultivation 

Vineyards and wheat/ livestock 

The cultivation of arable lands near and beneath the proposed line is illustrated in Figures 

4.2-3 and 4.2-4. Figure 4.2-4 shows how some towers have been scavenged. 

The southeastern portion of the proposed route runs through the Kvemo Kartli region. The 

towns of Gardabani, Marneuli, and Bolnisi are all within a few kilometers of but not directly 

on the proposed transmission line corridor. Between 2005 and 2007, there was a marked 

increase in the economic productivity of Kvemo Kartli, as measured in output by region, 

including subsidies. Industrial employment has remained constant, but overall employment 

levels dropped by 16 percent between 2005 and mid-2008 (Ministry of Economic 

Development of Georgia, 2009). 

The southeastern portion of the proposed route runs through the Kvemo Kartli region. The 

towns of Gardabani, Marneuli, and Bolnisi are all within a few kilometers of but not directly 

on the proposed transmission line corridor. Between 2005 and 2007, there was a marked 

increase in the economic productivity of Kvemo Kartli, as measured in output by region, 

including subsidies. Industrial employment has remained constant, but overall employment 

levels dropped by 16 percent between 2005 and mid-2008 (Ministry of Economic 

Development of Georgia, 2009). 

The northwest portion of the route is in the Imereti Region, with Zestaphoni being the main 

town. Between 2005 and 2007, there was a slight decrease in the economic productivity of 

this region. Industrial employment dropped slightly, and overall employment dropped by 11 

percent between 2005 and mid-2008.(Ministry of Economic Development of Georgia, 2009). 

The southwestern portion of the route is in the Samtskhe-Javakheti region. It includes the 

towns of Borjomi, Alkhalkalaki, and the province capital of Akhaltsikhe. The poverty rate is 

estimated to be 60 percent. Between 2005 and 2007, there was a marked decrease in the 

economic productivity of Samtskhe-Javakheti, and industrial employment declined by almost 

99


Figure 4.2-3. Cultivated land under 

proposed line near Ilmazlo. Towers at 

left are for the proposed line, towers on 

right support existing lines. 

Figure 4.2-4. Cultivated land near proposed corridor. 

Debris in left foreground is vandalized/scavenged 

remains of foundation/tower for proposed line. 

Existing tower and line in rear are not part of the 

proposed line. 

one-third. In this region employment levels dropped by 33 percent between 2005 and mid 

2008. Statistical data by towns shows populations have declined from 1989 to 2008 in most 

of the towns along the route, decreasing by up to a third This is believed to be due to 

emigration of workers and in some cases their families. (Ministry of Economic Development 

of Georgia, 2009) 

In the area near Jandari, there is a newly constructed basalt processing plant. This plant is 

located approximately 75 meters from the centerline of the transmission line corridor. The 

ownership of the plant is not known, and it is possible that some areas of the plant are closer 

to the line. The ESIA team was not permitted to enter the area near the plant, which is 

shown in Figure 4.2-5. 

Plant 

Figure 4.2-5. Basalt processing plant near proposed transmission line 

(plant is at left center, tower for proposed line visible at right) 

The services sector in the area along the route includes traders and merchants, 

shopkeepers, mechanics, teachers, administrators, etc. The services sector in Georgia is 

predominantly centered in Tbilisi and larger towns. 

4.2.5 Health 

The health of the population of Georgia is improving based on global standards set by the 

United Nations Development Programme. Overall, the major threat to public health is 

poverty rates. Health care is increasingly expensive, especially when compared to the Soviet 

100


era. Private expenditures on health care (as percent of GDP) are now almost 2.5 times the 

public expenditures. Despite this, 95 percent of one-year-olds are fully immunized against 

tuberculosis, and 92 percent against measles. The population that is undernourished has 

dropped significantly, from 44 percent in 1990-1992 to nine percent in 2002-2004. This is 

mainly due to increased economic and political stability in the region. (UNDP, 2009) 

Average life expectancy at birth is 70.7 years, which is high for a medium-developed 

country. There are 409 physicians per 100,000 people. Birthrates have dropped to 1.5 per 

woman. Married women are using contraception at the rate of 47 percent, and 92 percent of 

births are attended by skilled health professionals. The HIV rate for the population aged 15- 

49 years is 0.2 percent for 2005 (UNDP, 2009). 

4.2.6 Cultural Resources 

Figures 4.1-19a through 4.1-19h show various types of cultural resources along the 

transmission line corridor. Cultural resources near the transmission line corridor include 

historic sites, churches, prehistoric and historic archaeological sites, caves, and other sites. 

There are 30 such sites within 0.5 kilometer of the centerline of the transmission line corridor 

(that is, within a one-kilometer corridor centered on the transmission line). These sites are 

shown in Table 4.2-7. There are an additional 33 sites, for a total of 63, within one kilometer 

of the centerline. 

