logical language - Developers

Ithkuil: A Philosophical Design for a Hypothetical Language 

Home Introduction 4 Case Morphology 8 Adjuncts 

FAQs 1 Phonology 5 Verb Morphology 9 Syntax 

Links of 

Interest 

Updates / 

News 

2 Morpho- 

Phonology 

3 Basic 

Morphology 

6 More Verb 

Morphology 

7 Suffixes 

Welcome! 

10 Lexico- 

Semantics 

11 The Writing 

System 

12 The Number 

System 

List of 

Abbreviations 

The Lexicon 

This website presents a comprehensive grammar of a constructed human language, Ithkuil. The 

original version of the language was posted to the Internet in January 2004. A variation on the 

language called Ilaksh, designed for easier pronunciation was posted in June 2007. These two 

versions of the language have now been replaced by a new, definitive (and final) version of the 

language as of July 2011. 

For those familiar with the history of artificial language construction, Ithkuil represents a cross 

between an a priori philosophical language and a logical language. It is by no means intended to 

function as a “natural” human language. Ithkuil exists as an exercise in exploring how human 

languages could function, not how human languages do function. 

While I enjoy the idea of inventing fictional languages which mimic natural languages, it is not enough 

for me to add simply another language to the thousands that already exist or have existed. For me, 

the greater goal is to attempt the creation of what human beings, left to their own devices, would 

never create naturally, but rather only by conscious effort — an idealized language whose aim is the 

highest possible degree of logic, efficiency, detail, and accuracy in cognitive expression via spoken 

human language, while minimizing the ambiguity, vagueness, illogic, redundancy, polysemy (multiple 

meanings) and overall arbitrariness that is seemingly ubiquitous in natural human language. This new 

version of Ithkuil represents the culmination of over thirty years of personal effort toward creating 

such a language. 

Acknowledgements: I wish to thank all of those who have taken an interest in Ithkuil, including 

Stanislav Kozlovskiy, whose 2004 article “The Speed of Thought” brought Ithkuil to the attention of 

so many people in the Russian-speaking world. Спасибо, Стас! Thanks also to Lexa Samons for 

his hard work in translating the original Ithkuil site into Russian and to fellow linguist and conlanger 

Texts

David J. Peterson for bestowing upon Ithkuil the 2008 Smiley Award. 

And I am grateful to Dr. Oleg Bakhtiyarov of the University for Effective Development in Kyiv, 

Ukraine for his interest in my work and for giving me the opportunity to visit him and his colleagues 

and students both in Kyiv and in Elista, Kalmykia. 



Links of 

Interest 

Updates / 

News 

2 Morpho- 

Phonology 

3 Basic 

Morphology 

6 More Verb 

Morphology 

7 Suffixes 

10 Lexico- 

Semantics 

—John Quijada 


System 

For those who would like a copy of the Ithkuil 

Grammar 

in book form, it is now available! 

And while you’re at it, you can check out the novel I 

cowrote 

with my twin brother Paul, also now available! 

(It’s a political thriller/science fiction story that 

explores the 

philosophical implications of quantum physics, and 

features 

Ithkuil as a “para-linguistic” interface to a quantum 

computer.) 

Proceed to Introduction>> 

12 The Number 

System 

List of 

Abbreviations 

The Lexicon 

Texts

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Links of 

Interest 

Updates / 

News 

2 Morpho- 

Phonology 

3 Basic 

Morphology 

6 More Verb 

Morphology 

7 Suffixes 

Introduction 

10 Lexico- 

Semantics 


System 

12 The Number 

System 

List of 

Abbreviations 

The Lexicon 

These webpages present the grammar of an artificially constructed human language, Ithkuil. It has 

been designed with the following goals in mind: 

1. The findings of cognitive science and cognitive linguistics since the 1980s show that human 

cognition gives rise to and processes far more information than is overtly expressed by natural 

human languages. Theoretically, it should be possible to design a human-usable language that 

overtly expresses more (or “deeper”) levels/aspects of human cognition than are found in natural 

human languages. 

2. Natural human languages are notorious for their semantic ambiguity, polysemy (multiple meanings 

for a given word), semantic vagueness, inexactitude, illogic, redundancy, and overall arbitrariness. 

Theoretically, it should be possible to design the language to minimize these various characteristics 

in favor of greater semantic precision, exactitude, and specification of a speaker’s cognitive intent. 

3. The above two goals would seemingly demand that the resulting language be long-winded, since 

individual words of the language (or at least any sentence as a whole) would have to convey much 

more morpho-semantic content than their natural language counterparts. Nevertheless, it should 

theoretically be possible to accomplish the above two goals while achieving relatively concise 

morpho-phonological forms for words. In other words, to be able to pack a lot of meaning and 

information into a relatively small number of syllables. 

Ithkuil represents the culmination of my attempts over a period of thirty years or so to achieve the 

above goals. It should be noted that Ithkuil is NOT intended to function like a “natural” human 

language. Ithkuil exists as an exercise in exploring how human languages could function, not how 

human languages do function. 

Texts

How the Language Works 

Ithkuil’s ability to express extensive cognitive detail in a concise manner is possible due to the design of 

the grammar, essentially a matrix of grammatical concepts and structures designed for compactness, 

cross-functionality and reusability. This matrix-like grammar is combined with a vocabulary/lexicon of 

semantic stems which (1) are capable of a high degree of flexibility and synergism within that matrix, (2) 

have been completely reconceptualized from the cognitive level up regardless of their correspondence to 

actual word roots and grammatical categories in existing languages, and (3) reflect the inherent 

dependencies and interrelationships between one semantic concept and another. Therefore, the 

morphemes of the language (i.e., word-roots, suffixes, prefixes, grammatical categories, etc.) are as 

phonetically brief as possible, function in multiple roles with one another, and correspond more closely 

to human cognitive categories than in natural languages. In this fashion, a limited number of sounds and 

word-roots can be made to generate a vast array of variations and derivations corresponding to and 

even surpassing all of the grammatical and semantic functions of the usual stock of words, phrases, and 

idiomatic constructions in natural languages. 

Additionally, the particular grammatical categories of the language, combined with a systematic and 

hierarchical derivational morphology, allow for extreme transparency and flexibility in: 

gestalt conceptualization 

conveying the evidential basis for an utterance 

conveying the cognitive intent of an utterance 

objective vs. subjective descriptions of objects, events, and phenomena 

descriptions of the holistic vs. discrete componential structure of objects, situations, and 

phenomena 

mechanistic vs. synergistic interpretations of objects, events, and phenomena 

the causal dynamics of complex states, acts, events 

describing spatio-temporal phenomena 

As an example of the morphological richness and efficiency possible in this language, examine the 

following Ithkuil sentence, comparing it to its literal English translation: 

Tram-mļöi hhâsmařpţuktôx. 

TRANSLATION: 

‘On the contrary, I think it may turn out that this rugged mountain range trails off at some 

point.’ 

NOTE: See Phonology, Section 1.2 on how to pronounce the Romanized orthography used to transliterate the Ithkuil 

characters.

The reader may well wonder why it takes a 19-word sentence in English to translate a two-word Ithkuil 

sentence. One might assume the sentence “cheats” in that the two Ithkuil words simply have innately 

intricate and specialized meanings. While it is true that the first word, tram-mļöi, translates as ‘on the 

contrary, it may turn out at some point (that...),’ and the second word, hhâsmařpţuktôx, means ‘I 

have a feeling this unevenly high range of mountains trails off,’ it would be quite erroneous to 

conclude that these are simply autonomous words one might theoretically find in an Ithkuil dictionary. 

Indeed, the only part of the sentence that represents any sort of “root” word is -âsm-, a stem more or 

less meaning ‘hill’ or ‘upland.’ The remainder of the sentence is made up entirely of morphological, not 

lexical components, i.e., prefixes, suffixes, infixes, vowel permutations, shifts in stress and tone, etc. 

For example, the first word, tram-mļöi, has three parts to it as shown below: 

1. tr(a)- = an affix indicating a rebuttal to an allegation, translatable as ‘on the 

contrary...’ 

2. m-mļ- = an infix which conveys both aspectual information translatable as ‘it turns out 

(to be) that’ or ‘it is revealed that,’ plus subjunctive mood, translatable as 

‘(it) may (be that)...’ 

3. -öi = an aspectual suffix translatable as ‘at some point’ or ‘somewhere along the 

way’ 

The second word, hhâsmařpţuktôx, breaks down morphologically as follows: 

1. hh- = an affix indicating a conclusion based on the speaker’s intuition, translatable 

as ‘I have a feeling (that)...’ 

2. - = a stem meaning ‘hill, upland,’ in turn derived from the root -sm- indicating 

âsm(a)- the level of a landscape 

3. -řpţ- = an affix indicating (1) that the stem is to be re-interpreted as comprising a 

composite entity of non-identical members consolidated together into a single 

segmented whole (i.e., ‘hill’ becomes ‘uneven range of hills’), and (2) that 

the entity displays depletion (i.e., ‘trailing off’ or ‘petering out’) 

4. -ukt- = a demonstrative suffix translatable as ‘this’ (= ‘the one in question’ or ‘the 

one at hand’)

5. -ôx = a suffix indicating that the stem is to be interpreted as being very large in size, 

and furthermore, that the increase in size creates a new gestalt entity, i.e., not 

simply a ‘very large hill or upland’ but rather a ‘mountain’ 

6. stress on penultimate 

(i.e., second-from-last) 

syllable 

= provides partial information on how the stem specifically derives 

from its semantic root 

7. falling tone (unmarked) = statement reflects an end-in-itself rather than a goal-oriented 

situation 

In addition to its morphology, Ithkuil is different from other languages in the way its lexicon (stock of 

word-roots) has been created as well as in the principles underlying its lexico-semantics (the relationship 

between words and meaning). In natural languages, the choice as to what mental concepts and 

categories will be overtly reflected as word-roots and stems is arbitrary and unsystematic (while in most 

invented languages, the lexicon is by and large consciously or sub-consciously patterned after that of 

natural languages). While it is true that virtually all languages reflect certain basic universals of word 

choice (e.g., all have words for sun, moon, speak, mother, father, laugh, I, you, one, two, water, 

blood, black, white, hot, cold, etc.), the manner in which these words are created is haphazard and 

with little regard for basic conceptual interrelationships. The result, in most cases, is a plethora of 

separate, distinct word roots which bear no morpho-phonological, or morpho-semantic relation to one 

another (i.e., the patterns of sounds used to create particular words are unsystematic and independent 

for each word-root regardless of whether those word-roots are semantically or cognitively related to one 

another). Ithkuil word-roots have been created in a more efficient and systematic manner, with a 

recognition that the interrelatedness between what are large sets of discrete words in other languages 

can be formalized and systematized into a vast array or matrix of derivational rules, the result being a 

drastic reduction in the number of basic word-roots, which in turn allows all individual stems to be 

extremely compact phonologically-speaking. 

For example, consider the following series of English words: see, sight, vision, glimpse, stare, gawk, 

view, panorama, look, eye, glance, visualize. Note how each of these is a separate, autonomous word 

despite the fact that it shares a single underlying semantic concept with the others (a concept which we 

can conveniently refer to as SIGHT/VISION), each representing a mere manipulation of either 

durational aspect, situational perspective, or manner of participation relating to that underlying concept. 

What is more, these manipulations are, by and large, haphazardly applied, vague, subjective, and 

particular to the specific underlying concept (i.e., the aspectual/perspectival manipulations applied to 

SIGHT/VISION do not parallel those manipulations applied to the concept TRANSFERENCE OF 

POSSESSION by which we derive the series give, take, receive, steal, donate, lend, borrow, send, 

etc.). 

In Ithkuil, it is the seminal underlying concept which is lexified into a word-root which then undergoes a 

series of regular, predictable, and universally applicable modifications at the morphological (i.e., 

grammatical) level to generate new words that, in some cases, parallel such series of English words, but

in most cases, far exceed the dynamism and range of such English word series. 

Another principle underlying the formation of words in Ithkuil is complementarity. Western thought 

and language generally reflect Aristotelian logic in the way they conceptualize the world and the 

interrelationships between discrete entities in that world. Ithkuil, on the other hand, views the world as 

being based on complementary principles, where, instead of discrete independence between related 

entities, such concepts are seen as complementary aspects of a single holistic entity. Such 

complementarity is in turn reflected in the derivation of word-roots. By “complementarity” is meant that 

the manifestation of a concept appears in any given context as either one sort of entity or another, but 

never both simultaneously; yet, neither manifestation can be considered to be a discrete whole without 

the existence of the other. A simple illustration of complementarity is the flip of a coin: the coin can only 

land on one side or the other, yet without both sides being part of the coin, any given coin toss has no 

meaning or contextual relevance no matter which side is face-up. 

For example, in Western languages, words such as male, night, limb, sit, and happen are all 

autonomous words, linguistically representing what are inherently considered to be basic mental 

concepts or semantic primitives. However, in Ithkuil, none of these words is considered to be a 

semantic primitive. Instead, they are seen to be parts of greater, more holistic semantic concepts, 

existing in complementary relationship to another part, the two together making up the whole. 

Thus, Ithkuil lexical structure recognizes that the word male has no meaning in and of itself without an 

implicit recognition of its complementary partner, female, the two words mutually deriving from a more 

basic, holistic concept, translatable into English as living being. Similarly, the word night(time) derives 

along with its complement day(time) from the underlying concept translatable as day (24-hour period), 

while limb, along with its complement trunk or torso, derives from the stem (corporeal) body. 

Actions, too, are not exempt from this principle of complementarity, an example being the relationship 

between sit and seat; one has no meaning without an implicit and joint partnership with the other, i.e., 

one cannot sit unless one sits upon something, and whatever one sits upon automatically functions as a 

seat. We see the awkward attempt of English to convey these jointly dependent but mutually exclusive 

perspectives when comparing the sentences Please sit down and Please be seated. Another example 

involves the word happen or occur, which Ithkuil recognizes as having no real meaning without the 

attendant implication of consequence or result, the two being complementary components of a holistic 

concept roughly translatable as event or situation. 

The Ithkuil word for hole illustrates another instance of complementarity. Holes can be looked at from 

two different, but interrelated perspectives: either as an opening connecting two different spaces (or 

access point to a previously unavailable space, i.e., a pit), or as a discontinuity in the surface or 

structural integrity of the dividing entity separating the two realms. In other words, one can focus on the 

potential function or consequences of the hole, or on the structural nature of the hole. Either of these 

two perspectives represents a legitimate, but complementary way to consider a hole or puncture. Thus, 

the Ithkuil word would have two derivative roots each indicating one of these two perspectives. One 

such root would be used when saying There’s a hole in your shirt, while the other would be used when 

saying She saw me through a hole in the fence. 

Ithkuil recognizes that such complementarity exists for virtually any concept, in fact that it is one of the 

foundational principles of the universe itself. No beam of light can be spoken of without implicit 

recognition of its source. No signal can be described without accounting for the signaling device. Indeed,

in Ithkuil no river is without its channel, no surface without its firmament, no message without its 

medium, no sense impression without its sense faculty, no contents without their container, no 

occurrence without its consequence, no memory without its present effect, no plan without its purpose, 

no music without its playing, no relief without prerequisite deprivation, no pleasure without its absence, 

no motion without space in which to move. 

Other principles underlying Ithkuil word-derivation include the interrelated principles of fuzzy logic, 

prototype theory, and radial categorization. Incorporation of these principles into the architecture for 

word-formation allows roots to be grouped into various types of affiliated sets, each of which then 

functions as a conceptual gestalt, the individual members of which being marked as having varying 

degrees and kinds of relatedness or similarity to a hypothetical prototype member or archetype. Thus, 

Ithkuil is able to systematically derive words such as crowd, mob, group, troop, club, association, 

assembly, and gathering all from the single root-word person. Similarly, words such as grove, orchard, 

forest, woods, jungle, and copse can all be derived from the single root-word tree. 

As one last example exemplifying the dynamism and conciseness of Ithkuil lexico-semantics, consider 

the following list of English words and phrases: drenched, wet, damp, moist, near-dry, dry, parched. 

Rather than provide separate autonomous words for these concepts, Ithkuil recognizes that these terms 

all indicate relative degrees of moisture along a continuous range. Such continua would be addressed by 

a single root whose meaning more or less corresponds to [DEGREE OF] MOISTURE to which an 

array of simple suffixes would be added to specify the particular degree along that range, all the way 

from bone dry (or parched) through drenched to saturated. All such phenomena which Western 

languages tend to semantically delineate into binary oppositions (e.g., hard/soft, light/dark, 

shallow/deep, etc.) are recognized and lexified in Ithkuil as single roots which then systematically use 

suffixes to specify the particular degree along a continuous range. 

The above paragraphs illustrate how Ithkuil is able to capture and systematically present at the 

morphological level what other languages accomplish haphazardly at the lexical level. By systematically 

finding and structuring the covert dependencies and interrelationships between what are disparate words 

in other languages, the hundreds of thousands of words in a language like English are drastically reduced 

down to the approximately 3600 word-roots of Ithkuil. This is morpho-lexical efficiency on a grand 

scale. Nevertheless, by means of the matrix-like morphological scheme previously described, each of 

these roots can in turn generate thousands of permutations to convey complex and subtle semantic 

distinctions and operations which dwarf the capacity of existing languages to convey without resorting to 

cumbersome paraphrase. This is lexico-semantic and morpho-semantic efficiency on an equally grand 

scale. Such a synergistic design for grammar lends a dynamism that allows the Ithkuil language to 

describe reality to a minute level of detail and exactitude despite a limited number of word-roots. This 

dynamism is visible throughout this work, but is discussed in systematic detail in Chapter 10: Lexico- 

Semantics. 

Addressing the Vagueness Inherent in Natural Languages 

To further illustrate the cognitive depth at which Ithkuil operates, consider one of the most pervasive 

aspects of natural human languages: semantic vagueness. For example, consider the following four

English sentences: 

(a) The boy rolled down the hill. 

(b) Maybe she just stopped smoking. 

(c) Joe didn’t win the lottery yesterday. 

(d) There is a dog on my porch. 

In examining these four sentences most native English speakers would deny that any vagueness exists. 

This is because the vagueness does not exist in terms of the overt meanings of the words themselves. 

Rather, the vagueness lies at the nearly subconscious level of their grammatical (or syntactical) relations 

and cognitive intent. For example, in sentence (a) we have no idea whether the boy chose to roll himself 

down the hill or whether he was pushed against his will. (In formal linguistic terms we would say it is 

unknown whether the semantic role of the subject ‘boy’ is as agent or patient.) And yet knowing which 

scenario is correct is crucial to understanding the speaker’s intent in describing the action. 

Imagine sentence (b) Maybe she just stopped smoking being spoken as an answer to the question ‘Why 

does she seem so irritable?’ In interpreting sentence (b), we have no idea whether the subject is indeed 

a smoker or not; i.e., is the speaker offering this speculation because he/she knows the subject to be a 

smoker, or as mere conjecture without knowledge one way or the other whether the subject smokes or 

not? 

Sentence (c) Joe didn’t win the lottery yesterday illustrates four-way ambiguity. Joe’s failure to win the 

lottery could be either because: the speaker knows Joe didn’t play; because the speaker knows Joe did 

play but lost; because the speaker doesn’t know whether Joe played or not and is simply voicing a 

conjecture; or because the statement is an inference based on some indirect clue (e.g., since Joe showed 

up for work today, he must not have won the lottery). 

And while sentence (d) There is a dog on my porch seems on its surface to be the most straightforward 

of the four, is the intent of the speaker to simply describe and identify the participants to a scene, or 

does she wish to convey the idea that the scene has personal significance to her, e.g., because she has a 

phobia of dogs or has been waiting for a long-lost pet dog to return home? In other words, the sentence 

itself does not convey the intent behind the utterance, only the static description of the scene. 

In all four instances, such vagueness exists unless and until the audience can ascertain information from 

the surrounding context of other sentences. This shows that, despite the fact that all four sentences are 

grammatically well-formed English sentences whose words in and of themselves are unambiguous, their 

grammar alone is insufficient to convey the cognitive information necessary to fully comprehend the 

intent of the speaker’s utterance. This failure of grammar to inherently convey the requisite information 

necessary to understand a speaker’s cognitive intent is a functional pitfall of human language in general 

which Ithkuil grammar has been designed to avoid. The Ithkuil equivalents to the above four sentences 

would mandatorily convey all of the “missing” information noted above without requiring any extra 

words not corresponding to the English originals. The grammatical elements of the words themselves 

(word-selection, declensions, conjugations, prefixes, suffixes, etc.) would convey all the elements 

mentioned. 

Similar examples can be given to show the extent to which natural languages such as English must often 

resort to idiomatic expressions, metaphor, paraphrase, circumlocution and “supra-segmental” 

phenomena (e.g., changing the pitch of one’s voice) in their attempts to convey a speaker’s intended

meaning. Ithkuil grammar has been designed to overtly and unambiguously reflect the intention of a 

speaker with a minimum of such phenomena. 

Comparison to Other Constructed Languages 

Those readers familiar with the history of artificial language construction might think this endeavor 

belated or unnecessary, in that logical languages such as James Cooke Brown’s renowned Loglan (or its 

popular derivative, Lojban) already exist. This serves to illustrate exactly what distinguishes Ithkuil from 

such previous attempts. Loglan was published in the 1950s as a spoken/written language based on 

symbolic logic (formally known as the first-order predicate calculus), an algorithmic system of symbol 

manipulation devised by mathematicians and logicians. As a result, one might think that such a language 

is the most capable means of achieving logical, unambiguous linguistic communication. However, 

Loglan and its derivatives are merely sophisticated tools for symbol manipulation, i.e., the levels of 

language known as morphology and syntax. It is not within the scope of such languages to address any 

reorganization of the semantic realm. This means that symbolic logic simply manipulates arguments 

which are input into the system, they do not analyze the origin of those arguments in terms of meaning, 

nor are they capable of analyzing or formalizing the structure of the cognitive or semantic realm of the 

human mind in terms of how meaning itself is assigned to arguments. (Indeed, Lojban derives its roots 

via statistical “sampling” of the most frequent roots in the six most spoken natural languages, a method 

virtually guaranteed to carry over into the Lojban lexicon all of the lexico-semantic inefficiencies 

previously described.) By not addressing these components of language, Loglan and similar efforts fail 

to address the inconsistencies and inefficiency inherent in language at the lexico-semantic level. Ithkuil 

has been designed to systematically address this issue. 

Other readers might think of international languages (or “interlanguages”) such as Esperanto, 

Interlingua, or Ido, as being logical and efficient representations of language. However, these languages 

are merely simplified, regularized amalgamations of existing languages (usually Indo-European), 

designed for ease of learning. While addressing many overt irregularities, inconsistencies, and 

redundancies of language found at the morpho-phonological and morpho-syntactic levels, they do little 

to address the problems found within the other components of language, especially the lexico-semantic. 

For example, while Esperanto admirably employs systematic rules for word derivation as knabo ‘boy’ 

versus knabino ‘girl,’ it preserves the basic lexico-semantic categorization scheme of Indo-European 

languages in general, rather than seeking opportunities to expand such word derivation schemes into 

multidimensional arrays as is done in Ithkuil. 

All in all, neither logical languages such as Loglan nor interlanguages such as Esperanto, are designed 

specifically to achieve the purpose of cognitive exactness and conciseness of communication which is 

the goal of Ithkuil. Actually, Ithkuil might more readily be compared with the analytical language of 

John Wilkins of the Royal Society of London, published in 1668, in which he divided the realm of 

human conception into forty categories, each containing a hierarchy of subcategories and subsubcategories, 

each in turn systematically represented in the phonological structure of an individual 

word. While unworkable in terms of specifics, Wilkins’ underlying principles are similar in a simplistic 

way to some of the abstract derivational principles employed in Ithkuil lexico-morphology and lexico-

semantics. Another comparable predecessor in a simplistic sense is the musical language, Solresol, 

created by Jean François Sudre and published in 1866. 

A Brief History of the Language’s Development 

The design of Ithkuil has slowly and painstakingly evolved from my early attempts as a teenager 

(following my introduction to the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis and Charles Fillmore’s seminal 1968 article 

on case grammar) to explore beyond the boundaries of Western Indo-European languages to a complex, 

intricate array of interwoven grammatical concepts, many of which are wholly of my own creation, 

others of which have been inspired by such obscure linguistic sources as the morpho-phonology of 

Abkhaz verb complexes, the moods of verbs in certain American Indian languages, the aspectual system 

of Niger-Kordofanian languages, the nominal case systems of Basque and the Dagestanian languages, 

the enclitic system of Wakashan languages, the positional orientation systems of Tzeltal and Guugu 

Yimidhirr, the Semitic triliteral root morphology, and the hearsay and possessive categories of Suzette 

Elgin’s Láadan language, not to mention ideas inspired by countless hours studying texts in theoretical 

linguistics, cognitive grammar, psycholinguistics, language acquisition, linguistic relativity, semantics, 

semiotics, philosophy, fuzzy set theory, and even quantum physics. The writings of the American 

cognitive linguists George Lakoff, Ronald Langacker, Gilles Fauconnier, and Len Talmy have been 

particularly influential on Ithkuil’s design. 

The Ithkuil writing system likewise derives from both original and inspired sources: it employs a unique 

“morpho-phonemic” principle of my own invention, its logical design borrows from the mutational 

principles underlying the Ethiopic and Brahmi scripts, and its aesthetic visual design bears a superficial 

resemblance to Hebrew square script and the various Klingon fonts. 

The first version of Ithkuil was originally posted to the Internet in early 2004. A second, alternative 

version of the language called Ilaksh was posted during mid-2007, designed specifically to address the 

many requests for a version of the language with a simpler phonology (sound system). During the 

course of modifying the original version of Ithkuil into Ilaksh, I realized there were many aspects of 

Ilaksh design that could be incorporated back into Ithkuil without the constraints of Ilaksh on the 

number of consonants and vowels. This would (hopefully) allow the language to be more euphonic to 

the ear while maintaining its morpho-phonological conciseness. Additionally, hindsight has caused me to 

re-think a few fine points of the grammar, which this latest design allows me to incorporate into the 

language. 

Introduced in July 2011, this third incarnation of the language (which shall retain the name “Ithkuil” out 

of convenience and continuity with the original version), reflects these ideas and now constitutes what I 

consider to be the definitive (or “official”) version of the language. The name of the language is an 

anglicized form of the word iţkuîl, which means more or less “hypothetical representation of a 

language” in the original version of Ithkuil.

About the Grammar Presentation 

This website provides a systematic presentation of the grammar of the language. In addition to a 

description of the various components of the grammar, the reader will find example phrases or 

sentences illustrating those components. The navigational links at the top and bottom of this page lead 

to chapters on the major grammatical components of the language and should be preferably read in 

sequence, as each chapter is cumulative and assumes knowledge of the preceding. While this grammar 

assumes only a basic knowledge of linguistic concepts, it will be helpful to briefly familiarize the reader 

with the hierarchical/schematic structure of human language in general, as the organization of this 

grammar is somewhat based around this structure. The analysis of human language can be organized 

into the following hierarchical schema of primary concepts: 

Phonology: The manner in which vocally articulated sound is structured for use within a 

language; this is the basic realm of the acoustic sounds produced by the lungs, vocal cords, 

tongue, and lips, i.e., consonants, vowels, volume, pitch, tone, stress, etc. 

Morphology: The grammatical rules, structures, categories and functions which can be 

manipulated to form words and the component phrases of sentences; this is the realm of prefixes, 

suffixes, word-roots, and conceptual categories like tense, singular vs. plural, moods, active vs. 

passive voice, etc. 

Syntax: The rules governing how words and phrases can be combined into grammatically 

acceptable sentences. 

Semantics: The realm of meaning; what the words, phrases, and syntactical structures of the 

language represent in terms of meaning. 

Lexicon: The list of word-roots within a language, i.e., the vocabulary of the language. 

Pragmatics and Discourse Rules: The analysis of how language is actually used in real-world 

situations as determined by cultural and context-driven rules; the realm of style, rhetoric, formal 

versus informal language, slang, etc., outside the realm of grammar. Because this is a formal 

grammar for a hypothetical language (i.e., it has no “real world” linguistic context), pragmatics and 

discourse rules will not be covered. 

The above components of language in turn operate in an interrelated fashion, combining to designate 

several additional or secondary levels of analysis. For example: 

Morpho-phonology: The interrelationship between phonology and morphology, i.e., the manner 

in which the sounds of the language are manipulated into structures that can contain meaning. For 

example it is morpho-phonology that explains why different word-endings signify concepts such as 

masculine or feminine in Spanish. 

Morpho-syntax: The interrelationship between morphology and syntax, i.e., how the grammatical 

structures within words impact the overall structure of a sentence, as illustrated by the relationship 

between the sentences It is undeliverable versus It cannot be delivered. 

Lexico-Morphology: The interrelationship between morphology and the lexicon, i.e., the 

structure of word-roots and how they interact with other morphological categories, as illustrated 

by the concept of “irregular” verbs, e.g., ‘go’ + PAST = ‘went.’ 

Lexico-Semantics: The interrelationship between the lexicon and semantics, i.e. between words 

and their meaning; what mental concepts are selected by a language to be instantiated as wordroots 

and the cognitive processes behind the selection criteria.

The interrelationships between these components can be illustrated by the following diagram. 

Each example comprises an Ithkuil word, phrase, or sentence written in native Ithkuil script, 

accompanied by a Romanized transliteration, an English translation (sometimes divided into a “natural” 

versus literal translation), and a morphological analysis. The morphological analysis is presented serially, 

morpheme-by-morpheme, using three-letter abbreviations or labels for Ithkuil morphological categories. 

These labels are presented within the body of the work in conjunction with the explanation of each 

morphological category. A list of these abbreviations is also available on the main naviagtional menu at 

the top and bottom of each page of the site. 

This work is not meant as a primer or means of self-instruction in speaking the language, a task beyond 

even its creator, given that Ithkuil may be perhaps the most grammatically complex language ever 

devised. Simplicity was not my purpose, but rather bridging the gap between extreme morphological 

dynamism, the overt reflection of human cognitive processes via language, and extreme morphosemantic 

economy and efficiency. I believe I have achieved a result which is close to the ideal I sought. 

I leave it to the reader to explore that result. 

My work on Ithkuil is dedicated to my brother Paul, in fond remembrance of Kccoj, Mbozo, and all the 

fun times we had growing up playing with language and linguistics. Aniamtrexu tanskbitero! 

And I dedicate this new 2011 version of the language to Ms. Alla Vishneva, who teaches students about 

Ithkuil in Kyiv, Ukraine, and to whom my work is as important as it is to me. Дякую, Алла. Ти маєш 

рацію! 

—John Quijada 

July, 2011 

Proceed to Chapter 1: Phonology >>



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3 Basic 

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12 The Number 

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Home Introduction 4 Case Morphology 8 Adjuncts 12 The Number System 

FAQs 1 Phonology 5 Verb Morphology 9 Syntax List of Abbreviations 

Links of Interest 2 Morpho-Phonology 6 More Verb Morphology 10 Lexico-Semantics The Lexicon 

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Chapter 1: Phonology 

1.1 Note On Orthography and Transliteration 1.3 Phonological Processes and Rules 

1.2 Phonemic Inventory 1.4 Phonotactic Rules 

The phonology of a language essentially refers to its sound system, i.e., its systematic employment of consonants, vowels, and 

other vocalized phenomena such as pitch, stress (or accent), and tone in order to physically convey the meaningful content of 

the language itself. The phonological system of Ithkuil is detailed in the sections below. 

1.1 NOTE ON ORTHOGRAPHY AND TRANSLITERATION 

The native script used to represent Ithkuil is both alien and complex. It is explained in Chapter 11. As a result of this 

complexity, a system of romanization is employed throughout this grammar to allow the reader to recognize the general 

phonetic structure of Ithkuil words. Due to the inadequacies of the Roman alphabet in transliterating some of the phonemes 

(meaningful sounds) in Ithkuil, various diacritics are necessary for a phonemic Romanization system. Additionally, there are 

two digraphs, dh and xh, which represent single sounds. 

1.2 PHONEMIC INVENTORY 

Ithkuil has 45 consonants and 13 vowels. These phonemes are illustrated by place and manner of articulation in Table No. 1 

below using a special romanized orthography. 

Tables 1(a) and 1(b): Phonemic Inventory 

Table 1(a): Consonantal Inventory 

PLOSIVES AFFRICATES 

plain aspirated ejective plain aspirated ejective 

unvoiced 

+voice 

unvoiced 

unvoiced 

unvoiced 

+voice 

unvoiced 

unvoiced 

Fricatives Nasals Taps/ 

Trills 

unvoiced 

Liquids Approximants 

+voice +voice +voice +voice +voice 

BILABIAL p b p h p’ _ _ _ _ _ _ m _ _ _

LABIO- 

VELAR 

LABIO- 

DENTAL 

_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ w 

_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ f v _ _ _ _ 

DENTAL t d t h t’ _ _ _ _ ţ dh n _ _ _ 

ALVEOLAR _ _ _ _ c ż c h c’ s z _ _ _ _ 

ALVEOLAR- 

RETROFLEX 

POST- 

ALVEOLAR 

_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ r _ _ 

_ _ _ _ č j č h č’ š ž _ _ _ _ 

PALATAL _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ ç _ _ _ _ y 

VELAR k g k h k’ _ _ _ _ x _ ň _ _ _ 

UVULAR q _ q h q’ _ _ _ _ xh _ _ _ _ ř 

GLOTTAL ’ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ h _ _ _ _ _ 

LATERAL _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ ļ _ _ _ l _ 

Table 1(b): Vocalic Inventory 

_ FRONT CENTRAL BACK 

_ unrounded rounded unrounded rounded unrounded rounded 

High î (ü) _ ü _ û 

Mid-High i _ _ _ _ u 

Mid ê 

ë _ _ ô 

ö 

Mid-Low e _ _ _ o 

Low _ _ a _ â _ 

1.2.1 Pronunciation of Consonants 

The following are approximate descriptions of the consonantal sounds of Ithkuil. In addition to these descriptions, the 

corresponding symbol of the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) is provided in brackets, as well as their X-SAMPA 

equivalents for those readers who may be familiar with these phonetic representation systems. 

b As in English. A voiced unaspirated bilabial plosive. IPA and X-SAMPA [b]. 

c 

As in English bits. A voiceless unaspirated lamino-alveolar affricate. IPA [ts]. X-SAMPA [ t_s ]. 

č As in English chin but with neither the lip-rounding nor the aspiration (accompanying puff of air) that 

characterizes this sound in English. A voiceless unaspirated lamino-postalveolar dorso-palatal non-labialized 

sibilant affricate; IPA [ ]. X-SAMPA [ t_S ].

ç Like the initial sound in English human, huge, hue, or the sound in German ich. A voiceless dorso-palatal nongrooved 

(slit) fricative; IPA [ç]. X-SAMPA [C]. 

d Similar to English, but made with the tip of the tongue against the back of the upper teeth, not the alveolar ridge 

(the gum ridge behind the upper teeth) as in English. An voiced unaspirated apico-dental plosive; IPA [ ]. X- 

SAMPA [d_d]. 

dh As in English this, bathe, weather. A voiced apico-interdental fricative; IPA [ð]. X-SAMPA [D]. 

f As in English. A voiceless labio-dental fricative; IPA and X-SAMPA [f]. 

g Always as in English gag; never as in ginger. A voiced unaspirated dorso-velar plosive; IPA and X-SAMPA [g]. 

h As in English hall. Note that, unlike English, this sound can occur at the end of a syllable in Ithkuil. A voiceless 

bi-glottal fricative; IPA and X-SAMPA [h]. 

j As in English judge but without the lip-rounding that accompanies the English sound. A voiced unaspirated nonlabialized 

lamino-postalveolar dorso-palatal affricate; IPA [ ]. X-SAMPA [d_Z]. 

k Similar to English k but without aspiration. Like the k-sound of the Romance languages, e.g., Spanish or Italian 

casa. A voiceless unaspirated dorso-velar plosive; IPA and X-SAMPA [k]. 

l The “light” l-sound of the Romance languages, or as in British English leader; not the “dark” (velarized) l-sound 

of American English lull. A voiced apico-dental dorso-bilateral liquid continuant; IPA and X-SAMPA [l]. 

ļ No English equivalent. The voiceless dorso-bilateral fricative as found in Welsh llan. Can best be approximated 

by putting the tongue in position as if to say an l-sound, and while holding the position, make a forceful h-sound 

instead; IPA [ ]. X-SAMPA [K]. 

m As in English. A voiced bilabial nasal continuant obstruent; IPA and X-SAMPA [m]. 

n Similar to English, but made with the tip of the tongue on the back of the upper teeth as in the Romance 

languages, not the alveolar ridge as in English. A voiced apico-dental nasal continuant obstruent; IPA [ ]. X- 

SAMPA [n_d]. 

ň The English ng-sound as in song or ringer; NEVER as in finger. A voiced dorso-velar nasal continuant 

obstruent;. IPA [ŋ]. X-SAMPA [N]. 

p Similar to English, but without aspiration. As in the Romance languages. A voiceless unaspirated bilabial plosive; 

IPA and X-SAMPA [p]. 

q No English equivalent. The voiceless dorso-uvular unaspirated plosive found in Arabic, Inuit and many American 

Indian and Caucasian languages. Similar to an unaspirated k-sound but made by pressing the tongue against the 

uvula (the little “punching bag” hanging at the back of the palate) as opposed to the soft palate. IPA and X- 

SAMPA [q]. 

r This sound is a single flap of the tongue tip as in Spanish caro or pero. When geminated (doubled) it becomes a 

trill as in Spanish carro or perro. A voiced apico-alveolar retroflex flap/trill; IPA [ ], [r]. X-SAMPA [4], [r]. 

ř No English equivalent. Like the throaty or “gargled” r-sound found in colloquial French and German. A voiced 

dorso-uvular approximant (non-trilled); IPA [ ]. X-SAMPA [R]. 

s As in English sister. A voiceless lamino-alveolar grooved sibilant fricative; IPA and X-SAMPA [s]. 

š As in English shoeshine but without the lip-rounding of the English sound. A voiceless non-labialized laminopostalveolar 

dorso-palatal grooved sibilant fricative; IPA [ ]. X-SAMPA [S].

t Similar to English but without aspiration and with the tongue-tip against the back of the upper teeth, not against 

the alveolar ridge. As in the Romance languages. A voiceless unaspirated apico-dental plosive; IPA [ ]. X- 

SAMPA [t_d]. 

ţ As in English thin, bath. A voiceless apico-interdental fricative; IPA [θ]. X-SAMPA [T]. 

v As in English. A voiced labio-dental fricative; IPA and X-SAMPA [v]. 

w 

As in English well, worry. A voiced labio-velar (i.e., labialized dorso-velar) glide (or approximant); IPA and X- 

SAMPA [w]. 

x No English equivalent. The smooth voiceless dorso-velar fricative found in Russian (spelled x in Cyrillic) and in 

Latin American (but not Castilian) Spanish j. Can be approximated by putting one's tongue in position as if to 

pronounce a k-sound, and while holding the tongue in this position, breathing an h-sound instead. IPA and X- 

SAMPA [x]. 

xh No English equivalent. The rough voiceless dorso-uvular fricative (or trill) found in German ach. Can be 

approximated by means of a dry gargle without vocal chord vibration. IPA [χ]. X-SAMPA [X]. 

y As in English yet, yam. A voiced dorso-palatal glide (or approximant); IPA and X-SAMPA [ j ]. 

z As in English zoo, wizard. A voiced lamino-alveolar grooved fricative; IPA and X-SAMPA [z]. 

ż Like an English d+z sound, as in roads, adze. A voiced lamino-alveolar affricate; IPA [dz]. X-SAMPA [d_z]. 

ž The voiced counterpart of š above. Similar to the sound in English pleasure or leisure, but without lip-rounding. 

A voiced lamino-alveolar dorso-palatal grooved sibilant fricative; IPA [ ]. X-SAMPA [Z]. 

’ This sound is the glottal stop heard between the two vowels in English oh-oh or as the sound heard in the word 

fattening as pronounced by most American English speakers. This sound is very common in other languages 

such as Hawaiian, Arabic, Hebrew, etc. A voiceless bi-glottal stop; IPA [ ]. 

1.2.1.1 Aspirated Consonants: The consonants p, t, k, q, c and č are all unaspirated, i.e., without the accompanying puff of 

air characteristic of English voiceless stops and affricates. In Ithkuil each of these has an aspirated counterpart, pronounced 

like the unaspirated version but with a distinct expulsion of air, more so than in English. These aspirated counterparts are 

written with a following superscript h; thus: p h , t h , k h , q h , c h and č h . 

1.2.1.2 Ejective Consonants: The same six consonants immediately above also have ejective counterparts, which do not exist 

in any major Western language, but are found in languages such as Amharic, Georgian, most of the Caucasian languages, and 

many American Indian languages. Ejectives (also called glottalized consonants) are consonants accompanied by simultaneous 

closure and sudden release of the glottis (vocal chords), which gives the sound a distinct “popped” or explosive quality. 

Ejectives are indicated by an apostrophe following the consonant, thus: p’, t’, k’, q’, c’ and č’. 

1.2.1.3 Syllabic consonants. The consonants, l, m, n, ň, and r can be pronounced as full syllables in absence of a vowel. 

The phenomenon of syllabic consonants is fairly common and occurs in colloquial English expressions such as ‘hmm’ (as 

when pondering a thought), ‘mm-hmm’ (an expression of approval or agreement), as well as with the consonants n and l as in 

the second syllable of words like button and little. In Ithkuil, these five syllabic consonants can appear as word-initial syllables 

preceding a consonant as in ntal. However, they also occur in special geminate (i.e., doubled) clusters where the second “half” 

of the geminated cluster is pronounced as a separate syllable. These special dyssyllabic geminates are indicated by writing a 

hyphen between the two syllabic “halves,” e.g., hom-m, il-lui, tiň-ňax. Syllabic consonants count as full syllables for 

purposes of stress rules (see Sec. 1.3.3).

1.2.2 Pronunciation of Vowels 

There are thirteen vowel phonemes, all of which are pure sounds, not glided into diphthongs as in English. 

a A low unrounded central vowel as in Spanish or Italian. IPA or X-SAMPA [a]. 

â A low unrounded back vowel as in Western U.S. all, or a conservative French pronunciation of pâte. IPA [ɑ]; 

e The mid-low unrounded front vowel of English bet, Italian letto, or French être. IPA [ε] or X-SAMPA [E]. When 

followed by a vowel other than u, it is pronounced like the vowel ê immediately below, only shorter. 

ê The mid unrounded front vowel of Spanish este or Italian cadere or French déjà, lengthened. IPA or X-SAMPA [e:] 

i 

The mid-high lax unrounded front vowel as in English sit, or German sitzen. IPA [I] or X-SAMPA [I]. At the end of 

a word, or when followed by a vowel other than u, it is pronounced like the vowel î immediately below, only 

shorter. 

î the high tense rounded vowel of Spanish or Italian libro, or Fench litre, lengthened. IPA or X-SAMPA [i:] 

o The mid rounded back vowel of English short or Italian otto. IPA [ ] or X-SAMPA [O]. When followed by a vowel 

other than i, it is pronounced like the vowel ô immediately below, only shorter. 

ô The mid-low rounded back vowel in Spanish or Italian cosa, lengthened. IPA or X-SAMPA [o:] 

u The mid-high lax rounded back vowel of English put or look or German putsch. IPA [ ] or X-SAMPA [U]. At the 

end of a word, or when followed by a vowel other than i, it is pronounced like the vowel û immediately below, only 

shorter. 

û the high tense rounded back vowel of Spanish or Italian puta or crudo, lengthened. IPA or X-SAMPA [u:] 

ë The mid unrounded central vowel in American English cut or nut, IPA [ə] or X-SAMPA [@]. 

ö This vowel may be pronounced either of two ways: (1) as the mid-low rounded front vowel of French feu, IPA [ø] 

or X-SAMPA [2]; or (2) as the mid rounded front vowel of French neuf, IPA [œ] or X-SAMPA [9]. 

ü A high central rounded vowel, as found in Norwegian hus or the Highland Scottish pronunciation of English book or 

good; IPA [ ] or X-SAMPA [ }]. This vowel may alternately be pronounced as the high rounded front vowel of 

French du or German über, IPA or X-SAMPA [y], if this is easier for the speaker. 

1.2.2.1 Epenthetic Vowel Following a Glottal Stop. In Ithkuil words where a glottal stop (spelled ’) is followed by a 

consonant (e.g., as in the words ka’tal or morui’ss), the glottal stop is usually followed by a very briefly pronounced vowel 

sound before the following consonant is pronounced. This vowel may be pronounced in either of two ways, whichever is 

easier for the speaker. The first is as the high central unrounded vowel of Russian быть, IPA [ ] or X-SAMPA [1]. The 

second way is to pronounce it as the high back unrounded vowel found in Turkish (spelled with an undotted i), IPA [ ] or X- 

SAMPA [M]. Both of these vowels are extremely short in duration and may even be de-voiced if the following consonant is 

voiceless. 

1.2.3 Diphthongs 

An Ithkuil syllable may contain one diphthong (a combination of two vowels pronounced together as one syllable). All Ithkuil 

diphthongs are “falling” diphthongs, i.e., the first vowel of the diphthong receives the primary articulation while the second

ecomes semi-vocalic (sometimes referred to as semi-consonantal or an “off-glide”). There are 12 diphthongs in Ithkuil, 

described as follows: 

ai Pronounced as in Spanish or Italian; like English i in white or ice. 

ei As in Spanish or Italian; like English ai in rain or ei in rein. 

ëi No standard English equivalent; a combination of the vowel sound in American English rut + an English y-sound. 

Somewhat like a rural British dialectal pronunciation of the i in ice. 

oi As in Spanish or Italian; as in English boy or voice. 

öi No English Equivalent. A combination of the Ithkuil vowel ö plus an English y-sound. Much like the French 

word oeil. 

ui A combination of the Ithkuil vowel u [ ] + an English y-sound. The speaker should avoid allowing this 

diphthong to become a “rising” diphthong where the u-sound is reduced to a w- (the result sounding like English 

wee). This diphthong may also be pronounced as the high rounded back vowel /u/ + an English y-sound, as in 

Spanish or Italian. 

au As in Spanish or Italian; like English ou in loud or ow in cow. 

eu As in Spanish or Italian; no English equivalent. A combination of the Ithkuil vowel e + an English w-sound. 

ëu No standard English equivalent; a combination of the vowel sound in American English rut + an English wsound. 

Somewhat like a rural British dialectal pronunciation of the word oh! 

iu No English equivalent; a combination of the Ithkuil vowel i (IPA /I/) + an English w-sound. May also be 

pronounced as the high front unrounded vowel /i/ + an English w-sound, as in Portuguese partiu. 

ou Like the o + w-glide of English road or mode. Also as in Brazilian Portuguese roupa. 

öu No English Equivalent. A combination of the Ithkuil vowel ö plus an English w-sound. Somewhat like an 

exaggerated upper class British pronunciation of the word oh! 

All other combinations of vowels are dissyllabic, i.e., are pronounced as two separate syllables. Care should be taken to avoid 

collapsing the many two-vowel combinations beginning with u- and i- into “rising” diphthongs beginning with a w-sound or ysound. 

This is especially important when the second vowel of these combinations receives the syllabic stress. 

1.2.3.1 Separation of Diphthongs into Separate Syllables: When one of the above twelve diphthongs represent the Slot 

VIII Vc case infix (see Section 2.1.1 for an explanation), the diphthong may optionally be separated into two separate syllables 

in words with antepenultimate or preantepenultimate stress (see Section 1.3.3 below), in order to provide a sufficient number 

of syllables in the word for the stress rules to be applied. When diphthongs are broken up into separate syllables for this 

purpose, the second character of the diphthong (i.e., either -i or -u) carries a circumflex accent above it to show the 

syllabification. In such instances, this circumflex does not indicate a long vowel, but merely the separation of the syllables. 

1.2.4 Orthographic Representation of Dissyllabic Vowel Conjuncts 

Dissyllabic vowel conjuncts, wherever they might be confused with a diphthong, are written with a grave accent ( ` ) over the 

second vowel to indicate it is a separate syllable (unless this second vowel is, in fact, the stressed syllable – see Section 1.3.3 

below for rules on indicating stress). For example, diphthong au is distingished from dissyllabic conjunct aù. 

1.2.5 Allophonic Distinctions 

Allophonic distinctions are the phonetic variances in the pronunciation of a particular phoneme depending on the phonetic 

environment in which that phoneme occurs. These variances, known as allophones, while audible to a trained linguist, are

often indistinguishable to lay native speakers of a given language, in that these allophonic variances do not change the meaning 

of a word and thus play no functional role in the language. As an example, compare the two t-sounds in the English words top 

and stop. The former is aspirated (i.e., accompanied by a distinct puff of air), while the latter is unaspirated, giving the two 

sounds a different phonetic quality. However, because consonant aspiration does not function phonemically in English, the 

difference in the two t-sounds is unnoticeable to most native speakers of English, even though it would be highly noticeable to 

speakers of languages where consonant aspiration is phonemically relevant (e.g., Hindi and many other Indic languages). 

Although such allophonic distinctions are arbitrary within a given language, they are not random; rather, their patterns are 

completely regular and predictable for any given language (as is true for consonant aspiration in English). Failure to follow the 

rules for allophonic distinctions when learning a foreign language will result in the speaker having a noticeable “foreign accent” 

to native speakers of the language (as do most French, Italians, and Spanish-speakers when trying to pronounce English “top” 

without aspirating the initial t-sound, due to the lack of consonant aspiration in Romance languages.) 

1.2.5.1 Consonantal Allophones. The significant allophonic distinctions for Ithkuil consonants are as follows: 

dy This consonant cluster may be pronounced either as it is spelled, or as the voiced dorso-palatal unaspirated plosive 

found in Hungarian and Czech where it is spelled gy and d´ respectively. Sort of like a g+y sound as in English big 

year pronounced rapidly, with the g-sound pronounced with the tongue against the hard palate as opposed to the soft 

palate. IPA [ ]. X-SAMPA [J\]. 

hh The geminated version of Ithkuil h is pronounced in either of two ways: (1) as a “bi-dental” fricative, in that the jaw is 

completely closed and the upper and lower teeth are in near-contact along their entire length; the resulting sound is 

somewhat similar in timbre to both a voiceless interdental fricative (as in English thin) as well as the English f-sound, 

however there is absolutely no contact by the tongue with the teeth or gums when pronouncing this sound; no IPA 

equivalent; or (2) as the voiceless pharyngeal fricative found in Arabic (spelled ح)and in various Northwest and 

Northeast Caucasian languages. This second allophone should not be employed if the resulting pharyngealization 

distorts the timbre of the adjacent vowels to the extent that their place of articulation changes (e.g., the vowel û being 

made to sound like ô). 

ly This consonant cluster may be pronounced either as it is spelled, or as the voiced palatal lateral liquid continuant 

found in Castillian Spanish calle, Portuguese olhar, or Italian egli. For English speakers, this can best be 

approximated by placing the tongue in the position to say the y in yes, and while keeping the tongue in that position 

flat against the hard palate, pronouncing an l-sound instead without touching the tip of the tongue to the alveolar ridge 

behind the front teeth. IPA [ ]. X-SAMPA [L]. 

ny This consonant cluster may be pronounced either as it is spelled, or as the voiced palatal nasal found in Spanish año, 

Italian agnello, Portuguese caminho, or French champagne. For English speakers, this can best be approximated by 

placing the tongue in the position to say the y in yes, and while keeping the tongue in that position flat against the hard 

palate, pronouncing an n-sound instead without touching the tip of the tongue to the alveolar ridge behind the front 

teeth. IPA [ ]. X-SAMPA [J]. 

ř In normal speech, this phoneme is pronounced as a voiced dorso-uvular approximant (non-trilled) continuant, similar 

to the throaty r-sound found in colloquial French and German, IPA [ ]. However, in emphatic articulation or hyperenunciated 

speech, this sound becomes a voiced dorso-uvular trill, IPA [R]. 

řx The combination of ř before x causes the x to be pronounced as a voicelss uvular fricative, as in German Bach or the 

Castilian pronunciation of Spanish j. 

ty This consonant cluster may be pronounced either as it is spelled, or as a voiceless unaspirated dorso-palatal plosive, 

the unvoiced counterpart to dy above. Like a k-sound but unaspirated (i.e., without any accompanying puff of air) 

and produced farther forward in the mouth by pressing the tongue to the hard palate, not the soft palate as with 

English k. The result should sound somewhat like a k+y as in backyard when spoken rapidly. IPA and X-SAMPA [c].

’ As previously described in Sec. 1.2.2.1, in Ithkuil words where a glottal stop is followed by a consonant (e.g., ka’tal 

bm, dn, km, kn, pm, tn 

When in word-initial position, the first consonant of these conjuncts is pronounced with nasal rather than oral release. 

To achieve this, place the tongue and/or lips in position to pronounce the first consonant, initiate the airstream from 

the lungs to pronounce it, but instead of releasing the sound, and without moving the tongue or lips, pronounce the 

second nasal consonant instead. 

hl, hm, hn, hň, hr, hw 

Each of these consonant conjuncts, when word-initial, or syllable-initial following another consonant, are not 

pronounced as separate consonants, but rather as unvoiced counterparts to the liquid or nasal consonant that forms 

the second member of the conjunct. To approximate these sounds, place the mouth in the position to pronounce an 

Ithkuil l, m, n, ň, r, or w, and without moving the tongue or lips, breath a clear h-sound instead. 

or morui’ss), the glottal stop is usually followed by a very briefly pronounced epenthetic vowel sound before the 

following consonant is pronounced. This vowel may be pronounced in either of two ways, whichever is easier for the 

speaker. The first is as the high central unrounded vowel of Russian быть, IPA [ ] or X-SAMPA [1]. The second 

way is to pronounce it as the high back unrounded vowel found in Turkish (spelled with an undotted i), IPA [ ] or 

X-SAMPA [M]. Both of these vowels are extremely short in duration and may even be de-voiced if the following 

consonant is voiceless. 

1.2.5.2 Vocalic Allophones. As previously stated in Section 1.2.2, the Ithkuil vowels i and u have two different 

pronunciations. Specifically, they are pronounced as the vowels in American English sit and put respectively if they appear by 

themselves, not adjacent to another vowel or not as part of a diphthong. However, when part of a dissyllabic vowel conjunct, 

their pronunciation is as follows: 

For disyllabic vowel conjuncts beginning with the vowel i- (e.g., ia, ie, io, iù, etc.), the initial i- is pronounced as 

the high unrounded front vowel in Spanish or Italian libro, or German siegen. IPA or X-SAMPA [i]. 

For disyllabic vowel conjuncts where the second member is i, (e.g., aì, uì, öì, etc.), the i may be pronounced either 

as the lax vowel in English sit and German sitzen (IPA [I], or as the high unrounded front vowel in Spanish or 

Italian libro, or German siegen. IPA or X-SAMPA [i]. 

For disyllabic vowel conjuncts beginning with the vowel u- (e.g., ua, ue, uo, uì, etc.), the initial u- is pronounced 

as the high rounded back vowel in Spanish or Italian puta or crudo. IPA or X-SAMPA [u]. 

For disyllabic vowel conjuncts where the second member is u, (e.g., aù, iù, öù, etc.), the u may be pronounced 

either as the lax vowel in English put and German putsch (IPA [ ] or X-SAMPA [U], or as the high rounded back 

vowel in Spanish or Italian puta or crudo. IPA or X-SAMPA [u]. 

In word-final position the vowel i, when not part of a diphthong, is pronounced as the high unrounded front vowel 

in Spanish or Italian libro, or German siegen. IPA or X-SAMPA [i]. Similarly, the vowel u in word-final position 

and not part of a diphthong, is pronounced as the high rounded back vowel in Spanish or Italian puta or crudo. 

IPA or X-SAMPA [u]. 

Additional vocalic allophones: 

For disyllabic vowel conjuncts beginning with the vowel e- and the second vowel is other than ì or ù (i.e., ea, eo, 

eö), the initial e- is pronounced as the mid unrounded front vowel of Spanish este or Italian cadere or French déjà; 

IPA or X-SAMPA [e]. 

For disyllabic vowel conjuncts beginning with the vowel o- and the second vowel is other than ì or ù (i.e., oa, oe), 

the initial o- is pronounced as the mid-low rounded back vowel in Spanish or Italian cosa; IPA or X-SAMPA [o].

1.3 PHONOLOGICAL PROCESSES AND RULES 

Besides the actual inventory of consonant and vowels, all languages have phonological processes which affect how those 

consonants or vowels are combined and phonetically articulated. Through these phonological processes, the possible number 

of word-forming syllables in the language is expanded. Ithkuil productively utilizes consonantal gemination, shifts in syllabic 

stress, and tone (pitch intonation) to achieve these ends. 

1.3.1 Gemination 

Gemination refers to the audible “doubling” in length of a particular sound, usually in reference to consonants. While 

gemination does not occur in English on true phonological grounds, it does occur on morpho-phonological grounds, as seen in 

the difference in pronunciation of the phrase ‘a natural’ versus ‘unnatural.’ There are many languages, however, where 

phonologically-based gemination is an intrinsic component of the phonology (e.g., Italian, Japanese, Finnish). 

In Ithkuil, most consonants can be geminated. Also noteworthy is that gemination of certain consonants is allowed in both 

word-initial and word-final position. The following are the specific rules for consonant gemination: 

1.3.1.1 Intervocalic Gemination. All consonants are capable of intervocalic gemination (i.e., when between two vowels) 

except for y, w and the glottal stop ’. 

1.3.1.2 Word-Initial and Word-Final Gemination. The following consonants, in addition to being capable of intervocalic 

gemination, are also capable of being geminated in both word-initial and word-final position: c, ç, č, j, l, m, n, ň, r, ř, s, š, z, ż 

and ž. 

1.3.1.3 Pronunciation of Geminated Consonants. Consonants which are continuants (i.e., able to be sounded for an 

indefinite duration), specifically ç, dh, f, l, m, n, r, ř, s, š, ţ, v, x, z, and ž, are simply pronounced for twice as long in 

duration when geminated. Geminated r is pronounced as a rapid apico-alveolar trill like rr in Spanish or Italian. 

The non-aspirated plosive consonants b, d, g, k, p, q and t, when geminated, are momentarily held, then released, much like 

the two d-sounds in the English phrase bad dog when spoken rapidly. For their aspirated or ejective counterparts, the 

aspiration or ejectivization occurs upon release. 

The pronunciation of affricates (c, č, j, and ż) when geminated depends on whether or not they are intervocalic (between two 

vowels) versus word-initial or word-final position. If intervocalic, they are pronounced by momentarily holding the initial stop 

(plosive) component of the affricate before releasing it into the fricative or sibilant portion, e.g., čč is pronounced as [ttš]. For 

their aspirated or ejective counterparts, the aspiration or ejectivization occurs upon release into the fricative portion of the 

affricate. When in word-initial or word-final position, geminated pronunciation is achieved by simply lengthening the sibilant 

continuant portion of the affricate (i.e., the second sound of each affricate). Thus, čč in word-initial or word-final position is 

pronounced as [tšš]. 

1.3.1.4 Romanized Orthography of Geminates. Consonants written as single characters are simply written double when 

geminated, e.g., bb, čč, dd, nn, šš. Aspirates and ejectives indicate the following superscript-h or apostrophe diacritics only 

after the second character, e.g., čč’, tt h . The two digraphs dh and xh are written ddh and xxh when geminated. 

1.3.2 Tone 

Ithkuil is a tone language like Chinese, Vietnamese, and other Southeast Asian languages as well as most of the sub-Saharan 

African languages and some American Indian languages. This means that tone of voice is used to convey grammatical 

information, unlike Western languages which use tone and pitch changes “supra-segmentally” to mark various morphosemantic 

features. For example, in English rising intonation of the voice signals a question, while other specific pitch contours 

signify emphasis, disgust, irony, and other attitudes. Ithkuil marks such features morphologically, i.e., within the words 

themselves (such as with affixes or variances in mood categories). 

There are seven tones used in Ithkuil, one of which, mid tone, is considered to be morpho-phonologically neutral. The other

six tones are low, high, falling, rising, rising-falling and falling-rising, and are considered functionally significant. Each 

word carries one functionally significant tone, pronounced beginning with the stressed syllable and continuously carried 

through any following syllables until the end of the word. Unstressed syllables prior to the stressed syllable have neutral mid 

tone. Therefore, the function of mid tone is solely to indicate the start of a new word since any preceding word must end in a 

tone other than mid. Like natural tone languages, the tones do not correspond to any exact pitch, but are relative for each 

individual speaker and utterance. The relative pitch of the tones is illustrated below: 

1.3.2.1 Indicating Tone in the Romanized Transliteration. The six significant tones are indicated in the Romanized 

transliteration by a diacritic mark placed immediately before the first letter of the word, as follows: 

Falling tone is is unmarked. 

Low tone is indicated by an underscore (e.g., _ ). 

High tone is indicated by a macron or superscripted dash (e.g., – ). 

Rising tone is indicated by a superscripted foward slash (e.g., / ). 

Falling-rising tone is indicated by either a caron (hacek) or a breve (e.g., ˇ or ˘ ), or if these symbols aren't available, a 

superscripted tilde (e.g., ~ ). 

Rising-falling tone is indicated by a circumflex (e.g., ^ ). 

1.3.3 Syllabic Stress 

Stress normally falls on the penultimate (next-to-last) syllable but can shift to either the ultimate (last) syllable of a word, to 

the antepenultimate (third-from-last) syllable, and occasionally to the preantepenultimate (fourth-from-last) syllable, as 

determined by morphological (grammatical) considerations. 

When transliterating Ithkuil into Roman characters, the number of vowels in Ithkuil requires the use of diacritics due to the 

limited number of Roman vowel characters. As a result, the orthographic representation of stress using the system of 

romanization becomes complicated. It is explained as follows: 

1) 

2) 

3) 

All monosyllabic words are unmarked for stress. 

The grave accent ( ` ) designates an unstressed syllable when stress would otherwise be misinterpreted, e.g., in 

distinguishing monosyllabic diphthongs such as au and ei from dissyllabic vowel conjuncts aù and eì. 

Penultimate stress. Polysyllabic words having penultimate stress are unmarked for stress, except for those containing 

the dissyllabic phonemes ì or ù as the penultimate syllable, which, if stressed, take an acute accent, e.g., the word 

iskoùt (stress on the o), if shifting to ultimate stress, becomes iskoút (stress on the u).

4) 

Ultimate stress. Polysyllabic words which have ultimate stress indicate this in one of the following ways: 

the unmarked vowels a, e, i, o, u, and the marked disyllabic vowels ì and ù take an acute accent, e.g., á, é, í, ó, 

ú. 

if the vowel to be stressed already carries a diacritic mark (other than the grave accent) and the vowel, diphthong, 

or syllabic liquid or nasal in the penultimate syllable does not, then this penultimate syllable takes a grave accent, 

e.g., ròihnâl. 

If the word has at least three syllables and the vowels or diphthongs in the last two syllables carry diacritics, then 

a grave accent over the antepenultimate (third-from-last) syllable implies ultimate stress (as the grave accent 

would be unnecessary if the word carried penultimate stress), e.g. òspâtlök. 

if the vowels (or diphthongs) in both the ultimate and penultimate syllables already have diacritic marks (other 

than the grave accent), and there is no antepenultimate syllable (or it, too, carries a pre-existing diacritic), then the 

stressed vowel is written double, e.g., ksûtpöör. 

5) Antepenultimate stress. To show antepenultimate stress (third syllable from the end): 

if the stressed vowel (or diphthong or syllabic liquid or nasal consonant) does not carry a diacritic (other than the 

grave accent), it takes the acute accent, e.g., áksiyor 

if the stressed vowel already has a diacritic (other than the grave accent), then use the grave accent plus the lack 

of acute accent on the ultimate syllable or other non-diacriticized vowels to indicate stress, e.g., ëitlàrrun, 

ôrümzìl. (Note that the use of the grave accent over the i in ôrümzìl would be unnecessary if the word carried 

penultimate stress, therefore its presence implies antepenultimate stress). 

if existing diacritics prevent clear indication using the above rules, then the stressed vowel is written doubled, e.g., 

öömolûk. 

See Section 1.2.3.1 on the optional separation of diphthongs into separate syllables to increase the number of 

syllables for purposes of applying antepenultimate stress. 

6) Preantepenultimate stress. To show preantepenultimate stress (i.e., fourth syllable from the end) apply the same rules 

as for antepenultimate stress above, but to the preantepenultimate syllable. See Section 1.2.3.1 on the optional 

separation of diphthongs into separate syllables to increase the number of syllables for purposes of applying 

preantepenultimate stress. 

NOTE: Monosyllabic words in Ithkuil are to be interpreted grammatically as having the equivalent of penultimate stress. When 

necessary to gramatically indicate the equivalent ultimate or antepenultimate stress on a monosyllabic word, extra syllables (the 

vowel -a-) are added to the word in order to allow the necessary ultimate or antepenultimate syllable to be stressed, e.g., kust 

→ kustá, kust → ákusta. 

1.4 PHONOTACTIC RULES 

In addition to phonological processes such as gemination, stress-shifting, and tone, all languages employ their own individual 

and arbitrary rules as to what combinations of consonants and vowels are permissible in a syllable or word. This concept is 

called phonotaxis and such rules are known as phonotactical rules. These rules, peculiar to each language, explain, for 

example, why sprelch could be a hypothetical word in English, while znatk could not be, even though znatk is as easily 

pronounced by a linguist as sprelch. Rules governing syllable structure, diphthong formation, and overall phonetic euphony are 

all part of phonotaxis 

Equally important are the optional rules each language employs to achieve euphony and greater ease of pronunciation, known 

as phonaesthetics or phonaesthetic rules. Together, phonotaxis and phonaesthetics are greatly responsible for the phonetic

“character” or subjective “sound” of a given language. The phonotactic and phonaesthetic rules for Ithkuil are described in the 

sections below. 

1.4.1 Syllable Structure 

The permissible syllable structure depends on whether the syllable forms a monosyllabic word, is a word-initial syllable, a 

word-final syllable, or is word-medial (i.e., between two other syllables). These structures are shown in Table 2 below, where 

(C) represents an optional consonant and V represents a mandatory vowel or diphthong. 

Table 2: Syllabic Structure 

Syllable Type Structure Examples 

Consonantal 

Word 

C(C)(C) where final consonant is a nasal, 

liquid, or voiceless fricative continuant 

s, h, ll, mm, pçç 

Monosyllabic (C)(C)(C)V(C)(C)(C) a, ui, öt, isk, du, tuil, kleb, tlips, pskarn, xxoršt 

Word-initial (C)(C)(C)V(C)- or l, m, n, ň 

uran, tamin, uisá, prine, klâtma, kstollap, ltas, 

mpeisku 

Word-medial -(C)(C)V(C)(C)- or l, m, n, ň kialùn, ruentik, isteixlom, okspûtkai, hen-nau 

Word-final -(C)(C)V(C)(C)(C)- or l, m, n, ň lua, entoi, tial, eifkés, poxšurn, erpsalks, ön-n 

The following rules apply: 

A single non-syllabic intervocalic consonant is syllabically part of the vowel following, not preceding. 

An intervocalic bi-consonantal conjunct is considered dissyllabic (i.e., each consonant is part of a different syllable), 

even if the conjunct is a geminate consonant. 

If a triple-consonant conjunct occurs in the middle of a word, the first consonant of the three must be in a separate 

syllable from the last consonant of the three. The middle consonant will be in the same syllable as whichever of the 

two surrounding consonants it forms a permissible word-initial or word-final cluster. If it can form permissible 

clusters with either surrounding consonant, it will be considered part of the syllable with which it is morphemically 

associated. 

1.4.2 Constraints on Vowels 

All the vowels, diphthongs, and dissyllabic vowel conjuncts previously mentioned can occur in any syllable, however, the 

maximum number of dissyllabic vowels which can occur immediately next to each other is two. If one of the two syllables is a 

diphthong, the diphthong must be the second syllable. Any syllable immediately following a diphthong must begin with at least 

one consonant. Trisyllabic vowel conjuncts (or more) are not permitted. Thus, words such as dea or aitua or ruai are 

permissible, but words such as oia, tuoa, auem, and laúio are not. 

1.4.3 Constraints on Consonants 

The consonants w and y cannot appear in syllable-final position and must always be followed by a vowel. 

The glottal stop (’) does not occur word-initially except as a juncture feature (i.e., where two separate words come 

together). Specifically, when a word ends in a vowel and the next word begins with a vowel, Ithkuil phonetically 

separates the words by inserting a glottal stop at the beginning of the second word so that the word-final vowel of the 

first word does not combine with the word-initial vowel of the second. This serves to keep the two words separate and

distinct. This glottal stop is unmarked in the Romanized transliteration. Elsewhere, the glottal stop may appear 

intervocalically, or may appear in syllable-final position if preceded by a vowel. 

No more than five consonants can occur in conjunction intervocallically, and only four in word-initial position. When 

intervocalic, the first two or three and last two or three consonants must each form permissible syllable-final and syllable 

initial conjuncts respectively. For word-initial conjuncts, the first three of the four consonants must form a permissible 

syllable-final conjunct on their own. Examples: kstruifântu, alzmweit, urpstwam. 

For intervocalic three-consonant conjuncts either the first consonant or the last consonant of the conjunct must be in a 

separate syllable than the other two consonants. If the first consonant is dissyllabic from the other two, then those other 

two consonants must be a permissible syllable-initial conjunct. If the third consonant is dissyllabic from the first two, 

then the first two must be a permissible syllable-final conjunct. 

For word-initial and word-final triple consonant conjuncts, these are generally permissible if the both the first two 

consonants are permissible as a conjunct by themselves and the last two consonants of the conjunct are permissible as a 

conjunct by themselves. 


Proceed to Chapter 2: Morpho-Phonology >> 

12 The Number 

System 




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Chapter 2: Morpho-Phonology 

2.1 Grammatical Typology 2.4 Parts of Speech 

2.2 Root and Stem Formation 2.5 Note On Terminology 

2.3 Semantic Instantiation of Stems 

Morpho-phonology refers to how a language uses its phonemes (meaningful sounds) and phonological features (e.g., stress, tone, etc.) 

to generate patterns for word-formation and for morphological categories (e.g., singular versus plural, verb tense, etc.) to be applied to 

words. 

2.1 GRAMMATICAL TYPOLOGY 

Ithkuil morpho-phonology is primarily agglutinative and secondarily synthetic. That is, the manner in which morpho-semantic stems, 

inflections and derivations are formed, and how those elements combine meaningfully into words, is primarily via the joining of one or 

more affixes (including prefixes, suffixes, infixes and interfixes) to a semantic root, where the affixes themselves are highly synthetic 

(i.e., combining numerous morphological categories together into a single phonological form). 

2.1.1 The Structure of Ithkuil Words 

As will be discussed later in Section 2.4, the part of speech in Ithkuil which corresponds to nouns and verbs in Western languages is 

called a formative. The morphological structure of the Ithkuil formative can be shown by the following formula: 

(((Cv +) VL +) Cg/Cs +) Vr + (Cx/Cv + Vp/VL +) Cr + Vc (+ Ci +Vi) + Ca (+ VxC ) (+ Vf (+ Cb)) [+ tone] [+ stress] 

The above terms, other than Cr, [tone] and [stress], refer to various consonantal or vocalic affixes. Cr corresponds to the word-root 

itself which is dicussed below in Section 2.2. All of the terms shown in gray are optional. However, as indicated by the pattern of 

parentheses in the formula, the presence of certain terms requires the presence of others. 

The above morphological formula can be looked at as a series of numbered “slots” which will perhaps facilitate explanation of each 

term: 

I II III IV V VI VII VIII IX X XI XII XIII XIV XV 

(((Cv) VL) Cg/Cs) Vr (Cx/Cv Vp/VL) Cr Vc Ci +Vi Ca VxC (Vf (’Cb))[tone] [stress] 

Phase + 

Sanction 

(+ Illocution) 

Valence Validation 

OR 

Aspect 

(+ Mood) 

Pattern + 

Stem + 

Function 

Incorp.Root 

OR 

Phase + 

Sanction 


Pattern + Stem + 

Designation of Incorp. 

Root 

OR 

Valence 

Root Case Illocution 

+ 

Mood 

Essence + 

Extension + 

Perspective + 

Configuration + 

Affiliation 

Deriv. 

Suffix 

Context + 

Format 

Bias Version Designation 

+ 

Relation

A brief, preliminary explanation of these terms is given in Table 3 below. Detailed explanation of these terms are found in succeeding 

sections or subsequent chapters. 

Table 3: Explanation of Terms within the Morphological Formula for Ithkuil Formatives 

I Cv 

II VL 

III Cg/Cs 

IV Vr 

V Cx/Cv 

VI Vp/VL 

An word-initial consonantal prefix which indicates the categories of Phase (see Section 5.5) and Sanction (see 

Section 5.6). Both Phase and Sanction are mandatory categories, however the presence of Cv in a formative is 

optional (i.e., unmarked) if both the Phase and Sanction of the formative have their default values. If Cv is present 

in Slot I, then Slot II through IV (see below) must be filled and Slot III must be filled by Cs, not Cg. 

A vocalic affix which shows a verbal category called Valence, discussed in Section 5.7. Valence is a mandatory 

category, however the presence of VL is optional (i.e., unmarked) if the formative’s valence has its default value and 

Slot I (Cv) is unfilled/unmarked. If VL is present, then Slots III and IV below must also be filled. 

A consonantal affix which indicates either of two categories: (1) Validation (see Section Section 5.9), in which case 

this term is referred to as Cg, or (2) Aspect, in which case this term is referred to as Cs. The actual phonological 

forms of Cg and Cs are distinct from one another so there is no confusion when interpreting which category is being 

conveyed. The presence of Cv in Slot I (see above) requires that Slot III be filled by Cs, not Cg. 

Aspect (Cs) is an optional category. It is possible for a formative to not carry any particular aspect, in which case the 

value of Cs (if present) will simply be a placeholder consonantal form. 

Validation (shown by Cg) is a mandatory category, however the presence of Cg is optional if the formative's valence 

has its default category. If the formative's validation is not its default value, but the presence of Cg is not allowed 

due to Slot III already being filled by Cs, then the word must be restructured to remove Cv from Slot I and to 

remove Cs from Slot III in order to allow the presence of Cg. The formative's Phase and Sanction (Cv) and Aspect 

(Cs) will instead be shown either by use of an adjunct (see Section 2.4.2 below), or by moving Cv and Cs to Slots V 

and XI respectively (if possible - see explanation for Slots V and XI below). 

The presence of either Cg or Cs in Slot III requires that Slot IV be filled. 

A vocalic “portmanteau” affix (i.e., conveying multiple types of morphological information), indicating the following 

morphological categories: Pattern and Stem (see Section 2.2.2 below), and Function (discussed in Section 5.1). 

Pattern and Stem are mandatory for all formatives, whereas Format occurs only if the formative carries an 

incorporated stem (see Cx in Slot V below). 

Slot V serves two possible functions: (1) Cx, a consonantal form indicating an incorporated root (discussed in 

Section 6.4) or, in the absence of an incorporated root, it becomes (2) the slot for Cv showing the formative’s Phase 

and Sanction (thus moving it from Slot I above). The presence of Cx or Cv in Slot V requires that Slot VI also be 

filled. 

If functioning as Cx, the formative must carry Format information shown by the term Vf in Slot XII below. If there 

is no Format shown in Slot XII, then any term in Slot V must be Cv, not Cx. 

If there is no incorporated root and the formative's Phase and Sanction have their default values or are already 

shown in Slot I, then Slot V is left empty (as well as Slot VI). 

Slot VI serves two possible functions: (1) Vp, a vocalic affix indicating the Stem and Pattern (see Section 2.2.2 

below) as well as Designation (see Section 3.7) of the incorporated root Cx in Slot V above, or, in the absence of an 

incorporated root, it becomes (2) the slot for VL showing the formative’s Valence (thus moving it from Slot II 

above). If there is no incorporated root then Slot VI is left empty along with Slot V. 

A mandatory consonantal form (from one to five consonants in length) which represents the semantic root of the

VII Cr formative (see Section 2.2 below). Cr cannot be -w-, -y-, -h-, -hw-, -hr-, -hh-, -hn-, -hm-, -lw-, -ly-, -rw-, -ry-, 

-řw-, or -řy-. 

VIII Vc 

IX Ci +Vi 

X Ca 

XI Vx+C 

XII Vf 

XIII ’Cb 

XIV [tone] 

XV [stress] 

This is a mandatory vocalic affix indicating the case of the formative. The category of Case is discussed in Chapter 

4. 

This is a consonant + vowel term consisting of one of four consonantal forms (w-, y-, h-, or hw-) plus a vocalic 

form, the whole of which indicates the Mood and Illocution of the formative (see Sections 5.2 and 5.3 respectively). 

Mood and Illocution are mandatory categories but both have default forms. If Mood and Illocution are in their 

default forms, then Slot IX is usually left unfilled/unmarked. 

A mandatory consonantal portmanteau affix indicating the following five categories: Configuration, Affiliation, 

Perspective, Extension and Essence. These categories are all discussed in Chapter 3. 

An optional derivational suffix of the form vowel+consonant(s) which conveys additional morpho-semantic 

information. There are approximately 200 such suffixes which can be combined with a formative to expand the 

meaning of a word. These suffixes can also be multiply added to a stem, i.e., two or more such affixes can appear on 

a stem. These suffixes are analyzed at length in Chapter 7. 

A vocalic suffix which conveys the categories of Context (discussed in Section 3.6) and Format (discussed in Section 

6.4). The presence of Format information requires that an incorporated root be present in the formative (i.e., the Cx 

term in Slot V above). In the absence of an incorporated root, Vf conveys the category of Context only. While 

Context is mandatory, it has a default value which, in the absence of Format and a Bias suffix in Slot XIII, is 

unmarked (i.e., Slot XII is left empty). 

A consonantal word-final suffix of the form glottal stop + consonant which indicates one of 48 Bias categories 

(discussed in Section 5.11). Bias is an optional category and is left unmarked (i.e., unfilled) if not present. However, 

if present, then Slot XII must also be filled. 

The six morphologically relevant tones (see Section 1.3.2) of an Ithkuil formative indicate the category of Version 

(see Section 5.8), a mandatory category. 

As previously described in Section 1.3.3, there are four possible stress patterns for an Ithkuil formative, which 

convey the categories of Designation (see Section 3.7) and Relation (see Section 5.4). 

Based on the above morphological formula, we can see that the simplest structure for a formative is 

as illustrated by the examples p h al, eqoec, and ‾üaklaršlá below: 

p h al ‘tree’ LISTEN 

Vr + Cr + Vc + Ca + tone+stress 

Vr = (a-),* indicating Pattern 1, Stem 1 of the root plus STATIVE function 

Cr = -p h -, indicating the root: ‘branched/leaved plant’ 

Vc = -a-, indicating OBLIQUE case 

Ca = -l, indicating NORMAL essence, DELIMITIVE extension, MONADIC perspective, UNIPLEX configuration, and CONSOLIDATIVE 

affiliation 

tone = falling, indicating PROCESSUAL version 

stress = penultimate**, indicating INFORMAL designation and UNFRAMED relation 

*Note that the full form is ap h al, however when the value of Vr is word-initial a- for a formative with penultimate stress,

this initial a- can be deleted. 

**As explained in Section 1.3.3, monosyllabic words are considered to have penultimate stress for morpho-phonological 

purposes. 

eqoec ‘regarding humankind’ LISTEN 

Vr = e-, indicating Pattern 1, Stem 2 of the root plus STATIVE function 

Cr = -q-, indicating the root: ‘higher order life-form’ 

Vc = -oe-, indicating REFERENTIAL case 

Ca = -c, indicating NORMAL essence, DELIMITIVE extension, ABSTRACT perspective, UNIPLEX configuration, and CONSOLIDATIVE 

affiliation 


stress = penultimate, indicating INFORMAL designation and UNFRAMED relation 

‾üaklaršlá ‘it is/being a representation of the man-made courses/channels of a river that has dried up’ LISTEN 

Vr = üa-, indicating Pattern 3, Stem 1 of the root plus MANIFESTIVE function 

Cr = -kl-, indicating the root: ‘water in natural motion’ 


Ca = -ršl(a), indicating REPRESENTATIVE essence, DEPLETIVE extension, MONADIC perspective, AGGREGATIVE configuration, and 

ASSOCIATIVE affiliation 

tone = high, indicating COMPLETIVE version 

stress = ultimate, indicating FORMAL designation and UNFRAMED relation 

From the simpler formative structures above, we can examine the structure of increasingly complex words, e.g., 

Vr + Cr + Vc + Ci +Vi + Ca + Vx+Cs + Vf + ’Cb + tone + stress, as in: 

Uip h awâtļûxe’ň? ‘Might it happen to be a large symbolic grove of trees?’ LISTEN 

Vr = (ui-), indicating Pattern 1, Stem 1 of the root plus MANIFESTIVE function 

Cr = -p h -, indicating the root: ‘branched/leaved plant’ 


Ci+Vi = w+â, indicating INTERROGATIVE illocution plus SUBJUNCTIVE mood 

Ca = -tļ, indicating NORMAL essence, DELIMITIVE extension, MONADIC perspective, DISCRETE configuration, and CONSOLIDATIVE 

affiliation 

Vx+Cs = û+x, the SIZE suffix in 6th degree, translatable as ‘big, large’ 

Vf = e, indicating REPRESENTATIONAL context 

Cb = ň, indicating COINCIDENTAL bias 



or Cg + Vr + Cx + Vp + Cr + Vc + Ca + Vx+Cs + Vf + tone + stress, as in:

hremsoqaiţsurkoi ‘purportedly by means of the value derived from all the varied attributes of humanity’ LISTEN 

Cg = hr-, indicating PURPORTIVE validation 

Vr = e-, indicating Pattern 1, Stem 2 of the root plus STATIVE function 

Cx = -ms-, indicating the incorporated root: ‘value/cost’ 

Vp = o, indicating Pattern 2, Stem 1, and INFORMAL designation of the incorporated root 

Cr = -q-, indicating the main root: ‘higher order life-form’ 

Vc = -ai-, indicating INSTRUMENTAL case 

Ca = -ţs-, indicating NORMAL essence, DELIMITIVE extension, ABSTRACT perspective, COMPOSITE configuration, and VARIATIVE 

affiliation 

Vx+Cs = u+rk, the METONYMIC suffix in 9th degree, indicating the attributes/characteristics of the formative 

Vf = oi, indicating AMALGAMATIVE context and AUTHORITATIVE format 



or a deliberately extreme example, 

Cv + VL + Cs + Vr + Cx + Vp + Cr + Vc + Ca + Vx + Cs + Vf + ’Cb + tone + stress, as in: 

/q h ûl-lyai’svukšei’arpîptó’ks 

‘...being hard to believe, after allegedly trying to go back to repeatedly inspiring fear using rag-tag groups of suspicious-looking 

clowns, despite resistance’ LISTEN 

Cv = q h , indicating ALLEGATIVE sanction plus REPETITIVE phase 

VL = û, indicating RESISTIVE valence 

Cs = l-ly, indicating REGRESSIVE aspect 

Vr = ai’, indicating DYNAMIC function plus Pattern 1, Stem 2 for the main root 

Cx = sv, indicating the incorporated root: ‘fear’ 

Vp = u, indicating INFORMAL designation plus Pattern 3, Stem 1 for the incorporated root 

Cr = kš, indicating the main root: ‘fool/clown’ 

Vc = ei’a, indicating POSTCURSIVE case 

Ca = rp, indicating NORMAL essence, DELIMITIVE extension, UNBOUNDED perspective, AGGREGATIVE configuration, and VARIATIVE 

affiliation 

Vx + Cs = îpt-, the GENUINENESS/VERACITY suffix in 4th degree, indicating a suspicious-looking nature 

Vf = o, indicating SCHEMATIC format and EXISTENTIAL context 

Cb = ’ks, indicating SKEPTICAL bias 

tone = rising, indicating INEFFECTUAL version 

stress = ultimate, indicating FORMAL designation for the main root 

2.1.2 Disambiguation of Specific Affixes Within Words 

Because many of the terms in the above morphological formula are optional, the reader might easily wonder how a speaker/reader of 

Ithkuil, when looking at or hearing an Ithkuil word, can possibly know which terms are actually shown in any given word, i.e., how to 

interpret from the given consonants and vowels in a particular word which of the optional morphological categories is being displayed 

or spoken. Or, in other words, how can one tell which slots are filled? In fact, such interpretation is indeed possible and is unambiguous 

due to the specific allowable consonant or vowel combinations allowed for each term, i.e., the specific consonantal or vocalic values 

allowed for one term are distinct from those allowed for another term which might occupy the same sequential position in a specific 

word. Also, as previously stated in Section 2.1.1 above and as indicated by the pattern of parentheses in the (((Cv +) VL +) Cg/Cs +) 

Vr + (Cx/Cv + Vp/VL +) Cr + Vc (+ Ci +Vi) + Ca (+ VxC ) (+ Vf (+ Cb)) [+ tone] [+ stress] morphological formula, the 

presence of certain terms e.g., VL, requires the presence of other terms (Ci + Vc), in order to maintain a discernible sequence 

which can be unambiguously differentiated.

2.2 ROOT AND STEM FORMATION 

All words in Ithkuil which translate into English as nouns or verbs are based on a monosyllabic stem, which in turn derives from a 

semantically abstract root. This process is explained in the sections below. 

2.2.1 The Root 

The root in Ithkuil forms the semantic basis from which actual noun/verb stems are derived. The root consists of a consonantal form, 

Cr, comprised of one to four consonants (e.g., -k-, -st-, -ntr-, -pstw-).Given Ithkuil phonotactic constraints (see Section 1.4) this gives 

approximately 3600 possible roots. (Note: roots of five consonants, e.g., -rpskw- are also phonotactically possible and available, but 

currently remain unassigned.) Cr cannot be a single glottal stop, nor w, y, h, hw, hr, hh, hn, hm, lw, ly, rw, ry, řw, or řy. The root 

occupies Slot VII of a formative’s morpho-phonological structure, as shown below. 



Phase + 

Sanction 



OR 

Aspect 

(+ Mood) 

Pattern + 

Stem + 

Function 

Incorp.Root 

OR 

Phase + 

Sanction 




Root 

OR 

Valence 


+ 

Mood 

Essence + 

Extension + 

Perspective + 


Affiliation 

Deriv. 

Suffix 

Context + 

Format 


+ 

Relation 

The root is the basic semantic unit in Ithkuil. For example, d- is a root whose semantic referent is ‘NAME/DESIGNATION’. Functional 

word-stems (or simply stems) are generated from the root via instantiation of the Vr- vocalic affix, as described below. 

2.2.2 Stem and Pattern 

There are three stems associated with each root. It is at the level of stem that Ithkuil roots become actual words with instantiated 

meaning. Each stem in turn manifests itself in three separate Patterns. Both Pattern and Stem are shown by changes to the Vr- vocalic 

affix. 

The three patterns are labeled Pattern 1, Pattern 2, and Pattern 3. Pattern is used to divide a stem into a tripartite grouping consisting 

of a holistic stem and two complementary sub-stems. An example would be the holistic stem spouse, with its two complementary substems 

husband and wife. This holistic versus complementary distinction is discussed at length below in Section 2.3. This distinction of 

holistic versus complementary patterns is one way in which Ithkuil systematizes at the morphological level what in other languages 

constitute lexical distinctions (i.e., differences in word-choice when translating). It is one of the many ways by which Ithkuil can 

function fully as a conceptually sophisticated and subtle language while having such a small number of semantic word roots. 

A formative’s Pattern and Stem are shown by the Vr affix in Slot IV, as previously described in Section 2.1.1. Besides showing a 

formative’s Pattern and Stem, Vr shows the morphological category of Function, discussed in Section 5.1. 



Phase + 

Sanction (+ 

Illocution) 


OR 

Aspect 

(+ Mood) 

Pattern + 

Stem + 

Function 

Incorp.Root 

OR 

Phase + 

Sanction 




Root 

OR 

Valence 

Root Case Illocution + 

Mood 

The values of Vr- by Stem and Pattern and Function are shown in Table 4 below. 

Essence + 

Extension + 

Perspective + 


Affiliation 

Deriv. 

Suffix 

Context + 

Format 


+ 

Relation

Table 4: Values of Vr by Stem, Pattern, and Function 

Function (see Sec. 5.1) 

Pattern 1 Pattern 2 Pattern 3 

Stem 1 Stem 2 Stem 3 Stem 1 Stem 2 Stem 3 Stem 1 Stem 2 Stem 3 

STATIVE (a) e u o ö î / û â ê ô 

DYNAMIC i ai ei au eu iu ia / ua ie / ue io / uo 

MANIFESTIVE ui ü / ou ëi ae ea oa üa / aì iù / uì iö / uö 

DESCRIPTIVE oi eo eö oe öe ëu üo / oì üe / eì üö / aù 

In the sections below where we analyze the semantics of stems, all examples are given in the STATIVE function, as this corresponds to 

the most common (or default) function of a formative. Thus, the forms we will analyze are: 

Pattern 1 Pattern 2 Pattern 3 

Stem 1 Stem 2 Stem 3 Stem 1 Stem 2 Stem 3 Stem 1 Stem 2 Stem 3 

(a)C- eC- uC- oC- öC- îC- / ûC- âC- êC- ôC- 

where C- represents the root consonant form Cr. 

2.3 SEMANTIC INSTANTIATION OF STEMS 

We can now examine how each root instantiates meaning into the above array of stems. We will start with the three stems associated 

with Pattern 1; these are the holistic stems. This will be followed in a subsequent section by an analysis of the twelve stems associated 

with Patterns 2 and 3, the complementary stems. 

2.3.1 Holistic Stems 

The three stems for Pattern 1 are designated by the Vr affixes (a-), e-, and u- respectively. Thus, the root -d- ‘NAME/DESIGNATION’ 

generates the following stems: 

1. (a)d-‘name of something or someone; to name something or someone’ 

2. ed- ‘designation or reference; to assign a designation, to refer to something’ 

3. ud- ‘a (temporary or informal) reference, “nickname”; to give a (temporary or informal) reference or name to, to 

(temporarily) nickname’ 

The semantic relationship between each stem and the underlying root is specific to each root. Nevertheless, certain patterns are 

common. Stem 1 usually refers to the most fundamental, basic, generalized, or common manifestation of the root concept, while Stem 

2 is a more specific application or tangible manifestation thereof, or otherwise a subset of the meaning of Stem 1. Stem 3 may 

represent yet a further manifestation of the root, a further subset of Stem 1, or a tangential or related concept. For example, compare 

the relationship between the individual stems for the root -d- above with that of the root -x- (‘VISION/SIGHT’) below. 

1. (a)x- ‘a sighting, an act of seeing something; to see something’ 

2. ex- ‘an eye; to be an eye/become an eye/use one’s eye, etc.’ 

3. ux- ‘an image in one’s mind; to visualize, to picture in one’s mind’

Note that each stem carries both a nominal (noun) and a verbal meaning. This will be important later when we discuss parts of speech 

and nominal/verbal morphology. 

2.3.2 Complementary Stems 

Any Ithkuil stem is capable of being further broken down into two complementary stems which represent mutually exclusive 

component parts or aspects of the main stem. Many Ithkuil stems which translate common English nouns and verbs are, in fact, such 

complementary derivatives, rather than being holistic word-stems. 

By “complementary” is meant that the manifestation of a concept appears in any given context as either one sort of entity or another, 

but never both simultaneously; yet, neither manifestation can be considered to be a discrete contextual whole without the existence of 

the other. In Ithkuil, for example, words such as male, night, speech, sit, and happen are not considered basic concepts, but rather are 

parts of greater holistic concepts, existing in complementary relationship to another part, the two together making up the whole. 

Thus, Ithkuil lexical structure recognizes that the word male has no meaning in and of itself without an implicit recognition of its 

complementary partner, female, the two words mutually deriving from a more basic, holistic concept, translatable into English as living 

being. Similarly, the word night(time) derives along with its complement day(time) from the underlying concept translatable as day 

(i.e., a 24-hour period), while the concept of speak(ing) divides into complementary concepts of talking (focusing on the physical 

production of oral sound) versus saying/telling (focusing on the communicative content of oral sound). 

Actions, too, are not exempt from this principle of complementarity, an example being the relationship between sit and seat; one has no 

meaning without an implicit and joint partnership with the other, i.e., one cannot sit unless one sits upon something, and whatever one 

sits upon in turn functions as a seat. Another example involves the word happen or occur, which Ithkuil recognizes as having no real 

meaning without the attendant implication of consequence or result, the two being complementary components of a holistic concept 

roughly translatable as event or situation. 

2.3.2.1 Using Patterns 2 and 3 to Derive Complementary Stems. The first complementary stem is derived from the holistic stem by 

shifting the values of Vr to Pattern 2, i.e., o-, ö-, and î- (or û-), while the second complementary stem is derived by shifting Vr to 

Pattern 3, i.e., â-, ê-, and ô-. Several examples of complementary stem derivation are given below: 

Holistic Stem eq-: human being, person 

1st Comp. Stem öq-: male person 

2nd Comp. Stem êq-: female person 

Holistic Stem 

1st Comp. Stem 

2nd Comp. Stem 

ult-: an act of written composition; to 

compose something in writing 

ûlt-: the physical act of composing in 

writing; to physically write a composition 

ôlt-: the written content or message of a 

composition; to create written content 

Holistic Stem aklá-: a river 

1st Comp. Stem oklá-: the water in a river 

2nd Comp. Stem âklá-: a riverbed, river channel 

Holistic Stem 

1st Comp. Stem 

2nd Comp. Stem 

ax-: sight; to undergo an act of seeing (both 

sensory experience and thing seen) 

ox-: an act of seeing, a usage of one’s faculty 

of sight; to see with one’s eyes, to undergo a 

sighting 

âx-: a view, a sight, something (to be) seen; 

to cast a sight or image 

2.3.2.2 Complementary Stems in Translation. As illustrated above, the structure of Ithkuil holistic vs. secondary complementary 

roots often neatly parallels English lexical distinctions, e.g., ‘speak/speech’ breaking down into the physical aspect of ‘talking’ versus 

the communicative aspect of ‘saying/telling’ or ‘person’ breaking down into ‘male’ and ‘female.’ However, it is often the case that this

principle of complementarity creates a semantic situation which is counterintuitive to Western semantic notions. 

For example, let us analyze the root -mm- ‘NUCLEAR FAMILY MEMBER’. While most languages would consider the concept parent as 

fundamentally opposite from the concept child and assign separate word-roots to each, Ithkuil recognizes that one implies the other. 

No person can be a parent unless they've had a child, just as any child must have (or have had) parents. This, then, constitutes an 

archetypal complementary relationship, the whole two-sided nature of which is referred to by the holistic stem -mm-. One way to 

interpret the meaning, then, of -mm- is to say that the word means both ‘parent’ and ‘child,’ which of course strikes one as being 

problematical, perhaps even nonsensical. But in fact, the word does not mean either ‘parent’ or ‘child,’ but rather a person who is one 

of the members of a parent-child relationship, i.e., a member of a nuclear family. With such a root, Stem 2 and Stem 3 in turn 

subdivide Stem 1 into the further complementary derivatives of male and female. Such “bi-level” derivations of complementary 

concepts using Stem 2 and Stem 3 are common in Ithkuil root/stem derivation. Here then are the actual meanings of the stems for - 

mm-. 

Holistic Stem 1st Complementary Stem 2nd Complementary Stem 

Stem 1 amm- nuclear family member omm-: parent âmm-: child (offspring) 

Stem 2 emm-: male nuclear family member ömm-: father êmm-: son 

Stem 3 umm-: female nuclear family member ûmm-: mother ômm-: daughter 

Additional conceptual complementary pairs which would be contained within single Ithkuil lexical roots are illustrated by the following 

examples: 

Holistic Concept Complementary Concepts 

eating food ingestion 

think, act of thinking a thought (thing considered) process of consideration 

liquid fluid (= ontological nature) wet[ness] (=defining attribute) 

measuring a measurement process of measuring 

transference of possession giving taking 

traversal between points coming, arrival going, departure 

commercial transaction buying selling 

2.4 PARTS OF SPEECH 

Ithkuil has only two parts of speech: formatives and adjuncts. While there are words which function as nouns and verbs, such nouns 

and verbs derive morphologically from the same grammatical stem (its nominal or verbal function or meaning being dependent on the 

particular morpho-semantic context), hence the term formative. This process of noun/verb derivation from formatives is discussed in 

detail in Section 2.4.1 below. Note that there are no adjectives, adverbs, prepositions, pronouns, determiners, conjunctions, particles or 

interjections in Ithkuil, at least not at any autonomous lexical level that can be termed a part of speech. The equivalents to, or 

substitutes for, these latter Western grammatical notions all exist within the formative-adjunct morphological paradigm. 

Another dissimilarity with Western languages is that there are no irregular or defective forms; all formatives and adjuncts follow the 

same inflectional and derivational rules without exception and all formatives are theoretically capable of semantic denotation for every 

inflectional or derivational category, i.e., all inflectionally or derivationally possible words theoretically exist and have meaning

(although, in actuality, some forms will of course be semantically anomalous, redundant, contrived, or distinguish shades of meaning 

that are contextually unnecessary). 

2.4.1 Formatives 

The stem formed as per the discussion in Section 2.3 above constitutes the grammatical part of speech termed the formative. All 

formatives, without exception, can function as both nouns or verbs, and the distinction as to whether a formative is to be interpreted as 

a noun or a verb can only be made by analyzing its morpho-syntactic relationship to the rest of the sentence. Consequently, there are 

no stems/formatives that refer only to nouns or only to verbs as in Western languages. The formative aklá- illustrated above in Section 

2.3.2 means both ‘river’ and ‘to flow/run (as a river)’ with neither meaning being seen as more intrinsic or fundamental, nor one 

deriving from the other. Such hierarchies of nominal over verbal meaning (or vice-versa) arise only in translating Ithkuil to English or 

other Western languages, where such nominal versus verbal lexical constraints are inherent. Often, the interpretation or translation of 

an Ithkuil formative exclusively into a noun or verb form is arbitrary. 

The reason why nouns and verbs can function as morphological derivatives of a single part of speech is because Ithkuil morphosemantics 

does not see nouns and verbs as being cognitively distinct from one another, but rather as complementary manifestations of 

an idea existing in a common underlying semantic continuum whose components are space and time. As in physics, the holistic 

continuum containing these two components can be thought of as spacetime. It is in this continuum of spacetime that Ithkuil 

instantiates semantic ideas into lexical roots, giving rise to the part of speech termed the formative. The speaker then chooses to either 

spatially “reify” this formative into an object or entity (i.e., a noun) or to temporally “activize” it into an act, event, or state (i.e., a 

verb). This complementary process can be diagrammed as follows: 

2.4.2 Adjuncts 

Besides formatives, the other part of speech is the adjunct. Adjuncts are so named because they operate in conjunction with adjacent 

formatives to provide additional grammatical information about the formative, somewhat like auxiliary verbs in English (e.g., “may, 

will, would, do, have”) or like noun determiners (e.g., “the, this, those”). 

Adjuncts are formed from one or more consonantal and/or vocalic affixes, combined agglutinatively. There are several different types 

of adjuncts, described in detail in Chapter 6 and Chapter 8. These include: 

Personal Reference Adjuncts: The nearest equivalent to Western personal pronouns, identifying in abbreviated form the 

participant entities to a verb or the entities associated with a particular noun in some case relationship. (See Section 8.1.) 

Verbal Adjuncts: These are used in conjunction with verbal formatives to provide information on the morphological categories 

of Valence, Level, Phase, Sanction, Illocution, Modality, Aspect and Bias. Each of these categories is discussed in Chapter 5 or 

Chapter 6. 

2.5 NOTE ON TERMINOLOGY 

While this chapter has mentioned a few specific morphological categories in passing, beginning with Chapter 3: Basic Morphology, 

morphological (i.e., grammatical) categories will be discussed in detail. It should be noted that, given the extensive array of overt 

morphological categories in Ithkuil, the terminology used in naming these categories is often arbitrary. Where a category functions

similarly to a familiar linguistic category, the name of that category has been appropriated. Elsewhere, linguistic terminology from Indo- 

European, Uralic, Amerindian or Caucasian grammar has been appropriated out of convenience, often with only a small similarity of 

function. In still other instances, I have contrived my own grammatical nomenclature. 

Proceed to Chapter 3: Basic Morphology >> 












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Chapter 3: Basic Morphology 

3.1 Configuration 3.5 Essence 

3.2 Affiliation 3.6 Context 

3.3 Perspective 3.7 Designation 

3.4 Extension 3.8 Note On Morpho-Phonological Agreement 

As previously discussed in Section 2.4.1, the distinction between nouns and verbs common to most languages is rather blurred in 

Ithkuil. All lexical stems in Ithkuil function equally as nouns or verbs and share many of the same morpho-semantic features and 

categories. This is because Ithkuil morpho-semantics does not see nouns and verbs as being cognitively distinct from one another, but 

rather as complementary manifestations of ideas existing in a common underlying semantic continuum whose components are space 

and time. The equivalents to nouns and verbs in other languages are merely “reified” (or nominalized) and “activized” (or verbalized) 

derivatives of semantic formatives. Nevertheless, for simplicity’s sake, we will refer to nominal formatives as nouns and verbal 

formatives as verbs when discussing their morphology. 

All Ithkuil formatives, whether functioning as nouns or verbs, inflect for nine Configurations, four Affiliations, four Perspectives, six 

Extensions, two Essences, four Contexts, and two Designations, and can take any of approximately 1800 optional suffixes. These 

morphological categories are explained in the sections which follow. 

3.1 CONFIGURATION 

To understand the Ithkuil concept of enumeration and quantification of nouns (i.e., what other languages term singular, plural, etc.) one 

must analyze three separate but related grammatical categories termed Configuration, Affiliation, and Perspective. These concepts 

are alien to other languages. While they deal with semantic distinctions which are quantitative in nature, these distinctions are usually 

made at the lexical level (i.e., via word choice) in other languages, not at the morphological as in Ithkuil. In this section we will deal first 

with Configuration, followed by Affiliation in Section 3.2 and Perspective in Section 3.3. 

Specifically, Configuration deals with the physical similarity or relationship between members of a noun referent within groups, 

collections, sets, assortments, arrangements, or contextual gestalts, as delineated by internal composition, separability, 

compartmentalization, physical similarity or componential structure. This is best explained and illustrated by means of analogies to 

certain English sets of words. 

Consider the English word ‘tree.’ In English, a single tree may stand alone out of context, or it may be part of a group of trees. Such a 

group of trees may simply be two or more trees considered as a plural category based on mere number alone, e.g., two, three, or 

twenty trees. However, it is the nature of trees to exist in more contextually relevant groupings than merely numerical ones. For 

example, the trees may be of like species as in a ‘grove’ of trees. The grouping may be an assortment of different kinds of trees as in a 

‘forest’ or occur in patternless disarray such as a ‘jungle.’ 

As another example, we can examine the English word ‘person.’ While persons may occur in simple numerical groupings such as ‘a 

(single) person’ or ‘three persons’ it is more common to find persons (i.e., people) referred to by words which indicate various 

groupings such as ‘group,’ ‘gathering,’ ‘crowd,’ etc.

Segmentation and amalgamated componential structure are further configurative principles which distinguish related words in English. 

The relationships between car versus convoy, hanger versus rack, chess piece versus chess set, sentry versus blockade, piece of 

paper versus sheaf, girder versus (structural) framework, and coin versus roll of coins all exemplify these principles. 

Another type of contextual grouping of nouns occurs in binary sets, particularly in regard to body parts. These binary sets can comprise 

two identical referents as in a pair of eyes, however they are more often opposed or “mirror-image” (i.e., complementary) sets as in 

limbs, ears, hands, wings, etc. 

