Seed Health Management for Better Productivity - Govind Ballabh ...

(Seed Health Management for Better Productivity)reference books, working sheets on diseases, bulletins, extension pamphlets, etc. for the benefit ofU.G. and P.G. students of plant pathology as well as for the farmers.(A) Hindi – (10) (B) English– (33)• Plant Disease 8 th Edition by Dr. R.S. Singh• An Introduction to Principles of Plant Pathology 4 th Edition by Dr. R.S. Singh• Plant Pathogens: The Fungi by Dr. R.S. Singh• Plant Pathogens: The Viruses & Viroids by Dr. R.S. Singh• Plant Pathogens: The Prokaryotes by Dr. R.S. Singh• Integrated Disease Management by Dr. R.S. Singh• Diseases of Fruit Crops by Dr. R.S. Singh• Fungicides in Plant Disease Control by Drs. P.N. Thapliyal and Y.L. Nene• Diseases of Annual Edible Oilseed Crops Vol.-I by Dr. S.J. Kolte• Diseases of Annual Edible Oilseed Crops Vol.-II by Dr. S.J. Kolte• Diseases of Annual Edible Oilseed Crops Vol.-III by Dr. S.J. Kolte• Diseases of Linseed & Fibre Flex by Dr. S.J. Kolte• Castor Diseases & Crop Improvement by Dr. S.J. Kolte• Plant Diseases of International Importance Vol.I: Diseases of Cereals & Pulses byDrs. U.S. Singh, A. N. Mukhopadhyay, J. Kumar, and H.S. Chaube• Plant Diseases of International Importance Vol.II: Diseases of Vegetables & Oil SeedCrops by Drs. H.S. Chaube, U.S. Singh, A. N. Mukhopadhyay & J. Kumar• Plant Diseases of International Importance Vol.III: Diseases of Fruit Crops by Drs. J.Kumar, H.S. Chaube, U. S. Singh & A. N. Mukhopadhyay• Plant Diseases of International Importance Vol.IV: Diseases of Sugar, Forest &Plantation Crops Drs A. N. Mukhopadhyay, J. Kumar, H.S. Chaube & U.S. Singh• Pathogenesis & Host Specificity in Plant Diseases Vol.I: Prokaryotes by Drs. U. S.Singh, Dr. Keisuke Kohmoto and R. P. Singh• Pathogenesis & Host Specificity in Plant Diseases Vol. II: Eukaryotes by Drs. KeisukeKohmoto, U.S. Singh and R. P. Singh• Pathogenesis & Host Specificity in Plant Diseases Vol. III: Viruses & Viroids by R. P.Singh, U.S. Singh and Keisuke Kohmoto.• Aromatic Rices by Drs. R.K. Singh, U.S. Singh and G. S. Khush• A Treatise on the Scented Rices of India by Drs. R.K. Singh and U.S. Singh• Scented Rices of Uttar Pradesh & Uttaranchal by Drs. R. K. Singh and U.S. Singh• Plant Disease Management : Principles & practices by Drs. H.S. Chaube and U.S.Singh• Molecular Methods in Plant Pathology by Drs. R. P. Singh and U.S. Singh• Soil Fungicides Vol.-I by Drs. A.P. Sinha and Kishan Singh• Soil Fungicides Vol.-II by Drs. A.P. Sinha and Kishan Singh- 13 -

(Seed Health Management for Better Productivity)• Experimental & Conceptual Plant Pathology Vol.I: Techniques by Dr. R.S. Singh, U. S.Singh, W.M. Hess &D.J. Weber• Experimental & Conceptual Plant Pathology Vol. II: Pathogenesis and HostSpecificity by Dr. R.S. Singh, U. S. Singh, W.M. Hess & D.J. Weber• Experimental & Conceptual Plant Pathology Vol.III: Defense by Dr. R.S. Singh, U. S.Singh, W.M. Hess &D.J. Weber• Seed Pathology, 2 volumes by Dr. V.K. Agarwal• Phytopathological Techniques by Dr. K. Vishunavat and S.J. Kolte• Crop Diseases & Their Management by H.S. Chaube & V.S. PundhirLaboratory Manuals published:Introductory Plant Path (UG)Crop Diseases & Their ManagementDiagnosis of Plant DiseasesIdentification of Plant Disease& their controlPhytovirologyIntroductory Plant Pathology (UG): H. S. Chaube, V. S. Pundhir, S. N. Vishwakarma: A. N. Tewari: A. N. Tewari: A. N. Tewari: Y.P.S. Rathi, H. S. Tripathi & P. Kumar: YPS Rathi, P. Kumar & H. S. TripathiRESEARCHResearch work in the department began since the inception of the University. With theaddition of new programme and staff strength, the research activities got diversifiedencompassing, Ecology of soil borne plant pathogens, Epidemiology and Forecasting, Biologicalcontrol and IPM, Molecular Biology and Population Biology, Seed Pathology, Fungicides,Nematology, Phytovirology, Phytobacteriology and Biology & Technology of MushroomProduction. The department has several research projects funded by national and internationalfunding agencies. The department is guiding the research work at the regional station such asBharsar, Kashipur, Lohaghat, Majhera and Ranichauri on pathological aspects. The scientists ofthe department have won many national and international awards.The department is actively engaged in the research work on both fundamental and appliedaspects in frontier areas of plant pathology. The plant protection technology developed by thedepartment is being effectively communicated to the farming community of state of Uttaranchal.The department has to cater the needs of not only farmers of the plain but also of hills located atdifferent altitudes. In hills crops, diseases and cropping practices vary a lot depending on altitudesand they are quite different from plain. This offers a big challenge to the Centre of AdvancedStudies in Plant Pathology.- 14 -

(Seed Health Management for Better Productivity)Significant Contribution• Cause and control of Khaira disease of rice• Development of selective media for isolation and enumeration of Pythium and Fusarium• Mechanism of biological control in soil amended with organic matters• Biology and characterization of legume viruses• Ecology of soil – borne pathogens (Fusarium, Pythium, Rhizoctonia solani, Sclerotium rofsii)• Mechanism of absorption, translocation and distribution of fungicides in plants• Methods for quantitative estimation of fungicides like metalaxyl, organotin compounds, carbendazimetc.• Hormonal action of fungicides• Phenolics in Plant disease resistance• Biological control with introduced antagonists• Etiology & management of mango malformation• Etiology and management of shisham wilt.• Epidemiology and Genetics of Karnal bunt fungus• Population biology of rice blast fungus, Magnaporthe grisea• Mechanism of intra-field variability in Rhizoctonia solani• Soil solarization• Mushrooms – Development of strains, and production technologies• Role of Ps. fluorescens in sporophores development of A. bisporus• Compost formulation with Sugarcane baggase + Wheat Straw, 2:1 developed to reduce cost ofcultivation of Agaricus bisporus.• Developed chemical treatment (Formalin 15ml + Bavistin 0.5g/10kg compost) of long methodcompost to avoid the moulds in cultivation of A. bisporus.• Recommended supplementation of substrate with 2% mixture of Neem cake + Wheat straw + Ricebran + Soybean meal for Pleurotus spp. cultivation.• Standardized cultivation of Auricularia polytricha using sterilized wheat straw supplemented withwheat bran (5%).• Standardized cultivation of Lentinula edodes with substratepopular sawdust.• Systemic induced resistance in brassicae.• Use of siderophore producing Pseudomonads for early fruitingand enhanced yield of Agaricus bisporus.Lentinula edodes• Use of Pseudomonas fluorescens for control of mushroomdiseases caused by Verticillium, Sepedonium, Trichoderma and Fusarium.• Pleurotus sajor-caju and P. florida recommended for commercial cultivation using soybean straw /Paddy straw / Wheat straw / Mustard straw.• Standardized cultivation technology for Hypsizygus almarius using wheat straw supplemented withwheat bran.- 15 -

(Seed Health Management for Better Productivity)• Standardized cultivation of Calocybe indica using wheatstraw as a substrate with casing of FYM + Spent Compost+ Sand (2:1:1).• A relay cropping schedule developed for Tarai region ofUttaranchal: two crops Agaricus bisporus (Sept. - March), fourcrops Pleurotus spp. (Sept.- Nov. and Feb.,- April) and threecrops of Calocybe indica (March-October).Calocybe indica• Developed two strains of Agaricus bisporus, Pant 31 and Pant 52, now included in multilocationaltesting under coordinated trials.• Development and commercialization of seven hybrids of oyster mushroom.• Associated with multilocational testing and release of the strains NCS-100, NCS-102, NCH-102 ofA. bisporus.• 120 mushroom species from different locations in Uttaranchalhave been collected and preserved in the museum of thecentre.• Of the collected mushrooms five Auricularia, four species ofPleurotus and two species of Ganoderma have been broughtunder cultivation.• Developed / standardized technology for production of traditional Ganoderma lucidumvalue added mushroom products viz. ‘Sev’, ‘Warian’, ‘Papad’ and ‘Mathri’.• Isolated a high value cater pillar mushroomCordyceps sinensis from high altitudes ofUttaranchal and analysed for antioxidativeproperties.Cordyceps sinensisMAJOR ACHIEVEMENTS‣ Twenty seven wheat lines, combining better agronomic characteristics and resistance to diseasesincluding Karnal bunt have been identified (Shanghi-4, BW 1052, HUW 318, Lira/Hyan’S’ VUI’S’,CUMPAS 88, BOBWHITE, SPRW 15/BB/Sn 64/KLRE/3/CHA/4/GB(K)/16/VEE/ GOV/AZ/MU, NI9947,Raj 3666, UP 1170, HS 265, HD 2590, HS317, PH 130, PH 131, PH 147, PH 148, PH 168, HW 2004,GW 188, MACS 2496, CPAN 3004, K8804, K8806, ISWYN-29 (Veery”S”) and Annapurna).‣ Foliar blight of wheat has now been assumed as a problem inTarai areas of U.P and foothills of Uttaranchal. Bipolarissorokiniana - Dreschlera sorokiniana, was found associatedwith the disease in this area. Karnal bunt of wheat caused byTilletia indica Mitra, is widely distributed in various Westernand Eastern districts of U.P while the North hills and Southerndry areas are free from the disease.- 16 -

(Seed Health Management for Better Productivity)‣ Multiple disease control in wheat has been obtained by seed treatment with Raxil 2DS @1.5g/Kg seed + one foliar spray fungicide Folicur 250 EW (Tebuconazole) @ 500ml/ha, whichcontrols loose smut, brown rust, yellow rust, powdery mildew and leaf blight disease veryeffectively.‣ The mixture of HD 2329 + WH 542 + UP 2338 produced highest yield recording 11.67 per centhigher as compared to average yield of their components.‣ Among new fungicides Raxil 2DS (Tebuconazole) @ 1.0, 1.5, 2.0 and 2.5g/kg seed, Flutriafoland Dividend @ 2.5g/Kg seed were found highly effective in controlling the disease. Raxil 2DS@ 1.5g/Kg seed as slurry treatment gave complete control of loose smut.‣ New techniques for embryo count and seedling count for loose smut, modified partial vacuuminoculation method of loose smut, creation of artificial epiphytotics of Karnal bunt, NaOH seedsoaked method for Karnal bunt detection and detached leaf technique for screening againstleaf blight using pathogen toxin developed.‣ The major emphasis has been on the screening of maize germplasms to various diseases withspecial reference to brown stripe downy mildew, banded leaf and sheath blight and Erwiniastalk rot. A sick-plot has been developed to ensure natural source of inoculum. Efficienttechniques for mass multiplication of inoculum and screening of germplasms have beendeveloped to create epiphytotic conditions. The selected genotypes have been utilized forevolving agronomically adaptable varieties. Several promising hybrids and composites havedeveloped and released following interdisciplinary approach.‣ Studies on estimation of yield losses, epidemiological parameters on various economicallyimportant diseases of maize have been worked out to evolve suitable control measures andhave been recommended to farmers in the region.‣ Based on the survey and surveillance studies the information on the occurrence of variousdiseases in UP and Uttaranchal, a disease map has been prepared and monitored to finalize theout breaks of one or more diseases in a given area based on weather parameters. It will help thegrowers to be prepared to save the crop from recommended plant protection measures.‣ An repository of >600 isolates of biocontrol agents developed at Pantnagar & Ranichauri.These isolates are suited for different crops & agro-ecological conditions.‣ Standard methods developed for testing hyphal and sclerotial colonization.‣ Isolate of T. virens capable of colonizing sclerotia of Rhizoctonia, Sclerotium and Sclerotiniaisolated for the first time. It may have great potential.‣ 16 new technologies related with mass multiplication and formulation of microbial bio-agentsdeveloped and are in the process of being patented.‣ Several genotypes including SPV 462, SPV 475, SPV 1685, SPH 1375, SPH 1420, CSV 13,CSV 15, CSH 14, CSH 16, CSH 18, G-01-03, G-09-03, GMRP 91, RS 629, UTFS 45, UTMC523 and AKR 150 have been identified with high level of resistance to anthracnose and zonateleaf spot diseases.- 17 -

(Seed Health Management for Better Productivity)‣ Biocontrol agents T. harzianum and P. fluorescens have been found effective in increasing thegrowth of plants and reducing the severity of zonate leaf spot. G. virens and T. viride havebeen found most effective against anthracnose pathogen.‣ The cause of Khaira as zinc deficiency was established for the first time and zinc sulphate+slacked lime application schedule was developed for the control of the disease‣ Inoculation technique was developed to create “Kresek” phase in rice seedlings. Pre-planting rootexposure technique in a suspension of 10 8 cells/ml for 24 hrs gave the maximum “Kresek”. Rootinoculation, in general was found better for development of wilt symptoms than shoot inoculation.‣ A simple technique has been developed to detect the pathogen in and/or on seeds. Thepresence of viable pathogen has been demonstrated from infected seeds stored at roomtemperature up to 11 months after harvest.‣ The disease is sporadic in occurrence often becomes serious in nature. Chemical control trialsshowed that the disease can effectively be controlled by giving 2-3 foliar sprays ofstreptocycline @ 15 g/ha.‣ A number of new fungicides along with recommended ones and botanicals were tested againstsheath blight. Foliar sprays with Anvil, Contaf, Opus, Swing and RIL F004 @ 2 ml/l and Tilt @1 ml/l were found highly effective in controlling sheath blight. Foliar sprays with Neem gold @20 ml /lit. or Neem azal @ 3ml/lit. was found significantly effective in reducing sheath blightand increasing grain yield.‣ Foliar sprays with talc based formulations of the bioagents (Trichoderma harzianum, orPseudomonas fluorescence, rice leaf isolates) were found effective in reducing sheath blightand increasing grain yield. Foliar sprays with the bioagents (T.harzianum) or P. fluorescence)given 7 days before inoculation with R. solani was highly effective against the disease.‣ Seed or soil treatment with T. harzianum or P. fluorescence @ 2, 4 or 8 g/kg enhanced rootand shoot growth and fresh and dry weight of rice seedlings.‣ Seed treatment with fungorene followed by one spray of carbendazim (@ 0.05% at tillering atdiseases appearance) and two sprays of Hinosan @ 0.1% at panicle initiation and 50%flowering was most effective and economical treatment in reducing the disease intensity andincreasing the yield.‣ For the first time, true sclerotia were observed in Kumaon and Garhwal regions at an altitude of900 m above. True sclerotia have a dormancy period of approximately six months. Exposure ofsclerotia to near ultraviolet radiation for an hour breaks the dormancy and increasedgermination.‣ Trichoderma may reduce population of earthworm invermicomposting during early days‣ An repository of >600 isolates of biocontrol agents developed atPantnagar & Ranichauri. These isolates are suited for differentcrops & agro-ecological conditions.- 18 -

(Seed Health Management for Better Productivity)‣ Isolates of T. virens capable of colonizing sclerotia of Rhizoctonia, Sclerotium and Sclerotiniaisolated for the first time. It may have great potential.‣ Standard methods developed for testing hyphal and sclerotial colonization.‣ 16 new technologies related with mass multiplication and formulation of microbial bioagentsdeveloped and are in the process of being patented.‣ Effect of different physical factors and extracts on the germination of true sclerotia was studied.Maximum germination was observed at 25 0 C and at pH 6.0, in fluorescent light. Among thesubstratum, maximum germination occurred on moist sand. Soil extract was more favourablethan other extracts. The number of stipes and mature head formation was directly correlatedwith the size and weight of the sclerotia.‣ The viability of the 3 propagules namely; conidia, pseudo and true sclerotia stored underdifferent conditions showed that conidia remain viable from 2-3 months, pseudo- sclerotia from4-6 months and true sclerotia up to 11 months at room temperature and under field conditions.True sclerotia buried at different depth (2.5 to 10 cm) in soil germinated well, but scleroitaburied at 15 cm depth did not germinate and rotted.‣ Discoloured grains of various types were grouped according to their symptoms. The fungiresponsible for each type of symptoms were identified. Ash grey discolouration of glumesseparated by dark brown band was caused by Alternaria alternata and Nigrospora oryzae.Spots with dark brown margin and ash grey centre by Curvularia lunata and Alternariaalternata, light yellow to light brown spots by C. pallescens, Fusarium equiseti and N. oryzae,Brown to black dot by Phyllosticta oryzae Dark brown to black spot and specks by Drechsleravictoriae, D. rostratum and D. oryzae, light to dark brown glumes by Sarocladium oryzae andD. oryzae, and light to dark brown spots by D. Australiense.‣ Rice varieties Manhar, Narendra 80, Saket 7, Ajaya, Bansmati, 385 showed higher incidence(34.1 to 41.8%) whereas Sarju 52, UPR 1561-6-3, Pusa 44, Jaya, Pant Dhan 10 and improvedSharbati exhibited lower (18.4-22.3%) incidence of seed discolouration. Bipolaris oyzaecaused highest seed discolouration which is followed by Fusarium moniliforme, curvularialunata and Fusarium graminium in all the test varieties.‣ On the basis of the symptoms pattern and transmissibility of the pathogen through grafting anderiophyied mite (Aceria cajani), presence of foreign ribonucleic protein and nuclear inclusionlike bodies in the phloem cell indicated the viral (RNA virus) nature of the pathogen of sterilitymosaic of pigeon pea. The vector mite of the pathogen was found on lower surface of leavesof Canavis sativus and Oxalis circulata weeds in this area. Mild mosaic, ring spot and severemosaic symptoms were observed in different as well as same cultivar. This observation revealsthe presence of variation in the pathogen.‣ Germplasm lines/ cultivars screened viz; ICP 14290, ICP 92059,ICP 8093, KPBR 80-2-2, PL366, ICPL 371, Bahar, NP (WR) 15.were found resistan against Phytophthora stem blight.- 19 -