Table 4.2-7. Cultural resources within 0.5 kilometer of transmission line corridor 

centerline 

Distance to 

Cultural resource at risk centerline Which alternative(s)? Nearest settlement 

(meters) 

Muslim cemetery 9 Main powerline 500KV Ilmazlo 

Medieval settlement 15 Main powerline 500KV Kizil-ajlo 

2 smal burial mounds 57 Alternatives 2 and 3 mt. Mshrali Mta. Moliti 

Burials 61 Main powerline 500KV Ksovreti 

Burials 70 Main powerline 500KV Shua Khareba 

cyclopean castle 77 Main powerline 500KV Avranlo north west 

Medieval settlement 80 Main powerline 500KV Dageti 

Church and tower 80 Main powerline 500KV Kosalari 

Graves, burials 100 Main powerline 500KV Shua Khareba 

Antic period settlement 

remains 

117 Alternatives 2 and 3 Tabatskuri 

Church and caves 141 Main powerline 500KV Avranlo north 

Medieval settlement 216 Main powerline 500KV Jandari 

Transfiguration chrurch 250 Main powerline 500KV Avranlo north 

Ruins of Cyclopean fortification 253 Main powerline 500KV 

mt. Aia-Ilia, 

Beshtasheni 

Burial 256 Main powerline 500KV Tetritskaro 

Bieti Church 290 Alternative 3 Tsinubani 

Bronze Age agricultural fields 303 Main powerline 500KV 

mt. Aia-Ilia, 

Beshtasheni 

Middle bronze age structure 

remains 

310 Main powerline 500KV Shua Khareba 

St. Nicholas church 329 Main powerline 500KV Shua-Kharaba east 

Burial Mound, Stone Piles 346 Main powerline 500KV mt. Bedeni, Iragi 

101


Table 4.2-7. Cultural resources within 0.5 kilometer of transmission line corridor 

centerline 

Cultural resource at risk 

Distance to 

centerline 

(meters) 

Which alternative(s)? 

Nearest settlement 

Monument (N/A) 379 Main powerline 500KV TetriTskaro north west 

Cave 415 Main powerline 500KV Sakuneti south east 

Two minor caves (Boordza) 425 Main powerline 500KV Bolordza 

Aqueduct 460 Alternatives 1, 2, and 3 Tskurti 

Church 486 Alternatives 1, 2, and 3 Agara north 

Church 487 Main powerline 500KV Kosalari 

Ascension church 489 Main powerline 500KV Shua-Kharaba 

St. Peter and Paul church 491 Main powerline 500KV Santa north 

Church 501 Main powerline 500KV Ksovreti 

Church 508 Main powerline 500KV Gumbati north 

Source: shapefiles received from Geo Information Laboratory Ltd. 

During scoping, the ESIA team identified three cemeteries close to the line, only one of 

which was on the list of cultural resources shown in Table 4.2-7. 

One cemetery that is on the list lies directly under the line near the Azeri village of llmazlo. 

This cemetery lies on an eroding bluff above the Kura River and was reported by nearby 

residents to be over 200 years old. One corner of the cemetery is being eroded into the 

floodplain, and some graves 

have already been eroded 

away. However, there are 

approximately 50 marked 

graves remaining which are in 

the area that will be directly 

under the line. The cemetery is 

reported to be over 200 years 

old and is not used for new 

graves. Figure 4.2-6 shows 

headstones in the foreground 

and towers in the background. 

The second community with a 

cemetery close to the corridor 

is Kosalari. This cemetery was 

not on the list of cultural 

resources, however. It is also 

an Azeri community, though 

Figure 4.2-6. Old Muslim cemetery under proposed 

the cemetery has been used 

transmission line near Ilmazlo. The three towers on the left, 

more recently. The conditions 

and the double towers in the distance behind those, are part 

of the towers in this community of the proposed line. Towers and lines on right 

are so poor that residents feel 

are a different line. 

it would be advisable to build 

new lines around the village so 

it is not clear if the lines will actually cross this cemetery. 

The third community where it appears there may be an impacted cemetery is Azavreti. This 

is estimated from aerial photographs; the cemetery does not appear on the list. It was not 

102


possible to confirm its location or distance because travel to this Armenian community during 

scoping was not possible due to bad weather. 

4.2.7 Tourism 

The system of protected areas in Georgia is relatively new. The Borjomi-Kharagauli National 

Park was established in 1995, with the formal opening in 2001. It has been described as 

one of the best Protected Areas of Europe.( Ministry of Environment Protection and Natural 

Resources, 2009) In 2007, the Borjomi-Kharagauli National Park became a member of the 

European network of Protected Areas – Pan Park, which is a guarantee of the highest level 

protection of these Protected Areas and focuses on the sustainable development of tourism, 

according to the Georgian Agency for Protected Areas (Ministry of Environment Protection 

and Natural Resources, 2009). 

The Agency for Protected Areas within the Ministry of Environment Protection and Natural 

Resources actively promotes development of protected territories. Tourist infrastructure 

within the park system is best developed in the Borjomi-Kharagauli National Park, with 

comfortable shelters to host visitors in its different sectors, including Merelisi (Imereti sector), 

Atskuri (Samtskhe area), Likani and Kvabiskhevi (Borjomi area). 

As described previously, the corridor will also cross two other protected areas, the Ktsia- 

Tabatskuri Managed Reserve and the Gardabani Managed Reserve. Both of these have 

visitor centers/offices, and are open to the public. They are listed as Manages Natures 

Reserves to protect areas for conservation through management intervention. 

(Gokhelashvili, Ramaz, 2008). 

Public enjoyment of protected areas has been increasing since the establishment of the park 

and managed reserve system. The tracking of visitors to protected area (Figure 4.2-7) 

demonstrates an almost tenfold increase in attendance rates for all areas in Georgia. 

The majority of visitors to protected areas are Georgian citizens, according to tracked 

information available for 2009 (Ministry of Environment Protection and Natural Resources, 

2009). Prime visitation periods to parks are expected to be in summer. 

Figure 4.2-7. Visitors to protected areas of Georgia 

Source: http://www.dpa.gov.ge/?site-id=15&page=1&id=278 

103

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