In Ithkuil, the semantic distinctions implied by the above examples as they relate to varying assortments of trees or persons would be 

accomplished by inflecting the word-stem for ‘tree’ or ‘person’ into one of nine configurations. Additional semantic distinctions on the 

basis of purpose or function between individual members of a set could then be made by means of Affiliation (see Section 3.2 below) 

and by the use of specific suffixes. For example, once the words for ‘forest’ or ‘crowd’ were derived from ‘tree’ and ‘person’ via 

Configuration, the Ithkuil words for ‘orchard,’ ‘copse,’ ‘team’ or ‘mob’ could easily be derived via affiliation and affixes. (Such 

derivations into new words using suffixes are explored in detail in Chapter 7: Suffixes.) 

Ithkuil words indicate Configuration via a synthetic consonantal affix immediately following the C+V stem which also indicates the 

Affiliation, Perspective, Extension and Essence of the stem. This is the Ca affix discussed in Section 2.1.1. 



Phase + 

Sanction (+ 

Illocution) 


OR 

Aspect 

(+ Mood) 

Pattern + 

Stem + 

Function 

Incorp.Root 

OR 

Phase + 

Sanction (+ 

Illocution) 



Root 

OR 

Valence 


+ 

Mood 


Affiliation + 

Perspective + 

Extension + 

Essence 

Deriv. 

Suffix 

Context + 

Format 


+ 

Relation 

The actual values of these Ca affixes are shown later in Table 5 in Section 3.5.3 below, following the explanation of Essence. 

The nine configurations are the UNIPLEX, DUPLEX, DISCRETE, AGGREGATIVE, SEGMENTATIVE, COMPONENTIAL, 

COHERENT, COMPOSITE, and MULTIFORM. The function and morphology of these categories are explained below along with 

examples of the various configurations applied to four different stems: ap h -, eq-, el-, and upšá-. 

3.1.1 UNI The Uniplex 

The UNIPLEX configuration indicates a single, contextual embodiment of the stem concept, i.e., one whole contextual unit of the basic 

nominal stem, e.g., a tree, a person, a screwdriver, a grape, a hammer blow, a hole. With verbs the UNIPLEX signifies a single, 

holistic act, state, or event, e.g., to be a tree, to become a person, to use a screwdriver, to eat a grape, to strike (once) with a 

hammer, to dig a hole. Examples: LISTEN 

p h al ‘a tree’ 

elal ‘an utterance; a spoken word’ 

eqal‘a person’ 

upšál ‘an incident’ 

For the set of affixes which mark this configuration, see Table 5 in Section 3.5.3 below.

3.1.2 DPX The Duplex 

The DUPLEX configuration indicates a related binary set. While it often refers to body parts, e.g., one’s eyes, ears, lungs, wings, etc., 

it can also be used to describe any set of two identical or complementary objects or entities, e.g., a matched pair of vases, a twovolume 

set, a set of bookends, mutual opponents. Thus, the Ithkuil word for spouse inflected for the DUPLEX configuration would 

translate as a man and wife or a married couple. 

One context in which the DUPLEX appears for both nouns and verbs is with events which contain two complementary “halves” 

exemplified by English words such as bounce, flash, arc, wag, swing, switch, breathe/respiration, indeed, any concept which involves 

a dual-state notion of up/down, to/fro, back/forth, in/out, empty/full, or on/off. Use of the DUPLEX in these contexts implies a full 

cycling through the two complementary states involved. For example the word for hammer blow inflected for the UNIPLEX would 

signify the singular impact of the hammer, whereas the same word inflected for the DUPLEX signifies a single down-then-up cycle of 

the swing of the hammer, the two complementary “halves” of the action being divided by the impact. Examples: LISTEN 

p h all ‘a pair of trees’ 

elall ‘a pair of words’ 

eqall ‘a couple’ 

upšáll ‘a pair of incidents’ 

For the set of affixes which mark this configuration, see Table 5 in Section 3.5.3 below. 

3.1.3 DCT The Discrete 

The DISCRETE configuration indicates a grouping or set of the basic stem units that are more or less identiform (each having the same 

design or physical appearance). This grouping or set-nature can be either spatial, as in a flock of gulls (flying together), or temporal 

(i.e., sequentially repetitive or iterative) as in (a flock of) gulls flying one after another. Further examples of English nouns or noun 

phrases which would be translated using the DISCRETE are a grove, a set of screwdrivers, a group of soldiers, a pile of leaves, a 

bowl of grapes, a series of hammer blows, an area of holes. Thus, the Ithkuil word for (identical) set would simply be the word for 

thing or object inflected for the DISCRETE configuration. Note that the distinction between a spatially configured set versus a 

temporally (i.e., iterative) configured set would be made by use of either the DPR suffix, -šk, or the SEP suffix, -mb specifying which 

spacetime axis is implied. These suffixes are analyzed in Sec. 7.4.13. 

For verbs, the DISCRETE signifies a single set of repetitions, whether spatially or temporally, viewed as a single holistic event. The 

individual member components acts, states, or events within this set can be either UNIPLEX, e.g., to take steps, to flip through pages, 

to have spots, to dig holes in an area, or DUPLEX in nature, e.g., to hammer, to spin, to breathe. 

It should be noted that the Containment CNM suffix, -mt, can be used with the DISCRETE, as well as most of the following 

configurations, to designate specifically the type of container, holder, or means of conveyance for a configurative set (e.g., a sack, 

package, jar, bottle, pile, load, etc.) Examples: LISTEN 

p h atļ ‘a grove’ 

eqatļ ‘a group of matching people’

elatļ ‘a set of identical words’ 

upšátļ ‘a set of similar incidents’ 


3.1.4 AGG The Aggregative 

The AGGREGATIVE configuration functions like the DISCRETE above in referring to an associated group or set of entities, except 

that the members of the configurational set are not identical to one another. Examples of English words/entities which would be 

translated using the AGGREGATIVE are a forest (of different kinds of trees), a toolset, a citizens group, a mixed pile of leaves, an 

assortment of animals, an area of different-sized holes, a series of musical notes. With verbs, the AGGREGATIVE implies a spatially 

or temporally repeated set of non-identical acts, events, or states considered as a whole contextual unit. It would be used, for example, 

in translating the sentence This morning I dug holes in my garden (i.e., of different sizes). Examples: LISTEN 

p h aļ ‘a forest; a wood’ 

elaļ ‘a set of (differing) words; a phrase’ 

eqaļ ‘a group of different people’ 

upšáļ ‘a set of differing incidents’ 


3.1.5 SEG The Segmentative 

The SEGMENTATIVE configuration indicates a grouping or set of the basic stem units, the individual members of which are 

physically similar or identical and are either in physical contact with one another, physically connected via some linking medium, or in 

sufficiently close contact with one another so that the group moves or operates together. Examples would be a web, a train of flatcars, 

a convoy of schoolbuses, a string of pearls, a fall of leaves, a line of dancers, a parade of Barbie dolls (e.g., coming off an assembly 

line). To illustrate the difference between this configuration and the DISCRETE above, we saw that the word grape in the DISCRETE 

would be translated as a serving of grapes, while in the SEGMENTATIVE it would mean a bunch of grapes (i.e., still connected to 

each other on a portion of vine). 

With verbs, the use of the SEGMENTATIVE versus the DISCRETE implies that the repetitive/iterative nature of the act, state, or 

event occurs naturally due to the contextual nature of the precipitating event or agent. It would thus be used to distinguish the fuselage 

of bullets from a machine-gun from the simple hail of bullets from single-fire weapons. Likewise, it would distinguish The light is 

blinking from The light is flashing, where blink implies the way in which the source naturally emits light, while flash implies that the 

light is being made to emit repetitive bursts of light. Examples: LISTEN 

p h aļļ ‘a stand (or line) of trees’ 

eqaļļ ‘a line/wall of matching people’ 

(e.g., shoulder-to-shoulder or with arms linked)

elaļļ ‘a string of words’ 

upšáļļ ‘a chain of similar incidents’ 


3.1.6 CPN The Componential 

The COMPONENTIAL configuration operates identically to the SEGMENTATIVE above, except that the individual members of the 

configurational set are not physically similar or identical to each other. Examples of English words/entities which would be translated 

using the COMPONENTIAL are a freight train, a cascade of (mixed) fruit (i.e., a continuous stream of fruit falling), a line of 

ticketholders, a parade of floats, a pattern of musical notes. With verbs, the COMPONENTIAL signifies a connected series of 

repetitions where the individual acts, events, or states comprising the repetitive set are non-identical. It would distinguish The light 

twinkled from The light was blinking. Examples: LISTEN 

p h ařļ ‘a line/stand of different trees’ 

elařļ ‘a string of differing words’ 

eqařļ ‘a line/wall of different people’ 

(e.g., shoulder-to-shoulder or with arms linked) 

upšářļ ‘a chain of differing incidents’ 


3.1.7 COH The Coherent 

The COHERENT configuration functions similarly to the SEGMENTATIVE above, except that the individual members of the 

configuration are connected, fused or mixed with one another to form a coherent emergent entity, i.e., the total configuration of objects 

constitutes an entirely new gestalt-like entity. Examples of English words which would be translated using the COHERENT are a 

bookcase, a phalanx, a xylophone. 

In the realm of verbs, finding English translations illustrating the COHERENT is difficult. If one can imagine the verb to glow to mean 

a series of flashes blurred one into another to create a continuous emanation, then glow versus flash might suffice. Perhaps a better 

illustration would be the difference between to buzz from to make a set of repeating noises. Examples: LISTEN 

p h ask ‘an entangled grove of trees’ 

(i.e., their roots/branches intertwined 

and grown together) 

elask ‘a speech made up of similar words’ 

eqask ‘a mass/unit of similar people’ 

upšásk ‘a web of similar incidents’


3.1.8 CST The Composite 

The COMPOSITE configuration operates the same as the COHERENT above except that the individual members of the 

configurational set are not identical or physically similar to one another. Examples of words/concepts that would be translated using the 

COMPOSITE are a building (= a constructional set of walls, floors, doors, windows, etc.), a communications array, a conspiracy, a 

jungle thicket. Thus the Ithkuil words for recipe, skeleton, and melody would simply be the words for ingredient, bone, and musical 

note inflected for the COMPOSITE configuration. For verbs, the COMPOSITE versus COHERENT distinction would distinguish to 

rumble from to buzz, or to glitter from to glow. Examples: LISTEN 

p h ašk ‘a jungle’ 

elašk ‘a speech’ 

eqašk ‘a mass/unit of different people’ 

upšášk ‘a situation (involving a number of incidents)’ 


3.1.9 MLT The Multiform 

The MULTIFORM configuration is the most difficult to explain, as there is no Western linguistic equivalent. The MULTIFORM 

serves to identify the noun as an individual member of a “fuzzy” set. A fuzzy set is a term which originates in non-traditional logic, 

describing a set whose individual members do not all share the same set-defining attributes to the same degree, i.e., while there may be 

one or more archetypical members of the set which display the defining attributes of the set exclusively and exactly, other members of 

the set may vary from this archetypical norm by a wide range of degrees, whether in physical resemblance, degree of cohesion or both. 

Indeed, some members of the set may display very little resemblance to the archetype and be closer to the archetype of a different 

fuzzy set, i.e., fuzzy sets allow for the idea of “gradient overlap” between members of differing sets. 

It is difficult to accurately translate into English without resorting to paraphrase the sorts of concepts that Ithkuil easily expresses using 

the MULTIFORM. For example, the Ithkuil word for ‘tree’ inflected for the MULTIFORM configuration would mean something like 

a group of what appear to be trees, or better yet, a group of tree-like objects (i.e., some being trees, and others seeming less like 

trees). Essentially, any set of entities whose similarity of membership varies by different degrees in comparison to an archetypical 

member of the set can be expressed using the MULTIFORM. For examples, the Ithkuil word for library would simply be a word 

meaning something like work (i.e. thing authored/composed) inflected for the MULTIFORM, signifying a hodge-podge assortment of 

writings and compositions (e.g., including books, pamphlets, notebooks, ledgers, formulas, letters, journals, recordings, magazines, 

etc.). Other example concepts translatable using the MULTIFORM would be a rag-tag group of people, an incoherent pattern, lives 

in flux. 

With verbs, the MULTIFORM implies that the individual repetitions comprising an act, state, or event have varying degrees of spatiotemporal 

similarity to each other. A few English verbs such as fluctuate, sputter or flicker capture this sense. Examples: 

LISTEN

p h akţ ‘a thicket/jungle thicket’ 

elakţ ‘incoherent speech/speak incoherently’ 

eqakţ ‘rag-tag group of people’ 

upšákţ ‘chaos / a chaotic situation’ 


3.2 AFFILIATION 

While the category of Configuration from the preceding section distinguishes the relationships between the individual members of a set 

in terms of physical characteristics, physical attributes or physical connections, the category of Affiliation operates similarly to 

distinguish the member relationships in terms of subjective purpose, function, or benefit. Affiliation operates synergistically in 

conjunction with Configuration to describe the total contextual relationship between the members of a set. Like Configuration, the 

meanings of nouns or verbs in the various affiliations often involve lexical changes when translated into English. 

Returning to our earlier example of the word tree, we saw how a group of trees of the same species becomes a grove in the 

DISCRETE configuration. The word grove implies that the trees have grown naturally, with no specific purpose or function in regard 

to human design or utilization. On the other hand, groves of trees may be planted by design, in which case they become an orchard. 

We saw how trees occurring as a natural assortment of different kinds is termed a forest. However, such assortments can become 

wholly chaotic, displaying patternless disarray from the standpoint of subjective human design, thus becoming a jungle. 

As another example, we saw how the word person becomes group, or gathering, both of which are neutral as to subjective purpose or 

function. However, applying a sense of purposeful design generates words such as team, while the absence of purpose results in 

crowd. 

There are four affiliations: CONSOLIDATIVE, ASSOCIATIVE, VARIATIVE, and COALESCENT. Affiliation is indicated as part of 

the Ca affix as explained in Section 3.1 above and in Section 2.1.1. 


(((Cv) VL) Cg/Cs) Vr (Cx/Cv Vp/VL) Cr Vc Ci +Vi Ca VxC (Vf (’Cb)) [tone] [stress] 

Phase + 

Sanction 

(+ 

Illocution) 


OR 

Aspect 

(+ Mood) 

Pattern + 

Stem + 

Function 

Incorp.Root 

OR 

Phase + 

Sanction 




Root 

OR 

Valence 


Mood 


Affiliation + 

Perspective + 

Extension + 

Essence 

Deriv. 

Suffix 

Context + 

Format 


+ 

Relation 

The actual values of these Ca affixes are shown later in Table 5 in Section 3.5.3 below, following the explanation of Extension. The 

details of the four affiliations are explained below. 

3.2.1 CSL The Consolidative 

The CONSOLIDATIVE affiliation indicates that the individual members of a configurational set are a naturally occurring set where the 

function, state, purpose or benefit of individual members is inapplicable, irrelevant, or if applicable, is shared. It differs from the 

ASSOCIATIVE affiliation below in that the role of individual set members is not subjectively defined by human design. Examples are 

tree branches, a grove, a mound of rocks, some people, the clouds. 

The CONSOLIDATIVE is also the affiliation normally applied to nouns in the UNIPLEX configuration when spoken of in a neutral 

way, since a noun in the UNIPLEX specifies one single entity without reference to a set, therefore the concept of “shared” function

would be inapplicable. Examples: a man, a door, a sensation of heat, a leaf. With verbs, the CONSOLIDATIVE would imply that the 

act, state, or event is occurring naturally, or is neutral as to purpose or design. 

For the set of affixes which mark this affiliation, see Table 5 in Section 3.5.3 below. 

3.2.2 ASO The Associative 

The ASSOCIATIVE affiliation indicates that the individual members of a configurational set share the same subjective function, state, 

purpose or benefit. Its use can be illustrated by taking the Ithkuil word for soldier in the DISCRETE configuration and comparing its 

English translations when inflected for the CONSOLIDATIVE affiliation (= a group of soldiers) versus the ASSOCIATIVE (= a 

troop, a platoon). It is this CONSOLIDATIVE versus ASSOCIATIVE distinction, then, that would distinguish otherwise equivalent 

DISCRETE inflections of the Ithkuil word for tree by translating them respectively as a grove versus an orchard. 

The ASSOCIATIVE affiliation can also be used with nouns in the UNIPLEX configuration to signify a sense of unity amongst one’s 

characteristics, purposes, thoughts, etc. For example, the word person inflected for the UNIPLEX and ASSOCIATIVE would translate 

as a single-minded person. Even nouns such as rock, tree or work of art could be inflected this way, subjectively translatable as a 

well-formed rock, a tree with integrity, a “balanced” work of art. 

With verbs, the ASSOCIATIVE signifies that the act, state or event is by design or with specific purpose. The CONSOLIDATIVE 

versus ASSOCIATIVE distinction could be used, for example, with the verb turn in I turned toward the window to indicate whether it 

was for no particular reason or due to a desire to look outside. 


3.2.3 VAR The Variative 

The VARIATIVE affiliation indicates that the individual members of a configurational set differ as to subjective function, state, 

purpose or benefit. The differences among members can be to varying degrees (i.e., constituting a fuzzy set in regard to function, 

purpose, etc.) or at complete odds with one another, although it should be noted that the VARIATIVE would not be used to signify 

opposed but complementary differences among set members (see the COALESCENT affiliation below). It would thus be used to 

signify a jumble of tools, odds-and-ends, a random gathering, a rag-tag group, a dysfunctional couple, a cacophony of notes, of a 

mess of books, a collection in disarray. It operates with nouns in the UNIPLEX to render meanings such as a man at odds with 

himself, an ill-formed rock, a chaotic piece of art, a “lefthand-righthand” situation. 

With verbs, the VARIATIVE indicates an act, state, or event that occurs for more than one reason or purpose, and that those reasons 

or purposes are more or less unrelated. This sense can probably be captured in English only through paraphrase, as in She bought the 

house for various reasons or My being at the party served several purposes. With non-UNIPLEX configurations, the use of the 

VARIATIVE affiliation can describe rather complex phenomena; for example, a sentence using the SEGMENTATIVE configuration 

such as The light is blinking in conjunction with the VARIATIVE would mean that each blink of the light signals something different 

than the preceding or following blinks. 


3.2.4 COA The Coalescent 

The COALESCENT affiliation indicates that the members of a configurational set share in a complementary relationship with respect 

to their individual functions, states, purposes, benefits, etc. This means that, while each member’s function is distinct from those of 

other members, each serves in furtherance of some greater unified role. For example, the Ithkuil word translating English toolset would 

be the word for tool in the AGGREGATIVE configuration (due to each tool’s distinct physical appearance) and the COALESCENT 

affiliation to indicate that each tool has a distinct but complementary function in furtherance of enabling construction or repair activities. 

Another example would be the Ithkuil word for finger inflected for the SEGMENTATIVE configuration and the COALESCENT 

affiliation, translatable as the fingers on one’s hand (note the use of the SEGMENTATIVE to imply the physical connection between 

each finger via the hand). A further example would be using the COALESCENT with the word for (piece of) food to signify a wellbalanced 

meal. 

The COALESCENT naturally appears most often in conjunction with the DUPLEX configuration since binary sets tend to be 

complementary. It is used, for example, to signify symmetrical binary sets such as body parts, generally indicating a lefthand/righthand 

mirror-image distinction, e.g., one’s ears, one’s hands, a pair of wings. Pairs that do not normally distinguish such a complementary 

distinction (e.g., one’s eyes) can nevertheless be optionally placed in the COALESCENT affiliation to emphasize bilateral symmetry

(e.g., one’s left and right eye functioning together). 

With verbs, the COALESCENT signifies that related, synergistic nature of the component acts, states, and events which make up a 

greater holistic act, state, or event. It imposes a situational structure onto an act, state, or event, where individual circumstances work 

together in complementary fashion to comprise the total situation. It would be used, for example, to distinguish the sentences He 

traveled in the Yukon from He ventured in the Yukon, or I came up with a plan versus I fashioned a plan. 


3.3. PERSPECTIVE 

Perspective is the closest Ithkuil morphological category to the Number and Tense categories of other languages (e.g., singular/plural 

and past/present/future). However, the correspondence is only approximate because Perspective does not specifically address the 

quantity to which a formative is instantiated within a given context, nor when it occurs relative to the present, but rather the manner in 

which it is spatio-temporally instantiated. Specifically, Perspective indicates whether a noun or verb is to be identified as 1) a 

“bounded” contextual entity (i.e., having a spatio-temporally unified or accessible manifestation), 2) an unbounded entity (i.e., 

manifested as spatio-temporally separated or inaccessible), 3) as a unified collective or generic entity throughout spacetime, or 4) as a 

spatio-temporally neutral abstraction. How this works requires separate explanations for nouns and verbs. 

Perspective with Nouns. What Perspective means for nouns is that, in addition to merely indicating whether a given spatial context 

contains one or more than one, it also specifies single versus multiple manifestations in time, as well as along an axis of concreteness 

versus abstraction. Complicating the picture is the fact that the categories of Configuration and Affiliation (see Sections 3.1 and 3.2 

above) already contain an implicit numerical element due to the fact that they usually describe multi-membered sets. It is for all these 

reasons that the terms “singular” and “plural” have been avoided. 

Perspective with Verbs. For verbs, the aspect of “boundedness” inherent in Perspective does not imply a quantitative context but 

rather an aspect of spatio-temporal “accessibility,” i.e., whether or not an act, state, or event can be viewed as a unified whole within 

the present temporal context. This is a long way from the “tense” categories of Western languages. In Ithkuil, the notion of linearly 

progressive time is not inherently expressed in the verb (although it can be specified, if necessary, using various aspectual markers - see 

Section 5.10). 

There are four perspectives in Ithkuil: MONADIC, UNBOUNDED, NOMIC, and ABSTRACT. These are indicated as part of the Ca 

affix as explained in Sec. 3.1 above. 



Phase + 

Sanction 

(+ 

Illocution) 


OR 

Aspect 

(+ Mood) 

Pattern + 

Stem + 

Function 

Incorp.Root 

OR 

Phase + 

Sanction 




Root 

OR 

Valence 


Mood 


Affiliation+ 

Perspective + 

Extension + 

Essence 

Deriv. 

Suffix 

Context + 

Format 


+ 

Relation 

The actual values of these Ca affixes are shown later in Table 5 in Section 3.5.3 below, following the explanation of the category of 

Essence. Each perspective’s specific meaning and usage is explained and illustrated below. 

3.3.1 M The Monadic 

The MONADIC signifies a bounded embodiment of a particular configuration. By “bounded embodiment” is meant a contextual entity 

which, though possibly numerous in membership or multifaceted in structure, or spread out through a time duration, is nevertheless 

being contextually viewed and considered as a “monad,” a single, unified whole perceived to exist within a literal or figurative 

psychologically uninterrupted boundary. This is important, since configurations other than the UNIPLEX technically imply more than 

one discrete entity/instance being present or taking place. For nouns, this boundary is physically contiguous, like a container, 

corresponding to the “surface” of an object (whether literal or psychological). For verbs, this boundary is psychologically temporal, 

specifically the “present” (which in Ithkuil might be better thought of as the “context at hand” or the “immediately accessible context”). 

This distinction as to how “bounded embodiment” is interpreted for nouns and verbs is appropriate, given that Ithkuil considers nouns 

as spatially reified concepts while considering verbs to be their temporally “activized” counterparts (see Section 2.4.1).

Thus, using the word tree for example, while there might be many trees present in terms of number, the MONADIC implies they form 

only one embodiment of whatever particular Configuration category is manifested. Using the AGGREGATIVE configuration as an 

example, the MONADIC would mean there is only one AGGREGATIVE set of trees, i.e., one forest. 

At this point, it should be noted in regard to Perspective that Ithkuil makes no distinction between “count” and “non-count” (or 

“mass”) nouns. In languages such as English, nouns differ between those that can be counted and pluralized (e.g., one apple, four 

boys, several nations), and those which cannot be counted or pluralized (e.g., water, sand, plastic, air, laughter). All nouns are 

countable in Ithkuil in that all nouns can exist as contextual monads. As a result, English translations of certain Ithkuil nouns must often 

be “contextual” rather than literal, employing various conventions to put the noun in a numerical and pluralizable context, e.g., ‘some 

dirt,’ ‘the air here’ or ‘a puff of air’ rather than “a dirt” or “an air.” 

With verbs, the MONADIC superficially corresponds in a very approximate fashion with Western present tense categories except in a 

habitual sense. As noted above, the bounded embodiment conveyed by the MONADIC means that the act, state, or event is temporally 

contiguous and accessible from the point of view of the present context. It would be used to describes an act, state, or event which: 

takes place entirely in the present context 

started in the accessible past and has continued on into the present context 

starts within the present context and continues on into an accessible future 

started in an inaccessible past, but only the portion taking place in the present context is being addressed or is under consideration 

or relevant within the context of the utterance 

starts within the present context and may continue into an inaccessible future, but only the portion taking place in the present 

context is being addressed or is under consideration or relevant within the context of the utterance 

started in an inaccessible past and will continue into an inaccessible future, but only the portion taking place in the present context 

is being addressed or is under consideration or relevant within the context of the utterance 

By “accessible past” or “accessible future” is meant a past or future where the speaker was (or will be) spatially present at the time and 

the time elapsed between then and “now” is psychologically contiguous, i.e., the speaker views the passage of time from then till now 

as one continuous temporal flow of moments, not as disconnected memories, disconnected predictions, or historical reports. 

Conversely, “inaccessible” would mean a past or future where the speaker was not or will not be present or which he/she knows only 

from memory, reports, or predictions. Examples: LISTEN 

aklál 

‘a river; 

a river flows’ 

3.3.2 U The Unbounded 

u’t’ak’ařš 

‘constellation; 

a constellation shines (in the night sky) ’ 

vyarl 

‘a set of benefits; 

a set of benefits is in effect’ 

The UNBOUNDED signifies “unbounded embodiment” of a particular configurative entity, meaning that the noun or verb manifests 

itself as not being contained within an uninterrupted boundary, i.e., in contextually “disconnected” manifestations. For nouns, the term 

“plural” has been avoided so as not to imply that the member nouns are not being referred to quantitatively per se, but rather as a nonmonadic 

(i.e., non-unified) manifestation of a configurative set. While the most convenient translation into English would be to use the 

plural, e.g., trees, groves, lumps of dirt, a semantically (if not morphologically) more accurate rendering would be ‘a tree here, a tree 

there,’ ‘this grove and another and another…,’ ‘dirt-lump after dirt-lump after dirt-lump….’ 

For verbs, “unbounded embodiment” means that the psychological temporal boundary of an act, state, or event is not accessible from 

the present context. This would apply to an act, state, or event which: 

occurs entirely in the inaccessible past 

will occur entirely in the inaccessible future (if used with the PROSPECTIVE aspect - see Section 5.10.2) 

may be occurring in the present context but started in an inaccessible past, and the portion occurring in the present context cannot 

be understood without taking into account that past portion

may be occurring in the present context but will continue into an inaccessible future, and the portion occurring in the present 

context cannot be understood without taking into account the future portion 

started in an inaccessible past and will continue into an inaccessible future, and the portion occurring in the present context cannot 

be understood without taking into account these inaccessible portions 

Note that, even more so than with the MONADIC, translation of the UNBOUNDED into Western languages is subjective, as the 

translation must necessarily convey linear tense information which is not conveyed by the Ithkuil original. 

Examples: LISTEN 

aklát ‘what once was a river; the river once flowed (but no longer)’ 

u’t’ak’ařg ‘a past constellation; the constellation shone (but no longer)’ 

vyark ‘a former set of benefits; a set of benefits was in effect (but no longer)’ 

3.3.3 N The Nomic 

The NOMIC refers to a generic collective entity or archetype, containing all members or instantiations of a configurative set throughout 

space and time (or within a specified spatio-temporal context). Since it is all members being spoken of, and no individual members in 

particular, this category is mutually exclusive from the MONADIC or UNBOUNDED. For nouns, the NOMIC corresponds 

approximately to the several constructions used for referring to collective nouns in English, as seen in the sentences The dog is a noble 

beast, Clowns are what children love most, There is nothing like a tree. 

With verbs, the NOMIC designates an action, event, or situation which describes a general law of nature or a persistently true condition 

or situation spoken of in general, without reference to a specific instance or occurrence of the activity (it is, in fact, all possible 

instances or occurrences that are being referred to). English has no specialized way of expressing such generic statements, generally 

using the simple present tense. Examples of usage would be The sun doesn't set on our planet, Mr. Okotele is sickly, In winter it 

snows a lot, That girl sings well. 


akláţ ‘(flowing) river(s) (as a generic concept)’ 

u’t’ak’ařç ‘(shining) constellation(s) (as a generic concept)’

vyarx ‘a set of benefits being in effect (as a generic concept)’ 

3.3.4 A The Abstract 

Similar to the formation of English abstract nouns using suffixes such as -hood or -ness, the ABSTRACT transforms a configurative 

category into an abstract concept considered in a non-spatial, timeless, numberless context. While only certain nouns in English can be 

made into abstracts via suffixes, all Ithkuil nouns in all Configurative categories can be made into abstracts, the translations of which 

must often be periphrastic in nature, e.g., grove → the idea of being a grove or “grovehood”; book → everything about books, 

having to do with books, involvement with books. 

With verbs, the ABSTRACT is used in verbal constructions to create a temporal abstraction, where the temporal relationship of the 

action, event, or state to the present is irrelevant or inapplicable, similar to the way in which the English infinitive or gerund form (used 

as substitutes for a verb phrase) do not convey a specific tense in the following sentences: Singing is not his strong suit; It makes no 

sense to worry about it; I can't stand her pouting. As a result, the ABSTRACT acts as a “timeless” verb form which, much like these 

English infinitives and gerunds, operates in conjunction with a separate main verb in one of the other three perspectives. The 

ABSTRACT is often used in conjunction with certain modalities and moods of the verb (see Sec. 6.1 on Modality and Section 5.2 on 

Mood) which convey hypothetical or unrealized situations, in which the temporal relationship to the present is arbitrary, inapplicable, or 

unknowable. 


aklác ‘the river as an idea / everything about being a river / “river-hood” ’ 

u’t’ak’apst ‘the idea of a constellation / “constellation-hood” ’ 

vyarč ‘the idea of having/providing benefits’ 

3.4 EXTENSION 

Extension is another Ithkuil morphological category for which there is no exact equivalent in other languages. It applies to all formatives 

and indicates the manner in which the noun or verb is being considered in terms of spatial or temporal extent or boundaries. There are 

six extensions: DELIMITIVE, PROXIMAL, INCEPTIVE, TERMINATIVE, DEPLETIVE, and GRADUATIVE. 

Extension is shown as part of a formative’s Ca affix which also indicates Configuration, Affiliation, Perspective and Essence. The 

values of this affix are shown in Sec. 3.5.3. 



Phase + 

Sanction 

(+ 

Illocution) 


OR 

Aspect 

(+ Mood) 

Pattern + 

Stem + 

Function 

Incorp.Root 

OR 

Phase + 

Sanction 




Root 

OR 

Valence 


Mood 


Affiliation+ 

Perspective + 

Extension + 

Essence 

Deriv. 

Suffix 

Context + 

Format 


+ 

Relation

Alternately, extension can be shown via tone-marking of an adjacent verbal adjunct, explained in Section 6.3.5. 

The details of how each of the six extensions operates are explained as follows: 

3.4.1 DEL The Delimitive 

The DELIMITIVE extension indicates that a noun is being spoken of in its contextual entirety as a discrete entity with clear spatiotemporal 

boundaries, with no emphasis on any particular portion, edge, boundary, limit, or manifestation beyond the context at hand. It 

can be considered the neutral or default view, e.g., a tree, a grove, a set of books, an army. To illustrate a contextual example, the 

English sentence He climbed the ladder would be translated with the word ladder in the DELIMITIVE to show it is being considered 

as a whole. With verbs, this extension indicates that the act, state, or event is being considered in its entirety, from beginning to end, 

e.g., She diets every winter (i.e., she starts and finishes each diet). 

The DELIMITIVE can be thought of as an expanse of spacetime that has definite 

beginning and ending points, beyond which the noun or verb does not exist or occur. 

The graphic to the right illustrates the spatio-temporal relationship of a concept in the 

DELIMITIVE to the context at-hand (i.e., the spatio-temporal “present”). 


aklál ‘a river’ 

3.4.2 PRX The Proximal 

pšašk ‘a situation’ 

The PROXIMAL extension indicates that a noun is being spoken of not in its entirety, but rather only in terms of the portion, duration, 

subset, or aspect which is relevant to the context at hand. It would be used to translate the words tree, journey, and ladder in the 

sentences That tree is hard there (e.g., in the spot where I hit against it), She lost weight during her journey, or He climbed on the 

ladder (i.e., it is not relevant to the context to know if he made it all the way to the top). Note that in these sentences, the PROXIMAL 

does not refer to a specific or delineated piece, part, or component of the tree or ladder, but rather to the fact that delineated 

boundaries such as the ends of the ladder or the entirety of the tree are not relevant or applicable to the context at hand. With verbs, 

this extension signifies that it is not the entirety of an act, state, or event which is being considered, but rather the spatial extent or 

durational period of the act, state, or event relevant to the context, e.g., She’s on a diet every winter (i.e., focus on “having to live on” 

a diet, not the total time spent dieting from start to finish). 

The graphic to the right illustrates the spatio-temporal relationship of a noun or 

verbal concept in the PROXIMAL to the context at-hand (i.e., the spatio-temporal 

“present”). 


aklás 

‘a section/stretch of (the) river’ 

3.4.3 ICP The Inceptive 

pšams 

‘the midst of a situation’ 

The INCEPTIVE extension focuses on the closest boundary, the beginning, initiation, or the immediately accessible portion of a noun

or verb, without focusing on the boundaries of the remainder. It would be used in translating the nouns tunnel, song, desert, daybreak 

and plan in the following sentences: We looked into (the mouth of) the tunnel, He recognizes that song (i.e., from the first few notes), 

They came upon (an expanse of) desert, Let’s wait for daybreak, I’m working out a plan (i.e., that I just thought of). In verbal 

contexts it would correspond to the English ‘to begin (to)…’ or ‘to start (to)…’ as in He began reading, It’s starting to molt, or She 

goes on a diet every winter. 

The graphic to the right illustrates the spatio-temporal relationship of a noun or verbal 

concept in the INCEPTIVE to the context at-hand (i.e., the spatio-temporal “present”). 


klamtá ‘the beginning of a river’ 

pšapšt’ ‘the beginning/start of a situation’ 

3.4.4 TRM The Terminative 

The TERMINATIVE extension focuses on the end, termination, last portion, or trailing boundary of a noun, without focusing on the 

preceding or previously existing state of the noun. It would be used in translating the words water, story, and arrival in the sentences 

There’s no water (i.e., we ran out), I like the end of that story, and We await your arrival. With verbs, it is illustrated by the sentences 

It finished molting or She’s come off her diet. 

The graphic to the right illustrates the spatio-temporal relationship of a noun or verbal 

concept in the TERMINATIVE to the context at-hand (i.e., the spatio-temporal 

“present”). Examples: LISTEN 

klat’á ‘the end of a river’ 

pšakt’ ‘the end of a situation’ 

3.4.5 DPL The Depletive 

The DEPLETIVE extension focuses on the terminal boundary or “trailing” edge of a noun, where this terminus is ill-defined, “diffuse” 

or extended to some degree, (i.e. the at-hand context of the noun “peters out” or terminates gradually). Essentially, it applies to any 

context involving actual or figurative fading. It would be used in translating the words water, strength, and twilight in the sentences He 

drank the last of the water, I have little strength left, She disappeared into the twilight. With verbs, it is exemplified by the phrases to 

wind down, to fade out, to disappear gradually and similar notions, e.g., She’s eating less and less these days. 

The graphic to the right illustrates the spatio-temporal relationship of a noun or 

verbal concept in the DEPLETIVE to the context at-hand (i.e., the spatio-temporal 

“present”). Examples: LISTEN 

klakcá ‘the mouth of a river’

pšaňsk ‘the last vestiges of a situation’ 

3.4.6 GRA The Graduative 

The GRADUATIVE extension is the inverse of the DEPLETIVE, focusing on a diffuse, extended “fade-in” or gradual onset of a 

noun. It would be used in translating the words darkness, wonder, and music in the following sentences: Darkness came upon us, I felt 

a growing sense of wonder, The music was very soft at first. With verbs it is illustrated by verbs and phrases such as to fade in, to 

start gradually, to build up, and similar notions, e.g., She’s been eating more and more lately. 

The graphic to the right illustrates the spatio-temporal relationship of a noun in the 

GRADUATIVE to the context at-hand (i.e., the spatio-temporal “present”). Examples: 

LISTEN 

klakc’á ‘the headwaters of a river’ 

3.5 ESSENCE 

pšaňsk’ ‘a gradually developing situation’ 

Essence refers to a two-fold morphological distinction which has no counterpart in Western languages. It is best explained by reference 

to various English language illustrations. Compare the following pairs of English sentences: 

1a) The boy ran off to sea. 

1b) The boy who ran off to sea didn’t run off to sea. 

2a) The dog you saw is to be sold tomorrow. 

2b) The dog you saw doesn’t exist. 

Sentences (1a) and (2a) appear to be straightforward sentences in terms of meaning and interpretation. However, at first blush, 

sentences (1b) and (2b) appear nonsensical, and it is not until we consider specialized contexts for these sentences that they make any 

sense. For example, (1b) would make sense if being spoken by an author reporting a change of mind about the plot for a story, while 

(2b) makes sense when spoken by a puzzled pet store owner in whose window you earlier saw a dog that is now no longer there. 

Why sentences such as (1b) and (2b) can have possible real-world meaning is because they in fact do not make reference to an actual 

boy or dog, but rather to hypothetical representations of a real-world boy and dog, being used as references back to those real-world 

counterparts from within an “alternative mental space” created psychologically (and implied linguistically) where events can be spoken 

about that are either unreal, as-yet-unrealized, or alternative versions of what really takes place. This alternative mental space, then, is 

essentially the psychological realm of both potential and imagination. In Western languages, such an alternative mental space is implied 

by context or indicated by certain lexical signals. One such group of lexical signals are the so-called “modal” verbs of English, e.g., 

must, can, should, etc. as seen in the following: 

3) You must come home at once. 

4) That girl can sing better than anybody.

5) We should attack at dawn. 

Each of the above three sentences describe potential events, not actual real-world happenings that are occurring or have occurred. For 

example, in Sentence (3) no one has yet come home nor do we know whether coming home is even possible, in Sentence (4) the girl 

may never sing a single note ever again for all we know, and Sentence (5) gives us no information as to whether any attack will 

actually occur. 

3.5.1 NRM The Normal 

RPV The Representative 

The Ithkuil category of Essence explicitly distinguishes real-world actualities from their alternative, imagined or potential counterparts. 

The two essences are termed NORMAL and REPRESENTATIVE, the former being the default essence denoting real-world nouns 

and verbs, the latter denoting alternative counterparts. By marking such counterparts explicitly, Ithkuil allows a speaker to express any 

noun or verb as referring to a real-world versus alternative manifestation, without having the listener infer such from an explanatory 

context. 

Essence is as part of the Ca affix which also indicates Configuration, Affiliation and Perspective. The values of this affix are shown 

below in Sec. 3.5.3. 



Phase + 

Sanction 

(+ 

Illocution) 


OR 

Aspect 

(+ Mood) 

Pattern + 

Stem + 

Function 

3.5.2 Examples of Essence in Use 

Incorp.Root 

OR 

Phase + 

Sanction 




Root 

OR 

Valence 


Mood 


Affiliation + 

Perspective + 

Extension + 

Essence 

Deriv. 

Suffix 

Context + 

Format 


+ 

Relation 

Compare the following two sentences and their translations to see how placement of the REPRESENTATIVE essence on different 

formatives changes the meaning. 

Xal öqil êqattêp h . 

STA-‘see’-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/UNI-IFL STA-‘man’-AFF-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/UNI-IFL STA-‘woman’-OBL-RPV/DEL/M/CSL/UNI-MAT 2/3-IFL 

The man sees what he thinks is/imagines to be a young girl. LISTEN 

Xatta öqil êqalêp h . 

STA-‘see’-RPV/DEL/M/CSL/UNI-IFL STA-‘man’-AFF-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/UNI-IFL STA-‘woman’-OBL-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/UNI-MAT 2/3-IFL 

The man is imagining he sees a young girl. LISTEN 

Ûb eikkradwa smou’olâxh. 

EXN 1/6 DYN-‘move.along.obliquely.vertical.path.between.two.points’-RPV/PRX/N/CSL/UNI-IFL STA-‘valley’-NAV-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/UNI-SCO 2/5-IFL 

The path through the canyon is/seems steep. LISTEN 

In the example immediately above, no one is necessarily on the path (including the speaker), so steepness exists merely as 

an idea/assumption in the speaker’s mind.

3.5.3 Affix Tables for Configuration, Affiliation, Perspective, Extension and Essence 

Tables 5(a) through 5(f) below indicate all the affix values of Ca, the synthetic affix which indicates which of the nine Configurations, 

four Affiliations, four Perspectives, and six Extensions are applied to a particular stem. 



Phase + 

Sanction 


OR 

Aspect 

(+ Mood) 

Pattern + 

Stem + 

Function 

Incorp.Root 

OR 

Phase + 

Sanction 



Root 

OR 

Valence 


Mood 

Tables 5(a)-(l): 

Ca Configuration/Affiliation/Perspective/Extension Affixes for Formatives 

ESSENCE & 

EXTENSION PERSPECTIVEAFFILIATION 

NRM 

+ 

DEL 

M 

U 

N 

A 


Affiliation + 

Perspective + 

Extension + 

Essence 

Deriv. 

Suffix 

Context + 

Format 

CONFIGURATION 

UNI DPX DCT AGG SEG CPN COH CST MLT 

CSL l ll tļ ļ ļļ řļ sk šk kţ 

ASO r rr lļ rl rļ řl st št kç 

VAR m mm lm rm mļ řm sp šp pţ 

COA n nn ln r n nļ ř n sq šq qţ 

CSL t ļt lt rt nt řt ňt ňd çt 

ASO k ļk lk rk ňk řk kt xt çk 

VAR p ļp lp rp mp řp pt ft çp 

COA q ļq lq rq ňq řq qt xht çq 

CSL ţ ţţ lţ rţ nţ řţ sţ šţ tf 

ASO x xx lx rx ňx mx sx šx kf 

VAR f ff lf rf mf řf sf šf pf 

COA xh xxh lxh rxh ňxh mxh sxh šxh qf 

CSL c cc lc rc ns řc sc fk fq 

ASO č čč lč rč nš řč šč ţk ţq 

VAR ż żż lż rż nz řż ţf ţs ţc 


+ 

Relation

ESSENCE & 


NRM 

+ 

PRX 

M 

U 

N 

A 

COA j jj lj rj nž řj fţ ţš ţč 

CSL 

ASO 

VAR 

COA 

CSL 

ASO 

VAR 

COA 

CSL 

ASO 

VAR 

COA 

CSL 

ASO 

VAR 

COA 

ESSENCE & 


M 

CSL 

ASO 

VAR 

CONFIGURATION 


s ss ls rs fs řs ňs ms mss 

š šš lš rš fš řš ňš mš mšš 

z zz lz rz vz řz ňz mz mzz 

ž žž lž rž vž řž ňž mž mžž 

d dv ld rd nd řd md zd žd 

g gv lg rg ňg řg ňkf zg žg 

b bv lb rb mb řb ntf zb žb 

ň ňň ňç rň ňv ř ň ňf řtf řkf 

dh ddh ldh rdh ndh řdh mdh ţx ţxh 

ç çç lç rç nç řç mç fx fxh 

v vv lv rv mv řv ndv xf xţ 

ř řř rbv rdv rgv řxh mţ xhf xhţ 

ck čk ps ks gd psk pšk ksk kšk 

ct čt pš kš bd pst pšt tx txh 

cp čp bz gz pç ksp kšp px pxh 

cq čq bž gž řqf kst kšt psq pšq 

CONFIGURATION 


mt mt’ sk h sk’ mt h pst’ pst h pšt’ pšt h 

mk mk’ st h st’ mk h kst’ kst h kšt’ kšt h 

ňp ňp’ sp h sp’ ňp h psk’ psk h pšk’ pšk h

NRM 

+ 

ICP 

U 

N 

A 

COA mq mq’ sq h sq’ mq h ksp’ ksp h kšp’ kšp h 

CSL 

ASO 

VAR 

COA 

CSL 

ASO 

VAR 

COA 

CSL 

ASO 

VAR 

COA 

ESSENCE & 


NRM 

M CSL 

ASO 

VAR 

COA 

U CSL 

ASO 

VAR 

COA 

pk pk’ šk h šk’ pk h fk’ fk h psq’ psq h 

tk tk’ št h št’ tk h ţk’ ţk h ksk’ ksk h 

tp tp’ šp h šp’ tp h ţp’ ţp h pšq’ pšq h 

kp kp’ šq h šq’ kp h xp’ xp h kšk’ kšk h 

pq pq’ fg bg pq h vg fp fq’ fq h 

tq tq’ ţg dg tq h dhg vd ţq’ ţq h 

qp qp’ xhp xp sc h sc’ ňqf gb kkç/kçç 

pļ tç xhp’ ţp šč h šč’ vb dhz ppç/pçç 

fst fc’ fc lfs xc’ ţc’ ltf fst’ fst h 

fšt fč’ fč lfš xč’ ţč’ lkf fšt’ fšt h 

fsk fc h rfs fsq xc h ţc h xhp h fsk’ fsk h 

fšk fč h rfš fšq xč h ţč h qp h fšk’ fšk h 

CONFIGURATION 


t’ ļt’ lt’ rt’ nt’ řt’ ţsk’ kt’ ňt’ 

k’ ļk’ lk’ rk’ ňk’ řk’ ţšk’ ft’ xt’ 

p’ ļp’ lp’ rp’ mp’ řp’ fsq’ pt’ fp’ 

q’ ļq’ lq’ rq’ ňq’ řq’ fšq’ xht’ qt’ 

t h ļt h lt h rt h nt h řt h ţsk h kt h ňt h 

k h ļk h lk h rk h ňk h řk h ţšk h ft h xt h 

p h ļp h lp h rp h mp h řp h fsq h pt h fp h 

q h ļq h lq h rq h ňq h řq h fšq h xht h qt h

+ 

TRM 

N CSL c’ cc’ lc’ rc’ nc’ řc’ mc’ ňc’ çt’ 

ASO 

VAR 

COA 

A CSL 

ASO 

VAR 

COA 

ESSENCE & 


NRM 

+ 

DPL 

M 

U 

N 

CSL 

ASO 

VAR 

COA 

CSL 

ASO 

VAR 

COA 

CSL 

ASO 

VAR 

COA 

CSL 

ASO 

č’ čč’ lč’ rč’ nč’ řč’ mč’ ňč’ çk’ 

c h cc h lc h rc h nc h řc h mc h ňc h çp’ 

č h čč h lč h rč h nč h čř h mč h ňč h çq’ 

pps/pss rps lps rbz lbz řps řbz ňss çt h 

ppš/pšš rpš lpš rbž lbž řpš řbž ňšš çk h 

kks/ kss rks lks rgz lgz řks řgz ňzz çp h 

kkš/kšš rkš lkš rgž lgž řkš řgž ňžž çq h 

CONFIGURATION 


kc lkç lsk rsk nsk řsk msk ňsk ssk 

żd lţs lst rst nst řst mst ňst sst 

pc bbz/bzz lsp rsp nsp řsp msp ňsp ssp 

qc ggz/gzz lsq rsq nsq řsq msq ňsq ssq 

kč rçç lšk ršk nšk řšk mšk ňšk ššk 

jd lţš lšt ršt nšt řšt mšt ňšt ššt 

pč bbž/bžž lšp ršp nšp řšp mšp ňšp ššp 

qč ggž/gžž lšq ršq nšq řšq mšq ňšq ššq 

bdh xpf lvz rvz rbdh řpţ lpf rpf bzd 

gdh ňdh lvž rvž rgdh řkţ lpç rpç bžd 

ţt dhd ldhz rţs rqţ řqţ ňkç řpf gzd 

db ttç/tçç ldhž rţš rkç řkç mpç řpç gžd 

bż rpss lzb rzb nzb řzb mzb řpss gzb 

gż rkss lžb ržb nžb řžb mžb řkss gžb

A 

VAR 

COA 

ESSENCE & 


NRM 

+ 

GRA 

M 

U 

N 

A 

CSL 

ASO 

VAR 

COA 

CSL 

ASO 

VAR 

COA 

CSL 

ASO 

VAR 

COA 

CSL 

ASO 

VAR 

COA 

ESSENCE & 


bj rpšš lzg rzg nzg řzg mzg řpšš bzg 

gj rkšš lžg ržg nžg řžg mžg řkšš bžg 

CONFIGURATION 


kc’ ck’ lsk’ rsk’ nsk’ řsk’ msk’ ňsk’ ssk’ 

żb ct’ lst’ rst’ nst’ řst’ mst’ ňst’ sst’ 

pc’ cp’ lsp’ rsp’ nsp’ řsp’ msp’ ňsp’ ssp’ 

qc’ cq’ lsq’ rsq’ nsq’ řsq’ msq’ ňsq’ ssq’ 

kč’ čk’ lšk’ ršk’ nšk’ řšk’ mšk’ ňšk’ ššk’ 

jb čt’ lšt’ ršt’ nšt’ řšt’ mšt’ ňšt’ ššt’ 

pč’ čp’ lšp’ ršp’ nšp’ řšp’ mšp’ ňšp’ ššp’ 

qč’ čq’ lšq’ ršq’ nšq’ řšq’ mšq’ ňšq’ ššq’ 

kc h ck h lsk h rsk h nsk h řsk h msk h ňsk h ssk h 

żg ct h lst h rst h nst h řst h mst h ňst h sst h 

pc h cp h lsp h rsp h nsp h řsp h msp h ňsp h ssp h 

qc h cq h lsq h rsq h nsq h řsq h msq h ňsq h ssq h 

kč h čk h lšk h ršk h nšk h řšk h mšk h ňšk h ššk h 

jg čt h lšt h ršt h nšt h řšt h mšt h ňšt h ššt h 

pč h čp h lšp h ršp h nšp h řšp h mšp h ňšp h ššp h 

qč h čq h lšq h ršq h nšq h řšq h mšq h ňšq h ššq h 

CONFIGURATION 


CSL tt tt’ tt h lpt’ rpt’ řpt’ lpt h rpt h řpt h

RPV 

+ 

DEL 

M 

U 

N 

A 

ESSENCE & 


M 

U 

ASO kk kk’ kk h lkt’ rkt’ řkt’ lkt h rkt h řkt h 

VAR pp pp’ pp h lpk’ rpk’ řpk’ lpk h rpk h řpk h 

COA qq qq’ qq h ltk’ rtk’ řtk’ ltk h rtk h řtk h 

CSL dd nçw pçw lft’ rft’ řft’ lft h rft h řft h 

ASO gg ňçw kfw lxt’ rxt’ řxt’ lxt h rxt h řxt h 

VAR bb mçw pfw lfk’ rfk’ řfk’ lfk h rfk h řfk h 

COA cf čf qfw lţk’ rţk’ řţk’ lţk h rţk h řţk h 

CSL ţw dhw lţw rţw mţw řţw nţw ldhw rdhw 

ASO xw ňw lxw rxw mxw řxw ňxw lňw rňw 

VAR fw vw lfw rfw ňfw řfw mfw lvw rvw 

COA xhw çw lxhw rxhw mxhw tçw ňxhw lçw rçw 

CSL sw cw lsw rsw msw řsw nsw ňsw ssw 

ASO šw čw lšw ršw mšw řšw nšw ňšw ššw 

VAR zw żw lzw rzw mzw řzw nzw ňzw zzw 

COA žw jw lžw ržw mžw řžw nžw ňžw žžw 

CSL 

ASO 

VAR 

COA 

CSL 

ASO 

CONFIGURATION 


tw ttw t h w t’w tt’w tt h w ltw rtw ntw 

kw kkw k h w k’w kk’w kk h w lkw rkw ňkw 

pw ppw p h w p’w pp’w pp h w lpw rpw mpw 

qw qqw q h w q’w qq’w qq h w lqw rqw ňqw 

ty tty lty ţy nty řty rty pty tky 

ky kky lky ży ňky řky rky kty kpy

RPV 

+ 

PRX 

N 

A 

VAR py ppy lpy fy npy řpy rpy tpy pky 

COA 

CSL 

ASO 

VAR 

COA 

CSL 

ASO 

VAR 

COA 

ESSENCE & 


RPV 

+ 

ICP 

M 

U 

N 

CSL 

ASO 

VAR 

COA 

CSL 

ASO 

VAR 

COA 

CSL 

ASO 

VAR 

COA 

CSL 

my fty ptw mw ftw ptr ftr pkw fkw 

dw ddw ldw tv ndw řdw bdw dgw rdw 

gw ggw lgw kv ňgw řgw gdw gbw rgw 

bw bbw lbw pv mbw řbw dbw bgw rbw 

lw ly ry rw ļw řy tļw řw lř 

dy ddy ldy dhy ndy řdy rdy bdy dgy 

gy ggy lgy jy ňgy řgy rgy gdy gby 

by bby lby vy mby řby rby dby bgy 

ny xty ktw nw xtw ktr xtr tkw ţkw 

CONFIGURATION 


tl ttl ltl rtl ntl řtl mtl ļtl kçw 

kl kkl lkl rkl ňkl řkl mkl ļkl c’w 

pl ppl lpl rpl mpl řpl ňpl ļpl tfw 

ql qql lql rql ňql řql mql ļql č’w 

dl ddl ldl rdl ndl řdl bdl dgl vbl 

gl ggl lgl rgl ňgl řgl gdl gbl vgl 

bl bbl lbl rbl mbl řbl dbl bgl vdl 

ml mř ňl nl ţř fř př tř lr 

skl ckl ckw skw sskw çkw sk’w ck’w sskl 

stl ctl ctw stw sstw çtw st’w ct’w sstl 

spl cpl cpw spw sspw çpw sp’w cp’w sspl 

sql cql cqw sqw ssqw çqw sq’w cq’w ssql

A 

ASO 

VAR 

COA 

ESSENCE & 


RPV 

+ 

TRM 

M CSL 

ASO 

VAR 

COA 

U CSL 

ASO 

VAR 

COA 

N CSL 

ASO 

VAR 

COA 

A CSL 

ASO 

VAR 

COA 

škl čkl čkw škw šškw xxw šk’w čk’w šškl 

štl čtl čtw štw šštw ţţw št’w čt’w šštl 

špl čpl čpw špw ššpw ffw šp’w čp’w ššpl 

šql čql čqw šqw ššqw xxhw šq’w čq’w ššql 

CONFIGURATION 


tr ttr ltr rtr ntr řtr mtr ļtr rtn 

kr kkr lkr rkr ňkr řkr mkr ļkr rkn 

pr ppr lpr rpr mpr řpr ňpr ļpr rpn 

qr qqr lqr rqr ňqr řqr mqr ļqr rqn 

dr ddr ldr rdr ndr řdr bdr dgr vbr 

gr ggr lgr rgr ňgr řgr gdr gbr vgr 

br bbr lbr rbr mbr řbr dbr bgr vdr 

mr nř ňr nr dhř vř bř dř gř 

skr ckr cky sky ssky č h w sk h w ck h w sskr 

str ctr cty sty ssty c h y st h w ct h w sstr 

spr cpr cpy spy sspy c h w sp h w cp h w sspr 

sqr cqr c’y cy çr č h y sq h w cq h w ssqr 

škr čkr čky šky ššky ļkw šk h w čk h w šškr 

štr čtr čty šty ššty ļtw št h w čt h w šštr 

špr čpr čpy špy ššpy ļpw šp h w čp h w ššpr 

šqr čqr č’y čy çř ļqw šq h w čq h w ššqr 

ESSENCE & CONFIGURATION

EXTENSIONPERSPECTIVEAFFILIATION UNI DPX DCT AGG SEG CPN COH CST MLT 

RPV 

+ 

DPL 

M 

U 

N 

A 

CSL 

ASO 

VAR 

COA 

CSL 

ASO 

VAR 

COA 

CSL 

ASO 

VAR 

COA 

CSL 

ASO 

VAR 

COA 

ESSENCE & 


M 

CSL 

ASO 

VAR 

COA 

CSL 

sl ssl lsl rsl msl řsl nsl ňsl ţst 

šl ššl lšl ršl mšl řšl nšl ňšl ţšt 

zl zzl lzl rzl mzl řzl nzl ňzl ţsp 

žl žžl lžl ržl mžl řžl nžl ňžl ţšp 

fl ffl lfl rfl mfl řfl fxl ňfl pxl 

ţl ţţl lţl rţl nţl řţl ţxl mţl txl 

xl xxl lxl rxl ňxl řxl xfl mxl xţl 

xhl xxhl lxhl rxhl ňxhl qtl xhfl mxhl xhţl 

vl vvl lvl rvl mvl řvl lpţ lkţ mpļ 

dhl ddhl ldhl rdhl ndhl řdhl cl čl ntļ 

sv sř ksw sxw lsř rsř fsw řsř bzw 

zv zř psw sxhw lzř rzř sfw řzř gzw 

sm sy cm zm żm çm bm dm gm 

šm šy čm žm jm ļm vm dhm kř 

sn zy cn zn żn çn bn dn gn 

šn žy čn žn jn ļn vn dhn ňř 

CONFIGURATION 


sr ssr lsr rsr msr řsr nsr ňsr ţsk 

šr ššr lšr ršr mšr řšr nšr ňšr ţšk 

zr zzr lzr rzr mzr řzr nzr ňzr ţsq 

žr žžr lžr ržr mžr řžr nžr ňžr ţšq 

fr ffr lfr rfr mfr řfr fxr ňfr pxr

RPV 

+ 

GRA 

U 

N 

A 

ASO ţr ţţr lţr rţr nţr řţr ţxr mţr txr 

VAR 

COA 

CSL 

ASO 

VAR 

COA 

CSL 

ASO 

VAR 

COA 

xr xxr lxr rxr ňxr řxr xfr mxr xţr 

xhr xxhr lxhr rxhr ňxhr qtr xhfr mxhr xhţr 

vr vvr lvr rvr mvr řvr rpţ rkţ mpř 

dhr ddhr ldhr rdhr ndhr řdhr cr čr ntř 

šv šř kšw šxw lšř ršř fšw řšř bžw 

žv žř pšw šxhw lžř ržř šfw řžř gžw 

tm ţm ţn tn rsm rsn sň rsň nm 

km xm xn kn rzm rzn zň rzň ňm 

pm fm fn pn ršm ršn šň ršň mn 

qm xhm xhn qn ržm ržn žň ržň ňn 

3.5.4 Additional Example of Configuration, Affiliation, Perspective, Extension and Essence 

ekšá- 

‘clown’ 

3.6 CONTEXT 

egw- 

‘running stride’ → 

Aigwapsk h ekšúlļ . 

DYN-‘running stride’-NRM/ICP/M/VAR/COH-IFL STA-‘clown’-IND-NRM/DEL/M/ASO/DCT-FML 

The [group of] clowns begin stumbling as they run. LISTEN 

Context is yet another morphological category with no equivalent in other languages. It indicates what tangible or intangible features or 

aspects of a formative are being psychologically implied in any given utterance. There is no way to show this in translation other than 

by paraphrase. There are four contexts: the EXISTENTIAL, the FUNCTIONAL, the REPRESENTATIONAL, and the 

AMALGAMATE, marked by a vocalic suffix Vf which also conveys verbal Format (the category of Format will be analyzed in Section 

6.4). Table 6 below shows the values for this suffix. 



Phase + 

Sanction 


OR 

Pattern + 

Stem + 

Incorp.Root 

OR 




Mood 

Essence + 

Extension + 

Deriv. 

Suffix 

Context + 

Format 


+

Aspect 

(+ Mood) 

Function Phase + 

Sanction 

Root 

OR 

Valence 

Table 6: Word-final Vf-suffix: 4 contexts x 9 formats 

Context↓ 

EXISTENTIAL 

FUNCTIONAL 

REPRESENTATIONAL 

AMALGAMATE 

FORMAT (see Sec. 6.4) 

Perspective + 


Affiliation 

(none) SCH ISR ATH RSL SBQ CCM OBJ PRT 

(a) o ai â au ëi oa ea aì aù 

i ö ui ae iu ëu oe ia / ua uì iù 

e ü / öe ei ê eu öi eo ie / ue eì eù 

u öa oi ô ou öu iö / uö io / uo oì où 

The four Contexts are explained below and illustrated via example Ithkuil translations of the English sentence The orchestra is playing. 

3.6.1 EXS The Existential 

The EXISTENTIAL context focuses on those features of a noun or verb which are ontologically objective, i.e., those that exist 

irrespective of any observers, opinions, interpretations, beliefs or attitudes. Similarly excluded from consideration in the 

EXISTENTIAL is any notion of a noun’s use, function, role or benefit. The EXISTENTIAL serves only to point out the mere 

existence of a noun as a tangible, objective entity under discussion. It is thus used to offer mere identification of a noun or verb. 

For example, consider the sentence A cat ran past the doorway. If the Ithkuil words corresponding to cat, run, and doorway are in the 

EXISTENTIAL, then the sentence merely describes an objective scene. No implication is intended concerning the subjective nature of 

the two entities or the action involved. The sentence is merely stating that two entities currently have a certain dynamic spatial 

relationship to each other; those two entities happen to be a cat and a doorway, and the running merely conveys the nature of the 

spatial relationship. 

Ilmašqôn. 

DYN-‘play music’-NRM/DEL/M/COA/CST-AGC 2/7-EXS-IFL 

‘The orchestra is playing.’ [neutral description of event] 

3.6.2 FNC The Functional 

The FUNCTIONAL context focuses on those features of a formative that are defined socially by ideas, attitudes, beliefs, opinions, 

convention, cultural status, use, function, benefit, etc. It serves to identify not what a noun existentially is, but to show that the noun 

has specific (and subjective) contextual meaning, relevance or purpose. 

For example, in our previous sentence A cat ran past the doorway, if we now place the cat, doorway, and act of running each into the 

FUNCTIONAL, the ‘cat’ no longer simply identifies a participant, it makes its being a cat (as opposed to say, a dog) significant, e.g., 

because the speaker may fear cats, or because the cat could get into the room and ruin the furniture, or because cats are associated 

with mystery, or because a neighbor has been looking for a lost cat, etc. The ‘doorway’ now conveys its purpose as an entry, 

reinforcing what the cat may do upon entering. Likewise, the verb ‘ran’ in the FUNCTIONAL now implies the furtive nature of the 

cat. Example: 

AFI 

Relation

Ilmašqôni. 

DYN-‘play music’-NRM/DEL/M/COA/CST-AGC 2/7-FNC-IFL 

‘The orchestra is playing.’ [focus on the personal meaning/importance of the event] 

3.6.3 RPS The Representational 

The REPRESENTATIONAL context focuses on a formative as a symbol, metaphor, or metonym*, in that it indicates that the 

formative is serving as a representation or substitute for some other concept or entity which is abstractly associated with it. For 

example, the metaphorical connotations of the English sentence That pinstripe-suited dog is checking out a kitty, can be equally 

conveyed in Ithkuil by inflecting the words for ‘dog and ‘kitty’ into the REPRESENTATIONAL context. The 

REPRESENTATIONAL is one of several ways that Ithkuil overtly renders all metaphorical, symbolic, or metonymic usages (from a 

grammatical standpoint). 

* Metonymy is the use of a word or phrase of one type to refer to an associated word or phrase of a different type (usually a person), such as place-for-person in ‘The 

orders came from the White House,’ object-for-person in ‘Tell the cook the ham-and-cheese wants fries with his order’ or phrase-for-person as in ‘You-know-who just 

showed up.’ 

Ilmašqône. 

DYN-‘play music’-NRM/DEL/M/COA/CST-AGC 2/7-RPS-IFL 

‘The orchestra is playing.’ [connotes that sentence is a metaphor, e.g., ‘life as a symphony’] 

3.6.4 AMG The Amalgamative 

The AMALGAMATIVE context is the most abstract and difficult to understand from a Western linguistic perspective. It focuses on 

the systemic, holistic, gestalt-like, componential nature of a formative, implying that its objective and subjective totality is derived 

synergistically from (or as an emergent property of) the interrelationships between all of its parts, not just in terms of a static 

momentary appraisal, but in consideration of the entire developmental history of the noun and any interactions and relationships it has 

(whether past, present or potential) within the larger context of the world. Its use indicates the speaker is inviting the hearer to 

subjectively consider all the subjective wonder, emotional nuances, psychological ramifications and/or philosophical implications 

associated with the noun’s existence, purpose, or function, as being a world unto itself, intrinsically interconnected with the wider world 

beyond it on many levels. Thus the AMALGAMATIVE version of our sentence The cat ran past the doorway would take on quite 

melodramatic implications, with the cat being representative of everything about cats and all they stand for, the doorway as being 

representative of the nature of doorways as portals of change, thresholds of departure, and the juncture of past and the future, while 

the act of running becomes representative of flight from enemies, rapidity of movement, the body at maximum energy expenditure, etc. 

Ilmašqônu. 

DYN-‘play music’-NRM/DEL/M/COA/CST-AGC 2/7-AMG-IFL 

‘The orchestra is playing.’ [connotes a focus on the emotional impact plus cultural significance of the event] 

3.7 DESIGNATION 

Designation is a somewhat subjective category, with no equivalent in Western languages. It refers to a two-fold distinction in a 

formative regarding its contextual status, authority, permanence, or extra-contextual relevance. The two Designations are the 

INFORMAL and the FORMAL, shown by the formative’s syllabic stress (in conjunction with the verbal category of Relation which 

will be discussed in Section 5.4). 

I II III IV V VI VII VIII IX X XI XII XIII XIV XV


Phase + 

Sanction 



OR 

Aspect 

(+ Mood) 

Pattern + 

Stem + 

Function 

Incorp.Root 

OR 

Phase + 

Sanction 


The two Designations are explained below. 

3.7.1 IFL The Informal 



Root 

OR 

Valence 


+ 

Mood 

Essence + 

Extension + 

Perspective + 


Affiliation 

Deriv. 

Suffix 

Context + 

Format 


+ 

Relation 

The INFORMAL designation is shown by either penultimate (second-to-last) or antepenultimate (third-from last) syllabic stress on the 

formative, depending on the formative’s Relation (see Section 5.4 on Relation). 

The INFORMAL designation indicates that the noun or verb in question does not exist in a necessarily permanent state, or is to be 

considered only for the duration of the context in which it is spoken, with any lasting effect, influence or permanency beyond the 

context being either absent, unknown or irrelevant. It is best illustrated by comparative examples with the FORMAL designation in the 

section immediately below. 

3.7.2 FML The Formal 

The FORMAL designation is shown by either ultimate (final) or pre-antepenultimate (fourth-from last) syllabic stress on the formative, 

depending on the formative’s Relation (see Section 5.4 on Relation). 

The FORMAL designation imparts a sense of permanency and/or authority, raising the noun or verb to a more definitive, formal or 

institutional manifestation of itself, or stressing this authoritative/definitive nature if the meaning already includes it. For example, stems 

translatable as ‘symbol,’ ‘eat,’ ‘thought,’ and ‘a model’ in the INFORMAL would become ‘icon,’ ‘dine,’ ‘idea,’ and ‘archetype’ in the 

FORMAL. 

The FORMAL achieves several subtle purposes from a lexico-semantic standpoint. While some Ithkuil words would translate the same 

in English no matter which designation (e.g., to hurt, to float, breath, to fall, shade, sleep, cough), many stems would have different 

translations in English depending on their designation. For example, the stem eq- with the affiliated meanings person → group → 

gathering → crowd → throng, etc. in the INFORMAL designation would change to the following series of approximate translations 

when placed in the FORMAL designation: official → team → association/congregation → assembly → masses, etc. 

Further examples of lexical shifts in translation due to INFORMAL → FORMAL designation are listed below: 

to grow something → to cultivate wander → travel 

obtain/get → procure/requisition lake → reservoir 

(natural) holder → container see → observe 

to create → construct/build heap → pile 

animal → domesticated animal a thought → an idea 

natural environment →“man-made” environment awareness → consciousness 

[natural] exchange → trade/commerce house → home 

assortment of animals → zoo collection grouping → set 

to group/gather → collect wall → barrier 

get some exercise → to work out placidity → peace 

problem situation → crisis to populate → to settle 

As can be seen from the above list, the exact interpretation of Designation for each word-root is specific to each word-root, depending 

on its associated semantic context. 

3.7.3 Examples of Designation in Use

INFORMAL FORMAL 

klal ‘flow of water; to flow’ 

dyal 

‘sensation/feeling; to sense (affective)’ 

stal ‘comparison; to compare/contrast’ 

3.8 NOTE ON MORPHO-PHONOLOGICAL AGREEMENT 

→ 

→ 

→ 

aklál ‘river; to flow as a river ’ 

adyál 

‘sensation/feeling (volitional/deliberate); to examine via the senses’ 

astál ‘measure(ment)’ 

In regard to the gender categories from other languages, Ithkuil has no distinctions of gender (e.g., masculine, feminine, neuter, etc.). 

There is no “agreement” or morpho-phonological concord of any kind between a noun and other words or morphological elements in a 

sentence, i.e., there is none of the required matching of masculine or feminine or singular/plural agreement between nouns, articles, and 

adjectives as found in most Western languages. 

Proceed to Chapter 4: Case Morphology >> 











Ithkuil as a “para-linguistic” interface to a quantum computer.)










Chapter 4: Case Morphology 

4.1 Semantic Role versus Positional Slot 4.5 The Associative Cases 

4.2 Morpho-Phonological Markers for Case 4.6 The Temporal Cases 

4.3 The Transrelative Cases 4.7 The Spatial Cases 

4.4 The Possessive Cases 4.8 The Vocative 

In this chapter, we analyze one additional morphological category: Case. Like the seven categories analyzed in the previous chapter, 

and unlike other languages, the category of Case applies to all formatives in Ithkuil, i.e., to both nouns and verbs alike. However, the 

syntactical context in which Case operates is sufficiently dissimilar for nouns and verbs to warrant separate analysis. In this chapter, we 

will analyze the case morphology of nouns alone. The use of Case with verbs will be analyzed in Section 5.2. 

Anyone who has studied German, Latin, Russian, Classical Greek or Sanskrit, is familiar with the concept of Case. Case generally 

refers to a morphological scheme in which a noun, whether via internal mutation of its phonemes or via affixes, shows what 

grammatical “role” it plays in the phrase or sentence in which it appears. For example, in the English sentence It was me she saw, the 

use of the word ‘she’ as opposed to ‘her’ and the use of ‘me’ as opposed to ‘I’ distinguishes the subject of the sentence (the person 

seeing) from the object of the verb (the one being seen). Similarly, in the German sentence Der Bruder des Knaben sah den Mann (= 

‘The boy’s brother saw the man’), the words ‘der’, ‘des’ and ‘den’ distinguish the subject of the sentence ‘brother’ (nominative case) 

from the possessor ‘boy’ (genitive case) from the object ‘man’ (accusative case). 

The concept of “case” can extend far beyond the notions of subject, object and possessor. Depending on the particular language, there 

may be noun cases which specify the location or position of a noun, whether a noun accompanies another or derives from another or is 

the recipient of another. In general, noun cases in those languages which rely upon them often substitute for what in English is 

accomplished using prepositions or prepositional phrases. The process of adding affixes or changing the phonetic structure of a word in 

order to show a noun in a particular case is known as declining a noun, and the various permutations of a noun into its cases are known 

as its declensions. 

There are 96 cases in Ithkuil, comprising 72 main cases, and 24 Comparison cases. The Comparison cases serve specialized functions 

associated with the verbal category called Level and are discussed separately in Section 6.2.4. The 72 main cases are dealt with in this 

chapter. 

4.1 SEMANTIC ROLE VERSUS POSITIONAL SLOT 

In most languages, case operates at the surface structure level of language to signify arbitrary grammatical relations such as subject, 

direct object, indirect object. The deeper level of “semantic role” is ignored in terms of morphological designations. The notion of 

semantic role can be illustrated by the following set of sentences: 

(1a) John opened the door with the key. 

(1b) The key opened the door. 

(1c) The wind opened the door. 

(1d) The door opened.

In each of these sentences case is assigned based on “slot”, i.e., the position of the nouns relative to the verb, irrespective of their 

semantic roles. Thus the “subjects” of the sentences are, respectively, John, the key, the wind, and the door. Yet it can be seen that, 

semantically speaking, these four sentences are interrelated in a causal way. Specifically, Sentence (1b) results directly from sentence 

(1a), and sentence (1d) results directly from either (1b) or (1c). We see that the case of the noun ‘key’ in sentence (1a) is 

prepositional, while in sentence (1b) it is the subject. Yet, the key plays the same semantic role in both sentences: the physical 

instrument by which the act of opening is accomplished. As for the noun ‘door,’ it is marked as a direct object in the first three 

sentences and as a subject in the fourth, even though its semantic role in all four sentences never changes, i.e., it is the noun which 

undergoes a change in its state as a result of the act of opening. The noun ‘John’ in sentence (1a) is marked as a subject, the same case 

as ‘key’ in (1b), the ‘wind’ in (1c) and the ‘door’ in (1d), yet the semantic role of ‘John’ is entirely different than the role of ‘key’ in 

(1b) and different again from ‘door’ in (1c), i.e., John is acting as the conscious, deliberate initiator of the act of opening. Finally, the 

noun ‘wind’ in (1c), while marked as a subject, operates in yet another semantic role distinct from the subjects of the other sentences, 

i.e., an inanimate, blind force of nature which, while being the underlying cause of the act of opening, can make no conscious or willed 

choice to initiate such action. 

4.1.1 Case as Indicator of Semantic Role 

The case structures of Western languages mark positional slot (i.e., grammatical relations) only, and have no overt way to indicate 

semantic role, thus providing no way of showing the intuitive causal relationship between sets of sentences like those above. In Ithkuil, 

however, the case of a noun is based on its underlying semantic role, not its syntactic position in the sentence relative to the verb. 

These semantic roles reflect a more fundamental or primary level of language irrespective of the surface case marking of nouns in other 

languages. Thus Ithkuil noun declension more accurately reflects the underlying semantic function of nouns in sentences. 

Consequently, the Western grammatical notions of “subject” and “object” have little meaning or applicability in Ithkuil grammar. 

The following semantic roles are marked by noun cases in Ithkuil. They correspond roughly to the “subjects” and “objects” of Western 

languages: 

AGENT: The animate, (and usually conscious and deliberate) initiator of an act which results in another noun undergoing a consequent 

change in state or behavior, e.g., ‘John’ in Sentence (1a) above. 

FORCE: An inanimate, unwilled cause of an act such as a force of nature like ‘wind’ in Sentence (1c) above. 

INSTRUMENT: The noun which functions as the physical means or tool by which an act is initiated or performed, e.g., ‘key’ in 

Sentences (1a) and (1b) above. 

PATIENT: The noun which undergoes a change in state or behavior as a result of an act initiated or caused by itself or by another 

noun, e.g., ‘door’ in all four sentences above. 

4.1.2 Additional Semantic Roles 

Additional semantic roles corresponding to subjects and objects in Western languages exist in Ithkuil as overt noun cases. These include 

the roles of ENABLER, EXPERIENCER, STIMULUS, RECIPIENT, and CONTENT, and are explained below using the following 

set of sentences as illustrations. 

(2a) Mary hits the children. 

(2b) Mary entertains the children. 

(2c) Mary sees the children. 

(2d) Mary tells the children a story. 

(2e) Mary wants children. 

Examining these five sentences, we notice that the noun Mary is in the subject slot in all of them and the children is the direct object 

(except in the fourth sentence), even though the semantic roles of both nouns are entirely different in each of these five sentences. 

Beginning with Sentence (2a) we see that Mary is an AGENT which tangibly causes injury or pain to the children who obviously 

function in the role of PATIENT. Thus (2a) is identical to sentence (1a) in terms of the roles portrayed by the subject and direct 

object. 

In Sentence (2b) however, Mary entertains the children, there is a subtle distinction. At first we might consider Mary an agent who 

initiates a change in the children (i.e., the fact that they become entertained). But, in fact, the act of entertainment is not one whose 

result (enjoyment by the audience) can be guaranteed by the party doing the entertaining. In fact, the result of the act of entertainment

is not Mary’s to determine, but rather the children’s, based on whether they “feel” a sense of enjoyment at experiencing Mary’s act. 

And so, Mary is more like a patient here, not an agent, as she is undergoing a change in her state or behavior (she is performing an 

attempt to entertain) which she herself has chosen to initiate and undergo, yet the act has the potential to cause a resulting change in the 

children, the success of this motivation to be determined by the children, however, not Mary. Such a semantic role as Mary here is 

termed an ENABLER. And how do the children make the decision as to whether they are entertained or not (i.e., what is their 

semantic role?). Can the children deliberately or consciously choose to feel a sense of enjoyment, or are they not themselves unwilling 

“patients” to their own emotional reactions? In case grammar, a party such as the children who undergo an unwilled experience are 

termed EXPERIENCERS. Besides emotional reactions, such unwilled experiences include autonomic sensory perceptions (e.g., parties 

that see or hear because their eyes were open and pointed in a particular direction or who were within earshot of a sound), and 

autonomic bodily reactions or responses as well as proprioceptive sensations (e.g., coughing, sneezing, perspiring, feeling hot or cold, 

feeling pain, etc.). 

This notion of EXPERIENCER is likewise illustrated by Sentence (2c) Mary sees the children, in which the verb ‘see’ denotes an 

automatic sensory experience, not a deliberately initiated action. In other words, it is the nature of the sense of sight to function 

automatically whenever a person is conscious and his/her eyes are open. The verb ‘see’ does not necessarily imply a conscious or 

deliberately willed action of “seeing” (as would be implied by the verb ‘to look [at]’). Therefore, the “action” is automatic and 

uninitiated; it is, in fact, not an action at all, but rather an experiential state which the person doing the seeing undergoes. In other 

words, the person seeing is actually a kind of “patient,” as it is he/she who undergoes the experience of (and physical or emotional 

reaction to) the particular sight. Such undergoers of sensory verbs and other unwilled states (e.g., emotional states or reactions, 

autonomic bodily reactions such as sneezing, physical states of sensation such as being hot or cold, etc.) are categorized in the role of 

EXPERIENCERS. And what of the children’s role in sentence (2c)? Unlike the first three sentences, the children do not undergo any 

action. Certainly the process of “being seen” by Mary does not in itself cause a physical change or reaction of any kind in the entity 

being seen. Nor can the children be analyzed as “initiating” the act of sight, as they may be completely unaware that Mary is seeing 

them. As a result, the children’s semantic role is merely that of STIMULUS, a neutral, unwitting originating reason for the experiential 

state being undergone by the other noun participant. 

In Sentence (2d) Mary tells the children a story, Mary is a patient who initiates the action which she herself undergoes, the telling of a 

story. The children do not undergo an unwilled emotional, sensory, or bodily reaction here, but rather are the passive and more or less 

willing RECIPIENT of information, the role of an “indirect object” in Western languages. The story, on the other hand, is merely a 

non-participatory abstract referent, whose role is termed CONTENT. 

The role of CONTENT also applies to the children in Sentence (2e) Mary wants children, where they function as the “object” of 

Mary’s desire. Since no tangible action is occurring, nor are the children undergoing any result of change of state, nor need they be 

even aware of Mary’s desire, they are, like the story in sentence (2d), merely non-participatory referents. As for Mary’s role in (2e), 

the emotional state of desire, being unwilled, self-activating, and subjectively internal, creates a situation similar to an automatic sensory 

perception or autonomic body response; thus, Mary’s role is again that of EXPERIENCER. 

4.1.3 Argument Structure 

In addition to case being based on semantic roles, Ithkuil differs in another important respect from natural languages in that it does not 

have a default argument structure for its verbal formatives. This is explained below. 

The individual verbs of natural languages each have an implied argument structure, i.e., a pattern of how nouns (i.e., “arguments”) 

interact with the particular verb and what formal role (from a morpho-semantic perspective) each of those nouns plays in relation to the 

verb. For example, the verb “hit” in English implies the existence of an agent (i.e., someone doing the hitting) and a patient (i.e., 

someone undergoing the effect/result of the hitting), as in “He hit the dog.” A different argument structure is illustrated by the verb 

“give” which implies an agent doing the giving, a patient undergoing the receiving, and a noun functioning in the semantic role of 

content, i.e., the item being given/received. 

The grammar of natural languages specifies the requirements of which arguments to a verb must be present for a sentence to be 

grammatical and which arguments are optional. This is illustrated, for example, in the following English sentences (ungrammatical 

sentences are preceded by an asterisk): 

3a) Sam gave the girl a book. 

3b) Sam gave a book. 

3c) Sam gave. 

3d) * Sam gave the girl. (Intended meaning: Sam gave something to the girl.) 

3e) * Gave the girl a book. (Intended meaning: The girl was given a book or Someone gave the girl a book.) 

3f) * Gave the girl. (Intended meaning: The girl was given something, or Someone gave something to the girl.) 

3g) * Gave a book. (Intended meaning: Someone gave a book.)

3h) * Gave. (Intended meaning: Someone did some giving, or Giving occurred). 

In sentence (3a), all three arguments to the verb “gave” are expressed, while in sentence (3b) the patient/recipient has been deleted. 

Sentence (3c) deletes both the patient/recipient and the CONTENT argument. In sentence (3d) however, when we try to delete the 

CONTENT argument of book while preserving the patient/recipient, the sentence requires syntactic restructuring into Sam gave 

[something] to the girl in order to remain grammatical (the asterisk * in front of the sentence indicates it is ungrammatical). Likewise, 

sentences (3e), (3f), (3g) and (3h) are ungrammatical when we try to delete the agent, as well as either or both of the other two 

arguments as well, requiring paraphrasing to make the intended meaning grammatical). 

Compare the above group of sentence containing the verb ‘gave’ with the sentences below featuring the verb ‘broke’: 

4a) Tim broke the window with a hammer. 

4b) Tim broke the window. 

4c) The hammer broke the window. 

4d) The window broke. 

4e) *The hammer broke. (Intended meaning: The hammer broke something.) 

4f) *Tim broke. (Intended meaning: Tim broke something, or Tim did some breaking.) 

Notice how sentence (3c) above, Sam gave, is grammatical, but the similarly structured sentence (4f) Tim broke is not. Conversely, 

notice in comparing sentences (4a) and (4d) that the patient window is grammatical in both object and subject slots, but similarly 

placing the patient girl from sentence (3a) into subject slot gives the ungrammatical sentence *The girl gave (with intended meaning: 

The girl was given something or Someone gave the girl something.) 

Other examples of constraints on argument structure in English are illustrated as follows: 

Bill cut the cake with a knife can be shortened to Bill cut the cake, but the syntactically identical She put the book on the shelf cannot 

be shortened to *She put the book. 

Treatment healed my wounds can delete its agent to give My wounds healed, but the similar Treatment cured my wounds does not 

allow agent-deletion to *My wounds cured. 

As can be seen, languages such as English are very haphazard in the various constraints on argument structure applied to individual 

verbs. Sometimes it is possible to delete arguments but at other times doing so results in an ungrammatical sentence, even though a 

semantically equivalent paraphrase exists. Ithkuil has no such constraints on its argument structure. As long as a sentence makes sense 

semantically and the relationships between explicit or implied arguments and their verb can be determined or inferred, then the Ithkuil 

sentence will be grammatically permissible. This is possible because nouns in Ithkuil are marked for semantically-based case, as well 

as the fact that verbs are marked for Function, a category we will explore Section 5.1. 

4.2 MORPHO-PHONOLOGICAL MARKERS FOR CASE 

Case is shown in different ways in Ithkuil depending on whether the case is being manifested in conjunction with a formative or a 

personal reference adjunct (explained in Section 8.1). For formatives, the 72 primary cases are shown by one of 72 forms of the 

vocalic affix Vc. 



Phase + 

Sanction 

(+ 

Illocution) 


OR 

Aspect 

(+ Mood) 

Pattern + 

Stem + 

Function 

Incorp.Root 

OR 

Phase + 

Sanction 




Root 

OR 

Valence 


Mood 

Essence + 

Extension + 

Perspective + 


Affiliation 

Deriv. 

Suffix 

Context + 

Format 


The particular Vc suffix-values are given in the Table 7 below. The names and function of each case are explained beginning in Section 

4.3 below.

Table 7: Values for Vc by Case (for Cases 1 through 72. For Vc values for Cases 73 - 96 see Section 6.2.4) 

1 OBL a 13 PRP î / û 25 PUR e’ 37 CMM au 49 AVR eu’ 61 ALP* oi’V 

2 IND u 14 GEN ê 26 CSD o’ 38 COM eu 50 CMP ou’ 62 INP* ëi’V 

3 ABS e 15 ATT ô 27 ESS ea 39 CNJ iu 51 SML* a’V 63 EPS* au’V 

4 ERG o 16 PDC ëi 28 ASI eo 40 UTL ou 52 ASS* e’V 64 PLM* eu’V 

5 EFF ö 17 ITP öi 29 FUN eö 41 ABE ëu 53 CNR* i’V 65 LIM* iu’V 

6 AFF i 18 OGN ae 30 TFM oa 42 CVS öu 54 ACS* o’V 66 LOC* â’V 

7 DAT ü / a’e 19 PAR ia / ua 31 REF oe 43 COR ai’ 55 DFF* u’V 67 ORI* ê’V 

8 INS ai 20 CRS ie / ue 32 CLA öa 44 DEP ui’ 56 PER * ö’V 68 PSV* ô’V 

9 ACT ei 21 CPS io / uo 33 CNV öe 45 PVS ei’ 57 PRO* ü’/ ëu’V 69 ALL* î’V/û’V 

10 DER ui 22 PRD iö / uö 34 IDP üa / i’ 46 PTL oi’ 58 PCV* ai’V 70 ABL* ëu’V 

11 SIT oi 23 MED a’ 35 BEN üe / ö’ 47 CON au’ 59 PCR* ei’V 71 NAV* ou’V 

12 POS â 24 APL u’ 36 TSP üo / î’ / û’ 48 EXC iu’ 60 ELP* ui’V 

72 VOC ë 

* Cases 51 – 71: The V represents a vowel form whose default value is -a-. However, if the formative’s Vr affix can be deleted from Slot IV, then optionally, V 

takes the value of the Vr affix and the Vr affix is deleted from Slot IV, e.g., opral declined into the SML case becomes either opra’al or pra’ol. 

For personal reference adjuncts, which correspond roughly to personal pronouns in other languages, case markers are dependent on 

various factors, as explained in Section 8.1. 

We are now in a position to examine the different noun cases in detail. We will start with the group of cases which correspond to 

“subjects” and “objects” in Western languages. 

4.3 THE TRANSRELATIVE CASES 

The Transrelative cases refer to eleven cases used to identify nouns functioning as participants to a verb, what in Western grammatical 

terms would be referred to as “subjects” and “objects” and most likely marked as either nominative, accusative, or dative. It is these 

cases which more or less correspond to the semantic roles identified in Sec. 4.1 above. The eleven transrelative cases are the 

OBLIQUE, ABSOLUTIVE, DATIVE, ERGATIVE, EFFECTUATIVE, INDUCIVE, AFFECTIVE, INSTRUMENTAL, 

ACTIVATIVE, DERIVATIVE, and SITUATIVE. Following are explanations of the function and usage of each case. 

Actual Ithkuil examples of these cases in use are provided in Section 4.3.12.

4.3.1 OBL The Oblique Case 

The OBLIQUE case is marked by the Vc value -a-. As described above in Section 4.1.2, the OBLIQUE identifies the semantic role of 

CONTENT, whether it is something given to a RECIPIENT, or the non-causal abstract content of an experiential state, e.g., a memory 

recalled, something desired, something feared. It would thus be used in translating sentences such as Sam gave me a book, The child 

likes cereal. It is also the case associated with existential identification, what in English would be the subject of the verb ‘to be’ when 

referring to the intrinsic identity or static description of a noun as in the English sentences That boy is blind or The house was built of 

wood. The OBLIQUE, being the semantically most neutral case, is also the citation form of a noun (i.e., the form in which the noun 

would be listed in a dictionary). 

4.3.2 IND The Inducive Case 

The INDUCIVE case is marked by the Vc value -u-. The INDUCIVE identifies a noun which undergoes a self-initiated action, i.e., the 

noun is a PATIENT of an agential action in which the AGENT and the PATIENT are the same. Note that this does not necessarily 

imply reflexive action (i.e., doing something to oneself). It would be used in sentences such as The boy jumped, He sang, The dog 

barked all night, or She danced to the music, in which the party initiating and performing the action are one and the same. 

4.3.3 ABS The Absolutive Case 

The ABSOLUTIVE case is marked by the Vc value -e-. As described in Section 4.1.1 above, the ABSOLUTIVE identifies the 

semantic role of PATIENT of an agential action, where the agent-initiator is a different party than the patient who undergoes the 

resulting action. Note that in sentences with patient subjects, the agent or instrument of agency need not be overtly expressed. 

Examples of English sentences translatable using the ABSOLUTIVE would be The boy hit the girl, She forced him to do it, The bird 

fell from the sky, The prisoner died during the gun battle. 

4.3.4 ERG The Ergative Case 

The ERGATIVE case is marked by the Vc value -o-. The ERGATIVE identifies the semantic role of AGENT, i.e., a noun which 

initiates a tangible action undergone by another party (the PATIENT), as described in Section 4.1.1. Note that sentences involving an 

ERGATIVE agent need not overtly express the patient noun. Examples of English sentences translatable using the ERGATIVE would 

be The boy hit the girl, She forced him to do it, That murderer kills for fun. 

4.3.5 EFF The Effectuative Case 

The EFFECTUATIVE case is marked by the Vc value -ö-. The EFFECTUATIVE identifies the noun acting in the semantic role of 

ENABLER, as described in Section 4.1.2 above. This is the noun which initiates a causal chain of events, ultimately resulting in a final 

event. An example would be pulling out the plug of a filled bathtub thereby causing it to empty. This case should therefore be carefully 

distinguished from the ERGATIVE case. Ergatively marked nouns imply that the action undergone by the patient is the same action 

directly initiated by the agent, whereas EFFECTUATIVE nouns imply a chain or series of cause-and-effect actions. For example, in 

the Ithkuil translation of the sentence The clown emptied the blood from the tub, the clown could be marked either as an AGENT by 

means of the ERGATIVE case, or as an ENABLER using the EFFECTUATIVE case. The former would mean the clown poured out 

the blood himself, while the latter would mean he let it drain (i.e., by pulling the plug). Such case distinctions eliminate the need for 

Ithkuil to have separate verbs for ‘to drain,’ ‘to pour’ or ‘to empty.’ The Ithkuil verb used in translating the sentence would simply 

mean ‘to remove.’ 

Note that the EFFECTUATIVE case is commonly used with the ENB affix -ls to show the degree or nature of the enabling cause. 

With this suffix, sentences can be produced which specify whether the enablement is via giving of consent or permission, by 

persuasion, by subtle indirect influence, by removal of a hindrance, or even by inaction. 

4.3.6 AFF The Affective Case

The AFFECTIVE case is marked by the Vc value -i-. The AFFECTIVE denotes a noun whose semantic role is that of 

EXPERIENCER, as described previously in Section 4.1.2, the noun which undergoes a non-causal, non-initiated (and unwilled) 

experiential state, whether internally autonomic in nature or as the result of an external stimulus. Examples of such states would be 

automatic sensory experience; autonomic bodily reactions such as yawning, sneezing, coughing, blinking, itching, feeling sleepy, pain, 

feeling ill, feeling cold or warm; automatic reactions to external stimuli such as shock, flinching, ducking, raising one’s arms to avoid 

sudden danger; as well as any unwilled emotional state such as love, hate, fear, anger, surprise, joy, wistfulness, shyness, regret, 

anxiety, etc. 

Example sentences requiring the use of the AFFECTIVE case would be The baby is coughing, The lightning startled her, Mortimer 

loves his vittles, Uncle Davey slept till noon, My back itches me. 

Note that if the experiential state is willfully brought about by the noun undergoing it, the INDUCIVE case would be used, since the 

noun is deliberately initiating an action in order to induce the experiential state. For example, compare the sentence The children 

smiled with glee (marked using the AFFECTIVE) with The children smiled on cue (marked using the INDUCIVE). 

4.3.7 DAT The Dative Case 

The DATIVE case is marked by the Vc value -ü- or, if the Cr root ends in a -w or -y, it is marked by the Vc value -ae’-. The 

DATIVE has two functions in Ithkuil. Similarly to Western languages, it marks indirect objects of verbs of giving and telling, i.e., the 

semantic role of RECIPIENT of a noun transferred via an act of giving, donation, lending, or other transference of possession, or the 

hearer to who something is said, told, recounted, etc, as described in Section 4.1.2 above. Secondly, like some Western languages 

(e.g., Russian), Ithkuil uses a dative construction in lieu of any verb ‘to have’ in reference to possession or attribution. It would 

therefore be used in translating sentences such as We're giving you a present, Jason lent a dollar to his sister, Please grant me a 

wish, The student has three books, Those mountains have a mysterious quality. 

4.3.8 INS The Instrumental Case 

The INSTRUMENTAL case is marked by the Vc value -ai-. As described previously in Section 4.1.1, the INSTRUMENTAL denotes 

a noun which functions as the INSTRUMENT or means utilized by an AGENT in accomplishing an action or bringing about a state. It 

is usually translated by English ‘with.’ Examples of usage would be She killed him with a knife, The man tripped over my foot, The 

password got him inside. The INSTRUMENTAL is also used to mark translations of an inanimate “subject” noun when its logical 

function is as the instrument of an unstated agent, e.g., compare I pressed the button with my finger with My finger pressed the 

button, both of which would be identical in Ithkuil except for the latter sentence’s missing agent, I. 

Note that the INSTRUMENTAL does not translate ‘with’ in its meaning of ‘along with’ or ‘accompanied by’ (see the COMITATIVE 

case below in Sec. 4.5.20) as in She arrived with her father. Nor is it used to show the resources or materials consumed in performing 

an act. For example, in the sentence He cooks with tomatoes (see the COMPOSITIVE case in Sec. 4.5.3), it is not the tomatoes that 

cook the food, therefore the INSTRUMENTAL would not be used, whereas in He fueled the fire with wood it is the wood that fuels 

the fire, thus requiring the INSTRUMENTAL case. 

4.3.9 ACT The Activative Case 

The ACTIVATIVE case is marked by the Vc value -ei-. The ACTIVATIVE identifies a noun engaged in or subject to a mental or 

metaphysical state which, as a concurrent result, creates a hypothetical, “unrealized” situation which can potentially be made real by 

further action. Such unrealized situations can be illustrated by the sentence Frank must go to Chicago, in which no actual travel to 

Chicago has occurred and, in fact, may not occur. Similarly, in the sentence Mother needs to rest, no resting has yet occurred and may 

not. In both sentences, the event which would “fulfill” the state described remains an unrealized hypothetical, at least from the 

perspective of the speaker. Similar hypothetical events or states are found in the sentences The students want you to sing, Everyone 

expected you to laugh, or Joe will demand that I stay. Note that many of these constructions in English involve the use of “modal” 

verbs such as want, need, can, must, etc. 

Notice that the subject of these English sentences (Frank, Mother, the students, everyone, Joe) are functioning neither as AGENTS 

nor PATIENTS, since the modal verbs of which they are the subject do not identify as-yet actualized events, only states of unrealized 

potential. These subjects are essentially EXPERIENCERS undergoing a mental or metaphysical state of wanting, needing, obligation,

expectation, hoping, wishing, being able to, etc. However, such experiencers must be differentiated from would-be experiencers 

“within” the hypothetical situation. For example, in the sentence Sam wants Shirley to love him, it could become ambiguous if Sam 

and Shirley are both marked as EXPERIENCERS using the AFFECTIVE case. Consequently, Ithkuil uses the ACTIVATIVE case to 

mark the subject whose mental or metaphysical state creates a concurrent hypothetical, as-yet unrealized situation. All of the subjects 

in the example sentences from the previous paragraph (i.e., Frank, Mother, the students, everyone, Joe) would be so marked. In 

Section 6.1 we will see how the ACTIVATIVE is used in conjunction with a morphological category for verbs termed Modality to 

create such hypothetical states and situations. 

4.3.10 DER The Derivative Case 

The DERIVATIVE case is marked by the Vc value -ui-. The DERIVATIVE serves two functions in Ithkuil. Firstly, it identifies an 

inanimate FORCE of nature (as described in Sec. 4.1.1) or abstract causative situation which causes a PATIENT noun to undergo an 

action, as in The wind blew down the door, or Fame threatened his freedom. The use of the DERIVATIVE instead of the 

ERGATIVE or the EFFECTUATIVE denotes that such inanimate agential forces or abstract enabling situations cannot consciously or 

willingly initiate actions, but rather are merely circumstantial initiating causes. Therefore the resulting act, event, or state is seen more 

as having derived from this force or situation, as opposed to being willfully or consciously caused. In this function, a noun in the 

DERIVATIVE can often be translated using phrases such as ‘due to, owing to, on account of, because of, as a result of.’ Nouns in the 

DERIVATIVE can also appear in appositive constructions (i.e., in a noun-to-noun conjunction) where the noun in the DERIVATIVE 

denotes the abstract cause or reason for the other noun, e.g., the danger of fame, love’s heartache, wind song. 

The second function of the DERIVATIVE case is to identify the non-agential, unconscious or non-deliberate STIMULUS of an 

affective mental state, emotion, or autonomic sensory experience, as in The coffee smells good, I saw her today, She hates that boy, 

Victor coughed from the gas, We laughed at his jokes, That song makes me cry. Ithkuil grammar views the stimulus of an 

experiential state as having a similar role to that of an abstract circumstantial or situational cause (as in the above examples); this 

explains why the DERIVATIVE case serves to indicate both functions. 

4.3.11 SIT The Situative Case 

The SITUATIVE case is marked by the Vc value -oi-. The SITUATIVE identifies a noun as the background context for a clause. It is 

similar to the DERIVATIVE case immediately above, except it does not imply a direct causative relationship between the background 

context and the act, condition, or event which occurs. It is translatable into English by various circumlocutions, as shown in the 

following examples: 

Because of war, our planet will never be able to join the Federation. 

Given the presence of clowns, we must accept the corruption of our children. 

Using my plan, we will defeat the enemy. 

4.3.12 Examples of Transrelative Cases in Use 

The following are examples of various Ithkuil sentences showing how assigning different transrelative cases to the noun participants 

(i.e., the arguments to the verb) allows for various changes in meaning, regardless of argument structure. As can be seen, the English 

translations of many of these sentences often require word order changes, word-substitution, even outright paraphrase, all in order to 

accommodate the constraints on English argument structure. 

Roots used: -zb- informal Pattern 1, Stem 1 ‘anger; be angry/feel anger’ -kš- formal Pattern 1, Stem 2 ‘clown’ 

STA = STATIVE function DAT = DATIVE case 

DYN = DYNAMIC function IND = INDUCIVE case 

AFF = AFFECTIVE case GEN = GENITIVE case 

SIT = SITUATIVE case ABS = ABSOLUTIVE case 

DER = DERIVATIVE case OBL = OBLIQUE case 

ERG = ERGATIVE case LOC = LOCATIVE case 

‘be angry/feel ‘I/me’ ‘clown’ MEANING

anger’ 

Azbal 

STA 

Azbal 

STA 

Azbal 

STA 

Azbal 

STA 

Azbal 

STA 

Azbal 

STA 

Azbal 

STA 

Azbal 

STA 

Azbal 

STA 

Azbal 

STA 

Azbal 

STA 

Azbal 

STA 

Azbal 

STA 

Azbal 

STA 

Azbal 

STA 

Azbal 

STA 

ti 

AFF 

ti 

AFF 

ti 

AFF 

ti 

AFF 

ti 

AFF 

tü 

DAT 

tö 

EFF 

to 

ERG 

tui 

DER 

toi 

SIT 

tu 

IND 

tu. 

IND 

tü. 

DAT 

tö. 

EFF 

to. 

ERG 

tui. 

DER 

ekšóil. 

SIT LISTEN 

‘I’m angry because of the clown (clown can’t help it, not at fault).’ / ‘I’m angry because there’s a clown.’ / ‘I’m 

angry at the presence of a clown.’ 

ekšúil. 

DER 

ekšól. 

ERG 

èkšöl. 

EFF 

èkšül. 

DAT 

ekšíl. 

AFF 

ekšíl. 

AFF 

ekšíl. 

AFF 

ekšíl. 

AFF 

ekšíl. 

AFF 

ekšóil. 

SIT 

‘The clown (unwittingly) makes me angry.’ / ‘I’m angry at the clown (something he’s done has made me 

angry).’ 

‘The clown (deliberately) makes me angry.’ 

‘What the clown has (deliberately) started/caused makes me angry.’ 

‘My angry state is directed toward/affects the clown (i.e., the clown notices/reacts to my anger).’ 

‘I notice/feel that the clown is angry at me.’ 

‘What I (deliberately) started/caused makes the clown angry.’ 

‘I (deliberately) anger the clown.’ 

‘I inadvertently anger the clown.’ 

‘My being here angers the clown.’ 

‘I make myself angry at the presence of the clown.’ 

-- ‘I (deliberately) make myself angry.’ 

-- ‘Someone is behaving angrily toward me.’ 

-- ‘I’ve (deliberately) started/caused something that makes someone angry.’ 

-- ‘I (deliberately) anger someone.’ 

-- ‘I (inadvertently) anger someone.’ / ‘What I’ve done makes someone angry.’

Azbal 

STA 

Azbal 

STA 

Azbal 

STA 

Azbal 

STA 

Azbal 

STA 

Azbal 

STA 

Azbal 

STA 

Azbal 

STA 

Azbal 

STA 

Azbal 

STA 

toi. 

SIT 

ti. 

AFF 

-- ekšúl. 

IND 

-- èkšül. 

DAT 

-- èkšöl. 

EFF 

-- ekšól. 

ERG 

-- ekšúil. 

DER 

-- ekšóil. 

SIT 

-- ekšíl. 

AFF 

-- ‘My presence makes someone angry.’ 

-- ‘I’m angry.’ / ‘I feel anger.’ 

‘The clown (deliberately) makes himself angry.’ 

‘Someone is behaving angrily toward the clown.’ 

‘The clown has (deliberately) started/caused something that makes someone angry.’ 

‘The clown (deliberately) anger someone.’ 

‘The clown inadvertently angers someone.’ / ‘What the clown does makes someone angry.’ 

‘(The presence of) the clown makes someone angry.’ 

‘The clown is angry.’ / ‘The clown feels anger. 

-- -- ‘There is a feeling of anger.’ / ‘There is anger.’ 

Same sentences as above but with DYNAMIC Function to convey action rather than state, i.e., angry behavior or physical display of 

anger rather than mere internal feeling of anger. 

Izbal 

DYN 

Izbal 

DYN 

Izbal 

DYN 

ti 

AFF 

ti 

AFF 

ti 

AFF 

ekšóil. 

SIT 

ekšúil. 

DER 

èkšül. 

DAT 

More examples of transrelative case patterns: 

‘My display of anger/my angry behavior was because of the clown (with the clown being unaware of it and not 

its fault).’ 

‘My display of anger/my angry behavior was due to the clown (without the clown being necessarily aware of it).’ 

‘My display of anger/my angry behavior affected/intimidated the clown.’ 

-k’- formal Pattern 3, Stem 2 ‘burn’ -p h - informal Pattern 1, Stem 1 ‘tree’ 

burn 1m tree MEANING

Iek’ás 

DYN 

Êk’ás 

STA 

Iek’ás 

DYN 

Iek’ás 

DYN 

Iek’ás 

DYN 

Iek’ás 

DYN 

Iek’ás 

DYN 

Iek’ás 

DYN 

Iek’ás. 

DYN 

Êk’ás. 

STA 

to 

ERG 

-- p h el. 

ABS 

-- p h ul. 

IND 

to. 

ERG 

tö. 

EFF 

te. 

ABS 

tu. 

IND 

tö 

EFF 

p h el. 