(Seed Health Management for Better Productivity)‣ Some resistant donors for mungbean yellow mosaic virus have been identified i.e. UPU-1,UPU-2,UPU-3, UG-370, PDU-104, NDU-88-8, UG-737, and UG-774. The varieties thusevolved include PU-19, PU- 30, and PU-35., Manikya, resistant lines/cultivars identified: ML-62, ML-65, Pant M-4, Pant M-5, ML-131, NDM 88-14, ML-682, PDM-27, ML- 15, ML-803, ML-682 and 11/ 395 and for Urdbean leaf crinkle virus, SHU 9504, -9513,-9515, -9516, -9520, -9522, -9528, KU 96-1, UG 737 and TPU-4.‣ Seed treatment with carbendazim (0.1%) followed by two prophylactic sprays of carbendazim(0, 05%) or Dithane M-45 @ 0.25% was found most effective in reducing disease severity ofanthracnose disease. In early sown crop high disease severity was observed while in latesown crop low disease severity was recorded. Inter cropping with cereals or pulses have noeffect on anthracnose severity.‣ Propiconazol 0.1%, carbendazim 0.1%, hexaconazol 0.1%, mancozeb 0.25% sprayed plotshave low disease severity and high grain yield against Cercospora leaf spot.‣ Studies on integrated management of wilt/root rot/collar rot showed that Seed treatment withfungicide alone or in combination with other fungicides/ bio agents were found effective.Among the fungicides seed treatment with Bavistin + Thiram (1:2), vitavax + Thiram (1:2),vitavax, Bavistin, Bayleton, Bio agent Gliocladium virens + Vitavax and Pseudomonasfluorescence) decreased the seedling mortality, improved germ inability, plant stand and yield.‣ Ten thousand germplasm lines/ breeding populations F 2 , F 3,F 4 and F 5 generations were screened. Many germplasm/accessions were found resistant/ tolerant to Botrytis graymould viz; ICC 1069, ICC 10302, ICCL 87322, ICC 1599, -15980, - 8529, ICCV 88510, E100Y (M) BG 256, BG261,H86-73, IGCP 6 and GNG 146.‣ Lentil entries evaluated under sick plot for wilt/root rot/ collarrot diseases. The following lines were found promising viz;LL 383, PL 81-17, LH 54-8, DPL-58, DPL 14, Jawahar Massor- 3, DPL 112, IPL-114, L 4147and Pant L 639.‣ The promising germplasm lines/ cultivars are as follows: DPL 62, PL-406, L 4076, TL 717, E153, IPL 101, IPL 105, PL- 639, LH 84-8, and Precoz .‣ The field pea lines were found promising JP 141, Pant P-5, KFPD 24 (swati), HUDP 15, KFPD-2, HFP-4, P1361, EC-1, P-632, P 108-1, KPMR 444, KF 9412, DPR 48, T-10, KPMRD348,DDR13, IM9102, KFP 141 and KPMR 467 against powdery mildew and JP 141, Pant P-5, P10, FP 141, KDMRD 384, HUDP-9, HUP-2 and T-10 were found promising against rustdisease.‣ Mid-September planting or early October planting of rapeseed-mustard has been found toescape from Alternaria blight (Alternaria brassicae) downy mildew (Peronospora parasitica)and white rust (Albugo candida) diseases as against mid and late October planting. In general- 20 -

(Seed Health Management for Better Productivity)high occurrence of the floral infection (staghead phase) of white rust and downy mildew duringflowering period has been found to be associated with reduced period, i.e. 2-6 hours, of brightsunshine/day concomitant with the mean maximum temperature of 21-25 0 C, the meanminimum temperature of 6-10 0 C and higher total rainfall up to 166 mm. Bright sunshine hours/day has a significant negative correlation whereas total rainfall has a significant positivecorrelation with staghead development.‣ All the three important foliar diseases of rapeseed-mustard could be effectively controlled byfollowing integrated package of balanced N 100 P 40 K 40 application, early October sowing andtreating the seed with Apron 35 SD @ 6g kg -1 seed followed by spray of mixture of metalaxyl +mancozeb (i.e Ridomil MZ 72 WP @ 0.25%) at flowering stage and by spray of mancozeb oriprodione @ 0.2% at pod formation stage. In situations where Sclerotinia stem rot and / orpowdery mildew appeared to be important in a particular crop season, a spray of mixture ofcarbendazim (0.05%) + mancozeb (0.2%) was found to give excellent cost effective control ofthe diseases with significant increase in seed yield of the crop.‣ Among the botanicals, leaf extracts of Eucalyptus globosus (5%) and Azadirchta indica (5%)have been proved to exhibit greater antifungal activity against A. brassicae and Albugocandida and showed significant reduction in the severity of Alternaria blight and white rustdiseases which was rated to be at par with mancozeb fungicide spray.‣ Some abiotic chemical nutrient salts such as calcium sulphate (1%), zinc sulphate(0.1%) andborax (0.5%) and biocontrol agents such as Trichoderma harzianum and non-aggressive Dpathotype of A.brassicae have been shown to induce systemic host resistance in mustardagainst aggressive “A” pathotype of A. brassicae and virulent race(s) of A. candida.‣ The staghead phase in B. juncea has been investigated to be due to A. candida and not due P.parasitica. Tissues at the staghead phase become more susceptible to P. parasitica thannormal tissues of the same plant.‣ B. juncea genotypes (EC 399296, EC 399299, EC 399301, EC 399313, PAB-9535, DivyaSelection-2 and PAB 9511), B. napus genotypes (EC 338997, BNS-4) and B. carinata (PBC-9221) have been shown to possess resistance to white rust coupled with high degree oftolerance to Alternaria blight. Reduced sporulation is identified to be the major component forslow blighting.‣ B. juncea (RESJ 836), B. rapa (RESR 219) and B. napus (EC 339000) have been selected forresistance to downy mildew and for high yield performance. Total 52 genotypes of mustardrepresenting at least 12 differential resistance sources, 23 lines of yellow sarson representing6 differential resistance sources and 54 lines of B. napus representing 3 differential resistancesources to downy mildew have been identified.‣ A new short duration (95-100 days) short statured (85- 96 cm) plant type of mustard strain‘DIVYA’ possessing high degree of tolerance to Alternaria blight suitable for intercropping withautumn sown sugarcane and potato yielding with an average of 15-22 q ha -1 has been- 21 -

(Seed Health Management for Better Productivity)developed. This ‘Mustard DIVYA’ plant type is now recommended as a source for breedingmore and more improved varieties of mustard as it has been proved to have good generalcombining ability for short stature characteristics.‣ Seed treatment with mancozeb @ 0.2% + thiram @ 0.2% has been found to control seed,seedling and root rot diseases of groundnut. However seed treatment with thiram @ 0.2% +vitavax @ 0.2% has been found to control collar rot (Sclerotium rolfsii) of groundnut. Twosprays of carbendazim @ 0.05% have been found to give excellent control of early and lateleaf spot (tikka disease) of groundnut.‣ Mid September planting of sunflower was found to escape the occurrence of major diseaseslike Sclerotinia wilt and rot, Sclerotium wilt, charcoal rot and toxemia. Severity of Alternariablight was found to be negligible and did not cause any reduction in yield. The crop could beharvested by 15 th December. The yield obtained was 16 q/ha.‣ The average percent loss has been noted in the range of 50.6 to 80.7 percent due to Alternariablight disease under Kharif conditions. However, the percent loss in oil has been shown in therange of 21.6 to 32.3. To control the disease, total 4 sprays of mancozeb @ 0.3% at 10 dayinterval have been found effective.‣ A repository of about 5000 rice blast isolates was made from 30 locations in Indian Himalayas atHill Campus, Ranichauri. Blast pathogen population from the region was analyzed using molecularmarkers and phenotypic assays. Most locations sampled and analyzed had distinct populationswith some containing one or a few lineages and others were very diverse. Within anagroecological region migration appeared to be high. The structure of some populations could beaffected to some extent by sexual recombination.‣ Magnaporthe grisea isolates derived from Eleusine coracana, Setaria italica and Echinochloafrumentaceum collected from a disease screening nursery were cross compatible. Thechromosome number of each isolate was found to be six or seven. Similarity of karyotypes wasfound among isolates with in a lineage though between lineages some variability was noticed. Aremarkable similarity between karyotypes of Eleusine coracana and Setaria italica was observed. Allof these isolates were fertile and mated with each other to produce productive perithecia. Theexisting data however showed no evidence of genetic exchange among host-limited M. griseapopulations in Indian Himalayas.‣ No strong relationship appeared between the number of virulences in a pathotyope and its frequencyof detection. The frequency of virulent phenotype to a cultivar and susceptibility of that cultivar in thefield did not correspond. The number of virulences per isolate was in general less than the numberof virulences per pathotype, which indicated predominance of isolates from pathotypes with fewervirulences. There was a tendency for the pathotypes to have fewer virulences. The frequency ofvirulence among rare pathotypes was higher than common pathotypes against all the differentialNILs, including two-gene pyramids. These rare pathotypes could be the potential source ofresistance breakdown of the novel resistance genes.- 22 -

(Seed Health Management for Better Productivity)‣ Blast resistant gene Pi-2(t) appeared to have the broadest and Pi-1(t) the narrowest resistantspectra. Compatibility to Pi-2 (t) gene did not appear to limit compatibilities with other resistantgenes. Loss of avirulence to all the five major gene tested may carry a serious fitness penalty.Major gene Pi-2 and gene combination Pi-1,2 showed least compatibilities and hold promisein managing blast in the region. In the overall Himalayan population, gene combinations ingeneral were effective at most locations. Combination of Pi-1+2 genes was effective at mostlocations until the year tested. However, three gene pyramid [Pi-1(t) + Pi-2(t)+Pi-4(t)] resistedinfection at all locations.‣ It was inferred that the pathotype composition of the blast pathogen composition in the IndianHimalayas was very complex and diversifying the resistance genes in various rice breedingprogrammes should prove to be a useful strategy for disease management.‣ A common minimum programme under bio-intensive IPM in vegetables in Uttaranchal hills wasdesigned that is extended to over 2000 farmers from 20 villages in district Tehri Garhwal.‣ Epidemiological considerations in the apple scab disease management led to the developmentof disease prediction models. Relation of degree-day accumulations to maturation ofascospores, and potential ascospore dose (PAD) were found to be useful for predicting thetotal amount of inoculum in an orchard thereby effectively improving apple scab management.‣ Out of 71 genotypes tested against red rot caused by Colletotrichum falcatum, four genotypesviz; Co Pant 92226, Co Pant 96216, Co Pant 97222 and CoJ 83 were found resistant andanother 24 exhibited fairly good tolerance.‣ Seed treatment with Thiram + Carbendazim (2:1) @ 3g/kg seed or Vitavax 0.2% controlled theseed and seedling rots and improved the seedling emergence without any adverse effect onthe nodulation and invariably yield were increased. Seed treatment with Trichodermaharizianum, T. viride or Pseudomonas fluorescens @ 10g/kg controlled seed and seedling rotsand increased plant emergence.‣ Purple seed stain disease can be effectively controlled by seed treatment with thiram +carbendazim (2:1) @ 3 g/kg seed followed by two sprays of benomyl or Carbendazim @ 0.5kg/ha.‣ Rhizoctonia aerial blight can be effectively controlled by two sprays of carbendazim @ 0.5kg/ha. Seed treatment with T. harzianum or Pseudomonas fluorescens 10g/kg seed + soiltreatment with pant Bioagent-3 mixed with FYM @50q/ha followed by two sprays of T.harzianum @ 0.25% reduced the disease severity of RAB.‣ Pod blight and foliar diseases caused by Colletrotichum dematium var truncatum could beeffectively controlled by the use of carbednazim 0.05%, Mancozeb 0.25%, Copperoxychloride0.3%, Thiophanate methyl 0.05%, Chlorothalonil 0.25%, Hexaconazole 0.1% and- 23 -

(Seed Health Management for Better Productivity)Propiconazole 0.1%. First spray should be given as soon as disease appear and second sprayafter 15 days of first spray.‣ Rust disease could be effectively controlled with three sprays of Benomyl 0.05%, Mancozeb0.25% or Zineb 0.25%, at 50, 60 and 70 days after sowing. Varieties Ankur, PK-7139, PK-7394, PK-7121, PK-7391 were resistant.‣ Charcoal rot disease can be effectively controlled by seed treatment with Trichodermaharzianum @ 0.2% + vitavax @ 0.1%.‣ Pre-mature drying problem Soybean can be minimized by seed treatment with carbendazim +Thiram (2:1) @ 3g/kg seed followed by two sprays with carbendazim, mancozeb andAureofungin. Varieties PSS-1, PS-1042, PK-1162, PK-1242 and PK-1250 were found to besuperior for premature drying problem.‣ Integrated disease management (IDM) modules based on combined use of cultural practices,fungicides for fungal disease, insecticide for virus disease and host resistance were evaluatedagainst RAB and Soybean yellow Mosaic virus diseases.‣ Bacterial pustules can be successfully controlled by two sprays at 45 and 55 days afterplanting with a mixture of Blitox-50 (1.5 kg/ha) + Agrimycin-100 (150g/ha) or streptocycline(150 g/ha) + copper sulphate (1kg/ha).‣ Soybean yellow Mosaic can be very effectively controlled by four sprays with oxymethyldemoton @ 1l/1000 lit/ha at 20, 30, 40 and 50 days after planting. Soil application with Phorate10G @ 10 kg/ha and Furadan 3G @ 17.5 kg/ha controlled the disease. Varieties PK-1284,1251, 1259, 1043, 1225, 1303, 1314, 1343, 1347, PS-1042 PS-564, 1364 were identified asresistant to Soybean yellow Mosaic virus.EXTENSIONThe scientists also participate in the farmers contact programme as well as practicaltrainings at different levels including those of IAS and PCS officers, Extension workers, Agriculturalofficers, Farmers, Defense Personnels etc. The Scientists of the department also activelyparticipate in the trainings organized under the T&V programme for the benefit of farmers/Statelevel Agricultural Officers. Two Professors (Extension Pathology) and crop disease specialists aredeputed to “Help Line Service” started recently by the University under Agriculture TechnologyInformation Centre (ATIC). The telephone number of help line services is 05944-234810 and 1551.Technology developed by the centre is regularly communicated to the farmers of the 13 districts ofUttaranchal State through the extension staff (Plant Protection) of both university and stateagriculture and horticulture departments posted in all districts of the state. The radio talks and TVprogramme are delivered. Popular articles and disease circulars are published regularly for thebenefit of the farmers.- 24 -

(Seed Health Management for Better Productivity)UP-GRADATION TO CENTRE OF ADVANCED STUDIESIn view of the outstanding quality of teaching, research and extension work being carried out bythe department, ICAR vide letter No. 1-2/93 (CAS)UNDP dated Feb.02, 1995 upgraded the departmentto the status of the centre of advanced studies in plant pathology. Major mandate of the CAS was to trainscientific faculty from all over the country in important and innovative areas of plant pathology. So farunder CAS, 16 trainings have been conducted and 336 scientists from all over the country have beentrained in different areas. Centre of Advanced Studies in Plant Pathology at Pantnagar was awarded acertificate of Appreciation in commemoration of Golden Jubilee year of independence (1998) fororganizing the programmes for human resource development and developing excellent instructionalmaterial by the education division, ICAR on August 14, 1998. The progress report CAS in PlantPathology during X plan is as follows:Trainings Held1. Recent advances in biology, epidemiology and management of diseases of major kharifcrops (Sept. 19- Oct. 12, 1996)2. Recent advances in biology, epidemiology and management of diseases of major rabi crops(Feb. 25 –March 18, 1997)3. Ecology and ecofriendly management of soil-borne plant pathogens (Jan 12 – Feb. 02, 1998)4. Advanced techniques in plant pathology (Oct. 12 – Nov. 02, 1998)5. Recent advances in detection and management of seed-borne pathogens (March 10-30,1999)6. Recent advances etiology and management of root-rot and wilt complexes (Nov. 26 – Dec.16, 1998)7. Integrated pest management with particular reference to plant diseases: concept, potentialand application (Nov. 23 –Dec. 13, 2000)8. Recent advances in research on major diseases of horticultural crops (March 01-30, 2001)9. Recent advances in plant protection technology for sustainable agriculture (Nov. 19 –Dec.09, 2001)- 25 -

(Seed Health Management for Better Productivity)10. Plant diseases diagnosis: past, present and future (Feb. 13, - March 05, 2002)11. Chemicals in plant protection: past, present and future (Jan. 28 – Feb. 17, 2003)12. Eco-friendly management of plant diseases of national importance: present status andresearch and extension needs (Nov. 10-30, 2003)13. Ecologically sustainable management of plant diseases: status and strategies (March 22-April 11, 2004)14. Disease resistance in field and horticulture crops: key to sustainable agriculture (Dec. 10-30,2004)15. Regulatory and cultural practices in plant disease management (Dec. 03-21, 2005)16. Crop disease management: needs and outlook for transgenics, microbial antagonists andbotanicals (March 21 – April 10, 2006)17. Soil Health and Crop Disease Management (December 02-22, 2007)18. Role of Mineral Nutrients and Innovative Eco-friendly Measures in Crop DiseaseManagement (March 22- April 11, 2007)19. Plant Disease Management on Small Farms (January 03-23, 2008)20. Seed Health Management for Better Productivity (March 28 to April 17, 2008)Sl.No.State Total Sl.No.State1. Andhra Pradesh 11 13. Maharashtra 232. Assam 09 14. Manipur 033. Bihar 16 15. Meghalaya 014. Chattishgarh 7 16. Nagaland 015. Gujarat 37 17. Orissa 126. Haryana 3 18. Punjab 047. Himanchal Pradesh 34 19. Rajasthan 408. Jammu & Kashmir 21 20. Sikkim 019. Jharkhand 05 21. Tamil Nadu 1010. Karnataka 22 22. Uttar Pradesh 5511. Kerla 05 23. Uttaranchal 6012. Madhya Pradesh 20 24. West Bengal 16Total = 416Total- 26 -

(Seed Health Management for Better Productivity)INFRASTRUCTURE• Wheat Pathology Lab. – General Path, Epidemiology, Toxin, Tissue Culture• Maize Pathology Lab. – General Plant Pathology, Bacteriology• Rice Pathology Lab. – General Plant Pathology• Ecology and Vegetable Pathology Lab. – Ecology, Histopathology, Biocontrol,Nematodes• Soybean Path. Lab.– General Plant Pathology, Fungicides• Oil Seed Path. Lab.– General Pl. Path., Tissue, Culture, Histopathology, Toxins• Pulse Path. Lab. – General Pl. Path., Phytovirology• Seed Path. Lab. – General Path, Seed Borne diseases• Biocontrol Lab. – Biocontrol & IPM• Molecular Pl. Path Lab. – Population biology & host- pathogen interaction• Mushroom Research –Research & training• Glass houses – 3• Polyhouses – 3• UG Practical Lab – 1• PG Lab – 1• Training Hall – 1• Conference Hall – 1• Office – 1Huts for Mushroom Production- 27 -

(Seed Health Management for Better Productivity)Research Project (on going)AICRP – 13Adhoc Projects – 16Total budget outlay - > 1000 lacsSl. No. Project title Fundingagency1 All India Coordinated Research Project on Wheat ICAR2 All India Coordinated Research Project on Rice ICAR3 All India Coordinated Research Project on Maize ICAR- 28 -

(Seed Health Management for Better Productivity)4 All India Coordinated Research Project on Rapeseed Mustard ICAR5 All India Coordinated Research Project on MULLaRP ICAR6 All India Coordinated Research Project on Sugarcane ICAR7 All India Coordinated Research Project on Sorghum ICAR8 All India Coordinated Research Project on Biological control ICAR9 All India Coordinated Research Project on Soybean ICAR10 All India Coordinated Research Project on Mushroom ICAR11 All India Coordinated Research Project (NSP) Seed Tech Research ICAR12 Application of micro-organism in Agriculture and Allied Sector Fungi of ICARUttaranchal13 All India Coordinated Research Project on Potato ICAR14 Integrated Management of Guava wilt ICAR, MM-I15 IPM in Vegetables ICAR, MM-I16 Refinement of Technology for Production of specialty mushroom ICAR, MM-I17 Ganoderma of Uttaranchal: their cultivation and components of ICAR, MM-Imedicinal uses18 Multilocational Evaluation on Rice germplasm NBPGR-ICAR19 IPM NCIPM20 Rural Bio-resource Complex DBT21 Study of Pathogenicity & Molecular Variability in Fusarium solani DBTcausing shisham wilt22 Centre of Excellence in Agriculture Biotechnology DBT23 Management of crop performances through control of plant diseaseepidemics (Indo-French Program) (Just approved)CEFIPRA,France24 Further studies on the management of Karnal Bunt by eco-friendly AdhocMeans25 Multi-locational Evaluation of the germplasm in Chickpea Adhoc26 Evaluation of Chickpea germplasm against biotic stress -BGM Adhoc27 DUS test on forage sorghum Adhoc28 Net work project on management of Alternaria blight of mustard and Adhocvegetable crops29 Indo-UK Collaborative Project on oilseeds for transfer of disease and Adhocdraught resistant30 AIC Epidemiology and Plant disease management Adhoc- 29 -

(Seed Health Management for Better Productivity)Total Budget Outlay – > 1000 lakhsResearch Areas – Biological Control, IPM, Shisham wilt, Soil solarization, Population Biology,Seed pathology, Mushroom etc.Publication:1. Books - 332. Research Bulletins - 203. Research Papers - >12004. Conceptual / Review articles - >1305. Chapters contributed to book - >1506. Extension literature - over (200)(Hindi – English)Annual Review of Phytopathology - 02Recognition and Awards:• UNO (Rome) – Dr. Y. L. Nene• Prof. M. J. Narisimhan Academic Award (IPS) 5• Jawahar Lal Nehru Award (ICAR) 2• Pesticide India Award (ISMPP) 7• P. R. Verma Award for best Ph. D. Thesis (ISMPP) 2• Other (Hexamar, MS Pavgi, Rajendra Prasad etc.) >20• Uttaranchal Ratana 2Professional Societies and our Share:Indian Phytopathological SocietiesPresidents – 3Zonal Presidents – 3Indian Society of Mycology & Plant Pathology –Presidents – 3Vice Presidents – 1Indian Soc. Seed TechnologyVice Presidents - 3Science CongressPresident (Agriculture Chapter) - 1National Academy of Agricultural SciencesFellows - 3- 30 -

(Seed Health Management for Better Productivity)Future Strategies:Teaching: Introduction of new courses Methods in Biological Control Plant disease and national importance Integrated plant disease management Molecular plant pathology Advances in mushroom productionResearch thrust:• Biological control & ICM (IPM + INM) in different crops/cropping systems• Disease management under organic farming• Microbial ecology• Green chemicals• Population biology of pathogens (including use of molecular tools)• Induced resistance• Exploitation of indigenous edible and medicinal mushroomsHuman Resource DevelopmentDegree awardedM.Sc. 285PhD 155Trainings organized No. Persons trainedSummer schools (ICAR) 5 136Summer training (DBT) 1 24International training (IRRI) 1 11 (8 countries)Under CAS 19 395Persons training under SGSY on Mushroom Production 1785Out of above > 750 persons have started mushroom cultivationFuture Goal:Ecologically sustainable management of plant diseases to ensure both food security &safety through education, research & extension- 31 -

(Seed Health Management for Better Productivity)Priorities in Seed Pathology and Seed Health Testing Research(Mrs.) K. VishunavatDepartment of Plant Pathology, G.B.P.U.A.&T., Pantnagar-263145 (Uttarakhand)Priorities in Seed PathologySeed Pathology has essentially been a part of seed technology .The science of SeedTechnology has, in the past, been predominantly concerned with two features of seed quality: -Purity and Germination. Seed pathology which has never been considered an important disciplinein seed technology have only become an integral part of modern seed technology in the lastquarter century. Reason beingSeeds are both the vectors and victims of diseases.Seed is often produced in one country,processed and packaged in a second and sold and planted in another. With this movement ofseed comes an increasing danger of the spread of seedborne diseases.Ways of losses due to seed borne diseases:Short term or immediateThe first crop produced by the infected seed lot, may cause reduced germination, poorseedling vigour, abnormal seedlings and other damage to crop at any stage of growth fromseedling to harvest and storage or---Long term lossesSuch losses are not always restricted to the fields where diseased seed when is sown ratheradds secondary inoculum which may be carried by wind, rain, irrigation water, machinery, insects,animals and man spreading the disease long distances from the original source of infection.Research Priorities in Seed PathologyIn Seed Pathology the major emphasis has been on cataloging seed-borne microorganisms forfirst two decades. Over the period of 1982 - 1994, almost a quarter, approximately 2000 citationssimply catalogue the presence of microorganisms on seed.The type of cataloging researchidentified focuses more on fungi than it does on bacteria and viruses. Standardization of detectiontechniques for seed borne bacteria and viruses .There is need to focus research more in the areaof seedborne bacteria and virus detection and identification since this area has been neglecteddue to the lack of adequate assays.(1) Establishment of inoculum thresholdsThe importance of research in the area of establishing research thresholds for seed bornediseases, for these thresholds will be fundamental if the management of seedborne disease is tobe successful. Economic significance of seed-borne diseases to the assessment of seed borneinoculum is desirable.(2)Seed Treatment Technology- 32 -

(Seed Health Management for Better Productivity)A wide variety of chemical, biological, physical, and mechanical approaches have beenused to eliminate pathogens from the internal and external portion of seeds, and to help protectseeds from soil borne pathogens.(a) Chemical seed treatmentChemical fungicide treatments such as Captan and Thiram are still the most widely usedproducts in the industry and research into better ways to apply and to reduce the effective rates ofthese chemicals must continue.(b) Alternatives to chemical seed treatmentA wide range of systemic fungicides which control seedborne diseases however, underconditions of high disease pressure, may at times fail to control the diseases. Certain suchchemicals have the potential to be harmful to the soil and non soil environment or are phytotoxic tothe seed and the emerging seedling. This compels to look upon alternative ecofriendly methods oftreating seed to control disease(s)(c) Physical seed treatmentHot water treatment of seed, acid treatments or other methods, continue to be a standardmethod of pathogen elimination in seeds.These methods are more ecofriendly and effectivecompared to chemical treatments (particularly hot water) and effective; however, they can causethe loss of seed viability. There is need to standardize such technologies so as to effectivelymanage the seed borne diseases .(d)Biological seed treatmentIdentifying, testing, and developing biological seed treatments appears to be an area wheremuch research effort is occurring and will continue in the future. The use of naturally occurringbeneficial fungi and bacteria to control other fungi and bacteria is not a new idea; however, due tothe renewed interest in the environment and the establishment of worker protection standards,research in this area is going through a renaissance.Among these are the common soil inhabitingbacterial genera Psedudomonas, Enterobacter, Erwina, and Bacillus. The fungi Trichoderma andGleocladium along with the actinomycete Streptomyces are also being studied carefully as to theirseed treatment efficacy.Cotton (Gossypium hirsutum) seed with the G-4and G-6 strains ofGleocladium virens and the GB03and GB07 strains of Bacillus subtilis suppress the incidence andthe severity of Fusarium Wilt of cotton(Gossypium hirsutum) in soil infested with Fusariumoxysporium f. sp. vasinfectum and Meloidogyne incognita under greenhouse conditions.(i) Considerations for biological seed treatmentThe inoculum density of the biocontrol agent must be adequate to suppress disease underfield conditions and high levels of disease pressure.The formulation of the biocontrol agent must be one that allows for an adequate shelf lifeand it must be compatible with other biocontrol agents as well as chemical seed and soiltreatments.Research should be focussed on finding new and more efficient biocontrol based seedtreatments as well as refining and increasing the efficiency of the current crop of biocontrol agents.- 33 -

(Seed Health Management for Better Productivity)Historical development of Seed Health TestingThe first seed testing station was established by Nobbe in Saxony in1869. Nobbe in his1876 publication Samenkunde mentions smut balls and sclerotia but does not describe anymethod for their detection except visual examination of the seed.The first seed health test toappear was developed by Hiltner working in Germany in 1917.The most notable of the earlypioneer in seed health testing was with out doubt Dr. L.C .Doyer .The most notable of the earlypioneer in seed health testing was with out doubt Dr. L.C .Doyer and Paul Neergarad, also knownas father of seed pathology, who coined the tem seed pathology as an important discipline in PlantPathology .In 1918, first seed health testing laboratory was established at the Government Seedtesting laboratory in Wageningen, The Netherlands. Doyer was the first official Seed pathologist .She was the first chairperson of the ISTA Plant Disease Committee, a position she held until herdeath in 1949.At sixth ISTA congress, at Wageningen, she presented her proposal for recordingSanitary conditions of Seed on the International rules of Seed Testing. Later Dorph-Petersen, thefirst ISTA president, presented a report in International Seed Testing Conference held in 1921 inCopenhagen, on Remarks on the Investigations of the Purity of Strain and Freedom fromDisease.At the 1924 congress held in Cambridge, Genter spoke on the subject Determination ofplant diseases transmitted by seed.The first International Rules for Seed Testing were published by ISTA in 1928. Thisdocument contained a special section on Sanitary Condition in which special attention wasrecommended for Claviceps purpurea, Fusarium, Tilletia, and Ustilago hordei on cereals;Ascochyta pisi on peas, Colletotrichum lindemuthianum on beans and Botrytis, Colletotrichumlinicola, and Aureobasidium lini on flax.Seed Health testingMethods for seed health testing such as, incubation methods, grow out test and otherconventional methods often vary from one laboratory to another which is inadequate forcomparative seed health testing.In 1957, the Plant Disease Committee established a comparative seed health testingprogramme aimed at standardizing techniques for the detection of seedborne pathogens.Subsequent symposia have focused on Seed Health Testing - Progress towards the 21stCentury (Cambridge, UK 1996) and most recently in August 2003, Disease thresholds and theirimplication in seed health testing (Ames, Iowa).Recent Advances in Seed Health Testing proceduresToday, seed health testing is routinely carried out in most countries for domestic seedcertification, quality assessment and plant quarantine. The first PDC Seed Health Symposium washeld in Ottawa, Canada in 1993 and focused on quality assurance in seed health testing. Thedemand for better seed quality of conventional varieties and transgenics, greater sensitivity in- 34 -

(Seed Health Management for Better Productivity)detecting seedborne pathogens and shorter turn around times for seed testing is forcing seedhealth testing laboratories to incorporate new technologies to meet this challenge globally.Technological improvements have increased test sensitivity permitting detection of very lowlevels of inoculum using rapid indirect tests on bulked samples of 1000 -10,000 seeds.Seed healthtesting has undergone significant changes. Seed health testing was primarily directed towardsfungi and relied on incubation and identification, or grow out tests for detection of these pathogenson seed. Such tests are labour intensive and in some cases require high levels of infection beforethey can be detected. Sousa Santos et al. (1997) used PCR to detect the presence of Clavibactermichiganensis pv michiganensis in infested tomato seed lots.Detection technology for seed borne bacteria and virusesSerological-based seed assays, such as the enzyme -linked immunosorbent assay(ELISA), continue to be used with some success for fungi and bacteria.However, they lack the specificity and sensitivity needed to detect many seedborne viruses(McGee, 1995).About 20% of the known plant viruses are transmitted through seeds of infected plants andin many cases the rate of transmission is very low. Seed transmission rate of maize chloroticmottle spot virus was 17 in a total of 42,000 plants or 0.04%( Jensen et al. (1991).The seedtransmission rate of maize dwarf mosaic was one seed in 22,189 (Mikel et al.,1984).The incredibly low rate of seed transmission of these pathogens, and the fact that plantviruses are strict obligate parasites, most conventional types of seed assays used to detect fungiand bacteria are useless.Kohnen et al. (1992) employed molecular technology to detect pea (Pisumseedborne mosaic virus.sativum)With the introduction of DNA-based assays and polymerase chain reaction (PCR)-basedassays, researchers have the ability to detect very minute amounts of a specific DNA sequence onthe surface of or internal to a seed.Specificity has also improved through the use of antibiotics and other agents in selectivemedia for recovery of pathogens from seed. Biological reagents such as antibodies and DNAmarkers also contribute to improve seed health assays.DNA-based polymerase chain reaction (PCR) method has been developed as analternative to grow- out -test. This test holds great promise for the future of seed health testing.Still very much in the development stage, PCR assays have high sensitivity and specificityand often require as little as 24 or 48 hours to complete. They are applicable to a wide range ofpathogens and can be used to separate closely related species.Challenges Ahead- 35 -

(Seed Health Management for Better Productivity)In last 35 years since the first publication of the Working sheets by ISTA only 64 sheetshave been published. Many are now out-dated due to advances in seed testing technology andmicrobiological techniques. Others are of little or no significance in the international movement ofseed.Future thrustThus, there is a need on the part of the seed industry, trade and regulatory bodies alike tohave sound, reproducible and validated methods for the detection of seed-borne pathogens.Standardized assays that allow seed produced anywhere in the world to be monitored forsome minimum level of health quality.Inoculum threshold level should be worked out for seed borne diseases of significance forbetter management of the diseases. The Plant Disease Committee must be prepared to ensurereliable, reproducible and validated methods for seed health testing for use by both the seedindustry and regulatory bodies. There is need to come up with the ready- to- use kits for detectionof seed borne pathogens with standardized protocols.- 36 -

(Seed Health Management for Better Productivity)Epidemiological Approaches to Disease Management through SeedTechnologyIntroduction(Mrs.) K. VishunavatDepartment of Plant Pathology, G.B.P.U.A.&T., Pantnagar-263145 (Uttarakhand)The quality of planted seeds has a critical influence on the ability of crops to becomeestablished and to realize their full potential of yield and value. A complex technology is required toensure high standards of seed quality that involves-Producing, harvesting, processing, storing andplating the seed.Throughout this process, careful handling to avoid mechanical injury and protection fromadverse environmental conditions, pests, and diseases are imperative. No one factor isnecessarily more important than another with respect to maintenance of seed quality but almost allseed crops require some measure of disease control. The knowledge of the epidemiology of seeddiseases can promote disease management through modern Seed technology.Disease impact on seed management systemsSeed Pathology emerged as a sub-discipline of plant pathology from analysis of seedquality in the early part of this century.Since than a world wide process of cataloguing microflorae of seeds have been associatedapproximately 2400 microorganisms with the seeds of 383 genera of plants. Concurrentlyepidemiological studies were carried out on the seed-borne phase of economically importantdiseases e.g. bacterial blight of beans, smuts of cereals and Stewart’s wilt of corn. There are threeenvironments in which seed exists:A. THE SEED PRODUCTION FIELDB. HARVESTING, PROCESSING AND STORING ANDC. THE PLANTED FIELDA. THE SEED PRODUCTION FIELDDisease can have an indirect effect on seed in the production field in that the seed is notassociated in any way with the pathogen but other plant parts are diseased; this renders the plantphysiologically ill equipped to complete the development and maturation of the seeds. Directeffects means that the seed itself is diseased, thus the viability and appearance of the seed isaffected and /or the pathogen is transmitted to the plant grown from the seed.(a). Seed infection in Seed production fieldSeed infection can occur during the three distinct physiological phases in the seed productionfield; anthesis, which covers the period from initiation of floral primordia to fertilization of theembryo; seed development, which represents the period during which the fruiting structures growand develop to full physiological maturity; and seed maturation, which is the dry down period thatcontinues until the seed is harvested.- 37 -

(Seed Health Management for Better Productivity)Each phase has unique characteristics with respect to the epidemiology and management of seeddisease.(b). Management of seed borne diseases in seed production fieldi. Elimination of Inoculum Sourcesii. Disease management during anthesisiii. Disease management during seed developmentiv. Disease management during seed maturationi. Elimination of inoculum, sourcesThe first opportunity for management of seed diseases is to eradicate or reduce pathogeninoculum in the seed production field for e.g. Removal of crop residue (Phomopsis seed decay ofsoybean). Removal of Infected weeds as perennial source of contamination (Brassica seed fieldsby X. campestris pv. Campestris in Brassica ) . Destruction of infested seeds, the primary sourceof inoculum, by burning or by vacuuming fields (for ergot in perennial grass seed productionfields).ii. Disease management during anthesisThe optimal time for Fusarium moliniforme infection of maize kernels by silk inoculationoccurs when silk begin to senesce. The infection process also may be influenced by environment.rain and warm temperature following anthesis resulted in increased grain mold contamination ofcaryopses of sorghum.Knowledge of the mechanism and enviornmental influences on infection atthis growth stage has been used to advantage in disease management. Several group ofpathogens including smuts, ergots, viruses, and nematodes infect seeds during anthesis.a uniquefeature of infection at this growth stage is the facility for infection of embryos and other internalseed tissues. Embryo invasion by viruses from the mother plant is dependent on short-livedcytoplasmic connections to the male or female gametophytes. The potential for biological controlduring antesis was demonstrated by inoculation of wheat florets with a stain of C. purpurea that didnot biosynthesize ergot alkaloids, but had sufficient parasitic vigor to displace alkaloid- producingstrains.iii. Disease management during seed DevelopmentSeed infection during seed development can occur by invasion through natural openingsincluding the funiculus and micropyle, by direct penetration of the seed or caryopsis, or from podsor freshy fruits. Infection also can be strongly influenced by environment. Osorio & McGee showedthat exposure of soybean pods to frost at --4.5 or -25 0 c immediately before physiological maturitypredisposed seed to infection by Fusarium graminearum and Alternaria alternata but reduced seedinfection by Phomopsis longicolla .More over there are numerous reports of fungicide applicationsin seed production field to control seed borne pathogens. But more strategically these studies arerarely considered in disease epidemiology.The pod infection occurs at any time from floweringonwards for number of seed borne pathogens e.g. in Phomopsis seed decay of soybeam ,X.campestrisis pv. Vignicola but the fungus will not infect seeds until seed maturation begins. Thisdisease epidemiological aspect may be used as predictive methods of fungicidal application.- 38 -