ABS LISTEN 

‘I burn the tree.’ 

‘The tree burns.’ 

‘The tree burns itself.’ / ‘The tree makes itself burn.’ 

-- ‘I cause something to burn.’ / ‘I burn.’ [meaning: I cause burning to happen] 

-- ‘I cause something to burn (through a chain of events).’ / ‘I burn.’ [meaning: I cause a chain of events leading 

to burning] 

-- ‘I burn/am burning.’ / ‘Something burns me.’ 

-- ‘I burn myself.’ / ‘I make myself burn.’ 

p h el. 

ABS 

‘I cause the tree to burn (through a chain of events).’ 

-- -- ‘Something’s doing some burning.’ / ‘Something’s making some burning happen.’ 

-- -- ‘Something’s burning.’ / ‘There’s burning happening.’ 

Other patterns are possible. For example, the following chart shows patterns that can be used to translate variations on English ‘I hit 

my leg with a rock’, or ‘I hit myself on the leg with a rock’, or ‘A rock hit me on the leg.’ 

-č- informal Pattern 1, Stem 1 ‘physical contact’ + FRC 1/7 --> čalosk ‘hit/strike’ 

-pr- informal Pattern 2, Stem 1 ‘leg (as physical body part)’ 

-kt- formal Pattern 1, Stem 1 ‘(piece of) rock’ 

tê = ‘I’ in genitive case referring to owner of the leg; combines as a prefix ê- with the various transrelative case forms of ‘I’ 

such as to, tu, te, etc. to give forms such as êto, êtu, êti. 

hit/strike I my leg rock MEANING 

Ičalosk 

DYN 

Ičalosk 

DYN 

êto 

GEN / 

ERG 

êtu 

GEN / 

IND 

oprel 

ABS 

opral 

OBL 

aktáil 

INS 

aktáil 

INS 

LISTEN 

Implies an intentional act against my leg, where my leg is seen as being an entity subjectively separate 

from myself, thus I am the agent while the leg is the patient. Translation: ‘I (intentionally) hit my leg 

with a rock.’ 

In this pattern, the leg is no longer seen as a patient separate from myself as the agent. Rather, I am 

both agent and patient (i.e, I’m initating the action against myself), and the role of the leg is deemphasized 

to being merely a referent for the act of hitting, i.e., it is I who got hit, not the leg; the leg is

Ičalosk 

DYN 

Ičalosk 

DYN 

Ičalosk 

DYN 

Ičalosk 

DYN 

Ičalosk 

DYN 

Ičalosk 

DYN 

Ičalosk 

DYN 

Ičalosk 

DYN 

Ičalosk 

DYN 

Ičalosk 

DYN 

Ičalosk 

DYN 

Ičalosk 

DYN 

Ičalosk 

DYN 

ête 

GEN / 

ABS 

ête 

GEN / 

ABS 

êtu 

GEN / 

IND 

êtu 

GEN / 

IND 

êti 

GEN / 

AFF 

êti 

GEN / 

AFF 

to 

ERG 

tu 

IND 

te 

ABS 

ti 

AFF 

opral 

OBL 

prâ’ol 

LOC 

prâ’ol 

LOC 

opral 

OBL 

prâ’ol 

LOC 

opral 

OBL 

— tê opril 

AFF 

— tê oprel 

ABS 

— tê opral 

OBL 

aktáil 

INS 

aktáil 

INS 

aktáil 

INS 

aktáil 

INS 

aktáil 

INS 

aktáil 

INS 

— aktáil 

INS 

— aktáil 

INS 

— aktáil 

INS 

— aktáil 

INS 

aktáil 

INS 

aktáil 

INS 

aktáil 

INS 

merely the part of me that got hit. Consequently, The closest English translation would be ‘I 

(intentionally) hit myself with a rock on the leg,’ using a locative construction “on the leg” not 

present in the Ithkuil sentence. A stilted, but more accurate translation might be ‘I (intentionally) “leghit” 

myself with a rock.’ 

This sentence masks an implied agent, emphasizing myself as the patient/victim, while, as in the sentence 

immediately above, the leg is reduced to merely a referent for the hitting, its status as a patient and as 

the location/site of the hitting suppressed. About the only way to show this suppression of agency in 

English is with a passive construction or a pseudo-passive construction using the verb ‘get’: ‘I am/get 

(intentionally) “leg-hit” with a rock.’ 

This sentence is like the one immediately above except that the leg is the location/site of the hit. 

Translation: ‘I am/get (intentionally) hit on the leg with a rock.’ 

Emphasizes that I am both agent and patient and that the leg is the location/site of the hitting. 

Translation: ‘I (intentionally) hit myself on my leg with a rock.‘ 

Emphasizes that I am both agent and patient but with the leg reduced to merely the referent of hitting. 

Impossible to translate accurately into English except with the contrived sentences ‘I “leg-hit” myself 

with a rock’ or ‘I (intentionally) get me my leg hit with a rock.’ 

Suppresses the agency of the action, and emphasizes myself as unwilled/accidental victim of the hitting, 

with my leg as the location/site of the hit. Translations: ‘I (accidentally) am/get hit on the leg with a 

rock.’ 

Like the example immediately above, exept with the role of the leg reduced from location to mere 

referent of the verb. Translation: ‘I am/get “leg-hit” (accidentally) with a rock.’ 

Translation: ‘I (intentionally) hit something with a rock / I (intentionally do some hitting with a 

rock.’ 

Translation: ‘I (intentionally) hit myself with a rock.’ 

Translation: ‘I am/get (intentionally) hit with a rock.’ 

Translation: ‘I am/get hit (accidentally) with a rock.’ 

Here, the distinction between myself and the leg is suppressed, so that the leg is seen as the 

unwilled/accidental victim, not me: ‘My leg is/gets hit (accidentally) with a rock.’ 

Translation: ‘My leg is/gets (intentionally) hit with a rock.’ 

This sentence reduces the role of the participant to the verb as merely an abstract referent for the 

hitting, with no implications of being the victim/target of hitting, or of me or the leg undergoing any 

tangible result of hitting. This can only be approximated in English by contrived translations such as 

‘“Leg-hitting” with a rock occurs’ or ‘An act of hitting with a rock involving my leg occurs.’

Ičalosk 

DYN 

Ičalosk 

DYN 

— tê prâ’ol 

LOC 

aktáil 

INS 

— — aktáil 

INS 

Translation: ‘There occurs a hit on my leg with a rock. / A hit with a rock occurs on my leg.’ 

This sentence masks both agent and patient, as well as the location of the hitting, emphasizing only the 

instrument. Possible translations: ‘Hitting with a rock occurs,’ or ‘The rock hits something,’ or 

‘Something gets hit with a rock.’ 

Note that all of the above sentences can be restated without the presence of the rock as instrument: 

hit/strike I my leg MEANING 

Ičalosk 

DYN 

Ičalosk 

DYN 

Ičalosk 

DYN 

Ičalosk 

DYN 

Ičalosk 

DYN 

Ičalosk 

DYN 

Ičalosk 

DYN 

Ičalosk 

DYN 

Ičalosk 

DYN 

Ičalosk 

DYN 

Ičalosk 

DYN 

Ičalosk 

DYN 

Ičalosk 

DYN 

êto 

GEN / ERG 

êtu 

GEN / IND 

ête 

GEN / ABS 

ête 

GEN / ABS 

êtu 

GEN / IND 

êtu 

GEN / IND 

êti 

GEN / AFF 

êti 

GEN / AFF 

to 

ERG 

tu 

IND 

te 

ABS 

ti 

AFF 

oprel 

ABS 

opral 

OBL 

opral 

OBL 

prâ’ol 

LOC 

prâ’ol 

LOC 

opral 

OBL 

prâ’ol 

LOC 

opral 

OBL 

— tê opril 

AFF 

‘I (intentionally) hit my leg.’ 

‘I (intentionally) “leg-hit” myself.’ 

‘I am/get (intentionally) “leg-hit”.’ 

‘I am/get (intentionally) hit on the leg.’ 

‘I (intentionally) hit myself on my leg. ‘ 

‘I “leg-hit” myself’ or ‘I (intentionally) get me my leg hit.’ 

‘I am/get hit (accidentally) on the leg.’ 

‘I (accidentally) am/get “leg-hit”’ or ‘I (accidentally) get me my leg hit.’ 

— ‘I (intentionally) hit something.’ / ‘I do some hitting.’ 

— ‘I (intentionally) hit myself.’ 

— ‘I am/get (intentionally) hit.’ 

— ‘I am/get hit (accidentally).’ 

‘My leg is/gets hit.’ 

Ičalosk — tê oprel ‘My leg is/gets (intentionally) hit.’

DYN ABS 

Ičalosk 

DYN 

Ičalosk 

DYN 

Ičalosk 

DYN 

— tê opral 

OBL 

— tê prâ’ol 

LOC 

‘“Leg-hitting” occurs’ or ‘An act of hitting involving my leg occurs.’ 

‘There occurs a hit on my leg. / A hit occurs on my leg.’ 

— — ‘Some hitting occurs’ / ‘Something does some hitting’ / ‘Something gets hit.’ 

Patterns with the rock in the DERIVATIVE case are also possible, in which the rock is seen as a blind force of nature (e.g., it has been 

hurled at the leg by a strong wind or has fallen on the leg from above, or has hit the leg after being kicked up by a passing vehicle, 

etc.). 

hit/strike I my leg rock MEANING 

Ičalosk 

DYN 

Ičalosk 

DYN 

Ičalosk 

DYN 

Ičalosk 

DYN 

Ičalosk 

DYN 

Ičalosk 

DYN 

-- tê oprel 

ABS 

ête 

GEN/ABS 

ête 

GEN/ABS 

êti 

GEN/AFF 

ti 

AFF 

prâ’ol 

LOC 

opral 

OBL 

opral 

OBL 

aktúil 

DER 

aktúil 

DER 

aktúil 

DER 

aktúil 

DER 

-- aktúil 

DER 

-- -- aktúil 

DER 

‘The rock hits my leg.’ / ‘My leg is/gets hit by a rock.’ 

‘The rock hits me on my leg.’ 

‘I get my leg hit by the rock.’ / ‘I was/got “leg-hit” by the rock.’ 

‘The rock “leg-hits” me. 

‘The rock hits me.’ / ‘I am/get hit by a rock.’ 

‘The rock hits something.’ 

Possible Ithkuil translations for the English sentence ‘My back itches me.’ 

-kç- informal Pattern 1, Stem 1: ‘itch’ 

-xn- informal Pattern 2, Stem 1: ‘back, dorsal bodily surface’ 

OGN = ORIGINATIVE case 

itch I my back MEANING 

Kças 

STA 

Kças 

STA 

êti 

GEN/AFF 

êti 

GEN/AFF 

oxnall 

OBL LISTEN 

‘My back itches me.’ This is grammatically acceptable and the most neutral or vague. 

xnâ’oll 

LOC 

‘I itch on my back.’ Emphasizes the bodily location of the itch.

Kças 

STA 

êti 

GEN/AFF 

oxnaell 

OGN 

‘The itching I’m feeling is coming from my back.’ Conveys the sense of the back being the place of origin of 

the itch. 

Again, each of the above Ithkuil sentences could delete the affective patient “I/me” from the sentence to render equivalents to the 

English sentence ‘My back itches’ and ‘There’s itching on my back.’ 

Use of the ABSOLUTIVE case with DYNAMIC function conveys the idea of an unnamed external agent that is causing the itching. 

itch I my back MEANING 

Ikças 

DYN 

Ikças 

DYN 

êti 

GEN/AFF 

ête 

GEN/ABS 

oxnell 

ABS 

xnâ’oll 

LOC 

‘Something is making my back itch me.’ Implies that the cause of the itching is an external unnamed agent. 

‘Something is itching me on my back.’ Switches the patient role to me as opposed to my back, and implies 

that the cause of the itching is an external unnamed agent. 

If we remove the personal reference adjunct ‘I/me’ from the above two sentences, the respective translations become ‘Something is 

itching my back’ and ‘Something itches on my back.’ 

4.3.13 Using Case to Achieve “Middle Voice” Semantic Effects 

English (among other languages) allows some of its verbs to operate both transitively (i.e., taking a direct object) as well as 

intransitively (i.e., without a direct object), where the object of the transitive sentence becomes the subject of the intransitive sentence. 

Furthermore, the intransitive sentence describes the same potential event as the transitive version does, except that no agent is 

expressed, the focus of the sentence being on the result, not the act which gives rise to the result. Examples: 

The manager opened the store at 8 a.m. 

The store opened at 8 a.m. 

Robert flies the airplane beautifully. 

The airplane flies beautifully. 

The engineer increased the pressure. 

The pressure increased. 

I molded the soft clay easily. 

The soft clay molded easily. 

Note that the second sentence of each pair above is semantically distinct from its passive voice equivalent (i.e., The store was opened 

at 8 a.m., The airplane is flown beautifully, The pressure was increased, The soft clay was molded easily) in that passives allow for 

the agent to be overtly stated (using the preposition ‘by’ in English, as in The store was opened by the manager) or, if absent, 

nevertheless imply the existence of the agent. However, the intransitive sentences above (equivalent to “middle voice” constructions in 

languages such as Swahili or Turkish) do not allow for expression of an agent and are designed to supress the semantic relevance (or 

saliency) of the agent. 

However, English is very haphazard and idiosyncratic as to what verbs it allows to operate this way, often having to resort to 

paraphrase and idiomatic structures to accomplish the same effects as in the four intransitive sentences above. For example 

[ungrammatical sentences are preceded by an asterisk]: 

Father painted the fence yellow. 

* The fence painted yellow. 

(But: The fence came out yellow.) 

I noticed a storm on the horizon.

* A storm noticed on the horizon. 

(But: A storm came into view on the horizon.) 

The owner keeps scissors with the sewing supplies. 

* Scissors keep with the sewing supplies. 

(But: Scissors belong/stay with the sewing supplies.) 

Fans buy beer a lot at baseball games. 

* Beer buys a lot at baseball games. 

(But: Beer sells a lot at baseball games.) 

Of course, many English speakers would simply use the passive voice or a construction using ‘get’ to accomplish the same thing (i.e., 

The fence was/got painted yellow, A storm was noticed on the horizon, The scissors are/get kept with the sewing supplies, Beer 

is/gets bought a lot at baseball games.) without worrying about the existence of an implied agent. 

Many languages utilize reflexive constructions to accomplish this effect, e.g., Spanish Se habla español aquí, literally “Spanish speaks 

itself here”, meaning Spanish is spoken here. 

Ithkuil, however, can manipulate the assignment of case to verb arguments to achieve this “middle voice” effect for any verb where it 

is semantically feasible, without having to resort to idiomatic constructions or paraphrase. For example: 

versus: 

Aikkaldhort âļnoccaţ. 

‘chew’-easily ‘snails’-ERGATIVE 

Snails chew easily. [meaning: It is easy for snails to chew things.] LISTEN 

Aikkaldhort âļneccaţ. 

‘chew’-easily ‘snails’-ABSOLUTIVE 

Snails chew easily. [meaning: It is easy to chew (on) snails.] LISTEN 

4.3.14 Specialized Suffixes Used to Expand the Functionality of the Transrelative Cases 

It should be noted that Ithkuil provides an array of suffixes specifically designed to work in conjunction with nouns inflected into one 

of the Transrelative cases to significantly expand their ability to specify the exact nature of the causal relationships between participants 

to a verb in an Ithkuil sentence. These suffixes include the Consent CNS suffix, the Reason RSN suffix, the Expectation XPT suffix, 

the Deliberateness DLB suffix, the Enablement ENB suffix, the Agency/Intent AGN suffix, and the Impact IMP suffix. These affixes 

are detailed in Section 7.4.12 and discussed further in Section 10.1.2. 

4.4 THE POSESSIVE CASES 

Those Western languages which have possessive cases usually have only one such case, often functioning in a vague and ambiguous 

way to show varying types of relationships between two nouns. For example, notice the differing relationships expressed by the 

possessive in the following English sentences: 

the man’s hat = the hat belonging to him [alienable possession] 

the man’s house = the house he legally owns [proprietary responsibility] 

the man’s arm = part of his body [inalienable component] 

the man’s brother = the brother related to him [genetic relationship] 

the man’s happiness = he feels happy [affective experience] 

the man’s rescue = he was or will be rescued [target of others’ purpose] 

the man’s gift = the gift is for him [benefaction] 

the man’s gift = the gift is from him [source] 

the man’s world = the world in which he lives [inherent subjective association]

the man’s team = the team he is associated with [interactive mutual association] 

the man’s story = the story about him [topical reference] 

the man’s painting = the picture he painted [creation/authorship] 

the man’s command = his being a commander [role or function] 

In many instances, the English possessive is totally ambiguous, e.g., does ‘the man’s story’ mean the one he wrote or the one about 

him? Regarding ‘the man’s rescue,’ did the man do the rescuing or is he the one being rescued? Is ‘the man’s gift’ one he is giving or 

receiving? Ithkuil is more exact in specifying the nature of these relationships via case. Many of the above relationships are addressed 

by the seven Possessive cases. 

The Possessive cases make a distinction between alienable versus inalienable possession or attribution, as well as distinguishing whether 

the possession is inherent to the possessor or imposed or caused from without. These distinctions are explained below. Like Western 

languages (and unlike many American Indian and North Caucasian languages), the case marking is on the possessor noun, not the 

possessed. The seven Associative cases are the POSSESSIVE, PROPRIETIVE, GENITIVE, ATTRIBUTIVE, PRODUCTIVE, 

INTERPRETATIVE, and ORIGINATIVE. Following are explanations of the function and usage of each case. Actual Ithkuil examples 

of the cases in use are given in Sec. 4.4.8. 

4.4.1 POS The Possessive Case 

The POSSESSIVE case is marked by the Vc value -â-. The POSSESSIVE is used to refer to a noun which has alienable (i.e., 

removable or severable) possession of another noun in the sense of having physical control or oversight of that noun, whether by 

chance circumstance or deliberate manipulation. The two nouns are not in any sense inherent parts of one another and the relationship 

between the two can be theoretically or actually terminated by an outside force or influence, or by decision of the possessor, usually by 

means of mere physical permanent separation of the possessor and possessed nouns. The possessive would be used to translate English 

phrases such as his coat (e.g., the one he is wearing, regardless of whether he owns it or not), the boy’s book (e.g., the one in his 

hand), Father’s chair (e.g., the one he happens to be sitting in, as in a restaurant). 

4.4.2 PRP The Proprietive Case 

The PROPRIETIVE case is marked by the Vc value -î- or alternately -û-; following Cr stems ending in -w, the Vc value is -î-, while 

following Cr stems ending in -y, the Vc value is -û-; after other Cr stems, either Vc value is permissible. The PROPRIETIVE 

identifies a noun having alienable possession of another noun in the sense of quasi-permanent contextual control, ownership or 

oversight, whether by societal recognition, social convention, law, purchase or decree, which mere physical separation does not sever. 

The two nouns are not in any sense inherent parts of one another, however the relationship cannot be terminated except via an equally 

or more binding act, declaration, convention, law, process, etc. Using the same English examples used with the POSSESSIVE above, 

we can analyze the connotative difference: his coat (i.e., the one he owns, regardless of whether he is wearing it or not), the boy’s 

book (e.g., the one he bought), Father’s chair (e.g., the one assigned to him). 

4.4.3 GEN The Genitive Case 

The GENITIVE case is marked by the Vc value -ê-. The GENITIVE is used to refer to a noun which has inalienable (i.e., 

unremovable, unseverable) possession of or association with another noun in the sense of having that noun as an inherent or intrinsic 

attribute, characteristic, physical part, or genetic (i.e., familial) bond, e.g., my hand, the building’s doors, the child’s father, the 

essence of that woman. 

4.4.4 ATT The Attributive Case 

The ATTRIBUTIVE case is marked by the Vc value -ô-. The ATTRIBUTIVE is used to refer to a noun which inalienably 

experiences the effects of, or otherwise has an affective (see the AFFECTIVE case above) relationship with another noun, either as a 

temporary or permanent attribute, characteristic, or experience, whether physical or psychological, objective or subjective in nature. 

Examples: his pain, Mother’s guilt, the child’s cough, Dorothy’s mood, Davey’s happiness, the teacher’s stubbornness, my needs.

4.4.5 PDC The Productive Case 

The PRODUCTIVE case is marked by the Vc value -ëi-. The PRODUCTIVE identifies the creator, author or originator of another 

noun, e.g., the girl’s poem, the clowns’ plan, my statue (i.e., the one I sculpted). 

4.4.6 ITP The Interpretative Case 

The INTERPRETATIVE case is marked by the Vc value -öi-. The INTERPRETATIVE identifies a noun acting as the subjective 

interpretational context of another noun, that is the noun by or through which another noun is subjectively interpreted or described, as 

exemplified by the phrases Monet’s Paris, our world, life as seen by children. 

4.4.7 OGN The Originative Case 

The ORIGINATIVE case is marked by the Vc value -ae-. The ORIGINATIVE identifies a noun as being the literal or figurative 

source of another, or which is the native location, origin, or usual locational context for another. , e.g., the man’s story (i.e., the one he 

told), our gift (i.e., the one we are giving), water from the river, the fruit of the tree, Fix the kitchen sink! (i.e. the one found in the 

kitchen), Desert rocks are so beautiful (i.e., whether being spoken about rocks taken from the desert or rocks still present in the 

desert), Northern women are easy-going. 

The ORIGINATIVE should be distinguished from the ABLATIVE in Section 4.7.5 below, in that the ABLATIVE position or path of 

motion away from, whereas the ORIGINATIVE merely presents a locational context as a means of description or to distinguish the 

noun from an otherwise similar noun. 

4.4.8 Examples of Possessive Cases in Use 

ultánļ êmmâl 

STA-‘page.of.writing’-OBL-NRM/DEL/M/SEG/COA-FML STA-‘male child ’-POS-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/UNI-IFL 

‘the boy's book’ [i.e., the one he has in his immediate possession, not one he necessarily owns] LISTEN 

ultánļ êmmûl 

STA-‘page.of.writing’-OBL-DEL/M/SEG/COA-FML STA-‘male child ’-PRP-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/UNI-IFL 

‘the boy's book’ [i.e., the one he owns] LISTEN 

öpţal àçtêl 

STA-‘interior.corner’-OBL-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/UNI-IFL STA-‘room/chamber’-GEN-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/UNI-FML 

‘corner of a room’ LISTEN 

xal akţrôl 

STA-‘see+thing.seen’-OBL-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/UNI-IFL STA-‘eagle’-ATT-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/UNI-IFL 

‘what the eagle sees’ LISTEN 

Isval êzguirs èkšôt âmmit. 

DYN-‘fear’-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/UNI-IFL STA-‘sound.of.laughter’-DER-NRM/PRX/M/CSL/AGG-IFL STA-‘clown’-ATT-NRM/DEL/U/CSL/UNI-FML 

STA-‘child’-AFF-NRM/DEL/U/CSL/UNI-IFL LISTEN

‘The sound of the clowns’ laughter frightens the children.’ 

ultánļ êmmëil 

STA-‘page.of.writing’-OBL-NRM/DEL/M/SEG/COA-FML STA-‘male child’-PDC-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/UNI-IFL 

‘the boy's book’ [i.e., the one he authored] LISTEN 

Iolmámž ûmmöil. 

DYN-‘measure.of.music’-NRM/PRX/M/COA/CST-FML STA-‘mother’-ITP-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/UNI-IFL 

‘They’re playing mother’s song.’ [i.e., the one that is special to her] LISTEN 

âmpafseč êqael 

STA-‘whiff.of.odor’-OBL-NRM/PRX/M/CSL/SEG-QUA 1/3-IFL STA-‘woman’-OGN-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/UNI-IFL 

‘woman giving off a bad odor’ or ‘bad odor coming from/off the woman’ LISTEN 

4.5 THE ASSOCIATIVE CASES 

The Associative cases refer to a large group of cases which modify a noun to show that it has some relationship to another, usually 

adjacent noun or that it functions in an adverbial relationship to a verb. Most of these cases correspond to relationships in which, in 

English translation, we find two nouns together in apposition or as a compound noun, as in cat box, schoolbook, peace march, 

mountain man, etc., or joined by the word ‘of’ in a non-possessive relationship, e.g., box of coins, dreams of youth, sounds of 

laughter, or as a modifier of a verbal phrase. Following are explanations of the function and usage of each case. Actual Ithkuil 

examples of the cases in use are given in Sec. 4.5.33 . 

4.5.1 PAR The Partitive Case 

The PARTITIVE case is marked by the Vc value -ia- or -ua-; following Cr stems ending in -w, the Vc value is -ia-, while following 

Cr stems ending in -y, the Vc value is -ua-; after other Cr stems, either Vc value is permissible. When used in conjunction with 

another noun, the PARTITIVE indicates a quantitative or content-to-container relationship between the two nouns, e.g., a cup of 

coffee, a box(ful) of books, a train(load) of refugees. When used alone, it signifies that the context of the phrase or sentence involves 

only a portion of the noun, rather than the whole noun, e.g., I ate some bread, Pour (some) water down my back. 

The PARTITIVE is also used to mark a noun qualified by a specific number, e.g., three boxes, two clowns, twenty words. This usage 

is analyzed in detail in Chapter 12, where we will see that, in Ithkuil, numbers are formatives (i.e., full nouns and verbs), not adjectives 

as in Western languages. Additionally, a noun qualified by a number is not pluralized. In other words, one does not say ‘three boxes,’ 

but rather “a trio of a box” or perhaps more eloquently, “a box trio.” 

The PARTITIVE case is also used in constructing words for Ithkuil numbers beginning with two hundred. This is also detailed in 

Chapter 12 on enumeration. 

4.5.2 CRS The Contrastive Case 

The CONTRASTIVE case is marked by the Vc value -ie- or -ue-; following Cr stems ending in -w, the Vc value is -ie-, while 

following Cr stems ending in -y, the Vc value is -ue-; after other Cr stems, either Vc value is permissible. The CONTRASTIVE 

identifies a noun which has been replaced by another or for which another noun has been substituted. This is translatable by the

English phrases ‘instead of’ or ‘rather than’ or ‘as opposed to,’ or specialized uses of ‘not,’ e.g., Instead of rain, it snowed; They 

hired her as a cook, as opposed to a maid; I prefer peas to carrots; Rather than marigolds, let’s buy carnations; That's sugar, not 

salt. 

4.5.3 CPS The Compositive Case 

The COMPOSITIVE case is marked by the Vc value -io- or -uo-; following Cr stems ending in -w, the Vc value is -io-, while 

following Cr stems ending in -y, the Vc value is -uo-; after other Cr stems, either Vc value is permissible. The COMPOSITIVE 

identifies a noun as being the literal or figurative substance or component(s) of which another is made, composed, formed, built or 

comprised. Example of usage would be That statue was carved out of marble, She owns three gold(en) coins, We were caught in a 

web of lies, I use a wooden ladder, It was a house of cards, Three suits comprise his wardrobe, Joe detests styrofoam cups. 

The COMPOSITIVE is also used in conjunction with verbs to identify the material(s) or resources used up or consumed in performing 

or undertaking an activity. Examples of this usage would be She likes to cook with tomatoes, He reads by candle(light), That child 

goes through four sets of clothes a day, My uncle satisfied his sweet tooth with three chocolate bars. 

4.5.4 PRD The Predicative Case 

The PREDICATIVE case is marked by the Vc value -iö- or -uö-; following Cr stems ending in -w, the Vc value is -iö-, while 

following Cr stems ending in -y, the Vc value is -uö-; after other Cr stems, either Vc value is permissible. The PREDICATIVE 

identifies a noun which constitutes the non-causal basis, foundation, sustenance (literally or figuratively), or required existential 

condition for another noun or clause, translatable by the phrases ‘based (up)on,’ ‘dependent (up)on’ or ‘relying on.’ Examples of use 

are a book dependent on a publisher, a man relying on charity, laws based in reason, Can success supported by murder be 

sustained? 

The PREDICATIVE should be distinguished from Transrelative cases such as the DERIVATIVE or INSTRUMENTAL, in that the 

PREDICATIVE does not denote a cause, merely the sustaining entity on which another depends, e.g., it would not be used to translate 

anxiety based on terror, as the anxiety does not ‘rely’ or ‘depend’ on terror, but rather is caused by it. Similarly, in the phrase an 

attitude fueled by greed, the attitude derives from or results from greed, but is not relying on it. 

4.5.5 MED The Mediative Case 

The MEDIATIVE case is marked by the Vc value -a’-. The MEDIATIVE indicates the physical, psychological, or figurative medium 

through which another noun or event takes place. It would be used in translating phrases or sentences such as a radio announcement, 

arrival by water, a letter bomb, air mail, achieving ecstasy through sex, I showed her my love with chocolate. It should be 

distinguished from the INSTRUMENTAL case (see Section 4.3.8 above), which signifies the actual instrument or physical means used 

to accomplish a causative action. For example, in the sentence Call him on the phone!, translating the phrase on the phone into the 

INSTRUMENTAL case would signify ‘Use the phone (i.e., the one in the room) to call him,’ whereas inflection into the MEDIATIVE 

case would mean ‘Call him via the medium of telephony.’ 

4.5.6 APL The Applicative Case 

The APPLICATIVE case is marked by the Vc value -u’-. The APPLICATIVE identifies a noun which represents the purpose for 

which another noun is to be utilized in a given instance. As such, it usually translates English ‘for’ when meaning ‘for the temporary or 

incidental use/purpose of.’ Examples of usage would be a cup for coffee (i.e., a cup being used incidentally to hold coffee), a box for 

tools (i.e., the box is only temporarily being used to hold tools), a room for changing. Note that the use of the APPLICATIVE can 

extend to usages beyond English ‘for,’ as in a “weapon” cat = ‘a cat used as a weapon,’ or a “projectile” book = ‘a book used as a 

projectile.’ 

4.5.7 PUR The Purposive Case

The PURPOSIVE case is marked by the Vc value -e’-. The PURPOSIVE identifies a noun which characterizes or defines the purpose 

of, or reason for, another noun. The PURPOSIVE is subtly distinct from the APPLICATIVE above, in that the latter names the actual 

use to which a noun is put on a given occasion or in given context, whereas the PURPOSIVE defines another noun’s general function 

or primary reason for being, outside of any contextual instance, i.e., what the noun is used for all the time (or at least its intended use). 

It generally translates English ‘as,’ ‘of’ or ‘for’ when meaning ‘for the purpose of’ or alternately an English noun-noun expression or a 

compound noun. Examples of usage would be a coffee cup, a toolbox, a litter box, a trashcan. 

4.5.8 CSD The Considerative Case 

The CONSIDERATIVE case is marked by the Vc value -o’-. The CONSIDERATIVE identifies a noun as the delimiting or defining 

context in which an act, state or event occurs or is considered. Thus, it translates English terms such as ‘according to,’ ‘pursuant to,’ 

‘as per,’ ‘in the opinion of.’ Examples of usage would be In my opinion he’s a coward; He’s leaving town as per orders from the 

court; You were arrested pursuant to law; According to our teacher, humans are descended from apes. 

4.5.9 ESS The Essive Case 

The ESSIVE case is marked by the Vc value -ea-. The ESSIVE identifies the role or name by which a noun is known or contextually 

identified. It translates English ‘as’ in the sense of naming or reference to the a nouns functional identity. It would be used in translating 

the English sentences They called him a clown, The woman entered the club as an equal of any man, We consider you our only 

hope. 

4.5.10 ASI The Assimilative Case 

The ASSIMILATIVE case is marked by the Vc value -eo-. The ASSIMILATIVE identifies a noun used as a context for analogy or 

metaphorical comparison to either another noun or a verb. Thus, it translates English ‘like’ or ‘as’ in the sense of comparison or 

analogy between one thing and another. Examples of usage are She sings like a bird, As children they seemed to me. 

4.5.11 FUN The Functive Case 

The FUNCTIVE case is marked by the Vc value -eö-. It functions similarly to English adverbs ending in -ly or the adverbial use of 

with, identifying the manner in which an action, event, or state occurs or exists. More exactly, it identifies a noun used to characterize 

the manner of the act, state, or event, translatable most accurately by the phrase ‘in a manner characterized by….’ Examples would be: 

She dances gracefully (i.e., in a manner characterized by grace), The boys ate with gusto, That clown is speaking nonsense, Father 

speaks with such fortitude. 

4.5.12 TFM The Transformative Case 

The TRANSFORMATIVE case is marked by the Vc value -oa-. The TRANSFORMATIVE identifies the outcome or final state of a 

process, often translatable by ‘to,’ ‘until,’ or ‘into’ in the sense of reaching a final state after having undergone some transformation. 

Example usages would be The house burned to ashes, The clown reached a state of tranquility, The clowns will turn our children 

into slaves, Her father drank himself to death. 

4.5.13 REF The Referential Case 

The REFERENTIAL case is marked by the Vc value -oe-. The REFERENTIAL identifies a noun functioning as the general referent 

of the verb, translating such English terms as ‘about,’ ‘regarding,’ ‘concerning,’ ‘in regard to,’ ‘in reference to,’ ‘pertaining to,’ or ‘as 

for.’ Examples of use would be a song of love; As for those books, burn them!; Let’s talk about clowns; His attitude toward 

women.

4.5.14 CLA The Classificative Case 

The CLASSIFICATIVE case is marked by the Vc value -öa-. The CLASSIFICATIVE identifies a noun as a basis for arranging, 

sorting, classifying, or counting, translating various English prepositions and phrases used for this purpose. Example of usage are Place 

them in groups of three, The workers arranged the tables in rows, He lay down lengthwise, Can you count by fives?, I will sort 

them by color. 

The CLASSIFICATIVE is also used to identify a noun considered in consecutively recurring increments as a means of describing the 

manner of an event. This is usually in conjunction with nouns denoting time periods, but can be used with any concrete noun to 

describe the repetitive nature of an event. Examples would be Month by month, their departure crept closer; Year after year, I see 

more and more clowns; Day in, day out, he’s always working; The fertilizer factory keeps rolling them out, bag upon bag; Patient 

by patient, the nurse administered injections. 

Note that the CLASSIFICATIVE would not be used to describe a noun other than adverbially, e.g., it would not be used to translate 

the sentence One bomb after another fell on the city. Such a construction would utilize a suffix indicating sequential instantiations of 

the noun (see Sec. 7.4.4). 

4.5.15 CNV The Conductive Case 

The CONDUCTIVE case is marked by the Vc value -öe-. The CONDUCTIVE identifies the meaningful or relevant context of 

another. It can be thought of as conveying the relationship signified by the expressions ‘having to do with,’ ‘as it pertains to,’ or 

‘considered within the context of.’ Examples of English phrases translatable using this case are a circus clown, a mountain man, a 

feeling of loneliness, the Mafia’s world, a realm of fear, my life achievement, childhood memories, Let’s discuss the morality of 

war. 

4.5.16 IDP The Interdependent Case 

The INTERDEPENDENT case is marked by the Vc value -üa- unless the preceding Cr stems ending in -w or -y, in which case the 

Vc value is -i’-. The INTERDEPENDENT identifies a noun which has a coordinated, tandem, complementary or mutually dependent 

relationship with another. The relationship between the two nouns can be thought of as reciprocal in nature, i.e., each noun implies the 

other or needs the other to exist within it’s natural context, e.g., the students’ teacher, an army general, the blood in my veins, the 

driver of the truck, the nation’s leader, his team (i.e., the one on which he’s a member). Note that this case does not imply a partwhole 

dependency as with the GENITIVE case above, e.g., it would not be used to translate the book’s pages, or the leaves of a tree. 

4.5.17 BEN The Benefactive Case 

The BENEFACTIVE case is marked by the Vc value -üe- unless the preceding Cr stems ending in -w or -y, in which case the Vc 

value is -ö’-. The BENEFACTIVE identifies a noun for whose sake or benefit an action or event occurs or is done. As such, the 

BENEFACTIVE is similar to the DATIVE, except that the BENEFACTIVE implies a strong emphasis on the fact that the noun is 

more than simply the recipient or target of a dative action, but rather benefits in a tangible or consequential way from the action or 

event. It is usually translated by English ‘for’ in the sense of ‘for the sake (i.e., benefit) of.’ Examples of usage are a toy for the 

children, We threw him a party, Go to the teachers’ lounge. 

The BENEFACTIVE also translates the English phrases ‘out of respect for,’ ‘for the sake of,’ or ‘in deference toward,’ identifying the 

noun to which deference is paid within the context for an act, condition, or event. Examples of usage would be He remained silent for 

her sake, They went on with the ceremony out of respect for the families, They dressed in robes because of tradition. 

4.5.18 TSP The Transpositive Case 

The TRANSPOSITIVE case is marked by the Vc value -üo- unless the preceding Cr stem ends in -w, in which case the Vc value is 

-î’-, or the preceding Cr stem ends in-y, in which case the Vc value is -û’. The TRANSPOSITIVE implies substitution of one noun for 

another. It translates English ‘for’ in the sense of ‘on behalf of,’ ‘in place of,’ or ‘instead of’ (i.e., ‘as a substitution for’). Examples of

usage are The boss made the speech for me, She went up into the attic for her brother (i.e., so he wouldn’t have to). 

4.5.19 CMM The Commutative Case 

The COMMUTATIVE case is marked by the Vc value -au-. The COMMUTATIVE translates English ‘for’ in the sense of ‘in 

exchange for’ as in You paid too much money for that dress, She kills for thrills. 

4.5.20 COM The Comitative Case 

The COMITATIVE case is marked by the Vc value -eu-. Similar to its counterpart in Uralic languages such as Finnish or Estonian, the 

COMITATIVE translates the English ‘with’ in its meaning of accompaniment (i.e., ‘along with’) as in The child went with the clown 

to the party. Like English ‘with,’ the COMITATIVE does not imply that the conjoined noun is necessarily engaged in the same activity 

or associated with the same verb as the head noun. For example, in the sentence My father was walking with a loaf of bread, the loaf 

of bread is not considered to be itself walking. 

It should be noted, however, that the COMITATIVE is not used to imply mutually interactive or reciprocal activity between two 

nouns. Thus it would not be used in translating the sentences They danced with each other or Mother wants to talk with you. These 

would be translated using the RECIPROCAL valence of the verb, explained in Section 5.7. This distinction is illustrated even more 

clearly by comparing the following two sentences; the first would be translated using the COMITATIVE, the second would not: This 

man fought with my father (e.g., alongside him during the war) versus This man fought with my father (e.g., they had a fight with each 

other). 

Note also that the COMITATIVE is not used to indicate instrumentality (English ‘with’ meaning ‘by means of’). Thus, it is not used to 

translate sentences such as I cut the meat with a knife. As previously discussed in Section 4.3.8, instrumentality is indicated by use of 

the INSTRUMENTAL case. Likewise, it is not used to identify the resources or material(s) consumed in undertaking an act, as in He 

catches his fish with worms for which the COMPOSITIVE case is used. 

4.5.21 CNJ The Conjunctive Case 

The CONJUNCTIVE case is marked by the Vc value -iu-. The CONJUNCTIVE translates English ‘with’ in its meaning of ‘in 

conjunction with,’ i.e., to indicate that the noun is engaged in the same activity or a complementary activity as the conjoined noun. It 

should be distinguished from the COMITATIVE above, which indicates mere accompaniment. For example, in the walking with a loaf 

of bread example from above, it would be incorrect to use the CONJUNCTIVE case because that would signify the bread was 

walking, too. To further illustrate the usage, consider the sentence I’m with the brigade. Translating ‘brigade’ using the 

COMITATIVE would mean that ‘I’ve come along (e.g., drove) with the brigade to the scene,’ while using the CONJUNCTIVE would 

mean ‘I’m a member of the brigade.’ Additional examples where the CONJUNCTIVE would be used are They skate with the best 

team, That teacher works well with children. 

4.5.22 UTL The Utilitative Case 

The UTILITATIVE case is marked by the Vc value -ou-. The UTILITATIVE identifies a noun in the process of being utilized. This 

corresponds to the use of English ‘with’ where it refers to actual use in progress as in A man with a gun ran into the room. It should 

be distinguished from the INSTRUMENTAL (see Sec. 4.3.8) in that the latter indicates the implement used to accomplish an action, 

while the UTILITATIVE identifies a noun in use, but does not imply that the noun was the implement used to accomplish a stated 

action. For example, compare the sentence The man with an umbrella was pushing a stroller in the rain (UTILITATIVE) with The 

man pushed a stroller in the rain with an umbrella (INSTRUMENTAL). The first sentence implies the man was pushing a stroller 

with one hand while holding an open umbrella against the rain, whereas the second sentence has him using the umbrella to push the 

stroller. Another way to translate the UTILITATIVE would be to use an English gerundial construction as in A gun-wielding man ran 

into the room or An umbrella-toting man pushed a stroller in the rain. 

Besides the INSTRUMENTAL, the UTILITATIVE should likewise be distinguished from the COMITATIVE case above, in that the 

COMITATIVE merely indicates accompaniment, while the UTILITATIVE indicates use in progress. For example, the sentence Go sit 

next to the girl with the book, if translated using the COMITATIVE would merely identify a girl who has a book in her visible

possession, while with the UTILITATIVE it would mean the girl is actually engaged in reading the book. 

4.5.23 ABE The Abessive Case 

The ABESSIVE case is marked by the Vc value -ëu-. The ABESSIVE is essentially the opposite of the COMITATIVE, translating the 

English ‘without’ or ‘-less’ in the sense of ‘unaccompanied by’ or ‘not having’ as in a day without rain or a treeless plain. As noted 

in the next section below on the CONVERSIVE case, it is not used to translate ‘without’ when it means ‘unless one has,’ referring to a 

hypothetical exception to a potential outcome as in I can’t go on without love. 

4.5.24 CVS The Conversive Case 

The CONVERSIVE case is marked by the Vc value -öu-. The CONVERSIVE is used in conjunction with hypothetical or potential 

contexts to identify a hypothetical exception to a potential outcome or an actual circumstance which alters or has altered a potential 

outcome. This translates two different ways into English. Where it indicates an exception to a hypothetical situation, it is translated by 

the conjunction ‘unless’ in verbal contexts, and by the preposition ‘without’ for nouns (note that ‘without’ in this sense does not 

correspond to its usual ABESSIVE usage in Sec. 4.5.23 above). If applied to a real or actual situation, it is translatable by such 

expressions as ‘but for,’ ‘if not for,’ ‘if it wasn’t for,’ or ‘if it wasn’t on account of.’ Example of usage: Without peace, this society is 

doomed; If not for the rain, we would have had a good time. 

4.5.25 COR The Correlative Case 

The CORRELATIVE case is marked by the Vc value -ai’-. The CORRELATIVE is used to indicate an abstract relationship, 

association, or conjunction between a noun and another noun or verb, including subjective, contextual, metaphorical, or symbolic 

associations. It translates general phrases such as ‘relative to,’ ‘in relation to,’ ‘in correlation with,’ ‘in association with,’ etc. It would 

be used in translating phrases such as career goals, the soup of the day, the direction of that road, The elapsed time relative to the 

distance determines the winner, Our next topic is sex and (or in) art (i.e., the relationship between art and sex). Additional examples 

are years of wonder, the Clown Planet, life blood, city of evil. Note that the CORRELATIVE case would often be used to translate 

constructions for which English often uses an adjective, e.g., spatial coordinates, the political economy, a dangerous situation (i.e., a 

situation characterized by danger). 

When used in contexts involving directional motion or spatial positioning, the CORRELATIVE signifies the directional orientation or 

position of one noun relative to another, i.e., a noun relative to whose position in space another noun is being described for purposes of 

spatial orientation. To an English-speaker, the function of this case makes greater sense once one realizes that, in Ithkuil, most one-toone 

spatial relationships are described by verbs, not prepositions, e.g., ‘to be situated on the right,’ ‘to move beneath,’ etc. 

Consequently, this use of the CORRELATIVE case can be thought of as expressing the phrase ‘relative to.’ Examples of how it would 

be used are I’m standing four feet north of the desk, The one hanging above the boxes looks fresh, It lies at a 30° angle relative to 

the tree, He turned his back on me, The upstairs bedroom faces the yard, It’s alongside the desk (i.e., its lateral surface is oriented 

toward the desk). 

As will be described in Section 5.4.2.3, the CORRELATIVE is used with verbal case-frames to convey the equivalent of simple 

relative clauses in Western languages. 

4.5.26 DEP The Dependent Case 

The DEPENDENT case is marked by the Vc value -ui’-. The DEPENDENT translates the English phrase ‘depending on’ signifying a 

noun as the contingency on which the reality of a main clause depends. Examples of usage would be Depending on the rain, we’ll go 

for a picnic; She may show up, depending on her attitude. 

The DEPENDENT should be distinguished from the PREDICATIVE case in Sec. 4.5.4, in that the former denotes contingency, while 

the PREDICATIVE denotes reliance. 

4.5.27 PVS The Provisional Case

The PROVISIONAL case is marked by the Vc value -ei’-. The PROVISIONAL identifies the noun, situation, or circumstance on 

which the factuality of the main clause of the sentence depends, i.e., the required condition(s) which must come into existence for the 

situation described in the main clause to occur. This is translatable by such English phrases as ‘provided (that),’ ‘on condition of,’ ‘only 

in case of,’ or ‘but only if,’ e.g., Provided [there’s] food, I will attend the meeting; We will fight only in case of war. 

4.5.28 PTL The Postulative Case 

The POSTULATIVE case is marked by the Vc value -oi’-. The operates somewhat similarly to the PROVISIONAL above, except 

that the POSTULATIVE implies a causal or consequential relationship (not merely a circumstantial one) between the pre-condition(s) 

and the circumstances of the main clause. Specifically, it identifies the noun, situation, or circumstance whose factuality has not yet 

come into existence, but, should it come into existence, will result in the consequence indicated by the main clause. This is translatable 

by English ‘if,’ or ‘in case of.’ Note that it does not translate English ‘if’ where it means ‘whether’ as in I don’t know if it’s warm 

enough, i.e., where the clause is meant only to convey uncertainty or optionality (but not a causal relationship between a potential 

condition and its consequences). Examples of usage: If [there’s] snow, I’m not going out; In case of fire, flee; If friend, welcome 

them, if foe, kill ’em. 

The example below is offered to further distinguish the use of the POSTULATIVE case from the PROVISIONAL case above: 

PROVISIONAL: We’re packing umbrellas, but only in case of bad weather (i.e., umbrellas will not be packed unless the weather is 

actually bad). 

POSTULATIVE: We’re packing umbrellas in case of bad weather (i.e., the umbrellas are being packed in preparation for the 

possibility of bad weather). 

4.5.29 CON The Concessive Case 

The CONCESSIVE case is marked by the Vc value -au’-. The CONCESSIVE case identifies a noun, situation, or circumstance which 

gives rise to an expectation of a certain result which, in fact, does not occur. This can be translated by various English prepositions, 

conjunctions, or phrases such as ‘despite,’ ‘in spite of,’ ‘notwithstanding,’ ‘although,’ ‘regardless of,’ ‘no matter what,’ etc. Examples 

of usage: In spite of his stupidity, he passed the test; The law notwithstanding, I will stand my ground; No matter how ignorant 

(they may be), they are welcome, Although foreigners, we will let them attend the meeting. 

4.5.30 EXC The Exceptive Case 

The EXCEPTIVE case is marked by the Vc value -iu’-. The EXCEPTIVE indicates a noun, situation, or circumstance which is an 

exception, or is exempted or excluded from the main clause, translatable by English ‘except (for),’ ‘but (not),’ or ‘excluding.’ Examples 

of usage: She loves everybody except clowns; I like all animals, excluding dogs; He eats almost anything but (not) spinach. 

4.5.31 AVR The Aversive Case 

The AVERSIVE case is marked by the Vc value -eu’-. The AVERSIVE identifies a noun as a source or object of fear and/or 

avoidance. With nouns, it translates expressions such as ‘for fear of,’ ‘in order to avoid,’ or ‘in avoidance of.’ With verb phrases (i.e., 

case-frames; see Sec. 5.2) , it would translate English ‘lest.’ Examples of usage are She finished her plate for fear of my wrath, I 

traveled by night to avoid the sun. 

4.5.32 CMP The Comparative Case 

The COMPARATIVE case is marked by the Vc value -ou’-. The COMPARATIVE identifies a noun being compared to another. It 

translates such expressions as ‘as compared to,’ or certain usages of ‘versus’ or ‘as opposed to.’ It is similar to the CONTRASTIVE 

case (see Section 4.5.2 above), except that it does not carry the sense of opposition, joint exclusivity, or either-or binary substitution of 

the CONTRASTIVE, but rather merely comparison/choice/preference from various options or along a spectrum or scale. With verbal

case-frames (see Sec. 5.4) it would translate as ‘whereas’ or ‘while’ (in its synonymous usage to ‘whereas’). Examples are She chose 

the red one as opposed to the others, Sam drives a van versus Joe, who prefers a truck, You’ll find it in Room Twelve [as opposed 

to a room with a different number]. 

4.5.33 Examples of Associative Cases in Use 

âkyuál vlalêx 

STA-‘coffee.bean.drink’-PAR-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/UNI-FML STA-‘contain.via.gravity/basin’-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/UNI-SIZ 2/3-IFL 

‘cup of coffee’ LISTEN 

âkniel 

STA-‘pet.snake’-CRS-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/UNI-IFL 

‘as opposed to the pet snake / rather than the pet snake’ LISTEN 

uçtál op h iol 

STA-‘wall.of.room’-OBL-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/UNI-FML STA-‘wood’-CPS-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/UNI-IFL 

‘wooden wall’ LISTEN 

t h arl riöč 

STA-‘law/statute’-OBL-NRM/DEL/M/ASO/AGG-IFL STA-‘reason’-PRD-NRM/DEL/A/ASO/UNI-IFL 

‘laws based in reason’ LISTEN 

Opçav ökcul ödhá’šk. 

DYN-‘(self).directed.motion.throughout.three.dimensional.volume’-NRM/PRX/N/VAR/UNI-IFL STA-‘virus’-IND-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/UNI-IFL 

STA-‘drink.of.water’-MED-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/CST-FML 

‘The virus spreads via the drinking water.’ LISTEN 

âkyú’l vlalêx 

STA-‘coffee.bean.drink’-APL-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/UNI-FML STA-‘contain.via.gravity/basin’-OBL-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/UNI-SIZ 2/3-IFL 

‘cup being used for coffee’ 

âkyé’l vlalêx 

STA-‘coffee.bean.drink’-PUR-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/UNI-FML STA-‘contain.via.gravity/basin’-DEL/M/CSL/UNI-SIZ 2/3-IFL 

‘coffee cup’ LISTEN 

esro’láun 

STA-‘prepared/cooked food’-CSD-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/UNI-FML-AGC 2/2 

‘according to the cook’ LISTEN

Idawelar êmmil ukšeal. 

DYN-‘nickname/label’-DIR-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/UNI-NA1 1/5-IFL STA-‘male.child’-AFF-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/UNI-IFL STA-‘nerd’-ESS-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/UNI- 

IFL 

‘Don't call the boy a nerd.’ LISTEN 

las almeodh 

STA-‘voice’-OBL-NRM/PRX/M/CSL/UNI-IFL STA-‘musical.note’-ASI-NRM/DEL/PRX/N/CSL/UNI-IFL 

‘a voice like music’ 

eqtèöck 

STA-‘degree.of.happiness’-FUN-NRM/PRX/A/CSL/UNI-FML 

‘happily /in a manner characterized by happiness’ LISTEN 

ˉSakč’a tô myicka zboack. 

CPT-STA-‘change.state’-NRM/GRA/U/CSL/UNI-IFL 1m/ATT STA-‘sense.of.gratitude’-AFF-NRM/PRX/A/CSL/UNI-IFL 

STA-‘feeling.of.anger’-TFM-NRM/PRX/A/CSL/UNI-IFL 

‘My sense of gratitude gradually turned into anger.’ LISTEN 

ultánļ açk h woeţ 

STA-‘page.of.writing’-OBL-NRM/DEL/M/SEG/COA-FML STA-‘porcupine’-REF-NRM/DEL/N/CSL/UNI-IFL 

‘a book about porcupines’ LISTEN 

kpöal 

STA-‘extent.of.spatial.length’-CLA-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/UNI-IFL 

‘lengthwise’ LISTEN 

4.6 THE TEMPORAL CASES 

The temporal cases deal with contexts relating to time. In many respects, Ithkuil analyzes time similarly to Western languages, 

particularly in the ability to spatially compartmentalize time as seen in such English phrases as ‘in 3 hours,’ ‘for 5 years,’ ‘day by day,’ 

and ‘per month,’ as well as in analyzing time as progressively linear using concepts such as ‘before,’ ‘after,’ ‘during,’ ‘until,’ and ‘ago.’ 

The fifteen temporal cases are the SIMULTANEITIVE, ASSESSIVE, CONCURSIVE, ACCESSIVE, DIFFUSIVE, PERIODIC, 

PROLAPSIVE, PRECURSIVE, POSTCURSIVE, ELAPSIVE, ALLAPSIVE, INTERPOLATIVE, EPISODIC, PROLIMITIVE, and 

LIMITATIVE. Following are explanations of the function and usage of each case. Actual Ithkuil examples of these cases in use are 

provided in Sec. 4.6.16. 

4.6.1 SML The Simultaneitive Case 

The SIMULTANEITIVE case is marked by the Vc value -a’a-, or optionally -a’V-, where V has the value of the formative’s Vr affix 

(from Slot IV); if choosing the latter value for Vc, then the formative’s Vr affix can be deleted from Slot IV if it is in word-initial 

position.

The SIMULTANEITIVE identifies a noun signifying a time period simultaneous to the act, state, or event under discussion. Examples 

would be I was in class at the same time as his accident, I worked a side-job concurrent to the strike, She laughed simultaneously 

with my coughing fit. 

4.6.2 ASS The Assessive Case 

The ASSESSIVE case is marked by the Vc value -e’a-, or optionally -e’V-, where V has the value of the formative’s Vr affix (from 

Slot IV); if choosing the latter value for Vc, then the formative’s Vr affix can be deleted from Slot IV if it is in word-initial position. 

The ASSESSIVE specifies the unit of time by which a contextual ratio of measurement is created, corresponding to English ‘by’ or 

‘per.’ Examples would be My lawyer charges by the minute, He publishes several books each year, The clown drove the fun-mobile 

at 90 miles per hour. 

4.6.3 CNR The Concursive Case 

The CONCURSIVE case is marked by the Vc value -i’a-, or optionally -i’V-, where V has the value of the formative’s Vr affix (from 


The CONCURSIVE serves as a “temporal locative” signifying the beginning and ending boundaries of time during or at which an act, 

state, or event occurs, the whole of which being considered a single contextual situation. Examples of usage would be He prays during 

lunch, She studied hard last night, I won’t visit until then (i.e., during that period in time). 

4.6.4 ACS The Accessive Case 

The ACCESSIVE case is marked by the Vc value -o’a-, or optionally -o’V-, where V has the value of the formative’s Vr affix (from 


The ACCESSIVE is similar to the CONCURSIVE, except that the time identified is specific to a single moment or a brief, highly 

delimited period seen in context as one moment, i.e., the point in time at which something occurs. Examples of usage would be Dinner 

will be served at sunset; When (i.e., at the moment that) you hear his voice, call in the clowns; Upon impact, both cars were 

accelerating. 

4.6.5 DFF The Diffusive Case 

The DIFFUSIVE case is marked by the Vc value -u’a-, or optionally -u’V-, where V has the value of the formative’s Vr affix (from 


The DIFFUSIVE is yet another temporal locative similar to the CONCURSIVE, except that the time period identified does not have 

explicit boundaries, only being centered on the period identified by the noun. It is best expressed by the English phrase ‘during the time 

surrounding….’ Examples of usage would be Most cars had tail fins in those days; I was abroad during that era; At the time of his 

death, the number of clowns was increasing; Over the past several seasons, your talent has matured.

4.6.6 PER The Periodic Case 

The PERIODIC case is marked by the Vc value -ö’a-, or optionally -ö’V-, where V has the value of the formative’s Vr affix (from 


The PERIODIC identifies the span of time at some point(s) during which, an act, condition, or event occurs. This case should be 

distinguished from the CONCURSIVE above, in that the CONCURSIVE signifies a contextually single holistic event, whereas the 

PERIODIC specifies a time frame in which separate events, repetitions, or durationally extended acts or states take place. Examples 

would be He wrote the novel in six months, These clowns can corrupt your child within a few days, The woman has been ill a lot 

this year, For the last several concerts, my voice has been deteriorating. 

4.6.7 PRO The Prolapsive Case 

The PROLAPSIVE case is marked by the Vc value -ü’a- (or -ëu’a- if the preceding Cr stem ends in -w or -y). Optionally the Vc 

value can be -ü’V- (or -ëu’V- if the preceding Cr stem ends in -w or -y), where V has the value of the formative’s Vr affix (from Slot 

IV); if choosing the latter value for Vc, then the formative’s Vr affix can be deleted from Slot IV if it is in word-initial position. 

The PROLAPSIVE signifies the duration of an act, condition, or event, i.e., how long it takes or lasts. This case should be 

distinguished from the PERIODIC above, in that the PROLAPSIVE specifies the actual duration of the act, condition, or event, 

whereas the PERIODIC merely specifies a contextual span of time at some point(s) during which, an act, condition, or event occurs. 

Examples would be He prayed through lunch, While he was dying, the number of clowns increased, It rained all night, It took 

three days for the fever to break, She sang for an hour. 

4.6.8 PCV The Precursive Case 

The PRECURSIVE case is marked by the Vc value -ai’a-, or optionally -ai’V-, where V has the value of the formative’s Vr affix 


position. 

The PRECURSIVE identifies a point in time prior to which an act, condition, or event occurs. Examples would be This situation 

occurred before the war, It rained prior to his appearance, There will be a presentation preceding the banquet.

4.6.9 PCR The Postcursive Case 

The POSTCURSIVE case is marked by the Vc value -ei’a-, or optionally -ei’V-, where V has the value of the formative’s Vr affix 


position. 

The POSTCURSIVE identifies a point in time after which an act, condition, or event occurs. Examples would be This situation 

occurred after the war, It rained subsequent to his appearance, There will be a presentation following the banquet. 

4.6.10 ELP The Elapsive Case 

The ELAPSIVE case is marked by the Vc value -ui’a-, or optionally -ui’V-, where V has the value of the formative’s Vr affix (from 


The ELAPSIVE identifies the amount of time that has passed between the contextual present and the time of the act, condition, or 

event being spoken of. It corresponds to English ‘…ago.’ Examples would be Four years ago I was a student; Going back three 

generations, women could not even vote. 

4.6.11 ALP The Allapsive Case 

The ALLAPSIVE case is marked by the Vc value -oi’a-, or optionally -oi’V-, where V has the value of the formative’s Vr affix (from 


The ALLAPSIVE identifies the amount of time that expected to pass between the contextual present and the time of a future act, 

condition, or event. Examples would be Four years from now, I will be a student; Looking ahead three generations, clowns will 

rule the world; I will be home in three days; Little did he know that two months later he’d be a rich man. 

4.6.12 INP The Interpolative Case 

The INTERPOLATIVE case is marked by the Vc value -ëi’a-, or optionally -ëi’V-, where V has the value of the formative’s Vr affix 


position. 

The INTERPOLATIVE is used within the context of repetitive or iterative acts, states, and events and signifies the duration of each 

repetition. Examples of usage are We heard several five-second snippets of music; Between lightning bursts were intervals of several 

seconds; She gets recurring migraines, each lasting hours. 

4.6.13 EPS The Episodic Case 

The EPISODIC case is marked by the Vc value -au’a-, or optionally -au’V-, where V has the value of the formative’s Vr affix (from 


The EPISODIC identifies a contextually recurring time-period. Examples of usage are The man talks with his mother every three days; 

Each year, I travel to the Clown Planet; He works nights; By day, she is an artisan; The clowns visit us on Sundays.

4.6.14 PLM The Prolimitive Case 

The PROLIMITIVE case is marked by the Vc value -eu’a-, or optionally -eu’V-, where V has the value of the formative’s Vr affix 


position. 

The PROLIMITIVE defines a point in time which signifies a temporal limit to further contextual activity, i.e., the time by which some 

act, state, or event occurs. Examples of usage would be By the time of your graduation, I want you out of the house; Please be on 

board by midnight; By the time of the raid, there was nothing left to steal. 

4.6.15 LIM The Limitative Case 

The LIMITATIVE case is marked by the Vc value -iu’a-, or optionally -iu’V-, where V has the value of the formative’s Vr affix 


position. 

The LIMITATIVE signifies a event culminating an anticipatory context. It translates the English expression ‘in time for.’ Examples of 

usage are He arrived in time for dinner, Be inside the Big Tent in time for the clowns. 

4.6.16 Examples of Temporal Cases in Use 

ţkoi’al żial 

STA-‘three’-ALP-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/UNIIFL STA-‘day (24-hr. period)’-PAR-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/UNI-IFL 

‘three days from now’ LISTEN 

qô teu’at’ 

ma-ATT STA-‘life’-PLM-NRM/TRM/M/CSL/UNI-IFL 

‘by the time of his death’ LISTEN 

llau’atļuarl 

STA-‘one’-EPS-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/DCT-CAL 2/1-IFL 

‘on Sundays’ LISTEN 

Igvarsukt tu ţkü’al żial. 

DYN-‘article of clothing’-NRM/PRX/M/CSL/AGG-DEF 1/9-IFL 1m-IND STA-‘three’-PRO-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/UNI-IFL 

IFL-‘day (24-hr. period)’-PAR-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/UNI 

‘I’ve been (deliberately) wearing these clothes for three days.’ LISTEN 

žô c h ei’as

_____ 

1m+2u+ua-ATT STA-‘grief’-PCR-NRM/PRX/M/CSL/UNI-IFL 

‘after our period of grief’ LISTEN 

4.7 THE SPATIAL CASES 

As noted previously, prepositions do not exist in Ithkuil. While various non-Indo-European languages such as Finnish, Hungarian, 

Basque and the North Caucasian languages accomplish the equivalent of prepositional relationships using noun cases, such relationships 

are usually accomplished in Ithkuil via verbal formatives (e.g., a verb translatable as ‘to be inside of’ instead of a preposition ‘inside 

of’). Nevertheless, there are six cases corresponding to certain types of spatial relationships. These are the LOCATIVE, 

ORIENTATIVE, PROCURSIVE, ALLATIVE, ABLATIVE, and NAVIGATIVE. 

Also: see Section 4.5.25 above regarding the use of the CORRELATIVE case in sentences involving spatial direction or orientation. 

Following are explanations of the function and usage of each case. Actual Ithkuil examples of these cases in use are provided in Sec. 

4.7.7. 

4.7.1 LOC The Locative Case 

The LOCATIVE case is marked by the Vc value -â’a-, or optionally -â’V-, where V has the value of the formative’s Vr affix (from 


The LOCATIVE signifies general static position in the same contextual place as the specified location, translatable by many English 

prepositions such as ‘at,’ ‘in,’ ‘on,’ or ‘by,’ depending on the context, e.g., in that building, by the wall, on the street, at my house. 

4.7.2 ORI The Orientative Case 

The ORIENTATIVE case is marked by the Vc value -ê’a-, or optionally -ê’V-, where V has the value of the formative’s Vr affix 


position. 

The ORIENTATIVE identifies the noun (usually a subcomponent or body part) which serves as the forward “end” of a spatially 

orientated axis aligned to a vector of motion. This is translatable into English using elements such as ‘-ward(s)’ or ‘-first’ in conjunction 

with portions of objects in a spatio-orientational context, e.g., He jumped in feet-first, The car rolled backward. The ORIENTATIVE 

allows for the extension of this concept to contexts which seem awkward in English translation, e.g., He walked “butt-ward” down the 

street (i.e., backward with his butt protruding frontwards, leading the way). 

4.7.3 PSV The Procursive Case 

The PROCURSIVE case is marked by the Vc value -ô’a-, or optionally -ô’V-, where V has the value of the formative’s Vr affix 


position. 

The PROCURSIVE identifies a noun (often a subcomponent or body part) which serves as the orientational reference point, 

interactional surface or interface relative to the direction of interaction with, or position in space of, a second noun. This second noun 

usually appears in the ALLATIVE case (see below). Examples of use would be They collided sideways, She turned her back on him, 

The chair “faced” the doorway (i.e., The chair stood with it’s seat and back aligned toward the doorway). 

4.7.4 ALL The Allative Case 

The ALLATIVE case is marked by either the Vc value -î’a- or -û’a-; if the preceding Cr stem ends in -w, the Vc value is -î’V-, 

whereas if the preceding Cr stem ends in -y, the Vc value is -û’V-; for other Cr stems, either Vc value is permissible. Optionally the 

Vc value can be -î’V- or -û’V- (under the same rules for Cr stems ending in -w or -y), where V has the value of the formative’s Vr

affix (from Slot IV); if choosing the latter value for Vc, then the formative’s Vr affix can be deleted from Slot IV if it is in word-initial 

position. 

When used in the context of explicit or implied directional motion, the ALLATIVE signifies the direction of motion, translatable by ‘to’ 

or ‘toward(s)’ or the suffix ‘-ward(s)’ in English. Note that the ALLATIVE in no way implies that the object is intended as the final or 

intended destination or goal of the motion or movement, only the direction of the movement. Examples would be I wandered 

eastward, The little girl ran toward me, Throw the rock at that clown!, We headed for home. 

4.7.5 ABL The Ablative Case 

The ABLATIVE case is marked by the Vc value -ëu’a-, or optionally -ëu’V-, where V has the value of the formative’s Vr affix (from 

Slot IV); if choosing the latter value for Vc, then the formative’s Vr affix can be deleted from Slot IV if both phonotactically and 

morpho-phonologically permissible (i.e., if it’s deletion does not violate phonotactic rules (see Section 1.4) and does not cause 

confusion or ambiguity in parsing the various consonants and vowels of the formative into their respective morphemes (i.e., their 

grammatical components). 

When used in context of explicit or implied directional motion, the ABLATIVE signifies the general directional origin of movement 

away from or out of. It does not specify the actual point of origin or departure. Examples would be He came out of the east, She 

walked here from (the direction of) the river. 

When used in contexts where directional motion is not implied, the ABLATIVE signifies a reverse directional orientation of one noun 

relative to another, e.g., He faced away from me. 

4.7.6 NAV The Navigative Case 

The NAVIGATIVE case is marked by the Vc value -ou’a-, or optionally -ou’V-, where V has the value of the formative’s Vr affix 


position. 

The NAVIGATIVE identifies the noun relative to whose vector, arc, or trajectory of motion an act, state, or event takes place. This is 

particularly important, as we will see in Section 10.3.3 that Ithkuil modes of positional reference are tied into the vectors of movement 

or the configurational axes of objects in the environment such as the sun or the length of a room. Example uses would be I looked 

down the street, We aligned it perpendicular to the path of the sun, He crossed the room diagonally (i.e., walked diagonally relative 

to the long axis of the room.) 

4.7.7 Examples of Spatial Cases in Use 


EXN 1/6 DYN-‘move.along.obliquely.vertical.path.between.two.points’-RPV/PRX/N/CSL/UNI-IFL STA-‘valley’-NAV-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/UNI-SCO 2/5-IFL 

The path through the canyon is steep. LISTEN 

Ičatosk êti prâ’ol 

DYN-‘physical.contact’-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/UNI-FRC 1/7-IFL GEN-1m-AFF STA-‘leg’-LOC-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/UNI-IFL 

‘I got hit on the leg. LISTEN 

Uajatiuçkims ţê’al qi. 

DYN-‘downward movement’-NRM/DEL/U/CSL/UNI-PHY 2/1-AGN 1/1-IFL STA-‘head’-ORI-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/UNI-IFL ma-AFF 

He fell headfirst to his death. LISTEN

4.8 THE VOCATIVE 

The VOCATIVE case is marked by the Vc value -ë-. The VOCATIVE is used when a nominal formative is used in direct address. In 

modern colloquial English, there is no vocative form, and the base form of the noun, name, or pronoun is used, usually followed by an 

exclamation point if the vocative functions as its own sentence, e.g., ‘Bill!’ or ‘Please come this way, sir’ or ‘Driver, take me to 53rd 

and 3rd.’ However, in archaic, poetic, formal or dramatic contexts, English utilizes the vocative particle "o", as in ‘O Time, thy 

pyramids!’ or ‘Why me, o lord?’ 

Proceed to Chapter 5: Verb Morphology >> 





















Chapter 6: More Verb Morphology 

6.1 Modality 6.3 Alternate Representation of Formative Categories 

6.2 Level 6.4 Incorporation and Format 

In this chapter, we examine two additional morphological categories — Modality and Level — as well as the morpho-syntactic 

process called Incorporation and its associated morphological category Format. Modality and Level are shown via a word separate 

from the formative itself, the verbal adjunct. The concept of adjuncts was previously discussed in Section 2.4 and 2.4.2. A verbal 

adjunct is placed either immediately preceding or immediately following a verbal formative, and provides additional morphological 

information about the formative. 

Note that, in addition to conveying Modality and Level, the verbal adjunct also has slots for conveying certain categories usually 

conveyed by the formative, specifically Valence, Phase, Sanction, Illocution, Aspect, Mood, Bias, and Extension. Therefore, a verbal 

adjunct can be used to convey these other categories in order to decrease the number of syllables of the formative and facilitate 

pronunciation/euphony of the sentence as whole. This is discussed in Section 6.3. 

The structure of a verbal adjunct is as follows. Those slots which are exclusive to verbal adjuncts (i.e., not also found in the 

formative) are Slots B and D: 

A B C D E F G H 

(((CL) Ve) Cv) Vm) Cs (Vs (Cb)) [tone] 

Valence Level Phase + 

Saction + 

Illocution 

Modality Aspect Aspect 

Bias Extension 

The Cs aspectual infix in Slot E is mandatory, even if it carries a null value (i.e., no aspect). The Cs consonantal affix will always 

contain one of the specialized dyssyllabic geminate clusters described in Section 1.2.1.3, written n-n, m-m, l-l, r-r, etc. as well as 

various other syllabic consonant clusters, e.g., l-m, l-n, r-m, r-n, and r-ň. The second member of the dyssyllabic consonant cluster 

always carries the word stress and tone in a verbal adjunct. It is the appearance of such a dyssyllabic geminate cluster as the last, or 

second-to-last consonantal form in the word that identifies the word to readers/listeners as a verbal adjunct. 

The default tone of a verbal adjunct is falling. However, variations in the tone of a verbal adjunct can be used to convey the 

accompanying formative’s Extension category, in order to simplify the phonetic structure of the Formative's Ca affix (see Chapter 3) 

for purposes of euphony and ease of pronunciation. This is discussed in Section 6.3.5 below. 

For an example of a verbal adjunct, the example verb at the beginning of Chapter 5 (Section 5.0) is repeated here:

hruštrul-lyö’ň ˉhnič h âçtàu’watkwöu 

The first word of this two-word phrase is the adjunct, analyzable as follows: 


hr u štr u l-ly ö ’ň [falling tone] 

DEMONSTRATIVE 

valence 

6.1 MODALITY 

SURPASSIVE- 

RELATIVE level 

RECURRENT phase 

REFUTATIVE sanction 

DIRECTIVE illocution 

DESIDERATIVE 

modality 

REGRESSIVE 

aspect 

IMMINENT 

aspect 

COINCIDENTAL 

bias 

[default 

EXTENSION] 

Modality corresponds roughly to the function of both modal verbs in Western languages (e.g., can, may, must, should, etc.) as well as 

those verbs which modify a following verb such as to want to, to choose to, to need to, to offer to, to demand that, etc. However, in 

Ithkuil, the effect of such modifications on a verb causes a fundamental change in the cognitive interpretation of the verb, usually 

resulting in a modification of both the Essence (see Sec. 3.5) and the Perspective (see Sec. 3.3) of the verb, as well as invoking the use 

of the ACTIVATIVE case to mark the “subject” noun (see Sec. 4.3.9). The nature of these modifications is explained as follows: As 

we saw in Sections 3.5 and 4.3.9, it is possible in human language to speak about events that are either unreal, as-yet-unrealized, or 

alternative versions of reality. Specifically, nouns and verbs can make reference to hypothetical representations of real-world 

counterparts from within an “alternative mental space” created psychologically (and implied linguistically). This alternative mental 

space is essentially the psychological realm of potential and imagination. It is seen, for example, in the following sentences. 

1) You must come home at once. 

2) That girl can sing better than anybody. 

3) Our troops should attack at dawn. 

4) Mother needs you to come with her. 

5) The teacher requests that I dance for you. 

6) The man believes clowns are dangerous. 

Each of the above sentences describe potential or unreal events, not actual real-world happenings that are occurring or have occurred. 

In Sentence (1) no one has yet come home, in Sentence (2) the girl may choose never to sing again, Sentence (3) does not tell us 

whether any attack will actually occur, Sentence (4) does not indicate whether you will come or not, Sentence (5) does not indicate 

whether I will dance, nor does Sentence (6) establish whether or not clowns are, in fact, dangerous.Because the clauses following the 

verbs must, can, should, need, request, believe, in the above sentences all refer to unrealized, imagined, or hypothetical events, the 

nouns and verbs within those clauses would be marked in the ABSTRACT perspective (see Sec. 3.3) and the REPRESENTATIVE 

essence (see Sec. 3.5). The “subject” nouns which invoke the event (the nouns you, girl, troops, mother, teacher, and man in the six 

sentences above) would be marked in the ACTIVATIVE case (see Sec. 4.3.9). It should be noted that not all Ithkuil modalities 

necessarily invoke hypothetical or unrealized events. For example, in the sentence She chose to move to Australia, the verb chose 

signals that the following clause is spoken of abstractly (i.e., it is the act of choice that is being talked about, not the move itself), but 

nevertheless refers to an actual event (i.e., she did, in fact, move to Australia). Thus, the move to Australia clause would be marked in 

the ABSTRACT perspective but would not be marked in the REPRESENTATIVE essence. Thus, the requirement that an Ithkuil 

modality construction invoke modifications in the perspective, essence and case of the associated nouns and verbs is entirely dependent 

on the semantics and cognitive intent of the utterance. 

There are 30 modalities in Ithkuil. Modality is marked by the Vm vocalic affix in Slot D of a verbal adjunct. 

A B C D E F G 

(((CL) Ve) Cv) Vm) Cs (Vs (Cb)) 


Sactions + 

Illocutions 

Modality Aspect Aspect Bias

The 30 modalities and their respective Vm affixes are shown in Table 16 below. The function of each modality is described in the subsections 

following the table. 

Table 16: Vm Modality Affixes 

1Label Name Vm-affix 

Label Name Vm-affix 

-- (no modality) a 15 ITV Intentive iu 

1 DES Desiderative u 16 ANT Anticipative au 

2 ASP Aspirative e 17 DSP Dispositive eu 

3 EPC Expectative o 18 PRE Preparative ou 

4 CRD Credential i 19 NEC Necessitative ae 

5 REQ Requisitive ö 20 DCV Decisive ia / ua 

6 EXH Exhortative î / û 21 PTV Proclivitive ie / ue 

7 OPR Opportunitive â 22 VOL Voluntative io / uo 

8 CPC Capacitative ê 23 ACC Accordative iö / uö 

9 PRM Permissive ô 24 ICL Inclinative ea 

10 PTN Potential ü / oe 25 CML Compulsive oa 

11 CLS Compulsory ai 26 DVR Divertive öi / ië 

12 OBG Obligative ei 27 DVT Devotive öu / uë 

13 IMS Impositive ui 28 PFT Preferential eo 

14 ADV Advocative oi 29 IPS Impressional ëi 

6.1.1 DES The Desiderative 

30 PMS Promissory ëu 

The DESIDERATIVE more or less corresponds to English constructions expressing desire, e.g., to want to, to desire that, etc. as in 

The teacher wants the students to study hard. 

6.1.2 ASP The Aspirative 

The ASPIRATIVE corresponds to English constructions expressing wishing or hoping, e.g., to wish that, to hope that, etc. 

6.1.3 EPC The Expectative 

The EXPECTATIVE corresponds to English constructions expressing expectation, as in He expected her to be beautiful, or I imagine 

he’s reached his destination. 

6.1.4 CRD The Credential 

The CREDENTIAL corresponds to English constructions expressing belief, as in I think she has two sons, or We believe the earth to 

be round. Note that it does not correspond to English expressions of opinion, i.e., it would not be used in translating sentences such as 

I think she’s pretty.

6.1.5 REQ The Requisitive 

The REQUISITIVE corresponds to English constructions expressing requests, as in I request his presence at the banquet, or I’d like 

you to visit your father. 

6.1.6 EXH The Exhortative 

The EXHORTATIVE corresponds to English expressions of exhortation or demand, as in I demand you return my book or Let the 

gates be opened! 

6.1.7 OPR The Opportunitive 

The OPPORTUNITIVE corresponds to the English modal verb can/could/be able where it means ‘have the opportunity to,’ as in Can 

we pass by our old house when we visit town? or Because of the delay, she was able to go to the museum after all. 

6.1.8 CPC The Capacitative 

The CAPACITATIVE corresponds to the English modal verb can/could/be able where it means ‘have the ability or capacity to,’ as in 

Can she sing opera? or He could run like the wind. Note that it would also be used when translating English generic statements 

implying ability or capacity as in He speaks French like a native [i.e., the sentence does not imply he is speaking French at the 

moment, but rather his general ability to do so]. 

6.1.9 PRM The Permissive 

The PERMISSIVE corresponds to the English modal verbs can/could/be able or may/might where they mean ‘be permitted to,’ as in 

Very well, you can have ice cream for dessert; or Could I talk to you? 

6.1.10 PTN The Potential 

The POTENTIAL corresponds to the English modal verb can/could/be able where it means ‘have the potential to or the possibility of,’ 

as in Remember it can flood suddenly in this area, or That man could fly into rages for no reason. It is also used when translating 

generic statements implying potential or possibility, as in It rains unpredictably in the Northwest. 

6.1.11 CLS The Compulsory 

The COMPULSORY corresponds to the English modal verbs must or have to/had to in their meaning of compulsory obligation, as in 

You must get up now, or I had to attend the ceremony. 

6.1.12 OBG The Obligative 

The OBLIGATIVE corresponds to the English modal verbs should, ought to, or other phrases expressing optional but preferential 

obligation, as in You ought to see a dentist, I should tell her how I feel, or It would be best if the children stayed away from clowns. 

6.1.13 IMS The Impositive

The IMPOSITIVE corresponds to English expressions such as be supposed to, be expected to, or be to which impose an expectation 

upon a party, as in You’re supposed to smile when introduced, or He is to give a speech at the banquet. 

6.1.14 ADV The Advocative 

The ADVOCATIVE corresponds to English expressions such as suggest that or propose that which advocate a position, as in I suggest 

you study harder or They proposed that the clowns take their circus tent elsewhere. 

6.1.15 ITV The Intentive 

The INTENTIVE corresponds to English expressions such as intend to, plan on or shall which convey an intention, as in The girls 

plan on travelling to Europe, or I shall see to it. 

6.1.16 ANT The Anticipative 

The ANTICIPATIVE corresponds to English expressions such as to look forward to or to eagerly await which convey positive 

anticipation, as in We look forward to the clowns coming to town. 

6.1.17 DSP The Dispositive 

The DISPOSITIVE corresponds to the English expression to be willing to, conveying willingness as in He is willing to give his life to 

defeat the clowns. 

6.1.18 PRE The Preparative 

The PREPARATIVE corresponds to the English expressions be ready to or be prepared to, indicating readiness, as in She’s ready to 

host the party, or They are prepared to endure harsh weather. 

6.1.19 NEC The Necessitative 

The NECESSITATIVE corresponds to the English expressions need to or be necessary to, indicating necessity, as in You need to do 

something about those clowns in the yard, or It was necessary to inform her about the atrocities. 

6.1.20 DCV The Decisive 

The DECISIVE corresponds to English expressions such as decide to or choose to, indicating choice, as in Peter decided to cook 

breakfast or Colleen chose to visit the clowns. 

6.1.21 PTV The Proclivitive 

The PROCLIVITIVE corresponds to English expressions such as tend to, be apt to, or be prone to, indicating tendency, as in The 

wolverine tended to eat platypus eggs, or Boris is apt to make a fool of himself when meeting women. 

6.1.22 VOL The Voluntative

The VOLUNTATIVE corresponds to English expressions such as offer to or volunteer to, indicating an act of offering as in The 

foreman offered to put poison in my beer, or Mrs. Blathermot volunteered to bake artichoke pie for the Open House event. 

6.1.23 ACC The Accordative 

The ACCORDATIVE corresponds to the English expression agree to, as in Constance agreed to perform her go-go number at the 

talent show. 

6.1.24 ICL The Inclinative 

The INCLINATIVE corresponds to English expressions such as to feel like or be up for, indicating an impulsive desire, as in He’s up 

for going to the shindig, or Molly felt like eating the entire chocolate cake. 

6.1.25 CML The Compulsive 

The COMPULSIVE corresponds to English expressions such as feel driven to or feel a need to, indicating compulsion, as in Jack feels 

driven to hunt wolverines, or My hairdresser feels a need to date bikers. It is marked by addition of the suffix -uï to a conflational or 

valence adjunct. 

6.1.26 DVR The Divertive 

The DIVERTIVE corresponds to English expressions such as like to, or enjoy, conveying simple likes and pasttimes as in Boys like to 

dream about cars, or My salamander enjoyed biting people on their rump. 

6.1.27 DVT The Devotive 

The DEVOTIVE corresponds to English expressions such as be devoted to or be committed to, indicating devotion as in Charlotte is 

committed to being the best seamstress in town, or They were devoted to rooting for the losing team. 

6.1.28 PFT The Preferential 

The PREFERENTIAL corresponds to English expressions such as prefer, or would rather that, indicating preference as in He’d rather 

work by himself, or Muldane prefers that his cats eat live food. 

6.1.29 IPS The Impressional 

The IMPRESSIONAL corresponds to English expressions such as have an impression that, have a hunch that, or feel that, indicating 

a subjective belief or impression as in I’ve a hunch that the porter is an alcoholic, or Betty feels her husband flirts too much with the 

secretarial pool. 

6.1.30 PMS The Promissory 

The PROMISSORY corresponds to English expressions such as promise, or swear that, indicating a self-imposed obligation as in She 

promised that her son would visit my daughter, or Hargreaves swears that the fish from that lake are sentient.

6.1.31 Examples of Modality in Use 

Wëtöin-n ailtac qeiwi. 

RCP-PPS/CTX/ASR-DVR-FAC DYN-‘write.message’-NRM/DEL/A/CSL/UNI-IFL ma-ACT-CSL-NRM/DPX 

The two of them like writing to each other. 

Hëtiun-n ivogwařļokkai ţei. 

PRL-ITV-FAC DYN-[inc.stem: ‘recreation.leisure’]-‘ambulate’-NRM-DEL/M/CSL/CPN-TPP 1/7-ISR 1+ma-ACT 

She and I are planning on taking a walk later on. 

On-n amnadya osmuil. 

EPC-FAC STA-‘awe’-RPV/PRX/A/CSL/UNI-IFL IFL-‘valley’-DER-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/UNI 

The valley is expected to be awe-inspiring. 

Ur-rwu ivadya âbyeil. 

DES-FAC/RSM-RTR DYN-‘play’-RPV/PRX/A/CSL/UNI-IFL STA-‘dog’-ACT-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/UNI-IFL 

The dog wanted to play some more. 

6.2 LEVEL 

Level corresponds roughly to what is known as degree of comparison in other languages. Many languages morphologically indicate 

degrees of comparison as exemplified by the English suffixes -er and -est seen in great-greater-greatest, or alternately with the adverbs 

more and most, as well as their negative counterparts less and least. The Ithkuil comparison schema is much more complex than those 

found in natural languages and is designed to eliminate various ambiguities that arise from those simpler schemata, as discussed below. 

6.2.1 Ambiguity and Under-specification in Natural Languages 

The comparison schemata of natural languages tend to grossly under-specify the exact semantic nature of the comparison. A clear case 

of such under-specification can be seen in an English example sentence such as Jane is healthier. This sentence can mean any of the 

following: 

(a) Jane's state of health has improved, although she is still unwell. 

(b) Jane's state of health has improved so that now she is well (whereas before she was unwell). 

(c) Jane's state of health is even better than it previously was (i.e., she was healthy before, but is even healthier now). 

(d) Jane's state of health is not as poor as someone else's state of health (although neither Jane nor the other person are 

well). 

(e) Jane's state of health is better than someone else's state of health, so that Jane can be considered healthy while the 

other is unwell. 

(f) Jane's state of health is better than someone else's state of health, even though both can be considered healthy. 

This ambiguity is not alleviated even when we specify a party to which Jane's health is being compared as in Jane is healthier than 

Sue, which can mean:

(a) Jane's state of health is not as poor as Sue's although both are unwell. 

(b) Jane's state of health is better than Sue's, so that Jane can be considered well while Sue is unwell. 

(c) Both Jane and Sue are healthy, but Jane's state of health is even better than Sue's. 

(d) Jane's state of health is not as poor as Sue's (although neither Jane nor the other person are well). 

This sort of ambiguity allows odd-sounding sentences such as Snow is warmer (e.g., than liquid nitrogen) to be perfectly grammatical. 

What is important to note about the above analysis is that the words healthier or warmer do not indicate in the actual context of usage 

whether a person is actually healthy or whether snow is actually warm. Rather English -er and -est (and more and most) as well as 

their negative counterparts (less and least) merely serve to indicate on a relative scale a relationship between two entities being 

compared (or where only one party is mentioned, in relationship to some unspecified standard or expectation). Additional statements 

are needed to clarify the actual context to determine where the entities fall on the quantitative "spectrum" or range of the particular 

quality or attribute pair in question, e.g., unhealthy healthy. 

The comparison scheme of Ithkuil has been designed to inherently specify such relative comparison while simultaneously specifying 

placement within the qualitative spectrum, so that ambiguity as to whether “healthier” means the person is well or unwell is eliminated. 

6.2.2 Relative Versus Absolute Comparison 

An additional aspect of Ithkuil comparison is the concept of relative comparison versus absolute comparison. This is an important 

concept which impacts the truth value of a statement based upon context. Specifically, relative comparison allows for statements to be 

true within the narrow confines of the context-at-hand, whereas absolute comparison allows for statements to be true without reference 

to any specific context. This can be illustrated by the following examples. 

(a) Sirius is the brightest star in the night sky. 

(b) That highway is the fastest way into town. 

Both of these sentences are true in certain pragmatic contexts and not true in others. For example, while Sirius is the most luminous 

star as seen from Earth, this is merely due to its relative nearness to Earth (8.4 light years) as compared to most other stars. There are 

thousands of known stars which are larger (and inherently more luminous) than Sirius but are much further away from Earth. So 

Sentence (a) is true in a relative context but false in an absolute context. Similarly the highway in Sentence (b) may be the fastest way 

in most conditions, but if there is a traffic jam or an accident blocking the highway, or if one has access to a private helicopter, then the 

statement would be false. Therefore, it is only true in a narrow context determined by the pragmatics of the moment it is spoken. 

Ithkuil allows speakers to specify whether a comparison is to be interpreted within the context-at-hand (relative comparison) or as an 

absolute statement irrespective of the context-at-hand. 

6.2.3 Comparison Operators (Levels) 

There are nine comparison operators for the Ithkuil verb, called Levels, which specify the comparative relationship involved, e.g., same 

as, more than, less than, etc. These levels are marked by a word-initial vocalic prefix to the verb, Ve. Each prefix comes in two 

varieties, to distinguish between relative versus absolute comparison. Additionally there is an unmarked default zero-level in which no 

comparison is being made). The presence of a Ve prefix in Slot B of the verbal adjunct requires Slots C And D to be filled by their 

respective affixes as well. 




Sanction + 

Illocution 



NOTE: As an alternative to using Ve, Level can also be conveyed by the suffixes -V 1mļ and -V 2mļ added to the formative (placed in 

Slot XI), explained in Section 7.4.13 - LVL suffix.

In interpreting the meaning of the various Levels, the terms used in the formulas refer to the following X-M-(Y) model, where M 

represents a verb or an adjectival description, X is the "subject" of the verb, and Y is the standard being compared to. 

Sue 

dances as well as / 

dances better than / 

dances worse than 

etc. 

Mary 

OR 

Sue 

is as smart 

is smarter than 

is less smart than 

etc. 

X M (Y) X M (Y) 

Note that the meaning of each Level allows for an interpretation in which there is no Y term so that the standard of comparison is a 

previous state of X, e.g., the difference between Sue dances better than Mary versus Sue dances better than before. 

Table 17: Ve Level prefixes 

Label Name of Level RELATIVE ABSOLUTE 

VL Prefix Meaning 

EQU EQUATIVE a- â- X M ’s the same as Y ( or as before) / X is as M as Y ( or as before) 

SUR SURPASSIVE u- û / î- X M ’s more than Y ( or than before) / X is more M than Y ( or than before) 

DFC DEFICIENT i- ö- X M ’s less than Y ( or than before) / X is less M than Y ( or than before) 

OPT OPTIMAL o- ô- X M ’s at its most possible / X is at its most M possible 

MIN MINIMAL e- ê- X M ’s at its least possible / X is at its least M possible 

SPL SUPERLATIVE ai- au- X M ’s at its most yet / X is at its most M yet 

IFR INFERIOR ui- iu- X M ’s at its least yet / X is at its least M yet 

SPQ SUPEREQUATIVE ei- eu- X M ’s more than or = to Y ( or than or equal to before) / X is more M than or = to Y / before 

SBE SUBEQUATIVE oi- ou- X M ’s less than or = to Y ( or than or equal to before) / X is less M than or = to Y / before 

Note that in verbal adjuncts where Valence is marked by a word-initial CL consonantal prefix in Slot A (see Sec. 6.3.4), but there is no 

Level, the neutral value of Ve in Slot B is ë. 

6.2.4 The Comparison Cases 

In addition to Level, there are 24 specialized noun cases which identify the exact nature of the comparison in relation to the quantitative 

spectrum, range, or standard for the particular attribute, quality, or act in question. These cases are applied to the noun to which 

something is compared, i.e., the term Y in the above formulas. So, for example, in the Ithkuil translation of the sentence Jane is 

healthier than her sister, the equivalent to is healthier would be shown by a Level prefix meaning "more than" applied to a formative 

meaning "manifesting a state of health," while the phrase corresponding to than her sister would be the word sister marked for a case 

which specifies whether the other noun to which the sister is being compared (i.e., Jane) is now well, or is nevertheless still unhealthy, 

etc. 

It is primarily through the use of these specialized comparison cases that the ambiguities discussed above in Sec. 6.2.1 are eliminated. 

The meaning of each case as applied to Y, in terms of the X-M-Y formula discussed above, would be: 

"in comparison to Y, where X Q in terms of reference standard S" 

where Q indicates the change (or lack thereof) in X over time and S indicates an external standard of comparison for M. An example of 

this formula in use would be where the term Q = "was previously less M than Y" and S = "although X (still) isn't very M compared to 

some external standard or expectation of M-ness" applied to the sentence Jane is healthier than Sue, now disambiguated to mean that 

Mary

Jane, while being in a healthier stated than Sue, still isn't very healthy. 

There are eight possible values for Q and three possible values for S, rendering a total of 24 possible Q + S combinations. It is these 24 

possible Q + S combinations that are rendered as the Comparison cases in Ithkuil. The eight possible values for Q are as follows: 

1 was previously less M (or M ’d less) than Y 

2 was previously more M (or M ’d more) than Y 

3 is still less M (or M ’s less) than Y 

4 is still more M (or M ’s more) than Y 

5 is now less M (or M ’s less) than Y 

6 is now more M (or M ’s more) than Y 

7 was previously as M (or M ’d as much) as Y 

8 where X ’s previous state of M-ness (or level of M-ing) relative to Y is unknown, 

inapplicable or irrelevant 

The three possible values for S are as follows: 

A although X (still) isn’t very M compared to some external standard or expectation of M-ness 

B where X meets/exceeds some some external standard or expectation of M-ness and Y does 

not 

C where both X and Y meet/exceed some external standard or expectation of M-ness, where 

previously only Y met/exceeded it 

The eight values of Q combine with the three values of S to give the specific meanings of the 24 comparison cases as shown below in 

Table 18. As with the 72 primary cases (see Chapter 4) the 24 comparison cases are shown by the Vc infix to the formative in Slot 

VIII. 

Table 18: The 24 Comparison Cases (as per the formula: [X] [M] [in comparison to Y] where X Q in terms of reference standard S) 

Mutation 

Series 

Label Name of Case Vc 

73 CMP1A COMPARATIVE 

1A 


2A 


3A 


4A 


5A 


6A 


7A 


8A 

81 CMP1B COMPARATIVE 

1B 


2B 


3B 


4B 


5B 

Value of Q 

(change in X over time) 

aì where X was previously less M (or M ’d less) than Y 

eì where X was previously more M (or M ’d more) than Y 

oì where X is still less M (or M ’s less) than Y 

uì where X is still more M (or M ’s more) than Y 

aù where X is now less M (or M ’s less) than Y 

eù where X is now more M (or M ’s more) than Y 

où where X was previously as M (or M ’d as much) as Y 

iù where X ’s previous state of M-ness (or level of M-ing) 

relative to Y is unknown, inapplicable or irrelevant 

ao where X was previously less M (or M ’d less) than Y 

aü where X was previously more M (or M ’d more) than Y 

eü where X is still less M (or M ’s less) than Y 

oü where X is still more M (or M ’s more) than Y 

ëì where X is now less M (or M ’s less) than Y 

Value of S 

(Comparison to external standard) 

although X (or X and Y) (still) isn’t/aren't very M 

compared to some external standard or expectation 

of M-ness 

and where X (or Y) meets/exceeds some some 

extrenal standard or expectation of M-ness and Y 

(or X) does not

86 

CMP6B COMPARATIVE 

6B 


7B 


8B 

89 CMP1C COMPARATIVE 

1C 


2C 


3C 


4C 


5C 


6C 


7C 


8C 

6.2.5 The COS Suffix 

öì where X is now more M (or M ’s more) than Y 

ëù where X was previously as M (or M ’d as much) as Y 

öù where X ’s previous state of M-ness (or level of M-ing) 


eai where X was previously less M (or M ’d less) than Y 

oai where X was previously more M (or M ’d more) than Y 

eau where X is still less M (or M ’s less) than Y 

oau where X is still more M (or M ’s more) than Y 

uai / 

iau 

uei / 

ieu 

uoi / 

iou 

uëi / 

iëu 

where X is now less M (or M ’s less) than Y 

where X is now more M (or M ’s more) than Y 

where X was previously as M (or M ’d as much) as Y 

where X ’s previous state of M-ness (or level of M-ing) 


and where both X and Y meet/exceed some 

external standard or expectation of M-ness, where 

previously only Y met/exceeded it 

Since Level affixes modify a verb directly, there is still a potential for ambiguity due to the fact that Levels and the Comparison cases 

specify the relationship between two entities being compared, but they do not specify the particular parameter of the term M. In other 

words, the verb "laugh" in the SURPASSIVE Level might be best translated as "out-laugh," as in Sam out-laughed George, but we still 

do not know if this means the laugh was louder, longer, or "harder." Therefore, verbs marked for Levels often take the COS suffix as 

well, to specify the parameters of the quality or act in question. This suffix is found in the list of derivational suffixes in Chapter 7, but 

is shown here as well, for the sake of convenience. (See Chapter 7 for an explanation of the nine degrees and three suffix-types 

associated with derivational suffixes). 

-V x ks COS Comparison Specifications 

1. “more”/“less” = extent/amount/volume 

2. “harder”/“weaker” = degree of intensity or effort 

3. “longer”/“shorter” = duration; time spent being/doing 

4. “better”/“worse” = quality / style 

5. “more efficiently”/“less efficiently” = efficiency / effort relative to outcome 

6. “greater”/“poorer” = relevant outcome / bottom-line result 

7. combo of 4, 5, and 6 

8. combo of 1, 2, and 3 

9. combo of 1 through 6 

6.2.6 Examples of Level and the Comparison Cases in Use 

(Note that in the morphological interlinear analysis below, the distinction between absolute versus relative Level is indicated by a small 

“a” versus a small “r” attached to the label/abbreviation for the particular Level.) 

Ulan-n oxassûg êqil ôqoìl. LISTEN 

SURr-ASR/CTX/IPU-FAC STA-‘have.eyesight’-NRM/PRX/M/CSL/DPX-FLS1/6-IFL STA-‘woman’-AFF-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/UNI-IFL STA-‘man’-CMP3A- 

NRM/DEL/M/CSL/UNI-IFL 

It is clear the woman’s eyesight has improved, but she still doesn’t see as well as the man, who doesn't see very well 

either.

Rril eglalaimļ byoail. LISTEN 

STA-‘cat’-AFF-NRMDEL/M/CSL/UNI-IFL STA-‘sickness/illness’-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/UNI-SPQa-IFL STA-‘dog’-CMP2C-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/UNI-IFL 

The cat is now at least as sick as the dog, if not more so, whereas previously only the dog was sick. 

6.3 ALTERNATE REPRESENTATION OF FORMATIVE CATEGORIES 

In Chapter 5 we discussed the verbal categories of Mood, Aspect, Bias, Phase, Sanction, Illocution, and Valence, and showed how 

each of these categories is manifested by various affixes within the structure of a formative. However, the structure of the verbal 

adjunct, discussed at the beginning of this chapter, allows for each of the aforementioned morphological categories to alternately be 

displayed via a verbal adjunct rather than a formative. This is often desirable for purposes of phonological euphony or to address the 

limitations of phonotactic constraints (see Section 1.4). The sub-sections below discuss the specifics on the alternate representations of 

these categories via a verbal adjunct. 

6.3.1 Alternate Representation of Mood and/or Aspect 

The categories of Mood and Aspect were previously discussed in Section 5.2 and Section 5.10 respectively. Mood is normally shown 

(along with Illocution) via the Ci+Vi infix to a formative in Slot IX, although it can alternately be shown along with Aspect via the Cs 

affix to a formative in Slot III. However, the use of the Cs affix in Slot III of a formative, unless required by the presence of affixes in 

Slots I or II, is generally undesirable as its presence adds two syllables to the length of the formative. Therefore, as an alternative, 

Aspect and/or Mood can be conveyed by the same Cs affix within a verbal adjunct in Slot E. This Cs affix is mandatory for all verbal 

adjunct. 

The second syllable of the Cs affix (i.e., the second member of one of the dyssyllabic consonant clusters l-l, m-m, n-n, ň-ň, r-r, l-m, 

l-n, r-m, r-n, and r-ň) always receives the syllabic stress and tone in a verbal adjunct. 




Saction + 

Illocution 



A second verbal aspect can be shown within a verbal adjunct utilizing the Vs affix in Slot F. Each of the 32 aspects, in addition to their 

consonantal Cs form, has a vocalic affixual form Vs, shown in the table below. 

Table 19: Values for Vs Aspectual Markers and Cs Aspect+Mood Markers 

Aspect Vs 

MOOD 

FAC SUB ASM SPC COU HYP IPL ASC 

(none) a n-n m-m l-l r-r ň-ň r-n l-ň r-ň 

1 RTR RETROSPECTIVE u n-nr n-nt n-nt’ n-nd n-nt h n-nţ n-ndh n-nh

2 

PRS PROSPECTIVE 

e m-mr m-mp m-mp’ m-mb 

m-mp h 

m-mf m-mv m-mh 

3 HAB HABITUAL o l-lr l-lt l-lt’ l-ld l-lt h l-lţ l-ldh l-lh 

4 PRG PROGRESSIVE i r-rn r-rt r-rt’ r-rd r-rt h r-rţ r-rdh r-rh 

5 IMM IMMINENT ö ň-ňr ň-ňk ň-ňk’ ň-ňg ň-ňk h ň-ňx ň-ňq ň-ňh 

6 PCS PRECESSIVE î/û n-nw n-ntw n-nt’w n-ndw n-nt h w n-nţw n-ndhw n-nhw 

7 REG REGULATIVE â m-mw m-mpw m-mp’w m-mbw m-mp h w m-mfw m-mvw m-mhw 

8 EXP EXPERIENTIAL ê l-lw l-ltw l-lt’w l-ldw l-lt h w l-lţw l-lđw l-lhw 

9 RSM RESUMPTIVE ô r-rw r-rtw r-rt’w r-rdw r-rt h w r-rţw r-rdhw r-rhw 

10 CSS CESSATIVE ü/oe ň-ňw ň-ňkw ň-ňk’w ň-ňgw ň-ňk h w ň-ňxw ň-ňqw ň-ňhw 

11 RCS RECESSATIVE ai n-ny n-nty n-nt’y n-ndy n-nt h y n-nţy n-ndhy n-nç 

12 PAU PAUSAL ei m-my m-mpy m-mp’y m-mby m-mp h y m-mfy m-mvy m-mç 

13 RGR REGRESSIVE ui l-ly l-lty l-lt’y l-ldy l-lt h y l-lţy l-ldhy l-lç 

14 PCL PRECLUSIVE oi r-ry r-rty r-rt’y r-rdy r-rt h y r-rţy r-rdhy r-rç 

15 CNT CONTINUATIVE iu n-ns n-nz n-nsw n-nzw n-nc’ n-nc h n-nc’w n-nc h w 

16 ICS INCESSATIVE au m-ms m-mz m-msw m-mzw m-mc’ m-mc h m-mc’w m-mc h w 

17 PMP PREEMPTIVE eu ň-ňs ň-ňz ň-ňsw ň-ňzw ň-ňc’ ň-ňc h ň-ňc’w ň-ňc h w 

18 CLM CLIMACTIC ou l-ls l-lz l-lsw l-lzw l-lc’ l-lc h l-lc’w l-lc h ’w 

19 PTC PROTRACTIVE ae r-rs r-rz r-rsw r-rzw r-rc’ r-rc h r-rc’w r-rc h w 

20 TMP TEMPORARY ia/ua n-nš n-nž n-nšw n-nžw n-nč’ n-nč h n-nč’w n-nč h w 

21 MTV MOTIVE ie/ue m-mš m-mž m-mšw m-mžw m-mč’ m-mč h m-mč’w m-mč h w 

22 CSQ CONSEQUENTIAL io/uo ň-ňš ň-ňž ň-ňšw ň-ňžw ň-ňč’ ň-ňč h ň-ňč’w ň-ňč h w 

23 SQN SEQUENTIAL iù /uì l-lš l-lž l-lšw l-lžw l-lč’ l-lč h ’ l-lč’w l-lč h w

24 EPD EXPEDITIVE iö/uö r-rš r-rž r-ršw r-ržw r-rč’ r-rč h r-rč’w r-rč h w 

25 DCL DISCLUSIVE ea n-nļ m-mļ ň-ňļ n-ntļ m-mtļ ň-ňtļ l-ltļ r-rtļ 

26 CCL CONCLUSIVE oa l-lm l-lļ n-nl ň-ňm m-mř m-mt ň-ňt ň-ňn 

27 CUL CULMINATIVE eö r-rm r-rl m-ml m-mn r-mř m-mt’ ň-ňt’ ň-ňç 

28 IMD INTERMEDIATIVE öi/öa l-ln l-nļ l-lř n-nm ň-ňř m-mt h ň-ňt h ň-ňţ 

29 TRD TARDATIVE öu/öe l-nw l-ny l-lg l-lgw l-lx l-lxw l-lv l-lcw 

30 TNS TRANSITIONAL eo r-nw r-my r-rg r-rgw r-rx r-rxw r-rv r-rcw 

31 ITC INTERCOMMUTATIVE ëi l-mw l-my l-lb l-lbw l-lf l-lfw l-ňw l-lčw 

32 CSM CONSUMPTIVE ëu r-mw r-ny r-rb r-rbw r-rf r-rfw r-ňw r-rčw 

6.3.2 Alternate Representation of Bias 

Bias was previously discussed in Section 5.11, shown by the word-final Cb suffix to a formative. As an alternative, however, the same 

Cb suffix can instead be placed in word-final position on a verbal adjunct (in which case a Vs affix in Slot F becomes mandatory). The 

forms of Cb used in verbal adjunct are the same as those used with formatives, except that, unlike formatives, there is no preceding 

glottal stop. See Table 15 in Section 5.11.1 for the specific Cb suffix for each bias. 