(Seed Health Management for Better Productivity)Cultural practices provide options to manage seed diseases in the production field; adjustment ofplanting time , crop rotation , elimination of weed hosts , irrigation practices etc.Bean intercroppedwith maize than on bean grown alone showed higher seed borne population of P.syringae pv.phaseoliocola( Mabagala and Saettler 1992).Biological control of seed infection during seeddevelopment was demonstrated by the reduction of aflatoxin B1in the cotton seed aftersimultaneous inoculation of wounded cotton ball with toxigenic and atoxigenic strains ofAspergillus flavus.iv. Disease management during seed maturationCertain fungi, such as Fusarium moniliformae in corn, Botrytis, Alternaria ,Cladosporium spcommonly infest the soil and crop residues and may invade seed under prolonged periods wetweather at seed maturation growth stage and cause seed discoloration and loss of viability.Weathered seed experience physiological deterioration as well as pathological damages.Effective control of disease during seed maturation is achieved by harvesting the seed as soon asit is sufficiently dry.Planting dates may be manipulated to avoid conditions favorable for seed infection as inthe case of Phomopsis seed decay of soybeans in which the chances of temperature and humidityconditions favorable for seed infection occurring are much lower for late compared to early plantedcrops ( McGee 1987) .There are few examples for breeding specifically for resistance to infectionof the seeds.e.g. a genotype resistance to Phomopsis seed decay and sources of resistance toCercospora kikuchii , the cause of purple seed stain of soybean have been identified( Brown et al1987, Roy 1982) . Grain Hardness ,ergosterol content, and tennins have been implicated inresistant to moulding of Sorghum grains ( Bosman et al 1991)B. HARVESTING CONDITIONING AND STORINGThe harvesting process provides opportunities for pathogen structures , such as sclerotic ,nematode soil peds, and teliospores to contaminate seed lots.This type of contamination can be minimized by setting the harvesting equipment to avoid contactwith the siol and to eliminate physically altered seeds or pathogen structures. Seed when passedover air screen cleaners and gravity separators help to reduce the fungal sclerotia or infectedseeds ( Phomopsis infected seeds of soybean and plant debris).Paulsen 1990 used a computervision system to detect purple stained soybean seed infected with Cercospora kikuchii with 91%accuracy.Walcott developed an ultrasound signal to detect asymptomatic infection of Aspergillusand Penicillum spp. in storage in soybean.a. Disease management during storageStorage fungi (Aspergillus and Penicillum sp.) invade grains and seed stored at moisturecontents in equilibrium with ambient relative humidity ranging from65-90%and can cause majorlosses in seed viability.Effective management of storage fungi invasion is obtained by drying of seeds below theminimum moisture contents for storage fungi invasion and maintaining this moisture content byaeration.- 39 -

(Seed Health Management for Better Productivity)The effectiveness of this practice often breaks down, however, when seed is held instorage facilities with poor environmental controls.A few examples of management of storage fungi during seed storage are:Soybean oil applied to reduce growth of storage fungi in maize and soybeans(McGree1988).Insect and storage fungi management by mineral oil and soybean oil treatment inbeans ( Hall and Harman 1991)The fungicides thiabendazole and Iprodione supress growth of storage fungi in stored corn( White and Toman 1994).The potential for natural products ( Flabonoids and Isoflabonoids, andtheir derivatives ) to control storage fungi for seed of bean and soybean is demonstrated byWeidenborner et al 1990.b. Seed Health testingSeed health testing is used primarily to manage diseases by inoculum threshold, todetermine the potential effect of seed borne inoculum on stand establishment in the planted field,and to meet the requirements for phytosanitary certification of seed lots to be exported. For seedhealth testing following methods are routinely used:c. Field inspectionIt requires that the seed production field be examined for symptoms of a disease ongrowing plants. The method is based on the assumption that incidence of infection on plants andseed are related. Although there are few diseases where this relationship has been validated,procedure remains the back bone of Phytosanitary certification in many countries.d. Direct seed assaySeed may be examined visually for clear signs or symptoms expressed on the seedsurface.Another approach is to soften seed tissues and then examine the internal tissues of theseed microscopically for mycelium of the pathogen.e. Incubation testIt requires that the seed be subject to conditions that select for and optimizegrowth oftarget pathogen. Assay usually require pretreatment with a chemical to surface disinfest the seeds,followed by incubation on blotters or culture medium under precisely defined environmentalconditions.f. Grow out testSeed are planted in the field or green house in the absence of other inoculum sources.Seedlings are examined for symptoms produced by the seed borne pathogens. The procedurerequires much time, space, , and labour. It also tends to lack sensitivity, but it can predict well theextent of seed transmission of Pathogens in the planted field.g. Serological assaysSerological assays for seed borne pathogens were first reported in 1965 with anagglutination test for Pseudomonas phaseolicola in beans( Guthrie at al 1965)and double diffusionassay for barley stripe mosaic virus ( Hamilton 1965).The introduction of ELISA to plant pathology- 40 -

(Seed Health Management for Better Productivity)in 1976 stimulated rapid advances in the use of serological assays for seed borne pathogens.Withdiagnostic kits now available from the private sector for ELISA and its variants, serology hasbecome costeffective and practical to detect seed borne pathogens through out the world .However, a well known weakness in serological tests has been the propensity to detectfalse positive caused by the binding of antibodies to epitopes, which may no longer be a propaguleof the pathogen which can be overcome by combining serological assay with a viability test.h. DNA hybridization assayDNA hybridization assay use a DNA probe that is complementary to DNA in the genome ofthe plant pathogen.The probe is applied to a DNA extract from seed and hybrizied materialdetected by dot blot hybridization assay. The technique has successfully used to detectPeronosclerospora sorghi and P. sacchari in corn ( Yao et al 1990) Pseudomonas syringae pv.Phaseolicola in bean seeds .C. THE PLANTED FIELDa. Seedling emergence and establishmentThere are sound epidemiological bases to establish relationship between seed bornepathogens and seed quality and this impress upon the use of seed treatment to improve seedvigor and reduce the seed borne inoculum for better plant stand in field.b. Transmission of seed borne pathogens: transmission of seed borne pathogens by followingfactors:i. Epidemiological factors affecting seed transmission:Seed transmission for some seed borne pathogens is well defined. Few most promisingfungal pathogens such as Ustilago tritici, Neovossia indica,Telletia caries, Peronospora parasiticain rape seed mustard, and many seed borne bacteria and viruses.Physiological factors may affect the capacity of the seeds to transmit pathogens. Fewexamples are:Downy mildew pathogen in maize can be transmitted when seeds are freshlyharvested, but not once the seeds are dried ( Mc Gee 1988.) Arabis mosaic nepovirus istransmitted inefficiently in Nicotiana seed , because the virus reduce seed germinationEnvironmental factors play a major role in the efficiency of seed transmission of plantpathogens.The seed borne inoculum of Alternaria brassicae or A. brassicicola in rape seed mustardreduces with the seed storage and at temperature above 35 0 C the fungus is auto-eliminated intropical conditions. In Cabbage seedling disease caused by Alternaria brassicicola for e..g doesnot occur below 15 0 C in heavily infected seed lots .ii. Inoculum thresholdInoculum threshold have been established on a sound epidimiological basis for only a fewpathogens, including Phoma lingum in Crucifers, Pseudomonas syringae pv. phaseologicola , andlettuce mosaic virus. For many seed borne pathogens, inoculum threshold is determined eitherarbitrarily or by field observation data ( Schaad 1988). To be of value, however the threshold- 41 -

(Seed Health Management for Better Productivity)should be established in well designed experiments. The first step is to have a suitable seedhealth assay. But very few methods are thoroughly researched to determine if they are specific ,accurate reproducible, and practical.The next step is to plant seed with different infection level in the field and establish acorrelation with plant infection.For diseases that have no repeating cycle of infection such as seedling infecting smuts,strong correlation between seed infection and field diseases can usually be expected.It is much more difficult to establish inoculum threshold for diseases for which secondaryinfections occur from other inoculum sources.iii. Certification ProgrammeThis programme exists to protect against spread of disease by seeds with in geographicregions. In this programme seed lots must meet certain minimum standards of quality whichincludes specific diseases, before seed can be marketed.This programme uses knowledge of the epidiomiology of the disease that includes laboratoryassays of the seeds and field controls.iv. Phytosanitory certificationThe system has some serous problems, however phytosanitary regulations are determinedby individual countries and often are made on the basis of a poor understanding of the economiclosses that introduction of particular pathogens could potentially incur; minimal knowledge ofrelation ship between tolerances in seed assays to risks of transmission of the pathogen to theplanted crop; and lack of standardized testing protocols.v. GermplasmInternational Agriculture through out the worlds are taking steps to minimize theintroduction and spread of exotic seed borne pathogen by seed exchange.Several international centers have implemented programs to manage seed borne pathogenthrough monitoring pathogens in the seed lots, modification of seed production practices tominimize the infection or transmission of pathogens by seed and use of seed treatment.vi. Seed treatmentChemical, physical and biological seed treatment has dramatically changed in the last 20years. As a result of new fungicide chemistry, advances in biological control and environmentalregulation that have either banned or restricted the use of fungicides. Fungicide seed treatmentremains the most widely used practice and established materials such as captan and thiram stillare the mainstay of seed treatment chemistry. Several systematic fungicides such as metalaxyl,iprodione and triadimenol are being used for management of deep seated infections in seed andsubsequent protection of seedling against infection.Chemical control of seed borne bacteria has limited success, either because of lack ofcontrol of internal inoculum or phytotoxicicity to the seeds. Antibiotics, applied in polyethylene- 42 -

(Seed Health Management for Better Productivity)glycol (PEG), reduced infection by Xanthomonas campestris pv. phaseoli in bean seeds, but werephytotoxic.Heat treatment, hot water treatment or microwave heating has successfully reduced seedborne infection.There is numerous report of potentially valuable biological control microorganism for seedtreatment but the developmental process to bring these into commercial practice is long andarduous.Mode of application of seed treatment with chemicals is also an important area to bediscussed.Traditional dust or slurry application of seed treatment fungicides are now regarded asinefficient in environmentally hazardous.Application of chemical or bio pesticides in film coatings or pallets reduces the loss ofmaterial and allows the delivery of multiple products.Bio- protectants and chemical pesticidesprovided effective control when added together in solid matrix priming.vii. ResistanceNo example could be found of resistance especially to seed transmission of fungal orbacterial pathogen in the planted field.However cultivar specific resistance to seed transmissionhas been reported for BSMV in barley, PsbMV in peas, SMV in soybeans and AMV in alfalfa.ConclusionA review of the literature on seed pathology over the period (1982-94) indicates that almosta quarter of approximately 2000 citations simply catalogued the presence of microorganisms onseed. These purely descriptive commentaries do not address the potential for crop damage byplanting diseased seeds or the management of seed borne diseases.Indiscriminate cataloguing of seed-borne microorganism on seeds obscures seed-bornepathogens that might be of genuine economic importance.Viruses and bacteria that traditionallyhave been neglected for lack of adequate assays.Priority should be given to pathogens that meet the criteria of limited distribution and ofpotential economic importance, as in the class of maize chlorotic mottle.Research on inoculum thresholds is both complex and expensive, but it is so fundamentalto realistic and effective management of seed transmission of plant pathogens that littleimprovement in the seed health system worldwide will be possible unless priorities in seedpathology research are changed.“Guidelines for safe movement of germplasm”, sponsored by the International Board forPlant Genetic Resources, can lead to management system for seed diseases that protect againstthe spread of economically important plant pathogen without posing unnecessary barriers to themovement of seeds.- 43 -

(Seed Health Management for Better Productivity)Seed Treatment–A New Challenge in Organic Seed ProductionR.L. AgrawalEx-Director, Uttaranchal State Seeds & Organic Production Certification AgencyDiseases are caused by pathogens that may occur, in the soil, adhere to the seeds/planting material, or carried in the wind, or by the insect vectors. In the case of seed bornediseases, the pathogens are carried either on the surface of the seed or within it. Seeds areusually treated with synthetic chemicals to provide a general protective cover or with some specificchemicals to combat specific seed borne diseases. The organic crop husbandry standardshowever prohibit the use of synthetic chemicals in any form or for any purpose, and hence theseeds meant for organic production can not be treated with these chemicals. Organic ProductionStandards require use of home grown untreated seeds produced under organic management fororganic crop husbandry. Given the prohibition or restrictions on most seed dressings this indeed isa challenge that would need to be met.below.The various approaches that need to be adopted to meet the challenge are discussedProduce Healthy SeedsThe foremost emphasis must be placed on the production of healthy plants – healthyseeds/ planting material which is capable of fending - off many of the common plant diseases. Produce a healthy soil by managing organic matter and enhancing soil life, includingmicroorganisms. Crop rotation that helps control spread of diseases. Optimize nutrient availability by green manure, composts, and other bio-fertilizers, includingthe use of nitrogen fixing crops. Use of healthy seeds, resistant crop varieties etc. Adopt Good Agricultural Practices (GAP), including management of crop harvest,threshing, drying and storage etc. Adopt sanitary measures, including field sanitation. Field sanitation through the removal ofdiseased debris, weeds, alternate and collateral hosts are very effective in containing plantdiseases. Dry and cool storage of seeds. Good sanitation of seed storage houses.Seed treatmentSeeds and planting materials can be treated when it becomes imperative to do so, and thatwhen there is no other alternative. A careful choice however would need to be made amongstpermitted methods/ substances for seed treatment in organic crop husbandry.Physical methods: Wherever feasible, the seed treatment with hot water, soaking the seeds incold water, solar treatment followed by soaking seeds in water, seed cleaning, and sievingmethods should get preference over other methods.- 44 -

(Seed Health Management for Better Productivity)Plant extracts: Plant extracts can be used for seed treatment. The difficulty here however is thatmuch work has not been done in this regard. A lot of experimentation and standardization wouldneed to be done in this regard.Mineral Origin: The various substances of mineral origin permitted in the organic standards forcrop protection can be used for seed treatment. Standardization would need to be done in thisregard.Direct Biological Control Methods: In recent years much emphasis has been placed on thedevelopment and standardization of biological control methods. A large number of bio-agents tocombat diseases are now commercially available.- 45 -

(Seed Health Management for Better Productivity)Strategies for Regulation of Seed Borne Diseases in Organic FarmingR.L. AgrawalEx-Director, Uttaranchal State Seeds & Organic Production Certification AgencyPest and diseases are generally not a significant problem in well managed and wellestablished organic farms. It is only when they go out of hand that certain specific controlmeasures may have to be undertaken. Disease control on organic farms is based on a range ofcrop husbandry practices which promote stability and balance between crops and their diseases.Natural Crop Protection StrategiesNatural crop protection practices are no backward looking practices. They are composed oftraditional, local and scientific knowledge systems, each enriching the other. Successfulapplication requires both a sound understanding and skills needed to manage these knowledgesystems in the complex systems which farms are. It may however be necessary to develop siteappropriatestrategies for crop husbandry.Knowledge of Agro-Eco SystemKnowledge of agro-eco system helps the farmers to make correct observations anddecisions in respect of the following: Seasonality of diseases, stage of crop development when the plants are most susceptibleto diseases. Conditions which support disease development (weather conditions). Which role do space and time play? Diversion over time here means discontinuity ofmonocultures; crop rotations, use of short duration varieties, manipulation of sowing andharvesting dates. Diversity in space means use of varietal mixtures, resistant cultivars, cropmixtures etc. Linkages that exists between the different components of an agro-eco system. How canthey be manipulated with due regard to the farmer’s production objective.Crop Growing ConditionsThe crop growing conditions needs to be optimum. These include, Well structured soils. Fertile soils, and balanced crop nutrition. Avoiding moisture stress. Preventive steps, such as, soil flooding, solarization etc., wherever needed. Timely crop husbandry operations. Field sanitation.Healthy Soils and Healthy PlantsThe health of a plant is directly correlated with diseases. Healthy plants under optimal soilconditions and balanced nutrition are better able to actively resist diseases. Soils with high organicmatter and high biological activity help maintain stability of soil ecosystem and balanced crop- 46 -

(Seed Health Management for Better Productivity)nutrition owing to high microbial activity. The value of organic manuring for fungal disease control,and in particular the use of compost has been confirmed during last few decades. In some soilshigh levels of organic matter and biological activity are directly associated with low levels ofdisease incidence. Such soils have higher populations of bacteria and actinomycetes. Mycorrhizaeplay a particular role in plants defense mechanism. They assist in disease control by forming aprotective fungal jacket around the plant root. Plants with roots affected by mycorrhizae known tobe less disease susceptible than without, and are also more resistant to nematodes.Natural Rhythms and optimal planting seasonAn outbreak of diseases is usually associated with a particular stage of development ofhost plant. This should be observed locally to reach right decision.Crop RotationIt is believed that species diversity leads to a greater stability in the agro ecosystem andtherefore reduces risk from sudden outbreaks of specific diseases.Host Plant Resistance and TolerancePlants in natural environments depend entirely on their own defenses. In traditional farmingsystems farmers have long been familiar with a wide choice of land races/ local cultivars which areappropriate to their needs.Field SanitationSanitation includes removal and destruction of plants affected by seed borne diseases, andof the plant residues infected by diseases.Other Disease Control Measures (Supplementary Measures)At organic farms, frequently natural controls may be all that is required. Once all steps tocreate an optimal environment for plant growth have been taken, and there are circumstanceswhere the disease incidence is significant to cause economic damage supplementary interventionmay be necessary. The organic standards permit the use of physical methods, including the use ofheat; and the use of products that are prepared at the farm from local plants, animals andmicroorganisms, subject to conditions imposed, if any (Table 1).Table 1 Crop Protectants and Growth RegulatorsSubstances, Description, compositionalrequirementsPANT AND ANIMAL ORIGINAlgal preparationsAnimal preparations and oilsBeeswaxChitin nematicides (natural origin)Coffee groundsDairy products (milk, casein, buttermilk etc.)GelatineLecithinNatural acids (vinegar)NeemPlant oilsConditions for use- 47 -

(Seed Health Management for Better Productivity)Plant preparationsPlant based repellentsPropolisPyrethrumQuassiaRotenoneRyania sabadillaTobacco tea (pure nicotine is forbidden)MINERAL ORIGINChloride of limeClay (bentonite, perlite, vermiculite, zeolite)Copper salts (e.g. sulfate, hydroxide, oxychloride,octanoate)Diatomaceous earthParaffinLime sulfurPotassium bicarbonatePotassium permanganateQuicklimeSilicates (e.g. sodium silicates, quartz)Sodium bicarbonateSulfurMICROORGANISMSFungal preparationsBacterial preparations (e.g. Bacillus thuringiensis)Release of parasites, predators and sterilized insectsViral preparationsThe synergist Piperonylbutoxide is prohibitedMaximum 8 kg /ha. peryear (on a rollingaverage basis)Criteria to evaluate additional inputs to organic agriculture1. Necessity. Input must be necessary to use e.g. on specific crops, in specific regions orunder specific conditions from the viewpoint of yield, product quality, environment safety,human and animal welfare.2. Nature and mode of production. The origin of input should usually be organic – vegetative,animal, microbial; or mineral. The ingredients of the input may undergo processes such as,mechanical, physical, enzymatic, action of microorganisms. The collection of raw materialsshall not affect the stability of the natural habitat nor affect the maintenance of any specieswithin the collection area.3. Environment. The input shall not be harmful or have a lasting negative impact on theenvironment. Nor the input shall give rise to unacceptable pollution of surface or groundwater, air or soil. Input shall not contain harmful manufactured chemicals. All inputs shall bedegradable to CO 2 , H 2 O and or to their mineral form. Inputs with a high acute toxicity tonon-target organisms should have a maximum half-life of 5 days. Natural substances usedas inputs which are not considered toxic do not need to be degradable within a limited time.Mineral inputs should contain as few heavy metals as possible.- 48 -

(Seed Health Management for Better Productivity)4. Human health and quality. Inputs shall not be harmful to human health, and shall not havenegative effects on the quality of the product.5. Ethical aspects – Animal welfare. Inputs shall not have a negative influence on the naturalbehavior or physical functioning of animals kept at the farm.6. Socio Economic Aspects. Consumer’s perception. Inputs should not interfere with ageneral feeling or opinion about what is natural or organic.General guidelinesNo single strategy is likely to be successful on its own. Effective control relies on theeffective interactions between many factors.1) Adopt a variety of cultural methods to control plant diseases; including Organic manuringand crop nutrition, rotation design, and choice of crop varieties appropriate to location.2) Adopt measures, such as, crop isolation where there is a danger of contamination fromneighboring fields, and rouging of diseased plants affected with seed borne diseases within fields. Insect borne viruses are best controlled by controlling the transmitting insects.3) Adopt direct biological and mechanical controls. Use plant extracts to treat the soil or theplanting material. Air bone diseases can be treated by the use of foliar sprays and otherpermitted products.- 49 -

(Seed Health Management for Better Productivity)Seeds: Intellectual PropertyH.S. ChawlaDepartment of Genetics and Plant Breeding, G.B.P.U.A.&T., Pantnagar-263145 (Uttarakhand)The WTO was established on 1 stJanuary 2005 and is responsible for making andenforcing rules for trade between nations. WTO marks a major change in global trade rules. As anorganization, it replaces the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trades (GATT), which had been inexistence since 1947. The Eighth Round of Multilateral Trade Negotiations under GATT, whichstarted in Uruguay in 1986, was concluded in 1994, leading to the creation of WTO as the newpermanent international trade organization. The role of WTO is much more extensive than that ofGATT, which dealt with trade in goods. Apart from goods, the two other broad areas that WTOcovers are services and intellectual property, which previously belonged to the domestic domain.Accordingly, WTO administers not only the Multilateral Trade Agreements (MTAs) in goods butalso the General Agreement on Trade in Services (GATS) and the Agreement on Trade RelatedAspects of Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPS), which came into existence with WTO. All theagreements annexed to the Agreement establishing the WTO were signed as part of a packagedeal. Member countries did not have the option of choosing some and rejecting others. Anotherimportant difference with the erstwhile GATT is that WTO has a stronger compliance mechanismthan the GATT. A member’s failure to meet the obligations can invoke retaliation acrossagreements and sectors (Chawla, 2007a).As one of the WTO agreements, TRIPS is binding on all member countries of WTO. TRIPSaims at establishing strong minimum standards for intellectual property rights (IPRs). IPRs can bedefined as the rights given to people over the creation of their minds. They usually give the creatoran exclusive right over the use of his/her creation for a certain period of time. Intellectual propertyincludes copyrights, trademarks, geographical indications, industrial designs, integrated circuitsand trade secrets (Chawla and Singh, 2005). The protection of IPRs is binding and legallyenforceable.IPRs have been created to ensure protection against unfair trade practice. Owners of IPare granted protection by a state and/or country under varying conditions and periods of time. Thisprotection includes the right to: (i) defend their rights to the property they have created; (ii) preventothers from taking advantage of their ingenuity; (iii) encourage their continuing innovativeness andcreativity; and (iv) assure the world a flow of useful, informative and intellectual works.PatentsA patent is a government granted exclusive right to an inventor to prevent others frompracticing i.e. making, using or selling the invention. A patent is a personal property, which can belicensed or sold like any other property. The purpose of a patent is to encourage and develop newinnovations. The Patent Law recognizes the exclusive right of a patentee to gain commercial- 50 -

(Seed Health Management for Better Productivity)advantage out of his invention. There are three criteria to issue a patent for the innovation (Chawlaand Singh, 2007).i. Novelty: The inventor must establish that the invention is new or novel. The noveltyrequirement refers to the prior existence of an invention. If an invention is identical to analready patented invention, the novelty requirement is not met, so a patent cannot be issued.ii. Inventiveness (Non-obviousness): It is an invention and not merely discovery. It is non obviousto one skilled in the field. The non-obvious requirement refers to the level of difficulty requiredto invent the technology. If an invention is so obvious that anyone having an ordinary skillwould have thought of it, then it does not meet this requirement.iii. Usefulness (Industrial application): It has a utility or is useful for the society. The usefulrequirement refers to the practical use of invention. If an invention provides a product that isrequired or needed in some manner, then it meets this requirementIn the patent adequate disclosure should be made so that others can also work on it. Itshould have the features: i) be a written description; ii) enables other persons to follow; iii)adequate and iv) deposit mechanism.The present law, Patents Act 1970, amendment 2005 is effective from January 1, 2005.Product patents on all items including food, agro-chemical and pharmaceuticals have also beenallowed making the Patents Act fully TRIPS compliant.The patent system was developed as a means to reward inventions which would be usefulto the society. However, in order to ensure the interests of society, as per the Indian Patents Act,certain things have been excluded from the purview of patentability. The sections relevant to plantmaterial and agriculture which are excluded from patentability are:Section 3(h): a method of agriculture and horticulture.Section 3(i): any process for medicinal, surgical, curative, prophylactic (diagnostictherapeutic) or other treatment of human beings or any process for a similar treatment ofanimals to render them free of disease or to increase their economic value or that of theirproducts.Section 3(j): plants and animals in whole or any part thereof other than microorganisms butincluding seeds, varieties and species and essentially biological processes for production orpropagation of plants and animals.Section 3(p): an invention which in effect, is traditional knowledge or which is an aggregationor duplication of known properties of traditionally known component or components.Further the mere discovery of any new property or new use for a known substance or themere use of a known process, machine or apparatus unless such known process results in a newproduct or employ at least one new reactant is not patentable. Also a patent claim for a substanceobtained by merely mixing ingredients resulting only in the aggregation of the properties of thecomponents is not a patentable invention. However, in India, method for rendering plants free of- 51 -

(Seed Health Management for Better Productivity)diseases or to increase their economic value or that of their products can be claimed for patentprotection.Microorganisms per se can be claimed for protection provided they are not mere discoveryof organisms. It is mandatory to deposit the biological material in International Depositary Authority(IDA). In India, Institute of Microbial Technology (IMTECH), Chandigarh is a recognizedinternational depositary for some category of micro-organisms. If an applicant mentions abiological material in the patent specification then disclosure requirements prescribed for biologicalmaterials have been notified in the list of the Central Government or for indicating its source andgeographical origin [Section: 10,4(d)].The purpose of a patent is to promote the progress of science and useful arts. The patentlaw promotes this progress by giving the inventor the right of exclusion. In exchange for this rightto exclude others, the inventor must disclose all details describing the invention, so that when thepatent period expires, the public may have the opportunity to develop and profit from the use ofinvention. A patent is enforced in the country which issues it, meaning thereby territorial in nature.For each country a separate application is to be filed in that country where protection is sought.Plant patentsPlant patents are obtainable in US and Japan. The US Plant Patent Act of 1930 (PPA)granted property rights for privately developed plant varieties of asexually reproducing plants.These rights were extended to new and distinct asexual varieties for a period of seventeen years.Advances in breeding technology provided the momentum for the 1970 Plant Variety ProtectionAct (PVPA). The PVPA provided protection for sexually reproducing plants, including seedgermination. In 1980 Diamond vs. Chakrabarty case set in motion the trend towards the legalacceptance of the commodification of germplasm. Commodification is the process whereby anobject, whether tangible, such as seed, or intangible, such as knowledge about the seed, is turnedinto a commodity, i.e. something that acquires an economic worth and can be bought and sold. USSupreme Court in Diamond vs. Chakrabarty case decided that microorganism should not beprecluded from patentability for the objection raised by USPTO on the basis of “product of nature”.The court held that a live, man made bacterium was patentable under the PPA and the ‘product ofnature’ objection therefore failed and the modified organisms were held patentable. In the Hibberdcase (1985), involving a tryptophan-overproducing mutant, the patent office ruled that plants couldbe patented and there is no distinction between asexually and sexually propagated plants.Following the principle established in the Chakrabarty case, it was decided that normal US utilitypatents could be granted for other types of plant e.g. genetically modified plants. Plant patentshave been granted by European Patent Office (EPO) from 1989. But in 1995, EPO severelyrestricted the scope of Plant Genetic Systems (Belgium) patent on herbicide resistant plants andallowed claims only on the herbicide resistant gene and the process used in the generation ofplants. In Japan, plant patents are allowed, but there are some disputes over territorial rights. Lifeforms of plants and animals except microorganisms are not patentable in India. In pursuance to- 52 -

(Seed Health Management for Better Productivity)the TRIPS agreement, India has enacted “Protection of Plant Varieties and Farmers’ Rights”(PPV&FR) Act, 2001, a sui generis system of plant variety protection which has been described indetail separately.Plant Variety Protection in IndiaAs stated India is signatory to WTO agreements and it has to abide by the TRIPSregulations. As per article 27.3(b) of the TRIPS which demand that member countries shouldprotect their plant varieties either by patent, or an effective system of sui generis protection, or acombination of these two. In this context India chose a sui generis system for protection of plantvarieties. An Act named as Protection of Plant Varieties and Farmers’ Rights (PPV&FR) Act 2001has been passed and Rules have been framed. PPV&FR Authority has been constituted with itsHead Office located at Delhi. The PPV&FR Act is TRIPS compliant and compatible with UPOVsystem of plant variety protection (Anonymous, 2003).The PPV&FR Act 2001 provides protection to following types of plant varieties(Anonymous, 2003):i. Newly bred varieties.ii. Extant varieties – The varieties which were released under Indian Seeds Act, 1966 andhave not completed 15 years as on the date of application for their protection.iii. Farmer’s varieties – The varieties which have been traditionally cultivated, includinglandraces and their wild relatives which are in common knowledge, as well as thoseevolved by farmers.iv. Essentially derived varieties.v. Transgenic varieties.To qualify for registration under the act, a new variety has to conform to the criteria ofnovelty (N), distinctiveness (D), uniformity (U) and stability (S). Besides, a denomination has to begiven for the registration of variety. Denomination refers to the label or title of the variety. It is thedenomination that is registered. For extant and farmers’ varieties which are in public domain theDUS features will be considered while the novelty feature will not be taken because these varietiesare not new and are in public domain. In this act a special clause has been put which states thatany variety with terminator gene sequences will not be registered. Thus any transgenic materialwith genetic use restriction technology (GURT) sequences will not be registered.It is pertinent to note that the Act recognizes the farmer as a cultivator, conserver andbreeder. This embraces all farmers, landed or landless, male and female. Under the Sec. 2(k) ofPPV&FR Act, a farmers means any person who -i) cultivates crops by cultivating the land himself;or ii) cultivates crops by directly supervising the cultivation of land through any other person; or iii)conserves and preserves, severally or jointly, with any person any wild species or traditionalvarieties, or adds value to such wild species or traditional varieties through selection andidentification of their useful properties. While the farmers’ variety under Sec. 2(l) means a variety- 53 -

(Seed Health Management for Better Productivity)which- i) has been traditionally cultivated and evolved by the farmers in their fields; or ii) is a wildrelative or land race of a variety about which the farmers posses the common knowledge.An application for registration can be made by any person claiming to be the breeder of thevariety, successor of the breeder, assignee, any farmer or group of community of farmers, anyperson authorized for the above mentioned categories or any University or publicly fundedagricultural institution claiming to be the breeder of the variety. However, an application of farmervariety filed by any farmer or group of farmers or community of farmers has to be endorsed by anyone of officers viz. District Agricultural Officer, District Tribal Development Officer, DirectorResearch of the concerned state Agricultural University, Chairperson/Secretary of the concernedPanchayat Biodiversity Management Committee.All the varieties will be registered with PPV&FR Authority. DUS guidelines for 35 cropshave been prepared by ICAR while guidelines for 12 crop species have been notified by PPV&FRAuthority in the gazette. PPV&FR Authority has established testing centres for each and everycrop species. In the first phase which has started in May, 2007, the registration of varieties will bedone for 12 crop species of cereals and legumes. The registration will then extend to 35 cropswhich includes cereals, pulses, oilseeds, vegetable and two flower species. DUS guidelines arealso being prepared for medicinal and aromatic plants, spices, ornamentals and forest trees forwhich task forces have been constituted by the PPV&FR Authority.Indian PPV&FR Act allows farmers to save, use, sow, resow, exchange, share or sell hisfarm produce including seed of a variety protected under this Act, but it prohibits that the farmershall not be entitled to sell branded seed of a variety protected under the Act [Sec. 39, 1(iv)]. Thefarmers have been given the right to register farmers varieties themselves [Sec. 39,1(i)], right toclaim compensation for under performance of a protected variety from the promised level [Sec.39(2)], benefit sharing for use of biodiversity conserved by farming community [Sec. 41]. Accordingto the concept of benefit sharing, whenever a variety submitted for protection is bred with thepossible use of a landrace, extant variety or farmer’s variety, a claim can be referred either onbehalf of the local community or institution for a share of the royalty [Sec. 41(1)] (Anonymous,2003). In the Act a provision of compulsory license has also been put. According to this, after theexpiry of three years from the date of issue of certificate of registration of a variety, any personinterested can claim in an application to the authority alleging that reasonable requirements of thepublic for seeds or other propagating material have not been satisfied or that the seed or otherpropagating material is not available to the public at a reasonable price and pray for the grant of acompulsory license to undertake production, distribution and sale of the seed or other propagatingmaterial of that variety [Sec. 47(1)] (Anonymous, 2003).The Act had laid down the norms for registration of plant varieties, fee structure, provisionsof opposition, DUS testing of material, etc. If any farmer or association of farmers is applying forregistration of a plant variety then this category is not required to pay any fee for either registrationor DUS testing. However, for the registration of farmer variety a farmer has to pay the fee for- 54 -

(Seed Health Management for Better Productivity)application form. Also an affidavit for Rs 100/- on non judicial stamp paper has to be submittedwith the application form indicating that the variety does not contain any GURT or terminator genetechnology. For the registration of farmers’ varieties, farmers have to be motivated for filing ofapplication form or the SAU’s / ICAR institutes have to take the lead so that valuable germplasmcan be protected. In this direction Intellectual Property Management Centre of G.B. Pant Universityof Agric. & Tech., Pantnagar has taken the lead by filing three applications of farmers’ varieties ofrice namely Tilakchandan, Hansraj and Indrasan on behalf of the farmers and for the benefit offarmers. PPV&FR Authority has gazette notified that extant varieties which includes farmer’svarieties will be registered in the next 3 years from the date of notification of registration ofvarieties for 12 crop species. Thus there is an urgency to register the farmers varieties otherwisethe valuable germplasm which was being conserved by the farmers will remain unprotected andany body can utilize for pecuniary gains.Once the variety has been tested for its features then the Registrar of the Authority willissue the certificate of registration. It shall have the validity of nine years initially in case of treesand vines with renewal up to a period of 18 years. For other crops certificate of registration will beissued for six years initially with renewal up to 15 years. In case of extant varieties the validityperiod is 15 years from the date of notification of that variety by the Central Government undersection 5 of the Seeds Act 1966.REFERENCES1. Anonymous, 2003. The Protection of Plant Varieties and Farmers’ Rights Act, 2001 and Rules,Universal Law Publishing Co., Delhi, 2003.2. Chawla, H.S., 2007a. Managing intellectual property rights for better transfer and commercializationof agricultural technologies. J Intellectual Property Rights, 12: 330 – 3403. Chawla, H.S., 2007b. Intellectual Property Rights. J. Eco-friendly Agriculture, 2(2): 103-1124. Chawla, H.S. and Singh, A.K., 2005. Intellectual Property Rights. Vol II: Copyrights, Trade Marks,Trade Secrets and Geographical Indications. Pantnagar University Press, pp-755. Chawla, H.S. and Singh, A.K., 2007. Intellectual Property Rights: Patents, Plant Variety Protectionand Biodiversity, Published by Intellectual Property Management Centre, G.B. PantUniv. of Agric & Tech., Pantnagar, 54 p.- 55 -

(Seed Health Management for Better Productivity)Contribution of Uttaranchal Seeds & TDC in the Prosperity of theFarmersH.K. SinghUttaranchal Seeds and Tarai Development Corporation, Haldi-263 146 (Uttarakhand)Uttaranchal Seed & Tarai Development Corporation is the first state seed corporation in thecountry. It was established in the year 1969 as a Seed Production arm of Pantnagar Universityunder the chairmanship of the then Vice-Chancellor Dr. Dhyan Pal Singh in the University. It wasrestructure in the year 1978 as the U.P. Seeds & Tarai Development Corporation has strived hardto provide farmers best quality seed under the brand name “Pantnagar Seed”. Pantnagar seed isknown for it superior quality every where. Corporation has also contributed immensely in theprosperity of farmers all over the country.It was first of its kind PPP (Public Private Partnership) model in the field of Agriculturewhere farmers have biggest share in the production, processing, Marketing and the highest levelof decision making. Corporation has played a important role in bringing up green revolution in thecountry. Corporation has strong focus on quality control of the seed made available to the farmers.- 56 -

(Seed Health Management for Better Productivity)Quality Control Arrangements in the Seed ProductionDeepak PandeUttaranchal Seeds and Tarai Development Corporation, Haldi-263 146 (Uttarakhand)The Uttaranchal Seeds & Tarai Development Corporation, Limited (UAS&TDC) wasestablished on 29 th June 1996 as “Tarai Development Corporation Limited” and has pioneered forbringing the first Green Revolution of the country with help of G.B. Pant University of Agriculture &Technology, Pantnagar and farmers of Tarai Region of erstwhile Uttar Pradesh. The Corporationhas been producing, processing and marketing high quality seeds high yielding varieties ofcereals, pulses, oilseeds, vegetables and fodder with the popular brad equity of “PANTNAGARSEEDS” WHICH HAS BEEN ACCEPTED BY THE FARMING COMMUNITY OF THE COUNTRY WIDELY.After launching the National Seeds Project by the Government of India, our Corporation has alsobeen re-started functioning in the name and style of “U.P. Seeds & Tarai Development CorporationLimited” and has become the Mother Project for establishment of other State Seeds Corporation inthe country. The active participation of the Corporation for economic growth of the farmingcommunity of the country has been widely appreciated and the Corporation has been conferredwith many National Productivity Awards by the National Productivity Council of Government ofIndia.Consequent upon the creation of the new state of Uttarakhand, this Corporation has alsobeen on 9 th December 2002 and renamed as Uttarakhand Seeds & TDC. Prior to that we wereproducing around 12,00,000 quintals of certified Seeds of various crops/varieties of cereals,pulses, oilseeds, vegetable and fodder per year. Still now more than 3500 farmers belonging toUttarakhand and Uttar Pradesh are closely associated with us as our shareholders but theproduction target has considerably, educed as we are not getting the state and central levelbenefits of production incentive and distribution subsidy for interstate marketing. Considering thegeological condition, size of the state and limited area under cultivation the requirement of seedsin Uttarakhand is limited whereas the state enjoys the privilege of having both temperate andtropical climatic conditions and the major portion of the seeds produced is being distributed in UttarPradesh, Bihar, West Bengal, Assam, Orissa, Himachal Pradesh etc.Under National Food Security Mission Government of India has identified some stateswhich includes Uttar Pradesh & Bihar and has been allowing distribution subsidy on wheat @ Rs.500/- per quintal and Rs. 1200/- per quintal in case of pulses and oilseeds. In addition to thisconcerned state seeds corporation, National Seeds Corporation is also enjoying this facility on theseeds sold by them all over the country. But our Corporation is deprived resulting which cost of ourseeds becomes costlier by Rs. 500/- and Rs. 1,200/- per quintal respectively which has adverselyaffected our sale in these states whereas these are our potential marketing zone.Since its inception, corporation has been contributing immensely towards increasing theNational Agricultural Productivity by supplying more than 3 lac quintals of quality seeds to different- 57 -