Valences Level Phase + 

Saction + 

Illocution 

6.3.3 Alternate Represenation of Phase, Sanction, and Illocution 



The categories of Phase, Sanction, and Illocution were previously discussed in Sections 5.5, 5.6, and 5.3 respectively. In a formative, 

they are shown by a combination affix, Cv, placed in Slot V, or if an incorporated stem is present, in Slot I. Alternately, however, they 

may be shown by the same Cv affix in Slot C of a verbal adjunct (which entails the mandatory presence of a Vm modality infix in Slot 

D). The forms of Cv for a verbal adjunct are the same as those for formatives, shown in Tables 11(a) through (f) in Section 5.5. 




Saction + 

Illocution 


Bias Extension

6.3.4 Alternate Representation of Valence 

The category of Valence was previously discussed in Section 5.7, shown by the vocalic prefix, VL in Slot VI, or, if an incorporated 

stem is present, in Slot II. Alternately, however, Valence may be shown by consonantal counterpart to the VL prefix, CL, placed in Slot 

A of a verbal adjunct (which entails the mandatory presence of affixes in Slots B, C, and D). 




Saction + 

Illocution 


The forms of CL for a verbal adjunct are the same as those for formatives, shown in Table 20 below: 

Table 20: CL Valence Prefixes for Verbal Adjuncts 

Label Valence name CL 

1 MNO Monoactive — 

2 PRL Parallel h- 

3 CRO Corollary y- 

4 RCP Reciprocal w- 

5 CPL Complementary hw- 

6 NNR Nonrelational hm- 

7 DUP Duplicative hn- 

8 DEM Demonstrative hr- 

9 RES Resistive lw- 

10 IMT Imitative ly- 

11 CNG Contingent rw- 

12 PTI Participative ry- 

13 IDC Indicative řw- 

14 MUT Mutual řy- 

6.3.5 Alternate Representation of Extension 


The category of Extension is normally shown by means of the Ca affix in Slot X of the formative (see Sections 2.1, 3.4 and 3.5.3). 

However, in order to simplify the phonological structure of the Ca affix for purposes of euphony, Extension may be shown via the 

tone of the adjacent verbal adjunct. The default tone of a verbal adjunct is falling, which indicates deferral of Extension information to 

the Ca affix of the formative. Otherwise, Extension is conveyed by the following shifts in tone of the verbal adjunct. 

Table 21: Extension As Shown by Tone Shifts in Verbal Adjunct 

Tone Extension 

Falling [Extension shown by formative] 

High PROXIMAL 

Rising INCEPTIVE

Low TERMINATIVE 

Falling-Rising DEPLETIVE 

Rising-Falling GRADUATIVE 

6.4 INCORPORATION AND FORMAT 

Many languages, including English, are able to combine two separate meanings into a single verb, a process termed conflation. This is 

illustrated in the following English sentences: 

1. He bicycled south. = He traveled south by bicycle. 

2. She dolled herself up. = She made herself look as pretty as a doll. 

3. They’re shelving the books. = They’re putting the books on the shelf/shelves. 

4. Slide me a beer. = Give me a beer by sliding it (e.g., along the bar). 

The above sentences show four verbs which respectively carry inherent senses of vector movement, transformation, 

positioning/placement, and giving. The patterning of such “conflated” verbs is usually random and haphazard in any given language. 

For example, the English to bicycle in sentence (1) means ‘to travel by means of bicycle,’ not ‘to make a bicycle’ or ‘to be a bicycle.’ 

On the other hand, the verb to doll up does not mean to ‘travel by doll,’ but rather ‘to make appear like a doll.’ Yet, to shelve means 

‘to place on a shelf,’ not ‘to travel by means of shelves’ or ‘to make appear like a shelf.’ And none of the verbs in the first three 

sentences connotes the idea of giving or conveyance as does slide in sentence (4). 

As can be seen, verb conflation is essentially a “short-cut” way of combining an unspoken primary verbal sense (such as movement, 

transformation, placement, giving, etc.) with an overtly expressed verb that conveys a secondary sense such as means, manner, or 

location. This can be formally notated for our four sentences above as follows: 

He [1: (TRAVEL+past tense) south] [2: (BY-MEANS-OF) bicycle] 

= He bicycled south. 

She [1: (CAUSE-TO-RESEMBLE+past tense+reflexive)] [2: (IN-THE-MANNER-OF) doll] 

= She dolled herself up. 

They [1: (PUT+progressive) the books] [2: (TO-LOCATION-OF) shelves] 

= They’re shelving the books. 

[1: (GIVE+imperative)] a beer [2: (BY-MEANS-OF) sliding] to me 

= Slide me a beer. 

Note that the particular unspoken covert and overt senses (shown by the numerals 1 and 2 in the above analyses) are specific to any 

given verb and must be subjectively learned by the listener, i.e., a speaker of English must learn that to hand means to GIVE by 

MEANS of one’s hand, but to shoulder does not mean to GIVE by MEANS of one’s shoulder. 

Thus, while conflation of verbs presents a potential opportunity for instantiating verbs with patterns of overt and covert meaning, the 

lack of systemization prevents one from knowing with certainty what pattern to use when attempting to interpret the usage of a verb 

form. 

Ithkuil systemizes verb conflation into a productive scheme, in which any formative stem can be incorporated directly into another 

formative stem. The operational sense of the incorporated stem and its semantic relation to the primary formative stem is conveyed by 

a morphological category called format (discussed in Section 6.4.1 below). The incorporated stem is shown via the Cx and Vp affixes 

in Slots V and VI, where Cx indicates the root and Vp its Pattern, Stem and Designation. Format is shown as part of the Vf prefix 

which also shows the category of Context (previously discussed in Section 3.6). 



Phase + 

Sanction 



OR 

Aspect 

Pattern + 

Stem + 

Function 

Incorp.Root 

OR 

Phase + 

Sanction 




Root 

OR 

Valence 


+ 

Mood + 

Polarity 

Essence + 

Extension + 

Perspective + 


Affiliation 

Deriv. 

Suffix 

Context + 

Format 


+ 

Relation

If an incorporated stem is present (i.e., Cx and Vp are present in Slots V and VI) then a Vf affix showing the incorporated stem’s 

Format must also be present in Slot XII (see Section 6.4.1 below for an explanation of Format). 

The values for the Vp infix are shown in Table 22 below. 

Table 22: Vp infixes indicating Pattern, Stem and Designation of an Incorporated Root 

Informal 

Designation 

Formal 

Designation 

6.4.1 Format 

Stem Vowel —> Pattern 1 Pattern 2 Pattern 3 

Stem 1 a i u 

Stem 2 o e ö 

Stem 3 ai ui ei 

Stem 1 â î / û ô 

Stem 2 ê oi au 

Stem 3 eu iu ou 

As described above, a conflated verb in English can convey different senses such as means, manner, or location, the specific sense 

being learnable only through actual usage and context. In Ithkuil, this sense is overtly identified by the format of the verb, shown by 

the Vf affix in Slot XII. The Vf affix was previously discussed in Section 3.6 on Context. Table 23 below shows the values of Vf. 

Tables 23: Vf Affixes: Context & Format 

Context↓ (see Sec. 3.6) 

EXISTENTIAL 

FUNCTIONAL 

REPRESENTATIONAL 

AMALGAMATE 

FORMAT 

(none) SCH ISR ATH RSL SBQ CCM OBJ PRT 

(a) o ai â au ëi oa ea aì aù 

i ö ui ae iu ëu oe ia / ua uì iù 

e ü / öe ei ê eu öi eo ie / ue eì eù 

u öa oi ô ou öu iö / uö io / uo oì où 

The specific interpretation of the nine formats is often dependent on the verb’s Function (see Section 5.1). This is explained in the subsections 

below for each format: 

6.4.1.1 SCH The Schematic 

For verbs carrying DYNAMIC Function (see Sec. 5.1.2), the SCHEMATIC format indicates that the incorporated stem specifies the 

manner of the primary stem. So for example, when translating the English sentence I’m speeding through dinner [= eating speedily], 

the Ithkuil sentence would incorporate the stem corresponding to ‘speed’ into the stem ‘eat’ plus SCHEMATIC format to convey a 

sentence literally translatable as I'm speed-eating dinner [= eating in a manner characterized by speed.] 

Similarly, the Ithkuil translation of Clouds blanketed the city would incorporate the stem corresponding to ‘blanket’ into the stem for 

‘cover/engulf’ plus SCHEMATIC format to convey a sentence literally translatable as Clouds blanket-cover the city [= cover like a 

blanket.] 

AFI

For verbs carrying STATIVE Function (see Sec. 5.1.1), the SCHEMATIC format indicates that the incorporated stem characterizes 

the primary stem, i.e., the primary stem has the characteristics, behavior, or acts like the incorporated stem. 

For verbs carrying MANIFESTIVE Function (see Sec. 5.1.3), the SCHEMATIC format indicates that the incorporated is equivalent in 

identity (i.e., a copula relationship) to the primary stem, i.e., the primary stem is the incorporated stem in an existential sense. 

For verbs carrying DESCRIPTIVE Function (see Sec. 5.1.4), the SCHEMATIC format indicates that the incorporated has the 

superficial appearance or physically or (metaphorically) resembles the primary stem, i.e., the primary stem resembles/looks like the 

incorporated stem. 

6.4.1.2 ISR The Instrumentative 

The INSTRUMENTATIVE format indicates that the incorporated stem specifies the means, cause, or instrument of causation of the 

conflated primary sense, so that the sentence I clubbed him would be translated by incorporating the stem for ‘club’ into the stem for 

‘hit/beat’ plus the INSTRUMENTATIVE format, rendering a sentence literally translatable as I club-hit him or I club-beat him [= I 

hit/beat him with a club]. 

6.4.1.3 OBJ The Objective 

The OBJECTIVE format indicates that the incorporated stem specifies the Patient (see Sec. 4.1.1) of the primary stem. So, for 

example, the Ithkuil translation of She dusted the table would incorporate the stem ‘dust’ into the stem ‘remove’ to render a sentence 

literally translatable as She dust-removed the table [= removed dust]. Similarly the sentence They fish that river each spring would 

incorporate the stem ‘fish’ into the stem ‘gather/collect’ to render They fish-gather that river each spring [= gather fish] 

6.4.1.4 ATH The Authoritive 

The AUTHORITIVE format indicates that the incorporated stem specifies the entity of which the primary stem is the indirect/enabling 

cause or derivational source. So, for example, the Ithkuil translation of the English sentence He sang her cares away (= his singing 

allowed her to forget her cares) would incorporate the verb ‘forget’ into the verb ‘sing’ with AUTHORITATIVE format, the party ‘he’ 

in the EFFECTUATIVE case, and the party ‘she’ in the AFFECTIVE case. 

6.4.1.5 PRT The Precurrent 

The PRECURRENT format indicates that the incorporated stem specifies an initial event immediately preceding or continuing on into 

the main verb , where the initial event is not the cause of the conflated sense, i.e., the main act/state/event would have occurred 

anyway, e.g., I bought some lunch (conflated sense: EAT). First X, then Y (non-causal). 

6.4.1.6 RSL The Resultative 

The RESULTATIVE format indicates that the verb specifies the concurrent result of the conflated sense, i.e., an event which occurs in 

conjunction with the conflated sense but is also caused by it, e.g., The plane crashed into the water (conflated sense: FLY) First X, 

then Y as a result; X causes Y 

6.4.1.7 SBQ The Subsequent 

The SUBSEQUENT format indicates that the verb specifies the subsequent cause-and-effect purpose (not the concurrent result) of the 

conflated sense, e.g., I’ll look in on the stew (conflated sense: GO [to kitchen]) X or the purpose of Y; X in order to Y 

6.4.1.8 CCM The Concommitant

The CONCOMMITANT format indicates that the verb specifies an incidental simultaneous event having no causal relationship, e.g., 

She wore jeans to church (conflated sense: GO); He sweated through her recital (Conflated sense: LISTEN) X while Y 

6.4.1.9 AFI The Affinitive 

The AFFINITIVE format indicates that the incorporated stem is associated with, represents, or acts in behalf of the primary stem. So, 

for example, the English sentence ‘They are a group of sports officiators’ would utilize the stem for ‘sport’ incorporated into the stem 

for ‘officiate’ along with the AFFINITIVE format. 

6.4.2 Examples of Incorporation and Format 

Hëtiun-n ivogwařļokkai ţei. 

PRL-ITV-FAC DYN-[inc.stem: ‘recreation.leisure’]-IFL-‘ambulate’-NRM-DEL/M/CSL/CPN-TPP 1/7-IFL-ISR 1+ma-ACT 

She and I are planning on taking a walk later on. 

hremsoqaiţsurkoi 

PPT-STA-[inc.stem: ‘value’]-IFL-‘human.being’-INS-NRM-DEL/A/VAR/CST-MET 1/9-IFL-AMG/ATH 

‘purportedly by means of the value derived from all the varied attributes of humanity’ 

Xha üvôqalsâniú. 

ua-OBL MNF-[inc.stem: ‘sport’]-FML-‘official’-NRM/PRX/M/CSL/DCT-AGC 2/5-FML-FNC/AFI 

They are a group of sports officiators. 

6.4.3 Expansion of Format via Specialized Suffixes 

In addition to the nine formats shown solely by the Vf vocalic suffix described above in Section 6.4.1, the category of Format can be 

expanded via a set of specialized suffixes, so that an incorporated root can be associated with any of the 72 main noun cases from 

Chapter 4. Additionally, these suffixes allow the categories of Configuration (see Sec. 3.1) and Perspective (see Sec. 3.4) to be 

specified for the incorporated root. 

These Format expansion suffixes are of the type VxC (Slot XI) which will be discussed in Chapter 7. These Format expansion suffixes 

allow one to specify the exact meaning of a word like “child-love” using the stem for ‘love’ with an incorporated root ‘child’ so that the 

resulting combinations can distinguish meanings such as: 

the love one has for a child 

the love one has for a group of children 

the love one has for children in general 

the love one has for a pair of children 

the love a child feels 

the love that children feel in general 

love experienced for the sake of a child 

love experienced for the sake of a group of children 

love experienced for the sake of children in general 

The specifics of how these suffixes work are described in Section 7.4.15.

Proceed to Chapter 7: Suffixes >> 



















Links of 

Interest 

Updates / 

News 

2 Morpho- 

Phonology 

3 Basic 

Morphology 

6 More Verb 

Morphology 

7 Suffixes 

10 Lexico- 

Semantics 

Chapter 8: Adjuncts 


System 

8.1 Personal Reference Adjuncts 8.3 Affixual Adjuncts 

8.2 Aspectual Adjuncts 8.4 Bias Adjuncts 

12 The Number 

System 

List of 

Abbreviations 

The Lexicon 

The notion of adjuncts was introduced in Section 2.4.2. We have already discussed details of some 

kinds of adjuncts — verbal adjuncts were introduced in Chapter 6. In this chapter, several additional 

types of adjuncts are introduced. 

8.1 PERSONAL REFERENCE ADJUNCTS 

The first type of adjunct we will analyze are those relating to personal reference. By “personal 

reference” is meant the grammatical description of nouns by abbreviated forms of reference. In most 

languages, this is accomplished by means of personal pronouns (e.g., English he, she, it, I, you, him, 

her, mine, ours, etc.). Generally, personal pronouns are distinguished by “person” (1st, 2nd , or 3rd) 

and case (e.g., compare English we, us, and ours). Ithkuil accomplishes the equivalent function by 

means of personal reference adjuncts, of which there are two types: single-referent and dual-referent. 

Like other adjuncts in Ithkuil, personal reference adjuncts are highly synthetic in their structure, 

comprised of at least two morphemes and usually more. Before we examine the componential structure 

of personal reference adjuncts themselves, we must first introduce the personal reference categories 

they refer to. 

8.1.1 Personal Reference Categories 

Texts

The morpho-semantic delineations of Ithkuil personal reference categorization are based on inclusion or 

exclusion in relation to an utterance. These delineations begin with identifying whether or not the party 

speaking is included or excluded in relation to the utterance. The next delineation made is whether the 

party being addressed (i.e., the audience/listener) is included or excluded, then finally whether any third 

party (i.e., a party other than the speaker and the addressee) is included or excluded. 

There are 44 personal reference categories in Ithkuil, each of which is represented by a single consonant 

affix plus a corresponding falling or high tone as shown in Table 26 below. The various terms and 

abbreviations used in the table are explained following the table. 

Table 26(a) and (b): Personal Reference Categories 

PRONOUNCED WITH FALLING 

TONE 

Label 

Speaker 

Included 

Addressee 

Included 

t 1m YES — — 

s 1+2m YES monadic — 

š 1+2u YES unbounded — 

k 2m — monadic — 

p 2u — unbounded — 

q ma — — 

xh ua — — 

3rd Party 

Included 

monadic 

animate 

unbounded 

animate 

ç Col — — Collective 

l Ea — — 

v IDa — — 

r Mx — — 

ř IPa — — 

ţ 1+ma YES — 

n 1+ua YES — 

universal 

animate 

indefinite 

animate 

mixed 

m/u/a/i 

impersonal 

animate 

monadic 

animate 

unbounded 

animate 

x 2m+ma — monadic monadic 

animate 

ň 2m+ua — monadic 

unbounded 

animate 

f 2u+ma — unbounded monadic 

animate 

m 2u+ua — unbounded unbounded 

animate 

h 

monadic 

Label 

PRONOUNCED WITH HIGH TONE 

Speaker 

Included 

Addressee 

Included 

3rd Party Included 

t 1m+Mx YES — mixed m/u/a/i 

s 1+2m+Mx YES monadic mixed m/u/a/i 

š 1+2u+Mx YES unbounded mixed m/u/a/i 

k 2m+Mx — monadic mixed m/u/a/i 

p 2u+Mx — unbounded mixed m/u/a/i 

q mi — — monadic inanimate 

xh ui — — unbounded inanimate 

ç Abt — — Abstract 

l Ei — — universal inanimate 

v IDi — — indefinite inanimate 

r Obv — — Obviative 

ř IPi — — impersonal inanimate 

ţ 1+mi YES — monadic inanimate 

n 1+ui YES — unbounded inanimate 

x 2m+mi — monadic monadic inanimate 

ň 2m+ui — monadic unbounded inanimate 

f 2u+mi — unbounded monadic inanimate 

m 2u+ui — unbounded unbounded inanimate 

h 1+2m+mi YES monadic monadic inanimate 

z 1+2m+ui YES monadic unbounded inanimate 

ļ 1+2u+mi YES unbounded monadic inanimate 

ž 1+2u+ui YES unbounded unbounded inanimate

1+2m+ma YES monadic animate 

z 1+2m+ua YES monadic 

unbounded 

animate 

ļ 1+2u+ma YES unbounded monadic 

animate 

ž 1+2u+ua YES unbounded unbounded 

animate 

Explanation of abbreviations and terms in the above table: 

1 = Inclusion of speaker 

2 = Inclusion of addressee 

m = monadic (single party) 

u = unbounded (more than one party) 

a = animate 3rd party 

i = inanimate 3rd party 

E = universal ('everyone/everything') 

Mx = mixed combination of 3rd parties (including animate+inanimate or 

MONADIC+UNBOUNDED) 

IP = Impersonal ('one') 

ID = Indefinite ('anyone/anything') 

Obv = Obviative (see Sec. 8.1.1.7 below) 

Col = Collective (see Sec. 8.1.1.5 below) 

Abt = Abstract (see Sec. 8.1.1.6 below) 

The following sections explain the terminology in the above table. 

8.1.1.1 Monadic vs. Unbounded. These terms were discussed in detail in Sec. 3.3 on Perspective. For 

simplicity’s sake, the difference between a MONADIC third party versus an UNBOUNDED third party 

can be thought of as the difference between ‘he/she/it’ and ‘they.’ 

8.1.1.2 Speaker and Addressee. These terms refer respectively to the party speaking (in Western 

grammar the first person), the party being spoken to (the second person), and a third party being 

considered or mentioned (the third person). Unlike the standard six-person matrix common in Western 

grammar (the three persons divided into singular and plural), Ithkuil divides personal reference along 

logical lines of inclusion versus exclusion in the speaker’s utterance. 

From the viewpoint of Ithkuil grammar, only a single individual can speak. Even if there are two or 

more persons speaking the same utterance simultaneously it is but a collection of single individuals, each 

of which is one speaker. Therefore, the “first person” of Ithkuil, the speaker, can be only MONADIC, 

never UNBOUNDED. Thus, in Ithkuil, there is no true equivalent to the word “we,” since inherent in 

the various categories which translate “we” is the concept of “I plus some other entity or entities.” From 

this we can begin to see how it is the idea of inclusion or exclusion in the speaker’s utterance that 

determines the various personal reference categories. 

The “second person” in Ithkuil is the addressee, the person(s) being addressed or spoken to. There can 

be one addressee, or more than one addressee, i.e., MONADIC or UNBOUNDED.

The “third person” in Ithkuil is where things get very complicated, in that a party being referenced who 

is not the speaker or the addressee can have many distinctions, including the presence or absence of 

animacy, being MONADIC versus UNBOUNDED, being referred to as a collective entity, being an 

intangible abstraction, being indefinite, being an impersonal generic reference, or being a combination of 

two or more of these categories. These distinctions are explained below. 

8.1.1.3 Animate vs. Inanimate. This is as it sounds. As we saw in earlier chapters, particularly Sec. 

4.1, several important morphological categories in Ithkuil are dependent on whether the party to the act, 

condition, or event is a living entity or inanimate. Note that the distinction between gender (he vs. she) 

found in most Western languages does not exist in the Ithkuil personal reference system. 

8.1.1.4 “Mixed” Third-Party Reference. It is possible for the third party being referenced to be two or 

more entities of different natures. For example a speaker could make reference to “I, you, and they” 

where “they” consists of a group consisting of one person (i.e., a monadic animate entity), three boxes 

(i.e., a polyadic inanimate entity), and an intangible concept such as ‘happiness’ (i.e., an abstract 

entity). In such cases, Ithkuil personal reference categories provide for such “mixed” parties to be 

included in a particular personal referent. 

8.1.1.5 Collective Reference. This corresponds to the NOMIC perspective in which a noun can be 

spoken of as a generic collective. For example, the word ‘dog’ in the sentence The dog is a noble beast 

refers to all dogs in a collective sense, not any dog in particular. This COLLECTIVE category has its 

own set of personal reference affixes in Ithkuil, depending on what other entities are included in the 

context of the utterance. 

8.1.1.6 Abstract Reference. This corresponds to the ABSTRACT perspective, equivalent to 

derivational abstract forms such as English nouns ending with -hood, -ness, etc. In Ithkuil, all nouns can 

be spoken of in this abstract sense (e.g., “bookhood” = the sense of being or functioning as a book), 

and the personal reference system provides affixes for this category whose form again depends on what 

other entities are included in the context of the utterance. 

8.1.1.7 Obviative (4th Person) Reference. This category has no equivalent in Western languages, 

although it is found in various Native American languages. It refers to a third party referent other than 

one previously mentioned, which would otherwise be identically marked. In Native American 

grammatical treatises, this category is usually termed the obviative or “fourth” person. For example, the 

English sentence He saw his book is ambiguous because we are uncertain whether ‘he’ and ‘his’ refer 

to the same person or to two different persons (i.e., one who did the seeing and another who owns the 

book). In Ithkuil, no such ambiguity occurs because the latter third person referent, if a distinct person 

from the initial third person referent, would be marked using the OBVIATIVE, not the third person. 

This disambiguation of third person referents is the purpose of the OBVIATIVE. Its translation into 

English is therefore dependent on a preceding personal referent. (See Sec. 8.1.4 below for more 

information about the OBVIATIVE). 

8.1.1.8 Indefinite Reference. This category indicates that the third party refers to any third party 

within the specified parameters. For example, the falling-toned referent v indicates an indefinite animate 

party, i.e., English ‘anyone’ or ‘anybody,’ while the high-toned referent ¯v indicates an indefinite 

inanimate party, i.e., English ‘anything.’ 

8.1.1.9 Universal Reference. This category indicates that the third party refers to every third party

within the specified parameters. For example, the falling-toned referent l indicates a universal animate 

party, i.e., English ‘everyone’ or ‘everybody,’ while the high-toned referent ¯l indicates a universal 

inanimate party, i.e., English ‘everything.’ 

8.1.1.10 Impersonal Reference. This category corresponds to the German pronoun man or French 

pronoun on, as well as the various circumlocutions used in English to describe impersonal reference 

(e.g., ‘one,’ ‘you,’ ‘they,’ the passive voice, and certain usages of ‘someone’). Such impersonal 

reference is illustrated in the following English sentences: 

· One should never speak to clowns alone. 

· To dance the tango you need a partner. 

· They say it never rains in August. 

· That town is said to be haunted. 

· She just wants to talk to someone without being criticized. 

8.1.1.11 Inclusivity vs. Exclusivity. Since Ithkuil personal reference adjuncts are designed to specify 

who among the speaker, addressee(s), and any third party is included or excluded in the context of the 

utterance, there are many possible personal reference distinctions possible in Ithkuil for which English 

has no equivalent pronouns. Such exacting distinctions would have to be made periphrastically in 

English, e.g., instead of saying ‘we,’ the speaker would have to specify ‘the two of us,’ or ‘I and he but 

not you,’ or ‘I, you, and they.’ Similarly, the English word ‘you’ breaks down into specific meanings 

equivalent to ‘you (singular),’ ‘you (plural),’ ‘you (singular) and it,’ ‘you and those people,’ ‘you and 

those things,’ etc. 

8.1.2 Single-Referent Personal Reference Adjuncts 

Adjuncts with one personal referent are termed single-referent adjuncts and have four forms: (1) a short 

form, (2) a long form, (3) a conjunct form, and (4) a collapsed form, as shown in Table 27 below. 

Table 27: Morphological Structure of a Single-Referent Personal Reference Adjunct 

Form 1 (Short Form): C1 + Vc Example: p + oi → poi 

Form 2 (Long Form) : C1 + Vc + Cz + Vz (+ 

’Cb) 

Form 3 (Conjunct Form): 

Cs+Vs (+ Cs+Vs...) + C1 + V1 + Cz 

+ Vz (+ ’Cb) 

Example: 

t (w/ high tone) + i + w + u → – tiwu 

Example: 

f + o + t + eu + y + e + ’çç → foteuye’çç

Form 4 (Collapsed Form): Vc2 + C1 + Vc Example: e + p + oi → epoi 

Where: 

C1 = consonant identifying Referent 1 [from Table 26 above] 

Vc = vocalic infix indicating case of Referent 1[see Table 28 below] 

Cz = consonantal infix showing the affiliation of Referent 1 (see Table 29 below) 

Vz = vocalic suffix showing the Configuration and Essence of Referent 1 in 

conjunction with syllabic stress (see Table 30 below) 

Cs = consonantal suffix for Referent 1 from standard suffix tables 

Vs = vocalic infix showing the suffix degree and suffix type for Cs [see Table 24 in 

Sec. 7.1.2] 

Cb = consonantal bias suffix (see Table 15 in Sec. 5.11.1) 

Syllabic Stress = indicates essence of Referent 1: penultimate (or monosyllabic) = NRM; 

ultimate stress = RPV 

Vc2 = vocalic infix indicating the case of a second instance of Referent 1. The values 

are the same as for Vc[see Table 28 below] 

8.1.2.1 Short Form: Form 1, the short form of the adjunct, consists of a single consonant (labeled C1 

in the diagram) plus falling or high tone, corresponding to one of the 44 particular referents (as 

described in Sec. 8.1.1 above). This is followed by a single vocalic suffix Vc indicating the case of the 

personal referent (see Chapter 4 on Case). The 96 possible values for this suffix are shown in Table 28 

below in the column labeled Vc. Note that for Case Nos. 49 through 96, Vc is the same as for the first 

48 cases, plus a shift in the tone of the adjunct. Those personal referents which take falling tone shift to 

low tone, while personal referents that take high tone shift to rising tone. 

The short form of a single-referent personal reference adjunct is used when it is clear from the 

surrounding context of the utterance which previously identified noun participant is being referred to, so 

that it is unnecessary to indicate the Configuration, Affiliation, or Essence of the referent. The short 

form of the adjunct merely indicates the party itself and its case. 

8.1.2.2 Long Form: Form 2 of the adjunct, the long form, contains an additional consonantal infix Cz 

followed by a vocalic suffix Vz. Cz indicates the referent’s affiliation, while Vz indicates its 

configuration and essence. (See Chapter 3 for an explanation of the Affiliation, Configuration, and 

Essence categories.) The default form of Cz is shown in Table 28 below in the Column labeled 

Vc+Cz.Note that for some noun cases (Nos. 18, 43-48, 56-59, and 61), the value of Vc changes when 

used with Cz in Form 2 of the adjunct, as shown in the table.

The long form of the adjunct is used when necessary to indicate the Configuration, Affiliation, and 

Essence of the referent when the surrounding sentences do not provide or make clear this information. 

Table 28: Short- and Long-Form Vc (+ Cz) Suffixes/Infixes for Single-Referent Personal Reference 

Adjuncts (Default Forms) 

(Note that due to its vocalic patterning paralleling the patterning of the CMP8C case, the VOCATIVE case is shown out of 

order in Position No. 48 in this table.) 

Label CASE Vc Vc + Cz 

OBL Oblique a -aw- 

IND Inducive u -uw- 

ABS Absolutive e -ew- 

ERG Ergative o -ow- 

EFF Effectuative ö -öw- 

AFF Affective i -iw- 

DAT Dative ü -üw- 

INS Instrumental ai -aiw- 

ACT Activative ei -eiw- 

DER Derivative ui -uiw- 

SIT Situative oi -oiw- 

POS Possessive â -âw- 

PRP Proprietive î -îw- 

GEN Genitive ê -êw- 

ATT Attributive ô -ôw- 

PDC Productive ëi -ëiw- 

ITP Interpretative öi -öiw- 

OGN Originative û -aew- 

PAR Partitive ia iaw- 

CRS Contrastive ie iew- 

CPS Compositive io iow- 

PRD Predicative iö iöw- 

MED Mediative ua uaw- 

APL Applicative ue uew- 

PUR Purposive uo uow- 

CSD Considerative uö uöw- 

ESS Essive ea eaw- 

ASI Assimilative eo eow- 

FUN Functive eö eöw- 

TFM Transformative oa oaw- 

REF Referential oe oew- 

CLA Classificative öa öaw- 

CNV Conductive öe öew- 

Label CASE Vc * Vc + Cz 

EXC Exceptive a -ay- 

AVR Aversive u -uy- 

CMP Comparative e -ey- 

SML Simultaneitive o -oy- 

ASS Assessive ö -öy- 

CNR Concursive i -iy- 

ACS Accessive ü -üy- 

DFF Diffusive ai -auy- 

PER Periodic ei -euy- 

PRO Prolapsive ui -iuy- 

PCV Precursive oi -ouy- 

PCR Postcursive â -ây- 

ELP Elapsive î -aey- 

ALP Allapsive ê -êy- 

INP Interpolative ô -ôy- 

EPS Episodic ëi -ëuy- 

PRL Prolimitive öi -öuy- 

LIM Limitative û -ûy- 

LOC Locative ia iay- 

ORI Orientative ie iey- 

PSV Procursive io ioy- 

ALL Allative iö iöy- 

ABL Ablative ua uay- 

NAV Navigative ue uey- 

CMP1A Comparative1A uo uoy- 

CMP2A Comparative2A uö uöy- 

CMP3A Comparative3A ea eay- 

CMP4A Comparative4A eo eoy- 

CMP5A Comparative5A eö eöy- 

CMP6A Comparative6A oa oay- 

CMP7A Comparative7A oe oey- 

CMP8A Comparative8A öa öay- 

CMP1B Comparative1B öe öey-

IDP Interdependent üa üaw- 

BEN Benefactive üe üew- 

TSP Transpositive üo üow- 

CMM Commutative aì aìw- 

COM Comitative eì eìw- 

CNJ Conjunctive oì oìw- 

UTL Utilitative uì uìw- 

ABE Abessive öì öìw- 

CVS Conversive ëì ëìw- 

COR Correlative au aùw- 

DEP Dependent eu eùw- 

PVS Provisional ou oùw- 

PTL Postulative iu iùw- 

CON Concessive öu öùw- 

VOC Vocative ëu ëùw- 

CMP2B Comparative2B üa üay- 

CMP3B Comparative3B üe üey- 

CMP4B Comparative4B üo üoy- 

CMP5B Comparative5B aì aìy- 

CMP6B Comparative6B eì eìy- 

CMP7B Comparative7B oì oìy- 

CMP8B Comparative8B uì uìy- 

CMP1C Comparative1C öì öìy- 

CMP2C Comparative2C ëì ëìy- 

CMP3C Comparative3C au aùy- 

CMP4C Comparative4C eu eùy- 

CMP5C Comparative5C ou oùy- 

CMP6C Comparative6C iu iùy- 

CMP7C Comparative7C öu öùy- 

CMP8C Comparative8C ëu ëùy- 

* For the 48 cases in the right-hand column above: in Form 1 of a single-referent adjunct, those personal referents 

with falling tone shift to low tone, those with high tone shift to rising tone. 

The table above shows Cz in its default (CSL) form. The full values for Cz are shown in Table 29 

below. 

Table 29: Values for Cz: Affiliation of a Single-Referent Personal Reference Adjunct 

Affiliation 

CSL ASO VAR COA 

Case Nos. 1 - 48: -w- -’w -h -hw 

Case Nos. 49 - 96: -y- -’y -’ -’h 

The referent’s Configuration are shown by the Vz suffix. The values of Vz are shown in Table 30 

below. 

Table 30: Values for Vz: Configuration of a Single-Referent Personal Reference 

Adjunct


NRM Essence (-a) -u/-i -e -o -ö -ü * -ai / -au * -ei /-eu * -oi / -iu * 

* For the last four configurations above, these can alternately be shown using the suffixes -a, -u/-i, -e, and -o (same as the 

first four configurations) plus a tone shift in the adjunct, as follows: falling tone shifts to falling-rising tone, and high tone shifts 

to rising-falling tone. This alternate means of indicating configuration is valid only for single-referent adjuncts. For dualreferent 

adjuncts (see Sec. 8.1.3 below), it is inapplicable and the vocalic values shown in the above table must be used. 

8.1.2.3 The Conjunct Form: Form 3 of the adjunct, the conjunct form, is the same as the long form, 

Form 2, with the addition of one or more consonant + vowel prefixes Cs + Vs which correspond to the 

VxC derivational suffixes from Slot XI of a formative, as described in Chapter 7. When used in Form 3 

of a single-referent personal referent adjunct, the order of the vocalic and consonantal portions of the 

affix are reversed. 

8.1.2.4 The Collapsed Form: Form 4 of the adjunct, the collapsed form, is the same as the short form, 

Form 1, with the addition of a vocalic prefixes Vc2 which represents the case of a second instance of 

the same personal referent already indicated by the adjunct. In other words, the collapsed form is a 

short-cut means of representing two separate adjuncts, both of which refer to the same party, but in 

two different cases. Examples of such an adjunct were seen in Section 4.3.12 with the word êto, a 

short-cut for tê + to, i.e, 1m/GEN plus 1m/ERG. 

8.1.2.5 Examples of Single-Referent Personal Reference Adjuncts in Use 

Azbal šoi ekšíl. 

STA-‘anger’-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/UNI-IFL 1+2u-SIT STA-‘clown’-AFF-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/UNI-FML 

Our being here angers the clown. 

Ičatosk êti prâ’ol aktáil. 

DYN-'physical.contact'-NRM/DEL/U/CSL/UNI-FRC 1/7 GEN-1m-AFF STA-‘leg’-LOC-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/UNI-IFL 

STA-‘rock’-INS-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/UNI-FML 

I got hit on the leg with a rock.

ultánļ këi 

STA-‘page.of.writing’-OBL-NRM/DEL/M/SEG/COA-FML 2m-PDC 

‘your book’ [i.e., the one you authored] 

žô c h ei’as 

1m+2u+ua-ATT STA-‘grief’-PCR-NRM/PRX/M/CSL/UNI-IFL 

‘after our period of grief’ 

ˇxhoehwe 

ua-REF-COA-CST 

‘according to those variously interdependent but differing networks of people’ 

8.1.3 Dual-Referent Personal Reference Adjuncts 

Ithkuil allows a personal reference adjunct to show the personal reference category and associated case 

for two separate parties all in one adjunct. This is called a dual-referent adjunct and serves to combine 

two unrelated personal referents into one adjunct, no matter what their associated cases may be. There 

is only one form of a dual-referent adjunct, shown in Table 31 below. 

Table 31: Morphological Structure of a Dual-Referent Personal Reference Adjunct 

Form: _ ((Vw +) C2 +) V2 + CK+ Vc + (Cz + Vz (+ 

’Cb)) 

Where: 

Example: : u-h-ia-ks-ai-’wé-’ks 

Vw = vocalic prefix indicating the configuration of Referent 2 (see Table 32 below) 

C2 = consonant form indicating the affiliation of Referent 2 (see Table 33 below) 

V2 = vocalic prefix indicating case of Referent 2 (these values are the same as for Vc in 

Table 28 above) 

CK = consonant form indicating both Referent 1 and Referent 2 [from Table 34 below]

Vc = vocalic infix indicating case of Referent 1[see Table 28 above] 

Cz = consonantal infix showing the affiliation of Referent 1 (see Table 29 above) 

Vz = vocalic suffix showing the configuration of Referent 1 (see Table 30 above) 

Cb = consonantal bias suffix (see Table 15 in Sec. 5.11.1) 

Tone = Combinations of Ref. 1&2:_ falling + falling = falling, high + high = high, falling + high = 

rising, high + falling = low 

Stress = shows Referents 1 and 2 Essence respectively: __penultimate = 1:NRM / 1:NRM, __ 

ultimate = 1:NRM / 2:RPV, 

antepenultimate = 1:RPV / 2:NRM, __preantepenultmate = 1:RPV / 2:RPV 

Analyzing the above structure, it can be seen that the third term, V2, has the same values as Vc for 

single-referent adjuncts; and the last four terms and their values, Vc + Cz + Vz (+ ’Cb), are the same as 

for single-referent adjuncts. The new terms are Vw, C2, and CK, whose values are shown in the various 

tables below: 

Table 32: Values for Vw: Configuration of Referent 2 in a Dual-Referent Personal 

Reference Adjunct 


— ö- -e a- ü- o- e- u- ë- 

Table 33: Values for C2: Affiliation of Referent 2 in a Dual-Referent Personal 

Reference Adjunct 

Affiliation 


(-h) w- y- hw- 

Table 34: Values for CK: Dual-Referent Personal Reference Adjunct Prefixes 

2nd

Falling 

Tone 

High 

Tone 

referent→ 

1st 

referent ↓ 

ma mi q 

1m 1+ Mx t 

2m 2m+Mx k 

2u 2u+Mx p 

1+2m 1+2m+Mx s 

1+2u+ma 1+2u+mi ļ 

1+2u 1+2u+Mx š 

1+2m+ua 1+2m+ui z 

IDa IDi v 

1+2u+ua 1+2u+ui ž 

2u+ma 2u+mi f 

1+ma 1+mi ţ 

2m+ma 2m+mi x 

ua ui xh 

h 

ř 

ç 

r 

l 

ň 

n 

m 

xh 

x 

q h gř çq’ qr ql gn qn qm çq h çq qţ qf šq’ qw sq’ šq č’ sq q’ g d 

t h tř çt’ tr tl t’ tn tm çt h çt dh tf j tw ż č c’ c p h k h 

tx kř çk’ kr kl k’ kn km çk h çk kţ kf gž kw gz kš tļ ks b 

px př çp’ pr pl p’ pn pm çp h çp pţ pf bž pw bz pš pļ ps 

sř st sr sl sň sn sm sxh sx 

ļk h ļt h ļt’ ļļ ļk’ ļt ļp ļq ļk 

šř çw šr šl šň šn šm šxh šx šţ šf 

sk h sk’ zr zl zg zm ss sk sp 

šp h vř šp’ vr vl dn vn vm žb zb sţ bm 

šk h šk’ žr žl žg žn žm šš šk št šp 

sp h fř sp’ fr fl bl br bv pç ţţ bdh 

ţř st’ ţr ţl dl dr dv gdh ţk 

xx sq h rr xr xl gv xn xm č h 

xxh šq h řř xhr xhl gr xhn xhm 

2u+ua 2u+ui m hm mř çm mr ml ňň mm 

1+ua 1+ui n 

hn nř çn nr nl nn NOTES: 

ţ 

f 

sf 

c h 

ž 

vv 

v 

sw 

ļw 

šw 

zw 

z 

š 

ļ 

s 

p 

k 

t

2m+ua 2m+ui ň hn zn št’ ňr ňl • Forms with light blue backgrounds 

optionally reverse form 

Ea Ei l 

Mx Obv r 

Col Abt ç 

IPa IPi ř žž 

1+2m+ma 1+2m+mi h 

Explanation of abbreviations and terms in the above table: 

hl st h cl ll in non word-initial position, e.g., kr → rk 

hr št h cr • Yellow backgrounds = optional changes in non 

word-initial position: 

çç zz kw → fk, pw → fp, tw → ft, qw → fq, sw → zd, ļw 

→ vd, šw → žd, sţ → nţ, 

zw → vz, šţ → ndh, gn → ňg, qn → ňq, kn → ňk, pn → 

ňt, vn → mf, çw → xht 

• Blank boxes with grey backgrounds = grammatically 

impermissible or no form available 

1 = Inclusion of speaker 

2 = Inclusion of addressee 

m = monadic (single party) 

u = unbounded (more than one party) 

a = animate 3rd party 

i = inanimate 3rd party 

E = universal ('everyone/everything') 

Mx = mixed combination of 3rd parties (including animate+inanimate or 

MONADIC+UNBOUNDED) 

IP = Impersonal ('one') 

ID = Indefinite ('anyone/anything') 

Obv = Obviative (see Sec. 8.1.1.7 below) 

Col = Collective (see Sec. 8.1.1.5 below) 

Abt = Abstract (see Sec. 8.1.1.6 below) 

Note that when combining two referent prefixes to form the composite prefix the tones associated with 

each referent must also be combined (remember it is the distinction between falling and high tone that 

expands the 22 single-consonant referents into 44). Since all single-referent adjuncts are either of falling 

or high tone, their combination proceeds as follows: 

falling + falling → falling 

falling + high → rising 

high + high → high

high + falling → low 

The order in which the above formulas are applied is based on the logical order of the personal 

referents, i.e., Referent 1 then Referent 2, not the order that associated vowels corresponding to the 

referents are manifested phonologically. (Many dual-referent personal reference adjuncts begin with 

vowels which carry morphological information for Referent 2, while the second syllable carries 

information for referent 1. Nevertheless, the tone on the adjunct is determined in the order of Referent 

1 + Referent 2 as per Table 34 above.) 

The four-way combination of Essence for Referent-1 and Referent-2 respectively is shown by the four 

available stress patterns: penultimate stress indicates NORMAL + NORMAL, ultimate stress indicates 

NORMAL + REPRESENTATIVE, antepenultimate indicates REPRESENTATIVE + NORMAL, and 

preantepenultimate indicates REPRESENTATIVE + REPRESENTATIVE. (See Section 3.5 on 

Essence). 

8.1.3.1 Special Use of Short Adjunct Form. The short form (Form 1) of the single-referent adjunct 

discussed in Sec. 8.1.2 above (utilizing the abbreviated VC suffix from Table 28) can be used with the 

special dual-referent CK composite prefixes from Table 34 under the following circumstance: to show 

that two different parties are governed by the same case and participate equally with the verb, 

equivalent to connecting two pronouns in English by ‘and’ as in He and I went to the store or The man 

looked at them and me. Examples: ksau, / xlu. Note in the last example / xlu how the combination of a 

falling-toned referent and a high-toned referent combines to give a rising-toned adjunct. 

8.1.3.2 Examples of Dual-Referent Adjuncts 

Euspát _uda smâ’ol. 

DYN-‘buy’-NRM/DEL/U/CSL/UNI-FML Ref2:IND-Ref1:mi/Ref2:1m-Ref1:OBL STA-‘valley’-LOC- 


I bought it in the valley. 

Awuçk h oewi andawútļ? 

Ref2:AGG-Ref2:ASO-Ref2:IND-Ref1:2m/Ref2:ua-Ref1:REF-Ref1:CSL- 

Ref1:DPX DYN-‘inquiry’-IRG-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/DCT-FML 

Are those formally recognized groups of people making inquiries about the pair of you? 

8.1.4 Use of the Switch Reference Suffix

In Section 7.4.13, the SWR switch reference suffix was introduced. This affix works with the 

OBVIATIVE personal referent (see Sec. 8.1.1.7) to specifically indicate which party is being referred 

to. The following is a review of this affix for all nine degrees. By use of this affix, reference can be 

made immediately to any party relevant to a discourse, even to a third party not previously mentioned. 

-rm / -mr SWR Switch Reference & Obviative Specification 

Degree 1 nearest preceding referent 

Degree 2 2nd to nearest preceding referent 

Degree 3 3rd party not previously mentioned 

Degree 4 referring to sentence focus 

Degree 5 first referent mentioned 

Degree 6 referring to sentence topic 

Degree 7 3rd party non-transrelative referent 

Degree 8 2nd order transrelative referent 

Degree 9 higher order transrelative referent 

This suffix rarely appears in fifth-degree, as use of the OBVIATIVE by itself defaults to the first 

referent mentioned. The following example illustrates the use of the switch reference suffix: 

Léi’aita eqţul tê ekšüléňţ aigwamt – ru byû’âl mrerîwa. LISTEN 

FRAMED/IFL-DYN-‘speak’-PCR-NRM/DEL/U/CSL/UNI STA-‘brother’-IND-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/UNI-IFL 1m-GEN 

STA-‘clown’-DAT-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/UNI-FML-TPF1/3 DYN-‘run’-NRM/ICP/M/CSL/UNI-IFL OBV/IND-[SWR/5] 

STA-‘pet.dog’-ALL-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/UNI-IFL OBV/PRP-SWR/3 

After my brother spoke to the clown, he [my brother] began running toward his [a third party’s] pet 

dog. 

8.1.5 Details of Personal Reference Suffixes 

Sec. 7.3 described the existence of a group of specialized suffixes derived from personal reference 

adjunct consonantal affixes. As previously discussed in Sec. 8.1.1, there are 22 single consonants 

associated with 44 single-referent personal reference categories (based on a distinction between falling 

and high tone). In the absence of any other VxC suffixes to the formative, these 22 consonants can be 

combined with Type 3 vocalic infix patterns (see Sec. 7.2) to correspond to certain Associative and 

Appositive noun cases, to create short-cut substitutes for single-referent personal reference adjuncts in 

these nine cases. These 22 consonants correspond to the falling-toned group of personal reference 

affixes; this short-cut option is not available for the 22 high-toned personal reference categories. The 

use of these suffixes is optional. The noun cases associated with the nine suffix degrees are as follows: 

Degree 1 POSSESSIVE Case

Degree 2 PROPRIETIVE Case 

Degree 3 GENITIVE Case 

Degree 4 ATTRIBUTIVE Case 

Degree 5 ORIGINATIVE Case 

Degree 6 PRODUCTIVE Case 

Degree 7 INTERPRETATIVE Case 

Degree 8 CORRELATIVE Case 

Degree 9 CONDUCTIVE Case 

8.2 ASPECTUAL ADJUNCTS 

As we saw in Section 6.3.1 and Section 5.10, Aspect can be shown as the Vs suffix to a verbal adjunct, 

in addition to the its more usual position as a consonantal affix Cs to a formative or verbal adjunct. 

However, in the absence of any verbal adjunct, and as another alternative to infixing Cs within a 

formative, Aspect can also be conveyed by simply using the Vs affix as its own autonomous adjunct. 

Examples (compare these to the examples in Sec. 5.10.33): 

Ou inyat eqţulisqa tê. 

CLM DYN-‘choose’-NRM/DEL/U/CSL/UNI-IFL STA-‘brother’-IND-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/UNI-DCS1/1-IFL 1M-GEN 

My indecisive brother made a choice once and for all. LISTEN 

Ui uolmát êqul. 

RGR DYN-‘sing.a.song’-NRM/DEL/U/CSL/UNI-FML STA-‘woman’-IND-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/UNI-IFL 

The woman returned to singing. 

8.3 AFFIXUAL ADJUNCTS 

Any Type-1 or Type-2 Vx-C formative suffix described in Chapter 7 may be removed from the 

formative and positioned as an adjacent adjunct for purposes of euphony (i.e., to reduce the number of 

syllables in the formative). Additionally, since affix categories represent common concepts generally 

applicable to many contexts, an affixual adjunct can also be informally used as a “short cut” method of 

conveying a notion, essentially as an abbreviated one-word sentence somewhat like an interjection or

exclamation in English, thus conveying the concept of the affix category. For example, the affix -V1j/7 

connotes disappointing typicality, but as an affixual adjunct, oj, it can be used by itself as an informal 

expression translatable by the English phrase How typical! 

Example: 

Çtar-ryo igraleiţrar eglulôn. → Ar çtar-ryo eirţ igral eglulôn. 

HOR/CTX/PPS-PCL-HAB DYN-‘eat.food’-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/UNI-EXT2/6-NA11/5-IFL STA-‘illness’-IND- 

NRM/DEL/M/CSL/UNI-AGC2/7-IFL → 

NA11/5 HOR/CTX/PPS-PCL-HAB EXT2/6 DYN-‘eat food’-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/UNI-IFL STA-‘illness’-IND- 

NRM/DEL/M/CSL/UNI-AGC2/7-IFL 

If only the physician wouldn’t always eat his food in one gulp like that. 

8.4 BIAS ADJUNCTS 

Section 5.11 describes how Bias is shown on on formatives, while Section 6.3.2 describes how the 

category is shown on verbal adjuncts. And in Sections 8.1.2 and 8.1.3, we saw how the conjunct form 

of a single-referent personal reference adjunct, as well as dual-reference personal reference adjuncts, 

can take an optional affix, Cb, to indicate Bias. In the absence of these possibilities, the Bias suffix 

(shown in Table 15 of Sec. 5.11.1), like affixual adjuncts described above in Section 8.3, can stand 

alone as an autonomous adjunct. Such a Bias adjunct can be used to informally convey one’s attitude 

toward a situation. For example, if one wishes to convey a sense of awe, one could state the Ithkuil 

equivalent to the sentence, I feel a sense of awe! or one can simply hiss out a long s-sound, ‘ss,’ which 

is the intensive form of the affix for the STUPEFACTIVE bias category, whose translation can be 

approximated by the English expressions ‘Well, I’ll be!’ or ‘Who would’ve thought?!’ 

Other examples would be the expression ‘çç’ to signify fulfillment and contentment, the equivalent to a 

long sigh of satisfaction ‘ahhh’ in English; or the expression ‘kšš’ to convey contempt and disgust, 

similar to English ‘Poppycock!’ or ‘What bullshit!’ 



Proceed to Chapter 9: Syntax >> 

12 The Number 

System 

List of 

Abbreviations

Links of 

Interest 

Updates / 

News 

2 Morpho- 

Phonology 

3 Basic 

Morphology 

6 More Verb 

Morphology 

7 Suffixes 

10 Lexico- 

Semantics 


System 


Grammar 


The Lexicon 

Texts 


cowrote 



the 


features 


computer.) 









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Updates / 

News 

2 Morpho- 

Phonology 

3 Basic 

Morphology 

6 More Verb 

Morphology 

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Chapter 9: Syntax 

10 Lexico- 

Semantics 


System 

9.1 Topic, Focus and Pragmatic 

Relations 

9.2 Morpho-Semantic Considerations 

9.3 The “Carrier” Root 

12 The Number 

System 

List of 

Abbreviations 

The Lexicon 

Syntax refers to the rules for sequencing the order of words within a phrase or sentence, including rules 

permitting more than one possible sequential ordering of words. To understand the following discussion 

of Ithkuil syntax it is necessary to have a cursory understanding of the notions of semantic role, 

pragmatic role, and grammatical (or syntactical) relations: 

Semantic role: This refers to the underlying semantic function of a particular word, irrespective 

of overt morphological category. We have already seen how Ithkuil marks its noun cases to reflect 

semantic roles, not grammatical relations. Such roles include Agent, Patient, Experiencer, 

Recipient, Instrument, etc., as previously explained in Section 4.1 et seq. 

Pragmatic role: This refers to the function of a word or phrase in relation to its predicate or the 

rest of the sentence in terms of whether and how it represents “given” versus “new” information, 

i.e., whether or not the word or phrase represents background information already known to the 

addressee, or whether it represents new information previously unknown to the addressee. Three 

such roles or relations are generally delineated: topic, comment, and focus. The topic of a 

sentence is the word or phrase about which the speaker has been asked or is expected by the 

addressee to talk about. The comment is the information (usually a predicate) given by the speaker 

about the particular topic. The term focus refers to whatever information in a sentence is new to 

the addressee, (i.e., not previously known). To illustrate these concepts, consider the sentence I 

can see why Mary’s angry, but what about Bill? (i.e., What happened to make Bill angry, too?). 

Texts

In the hypothetical answer Bill (or He) is angry because he lost his keys, ‘Bill’ (or ‘he’) is the 

topic, ‘is angry because he lost his keys’ is the comment, and ‘he lost his keys’ is the focus. 

Grammatical (or syntactical) relations: the arbitrary word-ordering rules of a language, 

irrespective of semantic or pragmatic roles, e.g., the subject of the sentence in English normally 

precedes the main verb and the direct object normally follows the main verb. 

In general, the syntax of a language either (1) establishes the permissible grammatical relations of the 

language, (2) reflects and/or reinforces semantic roles, (3) reflects and/or reinforces pragmatic roles, or 

(4) any combination of these. As one might surmise from the above, English syntax is weighted heavily 

toward establishing grammatical relations at the near-total expense of identifying semantic roles. As for 

pragmatic roles, English rarely reflects these in its syntax (one exception is the strong tendency for 

placing wh- question words in sentence-initial position in specialized questions, even if they represent a 

direct object, e.g., What have you done? or Who[m] are they talking about?), however, such roles do 

tend to be marked “supra-segmentally” by inflection of vocal pitch and tone of voice. 

We have already seen the extreme to which Ithkuil uses noun cases to mark semantic roles 

morphologically as opposed to syntactically. And since grammatial relations in and of themselves are 

relatively arbitrary within language, Ithkuil uses word order primarily to accomplish pragmatic relations, 

i.e., to indicate the topic and/or focus of a sentence. Additionally, Ithkuil does have a few word order 

constraints necessary to ensure avoidance of ambiguity in determining which nouns lie in apposition to 

their head, and which words of a compound sentence lie within a case-frame as opposed to outside the 

case-frame. The specifics of Ithkuil word order are explained in Section 9.1 below. 

9.1 TOPIC, FOCUS, AND PRAGMATIC RELATIONS 

The concept of semantic focus refers to what information in an utterance is to be considered new 

information, while the semantic topic is the background context already known or implied. The specifics 

are explained below and are best understood through various English illustrations. 

In any given discourse (i.e., a contextual series of utterances such as a conversation, a story, an account 

of an event, etc.), any single sentence of that discourse will likely make reference to previously 

mentioned material as background, as well as present new material to further the purpose of the 

discourse. Semantic focus refers to those elements of a sentence which constitute new material within 

an actual or implied discourse. For example, the sentence My dog jumps through hoops could function 

as an answer to several different questions such as 1) What tricks can your dog do?, or 2) Does your 

dog do anything with hoops? or 3) Do you know of anyone’s pet that jumps through hoops? or even 4) 

What’s up with you? In answering the first of these questions, ‘jump through hoops’ would have 

semantic focus while the dog is background material, i.e. the topic. In answering the second question, 

the verbal phrase ‘jump through’ would have focus while both the dog and the hoops would be the 

topic. In answering the third question, it would be ‘my dog’ that carries the focus while jumping through 

hoops would be the topic. Lastly, in answering the fourth sentence, no element in the sentence has 

focus over any other, as all elements present previously unknown material within the context of the

discourse. In general, English conveys focus by a shift in vocal inflection (tone and pitch contours) to 

provide emphasis. 

Focus does not necessarily require a full discourse to have semantic relevance; it can occur within a 

single autonomous sentence, in which case the background discourse is implied. For example, a person 

might spontaneously begin a conversation with the same sentence: My dog jumps through hoops. In 

English, the speaker might use vocal inflection to emphasize what elements convey semantic focus 

versus what elements are to be taken by the listener as “given.” Or, the speaker might say the sentence 

in a neutral tone of voice, essentially inviting the listener to “choose” which elements to focus upon in 

responding, e.g., Oh, you have a dog? or Oh, does he do any other tricks? or Oh, do you use metal or 

plastic hoops? or an equally neutral response such as Oh, you don’t say? 

Ithkuil uses word-order to accomplish the same options that such vocal inflections accomplish in 

English. In Ithkuil, the element with focus is placed immediately before the verb. As for the topic of the 

sentence, this is shown by placing it as the first element in a sentence. If there is no overt topic or focus, 

the verb will appear as the first word in the sentence. Examples: 

Euspoigrataì ekšúl břatļ. 

DYN-[inc.stem: ‘buy’]-consume/ingest’-NRM/DEL/U/CSL/UNI-IFL-PRT STA-‘clown’-IND-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/UNI- 

FML 

STA-‘clam’-OBL-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/DCT-IFL 

The clown bought some clams and consumed them. (No topic or focus) LISTEN 

Ekšúl euspoigrataì břatļ. 

STA-‘clown’-IND-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/UNI-FML DYN-[inc.stem: ‘buy’]-consume/ingest’-NRM/DEL/U/CSL/UNI-IFL- 

PRT 

STA-‘clam’-OBL-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/DCT-IFL 

It was the clown who bought some clams and consumed them. (The clown is the focus) 

Břatļ ekšúl euspoigrataì. 

STA-‘clam’-OBL-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/DCT-IFL STA-‘clown’-IND-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/UNI-FML 

DYN-[inc.stem: ‘buy’]-consume/ingest’-NRM/DEL/U/CSL/UNI-IFL-PRT 

As for the clams, it was the clown who bought and consumed them. (The clams are the 

topic; the clown is the focus) 

9.1.1 Abbreviated Sentences Using Focus and Topicalization 

Focus and topicalization allow Ithkuil, as with other languages, to provide abbreviated sentences in

direct answer to commands, questions, or to comment on a topic already under discussion. Because the 

topic is already known within the contextual discourse, only the portion of the new sentence carrying 

semantic focus need be spoken. Similarly, the topicalization suffix in conjunction with the 

INTERROGATIVE illocution, allows for abbreviated inquiries within a known contextual discourse, 

similar to such abbreviated sentences in English, e.g., ‘and Bill?’ in lieu of the full sentence ‘Comment 

on how this applies to Bill.’ 

9.1.2 Word-order within Case-Frames 

Within a case-frame (see Section 5.4), the verb always appears in initial position to identify the clause 

as a case frame (using FRAMED Relation in the verb). Because of this, it becomes necessary to utilize 

the focusing and sequencing affixes from Sec. 7.4.13 to identify elements which carry focus or are 

topicalized within the case-frame. Additionally, the last noun within the case-frame will usually take the 

-Vt’ in degree 2, 6, 7, or 9 (see Sec. 7.4.13) to signify the end of the case-frame, unless this is clear 

without the suffix (e.g., because the case-frame is in sentence-final position). 

9.1.3 Additional Constraints in Word Order 

The following additional word-order constraints exist in order to avoid potential ambiguity or semantic 

incoherence. 

Nouns in Possessive and Associative cases (see Secs. 4.4 and 4.5) which are dependent on, or in 

apposition to a “head” noun, must immediately precede or follow that head noun, unless the 

relationship between the two nouns is otherwise clear from context or other morphological 

elements. 

A case-frame cannot be broken apart into segments within a main sentence, i.e., the case-frame 

must constitute a single cohesive clause and not contain elements of the main clause within it. It is 

possible to “nest” a second case-frame within a case-frame, similar to the way in which 

subordinate or relative clauses can be nested in English and other Western languages, e.g., 

[Despite owning a Picasso [that comes from his Blue period] [of which I, [a mere student,] am 

fond,]] Joe is actually a very humble person. 

9.1.4 Phonotactically-Induced Syntactic Modifications 

As mentioned above, word-order can shift in an Ithkuil sentence to accommodate phonotactic or 

phonaesthetic ends, i.e., for purposes of euphony. This is because suffixes on a formative, as well as 

morphemes associated with categories of Aspect and Bias can be moved to verbal adjuncts or 

transformed into autonomous adjuncts (see Sections 6.3, 8.2, 8.3, and 8.4). As words of six syllables or 

more are generally undesirable, any formative with numerous affixes is potentially subject to having 

several of its morphemes redistributed to adjuncts.

Example: 

Ar-ryigrawileiţrar eglulôn. → Çtar-rya eirţ igralar eglulôn. 

MNO-PCL-DYN-‘eat.food’-HOR/FAC-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/UNI-EXT2/6-NA11/5-IFL STA-‘illness’-IND- 

NRM/DEL/M/CSL/UNI-AGC2/7-IFL → 

HOR/PPS/CTX-PCL EXT2/6 DYN-‘eat food’-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/UNI-NA11/5-IFL STA-‘illness’-IND- 

NRM/DEL/M/CSL/UNI-AGC2/7-IFL 

If only the physician wouldn’t eat his food in one gulp like that. 

When ordering such phonaesthetically-induced adjuncts, it is important that they can be easily 

associated with the formative to which they apply. Generally, this means that they will be adjacent to 

the formative, or occur on either side of other adjuncts associated with the formative. 

9.1.5 Iconicity 

English and other languages generally display phrase-structure patterns and word-order patterns which 

reinforce, or even reflect, a cognitive understanding of what is being described, i.e., the order of the 

words themselves reflects information about how we are to understand the utterance. Such a 

phenomenon is known as iconicity. In English and other Western languages, the most common way in 

which iconicity is manifested is what is termed “sequential order iconicity,” the idea that the actual 

sequential order of words in a phrase or sentence reflects the sequential order of the events they 

describe. For example, the phrases ‘eye it, try it, buy it,’ ‘I came, I saw, I conquered,’ or ‘dine and 

dash’ describe sequential events where the sequence of the words reflect the sequence of the events. 

What is most important is that re-ordering of the words either changes the meaning of the phrase or 

leads to semantic nonsense, e.g., ‘buy it, eye it, try it’ implies that a different sequence of events 

actually takes place than ‘eye it, try it, buy it.’ This can be more dramatically illustrated with the 

following pair of sentences. 

1) Jane got married and had a baby. 

2) Jane had a baby and got married. 

In English, the ambiguous word ‘and’ is interpreted as connecting a sequence of events, i.e., ‘and’ is 

interpreted to mean sequential ‘then’ (= ‘and following that,’ ‘then next’ or ‘then later’). As a result, the 

meanings of the two sentences imply very different social interpretations about Jane. 

Besides the reflection of sequential order, other types of word-order iconicity are possible. For example, 

compare the subtle difference in meaning between the following two sentences: 

3) Sam painted the fence white. 

4) Sam painted the white fence. 

In the first sentence, we do not know what color the fence was prior to being painted, or even if it was 

a new fence that had never been painted before. In the second sentence, not only do we know what 

color the fence had been, but also that it was not previously unpainted, however, we do not necessarily 

know what its new color is. This sort of iconicity is used to convey a resultative state of affairs, i.e., by

placing the adjective ‘white’ after the word ‘fence’ (seemingly in violation of the usual adjective-beforenoun 

word order used in English), we describe a resulting state of affairs. 

Yet another type of word-order iconicity is displayed in comparing the following two sentences. 

5) Loretta gave Sue a wedding gift. 

6) Loretta gave a wedding gift to Sue. 

Most grammar textbooks would state that these two sentences are semantically equivalent, the first 

employing a “ditransitive” pattern (i.e., juxtaposing an indirect object ‘Sue’ with a direct object 

‘wedding gift’), while the second uses a “complement” pattern in which the indirect object follows the 

direct object and is changed to a prepositional phrase using ‘to.’ However, there is a subtle semantic 

distinction between the two sentences. The first strongly implies that the wedding gift is for Sue, i.e., 

Sue is the bride and intended recipient. The second sentence, however, invites the possibility that Sue is 

only a temporary or circumstantial goal for the act of giving, but not the bride and intended recipient. 

For example, if Sue is merely a guest at the wedding and Loretta needed Sue’s help carrying an armload 

of wedding gifts, she might give a wedding gift to Sue, but that does not mean she would give Sue a 

wedding gift. This type of iconicity distinguishing a recipient from a directional goal is an example of 

what is termed “distance iconicity,” because the two linked words are made more “distant” from each 

other in the sentence as a reflection of their more circumstantial association. 

Ithkuil does not display iconicity. While the order of words in an Ithkuil phrase or sentence may 

coincidentally reflect a temporal or causative sequence of events, this is not by syntactic design. 

Because of the myriad means available in Ithkuil to morphologically distinguish sequence, cause-andeffect, 

resulting states, and the distinction of recipients from directional goals, no iconicity patterns are 

required. 

For example, we saw in sentences (1) and (2) above how English ‘and’ can be used to convey not just 

mere coordination, but also a sequencing function. In Sections 7.4.3 and 7.4.4, we saw that Ithkuil has 

no less than thirty-six suffixes (four suffix categories, each with nine different degrees) which convey 

various coordinative and sequencing patterns with great specificity. Thus, Ithkuil has no morpheme 

directly equivalent to the ambiguous English word ‘and.’ There is an affix corresponding to ‘and’ in its 

use as a mere additive listing device (e.g., ‘pears and apples and bananas’), another corresponding to its 

use as an indicator of simultaneity (e.g., I clenched my fists and scowled), another corresponding to its 

use as an indicator of additional information (e.g., The clown likes children and loves to eat), another 

to its use as an indicator of parallel description or activity (e.g., We went dancing and so did they), and 

yet another as a temporal sequencing indicator (e.g., I went to the window and looked out). 

9.2 MORPHO-SEMANTIC CONSIDERATIONS 

It should be noted that when structuring an Ithkuil sentence, particularly when translating from other 

languages such as English, care must be given to avoid capturing irrelevant semantic information 

reflected by the morphology of the source language and trying to find an equivalent or parallel way to 

reflect those irrelevancies in the Ithkuil sentence. This can have a profound effect on the morpho-

syntactical structure of the resulting Ithkuil sentence. 

9.2.1 Arbitrary Delineations of Perspective or Point of View 

One area where word-choice in English and other Western languages arbitrarily affects sentence 

structure is in the unintentional schematicization of a particular perspective or point of view. For 

example, consider the following pair of sentences in English. 

1) The path climbs steeply out of the canyon. 

2) The path descends steeply into the canyon. 

Both of these sentences are describing the same property of the path — its steepness. The distinction in 

the sentences comes from the point of view being reflected by the speaker. In sentence (1) the implied 

point of view is from the bottom of the canyon upward, while in sentence (2) the viewpoint is from the 

top of the canyon downward. What is important is that, semantically, the point of view is of no 

relevance to the steepness of the path per se. So if the cognitive intent of the utterance is simply to 

describe the vertical gradient of the path within the canyon, there would be only one Ithkuil translation 

for both of these sentences, eschewing the point of view entirely and restating the sentence to read: 


EXN 1/6 DYN-‘move.along.obliquely.vertical.path.between.two.points’-RPV/PRX/N/CSL/UNI-IFL STA-‘valley’- 

NAV-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/UNI-SCO 2/5-IFL 

The path through the canyon is steep. LISTEN 

9.2.2 Masking of Semantic or Participatory Roles 

Similarly, care must be made, when comparing Ithkuil sentence structure with other languages, to note 

that Ithkuil grammar allows for a more overt reflection of the underlying semantic roles inherent in a 

given sentence. As a result, sentence structures in Western languages which “mask” potentially 

anomalous semantic structures are avoided in Ithkuil. For example, compare the following pairs of 

sentences. 

3a) He supplied a report to the analyst. 4a) She applied a solvent to the stain. 

3b) He supplied the analyst a report. 4b) *She applied the stain a solvent. 

The syntactical patterns of these two pairs of sentences are identical, yet the word-order in sentence 

(4b) is ungrammatical (as indicated by the asterisk), while the same word-order in sentence (3b) 

presents no problem. The underlying reason for the difference is one of semantic role. While ‘analysts’ 

can function in the role of Recipients, ‘stains’ cannot (they are merely directional Goals, i.e., where the 

solvent gets applied). Cognitively, stains cannot “possess” a solvent the way analysts can “possess” a 

report. In Ithkuil, the semantic roles would be clearly defined by the case-markings of the participants. 

Therefore, syntactically inconsistent pairs such as (3b) and (4b) do not occur.

Sometimes, rather than semantic role, it is a participant’s relationship to an underlying clause that 

presents the problem. For example, He’s a tall president means ‘He’s a president who is tall.’ So why 

doesn’t He’s a likely president mean ‘*He’s a president who is likely’? The reason is that, while ‘tall’ 

describes its adjacent referent ‘president,’ ‘likely’ does not describe its adjacent referent. Rather, 

‘likely’ describes an underlying process in which that referent is or will be engaged, i.e., ‘running for 

president.’ Therefore, while these two sentences are morpho-syntactically identical in English, their 

Ithkuil translations are quite different from one another morpho-syntactically: 

Qi alkaţeins eádrai’seumi. 

ma-AFF STA-‘height’-NRM/DEL/N/CSL/UNI-PTT 2/6-IFL MNF-FRAMED/FML-‘preside/govern’-COR- 

NRM/PRX/M/CSL/UNI-ROL 2/4-FNC 

He’s a tall president. 

[literally: There is much height to him who formally presides.] LISTEN 

Qa eadramtôçqeumí. 

ma-OBL MNF-‘preside/govern’-NRM/ICP/M/CSL/UNI-PRB 2/7-ROL 2/4-FNC-FML 

He’s a likely president. 

[literally: He is one who probably will begin to formally preside.] LISTEN 

9.2.3 Negation 

Negation is another morpho-semantic area where translation from English or other Western languages 

can be tricky. Consider the English sentence Shelly doesn’t think they like her cooking. Note this 

sentence does not mean what a literal word-for-word analysis implies, i.e., ‘That they like her cooking 

is not something that Shelly is thinking.’ Rather, the correct meaning is ‘Shelly thinks that they don’t 

like her cooking.’ Ithkuil is very precise in specifying exactly what components of a sentence are to be 

negated. Use of the four affirmation/negation affixes from Section 7.4.9 in conjunction with a formative 

carries very specific information as to what morphological components of a sentence are being affirmed 

or negated and to what degree. Using these four affixes alone, Ithkuil can distinguish between the 

following four sentences without any syntactic rearrangement of the words: 

I don’t want to begin singing. 

I’m beginning to not want to sing. 

I want to not begin singing. 

I’m beginning to want to not sing.

Thus when translating negative sentences into Ithkuil, care must be taken to not syntactically 

“rearrange” a sentence as with Shelly doesn’t think they like her cooking. Additionally, Ithkuil makes a 

morpho-semantic distinction not found in Western languages: the difference between absolute 

negation and relative negation. Absolute negation implies that the non-existence or non-occurrence of 

an entity, state, or event is due to contextual inapplicability, while relative negation indicates that the 

non-existence or non-occurrence is circumstantial. This distinction is illustrated in the two sentences 

below: 

Ilmaţár êqeil. 

DYN-‘sing’-NRM/DEL/N/CSL/UNI-NA1 1/5-FML STA-‘girl’-ACT-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/UNI-IFL 

The woman doesn’t sing [even though she can, i.e., she chooses not to]. 

Ilmàţîr êqeil. 

DYN-‘sing’-NRM/DEL/N/CSL/UNI-NA1 1/4-FML STA-‘girl’-ACT-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/UNI-IFL 

The woman doesn’t sing [because she can’t, i.e., she is mute]. 

9.3 THE “CARRIER” ROOT 

Since the Ithkuil declensional and conjugational system is based on multiple patterns of vowel mutation, 

affixation, and shifts in tone and stress, proper nouns such as personal and place names, as well as non- 

Ithkuil words from other languages are by nature morpho-phonologically incompatible with such as 

system. Nevertheless, such words can be declined or conjugated like any other Ithkuil formative by 

means of the “carrier” root -p-. In addition to this use, the carrier root is employed in certain other 

contexts as well, as described below. 

9.3.1 Words that Cannot Take Affixes or Be Mutated 

The three primary stems of the carrier root, (a)p-, ep-, up-, are respectively associated with animate 

beings (the two complementary derivatives op- and âp- being humans versus non-humans or 

figuratively/metaphorically animate entities); inanimate entities (the two complementary derivatives öpand 

êp- being objectively concrete entities versus subjective entities such as thoughts, emotions, 

sensations, etc.); and finally intangible abstract referents (the two complementary derivatives îp-/ûpand 

ôp- being place names and abstractions). The carrier stem is placed immediately before the 

proper noun or foreign word or phrase, then declined or conjugated normally for any desired 

morphological categories, even verbal categories. The proper noun or foreign word or phrase 

itself is left unchanged. The non-Ithkuil word or phrase is pronounced with either high or rising

tone on its last syllable, in order to clue the listener that the following syllable/word returns to 

being Ithkuil. For those rare instances where the non-Ithkuil word or phrase natively carries 

grammatical tone (e.g., properly pronounced Cantonese), the end of the phrase can be indicated 

by either a pause in speech or repetition of the carrier-stem following the phrase. (Note: this 

repeated carrier-stem would not be indicated in writing - see Sec. 11.4.) 

9.3.2 Emphasizing or Highlighting a Particular Category 

Another use of the carrier root is to emphasize or topicalize a particular affix or grammatical element 

associated with a word. For example, in English we can say ‘a big house’ with extra intonation on the 

word ‘big’ to emphasize that word. To accomplish such emphasis in Ithkuil, the carrier root is used with 

the augmentative suffix in conjunction with the noun ‘house’ as opposed to simply using the 

augmentative suffix on the stem for ‘house.’ No change in vocal pitch or intonation is required, as the 

grammatically unnecessary use of the carrier root serves to accomplish the required emphasis. Any 

morphological category manifested by a carrier root rather than an adjunct or mutation serves to 

emphasize that category. (It should be noted that the use of optional combination and euphonic adjuncts 

do not accomplish such emphasis. Their use versus non-use imparts no difference in emphasis for the 

particular morphological categories contained in the adjunct.) 

9.3.3 Titles of Address 

It should be noted that the use of the carrier root in front of the names of persons serves to function as 

a title of address corresponding to English Mister, Ms. or Miss. There is no distinction of gender or 

marital status conveyed by the term. 



Links of 

Interest 

Updates / 

News 

2 Morpho- 

Phonology 

3 Basic 

Morphology 

6 More Verb 

Morphology 

7 Suffixes 

Proceed to Chapter 10: Lexico-Semantics >> 

10 Lexico- 

Semantics 


System 

12 The Number 

System 

List of 

Abbreviations 

The Lexicon 

Texts


Grammar 



cowrote 



the 


features 


computer.) 









Links of 

Interest 

Updates / 

News 

2 Morpho- 

Phonology 

3 Basic 

Morphology 

6 More Verb 

Morphology 

7 Suffixes 

10 Lexico- 

Semantics 


System 

Chapter 10: Lexico-Semantics 

10.1 Systemic Morphological Derivation10.4 Lexical Generalization 

10.2 Dimensional and Descriptive 

Oppositions 

10.3 Spatial Position and Orientation 

10.5 Lexical Differentiation 

10.6 Comparison to Western 

Categorization 

12 The Number 

System 

List of 

Abbreviations 

The Lexicon 

The term lexico-semantics refers to the relationship between the lexicon of a language (i.e., its rootwords 

and word-stems) and the various possible semantic categories created by the human mind. Every 

language (and particularly every language family) divides the world up differently in terms of what sorts 

of concepts are made into words and how the meanings of those words reflect the reality around us. In 

other words, the lexico-semantics of a language answers the questions what semantic concepts does 

this language psycho-linguistically categorize into autonomous words and how are each of these 

categories internally organized? 

Lexico-semantics is extremely important in Ithkuil for two related reasons: 

1) Ithkuil morpho-phonology only allows for 3600 possible root words, as explained in Chapter 2. This 

means that the concepts chosen to be conveyed by these roots must be carefully selected to insure the 

widest range of conceptualization possible within such a limited framework. 

2) We have seen throughout this work how Ithkuil’s matrix-like grammatical structure allows for an 

incredible amount of synergy in terms of morphological word-derivation, generating wholly new, 

emergent concepts from word-roots, not simply mere conjugations, declensions, and transparent 

derivations. In order to ensure the maximum amount of dynamism in deriving new concepts 

Texts

morphologically from existing word-roots, it is important that those initial roots be carefully selected in 

terms of meaning. 

In this chapter, we will examine the many considerations that go in to the assigning of concepts to those 

3600 roots, in order to optimally accomplish what has been demonstrated throughout this work: using 

the dynamics of Ithkuil morphology to eliminate the need for the hundred thousand or more 

autonomous word roots of natural languages, or to put it colloquially, “getting the most lexico-semantic 

bang for the morpho-phonological buck.” 

We will start first with a review of key components in the systemic design of Ithkuil morphology. This 

will be followed by sections on those areas of Ithkuil lexico-semantics which are most profoundly 

distinct from Western languages. 

The last section deals with comparison to Western categorizations, examining how Ithkuil lexicosemantics 

reinterprets certain concepts considered “fundamental” in English and other Western 

languages. 

Note on Ithkuil's Implicit “Theory of Meaning” 

For those readers who may be trained in linguistics, particulary cognitive linguistics, it should be noted 

that at this point in the author’s development of the language, a traditional Enlightenment-based theory 

of meaning, assuming a one-to-one correspondence between a lexeme and its external “in-the-world” 

referent, has been implicitly assumed for convenience and/or expediency’s sake. A more careful and 

rigourous construction for Ithkuil’s lexico-semantics, given the author’s stated design goals (as described 

in the Introduction section), would not assume such a theory of meaning, but would rather incorporate 

more recent findings of cognitive science and cognitive linguistics to reflect embodied meaning and 

metaphor-based conceptualization. However, pursuing such a foundation for the lexico-semantics of the 

language would, in the author’s opinion, be extremely time-consuming (on the order of many additional 

years, perhaps decades, to construct). Rather than withdraw the language from public availability for 

such reasons, the author has chosen instead to adopt a traditional/formalist foundation for its lexicosemantics 

essentially out of convenience, in order to be able to showcase the language's morphology. 

10.1 SYSTEMATIC MORPHOLOGICAL DERIVATION 

Ithkuil systematically uses its myriad of morphological categories to derive secondary concepts from 

more basic concepts, often eliminating the need for separate lexicalization, i.e., eliminating the need to 

create separate word-roots for new but related concepts as is so often the case in Western languages. 

We will explore this system of morphological derivation more closely, particularly in regard to its 

universality across the spectrum of Ithkuil word-roots. 

10.1.1 Stem Derivation from Roots 

We have already seen many applied examples of the above-described concepts, particularly in Section

2.3 et seq. regarding the use of the three different Vr vowel patterns to derive a trinary array of 

interrelated stems from a root, as well as shifting the Vr vowel of those trinary stems to in turn derive 

two separate arrays of complementary stems from the initial holistic array of stems. Through this 

system of vowel shifts, we saw how a single root generates no less than eighteen formative stems, each 

functioning as a noun or verb. This is illustrated below using the example root -k-‘TRANSLATIVE 

MOTION’. 

-K- ‘TRANSLATIVE MOTION’ 

INFORMAL Designation FORMAL Designation 

1. ak- move/motion from one place to 

another 

2. ek- set in motion/self-directed 

movement from one place to another 

3. uk- move/movement between one place 

and another (i.e., along line between two 

points) 

1. aká- travel/traverse; journey 

2. eká- set off for/journey to/directed 

travel toward 

3. uká- travel/journey along way between 

two places 

COMPLEMENTARY STEMS COMPLEMENTARY STEMS 

1. ok- go = movement 

outward/away 

2. ök- go away/move away 

= increase distance from a 

starting point 

3. îk/ûk- leave/depart = 

move away from one point 

towards another 

1. âk- come = movement 

inward/toward 

2. êk- come toward/to 

close the distance = 

decrease distance toward 

endpoint 

3. ôk- approach = 

approach one point from 

direction of another 

1. oká- go traveling, be off 1. âká- journey to(ward) 

2. öká- travel/journey 

further away from starting 

point 

3. îká/ûkádepart/departure 

from 

starting point on journey 

toward elsewhere 

2. êká- reach vicinity of, 

close in on destination 

3. ôká- arrive/arrival, reach 

destination 

As described in Chapter 2, this hierarchical pattern of stem derivation and division into complementary 

stems from a more basic or underlying “holistic” stem allows for significant collapsing in the number of 

word-roots necessary compared to Western languages, as words that are semantically interrelated in a 

hierarchical or complementary fashion can be derived morphologically from a basic root, as opposed to 

being assigned separate word-roots as in other languages. The above root -k- demonstrates how 

concepts such come versus go are expressed as complementary derivations of a single underlying

concept TRANSLATIVE MOTION. All such complementary stems based on participant perspective 

are similarly patterned, e.g., lead/follow, buy/sell, give/take, etc. 

Additionally, this hierarchical structure of stem derivation from a single root using vocalic infixes allows 

for the creation of “built-in” classification schemes and taxonomies for concepts which require them. 

Biological taxonomies, for example, can be easily accommodated under this scheme, first dividing the 

two Forms (Designations) of the root into the animal itself versus the animal as a resource, the holistic 

stems indicating first the generic species then male versus female. The complementary stems then make 

the further distinction between wild versus domesticated for the informal stem and between food/prey 

and derived or processed products for the formal stem. 

Using the nine degrees of the Stem Specific Derivative SSD suffix -k from Section 7.4.13 on such a 

root, we can extend this scheme to denote specific parts, products or derived resources such as the 

milk, oil, meat, skin or hide, tail, tusk or horn, hair or fur (e.g., wool), etc. The Degree of Maturity 

MAT suffix -p h from Section 7.4.10 is also applied to indicate the developmental stage of the animal, 

providing derived equivalents to words such as foal, fawn, lamb or cub, from horse, deer, goat, or lion. 

10.1.2 The Use of Derivational Suffixes 

In Chapter 7, we saw how many of the approximately 200 suffix categories can be used to generate 

both derivative concepts as well as amalgamated gestalts carrying a new holistic meaning. As an 

example, here are only ten of the various new concepts which can be derived through affixes from the 

stem el- ‘say something [i.e., communicate a verbal message]’: 

elalaiq’ ‘share a secret’ suffix = DSR2/8 

elalêpţ ‘news’ suffix = ATC2/3 

elalâxh ‘quip’ suffix = SCO2/5 

elaluiq ‘praise, adulation’ suffix = NTR2/9 

elalôpt ‘lie’ [= tell a lie] suffix = REA2/7 

elalainţ ‘shout out a message’ suffix = STR2/8 

elalên 

‘persuasive person, a 

persuader’ 

suffix = AGC2/3 

elalôn ‘liaison, a go-between’ suffix = AGC2/7

elaliuçaukç ‘whisper sweet nothings’ suffixes = AFT2/1 + FRC2/2 

elaliucêps ‘cuss, curse’ suffixes = UNQ 2/1 + MTA 2/3 

Similarly the use of the Consent CNS suffix, the Reason RSN suffix, the Expectation XPT suffix, the 

Deliberateness DLB suffix, the Enablement ENB suffix, the Agency/Intent AGN suffix, and the Impact 

IMP suffix from Section 7.4.12 in conjunction w/ Transrelative cases (Sec. 4.3), provides a means for 

describing extremely subtle scenarios of causation, willingness, enablement, hindrance, etc. which other 

languages can only capture via long-winded paraphrase. Employing this array of affixes and cases, a 

sentence such as The singer stopped the boys from playing around can be translated into Ithkuil in 

many syntactically equivalent (but morphologically distinct) ways to indicate whether the singer used 

physical force or persuasion to stop the boys, whether she stopped them via an indirect enabling means 

(such as turning out the lights), or whether it was the boys themselves who stopped upon hearing her 

voice or seeing her beauty, or even by her mere presence interrupting them (such as walking in on them 

inadvertently), as well as the degree of willingness or consent with which they stopped. The following 

example sentence further illustrates the complex detail which these suffixes make possible: 

Ôqölöňtauspûls êļnelôzra iaçtaxhtiamsíţ. 

STA-‘man’-EFF-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/UNI-XPT1/2-DLB2/2-ENB1/6-IFL STA-‘bird’-ABS- 

NRM/DEL/M/CSL/UNI-IMP2/7-IFL 

DYN-‘room’-NRM/DEL/U/COA/CST-AGN2/9-DEV1/1-FML 

Aided by the bird’s own stupidity, the man unexpectedly and accidentally killed it without 

even realizing he’d done so, by inadvertently letting it out of the house.__________ 

The DEV suffix from Sec. 7.4.9, in first degree, roughly corresponds to the reversive prefixes of 

English such as ‘un-,’ ‘de-,’ and ‘dis-’ to indicate the undoing or opposite of a word. However, in 

Ithkuil this suffix is productive for all semantically applicable stems and operates in conjunction with 

Modality (Section 6.1) and the Modality suffixes from Section 7.4.11 to extend the system of 

modalities, as illustrated by the following: 

promise to + DEV/1 = foreswear, vow never to 

can (know how to) + DEV/1 = be ignorant of 

decide to + DEV/1 = avoid 

offer to + DEV/1 = refuse to 

agree upon/to + DEV/1 = decline to/abstain from 

like to + DEV/1 = loathe 

fear to + DEV/1 = love to 

need to + DEV/1 = dispensable, unnecessary to, can dispense with

10.1.3 The Use of Configuration, Affiliation, and Context 

Each of these categories has means to generate amalgamate, holistic, or emergent concepts from a more 

basic underlying stem. 

10.1.3.1 Configuration: In Sec. 3.1 we saw how applying each of the nine Configuration categories to 

a stem often generates forms based on amalgamation of sets which require complete relexification when 

translated into English. Examples are: 

bone → skeleton 

strut/girder → frame → framework 

component → structure → system 

ingredient → compound 

food → dish → meal 

tool → toolset 

do/perform → coordinate 

vehicle → convoy 

person → group → crowd → masses 

activity → process. 

10.1.3.2 Affiliation: In Sec. 3.2 we saw how the four Affiliations can generate new concepts based on 

delineations of purpose, benefit, or function. Examples include: 

group → team, 

grove → orchard 

assortment → collection → junk 

process → plan 

10.1.3.3 Context: In Sec. 3.6.4 we encountered the AMALGAMATE context, which serves to identify 

a stem specifically as a gestalt entity, composed of objective and subjective/social elements or 

components which contribute to the overall nature of the stem. Depending on the stem to which it is 

applied, the use of the amalgamate can cause relexification in translating to English. Examples: 

demeanor → personality 

craftsmanship → artistry 

career → livelihood 

(one’s) past → (one’s) life 

to look after/tend → nurture 

10.1.4 The Use of Designation and Version 

In Section 3.7 on Designation as well as Section 5.8 on Version, we saw how both of these 

morphological categories create distinctions in word-stems which usually require relexification in 

translation. The following word pairs illustrate such relexification:

(the) past → history see → observe 

writings → literature one → single/singular 

wordplay → rhetoric hear → listen 

behavior → demeanor desire → request 

wander → travel query → research 

eat → dine ponder → analyze 

containment → storage path → route 

Again we see that application of morphological categories to word-stems serves to generate forms which 

substitute for lexical distinctions in other languages, thus helping to reduce the size of the Ithkuil lexicon. 

10.1.5 The Use of Phase and Extension 

The use of the nine Phases, as explained in Sec. 5.5, used in conjunction with the category of Extension 

(Sec. 3.4) gives rise to an elaborate means by which to describe phenomena in terms of duration, 

periodicity, repetition, iterativity, and cyclic phenomena. When used in conjunction with the twelve 

Modulative suffixes from Sec. 7.4.7, the Iteration ITN and Repetition RPN suffixes from Sec. 7.4.5 

and the Intensity ITY suffix from Sec. 7.4.10, Phase becomes an extremely powerful means to describe 

with great subtlety all phenomena which display vibratory, oscillative, wavering, on-off, or variative 

movement, motion, or intensity. As an example, specific application of the various phases combined 

with the aforementioned suffixes and other suffix categories to a single stem -nt- ‘[make] sound’ can 

give rise to translations for all of the following English words: 

acoustic 

audible 

auditory 

bang 

blast 

boom 

buzz 

cacophony 

calm 

click 

clickety-clack 

clink 

crack 

crackle 

crash 

din 

discord 

dissonance 

drone 

faint sound 

fizz 

gag 

grate 

hiss 

howl 

hullabaloo 

hum 

hush 

jangle 

kerplunk 

knock 

loud(ness) 

lull 

moan 

muffle 

murmur 

mute 

noise 

pit-a-pat 

plink 

pop 

quaver 

quiet 

racket 

rap 

rat-a-tat 

rattle 

raucous 

resonant 

reverberate 

ring 

roar 

rumble 

rush of sound 

rustle 

screech 

sonorous 

sound 

staccato 

stifle 

strident 

stutter 

swirl 

swish 

tap 

thump 

tick 

toot 

twang 

uproar 

vibration 

whir 

whistle 

whiz 

whoosh

echo 

explosion 

pandemonium 

peal 

shrill 

silence 

snap 

The same principles applied to other types of stems give rise to a plethora of complex and subtle means 

for describing motions, paths, trajectories, movement in situ, light emanation, reflection, consistency, 

texture, variation in shape, visual complexity, etc. 

10.1.6 Note on the Absence of Lexico-Semantic “Classes” 

It should be noted that in previous versions of the language, formative roots were divided into lexicosemantic 

“classes” designated by the phonological patterning of the root (there were 17 such classes in 

the original version of Ithkuil, ten such classes in Ilaksh). In the current version of the language, these 

lexico-semantic classes have been eliminated, as the author has realized that the establishment of such 

classes does not serve any real functional purpose in “real-world” spoken/written contexts; the ability to 

identify the semantic class of a stem does not sufficiently aid in understanding the stem’s specific 

meaning. Therefore, the assignment of phoneme patterns to roots in Ithkuil is now arbitrary. While the 

astute reader will note that many roots pertaining to a specific semantic notion (e.g., animals, plant and 

substance taxonomies, spatial position, etc.) still have similar phonological patterning, such patterning is 

nevertheless merely incidental and is without formal significance. 

10.2 DIMENSIONAL AND DESCRIPTIVE OPPOSITIONS 

Another area of the lexicon where Western languages tend to divide up reality into binary oppositions is 

the realm of spatial dimensions, where pairs such as near/far, small/large, thin/thick, narrow/wide, 

tall/short, light/heavy, hot/cold, etc. are commonplace. As with the perspective-based oppositions seen 

in the preceding section, again Ithkuil lexico-semantics treats such concepts in a wholly different way. 

Rather than lexicalize such concepts as pairs of binary oppositions, Ithkuil delineates these qualities as 

varying points along a continuous range. In other words, in Ithkuil you do not say X is cold and Y is 

hot, but rather X has less temperature and Y has greater temperature. Similarly, one does not say A is 

near to me and B is far from me, but rather the distance from me to A (or proximity of A to me) is less 

than the distance from me to B (or proximity of B to me). Note that the choice of translation for the 

latter stem as either ‘distance’ or ‘proximity’ becomes arbitrary, as the real meaning of the Ithkuil 

formative is ‘amount of linear space separating one party from another.’ Virtually all Western 

descriptive and dimensional oppositions are similarly handled in Ithkuil as mere variance in the quantity 

of a single quality, the degree of an attribute, or the extent along a spatio-temporal range or continuum. 

10.3 SPATIAL POSITION AND ORIENTATION

Concepts of spatial position and orientation are expressed very differently in Ithkuil as compared to 

Western languages such as English. The three major differences are explained below, each of which will 

be explored in detail in the sections which follow. 

1) Ithkuil does not employ prepositions; all notions of spatial relationships, position, and orientation are 

designated by nominal/verbal formatives. 

2) While Western languages allow spatial/positional reference to function autonomously irrespective of 

the speaker’s cognitive or semantic intent, Ithkuil subordinates spatial/positional reference at the lexicosemantic 

level in deference to the cognitive or semantic purpose of an utterance. What this means is 

that sentences describing spatial relationships or positional reference are only used when the underlying 

intent of the speaker’s utterance is purely to specify spatial or positional reference information. If, in 

fact, the underlying intent of the utterance is to show some functional or purposeful relationship (where 

a spatial relationship is merely coincidental or consequential), the Ithkuil sentence will describe this 

function or purpose, not the spatial relationship. For example, in answer to the question Where’s Billy? 

an English speaker might give answers such as (a) He’s standing right next to Sam, or (b) He’s in bed, 

or (c) He’s in the bathtub. While each of these sentences gives spatial information, only the first is truly 

intended to convey spatial information as its purpose, while sentences (b) and (c) imply information that 

is, in fact, more relevant than the spatial information given, e.g., sentence (b) could be restated as ‘He’s 

sleeping (or sick),’ while sentence (c) could be restated as ‘He’s bathing.’ An Ithkuil speaker would not 

utter sentences like (b) or (c) in answer to the query about Billy, since he/she would assume the 

question Where’s Billy? is intended to inquire only about Billy’s physical position in absolute space. If 

the questioner had, in fact, been seeking non-spatial information, he/she would have asked the Ithkuil 

equivalent of What’s Billy doing? or What’s happening with Billy? to which a Ithkuil speaker would 

answer with sentences corresponding to the rephrased versions of (b) or (c), not their original versions. 

3) Ithkuil utilizes an absolute coordinate system of comparative spacial reference, not a relative one as 

found in most languages. Note the positional ambiguity inherent in sentences such as He’s standing to 

the left of the desk. To be meaningful, the listener must first determine from whose perspective the 

speaker is referring (i.e., do we mean the speaker’s left, the addressee’s left, the desk’s left relative to 

the position of the speaker, the desk’s left relative to the position of the addressee, or the desk’s left 

relative to the direction the desk is oriented/facing?) Such ambiguity occurs because Western languages 

employ a relative coordinate system which can shift from one participant or referent object to another. 

Ithkuil spatial reference employs an absolute coordinate system independent of the perspective of a 

participant (e.g., the speaker or addressee) or referent object (i.e., the thing(s) whose position is being 

described), as opposed to the relative coordinate system found in Western languages. The Ithkuil 

system allows listeners to understand exactly the spatial relationship and orientation of any object(s) in 

absolute space, irrespective of anyone’s (or anything’s) personal perspective. 

10.3.1 Formatives vs. Prepositions 

Besides lexically “partitioning” the world of two- and three-dimensional space in different ways than in 

Western languages, Ithkuil has no prepositions. Rather, Ithkuil utilizes formatives which describe a 

spatial relationship between two objects or between an object and an associated background, the nearest 

translations being a noun meaning “the area X” or a verb meaning “to be positioned X”, where X 

corresponds to a Western preposition or positional adverb such as “in” or “inside.”

10.3.2 Underlying Cognitive Purpose of an Utterance 

Ithkuil grammar considers the functional relationship between two objects to be primarily relevant, not 

their spatial orientation or position relative to each other (or between an object and its background). 

When it comes to describing an object against a background or the relationship between two objects, 

Ithkuil grammar is more interested in answering the question How do X and Y function relative to each 

other, rather than How are X and Y positioned in space relative to each other? 

For example: in uttering the English sentence The vase is on the table, is the intention of the sentence to 

tell the listener the physical coordinate position of the vase in 3-D space relative to the table, or to tell 

the listener that the vase is being physically supported (i.e., against gravity) by the table? If the intention 

is the former, the corresponding Ithkuil sentence would indeed utilize a spatial formative translatable as 

‘manifest self on the top side of a surface that is horizontal relative to the direction of gravity.’ 

However, if the intention is to actually indicate support against gravity, the Ithkuil sentence would not 

utilize a spatial reference at all, but rather translate the sentence more or less as The table is supporting 

the vase. As a result, spatial, locative, or orientational formatives in Ithkuil are used far less often than 

corresponding prepositions and spatial constructions in English or other Western languages. Note the 

following examples illustrating how various English sentences utilizing the concept ‘in’ (meaning ‘inside’ 

or ‘into’) are translated into Ithkuil using various non-spatial roots based on reason or purpose. 

ENGLISH SENTENCE 

The man works in(side) that 

building. 

The book is in that box. 

You’ll find pencils in(side) the 

small blue can. 

CONCEPT CORRESPONDING TO 

'IN(SIDE or INTO)' 

general locational reference where 

idea of interiority or containment is 

incidental 

physical containment only with no 

specific purpose 

incidental, temporary, or 

circumstantial constraint/holder to 

prevent spillage from gravity 

NEAREST TRANSLATION TO 

Ithkuil EQUIVALENT 

The man works at that 

building. 

That box contains the book. 

The small blue can holds the 

pencils you’re seeking. 

I poured soup in(to) the bowl. same as above I enabled the bowl to hold 

soup 

We stayed in(side) due to the 

rain. 

He placed the sword in(side or 

into) its sheath. 

shelter, containment for purpose of 

protection 

containment in fitted covering for 

purposes of protection 

We shelter ourselves from 

the rain. 

He sheathed the sword. 

He stayed in(side) his room. containment for purpose of privacy He shuttered himself. 

The tiger was kept in(side) a 

cage. 

There are high concentrations 

of lead in(side) that pottery. 

containment to prevent escape The tiger remained captured. 

ingredient, composite substance That pottery contains much 

lead. 

Microchips can be found inherent or integral component These days, any machine

in(side) any machine these 

days. 

I put fuel in the gas tank. 

We’ll never know what’s 

in(side) her head. 

He has a tumor in(side) his 

pancreas. 

He hammered a nail in(to) the 

wall. 

The child tried putting the 

square block in(side or into) 

the round hole. 

integral component having function to 

hold or contain other component 

incorporates microchips. 

I (re-)fueled the gas tank. 

intangible containment We’ll never know her 

thoughts. 

enveloped to inaccessible depth by 

surrounding medium 

His pancreas “harbors” a 

tumor. 

fastening/connecting He fastened the nail to the 

wall with a hammer. 

fitting together one object to another The child tried to fit the 

round hole and the square 

block together. 

This functional prioritization notwithstanding, Ithkuil is nevertheless able, if necessary, to describe true 

spatial relationships and orientations quite specifically. However, it does so in ways that are very 

unfamiliar in terms of Western grammar. These are described in the following section. 

10.3.3 Absolute vs. Relative Spatial/Positional Coordinates 

While Western languages are capable of describing the physical position and orientation of object in 

absolute terms (e.g., My hometown is located at 93°41'36"W by 43°12'55"N), it is not normal to do so 

in general parlance. Rather, Western spatial position and orientation is normally relative, i.e., described 

from the dynamic perspective of the two objects themselves or from the perspective of a third party 

observer (usually, but not exclusively, the speaker). Therefore, if I describe the position of objects in 

my backyard to you on the telephone, and you have never seen my backyard, phrases such as ‘the 

swingset is against the wall,’ ‘the barbecue is sitting to my right,’ ‘the elm tree is behind the shed’ and 

‘the rose bush is beyond the bird fountain’ convey little information without first having to establish a 

common frame of reference based on where the speaker is positioned relative to the edges of the yard 

(in order to interpret what he means by ‘beyond the fountain’), which way he is facing relative to the 

yard (in order to interpret what he means by ‘to my right’), perhaps even the orientation of the shape of 

the yard relative to some external absolute system of orientation (e.g., the four cardinal directions N, S, 

E, W). 

In such a relative scheme concepts such as ‘to my right’ change completely if I turn my body 180 

degrees. Confusion also occurs when I say ‘to the left of the chair.’ Do I mean to the left side of the 

chair from my (the speaker’s) perspective? Or do I mean to the left side of the chair from the 

perspective of someone sitting in the chair? 

Ithkuil avoids such confusions by being based on an absolute coordinate system of spatial reference as 

opposed to a relative system (similar in nature to the absolute system used in navigation based on the 

four cardinal points.). Very few languages on Earth utilize such absolute systems to the exclusion of 

relative systems. (Examples include Guugu Yimidhirr, an Australian aboriginal language; Tzeltal, a 

Yucatec Mayan language; and Yurok, an Algonquian Indian language of Northern California). Ithkuil

utilizes three different absolute coordinate schemes, each functioning within a different speech context. 

These coordinate systems establish a three-dimensional right-angled coordinate grid superimposed upon 

space, with the X-axis reckoned from a line perpendicular to the direction of gravity (which, for 

practical purposes, we may term “horizontal”), the Z-axis reckoned by a line corresponding to the 

direction of gravity (which may be termed the “vertical”) and the all-important Y-axis (which 

differentiates a relative system from an absolute) derived from one of three points of reckoning 

depending on which coordinate scheme is being utilized. The three schemes are as follows: 

1) Solar-based system. This is the standard Ithkuil system of reckoning. The line of the Y-axis runs 

parallel to the rising and setting points of the sun in mid-summer, with the vector oriented in the 

direction of the setting sun. Note that the alignment of this Y-axis relative to the X-axis is variable; i.e., 

the line connecting the rising and setting points of the sun merely designate the direction of the Y-axis, 

not it actual position. This is necessary so that descriptions of spatial relationships can be made using a 

“octant locator” system based on this grid, where any two objects can be made to lie within different 

octants relative to each other (this will be illustrated below). 

Use of this solar-based reckoning system continues at nighttime and on overcast or rainy days, based on 

society’s collective knowledge and/or recollection of landmarks indicating the rising and setting points of 

the sun. Use of this system even continues indoors if there exists a collective understanding of the 

orientation of the building/structure/room relative to the solar-based Y-axis (i.e., everyone in the room 

can still tell the orientation of the outdoor Y-axis, whether by sight through windows, or by noticing that 

the length-width ratios of the room are aligned with the outdoor Y-axis). 

2) Length vs. width of enclosed space or room. In indoor situations where the orientation of the 

outdoor solar-based Y-axis is unknown (or cannot be readily determined on a continuous basis as new 

speakers enter the room), an arbitrary Y-axis is connoted by the length of the room in a direction away 

from whichever end of the room displays a visibly unique feature (e.g., the doorway, a window, an 

alcove, an imposing piece of furniture, a stage or dais, etc.), this symbolically substituting for the 

position of the rising sun. This is the coordinate system which would be employed in theaters, enclosed 

banquet halls without windows, and cellars without windows or ready access to outside orientation. 

3) Arbitrarily delineated axis based on local landmarks, objects, or persons. This is similar to a 

Western relative system in which the speaker announces the orientation perspective being utilized. An 

Ithkuil speaker would consider this a highly unusual and “affected” method of reckoning. Nevertheless, 

it is possible to designate a personally defined reckoning system using words to designate the origin 

point and direction of the Y-axis vector, examples translatable by such phrases as ‘based on a vector 

from me to that large window’ or ‘based on a vector between the shed and the big oak tree.’ In fact, 

this is the purpose of the NAVIGATIVE case (see Sec. 4.7.6). The primary use for this system of 

reckoning is literary or narrative, such as when a speaker tells a story of another time and place, in 

which he/she wishes to describe spatial relationships solely within the context of the story in order to 

convey a mental map or image of the goings-on to his/her audience. 

10.3.3.1 Describing Spatial Relationships between Two or More Objects. Using such a triaxial 

three-dimensional grid, Ithkuil then lexically divides up space into “octants”, four quadrants to each 

given “hemisphere” of absolute space delineated by the three axes, for a total of eight octants. 