(Seed Health Management for Better Productivity)states. Major one is U.P. and this naked fact is always ignored by the nodal agencies forformulating and implementing various central sector schemes. It is not our of place to mentionhere that we have all the capabilities for producing and distributing at least 25% of the totalrequirement of seeds in the country if it is also recognized as a nodal agency as in the case ofNational Seeds Corporation etc. The aim of “National Food Security Mission” can only be achievedif the Seed Replacement Rate is increased from the present ratio to relevant lands, over the yearsto come as the availability of cultivable land is decreasing while the population is increasing.Under the circumstances it has become essential to make available high quality, highyielding and disease resistant seeds to the farmers in adequate quantity both for economic growthof the farmers and achieving the aims of the Government of India Forits “National Food SecurityMission” to ensure the food security for its citizens.- 58 -

(Seed Health Management for Better Productivity)Role of GBPUA & T in Agricultural Development and Popularization ofSeeds of New VarietiesS.C. ManiDepartment of Genetics and Plant Breeding, G.B.P.U.A.&T., Pantnagar-263145 (Uttarakhand)G.B. Pant University of Agriculture and Technology, Pantnagar has been pioneer inimparting education in agriculture and allied sciences and technology, conducting need basedresearch and transfer of technology. The research programmes are designed towards socioeconomicupliftment of rural people through enhanced agricultural production and supply of qualityseeds of improved varieties of field and vegetable crops and planting material of fruit crops,aromatic and medicinal plants, ornamental plants, agroforestry trees, mushroom and fish seeds.The university has a pride place of evolving 205 improved varieties of various crops viz. wheat(21), rice (16), maize (13), pulses (30), soybean (18), oilseeds (7), forage crops (18), sugarcane(8), millets (10), cotton (3), dhaincha (1), buckwheat (2), poplar (1), pear (3), mango (1), guava (1),jackfruit (2), aonla (1), papaya (2), bael (1), citrus (1), karonda (3), peach (1), plum (2), chilli (1),brinjal (4), tomato (2), cauliflower (4), French bean (2), garden pea (4), coriander (1), bitter gourd(2), ridge gourd (1), bottle gourd (3), cucumber (3), long melon (1), garlic (1), turmeric (1), fennel(1), fenugreek (1), black cumin (1), ajowain (1), and gladiolus (1). Various categories of seeds ofthese varieties are regularly produced at various research units of the university as per demand ofthe State Government Govt. Of India, State Seed Corporations and private seed companies.Some seed of the new varieties is directly sold to the farmers for quick spread and adoption of newtechnologies. Besides, the production of good quality seed, various other technologies related toenhanced agricultural productivity viz. crop production and management soil health management,post harvest management and value addition to agricultural produce.Current Status of Seed and Planting Material Production in the UniversityNucleus SeedMaintenance of the genetic purity of different varieties is the responsibility of the concernedbreeder and the concerned institute. Nucleus seed is the base of the seed production programmeand the purity of advanced generation seeds (breeder, foundation and certified seed) dependsupon the purity of the nucleus seed. The purity of the nucleus seed is maintained by undertakingnucleus seed programmes appropriate for seed and vegetatively propagated crops.Breeder SeedBreeder seed is the next most important category in the seed production chain. It is 100per cent pure and is produced under the direct supervision of the breeder at the Research Stationsand University Farm. The volume of the seed and the choice of the variety to be produceddepends upon the popularity of the variety and the indent received from the Department ofAgriculture and Cooperation, Ministry of Agriculture, Government of India. The purity of thebreeder seed is monitored by the committee constituted by Government of India. Every year the- 59 -

(Seed Health Management for Better Productivity)university produces about 65,000-75,000 quintals of breeder seed at the Breeder Seed ProductionCentre, Crop Research Centre, University Farm, Vegetable Research Centre, SugarcaneResearch Centre, Kashipur and Hill Campus, Ranichauri.Foundation SeedFoundation seed comes next after the breeder seed and its availability is essential for theproduction of certified seed. Foundation seed production also requires proper care and supervisionfrom time to time. Foundation seeds are produced at the Crop Research Centre, University Farm,Medicinal Plant Research & Development Centre, Hill Campus Ranichauri and AgricultureResearch Station, Majhera.Certified SeedCertified seed is the ultimate product which is sold to the farmers for cultivation. certifiedseed production also requires good care and inspection from time to time. Its quality dependsupon the purity of the crop and post harvest processing. The certified seed in the university isproduced at several centers namely, Crop Research Centre, Vegetable Research Centre,University Farm, Medicinal Plant Research and Development Centre, Agro Forestry ResearchCentre, Model Floriculture Centre, Hill Campus, Ranichauri, Agriculture Research Centre, Majheraand V.C.S.G. College of Horticulture, Bharsar.Future ThrustThough the university produces a large quantity of seed of various categories incoordination with UA Seeds & Tarai Seed Development Corporation, but still there is someshortfall in the availability of certified seed of hill varieties of rice and wheat due to non-availabilityof large government farms in the hills. Currently, the seeds of hill varieties are also produced at themain campus of the University at Pantnagar. The vegetative phase of the hill varieties is of shortduration and result in quick flowering and early maturity. The time left for the growth and tillering isvery short. Therefore, the yields are low. Hence, seed production of the hill varieties has to betaken in the hill regions. For this, the farmers also need to be convinced and trained in the seedproduction work. Seed production of hill varieties is also undertaken at the research stations of theuniversity located in hills.The minor millets like, finger millet, foxtail millet, jhingora and underutilized crops like, buckwheat, rice bean and amaranth occupy a sizeable area in Uttarakhand hills and some high yieldingvarieties have also been developed. Efforts are being made to produce requisite quantity of seedof hill varieties so that the farmers benefit from their high yield and nutritive value.The pulse crops like, gram, field pea, urd, moong, pigeon pea and lentil form the mainsource of protein for the poor and under nourished people of the hills. The gram is grown in theplains but the other pulses are grown in the plains as well as in the hills. The availability of certifiedseed of new varieties is not up to the desired level because seed production of these cropsinvolves high risk. The prevailing price of the pulses in open market is also higher than rates fixed- 60 -

(Seed Health Management for Better Productivity)by the Government for the breeder seed and the price paid by the seed industry to the producers.The farmers have to be given some incentive for the seed production of pulses.Vegetables, flowers and aromatic & medicinal plants also play an important role in theoverall economy of the state. The adoption of hybrid varieties of vegetables and flowers is very lowin the state due to non-availability of genuine hybrid seed of different crops. Moreover, the hybridseed is very costly for the common farmers of the state. The area under hybrid vegetables can beincreased if the farmers of the region are trained to produce the hybrid seed of the vegetable cropsof their region.In view of the above and the fact that seed replacement rate has to be increased to 25 percent in self pollinated crops, 50 per cent in cross pollinated crops and 100 per cent in hybrids, theseed production activities at all the centers needs to increased. The seventh SOC Meeting ofICAR for the year 2007 held on 11 th July, 2007 under the Chairmanship of Secretary (DARE) &DG, ICAR has also observed that the seed production during the year 2007-08 be doubled ascompared to 2006-2007. This requires creation of new facilities and improvement in existingfacilities.- 61 -

(Seed Health Management for Better Productivity)Soil Health and Quality Seed ProductionB. MishraDepartment of Soil Science, G.B.P.U.A.&T., Pantnagar-263145 (Uttarakhand)Soil health may be viewed as the component of ecosystem health that reflects theproperties of soil as a living system. In simplest terms, soil health can be defined as "the fitness ofsoil for use" (Doran et al. 1996). In agricultural systems, healthy soil provides for the sustained andproductive growth of crops with minimal impacts on the environment.Soil is a component of primary importance in crop production, even if it is often neglected,or only regarded as a physical support for the growth of plants. However, with the increasingconcerns for the sustainability of agriculture and environmental protection, soil must be consideredas a living system. Its quality results from the multiple interactions among physicochemical andbiological components, notably the microbial communities, primordial for soil function. Crops areaffected by soil health and threatened by soil-borne diseases.The terms “soil health” and “soil quality” are often used synonymously. However, soil healthmay be considered as the state of soil at a particular time with reference to benchmark soil,whereas soil quality refers to its ability to function for a specific purpose. Two soils may be equally“healthy” but may achieve different levels of plant productivity because of differences in theirinherent quality.There are two components of soil quality viz. inherent and dynamic. Inherent soil qualityrefers to the characteristics that define a soil’s inherent capacity for plant production. These areusually static, changing little over short time frames (years to decades). Soil texture and soilmineralogy are commonly included as properties of inherent soil quality for productivity. Other soilproperties such as total soil carbon, cation exchange capacity (CEC) and exchangeable sodiumpercentage (ESP) may also be considered as inherent properties, even though they may bealtered by management over longer time frame.Properties of dynamic soil quality are those that change in response to human use andmanagement normally over relatively short time frame (years to decades). Agricultural soils of highquality or good health maintain high nutrient availability, permit adequate infiltration of water andair, have relatively stable structure and maintain a functionally diverse community of soilorganisms that support a relatively high level of plant productivity. These processes are reflectedin specific physical, chemical and biological properties of soils.It is not feasible to measure all soil properties in order to assess the soil quality or health.Some indicators are needed to facilitate the measurement of soil quality. These indicators coverthe whole range of soil physical, chemical and biological properties, reflect soil functions, and areeasy to measure for a variety of users and under various field conditions, and respond to changesin climate and management. Table 1 lists a set of indicators that are commonly used tocharacterize soil quality or soil health. Key indicators are soil texture, bulk density, aggregation,- 62 -

(Seed Health Management for Better Productivity)available water capacity, pH, EC, NPK reserves, organic C, and microbial biomass. In specificsituations, additional soil properties may be identified as indicators e.g. soil aggregation, ESP,micronutrient status, pesticide residues and heavy metal pollutants.Table 1: Some soil physical, chemical and biological properties used as indicatorsof soil healthSoil propertyPhysical propertiesSoil textureTopsoil and rooting depthSoil bulk densityInfiltration, hydraulicconductivityWater contentWater holding capacity,water release curveChemical propertiespHElectrical conductivityAvailable N, P, KOrganic C and NBiological propertiesInformationRetention and transport of water, nutrients and chemicals,susceptibility to erosion; stabilization of organic matter and soilstructureWater and nutrient availability, rooting volume for crop productionVolume of pore space, compactionRunoff and leaching potential, drainageAvailable waterAvailability of air and water, retention and transport of water andchemicals, drainageAcidity or alkalinity of soil, nutrient availabilityPresence and quantity of soluble saltsPlant available nutrientsOrganic matter reserves, nutrient cycling, soil structurePotentially mineralizable NMicrobial biomassSoil respirationPotential to supply plant available NSize of microbial population, pool of rapidly cycling organic matterand nutrientsAvailability of soil organic matter reserves, microbiological activitySoil productivity can certainly be lost through erosion, nutrient mining or other processessuch as salinization, sodification, compaction and water logging. The linkage between soilproductivity and soil health or quality is apparent when changes in soil attributes used to assesssoil quality are linked to causes of productivity loss. The effects of management practices onproductivity can also be assessed using soil quality attributes.Building or restoring soil health or quality may involve a range of measures adopted at thefield, farm or watershed level, to optimize resource conservation. Integrative approaches to landuse, such as conservation tillage and organic farming have shown that management inputs (e.g.crop residues) and system diversity (e.g. crop rotation) strongly influence dynamic soil properties.Recently, favorable effects of integrated nutrient management on soil quality indicators have beenreported (Sharma et al. 2005).Agricultural practices that affect soil health/quality1) Soil conservation2) Tillage3) Addition of organic matter (manures, crop residues)4) Use fertilizers and agrochemicals- 63 -

(Seed Health Management for Better Productivity)5) Cropping system6) IrrigationComponents of soil health/ quality managementThe seven components of soil quality management are discussed briefly below: Choosingspecific practices within each component depends on the situation since different types of soilrespond differently to the same practice. Each combination of soil type and land use calls for adifferent set of practices to enhance soil quality.1. Enhance organic matter content: Whether the soil is naturally high or low in organic matter,adding new organic matter in the form of compost, crop residues etc every year is perhaps themost important way to improve and maintain soil quality. Regular additions of organic matterimprove soil structure, enhance water and nutrient holding capacity, protect soil from erosionand compaction, and support a healthy community of soil organisms. Practices that increaseorganic matter include: leaving crop residues in the field, choosing crop rotations that includehigh residue plants, using optimal nutrient and water management practices to grow healthyplants with large amounts of roots and residue, growing cover crops, applying manure orcompost, using low or no tillage systems, and mulching.2. Avoid excessive tillage: Tillage is used to loosen surface soil, prepare the seedbed, andcontrol weeds and pests. But tillage can also break up soil structure, speed up thedecomposition and loss of organic matter, increase the threat of erosion, destroy the habitat ofhelpful organisms, and cause compaction. New equipment allows crop production with minimaldisturbance of the soil.3. Manage pests and nutrients efficiently: An important function of soil is to buffer and detoxifychemicals, but soil's capacity for detoxification is limited. Pesticides and chemical fertilizershave valuable benefits, but they also can harm non-target organisms and pollute water and airif they are mismanaged. Nutrients from organic sources also can pollute when misapplied orover-applied. Efficient pest and nutrient management means testing and monitoring soil andpests; applying only the necessary chemicals, at the right time and place to get the job done;and taking advantage of non-chemical approaches to pest and nutrient management such ascrop rotations, cover crops, and manure management.4. Prevent soil compaction: Compaction reduces the amount of air, water, and space availableto roots and soil organisms. Compaction is caused by repeated traffic, heavy traffic, ortraveling on wet soil (such as puddling for rice transplanting). Deep compaction by heavyequipment is difficult or impossible to remedy, so prevention is essential.5. Keep the ground covered: Bare soil is susceptible to wind and water erosion, and to dryingand crusting. Ground cover protects soil, provides habitats for larger soil organisms, such asinsects and earthworms, and can improve water availability. Ground can be covered by leavingcrop residue on the surface or by planting cover crops. In addition to ground cover, living covercrops provide additional organic matter, and continuous cover and food for soil organisms.Ground cover must be managed to prevent problems with delayed soil warming in spring,diseases, and excessive build-up of phosphorus at the surface.- 64 -

(Seed Health Management for Better Productivity)6. Diversify cropping systems: Diversity is beneficial for several reasons. Each plant contributesa unique root structure and type of residue to the soil. A diversity of soil organisms can helpcontrol pest populations, and a diversity of cultural practices can reduce weed and diseasepressures. Diversity across the landscape can be increased by using buffer strips, small fields,or contour strip cropping. Diversity over time can be increased by using long crop rotations.7. Manage irrigation: Use of excessive amounts of water for irrigation is not only wasteful butalso harmful. Excess water may cause water logging if proper drainage system is not in place.Excessive withdrawal of ground water for irrigation lowers the ground water level. If theirrigation water quality is brackish, soil salinity builds up which lowers the soil productivity.Soil factors that influence seed qualityS.No.Soil factorsSeed quality parameters that are affected1 Acidity, alkalinity, Grain size, bldness, uniformity, viability, disease incidence2 Salinity Grain size, boldness, uniformity, viability3 Nutrient supply Grain size, boldness, uniformity, viability, disease incidence4 Organic matter Grain size, boldness, uniformity, viability, disease incidence5 Soil aggregation Grain size, uniformity6 Moisture availability Grain size, boldness, uniformity, viability7 Aeration (water logging) Grain size, boldness, uniformity, viability8 Compaction Grain size, boldness, uniformity, viability9 Soil microbes Disease incidence, viability, uniformity10 Bioinoculation (N 2 fixers, Grain size, viability, uniformity, disease incidenceBiocontrolmicroorganisms)Disease Suppressive SoilsPlant diseases are caused mainly by fungi, bacteria, viruses and nematodes. Soil biotacontain a number of these pathogens, beside a large number of beneficial organisms. Thephenomenon of disease suppressive soils has fascinated plant pathologists for decades.Suppressive soils are those in which a specific pathogen does not persist despite favorableenvironmental conditions or the pathogen establishes but doesn't cause disease, or diseaseoccurs but diminishes with continuous monoculture of the same crop species. The phenomenon isbelieved to be biological in nature because fumigation or heat-sterilization of the soil eliminates thesuppressive effect, and disease is severe if the pathogen is re-introduced.Potato scab, a soil-borne disease, is much more severe in alkaline soils. It can beprevented by the use of fertilizers and soil treatments that bring pH so low that the scab organismcannot grow. The reverse is true of wilt and club root diseases of cabbage, which is made worseby acid soil; the use of alkaline materials helps control these diseases.REFERENCES1. Doran, J.W., Sarrantonio, M and Liebig, M.A. (1996) Soil Health and Sustainability. Advances inAgronomy 56, 1-54.2. Sharma, K.L., Mandal, U.K., Srinivas, K., Vittal, K.P.R., Mandal, B., Grace, J.K. and Ramesh, V.(2005) Long-term soil managmenet effects on crop yields and soil quality in a drylandAlfisol. Soil & Tillage Research 83, 246-259.- 65 -

(Seed Health Management for Better Productivity)Agronomic Management of Seed QualityR.S. VermaDepartment of Agronomy, G.B.P.U.A.&T., Pantnagar-263145 (Uttarakhand)The quality of the produce has become more important at present in view of consumerawareness and competition in the world market. The quality of the crop produced depends mainlyon the quality of the seed sown. The seed quality encompasses several parameters includingpurity (both genetic and physical purity), germinability and health. Use of assured quality seedensures the product to be true to the type and of good quality. Presence of seeds of othervariety/species and diseased seeds reduces the quality of the product and also its productivity.The product of seed purity and germination percentage determines “pure live seed” content of thelot which is the basis for determining seed rate for a crop. The seed produced should meet aminimum level of seed quality as prescribed in Indian Minimum Seed Certification Standards.There are several factors which determine seed quality.Influence of locationThe location influences seed quality and its productivity by determining micro-climateavailable to the crop which is determined by the soil and atmospheric conditions prevailing atdifferent locations of seed production. Therefore, it is important to know the influence of soil andatmospheric conditions on the quality of seed produced.A. Soil: The soil physical and chemical composition determines suitability for a crop. Only thosecrops which can be successfully grown on a particular soil for grain production will also be suitablefor seed production. The soils incapable of realizing potential of genotype will certainly producelow quality seed. Careful selection of the land can prevent many problems and minimize work ofrouging. The field selected should be free from prohibited noxious weeds, relatively free of otherweeds and volunteer plants. The land to be used for seed production should be free from soilborne diseases and insects infesting the crop.B. Atmosphere: The atmospheric changes associated with site of seed production influenceboth productivity and quality of seed. These include temperature and rainfall/humidity whichinfluence insect, pest and disease of the crop. Light available at a particular location also influenceseed quality.a. Temperature: Temperature plays an important role in quality seed production. Temperatureprevailing during vegetative growth of crop would mainly influence the productivity but temperatureexperienced by the crop during seed filling will greatly influence seed quality. The temperatureshould be moderate at the time of seed development. Too high temperature or frost during seedmaturation is detrimental to seed quality. Tripathi (2003) observed significant reduction in seedindex due to one month delay in wheat sowing due mainly to rise in temperature duringreproductive phase. This resulted in significant reduction of seedling vigour parameters viz. rootlength, root dry weight, shoot dry weight and seedling vigour index. Contrary to this in Kharif- 66 -

(Seed Health Management for Better Productivity)season, early planting result into seed maturity when temperatures are high and chances of rainfallare also there. The seed produced from such crop are though bold in size but poor in seed quality.It was found at Pantnagar by Gupta et. al. 1973 that soybean crop planted in June gave seeds ofpoor quality than the crop planted in July or early August.Some crops like winter rye (Scale cereale) cabbage, beet, celery have vernalization requirement.If this requirement is not met, the crop may not produce seed .Whereas freezing temperature cancause freeze injury in several other crops like maize. Temperature also influences seed dormancy.b. Rainfall/humidity: Rainfall and humidity are inter related. Rainfall increase relative humidity ofthe atmosphere which may be harmful. High humidity in association with high temperature isconducive for incidence of disease and insects. Moderate to low relative humidity is required forseed filling. Rainfall before the harvest of seed crop increases relative humidity in seedenvironment which adversely affects seed quality.Alternate wetting and drying caused by rainfall results into seed coat rupturing and reducedstorability in large seeded legumes like soybean. Similarly, occurrence of rainfall after maturity ofcereal crops like wheat, maize etc. which do not have seed dormancy, results into pre-sprouting ofseed and spoilage of seed on mother plant itself. Such seeds loose their germinability. Rain afterharvestable maturity of wheat decreases bulk density due to roughing of seed coat. The texture ofseed becomes rough. In addition to this, untimely rain may also adversely influence seed setespecially in cross pollinated crops.c. Light and Photoperiod: The effect of light available to mother plant is related to the quality ofseed produced .Light availability during vegetative growth phase of the crop influences cropgrowth. The duration of light available during vegetative phase will also influence the seed qualityby determining the time of flowering as most of the crop plants are photo-sensation. Light availableduring reproductive phase will influence seed filling through assimilate supply by the process ofphotosynthesis. Photoperiod available during seed development is also known to have its effect onseed dormancy of some crops.Agronomic ManagementAgronomic practices for crop production change with the location. Site specific culturalpractices should also be adopted for seed multiplication with emphasis on isolation, weeding androuging to meet the certification standards. Agronomic practices in relation to seed quality arediscussed below:1. Selection of crop and variety: The crop selected for seed multiplication should be such thatit can produce good quality seed at the given location. The grain crops grown in the localitycan also be grown for seed production. However, varieties susceptible to insects and diseasesof the area should not be grown for seed multiplication.2. Time of sowing: Sowing time recommended for the specific crop for the specific location forcommercial crop production is good for production of seed as well. Early or late sowing of cropmay adversely affect the seed quality and its productivity.- 67 -

(Seed Health Management for Better Productivity)3. Isolation: The seed production plot must be isolated from various sources of contamination bya certain minimum distance known as isolation distance. Isolation is more important in crosspollinatedcrops to avoid genetic contamination through cross-pollination whereas in a strictlyself pollinated crop, it is mainly to avoid mechanical mixture from adjoining fields. Isolationrequirement varies from 3 metres in self pollinated crops like wheat and paddy to hundreds ofmetres in cross-pollinated crops (1600m in case of cabbage, cauliflower etc.).4. Seed rate/row spacing: Planting density may influence quality of produce due to completionbetween plants for resources like nutrients, water, light etc. Limited literature available does notindicate significant differences in seed quality probably because of compensatory mechanismof crop plants.5. Method of sowing: The seed crop must be sown in lines. It should be sown in such a way thatit facilitates movement of personnel for effective roguing. This can be achieved by skipping arerow after every eight to ten row in wheat seed crop. Paired row planting can be adapted incase of paddy, green gram and chickpea. The seed drill (cups, pipes and box) must be cleanedbefore and after sowing of one variety.In hybrid seed production, male and female parents must be planted in the recommendedratio. The row direction is very important in wind pollinated crops and it should be kept nearlyperpendicular to the prevalent wind direction at the time of flowering.6. Mineral nutrition: Application of nutrients especially in soils which are deficient in one or moreelements may affect seed quality parameters. Nitrogen application increases seed protein contentwhich influences seed quality probably by influencing enzymes as all enzymes are proteins. Loweand Ries (1973) found an increase in seed protein content with increase in nitrogen application.More than 86% of seed protein was found in endosperm of wheat seed. Nandisha andMahadevappan (1984) found increase in seed vigour parameters with increases in NPK level andattributed it to increase in seed size and seed protein content.7. Irrigation: Irrigation is related to supply of soil moisture. Soil moisture stress at critical growthstages will adversely affect the seed set and seed filling. For most of the crops flowering is mostcritical stage. Withdrawal of irrigation during flower bud initiation stage will adversely affect thenumber of seeds to be formed. Similarly, moisture stress during grain filling stage will reduce seedsize which will have low vigour. In case of rice, panicle emergence has been found to be mostcritical stage. If drought occurs at this stage, whole inflorescence will become sterile.8. Weed management: Weed control is an important aspect of seed production. Weeds present incrop not only compete with crop plants for resources but also affect seed quality by reducing thesize of seeds and yield. Presence of weed seeds especially those which are inseparable from cropseed may lead to rejection of the seed lot. The seed lot must meet minimum seed certificationstandards. The total number of weed seeds present in the field/seed sample should not exceed thelimit which is zero in some cases. Similar is the case with diseased seeds. Therefore, due careshould be taken for control of diseases especially those in which seed is carrier of pathogen.- 68 -

(Seed Health Management for Better Productivity)9. Roguing: Roguing may be defined as careful and systematic evaluation of a seed production fieldand removal of all undesirable plants. A plant is classified as “rogue” if it is atypical. In other words,any plant which does not conform to the varietal description is turned as rogue. The goal of thisoperation is to ensure the desired varietal and physical purity in the seed production field.Roguing should be conducted before genetic or physical contamination occurs andduring times favorable for visual identification. Visual differences in plant characteristics can bemade at post emergence, vegetative development, flowering, post flowering and pre-harveststages during crop life cycle.10. Time of harvest: Seed has maximum viability and vigour at the time of physiological maturity. Atthis stage seed moisture content is very high. For good quality seed, crop should be harvested atthe earliest once it has reached harvestable maturity. Leaving mature seed in field for long time willadversely affect the seed quality due to diurnal changes in temperature and relative humidity.11. Harvesting: After the seed field is approved for seed standards, seed crop can be harvested. Tominimize mechanical damage to the seed during harvesting, the crop should be harvested at safemoisture content which is 15-17% for wheat, 17-20% for paddy, 13-15% for soybean and 25-30%for maize.In hybrid seed production, male parent lines should be harvested first and removed.Female parent lines should be harvested after inspecting whole field to confirm that all the maleplants have been removed.The thresher, combine, trailers, threshing floor etc. must be thoroughly cleaned inbetween handling of different varieties to avoid mechanical admixture.Conclusion: The quality of seed produced is influenced by the location of seed multiplication throughclimatic condition prevailing at the location. Therefore, agronomic practices adopted for seedproduction should be site specific keeping in mind the condition of soil and atmosphere of the location.REFERENCES1. Agrawal, P.K.; B.D. Agrawal; P. Venkat Rao and J. Singh 1998. Seed multiplication, conditioningand storage. In M.L. Morris (Ed.) Maize Seed Industry in Developing Countries. LynneRienmer Publishers and CYMMIT, Colorado, USA and Maxico.2. Gupta, P.C.; D.A. Miller and C.N. Hittle 1973. Soybean seed quality as influenced by variety andplanting date grown at two locations in India. Seed Res. 1:67-74.3. Lowe, L.B. and S.K. Ries 1973. Edosperm protein of wheat seed as a determinate of seedlinggrowth. Plant Physiol. 51:57-60.4. Nandisha, S.B. and M. Mahadevappa 1984. Influence of mother plant nutrietion and spacing onplanting value of rice seeds (Oryza sativa L.). Seed Res. 12:25-32.5. Rai, S.D.; Y.P. Joshi and H.S. Malik 1977. Effect of sowing dates and seed rates on the seedproduction and seed quality of berseem (Trifolium alexandrinum L.) variety PusaGiant. Seed Res. 5:11-16.6. Tripathi, Neeta 2003. Studies on physiological parameters in relation to heat tolerance in eightwheat varieties. Thesis M.Sc. Ag. (Agronomy) G.B.Pant University of Agriculture &Technology, Pantnagar.- 69 -

(Seed Health Management for Better Productivity)Post-Entry Quarantine Facilities and RequirementsD.B. Parakh, V. Celia Chalam & R.K. KhetrapalDivision of Plant Quarantine, NBPGR, New Delhi- 110 012Definition: Post-entry quarantine (PEQ) mean growing of imported plants in confinement for aspecified period of time in a glass house, screen house, poly house or any other facility, or isolatedfield or an off-shore island that is established in accordance with guidelines/standards and are dulyapproved and certified by an inspection authority notified under Plant Quarantine (Regulation ofImport into India) Order, 2003 with Amendments.PEQ facilities and requirements1. Isolation field: An open area/field which is situated in an isolated place/or within a boundaryor surrounded by hedges/trees in such a way that the main crop(s) are grown at least 400meters away.2. Greenhouse/screen house/poly house: This facility should be built in accordance with theguidelines and approved by the inspection authority notified under this order.Greenhouse(s) can be fabricated with polycarbonate sheets using evapo-transpiration (ET)cooling system with insect-proof stainless steel wire mush of 40-60 mesh per linear inch sizecovering cool cell pad and fan area(s) within the greenhouse. Entry to greenhouse should bethrough double doors so that only one door is opened at a time at the entry point to avoid free flowof air currents in the greenhouse that might carry winged insects/vectors such as aphids,whiteflies, leafhoppers, thrips and mites.Greenhouse(s) can also be fabricated with special polythene sheets (for poly house)manufactured for this purpose which are coated with ultra violet protectants. These sheets can beused in single/double layers and air can be pumped in or out to maintain certain temperatureinside these poly house(s). Plythene sheets are attached to aluminium bars/pipes erected onconcrete structures. ET cooling system can be used to cool the temperatures inside poly house upto 28 0 C Celsius.Greenhouse complex should have a ‘head house’ that consists of an area where soilsterilization and pot filling takes place. Pots filled with sterilized soil mix with sand and farm yardmanure including pesticide treatment are transported to pot growing chambers having fixed ormovable tables. There should be a constant supply of electricity and water for running thegreenhouse complex besides backup or generators. Besides having these approved greenhouse/poly house, the PEQ should have incinerator to burn the plant residues to maintain sanitation.The grower shall maintain an inspection kit containing all requisite items to facilitatenursery inspection and ensure proper plant protection and upkeep of nursery records. At the endof final inspection, the inspection authority shall forward a copy of the report of post-entryquarantine inspection duly signed by him to the Plant Protection Advisor under intimation toOfficer-in-charge of concerned plant quarantine station.- 70 -

(Seed Health Management for Better Productivity)Testing of legumes in PEQ greenhouse at NBPGRThe legume seed material that requires one season PEQ can be grown in direct sowngrow-out greenhouse (as done at NBPGR)/screen house/poly house in a one meter row peraccession with 45-60 cm row to row distance. Each row can be stacked with pre-treated bamboosupport sticks and jute thread to support plants within the row. All plants in a row are observedregularly for expression of any suspicious looking symptoms and recorded and the plant(s) withsymptoms if any, are uprooted and potted in isolation or are caged for further observations.Virological testing methods are employed to test seedlings grown in PEQ greenhouse by testingby ELISA/electron microscopy. Harvest from only virus-free plants in released to the indenters.Post-entry QuarantinePost-entry Quarantine as given in Chapter IV of the Plant Quarantine (Regulation ofImports into India) order, 2003 (Amendment) is as follows:1. Plants and seeds, which require post-entry quarantine as laid down in Schedule V and VI ofthis order, shall be grown in post-entry quarantine facilities duly established by importer athis cost, approved and certified by the Inspection Authority as per the guidelines prescribedby the Plant Protection Adviser.2. The period for which, and the conditions under which, the plants and seeds shall be grown insuch facilities shall be specified in the permit granted under clause 3.3. Nothing contained in Sub-clause (1) shall apply to the import of tissue-cultured plants thatare certified virus-free as per Schedule-V and VI, but such plants, shall be subjected toinspection at the point of entry to ensure that the phytosanitary requirements are met with.4. Every application for certification of post-entry quarantine facilities shall be submitted to theinspection authority in Form PQ 18. The inspection authority if satisfied after necessaryinspection and verification of facilities shall issue a certificate in Form PQ 19.5. At the time of arrival of the consignment, the importer shall produce this certificate before theOfficer-in-charge of the Quarantine Station at the entry point along with an undertaking inform PQ 20.6. If the Officer-in-charge of the Quarantine Station, after inspection of the consignment issatisfied, shall accord quarantine clearance with post-entry quarantine condition on theproduction, by an importer, of a certificate from the inspection authority with the stipulationthat the plants shall be grown in such post-entry quarantine facility for the period specified inthe import permit.7. After according quarantine clearance with post-entry quarantine conditions to theconsignments of plants and seeds requiring post-entry quarantine, the Officer-in-charge ofthe Quarantine Station at the entry point shall inform the inspection authority, havingjurisdiction over the post-entry quarantine facility, of their arrival at the location where suchplants would be grown by the importer.8. It shall be the responsibility of the importer or his agent-- 71 -

(Seed Health Management for Better Productivity)a. To intimate the inspection authority in advance about the date of planting of the importedplants or seeds.b. Not to transfer or part with or dispose the consignment during the pendincy of post-entryquarantine except in accordance with a written approval of inspection authority.c. To permit the inspection authority complete access to the post-entry quarantine facility atall times and abide by the instructions of such inspection authority.d. To maintain an inspection kit containing all requisite items to facilitate nursery inspectionand ensure proper plant protection and upkeep of nursery records.e. To extend necessary facilities to the inspection authority during his visit to the nurseryand arrange destruction of any part of whole of plant population when ordered by him inthe event of infection or infestation by a quarantine pest, in a manner specified by him.9. The inspection authority of concerned area of jurisdiction or any officer authorized by thePlant Protection Adviser in this behalf, in association with a team of experts shall inspect theplants grown in the approved post-entry quarantine facility at such intervals as may beconsidered necessary in accordance with the guidelines issued by the Plant ProtectionAdviser, with a view to detect any pests and advise necessary phytosanitary measures tocontain the pest(s).10. The inspection authority shall permit the release of plants from post-entry quarantine, if theyare found to be free from pests and diseases for the period specified in the permit forimportation.11. Where the plants in the post-entry quarantine are found to be affected by pests and diseasesduring the specified period the inspection authority shall:a. Order the destruction of the affected consignment of whole or a part of the plantpopulation in the post-entry quarantine if the pest or disease is exotic, orb. Advise the importer about the curative measures to be taken to the extentnecessary, if the pest or disease is not exotic and permit the release of the affectedpopulation from the post-entry quarantine only after curative measures have beenobserved to be successful. Otherwise, the plants shall be ordered to be destroyed.12. Where destruction of any plant population is ordered by the inspection authority, the importershall destroy the same in the manner as may be directed by the inspection authority andunder his supervision.13. At the end of final inspection, the inspection authority shall forward a copy of the report ofpost-entry quarantine inspection duly signed by him to the Plant Protection Adviser underintimation to officer-in-charge of concerned plant quarantine station.14. The importer shall be liable to pay the prescribed fee for inspection of plants in the Postentryquarantine facility as laid down in Schedule-IX.All efforts should be made to inspect imported planting material grown in PEQ as per theguidelines of Plant Quarantine (Regulation of Imports into India) Order, 1003 with Amendments.- 72 -

(Seed Health Management for Better Productivity)Efforts should be made to create standard facilities and requirements for PEQ growing andclearance of imported planting material.Some of the important planting material requiring Post-entry quarantine growing as per schedule V& VI of P.Q. order 2003 (Amendment)Sl.No.Plant species/varietyPost-entry quarantine period(special condition)1. Banana (Musa spp.) 9-12 months2. Cassava (Manihot esculenta) 1 year3. Citrus spp. 1 year4. Cocoa (Theobroma cacao) 1 year5. Coconut (Cocos nucifera) & species 5 years/1reproductive cycle6. Coffee (Coffea spp.) 1 year7. Forest plant species (Elm, Oad, Pine etc.) 1 year8. Grape vine (Vitus spp.) 1 year9. Groundnut/legumes 6 weeks10. Potato Two growth seasons11. Rubber 1 year12. Small temperate fruits (berries, ribes) 9-12 months13. Sugarcane (Saccharum spp.) 1 year14. Sweat potato One growth season15. Tobacco One growth season16. Temperate fruits (pome/stone/nut species) 1 year17. Wheat One growth season18. Yam One growth season19. Ornamental plant (various) 3-6 months/1reprod. cycle- 73 -

(Seed Health Management for Better Productivity)Resource Conservation Techniques in Seed Crop HealthK.P. Singh & DeepshikhaDepartment of Plant Pathology, G.B.P.U.A.&T., Pantnagar-263145 (Uttarakhand)Land and water, the two ultimate natural resources have been exploited indiscriminately tomeet need of human population. The advent of high yielding varieties as a result of greenrevolution coupled with good management practices has further increased the depletion of theseresources. It has been found that an application of inadequate and unbalanced nutrient fertilizationto thecrops not only results in low yields but also deteriorates the soil resources (Singh et, al,1999 & Bisht et. al. 2006)Continuous monoculture of cereals particularly rice and wheat has led to ecological imbalanceproblems in soil hydrology and biotic environment. To overcome these problems, an ideal croppingsystem which ensures a shallow-rooted crop followed by deep rooted one, fertility depleting by fertilityconserving/ restoring crop, soil degrading by soil regenerating crop and demanding heavy inputs bythose that thrive on low inputs, is the need of future to conserve our agricultural resources.Modern crop production system is highly dependent upon heavy use of inputs i.e. machine,fertilizers and agro-chemicals. The indiscriminate use of these inputs has resulted into fast increase inenvironment pollution, high price of inputs and difficulty in sustaining the production level to feed thealarming increase in human population. Hence to overcome these emerging problems there is urgentneed to work out an agricultural production system, which is eco-friendly, economically viable andsocially acceptable by adopting a judicious use of different inputs. Since agricultural development withpositive growth can not subsist on a deteriorating natural base, it is imperative to develop technologyfor resource conservation.IntroductionRCT has now evolved into something with far broader appeal including cost convenience,profitability, food security and sustainability. This technology needs less investment through saving incost of cultivation and improves yield due to advance sowing or better efficiency of external inputs. Itsprofit driven advantage has allowed small and medium farmers to gain confidence in this technology.RCT’s are those practices which enhance resource/input use efficiencies. Zero-tillage,permanent beds, minimum tillage, laser leveling etc. are components of RCT (RWC,www.rwc.cgir.org).Grover and Sharma (2007) observed zero-tillage system as the best practice providing benefitcost ratio much higher (1.56) where as conventional agriculture accounted only 1.12 benefit cost ratios,RCT’s are defined as any practice that will result in improvement of the efficiency of natural resources.Resource Conservation Techniques Package1. Laser land leveling2. Zero/reduced tillage3. Improved varieties4. Seed treatment- 74 -