+X / +Y / +Z = “right / ahead / above” = Octant 1 = Root: -KST-

+X / +Y / -Z = “right / ahead / below” = Octant 2 = Root: -KŠT- 

+X / -Y / +Z = “right / behind / above” = Octant 3 = Root: -PST- 

+X / -Y / -Z = “right / behind / below” = Octant 4 = Root: -PŠT- 

-X / +Y / +Z = “left / ahead / above” = Octant 5 = Root: -KSP- 

-X / +Y / -Z = “left / ahead / below” = Octant 6 = Root: -KŠP- 

-X / -Y / +Z = “left / behind / above” = Octant 7 = Root: -PSK- 

-X / -Y / -Z = “left / behind / below” = Octant 8 = Root: -PŠK- 

There are eighteen additional roots corresponding to the above where either one or two of the X/Y/Z 

values are zero, indicating concepts equivalent English phrases such as ‘neither above nor below,’ 

‘straight down,’ ‘straight ahead,’ ‘directly behind,’ ‘straight up,’ ‘on the same plane as,’ etc. 

The SSD suffix in turn is used to specify translative movement from a starting octant specified by the 

stem toward an endpoint specified by the suffix, as follows: 

Degree 1 moving toward Octant 1 




Degree 5 moving toward a position between octants, (i.e., either X = 0, Y = 0, or Z = 0) 





Additionally, the LCT suffix is used with these roots to identify the location of objects within a specific 

octant. The above octants are indicated in the illustrations below. 

Because the lateral alignment (but not direction) of the solar-based X and Y-axes are variable (i.e., each 

can be slid laterally relative to the other axis), any two objects whose relative positions are to be 

described can be made to fall within two different octants, as illustrated in figures A, B, C and D below 

(Figure A represents the background context for which Figures B, C and D present varying positional 

frames of reference).

It is the ability to “slide” the axes of this three-dimensional grid that allows Ithkuil to easily describe the 

relative position of objects in an absolute manner. Because the grid can be arranged so that any two 

objects each fall into different octants, a series of octant-to-octant relationships between the two objects 

can be lexified. Thus, each of the above roots has a stem which, in conjunction with a set of affixes, 

designates a spatial relationship between an object occupying that octant and a second object occupying 

any of the seven other octants. For the purpose of this analysis, we will call each of these octant-to-

octant static relationships a “positional frame.” (the leftover affixes refer to (1) 1st object in motion 

while 2nd object at rest, and (2) 2nd object in motion while first object at rest. Used to mark the 

participant nouns with motion sentences described below.) 

Additionally, such a positional reference system allows a speaker to describe exactly the spatial 

relationships between two objects in motion relative to each other. This is done in Ithkuil by stating that 

two object are moving from positional frame A toward positional frame B. If one remembers that, by 

“positional frame” we mean a spatial relationship between two objects, not a specific location in space, 

it can be seen how such a simple formula easily describes the relative trajectories of two objects. An 

Ithkuil speaker is describing exactly how two objects are moving through space by stating in one short 

sentence the octant-to-octant relationship the two objects have to start with, and the octant-to-octant 

relationship they will have when the motion is ended. The root used to describe the motion indicates the 

nature of the motion in terms of its smoothness, speed, etc. 

To insert a third party into a positional frame (such as describing where the speaker or addressee or 

third party is situated relative to the two objects described in the positional frame) a case-frame clause is 

added to the sentence in the concursive case (“while/during/at the time of”) which states the positional 

frame between that third party and the FIRST party (unless the 2nd party is overtly specified). 

Example: “The dog and the ball M’d while the cat N’d,” where M is the positional frame of the dog and 

ball and N is the positional frame between the cat and dog. 

Based on the above, we can see just how exact Ithkuil can be in describing relative position between 

objects in an absolute manner. This is best illustrated by narrowly translating into English an Ithkuil 

sentence which describes a three-party positional situation. 

Qi’êlafs âmmul âhiogwokstatükai íxi’asa açt h u pštâ’at. 

STA-‘woman’-CNR-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/UNI-MVT1/5-IFL STA-‘child’-ABS-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/UNI-IFL 

NNR-CNF-DYN- [incorp. stem: ‘run’]-‘Octant-1’-NRM/DEL/U/CSL/UNI-SSD1/8-IFL-EXS/ISR FRAMED-DYN-‘see’- 

CNR-NRM/PRX/M/CSL/UNI-FML 

Ref2:OBL-Ref1:1m/Ref2:ua-Ref1:IND STA-‘Octant-4’-LOC-NRM/DEL/U/CSL/UNI-IFL 

There is no way to translate this Ithkuil sentence into everyday English except via inadequate 

approximation, thus: The woman stood still as the boy ran from ahead and above her, then past her, 

while I watched them from behind and below. However, a more exact, narrow translation of this 

sentence, capturing all of the positional/orientational specificity of the original, would run as follows: 

As the woman held still, the boy ran from a position above, ahead of, and to the right of 

her relative to the direction of the sunrise-to-sunset vector, a plane perpendicular to it, 

and the axis of gravity, toward a position still above, but behind and to the left of her 

relative to the same directional vector, perpendicular plane and gravitational axis, as I 

was watching them from below, behind, and to the right of her relative to the same vector, 

plane, and axis.

10.4 LEXICAL GENERALIZATION 

In a word-for-word comparison to a Eurocentric vocabulary, especially one as large as that of English, 

the Ithkuil lexicon appears very overgeneralized in many respects. At first impression, it appears that 

shades of meaning expressed by multiple words in English are expressed by only one root in Ithkuil. As 

we have seen repeatedly throughout this work, this is primarily due to the fact that shades of meaning 

for a single underlying cognitive concept are normally differentiated at the morphological level in Ithkuil, 

as opposed to the lexical. Nevertheless, there are several lexico-semantic areas where Ithkuil truly does 

generalize in comparison to Western languages. This occurs primarily where (1) Western vocabulary 

distinguishes separate lexemes for a redundant concept based on different participants to, practitioners 

of, or manifestations of that concept, and (2) where lexification is at an arbitrarily detailed or 

particularized level. These topics are discussed in detail in the following sections. 

10.4.1 Consolidation of Unnecessary Distinctions 

As an example of lexical generalization in Ithkuil (or over-lexicalization in English!), compare the 

following words for animal vocal sounds: meow, bark, whinny, chirp, moo, bray, etc. Each of these 

words mean merely to make one’s species-specific inherent vocal sound. Ithkuil utilizes only a single 

stem for this concept (essentially meaning vocal sound/vocalize – from the same root which gives the 

stem for (human) voice), based on the logical assumption that, since cats can’t bark, whinny or moo, 

and dogs can’t meow, whinny or moo, there is no need to differentiate lexically the innate vocal sound 

being made by an animal if the animal making the sound is identified in the sentence. Of course, one 

might argue that English allows for metaphorical or similative application of such words, as in The 

sergeant barked out orders to the platoon, or The baby squealed in delight. Such constructions are 

perfectly captured in Ithkuil via the ESSIVE and ASSIMILATIVE cases, as in He ‘vocalized’ the 

orders like a dog, or The baby ‘vocalized’ like a baby piglet from feeling delight, or via the 

manipulation of Function, Incorporation and Format (see Sections 5.1 and 6.4). 

Similar series of English words which reduce to a single stem in Ithkuil would be (1) herd, flock, pride, 

gaggle, etc.; (2) hair, fur, fleece, coat, etc.; (3) skin, hide, pelt, pellicle, peel, rind, lambskin, leather, 

integument, etc. 

10.4.2 Translative Motion, Paths and Trajectories 

By translative motion is meant the idea of an object moving (or being moved) from one location to 

another. English is particularly rich in its vocabulary to describe the various paths or trajectories of such 

an object, not only in regard to the “shape” or form of the path or trajectory, but also the means of 

initiating the movement. Thus we have terms such as to toss, throw, pitch, hurl, fling, roll, run, or 

pass a ball or other object. In reaching its destination, the object can fly, float, wing, pass, arc, sail, 

plummet, drop, fall, thread, hop, leap, bounce, roll, zig-zag, slide, glide, slither, or jump its way 

there. 

As we have seen to be the case in other contexts, Ithkuil lexifies concepts of translative motion with a 

focus on the contexts of purpose and outcome, not on the “innate structure” of the event as an end in

itself. Essentially, Ithkuil is less concerned with how the object gets there and is more concerned about 

why it’s going there and whether it arrives. For example, look at the following two columns of English 

sentences : 

I tossed it into the 

basket. 

It sailed into the basket. 

I flung it into the basket. It flew into the basket. 

I hurled it into the 

basket. 

I pitched it into the 

basket. 

It arced its way into the 

basket. 

It fell into the basket. 

The sentences in the lefthand column describes how I initiate the action while those in the righthand 

column describe how the object moves. In Ithkuil the lefthand column of sentences would normally all 

be translated by a single sentence narrowly translatable as I made it end up inside the basket, while the 

righthand column of sentences would all be translated by the exact same sentence minus the 

ERGATIVE personal referent I, thus: It ended up inside the basket. 

So where are the words translating the range of descriptive nuance surrounding the means of sending it 

into the basket and the different trajectories it takes there? In normal Ithkuil speech, such distinctions 

would be considered irrelevant. This is because Ithkuil grammar questions all acts, conditions and 

events as to their underlying cognitive purpose. For the above sentences, Ithkuil views them as all 

having the same underlying purpose: to express that I have caused an object to pass from a state of 

being in my alienable possession to a state of being within the basket, by passing through the physical 

space between me and the basket. Therefore there is only one translation for the varying sentence pairs. 

Before the reader begins to think that Ithkuil is incapable of distinguishing the shades of meaning 

present in the above examples, it should be noted that such distinctions can be easily rendered by 

additional affixes and words describing these concepts. For example, if it is truly necessary to indicate 

that the object was “flung” into the basket, Ithkuil can augment the sentence I made it end up inside 

the basket to include affixes which indicate use of the hand in a sudden recoil-like motion plus affixes 

indicating forceful and rapid arrival into the basket, the result being narrowly translatable as Using my 

hand in a sudden, subtle, recoil-like motion I caused it to move quickly away and end up forcefully 

inside the basket. 

While this would more or less accurately capture the nuances of English “flung,” Ithkuil first makes us 

stop and ask ourselves, why is it even necessary to describe the details of the trajectory and the force 

initiating it? After all, in a normal everyday contextual setting, if an English speaker were to use the verb

“tossed” or “threw” or “placed” or “put” instead of “flung” in the above sentence, would his/her 

speaker be considered to have been given information any less sufficient or essential for understanding 

the message and its purpose? All of which again illustrates the dynamism of Ithkuil lexico-semantics: if a 

complex, highly detailed morphology already conveys a high degree of semantic and cognitive nuance, 

why belabor the obvious by reinforcing such nuances at the lexical level if the context and underlying 

cognitive purpose of the utterance does not require it? Thus the Ithkuil language not only captures levels 

of cognitive detail beyond the scope of Western languages, but it also allows the speaker to avoid having 

to provide such detail when it is inessential. 

10.4.3 No Lexification of Specific Instances of Underlying Processes 

In regard to over-lexification in English from a Ithkuil perspective, an example would be limp, as in ‘to 

walk with a limp.’ Ithkuil recognizes that, in observing a person walking with a limp, it is not the 

condition per se that is relevant, but rather the manner in which the condition causes the person to 

move, i.e. asymmetrically, irregularly, discontinuously in an unexpected way inconsistent with a 

“normal” or “standard” expectation of walking. Ithkuil speakers would consider English limp to 

represent an arbitrarily specific occurrence of an underlying state of translative movement. To a Ithkuil 

speaker, what is important is the way the person moves. The idea that a person continues to “have a 

limp” even when sleeping or sitting is considered absurd. What the person “continues to have” is an 

underlying physical injury, abnormality, disability, illness, or deformity which causes the person to 

move asymmetrically when walking. Therefore, instead of He has a limp because of his war wound, a 

Ithkuil speaker would say He walks asymmetrically/irregularly because of his war wound. 

To illustrate this by analogy, consider a person who, when dancing to rock music, has a tendency to 

jerk his/her head to the left at the sound of the downbeat. Most English speakers would consider it 

ludicrous over-lexicalization to propose a verb “spreggle” meaning ‘to jerk one’s head to the left on the 

downbeat when dancing,’ as in the hypothetical sentence She spreggles to rock music. Yet, from the 

Ithkuil standpoint, there is no difference in arbitrariness between the hypothetical “spreggle” and the 

actual word ‘limp.’ 

Based on a combination of the above reasoning surrounding both animal vocal sounds and ‘limp,’ 

Ithkuil has no words for ‘blind(ness),’ ‘deaf(ness),’ ‘mute(ness),’ ‘dementia,’ or ‘paralysis.’ In Ithkuil, 

one simply says He can’t see, She can’t hear, She can’t speak, He can’t think, He can’t move, or 

alternately His faculty of sight (or other sense or innate faculty) doesn’t function/no longer functions. 

[Note: each of these sentences would, of course, employ appropriate morphological markers, case, 

voice, degrees of affixes, etc. to indicate the extent of functional loss, whether temporary or permanent, 

whether increasing or decreasing, whether externally caused or inherently developed, etc.] 

10.5 LEXICAL DIFFERENTIATION 

While we have examined the many ways in which the dynamism and logic of Ithkuil grammar 

eliminates whole swaths of equivalent English vocabulary, there are, nevertheless, many concepts 

where Ithkuil provides autonomous lexical roots and stems for which neither English nor other Western 

languages provide similar words and must resort to paraphrase in order to translate. Such concepts are

particularly found in the realm of human emotions, social relationships, functional interrelationships 

between objects, philosophy, psychology, and sensory phenomena. 

Underlying such differentiation is the idea that the Ithkuil language is meant to reflect in linguistic terms 

as close a representation of human cognition and pre-linguistic epistemological categorization as is 

possible in language without resorting to outright linguistic representations of pure mathematical logic. 

Since the inner mental life of the speaker is often clouded in vagueness or artificial “surface” categories 

once represented in spoken languages such as English and other Eurocentric languages, a language 

which is focused on representing that inner mental life will necessarily require many more words to 

describe that life than are commonly available in existing human languages. 

10.6 COMPARISON TO WESTERN CATEGORIZATION 

Western languages have several words and/or concepts for which there is no exactly corresponding 

equivalent in Ithkuil. These include the concepts embodied in the verb “to be” and “to have.” Ithkuil 

has no way of truly expressing copula identification corresponding to “be” or “being”, nor any direct 

translation of possession or ownership equivalent to “have.” Essentially this is because Ithkuil grammar 

and lexico-semantics do not recognize inherent existential identification or inherent existential possession 

as true semantic functional categories or fundamental cognitive primitives. 

10.6.1 Translating “To Be” 

Ithkuil grammar inherently recognizes that the universe is, at any and all moments, and on all scales 

large and small, in a state of flux. The idea that any given entity can be permanently or innately 

identified as “being” some other entity is considered nonsensical. Ithkuil grammar has no way of clearly 

indicating any such notions as “being” or “to be,” as the universe is a universe of actions or states that 

are the results of actions. Even states, as such, are in flux and different from moment to moment, if 

only because the mere passage of time itself renders the “static” condition different than it was the 

moment before. Therefore, one cannot “be” anything else, or for that matter “be” anything at all. 

Rather, one “does” or “functions as” or “fulfills a role as” or “manifests itself as” something else. 

Fundamental to Ithkuil grammar are the notions of function and purpose, not mere description; results, 

not mere means; manifestation, not mere existence. This explains why there is no true distinction 

between nouns and verbs in Ithkuil, both being mere differences in functional roles played by any given 

formative concept whose underlying meaning is not inherently nominal or verbal, but rather a 

conceptual primitive waiting to be manifested as either (1) a representation of an action, process, or 

event, (i.e., a verb), or (2) as a concrete or abstract entity that is representative of, or embodies the 

underlying concept (i.e., a noun). 

So, an Ithkuil speaker does not say I am John, She is a cook, The leaf is green, Stan is ill, or Murder 

is wrong, but rather One calls me John, She cooks [for a living], The leaf [currently] manifests a 

green color, Stan feels ill [or carries a disease], and Murder controverts morality. 

10.6.2 Translating ‘To Have’

In regard to “have” or “having,” Ithkuil views the concept of possession as breaking down into more 

specific functional states and categories, each operating independently and having little relation to each 

other. The neutral, default way of expressing “to have” involves placing the possessor in the DATIVE 

case and utilizing the MANIFESTIVE function of the verb, so that the phrase “I have a book” 

translates more or less as “There is a book to me.” 

10.6.3 ‘Yes,’ ‘No’ and Other Interjections 

As there are no interjections in Ithkuil, there are no true equivalents to “yes” and “no” in Ithkuil. 

Nevertheless, Ithkuil grammar also allows for the use of Bias suffixes (see Sec. 5.11) to function as 

autonomous words to convey attitudes and emotional responses similarly to interjections in Western 

languages. This phenomenon has already been discussed in Section 8.4. Additionally, Section 8.3 

described how affixual adjuncts may be used to convey information similarly to autonomous 

interjections. 

10.6.4 “WH”-Questions 

Ithkuil has no equivalent to WH-question words such as what? where? when? why? how? etc. Instead, 

statements are made using DIRECTIVE illocution (and hopefully SOLICITIVE bias) to provide the 

desired information. Thus, instead of asking “Where is the toilet?” or “What is your name?” one says 

“Please state the toilet’s location” and “Please identify yourself.” 

10.6.5 Translating Metaphorically Structured Phrases 

Ithkuil grammar recognizes that much of our understanding and expression of everyday experience is 

structured in terms of metaphor and metonymy (the latter being the reference to an entity by one of its 

attributes, associations or activities, as in The ham-and-cheese wants fries with his order or The 

White House has its nose in our business). Ithkuil allows for the overt designation of metaphorical 

concepts by several means. These include the REPRESENTATIONAL context, stem incorporation, the 

metonymic MET affix -qt, and the two part-whole PTF and PTG suffixes -rs and -š. 

Home Introduction 

Proceed to Chapter 11: The Writing System >> 

4 Case Morphology 

8 Adjuncts 

12 The Number


Links of 

Interest 

Updates / 

News 

2 Morpho- 

Phonology 

3 Basic 

Morphology 

6 More Verb 

Morphology 

7 Suffixes 

10 Lexico- 

Semantics 


System 


Grammar 


System 

List of 

Abbreviations 

The Lexicon 

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cowrote 



the 


features 


computer.) 








12 The Number 

System 


Links of 

Interest 

2 Morpho-Phonology 6 More Verb Morphology 10 Lexico-Semantics The Lexicon 

Updates / News 3 Basic Morphology 7 Suffixes 

11.1 Character Types 


System 

Chapter 11: The Writing System 

Texts 

11.4 Word Boundaries, Punctuation & Alphabetic 

Transliteration 

11.2 Direction of Writing 11.5 Handwritten Forms of the Characters 

11.3 Presentation & Analysis of the Character 

Types 

11.6 The Alternative Ornamental Writing System 

The Ithkuil script is a morpho-phonemic script, i.e., the individual characters do not simply convey phonetic 

(i.e., phonological) information, but also convey grammatical (i.e., morphological) information. Many of the 

characters are purely morphological in function and without any set phonological value, their specific 

phonological interpretation being up to the reader based on the flexiblility and options inherent in Ithkuil 

morpho-phonology. 

11.1 CHARACTER TYPES 

There are four types of characters used in the Ithkuil Script: Primary Case/Aspect characters, Secondary 

Case/Aspect characters, Tertiary characters, and Consonantal characters. Additionally, there are symbols used 

for numbers (to be discussed in Chapter 12), separate rules for transliterating non-Ithkuil words alphabetically, 

and a few punctuation symbols. 

11.1.1 Primary Case/Aspect Markers 

If present, the Case-Marker character is the first written character in a word. It is normally used to convey the 

case or case-frame of a formative, however, when the case or case-frame of the formative is the OBLIQUE, it 

can instead be used to convey one of the following: Aspect, Modality, Validation, or Valence. In addition to 

these categories, the character also shows the following categories: Configuration, Essence, Affiliation, 

Extension, Mood, and Version. 

Primary Case/Aspect characters are recognizable by the absence of a top or bottom horizontal bar (as is found 

on all consonantal characters below), as well as a diagonal section of the character either below or above the 

horizontal mid-line. This diagonal section of the character will always change direction at the horizontal midline

of the character. Examples: 

11.1.2 Secondary Case/Aspect Markers 

As stated above, Primary Case markers can be used to convey only one of the following categories at a time: 

Case, Aspect, Modality, Validation, or Valence. However, it is often necessary to be able to show more than 

one of these categories on a formative (i.e., the formative has non-default values for more than one of these 

categories). In such cases, secondary Case/Aspect Markers can be used. These characters are capable of 

showing Case, Aspect, and Modality simultaneously. Additionally, they can be used to show non-default values 

for the categories of Phase, Sanction, Designation, and Perspective. 

Secondary Case/Aspect markers can be recognized by the presence of a diagonal bar extending the entire length 

of the character from the top-line (or even above the top-line) all the way to the bottom-line (or even below the 

bottom-line). This diagonal bar may be broken or modified in the middle by either a horizontal or vertical zigzag, 

but will always continue in the same direction as before coming out of the break or zig-zag (unlike Primary 

Case/Aspect characters which have a change in direction beginning at the horizontal mid-line). Examples: 

11.1.3 Tertiary Characters 

These characters are used, when necessary, to convey the combination of two different aspects, aspect plus 

modality, aspect plus valence, aspect plus validation, validation plus modality, valence plus modality, or valence 

plus validation. They are recognizable by having a horizontal bar at the mid-line of the character which is not 

connected to any vertical or diagonal bars above or below the horizontal bar. The ends of the horizontal bar 

may be modified by points facing upward or downward. Examples: 

11.1.4 Consonantal Characters 

These characters are used to convey the consonantal root Cr, the incorporated root Cx (if present), and any 

Vx-C consonantal suffixes the formative may have. They are placed following any characters of Types 1, 2, or 

3, in the order (Cx)-Cr-(VxC)-(VxC... etc.) If an incorporated root Cx is present, it is indicated by vertically 

inverting the Consonantal character in order to distinguish it from the following Cr character. The Cr character 

is also used to convey the categories of Function, Format, Context, Illocution, and Relation, while the VxC 

character conveys affix type and degree, as well as Bias. 

Consonantal characters are recognizable by the presence of a horizontal bar either along the top-line or the 

bottom-line, the ends of which may be modified. Examples:

11.1.5 Example of the Script in Operation 

To illustrate further how a morpho-phonemic script operates, we can analyze the function of each character in 

the following Ithkuil sentence: 

Igrawileiţrar oi eglulôn. 

DYN-‘eat food’-FAC-HOR-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/UNI-NA1 1/5-EXT 2/6-IFL PCL STA-‘illness’-IND-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/UNI-AGC 2/7-IFL 

If only the physician wouldn’t eat his food in one gulp like that. 

The shape of this character indicates it is a primary character showing GENITIVE case 

or, alternately, PRECLUSIVE aspect. The bar below it indicates default 

PROCESSUAL version and also serves to indicate the character carries its alternate 

value, i.e., PRECLUSIVE aspect. The lack of a superposed diacritic over the 

character indicates FACTUAL mood as well as the fact that the word is a formative 

and not a personal reference adjunct. The lack of a diacritic alongside the character 

indicates MONADIC perspective and INFORMAL designation. The lack of 

modifications to the top half of the character indicates NORMAL essence and 

UNIPLEX configuration. The lack of modifications to the bottom half of the character 

indicates DELIMITIVE extension and CONSOLIDATIVE affiliation. 

The shape of this character indicates it is a consonantal character, /g/; the bottom-half 

modification adds an /r/ giving the form /gr/. Its position following a primary 

case/aspect character shows it is a Cr root, -GR-. The lack of modication to the topbar 

indicates Pattern 1, Stem 1, ‘food and drink; eat and drink one’s food’ as well 

as indicating UNFRAMED relation. The superposed dot diacritic indicates 

DYNAMIC function and default EXISTENTIAL context. The fact the character is not 

vertically inverted shows the word carries no incorporated stem or format. The 

absence of an underposed diacritic shows the stem is not triconsonantal or 

tetraconsonantal. The angular diacritic alongside the character indicates both 

HORTATIVE illocution and negative polarity (i.e., equivalent to carrying the NA11/5 

suffix). 

The shape of this character indicates it is a consonantal character, /ţ/. Its position 

following a Cr root and the fact it is vertically inverted indicates it is a V2C derivational 

suffix. The modification of the bottom-half (actually the top- half due to the vertical 

inversion of the character) prefixes a consonantal /r/ giving the phonological form /rţ/ 

which is the EXT suffix. The angular diacritic over the character indicates the suffix is 

Degree 6. The lack of modifications to the top-half (actually bottom-half due to vertical 

inversion) indicates the formative carries no Bias.

The shape of this character, its position following a consonantal suffix, the lack of tophalf 

or bottom-half modifications, and the absence of any diacrtics all serve to indicate 

the start of a new word which is a formative (as opposed to a personal reference 

adjunct) and that it is a primary character showing INDUCIVE case, PROCESSUAL 

version, NORMAL essence, UNIPLEX configuration, DELIMITIVE extension, 

CONSOLIDATIVE affiliation, INFORMAL designation, and MONADIC 

perspective. 

The shape of this character indicates it is a consonantal character, /g/; the bottom-half 

modification adds an /l/ giving the form /gl/. Its position following a primary case/aspect 

character shows it is a Cr root, -GL-. The modication to the top-bar indicates Pattern 

1, Stem 2, ‘illness/sickness’ as well as indicating UNFRAMED relation. The absence 

of a superposed diacritic indicates STATIVE function and default EXISTENTIAL 

context. The fact the character is not vertically inverted shows the word carries no 

incorporated stem or format. The absence of an underposed diacritic shows the stem 

is not triconsonantal or tetraconsonantal. The absence of a diacritic alongside indicates 

default ASSERTIVE illocution. 

The shape of this character indicates it is a consonantal character, /n/. Its position 

following a Cr root, the fact it is vertically inverted, and the absence of any bottom-half 

(actually top-half due to vertical inversion) indicates it is a V2C derivational suffix, 

AGC. The grave accent-like diacritic over the character indicates the suffix is Degree 

7. The lack of modifications to the top-half (actually bottom-half due to vertical 

inversion) indicates the formative carries no Bias. 

The absence of any secondary case/aspect character or placeholder characters within 

these formatives indicate default CONTEXTUAL phase and PROPOSITIONAL 

sanction on both formatives. 

As can be seen from the above analysis, the only purely phonological information conveyed by the 

written form of this sentence consists of the consonantal groupings /gr/ /rţ/ /gl/ and /n/. The 

remainder conveys solely morphological/grammatical information by which the reader “reconstructs” 

the pronunciation based on his/her knowledge of Ithkuil morpho-syntax and the various 

optional ways in which it maps to the language’s morpho-phonology. The non-alphabetic nature of 

the script, along with the flexibility of Ithkuil morpho-phonology, allows the written form of this 

sentence to be read in many equivalent ways, such as: 

Igrawileiţrar oi eglulôn. 

Oi eirţ igrawilar ôn eglul. 

Çtar-ryigraleiţrar eglulôn. 

If only the physician wouldn’t eat his food in one gulp like that.

11.2 DIRECTION OF WRITING 

The Ithkuil script is written in a horizontal boustrophedon (i.e., zig-zag) manner, in which the first and every 

subsequent odd-numbered line of writing is written left-to-right, while the second and every subsequent evennumbered 

line of writing is written right-to-left. The characters within even-numbered lines written right-to-left 

retain their normal lateral orientation and are not laterally reversed (i.e., they are not written in a mirror-image 

manner). A small left-pointed mark like an arrow or left-pointing triangle is placed at the beginning of evennumbered 

lines (i.e., those written right-to-left) to remind the reader of the line’s orientation. The following 

paragraph shows by analogy how the script is written. 

THE ITHKUIL SCRIPT IS WRITTEN IN A HORIZONTAL BOUSTROPHEDON 

TNEUQESBUS YREVE DNA TSRIF EHT HCIHW NI ,RENNAM (GAZ-GIZ ,.E.I) 

ODD-NUMBERED LINE OF WRITING IS WRITTEN LEFT-TO-RIGHT, WHILE 

-TIRW FO ENIL DEREBMUN-NEVE TNEUQESBUS YREVE DNA DNOCES EHT 

ING IS WRITTEN RIGHT-TO-LEFT. 

11.3 PRESENTATION & ANALYSIS OF THE CHARACTER TYPES 

The sub-sections below provide the details of the various characters and character-permutations associated with 

each character type. 

11.3.1 Primary Case/Aspect Characters 

The neutral default shape for a Primary Case/Aspect character is as follows: 

This shape can then be mutated into a variety of derivative shapes by means of changing the direction of the 

bars of the character at the mid-line point, extending the mid-line point horizontally, and changing the corner-like 

vertices to “offset” connections, as illustrated by the examples in Section 11.1.1 above: 

The common recognizable elements in any Primary Case/Aspect character, and what distinguishes such 

characters from the other three character-types, are (1) the absence of a horizontal bar along the top-line and the 

bottom-line, (2) a diagnonal bar running from the mid-line to either the top-line or to the bottom-line or both, and 

(3) a change in the diagonal bar’s (or bars’) direction at the mid-line. 

A Primary Case/Aspect character usually conveys the case of the formative (see Chapter 4), however, in the 

absence of case (e.g., as with a verb), or when the case is OBLIQUE, the character can convey one of the 

following other categories: Aspect, Modality, Valence, or Validation. 

The various ways the character conveys these categories is described below. 

(NOTE: If a formative is the first word in a sentence and carries no Aspect or Modality, and the other five 

categories are in their neutral/default modes (i.e., MNO valence, CNF validation, PRC version, CTX phase, and 

PPS sanction), then the Primary Aspect/Modality character will be missing, i.e., is not written.) 

11.3.1.1 Case: The 96 cases are shown by the main body of the character – there are 24 basic forms 

corresponding to the first 24 cases. The next group of 24 cases utilizes the same 24 forms laterally reversed.

The latter 48 cases utilize these same forms, vertically reversed. These forms are shown below (note that the 

vertical symmetricality of Forms 1 and 25, as well as Forms 3 and 27, require that Forms 49, 51, 73, and 75 

have special forms): 

Table 35: Primary Case characters (Note that for the purposes of this table, the VOCATIVE 

case is shown in Position No. 48.) 

1 OBL 25 PUR 49 EXC 73 CMP1A 

2 IND 26 CSD 50 AVR 74 CMP1B 

3 ABS 27 ESS 51 CMP 75 CMP1C 

4 ERG 28 ASI 52 SML 76 CMP1D 

5 EFF 29 FUN 53 ASS 77 CMP1E 

6 AFF 30 TFM 54 CNR 78 CMP1F 

7 DAT 31 REF 55 ACS 79 CMP1G 

8 INS 32 CLA 56 DFF 80 CMP1H 

9 ACT 33 CNV 57 PER 81 CMP2A 

10 DER 34 IDP 58 PRO 82 CMP2B 

11 SIT 35 BEN 59 PCV 83 CMP2C 

12 POS 36 TSP 60 PCR 84 CMP2D 

13 PRP 37 CMM 61 ELP 85 CMP2E 

14 GEN 38 COM 62 ALP 86 CMP2F 

15 ATT 39 CNJ 63 INP 87 CMP2G 

16 PDC 40 UTL 64 EPS 88 CMP2H 

17 ITP 41 ABE 65 PRL 89 CMP3A

18 OGN 42 CVS 66 LIM 90 CMP3B 

19 PAR 43 COR 67 LOC 91 CMP3C 

20 CRS 44 DEP 68 ORI 92 CMP3D 

21 CPS 45 PVS 69 PSV 93 CMP3E 

22 PRD 46 PTL 70 ALL 94 CMP3F 

23 MED 47 CON 71 ABL 95 CMP3G 

24 APL 48 VOC 72 NAV 96 CMP3H 

11.3.1.2 Configuration and Essence: These two categories (see Sections 3.1 and 3.5) are shown via 

modifications to the top “end” of the Primary Case/Aspect character, as shown below: 

Table 36: Modifications to Primary Case/Aspect Characters Indicating 

Configuration & Essence 

1 UNI 

2 DPX 

3 DCT 

4 AGG 

5 SEG 

6 CPN 

7 COH 

8 CST 

NRM essence RPV essence

9 MLT 

11.3.1.3 Extension and Affiliation: These two categories (see Sections 3.4 and 3.2) are shown via the 

bottom “end” of the Primary Case/Aspect character, as shown below: 

Table 37: Modifications to Primary Case/Aspect Characters Indicating Extension 

& Affiliation 

1 DEL 

2 PRX 

3 ICP 

4 TRM 

5 DPL 

6 GRA 

AFFILIATION 


11.3.1.4 Perspective and Designation: These two categories (see Sections 3.3 and 3.7) are shown via a 

diacritic mark written alongside the mid-line of the Primary Case/Aspect character following the character in the 

direction the line is being written. These diacritics are shown below: 

Table 38: Diacritics on Primary Case/Aspect Characters Indicating Perspective & 

Designation 

INFORMAL 

FORMAL 

PERSPECTIVE 

MONADIC UNBOUNDED NOMIC ABSTRACT

11.3.1.5 Mood: This category (see Section 5.2) is shown via a superposed diacritic above the Primary 

Case/Aspect character, as follows: 

Table 39: Diacritics on Primary Case/Aspect Characters Indicating Mood 

1 FAC 2 SUB 3 ASM 4 SPC 5 COU 6 HYP 7 IPL 8 ASC 

Note: If instead of one of the above, the Primary Case/Aspect character carries a superposed horizontal bar 

diacritic, this indicates that the word is a Personal Reference adjunct rather than a formative. In addition, 

high-toned personal reference adjuncts carry an underposed dot diacritic on the same Primary Case/Aspect 

character. (The presence of the superposed horizontal bar diacritic on the character prevents this underposed 

dot from being confused with Version marking explained in the section immediately below.) 

11.3.1.6 Version: This category (see Section 5.8) is shown via an underposed diacritic below the Primary 

Case/Aspect character. These diacritics come in two varieties, standard and alternate. Use of the alternate form 

of the diacritic indicates that the main body of the character conveys a category other than Case (explained 

below in Section 11.3.1.7). 

Table 40: Diacritics on Primary Case/Aspect Characters Indicating Version 

standard 

alternate 

1 PRC 2 CPT 3 INE 4 INC 5 PST 6 EFC 

11.3.1.7 Aspect, Modality, Valence and Validation: If the underposed version diacritic shown on a Primary 

Case/Aspect character is in an alternate form (as shown in Table 40 above), then the main body of the character 

no longer conveys the category of Case, but rather one of the following four categories: Aspect, Modality, 

Valence, or Validation, depending on which character is displayed (see Sections 5.10, 6.1, 5.7, and 5.9 

respectively, for explanations of these categories). The characters normally reserved for Case Nos. 1 through 

32 instead indicate the 32 aspects. The characters normally reserved for Case Nos. 33 through 62 instead 

indicate the 30 modalities. The characters normally reserved for Case Nos. 63 through 76 instead indicate the 

fourteen valences, and the characters normally reserved for Case Nos. 77 through 90 instead indicate the 

fourteen validations. These values are shown in the following tables: 

Table 41: Primary Aspect Characters 

(when accompanied by alternate form of underposed Version diacritic)

1 RTR 9 RSM 17 PMP 25 DSC 

2 PRS 10 CSS 18 CLM 26 CCL 

3 HAB 11 RCS 19 PTC 27 CUL 

4 PRG 12 PAU 20 TMP 28 IMD 

5 IMM 13 RGR 21 MTV 29 TRD 

6 PCS 14 PCL 22 CSQ 30 TNS 

7 REG 15 CNT 23 SQN 31 ITC 

8 EXP 16 ICS 24 EPD 32 CSM 

Table 42: Primary Modality Characters 

(when accompanied by alternate form of underposed Version diacritic) 

1 DES 7 OPR 13 IMS 19 NEC 25 CML 

2 ASP 8 CPC 14 ADV 20 DEC 26 DVR 

3 EXV 9 PRM 15 ITV 21 PTV 27 DVT 

4 CRD 10 PTN 16 ANT 22 VOL 28 PFT 

5 REQ 11 CLS 17 DSP 23 ACC 29 IPS 

6 EXH 12 OBG 18 PRE 24 INC 30 PMS 

Table 43: Primary Valence Characters 


1 MNO 4 RCP 7 DUP 10 IMT 

13 IDC 

2 PRL 5 CPL 8 DEM 11 CNG 14 MUT

3 CRO 6 NNR 9 RES 12 PTI 

Table 44: Primary Validation Characters 


1 CNF 4 INF 7 PSM2 10 CJT 13 PUT 

2 AFM 5 ITU 8 PPT 11 DUB 14 IPB 

3 RPT 6 PSM 9 PPT2 12 TEN 

11.3.2 Secondary Case/Aspect Characters 

The neutral, default shape for a secondary case/aspect character is as follows: 

The common recognizable element in all secondary case/aspect characters, and what distinguish them from 

other character types is a diagonal bar extending from the top-line of the character (or even beyond the top-line) 

all the way to the bottom-line of the character (or even below the bottom-line of the character). This diagonal 

line can be interrupted at the mid-line by a horizonatally offset juncture or be broken into two separate diagonal 

lines, but the continuation of the diagonal past the mid-line will always be in the same direction as on the other 

side of the mid-line. Examples were shown in Section 11.1.2 above. 

A secondary case/aspect character normally conveys all of the following categories of information: Case, 

Aspect, Modality, Phase and Sanction. It can also indicate the categories of Designation and Perspective using 

the same laterally-placed diacritic as described in Section 11.3.1.4 above. The diagonal bar portion of the 

character which indicates case normally runs from the upper-right corner of the character to the lower-left 

corner. The upper-left portion of the character “above” the diagonal bar indicates Aspect, while the lower-right 

portion “below” the diagonal bar indicates Modality. Phase is indicated by a superposed diacritic above the 

character, while Sanction is indicated by an underposed diacritic below the character. 

If the diagonal bar indicating case has its orientation reversed (i.e., made to run from upper-left to lower-right) 

then the section “below” the diagonal normally reserved for indicating Modality, will instead indicate a second 

aspect.

11.3.2.1 Case: The secondary case/aspect character indicates case via the diagonal bar portion of the 

character, as per the following table. The dotted horizontal lines represent the top-line, mid-line, and bottom-line 

of the line of writing, in order to illustrate which characters extend above the top-line or dip below the bottomline. 

Table 45: Secondary Case Characters (Note that for the purposes of this table, the 

VOCATIVE case is shown in Position No. 48.) 

1 OBL 25 PUR 49 EXC 73 CMP1A 

2 IND 26 CSD 50 AVR 74 CMP1B 

3 ABS 27 ESS 51 CMP 75 CMP1C 

4 ERG 28 ASI 52 SML 76 CMP1D 

5 EFF 29 FUN 53 ASS 77 CMP1E 

6 AFF 30 TFM 54 CNR 78 CMP1F 

7 DAT 31 REF 55 ACS 79 CMP1G 

8 INS 32 CLA 56 DFF 80 CMP1H 

9 ACT 33 CNV 57 PER 81 CMP2A 

10 DER 34 IDP 58 PRO 82 CMP2B

11 SIT 35 BEN 59 PCV 83 CMP2C 

12 POS 36 TSP 60 PCR 84 CMP2D 

13 PRP 37 CMM 61 ELP 85 CMP2E 

14 GEN 38 COM 62 ALP 86 CMP2F 

15 ATT 39 CNJ 63 INP 87 CMP2G 

16 PDC 40 UTL 64 EPS 88 CMP2H 

17 ITP 41 ABE 65 PRL 89 CMP3A 

18 OGN 42 CVS 66 LIM 90 CMP3B 

19 PAR 43 COR 67 LOC 91 CMP3C 

20 CRS 44 DEP 68 ORI 92 CMP3D 

21 CPS 45 PVS 69 PSV 93 CMP3E 

22 PRD 46 PTL 70 ALL 94 CMP3F 

23 MED 47 CON 71 ABL 95 CMP3G 

24 APL 48 VOC 72 NAV 96 CMP3H

11.3.2.2 Aspect: Aspect in a secondary case/aspect character is shown via the portion of the character 

“above” the diagonal bar. The forms below are the default forms when used in the upper-left portion of the 

character. For laterally reversed characters, these should be, in turn, laterally reversed, and placed in the upperright 

portion of the character. When used to show a second aspect in laterally reversed characters, the form 

should be vertically inverted and placed in the lower-left portion of the character. 

Table 46: Secondary Aspect Characters - shown with OBLIQUE case marking 

1 RTR 9 RSM 17 PMP 25 DSC 

2 PRS 10 CSS 18 CLM 26 CCL 

3 HAB 11 RCS 19 PTC 27 CUL 

4 PRG 12 PAU 20 TMP 28 IMD 

5 IMM 13 RGR 21 MTV 29 TRD 

6 PCS 14 PCL 22 CSQ 30 TNS 

7 REG 15 CNT 23 SQN 31 ITC 

8 EXP 16 ICS 24 EPD 32 CSM 

11.3.2.3 Modality: The thirty modalities are indicated in the portion of a secondary case/aspect character 

“below” the diagonal bar. The particular forms are the same as the first thirty aspect forms, only vertically 

inverted and laterally reversed, as shown in the following table. 

Table 47: Secondary Modality Characters - shown with OBLIQUE case marking 

1 DES 7 OPR 13 IMS 19 NEC 

25 CML

2 ASP 8 CPC 14 ADV 20 DEC 

3 EXV 9 PRM 15 ITV 21 PTV 

4 CRD 10 PTN 16 ANT 22 VOL 

5 REQ 11 CLS 17 DSP 23 ACC 

6 EXH 12 OBG 18 PRE 24 INC 

26 DVR 

27 DVT 

28 PFT 

29 IPS 

30 PMS 

11.3.2.4 Phase: The nine phases (see Section 5.5) are shown via a diacritic mark placed over the secondary 

case/aspect character, as per the following: 

Table 48: Phase Diacritics Placed Over Secondary Case/Aspect Characters 

1 CTX 2 PCT 3 ITR 4 REP 5 ITM 6 RCT 7 FRE 8 FRG 9 FLC 

11.3.2.5 Sanction: The nine sanctions (see Section 5.6) are shown via a diacritic mark placed below the 

secondary case/aspect character, as per the following: 

Table 49: Sanction Diacritics Placed Under Secondary Case/Aspect Characters 

1 PPS 2 EPI 3 ALG 4 IPU 5 RFU 6 REB 7 THR 8 EXV 9 AXM 

11.3.2.6 Placeholder Character for Phase/Sanction: If there is no secondary Case/Aspect character (or 

Tertiary character as described below) available by which to display the Phase and/or Sanction diacritics, then a 

special placeholder character is used, consisting of a single vertical bar extending from the top-line to the 

bottom-line.

11.3.3 Tertiary Characters 

The third type of character is the tertiary character. The common recognizable element in all tertiary characters, 

and what distinguishes them from other character types is a horizontal bar extending across the mid-line of the 

character, not connected to those portions of the character above or below the mid-line. The two ends of this 

horizontal bar may be modified. Examples were shown in Section 11.1.3 above. 

A tertiary character normally conveys one of the following sets of grammtical information: Aspect 1 + Aspect 

2, Aspect + Modality, Valence + Aspect, Validation + Aspect, Validation + Modality, Valence + Modality, or 

Valence + Validation. The particular set of information being conveyed is indicated by the “ends” of the 

horizontal mid-line bar of the character, as follows: 

The forms utilized above and/or below the horizontal bar for showing aspect and modality are the same as those 

used for for secondary case/aspect characters (shown in Sections 11.3.2.2 and 11.3.2.3 above), vertically 

inverted and laterally reversed when used below the horizontal mid-line bar. Likewise, valence and validation are 

each shown by the first fourteen forms used for showing Aspect from Section Section 11.3.2.2 above, again 

vertically inverted and laterally reversed when used below the horizontal mid-line bar. 

As with secondary case/aspect characters, the categories of Phase and Sanction can be displayed on a tertiary 

character via superposed and underposed diacritics respectively as per Tables 48 and 49 above. The categories 

of Designation and Perspective can likewise be shown on a tertiary character utilizing the same mid-line 

diacritics described previously in Section 11.3.1.4. 

11.3.4 Consonantal Characters 

Consonantal characters, the fourth type of character, are discernible by a horizontal bar along the top-line of the 

character, or when vertically inverted, along the bottom-line of the character. This horizontal bar will always be 

connected to the remaining portion of the character. The “ends” of the top-bar as well as the ends of the other 

bars making up the character are subject to numerous modifications and extensions. Examples of consonantal 

characters were shown in Section 11.1.4 above. 

Consonantal characters will always be the last group of characters in a word, following any and all Type 1, 2, or 

3 characters. They convey the following information: main root plus its Pattern, Stem and Relation; 

incorporated root (if present) plus its Pattern, Stem and Designation; Function; Format; Context; Illocution; 

Suffixes; and Bias. The manner in which these pieces of morphology are conveyed is described in the subsections 

below. 

11.3.4.1 Main Root: If there is no incorporated root in the formative, then the first consonantal character in 

the word will be the main root consonant form, represented by a single consonant character. This character 

conveys the actual root Cr form (see Section 2.1), whether the root is one up to five consonants in length. The

consonant forms are shown in the table below. 

Table 50: Basic Consonantal Characters 

p t k q c č 

b d g ’ ż j 

p’ t’ k’ q’ c’ č’ 

p h t h k h q h c h č h 

f ţ x xh s š 

v dh h ř z ž 

w l y ļ r ç 

m n ň tļ 

Various extensions added to the above forms allow for the prefixing of various consonants, e.g., t --> lt. These 

extensions which prefix consonants to existing consonant forms are shown below: 

Table 51: Consonantal Character Extensions Indicating Consonant Prefixes 

l+C m+C r+C ļ+C n+C 

s+C 

(z+C) 

ç+C 

p+C 

(b+C) 

f+C 

(v+C) 

š+C 

(ž+C) 

c+C 

(ż+C) 

q+C 

ň+C z+C ř+C 

č+C / 

j+C 

t+C 

(d+C) 

ž+C 

x+C 

xh+C gemination 

k+C / 

(g+C) 

ţ+C / 

(dh+C)

Additional extensions allow for the suffixing of various consonants, e.g., t —> tl, as shown below: 

Table 52: Consonantal Character Extensions Indicating Consonant Suffixes 

C+w C+y C+l C+r C+ř 

C+m C+n C+v C+ň 

Various diacritics are also available for placement underneath the Cr character, used in conjunction with the 

above sets of extensions in order to indicate tri-consonantal stems and tetra-consonantal stems. 

Table 53: Underposed Diacritics to Consonant Characters Indicating Consonant 

Affixes 

C+w C+y C+l C+r C+ř C+m C+n 

s+C z+C š+C ž+C f/v+C ţ/dh+C 

If a tri-consonantal or tetra-consonantal stem cannot be unambiguously indicated using the above extensions 

and diacritics on a consonantal character, then the Cr root can be written using two characters, the second one 

being a placeholder character consisting of a vertical bar without a horizontal top-bar, running from the top-line 

to the bottom-line, to which the various extensions shown in Tables 51 and 52 are added. 

11.3.4.2 Pattern, Stem and Relation: These categories (see Sections 2.2 and 5.4) are shown via extensions 

or modifications made to the horizontal top-bar (or bottom-bar if the character is inverted) of the Cr 

consonantal character, as follows: 

Tables 54a and 54b: 

Consonantal Character Extensions Indicating Pattern, Stem, and Relation 

UNFRAMED Relation

P1 S1 P1 S2 P1 S3 P2 S1 P2 S2 P2 S3 P3 S1 P3 S2 P3 S3 

FRAMED Relation 

P1 S1 P1 S2 P1 S3 P2 S1 P2 S2 P2 S3 P3 S1 P3 S2 P3 S3 

11.3.4.3 Function: The category of Function (see Section 5.1) is shown by a superposed diacritic above the 

Cr consonantal character: 

Table 55: Superposed Diacritics to Cr Character Indicating Function 

STA DYN MNF DSC 

11.3.4.4 Incorporated Root plus Pattern, Stem, and Designation: Incorporated roots are shown using the 

same consonantal characters as for the Cr main root in Section 11.3.4.1 above. The character representing the 

incorporated root is place immediately preceding the Cr main root character (i.e., so that it becomes the first 

Type 4 character in the word), and it is vertically inverted. Its pattern and stem are shown using the same 

extensions/modifications to its horizontal bar (now on the bottom-line rather than the top due to vertical 

inversion of the character), as shown above for the Cr character. Formal designation of the incorporated root 

is shown by using the FRAMED alternatives of the Pattern+Stem extensions/modifications. 

11.3.4.5 Format: Any formative containing an incorporated root must show the category of Format (see 

Section 6.4). This is shown by a combination of diacritics above both the incorporated root character and the 

Cr main root character, as well as vertical inversion of the Cr character. Since the Cr main root character may 

already carry diacritics indicating the formative’s function, such diacritics will be subject to modification. The 

values in the table below show an inverted ‘t’ consonantal character representing the incorporated root, 

followed by a standard ‘t’ consonantal character representing the main root. The pattern of diacritics is shown 

on these two characters: 

Table 56: Pattern of Diacritics and Inversion of Cr Character to Indicate Format

11.3.4.6 Context: The default EXS Context (see Section 3.6) is unmarked. The three other contexts are 

shown via a superposed diacritic over the Cr character (or underposed below the character if it is inverted). If 

the Cr character already has a diacritic showing Function or Function+Format, it is modified as per the table 

below: 

Table 57: Modification of Function(+Format) Diacritics on Cr Character to Indicate 

Context 

EXS FNC RPS AMG 

11.3.4.7 Illocution: This category (see Section 5.3) is shown via a diacritic mark alongside the Cr character at 

the mid-line following the character in the direction the particular line of writing is written (unless the diacritic can 

be written “inside” a character whose shape has an obvious interior space, e.g., the l and x consonantal 

characters). 

Table 58: Illocution Diacritics on Cr Character 

ASR IRG DIR ADM HOR DEC

11.3.4.8 Negative Polarity: The Ithkuil script allows for a “shortcut” representation of the NA1 1/5 negation 

suffix, the most common method of negating a verb in Ithkuil. This shortcut is accomplished via a diacritic mark 

alongside the Cr character at the mid-line following the character in the direction of writing. The character is 

shown below in the first box of Table 59. Since this diacritic position is the same utilized for showing Illocution 

(see Table 58 above), the Illocution diacritics are modified to indicate this negation, as follows: 

Table 59: Illocution Diacritics on Cr Character Modified to Show Negative Polarity 

ASR IRG DIR ADM HOR DEC 

11.3.4.9 Suffixes: Derivational (Slot XI) Suffixes (see Chapter 7) are shown by additional Type 4 consonantal 

characters, placed following the Cr consonantal character. Each such character represents one VxC suffix, its 

formation of prefixed and suffixed consonants identical to the character formation principles previously 

described for the Cr consonantal character, utilizing the same extensions and modifications shown in Tables 51 

and 52 above. 

Suffix-Type: The default consonantal character is used to represent Type-1 suffixes. Types 2 and 3 are shown 

in the following ways: Type-2 suffixes are shown by vertically inverting the consonantal character. Type-3 

suffixes are shown by an underposed dot diacritic beneath the consonantal character. 

Suffix Degree: The nine suffix degrees are shown via superposed diacritics above the consonantal character 

(even if the character is vertically inverted to represent a Type-2 suffix). The diacritics are shown in the 

following table. 

Table 60: Diacritics Representing Suffix Degree 

Degree 1 Degree 2 Degree 3 Degree 4 Degree 5 Degree 6 Degree 7 Degree 8 Degree 9 

(none) 

11.3.4.10 Bias: The category of Bias (see Section 5.11) is shown by modification of the top-bar of a 

consonantal suffix character. If the formative does not carry a VxC suffix, then the modification is made to a 

special placeholder character consisting of a top-bar alone with no stem. 

The modifications are mostly the same modifications made to Cr characters for showing Pattern, Stem, and

Relation, as shown previously in Tables 54a and 54b, supplemented by additional underposed diacritics placed 

beneath the bottom-line of the character (shown next to the character in the following table). Note that for the 

last 16 biases whose representation utilizes a vertical-bar diacritic, if the placeholder top-bar character is used to 

represent these biases, then the character is laterally reversed rather than utilizing the vertical-bar diacritic. 

Table 61: Modifications to Consonantal Suffix Characters to Show Bias 

Intensive 

Forms 

Intensive 

Forms 

Intensive 

Forms 

ASU HPB COI ACP RAC STU CTV DPV 

ASU+ HPB+ COI+ ACP+ RAC+ STU+ CTV+ DPV+ 

RVL GRT SOL SEL IRO EXA LTL CRR 

RVL+ GRA+ SOL+ SEL+ IRO+ EXA+ LTL+ CRR+ 

EUP SKP CYN CTP DSM IDG SGS PPV 

EUP+ SKP+ CYN+ CTP+ DSM+ IDG+ SGS+ PPV+ 

11.4 WORD BOUNDARIES, PUNCTUATION, AND ALPHABETIC TRANSLITERATION 

Because all written words begin with characters other than Type 4 (consonantal characters), while all words end 

with Type 4 characters, it is always possible to determine where new words begin in a line of Ithkuil writing, 

obviating the need for a blank space or other boundary between words. In turn, a blank space functions to 

indicate a sentence boundary. And because Ithkuil morphology already indicates within words themselves 

various attitudes, moods, and other information which are normally indicated supra-segmentally in Western 

languages (e.g., by tone or inflection of the voice, hyper-enunciation, etc.), symbols corresponding to 

exclamation points and question marks are likewise unnecessary. The Ithkuil equivalents to subordinate and

elative clauses are likewise indicated morphologically, as are coordinative/serial lists of words, therefore there is 

no need for any equivalent to the comma. 

The only “punctuation” symbols used are to show quotations of direct speech and phonetic transliteration (as 

when spelling non-Ithkuil words and names). These two sets of symbols are shown below. Note that the 

quotation marks are used only to indicate direct speech; they are not used as in English to offset a word for 

emphasis or special usage. The phonetic rendering marks indicate the word or phrase between the marks is to 

be pronounced phonetically (i.e., alphabetically). 

insert quote here 

insert transliteration here 

11.4.1 Alphabetic Transliteration 

Proper names and other non-Ithkuil words, when transliterated into Ithkuil, are written alphabetically between the 

phonetic transliteration marks shown above. Consonants are written using the Type 4 consonant characters, 

utilizing the extensions from Tables 51 and 52 above (but not the diacritics from Table 53) to represent various 

consonant clusters or gemination. Transliteration is based on either a phonemic or phonetic representation of the 

non-Ithkuil word, without concern for any spelling conventions contained in the original/native script of the 

foreign word or name. Vowels are represented in the following ways: 

Vowels: For vowels preceding or following a consonant (or consonant conjunct) the top-bar modifications 

normally used for representing Pattern, Stem, and Relation are used – the vowel thereby being represented as 

part of the consonant character. If there is no consonant in the syllable to carry the vowel, a placeholder symbol 

consisting of a top-bar alone is used. These top-bar modifications are shown in the following tables (note that 

the vowel-sounds are indicated using the International Phonetic Alphabet): 

Table 62: Modifications to Consonant Characters to Transliterate Accompanying 

Vowel 

modification: 

IPA value: (none) a æ ɑ o ε e I 

modification: 

IPA value: i ə u y /Y œ ø / 

By default, the vowel is to be pronounced following the consonantal form. If instead the vowel is to be 

pronounced preceding the consonant, the character carries a superposed dot diacritic. If there are two vowels in 

a row and there is no consonant character to carry the vowel, a placeholder consonant character is used

consisting of a lone top-bar. Syllabic stress is shown by a superposed horizontal bar diacritic; if a dot diacritic 

is already present above the character, it changes to a vertical bar diacritic for stressed syllables. Diphthongs 

and long vowels are indicated by diacritics placed alongside the character in the direction of writing (unless the 

diacritic can be written “inside” a character whose shape has an obvious interior space, e.g., the l and x 

consonantal characters). Diphthongs ending in an -i/-y semivowel are indicated with a dot, those ending in -u/-w 

by a small vertical bar, and long vowels by a small horizontal bar. 

Tone: If necessary to transliterate a word carrying tone, the following underposed diacritics may be used under 

the consonant+vowel character corresponding to the syllable containing the toneme. 

Table 63: Diacritics to Consonant Characters for Transliteration of Syllabic Tone 

low high mid rising falling fall-rise rise-fall 

Note on Placenames and Ethnonymns: In general, the Ithkuil names of real-world placenames and 

ethnonymns are the same as the native form to the extent that Ithkuil phonology allows and to the extent that 

such native terms can be distinguished. Otherwise, alternate names in common usage can be utilized. So, for 

example, the most technically correct Ithkuil name for China would be îpal – Čuňˇkwo, based on Ithkuil’s 

closest available phonological equivalent to the Mandarin Zhōngguó (IPA [ ]), although the name 

îpal Čin, based on the historically derived root (from both Persian and Sanskrit) would be acceptable as well. 

For placenames with multiple native names from equally official languages (e.g., the four names of Switzerland 

in each of its four official languages), the Ithkuil phonological equivalent to any official name is acceptable. For 

names whose native ethnonymn is not common knowledge or not readily discoverable (e.g., the Andi people of 

Dagestan whose native ethnonymn is variously given as Qwannal, Qwannab, Khivannal), a name in common 

use can be used even if it is derived from a non-native source (e.g., the Russian-derived name “Andi”). 

The author intends at some future point to add a section to the Lexicon on the official Ithkuil names of major 

non-Ithkuil placenames and ethnonymns. 

Language Names: The Ithkuil name of a non-Ithkuil language is given by the native ethnonymn of the people 

or their nation/placename with the addition of the SSD 1/5 suffix -(a)k added to the carrier root preceding the 

alphabetic name. 

11.5 HANDWRITTEN FORMS OF THE CHARACTERS 

The various charts below display the handwritten equivalents to the various character types, the extensions to 

top bars and bottom bars, diacritics, etc.

Primary Characters

Secondary Aspect Characters 

Tertiary Characters

Consonantal Characters 

Consonantal Extensions (Shown on -t-, -k-, and -g- characters)

11.6 THE ALTERNATIVE ORNAMENTAL SCRIPT 

The now defunct previous revision of Ithkuil known as Ilaksh utilized an experimental two-dimensional, nonlinear 

writing system of colorful “cartouche”-like containers and hexagonal glyphs used to fashion an abstract 

morphological “map” of an Ilaksh sentence. Now that the Ilaksh language has been withdrawn, it is the author’s 

intention to eventually adapt this writing system to Ithkuil, for use as an alternative, “ornamental” writing system

for artistic purposes. When this adaptation is ready it will be placed in this section of the grammar. The graphic 

below illustrates a draft sample of what this writing system will look like. 


Proceed to Chapter 12: The Number System>> 

12 The Number 

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Ithkuil as a “para-linguistic” interface to a quantum computer.)

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Chapter 12: The Number System 

12.1 Features of a Centesimal Number System 

12.2 Semantic Designations for Numerical Stems 

12.3 Expressing “Zero” 

12.4 Writing Numerals 

12.5 Using Numbers in Speech 

The Ithkuil system of numbers and counting is distinct from Western languages in two fundamental ways: it is 

centesimal (base one hundred) as opposed to decimal (base ten), and the numbers themselves are full formatives (i.e., 

nouns and verbs), not adjectives. This has already been discussed briefly in Section 4.5.1 regarding the PARTITIVE 

case. This section will examine the numerical system in greater detail. 

12.1 FEATURES OF A CENTESIMAL NUMBER SYSTEM 

Being a centesimal system of enumeration, the numbers from zero to 100 are considered autonomous units represented 

by single stems and written using single autonomous symbols. Beginning with the number 101, numbers are referred to 

by the number of hundreds plus the number of units, just as a decimal system, beginning with the number 11, refers to 

the number of tens plus the number of units. However, where a decimal system then shifts to a unit referring to 100 

once “10 tens” is reached, a centesimal system proceeds to the number 10,000 before establishing a new unit reference 

(i.e., “100 hundreds”). Thus the number 3254, which in a decimal system is 3 thousands — 2 hundreds — 5 tens — 4 

ones, in a centesimal system becomes 32 hundreds—54 ones, and would be only two digits when written (the single 

character representing 32, and the single character representing 54). The details of writing Ithkuil numerals are given 

below in Section 12.5. 

After 100, separate unit numbers and symbols are assigned to the square of 100 (i.e. ten thousand, that being “100 

hundreds”), then the square of that number, 100 4 (100 million, i.e., 10,000 ten-thousands). The final unit is 100 8 , that is, 

10 quadrillion or 100 million hundred-millions, the last number for which Ithkuil assigns a separate root and symbol. 

After ten quadrillion, numbers are referred to as multiples of lower sets, similar to saying in English “one trillion 

quadrillion” instead of the equivalent “one octillion.” 

While the above may seem unwieldy or even arbitrary, it actually parallels Western base-ten numerals in terms of its 

systematization. For example, in a Western number like 456,321,777,123, each set of three numbers between the 

commas tells how many hundreds there are of a certain power of 1000 (i.e., there are 123 of 1000 0 , 777 of 1000 1 , 321 

of 1000 2 , and 456 of 1000 3 , or in more common terms 123 ones, 777 thousands, 321 millions, 456 billions).

The same exact system holds for Ithkuil, except that the sets of numbers “between the commas” so to speak, is the 

number of ten-thousands, not thousands. Thus, if we were to rewrite the Western number 456,321,777,123 in such a 

system, it would be 4563,2177,7123 (i.e., 7123 of 10000 0 , 2177 of 10000 1 , and 4563 of 10000 2 , that being 7123 ones, 

2177 ten-thousands, and 4563 hundred-millions). 

12.2 SEMANTIC DESIGNATIONS FOR NUMERICAL STEMS 

The semantic roots for numbers in Ithkuil from 1 to 99 are based on roots for 1 through 10, to which the nine degrees 

of the Slot XI derivational affix -Vk are added. Each of the nine degrees of this suffix, when applied to one of the ten 

number-roots, corresponds to an additional multiple of ten. This is illustrated in Table 64 below. 

Table 64: The SSD Affix with Numerals 

Degree Suffix Meaning 



1 -ik stem + 10 4 -îk / -uëk stem + 40 7 -ok stem + 70 

2 -ök stem + 20 5 -ak stem + 50 8 -ük / -aek stem + 80 

3 -ek stem + 30 6 -ûk / -iëk stem + 60 9 -uk stem + 90 

The addition of a particular degree of this affix to one of the ten indicates that the root number is added to that multiple 

of ten. For example, the stem ksal ‘two,’ plus the seventh degree affix -Vk/7, gives ksalok ‘seventy-two.’ Because 

there is no root corresponding to ‘zero’ (see Sec. 12.3 below), each multiple of ten is constructed using stem mřal 

‘ten’ plus one of the above suffixes. Thus, the numbers 20, 30 and 40 are respectively mřalik, mřalök and mřalek, 

but the numbers 22, 32 and 42 are ksalök, ksalek, and ksalîk. This pattern only operates up to the nineties, as there is 

a separate autonomous root for 100, -ň-. 

Since numbers are formatives in Ithkuil, not adjectives as in most Western languages, holistic stem No. 1 is a formative 

signifying a set containing a number of members corresponding to that particular root. Thus, the formative ksal, 

translatable as ‘two,’ actually means ‘a set of two; a duo / to be a duo.’ In turn, the two complementary derivatives of 

each stem denote its multiple and its fraction respectively. This is illustrated below for both Form I and II using the 

roots -ks-, TWO, and -ns-, meaning SEVEN: 

For -ks-, TWO: 

1. ksal / aksál ‘a set of two, a duo; to be two in number’ 

COMPLEMENTARY DERIVATIVES: 

oksal / oksál: ‘twice the number of something; to double, to multiply by two’ 

âksal / âksál: ‘a half; to halve, to be or make half, to divide by or in two’ 

2. eksal / eksál ‘to be or make dual; having two uses or aspects; bi-; twofold’ 


öksal / öksál: ‘two times (i.e., iterations), twice; to be/do/make twice’ 

êksal / êksál: ‘to be of or make into two parts; bifurcate(d)’ 

3. uksal / uksál ‘the second one in a sequence; to be or make second (in a sequence)’ 

COMPLEMENTARY DERIVATIVES:

ûksal / ûksál: ‘to the second power, squared; to square, raise to the 2nd power’ 

ôksal / ôksál: ‘to the negative second power, the inverse square; to divide by the square of’ 

For -ns-, SEVEN: 

1. nsal / ansál ‘a set/group of seven, a septet; to be seven in number’ 


onsal / onsál: ‘7 times the number of something; to multiply by 7; septuple’ 

ânsal / ânsál: ‘a seventh; to be or make a 7th part of something, to divide by 7 or into 7 parts’ 

2. ensal / ensál ‘to be or make seven-faceted; having 7 uses or aspects; septi-; sevenfold’ 


önsal / önsál: ‘7 times (i.e., iterations); to be/do/make 7 times’ 

ênsal / ênsál: ‘to be of or make into 7 parts; separate(d) into 7 parts’ 

3. unsal / unsál ‘the seventh one in a sequence; to be or make 7th (in a sequence)’ 


ûnsal / ûnsál: ‘to the 7th power; to raise to the 7th power’ 

ônsal / ônsál: ‘to the negative 7th power; to divide by the 7th power of’ 

In addition to the above-described roots, there is the root -ll-, ONE/UNITY. As this root has no multiples, its semantic 

designations follow a unique pattern. NOTE: The INFORMAL versus FORMAL distinction in this root (i.e., Form I 

versus Form II of each stem) distinguishes between a focus on non-duplication/singularity for the INFORMAL, and 

indivisibility/unity for the FORMAL: 

1. llal / allál ‘a single entity; to be one in number’ 


ollal / ollál: ‘to be indivisible, whole, a single unit; unitary; to unify’ 

âllal / âllál: ‘to be (an) individual, a distinct entity in itself; to individualize’ 

2. ellal / ellál ‘a lone entity, something alone; an entity in solitude, something/someone isolated; be alone; to isolate; be 

in solitude’ 


öllal / öllál: ‘something/someone lonely; be or make lonely’ 

êllal / êllál: ‘something/someone independent, self-sufficient, singular (i.e., without need of, connection to, 

or dependency on others); be or make independent, self-sufficient, singular’ 

3. ullal / ullál ‘something/someone unique, the only one; to be or make unique’ 


ûllal / ûllál: ‘a sole entity, the only one available or able (in terms of sufficiency or applicability to the 

context)’ 

ôllal / ôllál: ‘something/someone one-of-a-kind, unparalleled, without equal or peer (in terms of 

uniqueness of characteristics)’ 

The Ithkuil numerical roots as described in the section above are as follows: 

-ll- -ks- -ţk- -px- -sţ- -cq- -ns- -fy- -xm- -mř-

12.3 EXPRESSING “ZERO” 

one two three four five six seven eight nine ten 

-ň- -zm- -pstw- -čk h - 

one hundred ten thousand one hundred million ten quadrillion 

Ithkuil has no word for “zero” nor is it conceptualized as a numerical category. Instead any appropriate formative may 

take the PTW suffix in first-degree -iss ‘no amount of’ or the EXN suffix in first-degree -ib ‘no…at all’ in terms of 

degree or extent to create negative expressions that convey the idea of an absence of a numerical entity or quantity. In 

many cases, simply the negative of whatever formative is under discussion may be used. 

As for handling the concept of zero as a null placeholder when writing Ithkuil numbers, this is addressed in Section 12.4 

below. 

12.4 WRITING NUMERALS 

Writing Ithkuil numerals is somewhat similar to writing numbers in Western languages (i.e., “Arabic” numerals), in that 

the interpretation of a number as a different power of 100 (analogous to interpreting single Arabic numerals as either 

ones, tens, hundreds, thousands, etc.) is based on its sequence within the entire number. However, there are two 

aspects of writing Ithkuil numbers that are quite different from Arabic numbers.: 

1. Ithkuil does not employ a symbol for zero. Instead, Ithkuil employs separate autonomous symbols for each power 

of 100 (100, 10,000, 100 million, etc.) each of which operates as the appropriate placeholder instead of zero. To 

illustrate what this means by analogy, pretend that “@” is an autonomous symbol for 27 (since Ithkuil numbers 

from 1 to 99 each have a separate symbol), “&” is a symbol for 100, “#” is a symbol for 10,000 and there is no 

symbol 0 (zero). The numbers 2700, 2705, 327, 22700 and 4,270,027 would then be written @&, @5, 3@, 2@&, 

and 4@#@ respectively. (NOTE: In actual practice, numbers which contain the “hundred” symbol, here 

represented as “&,” normally place a dot above or below the adjacent numeral and dispense with the &, indicating 

that the number so marked is to be multiplied by 100. 

2. Since Ithkuil is a base-100 system, numbers do not become two digits in length until the hundreds, do not become 

three digits in length until the ten thousands, do not become four digits in length until the millions, etc. 

One must also remember that in terms of left-to-right orientation, numbers follow the boustrophedon mode the same as 

the Ithkuil script (see Sec. 11.3.2). Similarly to Western languages, small non-compound numbers can be written using 

either their numerical symbols or written out in script (as in English “12” versus “twelve”). 

The following table gives the Ithkuil numerical symbols along with their morphological stems. The symbols for 11 

through 99 consist of the symbols for 1 through 9 plus various extensions added to their lower left “trailing” line 

indicating the particular 10-group to be added. 

Table 65: ITHKUIL NUMERICAL STEMS AND WRITTEN SYMBOLS

extensions: 

llal ksal ţkal pxal sţal cqal nsal fyal xmal mřal 

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 

+10 +20 +30 +40 +50 +60 +70 +80 +90 

12.5 USING NUMBERS IN SPEECH 

ňal zmal pstwal čk h al 

100 10 000 100 000 000 10 000 000 000 000 000 

Spoken numbers are formed from the above stems using both the PARTITIVE and COMITATIVE cases, as well as 

using the coordinative affix -Vň/1 (= -iň). The number of largest base units is shown by placing the base-unit term in the 

PARTITIVE. If this is then followed by another collection of smaller base units, that number of smaller base units is 

connected using the COMITATIVE case while the smaller base-unit term is again in the PARTITIVE. Single units 

(from 1 to 99) are connected by the coordinative affix when they are part of the number of hundreds or higher baseunits. 

It should be noted that when pronouncing numbers greater than 199, it is normal in Ithkuil to omit the word ňial (= the 

PARTITIVE of ňal ‘one hundred’) referring to the number of hundreds. This is equivalent to the custom in colloquial 

English of saying ‘three twelve’ for ‘three hundred (and) twelve.’ The difference is that in Ithkuil, this omission of the 

word for ‘hundred’ is the preferred option, the word ňial being used only in larger numbers for clarity’s sake. 

These principles are illustrated by the following examples: 

ksalîk (ňial) xmalök 

literally: “42 (of hundreds) 29” 

4229 

cqalök zmial nseuluk (ňial) cqalûk

literally: “26 of ten-thousands with 97 (of hundreds) 66” = 26,9766 

269,766 

llalök ňial zmual 

literally: “21 of hundred of ten-thousands” 

21,000,000 

[NOTE: ňial is required in this example] 

ksalok ňial xmalokiň apstwial ţkeul ňial ţkalakiň zmual pxeulek mřalûk 

literally: 

“72 of hundreds and 79 of hundred-millions with 3 of hundreds and 53 of ten-thousands with 34 60” 

727,903,533,460 

We have already seen that when numbers are used to indicate how many of a certain noun there are, the noun must 

appear in the PARTITIVE case, since the number itself is functioning as the “head” of the numerical expression (e.g., 

English “12 boxes” being constructed in Ithkuil as a “12-set of a box” or perhaps more appropriately a “box-dozen”). 

Another syntactical consequences of numbers being full formatives is when a number functions as a label or overt 

identifier, as in the English sentence You’ll find him in Room 216. Such usage of numbers is not primarily sequential 

(which would involve the equivalent of “ordinal” numbers such as ‘fourth,’ ‘twenty-sixth’, etc. equivalent to stem No. 3 

of each number root) but rather organizational (e.g., as in the three-dimensional array of room numbers in a hotel). 

Ithkuil handles such organizational labeling using either the COMPARATIVE case (see Sec. 4.5.32) or the ESSIVE 

case (see Sec. 4.5.9) depending respectively on whether the enumeration of the noun in question is to distinguish it from 

other enumerated nouns versus merely identifying the noun by a numerical name. Examples: 

açtál ksou’lik 

‘room’-OBL ‘twelve’-CMP 

‘the room marked “12”’ OR ‘Room 12’ OR ‘Room No. 12’ [i.e., as opposed to being some other room] 

açtál ksealik 

‘room’-OBL ‘twelve’-ESS 

‘the room marked “12”’ OR ‘Room 12’ OR ‘Room No. 12’ [identifying reference only] 

Lastly, when numbers comprising multiple number-stems are declined for case, configuration, extension, etc., rather 

than writing out the entire number “long-hand,” the number symbol is used, preceded by the carrier stem ep- (see Sec. 

9.3) which carries the appropriate declensions. This use of the carrier stem applies even to single-stemmed numbers 

when writing, in order to allow use of the number symbol instead of writing it out. In such cases involving singlestemmed 

numbers, the carrier stem is not pronounced (rather, the numerical stem bears the pronounced declensions); it 

is there only as a written indicator of the morphological declensions/derivations to be applied to the number stem.


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“My Hovercraft is Full of Eels” 

Opening Line from Anna Karenina 

Marcel Duchamp’s Nude Descending a 

Staircase No. 2 

Basic Greetings and Salutations 

The Lord’s Prayer 

The Litany Against Fear from Frank Herbert’s 

Dune 

The “Babel” Text (Genesis 11:1-9) 

Ithkuil Poetry 

This page presents various texts in Ithkuil including interlinear morphological analyses similar to the examples 

in previous chapters. Additionally, a few narrative presentations are offered based on presentations the 

author has given in other venues or formats. 

For the Monty Python Fans Out There... 

Texts 

Tî akt’asalb abjatļud. 

1m-PRP STA-‘hover’-OBL-NRM/PRX/M/CSL/UNI-CVY1/5 STA-‘eel’-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/DCT-SUF1/9 

My hovercraft is full of eels. LISTEN

Opening Line from Anna Karenina 

The following narrative presents the step-by-step procedure undertaken by the author in translating the 

opening line of Tolstoy’s Anna Karenina into Ithkuil. It should be noted that I have used the English 

translation of the sentence instead of the Russian original as my translation source: 

All happy families resemble one another, each unhappy family is unhappy in its own way. 

STEP ONE: Semantic Analysis of Source Sentence 

Before beginning translation, it is important to carefully analyze the actual meaning of the sentence from a 

cognitive standpoint, i.e., what is the cognitive intent of the sentence as opposed to how it reads stylistically? 

This is important because Ithkuil must convey the underlying cognitive intent of the sentence. In this 

sentence, one might initially interpret the sentence to suggest that there are two different kinds of families, 

one happy, the other unhappy, and that happy ones can’t ever be unhappy or vice-versa. But in fact, all 

families are capable of being happy or unhappy. Therefore, the Ithkuil translation will reword the sentence to 

convey that when families are happy, they resemble one another, whereas when they are unhappy they 

don’t resemble one another. Secondly, we must analyze what is meant by the word ‘resemble’. In English, 

‘resemble’ refers to similarity in visual appearance or observed behavior. However, the intent of the sentence 

is that the similarity of behavior is intrinsic and occurs whether or not there is anyone available to visually 

observe it. Therefore, the Ithkuil translation must avoid use of any concept such as ‘resemble’ to imply 

visual observation of behavior. The behavior simply is similar or dissimilar, regardless of whether there is 

any visual comparison made. The Ithkuil translation will therefore simply distinguish between similarity in the 

manifestation/behavior of happiness in families versus dissimilarity in the manifestation/behavior of 

unhappiness in families. Finally, in the original sentence, the second clause is syntactically disguised as a coequal 

main clause, however, cognitively it is a dependent clause in a contingent relationship to the first half of 

the sentence. The “missing” conjunction should be ‘whereas’ or ‘as opposed to’ or ‘while on the other hand’ 

since it is being contrastively compared to the first clause. Ithkuil provides a case-frame (the 

COMPARATIVE) for exactly these kinds of contrastive comparisons. Therefore the Ithkuil sentence will 

employ such a case-frame when translating the second half of the sentence. So at this point, what we will be 

translating into Ithkuil reads something like “All families manifest happiness similarly, whereas they 

manifest unhappiness dissimilarly.” 

STEP TWO: Separating the Lexical from the Morphological 

At this point, the original sentence must be analyzed to determine what Ithkuil lexical roots/stems will be 

necessary, as opposed to those words/concepts in the original which can be translated via morphological 

components instead of lexical roots/stems. We can see we are making a statement about families and are 

qualifying those families as happy or unhappy. Therefore it is likely we will need Ithkuil lexemes for ‘family’ 

and ‘happy/happiness.’ We have already determined above that we do not need a word for ‘resemble’ and 

words like ‘all’, ‘one another’, ‘each’, ‘in its own way’ carry little intrinsic meaning by themselves until they 

are used in conjunction with the main participants (nouns and verbs) of the sentence. We know from 

studying Ithkuil morphology that all of these words will be handled by morphological, not lexical means when 

translating. Therefore, we only need two main lexemes: ‘family’ and ‘happy/happiness.’

STEP THREE: Analysis/Derivation Using Ithkuil Morphological Categories 

Those who have studied the Configuration and Affiliation categories of Ithkuil morphology might recognize 

at this point that the concept ‘family’ is a composite sort of concept, indicating an entity composed of subcomponents 

or sub-members, each one of whom is a ‘family member.’ Ithkuil tends not to lexify as discrete 

stems those words that are gestalt entities comprised of sub-components. Rather it is the sub-components 

that are lexified into stems and then morphologically modified via the various Configuration and Affiliation 

categories. The Ithkuil lexicon contains the Pattern 1, Stem 1, INFORMAL stem amm meaning a nuclear 

family member, derived from the root -MM- referring to the various sanguine members of a nuclear family 

(parent, child, mother, father, son, daughter, etc.). A family consists of various such members, each of 

whom are not identical in their attributes (e.g., gender, age, personality, talents, etc.). A gestalt composite 

composed of non-identical members who are not physically interconnected, is shown by the AGGREGATE 

[AGG] configuration in Ithkuil. Likewise, the resulting gestalt entity ‘family’ is more than the sum of its parts 

from a cognitive standpoint (i.e., it is capable of participating in events or being described in ways 

irrespective of its individual members), therefore it should be placed in the COALESCENT [COA] 

affiliation. Finally, the particular sentence being translated talks about families in a timeless cultural sense, 

describing families in an archetypal fashion. Such a sense can best be captured by use of the 

AMALGAMATE [AMG] context in Ithkuil. So far, the Ithkuil word for ‘family’ we are fashioning has been 

declined for Configuration, Affiliation, and Context. However, there are five remaining morphological 

categories for nominal formatives in Ithkuil. We must consider each of these: 

PERSPECTIVE: The sentence is comparing every family against every other family, thus it is 

speaking of each family as a single discrete entity, not a collective concept. This is reinforced by 

the use of the word ‘all’ (which in the Ithkuil translation will appear as the Inclusive suffix [INL] 

in ninth degree, meaning ‘each/every’). Thus the correct perspective is the default MONADIC 

perspective. 

EXTENSION: Each family is being considered as an entire discrete entity within the context of 

the sentence, therefore the default DELIMITIVE extension is appropriate. 

DESIGNATION: The stem amm is in the default INFORMAL designation, as indicated by its 

syllabic stress pattern (recall from Section 1.3.3 that all monosyllabic stems are considered to 

have penultimate stress from a morphological standpoint). 

ESSENCE: The sentence refers to all families in the real world, not families in a hypothetical or 

contrary-to-fact context, therefore the default NORMAL essence is appropriate. 

CASE: The word ‘family’ will be the “subject” of a verb complex meaning ‘manifests happy 

behavior’. The appropriate semantic role for the subject of a non-causal descriptive state is as 

CONTENT, shown by the default OBLIQUE [OBL]case in Ithkuil. 

The concept ‘happy/happiness’ is given in Ithkuil by the Pattern 1, Stem 2, FORMAL stem öqtá which 

literally means ‘degree of happiness/joy’. This stem is derived from the root -QT- ‘DEGREE OF POSITIVE 

EMOTIONAL SATIETY/FULFILLMENT’. Qualitative concepts such as happiness are usually lexified in 

Ithkuil as a spectrum or range which then takes the Sufficiency [SUF] or Extent/Degree [EXN] suffix to 

indicate what particular amount/extent/degree of the quality is manifested, anywhere from none up to an 

overabundance. In this case, we will use the [EXN1/6] suffix indicating ‘an above-normal degree of’. 

Adjectives such as ‘happy’ don’t exist in Ithkuil; their equivalent is usually shown using a verbal formative

declined into either the STATIVE [STA] function or the DESCRIPTIVE [DSC] function. The choice 

between using STATIVE or DESCRIPTIVE function for this translation is subtle. I have chosen [DSC] 

because it captures more of the sense of describing the nature of the family itself (which is what I think the 

author was trying to convey) rather than simply a state they are in. Verbal formatives are complex structures 

in Ithkuil, inflecting for 22 different morphological categories. So, besides the DSC function, the remaining 

21 categories must be analyzed, as follows: 

CONFIGURATION: Conceptually, ‘happiness’ is not a gestalt composite, therefore the default 

UNIPLEX value is appropriate. 

AFFILIATION: The UNIPLEX configuration implies a default CONSOLIDATIVE affiliation, 

and the uses of the remaining three affiliations are inapplicable to the intended meaning of 

‘happiness’. 

PERSPECTIVE: The sentence is asserted as being true at all times, a “law of nature” about 

families, therefore the appropriate perspective is the NOMIC [N]. 

EXTENSION: The state of happiness being discussed is not described as having specific 

beginning or ending points, therefore the appropriate extension is PROXIMAL [PRX]. 

CONTEXT: Happiness as an emotional state exists irrespective of opinions, cultural ideas, social 

conventions, etc., therefore, the default EXISTENTIAL context is appropriate. 

DESIGNATION: The stem is in the default INFORMAL designation, as indicated by its syllabic 

stress pattern. 

ESSENCE: The sentence refers to happiness as a real-world state, not in a hypothetical or 

contrary-to-fact context, therefore the default NORMAL essence is appropriate. 

ILLOCUTION: The sentence constitutes a propositional speech act, an utterance which is either 

true or false and can be either believed or disbelieved. Thus, the default ASSERTIVE illocution is 

appropriate. 

VALENCE: The state of happiness is being compared between families, implying PARALLEL 

valence (i.e., one participant is engaged in or experiencing the same activity or state as the other). 

However, because the verbal formative will be carrying the [SIM1/8] suffix (meaning ‘very 

similarly’), the valence relationship between one family and another is already implied. This 

means that overtly showing the PARALLEL valence in this sentence is unnecessary (or at least 

optional). 

VERSION: The utterance describes a non-hypothetical end-in-itself and is not goal-oriented, 

therefore the default PROCESSUAL version is appropriate. 

FORMAT: Their is no incorporated stem in this verb, therefore the showing of Format is 

inapplicable. 

MODALITY: There is no modal or hypothetical content in this sentence, therefore there is no 

modality. 

LEVEL: While one might consider translating this sentence using Ithkuil’s EQUATIVE level, its

use would imply that families manifest happiness exactly the same way (as opposed to similarly). 

This is not the intent behind the word ‘resemble’ and therefore use of the [SIM1/8] suffix 

(meaning ‘very similarly’) is more appropriate. Therefore, the default INDETERMINATE level is 

appropriate. 

CASE-FRAME: As previously mentioned, the second clause of this sentence will employ the 

COMPARATIVE [CMP] case-frame to signify a “whereas X” or “as opposed to X” type of 

relationship. 

VALIDATION: Since the statement is not an empirically verifiable statement, but is written as 

being a truthful assertion, the implied source of information behind the statement is as an 

inference on the part of the author based on his own intuition or feelings. Therefore the 

appropriate validation is the INFERENTIAL. 

PHASE: The statement does not refer to any repetitive or iterative situation, therefore the default 

CONTEXTUAL phase is appropriate. 

SANCTION: The statement constitutes an ontologically subjective assertion or allegation 

expressing an opinion or belief, potentially subject to challenge or refutation. Therefore, the 

appropriate sanction is the ALLEGATIVE [ALG]. 

ASPECT: The sentence contains no additional aspectual information. 

MOOD: The sentence is an assertion of an alleged fact, therefore the default FACTUAL mood is 

appropriate. 

BIAS: The utterance contains no overtly subjective attitude or bias. 

STEP FOUR: Assemble the Ithkuil words 

When putting these elements together to render the final Ithkuil sentence, I take the option to separate out 

some of the suffixes into affixual adjuncts for the sake of phonetic euphony. Here then, is the end result, 

accompanied by the most natural sounding literal translation into English: 

Mmarnuq h a t h an-n hwöeqtàdhûbüp öeqtóu’adhiböp. 

STA-‘nuclear.family.member’-OBL-NRM/DEL/M/COA/AGG-INL1/9-IFL ALG INF-DSC-‘degree.of.happiness’- 

NRM/PRX/N/CSL/UNI-EXN1/6-SIM1/8-FML FRAMED-DSC-‘degree.of.happiness’-CMP-NRM/PRX/N/CSL/UNI- 

EXN1/1-SIM1/2-FML 

All families are happy in the same way, while being unhappy in their own way. LISTEN 

Description of Marcel Duchamp’s “Nude Descending a Staircase, No. 2”

Ithkuil’s ability to express subjective, non-linear, and synergistic gestalts as easily as objective, linear, 

discrete, componential phenomena allows it to describe phenomena such as artistic works succinctly but in 

great detail. For example: 

-KKR- 'OBLIQUE VERTICAL MOTION' 

STEM: okkr- 'descend at oblique angle' 

i-okkr-a-s aukkras 

DYN-'descend'-NRM/PRX/M/CSL/UNI-IFL 

'descends' 

-Q- 'HIGHER ORDER LIFE-FORM' 

STEM: êq- 'woman' 

êq-u-tt êqutta 

STA-'woman'-IND- 

RPV/DEL/M/CSL/UNI-IFL 

'imaginary representation 

of a woman as selfinitiator 

of action' 

-GV- 'CLOTHING' 

STEM: ogv- 'article of 

clothing as coverage 

(as opposed to 

fashion)' 

ogv-ëu-ļ 

ogvëuļa 

STA- 

'article.of.clothing.as.coverage'- 

ABE-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/AGG-IFL 

'without a set of clothing as 

coverage' 

(i.e., 'nude') 

-TN- 'SUPPORTING SURFACE AGAINST GRAVITY' 

STEM: etn- 'stair' 

etn-ou’a-lkw- tnou’elkwa 

STA-'stair'-NAV-RPV/PRX/M/ASO/COH-IFL 

'along the directional vector of an imaginary representation of a 

staircase' 

p - a - l-lš - i pal-lši ITR-SQN-PRG

-GW- 'AMBULATION' 

‘in a repetitive series of single manifestations’ 

‘one after the other’ 

‘being in the midst of; ...-ing’ 

STEM: ogw- '(make) ambulatory bodily movement' 

i-ogw-ai-l áugwaila 

FRAMED/IFL-DYN-'ambulatory.bodily.movement'-INS-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/UNI 

'by means of making an ambulatory bodily movement' 

áugwai-ňs-amb 

FRAMED/IFL-DYN-'ambulatory.bodily.movement'-INS-NRM/PRX/M/CSL/COH-SEP1/5 

'by means of a tightly integrated set of ambulatory bodily movements' 

augwái-ňs-üln-amb 

FRAMED/IFL-DYN-'ambulatory.bodily.movement'-INS-NRM/PRX/M/CSL/COH-WAK1/8- 

SEP1/5 

'by means of a tightly integrated set of ambulatory bodily movements which 

combine into a three-dimensional trail/wake behind her' 

augwai-kšt-üln-àmb-u

FRAMED/IFL-DYN-'ambulatory.bodily.movement'-INS-NRM/PRX/A/COA/COH-WAK1/8- 

SEP1/5-AMG 

'by means of a tightly integrated set of ambulatory bodily movements which 

combine into a three-dimensional trail/wake behind her, forming a timeless, 

emergent whole to be considered intellectually, emotionally and aesthetically' 

Aukkras êqutta ogvëuļa tnou’elkwa pal-lši 

augwaikštülnàmbu. 

DYN-'descend'-NRM/PRX/M/CSL/UNI-IFL STA-'woman'-IND- 

RPV/DEL/M/CSL/UNI-IFL 

STA-'article.of.clothing.as.coverage'-ABE-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/AGG-IFL 

STA-'stair'-NAV-RPV/PRX/M/ASO/COH-IFL ITR-SQN-PRG 

FRAMED/IFL-DYN-'ambulatory.bodily.movement'-NRM/PRX/A/COA/COH-WAK1/8- 

SEP1/5-AMG 

LITERAL TRANSLATION: 

‘An imaginary representation of a nude woman in the midst of 

descending a staircase in a step-by-step series of tightly-integrated 

ambulatory bodily movements which combine into a threedimensional 

wake behind her, forming a timeless, emergent whole 

to be considered intellectually, emotionally and aesthetically.’ 

[NOTE: Since I first encountered this painting as a teenager, I've always seen it as 

representing a woman. It wasn't until after I'd prepared the Ithkuil translation that 

someone pointed out to me that the original French title uses the masculine word 

"nu", implying an androgynous figure at best. Nevertheless, I've decided to keep the 

figure feminine.] 

Aukkras êqutta ogvëuļa tnou’elkwa pal-lši 

augwaikštülnàmbu. 

‘An imaginary representation of a nude woman in the midst of 

descending a staircase in a step-by-step series of tightly-

Basic Greetings and Conversational Elements 

integrated ambulatory bodily movements which combine into a 

three-dimensional wake behind her, forming a timeless, emergent 

whole to be considered intellectually, emotionally and 

aesthetically.’ LISTEN 

Marcel Duchamp: Nu descendant un escalier, No. 2 — 1912 

This section provides various formulaic statements and responses, both formal and informal, pertaining to 

some basic conversational elements. 

Greetings/Salutations 

The formal stem attá- is the general stem denoting ‘salutation/greeting.’ With the addition of the SSD1/6 

suffix -ûk it conveys ‘farewell/leavetaking.’ The formal stem edná- ‘peace through fellowship’ and the 

informal stem edn- ‘goodwill/kindness’ are also used in greeting formulas. Many formal and informal 

phrases are possible using these stems, as shown by the following examples. 

Ük h u attál. 

I bid you greetings. 

Ki attàwîl. 

Greetings to you. 

Attál. / Attàwîl. 

Hello!/Greetings!/Salutations! 

Ki attàlûk. 

Goodbye to you.

Attàlûk. 

Goodbye. 

Ük h u ettál. 

I bid you welcome. 

Ük h u ettàlûk. 

I bid you farewell. 

(În-n) ednal kü. 

(May there be) goodwill to you. 

(În-n) uhednál. 

(May there be) peace through fellowship between us. 

Ük h u attál în-n uhednaláň. 

2m/DAT-1m-IND STA-‘greet’-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/UNI-FML EXH RCP-CNF-STA-‘peace.through.fellowship’- 

NRM/DEL/M/CSL/UNI-COO1/7/FML 

I bid you greetings and may there be peace through fellowship between us. 

How Are You? 

The stem glal ‘state of health/physical well-being’ in conjunction with the suffix -ač ‘acceptably good/well’ 

are used to inquire about one’s well-being. As an affixual adjunct (see Section 8.3), the suffix -ač functions 

as a shortcut means of creating various informal expressions. 

Ki glawulač? 

How are you? (literally: Are you in acceptable health?) 

En-n ki ač. 

Hopefully, things are well with you. 

Ti glalač. 

I’m doing fine. (literally: I’m in acceptable health.) 

Ti ač. 

I’m fine. 

Thanks/Gratitude 

The “short” form of communicating thanks is Tô myal, meaning “my thanks” or more specifically “my offer 

of gratitude.” This phrase is an informal abbreviated form of the following formal sentences: 

Auspal ük h u tô myal. 

DYN-‘give.in.exchange’-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/UNI-IFL 2m/DAT-1m/IND 1m-ATT STA-‘offer.of.gratitude’-OBL- 


I offer you my gratitude.

or 

Uhispal ük h u tô myal kô ednaul. 

CPL-CNF-DYN-‘exchange’-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/UNI-IFL 2m-ATT STA-‘goodwill/kindness’-CMM-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/UNI-IFL 

I offer you my gratitude in exchange for your kindness. 

The above sentences are addressed to one single person. If the addressee is an UNBOUNDED party or an 

AGGREGATE group of people, then appropriate modifications of Perspective, Configuration, etc., should 

be made to the personal reference adjuncts within the sentence, e.g., üp h u, hük h u, pô, etc. 

If the feeling/manifestation of gratitude is more formal, in response to an honor bestowed or to the extent 

that it leaves the grateful party feeling beholden to the addressee, the formal stem ömyál ‘gratefulness/feeling 

of being honored’ can be used in place of myal. 

Variations on the above examples where the stems asp- or osp- are incorporated into the stem amy- are also 

possible. 

The Lord’s Prayer 

Ömmële têhwei elt h â'àlôs 

STA-'father'-VOC-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/UNI-RPS 1m-GEN-COA-CST STA-'creator.god'-LOC-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/UNI-PLA2/7 

Our father in heaven 

în-n imnadh kô adal 

EXH-FAC DYN-'worship'-NRM/PRX/N/CSL/UNI-FML 2m-ATT STA-'name'-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/UNI 

hallowed be your name 

Îl-lm ¯euč’ane tehwei driocaipšé kû 

EXH-CCL/FAC CPT-DYN-'imbue'-NRM/DEL/M/COA/UNI 1m-ABS-COA-CST STA-'rule'-CPS-NRM/DEL/A/CSL/UNI-UTE 2/8- 

RPS/FML 2m-PRP 

May your kingdom come to exist among us 

(Literally: May the [metaphorical] environment which fosters/sustains your rule eventually 

[metaphorically] permeate us) 

Ôbartöák în-n ¯aipšalu 

STA-'aspiration'-NRM/DEL/U/CSL/AGG-ATT/2m EXH-FAC CPT-DYN-'be.real'-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/UNI-AMG 

May your will be done 

(Literally: As for your aspirations, may they be made real) 

Swâ’ál elt h â'àlöňňôs 

STA-'Earth'-LOC-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/UNI STA-'creator.god'-LOC-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/UNI-CTR1/2-PLA2/7 

on Earth, not just in heaven

ř uigrawulakkönurň 

SOL STA-'food/drink'-DIR-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/UNI-TPR3/5-AGC1/2-IPT1/9 

please be one who enables us to eat and drink our critical sustenance 

Iekčawelöň ok h ühwei îvyoerduap ^uhékčeöt no. 

DYN-'forgive'-DIR-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/UNI-COO1/2-IFL 2:ERG-Referent1:1m/Referent2:2m-1:DAT-1:COA-1:CST 

STA-'morally right'-REF-NRM/PRX/U/CSL/AGG-SIM2/1-IFL 

FRAMED-CPL-CNF-DYN-'seek and grant pardon'-FUN-NRM/DEL/U/CSL/UNI-IFL 1+ua-ERG 

And forgive us in regard to our moral transgressions in the way we grant and receive 

forgiveness amongst each other 

uibawetâmziúrön 

MNF-'unwilled.desire'-DIR-NRM/DEL/U/CSL/UNI-MOT2/5-NA13/5-AGC1/2-IFL 

‘be one who does not enable desires against better judgement to happen’ 

uilt h alaiňqàrzönöň tehwei 

MNF-'Devil'-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/UNI-OAU2/8-IMP1/5-AGC1/2-COO1/2-FML 1m-ABS-COA-CST 

And deliver us from evil 

(literally: and be one who enables us to successfully avoid ideas associated with the Devil) 

Note that Line Eight could also be written uibawetâmzìurön. A different way to translate Line 

Eight that puts the responsibility for avoiding tempation on us instead of God [I know it’s not how 

the original reads but personally it makes more sense to me], would be as follows: 

în-n tihwei arz batâmz 

EXH-FAC 1m-AFF-COA-CST IMP1/5 STA-'unwilled.desire'-NRM/DEL/U/CSL/UNI-MOT2/5-IFL 

may we successfully avoid temptations (literally: may we successfully avoid having 

desires [that are] against our better judgement) 

The “Litany Against Fear” from Frank Herbert’s Dune 

Tei svasuřfal. 

1m-ACT STA-‘fear’-NRM/PRX/M/CSL/UNI-MD071/9-NA21/5-IFL 

I must not fear. 

Svuic t h an-n izadhumsiuţ. 

STA-‘fear’-DER-NRM/DEL/A/CSL/UNI-IFL ASR/CTX/ALG-FAC DYN-‘mind’-NRM/PRX/N/CSL/UNI-AGN1/9-DEV2/1-IFL 

Fear is the mind killer. 

(literally: Fear, I allege, undoes the mind to maximal effect.) 

Svac t h an-n uitacioxine icai’cók h iţe. 

STA-‘fear’-OBL-NRM/DEL/A/CSL/UNI-IFL ASR/CTX/ALG-FAC MNF-‘live’-NRM/DEL/A/CSL/UNI-SIZ3/3-AGC1/9-RPS-

IFL FRAMED-DYN-‘exist’-COR-NRM/DEL/A/CSL/UNI-CNQ1/8-DEV1/1-RPS-IFL 

Fear is the little death that brings total obliteration. 

(literally: Fear, I allege, is metaphorically the small undoer of life that utterly undoes existence.) 

Eixalund te svaloit. 

DYN-‘visualize’-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/UNI-MD101/9-IFL 1m-ABS STA-‘fear’-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/UNI-1m/ATT-IFL 

I will face my fear. 

(literally: I intend to mentally visualize my fear.) 

Uetö ˉqe ˉiočqal ˉič’alaň. 

NAV-1m-EFF mi-ABS CPT-DYN-‘vector.motion.over/above’-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/UNI-IFL CPT-DYN-‘pass.through’- 

NRM/DEL/M/CSL/UNI-COO1/5-IFL 

I will permit it to pass over me and through me. 

(literally: I will enable it to pass over me and pass through me.) 

ˉQe ˉkéi’iulöt’ izap’alarxondü tu sk h al ˉqau. 

mi-ABS CPT-FRAMED -‘move.away.from.nearer.point’-PCR-DYN-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/UNI-TPF1/2-IFL DYN-[incorp.stem: 

‘mind’]-‘pursue/track’-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/UNI-BOD1/5-MD101/7-SCH/RPS-IFL 1m-IND STA-‘course’- 

NRM/DEL/M/CSL/UNI-IFL mi-COR 

And when it has gone I will turn the inner eye to see its path. 

(literally: After it recedes I intend to metaphorically track mentally with my eyes its course.) 

ˉKâ’ìuta svelöt’ e uicawîluad. 

CPT-FRAMED -‘move.away.from.nearer.point’-LOC-DYN-NRM/DEL/U/CSL/UNI STA-‘fear’-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/UNI PRS 

MNF-‘existent.thing’-DEC-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/UNI-SUF2/1-IFL 

Where the fear has gone there will be nothing. 

(literally: In the place where the fear receded to I declare there will be nothing.) 

Iun-niu ti casexh. 

ITV-CNT 1m-AFF STA-‘exist’-NRM/PRX/M/CSL/UNI-SCO1/3 

Only I will remain. 

(literally: I intend only my existence to continue.) 

The “Babel” Text (Genesis 11:1-9) 

Here are the first four sentences of the Babel Text: 

Ai’tilafxup embuliëqtuqh. 

DYN-CTX/ASR/PPS-RCP-‘speak’-NRM/PRX/N/ASO/CST-SIM1/9-IFL 

STA-‘land’-IND-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/UNI-MET1/6-INL1/9-IFL 

All the people of the land spoke the same language. 

[LITERALLY: Each person in the land spoke language in the same way to one another.] 

Unš ikàkč’êňž çu ˉip’ataspöň usmas îpual Šinar / qia aitwapkáň. 

SQT1/9 DYN-‘journey’-NRM/GRA/U/CSL/UNI-DSG2/3-FML Col-IND DYN-‘seek’-CPT-NRM/DEL/U/CSL/UNI-DLB1/5- 

COO1/2-IFL STA-‘plain’-NRM/PRX/M/CSL/UNI-IFL STA-[carrier:place.name.]-PAR-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/UNI-IFL “Šinar” 

mi-LOC DYN-‘reside’-NRM/ICP/U/CSL/UNI-COO1/5-FML 

Then wandering from the east they came upon the plain of Šinar and began to dwell there.

[LITERALLY: Then wandering they inadvertently found the plain of Šinar and began to reside in it.] 

Ai’tilatunš çu iùktict’awélgümui no aň uok’auqvaludai ˉxhe. 

DYN-CTX/ASR/PPS-RCP-‘speak’-NRM/DEL/U/CSL/UNI-SQT1/9-IFL Col-IND FRAMED:MNF-inc.stem:‘stone’-‘block’- 

OBL-DIR-NRM/PRX/U/ASO/DCT-ROL1/8-ISR-FNC/IFL 1m+ua/ERG COO1/5 DYN-inc.stem:‘flame’-‘resiliency’-OBL- 

NRM/DEL/M/CSL/UNI-SUF1/9-ISR-IFL ui-ABS 

Then they said to each other: let us make bricks from stone and fire them to make them strong. 

[LITERALLY: They then said to each other let us be brick-makers using stone and make them super-resilient 

by means of fire.] 

Öň êktict’algui îktalgöň ôňgyé’c. 

COO1/2 STA-inc.stem:‘stone’-‘block’-NRM/PRX/U/ASO/DCT-ISR-FNC/IFL 

STA-‘clay’-OBL-NRM/PRX/U/ASO/DCT-COO1/2-IFL STA-‘mortar’-PUR-NRM/DEL/A/CSL/UNI-FML 

And there was stone for brick and clay for mortar. 

[LITERALLY: And there were batches of stone blocks and there was clay for the purpose of mortar.] 

Examples of Ithkuil “Poetry” 

[forthcoming] 



Links of 

Interest 

Updates / 

News 

2 Morpho- 

Phonology 

3 Basic 

Morphology 

6 More Verb 

Morphology 

7 Suffixes 

10 Lexico- 

Semantics 


System 



12 The Number 

System 

List of 

Abbreviations 

The Lexicon 

Texts






computer.) 

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SUPPLEMENT No. 1 TO ITHKUIL LEXICON – Added July 23, 2012 

-BŽ- CHARACTER TRAITS: ECCENTRICITY/WEIRDNESS/UNORTHODOXY 


1. state of being eccentric/non-conforming to expected 

societal norms 

2. state of being weird/outlandish 

3. state of being unorthodox / “out of the box” / not per 

normative standards or guidelines 

Same as above 3 stems 

with focus on the state or 

feeling itself 

COMPLEMENTARY STEMS 


with focus on the 

consequences of being in 

such a state 

FORMAL stems are the same as INFORMAL stems 

except that for FORMAL stems, the party whom the 

stem describes is seemingly or apparently (self-) aware 

of their state, whereas when using INFORMAL stems, 

the party is seemingly or apparently unaware or ignorant 

of their own state. 

-ČQ’- a deep abiding sense of disgust and being “fed-up” with other people after years of dealing with other’s 

unrelenting flakiness, lying, betrayals, hypocrisy, sanctimoniousness, stupidity, and short-sightedness. This root is 

patterned after the root -PK-. 

-DhB- CHARACTER TRAITS: COMMON-SENSE/PRUDENCE/WISDOM 


1. state of having common sense; use common sense 

2. state of being prudent/circumspect/discerning 

3. state of being wise/sagacious based on keen analysis 

and introspection regarding one’s experiences and longterm 

observations 








such a state 

Derivations: common sense; prudence; wisdom 







-DhG- CHARACTER TRAITS: COURAGE/BRAVERY/VALOR 


1. state of being brave, undaunted by dangerous 

situation at hand 

2. state of being courageous/intrepid; have courage 

3. state of being valorous/gallant/bold; act with 

valor/gallantry/boldness 








such a state 






of their own state.

-DhR- REPRESENTATION FOR AESTHETIC OR INTELLECTUAL PURPOSE / ARTISTIC ELEMENT 


1. design element or motif for purpose of functional or 

intellectual appreciation; be/create such a design element 

or motif 

2. depiction or representation for purpose of functional 

or intellectual appreciation; be/create such a depiction or 

representation 

3. act of consideration/appreciation of external entity for 

purposes of functional/intellectual contemplation 

1. design element or motif for purpose of aesthetic or 

artistic appreciation; be/create such a design element or 

motif 

2. depiction/representation/creation for purpose of 

aesthetic or artistic appreciation; be/create such a 

depiction or representation 

3. act of consideration/appreciation of external entity for 

purposes of aesthetic/artistic admiration/contemplation 


same as above 3 stems 

referring to the process/act 

of inspired creation thereof 


referring to the design 

element, motif, depiction, 

or representation itself 

DERIVATIVES: work of art, art, artist, artisan 


referring to the process/act 

of inspired creation thereof 


referring to the design 

element, motif, depiction, 

or representation itself 

Type 1 SSD Derivatives designate a particular static creative medium: sculpture, 2-dimensional visual composition 

(painting, photo, drawing, graphic), collage, 3-D construction, musical composition, written (literary) composition, 

multimedia composition, other static medium 

Type 2 SSD Derivatives designate a particular dynamic creative medium: dance performance, motion picture, 

music performance, dramatic performance (i.e., a play), multimedia performance, a reading/recital, 

-DhV- CHARACTER TRAITS: EMOTIONALISM/WHIM-WORSHIPPING/MYSTICISM 


1. state of being emotion-driven and controlled by 

melodrama in one’s daily life decisions, as opposed to 

relying on reason 

2. state of being whim-driven in one’s daily life 

decisions, as opposed to relying on reason or long-range 

analysis of one’s self-interest 

3. state of relying on mysticism and anti-rational 

superstitions and supernatural forces as a basis for one’s 

life decisions, as opposed to relying on reason 








such a state 

-FK- BELIEF/TRUST/CERTAINTY 








1. a belief; to believe 1. an article of faith / an item of doctrine or dogma; to 

be/constitute an article of faith/doctrine/dogma 

2. a feeling of trust/reliability; to trust, to rely upon 2. an act of assurance/insurance; to assure/ensure 

3. a state of self-confidence/belief in oneself 3. something certain, something sure; to be/make 

sure/certain 



with focus on the state/act 

itself 


with focus on thing 

believed/trusted/certain 

about 



itself 


with focus on thing 

believed/trusted/certain 

about

-FQ- CHARACTER TRAITS: EGOISM/SELF-INTEREST/INDIVIDUALISM/INTEGRITY 

NOTE: This root reflects self-interest as a virtue, in that it implies egoism not at the expense of others nor 

interference with other’s rights. This root should be distinguished from -LFQ- “selfishness/self-centeredness” which 

implies negative traits which potentially affect others adversely. 


1. state of being egoistic; concerned with one’s selfinterest 

(not at the expense of other’s rights) 

2. state of being individualistic; pursuing of one’s own 

rationally-conceived goals to one’s own benefit and 

implicitly to the benefit of others 

3. state of having personal integrity / adherence to one’s 

own values in the face of real-life circumstances 








such a state 







-JR- CHARACTER TRAITS: TENACITY/PERSEVERENCE/AUDACITY/ RESOLUTENESS 


1. state of being tenacious/perservering; to persevere, 

act tenaciously, be tenacious, have tenacity/perseverence 

2. state of being audacious; have the audacity to do 

something / have “nerve” or pluck or “balls” 

3. state of being defiant, resolute; act or behave 

defiantly/resolutely 








such a state 

Derivations: insolent/insolence, effrontery 







-KSN- CHARACTER TRAITS: NAIVETE/FOOLISHNESS 


1. state of being naïve/foolish; act naively or foolishly 

(ill-conceived thinking/acting due to failure to analyze a 

situation or one’s circumstances realistically and/or 

thoroughly) 

2. state of being obtuse or “clueless”; be obtuse or 

clueless (fail to draw appropriate/expected conclusions 

from situation or fail to recognize situation for what it is 

despite the seeming obviousness thereof) 

3. state of ignorance, “blindness” or unawareness; be 

unaware or ignorant of something 








such a state 






of their own state.

-LFQ- CHARACTER TRAITS: SELF-CONCERN/SELFISHNESS/SELF-CENTEREDNESS 


1. state of being self-centered and inconsiderate of the state of 

others 

2. state of being selfish (in negative context, i.e., where one’s 

being considerate of others would not constitute altruism or 

self-sacrifice) 

3. state of being self-indulgent and whim-worshiping at the 

expense of others 





Same as above 3 stems with 

focus on the consequences of 

being in such a state 

FORMAL stems are the same as INFORMAL 

stems except that for FORMAL stems, the party 

whom the stem describes is seemingly or 

apparently (self-) aware of their state, whereas 

when using INFORMAL stems, the party is 

seemingly or apparently unaware or ignorant of 

their own state. 

-LKW- CHARACTER TRAITS: FRIENDLY/VIVACIOUS/BOISTEROUS 


1. state of being friendly/amiable; having a sunny/amiable/warm 

disposition 

2. state of being vivacious; having joie-de-vivre 

3. state of being larger-than-life/boisterous/ebullient 





Same as above 3 stems with focus 

on the consequences of being in 

such a state 

-ŇSP- APOSTASY/HERESY/HETERODOXY/ICONOCLASM 


stems except that for FORMAL stems, the 

party whom the stem describes is seemingly or 






1. state of being apostatic; practice apostasy, hold apostatic 

beliefs 

2. state of being heretical; practice heresy/heterodoxy; to hold 

heretical beliefs 

3. state of being iconoclastic; practice iconoclasm, act 

iconoclastically 





Same as above 3 stems with focus 

on the consequences of being in 

such a state 


stems except that for FORMAL stems, the 

party whom the stem describes is seemingly or 





-PSQ- CHARACTER TRAITS: SELF-RIGHTEOUSNESS/SANCTIMONY/HYPOCRISY 

1. state of being self-righteous/sanctimonious 

2. state of being unctuous/holier-than-thou 

3. state of being hypocritical; practice hypocrisy 















their own state.

-QJ- CHARATER TRAITS: HYSTERIA/IRRATIONALITY/PARANOIA 


1. state of being irrational in one’s outlook on life 

2. state of being hysterical and impervious to serenity in 

one’s outlook on life 

3. state of being paranoid in one’s outlook on life 








-QP- AWARE/ALERT/CONSCIENTIOUS/SUSPICIOUS 



stem describes is seemingly or apparently (self-) 

aware of their state, whereas when using 

INFORMAL stems, the party is seemingly or 

apparently unaware or ignorant of their own state. 


1. state of being aware of one’s surroundings; be aware, be 

alert 

2. state of being mindful/conscientious; be aware of and 

concerned with perspectives and points of view other than 

one’s own 

3. state of being suspicious/wary/cautious 








Derivations: awareness; mindfulness; conscientiousness; suspicion, wariness, caution 








-RCh- CHARACTER TRAITS: CIVILITY/PEACEABLENESS 


1. state of being civil; follow cultural norms and societal 

expectations 

2. state of being conciliatory/collaborative 

3. state of being peaceable, peace-inspiring, non-violent 








Derivations: civilization; society, peace, war, anarchy 







their own state.

-RTh- CONSIDERATION OF AN IDEA OR PROPOSAL 

NOTE: All of the meanings listed below refer to stems with CPT version; the default PRC version counterparts of 

these meanings would refer to the process or act of consideration leading up to the COMPLETIVE state of affairs 


1. be OK with, accept (the idea of); the “OK”, 

acceptance (of an idea) 

1. permit, grant permission; permission 

2. assent to, go with, consent to; assent, consent 2. affirm, confirm, formally recognize; affirmation, 

confirmation, formal recognition 

3. concur, agree to, be in agreement or accordance with; 

agreement, accord, accordance, concurrence 

3. approve, endorse; approval, endorsement 


same as above 3 stems same as above 3 stems same as above 3 stems same as above 3 stems 

referring to the process/act referring to the entity referring to the process/act referring to the entity 

thereof 

agreed upon, accepted, thereof 

permitted, affirmed, 

OK’d, assented to, etc. 

approved, endorsed, etc. 

-SC- ecstatic/euphoric feeling derived from contemplation of one’s interconnection with Nature and/or the universe 

(see the root -Q h -); this root is patterned after the root -PK-. 

-SČ- CHARACTER TRAITS: HONORABLE/RESPECTABLE/ESTEEMED 


1. state of being honorable; have honor 

2. state of being respectable; have respectability; be 

respected 

3. state of being esteemed/well-thought-of 








such a state 

Formal stems imply a state of pride at one’s being honorable 

-SKR- LAXITY/LENIENCY/TOLERANCE 








1. state/act of being lax about something; be lax about 

something 

1. state/act of leniency; be lenient toward something 

2. state/act of putting up with/tolerating something; to 2. state/act of socio-cultural tolerance; to practice socio- 

put up with something; to tolerate something or a 

situation 

cultural tolerance, have live-and-let-live attitude toward 

3. state/act of bearing/enduring something; to bear 

something; to endure something 

3. to altruistically sustain/support materially 


Same as above 3 stems Same as above 3 stems Same as above 3 stems Same as above 3 stems 

with focus on the state/act with focus on entity being with focus on the state/act with focus on entity being 

itself 

tolerated/endured itself 

tolerated/supported

-SK’- GATHERING/ACCUMULATION/COLLECTION 


1. a gathering in one location; to gather to, bring 

together in a location, come together at one location 

1. queue, line-up, line (of objects); to queue, to line up 

2. to pick up, gather selectively, gather up 2. collect/ gather things together for formal purpose 

3. a (growing) pile of, a growing assortment of; to pile 

up, to add up/ to increase or grow in number, size or 

volume via adding of material or members 

3. an accumulation, an accretion; to accumulate 



with focus on the entities with focus on the state/fact with focus on the entities with focus on the state/fact 

that are being gathered of growth or accumulation that are being gathered of growth or accumulation 

together 

itself 

together 

itself 

-SQh- a feeling of being deeply and personally moved/contemplative/humbled by something extraordinary such as 

a work of art, a moving speech, an inspiring sight of Nature, etc. Akin to the Spanish-language notion of duende, 

but applied to contexts beyond merely art. This root is patterned after the root -PK-. 

-STL- OPPORTUNITY/ADVANTAGE/CONVENIENCE/SUITABILITY/EXPEDIENCE 


1. something potentially worthwhile, something worth 

pursuing / to be something potentially worthwhile; to 

pursue something potentially worthwhile 

2. something expedient or opportune; to be/do 

something expedient or opportune 

3. something fitting, apropos or suitable; to be/do 

something fitting, apropos or suitable 


referring to the 

experiential state itself 

1. advantage / favorable circumstance or situation; to be 

advantageous / be in a favor situation / have favorable or 

advantageous circumstances 

2. an opportunity / a chance to experience or do 

something normally unavailable 

3. a convenience / something convenient; to be 

convenient / do something convenient 




(anticipated) resulting state 

or outcome 



experiential state itself 



(anticipated) resulting state 

or outcome 

-ŠK’- CHARACTER TRAITS: NARROW-MINDEDNESS/DOGMATISM/PREJUDICE 


1. state of being narrow-minded/closed-minded/insular 

2. state of being dogmatic/doctrinaire/zealous 

3. state of being bigoted/prejudiced 








such a state 

Derivations: dogma, doctrine, zealot, zealotry, prejudice 






of their own state.

-ŠŠ- HIDE/CONCEAL/AVOID/SNEAK 


1. something hidden/concealed/“shrouded”/“veiled”; to 

hide/conceal [by covering up, cloaking, enclosing so as 

to be in immediate vicinity but unobservable 

2. something hidden/concealed; to hide/conceal [by 

being or placement somewhere so as to be unavailable, 

inaccessable, not in the vicinity] 

1. something masked, hidden by camouflage or 

disguise; to disguise, to mask 

2. something obscure/ambiguous, difficult to discern or 

interpret; to obscure/obfuscate, render ambiguous 

3. something evasive/elusive; to avoid/evade/elude 3. something sneaky/furtive/stealthy/sly/surreptitious; to 

sneak, be sneaky.furtive/sly/surreptitious, practice 

stealth 




of concealment/evasion 


with focus on thing hidden 

-ŠW- BEAUTY 



itself 


with focus on thing being 

disguised, rendered 

obscure, or being sneaky 

NOTE: the stems of this root all refer to the emotional/spiritual inspiration one experiences via the 

observation/contemplation of a subjectively pleasing entity aesthetically-speaking. The specific stems are 

distinguished solely by the degree/nature of the aesthetic experience. The holistic roots refer to the total experiential 

relationship between the aesthetically-pleasing entity and the observer/experiencer. The complementary stems 

distinguish between the source entity from the observer’s emotional/spiritual reaction. 


1. something pretty/lovely/fair 1. something beautiful 

2. something delicate/dainty 2. something graceful/elegant 

3. something enchanting/charming/appealing 3. something sublime 



aesthetically-appealing 

entity 




observer’s subjective 

experience/reaction 



aesthetically-appealing 

entity 

DERIVATIONS: beauty, loveliness, sublimity, grace, elegance, enchantment; magnificence 



observer’s subjective 


-TK’- CHARACTER TRAITS: SINCERITY/FRANKNESS/TRUSTWORTHINESS 


1. state of being sincere/honest 

2. state of being frank/candid/straightforward 

3. state of being trustworthy/loyal/faithful 





DERIVATIONS: blunt, bluntness 




such a state 






of their own state.

-łG- MOTIVE/INCENTIVE/ENTICEMENT/PURSUASION/INDUCEMENT 


motive / reason why / basis for intention; be/have a principle (moral or ontological) / grounds / basis; 

motive 

be/have a principle / be/have grounds / be/have basis 

purpose / intention / desired outcome / “goal” / “aim”; 

intend / “aim to/for” 

aspiration / “dream” ; to aspire, to dream of 

incentive / stimulus; be/have incentive one’s (free) will; to follow one’s will 



with focus on the with focus on the content with focus on the with focus on the content 

psychological/epistemo- of the actual 

psychological/epistemo- of the actual principle, 

logical state of having a motive/purpose/incentive logical state of having a basis, dream, will 

motive/purpose/incentive 

principle/basis/dream 

Derivations: induce, entice, enticement, allure, cajole, seduce, tempt, charm, destiny 

-łXh- CHARACTER TRAITS: SMUGNESS/CONCEIT/FOPPISHNESS 


1. state of being conceited, full of oneself 

2. state of being smug/pedantic = feeling superior to 

another based on one’s advantageous knowledge or 

circumstances 

3. state of being prim, foppish, priggish 








such a state 

Derivations: conceit, smugness,pedantry; arrogant, arrogance 

1. state of being modest/humble 

2. state of being demure/reserved 

3. state of being unassuming/unobtrusive 





Derivations: modesty, humility 

-VŘ- CHARACTER TRAITS: MODESTY/HUMILITY 




such a state 







FORMAL 






of their own state.

-XhČ’- CHARACTER TRAITS: STUPIDITY / INTELLECTUAL FAILURE 


1. state of being stupid, “dumb”, simple-minded 

2. state of being non-intellectual, non-conceptual or 

non-analytical in one’s cognitive functioning 

3. state of being “shallow”, anti-intellectual, 

unconcerned with intellectual prowess or analytical 

thinking 








such a state 







-XhN- EXISTENTIAL IRONY ASSOCIATED WITH UNFAVORABLE BEHAVIOR OR CHARACTER 

NOTE: The stems of this root all refer to the existential irony/frustration/unfairness arising from observing how 

persons (or situations) characterized by unfavorable, non-virtuous, negative, or morally “flawed” behavior, character 

traits, or characteristics/attributes are nevertheless often contented or happy or fulfilled or successful/thriving despite 

their nature. The individual stems specify the particular set of behaviors/characteristics/traits giving rise to such 

existential irony/frustration. 


1. irony/frustration/unfairness arising from being 

successful/happy/fulfilled/thriving despite being stupid, 

poorly educated or ignorant 


successful/happy/fulfilled/thriving despite being mean, 

violent, a liar, a cheat, a criminal, bullying, and/or 

sadistic 


successful/happy/fulfilled/thriving despite being oldfashioned, 

un-“hip,” or lacking in contemporary cultural 

awareness 


with focus on the irony 

sensed by the observer 


successful/happy/fulfilled/thriving despite being antiintellectual, 

philosophically vacant, hedonistic, or 

otherwise a practitioner of a morally shallow, range-ofthe-moment, 

whim-based, non-intellectual, instant- 

gratification-oriented lifestyle 


successful/happy/fulfilled/thriving despite being a 

narrow-minded, morally self-righteous, “holier-than- 

thou”, bigoted, prejudiced, elitist, exclusionary thinker 


successful/happy/fulfilled/thriving despite being 

culturally backward, “savage”, simple, nontechnological 



with focus on the state of 

the one observed which 

gives rise to the observer’s 

sense of irony 


with focus on the irony 

sensed by the observer 


with focus on the state of 

the one observed which 

gives rise to the observer’s 

sense of irony

-XhP- FUNCTIONAL WELL-FORMEDNESS/PERFECTION/SENSUAL OR AESTHETIC SATISFACTION 

NOTE: the stems of this root operate under the same principles as the root -ŠW- “BEAUTY” except that the latter 

root focuses on purely aesthetic appreciation of an entity, whereas this root focuses on the subjective impression of 

physical and/or functional well-formedness/use in a mechanistic way. 


1. something well-formed, shapely, well-proportioned, 

fine 

1. something perfect 

2. something aesthetically/sensually satisfying (e.g., a 

fine meal, a glass of wine, a thrill ride, a sexual 

experience, ) 

2. something exquisite/superb 

3. something stylish/decorative/ornamental 3. something ornate/embellished/splendid 



with focus on the with focus on the with focus on the with focus on the 

aesthetically-appealing observer’s subjective aesthetically-appealing observer’s subjective 

entity 

experience/reaction entity 


-ZJ- CHARACTER TRAITS: NERVOUSNESS/TIMIDITY/SHYNESS/ANXIETY 


1. state of being nervous/apprehensive 

2. state of being timid/shy/bashful 

3. state of being anxiety-ridden, neurotic due to fears 








such a state 







-ŽR- CHARACTER TRAITS: INTELLIGENT/ASTUTE/PERSPICACIOUS 


1. state of being intelligent / smart / “bright” / “sharp” 

2. state of being astute/quick-witted/cunning 

3. state of being thoughtful/farsighted/perspicacious; to 

have foresight about something, be thoughtful about 








such a state 






of their own state.




Links of 

Interest 

Updates / 

News 

2 Morpho- 

Phonology 

3 Basic 

Morphology 

6 More Verb 

Morphology 

7 Suffixes 

10 Lexico- 

Semantics 


System 

List of Morphological Abbreviations 

1+ M personal reference: speaker + mixed 3rd party 

1+2m personal reference: speaker + monadic listener 

1+2m+M personal reference: speaker + monadic listener + mixed 3rd party 

12 The Number 

System 

List of 

Abbreviations 

The Lexicon 

Texts 

1+2m+ma personal reference: speaker + monadic listener + monadic animate 3rd party 

1+2m+mi personal reference: speaker + monadic listener + monadic inanimate 3rd party 

1+2m+ua personal reference: speaker + monadic listener + unbounded animate 3rd party 

1+2m+ui personal reference: speaker + monadic listener + unbounded inanimate 3rd party 

1+2u personal reference: speaker + unbounded listener 

1+2u+M personal reference: speaker + unbounded listener + mixed 3rd party 

1+2u+ma personal reference: speaker + unbounded listener + monadic animate 3rd party

1+2u+mi personal reference: speaker + unbounded listener + monadic inanimate 3rd party 

1+2u+ua personal reference: speaker + unbounded listener + unbounded animate 3rd party 

1+2u+ui personal reference: speaker + unbounded listener + unbounded inanimate 3rd party 

1+ma personal reference: speaker + monadic animate 3rd party 

1+mi personal reference: speaker + monadic inanimate 3rd party 

1+ua personal reference: speaker + unbounded animate 3rd party 

1+ui personal reference: speaker + unbounded inanimate 3rd party 

2m personal reference: monadic listener 

2m+M personal reference: monadic listener + mixed 3rd party 

2m+ma personal reference: monadic listener + monadic animate 3rd party 

2m+mi personal reference: monadic listener + monadic inanimate 3rd party 

2m+ua personal reference: monadic listener + unbounded animate 3rd party 

2m+ui personal reference: monadic listener + unbounded inanimate 3rd party 

2u personal reference: unbounded listener 

2u+M personal reference: unbounded listener + mixed 3rd party 

2u+ma personal reference: unbounded listener + monadic animate 3rd party 

2u+mi personal reference: unbounded listener + monadic inanimate 3rd party 

2u+ua personal reference: unbounded listener + unbounded animate 3rd party

2u+ui personal reference: unbounded listener + unbounded inanimate 3rd party 

A Abstract perspective 

ABE Abessive case 

ABL Ablative case 

ABS Absolutive case 

Abt personal reference: Abstract referent 

ACC Accordative modality 

ACP Acceptive bias 

ACQ Suffix: Acquisition 

ACS Accessive case 

ACT Activative case 

ADM Admonitive illocution 

ADV Advocative modality 

AFF Affective case 

AFM Affirmative validation 

AFI Affinitive format 

AFT Suffix: Degree of Affect 

AGC Suffix: Degree of Agency

AGG Aggregative configuration 

AGN Suffix: Degree of Agency, Intent or Effectiveness 

ALG Allegative sanction 

ALL Allative case 

ALP Allapsive case 

AMG Amalgamative context 

ANT Anticipative modality 

APL Applicative case 

APR Suffix: Degree of Contextual Appropriateness 

APT Suffix: Various Aspects 

ASC Ascriptive mood 

ASI Assimilative case 

ASM Assumptive mood 

ASO Associative affiliation 

ASP Aspirative modality 

ASR Assertive illocution 

ASS Assessive case 

ASU Assurative bias

ATC Suffix: Degree Of Anticipation 

ATH Authoritative format 

ATN Suffix: Degree of Attention or Determination 

ATT Attributive case 

AUT Suffix: Authorization 

AVR Aversive case 

AXM Axiomatic sanction 

BEH Suffix: Degree of Subjective Effect or Behavioral Appropriateness 

BEN Benefactive case 

BOD Suffix: Bodily Instrumentality = ‘by means of’ 

CAL Suffix: Calendrical Sequencing - days, months, years, decades, centuries, millenia 

CAP Suffix: Degree of Potential or Capability 

CCL Conclusive aspect 

CCM Concommitant format 

CFD Suffix: Degree of Forthrightness, Confidence or Humility 

CGL Suffix: Motive/Reason for Conglomeration/Coming Together of Gestalt Entity 

CLA Classificative case 

CLM Climactic aspect

CLS Compulsory modality 

CML Compulsive modality 

CMM Commutative case 

CMP Comparative case 

CMP1A Comparative 1A case 

CMP1B Comparative 1B case 

CMP1C Comparative 1C case 











CMP5B Comparative 5B case











CNC Suffix: Degree of Concern or Consideration 

CNF Confirmative validation 

CNG Contingent valence 

CNJ Conjunctive case 

CNM Suffix: Type of Container/Packaging/Conveyance/Holder 

CNQ Suffix: Degree of Consequentiality, Finality or Irrevocability 

CNR Concursive case 

CNS Suffix: Degree of Consent

CNT Continuative aspect 

CNV Conductive case 

COA Coalescent affiliation 

COH Coherent configuration 

COI Coincidental bias 

Col personal reference: collective entity 

COM Comitative case 

CON Concessive case 

COO Suffix: Adjunctive Coordination 

COR Correlative case 

COS Suffix: Comparison Specifications (Used with Levels ) - see Section 6.2 and Section 6.2.5 

COU Counterfactive mood 

CPC Capacitative modality 

CPL Complementary valence 

CPN Componential configuration 

CPS Compositive case 

CPT Completive version 

CRD Credential modality

CRI Suffix: Cycle or circular motion in place (spin, revolve) 

CRO Corollary valence 

CRR Corrective bias 

CRS Contrastive case 

CRV Suffix: Cycle or circular motion over linear vector (e.g., train wheels, bike wheels) 

CSD Considerative case 

CSL Consolidative affiliation 

CSM Consumptive aspect 

CSQ Consequential aspect 

CSS Cessative aspect 

CST Composite configuration 

CTC Suffix: Degree of Contact 

CTN Suffix: Degree of Contrariness to Expectation(s) or Shift in Subject 

CTP Contemptive bias 

CTR Suffix: Contrastive Coordination 

CTV Contemplative bias 

CTX Contextual phase 

CUL Culminative aspect

CVS Conversive case 

CVT Suffix: Degree of Covertness versus Overtness 

CVY Suffix: Means of Transportation/Conveyance 

CYN Cynical bias 

DAT Dative case 

DBI Suffix: Additional Bodily Instrumentality = ‘by means of’ 

DCI Suffix: Decrease then Increase 

DCL Disclusive aspect 

DCR Suffix: Decrease 

DCS Suffix: Degree of Decisiveness, Commitment or Emphasis 

DCT Discrete configuration 

DCV Decisive modality 

DEC Declarative illocution 

DEF Suffix: Degree Of Definiteness 

DEL Delimitive extension 

DEM Demonstrative valence 

DEP Dependent case 

DER Derivative case

DES Desiderative modality 

DEV Suffix: Degree of Development 

DEX Suffix: Deixis Categories 

DFC Deficient level 

DFF Diffusive case 

DGR Suffix: Exactness of Degree 

DIR Directive illocution 

DLB Suffix: Degree of Deliberateness/Agency 

DPL Depletive extension 

DPR Suffix: Dispersion or Separability of a Configurative Set 

DPT Suffix: Depiction/Representation/Record 

DPV Desperative bias 

DPX Duplex configuration 

DRC Suffix: Degree of Directness 

DSC Descriptive function 

DSG Suffix: Degree of Design or Purposefulness 

DSM Dismissive bias 

DSP Dispositive modality

DSR Suffix: Degree Of Discretion 

DST Suffix: Distributive Coordination 

DUB Dubitative validation 

DUP Duplicative valence 

DVR Divertive modality 

DVT Devotive modality 

DXX Suffix: Additional Deixis Categories 

DYN Dynamic function 

Ea personal reference: universal animate 

EFC Effective version 

EFF Effectuative Case 

EFI Suffix: Degree of Efficiency or Efficacy 

EFT Suffix: Degree of Effort 

Ei personal reference: universal inanimate 

ELP Elapsive case 

ENG Suffix: Degree of Engagement/Involvement 

ENB Suffix: Degree of Enablement 

EPD Expeditive aspect

EPI Epistemic sanction 

EPS Episodic case 

EQU Equative level 

ERG Ergative case 

ERR Suffix: Degree of Correctness versus Error 

ESS Essive case 

EUP Euphemistic bias 

EXA Exasperative bias 

EXC Exceptive case 

EXD Suffix: Dynamically Changing Degree or Extent 

EXH Exhortative modality 

EXN Suffix: Degree or Extent 

EXP Experiential aspect 

EXS Existential context 

EXT Suffix: Exactness of Identity / Identity As a Referent Or Standard 

EXV Expatiative sanction 

EPC Expectative modality 

FAC Factual mood

FAM Suffix: Degree Of Familiarity 

FEA Suffix: Featural Properties 

FLC Fluctuative phase 

FLS Suffix: Degree of Fluctuation/Stability 

FML Formal designation 

FMS Suffix: Material States/Forms (non-solid or quasi-solid) 

FNC Functional context 

FNS Suffix: Material States/Forms (solids) 

FRAMED Framed relation 

FRC Suffix: Degree of Physical Force Exerted 

FRE Frequentative phase 

FRG Fragmentative phase 

FRM Suffix: Degree of Formality 

FRQ Suffix: Degree Of Frequency 

FUN Functive case 

GEN Genitive case 

GRA Graduative extension 

GRT Gratificative bias

HAB Habitual aspect 

HOR Hortative illocution 

HPB Hyperbolic bias 

HRC Suffix: Position on Social, Occupational, or (Para-) Military Hierarchy 

HYP Hypothetical mood 

ICD Suffix: Increase then Decrease 

ICL Inclinative modality 

ICP Incipient extension 

ICR Suffix: Increase 

ICS Incessative aspect 

IDa personal reference: indefinite animate 

IDC Indicative valence 

IDG Indignative bias 

IDi personal reference: indefinite inanimate 

IDP Interdependent case 

IDR Suffix: Random/Varying Increases and Decreases 

IFL Informal designation 

IFR Inferior level

IMD Intermediative aspect 

IMM Imminent aspect 

IMP Suffix: Degree of Impact on Patient/Target or Enablement of Outcome 

IMS Impositive modality 

IMT Imitative valence 

INB Suffix: Inability/Incapacity Due To 

INC Incompletive version 

IND Inducive case 

INE Ineffectual version 

INF Inferential validation 

INL Suffix: Degree Of Inclusion 

INP Interpolative case 

INS Instrumental case 

IPa personal reference: impersonal animate 

IPB Improbable validation 

IPi personal reference: impersonal in animate 

IPL Implicative mood 

IPS Impressional modality

IPT Suffix: Degree of importance/impact/signficance 

IPU Imputative sanction 

IRG Interrogative illocution 

IRO Ironic bias 

ISR Instrumentative format 

ITC Intercommutative aspect 

ITG Suffix: Degree of Intelligence Manifested 

ITM Intermittent phase 

ITN Suffix: Degree of Iteration 

ITP Interpretative case 

ITR Iterative phase 

ITU Intuitive validation 

ITV Intentive modality 

ITY Suffix: Degree of Speed (i.e., Intensity of Movement or Change) 

LAT Suffix: Degree Of Lateness/Earliness 

LCT Suffix: Locational Octant Markers for Object Being Located (see Section 10.3.3) 

LIM Limitative case 

LOC Locative case

LTL Literal bias 

LVL Suffix: Levels (see Sec. 6.2) 

M Monadic perspective 

ma personal reference: monadic animate 3rd party 

MAT Suffix: Degree of Maturation 

MD01 Suffix: resigned to 

MD02 Suffix: devoted; committed to / devoted to 

MD03 Suffix: desired / sought-after; want to 

MD04 Suffix: attempted, attempt at a …; try to, attempt to 

MD05 Suffix: capable, able; can / able to / capable of 

MD06 Suffix: knowledgeable; can = know how to / familiar with 

MD07 Suffix: mandatory; must / have to 

MD08 Suffix: required; should / be to 

MD09 Suffix: expected; be supposed to 

MD10 Suffix: intended; mean to / intend to / shall 

MD11 Suffix: chosen, selected; choose to / elect to 

MD12 Suffix: …on impulse; feel like X-ing 

MD13 Suffix: promised; promise to

MD14 Suffix: well-liked; like (to) 

MD15 Suffix: feared; fear (to) 

MD16 Suffix: willing; willing to 

MD17 Suffix: prepared / ready; prepared to/ready to 

MD18 Suffix: necessary / needed; need to 

MD19 Suffix: Daring; dare to 

MD20 Suffix: decided-upon; decide to 

MD21 Suffix: offered/offer of; offer to 

MD22 Suffix: aided / assisted; help to / aid in X-ing 

MD24 Suffix: not unexpected; be prone to / be apt to / tend to 

MD25 Suffix: agreed-upon; agree to 

MD26 Suffix: responsible for/in charge of 

MD27 Suffix: remember to 

MD28 Suffix: feel a need to / feel one should / feel one must / feel driven to 

MD29 Suffix: to guess or think [that]… 

MD30 Suffix: available; available to/for 

MD31 Suffix: potential; can = have potential to 

MD32 Suffix: permitted; can = permitted to

MD33 Suffix: hoped-for; hope/wish to 

MDL Suffix: Random pattern of modulation (unpredictable/irregular movement pattern) 

MDN Suffix: Degree of Age or Modernity 

MEC Suffix: Type of Mechanical Instrumentality = ‘by means of’ 

MED Mediative case 

MET Suffix: Metonymic Categories 

mi personal reference: monadic inanimate 3rd party 

MIN Minimal level 

MLR Suffix: Meta-level representation/coordination/analysis 

MLT Multiform configuration 

MNF Manifestive function 

MNO Monoactive valence 

MOT Suffix: Degree of Self-Conscious Deliberation or Motivation 

MTA Suffix: Additional Motivation for an Action or State 

MTV Motive aspect 

MUT Mutual valence 

MVT Suffix: Degree of Stillness/Movement 

Mx personal reference: mixed third party (animate + inanimate and/or monadic + unbounded)

N Gnomic perspective 

NA1 Suffix: Negation/affirmation of all morphological components 

NA2 Suffix: Negation/affirmation of stem + affixes but not adjunct information 

NA3 Suffix: Negation/affirmation of all morphological components except Modality 

NAR Suffix: Negation/affirmation of all but aspectual or Modality information 

NAV Navigative case 

NEC Necessitative modality 

NEW Suffix: Degree of Newness/Revision 

NNN Suffix: n-numbered angles/facets/faces/sides/points/forms 

NNR Nonrelational valence 

NRM Normal essence 

NTR Suffix: Degree of Notoriety, Acceptance, Respect, Honor 

OAU Suffix: Origin/Association/Utilization 

OBG Obligative modality 

OBJ Objective format 

OBL Oblique case 

Obv personal reference: obviative 

OGN Originative case

OPF Suffix: Degree of Operational Functionality 

OPR Opportunitive modality 

OPT Optimal level 

ORI Orientative case 

PAR Partitive case 

PAU Pausal aspect 

PCL Preclusive aspect 

PCN Suffix: Degree of Care, Precision or Scrutiny 

PCR Postcursive case 

PCS Precessive aspect 

PCT Punctual phase 

PCV Precursive case 

PDC Productive case 

PER Periodic case 

PFT Preferential modality 

PHS Suffix: Phase categories 

PHY Suffix: Degree of Physical Control 

PLA Suffix: Place, State, Setting Where…

PLE Suffix: Degree of (Un-)Pleasantness (of Effect or Result) 

PLM Prolimitive case 

PLV Suffix: polarity / logical valence values 

PMP Preemptive aspect 

PMS Promissory modality 

POS Possessive case 

PPS Propositional sanction 

PPT Purportive validation 

PPT2 Purportive 2 validation 

PPV Propositive bias 

PRB Suffix: Degree of Probability or Likelihood 

PRC Processual version 

PRD Predicative case 

PRE Preparative modality 

PRG Progressive aspect 

PRL Parallel valence 

PRM Permissive modality 

PRO Prolapsive case

PRP Proprietive case 

PRS Prospective aspect 

PRT Precurrent format 

PRX Proximal extension 

PSM Presumptive validation 

PSM2 Presumptive 2 validation 

PST Positive version 

PSV Procursive case 

PTC Protractive aspect 

PTF Suffix: Part/Whole Functional Metaphors 

PTG Suffix: Part/Whole Gestalt Componential Metaphors 

PTI Participative valence 

PTL Postulative case 

PTN Potential modality 

PTT Suffix: Non-Contiguous (i.e., Intermixed) Portion of the Whole 

PTV Proclivitive modality 

PTW Suffix: Contiguous Portion of the Whole 

PTY Suffix: Degree of Prototypicalness

PUR Purposive case 

PUT Putative validation 

PVS Provisional case 

PXM Suffix: Degree of Proximity 

QUA Suffix: Degree of Quality, Effectiveness or Adequacy 

RAC Reactive bias 

RCO Suffix: Recoil in place (spring back; snap back; fall back into place) 

RCP Reciprocal valence 

RCS Recessative aspect 

RCT Recurrent phase 

REA Suffix: Degree of Genuineness or Veracity 

REB Rebuttative sanction 

REF Referential case 

REG Regulative aspect 

REP Repetitive phase 

REQ Requisitive modality 

RES Resistive valence 

RFU Refutative sanction

RGR Regressive aspect 

RNC Suffix: Renunciation 

ROL Suffix: Role 

RPN Suffix: Pattern of Spatio-Temporal Repetition or Distribution of Set Members 

RPS Representational context 

RPT Reportive validation 

RPV Representative essence 

RSL Resultative format 

RSM Resumptive aspect 

RSN Suffix: Reason for an Emotional State or Motivation for an Action 

RTR Retrospective aspect 

RVL Revelative bias 

SBE Subequative level 

SBQ Subsequent format 

SBS Suffix: Subset of Configurative Set 

SBT Suffix: Degree of Subtlety 

SCH Schematic format 

SCO Suffix: Dynamic Change of Size

SCS Suffix: Degree of Success versus Failure 

SCT Suffix: Degree of Shift/Change/Transition (used for both spatial and temporal contexts) 

SDP Suffix: Subset of Duplex Set 

SEG Segmentative configuration 

SEL Selective bias 

SEP Suffix: Spatio-Temporal Separability of a Configurative Set 

SEQ Suffix: Numerical Sequence 

SGS Suggestive bias 

SIM Suffix: Degree Of Similarity 

SIT Situative case 

SIZ Suffix: Degree of Size 

SKP Skeptical bias 

SML Simultaneitive case 

SOC Suffix: Type of Social Instrumentality = ‘by means of’ 

SOL Solicitive bias 

SPD Suffix: Degree of Speed (i.e., Velocity = Distance Over Time) 

SPE Speculative mood 

SPQ Superequative level

SPH Suffix: Degree of Sophistication 

SPL Superlative level 

SPS Suffix: Supersets/Multi-Level Gestalts 

SQC Suffix: Sequence of Cause and Effect 

SQN Sequential aspect 

SQT Suffix: Sequence Relative to Present Context 

SSD Suffix: Stem-Specific Derivatives 

STA Stative function 

STG Suffix: Stage of a Process 

STR Suffix: Degree of Physical Strength Possible or Used 

STU Stupefactive bias 

SUB Subjunctive mood 

SUD Suffix: Degree of Suddenness 

SUF Suffix: Degree Of Sufficiency 

SUR Surpassive level 

SWR Suffix: Switch-reference 

TAL Suffix: Degree of Capacity or Talent For 

TEM Suffix: Alternative Temporal Aspects

TEN Tentative validation 

TFI Suffix: Back & forth; to & fro in place (e.g., pendulum, wagging tail) 

TFM Transformative case 

TFV Suffix: Back & forth over linear vector (e.g., snake-like; zig-zag) 

THR Theoretical sanction 

TMP Temporary aspect 

TNS Transitional aspect 

TPD Suffix: Temporary Duration 

TPF Suffix: Topic, Frame and Focus 

TPI Suffix: Impact or Duration Over Time 

TPP Suffix: Temporal Position Relative to Present 

TPR Suffix: Temporal Placement/Reaction/Viewpoint 

TRD Tardative aspect 

TRF Suffix: Transformation for Use 

TRM Terminative extension 

TSP Transpositive case 

TYP Suffix: Degree of Typicalness 

U Unbounded perspective

ua personal reference: unbounded animate 3rd party 

ui personal reference: unbounded inanimate 3rd party 

UNFRAMED Unframed relation 

UNI Uniplex configuration 

UNQ Suffix: Degree of Specialness or Uniqueness 

UTE Suffix: Utilitative or Enabling Means 

UTL Utilitative case 

VAR Variative affiliation 

VOC Vocative case 

VOL Voluntative modality 

VWP Suffix: From Viewpoint/Perspective Of 

WAK Suffix: Spread/wake/trail/area/expanse created by passage of entity 

XPT Suffix: Expectation of Outcome 



Links of 

Interest 

2 Morpho- 

Phonology 

6 More Verb 

Morphology 

10 Lexico- 

Semantics 

Updates / 3 Basic 11 The Writing 

12 The Number 

System 

List of 

Abbreviations 

The Lexicon

News Morphology 7 Suffixes System Texts 


Grammar 



cowrote 



the 


features 


computer.) 







Home FAQs about Ithkuil 

A Grammar of the Ithkuil 

Language 

Frequently Asked Questions 

Links of Interest 

Below are some questions I’ve been asked over the years relating to my work. For those questions that 

are generic and not specific to Ithkuil, I’ve taken the liberty (i.e., the lazy person’s approach) of linking 

elsewhere to someone who’s already answered the question better than I could. 

What is a constructed language or “conlang”? 

See here for an explanation of constructed languages. 

Why would anyone want to create their own language? 

Please refer to David Peterson’s “Conlang Manifesto.” 

How fluent are you in Ithkuil? Can you speak/read/understand it? 

The only portion of Ithkuil in which I am “fluent” is the morphology. I have never tried to 

memorize the lexicon. I am fairly proficient in knowing the characters of the script but still 

need to look up the rules when writing it. 

Are you a professional linguist? How many languages do you speak or understand? 

I have a bachelor’s (undergraduate) degree in linguistics. Poverty and circumstances 

prevented me from attending graduate school. Nevertheless, I have continued to study 

linguistics as a personal hobby my entire adult life. I am not a linguist professionally. Besides 

my native language English, I speak French, Spanish, Italian and Portuguese sufficiently well 

to converse with natives as long as the conversation doesn’t get too technical or specialized.

I speak enough fractured German to get myself in trouble. I also read Catalan and the 

auxiliary language Interlingua fairly well, although I do not speak them. 

Is Ithkuil an attempt to create a working version of Robert Heinlein’s Speedtalk language? Is 

conciseness the primary purpose of Ithkuil? 

Many persons have compared Ithkuil to the “Speedtalk” language in Robert Heinlein’s 

novella Gulf, in which every morpheme (meaningful word-part) is apparently represented by 

a single phoneme (sound). However, Heinlein’s Speedtalk appears to focus only on the 

morpho-phonological component of language (i.e., the correspondence between sound and 

individual grammatical components) without any corresponding focus on the logical redesign 

of a language’s morphology, lexico-morphology, or lexico-semantics to provide an equally 

“compressed” morpho-syntactical and lexical component. Ithkuil has been designed with an 

equal focus on these latter linguistic components. Additionally, the apparent purpose of 

Heinlein’s language is simple rapidity/brevity of speech and thought, while Ithkuil is focused 

on maximal communication of cognitive intent in the most efficient manner, a somewhat 

different purpose, in which brevity per se is irrelevant. 

Most descriptions of Ithkuil that I’ve read misrepresent the purpose of the language to be 

this sort of morpho-phonological conciseness, i.e., the “Speedtalk” factor. In fact, Ithkuil’s 

primary purpose is to demonstrate how human language could be used to convey much 

deeper levels of human cognition and semantic nuance/exactitude than are found in natural 

human languages. As for morpho-phonological conciseness, it is merely a secondary goal to 

ensure that the greater amount of morpho-semantic information conveyed by the language 

(as compared to natural languages) does not cause phrases and sentences to become longwinded. 

How did the idea of Ithkuil come to you? Have you worked on the language on a regular basis? 

At university, I studied linguistics, and it was there that I gained the knowledge and tools for 

understanding how languages are structured. However, the more languages I read about and 

studied, the more I came to realize how inefficiently most languages function in terms of 

conveying thought in both a precise and a concise manner. I also noticed that certain 

languages were subjectively “better” than others in the manner that they were able to convey 

a specific task. For example, I noticed how elegant and efficient the three-letter root 

structure of Semitic languages like Arabic and Hebrew were as a means of building words 

compared to European languages. I noticed how the perfective versus imperfective verbal 

aspect of Slavonic languages like Russian were able to convey certain verbal distinctions 

easily which languages like English had to use whole phrases to convey. In other cases, I 

found certain languages that grammaticalized thoughts that most other languages did not 

(such as the “4th person” distinction of certain American Indian languages). I also fell in love 

with all the exotic and difficult-topronounce consonant sounds of Caucasian languages like 

Abkhaz and Ubykh, as well as the numerous vowels of Uralic and Altaic languages.

Anyway, the idea came to me that I might try to create a language which “combined” the 

most efficient and interesting features of all the languages I was familiar with. And so the 

seed of the language which eventually evolved into Ithkuil was born. The more I worked on 

it over the years, the more of my own ideas went into it, as opposed to simply borrowing 

ideas from existing languages. Then, during the 1980s, I discovered the new cognitive school 

of linguistics that was beginning to arise in the United States (specifically the writings of 

George Lakoff and Ronald Langacker). These writings opened up a whole new level of 

understanding regarding the relationship between human thought and language which led to a 

major overhaul and expansion of the language I was working on in my spare time. It was at 

this point that I got the idea that I would try to accomplish the seemingly incompatible goals 

of creating a language capable of conveying much more information than natural human 

languages do, while simultaneously being more brief and concise than natural human 

languages (previously, all versions of the language were very long-winded). 

The work was slow, painstaking, and often frustrating. Between the mid-1980s and the mid- 

1990s, I abandoned the work at least a dozen times out of frustration (aggravated by the fact 

that every time I thought I was getting nearly finished, I would decide to scrap about 75% of 

what I had and start over with better ideas). Sometimes several months would go by before I 

would pick up where I left off. The breakthrough came around 1996 when my interest was 

re-ignited by discovery of the writings of two other cognitive linguists, Gilles Fauconnier and 

Len Talmy. Their research and findings on the structure of human thought and language 

renewed my interest in wanting to finish the project. By 1999, the grammar was about 95% 

finished and it was time to start finalizing the script and the lexicon. Incidentally, it was at 

this point that I discovered Robert Heinlein’s description of “Speedtalk” from his novella 

“Gulf.” At first I was surprised and mildly disappointed that someone had already thought of 

doing what I was working on, but then I realized that Speedtalk was only a shallow attempt 

which worked at the morpho-phonological level of language only, while the language I was 

creating took the same principles and applied them to all the different structural levels of 

language. It took me another four years to reach the point where I felt the work was 

complete enough to show the world, then it took me another year to write it all up formally 

on the computer (the language was developed entirely using pencil and paper) and create a 

website. 

Some people have claimed that using Ithkuil, a person would be able to think five times faster. 

Do you believe this? 

This oft-repeated claim apparently started with Stanislav Kozlovskiy in his 2004 article “The 

Speed of Thought” published in the Russian-language science magazine Kompyuterra. The 

question presupposes that thought is linguistic in nature, which is certainly debatable. 

Personally, I believe only complex conceptual thought is linguistic, not simple conceptual 

thought and certainly not thought at the perceptual level (i.e., I certainly don’t mentally say 

to myself “I’m in pain” when I stub my toe). At any rate, even if we grant that thought is 

linguistic, any supposed “speeding up” of thought using the concise morpho-phonology of 

Ithkuil would most likely be offset by the sheer volume of morphological information which 

Ithkuil requires one to express (and therefore mentally consider when formulating a

sentence). For example, merely saying (or thinking) that it’s raining outside would require a 

hypothetical Ithkuil speaker to consider the evidential source of the information (direct 

observation? hearsay? inference?) and its reliability (Validation), the pattern and timing of the 

raindrops (Phase), the purpose/intent of the utterance (Sanction), whether the rainfall is 

being considered as a gestalt versus a sequence of discrete componential events 

(Configuration), whether the context of the thought/utterance is descriptive, purposefully 

important, metaphorical, or a component of a holistic situation (Context), and so on. 

For these reasons, I believe use of Ithkuil would probably allow one to think more deeply, 

critically, and analytically; but think faster? I doubt it. 

Assuming Ithkuil were to be used in the real world, wouldn’t its complexity cause it to break 

down within one or two generations into a vulgar form which operates like natural languages, 

undermining the whole point of ithkuil’s construction? 

As for a hypothetical community of Ithkuil-speakers, I do not think Ithkuil would serve the 

purpose of being the primary day-to-day language, as I agree the language would quickly 

degenerate into a “vulgar” form due to its complexity. I see Ithkuil’s hypothetical usage as 

being a specialized language for specific purposes where exactitude and clarity of cognitive 

intention is called for, and to make deliberate obfuscation difficult, e.g., political debate, the 

teaching and discussion of scientific disciplines, the discussion of philosophy, the written 

presentation and preservation of history. As such, it would be a “learned” language (like 

learning a computer programming language or the predicate calculus) whose structure would 

be consciously preserved by its speakers. An analogy might be the way that Classical Latin 

continued to be used for over a milennium after the death of its last native spearker for 

academic and religious purposes. A similar analogy is the use of Modern Standard Arabic 

(essentially a modernized version of Classical Arabic) in official and academic contexts. 

Most Ithkuil morphemes (i.e., units of meaning) are only a single syllable, even a single 

phoneme, in length. Doesn’t this lack of morpho-phonological redundancy create a problem 

given that ambient noise or mispronunciation could easily prevent comprehension or change the 

meaning of a word or sentence? 

Other than the difficulty of pronunciation, the issues of signal-to-noise ratio and nonredundancy 

are the most frequent criticisms of the language. I don’t consider these to really 

be a problem for the following reasons: 

(1) As stated in the answer to the previous question, I see the contexts in which a 

hypothetical Ithkuil-speaking community would utilize the language as very limited and 

highly specialized, in which there would be little, if any ambient, noise; 

(2) the issue of mispronunciation is no different than for any learner of a foreign language, 

and Ithkuil’s inventory of 58 phonemes pales in comparison to the number of phonemes in 

several Caucasian languagues or Khoi-San languages of Africa—if a person can pronounce

Chechen or Abkhaz or !Xóõ, they can likely pronounce Ithkuil; 

(3) the precedent for a low signal-to-noise ratio and lack of morpho-phonological redundancy 

is well established in natural languages, e.g., the phonetic difference between English I can 

do it versus I can’t do it, or He’s a natural versus He’s unnatural, or I got him first versus 

I got in first, or a neurotic's mothering versus an erotic smothering. And many languages 

(e.g., the Northwest Caucasian languages) are replete with single-phoneme morphemes, e.g., 

the Ubykh single-word sentence want w aan they give you to him, which contains six 

phonemes, each of which is a separate morpheme: 

/w/ - 2nd singular absolutive 

/a/ - 3rd singular dative 

/n/ - 3rd ergative 

/t w / - to give 

/aa/ - ergative plural 

/n/ - present tense 

If such single-phoneme morphemes are good enough for real-world natural languages, 

they’re good enough for Ithkuil. 

How long and how hard have you practiced to pronounce Ithkuil sentences ? 

The old version of the language would take me about three or four attempts to be able to 

speak an entire Ithkuil sentence without making a mistake, as often due to the tones as due 

to the “exotic” consonants. The problem with pronouncing tones correctly was especially 

acute for Ilaksh, which utilized tone shifts much more prominently than Ithkuil. The new 

version of the language is much easier to pronounce for me than either of its predecessors. 

How long does it take for you to make an Ithkuil sentence? 

It takes me up to ten minutes to translate a simple sentence if the necessary wordroots/stems 

already exist; much longer if new word-roots/stems are required, as the creation 

of roots takes careful thinking and planning (see the next question below). Long complex 

sentences can take up to half an hour. It then takes another five to fifteen minutes to look up 

the rules for writing the sentence in the script depending on the length of the sentence. 

What is your criteria for choosing word roots ? How do you build the taxonomy of concepts ? 

There are essentially two criteria: (1) adaptability to the derivational structures of the 

morphology and (2) consideration for what cognitive psychologists and cognitive linguists call 

“base-level” categorization.

The first criterion can basically be explained by performing the following analysis: say I need 

an Ithkuil translation for the English word X. Before I simply create a root meaning X, is 

there any way I can use Ithkuil morphological categories or the 150 or so suffix categories to 

derive this word from a more general or primary word? If so, can that more general or 

primary word in turn be derived from another? And so, before one goes and create an Ithkuil 

root for “book” one first remembers that a book is a collection or pages of writing bound 

together in a coherent fashion by which to convey a superset of information beyond the 

content of any specific page of the book. Well, Ithkuil morphology has all sorts of categories 

for designating coherent gestalt entities formed from interconnected subcomponents, so we 

realize we don’t need a word for book. Instead, all we need is the root for “writing/written 

message” declined into appropriate Configuraton and Affiliation categories, with 

consideration for the Context category given that the resulting entity only functions within 

the context of human social structures, with consideration for an additional suffix indicating 

that the entity has a container-like covering, etc., etc. 

As for the second criterion, base-level categorization, this is best explained by example. Let’s 

take animals. First of all, identifying animals means dealing with a hierarchical taxonomy 

ranging from general to specific, for example: 

mammal 

equine 

horse 

thoroughbred 

Arabian thoroughbred 

Arabian thoroughbred gelding 

Another example: 

mammal 

primate 

monkey 

chimpanzee 

male chimpanzee 

pet male chimpanzee 

So, how should Ithkuil deal with such hierarchies? Research by cognitive psychologists show 

that human cognition tends to manifest base-level categorization, where a particular element 

in the hierarchy is psychologically viewed as being the most easy concept to grasp and 

understand, and is usually the first concept of the hierarchy learned by children, and usually 

represents the shortest, most common word in the speaker’s language of all the elements in 

the hierarchy. This base-level category (what psychologists call the most cognitively “salient” 

category level) usually appears in the middle of the range from general to specific. In the 

examples above, it would be the words “horse” and “monkey.” Therefore, a person is far 

more likely to spontaneously say “Hey, there’s a horse in my yard!” rather than “Hey, 

there’s an equine in my yard” or “There’s an Arabian thoroughbred.” Likewise, a child at 

the zoo is more likely to say either “I want to see the monkeys!” or “I want to see the 

snakes!” than “I want to see the primates” or “I want to see the rattlesnakes and the

pythons!” 

Secondly, one of the purposes of Ithkuil is efficiency in communication (you might think of 

this simplistically as the “Speedtalk” factor). Since base-level cognition implies that the 

concept “dog” or “spider” is going to be used by people more often and in more contexts 

than “canine” or “arachnid” it doesn’t make sense for Ithkuil to only have roots for “canine” 

and “arachnid” with the words for “dog” and “spider” being simply derivations of these 

roots. It defeats the purpose of morpho-phonological efficiency if to say “I fear spiders”, an 

Ithkuil speaker has to say literally “I fear the-most-common-arachnid-example.” 

Now, the reader may think that surely Ithkuil’s 3600 roots do not allow for base-level 

naming all of the animals in the world. No, of course not. But there is no need. Despite the 

thousands of different names of animal species, only about fifty or so are common enough 

to qualify for such base-level naming. Other animals are simply not sufficienlty common or 

well-known to require such. Therefore, it makes sense that Ithkuil have a root for “bear” but 

it can probably do without a separate root for “wolverine” which it can name by derivational 

means from another root (quite possibly “bear”). We see this in English with names of 

animals that are derivations or compounds such as “polar bear” and “sea lion” (the latter 

having nothing at all to do with a lion!). There simply aren’t any base-level single-word 

names for these animals in English. Finally, by establishing this base-level category at the 

level of the root in Ithkuil (instead of the stem), it allows me to use the stems to refer to 

contextual and omplementary manifestations of the root, i.e., male versus female, wild 

versus domesticated, the animal itself versus its function as food/prey/resource. In turn, I 

can use the SSD derivational suffix to generate words for associated concepts and products 

such as eggs, oil, fat, fur/feathers, flesh/meat, etc. 

Have you invented other languages? 

Prior to beginning the language which eventually evolved into Ithkuil, I invented several 

sketches of other languages mostly for fun. They were not serious efforts to address the 

purposes which Ithkuil addresses. Since 1978, all my conlanging efforts have been oriented 

toward creating the language which eventually became Ithkuil. 

Is the 2011 version of the language the final version of the language? 

To the extent that I can foresee, yes, this new version for 2011 will be the final version of 

the language. I have neither the desire nor intention to redesign it again, especially given that 

I am finally pleased with this new revision (unlike the revision into Ilaksh, which I was never 

satisfied with). 

Will you continue to work on the language? 

I intend to continue adding more examples, enhance the explanations, and add new entries to

the Lexicon on an ongoing (albeit perhaps infrequent) basis. I also plan on eventually 

developing a section on how Ithkuil handles mathematical concepts and equations. 

Additionally, I will be adding longer texts to the Texts page of the site, as time and interest 

permit. This Texts chapter will eventually showcase original Ithkuil poetry that I envision 

composing in the next few years; it is my belief that the morpho-semantic flexibility, richness 

and conciseness of the language would allow for a kind of poetry not possible in other 

languages, and I am looking forward to exploring this. 

What’s with the clowns? 

Just indulging my warped sense of humor. I am fascinated by all aspects of life that have a 

truth-is-stranger-than-fiction quality, and I consider the phenomenon of clowns to fall into 

this category. I mean, think about it ... really.... 

Anyway, I have peppered the Ithkuil grammar with their ridiculous and ghastly visages plus 

clown-related example sentences as a reminder not to take anything, including myself, too 

seriously. 

Is your work on Ithkuil available in book form? 

Funny you should mention it.... 


Grammar 



cowrote 



the 


features 


computer.)

Home FAQs about Ithkuil 

A Grammar of the Ithkuil 

Language 









Links of 

Interest 

Updates / 

News 

2 Morpho- 

Phonology 

3 Basic 

Morphology 

Ithkuil Grammar Book Errata 

Supplement to Lexicon 

6 More Verb 

Morphology 

7 Suffixes 

Updates / News 

10 Lexico- 

Semantics 


System 

12 The Number 

System 

List of 

Abbreviations 

The Lexicon 

Texts 

Sept The hardcopy book version of the Ithkuil Grammar has been revised to incorporate the corrections 

1, contained in the "Ithkuil Grammar Book Errata" PDF link above. I will maintain the above link to the PDF 

2012 file for those persons who already own the previous version of the book. 

July I corrected a few errors to the "Supplement to Lexicon" PDF file at the link above. 

27, 

2012 

July I have added the above "Supplement to Lexicon" link to a PDF file containing approximately 30 additional 

23, lexical roots and their associated stems. I am posting these new roots as a separate PDF so that owners of 

2012 the hardcopy book can refer to the PDF (or print it out) as a supplement to the book. 

July I have added the above "Ithkuil Grammar Book Errata" link to a PDF file listing the various errata found in 

16, the hardcopy book version of the Ithkuil Grammar. I will soon correct the manuscript and re-publish the 

2012 book with the corrections, however, I will also maintain this PDF of errata for those persons who have 

previously purchased the book.





provided you give full attribution to the author and this website. 


Grammar 



cowrote 


(It’s a political thriller/science fiction story that 

explores the 


features 


computer.)



12 The Number 

System 


Links of 

Interest 



The Lexicon 


System 

Texts 

Supplement to Lexicon 

Currently, the lexicon below lists over 900 roots, each of which contains 18 stems, for a total of 16200 stems 

(see Sections 2.2, 2.3, and 10.1.1 for an explanation of the structure of individual roots and their 18 stems). 

This represents approximately one-fourth of the roots in the language. Additional roots and their stems will be 

periodically added to this list as time permits. 

(NOTE: The above "Supplement to Lexicon" link has been added as of July 23, 2012 to a PDF file of 

approximately 30 additional lexical roots and their associated stems.) 

The reader should be aware that the glosses (i.e., the English translations or definitions) for each of the stems 

below are at times somewhat arbitrary, as Ithkuil roots and their stems have been conceptualized from the 

cognitive level up, without regard as to whether they correspond necessarily to an existing word or phrase in 

English or other languages. As a result, some of the English glosses chosen as representations for the Ithkuil 

stems are approximations at best. 

Ideally, the best way to represent the meanings of Ithkuil stems would be to use a semantic “meta-language” 

comprised of a closed set of semantically universal (or near-universal) “primitives” to create semantic 

“formulas” which define the use of a particular stem. (The design and use of such a meta-language to translate 

the meanings of words from one language to another can be found in the writings of linguist Anna 

Wierzbicka.) However, the author has chosen not to pursue such an effort for the sake of time, as such an 

analysis would likely take decades to complete. 

In regard to the list below, note that in some cases both a nominal (i.e., noun) and verbal gloss have been 

provided, while in others only one or the other is present. Nevertheless, the reader should keep in mind at all 

times that Ithkuil stems always convey both a nominal and verbal meaning, as explained in detail in Section 

2.4.1. 

The lexicon is arranged in the following alphabetical order:

B C C’ C h Ç Č Č’ Č h D Dh F G J K K’ K h L Ļ M N Ň P P’ P h Q Q’ Q h R Ř S Š T T’ T h Ţ V X Xh Z Ż Ž 

It should also be noted that in previous versions of the language, formative roots were divided into lexicosemantic 

“classes” designated by the phonological patterning of the root (there were 17 such classes in the 

original version of Ithkuil, ten such classes in Ilaksh). In the current version of the language, these lexicosemantic 

classes have been eliminated, as the author has realized that the establishment of such classes does 

not serve any functional purpose in “real-world” spoken/written contexts; the ability to identify the semantic 

class of a stem does not sufficiently aid in understanding the stem’s specific meaning. Therefore, the 

assignment of phoneme patterns to roots in Ithkuil is now arbitrary. While the astute reader will note that many 

roots pertaining to a specific semantic notion (e.g., animals, plant and substance taxonomies, spatial position, 

etc.) still have similar phonological patterning, such patterning is nevertheless merely incidental and is without 

formal significance. 

Note on Ithkuil's Implicit “Theory of Meaning” 

For those readers who may be trained in linguistics, particulary cognitive linguistics, it should be noted that at 

this point in the author’s development of the language, a traditional Enlightenment-based theory of meaning, 

assuming a one-to-one correspondence between a lexeme and its external “in-the-world” referent, has been 

implicitly assumed for convenience and/or expediency’s sake. A more careful and rigourous construction for 

Ithkuil’s lexico-semantics, given the author’s stated design goals (as described in the Introduction section), 

would not assume such a theory of meaning, but would rather incorporate more recent findings of cognitive 

science and cognitive linguistics to reflect embodied meaning and metaphor-based conceptualization. 

However, pursuing such a foundation for the lexico-semantics of the language would, in the author’s opinion, 

be extremely time-consuming (on the order of many additional years, perhaps decades, to construct). Rather 

than withdraw the language from public availability for such reasons, the author has chosen instead to adopt a 

traditional/formalist foundation for its lexico-semantics essentially out of convenience, in order to be able to 

showcase the language's morphology. 

The Lexicon: 

-B- ‘WANT/DESIRE/REQUEST’ 

INFORMAL Stems FORMAL Stems 

1. affective (i.e., unwilled) want/desire [emotion + object of 

desire] 

1. request [desire + thing requested] 

2. conscious desire based on need/lack/goal 2. need/lack/necessity + thing needed or lacking 

3. hope/wish [feeling + thing wished/hoped for] 3. ambition/goal/aspiration; aspire 

COMPLEMENTARY Stems COMPLEMENTARY Stems 

same as above 3 stems referring same as above 3 stems referring same as above 3 stems referring same as above 3 stems referring 

to the feeling of desire to the thing desired 

to the feeling of desire/need to the thing requested/needed

EXAMPLE MORPHOLOGICAL DERIVATIVES FROM THE ABOVE STEMS: whim, fancy, inclination, appetite, “hunger”, greed, 

covet, propensity, aptness, eagerness, longing, crave, urge, passion, attract, tempt, persuade, allure, popularity, demand 

-BB- ‘COAT/JACKET’ The stems of this root are patterned after the root -GV- 

-BD- ‘NECKTIE/CRAVATTE The stems of this root are patterned after the root -GV 

-BDh- ‘OCTOPUS’ The stems of this root are patterned after the root -VR- 

-BG- ‘SQUID’ The stems of this root are patterned after the root -VR- 

-BJ- ‘EEL’ The stems of this root are patterned after the root -VR- 

-BK- ‘LAMPREY’ The stems of this root are patterned after the root -VR- 

-BKW- ‘PIKE’ The stems of this root are patterned after the root -VR- 

-BK’- ‘RAY’ The stems of this root are patterned after the root -VR- 

-BK h - ‘SHARK’ The stems of this root are patterned after the root -VR- 

-BL- ‘middle, center (as seen parallel to long axis of entity) The pattern of stems for this root follow those of the root -G-. 

-BLW- ‘AQUAMARINE’ patterned after the root -XT’- SSD derivatives: 1) extra light 2) pale (= mixed with gray) 3) clear, 

transparent 4) fluorescent 5) vibrant / bright 6) –ish 7) translucent 8) opaque 9) extra dark 

-BM- ‘SCALLOP’ The stems of this root are patterned after the root -VR- 

-BN- ‘MUSSEL’ The stems of this root are patterned after the root -VR- 

-BQ- ‘CRAB’ The stems of this root are patterned after the root -VR- 

-BQW- ‘BASS’ The stems of this root are patterned after the root -VR- 

-BQ’- ‘SHRIMP/PRAWN’ The stems of this root are patterned after the root -VR- 

-BQ h - ‘LOBSTER’ The stems of this root are patterned after the root -VR- 

-BR- ‘YELLOW’ patterned after the root -XT’- SSD derivatives: 1) extra light 2) pale (= mixed with gray) 3) clear, transparent 4) 

fluorescent 5) vibrant / bright 6) –ish 7) translucent 8) opaque 9) extra dark 

-BŘ- ‘CLAM’ The stems of this root are patterned after the root -VR- 

-BT- ‘TROUT’ The stems of this root are patterned after the root -VR- 

-BT’- ‘TUNA’ The stems of this root are patterned after the root -VR- 

-BT h - ‘SALMON’ The stems of this root are patterned after the root -VR- 

-BTW- ‘COD’ The stems of this root are patterned after the root -VR-

-BV- ‘APPLICATION OF KNOWLEDGE / TECHNOLOGY’ 


1. application of knowledge / apply knowledge to practical 

purpose [both application and result] 

1. piece of technology; tool/product resulting from the application of science 

2. theorize / theory - observational knowledge utilized and 

integrated to create coherent explanation 

2.prototype; piece of technology used to test theory 

3. brainstorm; inspiration and insight into the application of 

knowledge to solve a problem 

3. specific technological discovery; breakthrough solution 


same as above 3 stems but same as above 3 stems but same as above 3 stems but with same as above 3 stems but with focus 

with focus on the process of with focus on the result focus on the tool/device/piece of on the function/purpose of the 

applying knowledge 

technology itself 

technology 

-BW- ‘MOUTH/ORAL’ 


1. mouth [= oral orifice] Same as INFORMAL Stems but for non-animal entity or 

2. lip [use of DPX = lips] 

figuratively 

3. interior of mouth/oral cavity 

COMPLEMENTARY Stems 

Same as above 3 stems but w/ focus 

on bodily location/physical aspect 

Same as above 3 stems but w/ 

focus on purpose, use, function 

-BY- ‘DOG’ 


1. dog 1. dog as resource 

2. male dog 2. male dog as resource 

3. female dog, bitch 3. female dog as resource 


1. wild/feral dog 1. domesticated/pet dog 1. dog as food/prey 1. dog as derived resource or 

processed product 

2. wild/feral male dog 2. domesticated/pet male dog 2. male dog as food/prey 2. male dog as derived resource or 


3. wild/feral female dog 3. domesticated/pet female 

dog 

3. female dog as food/prey 3. female dog as derived resource or 


-BZ- ‘DESCRIPTION/ACCOUNT/STORY’ 


1. description/account; to describe, to informally communicate an 

account of something [process + contents] 

1. narrative story; communicate a story [process + contents] 

2. relate/report/recount = communication from memory or 2. recitation; recite (=communicate/describe from record or 

observations [process + contents] 

based on memorization) [process + contents] 

3. historical narrative / historical account [work itself + contents] 3. fictional narrative / fictional story [work itself + contents]


same as above 3 stems referring same as above 3 stems referring to same as above 3 stems same as above 3 stems referring 

to the process of 

content thereof 

referring to the process of to content thereof 

describing/communi-cating 

describing/communi-cating 

-BZD- ‘POSITION BETWEEN / AMIDST / AMONG [planar 2-dimensional context, e.g., among others in a crowded room] 

PATTERNED AFTER ROOT -F-; 

-BZDW- ‘PYTHON’ (the stems of this root are patterned after the root -SK-) 

-BZG- ‘POSITION BETWEEN / AMIDST / AMONG [linear unidimensional context, e.g., between two others in a queue] 


-BZGR- ‘VIPER’ (the stems of this root are patterned after the root -SK-) 

-C- ‘EXISTENCE/ONTOLOGY/METAPHYSICS’ 


1. exist objectively; something that exists; be(ing) [both ontological and 

Same as INFORMAL stems except in 

metaphysical] 

reference to epistemological context [i.e., in 

2. law of nature / existential axiom 

3. natural/inherent 


relation to knowledge/awareness of 

ontological or metaphysical existence] 

same as above 3 stems referring to same as above 3 stems referring to 

ontology / ontological aspect 

metaphysics / metaphysical aspect 

-CK- ‘HAT’ The stems of this root are patterned after the root -GV- 

-CK h - ‘LIQUID (OTHER THAN WATER) AS SUBSTANCE AND TOOL’ -- The stems of this root are patterned after those of 

the root -DH-. 

-CL- ‘0/-Y/-Z SPATIAL ORIENTATION/POSITION/DIRECTION W/ STEMS PATTERNED AFTER ROOT -F-; BASED ON 

THE FOLLOWING 3-DIMENSIONAL NOTATIONAL SCHEMA: -X = LEFT, +X = RIGHT, -Y = BEHIND, +Y = AHEAD, -Z 

= BELOW, + Z = ABOVE, 0 = LEVEL WITH OR IN LINE WITH SPECIFIC X, Y, OR Z AXIS’ 

-CM- ‘LONGITUDE / EAST-WEST’ 


1. east-west axis/orientation/direction/areal designation 1. longitude 

2. west axis/orientation/direction/areal designation 2. West longitude 

3. east axis/orientation/direction/areal designation 3. East longitude


1. east-west axial direction or 1. east-west geographical or 1. meridian 1. zero meridian (Greenwich 

orientation 

geopolitical areal designation 

meridian) 

2. west direction or orientation 2. west geographical or 


2. time zone 2. Western Hemisphere 

3. east direction or orientation 3. east geographical or 


3. International Date Line 3. Eastern Hemisphere 

-CN- ‘PLANT TYPES’ 


1. branched/leaved plant including its fruit or flower same as FORMAL stems but as 

2. grass-like or stalked plant including its seed or grain 

3. moss-like or fungal plant or mold including its spore or cyst 


1. branched/leaved plant 1. flower, fruit, or blossom of branched/leaved plant 

2. grass-like or stalked plant 2. seed, grain, or kernel of grass-like or stalked plant 

3. moss-like or fungal plant or mold 3. spore or cyst of moss-like or fungal plant or mold 

SSD for Stem 2: 1) grass 2) ground-covering plant 3) clover 4) weed 5) wildgrass 

SSD for Stem 3: 1) lichen 2) mushroom 3) mold 4) slime mold 5) moss 6) non-mushroom fungus 

resource (i.e., food, fuel, material, 

etc.) 

-CP- ‘-X/+Y/0 SPATIAL ORIENTATION/POSITION/DIRECTION W/ STEMS PATTERNED AFTER ROOT -F-; BASED 

ON THE FOLLOWING 3-DIMENSIONAL NOTATIONAL SCHEMA: -X = LEFT, +X = RIGHT, -Y = BEHIND, +Y = 

AHEAD, -Z = BELOW, + Z = ABOVE, 0 = LEVEL WITH OR IN LINE WITH SPECIFIC X, Y, OR Z AXIS’ 

-CP’- ‘BODILY JOINT’ 


1. bodily joint (physical joint + function); flex joint 1. specialized bodily joint/juncture 

2. ball & socket-type bodily joint 2. vertebra 

3. standard-type joint 3. wrist/ankle/waist (lateral circular joint type) 


Same as above 3 stems referring to external 

hard or knob-like external body part 

hip/flex hip, shoulder, flex shoulder 

finger joint, toe joint, knee, elbow 

spinal column; flex spine 

wrist, ankle waist 

Same as above 3 stems referring to 

internal joint and its function/process 

Same as above 3 

stems 

-CQ- ‘SIX’ 



1. a set or group of 6 / a sextet; to be 6 in number FORMAL stems for this root have the same meanings 

2. be/make six-faceted / having 6 uses or aspects / sexa- / hexa- / sixfold 

3. sixth one in a sequence; be/make sixth in a sequence 


as the INFORMAL stems except that they are 

applied in official, authorized, permanent contexts as 

described in Section 3.7

1. 6 times the number of something; to 

sextuple / multiply by 6 

1. a sixth / divide by 6 or into 6 parts 

2. 6 times [= iterations]; to be/make/do 2. be of or make into 6 parts; 

6 times 

separate(d) into 6 parts 

3. to the 6th power; raise to the 6th 3. to the negative 6th power; to divide 

power 

by the 6th power of 

-CR- ‘0/-Y/0 SPATIAL ORIENTATION/POSITION/DIRECTION W/ STEMS PATTERNED AFTER ROOT -F-; BASED ON 



-CT- ‘+X/+Y/0 SPATIAL ORIENTATION/POSITION/DIRECTION W/ STEMS PATTERNED AFTER ROOT -F-; BASED 



-CT’- ‘THREE-DIMENSIONAL BLOCK-LIKE SHAPES/FORMS’ 


1. cube [solid volume] Same as INFORMAL stems but as outline 

2. rectilinear block [solid volume] 

edges/frame only, not as solid volumes 

3. disc 



shape itself as abstract archetype 


an object having that shape or form 

-CW- ‘-X/0/0 SPATIAL ORIENTATION/POSITION/DIRECTION W/ STEMS PATTERNED AFTER ROOT -F-; BASED ON 



-CY- ‘MOUSE’ (the stems of this root are patterned after the root -SK-) 

-C’- ‘tenderness/nuturing/caring’ The stems of this root are patterned after the root -PK- 

-Ch- ‘GRIEF / SADNESS FROM LOSS / MOURNING’ 


1. non-volitional (i.e., affective) experience of a grief/sadness due to loss; feel grief [state Same as INFORMAL stems except referring to 

+ content] 

a formal/institutionalized/symbolic expression of 

2. act or action caused by non-volitional experience of grief 

grief, i.e., mourning. 

3. cause or causal circumstance for one’s grief 


Same as above 3 stems w/ focus on Same as above 3 stems w/ focus on 

process/behavior itself 

experiential state/feeling of grief itself

-Ç- ‘excitement/thrill’ The stems of this root are patterned after the root -PK- 

-ÇC- ‘DRESS’ The stems of this root are patterned after the root -GV- 

-ÇCW- ‘SHREW’ (the stems of this root are patterned after the root -SK-) 

-ÇÇ- ‘self-induced trance or self-induced state of altered consciousness, e.g., through meditation’ The stems of this root are patterned 

after the root -PK- 

-ÇČ- ‘feeling of emotional maturity/superiority; feeling “above it all”’ The stems of this root are patterned after the root -PK- 

-ÇČW- ‘VOLE’ (the stems of this root are patterned after the root -SK-) 

-ÇF- ‘feeling of piquancy, stimulated curiosity, a desire for a new experience’ The stems of this root are patterned after the root -PK- 

-ÇFL- member of couple being matched or “set up” with each other — The stems of this root are patterned the same as the root -Kh-. 

-ÇK- ‘eagerness / fervor / zeal’ The stems of this root are patterned after the root -PK- 

-ÇKÇ- socially adversarial based on social one-upmanship/ego gratification — The stems of this root are patterned the same as the root 

-Kh-. 

-ÇKF- interviewer/interrogator + interviewee — The stems of this root are patterned the same as the root -Kh-. 

-ÇKL- partners or team members in sporting match or sporting activity — The stems of this root are patterned the same as the root - 

Kh-. 

-ÇKR- socially adversarial based on enmity/hatred — The stems of this root are patterned the same as the root -Kh-. 

-ÇKŢ- co-participants in general activity — The stems of this root are patterned the same as the root -Kh-. 

-ÇKV- co-workers/associates — The stems of this root are patterned the same as the root -Kh-. 

-ÇKW- sibling relations — The stems of this root are patterned the same as the root -Kh-. 

-ÇKY- members of stigmatized/isolated/oppressed societal group — The stems of this root are patterned the same as the root -Kh-. 

-ÇK’- ‘LIQUID (OTHER THAN WATER) IN NATURAL MOTION’ -- The stems of this root are patterned after those of the root 

-KL-. 

-ÇK h - ‘post-orgasmic/post-coital bliss; “afterglow”’ The stems of this root are patterned after the root -PK-

ÇKhW- ‘PORCUPINE’ 


1. member of mammalian/avian/reptilian genus 1. member of genus as resource 

2. male member of genus 2. male as resource 

3. female member of genus 3. female as resource 


1. wild member of genus 1. bred or domesticated member 1. member of genus as food/prey 1. member of genus as derived 

of genus 

resource or processed product 

2. wild male member of genus 2. bred or domesticated male 2. male as food/prey 2. male as derived resource or 

member of genus 


3. wild female member of genus 3. bred or domesticated female 


-ÇL- ‘feeling carefree / frivolity / relaxed’ The stems of this root are patterned after the root -PK- 

-ÇM- ‘jollity/merriment/gayness’ The stems of this root are patterned after the root -PK- 

3. female as food/prey 3. female as derived resource or 


-ÇMW- adversarial based on anger/resentment — The stems of this root are patterned the same as the root -Kh- 

-ÇN- ‘feeling of inherent “connection” to or oneness with the universe through space and time’ The stems of this root are patterned 


-ÇNW- creditor + debtor — The stems of this root are patterned the same as the root -Kh-. 

-ÇP- ‘inspiration / feeling of positive energy’ ‘uplift/inspiration (e.g., by beauty, art, music, etc.) The stems of this root are patterned 


-ÇPÇ- lessor + lessee — The stems of this root are patterned the same as the root -Kh-. 

-ÇPF- adversaries or opposing team members in sporting match or sporting activity — The stems of this root are patterned the same as 

the root -Kh-. 

-ÇPL- official/agent of authority + supplicant/petitioner/applicant — The stems of this root are patterned the same as the root -Kh-. 

-ÇPR- strangers brought together by circumstances of the moment — The stems of this root are patterned the same as the root -Kh-. 

-ÇPŘ- members of same religion or belief system — The stems of this root are patterned the same as the root -Kh-. 

-ÇPŢ- relationship based on compulsion/threat — The stems of this root are patterned the same as the root -Kh-. 

-ÇPW- members of holy order or spiritual fellowship — The stems of this root are patterned the same as the root -Kh-. 

-ÇP h - ‘SQUIRREL’ (the stems of this root are patterned after the root -SK-) 

-ÇP h W- ‘POSSUM’ (the stems of this root are patterned after the root -SK-) 

-ÇQ- ‘SKIRT/KILT’ The stems of this root are patterned after the root -GV- 

-ÇQF- adversarial based on jealousy/coveting of one’s situation — The stems of this root are patterned the same as the root -Kh-. 

-ÇQL- co-authors/creators of joint opus or artistic work — The stems of this root are patterned the same as the root -Kh-.

-ÇQR- adversarial based on a feud — The stems of this root are patterned the same as the root -Kh-. 

-ÇQŢ- adversarial based on material envy/coveting of one’s possessions — The stems of this root are patterned the same as the root - 

Kh-. 

-ÇQ’- ‘CHIPMUNK’ (the stems of this root are patterned after the root -SK-) 

-ÇQ h - ‘feeling "high" - drug- or chemically-induced euphoria/state of altered consciousness’ The stems of this root are patterned after 

the root -PK- 

-ÇQ h W- ‘MOLE’ (the stems of this root are patterned after the root -SK-) 

-ÇR- ‘poignancy, “aaaaw” reaction to irresistable cuteness’ The stems of this root are patterned after the root -PK- 

-ÇT- ‘FIT/HOLD/CONTAIN AS INTERNAL-EXTERNAL PARTITION’ 


1. holding area / containment area; hold/keep/contain 1. room, chamber 

2. fit; to fit, contain (= have sufficient room for) 2. reside, situate; room as place of residence, quasipermanent 

situation or default location 

3. volume or boundary of containment area 3. room boundaries (i.e., walls, floor, ceiling) 


same as above 3 stems referring to the 

physical boundaries (“walls”) which 

define the containment area and prevent 

contents from leaking or escaping 

same as above 3 stems referring 

to the space (“room”) within the 

holding area and protection of 

contents from external 

environment 


referring to the room as a 

container separating inside 

from outside 


referring to the space 

within the room as shelter 

or sanctuary 

SSD Derivatives for Formal Stem 3: ceiling, wall, floor, dividing panel, piece of furniture serving to divide room space 

EXAMPLE MORPHOLOGICAL DERIVATIVES FROM THE ABOVE STEMS: house, building, cell, booth, closet; snug, snugness, 

loose, looseness, baggy, bagginess 

-ÇTL- traders/barterers — The stems of this root are patterned the same as the root -Kh-. 

-ÇTR- speaker/speechmaker/presenter + audience — The stems of this root are patterned the same as the root -Kh-. 

-ÇTŘ- enmity based on revenge — The stems of this root are patterned the same as the root -Kh-. 

-ÇTW- autocrat or autarch + subjects — The stems of this root are patterned the same as the root -Kh-. 

-ÇT’- ‘RAT’ (the stems of this root are patterned after the root -SK-) 

-ÇT h - ‘ ecstatic/euphoric feeling of joie-de-vivre’ The stems of this root are patterned after the root -PK- 

-ÇT h W- ‘SKUNK’ (the stems of this root are patterned after the root -SK-) 

-ÇV- ‘anticipate (something positive); feeling of anticipation (for something positive)’ The stems of this root are patterned after the root 

-PK- 

-ÇW- ‘serenity, peace of mind’ The stems of this root are patterned after the root -PK- 

-Č- ‘PHYSICAL CONTACT’ 

INFORMAL Stems FORMAL Stems

1. physical contact between 2 or more objects [contact + effect] FORMAL Stems for this root have the same meanings as the 

2. application of physical pressure/force + effect 

3. move or set in motion via physical contact + resulting motion 


same as above 3 stems but with 

focus on physical act of contact 

same as above 3 stems but with focus 

on resulting effect/movement 

INFORMAL stems except that the context is specific to 

physical contact by one’s “default” appendage(s) for 

volitional physical contact, i.e., hands/fingers, beak, snout, 

tongue, pseudopod, tendril, tentacle, etc. 

EXAMPLE DERIVATIONS FROM THESE STEMS: feel, push, stroke, caress, tap, nudge, hit, strike, slap, punch, shove, press, rub, 

knock over, fall [due to being pushed], injure [via striking], etc. 

-ČK- ‘SWITCH/ALTERATION BETWEEN MULTI-VALUED SETTINGS’ 


1. switch to a different value or setting Same as INFORMAL stems but in 

2. veer, change course 

3. change to a less active or more active setting; increase or decrease intensity or setting 


1. switch to higher/greater value or setting 1. switch to lower/lesser value or setting 

2. change to more difficult, dangerous, or 2. change to easier, safer, or more predictable 

unpredictable course 

course 

3. increase to higher/stronger intensity 3. decrease to lower/weaker intensity 

reference to permanent, authoritative, 

formal contexts or to social or 

analogical contexts 

-ČK h - ‘TEN QUADRILLION’ 


1. a set or group of ten quadrillion; to be 10 quadrillion in number FORMAL stems for this root have the same 

2. be/make 10 quadrillion-faceted / having 10 quadrillion uses or aspects / 10 

quadrillion-fold 

3. 10 quadrillionth in a sequence; be/make quadrillionth in a sequence 


1. 10 quadrillion times the number of 1. a ten quadrillionth / divide by 10 

something; to multiply by 10 quadrillion quadrillion or into 10 quadrillion parts 

2. 10 quadrillion times [= iterations]; to 

be/make/do 10 quadrillion times 

3. to the 10 quadrillionth power; raise to 

the 10 quadrillionth power 

2. be of or make into 10 quadrillion parts; 

separate(d) into 10 quadrillion parts 

3. to the negative 10 quadrillionth power; 

to divide by the 10 quadrillionth power of 

meanings as the INFORMAL stems except that 

they are applied in official, authorized, permanent 

contexts as described in Section 3.7 

-ČL- ‘+X/0/0 SPATIAL ORIENTATION/POSITION/DIRECTION W/ STEMS PATTERNED AFTER ROOT -F-; BASED ON 



-ČM- non-heat related method of food preparation, e.g., preparing sushi, making a peanut butter sandwich, etc. -- The pattern of stems 

for this root follow that of the root -SX-.

-ČN- ‘DEGREE OF WAKEFULNESS OR CONSCIOUSNESS’ 

Note: Stems from this root are used in conjunction with various degree indicator affixes such as the EXN, EXD and SUF affixes 

from Sec. 7.7.6 in order to distinguish which polarity (awake vs. asleep) is implied. 


1. degree of consciousness or unconsciousness 1. degree of activity/vivaciousness/“energy” 

2. degree of wakefulness or sleepiness 2. degree of dormancy or hibernation 

3. degree of alertness/focus/attention/awareness or lack thereof 3. degree of personal intent/diligence/enterprise 


1. capacity for or faculty of 

consciousness 


wakefulness/sleepiness 


alertness/attention/awareness 

1. object/entity/thought of which 

one is conscious 

2. that which stimulates 

awakening or lulls into sleep 

3. that to or of which one is 

alert/attentive/aware 

1. state of activity / 

1. object of activity / 

vivaciousness / liveliness / vivaciousness / liveliness / 

energy 

energy 

2. state of dormancy/hibernation 2. object of 

dormancy/hibernation 

3. state of personal 

3. object of one’s 

intent/diligence/enterprise intent/diligence/enterprise 

EXAMPLE MORPHOLOGICAL DERIVATIVES FROM THE ABOVE STEMS: sleepy, listless(ness), grogginess, “fresh”, 

unconscious, dull, inattentive, vigilant, to “stir”, frisky, ardent, eager, persevere, bustling, zeal 

-ČP- ‘-X/-Y/0 SPATIAL ORIENTATION/POSITION/DIRECTION W/ STEMS PATTERNED AFTER ROOT -F-; BASED 



-ČP'- ‘glass (material)’ Pattern of stems is the same as -XL- 

-ČQ- ‘0/0/+Z SPATIAL ORIENTATION/POSITION/DIRECTION W/ STEMS PATTERNED AFTER ROOT -F-; BASED ON 



-ČR- ‘VULTURE’ (the stems of this root are patterned after the root -SK-) 

-ČT- ‘+X/-Y/0 SPATIAL ORIENTATION/POSITION/DIRECTION W/ STEMS PATTERNED AFTER ROOT -F-; BASED 



-ČT h W- gourd — The pattern of stems for this root follows those of the root -QW- 

-ČV- ‘COLLAR’ The stems of this root are patterned after the root -GV- 

-ČW- ‘0/+Y/0 SPATIAL ORIENTATION/POSITION/DIRECTION W/ STEMS PATTERNED AFTER ROOT -F-; BASED ON 



-Č’- ‘ACCESS/PASSAGE’ 


1. access point / passage; pass through, access 1. doorway (= the access portal itself, not the door which 

opens/closes off access) 

2. passage or infiltration of one substance into another 2. gateway / portal

3. filter / screening [selective access] 3. checkpoint 


1. enter / go in / pass within / 1. exit / go out / egress 1. enter (through primary/official 1. exit (through primary/official 

ingress 

entrance/access portal) 

entrance/access portal) 

2. infiltrate / imbue / immerse 2. emit / dispense 2. receive (= welcome) ; reception 2. remove / dispel 

3. filter through 3. filter out 3. admittance; admit; let in 3. oust, put out / eject; ejection 

EXAMPLE MORPHOLOGICAL DERIVATIVES FROM THE ABOVE STEMS: door, gate, let in, insert, introduce, take out, 

remove, penetrate, emanate, emerge 

-Čh- ‘MAKE/CONSTRUCT/INTEGRATE/FORM’ 

(NOTE: This root does not refer to ‘make/create’ meaning ‘emit/secrete/produce’as in ‘make noise’ or ‘make milk’, etc.) 


1. make/construct/create (non-mechanical) [= construct via 1. mechanically construct / build from a design 

integration of material resources] 

2. to form/fashion/mix (non-mechanical) [= combine 

2. integrate parts / integration of parts 

ingredients/parts to form] 

3. integrate/organize (non-mechanical) 3. machine / mechanical device 


Same as above 3 stems w/ focus on 

effort/work involved 

Same as above 3 stems w/ 

focus on the result or 

product 


effort/work involved 


focus on the result or product 

NOTE: The above meanings represent these stems as used in conjunction with the COMPLETIVE (CPT) version. Their default 

PROCESSUAL (PCT) counterparts would translate as ‘plan (to)’, ‘design’, etc. 

Derivations: cobble together, rig, system, conspire 

-D- ‘NAME/DESIGNATION/TITLE’ 


1. name + referent; to be named, to be called 1. title + referent 

2. designation/reference + referent; refer to as 2. formal designation + referent 

3. label / nickname + referent; to go by 3. role 


Same as above 3 stems but with 

focus on the reference 


focus on the referent 


focus on the reference 

-DBR- inflammatory disorder — The pattern of stems for this root follows that of the root -SXh-. 

-DBY- pulmonary disorder — The pattern of stems for this root follows that of the root -SXh-. 

-DD- ‘PANTS’ The stems of this root are patterned after the root -GV- 

-DDL- degenerative tissue disorder — The pattern of stems for this root follows that of the root -SXh-. 


focus on the referent 

-DDR- mental disorder (i.e., no discernible lesion) — SSD Derivatives: 1) schizo-affective 2) sociopathic condition 3) schizophrenia 4) 

personality disorder 5) depression 6) dissociative disorder 7) manic condition, mania 8) unknown mental disorder 9) bipolar condition 

-DDW- topical skin disorder — The pattern of stems for this root follows that of the root -SXh-.

-DDY- neuro-muscular/myalgic disorder — The pattern of stems for this root follows that of the root -SXh-. 

-DDŘ- peripheral nervous system disorder — The pattern of stems for this root follows that of the root -SXh-. 

-DG- ‘APRON’ The stems of this root are patterned after the root -GV- 

-DGL- cellular/metabolic disorder — The pattern of stems for this root follows that of the root -SXh-. 

-DGR- malignant tumorous /neoplastic disorder; cancer — The pattern of stems for this root follows that of the root -SXh-.. 

-DGV- cardio-vascular disorder — The pattern of stems for this root follows that of the root -SXh-. 

-DGW- ocular/eye disorder — The pattern of stems for this root follows that of the root -SXh-. 

-DGY- back pain disorder (neuro-muscular, not spinal) — The pattern of stems for this root follows that of the root -SXh-. 

-DK- ‘MISCELLANEOUS BODY PARTS’ 


1. buttock 1. haunch 

2. breast/teat 2. snout/proboscis 

3. navel 3. fin 



referring to physical body part 

itself 

Same as above 3 stems referring Same as above 3 stems referring Same as above 3 stems referring 

to function, purpose or to physical body part itself to function, purpose or 

impact/effect 

impact/effect 

-DL- ‘HAND’ 


1. hand (as gestalt entity) [both physical body part and function] FORMAL stems are the same as 

2. hand (as holder, grasper, striker) [both physical body part and function]; to grasp-- INFORMAL stems but applied to “hand” 

>hold 

of a non-animal entity, e.g., a mechanical 

3. leg (as manipulator, handler, feeler) [both physical body part and function] device, vehicle, plant, etc. 


1. hand as physical body part 1. function of hand as “feeler”- focuser of body’s tactile 

sense 

2. hand as main tool of body 2. function of hand as holder/grasper 

3. hand as limb/extension 3. function of hand as manipulator/handler 

SSD derivatives: 1) fist 2) palm 3) knuckle 4) hand as flat “blade”, e.g., for karate chop 5) finger 6) thumb 7) “butt” of hand [=lower 

part of palm] 8) fingernail 9) bottom side of fist [as when pounding fist onto table; for individual fingers, use following affixes + SSD/5 

for ‘finger’: index = “main finger” or “first finger”, middle finger = “mid-finger” or “long finger” or “2nd finger”, ring finger = “3rd finger”, 

pinkie = 4th finger or small(est) finger 

-DLW- nasal disorder — The pattern of stems for this root follows that of the root -SXh-. 

-DLY- mid/inner ear disorder; hearing problem — The pattern of stems for this root follows that of the root -SXh-. 

-DM- ‘ROBE(S)/TOGA’ The stems of this root are patterned after the root -GV-

-DMY- neurological disorder — The pattern of stems for this root follows that of the root -SXh-. 

-DN- ‘GOODWILL/FRIENDLINESS’ 


1. being nice [= emotional/spiritual/physical support of another’s 

interests] 

1. good samaritanship, going out of the way to help 

2. goodwill, benevolent intent, kindness 2. peace / fellowship 

3. amicability / friendliness 3. friendship (unidirectional) 


Same as above 3 stems w/ Same as above 3 stems w/ Same as above 3 stems w/ Same as above 3 stems w/ 

focus on act(ions) or behavior focus on emotion or feeling focus on act(ions) or behavior focus on emotion or feeling 

Derivations: altruism, being friends, affable 

-DNW- liver disorder — The pattern of stems for this root follows that of the root -SXh-. 

-DR- ‘MANAGE/GUIDANCE/COMPLIANCE’ 


1. guide / guideline + compliance 1. rule, precept + obedience 

2. manage / direct + compliance 2. preside over / mete out law / govern + abidance 

3. discipline + submission/obedience 3. moral guideline + personal rectitude 


1. guide / guideline 1. follow guide / follow guideline 1. rule, precept 1. obey rule or precept 

2. manage / direct 2. comply / follow direction(s) 2. preside over / met out law / govern 2. abide by law / obey law 

3. apply discipline 3. submit to discipline 3. moral guideline 3. personal rectitude 

-DŘ- ‘ORANGE’ patterned after the root -XT’- SSD derivatives: 1) extra light 2) pale (= mixed with gray) 3) clear, transparent 4) 


-DV- ‘SMOOTHNESS/ROUGHNESS (= TACTILE COARSENESS) The pattern of stems for this root follows that of the root - 

KV-. 

-DW- seller + buyer — The stems of this root are patterned the same as the root -Kh-. 

-DY- ‘SENSE/SENSATION’ 


1. sense/sensation, “feel” / “feeling” [faculty/act of sensing 

+ sensation itself]; an act of sensing something 

1. examine via the senses [both act and result/outcome] 

2. sensor / sensory organ [function + sensor itself] 2. sensor(y) device/instrument [both use and device itself] 

3. imagine a sensation or feeling / imagined sensation or 

feeling [faculty/act of sensing + sensation itself] 

3. create/induce a sensory experience [both act and result/outcome] 

COMPLEMENTARY Stems COMPLEMENTARY Stems

1. to sense / act of sensing 1. a sensation, a feeling 1. examine via the senses [the 

act thereof] 

2. sense faculty/ability 2. sensor(y) organ 2. sensor(y) device/instrument 

[the use thereof] 

3. imagine a 

3. a mentally imagined 3. create a sensory experience 

sensation/feeling sensation 

or feeling [the act thereof] 

EXAMPLE MORPHOLOGICAL DERIVATIVES: perceive, detect, perception 

-Dh- ‘WATER AS SUBSTANCE AND TOOL’ 

1. resulting evidence of senses 

2. sensor(y) device or instrument [the 

device/instrument itself] 

3. sensation/feeling as externally 

created/induced 


1. (some) water; (be/make) wet / moist(en) 1. (some) water as component of life 

2. (some) water in context of usage [both substance and use] 2. (some) water as nourishment; to consume/drink water 

3. ice 3. (some) water as biological environment or medium 


1. (some) water [substance itself] 1. degree of moisture [from 1. (some) water of one’s corporeal 1. hydration; hydrate 

water] 

body 

2. water as “tool” (e.g., for washing, 2. wash, clean [with water] 2. act of drinking water; to drink 2. to water (e.g., plants) 

for powering a turbine, etc.) 

water 

3. ice / freeze 3. float 3. (some) water from a natural 

environmental setting 

3. to inhabit water / live in 

water / water-dwelling 

EXAMPLE DERIVATIONS FROM THIS STEM: bathe, lave, submerge, sink, dunk, immerse, dry, drench(ed), irrigate, swim, the sea 

(as environment); dehydrate; thirst 

-DhBL- genetic disorder — The pattern of stems for this root follows that of the root -SXh-. 

-DhBW- musculo-skeletal disorder — The pattern of stems for this root follows that of the root -SXh-. 

-DhBV- glandular/endocrine disorder — The pattern of stems for this root follows that of the root -SXh-. 

-DhBZ- upper gastric disorder; throat/mouth disorder — The pattern of stems for this root follows that of the root -SXh-. 

-DhGL- blood/hematological disorder — The pattern of stems for this root follows that of the root -SXh-. 

-DhGR- invasive skin disorder — The pattern of stems for this root follows that of the root -SXh-. 

-DhGV- spinal condition or disorder — The pattern of stems for this root follows that of the root -SXh-. 

-DhGW- microbial infection — The pattern of stems for this root follows that of the root -SXh-. 

-DhGY- physical brain disorder (i.e., discernible lesion) — The pattern of stems for this root follows that of the root -SXh-. SSD 

Derivatives: general dementia, multi-infarct dementia, stroke, 

-DhGZ- lower gastro-intestinal disorder; bowel problem — The pattern of stems for this root follows that of the root -SXh-. 

-DhL- ‘MAROON’ patterned after the root -XT’- SSD derivatives: 1) extra light 2) pale (= mixed with gray) 3) clear, transparent 4) 


-DhM- the common cold — The pattern of stems for this root follows that of the root -SXh-. 

-DhMW- non-malignant tumorous/neoplastic disorder; non-cancerous growth — The pattern of stems for this root follows that of the 

root -SXh-.

-DhMY- auto-immune condition — The pattern of stems for this root follows that of the root -SXh-. 

-DhN- ‘subjective feeling of safety/security, relaxation, and peace-of-mind one feels by being at or returning home; “home-sweethome”feeling.’ 

The stems of this root are patterned after the root -PK-. Derivations: hospitality; make one feel at home, make oneself at 

home 

-DhNW- mid gastric disorder; stomach/esophagal disorder — The pattern of stems for this root follows that of the root -SXh- 

-DhŘ- alcohol, wood — Pattern of stems is the same as -XL- 

-DhW- alcohol, grain — Pattern of stems is the same as -XL- 

-DhY- ‘TAIL’ The stems of this root are patterned after the root -PR- 

-F- ‘SPATIAL ORIENTATION / POSITION / DIRECTION’ 


1. general spatial position [currently or within context of 1. specific spatial position at “end point”; be situated at “end 

utterance]; be situated at 

point” of 

2. general orientation (along or relative to directional axes); to 

“face” [toward] 

2. specific orientation toward “end point” of; to “face” squarely 

3. general direction/axis of movement; direct/move along axis of 3. specific direction/axis of movement toward “end point” of; to 

head straight for 


1. general position toward “one 1. general position toward “other 1. specific position at “one end” 1. specific position at “other 

side” of opposed spatial points side” of opposed spatial points of opposed spatial points side” of opposed spatial points 

2. general orientation toward 2. general orientation toward 2. specific orientation toward 2. specific orientation toward 

“one side” of opposed spatial “other side” of opposed spatial “one end” of opposed spatial “other end” of opposed spatial 

points 

points 

points 

points 

3. general direction toward “one 3. general direction toward 3. specific direction toward “one 3. specific direction toward 

side” of opposed spatial points “other side” of opposed spatial end” of opposed spatial points “other end” of opposed spatial 

points 

points 

-FC- ‘GENERIC FLYING BUG’ The pattern of stems for this root follows that of the root -FŢ- ‘INSECT’ 

-FF- ‘PLEASURE- or PAIN-BASED VOCALIZATION’ 


1. sigh (affective/non-volitional) Same as INFORMAL stems but referring to deliberate (i.e., volitional) 

2. squeal/groan/moan (affective/non-volitional) vocalizations 

3. gasp (affective/non-volitional) 


Same as above 3 stems asSame 

as above 3 stems as 

triggered by physical or triggered by physical or 

mental pleasure or mental distress, pain, 

satisfaction 

torment, or dissatisfaction 

SSD DERIVATIONS: cry, sob, howl, whimper, murmur 

OTHER MORPHOLOGICAL DERIVATIONS: weep

-FFR- allies — The stems of this root are patterned the same as the root -Kh-. 

-FFM- predator + prey — The stems of this root are patterned the same as the root -Kh-. 

-FFY- ‘GNAT’ The pattern of stems for this root follows that of the root -FŢ- ‘INSECT’ 

-FKÇ- ‘APHID’ The pattern of stems for this root follows that of the root -FŢ- ‘INSECT’ 

-FKL- matchmaker + parties being matched — The stems of this root are patterned the same as the root -Kh-. 

-FKR- ‘MOSQUITO’ The pattern of stems for this root follows that of the root -FŢ- ‘INSECT’ 

-FKŘ- warring parties — The stems of this root are patterned the same as the root -Kh-. 

-FKŢ- lender + borrower — The stems of this root are patterned the same as the root -Kh-. 

-FKW- entertainer/emcee + audience — The stems of this root are patterned the same as the root -Kh-. 

-FKY- invader + invadee — The stems of this root are patterned the same as the root -Kh-. 

-FK’- Sulfur — Pattern of stems is the same as -XL- 

-FK h - Lead — Pattern of stems is the same as -XL- 

-FK h W- safflower — The pattern of stems for this root follows those of the root -QW- 

-FL- ‘BLACK’ patterned after the root -XT’- SSD derivatives: 1) extra light 2) pale (= mixed with gray) 3) clear, transparent 4) 


-FLY- ‘HOUSEFLY’ The pattern of stems for this root follows that of the root -FŢ- ‘INSECT’ 

-FN- ‘COUSIN’ 


1. cousin [male or female] 1. step-cousin [male or female] 

2. male cousin 2. male step-cousin 

3. female cousin 3. female step-cousin 


1. cousin [male or female – 

related through one’s mother] 


related through one’s father] 

2. male cousin [related through 2. male cousin [related through 

one’s mother] 

one’s father] 

3. female cousin [related 3. female cousin [related 

through one’s mother] through one’s father] 


related through one’s 

stepmother] 

2. male cousin [related through 

one’s stepmother] 

3. female cousin [related 

through one’s stepmother] 

-FPÇ- ‘BUTTERFLY’ The pattern of stems for this root follows that of the root -FŢ- ‘INSECT’ 


related through one’s stepfather] 

2. male cousin [related through 

one’s stepfather] 

3. female cousin [related 

through one’s stepfather]

-FPL- perpetrator + victim — The stems of this root are patterned the same as the root -Kh-. 

-FPŢ- ‘FIREFLY’ The pattern of stems for this root follows that of the root -FŢ- ‘INSECT’ 

-FQL- advisor + party seeking advise — The stems of this root are patterned the same as the root -Kh-. 

-FQR- fellowship, “band of brothers”, fraternity, sorority, etc. — The stems of this root are patterned the same as the root -Kh-. 

-FQŢ- fellow hobbyists or enthusiasts — The stems of this root are patterned the same as the root -Kh-. 

-FQh- ‘bother, annoyance (based on displeasure at or disagreement with external circumstances)’ The stems of this root are patterned 


-FR- ‘TIME PERIOD/DURATION LESS THAN ONE DAY’ 


1. moment/instant 1. ‘second’ [= basic unit of cyclic time, based on clapping of hands 

once together then once with back of hands together] 

2. a ‘while’ 2. ‘minute’ = 100 seconds 

3. portion of a day 3. ‘hour’ = 100 minutes 


Same as above three stems 

w/ focus on elapsed time 

Same as above three stems Same as above three stems w/ Same as above three stems w/ focus 

w/ focus on time during which focus on elapsed time on time during which 

SSD affix used with FORMAL stems by degree: 1) 1/100 of time period 2) 1/10 3) ¼ 4) ½ 5) exactly/precisely 6) twice the duration 

7) 4 times 8) 10 times 9) 100 times 

SSD affix used with INFORMAL Stem No. 3 by degree: 1) midnight to dawn period [Spanish ‘madrugada’] 2) dawn [use of CPT or 

TRM = ‘sunrise’] 3) early morning 4) morning 5) midday 6) afternoon [use of CPT or TRM = ‘sunset’] 7) twilight 8) evening 9) late 

night, from darkness till midnight 

-FŘ- ‘INFIRMITY/PHYSICAL DISABILITY’ 


1. general weakness/infirmity (e.g., age-related or illness-related) 1. acute infirmity, attack, flare-up 

2. specific physical disability or abnormality; disabled 2. injury; injure(d) 

3. lame, crippled, handicapped, impaired (permanently or 3. impaired; decreased mobility (temporary) 

chronically) 


same as above 3 stems w/ focus 

on underlying condition itself 


on physical effect, impact, 

symptoms, manifestation 


on underlying condition itself 

-FS- ‘side/flank, lateral area’ The pattern of stems for this root follow those of the root -G-. 

-FSK- club members — The stems of this root are patterned the same as the root -Kh-. 

-FSK’- owner + pet — The stems of this root are patterned the same as the root -Kh-. 

-FSK h - ‘DRAGONFLY’ The pattern of stems for this root follows that of the root -FŢ- ‘INSECT’ 



symptoms, manifestation

-FSM- ‘WASP’ The pattern of stems for this root follows that of the root -FŢ- ‘INSECT’ 

-FSN- members of business/executive management — The stems of this root are patterned the same as the root -Kh-. 

-FSP- relationship between business associates — The stems of this root are patterned the same as the root -Kh-. 

-FSP’- ‘GRASSHOPPER’ The pattern of stems for this root follows that of the root -FŢ- ‘INSECT’ 

-FSQ- members of secret society — The stems of this root are patterned the same as the root -Kh-. 

-FSQW- ‘PHEASANT’ (the stems of this root are patterned after the root -SK-) 

-FSQ’- “center of attention” + sycophants — The stems of this root are patterned the same as the root -Kh-. 

-FSQ h - sage + disciples — The stems of this root are patterned the same as the root -Kh-. 

-FST- ‘MOTH’ The pattern of stems for this root follows that of the root -FŢ- ‘INSECT’ 

-FSY- ‘FLEA’ The pattern of stems for this root follows that of the root -FŢ- ‘INSECT’ 

-FŠ- ‘ABDOMEN/THORAX/TORSO/CHEST’ 


1. thorax/torso [both body part and function] FORMAL stems are the same as INFORMAL 

2. abdomen/midsection (lower front half of torso) [both body part and function] 

3. chest (upper front of torso) [both body part and function) 



physical body part 


function 

stems but applied to “mid-section” of a nonanimal 

entity, e.g., a mechanical device, vehicle, 

plant, etc. 

NOTE: Due to the bilateral symmetry of this body part, the above stems are often used in the DUPLEX configuration, the UNIPLEX 

form referring only to one side of the bodily part or the other. 

-FŠK- ‘BUMBLEBEE’ The pattern of stems for this root follows that of the root -FŢ- ‘INSECT’ 

-FŠK h - fan + celebrity — The stems of this root are patterned the same as the root -Kh-. 

-FŠK’- supervisor/boss + employee — The stems of this root are patterned the same as the root -Kh-. 

-FŠP- ‘HONEYBEE’ The pattern of stems for this root follows that of the root -FŢ- ‘INSECT’ 

-FŠP’- ‘HORNET’ The pattern of stems for this root follows that of the root -FŢ- ‘INSECT’ 

-FŠQ h - ‘MANTIS’ The pattern of stems for this root follows that of the root -FŢ- ‘INSECT’ 

-FŠT h - ‘LOCUST’ The pattern of stems for this root follows that of the root -FŢ- ‘INSECT’ 

-FT- ‘FULLNESS/EMPTINESS’ The pattern of stems for this root follows that of the root -KV-. 

-FT h - ‘LEGGING/SOCK’ The stems of this root are patterned after the root -GV-

-FŢ- ‘INSECT’ 


1. member of particular genus of insect 1. member of genus as resource 




1. wild member of genus 1. bred or domesticated 1. member of genus as 1. member of genus as derived 


food/prey 









MAT Suffix used to indicate life stage: larvae/grub, chrysalis, cocoon, adult, etc. 

SSD Suffix used as follows: 1) egg, 2) wing, 3) oil/secretion, 4) silk/web, 5) skin/pellicle, 6) tail, 7) horn, 8) leg(s) 9) [open] 

-FY- ‘EIGHT 


1. a set or group of 8 / an octet; to be 8 in number FORMAL stems for this root have the same 

2. be/make eight-faceted / having 8 uses or aspects / octo- / eightfold 

3. eighth one in a sequence; be/make eighth in a sequence 


1. 8 times the number of something; to 1. an eighth / divide by 8 or into 8 parts 

octtuple / multiply by 8 

2. 8 times [= iterations]; to be/make/do 8 2. be of or make into 8 parts; separate(d) 

times 

into 8 parts 

3. to the 8th power; raise to the 8th 

power 

3. to the negative 8th power; to divide by 

the 8th power of 

meanings as the INFORMAL stems except 

that they are applied in official, authorized, 

permanent contexts as described in Section 

3.7 

-G- ‘COMPONENTIAL PART OF WHOLE’ 


1. component/part of something + its function/purpose Same as INFORMAL stems but referring to a 

2. appearance/condition of component/part + its function/purpose 

3. component/part as seen in relation to the greater whole 


1. component/part itself 1. function/purpose of component/part 

2. phsycial appearance/condition2. 

impact/effect of component’s/part’s 

of component/part 

condition on its function/purpose 

3. component/part itself as seen 

in relation to the greater whole 

3. function/purpose of component/part 

itself in relation to the greater whole 

separable/detachable component/part, as opposed to 

INFORMAL stems which refer to an inalienable or 

integrated component/part 

-GB- ‘FANTASTIC OR IMAGINARY CREATURE’ 


1. fantastic or imaginary creature/beast 1. mythological/symbolic creature/beast 

2. winged fantastic creature/beast 2. legendary being/creature/beast, allegedly real 

3. reptilian/saurian fantastic creature/beast 3. alien/extraterrestrial being


referring to physical body or 

presence of creature/beast 

itself 


Same as above 3 stems referring 

to the mind, personality, 

character, or 

interaction/communication with 

the creature/beast 

SSD Derivatives for Informal Stem 1: 

SSD Derivatives for Informal Stem 2: dragon 

SSD Derivatives for Informal Stem 3: 

SSD Derivatives for Formal Stem 1: centaur, sphinx, satyr, unicorn, chimera 

SSD Derivatives for Formal Stem 2: vampyre, werewolf, yeti 


referring to physical body or 

presence of creature/beast 

itself 


to the mind, personality, 

character, or 

interaction/communication with 

the creature/beast 

-GD- ‘NECK’ 


1. neck (as gestalt entity) [body part + function] FORMAL stems are the same as INFORMAL stems 

2. neck (as bodily support/swivel point for head) [body part + function 

3. neck (as narrowest, most vulnerable body part) [body part + function] 


1. neck as physical body part 1. neck as functional body part 

2. neck as bodily support/swivel 2. neck as functional support/swivel point 

point for head 

for head 

3. neck as physically narrowest, 

most vulnerable body part) 

3. neck as functionally narrowest, most 

vulnerable body part 

MORPHOLOGICAL DERIVATIVES: nape, throat (i.e., front part of neck) 

-GDR- ‘ALBATROSS’ (the stems of this root are patterned after the root -SK-) 

-GDh- ‘cloth/fabric’Pattern of stems is the same as -XL- 

-GG- ‘VEIL’ The stems of this root are patterned after the root -GV- 

but applied to “neck” of a non-animal entity, e.g., a 

mechanical device, complex 3-dimensional form, plant, 

etc. 

-GL- ‘STATE OF HEALTH/ILLNESS/WELL-BEING’ 


1. state of physical health / physical well-being 1. state of mental health / mental well-being 

2. physical illness; sick(ness) 2. mental illness 

3. physical injury/wound/lesion/trauma 3. mental trauma 


Same as above 3 stems w/ Same as above 3 stems w/ Same as above 3 stems w/ focus Same as above 3 stems w/ focus 

focus on effect 

focus on cause 

on effect 

on cause 

SSD affix used with Stem 2 of both INFORMAL and FORMAL stem in conjunction w/ the AGC2/7 affix give: 1) nurse 2) emergency 

technician 3) therapist 4) caregiver 5) doctor 6) surgeon 7) healer 8) “medicine man” 9) medical assistant 

Derivations: madness, craziness, insanity 

-GM- ‘TWO-DIMENSIONAL OUTLINE SHAPES’ 


1. generic 2-D outline shape (e.g., the shape of a close-course 1. 2-D outline shape generically distorted 

race-track, the outline of the shore of a lake, a drawing of a 

national border on a map, etc.) 

2. generic 2-D outline horizontally elongated 2. 2-D outline shape obliquely elongated / skewed along one axis 

3. generic 2-D outline vertically elongated 3. 2-D outline shape medially compressed, i.e., 

“squished/pinched in the middle” 



referring to shape itself as 

abstract archetype 

-GN- ‘wax’Pattern of stems is the same as -XL- 


to an object having that shape orto 

shape itself as abstract to an object having that shape or 

form 

archetype 

form 

-GR- ‘NUTRITION / NUTRITIONAL CONSUMPTION’ 


1. food and drink; to eat and drink 1. eat a serving of food or drink; to dine 

2. food; to eat 2. prepared/cooked food; to eat prepared/cooked food 

3. drink (i.e., substance drunk); to drink 3. processed drink or spirits; to drink processed drink or spirits 


1. eat and drink as biological 1. food and drink 

process 

(substances consumed) 

2. eat/ingest/consume 2. item of solid food 

3. drink/imbibe 3. liquid (to be) drunk 

same as above 3 stems but 

with focus on the process of 

consumption 

same as above 3 stems but with focus 

on the items consumed 

EXAMPLE MORPHOLOGICAL DERIVATIVES FROM THE ABOVE STEMS: cooking, meal, repast, feast, become drunk, 

gorge(d); chef, cook, brewer 

-GŘ- ‘SKY BLUE’ patterned after the root -XT’- SSD derivatives: 1) extra light 2) pale (= mixed with gray) 3) clear, transparent 4) 


-GV- ‘ARTICLE OF CLOTHING’ 


1. piece of clothing as covering or fashion; to wear such 1. piece of clothing as part of uniform or costume; to wear 

such 

2. piece of clothing as distinguishing marker or indicator of station; 2. part of uniform or costume as indicator of station/job; to 

to wear such 

wear such 

3. piece of clothing as ornament or accessory; to wear such 3. part of uniform or costume as ornament; to wear such 


1. piece of clothing as covering; to 1. piece of clothing as fashion; to 1. part of uniform as covering; 1. part of costume as covering; 

wear such 

wear such 

to wear such 

to wear such 

2. piece of clothing as 

2. piece of clothing as indicator 2. part of uniform as indicator 2. part of costume as indicator 

distinguishing marker; to wear such of station; to wear such of station/job; to wear such of station/job; to wear such 

3. piece of clothing as ornament; to 

wear such 

3. piece of clothing as 

accessory; to wear such 

3. part of uniform as 

ornament; to wear such 

-GW- ‘AMBULATION’ 


3. part of costume as 

ornament; to wear such

1. ambulate (as natural to specific species, e.g., walk, slither, fly, 

crawl, etc.) 

1. “formal” ambulation, e.g., march, prance 

2. rapid ambulation (as per specific species, e.g., run, gallop, 

scamper, scurry, etc.) 

2. purposeful rapid ambulation, e.g., flee, race 

3. unnatural or affected ambulation 3. deliberately unnatural or affected ambulation, e.g., 

swagger, saunter 


same as above 3 stems referring same as above 3 stems referring to same as above 3 stems same as above 3 stems referring 

to the nature of the bodily the translative/directional motion referring to the nature of the to the translative/directional 

movement/gait 

from one point toward another bodily movement/gait motion from one point toward 

another 

EXAMPLE MORPHOLOGICAL DERIVATIVES FROM THE ABOVE STEMS: skip, shuffle, slink; lead, follow 

SSD Derivatives: 1) swim on surface 2) swim/glide underwater 3) slither 4) crawl 5) walk 6) hop 7) jump/leap 8) swing (e.g., through 

trees, from vines, etc.) 9) fly 

-GY- ‘WHITE’ patterned after the root -XT’- SSD derivatives: 1) extra light 2) pale (= mixed with gray) 3) clear, transparent 4) 


-GZ- ‘TENSENESS (= STRAIN)’ The pattern of stems for this root follows that of the root -KV-. 

-GZB- ‘INTERTWINED/INTERMINGLED/INTERMIXED POSITION/STATE’ [individual components separable/extractable] 


-GZBL- ‘COBRA’ (the stems of this root are patterned after the root -SK-) 

-GZD- ‘+X/0/+Z SPATIAL ORIENTATION/POSITION/DIRECTION W/ STEMS PATTERNED AFTER ROOT -F-; BASED 



-GZDR- ‘RATTLESNAKE’ (the stems of this root are patterned after the root -SK-) 

-GZDW- ‘ASP’ (the stems of this root are patterned after the root -SK-) 

-GZL- ‘0/0/0 SPATIAL ORIENTATION/POSITION/DIRECTION W/ STEMS PATTERNED AFTER ROOT -F-; BASED ON 



-GZV- ‘+X/0/-Z SPATIAL ORIENTATION/POSITION/DIRECTION W/ STEMS PATTERNED AFTER ROOT -F-; BASED 



-J- ‘VERTICAL MOTION / ASCENT & DESCENT / UP & DOWN’ The stems of this root are patterned after the root -K- 

-JGW- ‘HAWK’ (the stems of this root are patterned after the root -SK-) 

-JK-: ‘oval’ The pattern of stems for this root follow that of the root -GM-. 

-JM- ‘IN-LAW/FOSTER RELATIONS’ 


1. member of parent/child in-law relationship 1. member of foster family 

2. male member of parent/child in-law relationship 2. male member of foster family 

3. female member of parent/child in-law relationship 3. female member of foster family 


1. parent in-law 1. child in-law 1. foster parent 1. foster child 

2. father in-law 2. son in-law 2. foster father 2. foster son 

3. mother in-law 3. daughter in-law 3. foster mother 3. foster daughter 

-JP h -: ‘egg-shaped’ The pattern of stems for this root follow that of the root -GM-. 

-JQ’- Platinum — Pattern of stems is the same as -XL- 

-JT h -: ‘half-circle/semi-circle’ The pattern of stems for this root follow that of the root -GM-. 

-JW- ‘SCARF’ The stems of this root are patterned after the root -GV- 

-K- ‘PATH-ORIENTED TRANSLATIVE MOTION’ (QUASI-LINEAR) 


1. move from one place to another; translative motion (i.e., motion from 

one place toward another) 

1. journey; to travel, traverse, to journey 

2. course/way/route/trajectory followed between two points 2. route travelled/traversed on journey 

3. move between two points; motion along path from one point to another; 3. travel between two points / make a crossing / travel 

to cross/go across from one side to another 

across 


1. motion “outward”; go 1. motion “inward”; come 1. go travelling / be off 1. journey toward 

2. movement away; go away (= 2. close in / get close(r) (= decrease 2. travel further away from 2. reach vicinity of / close in 

increase distance between two 

objects) 

distance between two objects) 

on 

3. leave (= move away from one 3. approach (= approach one point 3. departure; depart 3. arrival; arrive / reach 

point toward some distant point) from direction of some distant point) 

destination 

Morphological derivations: sojourn, set off / set out, set in motion; self-directed movement 

-KC- ‘LOWER ORDER LIFE FORM’ 


1. lower-order life form (i.e. non-vertebrate) same as INFORMAL stems but as resource 

2. microbe 

3. non-microbial animal 


(i.e., food, fuel, material, etc.) 

1. bacterium 1. soft-bodied animal (e.g., jellyfish, sponge, slime mold) 

2. virus 2. exoskeletal animal (e.g., insect, arthropod, crustacean) 

3. protist 3. endoskeletal animal 

-KÇ- ‘AFFECTIVE BODILY SENSATIONS (SURFACE-TACTILE)’


1. itch 1. “creeps”/crawling sensation 

2. tingle 2. tickle 

3. sting/prick 3. “chill” feeling / feeling of hairs standing on end 


same as above three 

stems w/ focus on 

effect/sensation itself 

same w/ focus on causal act or source, e.g., 

the stinging itself, the interaction b/w irritant 

and skin giving rise to the itch, etc. 

same as above three stems w/ focus 

on effect/sensation itself 

same w/ focus on causal 

act or source 

-KČ- EXCUSE / FOREGIVENESS / ABSOLUTION / AMNESTY 

act of seeking and granting excuse, of seeking to be condoned and seeking of and granting of propitiation/ appeasement/placation 

being condoned 

the craving of pardon/forgiveness plus the granting of 

pardon/forgiveness 

the seeking of and granting of absolution 

atonement/make amends/do penance plus the act of 

redemption/recognition of one’s amends 

the seeking of and granting of amnesty or indemnification 

ask to be excused for one’s to excuse, condone, allow seek to be appeased or propitiate, appease, placate; act of 

conduct/traits/presence, etc. / seek for; act of excusing or placated; state of seeking appeasement or placation 

to be condoned or to have one’s condoning someone’s appeasement or placation 

conduct or presence overlooked or 

allowed for 

conduct/traits/presence, etc. 

crave pardon, beg forgiveness pardon/forgive; act of seek absolution, seek to be absolve 

pardoning or forgiveness absolved 

atone, make amends, do penance, redeem, accept one’s seek/try for amnesty or grant amnesty, indemnify; act of 

seek redemption 

penance or amends indemnification 

granting amnesty or indemnification 

Note that this root, like the root -SP- ‘exchange’ refers to a naturally two-sided (i.e., complementary) process involving the acts or 

states of mind of two different parties: the party doing the excusing, pardoning, forgiving, absolution, etc., and the party seeking to be 

excused, pardoned, forgiven, absolved, etc. The holistic stems refer to this complementary process, while the complementary stems 

reference each “side” of the situation. 

Note also that the speaker should take care to utilize Version categories carefully with these stems (especially when using the holistic 

stems), in order to distinguish whether or not the person seeking pardon, forgiveness, etc., is, in fact, pardoned, forgiven, etc. Likewise, 

the speaker should consider whether it is appropriate to utilize a Valence category when using these stems, given that their semantics 

naturally entail the actions/states of two parties 

-KČ h W- ginger — The pattern of stems for this root follows those of the root -QW- 

-KF- ‘TYPES OF HARD OR NON-LIVING BODILY TISSUES’ 


1. tooth 1. head hair 

2. fingernail/toenail/claw 2. whisker / facial hair 

3. hard growth of skin (e.g., wart, corn, callus, bunion, scar) 3. pubic/armpit hair 


Same as above 3 stems referring Same as above 3 stems referring Same as above 3 stems referring Same as above 3 stems referring 

to physical tissue itself to function, purpose, or to physical tissue itself to function, purpose, or 

effect/impact 

effect/impact

Morphological derivative from FORMAL Stem 1: bald 

SSD Derivatives for FORMAL Stem 2: mustache, beard, sideburn 

SSD Derivatives for INFORMAL Stem 1: incisor, fang, bicuspid, molar 

SSD Derivatives for INFORMSL Stem 3;: wart, corn, callus, bunion, scar 

-KK- ‘SOLIDITY/HOLLOWNESS (= PERMEABILITY)’ The pattern of stems for this root follows that of the root -KV-. 

-KKR- ‘OBLIQUE VERTICAL MOTION’ The stems of this root are patterned after the root -K- 

-KK’- business partnership — The stems of this root are patterned the same as the root -Kh-. 

-KL- ‘WATER IN NATURAL MOTION’ 


1. a flow of water / to flow or run 1. river / to flow as a river / to run as a river 

2. sprinkle / shower; to sprinkle or shower upon 2. rain(fall); to rain 

3. cascade / pour [= free falling of water] 3. waterfall 


1. water component of a 1. channel or course of a flow of 1. water component of a river 1. channel or course of a river 

flow of water 

water 

2. water component of a 2. trajectory or course of a 2. water component of rain 2. “path” or course of a rain 

sprinkle/shower 

sprinkle/shower 

shower 

3. water component of a 

cascade or pouring of water 

3. trajectory or course of a pouring 

of water 

3. water component of a 

waterfall 

3. channel or “groove” of a 

waterfall 

EXAMPLE MORPHOLOGICAL DERIVATIVES FROM THE ABOVE STEMS: flood, downpour, to rain “cats and dogs”, brook, 

stream, rivulet, arroyo, floodplain 

-KLW- ‘TURQUOISE’ patterned after the root -XT’- SSD derivatives: 1) extra light 2) pale (= mixed with gray) 3) clear, transparent 

4) fluorescent 5) vibrant / bright 6) –ish 7) translucent 8) opaque 9) extra dark 

-KM- ‘WEIGHT/MASS’ The pattern of stems for this root follows that of the root -KV-. 

KN- ‘SNAKE’ 








food/prey 









KP- ‘LENGTH’ 


1. degree of (static) dimensional property (e.g., short/long) same as INFORMAL stems but in reference to an 

2. dynamic decrease in degree of dimensional property (e.g., shorten/ing) 

3. dynamic increase in degree of dimensional property (e.g., lengthen/ing) 



applied to spatial context 

same as above 3 stems applied to temporal 

context 

applied contextual gestalt (e.g., the vicinity, the 

depths, the expanse, the interregnum, the 

surroundings, the perimeter, etc.) 

-KR- TOOL/INSTRUMENT 


1. tool, instrument, implement as extension of bodily appendage(s) (e.g., 1. utensil, specialized implement for assisting in refined 

as per force, strength, precision, reach, pressure, instrument as laborsaving 

or efficiency-increasing means etc.) 

task 

2. tool, instrument as means of “defying nature” (e.g., wheel, wedge, 2. mechanical/motorized/electric/electronic 

fulcrum, etc. 

implement/device 

3. supply-like resource/implement used by itself or in association with 3. supply-like resource/implement used as fuel or input for 

specific tool (e.g., nail, tack, clothespin, hook) 

mechanical/electrical/electronic implement/device 


Same as above 3 stems Same as above 3 stems referring to Same as above 3 stems Same as above 3 stems referring 

referring to thing itself function/use thereof 

referring to thing itself to function/use thereof 

Morphological Derivatives: equipment, gear (collection of associated tools/supplies), apparatus, appliance, paraphernalia, machine 

SSD derivatives for Informal Stem 1: awl, pliers, screwdriver, wrench, pick, shovel/spade, chisel, file, stick/pole/bar 

SSD derivatives for Informal Stem 2: wheel, jack, wedge, fulcrum, pulley, sling, lever, gear, spool 

SSD derivatives for Informal Stem 3: nail, tack, clip/fastener, hook, screw, bolt, nut, piece of wire, screwdriver bit/head 

SSD derivatives for Formal Stem 1: anvil, fork, spoon, scissors, vice/clamp, plane, saw, tweezers, puncher 

SSD derivatives for Formal Stem 2: drill, power saw, engine/motor 

SSD derivatives for Formal Stem 3: drill bit, 

-KS- ‘TWO/DUALITY’ 


1. a set of two / a duo; to be two in number FORMAL stems for this root have the same 

2. be/make dual / having 2 uses or aspects / bi- / twofold 

3. second one in a sequence; be/make second in a sequence 


1. twice the number of something; to 1. half; halve / divide by or into two 

double / multiply by two 

2. two times [= iterations] / twice; to 2. be of or make into two parts; 

be/make/do twice 

bifurcate(d) 

3. to the second power / squared; to 

square / raise to the second power 

3. to the negative second power / inverse 

square; to divide by the square of 


they are applied in official, authorized, 

permanent contexts as described in Section 3.7 

-KSF- ‘POSITION BETWEEN / AMIDST / AMONG [volume-based 3-dimensional context, e.g., sky crowded with balloonists] 


-KSL- ‘-X/0/+Z SPATIAL ORIENTATION/POSITION/DIRECTION W/ STEMS PATTERNED AFTER ROOT -F-; BASED 


AHEAD, -Z = BELOW, + Z = ABOVE, 0 = LEVEL WITH OR IN LINE WITH SPECIFIC X, Y, OR Z AXIS’

-KSP ‘-X/+Y/+Z SPATIAL ORIENTATION/POSITION/DIRECTION W/ STEMS PATTERNED AFTER ROOT -F-; BASED 



-KSR- ‘0/0/-Z SPATIAL ORIENTATION/POSITION/DIRECTION W/ STEMS PATTERNED AFTER ROOT -F-; BASED ON 



-KSS- HADRONS (COMPOSITE FERMIONS OR COMPOSITE BOSONS) 


baryon (including nucleons, hyperons, and charmed particles) meson 

nucleon light unflavored meson / effect (i.e., nuclear interaction [strong and 

weak nuclear force] 

hyperon or charmed particle high-energy flavored meson / effect 


ordinary (positive) baryon anti-baryon vector meson pseudoscalar meson 

proton neutron light unflavored meson effect of light unflavored meson (i.e., 

nuclear interaction [strong and weak 

nuclear force] 

hyperon charmed particle high-energy flavored meson effect of high-energy flavored meson 

The PLV1/1 suffix is used for these stems where applicable to convey the corresponding antiparticle. The PLV1/5 suffix is used for these 

stems where applicable to convey the corresponding neurtral (non-charged) particle. 

SSD1 suffix forms applied to Informal stem P1/S3 to indicate particular types of hyperons and charmed particles: 

1) lambda particle 

2) 

3) sigma particle 

4) 

5) xi particle 

6) 

7) delta particle 

8) 

9) omega particle 

SSD1 suffix forms applied to Formal stem P1/S1 to indicate particular types of mesons: 

1) pion 

2) rho meson 

3) omega meson 

4) phi meson 

5) J/psi meson 

6) upsilon meson 

7) D meson 

8) B meson 

9) kaon 

-KST- ‘+X/+Y/+Z SPATIAL ORIENTATION/POSITION/DIRECTION W/ STEMS PATTERNED AFTER ROOT -F-; BASED 


AHEAD, -Z = BELOW, + Z = ABOVE, 0 = LEVEL WITH OR IN LINE WITH SPECIFIC X, Y, OR Z AXIS’

-KSW- ‘-X/0/-Z SPATIAL ORIENTATION/POSITION/DIRECTION W/ STEMS PATTERNED AFTER ROOT -F-; BASED 



-KŠ- ‘FOOL/CLOWN’ 


1. fool(ish); dupe 1. town fool, village idiot 

2. buffoon, laughingstock 2. clown 

3. nerd, dweeb 3. jester 


Same as above 3 stems in non- Same as above 3 stems in 

serious context of “in fun” or poignant, sorrowful, pathetic 

“for laughs” 

context 

Same as above 3 stems in 

context of entertainment 

Same as above 3 stems in 

context of parody or as a foil 

for society 

-KŠP- ‘-X/-Y/+Z SPATIAL ORIENTATION/POSITION/DIRECTION W/ STEMS PATTERNED AFTER ROOT -F-; BASED 



-KŠT- ‘+X/-Y/+Z SPATIAL ORIENTATION/POSITION/DIRECTION W/ STEMS PATTERNED AFTER ROOT -F-; BASED 



-KT- ‘ROCK/MINERAL-BASED SOIL/GROUND’ 


1. stone [as substance/material or substrate/ground] 1. rock(y) [= specific natural embodiment of stone] 

2. sand [as substance/material or substrate/ground] 2. gravel 

3. clay [as substance/material or substrate/ground] 3. lava [w/ CPT = volcanic rock/lava-based rock] 



focus on substance 

Above 3 stems used to identify 

material nature of the substrate, 

ground or firmament 


focus on substance 

-KT’- ‘PRESSURE-BASED or REACTION-BASED 

or GRAVITATION-BASED EQUILIBRIUM/MOTION/PROPULSION’ 


1. something hovering or floating; for something to hover, 

float, or be suspended upon (based on equilibrium, via 

pressure or volume-dispersion, against other medium such as 

air, water, gas, vapor, etc.) [both the object 

hovering/suspended + the act of suspension/hovering/floating] 

2. something hovering or floating; for something to hover, 

float, or be suspended upon (based on gravitational 

equilibrium or nullification, e.g. at the top of an arc of 

Above 3 stems used to identify 

material nature of the substrate, 

ground or firmament 

The Formal stems for this root are identical to the Informal roots in 

meaning, with the distinction of referring specifically to man-made, 

mechanical means/vehicles/vessels or contexts involving reactionbased 

(i.e., fuel-driven) propulsion, as opposed to the naturally 

occurring or non-mechanical contexts implied by use of the Informal 

stems.

trajectory or at a La Grange point) [both the object 

hovering/suspended + the act of suspension/hovering/floating] 

3. something in orbit around another body; to orbit [both the 

object hovering/suspended + the act of 

suspension/hovering/floating] 


Same as the above 3 stems 

but with specific reference to 

the object which hovers, 

floats, or is suspended 

Same as the above 3 stems 

but with specific reference to 

the act or state of hovering, 

floating, or suspension 

-KTh- ATOM / NUCLEUS / ELECTRON CLOUD 


atom instance of chemical element 

atomic nucleus nuclide (i.e., specific configuration of Z-value, N-value, and 

energy state for a particular atomic nucleus) 

atomic electron cloud orbital state (i.e., state and behavior of an electron based on its 

orbital probability distribution) 


physical atom itself behavioral state/effect of physical instance of chemical effect of physical instance of 

physical atom 

element 

chemical element 

atomic nucleus itself behavioral state/effect of atomic 

nucleus 

atomic electron cloud itself behavioral state/effect of atomic 

electron cloud, i.e., photonmediated 

attractive force 

(Coulomb force) 

The following important notes apply to use of the above stems: 

SSD1 suffix derivatives for Formal P1/S2: 

1) isotone 

2) isobar 

3) nuclear isomer / nuclear energy state 

4) stable nuclide 

5) isotope 

6) ground state of nuclide 

7) excited state or nuclide 

8) mirror nucleus 

9) unstable/radioactive/radionuclide 

specific nuclide configuration effect of specific nuclide 

configuration 

orbital state effect of orbital state 

-KŢ- ‘SIMILARITY/SAMENESS’ 


1. similar(ity) to oneself (on another occasion) 1. same (= selfsame) 

2. similar(ity) to (an)other entity/instance 2. same (= identical to (an)other entity/instance)

3. remind (one) of / reminder 3. same (= copy/replacement) 



focus on appearance or focus on function, purpose or focus on identity or appearance focus on function, purpose or 

superficial impression behavior 

behavior 

-KŢR- ‘EAGLE’ 








food/prey 









-KV- ‘QUALITY OR PROPERTY OF MATTER’ 


1. degree of quality/property of matter same as INFORMAL stems except that degree of 

2. decrease in degree of quality/property of matter 

3. increase in degree of quality/property of matter 



to organic-based substance 


non-organic or synthetic substance 

The stems of this root are commonly used with the SUF, EXD, FLC, PTW and Intensity affixes. 

particular quality/property is unusual, abnormal, 

unexpected, or has been changed from expected norm 

-KW- ‘COLOR/HUE’ 


1. something having a color plus the color same as INFORMAL stems but tinted/painted/stained, etc. to have 

2. something light-colored plus the color 

3. something dark-colored plus the color 


other than its natural color 

1. something having a color 1. a color 

2. something having a light color 2. a light color 

3. something having a dark color 3. a dark color 

NOTE: This stem patterns for the above root are a template for all other roots donating a specific color. 

-KY- ‘COFFEE PLANT’


1. genus of branched tree/bush and/or leaved plant 1. wood product 

2. leaf 2. leaf product 

3. bark 3. bark product 


1. wood 1. seed/fruit/nut 1. wood as resource 1. seed/fruit as food or resource 

2. root 2. flower/blossom 2. root as food or resource 2. flower as food or resource 

3. branch 3. sap 3. branch as resource 3. sap product/syrup 

-K’- ‘LIGHT / RADIANT ENERGY’ 


1. ray of sunlight 1. ray of radiant light or energy (non-solar) 

2. the Sun / Sol 2. flame / “tongue” of fire 

3. star 3. artificial source of light or energy 


1. light from a ray of sunlight 1. heat from a ray of sunlight 1. ray of light (non-solar) 1. ray of energy/heat (non-solar) 

2. the Sun as light source 2. the Sun as energy/heat source 2. ray of firelight 2. flame as energy/heat source 

3. starlight 3. energy of a star 3. lamp light / light from 3. energy/heat from artificial 

artificial source 

energy/heat source 

EXAMPLE MORPHOLOGICAL DERIVATIVES FROM THE ABOVE STEMS: fire, sunshine, illuminate, light a fire, flare (up), 

lamp, fireplace; galaxy, heater, to warm, warmth, to melt, to smelt, to expose [via illumination], burn 

-Kh- ‘SOCIAL INTERRELATION/INTERACTION’ 


1. act/state of social interaction/interrelation + benefits, 1. expected/natural role of member of a relationship + benefits, 

consequences, or implications thereof 


2. act/state of “dominant” or initiating partner in social 2. expected/natural role of “dominant” or initiating partner of a 

interaction/relationship 

relationship + benefits, consequences, or implications thereof 

3. act/state of “passive” or secondary/complementary partner in 3. expected/natural role of “passive” or secondary or 

social interaction/relationship 

complementary partner of a relationship + benefits, 



Same as above 3 stems with Same as above 3 stems w/ Same as above 3 stems with Same as above 3 stems w/ focus 

focus on act/state of social focus on benefits, 

focus on act/state of social on benefits, consequences, or 

interaction or interrelation itself consequences, or implications ofinteraction 

or interrelation itself implications of act/state of social 

act/state of social interaction or 

interrelation 

interaction or interrelation 

Note: The above root (and those roots which follow the same pattern of stems) are likely to be used in conjunction with the various 

Valence categories (see Section 6.2) to specify the exact nature of the relationship between the parties involved. Note also that, for 

relationships where the parties are acting in equivalent roles or positions of equal stature (i.e., no “dominant” vs. “passive” roles), use of 

Stems 2 and 3 above would be inapplicable. 

-K h W- ‘PURPLE’ patterned after the root -XT’- SSD derivatives: 1) extra light 2) pale (= mixed with gray) 3) clear, transparent 4) 

fluorescent 5) vibrant / bright 6) –ish 7) translucent 8) opaque 9) extra dark

-L- ‘SPEAK/VOICE/ORAL SOUND/INTERPRETATION’ 


1. vocal utterance / oral sound; utter 1. meaning or interpretation of vocal utterance; to mean or signify 

2. talk / speak / spoken utterance [parole] 2. meaning or interpretation of word; to mean or signify 

3. rhetorical utterance / express [langue] 3. meaning or interpretation of sentence or phrase; to mean or signify 



referring to physical 

production of sound 


to communication/conveying of 

content 

same as above 3 stems referring to 

objective meaning, signification or 

denotation 


subjective interpretation, 

connotation or “impact” 

EXAMPLE MORPHOLOGICAL DERIVATIVES FROM THE ABOVE STEMS: voice, (a) language, linguistic(s), yell, shout, cry, 

bark/meow/bleat/neigh, etc., [vocal] message, account, recount, story, tell, eloquence, glib(ness), smooth-talk, rhetoric, speech, dialect, 

slang 

-LB- DIMENSIONAL/SPATIO-TEMPORAL RELATIONS 


1. degree of (static) dimensional property (e.g., short/long) same as INFORMAL stems but in reference to 

2. dynamic decrease in degree of dimensional property (e.g., shorten/ing) 

3. dynamic increase in degree of dimensional property (e.g., lengthen/ing) 


same as above 3 stems applied to 

spatial context 

same as above 3 stems applied to 

temporal context 

an applied contextual gestalt (e.g., the vicinity, 

the depths, the expanse, the interregnum, the 

surroundings, the perimeter, etc.) 


EXAMPLE MORPHOLOGICAL DERIVATIVES FROM THE ABOVE STEMS: big/large, small/little, shrink, expand, grow, 

diminish, huge, immense, tiny, enormous, shallow 

-LBW- ‘WHALE’ (the stems of this root are patterned after the root -SK-) 

-LC- ‘PROXIMITY/DISTANCE’ The stems of this root are patterned after the root -LB- 

-LCh- ‘UPRIGHT POSITION OR ORIENTATION/VERTICALITY/PERPENDICULAR/PROTRUSION’ 


1. upright/erect position or orientation (relative to long axis of 

object) / stand (up) 

1. vertical (i.e., parallel to gravity or plane of earth’s surface) 

2. stick up or out/ protrude 2. occupying position of maximum contrast to a position of 

repose; position of maximum “alertness” or readiness or action 

3. perpendicular / position or orientation at right angles to 3. stretch(ed) outward; pull(ed) or configure(d) to maximum 

background firmament (relative to long axis of object); be or 

stand on end 

height perpendicular to background firmament 


same as above 3 stems with same as above 3 stems with same as above 3 stems with same as above 3 stems with 

focus on the position itself as an focus on object/thing in that focus on the position itself as an focus on object/thing in that 

abstract concept 

position 

abstract concept 

position

LC’- ‘PLANARITY/FLATNESS RELATIVE TO OBJECT ITSELF’ The stems of this root are patterned after the root -LB- 

-LÇ- ‘WIDTH (= “SLENDERNESS”)’ The stems of this root are patterned after the root -LB- 

-LČ- ‘GIRTH (= 2-DIMENSIONAL X-PLANAR DIMENSION)’ The stems of this root are patterned after the root -LB- 

-LČ’- ‘SHARPNESS/DULLNESS OF AN EDGE’ The stems of this root are patterned after the root -LB- 

-LD- ‘AMPLITUDE (= 2-DIMENSIONAL Z-PLANAR DIMENSION)’ The stems of this root are patterned after the root -LB- 

-LDh- ‘ “REACH” (= 2-DIMENSIONAL Y-PLANAR DIMENSION)’ The stems of this root are patterned after the root -LB- 

-LDR- ‘BOAR’ (the stems of this root are patterned after the root -SK-) 

-LDW- ‘CHEETAH’ (the stems of this root are patterned after the root -SK-) 

-LF- ‘DEPTH’ The stems of this root are patterned after the root -LB- 

-LFW- ‘FROG’ (the stems of this root are patterned after the root -SK-) 

-LG- ‘INTERVAL/GAP’ The stems of this root are patterned after the root -LB- 

-LGW- ‘OTTER’ (the stems of this root are patterned after the root -SK-) 

-LK- ‘HEIGHT (= “TALLNESS” – RELATIVE TO GRAVITY) The stems of this root are patterned after the root -LB- 

-LK’- ‘STRAIGHTNESS/LINEARITY RELATIVE TO OBJECT ITSELF’ The stems of this root are patterned after the root -LB- 

-LK h - master/servant — The stems of this root are patterned the same as the root -Kh-. 

-LK h W- mint — The pattern of stems for this root follows those of the root -QW- 

-LL- ‘ONE/UNITY’ 


1. one 1. single entity / single / singular 

2. (something) alone/lone/sole 2. (something) isolated 

3. (something) unique 3. 9something) independent / self-reliant / self-sufficient 


1. unit (in terms of being unduplicated, copied, 1. unify/unite; unit (in Same as above 3 stems in 

or their being no other instance/example thereof) terms of being indivisible) terms of there being no other 

2. alone/lone/sole (in terms of being 

2. alone/lone/sole (in instance/example thereof 

unduplicated, copied, or their being no other 

instance/example thereof) 

terms of being indivisible) 

3. unique (in terms of being unduplicated, 3. unique (in terms of 

copied, or their being no other instance/example being indivisible) 

thereof) 

EXAMPLES OF MORPHOLOGICAL DERIVATIONS: individual(ity), solitude, lonely, loneliness 

-LM- ‘MUSIC’ 


in terms of entity being 

indivisible


1. musical note or tone / produce [i.e., play] musical note or tone [sound + its playing] Same as INFORMAL stems except 

2. consciously select musical note [for purpose of composition] + sound of note that they apply to the production of 

3. a musical beat or measure [sound + its playing] 

song, i.e., vocal music or for voice with 


musical accompaniment 

1. sound of musical note or tone 1. producing/playing of musical note or tone 

2. sound of selected musical note 2. conscious selection of musical note [for purpose of 

composition] 

3. sound of a musical beat or 

measure 

3. production/playing of a musical beat or measure 

EXAMPLE MORPHOLOGICAL DERIVATIVES FROM THE ABOVE STEMS: piece of music, melody, music [abstract concept], 

composition, musical instrument, musician, composer, rhythm, band, orchestra, song 

-LMZ- ‘DOLPHIN’ (the stems of this root are patterned after the root -SK-) 

-LN- ‘front [relative to directional orientation or primary interface]’ The pattern of stems for this root follow those of the root -G-. 

-LNTW- ‘NIGHTINGALE’ (the stems of this root are patterned after the root -SK-) 

-LP- ‘SPEED/VELOCITY/ACCELERATION’ The stems of this root are patterned after the root -LB- 

-LP’- ‘VOLUME (= 3-DIMENSIONAL SIZE)’ The stems of this root are patterned after the root -LB- 

-LP h W- ‘WALRUS’ (the stems of this root are patterned after the root -SK-) 

-LQ- ‘SHARPNESS/DULLNESS OF A POINT’ The stems of this root are patterned after the root -LB- 

-LQ’- ‘RECTILINEAR/POLYHEDRAL/STRAIGHT-ANGLED’ The stems of this root are patterned after the root -LB- 

-LQh- ‘CLASSES OF WATERLIFE’ 


1. skeletal/vertebral waterlife form Same as INFORMAL holistic stems referring to tamed, 

2. exoskeletal/arthropod form 

3. soft-bodied waterlife form 

domesticated, bred, etc. individual 


1. jellyfish-like lifeform 1. gilled/finned fish Same INFORMAL complementary stems referring to tamed, 

2. crustacean 2. “non-standard”-shaped fish (e.g., 

ray, eel, squid, octopus, etc.) 

pet, domesticated, bred, etc. individual 

3. shellfish 3. sea mammal (e.g., whale, seal, 

walrus, etc.) 

MORPHOLOGICAL DERIVATIONS: fisherman, whale hunter, aquarium, fishery, fish hatchery 

-LR- ‘SPHERICALNESS/ROUNDNESS’ The stems of this root are patterned after the root -LB- 

-LŘ- ‘CLASSES OF MAMMAL’


1. marsupial Same as INFORMAL stems 

2. egg-laying mammal, ovoviviparous mammal 

referring to tamed, domesticated, pet, 

3. placental mammal 


bred, etc. individual 

Same as above 3 stems referring to male Same as above 3 stems referring to female 

-LS- ‘FLATNESS/LEVELNESS (RELATIVE TO GRAVITY)’ The stems of this root are patterned after the root -LB- 

-LSKW- ‘ANTELOPE’ (the stems of this root are patterned after the root -SK-) 

-LŠ- ‘PERIPHERY/CIRCLE/RING’ The stems of this root are patterned after the root -LB- 

-LT- ‘WRITE/INSCRIBE/DOCUMENT’ 


1. inscribe [= make written symbol]; written symbol 1. written record / thing containing writing 

2. write message; written content 2. document 

3. “write” [= compose via writing] / to author 3. “page” of writing / “page” of a written work [“page” = visible 

interface] 



to physical act of inscription 


to communication/conveying of 

content 


to the physical document 


referring to the content 

EXAMPLE MORPHOLOGICAL DERIVATIVES FROM THE ABOVE STEMS: book, treatise, manuscript, author, archive 

-LTW- ‘GOAT’ (the stems of this root are patterned after the root -SK-) 

-LT’- ‘PERPENDICULARITY/UPRIGHTNESS’ The stems of this root are patterned after the root -LB- 

-LT h - ‘DEITY / SPIRITUAL ENTITY / SUPERNATURAL ENTITY’ 


1. (a) spirit / supernatural entity 1. angel 

2. deity / god / “overseer” spirit 2. God / Supreme Being / Creator deity 

3. demon 3. the Devil / Satan 



to male gender 

to female gender 

to male gender 

to female gender 

-LŢ- ‘CONCAVITY/DEPRESSION’ The stems of this root are patterned after the root -LB- 

-LŢR- ‘TURTLE’ (the stems of this root are patterned after the root -SK-) 

-LV- ‘ “EVEN” (= SMOOTH-SURFACED IN PLANAR CONTEXT)’ The stems of this root are patterned after the root -LB-

-LX- ‘CONVEXITY/ROTUNDITY’ The stems of this root are patterned after the root -LB- 

-LXW- ‘RABBIT’ (the stems of this root are patterned after the root -SK-) 

-LXh- ‘BROWN’ patterned after the root -XT’- SSD derivatives: 1) extra light 2) pale (= mixed with gray) 3) clear, transparent 4) 


-LZ- ‘ “EVEN” (= SMOOTH-EDGED IN LINEAR CONTEXT)’ The stems of this root are patterned after the root -LB- 

-LZW- ‘GOOSE’ (the stems of this root are patterned after the root -SK-) 

-LŻ- ‘SPECIALIZED VOLITIONAL BODILY SOUNDS’ 


1. non-linguistic sound made by mouth (i.e., tongue, teeth, lips) 1. consonant 

2. non-linguistic sound made from throat or vocal chords 2. vowel 

3. sound made by non-oral, non-vocal part of the body 3. phoneme 



to act of producing the sound to the sound itself 

to act of producing the sound to the sound itself 

SSD Derivations from Informal Stem 1: 1) whistle 2) hum 3) “raspberry” 4) hoot/whoop 5) non-avian animal call 6) bird call 7) scream 

8) click-sound (i.e., w/ ingressive airstream) 9) non-phonemic consonantal gibberish sound 

SSD Derivations from Informal Stem 3: 1) slap 2) rubbing sound 3) footfall (--> stomp) 4) snap of fingers 5) finger tap 6) toe/foot tap 

7) suction-based sound (e.g., “armpit fart”) 8) knuckle crack 9) other joint cracking 

-LŻW- ‘GILA MONSTER’ (the stems of this root are patterned after the root -SK-) 

-LŽ- ‘ELASTICITY / STRETCH CAPACITY’ The stems of this root are patterned after the root -LB- 

-Ļ- ‘BREATHE/RESPIRATION’ 


1. respire/inhale or exhale; a breath 1. inflate (w/ air) 

2. yawn 2. blow (passage of air under pressure through narrow opening) 

3. pump (by air) 3. suck/suckle/siphon 



focus on external/internal 

transfer of air/gas 


focus on physiological action or 

motion involved 


focus on external/internal 

transfer of air/gas 


focus on physiological action or 

motion involved 

MORPHOLOGICAL DERIVATIVES: breathe, pant, gasp, suffocate, suffocation, asphyxiate, asphyxiation, drown 

-ĻK h - ‘ECRU [color]’ patterned after the root -XT’- SSD derivatives: 1) extra light 2) pale (= mixed with gray) 3) clear, transparent 4) 


-ĻĻ- flabbiness cohesiveness / compactness — The pattern of stems for this root follow that of the root -ŢQ-. This root uses the 

EXTENT/DEGREE suffix to specify the point on a sprectrum 

-ĻM- springiness/spring inertness/immobility — The pattern of stems for this root follow that of the root -ŢQ-. This root uses the 

EXTENT/DEGREE suffix to specify the point on a sprectrum between the two extremes indicated.

-ĻN- ‘CLASSES OF LAND/AIR ANIMAL’ 


1. mammal Same as INFORMAL stems referring to domesticated, 

2. non-mammalian, non-avian, non-reptilian animal, i.e., 

tamed, bred, pet, etc. individual 

insect/arthropod/arachnid/worm/mollusk 

3. avian or reptilian lifeform 


1. insect 1. mollusc 

2. worm 2. bird 

3. arthropod/arachnid 3. reptile 

-ĻP- sponginess stiffness/rigidity — The pattern of stems for this root follow that of the root -ŢQ-. This root uses the 

EXTENT/DEGREE suffix to specify the point on a sprectrum between the two extremes indicated. 

-ĻP’- buoyancy — The pattern of stems for this root follow that of the root -ŢQ-. This root uses the EXTENT/DEGREE suffix to 

specify the point on a sprectrum between the two extremes indicated.between the two extremes indicated. 

-ĻP h - ‘OCHRE [color]’ patterned after the root -XT’- SSD derivatives: 1) extra light 2) pale (= mixed with gray) 3) clear, transparent 


-ĻQ- Tin — Pattern of stems is the same as -XL- 

-ĻQ’- spreadability — The pattern of stems for this root follow that of the root -ŢQ-. This root uses the EXTENT/DEGREE suffix to 

specify the point on a sprectrum between the two extremes indicated. 

-ĻQ h - deformability / “dentability” — The pattern of stems for this root follow that of the root -ŢQ-. This root uses the 


-ĻW- elasticity stiffness/rigidity — The pattern of stems for this root follow that of the root -ŢQ-. This root uses the 


-M- ‘APPEARANCE/SEMBLANCE/IMPRESSION’ 


1. appear to be/seem/look as if/give (off) the impression of; 

appearance/semblance/impression 

1. ostensible/ostensibly 

2. on the face of it, on first blush 2. resemble, look like 

3. on the surface/superficially/seemingly 3. façade, veneer 


Same as above 3 stems w/ Same as above 3 stems w/ Same as above 3 stems w/ focus Same as above 3 stems w/ focus 

focus on thing giving off the focus on affective impression to on thing giving off the impression on affective impression to the 

impression or appearance the observer 

or appearance 

observer 

-MB- ‘GEOGRAPHICAL/GEOPOLITICAL ELEMENTS’ 


1. geographical feature or element 1. geopolitical feature or element 

2. geographical area / “land” 2. geopolitical area / “land” or “country”

3. natural piece of territory 3. (piece of) property 



focus on geophysical feature or focus as natural habitat focus as political entity focus on political 

element 

boundaries/borders 

-MÇ- ‘DURABILITY/FRAGILITY’ (= CAPACITY FOR BEING DAMAGED) The pattern of stems for this root follows that of 

the root -KV-.follows that of the root -KV-. 

-MF- ‘GLOVE’ The stems of this root are patterned after the root -GV- 

-MG- ‘PEACH’ patterned after the root -XT’- SSD derivatives: 1) extra light 2) pale (= mixed with gray) 3) clear, transparent 4) 


-MK- ‘ASPECTS/METHODS OF INGESTION/FEEDING’ 


1. bite/bite down; a bite 1. place in mouth 

2. masticate/ruminate/chew (on); act of chewing [naturally 

iterative root] 

2. swallow 

3. suck (on); act of sucking 3. taste = roll around in mouth/on palate 


same w/ focus on phys 

process/mouth movement 

same w/ focus on the morsel, bit, or 

amount of liquid being consumed 

same w/ focus on phys 

process/mouth movement 

Derivations: gnaw, snap w/ jaws at, sip, nip, gulp, devour, nibble, graze, munch, bolt, shovel in, savor 

-MK’- Silicon — Pattern of stems is the same as -XL- 

same w/ focus on the morsel, bit, or 

amount of liquid being consumed 

-MK h - ‘BEIGE/TAN’ patterned after the root -XT’- SSD derivatives: 1) extra light 2) pale (= mixed with gray) 3) clear, transparent 4) 


-MK h W- ‘MAUVE’ patterned after the root -XT’- SSD derivatives: 1) extra light 2) pale (= mixed with gray) 3) clear, transparent 4) 


-ML- ‘FOOT’ The stems of this root are patterned after the root -PR-. --> SSD Derivatives: heel, ball of foot, upper side of foot, 

arch, plantar fascia, achilles tendon 

-MM- ‘NUCLEAR FAMILY MEMBER’ 


1. nuclear family member 1. non-sanguine family member 

2. male family member 2. non-sanguine male family member 

3. female family member 3. non-sanguine female family member 


1. parent 1. child/offspring 1. step-parent 1. step-child 

2. father 2. boy child / son 2. step-father 2. step-son 

3. mother 3. girl child / daughter 3. step-mother 3. step-daughter

-MN- ‘AWE / BE OR FEEL IMPRESSED / HUMBLENESS IN FACE OF SOMETHING’ 


1. non-volitional (i.e., affective) experience of awe; feel awe [state + content] Same as INFORMAL stems except referring to a 

2. humbleness caused by non-volitional experience of state or feeling of awe 

3. cause or causal circumstance for non-volitional state/feeling or awe 



focus on process itself 

Same as above 3 stems w/ focus on experiential 

state/feeling itself 

formal/institutionalized/symbolic expressions of awe, 

i.e., feeling of worship(fulness). 

-MP- ‘SMELL/ODOR’ 


1. to smell (= use olfactory sense) + odor smelled 1. examine or inspect via smelling + odor smelled 

2. nose (olfactory organ + facial proboscis) 2. device used to detect presence of odor or gas / olfactory instrument + 

odor detected 

3. imagine a smell (act + imagined odor) 3. create or manufacture an odor + odor created 


1. to smell (= use olfactory 

sense) 

1. whiff of odor, a smell; to 

give off a whiff of odor 

1. examine or inspect via smelling 1. odor detected via inspection 

or examination 

2. nose (= olfactory organ) 2. nose (= facial proboscis) 2. device used to detect presence of 2. odor detected via olfactory 

odor or gas / olfactory instrument instrument 

3. imagine an odor 3. an imagined odor 3. create or manufacture an odor 3. manufactured odor 

EXAMPLE MORPHOLOGICAL DERIVATIVES FROM THE ABOVE STEMS: sniff, aroma, “bouquet”, perfume, stench 

-MPY- squash — The pattern of stems for this root follows those of the root -QW- 

-MP’- ‘ARCHITECTURAL COMPONENTS/FORMS’ 


1. column/pillar 1. strut/buttress 

2. “side”/wall (external) 2. partition 

3. floor [= base/ground] 3. roof 



to physical shape/form to function/purpose 


-MQ- romantic love relationship — The stems of this root are patterned the same as the root -Kh-. 

-MQ h W- date (fruit) — The pattern of stems for this root follows those of the root -QW- 

-MR- ‘TRANSFER OF POSSESSION’ 


1. temporary, circumstantial, incidental direct transfer of 1. quasi-permanent or official transfer of possession (i.e., 

possession (i.e., give / take) 

rendering/reception; render, receive) 

2. temporary, circumstantial, incidental indirect transfer (i.e., to 2. quasi-permanent or official transfer (i.e., bestowal or 

leave for someone / to take based on discernment of availability) bequest/acquisition; bestow/acquire)

3. temporary, circumstantial, incidental transfer over distance 

(i.e., to bring something / to leave with something) 

3. deliver/take ownership of 


1. give, lend 1. take, borrow 1. donate; donation 1. receive; reception 

2. leave (something for 

someone), make available 

2. get, obtain 2. leave to heir 2. inherit; inheritance 

3. thing given, gift (given) 3. thing taken, gift (taken) 3. bestow; bequest 3. acquire; acquisition 

MORPHOLOGICAL DERIVATIONS: procure(ment), requisition, accept (= willingly receive) 

-MŘ- ‘TEN’ 


1. a set or group of 10; to be 10 in number FORMAL stems for this root have the same 

2. be/make ten-faceted / having 10 uses or aspects / deci- / deca- / tenfold meanings as the INFORMAL stems except 

that they are applied in official, authorized, 

3. tenth one in a sequence; be/make tenth in a sequence 


permanent contexts as described in Section 3.7 

1. 10 times the number of something; 

multiply by 10 

1. atenth / divide by 10 or into 10 parts 

2. 10 times [= iterations]; to 2. be of or make into 10 parts; separate(d) 

be/make/do 10 times 

into 10 parts 

3. to the 10th power; raise to the 10th3. 

to the negative 10th power; to divide by 

power 


-MS- ‘VALUE/WORTH/PRICE/COST’ 

(Often used in conjunction with various Quantifying and Modulative affixes from Sections 5.5.6 and 5.5.5 to show relative degree 

of value within context) 


1. be valuable/worthwhile, have value/worth [in terms of 1. cost appraisal, assessment, estimate, quote 

usefulness, convenience, efficacy, service, applicability] 

2. be valuable/worthwhile, have value/worth [in terms of 

personal desire or emotional attachment] 

2. cost, expense, expenditure [what is (to be) given up or released 

in exchange for something, either a commercial or non-commercial 

context] 

3. rate (of payment); formula/terms for determining payment 

3. be valuable/worthwhile, have value/worth [in terms of 

financial benefit or gain, profit, or remuneratively] 


Same as above 3 stems Same as above 3 stems w/ focus on same as above 3 stems w/ same as above 3 stems w/ 

w/ focus on intrinsic value actual value (i.e., degree to which the reference to cost quoted or 

intrinsic value can actually be utilized, agreed to 

consumed or manifested) 

reference to actual payment 

SSD Derivatives for FORMAL Stem 2: 1) fee/toll or service charge 2) tithe 3) duty/tariff/levy 4) ransom 5) tax 6) dues 5) wage(s) 8) 

fare 9) price/charge [in money or legal tender] 

-MŠ-: ‘irregular/amorphous outline’ The pattern of stems for this root follow that of the root -GM-. 

-MT- parent-child relationship — The stems of this root are patterned the same as the root -Kh-.

-MT’-‘CLASSES OF ANIMAL’ 


1. animal of land or air (i.e., “terroid”) Same as INFORMAL holistic stems but domesticated, tamed, 

2. waterlife (i.e., “aquoid”) 

3. amphibian 

captive, or bred 



domesticable 


undomesticable 

same as above FORMAL 

stems but as pets or tamed 

same as above FORMAL 

stems but as resource (i.e., 

food, breeding stock, etc.) 

-MTh- ‘SOIL/GROUND/DIRT (MIXED ORGANIC + MINERAL)’ 

INFORMAL Stems 

1. dirt/ground/soil [=substance + function as substrate/firmament] 1. peat 

FORMAL Stems 

2. mud 2. dirt(y)/filth(y) [= soiled, unclean] 

3. ground cover [organic-based, e.g., carpet of leaves] 3. mulch/compost/fertilizer 



referring to substance itself 


to function as substrate/firmament 


referring to substance itself 

-MŢ- ‘AUTUMN/FALL’ — The pattern of stems for this root follow that of the root -MX-. 


function as substrate/firmament 

-MV- ‘middle, center (as seen perpendicular to long axis of entity) The pattern of stems for this root follow those of the root -G-. 

-MW- ‘TIGHTNESS/SLACK’ (= TAUTNESS) The pattern of stems for this root follows that of the root -KV-. 

-MX- ‘SEASON’ 


1. season, time of year 1. social behavior/custom associated with particular season (e.g., 

celebration, recreation, vacation, etc.) 

2. weather associated w/ particular season / seasonal weather 2. weather-determined practice/behavior/custom associated with 

particular season (e.g., migration, mating, nesting, hibernation, 

etc.) 

3. cyclic state/condition of flora/fauna associated with a particular 

season 

3. practice/behavior/custom relating to maintenance/upkeep of 

crops, game and other material resources associated with a 

particular season (e.g., foraging, hunting, planting, harvest, 

storage, etc.) 


Same as above 3 stems Same as above 3 stems referring Same as above 3 stems referring Same as above 3 stems referring 

referring to the timeframe itself to the context of the season itself to the timeframe itself relative to to the context of the season itself 

relative to the greater annual irrespective of the greater annual the greater annual cycle or irrespective of the greater annual 

cycle or calendar year cycle 

calendar year 

cycle 

-MXW- cucumber — The pattern of stems for this root follows those of the root -QW-

-MXh- ‘HORIZONTAL SUPPORTING SURFACE AGAINST GRAVITY’ 


1. “ground”/firmament 1. floor 

2. table-like horizontal flat object / slab 2. table 

3. shelf-like flat object 3. shelf 




gestalt/shape/form 


function/purpose as functional 

supporting surface against gravity 



gestalt/shape/form 


function/purpose as functional 

supporting surface against gravity 

-MY- ‘GRATITUDE/THANKFULNESS/PRAISE’ 


1. thank(s) / offer gratitude due to unexpected favor or 

convenience performed 

1. praise 

2. thank(s) / offer gratitude due to being relieved/rescued from 2. gratefulness; feeling or manifestation of being beholden to 

negative situation 

someone or something [feeling is justified and an honor to be 

feeling] 

3. thank(s) / offer gratitude within ironic circumstances or merely 3. feeling or manifestation of being beholden or obliged to 

as a courtesy, i.e., where expectation of thanks is for an 

unwanted, unnecessary, or purely symbolic act or required little 

or no effort on doer’s part 

someone or something [feeling is resented and unwanted] 



focus on intent to convey focus on actual display of focus on desire/intent to convey focus on actual display of the 

gratitude 

gratitude 

the feeling 

feeling 

MORPHOLOGICAL DERIVATIONS: worship, indebted(ness) 

-MZ- ‘REMEMBER/RECALL/MEMORY/RECORD’ 


1. memory; remember (= recall) [whether unwilled/affective or self - 

willed/voluntary] 

1. trace/track/vestige 

2. retain / retention of something past into present 2. memorial (object/action formally recognizing or 

acknowledging something/someone past) 

3. remember [= commit to memory] / memorize 3. to record / a record 


1. a memory itself (i.e., the content 1. faculty of memory/recall (i.e., the same as above 3 stems same as above 3 stems with 

thereof) 

process of using one’s memory) with focus on that which focus on the 

2. a memory retained or kept fresh 2. a memory retained or kept fresh the physical manifestation object/event/physical 

(i.e., the content thereof) (i.e., the process thereof) memorializes or gives manifestation itself which 

3. thing remembered or memorized 3. process of committing something 

[=event/act/situation/state, etc. to memory 

committed to memory] 

evidence/remembrance of conveys the memory or 

record 

MORPHOLOGICAL DERIVATIONS: recollect(ion), remind, memorize, memento, monument, archive, commemorate, 

commemoration, souvenir/keepsake, relic, to bear in mind, ponder/relish a memory, sear into one’s memory

-MŽ- ‘GENDER’ 


1. gender 1. psycho-sexual identity 

2. neuter 2. asexual / psychologically neuter 

3. androgynous 3. sexual preference/orientation 


1. male (anatomically) 1. female (anatomically) 1. masculine (psycho- 1. feminine (psychobehaviorally)behaviorally) 

2. sterile (incapable of 2. genderless (neither male nor 2. celibate/chaste 2. asexual; devoid of sexual 

procreation) 

female anatomically) 

desire 

3. androgyne / androgynous 3. hermophrodite / 

(difficultyfor others to determine hermophroditic (anatomically 

gender) 

both male & female) 

3. sexual preference or 

orientation psychologically 

3. sexual orientation in actuality 

(as manifested) 

SSD Derivatives for Formal Stem 3: homosexual, bisexual, heterosexual, bisexual with preference for heterosexuality, bisexual with 

preference for homosexuality, homosexual with preference for functioning in male role, homosexual with preference for functioning in 

female role 

-N- ‘exterior, outer/external part of, outside, “skin”’ The pattern of stems for this root follow those of the root -G-. 

-NC’- ‘BANANA’ The stems of this root are patterned after the root -P h - 

-NC h - ‘FIG’ The stems of this root are patterned after the root -P h - 

-NC h W- ‘DUCK’ (the stems of this root are patterned after the root -SK-) 

-NÇ- ‘CHERRY’ The stems of this root are patterned after the root -P h - 

-NÇW- ‘SWAN’ (the stems of this root are patterned after the root -SK-) 

-NČ’- ‘COCONUT’ The stems of this root are patterned after the root -P h - 

-NČ h - ‘TANGERINE’ The stems of this root are patterned after the root -P h - 

-ND- ‘QUESTION/INQUIRY/ANSWER/RESPONSE’ 


1. question & answer [statement requesting information + the 

answer/reply/response thereto] 

1. inquire/inquiry + answer 

2. query/investigate [investigative act + discovery made] 2. research + findings 

3. ponder/introspect [self-questioning + conclusion] 3. analyze + results of analysis 


1. question [statement 1. response/reply/answer [information desired or 1. inquire/inquiry 1. answer [i.e., result of inquiry] 

requesting information] given] 

2. query 2. answer (to query) [i.e., cause/reason for what 2. research 2. finding(s)/discovery made via 

is being looked into or investigated] 

research 

3. ponder/introspect; to 

question oneself mentally 

3. conclusion [(desired) result of self-analysis] 3. analyze 3. conclusion/results of analysis

Morphological derivations: problem; solution; solve; resolution; resolve; elucidate 

-NDR- ‘FOX’ (the stems of this root are patterned after the root -SK-) 

-NDW- ‘MOOSE’ (the stems of this root are patterned after the root -SK-) 

-NDh- ‘PINEAPPLE’ The stems of this root are patterned after the root -P h - 

-NL- ‘HARD/SOFT (= MALLEABILITY)’ The pattern of stems for this root follows that of the root -KV-. 

-NĻ- ‘PLUM’ The stems of this root are patterned after the root -P h - 

-NM- ‘OLIVE’ The stems of this root are patterned after the root -P h - 

-NN- ‘ORANGE’ The stems of this root are patterned after the root -P h - 

-NR-: ‘circle/ellipse’ The pattern of stems for this root follow that of the root -GM-. 

-NŘ- ‘SPIDER’ The pattern of stems for this root follows that of the root -FŢ- ‘INSECT’ 

-NT’- ‘LEMON’ The stems of this root are patterned after the root -P h - 

-NS- ‘SEVEN’ 


1. a set or group of 7 / a septet; to be 7 in number FORMAL stems for this root have the same 

2. be/make seven-faceted / having 7 uses or aspects / septi- / sevenfold 

3. seventh one in a sequence; be/make seventh in a sequence 


1. 7 times the number of 1. a seventh / divide by 7 or into 7 parts 

something; to septuple / multiply 

by 7 



into 7 parts 

3. to the 7th power; raise to the 

7th power 






-NST- ‘RECLINE / PRONE POSITION OR ORIENTATION / HORIZONTALITY’ 


1. recline(d) / prone position (relative to long axis of object) / lie 1. horizontal (relative to gravity or plane of the earth’s surface) / 

(down) / lay (out) 

orientation perpendicular to direction of gravity 

2. recumbent position / position of relaxation relative to gravity -- 2. occupying position of maximum repose or having a positional 

> sprawl, loll 

or dynamic orientation based on the path of least resistance 

relative to gravity 

3. flush / flat against / position or orientation level with some flat 3. flatten(ed); collapse(d) or configure(d) to minimum height 

or even firmament / lay flat 

perpendicular to background firmament 



focus on the position itself focus on object/thing in that focus on the position itself focus on object/thing in that 

position 

position

-NSW- ‘CHICKEN’ (the stems of this root are patterned after the root -SK-) 

-NŠ- ‘rear, back part of [relative to directional orientation or primary interface]’ The pattern of stems for this root follow those of the 

root -G-. 

-NT- ‘HEAR(ING)/SOUND’ 


1. hear a sound; aural faculty + sound heard 1. listen to a (specific) sound / discern aurally a (specific) sound 

2. ear (aural organ + physical part of body, i.e., Spanish oído + 2. aural instrument / device for detecting sound waves + sound 

oreja) 

detected 

3. imagine a sound (act + sound) 3. create or manufacture a sound + sound created 


1. to hear; aural faculty 1. sound 1. listen 1. (selected) sound 

2. ear (aural organ) 2. ear (body part) 2. aural instrument 2. sound detected via aural 

instrument 

3. imagine a sound / hear in one’s mind 3. imagined sound 3. create or manufacture a sound 3. sound created 

EXAMPLE MORPHOLOGICAL DERIVATIVES FROM THE ABOVE STEMS: speaker, megaphone, telephone, stereo, 

microphone, hearing aid 

-NT h - ‘PEAR’ The stems of this root are patterned after the root -P h - 

-NŢ- close loving friendship — The stems of this root are patterned the same as the root -Kh-. 

-NV- ‘PEACH’ The stems of this root are patterned after the root -P h - 

-NW- ‘APPLE’ The stems of this root are patterned after the root -P h - 

-NY- ‘CHOICE/ALTERNATIVE’ 


1. choose/choice [from open selection] 1. select/pick [from limited selection] 

2. prefer(ence) 2. alternative/option 

3. settle (for) 3. vote [w/ CPT = elect] 


Same as above 3 stems w/ focus Same as above 3 stems w/ focus Same as above 3 stems w/ focus Same as above 3 stems w/ focus 

on act of choosing/preferring on choice or preference made on act of choosing/preferring on choice or preference made 

-NZ- marriage — The stems of this root are patterned the same as the root -Kh-. 

-NŽ- ‘LIME’ The stems of this root are patterned after the root -P h - 

-Ň- ‘(ONE) HUNDRED’ 


1. a set or group of 100; to be a hundred in number FORMAL stems for this root have the

2. be/make 100-faceted / having 100 uses or aspects / hundredfold 

3. hundredth in a sequence; be/make hundredth in a sequence 


1. 100 times the number of something; to 1. a hundredth / divide by 100 or into 100 

multiply by 100 

parts 



into 100 parts 

3. to the 100th power; raise to the 100th 3. to the negative 100th power; to divide by 

power 


-ŇC- ‘TICK’ The pattern of stems for this root follows that of the root -FŢ- ‘INSECT’ 

-ŇÇ- ‘WATERBUG’ The pattern of stems for this root follows that of the root -FŢ- ‘INSECT’ 

same meanings as the INFORMAL stems 

except that they are applied in official, 

authorized, permanent contexts as 

described in Section 3.7 

-ŇČ- ‘NON-SANGUINE RELATION’ 


1. member of godparent-godchild relationship 1. adoptive family member 

2. male member of godparent-godchild relationship 2. male adoptive family member 

3. female member of godparent-godchild relationship 3. female adoptive family member 


1. godparent 1. godchild 1. adoptive parent 1. adopted child 

2. godfather 2. godson 2. adoptive father 2. adopted son 

3. godmother 3. goddaughter 3. adoptive mother 3. adopted daughter 

-ŇČ h W- bamboo — The pattern of stems for this root follows those of the root -QW- 

-ŇF-: ‘sliver-moon shaped’ The pattern of stems for this root follow that of the root -GM-. 

-ŇG- ‘TEMPORARY ATMOSPHERIC PHENOMENA’ 


1. momentaneous or short-lived atmospheric phenomenon [physical 1. zone of high or low barometric pressure relative to 

occurrence + manifestation/effect] 

surrounding pressure 

2. flash of lightning + peal of thunder [electrical phenomenon + associated 

sound] 

2. cold or warm air front 

3. cloud [in the sky] 3. eye of a storm 


1. momentaneous or short-lived 1. manifestation/effect of momentaneous 1. low pressure zone 1. high pressure zone 

atmospheric phenomenon 

[physical occurrence] 

or short-lived atmospheric phenomenon 

2. flash of lightning 2. peal of thunder 2. cold air front 2. warm air front 

3. cloud [in the sky] – physical 3. impact/effect of cloud [in the sky], e.g., 3. eye of storm 3. short-lived calm/still 

occurrence 

its hiding of the sun, it causing zero [physical occurrence] conditions associated with the 

visibility as a plane flies through it, etc. 

eye of a storm

-ŇGR- ‘BABOON’ (the stems of this root are patterned after the root -SK-) 

-ŇGW- ‘CHIMPANZEE’ (the stems of this root are patterned after the root -SK-) 

-ŇGY- ‘STICKY/ADHESIVE MATERIAL’ 


1. sticky substance or material; to stick / to be mired in 1. adhesive substance material; adhere/stick (via adhesive) 

2. goo / ooze / slime 2. glue / liquid adhesive 

3. sap / resin 3. cement / mortar / grout 



referring to organic-based 

substance 


to non-organic or synthetic 

substance 


referring to organic-based 

substance 


referring to non-organic or 

synthetic substance 

-ŇK- ‘ARCHITECTURAL COMPONENTS (ORNAMENTAL/SPECIALIZED)’ 


1. tower 1. window opening 

2. dome 2. doorway 

3. spire/steeple 3. balcony/terrace 





-ŇKR- ‘LION’ (the stems of this root are patterned after the root -SK-) 

-ŇKW- ‘COW’ (the stems of this root are patterned after the root -SK-) 

-ŇKY- ELEMENTARY PARTICLES/FORCES OF PHYSICS (FERMIONS & BOSONS) 


1. fermion (+ anti-fermion) 1. boson + its fundamental interaction or associated “force” 

2. quark (+ anti-quark) 2. “string” (from string theory) + its associated vibration 

3. lepton (+ anti-lepton) 3. acceleron (from dark energy theory) + dark energy 


1. fermion 1. anti-fermion 1. boson 1. fundamental “force” (e.g., electromagnetism, 

strong, weak, gravity, dark energy) 

2. quark 2. anti-quark 2. “string” (from string theory) 2. vibration of “string” (from string theory) 

3. lepton 3. anti-lepton 3. acceleron (hypothetical particle 

associated with theories of dark 

energy) 

The following important notes apply to use of the above stems: 

3. dark energy (i.e., counter-gravitational “force” 

that is accelerating the expansion of the universe 

P1/S2, P2/S2, and P3/S2 all have the following derivatives using the SSD1 suffix indicating a quark’s “flavor” and “color”: 

1) up 

2) charm 

3) top 

4) red

5) green 

6) blue 

7) bottom 

8) strange 

9) down 

Informal stems P1/S3, P2/S3, and P3/S3 all have the following derivatives using the SSD1 suffix identifying the particular type of lepton 

(or anti-lepton): 

1) muon 

2) charged lepton (i.e., non-neutrino lepton) 

3) tau lepton, tauon 

4) 

5) electron 

6) electron neutrino 

7) muon neutrino 

8) tau neutrino 

9) neutrino (i.e., any of the three types) 

Formal stems P1/S1, P2/S1, and P3/S1 all have the following derivatives using the SSD1 suffix identifying the particular type of boson 

and/or its associated interaction or “force” : 

1) graviton/gravity 

2) weak gauge boson (i.e., either the W+, the W-, or the Z) / the weak interaction or force 

3) photon [as associated with electrical phenomenon] / electricity 

4) W+ boson / the weak interaction or force as mediated by the W+ boson (use PLV1/1 suffix to indicate the W- boson) 

5) photon / electromagnetism 

6) Z-zero boson / the weak interaction or force as mediated by the Z-zero boson 

7) photon [as associated with magnetic phenomenon] / magnetism 

8) Higgs boson / Higgs mechanism 

9) gluon / the strong interaction or color force 

Use of the SSD2/5 suffix with the above stems identifies the supersymetrical partner of the particular particle (i.e., its “sparticle” 

counterpart), e.g., photino, gluino, gravitino, slepton, squark, sneutrino, etc. 

It should be noted that when using the above stems to refer to forces (e.g., gravity or electromagnetism), one must realize that the 

individual stems refer to a particular instance of force/interaction from a single (i.e., particular) particle. One must inflect the stem 

appropriately as for Configuration, Association, Perspective, etc., when speaking of “the force of gravity” or “electricity” as a generic 

concept. 

-ŇK h - ‘WHOLE NUMBER/INTEGER’ 


1. a (whole) number, numeral, digit, integer Same as INFORMAL stems but applied to 

2. having more than one aspect; multifaceted 

3. numerical series/sequence 


1. multiply (by) 1. divide (by) 

2. consisting of more than 2. having more than one part; consisting of parts; 

instance; multiple instance(s) of non-unitary; non-unified 

3. exponential/logarithmic 3. negative exponential/logarithmic progression 

progression 

formal, authoritative, permanent context as 

per Section 3.7

-ŇN- ‘ANT’ The pattern of stems for this root follows that of the root -FŢ- ‘INSECT’ 

-ŇQ h - ‘COCKROACH’ The pattern of stems for this root follows that of the root -FŢ- ‘INSECT’ 

-ŇŘ- ‘TERMITE’ The pattern of stems for this root follows that of the root -FŢ- ‘INSECT’ 

-ŇS-: ‘square/rectangle/rhombus’ The pattern of stems for this root follow that of the root -GM-. 

-ŇŠW- ‘GORILLA’ (the stems of this root are patterned after the root -SK-) 

-ŇT h - ‘TROPICAL RAINY SEASON’ — The pattern of stems for this root follow that of the root -MX-. 

-ŇV- ‘GENERIC CRAWLING BUG’ The pattern of stems for this root follows that of the root -FŢ- ‘INSECT’ 

-ŇW- ‘FLEXIBILITY/RIGIDITY’ The pattern of stems for this root follows that of the root -KV-. 

-ŇX- temporary or youthful romantic dalliance/lovers (with or without involving sex) — The stems of this root are patterned the same as 

the root -Kh-. 

-ŇXh- ‘SPRING’ — The pattern of stems for this root follow that of the root -MX-. 

-ŇZ- ‘oil (fatty liquid derived from plants/animals)’ — Pattern of stems is the same as -XL- 

-ŇŽ- ‘BEETLE’ The pattern of stems for this root follows that of the root -FŢ- ‘INSECT’ 

-P- [The CARRIER Root – see Section 9.3] 


1. [carrier stem representing animate being] 

2. [carrier stem representing inanimate entity] 

3. [carrier stem representing abstract referent] 


1. [carrier: human] 1. [carrier: non-human animate being] 

2. [carrier: tangible/physical entity] 2. [carrier: intangible/subjective entity, e.g., 

thought, emotion, sensation, etc.] 

3. [carrier: place name] 3. [carrier: abstract concept] 

-PC- ‘MARITAL/SPOUSAL RELATIONSHIP’ 


1. state of marriage / marital state / state of being married 1. spouse 

2. act of infidelity / extramarital liaison / to be unfaithful / to betray spouse 2. extramarital sex partner / mistress or gigolo 

3. betrothal / engagement; be betrothed, be engaged 3. fiancé(e) / being a fiancé(e) 


1. formal/legal state of 1. emotional bond of love/fidelity underlying 1. husband 1. wife 

marriage 

marriage 

2. physical act of 

2. breaking of emotional bond underlying 2. gigolo, kept man (male 2. mistress 

infidelity/betrayal 

marriage 

equivalent of mistress) 

3. formal/legal status of being 

betrothed/engaged 

3. emotional bond of love/fealty underlying 

betrothal/engagement 

3. fiancé 3. fiancée 

-PC’- ‘embarrassment at being unable to perform a task or activity as expected’ The stems of this root are patterned after the root -

PK- 

-PC h - ‘feeling flustered at not knowing how to react or what to think’ The stems of this root are patterned after the root -PK- 

-PÇ- ‘generic or oblique 3-dimensional range of motion / 3-dimensional pervasive movement / movement throughout or within 3-D 

volume.’ The stems of this root are patterned after the root -K- 

-PÇT- cotton The pattern of stems for this root follows those of the root -QW- 

-PÇW- melon The pattern of stems for this root follows those of the root -QW- 

-PČ- ‘repugnance, repellant feeling, disgust’ The stems of this root are patterned after the root -PK- 

-PČ’- ‘feeling of disappointment/let-down at one’s own actions/behavior’ The stems of this root are patterned after the root -PK- 

-PČ h - ‘frustration; feeling of angry helplessness’ The stems of this root are patterned after the root -PK- 

-PČ h W- cork The pattern of stems for this root follows those of the root -QW- 

-PF- ‘depression / be or feel depressed’ The stems of this root are patterned after the root -PK- 

-PG- ‘swooning, feeling of faintness due to emotional overload’ The stems of this root are patterned after the root -PK- 

-PJ- ‘feeling of disappointment at being letdown by another’ The stems of this root are patterned after the root -PK- 

-PK- ‘EXPERIENCE / UNDERGO A STATE OR FEELING’ 


1. non-volitional (i.e., affective) experience of a state/feeling/emotion; feel Same as INFORMAL stems except referring to a 

(an) emotion [state + content] 

formal/institutionalized/symbolic expressions of the 

2. act or action caused by non-volitional experience of state or feeling 

3. cause or causal circumstance for non-volitional state/feeling 


particular emotion. 

Same as above 3 stems w/ Same as above 3 stems w/ focus on 

focus on process itself experiential state/feeling itself 

-PK’- ‘bother, annoyance at self due to one’s own actions/behavior’ The stems of this root are patterned after the root -PK- 

-PK h - ‘humiliation’ The stems of this root are patterned after the root -PK- 

-PL- ‘regret, repining, ruefulness’ The stems of this root are patterned after the root -PK- 

-PLW- ‘BURGUNDY [color]’ patterned after the root -XT’- SSD derivatives: 1) extra light 2) pale (= mixed with gray) 3) clear, 


-PĻ- ‘SHIRT/BLOUSE’ The stems of this root are patterned after the root -GV- 

-PM- ‘agitation/disquietude’ The stems of this root are patterned after the root -PK- 

-PN- ‘woe, despair, desolation’ The stems of this root are patterned after the root -PK-

-PNY- grape The pattern of stems for this root follows those of the root -QW- 

-PP- ‘hysteria/loss of control’ The stems of this root are patterned after the root -PK- 

-PP’- sexual partners — The stems of this root are patterned the same as the root -Kh-. 

-PP h - ‘WINTER’ — The pattern of stems for this root follow that of the root -MX-. 

-PQ- ‘worry / feel preoccupied’ The stems of this root are patterned after the root -PK- 

-PQ’- ‘shock, reeling (e.g., from bad news or an unexpected discovery)’ The stems of this root are patterned after the root -PK- 

-PQ h - ‘embarrassment due to social faux pas, behavioral misstep, or others seeing through one’s façade or airs’ The stems of this root 

are patterned after the root -PK- 

-PR- ‘LEG’ 


1. leg (as gestalt entity) [both physical body part and function] FORMAL stems are the same as INFORMAL 

2. leg (as support) [both physical body part and function] 

3. leg (as ambulator, extension, limb) [both physical body part and function] 


1. leg as physical body part 1. leg as manipulating body part 

(e.g., for kicking, stomping) 

2. leg as or balancing appendage for body 2. leg as support against gravity 

3. leg as limb/extension 3. leg as ambulatory organ 

stems but applied to “arm” of a non-animal 

entity, e.g., a mechanical device, vehicle, plant, 

etc. 

-PŘ- ‘BLUE’ patterned after the root -XT’- SSD derivatives: 1) extra light 2) pale (= mixed with gray) 3) clear, transparent 4) 


-PS- ‘sorrow, lamentation’ The stems of this root are patterned after the root -PK- 

-PSB- Aluminum/aluminium — Pattern of stems is the same as -XL- 

-PSF- ‘INTERTWINED/INTERMINGLED/INTERMIXED POSITION/STATE’ [individual components 

inseparable/mixed/permanently combined] PATTERNED AFTER ROOT -F-; 

-PSK ‘-X/+Y/-Z SPATIAL ORIENTATION/POSITION/DIRECTION W/ STEMS PATTERNED AFTER ROOT -F-; BASED 



-PSL- ‘0/-Y/+Z SPATIAL ORIENTATION/POSITION/DIRECTION W/ STEMS PATTERNED AFTER ROOT -F-; BASED 



-PSQ’- Carbon — Pattern of stems is the same as -XL- 

-PŠQ h - Calcium — Pattern of stems is the same as -XL- 

-PSR- ‘0/+Y/-Z SPATIAL ORIENTATION/POSITION/DIRECTION W/ STEMS PATTERNED AFTER ROOT -F-; BASED 

ON THE FOLLOWING 3-DIMENSIONAL NOTATIONAL SCHEMA: -X = LEFT, +X = RIGHT, -Y = BEHIND, +Y =


-PST- ‘+X/+Y/-Z SPATIAL ORIENTATION/POSITION/DIRECTION W/ STEMS PATTERNED AFTER ROOT -F-; BASED 



-PSW- ‘0/+Y/+Z SPATIAL ORIENTATION/POSITION/DIRECTION W/ STEMS PATTERNED AFTER ROOT -F-; BASED 



-PSTW- ‘100 MILLION’ 


1. a set or group of 100 million; to be 100 million in number FORMAL stems for this root have the 

2. be/make 100 million-faceted / having 100 million uses or aspects / 100 million-fold 

3. 100 millionth in a sequence; be/make quadrillionth in a sequence 


1. 100 million times the number of 

something; to multiply by 100 

1. a ten quadrillionth / divide by 100 million or into 100 

million parts 

million 

2. 100 million times [= iterations]; 2. be of or make into 100 million parts; separate(d) 

to be/make/do 100 million times into 100 million parts 

3. to the 100 millionth power; 3. to the negative 100 millionth power; to divide by the 

raise to the 100 millionth power 100 millionth power of 

same meanings as the INFORMAL 

stems except that they are applied in 

official, authorized, permanent contexts 

as described in Section 3.7 

-PŠ- ‘HAPPEN/OCCUR(ENCE)/MANIFEST/EVENT’ 


1. happen / occur / take place / to “pass” 1. step / act / action 

2. manifest / be or make real / reify 2. phenomenon 

3. event (spacio-temporal context) 3. incident 



focus on physical manifestation 

itself 


focus on the effect or 

consequence 


focus on physical manifestation 

itself 


focus on the effect or 

consequence 

Various derivations from the above stems: turn out, situation, chain of events, doings, process, phase, deed, result(s), consequence(s) 

-PŠK- ‘-X/-Y/-Z SPATIAL ORIENTATION/POSITION/DIRECTION W/ STEMS PATTERNED AFTER ROOT -F-; BASED 



-PŠK h - Titanium — Pattern of stems is the same as -XL- 

-PSP’- Selenium — Pattern of stems is the same as -XL- 

-PŠQ’-Zirconium — Pattern of stems is the same as -XL- 

-PŠT- ‘+X/-Y/-Z SPATIAL ORIENTATION/POSITION/DIRECTION W/ STEMS PATTERNED AFTER ROOT -F-; BASED 


AHEAD, -Z = BELOW, +Z = ABOVE, 0 = LEVEL WITH OR IN LINE WITH SPECIFIC X, Y, OR Z AXIS’

-PT- ‘feel hurt/offended’ The stems of this root are patterned after the root -PK- 

-PT’- ‘angst / weltschmertz’ The stems of this root are patterned after the root -PK- 

-PT h - ‘stoicism/repression’ The stems of this root are patterned after the root -PK- 

-PŢ- ‘ANGULAR STRUCTURE / CORNER’ 


1. (two-dimensional) angle Same as INFORMAL stems but in 

2. (three-dimensional) vertex 

3. angle-based constraint on access or movement 


1. interior angle of two- 1. exterior corner/vertex of two-dimensional surface 

dimensional surface or analog or analog 

2. interior vertex/corner of 2. exterior corner/vertex of three dimensional space 

three-dimensional space 

3. corner as constraint 3. corner as opportunity for choice of movement 

-PW- ‘material lust, avarice, greed (not sexual lust)’ The stems of this root are patterned after the root -PK- 

reference to permanent, authoritative, formal 

contexts or to social or analogical contexts 

-PX- ‘FOUR’ 


1. a set or group of 4 / a quartet; to be 4 in number FORMAL stems for this root have the same 

2. be/make four-faceted / having 4 uses or aspects / quadri- / tetra- / fourfold 

3. fourth one in a sequence; be/make fourth in a sequence 


1. 4 times the number of something; 1. a fourth / divide by 4 or into 4 parts / 

to quadruple / multiply by 4 quarter 



into 4 parts 

3. to the 4th power; raise to the 4th 

power 



-PXh- ‘stress / feel pressured’ The stems of this root are patterned after the root -PK- 

-PY- ‘bittersweet longing’ (Portuguese “saudade”) The stems of this root are patterned after the root -PK- 




-P’- ‘SEEK/SEARCH’ 


1. search, seek, look for something unknown [i.e., 

1. hunt, hunt for [i.e., location/existence uncertain] 

location/existence uncertain] 

2. search, seek, look for something lost [i.e., something known to 2. pursue, track down [i.e., existence certain, location surmisable] 

exist which is missing] 

3. inspect 3. quest / seek to accomplish/achieve something 


same as above 3 stems w/ 

reference to search/quest itself 


reference to thing being looked 

for or sought 


reference to search/quest itself 

Morphological Derivations: find, scan, reconnoiter, ransack, pry, ferret out, winnow through, fulfill a quest 


reference to thing being looked 

for or sought 

-P h - ‘BRANCHED AND/OR LEAVED PLANT’ 


1. genus of branched tree/bush and/or leaved plant 1. wood product 

2. leaf 2. leaf product 

3. bark 3. bark product 


1. wood 1. seed/fruit/nut 1. wood as resource 1. seed/fruit as food or resource 

2. root 2. flower/blossom 2. root as food or resource 2. flower as food or resource 

3. branch 3. sap 3. branch as resource 3. sap product/syrup 

SSD Suffix used as follows: 1) meat of fruit, 2) seed within fruit, 3) rind, 4) juice, 5) flavor, 6) odor of fruit, 5) oil, 8) [unassigned/specific 

to individual root] 9) fermented juice, i.e., wine 

-P h W- ‘PINK’ patterned after the root -XT’- SSD derivatives: 1) extra light 2) pale (= mixed with gray) 3) clear, transparent 4) 


-Q- ‘HIGHER ORDER ANIMAL LIFE’ 


1. higher order being (i.e., large bilateral vertebrate with discrete 1. authorized or officially designated person or animal/beast 

organs) 

2. human, person 2. official, authorized person 

3. non-human higher order being or animal, beast 3. pet or zoo animal/beast 


1. male higher order being 1. female higher order being 1. authorized male animal/ or 1. authorized or officially 

officially designated man or designated woman or female 

beast 

animal/ beast 

2. human male, man 2. human female, woman 2. official, authorized man 2. official, authorized woman 

3. male higher order animal or 

beast 

3. female higher order animal or 

beast 

3. male pet or zoo animal/beast 3. female pet or zoo 

animal/beast 

EXAMPLE MORPHOLOGICAL DERIVATIVES FROM THE ABOVE STEMS: boy, girl, child [developmentally, not as offspring], 

population, group of people, crowd, mob, assembly, people, masses, elder, crone, adult, youth, adulthood, fetus, adolescent, zoo 

-QC- ‘spice/herb/seasoning’ — Pattern of stems is the same as -XL- 

-QC h - ‘chalk’ — Pattern of stems is the same as -XL- 

-QČ- ‘RESPIRATORY PAROXYSM’ 


1. affective (i.e., unwilled) cough [act + sound] FORMAL Stems for this root have 

2. affective (i.e., unwilled) sneeze [act + sound] 

3. affective (i.e., unwilled) hiccough [act + sound] 


1. affective (i.e., unwilled) cough [act] 1. affective (i.e., unwilled) cough [sound] 

2. affective (i.e., unwilled) sneeze [act] 2. affective (i.e., unwilled) sneeze [sound] 

3. affective (i.e., unwilled) hiccough [act] 3. affective (i.e., unwilled) hiccough [sound] 

Morphological derivations: clear throat, harrumph, hacking cough, cough up 

-QF- ‘FOOTWEAR’ The stems of this root are patterned after the root -GV- 

-QFR- Radium — Pattern of stems is the same as -XL- 

-QFŘ- Molybdenum — Pattern of stems is the same as -XL- 

-QFW- Bismuth — Pattern of stems is the same as -XL- 

the same meanings as INFORMAL 

stems except that the act/sound is 

deliberate (i.e., volitional) 

-QL- ‘LIQUID/FLUID’ 


1. drop of liquid/fluid + liquid/fluid itself 1. Same as INFORMAL Stem No. 1 but referring to substance 

in an abnormal solid or gaseous state 

2. drop of liquid/fluid as derived from other substance + the 

derived liquid subtance itself 

2. thing/object composed of liquid + its function/purpose 

3. source of a liquid/fluid 3. status of substance/compound as being or not being in a 

liquid/fluid state 


1. drop of liquid/fluid 1. liquid/fluid subtance itself 1. substance in an abnormal 1. substance in an abnormal 

solid (i.e., frozen) state gaseous state (i.e., vapor) 

2. drop of liquid/fluid as derived 

from other substance 

3. natural source of a 

liquid/fluid 

2. the derived liquid/fluid 

subtance itself 

3. derived or artificially created 

source of a liquid or fluid 

The stem pattern of this root also applies to the root FÒ- ‘liquid chemical’ 

-QLY- Manganese — Pattern of stems is the same as -XL- 

2. object created, molded or 

manufactured from a liquid 

2. function/purpose of object 

created, molded or 

manufactured from a liquid 

3. liquid/fluid state 3. viscous state (quasi-liquid but 

able to be deformed/shaped; 

semi-solid) 

-QM- ‘COMPONENT OF BODY’S RESPIRATORY/CARDIO-VASCULATORY SYSTEM’ 


1. heart 1. lung 

2. vascular component 2. component of respiratory system 

3. (an amount of) blood 3. oxygen


Same as above 3 stems w/ focus Same as above 3 stems w/ Same as above 3 stems w/ focus on Same as above 3 stems w/ 

on the physical component(s) or 

tissue 

focus on the function/purpose the physical component(s)/tissue focus on the function/purpose 

SSD Affix with Informal Stem 1: ventricle, atrium, vein, coronary artery, capillary, 

SSD Affix with Informal Stem 2: blood vessel, vein, artery, capillary, aorta, vena cava 

SSD Affix with Formal Stem 1: bronchus, bronchiolus, alveolar sac 

SSD Affix with Formal Stem 21: nasal cavity, trachea 

-QN- ‘honey’ — Pattern of stems is the same as -XL- 

-QQ- ‘interior, inner/internal part of, insides, innards’ The pattern of stems for this root follow those of the root -G-. 

-QR- ‘CELEBRATORY ACT/ CEREMONIAL RITE’ 


1. act of jubilation (as manifestation of personal joy, contentment, 1. solemn act of commemoration/memorial 

freedom, self-indulgence, etc.) [both act + cause/reason] 

2. act of celebration (in positive recognition of something) [both 

act + cause/reason] 

2. solemn act of recognition/acknowledgement 

3. joyful or celebratory symbolic/ceremonial rite [both act + 

cause/reason] 

3. solemn symbolic/ceremonial rite 


Same as above 3 stems Same as above 3 stems Same as above 3 stems referring Same as above 3 stems referring 

referring to act itself referring to reason, cause or 

motive 

to act itself 

to reason, cause or motive 

MORPHOLOGICAL DERIVATIVES: party, celebration, fête, festivities, ceremony 

-QT- ‘DEGREE OF PLEASURE/FULFILLMENT/SATISFACTION/HAPPINESS’ 


1. degree of physical/sensual pleasure [both feeling and cause] 1. degree of spiritual/value-based/philosophically-oriented 

pleasure/contentment [both feeling and cause] 

2. degree of emotional/psychological contentment/pleasure [both 

feeling and cause] 

2. degree of happiness 

(spiritual/value-based/philosophically-oriented) [both feeling and 

cause] 

3. degree of physical satisfaction/satiety [both feeling and cause] 3. degree of emotional/psychological satisfaction and fulfillment 

[both feeling and cause] 


Same as above 3 stems Same as above 3 stems referring to 

referring to the affective the cause or causal context, e.g., ‘a 

state/feeling/experience itself pleasant visit’ or ‘a satisfying meal’ 

Derivations: gratify/gratification, satiety, ecstasy, joy 


to the affective 

state/feeling/experience itself 

-QŢ- ‘SIBLING’ 



to the cause or causal context, 

e.g., ‘a happy home’ or ‘a 

fulfilling job’

1. sibling 1. step-sibling 

2. brother 2. step-brother 

3. sister 3. step-sister 


1. half-sibling [shared mother] 1. half-sibling [shared father] 1. step-sibling [stepmother is 1. step-sibling [stepfather is 

mother of other sibling] father of other sibling] 

2. half-brother [shared mother] 2. half-brother [shared father] 2. step-brother [stepmother is 2. step-brother [stepfather is 

mother of other sibling] father of other sibling] 

3. half-sister [shared mother] 3. half-sister [shared father] 3. step-sister [stepmother is 

mother of other sibling] 

-QŢL- Lithium — Pattern of stems is the same as -XL- 

-QŢŘ- Germanium — Pattern of stems is the same as -XL- 

3. step-sister [stepfather is father 

of other sibling] 

-QV- ‘RESILIENCE/DELICATENESS’ (= CAPACITY FOR RECOVERY) The pattern of stems for this root follows that of the 

root -KV-. 

-QW- ‘FOOD PLANT’ 


1. plant grown/harvested/cultured as food source 1. food dish/serving derived from plant 

2. vegetable 2. food dish/serving derived from vegetable 

3. fruit 3. food dish/serving derived from fruit 



stems referring to 

plant itself 

Same as above 3 stems referring to edible 

part of plant or plant in edible condition 

following any necessary processing 


referring to serving/dish itself 


consumption/ingestion of the dish 

SSD Derivatives for INFORMAL stems: stem, leaf, seed/nut, pod/fruit, flower, juice, sap, rhizome, root/tuber 

SSD Derivatives for FORMAL stems: soup, stew, salad, sauteed, deep-fried, boiled, steamed, baked, fancy/other style of preparation 

-Q’- ‘INTERIORITY / POSITION OR ORIENTATION INSIDE’ 


1. position/orientation somewhere inside (of), i.e., underneath or 1. entirety of an interior space/compartment (e.g., of house, car, 

on other side of surface or boundary layer 

device, etc.) 

2. position/orientation somewhere inside of (2-D context), i.e., 2. entirety of an interior surface / functional planar area within the 

within the area defined by a boundary line 

boundaries of 

3. position/orientation somewhere inside of (3-D context), i.e., 3. entirety of an interior volume / functional space within the 

within the volume set off by a boundary membrane, surface/wall, 

etc. 

boundaries of 



focus on interior position (i.e. focus on position on interior focus on interior position (i.e. focus on position on interior 

position other than on inside surface (i.e. position on inside position other than on inside surface (i.e. position on inside 

surface of boundary between surface of boundary between surface of boundary between surface of boundary between 

interior and exterior interior and exterior interior and exterior interior and exterior 

-Q h - ‘TRANSCENDENCE / SPIRIT / RELIGION’


1. one’s spirit or soul / transcendent “connection” to the universe 1. religious belief 

FORMAL Stems 

2. universal oneness / metaphysical interconnectedness between 

all things 

2. feeling of religious fervor or zeal 

3. striving/quest for ultimate destiny/purpose/”Omega point” 3. striving/quest for salvation/redemption/enlightment (specific to 

particular religion) 



to ontological nature to belief/faith therein to ontological nature to belief/faith therein 

-R- ‘THOUGHT/IDEA/REASON’ 


1. think / cogitate + thought or idea cogitated 1. to reason / use logic + content of reasoning 

2. consider + idea considered 2. analyze + object of analysis 

3. propose + argument or idea proposed 3. abstract (= to mentally construct) + concept 


1. think / cogitate; an act of 1. a thought / an idea 

thinking 

1. to reason / use logic; act of reasoning 1. object of reasoning 

2. consider; an act of 2. a thought or idea 2. analyze; act of analysis 2. object of analysis 

consideration 

considered 

3. propose / posit 3. a proposition or argument 3. to abstract / conceive / 

conceptualize; act of abstraction or 

conception 

3. concept 

EXAMPLE MORPHOLOGICAL DERIVATIVES FROM THE ABOVE STEMS: ponder, deliberate/deliberation, plan, contemplate, 

theory, hypothesis, deduce/deduction, postulate, infer(ence), judge, conclude/conclusion 

-RB- ‘SPIRAL MOTION ALONG VERTICAL PLANE’ The stems of this root are patterned after the root -K- 

-RBW- ‘LEOPARD’ (the stems of this root are patterned after the root -SK-) 

-RC- ‘ARC / PARABOLIC MOTION RELATIVE TO GRAVITY’ The stems of this root are patterned after the root -K- 

-RÇ- ‘SWITCH BACK / VEER’ The stems of this root are patterned after the root -K- 

-RČ- ‘CURVED MOTION / CURVE’ The stems of this root are patterned after the root -K- 

-RČP’- Cadmium — Pattern of stems is the same as -XL- 

-RČT’- Boron — Pattern of stems is the same as -XL- 

-RD- ‘GENERIC OR OBLIQUE SPIRAL MOTION’ The stems of this root are patterned after the root -K- 

-RDh- ‘BELT’ The stems of this root are patterned after the root -GV- 

-RDhŘ- Magnesium — Pattern of stems is the same as -XL- 

-RDhV- Cobalt — Pattern of stems is the same as -XL- 

-RDhW ‘GULL’ (the stems of this root are patterned after the root -SK-)

-RF- ‘CIRCULAR VECTOR MOTION’ (i.e., “corkscrew” motion) The stems of this root are patterned after the root -K- 

-RFQ- griddle -- The pattern of stems for this root follow that of the root -SX-. 

-RFŽ- Antimony — Pattern of stems is the same as -XL- 

-RG- ‘SPIRAL MOTION ALONG HORIZONTAL PLANE’ The stems of this root are patterned after the root -K- 

-RGY- Chromium — Pattern of stems is the same as -XL- 

-RGZD- ‘IGUANA’ (the stems of this root are patterned after the root -SK-) 

-RGZW- ‘CROCODILE’ (the stems of this root are patterned after the root -SK-) 

-RJ- ‘paint’ — Pattern of stems is the same as -XL- 

-RK- ‘PLANAR RANGE OF MOTION’ (= randomly directed movement within/throughout 2-dimensional horizontal plane) The 

stems of this root are patterned after the root -K- 

-RKR- ‘TIGER’ (the stems of this root are patterned after the root -SK-) 

-RL- ‘LINEAR/HORIZONTAL MOTION ALONG Y-AXIS RELATIVE TO TOPICAL REFERENT’ The stems of this root are 

patterned after the root -K- 

-RĻ- ‘SPIRAL VECTOR MOTION (i.e., corkscrew motion with increasing or decreasing amplitude) The stems of this root are 

patterned after the root 

-RM- ‘LINEAR/HORIZONTAL MOTION ALONG X-AXIS RELATIVE TO TOPICAL REFERENT’ The stems of this root are 

patterned after the root -K- 

-RMK h - Palladium — Pattern of stems is the same as -XL- 

-RMQ’- Zinc — Pattern of stems is the same as -XL- 

-RMST- ‘SEA LION’ (the stems of this root are patterned after the root -SK-) 

-RMXh- Beryllium — Pattern of stems is the same as -XL- 

-RN-‘GENERIC OR OBLIQUE CIRCULAR MOTION’ The stems of this root are patterned after the root -K- 

-RNR- Arsenic — Pattern of stems is the same as -XL- 

-RNTR- ‘SEAL’ (the stems of this root are patterned after the root -SK-) 

-RP- ‘VERTICAL RANGE OF MOTION’ (= randomly directed movement within/throughout 2-dimensional vertical plane) The stems 

of this root are patterned after the root -K- 

-RPC’-Vanadium — Pattern of stems is the same as -XL- 

-RPČ’-Tungsten — Pattern of stems is the same as -XL- 

-RPT h - simmer -- The pattern of stems for this root follow that of the root -SX-. 

-RPŢ- sautee -- The pattern of stems for this root follow that of the root -SX-. 

-RPV- sun-dry -- The pattern of stems for this root follow that of the root -SX-. 

-RPX- slow-cook (e.g., in crockpot, Dutch oven, claypot, Tandoori pot, etc.) -- The pattern of stems for this root follow that of the

oot -SX-. 

-RP’- ‘BODY PART’ 


1. body part/component (e.g., appendage, section, organ, gland, 1. bodily tissue/flesh/sinew 

tissue, fluid, etc.) 

2. bodily organ 2. secondary organ/gland 

3. bone 3. bodily fluid/secretion 



referring to physical body part 

itself 


referring to function 

Same as above 3 stems referring Same as above 3 stems referring 

to physical body part itself to function 

MORPHOLOGICAL DERIVATIVES: body, corpse 

SSD Affix with Informal Stem 3: 1) spine 2) rib 3) skull 4) limb bone (tibia, femur, ulna, etc.) 5) bone of hand/foot 6) “shield” bone 

(e.g., patella, shoulder blade) 7) hipbone 

SSD Affix with Formal Stem 1: 1) membrane 2) tendon 3) ligament 4) nerve 5) muscle 6) skin/integument 7) sphincter/valve 8) marrow 

9) fat/gristle 

SSD Affix with Formal Stem 2: 1) gonad 2) esophagus 3) adrenal gland 4) bowel/intestine 5) brain 6) lung 7) kidney 8) pancreas 9) 

liver 

SSD Affix with Formal Stem 3: 1) tear 2) bile 3) semen 4) pus 5) blood 6) mucus/mucal secretion 7) saliva 8) lymph 9) 

sweat/perspiratioin 

-RP h - ‘TROPICAL DRY SEASON’ — The pattern of stems for this root follow that of the root -MX-. 

-RQ- Silver — Pattern of stems is the same as -XL- 

-RQ’- ‘mineral’ — Pattern of stems is the same as -XL- 

-RQ h W- ‘CAMEL’ (the stems of this root are patterned after the root -SK-) 

-RR- ‘CAT’ 








food/prey 









-RS- ‘CIRCULAR MOTION IN HORIZONTAL PLANE’ The stems of this root are patterned after the root -K-

-RSČ- ‘MAPLE’ The stems of this root are patterned after the root -P h - 

-RSF- ‘ASH’ The stems of this root are patterned after the root -P h - 

-RSK- ‘CYPRESS’ The stems of this root are patterned after the root -P h - 

-RSL- ‘BEECH’ The stems of this root are patterned after the root -P h - 

-RSM- ‘MAHOGANY’ The stems of this root are patterned after the root -P h - 

-RSN- FLAX The stems of this root are patterned after the root -P h - 

-RSP- ‘EUCALYPTUS’ The stems of this root are patterned after the root -P h - 

-RSP h - barbecue -- The pattern of stems for this root follow that of the root -SX-. 

-RSQ- ‘MAGNOLIA’ The stems of this root are patterned after the root -P h - 

-RSQ h - Nickel — Pattern of stems is the same as -XL- 

-RST- ‘REDWOOD’ The stems of this root are patterned after the root -P h - 

-RSTR- ‘GAZELLE’ (the stems of this root are patterned after the root -SK-) 

-RST’- flash-fry -- The pattern of stems for this root follow that of the root -SX-. 

-RSV- ‘LARCH’ The stems of this root are patterned after the root -P h - 

-RSX- pressure-cook -- The pattern of stems for this root follow that of the root -SX-. 

-RŠ- ‘CIRCULAR MOTION IN VERTICAL PLANE’ The stems of this root are patterned after the root -K- 

-RŠČ- ‘ELM’ The stems of this root are patterned after the root -P h - 

-RŠF- ‘POPLAR’ The stems of this root are patterned after the root -P h - 

-RŠK- ‘ALDER’ The stems of this root are patterned after the root -P h - 

-RŠL- ‘YEW’ The stems of this root are patterned after the root -P h - 

-RŠM- ‘ALMOND’ The stems of this root are patterned after the root -P h - 

-RŠN- ‘CHESTNUT’ The stems of this root are patterned after the root -P h - 

-RŠP- ‘SPRUCE’ The stems of this root are patterned after the root -P h - 

-RŠQ- broil -- The pattern of stems for this root follow that of the root -SX-. 

-RŠQ h - stew -- The pattern of stems for this root follow that of the root -SX-. 

-RŠT- parboil -- The pattern of stems for this root follow that of the root -SX-. 

-RŠT’- grill -- The pattern of stems for this root follow that of the root -SX-. 

-RŠT h - steam -- The pattern of stems for this root follow that of the root -SX-.

-RŠŢ- poach -- The pattern of stems for this root follow that of the root -SX-. 

-RŠV- toast -- The pattern of stems for this root follow that of the root -SX-. 

-RT-‘2-DIMENSIONAL EXTERNAL CIRCUMLATIVE MOTION / MOVEMENT AROUND/ALONG PERIPHERY OR 

OUTSIDE EDGE’ encircle, surround The stems of this root are patterned after the root -K- 

-RTK- sear -- The pattern of stems for this root follow that of the root -SX-. 

-RTĻ- ‘ORANGUTAN’ (the stems of this root are patterned after the root -SK-) 

-RTN- brew -- The pattern of stems for this root follow that of the root -SX-. 

-RTP- smoke -- The pattern of stems for this root follow that of the root -SX- 

-RTW- ‘HORSE’ (the stems of this root are patterned after the root -SK-) 

-RT’- ‘SUMMER’ — The pattern of stems for this root follow that of the root -MX-. 

-RT h W- iridium — Pattern of stems is the same as -XL- 

-RŢ-‘2-DIMENSIONAL INTERNAL CIRCUMLATIVE MOTION / MOVEMENT AROUND/ALONG BOUNDARY OR 

INSIDE EDGE’ The stems of this root are patterned after the root -K- The stems of this root are patterned after the root -K- 

-RŢK- ‘BIRCH’ The stems of this root are patterned after the root -P h - 

-RŢL- ‘TOAD’ (the stems of this root are patterned after the root -SK-) 

-RŢM- ‘CEDAR’ The stems of this root are patterned after the root -P h - 

-RŢN- ‘OAK’ The stems of this root are patterned after the root -P h - 

-RŢQ- ‘PINE’ The stems of this root are patterned after the root -P h - 

-RŢQ’- Gallium — Pattern of stems is the same as -XL- 

-RŢT’- Phosphorus — Pattern of stems is the same as -XL- 

-RŢV- ‘PALM’ The stems of this root are patterned after the root -P h - 

-RŢW- ‘WALNUT’ The stems of this root are patterned after the root -P h - 

-RV- ‘PREGNANCY/GESTATION’ 


1. pregnancy/gestation Same as INFORMAL stems but referring exclusively to 

2. manifestation of morning sickness 

human pregnancy/gestation 

3. contraction during labor 


Same as above 3 stems referring Same as above 3 stems referring to 

to physical condition/state psycho-physiological effect/impact 

Morphological Derivatives: conception, labor, birth/delivery

-RVP’- Rubidium — Pattern of stems is the same as -XL- 

-RX- ‘OBLIQUELY LINEAR MOTION (relative to XYZ grid) The stems of this root are patterned after the root -K- 

-RXh- ‘COMPONENT OF NERVOUS SYSTEM’ 


1. component of CNS 1. brain 

2. neurological process 2. spinal cord 

3. component of peripheral nervous system 3. nerve 



focus on physical tissue 

Same as above 3 stems w/ focus 

on neurological function 


focus on physical tissue 

sympathetic nerve, parasympathetic nerve, vegus nerve 

neuron, neuron firing, synapse, synaptic uptake, axon, dendrite, glial cell-->blood-brain barrier 

Same as above 3 stems w/ focus 

on neurological function 

-RZ- ‘3-DIMENSIONAL EXTERNAL CIRCUMLATIVE MOTION / MOVEMENT AROUND/ALONG PERIPHERY OR 

SURFACE OF’ 

-RZD- ‘ALLIGATOR’ (the stems of this root are patterned after the root -SK-) 

-RZW- ‘YAK’ (the stems of this root are patterned after the root -SK-) 

-RŻ- ‘SARI’ The stems of this root are patterned after the root -GV- 

-RŻW- ‘LIZARD’ (the stems of this root are patterned after the root -SK-) 

-RŽ- ‘3-DIMENSIONAL INTERNAL CIRCUMLATIVE MOTION / MOVEMENT AROUND/ALONG INTERNAL 3-D 

BOUNDARY OF’ The stems of this root are patterned after the root -K- 

-Ř- ‘POSSESSION / OWNERSHIP’ 


1. have/possess; physical possession (temporary/circumstantial 1. have/possess/own; possession, piece of property (alienable but 

and alienable – e.g., a library book in one’s hand) 

quasi-permanent by law/right and in one’s immediate possession-, 

e.g., a hat I bought and am wearing) 

2. have/possess; possession (circumstantial and affective + 2. have/possess/own; possession, piece of property (alienable but 

(quasi-) inalienable, either permanent or temporary – e.g., a quasi-permanent by law/right, not necessarily in one’s immediate 

medical condition, an office at work I occupy, a seat at a cinema possession -, e.g., a hat I bought/own but am not necessarily 

showing) 

wearing) 

3. have/possess; possession (genetic, intrinsic and inalienable, but 3. have/possess/own; possession, piece of property (quasi- 

not considered property – e.g., a sibling, a child, a limb, a permanent and legally inalienable except through formal/legal 

memory) 

separation process – e.g., a house I own, a pet dog I registered 


Same as above 3 stems referring Same as above 3 stems Same as above 3 stems referring Same as above 3 stems referring 

to act/state of possession referring to thing possessed to act/state of 

to thing owned; piece of 

possession/ownership property 

-ŘB- lumpy texture/sensation -- the stems of this root are patterned after the root -Š-. This root is usually used with the

DEGREE/EXTENT suffix. 

-ŘBG- ‘LEMUR’ (the stems of this root are patterned after the root -SK-) 

-ŘC- hard + natural mix of smooth/rough (like a rock) texture/sensation -- the stems of this root are patterned after the root -Š-. This 

root is usually used with the DEGREE/EXTENT suffix. 

-ŘC’- marinade -- The pattern of stems for this root follow that of the root -SX-. 

-ŘČ- ‘GASTRO-INTESTINAL/UROLOGICAL COMPONENT’ 


1. gastrointestinal component (body part + function) 1. urological component (body part + function) 

2. gastrointestinal process / digestive process / digest(ion) (physical 2. urological process (physical process + waste 

process + nutritive function 

elimination function) 

3. (amount/piece of) feces, dung, excrement 3. (an amount of) urine, piss, pee 



physical body part/process itself 


referring to function/purpose 


to physical body part itself 



MORPHOLOGICAL DERIVATIVES: gastrointestinal tract 

SSD Affix with Informal Stem 1: esophagus, stomach, guts/viscera/intestine, jejenum, ilium, colon, rectum, small intestine/bowel, anus 

SSD Affix with Formal Stem 1: kidney, ureter, adrenal gland, bladder, urethra 

-ŘČ’- coarse (like handling gravel) texture/sensation -- the stems of this root are patterned after the root -Š-. This root is usually used 

with the DEGREE/EXTENT suffix. 

-ŘC h - numbing (= loss of sensation) texture/sensation -- the stems of this root are patterned after the root -Š-. This root is usually used 


-ŘD- ‘GASTRONOMIC PAROXYSM’ 


1. affective (i.e., unwilled) burp/belch [act + sound] FORMAL Stems for this root have 

2. affective (i.e., unwilled) vomiting [act + sound] 

3. affective (i.e., unwilled) fart [act + sound] 


1. affective (i.e., unwilled) burp/belch [act] 1. affective (i.e., unwilled) burp/belch [sound] 

2. affective (i.e., unwilled) vomiting [act] 2. affective (i.e., unwilled) vomiting [sound] 

3. affective (i.e., unwilled) fart [act] 3. affective (i.e., unwilled) fart [sound] 

-ŘDŘ- Krypton — Pattern of stems is the same as -XL- 

the same meanings as INFORMAL 

stems except that the act/sound is 

deliberate (i.e., volitional) 

-ŘDW- soggy/waterlogged/moist texture/sensation -- the stems of this root are patterned after the root -Š-. This root is usually used 


-ŘDh- liquidy texture/sensation -- the stems of this root are patterned after the root -Š-. This root is usually used with the 


-ŘF- gooey texture/sensation -- the stems of this root are patterned after the root -Š-. This root is usually used with the


-ŘG- ‘TUNIC’ The stems of this root are patterned after the root -GV- 

-ŘGL- plastic-like texture/sensation -- the stems of this root are patterned after the root -Š-. This root is usually used with the 


-ŘGR- ‘PANTHER (PUMA/COUGAR)’ (the stems of this root are patterned after the root -SK-) 

-ŘGŘ- downy texture/sensation -- the stems of this root are patterned after the root -Š-. This root is usually used with the 


-ŘGW- ‘PANTHER (JAGUAR)’ (the stems of this root are patterned after the root -SK-) 

-ŘGZ- ‘GIRAFFE’ (the stems of this root are patterned after the root -SK-) 

-ŘJ- gritty (like fine sand) texture/sensation -- the stems of this root are patterned after the root -Š-. This root is usually used with the 


-ŘJW- ‘ELK’ (the stems of this root are patterned after the root -SK-) 

-ŘK- hard + semi-smooth (like wood) texture/sensation -- the stems of this root are patterned after the root -Š-. This root is usually 

used with the DEGREE/EXTENT suffix. 

-ŘKW- ‘TURKEY’ (the stems of this root are patterned after the root -SK-) 

-ŘK’- “cobwebby”/like cotton-candy texture/sensation -- the stems of this root are patterned after the root -Š-. This root is usually 


-ŘK h - rough (like sandpaper) texture/sensation -- the stems of this root are patterned after the root -Š-. This root is usually used with 

the DEGREE/EXTENT suffix. 

-ŘL- ice-cold, numbing cold texture/sensation -- the stems of this root are patterned after the root -Š-. This root is usually used with the 


-ŘĻ- chewy texture/sensation -- the stems of this root are patterned after the root -Š-. This root is usually used with the 


-ŘM- ‘silk’ — Pattern of stems is the same as -XL- 

-ŘMN- Osmium — Pattern of stems is the same as -XL- 

-ŘN- gummy texture/sensation -- the stems of this root are patterned after the root -Š-. This root is usually used with the 


-ŘQR- metallic texture/sensation -- the stems of this root are patterned after the root -Š-. This root is usually used with the 


-ŘSW- ‘LAVENDER’ patterned after the root -XT’- SSD derivatives: 1) extra light 2) pale (= mixed with gray) 3) clear, transparent 


-ŘThW ‘OSTRICH’ (the stems of this root are patterned after the root -SK-) 

-ŘZW - ‘BISON/BUFFALO’ (the stems of this root are patterned after the root -SK-) 

-S- ‘CHANGE/ALTER/DEVIATE’


1. change (from one state to another) [both appearance/structure 1. alter, modify; alteration, modification [both 

and behavior/function] 

appearance/structure and behavior/function] 

2. vary; variety, variation [both appearance/structure and 2. diversify, permutate; permutation, diversification [both 

behavior/function] 


3. deviate; deviation [both appearance/structure and 

3. modulate, control variance in the state of; modulation [both 

behavior/function] 




focus on appearance/structure focus on behavior/function focus on appearance/structure focus on behavior/function 

Derivations: mutate, convert, shift, tamper with, transform, transition 

-SC h - ‘GRAY’ patterned after the root -XT’- SSD derivatives: 1) extra light 2) pale 3) clear, transparent 4) fluorescent 5) vibrant / 

bright 6) –ish 7) translucent 8) opaque 9) extra dark 

-SF- ‘bottom, lowest part of, foundation’ The pattern of stems for this root follow those of the root -G-. 

-SK- ‘GENERIC MAMMAL/AVIAN/REPTILE’ 






1. wild member of genus 1. bred or domesticated member of 1. member of genus as 1. member of genus as derived 

genus 

food/prey 









MAT Suffix used to indicate life stage: e.g., foal, fawn, yearling, adult, etc. 

SSD Suffix used as follows: 1) egg, 2) milk, 3) oil/secretion/venom, 4) fat, 5) skin/hide, 6) tail, 5) tusk/horn, 8) fur/feathers 9) flesh/meat 

-SKh- ‘PATH/WAY/COURSE’ 


1. course/way [taken] 1. route [taken] 

2. [marked] path [taken] 2. road [taken] 

3. trajectory; move(ment) along a trajectory / “sail” / arc 3. channel [taken] 


same as above 3 stems referring same as above 3 stems referring same as above 3 stems with 

to the 

to following or travelling along focus on the route/road/channel 

course/way/path/trajectory itself the course/path/trajectory itself 

same as a stems with focus on 

following or travelling along the 

route/road/channel 

EXAMPLE MORPHOLOGICAL DERIVATIVES FROM THE ABOVE STEMS: walkway, sidewalk, highway, street, slide, tunnel, 

conduit

-SK h W- ‘ROBIN’ (the stems of this root are patterned after the root -SK-) 

-SL- ‘GAS / FLUME’ 


1. cloud/flume of gas/vapor + gas/vapor itself 1. Same as INFORMAL Stem No. 1 but referring to substance in an 

abnormal solid or liquid state 

2. cloud/flume of gas as derived from other substance + the 2. thing/object composed of gas + its function/purpose 

derived gas itself 

3. source of a gas 3. status of substance/compound as being or not being in a gaseous 

state 


1. cloud/flume of a gas or vapor 1. gas/vapor itself 1. substance in an abnormal 1. substance in an abnormal liquid 

solid (i.e., frozen) state state 

2. cloud/flume of gas as derived 2. the derived gas itself 2. thing created, molded or 2. function/purpose of thing created, 

from other substance 

manufactured from a gas molded or manufactured from a gas 

3. natural source of a gas 3. derived or artificially 

created source of gas 

3. gaseous/vapor state 3. semi-gaseous state (combination or 

gaseous + non-gaseous state, e.g., as 

w/ CO2 vapor rising from dry ice) 

-SM- ‘TERRAIN-BASED/GEOGRAPHICAL ELEVATION’ 


1. relative elevation in comparison to other geological feature/terrain FORMAL Stems for this root have the same 

2. geological layer/stratum 

3. flatland area/plain 


1. valley / geographic depression 1. hill / upland / raised geographic feature 

relative to surrounding terrain relative to surrounding terrain 

2. deep underground 2. near-surface / shallow [in terms of 

depth underground] 

3. plateau / raised flat-topped 

geographic feature relative to 

surrounding terrain 

3. ridge / crest / flat-linear edge between 

different geographic/geologically-based 

elevations 

meanings as INFORMAL stems except that 

context is geo-political or in terms of formal 

property [geographic ownership] 

-SN - ‘SENSE OF TASTE / THE TASTE OF SOMETHING’ 


1. to taste a taste (taste faculty + flavor tasted) 1. to taste for an anticipated/expected flavor 

2. tongue/palate (tissue containing taste buds + taste buds themselves) 2. instrument/device for detecting flavor + flavor detected 

3. imagine a taste (act + the flavor imagined) 3. create/manufacture a flavor + flavor created 


1. to taste; faculty of taste 1. flavor 1. to taste 1. 

2. tongue/palate (as sensory organs 2. taste bud 2. instrument for detecting 2. flavor detected via 

of tasting) 

flavor 

instrument 

3. imagine a taste in one’s mind 3. an imagined taste 3. create/manufacture a flavor 3. flavor created

MORPHOLOGICAL DERIVATIVES: tasty, savory, flavorful 

SSD Derivatives: 1) bitter 2) chemical-like taste 3) salty 4) foul/rancid taste 5) sweet 6) sweet & sour 7) sour 8) hot (spicy) 9) 

umami 

-SP- ‘EXCHANGE/PURCHASE’ 

Note: The stems below are generally used in conjunction with PROCESSUAL versus COMPLETIVE version (See Secs. 5.3.1 

and 5.3.2) in order to distinguish an offer of exchange from a completed exchange. Alternately, the distinction between 

MONOACTIVE and COMPLEMENTARY valence (Sec. 5.2) can be used for the same purpose. 


1. exchange / swap 1. act of trade / act of barter 

2. substitute / transpose / interchange 2. purchase / commercial transaction; buy(ing) and sell(ing) 

3. change out / supplant / replace 3. invest(ment) 


1. exchange (focus on entity 

given) 

1. exchange (focus on entity taken) 1. to trade for / acquire through 

trade; act of acquiring via trade 

2. substitute / transpose / 2. substitute / transpose / 

interchange (focus on entity interchange (focus on entity 

substituted into new substituted out of old function/place) 

function/place) 

3. change out / supplant / 

replace (focus on entity 

newly placed) 

3. change out / supplant / replace 

(focus on entity taken out of action) 

1. to trade away / give up 

through trade; act of given away 

via trade 

2. buy; acquisition via purchase 2. sell; act of selling 

3. acquire via investment; act of 

acquisition via investment 

3. release interest in / sell one’s 

investment 

EXAMPLE MORPHOLOGICAL DERIVATIVES FROM THE ABOVE STEMS: commercial venture, a purchase, acquisition via 

trade, acquisition via investment; purvey, goods, thing sold, market, warehouse, buyer, seller, agent, business 

-SP’- ‘DEGREE OF BODILY SLENDERNESS/FATNESS’ 


1. degree of slenderness/fatness same as INFORMAL stems except 

2. decrease in degree of slenderness/fatness; lose weight; become thin(ner); slenderize 

3. increase in degree of slenderness/fatness; gain weight; become fat(ter); fatten up 



specifically to physical size/girth/volume 

Same as above 3 stems referring to psychophysiological 

effect/impact 


MORPHOLOGICAL DERIVATIVES: skinny, rail-thin, obese, plump 

-SP h - ‘carbon dioxide’ — Pattern of stems follows those of the root: -SL- ‘GAS / FLUME’ 

that degree of particular 

quality/property is unusual, abnormal, 

unexpected, or has been changed 

from expected norm 

-SP h W- lettuce (plant/leaves of genus Lactuca) The pattern of stems for this root follows those of the root -QW- 

-SQ - cook (= prepare food using heat) The pattern of stems for this root follow that of the root -SX-.

-SQW- tomato The pattern of stems for this root follows those of the root -QW- 

-SQ’- oxygen — Pattern of stems follows those of the root: -SL- ‘GAS / FLUME’ 

-SQ h W- cabbage (plant/leaves of sp. Brassica oleracea capitata) The pattern of stems for this root follows those of the root -QW- 

-SR- ‘LATITUDE / NORTH-SOUTH’ 


1. north-south axis/orientation/direction/areal designation 1. latitude 

2. north axis/orientation/direction/areal designation 2. north latitude 

3. south axis/orientation/direction/areal designation 3. south latitude 


1. north-south axial 1. north-south geographical or 1. polar area 1. parallel [= line of latitude] 

direction or orientation geopolitical areal designation 

2. north direction or 2. north geographical or geopolitical 2. north polar area (Arctic) 2. Northern Hemisphere 

orientation 

areal designation 

3. south direction or 

orientation 

3. south geographical or geopolitical 

areal designation 

3. south polar area (Antarctic) 3. Eastern Hemisphere 

-SŘ- ‘COLLATERAL FAMILY MEMBER/RELATIVE’ 


1. paternal collateral relative 1. maternal collateral relative 

2. paternal male collateral relative 2. maternal male collateral relative 

3. paternal female collateral relative 3. maternal female collateral relative 


1. paternal nephew/neice 1. paternal aunt/uncle 1. maternal nephew/neice 1. maternal aunt/uncle 

2. paternal nephew 2. paternal uncle 2. maternal nephew 2. maternal uncle 

3. paternal neice 3. paternal aunt 3. maternal neice 3. maternal aunt 

-SS- air — Pattern of stems follows those of the root: -SL- ‘GAS / FLUME’ 

-ST- ‘COMPARISON/MEASUREMENT/WEIGH’ 


1. compare/contrast 1. measure 

2. discriminate/distinguish 2. discern 

3. “weigh”/ponder choice/pro-con analysis 3. relate/collate/determine relationships between 



but w/ focus on act 


on purpose or desired outcome 

-STR- diamond — Pattern of stems is the same as -XL- 

Same as above 3 stems but 

w/ focus on act 

-STW- rice (plant/seed of sp. Oryza sativa) The pattern of stems for this root follows those of the root -QW- 


on purpose or outcome 

-STY- bean (lima/snap/etc.: plant/seed of genus Phaseolus or similar) The pattern of stems for this root follows those of the root -QW-

-ST’- ‘metal/ore’ — Pattern of stems is the same as -XL- 

-ST’W- peanut (plant/seed/pod of sp. Arachis hypogaea) The pattern of stems for this root follows those of the root -QW- 

-ST h - boil -- The pattern of stems for this root follow that of the root -SX-. 

-SŢ- ‘FIVE’ 


1. a set or group of 5 / a quintet; to be 5 in number FORMAL stems for this root have the same 

2. be/make five-faceted / having 5 uses or aspects / quint- / pent- / fivefold 

3. fifth one in a sequence; be/make fifth in a sequence 


1. 5 times the number of something; to 1. a fifth / divide by 5 or into 5 parts 

quintuple / multiply by 5 

2. 5 times [= iterations]; to be/make/do 5 2. be of or make into 5 parts; 

times 


3. to the 5th power; raise to the 5th 3. to the negative 5th power; to 

power 

divide by the 5th power of 

-ST h W- ‘SPARROW’ (the stems of this root are patterned after the root -SK-) 

meanings as the INFORMAL stems except that they 

are applied in official, authorized, permanent 


-SV- ‘FEAR/FRIGHT’ 


1. non-volitional (i.e., affective) experience of a state/feeling/emotion; feel (an) Same as INFORMAL stems except referring to 

emotion [state + content] 

a formal/institutionalized/symbolic expressions of 

2. act or action caused by non-volitional experience of state or feeling 

3. cause or causal circumstance for non-volitional state/feeling 


the particular emotion. 

Same as above 3 stems w/ Same as above 3 stems w/ focus on experiential 

focus on process itself state/feeling itself 

Derivation: panic 

-SW- ‘PLANETARY BODY’ 


1. planet/planetary body 1. The Earth/Terra 

2. moon/satellite of planetary body 2. The Moon/Luna 

3. other spatial body 3. artificial satellite 



stems referring to 

physical body 

Same as above 3 stems referring to human 

interaction with (i.e., sighting, influence by, 

speculation upon, contact with, 

experimentation involving, etc.) 



body 


human interaction with (i.e., sighting, 

influence by, speculation upon, contact 

with, experimentation involving, etc.)

SSD Derivatives for Informal Stem 3: asteroid, comet, cosmic dust, cosmic gas, cosmic ray, component of Oort Cloud, cosmic string, 

quantum filament 

MORPHOLOGICAL DERIVATIVES: Gaia, Gaia Principle/Hypothesis 

-SX- ‘BAKE/SOMETHING BAKED’ 


1. bake (something); something baked [method + result] Same as INFORMAL stems except that 

2. oven [= environment or primary infrastructure used for baking] 

context is that of a commercial venture, i.e., 

3. baking pan [= primary supporting interface for manipulating the food being baked] food for sale, as in a restaurant or grocery 


store 

1. bake; baking (as a cooking 

method) 

1. food cooked by baking; something baked 

2. oven (as primary baking 

environment) 

2. oven (as functional heating/cooking means) 

3. baking pan (as supporting 3. baking pan (as primary accessory/tool needed for 

interface within the oven) manipulating, removing, shaping the baked food) 

Derivatives: baked goods, bakery, baker 

-SXh- ‘DISEASE/DISORDER/MALADY’ 


1. chronic systemic illness/condition/ailment; to suffer from 1. acute abnormal/unhealthy 

condition/illness/malady/ailment; “come down with” 

2. chronic illness/condition/ailment – infectious in origin; to suffer from a 2. infection; infect(ed), to “catch” a disease 

chronic infectious illness 

3. chronic illness/condition/ailment – ideopathic, genetic/neoplastic, or 3. acute illness/condition/ailment – ideopathic, 

unknown origin 

genetic/neoplastic, or unknown origin 


same as above 3 stems w/ focus same as above 3 stems w/ focus on 

on underlying condition itself physical effect, impact, symptoms, 

manifestation 


w/ focus on underlying 

condition itself 



symptoms, manifestation 

-SY- ‘MANNER/CONDUCT/BEHAVIOR/DEMEANOR’ 


1. manner (= the way something or someone acts or 

behaves) 

1. method, the way something happens, course of action; conduct 

2. guise, form; to take the form/guise of 2. behave/comport/conduct onself = outward display of one’s 

personality/thoughts/emotions/motives; behavior/conduct/deportment 

3. practice/policy 3. bearing/carriage/demeanor 


Same as above 3 stems w/ Same as above 3 stems Same as above 3 stems w/ focus Same as above 3 stems w/ focus on 

focus on the 

w/ focus on the effect, on the method or behavior itself the effect, impact or outcome 

manner/form/practice itself impact or outcome 

Morphological Derivatives: process, procedure, regimen, strategy

-Š- ‘TEXTURE/TACTILE SENSATION’ 


1. texture, tactile sensation (tactile sensation + physical-emotional 1. act/process to render (an object/entity having) a particular 

reaction) 

texture (tactile sensation + physical-emotional reaction) 

2. material impact/benefit/effect of a particular texture to the 2. psychological or emotional impact/benefit/effect of a particular 

object/entity having that consistency 

texture to the object/entity having that consistency 

3. material impact/benefit/effect of having a particular texture to 3. psychological or emotional impact/benefit/effect of having a 

consumer/user/owner of object/entity having that texture particular texture to consumer/user/owner of object/entity having 

that texture 


1. object having a particular 1. the texture itself 1. act/process designed to render a 1. actual results of an act 

texture 

certain texture 

or process to render a 

certain texture 

2. assumed, expected, potential, 2. actual material impact, benefit, 2. assumed, expected, potential, or 2. actual psychological or 

or theoretical material impact, effect of a particular texture to theoretical psychological or emotional emotional impact, benefit, 

benefit, effect of a particular the object/entity having that impact, benefit, effect of a particular effect of a particular 

texture to the object/entity texture 

texture to the entity having that texture to the entity having 

having that texture 

texture 

that texture 

3. assumed, expected, potential, 3. actual material impact/benefit 3. assumed, expected, potential, or 3. actual psychological or 

or theoretical material of a particular consistency to theoretical psychological or emotional emotional impact/effect of 

impact/benefit of a particular consumer/user/owner of impact/effect of a particular texture to a particular texture to 

texture to consumer/user/owner object/entity having that consumer/user/owner of object/entity consumer/user/owner of 

of object/entity having that consistency 

having that texture 

object/entity having that 

texture 

texture 

SSD suffix specifies reaction: sensuous, delightful/fun, soothing, as-expected, surprising/positive, surprising/negative, annoying/irritating, 

painful 

-ŠČ- ‘being ultra-alert with senses heightened’ The stems of this root are patterned after the root -PK- 

-ŠČ’- ‘spite’ The stems of this root are patterned after the root -PK- 

-ŠČ h - ‘feeling of surprise, revelation and self-growth upon discovering that achievement of long-awaited vengeance or vindication is 

hollow and meaningless due to personal maturation or present irrelevance of original circumstances’ The stems of this root are 

patterned after the root -PK- 

-ŠF- ‘feeling of “devilishness” and spontaneous non-conformity’ The stems of this root are patterned after the root -PK- 

-ŠK- ‘ARM’ 


1. arm (as gestalt entity) [both physical body part and function] FORMAL stems are the same as 

2. arm (as holder, support, carrier) [both body part and function] 

3. arm (as protective extension of body) [both body part and function] 


1. arm as single body part 1. arm as reacher or manipulator 

2. arm as limb (focus on 2. arm as holder/carrier 

part/whole relation to body) 

3. arm as extension of body 3. arm as natural protective/defensive implement of body 

INFORMAL stems but applied to “arm” 

of a non-animal entity, e.g., a mechanical 

device, vehicle, plant, etc.

-ŠKÇ- ‘PIGEON’ (the stems of this root are patterned after the root -SK-) 

-ŠKŢ- bicarbonate of soda — Pattern of stems is the same as -XL- 

-ŠKY- pea (plant/seed of sp. Pisum sativum) The pattern of stems for this root follows those of the root -QW- 

-ŠK h - ‘feeling of surprise, revelation and self-growth upon discovering that one can get past, and need not succumb to, feelings of 

defensiveness or “victimhood” upon being criticized, maligned, slandered, or disrespected. The stems of this root are patterned after the 

root -PK- 

-ŠK h W- corn, maize (plant/seeds of sp. Zea mays) The pattern of stems for this root follows those of the root -QW- 

-ŠL- ‘HUMOR/WIT/JEST’ 


1. something funny or humorous = comical 1. a jest or prank; make a jest or pull a prank = act or situation 

designed to evoke humor 

2. something witty = subtlely and cleverly humorous 2. a joke; make a joke = communicated situation or message 

designed to evoke humor 

3. something farcical = something humorous based in irony 3. something sardonic = double-edged humor based in sarcasm 



focus on the joke or source of 

humor 

SSD derivatives: pun, riddle 


focus on the humorous 

effect/impact 


focus on the joke or source of 

humor 

-ŠM- ‘lower part or “half”’ The pattern of stems for this root follow those of the root -G-. 

-ŠNY- brine — Pattern of stems is the same as -XL- 


focus on the humorous 

effect/impact 

-ŠP- ‘BINARY REVERSAL / POLARITY’ 


1. switch to opposing or complementary value FORMAL stems for this root have the 

2. switch or reverse [linear] direction 

3. toggle between active/positive or inactive/negative state 


1. set to positive, primary, or initial value 1. set to negative, secondary, or 

complementary value 

2. change current course or direction 2. reverse course or direction 

3. active / activate / turn on / render active / 

on / positive state 

-ŠPR- marble — Pattern of stems is the same as -XL- 

3. inactive / deactivate / turn off / render 

inactive / off / negative state 

same meanings as INFORMAL stems 

except that they are applied in official, 

authorized, permanent contexts as 

described in Sec. 3.7.

-ŠP’- ‘HUNTING & GATHERING/PLANTING & HARVESTING/SUBSISTENCE FROM THE LAND’ 


1. searching for and gathering/collection of plants, vegetable 

matter for purposes of sustenance 

1. plant/sow and harvest an annual crop 

2. nomadic hunting/harvesting, subsistance-style nomadic 2. plant/sow and harvest a permanent seasonal crop (e.g., vines, 

sustenance [practices + products] 

trees, bushes, etc.) 

3. live off the land [hunting/gathering practice + product(s) 3. manage crop(s) and practice animal husbandry [sowing/raising 

derived] 

+ reaping/product(s) derived] 


Same as above 3 stems w/ Same as above 3 stems w/ 1. till/plow & plant seeds or 1. harvest/reap an annual crop 

focus on the hunting or gathering focus on the products hunted or seedlings 

process 

gathered 

2. raise/grow a permanent 2. harvest/reap a permanent 

seasonal crop 

seasonal crop 

3. raise/grow crop(s) & manage 3. harvest/reap crop products 

domesticated food-producing and process/collect animal 

animal(s) 

products 

Morphological Derivations: to farm, a farm, practice agriculture 

SSD Derivations: slash & burn, subsistance farming, commercial farming, 

SSD Deriviations for Formal Stems 2 and 3: transplanting, grafting, hybridization, genetic modification 

-ŠP h - ‘mix of humor and shame one feels upon pulling a joke on someone or at their expense but the target doesn’t “get it” or remains 

ignorant of the joke’ The stems of this root are patterned after the root -PK- 

-ŠP h W- ‘LARK’ (the stems of this root are patterned after the root -SK-) 

-ŠQ- ‘WAIT/AWAIT’ 


1. wait (for), await; waiting, a wait 1. vigil/a watch; be vigilant/watchful 

2. expect; expectation; expected/impending 2. foresee; foresight; prospective/foreseeable 

3. predict; prediction 3. prognosticate, forecast 



focus on the process 

same as above 3 stems w/ focus on 

what is awaited, expected, 

predicted 

-ŠQ’- roast -- The pattern of stems for this root follow that of the root -SX-. 


w/ focus on the process 

same as above 3 stems w/ focus on 

what is awaited, expected, predicted 

-ŠQ h - ‘schadenfreude; malicious glee at another’s (implicitly deserved) discomfort or inconvenience’ The stems of this root are 

patterned after the root -PK- 

-ŠR- ‘discomfiture at having been socially snubbed or at being ill-prepared for a situation after believing that one was accepted or was 

well-prepared’ The stems of this root are patterned after the root -PK- 

-ŠŘ- ‘impatience due to feeling that time/resources are being wasted’ The stems of this root are patterned after the root -PK-

-ŠT- fry -- The pattern of stems for this root follow that of the root -SX-. 

-ŠTL- ‘OWL’ (the stems of this root are patterned after the root -SK- 

-ŠT’- ‘ATTRACTION’ 


1. feel/be attracted to (physical attraction to other person) 1. feel/be attracted/drawn to (emotional-philosophical attraction 

to inanimate thing or abstraction, e.g., a political platform, buying 

a certain car, etc.) 

2. feel/be attractive (physical attraction to other person) 2. be attractive/seductive (emotional-philosophical attraction to 

inanimate thing, idea or abstraction, e.g., a political platform, 

buying a certain car, etc.) 

3. act/gesture indicating or hinting of attraction to; “(give) 3. “selling point” / a “pro” (vs. “con”) 

clue/hint” (physical attraction to other person) 



referring to viewpoint of others 

MORPHOLOGICAL Derivations: seduce, seduction 


to viewpoint of party feeling to viewpoint of others to viewpoint of party feeling 

attraction 

attraction 

-ŠT h - ‘anticipate a negative; dread’ The stems of this root are patterned after the root -PK- 

-ŠŢ- ‘externally-induced feeling/sense of contemplation/re-evaluation upon discovering or hearing of an option/alternative not previously 

considered (stereotypically accompanied by scratching one's chin and/or frowning while uttering a prolonged "hmm")’ The stems of this 

root are patterned after the root -PK- 

-ŠV- ‘solace, comfort in the face of sadness/grief ’ The stems of this root are patterned after the root -PK- 

-ŠX- ‘feeling of puzzlement and curiosity, a desire to solve a mystery’ The stems of this root are patterned after the root -PK- 

-ŠXh- ‘feeling of being “on edge”; at cusp of loss-of-control or loss of one’s actions/inhibitions’ The stems of this root are patterned 


-ŠY- ‘wistfulness, bittersweetness’ The stems of this root are patterned after the root -PK- 


-T- ‘ALIVE/LIVING THING/LIVING BEING’ 

FORMAL Stems 

1. living thing; be alive / to live 1. domesticated or civilized being 

2. [wild] animal (all orders) 2. domesticated animal 

3. [wild] plant (all orders) 3. cultivated plant 


1. male being 1. female being 1. domesticated or civilized male 1. domesticated or civilized female 

being 

being 

2. male [wild] animal 2. female [wild] animal 2. male [domesticated] animal 2. female [domesticated] animal 

3. male [wild] plant 3. female [wild] plant 3. male [cultivated] plant 3. female [cultivated] plant 

EXAMPLE MORPHOLOGICAL DERIVATIVES FROM THE ABOVE STEMS: life, vegetation, flora, fauna, wildlife; farm, farmer, 

breeder, livestock

-TF- ‘PSYCHOLOGICAL or PSYCHO-LINGUISTIC MANIPULATION/TREATMENT’ 


1. to fool someone (into doing/believing something); state of being 1. state of delusion (both state + content) 

fooled 

2. to “play games” (with someone) = mentally manipulate via 

words/behavior/actions; state of being toyed with mentally 

2. means of psychiatric treatment; component of psychotherapy 

3. be mesmerized, entranced (by something) 3. hypnotic state; be hypnotized 



to state or process itself to content thereof 

to state or process itself to content thereof 

Derivations: to delude, to hypnotize, to “do a number” on someone mentally, to entrance 

-TFŘ- ozone — Pattern of stems follows those of the root: -SL- ‘GAS / FLUME’ 

-TK- ‘upper part or “half”’ The pattern of stems for this root follow those of the root -G-. 

-TKÇ- mercury — Pattern of stems is the same as -XL- 

-TKR- ‘PIG’ (the stems of this root are patterned after the root -SK-) 

-TKh- ‘THREE-DIMENSIONAL SPHEROID SHAPES/FORMS’ 


1. sphere(oid) [rigid or solid] 1. ball-like form [flexible/mutable or hollow] 

2. ovoid / elliptoid / round [rigid or solid] 2. ovoid /elliptoid / round [flexible/mutable or hollow] 

3. torus / toroid (hoop/ring-like form with circular/elliptical/oval 

cross-section) [rigid or solid] 

3. torus / toroid [flexible/mutable or hollow] 





-TL- ‘salt’ — Pattern of stems is the same as -XL- 


to an object having that shape orto 

shape itself as abstract to an object having that shape or 

form 

archetype 

form 

-TLW- ‘TEAL’ patterned after the root -XT’- SSD derivatives: 1) extra light 2) pale (= mixed with gray) 3) clear, transparent 4) 


-TĻ- ‘2-DIMENSIONAL CURVATURE/DISTORTION’ 


1. curve/curl/bent formation in 2-dimensional planar 1. volume of space defined/bounded by curvature or bending of a 2- 

surface or surface of 3-dimensional object [the dimensional planar surface or surface of 3-dimensional object [the spatial 

curvature itself + object manifesting such curvature] volume itself + object manifesting such bounded space] 

2. dimple/depression in 2-D planar surface or surface of 2. volume of space defined/bounded by a dimple or depression in a 2- 

3-D object [the depression itself + object manifesting dimensional planar surface or surface of 3-dimensional object [the spatial

the depression] volume itself + object manifesting such bounded space] 

3. undefined distortion/blurring/anomaly in 2-D planar 

surface or surface of 3-D object [the distortion itself + 

object manifesting the distortion] 

3.volume of space affected by the undefined distortion/blurring/anomaly in 

2-D planar surface or surface of 3-D object [the spatial volume itself + 

object manifesting such bounded space] 


1. curve/curl/bent formation 

in 2-dimensional planar 

surface or surface of 3dimensional 

object [the 

1. object manifesting a 

curve/curl/bent formation in 

2-dimensional planar 

surface or surface of 3- 

1. volume of space defined/bounded 

by curvature or bending of a 2dimensional 

planar surface or surface 

of 3-dimensional object [the spatial 

1. object manifesting a volume of 

space defined/bounded by curvature 

or bending of a 2-dimensional planar 

surface or surface of 3-dimensional 

curvature itself] dimensional object volume itself] 

object 

2. dimple/depression in 2-D 2. object manifesting a 2. volume of space defined/bounded 2. object manifesting a volume of 

planar surface or surface of dimple/depression in 2-D by a dimple or depression in a 2- space defined/bounded by a dimple 

3-D object [the depression planar surface or surface of dimensional planar surface or surface or depression in a 2-dimensional 

itself] 

3-D object 

of 3-dimensional object [the spatial planar surface or surface of 3- 

volume itself] 

dimensional object 

3. undefined 

3. object manifesting an 3.volume of space affected by the 3. object manifesting a volume of 

distortion/blurring/anomaly undefined distortion, undefined distortion/blurring/anomaly space affected by the undefined 

in 2-D planar surface or blurring or anomaly in 2-D in 2-D planar surface or surface of distortion/blurring/anomaly in 2-D 

surface of 3-D object [the planar surface or surface of 3-D object [the spatial volume itself] planar surface or surface of 3-D 

distortion itself] 3-D object 

object 

Morphological Derivatives: crease, pleat, wrinkle(s), curl up, crumple(d), wad(ded), zig-zag, groove/furrow 

-TM- ‘SIGN/MARK/SYMBOL/VISUAL MEANS OF INDICATION/REPRESENTATION’ 


1. sign, signal, gesture, indication (= general indication, not 2-D 1. mark, token, single graphic representation 

planar surface bearing graphic/written communication) 

2. track, print, trail (=naturally produced bodily trace) 2. symbol, emblem, device, insignia 

3. identifying characteristic or trait 3. formal representation 



to the indicator/sign itself to content/meaning thereof to the indicator/sign itself to content/meaning thereof 

signal, sign (= placque/board) 

-TN- ‘LARGE IMPLEMENT FOR COUNTERING GRAVITY’ 


1. ladder [object itself + use] 1. winch/windlass 

2. stair 2. expandable boom 

3. bridge; span 3. derrick 



referring to thing itself 


referring to function/use thereof 

MORPHOLOGICAL DERIVATIVES: staircase, stairway 


referring to thing itself 


to function/use thereof

-TR- ‘GREEN’ patterned after the root -XT’- SSD derivatives: 1) extra light 2) pale (= mixed with gray) 3) clear, transparent 4) 


-TŘ- ‘APPEAR/MANIFEST/SHOW/EXHIBIT/DISPLAY’ 


1. appear/manifest/show = be/make observable to the senses of 

others; manifestation, appearance 

1. exhibit; display 

2. expose; exposure 2. show off, flaunt 

3. bring/call attention to = make others aware of the 

appearance/showing of something 

3. announce; advertise 



focus on act of 

focus on thing manifested or focus on act of exhibiting or focus on thing exhibited or 

manifestation/showing shown 

display 

displayed 

Morphological derivations: demonstrate, flourish, show off, display, spectacle, parade, promenade, procession, ostentation, gaudy, 

garish, pomp, pompous 

-TT- ‘SALUTATION/GREETING/ACKNOWLEDGEMENT’ 


1. acknowledge/demonstrate awareness of 1. greet(ings) / salutation(s) 

2. hail / get attention of / bring attention to 2. formal welcome or farewell 

3. congratulate 3. socially introduce / to socially present 



focus on act 

focus on purpose or desired focus on act 

focus on purpose or desired 

outcome 

outcome 

SSD affix for FORMAL Stem Nos. 1 and 2 by degree: 1) bow upon arrival/introduction 2) shake hands upon arrival/introduction 3) 

wave hand or arm upon arrival/introduction/seeing 4)verbal salutation only upon arrival/introduction/seeing 5) words used in 

greeting/salutation/farewell 6) say goodbye 7) wave goodbye 8) shake hands upon farewell/leavetaking 9) bow upon 

farewell/leavetaking 

-TW- ‘OCCUPANCY/RESIDENCY’ 


1. entity present + presence 1. tenant + domicile 

2. occupant + place occupied 2. resident + residence 

3. denizen + claimed property 3. citizen + property 


1. entity present 1. presence of entity 1. tenant 1. domicile 

2. occupant 2. place occupied 2. resident 2. residence 

3. denizen 3. claimed property 3. citizen 3. property 

EXAMPLE MORPHOLOGICAL DERIVATIVES FROM THE ABOVE STEMS: dwelling, quarters, population, community, town, 

village, city, hamlet, county, geopolitical area, state/province, nation, geopolitical bloc; nest, lair, den 

-TXh- SUBATOMIC PARTICLE


subatomic particle + its interaction/effect (either elementary or hypothetical subatomic particle + its interaction/effect (either 

composite particle) 

elementary or composite particle) 

elementary particle + its interaction/effect (either fermion or antimatter particle + its interaction/effect (either fermion or 

boson) 

boson) 

composite particle + its interaction/effect (i.e., hadron, whether 

baryon or meson) 

non-baryonic “dark matter” particle, (i.e., WIMP) 


same as above three stems same as above three stems but same as above three stems same as above three stems but with 

but with focus on the particle with focus on the particle’s but with focus on the focus on the particle’s 

itself 

interaction/force or effect particle itself 

interaction/force or effect 

Formal stems P1/S1, P2/S1, and P3/S1 all have the following derivatives using the SSD1 suffix identifying the particular type of 

hypothetical particle and/or its associated interaction: 

1) (Nambu-)Goldstone boson 

2) (Nambu-)Goldstone fermion / goldstino 

3) X boson 

4) W-prime boson 

5) tachyon 

6) Z-prime boson 

7) Y boson 

8) gravscalar/radion 

9) graviphoton/gravivector 

Formal stems P1/S1, P2/S1, and P3/S1 all have the following derivatives using the SSD2 suffix identifying additional types of 

hypothetical particles and/or their associated interaction: 

1) axion 

2) axino 

3) saxion 

4) branon 

5) dilaton 

6) dilatino 

7) majoron 

8) plekton 

9) anyon 

The PLV1/1 suffix is used for the above stems where applicable to convey the corresponding antiparticle. The PLV1/5 suffix is used for 

these stems where applicable to convey the corresponding neurtral (non-charged) particle. 

-TY- ‘SENSE OF WONDER/ENTHRALLMENT’ 


1. non-volitional (i.e., affective) experience of wonder/enthrallment; feel Same as INFORMAL stems except referring to a 

wonder/enthrallment [state + content] 

formal/institutionalized/symbolic expressions of awe, 

2. sense of magic caused by non-volitional experience of state or feeling of i.e., feeling of worship(fulness). 

wonder/enthrallment 

3. cause or causal circumstance for non-volitional state/feeling or 

wonder/enthrallment 


Same as above 3 stems w/ focus Same as above 3 stems w/ focus on

on process itself experiential state/feeling itself 

-T’- ‘EXTERIORITY / POSITION OR ORIENTATION OUTSIDE’ 


1. position/orientation somewhere outside (of), i.e., beyond or on 1. the space beyond/outside/excluded from an interior 

other side of surface or boundary layer 

space/compartment (e.g., of house, car, device, etc.) 

2. position/orientation somewhere outside of (2-D context), i.e., 2. an external surface / functional planar area beyond/outside the 

beyond/outside the area defined by a boundary line 

boundaries of (e.g., the “out of bounds” area of a tennis court) 

3. position/orientation somewhere outside of (3-D context), i.e., 3. the space beyond/outside an interior volume / functional space 

beyond/outside the volume set off by a boundary membrane, 

surface/wall, etc. 

outside the boundaries of 



focus on exterior position (i.e. focus on position on exterior focus on exterior position (i.e. focus on position on exterior 

position other than on outside surface (i.e. position on outside position other than on outside surface (i.e. position on outside 

surface of boundary between surface of boundary between surface of boundary between surface of boundary between 

interior and exterior interior and exterior interior and exterior interior and exterior 

-Th- ‘(CRIMINAL) LAW/ADJUDICATION’ 


1. statute, a particular law 1. act of official law enforcement (enforcement authority + 

manifested act of enforcement/administration) 

2. applicability of a statute, law to a particular situation or geopolitical 2. jurisdiction/applicability of enforcement powers to 

area, rule of law 

particular situation or geopolitical area 

3. investigate an alleged violation of law; act of criminal investigation 3. try/adjudicate a criminal complaint, go to trial 


1. statement (the wording) of a 

law or statute 

2. applicability of a statute or 

law 

3. gather material evidence as 

part of criminal investigation, 

e.g., questioning of witnesses, 

viewing of records, inspecting 

clues and material evidence 

1. application of, or compliance with 

a law or statute 

1. authority to enforce law or 

statute 

2. state of being subject to, or 2. jurisdiction of law enforcement 

required to obey/ comply w/ a statute powers 

or law 

3. act by law enforcement for 3. presentation of evidence in 

purposes of criminal identification or support of alleged crime; 

apprehension, e.g., interrogation or prosecution 

component of sting-type operation, 

or legal “trap” set up 

1. act/manifestion of 

enforcing/administering 

law or statute 

2. state of being subject 

to the jurisdiction of a 

law enforcement entity 

3. formal weighing of 

evidence by judge or jury 

Morphological Derivations: code of law, rule of law, rule on an adjudicatory matter, verdict, justice 

SSD Derivatives for Formal Stem 1: obtaining of warrant/authorization to detain, seizure/detention of suspect, interrogation of suspect, 

gathering of evidence, arrest, detention in jail cell, indictment, preparation of prosecution, incarceration 

SSD Derivatives for Informal Stem 3: stake-out/surveillance, reconnaisance, infiltration of mole, component of sting operation, 

identification of suspect 

-Ţ- ‘HEAD’ 


1. head (as gestalt entity) [both physical body part and function] FORMAL stems are the same as 

2. head (as seat of brain/mind) [both body part and function] 

3. head (as entity’s primary “interface” area of body) 


1. head as physical body part 1. head as functional body part 

2. head as physical seat of brain/mind 2. head as functional seat of brain/mind 

3. head as “top” or “forward” part or 3. head as vital seat of identity 

“access” point 

INFORMAL stems but applied to “arm” of a 

non-animal entity, e.g., a mechanical device, 

vehicle, plant, etc. 

SSD Derivatives = parts of head 1) cheek 2) chin 3) upper lip [plane between mouth and nose] 4) forehead 5) temple 6) crown of 

head 6) occipital area [back of head] 7) socket area around eye 8) upper part of back of head 9) cheekbone 

-ŢB- bounce/recoil inertness/immobility — The pattern of stems for this root follow that of the root -ŢQ-. This root uses the 


-ŢC- ‘AFFECTIVE/NON-VOLITIONAL MENTAL STATE/PROCESS’ 


1. mood; be in a mood 1. rationalization; rationalize 

2. instinct; act/behave on instinct [state + content] 2. delusion; (be) delude(d) 

3. psychic phenomenon, altered state of consciousness 3. dream [state + content] 



to state or process itself 

same as above 3 stems referring same as above 3 stems referring to 

to content thereof 

state or process itself 


referring to content thereof 

SSD Derivatives for Stem 3: 1) “high”, under-the-influence of a psycho-active substance 2) hallucination; hallucinate, (observe) 

apparition 3) trance 4) instance of telepathy 5) (experience) premonition/vision 6) synaesthetic experience 7) sensory illusion 8) out-ofbody 

experience 9) state of prescience/clairvoyance 

-ŢČ- ‘DEGREE OF PAIN/LOSS/DISSATISFACTION/MISERY’ 


1. degree of physical pain [both feeling and cause] 1. degree of spiritual/value-based/philosophically-oriented 

displeasure/discontent [both feeling and cause] 

2. degree of emotional/psychological discontent/pain [both feeling 

and cause] 

2. degree of unhappiness/misery 

(spiritual/value-based/philosophically-oriented) [both feeling and 

cause] 

3. degree of physical dissatisfaction/lack [both feeling and cause] 3. degree of emotional/psychological dissatisfaction and loss/lack 

[both feeling and cause] 



referring to the affective 

state/feeling/experience itself 



e.g., ‘an unpleasant visit’ or ‘a 

terrible meal’ 


to the affective 


state/feeling/experience itself e.g., ‘an unhappy home’ or ‘a 

miserable job’

-ŢK- ‘THREE’ 


1. a set or group of 3 / a trio / a triad; to be 3 in number FORMAL stems for this root have the same meanings as 

2. be/make three-faceted / having 3 uses or aspects / tri- / threefold 

3. third one in a sequence; be/make third in a sequence 


1. 3 times the number of 

something; to triple / multiply by 

3 

2. 3 times [= iterations]; to 


3. to the 3rd power; raise to the 

3rd power 

1. a third / divide by 3 or into 3 parts / 

trisect 

2. be of or make into 3 parts; 


3. to the negative 3rd power; to divide 

by the 3rd power of 

the INFORMAL stems except that they are applied in 

official, authorized, permanent contexts as described in 

Section 3.5 

-ŢKL- laughing gas, nitrous oxide — Pattern of stems follows those of the root: -SL- ‘GAS / FLUME 

-ŢKŘ- Helium — Pattern of stems follows those of the root: -SL- ‘GAS / FLUME’ 

-ŢKY- wheat (plant/seed of sp. Triticum aestivum) The pattern of stems for this root follows those of the root -QW- 

-ŢK h W- spinach (plant/leaves of sp. Spinacia oleracea) The pattern of stems for this root follows those of the root -QW- 

-ŢK’- ‘commitment/loyalty’ Derivations: ‘intransigence’, ‘stubbornness’ The stems of this root are patterned after the root -PK- 

-ŢK h - suppleness/pliancy/flexibility/ductility/bendability stiffness/rigidity — The pattern of stems for this root follow that of the root 

-ŢQ-. This root uses the EXTENT/DEGREE suffix to specify the point on a sprectrum between the two extremes indicated. 

-ŢL- ‘numbness / emotional saturation’ The stems of this root are patterned after the root -PK- 

-ŢLW- Hydrogen — Pattern of stems follows those of the root: -SL- ‘GAS / FLUME’ 

-ŢLY- Chlorine — Pattern of stems follows those of the root: -SL- ‘GAS / FLUME’ 

-ŢM- ‘TWO-DIMENSIONAL SHAPES/FORMS’ 


1. strip [solid/rigid] 1. ribbon-like shape [flexible] 

2. plane/planar [solid/rigid] 2. sheet-like shape [flexible] 

3. tube/cylinder/cylindrical [solid/rigid] 3. tube-like shape [flexible] 





Same as above 3 stems Same as above 3 stems 

referring to an object having that referring to shape itself as 

shape or form 


-ŢMW- garlic The pattern of stems for this root follows those of the root -QW- 

-ŢMY- ‘carbon monoxide’ — Pattern of stems follows those of the root: -SL- ‘GAS / FLUME’ 


to an object having that shape or 

form

-ŢN- ‘TIME PERIOD/DURATION MORE THAN ONE DAY’ 


1. expanse of time/period/duration more than 1 day 1. subjective long-term period/era 

2. lunar period / month 2. geologic era 

3. solar year 3. ‘lifetime’; timespan from beginning to end of something 


Same as above three stems w/ 

focus on elapsed time 


focus on time during which 

Use of SSD affix give equivalents to ‘decade’, ‘century,’ ‘millenium’, etc. 

-ŢNY- lime (substance) — Pattern of stems is the same as -XL- 

-ŢPF- talc or talcum — Pattern of stems is the same as -XL- 

-ŢPĻ- methanol, methyl alcohol — Pattern of stems is the same as -XL- 


focus on elapsed time 

-ŢPŘ- Nitrogen — Pattern of stems follows those of the root: -SL- ‘GAS / FLUME’ 

-ŢPŢ- Fluorine — Pattern of stems follows those of the root: -SL- ‘GAS / FLUME’ 


focus on time during which 

-ŢP h - ‘nonchalance/indifference’ Derivations: ‘callousness’ The stems of this root are patterned after the root -PK- 

-ŢPW- baking soda — Pattern of stems is the same as -XL- 

-TP h W- sorghum The pattern of stems for this root follows those of the root -QW- 

-ŢQ- ‘CONSISTENCY/MALLEABILITY/FLEXIBILITY/PLASTICITY/RHEOLOGICAL PHENOMENON’ 


1. consistency, degree of malleability/flexibility/ plasticity 1. act/process to render (an object having) a certain consistency 

or degree of malleability / flexibility / plasticity 

2. material impact/benefit/effect of a particular consistency to the 2. psychological or emotional impact/benefit/effect of a particular 

object/entity having that consistency 

consistency to the object/entity having that consistency 

3. material impact/benefit/effect of having a particular consistency 

to consumer/user/owner of object/entity having that consistency 

1. object having a particular 

consistency 

2. assumed, expected, potential, 

or theoretical material impact, 

benefit, effect of a particular 

consistency to the object/entity 

having that consistency 


or theoretical material 

impact/benefit of a particular 

consistency to 

consumer/user/owner of 


consistency 

3. psychological or emotional impact/benefit/effect of having a 

particular consistency to consumer/user/owner of object/entity 



1. the consistency itself 1. act/process designed to 

render a certain consistency or 

degree of malleability/plasticity 

2. actual material impact, 

benefit, effect of a particular 

consistency to the object/entity 


3. actual material impact/benefit 

of a particular consistency to 



consistency 

1. actual results of an act or 

process to render a certain 

consistency or degree of 

malleability/plasticity 

2. assumed, expected, potential, 2. actual psychological or 

or theoretical psychological or emotional impact, benefit, effect 

emotional impact, benefit, effect of a particular consistency to the 

of a particular consistency to the entity having that consistency 

entity having that consistency 


or theoretical psychological or 

emotional impact/effect of a 

particular consistency to 



consistency 

3. actual psychological or 

emotional impact/effect of a 

particular consistency to 



consistency

-ŢQF- Radon — Pattern of stems follows those of the root: -SL- ‘GAS / FLUME’ 

-ŢQŢ- Argon — Pattern of stems follows those of the root: -SL- ‘GAS / FLUME’ 

-ŢQ’- tendency to disintegrate/crumble/fall apart coherence/cohesiveness/compositional integrity — The pattern of stems for this 

root follow that of the root -ŢQ-. This root uses the EXTENT/DEGREE suffix to specify the point on a sprectrum between the two 

extremes indicated. 

-ŢQ h - ‘torpor/lethargy’ Derivations: ‘stupor’, ‘catatonia’ The stems of this root are patterned after the root -PK- 

-ŢQ h W- lentil (plant/seeds of sp. Lens culinaris) The pattern of stems for this root follows those of the root -QW- 

-ŢR- table sugar — Pattern of stems is the same as -XL- 

-ŢŘ- ‘edge’ The pattern of stems for this root follow those of the root -G-. 

-ŢT- limpness/flaccidity stiffness/rigidity — The pattern of stems for this root follow that of the root -ŢQ-. This root uses the 


-ŢTL- Neon — Pattern of stems follows those of the root: -SL- ‘GAS / FLUME’ 

-ŢTŘ- Xenon — Pattern of stems follows those of the root: -SL- ‘GAS / FLUME’ 

-ŢT h - brittleness resiliency — The pattern of stems for this root follow that of the root -ŢQ-. This root uses the 


-ŢT’- flimsiness/fragility resiliency/strength — The pattern of stems for this root follow that of the root -ŢQ-. This root uses the 


-ŢV- jiggliness inertness/immobility — The pattern of stems for this root follow that of the root -ŢQ-. This root uses the 


-ŢW- ‘WEATHER CONDITION’ 


1. (current) weather condition 1. adverse weather condition 

2. amenable weather condition (warm seasons) 2. adverse weather condition (warm seasons) 

3. amenable weather condition (cold seasons) 3. adverse weather condition (cold seasons) 



to condition itself 

to effect/impact 

to condition itself 

to effect/impact 

MORPHOLOGICAL DERIVATIVES: climate, the weather, clime 

SSD Derivatives for Informal Stem 2: mild, balmy, sunny, warm, still/calm, gently breezy 

SSD Derivatives for Informal Stem 3: brisk, cool, clear, still/calm, crisp, light snowfall, drizzle 

SSD Derivatives for Formal Stem 2: mugginess, heat, drought, summer rainstorm, summer flood, mud, hurricane, smog, hot wind 

SSD Derivatives for Formal Stem 3: fog/mist, cloudy/overcast, wind, rain, snow, blizzard, rainstorm, tornado/twister, flood

-ŢX- squeezability/compressability stiffness/rigidity — The pattern of stems for this root follow that of the root -ŢQ-. This root 

uses the EXTENT/DEGREE suffix to specify the point on a sprectrum between the two extremes indicated. 

-ŢXhW- yam, sweet potato The pattern of stems for this root follows those of the root -QW-’ 

-ŢY- ‘cordiality/benevolence’ The stems of this root are patterned after the root -PK- 

-V- ‘PLAY/RECREATION/LEISURE’ 

(These stems are often used with the various Valence categories (Section 5.2) to specify the manner of participation) 


1. play/recreate/amuse oneself (activity + feeling of 

enjoyment derived) = self-involved activity, e.g., play w/ a 

toy, play hide-and-seek, etc. 

2. element of participitory or self-involved leisure activity 

(activity + feeling of enjoyment/relaxation derived), e.g., a 

dance, a hike, fishing, camping 

3. practice hobby or pastime (activity + feeling of 

enjoyment/relaxation derived) 

1. play/recreate (activity + feeling of amusement/enjoyment derived) = 

formal rule-oriented activity, e.g., a board game, a sport, etc. 

2. attend/view a formal entertainment (activity + feeling of 

enjoyment/diversion derived), e.g., view a show, live performance, 

movie, a sporting event, etc.) 

3. engage in (a) sport activity (activity + feeling of competitive spirit) for 

motive of formal competition, e.g., victory-oriented 


Same as above 3 stems w/ Same as above 3 stems w/ Same as above 3 stems w/ focus on Same as above 3 stems w/ focus 

focus on the thing/activity being focus on the feeling of the thing/activity being enjoyed on the feeeling of 

enjoyed, i.e., a toy, game or amusement/enjoyment 

amusement/enjoyment derived 

diversion 

derived 

SSD Derivatives: 

sports, toys, traditional board games, participitory outdoor games 

-VBR- ‘ELEPHANT’ (the stems of this root are patterned after the root -SK-) 

-VDR- ‘WOLF’ (the stems of this root are patterned after the root -SK-) 

-VG- ‘HELMET’ The stems of this root are patterned after the root -GV- 

-VGL- linoleum — Pattern of stems is the same as -XL- 

-VGR- ‘KANGAROO’ (the stems of this root are patterned after the root -SK-) 

-VGŘ- graphite — Pattern of stems is the same as -XL- 

-VGW- ‘DEER’ (the stems of this root are patterned after the root -SK-) 

-VGY- acetone — Pattern of stems is the same as -XL 

-VKR- ‘ZEBRA’ (the stems of this root are patterned after the root -SK-) 

-VKŘ-emery powder — Pattern of stems is the same as -XL- 

-VKW- ‘MULE’ (the stems of this root are patterned after the root -SK-) 

-VKY- sesame (plant/seed of genus Sesamum) The pattern of stems for this root follows those of the root -QW-

-VL- ‘CONTAIN / HOLD / CONTENTS’ 


1. contain(ment) via gravity (e.g., basin) + contents Same as INFORMAL stems but in quasi-permanent 

2. contain(ment) via enclosure / surrounding conveyance + contents 

3. contain(ment) via imbuement / as ingredient; to “carry” [as integrated 

component or ingredient] + contents 



referring to contents 

same as above 3 stems referring to the 

container 

context or by intrinsic nature as opposed to the 

INFORMAL stems which convey an incidental or 

circumstantial context 

The SSD suffix provides the following distinctions: 1) bottle 2) jar/pot 3) barrel/cask 4) bin 5) vat / tub / basin [distinguished via SIZ 

affix] 6) can/tin 5) piece of furniture 8) purse/bag/satchel/pack 9) case/trunk 

-VM- ‘CURVATURE/BENDING/OPEN LINEAR FORMS OR SHAPES’ 


1. linear curve/curl/bent line at obtuse/open angle or tangential rate 1. obtuse angle [degree of size/openness + object or bounded 

[the line itself + object manifesting such a line] 

space manifesting such an angle] 

2. linear curve/curl/bent line at acute/sharp angle or tangential rate 2. acute angle [degree of size/narrownness + object or 

[the line itself + object manifesting such a line] 

bounded space manifesting such an angle] 

3. linear curve based on mathematical function (e.g., algebraic or 3. mathematically determined form made of lines (e.g., polygon, 

logarithmic) [the line itself + object manifesting such a line] quadrilateral, etc.) [pattern + object having the pattern] 


1. linear curve/curl/bent line at 1. object manifesting a linear 1. obtuse angle [in reference to its size, 1. obtuse angled object 

obtuse/open angle or tangential curve/curl/bent line at obtuse/open i.e., degree of openness] 

or bounded space 

rate [the line itself] 

angle or tangential rate 

2. linear curve/curl/bent line at 2. object manifesting a linear 2. acute angle [in reference to its size, 2. acute angled object 

acute/sharp angle or tangential curve/curl/bent line at acute/sharp i.e., degree of narrowness] or bounded space 

rate [the line itself] 

angle or tangential rate 

3. linear curve based on 3. object manifesting a linear 3. mathematically determined form 3. object manifesting a 

mathematical function (e.g., curve based on mathematical made of lines [the pattern] mathematically 

algebraic or logarithmic) [the function (e.g., algebraic or 

determined form made 

line itself] 

logarithmic) 

of lines 

Morphological Derivatives: fold, bend, pleat, zig-zag/“sawtooth”/serrated pattern, undulate/undulation, S-curve, wave(s)/wavy, bent, 

crooked, jagged, serrated, curvature 

The above root use PHASE and the iterative series of affixes to specify extent/number/pattern of folds. 

SSD Derivatives for INFORMAL Stem 3: parabola, hyperbola, exponential curve 

-VN- ‘DEGREE OF FUN/MERRIMENT/JOVIALITY’ 


1. fun/ merriment; feel/be merry, have fun (both cause/source + 

feeling derived) 

1. be jovial/jocular/jolly; express/manifest joviality, jollity 

2. frolic, skylark = aimless, innocent pursuit of fun and 2. formal amusement (activity or cause + feeling derived), e.g., 

amusement (both cause/source + feeling derived) 

from/at party, fete, show, performance, etc. 

3. whim, impulsive moment for purpose of amusement 3. revel; an instance of revelry 


Same as above 3 stems w/ Same as above 3 stems w/ Same as above 3 stems w/ Same as above 3 stems w/

focus on the cause focus on the feeling of merriment focus on the cause focus on the feeeling of 

derived 

merriment/amusement derived 

carouse, with wild abandon, spree, escapade, jaunt, romp, party, fete 

-VPŢ- epsom salts — Pattern of stems is the same as -XL- 

-VR- ‘GENERIC WATERLIFE ’ 


1. member of genus 1. member of genus as resource 






food/prey 









SSD Suffix used as follows: 1) egg, 2) meat, 3) skin/shell, 4) fluid/ink, 5) smoked meat, 6) as bait, 7) as fodder, 8) as ingredient in food 

or as fishmeal 9) cooked meat 

-VTY- millet -- The pattern of stems for this root follows those of the root -QW- 

-VW- ‘ “HEART” / “ESSENCE” / VALUES’ 


1. metaphorical/psychological seat of one’s personality and 1. personal value(s)/ what one holds dearest or as most important 

emotions, i.e., “heart”, “soul”, mind 

2. degree/depth of one’s emotions / “feelings” / experience a 

certain depth of emotion 

2. personal virtues/ personality traits 

3. essence; essential subjective/intangible qualities of an entity 3. personal principles 



to volitionally controllable to non-volitional aspect(s) to volitionally controllable to non-volitional aspect(s) 

aspect(s) thereof 

thereof 

aspect(s) thereof 

thereof 

Derivations: personality 

-VY- ‘GOOD/BENEFICIAL’ 


1. good [= beneficial to context] Same as INFORMAL stems but applied to concrete, 

2. good [= morally right; beneficial metaphysically] 

3. good [= advantageous/effective] 


range-of-moment tangible contexts, whereas 

INFORMAL stems are applied to general, 

metaphysical contexts.

Same as above 3 stems w/ focus on Same as above 3 stems w/ focus on 

act, event or situation itself desired outcome/reward/benefit 

-VZY- potash — Pattern of stems is the same as -XL- 

-VŽŘ- washing soda — Pattern of stems is the same as -XL- 

-VŽV- zinc white, zinc oxide — Pattern of stems is the same as -XL- 

-X- ‘VISION/SIGHT’ 


1. to sight (see + thing seen); sight 1. observe / visually examine + thing seen 

2. eye (functional organ + visible facial feature) 2. optical instrument + image 

3. visualize / imagine / picture a visual image in one’s mind + image 3. create image / render an image 


1. see; eyesight 1. a sight / image; to project an image 1. visually examine / observe 1. thing observed / visual 

evidence 

2. eye (functional organ) 2. eye (visible facial feature) 2. optical instrument 2. thing observed via optical 

instrument 

3. visualize / envision; act of 

visualization 

3. an image / a vision (in one’s mind) 3. create image 3. image created 

EXAMPLE MORPHOLOGICAL DERIVATIVES FROM THE ABOVE STEMS: look (at), view, glimpse, glance, ogle, gawk, stare, 

spy, espy, peep, voyeur, panorama, scrutinize (visually), camera, telescope, microscope, binoculars, magnifying glass, lens, glasses 

-XC h W- tea (plant/leaves of sp. Camellia sinensis) The pattern of stems for this root follows those of the root -QW- 

-XČ- ‘WEAPON’ 


1. hand-held or hand-thrown bladed weapon for cutting or stabbing 

[object + use] 

1. ballistically launched projectile [projectile + use] 

2. pointed-tipped handheld or propelled weapon for piercing [object + 2. explosive/incendiary substance/device 

use] 

[substance/device + use] 

3. blunt force-driven hand-held or propelled weapon [object + use] 3. gaseous/chemical/other weapon [substance + use] 


1. bladed weapon itself 1. use/function of bladed weapon 1. ballistically launched 1. use/function of ballistically 

projectile 

launched projectile 

2. pointed-tipped handheld or 2. use/function of pointed-tipped 2. explosive/incendiary 2. use/function of 

hand thrown weapon itself handheld or hand thrown weapon substance/device explosive/incendiary 

substance/device 

3. blunt force-driven hand-held 3. use/function of blunt force-driven 3. gaseous, chemical or 3. use/function of 

or hand-thrown weapon itself hand-held or hand-thrown weapon other weapon gaseous/chemical/other weapon 

SSD derivatives for Informal Stem 1: dagger, switchblade, axe, sword, scimitar, bayonet 

SSD derivatives for Informal Stem 2: arrow, lance, spear, javelin, harpoon 

SSD derivatives for Informal Stem 3: mace, club, hammer, catapult fodder, shot from slingshot. cudgel

SSD derivatives for Formal Stem 1: bullet, shell, shrapnel, cannonball, shot, rocket, self-propelled missile 

SSD derivatives for Formal Stem 2: bomb, grenade, plastic explosive, firecracker, dynamite stick 

SSD derivatives for Formal Stem 3: gas irritant/poison, poison chemical vapor, liquid irritant/poison, radioactive compound used as 

weapon 

NOTE: In Ithkuil, guns, catapults, slings and all other firearms or devices for shooting/hurling projectiles utilize Degree 1 of the UTE 

suffix ('tool/implement for doing X'), as it is not the firearm/shooting device that kills but the projectile shot/fired from it. Thus a gun is a 

"bullet-implementer". Care must be taken in assigning appropriate noun Cases or verbal Formats to stems associated with ballistic aerial 

weapons to distinguish the fact that it is the projectile that is the actual "weapon" and not the object it was fired/projected from. This is 

the good old "shoot bullets" vs. "shoot guns" vs. "shoot bullets from a gun" vs. "shoot him with a gun" vs. "shoot him with bullets from a 

gun" problem . This would translate into Ithkuil as "I bulleted him due to/enabled by a gun" or incorparatively as "I gun-bulleted him" 

using either the RESULTATIVE Format (literally translating as "I bulleted him as a result of concurrently gun-activating") or the 

INSTRUMENTATIVE Format (literally translating as "I bulleted him by the enabling means of gun-activating"). 

-XČW- fluorspar — Pattern of stems is the same as -XL- 

-XČ’W- gypsum — Pattern of stems is the same as -XL- 

-XL- ‘(QUASI-)SOLID SUBSTANCE (i.e., non-liquid & non-gaseous)’ 


1. elemental/fundamental manifestation (e.g., chunk, drop, flume, bit, 1. Same as INFORMAL Stem No. 1 but referring to 

piece, etc.) of a (quasi-)solid material substance/compound + substance in an abnormal liquid or gaseous state 

substance/compound itself 

2. elemental/fundamental manifestation (e.g., chunk, drop, flume, bit, 

piece, etc.) of a substance/compound derived from a another subtance + 

the derived substance itself 

2. thing/object composed of a (quasi-)solid material 

substance/compound + its function/purpose 

3. source of a (quasi-)solid material substance / compound 3. status of substance/compound as being or not being 

(quasi-) solid 


1. elemental manifestation (e.g., chunk, 

drop, flume, bit, piece, etc.) of a material 

substance 

2. elemental manifestation (e.g., chunk, 

drop, flume, bit, piece, etc.) of a 

substance/compound derived from 

refinement, distillation or processing of 

material substance or compound 

3. natural source of a (quasi-)solid 

material substance / compound 

1. substance/compound itself 1. substance in an 

abnormal liquid state 

2. derived substance / 

compound itself 

2. object created, 

molded or manufactured 

from a material 

substance 

3. derived or artificially created 3. solid (= hard to the 

source of a (quasi-) solid touch) 

material substance / compound 

1. substance in an abnormal 

gaseous state 

2. function/purpose of object 

created, molded or 

manufactured from a material 

substance 

3. quasi-solid (= non-gaseous 

and non-liquid but not hard; 

able to be deformed by touch) 

-XLW- ‘YELLOW-GREEN’ patterned after the root -XT’- SSD derivatives: 1) extra light 2) pale (= mixed with gray) 3) clear, 


-XM- ‘NINE’ 


1. a set or group of 9 / a nonet; to be 9 in number FORMAL stems for this root have the same meanings 

as the INFORMAL stems except that they are applied 

2. be/make nine-faceted / having 9 uses or aspects / nono- / ninefold 

in official, authorized, permanent contexts as described

3. ninth one in a sequence; be/make ninth in a sequence 


in Section 3.7 

1. 9 times the number of 

something; to nonuple / multiply 

by 9 

1. a ninth / divide by 9 or into 9 parts 

2. 9 times [= iterations]; to 2. be of or make into 9 parts; 



3. to the 9th power; raise to the 3. to the negative 9th power; to divide 

9th power 

by the 9th power of 

-XMY- lye or soda lye — Pattern of stems is the same as -XL- 

-XN- ‘BACK/DORSAL AREA OF BODY’ 


1. back/dorsal area (both body part and function) FORMAL stems are the same as INFORMAL stems but 

2. lower back/dorsal area (both body part and function) 

3. upper back & shoulder blade area 



physical body part 



applied to the dorsal area of a non-animal entity, e.g., a 

mechanical device, vehicle, plant, etc. 

NOTE: Due to the bilateral symmetry of this body part, the above stems are often used in the DUPLEX configuration, the UNIPLEX 

form referring only to one side of the bodily part or the other. 

-XP- ‘ONE-DIMENSIONAL (i.e., LINEAR) SHAPES/FORMS’ 


1. point / dot [solid/fixed/rigid] 1. point / dot [flexible/movable/fluid] 

2. line / linear [solid/fixed/rigid] 2. line / linear [flexible/movable/fluid] / string-like 

3. hoop / ring [solid/fixed/rigid] 3. hoop / ring [flexible/movable/fluid] / loop 





Same as above 3 stems Same as above 3 stems 

referring to an object having that referring to shape itself as 

shape or form 


-XPW- onion The pattern of stems for this root follows those of the root -QW- 


referring to an object having that 

shape or form 

-XP h W- kelp (seaweed of orders Laminariales and Fucales) The pattern of stems for this root follows those of the root -QW- 

-XP’W- oat (plant/seed of genus Avena) The pattern of stems for this root follows those of the root -QW- 

-XR- Gold — Pattern of stems is the same as -XL-

-XT- ‘EFFORT/WORK’ 


1. exert / expend energy 1. perform / operate / act / function 

2. work / labor / effort 2. job task / employment-related task; perform job task 

3. handiwork / craftsmanship 3. act of industry or enterprise 



referring to activity itself 


to result/product 


to activity itself 

to result/product 

EXAMPLE MORPHOLOGICAL DERIVATIVES FROM THE ABOVE STEMS: strain, struggle, “fight”, toil, strenuous, persevere, 

operation, job, achievement, industry, enterprise, employment, employer, employee 

-XTĻ- ‘LIQUID (OTHER THAN WATER) IN STATIC SETTING’ -- The stems of this root are patterned after those of the root - 

XW-. 

-XT’- ‘RED’ 


1. something red plus the color red same as INFORMAL stems but referring to something 

2. something light-red plus the color light-red 

3. something dark-red plus the color light-red 


tinted/painted/stained red 

1. something red 1. red 

2. something light red 2. light red 

3. something dark red 3. dark red 

-XTh- ‘MASTERY/AUTHORITY/SERVITUDE/OBEDIENCE’ 


1. act/state of mastery/ownership/overlordship + 

servitude/subservience/subjugation to that mastery 

1. military command/office + obedience/following of orders 

2. act/state of supervision or formal oversight + following of 2. lordship, class-based rule/oversight by noble right + 

orders/instructions 

recognition/submission to that rule 

3. take charge of; act/state of leadership + following that 3. formal authorization, appointed/elected authority / political 

leadership 

authority; being official, being authorized + recognition/compliance 

with that authority 


1. act/state of mastery, 1. servitude, subservience, 1. military command/office 1. obedience/following of 

ownership, overlordship subjugation to mastery or 

overlordship 

military orders 

2. act/state of supervision 2. following of orders or instructions 2. lordship, class-based rule/oversight 2. recognition/submission to 

or formal oversight from supervisor/overseer by noble claim or “right” 

claim of noble rule 

3. take charge of; act/state 3. follow/obey a leader 3. formal authorization, 

3. recognition/compliance 

of leadership 

appointed/elected authority / political with appointed, elected, 

authority; being official, being 

authorized 

official/political authority 

EXAMPLE MORPHOLOGICAL DERIVATIVES FROM THE ABOVE STEMS: boss, supervisor, master, owner, lord,

commander, leader, person-in-charge, officer 

SSD derivatives for Formal Stem 1: general, commodore, admiral, colonel, major, captain, lieutenant 

-XT h W- mustard (plant of sp. Brassica hirta / B. nigra / B. juncea) The pattern of stems for this root follows those of the root -QW- 

-XW- ‘WATER IN STATIC SETTING’ 


1. container of water 1. (standing) body of water 

2. water/moisture located in confined space 2. ambient/atmospheric water/moisture 

3. (something) imbued/drenched with water; waterlogged 3. artificial body of water (e.g., reservoir) 


1. some water in/from a 1. holder/container which holds 1. water component of 1. the basin or bed of a body of water 

container 

water 

a body of water 

2. degree of moisture 2. the volume/space occupied by 2. water/moisture in the 2. volume of air(space) containing the water 

contained 

water/moisture 

air or atmosphere or moisture 

3. the water imbued 

within an object, 

substance, or substrate 

3. the object, substance or 

substrate imbued/soaked with 

water 

3. water within an 

artificial body of water 

3. the basis or bed of an artificial body of 

water, e.g., reservoir bed 

MORPHOLOGICAL DERIVATIONS: lake, pool, pond, tern, tank, sink, canteen, cistern, puddle, sea, ocean, water vapor 

-XX- ‘REPUTE/NOTORIETY’ 


1. repute/reputation 1. distinction/mark 

2. public image/persona 2. degree of eminence [= power or influence] 

3. notoriety [= degree of renown/recognition by others] 3. degree of prestige/status 



to perspective of person 

reputed 

same as above 3 stems referring same as above 3 stems referring same as above 3 stems referring 

to perspective of audience to perspective of person 

reputed 

to perspective of audience 

This root is usually used in conjunction with the NOTORIETY affix. 

-Xh- ‘FACT/KNOW/LEARN/UNDERSTAND/EXPERTISE’ 


1. ontological fact; observe/notice an ontological fact 1. study/practice [= formal process to acquire skill or knowledge 

] 

2. epistemological/conventionalized fact; know fact 2. realize/understand/comprehension via act of insight 

3. experience/proficiency [= know via familiarity] 3. understand [= know via sharing/communication of knowledge] 



focus on act or faculty of 

knowing 


focus on the fact itself, the thing 

known 


focus on act or faculty of 

study/understanding 


focus on the fact itself, the thing 

studied or understood

INFORMAL Stem Derivations: find out, discover, determine, wisdom 

FORMAL Stem Derivations: learn, insight, enlightenment, education, school, scholar, student 

-XhC h W- teff The pattern of stems for this root follows those of the root -QW- 

-XhČW- ginseng The pattern of stems for this root follows those of the root -QW- 

-XhL- ‘oil (petroleum)’ — Pattern of stems is the same as -XL- 

-XhLY- RARE NATURAL ELEMENT FOUND ONLY IN COMPOUNDS OR MIXED ORES -- SSD Derivatives specify exact 

element: 1) Indium 2) Scandium 3) Yttrium 4) Tantalum 5) source compound for such elements 6) 7) 8) 9) primary source ore in 

which element is found — Pattern of stems is the same as -XL- 

-XhM- ‘rubber’ — Pattern of stems is the same as -XL- 

-XhMY- aspirin — Pattern of stems is the same as -XL- 

-XhNW- hemp, marijuana (plant/material of sp. Cannabis sativa) The pattern of stems for this root follows those of the root -QW- 

-XhNY- silica — Pattern of stems is the same as -XL- 

-XhPŘ- saltpeter — Pattern of stems is the same as -XL- 

-XhPW- soya, soybean (plant/seed of sp. Glycine max) The pattern of stems for this root follows those of the root -QW- 

-XhP’- Potassium — Pattern of stems is the same as -XL- 

-XhT- ‘plastic’ — Pattern of stems is the same as -XL- 

-XhTR- pepper (hot/sweet/bell pepper -- plant/pod of genus Capsicum) The pattern of stems for this root follows those of the root - 

QW- 

-XhTŘ- magnesia — Pattern of stems is the same as -XL- 

-XhTW- tobacco (plant/leaves of sp. Nicotiana tabacum) The pattern of stems for this root follows those of the root -QW 

-XhT’- Copper — Pattern of stems is the same as -XL- 

-XhT’W- amaranth The pattern of stems for this root follows those of the root -QW- 

-XhT h - Iron — Pattern of stems is the same as -XL- 

-XhW- pepper (black -- plant/seed of sp. Piper nigrum) The pattern of stems for this root follows those of the root -QW- 

-Z- ‘MIND’ 


1. mind / mental (faculty + use) 1. sentience / capacity for self awareness and self-identity + act 

of self-reflection 

2. perception / awareness (faculty + use) 2. conscious + subconscious mind 

3. instinct (faculty + practice) 3. intellect / wits /mind as efficacious tool 


1. mental faculty / mind 1. application of mental faculty; 

act of mentation / use one’s 

mind 

2. faculty of perception or 

awareness 

2. use of perception or 

awareness; to perceive / be 

aware of 

3. instinct 3. instinctual act; to act 

instinctively 

1. feeling of sentience 1. act of self-reflection 

2. conscious mind 2. subconscious mind 

3. intellect; use one’s intellect 3. product of one’s intellect / 

intellectual feat 

EXAMPLE MORPHOLOGICAL DERIVATIVES FROM THE ABOVE STEMS: philosophy, metaphysics 


-ZB- ‘CONFLICT-BASED HOSTILITY’ 

FORMAL Stems 

1. hostility / anger / be angry [both emotion and 1. authoritative/official (i.e., police/military, etc.) use of force / act of 

display/actions] 

aggression 

2. threat(en) [reason for plus act] 2. threat of official/authoritative use of force 

3. defend oneself / defense [reason for plus act] 3. official/authoritative defense 


1. feeling of anger 1. show/display of anger 1. rationale/cause behind military 1. official/authoritative act of 

agression 

force/agression 

2. cause/rationale for threat 2. effect of threat or 2. cause/rationale for 

2. effect of official/authoritative/ 

being threatened official/authoritative/ military threat military threat or being threatened 

3. situation/rationale for 3. defend / take 3. situation/rationale for 

3. defend / take 

defensive act 

defensive action official/authoritative/ military defensive official/authoritative/ military 

act 

defensive action 

Derivations: peeved, conflict, intimidate, fight, battle, skirmish, military operation or campaign, war 

-ZBŘ- iodine — Pattern of stems is the same as -XL- 

-ZBW- hairy texture/sensation -- the stems of this root are patterned after the root -Š-. This root is usually used with the 


-ZD- ‘MANNERS/DECORUM/DIGNITY’ 


1. well-mannered, well-behaved; display a sense of manners 1. decorum/cultural appropriateness; have/display a sense of 

decorum, politeness and civility 

2. dignified; have/display a sense of dignity 2. courtly/stately/refined; stateliness 

3. noble, distinguished, cultivated; have/display a noble, 3. aristocratic, well-bred; having/displaying a sense of 

distinguished or cultivated air 

aristocracy, nobility and breeding 


same as above 3 stems w/ focus same as above 3 stems w/ focus same as above 3 stems w/ focus same as above 3 stems w/ focus 

on the cause 

on the effect 

on the cause 

on the effect 

Morphological derivatives: polite(ness); courtesy/courteous 

-ZDL- formalin, aqueous formaldehyde solution — Pattern of stems is the same as -XL-

-ZDR- ‘BEAR’ (the stems of this root are patterned after the root -SK-) 

-ZDŘ- milk of magnesium — Pattern of stems is the same as -XL- 

-ZDW- ‘COYOTE’ (the stems of this root are patterned after the root -SK-) 

-ZDY- benzene — Pattern of stems is the same as -XL- 

-ZG- ‘TRAGICOMIC-BASED VOCAL/FACIAL GESTURE’ 


1. smile [both physical process and emotional/social 

connotation] 

1. frown [both physical process and social connotation] 

2. laugh [both physical process and the accompanying 

sound] 

2. whine, moan [both physical process and the accompanying sound] 

3. “light up” (referring to one’s face’) [both physical process 3. crestfallen look, look of dejection (referring to one’s face’) [both 

and emotional/social implication] 

physical process and emotional/social implication] 


1. smile [physical process] 1. smile [emotional/social 

connotation] 

1. frown [physical process] 1. frown 

2. laugh [physical process] 2. laugh [sound] 2. whine, moan [physical process] 2. whine, moan [sound] 

3. “light up” (referring to one’s 3. “light up” (referring to 3. crestfallen look, look of 3. crestfallen look, look of 

face’) [physical process] one’s face’) 

dejection (referring to one’s face’) dejection (referring to one’s face’) 

[emotional/social 

implication] 

[physical process] 

[emotional/social implication] 

SSD DERIVATIONS: scowl 

-ZGR- ‘DONKEY’ (the stems of this root are patterned after the root -SK-) 

-ZGŘ- NATURALLY OCCURRING ACTINIDE OR UNSTABLE/RADIOACTIVE HEAVY ELEMENT -- SSD Derivatives 

specify exact element: 1) Actinium 2) Thorium 3) Protactinium 4) Neptunium 5) any radioactive isotope of an element 6) Astatine 7) 

Francium 8) Polonium 9) Technetium — Pattern of stems is the same as -XL- 

-ZGW- ‘SHEEP’ (the stems of this root are patterned after the root -SK-) 

-ZL- ‘INVERSION’ 


1. orientational inversion FORMAL Stems for this root have the same meanings 

2. unidirectional topological inversion [= mirror-image] 

as INFORMAL stems except that context is 

3. three-dimensional topological inversion [= inside-out] 


1. orientational inversion along y-axis 1. mirror-image inversion along x-axis 

formal/authorized/permanent/abstract as described in 

Sec. 3.7 

[= backwards] 

[= lateral/sideways] 

2. mirror-image inversion along y- 2. orientational inversion along z-axis 

axis [= backwards] 

[= upside down] 

3. orientational inversion along x-axis 3. mirror-image inversion along z-axis 

[= lateral/sideways] 

[= upside down]

-ZM- ‘TEN THOUSAND’ 


1. a set or group of 10000; to be 10000 in number FORMAL stems for this root have the same 

2. be/make 10000 -faceted / having 10000 uses or aspects / 10000 -fold meanings as the INFORMAL stems except that 

3. 10000th in a sequence; be/make 10000th in a sequence 




1. 10000 times the number of 1. a 10000th / divide by 10000 or into 10000 

something; to multiply by 10000 parts 

2. 10000 times [= iterations]; to 2. be of or make into 10000 parts; 

be/make/do 10000 times separate(d) into 10000 parts 

3. to the 10000 power; raise to 

the 10000 power 

3. to the negative 10000 power; to divide by 

the 10000 power of 

-ZMY- rubbing alcohol, isopropyl alcohol — Pattern of stems is the same as -XL- 

-ZN- burning, heat conductive texture/sensation -- the stems of this root are patterned after the root -Š-. This root is usually used with 


-ZŇ- slimy texture/sensation -- the stems of this root are patterned after the root -Š-. This root is usually used with the 


-ZP- rubbery texture/sensation -- the stems of this root are patterned after the root -Š-. This root is usually used with the 


-ZP’- carrot The pattern of stems for this root follows those of the root -QW- 

-ZP h - asbestos Pattern of stems is the same as -XL- 

-ZQ- slippery texture/sensation -- the stems of this root are patterned after the root -Š-. This root is usually used with the 


-ZQ’- ‘brass’ — Pattern of stems is the same as -XL- 

-ZQ h - ‘vinegar’ — Pattern of stems is the same as -XL- 

-ZR- ‘THROAT (interior tract of neck)/GULLET’ 


1. throat (= interior respiratory/digestive tract of neck) FORMAL stems are the same as 

2. gullet (= tube- or trumpet-shaped digestive conduit from oral cavity) 

3. interior chamber of throat (containing pharynx, larynx, plus epiglottal and glottal structures) 


Same as above 3 stems referring to physical Same as above 3 stems referring to function 

body part 

INFORMAL stems but applied to 

“throat/gullet” of a non-animal 

entity, e.g., a mechanical device, 

complex 3-dimensional form, 

plant, etc. 

SSD derivatives: pharynx, larynx, syrinx, epiglottis, glottis, trachea/windpipe, vocal fold/chord, hyoid bone / “Adam’s apple”

-ZT- ‘coal’ — Pattern of stems is the same as -XL- 

-ZV- ‘ROMANTIC AND/OR SEXUAL RELATIONSHIP’ 


1. state of sexual/romantic relationship 1. significant other / boyfriend or girlfriend 

2. erotic/sexual act; engage in a sexual/erotic activity 2. lover / sex partner 

3. to date / to court; pursue romantic relationship 3. dating partner 


1. sexual/romantic relationship 1. emotional / hormonal basis 1. boyfriend 1. girlfriend 

itself 

underlying sexual relationship 

2. sexual/erotic act itself 2. feeling of lust or other motive 2. male lover 

underlying sexual act 

2. female lover 

3. particular act involved in 

dating or courtship 

3. feeling of hope or long-term 

goal of monogamous 

relationship or marriage 

underlying pursuit of romantic 

relationship 

have sex, make love, cheat, monogamous relationship 

3. male dating partner 3. female dating partner 

-ZVW- NATURALLY OCCURRING ELEMENT FOUND ONLY IN COMPOUNDS OR MIXED ORES -- SSD Derivatives 

specify exact element: 1) Barium 2) Caesium (Cesium) 3) Hafnium 4) Niobium 5) Rhenium 6) Rhodium 7) Ruthenium 8) 

Strontium 9) Tellurium — Pattern of stems is the same as -XL- 

-ZVY- SYNTHETIC ACTINIDE ELEMENT -- SSD Derivatives specify exact element: 1) Americium 2) Curium 3) Berkelium 4) 

Californium 5) Einsteinium 6) Fermium 7) Mendelevium 8) Nobelium 9) Lawrencium — Pattern of stems is the same as -XL- 

-ZW- ‘top, peak, summit’ The pattern of stems for this root follow those of the root -G-. 

-ZY- wispy/wafting texture/sensation -- the stems of this root are patterned after the root -Š-. This root is usually used with the 


-ZZ- soft like a cushion texture/sensation -- the stems of this root are patterned after the root -Š-. This root is usually used with the 


-Ż- ‘DAY/NIGHT’ 


1. day [= 24-hour period] 1. calendrical day; 24-hour day designated for some human-defined 

purpose or societal convention 

2. sky 2. the sky on a designated/calendrical day 

3. degree of sunlight [use with EXN, EXD, SUF affixes, 

etc. from Sec. 7.7.6] 

3. degree of sunlight on a designated/calendrical day 


1. daytime 1. nighttime 1. daytime of calendrical day 1. nighttime of calendrical day 

2. daytime sky 2. nighttime sky 2. daytime sky of calendrical day 2. nighttime sky of calendrical day 

3. daylight 3. natural darkness 3. daylight on a calendrical day 3. natural darkness on a calendrical 

day

EXAMPLE MORPHOLOGICAL DERIVATIVES FROM THE ABOVE STEMS: dawn, sunrise, daybreak, evening, sunset, twilight, 

morning, evening, afternoon, mid-day, noontime, midnight, the “wee” hours [= Spanish ‘madrugada’] 

The SSD suffix used with FORMAL Stems is as follows: 1) day of the week, weekday 2) workday, working day 3) personal day off, 

personal holiday, vacation day 4) scheduled holiday, societal day off 5) day of month 6) day commemorating a person, place, event, etc. 

7) one's birthday anniversary 8) cyclic/periodic day (e.g., "payday," "milking day," "visiting day," etc.) 9) day of the year 

FORMAL Stem 1 of this root is used with the SPS/1 suffix to give the word for ‘week’ and the SPS/4 suffix to give the word for 

‘month.’ 

NOTE: Use of the FORMAL stems of this root is often in conjunction with Functional (FNC) Context, given that calendrical concepts 

and cyclic/periodic activities associated with particular days are societal conventions as opposed to being natural ontological phenomena. 

-ŻB- ‘tar’ — Pattern of stems is the same as -XL- 

-ŻG- ‘steel’ — Pattern of stems is the same as -XL- 

-ŻK- complexly textured + hard/honeycombed (like handling a pine cone) texture/sensation -- the stems of this root are patterned after 

the root -Š-. This root is usually used with the DEGREE/EXTENT suffix. 

-ŻK’- prickly texture/sensation -- the stems of this root are patterned after the root -Š-. This root is usually used with the 


-ŻN- ‘GROWTH/CULTIVATION/HUSBANDRY’ 


1. grow; stage of growth 1. stage of plant growth; grow (plant) 

2. raise; look after; foster; function as guardian 2. till/cultivate/raise crop; stage of cultivation (e.g., etc.) 

3. nurture / provide requirements for growth; husbandry 3. to garden/specialized act of plant nurturage (e.g., prune, graft, 

weed, etc.) 



referring to act itself 


referring to (anticipated) 

result/effect 


referring to act itself 

Stems of this root are often used with the MAT suffix 

SSD Derivatives for FORMAL Stem 2: plow, sow, irrigate, fertilize; hoe, reap, pick, dry, store 

SSD Derivatives for FORMAL Stem 3: prune, graft, weed, transplant, thin out 

Morphological Derivatives: shepherd, garden, gardener, field (of crop), crop, harvest, plow/plough, hoe, etc. 

-ŻP’- ‘jade’ — Pattern of stems is the same as -XL- 


to (anticipated) result/effect 

-ŻP h - cartilaginous texture/sensation -- the stems of this root are patterned after the root -Š-. This root is usually used with the 


-ŻQ- needle-like sharpness (e.g., a cactus) texture/sensation -- the stems of this root are patterned after the root -Š-. This root is usually 


-ŻQ’- Plutonium — Pattern of stems is the same as -XL- 

-ŻQ h - grainy/granular texture/sensation -- the stems of this root are patterned after the root -Š-. This root is usually used with the


-ŻŘ- ‘quartz’ — Pattern of stems is the same as -XL- 

-ŻT- “pins & needles” sensation texture/sensation -- the stems of this root are patterned after the root -Š-. This root is usually used with 


-ŻR- bristly texture/sensation -- the stems of this root are patterned after the root -Š-. This root is usually used with the 


-ŻV- potato The pattern of stems for this root follows those of the root -QW- 

-Ž- ‘LOVE/AFFECTION/EMOTIONAL BOND’ 


1. act of affection / display of fondness or endearment 1. like / value as source of emotional fulfillment 

2. familial/genetically-tied bond of love 2. love of country, heritage, race, etc. 

3. act/feeling of romantic love 3. love of or emotional allegiance to abstract idea (e.g., 

freedom, life, wealth) 



focus on act or display 


the emotion/feeling itself 

Same as above 3 stems w/ Same as above 3 stems w/ focus 

focus on act or display on the emotion/feeling itself 

Morphological Derivations: love, tenderness, infatuation, obsession, passion, passionate 

SSD Derivatives from INFORMAL Stem 1: kiss, embrace, hug, hold hand, cuddle, caress, massage, pat, wink 

-ŽB- feathery texture/sensation -- the stems of this root are patterned after the root -Š-. This root is usually used with the 


-ŽBŘ- sponge-like texture/sensation -- the stems of this root are patterned after the root -Š-. This root is usually used with the 


-ŽD- slushy texture/sensation -- the stems of this root are patterned after the root -Š-. This root is usually used with the 


-ŽDR- papery texture/sensation -- the stems of this root are patterned after the root -Š-. This root is usually used with the 


-ŽDW- fluffy/puffy/airy texture/sensation -- the stems of this root are patterned after the root -Š-. This root is usually used with the 


-ŽG- mushy texture/sensation -- the stems of this root are patterned after the root -Š-. This root is usually used with the 


-ŽGL- woolly texture/sensation -- the stems of this root are patterned after the root -Š-. This root is usually used with the 


-ŽGR- dusty texture/sensation -- the stems of this root are patterned after the root -Š-. This root is usually used with the 


-ŽGY- ammonia — Pattern of stems is the same as -XL- 

-ŽK’- viscous texture/sensation -- the stems of this root are patterned after the root -Š-. This root is usually used with the 

DEGREE/EXTENT suffix.

-ŽLW- plaster of Paris — Pattern of stems is the same as -XL- 

-ŽM- ‘PRIDE/EGO/RESPECT’ 


1. feel proud (of oneself); feeling of pride (in oneself) 1. self-esteem 

2. feel proud (of someone); feeling of pride (of someone) 2. respect/admiration 

3. one’s feelings/sensibilities (e.g., to hurt one’s feelings) 3. ego/sense of self-identity; to sense (some)one’s ego / to gain 

an impression of someone’s self-identity 



on the cause 


on the feeling 


on the cause 


on the feeling 

Morphological Derivatives: arrogance/arrogant, haughtiness/haughty, pomposity/pompous, put on airs, vainglorious; 

magisterial/imperious 

-ŽMY- SYNTHETIC HEAVY ELEMENT -- SSD Derivatives specify exact element: 1) Rutherfordium 2) Dubnium 3) Seaborgium 

4) Bohrium 5) Hassium 6) Meitnerium 7) Darmstadtium 8) Roentgenium 9) trans-Roentgenium synthetic element (i.e., Ununbium, 

Ununtrium, etc.) — Pattern of stems is the same as -XL- 

-ŽNY- HEAVIER LANTHANIDE ELEMENT -- SSD Derivatives specify exact element: 1) Dysprosium 2) Holmium 3) Erbium 4) 

Thulium 5) Ytterbium 6) Lutetium 7) 8) 9) lanthanide-based compound — Pattern of stems is the same as -XL-’ 

-ŽP h - powdery texture/sensation -- the stems of this root are patterned after the root -Š-. This root is usually used with the 


-ŽQ- tingly texture/sensation -- the stems of this root are patterned after the root -Š-. This root is usually used with the 


-ŽQ’- Uranium — Pattern of stems is the same as -XL- 

-ŽQ h - sticky texture/sensation -- the stems of this root are patterned after the root -Š-. This root is usually used with the 


-ŽVW- LANTHANIDE ELEMENT -- SSD Derivatives specify exact element: 1) Lanthanum 2) Cerium 

3) Praseodymium 4) Neodymium 5) Promethium 6) Samarium 7) Europium 8) Gadolinium 9) Terbium — Pattern of stems is the same 

as -XL- 

-ŽW- soft like fur texture/sensation -- the stems of this root are patterned after the root -Š-. This root is usually used with the 


-ŽY- curvaceous/sensual (= soft/smooth/squeezable/rounded) texture/sensation -- the stems of this root are patterned after the root -Š-. 

This root is usually used with the DEGREE/EXTENT suffix. 


12 The Number 

System

FAQs 1 Phonology 5 Verb Morphology 9 Syntax List of 

Abbreviations 

Links of 

Interest 

Updates / 

News 

2 Morpho- 

Phonology 

3 Basic 

Morphology 

6 More Verb 

Morphology 

7 Suffixes 

10 Lexico- 

Semantics 


System 



The Lexicon 

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brief portions of the contents of this website in published, web-accessible, or commercially distributed articles, papers or 





Links of 

Interest 

Updates / 

News 

2 Morpho- 

Phonology 

3 Basic 

Morphology 

6 More Verb 

Morphology 

7 Suffixes 


10 Lexico- 

Semantics 


System 


Grammar 



cowrote 



the 


features 


computer.) 

12 The Number 

System 

List of 

Abbreviations 

The Lexicon 

My favorite sites of other conlangers (i.e., creators of constructed languages), plus conlanging resource 

sites: 

David Peterson’s page 

Kelen by Sylvia Sotomayor 

Teonaht by Sally Caves 

Kalieda by Rik Roots 

Virtual Verduria by Mark Rosenfelder (a.k.a. Zompist) 

Dritok by Donald Boozer 

Texts

Wenedyk by Jan van Steenbergen 

gjâ-zym-byn (gzb) by Jim Henry 

Qþyn|gài by Henrik Theiling 

Example of a Conlang Relay 

(Remember the old "telephone" game? We conlangers play it with entire languages! 

Note: This relay from 2008 uses the old version of Ithkuil) 

The Language Creation Society 

The Language Construction Kit 

See my talk on cognitive linguistics from the First Language Creation Conference - 2006 

See my talk on phonaesthetics from the Second Language Creation Conference - 2007 

Here are some eclectic web sites which I think reflect my geeky, somewhat nihilist, and occasionally 

romantic personality (with a little crass commercialism thrown in while I’ve got your attention!): 

My favorite living fine artist 

Little Purple Circles (my favorite alternative rock band) 

Incredible images of the Martian surface 

A quick-and-dirty primer on quantum entanglement 

The ultimate smartphone! 

The annual Bulwer-Lytton Contest 

The Online Museum of Bad Art 

Despair.com 

The latest must-have gadget! 

What it means to be in Web Design 

The horrors of DHMO (don’t miss the FAQs!) 

Misspelled tatoos 

Worst LP album cover art 

Awkward Family Photos 

http://snarxiv.org/vs-arxiv/ 

The WolframAlpha Computational Knowledge Engine 

Survival Research Laboratories (I’ve been a fan of these guys since the early 1980s) 

Timecube (ADVISORY: this site is a journey into the living hell of a very disturbed mind) 

Need a guide in Kyiv, Ukraine? Look up Handy Andy for all your tourism and interpreting needs! 

A few of my favorite things . . .

Home Introduction 4 Case Morphology 8 Adjuncts 12 The Number 

System 


Links of 

Interest 

Updates / 

News 

2 Morpho- 

Phonology 

3 Basic 

Morphology 

6 More Verb 

Morphology 

7 Suffixes 

10 Lexico- 

Semantics 


System 

List of 

Abbreviations 

The Lexicon 




webpages for purposes of review, commentary or analysis, provided you give full attribution to the author and this website. 

Texts

logical language - Developers

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