(Seed Health Management for Better Productivity)5. Sowing time6. Seed rate7. Method of sowing8. Nutrient management9. Weed management10. Intercropping11. Plant protection measuresLaser Land Leveling: It helps in water and area saving upto 20-30% and 5% respectively, increasein yield upto the extent of 15 to 20%. Uneven fields lead to poor germination and crop stands leadingsto lower yields and in yield excessive leaching of mobile nutrients (Gupta et. al., 2006)Zero/reduced Tillage: In this system seed is placed into the soil by a seed drill without prior landpreparation. Where combine harvesting is becoming popular, loose straw and residue creates aproblem. Farmers presently burn residue to overcome this problem of loose stubble whether theyuse zero-till or traditional system. Weed problem were lower under zero-tillage thus use ofherbicide is significantly lower. Early planting is the main reason for additional yields obtainedunder zero-tillage. It helps in water saving (20-30%) energy saving (50%), decreasing pollutionand increasing the yield.Reduced tillage can suppress pathogens because:-• Relatively high soil microbial activity can lead to competition effects that may affectpathogen activity and their survival and thus reduce harmful pathogen inoculum pressuresand suppress the severity of plant diseases.• Microbial antagonism in the root zone leading to the formation of disease suppressive soilscan be beneficial for farmers.• Creates conditions more favourable for the biological control of plant pathogens• There are predatory organisms that will keep pest species such as nematodes and fungi incheck; protozoa engulf fungi and bacteria, while predatory nematodes eat root-feedingnematodes.• Beneficial fungi provide a physical barrier to root-feeding pests by wrapping the roots in anetwork of threads (hyphae).• Other soil organisms secrete chemicals that ‘hide’ plant roots from their attackers.Improved Varieties: High yielding varieties recommended for specific area and conditions should bechosen. Front line demonstrations on farmers field, showed 10-41% increase in yield of various rabipulses (where our country has become a cronic importer) by adopting improved variety over control.Seed Treatment: It has been observed that seed treatment with fungicides minimize the incidenceof diseases like wilt, rot etc., and decrease plant mortality and increase the grain yield.Time of Sowing: Time of sowing is an important aspect to take advantage of residual soilmoisture under rainfed conditions. Sowing time varies widely from place to place depending uponcropping pattern followed.- 75 -

(Seed Health Management for Better Productivity)Seed Rate: Adequate plant population makes high difference in yield. Sowing should be done withrecommended seed rate to give optimum plant population. Excessive seed rate or higher plantpopulation is unnecessary wastage of valuable resources and also cause more incidence ofinsects pest and diseases.Method of Sowing: Sowing should be done in line at proper spaced and depth.Nutrient Management: Application of proper nutrient helps in increasing the yield and also savingof fertilizer requirement, eg. Rhizobium inoculation of seeds increases grain yield of pulses by 10-15% and leaves behind about 40 kg N/ha for succeeding crop. To activate the process ofnodulation, efficient Rhizobium strain should be used. Interaction between Rhizobium inoculationand phosphorus application indicated a net saving of 20 kg P 2 0 5 /ha in lentil (Sahu et. al. 2007).Weed Management: Weed compete with the crop plants for plant nutrient, space, water and light,reduce the yield considerably. Application of weedicide, hand weeding at proper time found tocontrol the weeds & increase the yield.Intercropping: It helps to minimize the incidence of insects pests and diseases, eg. chickpeas+wheat/barley/lin seed/mustard/ coriander; lentit+linseed/mustard/barley/sugarcane.Advantage of Resource Conservation Technology1. Reduced soil erosion by air, run off water and rainfall due to improved soil aggregationproperties and covering of soil by crop residues.2. Enhances soil organic pool, water holding capacity and nutrient availability through gradualdecomposition of surface residues.3. Improved soil bio-diversity.4. Rescue surface soil, ground water and air pollution from improve use efficiency ofpesticide, weedicide and fertilizers.5. Conserve non-renewable energy resource.Resource Conservation Techniques in RiceRice is generally grown as a transplanted crop in puddle soil which reduces soilpermeability and create aquatics anaerobic conditions suited to control weeds, improves water andnutrient availability. However, puddling destroys soil structure to form a compacted layer thatreduces infiltration and recharge of aquifer.Table: Effect of puddling on rice yield at different locationsPuddle (Mt ha-1) Non-puddle (Mt ha- 1 ) Soil texture Location5.6 5.6 Clay loam IRRI Philippines5.5 5.5 Clay IRRI Philippines5.4 5.1 Vertisol Kenya3.9 3.8 Clay Surinam2.5 2.5 Sandy loam Senegal5.9 5.5 Sandy loam Nigeria5.0 4.8 Sandy loam Nigeria5.9 5.7 Sandy loam Punjab, India* Rice grain yields in puddled and non-puddled soil do not differ significantly (P=0.05)Source-Ladha et. al. 2003- 76 -

(Seed Health Management for Better Productivity)Zero till/Reduced-till in unpuddled Transplanted Rice: Zero or reduced tillage technique intransplanted rice can replace the conventional puddle transplanted rice. Unpuddled soil do notcrack resulting in irrigation water economy compared to puddle rice. Due to less disturbance inunpuddled soil, the weed pressure is low which ultimately influence the crop productivity. Trialconducted in Western U.P. and Haryana have revealed that the water use and water productivityunder unpuddled and puddle transplanted rice were same, however the net return was higher inunpuddled rice.Table: Comparative performance of puddle & unpuddled transplanted riceCrop establishmentmethodNo. of trials Water (m 3ha)Water productivity(kg grain/m 3 )Net return(Rs./ha)Western U.P.Unpuddled TPR 61 8500 0.64 12,700Puddled TPR 61 9000 0.62 11,760HaryanaUnpuddled TPR 20 16176 0.42 21,358Puddled TPR 20 15500 0.43 17,207Source: USAID Project Report, 2004Effect of tillage systems on incidence of diseases2000-02Comparative incidence of diseases in zero and conventional tillage conditions in rice duringDuring 2000, it was observed that the bacterial leaf blight incidence was significantly higherin zero tillage plot as compared to conventional tillage, while during 2002, it was significantly lowerin zero tillage plot as compared to conventional tillage plot. On an average the incidence of boththe diseases (bacterial leaf blight, sheath blight) was significantly less in conventional tillage plotas compared to zero tillage plot. The reason of higher incidence of diseases in zero tillage plot wasapparently due to presence of rice stubbles and crop residue in field that helps create favourablemicro-climate for pathogens.Table Incidence of diseases in zero (ZT) and conventional tillage (CT) conditions in riceduring 2000-02YearBLB (infected leaves per 10hills)SHB (no. of infected tillersper 10 hills)ZT CT Mean ZT CT Mean2000 2.96 2.78 2.87 0.24 0.41 0.322001 1.83 1.07 1.45 0.00 0.00 0.002002 0.99 0.70 0.84 0.45 0.21 0.33Mean 1.92 1.52 - 0.23 0.20 -(Singh, 2004)Wet Seeding: Wet seeding involves sowing of pre-germinated seed, either broadcasted or drilledinto, puddle wet soil and then gradually flooding the field. Thus it also reduces the cost involved innursery raising and transplanting of seedlings. Anilofos@0.4 kg a.i. ha- 1 in 500-600 litre watershould be applied in the field when rice seedlings are 2-3 leaf stage for effective management ofweeds. Studies conducted in Pantnagar revealed that wet seeded rice generally recorded highergrain yield in weed free situation as compared to other establishment system.- 77 -

(Seed Health Management for Better Productivity)Nutrient Management: The average NPK removal by rice based cropping systems range from554 to 814 kg ha- 1 yr- 1 . for improving the N use efficiency. Subsurface placement of prilled urea, aurea briquettes and release of fertilizers at 10 cm depth is now possible with zero-till machine indirect seeded bed planted rice. In low lying and flood prone areas, it is better to have deep bandplacement of 80% of recommended N as a basal dose at sowing time. Use of straw increasesavailability of other nutrients to crop plant as rice straw (rich in silica) reduces P fixation andincreases the P availability to crop plants (Gillman & Uehara, 2006).Effect on yield: On an average, yield was significantly higher (40.65 q/ha) in conventional tillageplot as compared to zero tillage plot (40.00 q/ha). From the above findings it is clear thatconventional tillage plots has lower diseases incidence as compared to zero tillage plots, which isalso reflected in significantly higher yield in conventional tillage.Table Comparison of yields in Zero (ZT) and Conventional Tillage (CT) conditions in riceduring 2000-02YearYield (Q/ha)ZT CT Mean2000 - - -2001 40.44 41.38 40.942002 39.56 39.92 39.74Mean 40.00 40.65 -(Singh,2004)Resource Conservation Techniques in WheatIn rice-wheat growing areas, major causes of low wheat yield in sequence with rice was itslate sowing for due to delayed rice transplanting. For better wheat cultivation RCTs such as zerotillage/reducedtillage, bed planting and associated agronomic practices, timely farming operationwere found to be good. These techniques improve soil health and are environment friendly andreduce cost cultivation.Zero-tillage: Direct seeding of wheat without tillage has gone in most of the areas. Zero-till takeimmediate advantage of residual moisture from the previous rice crop, as well as water use isreduced by about 10 cm-hectare, production cost of wheat is reduced by Rs. 1500-2000 ha- 1 bypracticing ZT. Also in Zero-till emergence of crop is earlier than conventional till and weed growthparticularly Phalaris minor is much less in ZT.Table- Effect of tillage system on weed densityMethod ofNo. of weeds m-2Dry weight of weeds at 90 DAStillage 30 DAS 60 DAS PhalarisminorViciahirsuteC.album (gm- 2 )totalZero-tillage 73 46 65 4 0.2 75.2Conventional 185 113 107 13 3.6 114.9Gupta, et. al. 2006Table- Effect of rice establishment methods on grain yield (qha-) of wheat (Pantnagar farm)- 78 -

(Seed Health Management for Better Productivity)2000-01 to 2006-07Treatment CTW ZTW MeanTransplanted rice 37.05 36.37 36.71Wet seeded rice 36.90 36.73 36.82Dry seeded rice 38.40 39.37 38.89Zero-till rice 37.89 38.25 38.07Mean 37.51 37.75Table- Economics of wheat under different establishment method in rice-wheat system(Mean of two season)Establishment method Rs. ha- 1Total cost Gross return Net returnDry seeded riceConventional till rice 11945 43615 31670Zero-till rice 10677 45009 34332Wet seeded riceCTW 13085 42533 29448ZTW 10677 44377 33700Transplanted riceCTW 13085 39197 26112ZTW 10677 41511 30884(Gupta et.al. 2006)Effect of tillage systems on incidence of diseases2000-03Comparative incidence of diseases in zero and conventional tillage conditions in rice duringOn the basis of overall mean, the incidence of all the diseases (brown rust, yellow rust,powdery mildew and foliar blight) were more in zero tillage plot than in conventional tillage plot. Nosignificant difference was observed in interaction of year and tillage conditions on the incidence ofdiseases. The reason of lower incidence of diseases on conventional tillage plots may be due tochanged micro-climate which is created by conventional tillage.Table Incidence of diseases in zero (ZT) and conventional tillage (CT) conditions in wheatduring 2000-03YearBrown rust(infected leavesper 10 plants)Yellow rust(infected leaves per10 plants)Foliar blight(infected leaves per10 plants)Powdery millldew(infected leavesper 10 plants)ZT CT Mean ZT CT Mean ZT CT Mean ZT CT Mean2000-01 0.00 0.00 0.00 15.15 10.93 13.04 20.49 15.23 17.86 4.81 4.01 4.412001-02 0.00 0.00 0.00 14.84 14.25 14.54 19.06 16.54 17.80 4.29 3.96 4.132002-03 4.73 1.42 4.73 17.88 16.44 17.16 23.11 20.29 21.17 5.60 5.69 5.65Mean 1.50 0.47 - 15.95 13.87 - 20.88 17.36 - 4.93 4. 55 -Furrow Irrigated Raised Bed Planted System (FIRBS): FIRBS method of planting wheat isproving to be boon in water scare areas. In this method beds are formed and drilled with FIRBSplanter. Through this technology 25-40% seed and 25% N can be saved without any yieldreduction. FIRBS reduce the water usage by 25-40%. This method provides on the opportunity of- 79 -

(Seed Health Management for Better Productivity)mechanical weeding in furrow and on the top of beds. The crops such as soybean, maize, cotton,rice, pea, mustard etc., have been successfully grown on beds. This also facilitate inter-croppingand adjustment of other crops.Comparative incidence of diseases in FIRBS and conventional tillage plot in wheat cropduring 2000-03On an average, higher incidence of all the diseases (brown rust, yellow rust, powderymildew and foliar blight) were recorded in conventional tillage plot as compared to FIRBS plots.There was no significant interaction effect of year and tillage condition on the incidence ofdiseases.Table incidence of diseases in FIRBS and conventional tillage plot in wheat crop during2000-03YearBrown rust(infected leaves per10 plants)Yellow rust (infectedleaves per 10 plants)Foliar blight (infectedleaves per 10 plants)Powdery millldew(infected leaves per10 plants)FIRBS CT Mean FIRBS CT Mean FIRBS CT Mean FIRBS CT Mean2000- 0.00 0.00 0.00 23.00 23.33 23.17 26.67 30.33 28.50 2.67 2.33 2.50012001- 0.00 0.00 0.00 13.15 13.75 13.63 18.33 19.00 18.67 4.50 5.00 4.75022002- 3.08 3.25 3.23 19.92 20.17 20.04 22.75 25.33 24.04 3.75 4.33 4.4003Mean 1.03 1.08 - 18.81 19.08 - 22.58 24.89 - 3.36 3.89 -(Singh,2004)Surface Seeding: This technology performs well where wheat sowing is not possible due to wetfield conditions after paddy harvest. In these areas, dry or soaked seed can be broadcasted a fewdays before or immediately after harvest of rice under wet condition. Generally heavy textured soilare more suitable for surface seeding as compared to light textured soil. This practice doubles thecropping intensity in areas where only a single crop is possible due to wet soil conditions followingpaddy harvest.Time of Planting: Most suitable sowing time is considered when the mean daily temperature dropdown to 22-23 0 C. if temperature goes above 25 0 C at germination phase, the seedings are likely tobe seriously attacked by fungal organism. This produces very few tillers, make sparse growth andcome to heading very early and finally yield is poor. Long duration varieties of wheat like UP 2338,PBW 343, WH 542, HD 2687 and PBW 502 should be sown in first fortnight of Nov, where as UP2425 and Raj 3765 sown in second fortnight of Nov, under irrigated conditions.Method of Sowing: Sowing of wheat by Pantnagar Zero till ferti seeddrill, rotatory tillage, FIRBsystem and surface seeding are better than broadcast.Effect on yield: Significantly higher yield (45.91 q/ha) was recorded during 2001-02 followed by2000-01 (40.44q/ha) and 2002-03 (38.29q/ha). On an average yield was higher in conventional- 80 -

(Seed Health Management for Better Productivity)tillage plot as compared to zero tillage plot. From the above results it can be concluded that lowerincidence of disease was the reason of higher yield during 2001-02.Table Comparison of yields in Zero (ZT) and Conventional Tillage (CT) conditions in wheatduring 2000-03YearYield (Q/ha)ZT CT Mean2000-01 39.00 39.00 40.442001-02 45.38 45.38 45.912002-03 37.94 37.94 38.29Mean 40.77 40.77 -(Singh,2004)Table Economics of zero and conventional tillage in wheat(A) Operational cost Zero tillage Conventional tillage(i) Labour 1815.56 2233.14(II) Machine 1802.26 3719.20(iii) Irrigation 795.72 795.72Total (A) 4413.54 6748.06(B) Material cost(i) Seed 987.50 987.50(ii) Fertilizers and Manure 2850.86 2850.86(iii) Plant Protection Chemicals 3800.00 3800.00Total (B) 7638.36 7638.36Total cost (A) + (B) 12051.90 14386.42(i) Yield (q/ha) 40.77 40.77(ii) Rate Rs./q 600.00 600.00(iii) Gross return Rs./ha 24462.00 24462.00(iv) Net return Rs./ha 12410.10 10075.58(v) Benefit –cost ratio 1.03 0.70(Singh, 2004)It is clear from the above table that zero tillage plot was superior to conventional tillage plotin terms of benefit cost ratio. Technology provided aboutcompared to conventional tillage mainly on account of saving in operation costs.Disease Situations in Resource Conserving TechniquesRs. 2335.00/ha higher return asReduced tillage can have an impact on the types of diseases and their severity vis-a-vistraditional ploughing. This is mostly due to the impact of reduced tillage on the soil structure, theamount of crop trash and fungal bodies on the soil surface.Take- allChanges in soil structure are important for disease, since a good structure is ideal forhealthy root development, allowing a crop to grow away from disease. If the soil is wet orcompacted, it can limit root development and allow root diseases such as take-all to attack theroots. Take-all is however influenced most by crop rotation and is best controlled by ensuring thatthere is a break from cereals between wheat crops.Table % take all on roots in three seasons- 81 -

(Seed Health Management for Better Productivity)Year 2002 2003 2004 AverageReduced tillage 47 55 9 37Ploughed 56 60 10 42Source: Crop Protection in Reduced Tillage Systems, 2006, TN580Common eyespotThe stem base disease common eyespot, is primarily spread through crop trash fromprevious crops. We would therefore expect higher levels of disease in reduced tillage crops, wherethere is more trash on the soil surface. This observation suggests that crop debris on the surfaceis not enough to increase the risk. It is possible that antagonists to common eyespot are alsogreater where there is a high level of trash. Alternatively, partially inverted trash may allow theeyespot fungus to overwinter more than eyespot fungus present on the surface.Table % eyespot on stem baseYear 2002 2003 2004 AverageReduced tillage 41.7 30.6 20.3 31Ploughed 39.0 35.6 32.6 37Source: Crop Protection in Reduced Tillage Systems, 2006, TN580FusariumFusarium is a common soil fungus which can attack the stems and also infect the ears,leading to potential mycotoxin issues. The researches have confirmed that reduced tillage did leadto an increase in stem base Fusarium in 2002 where disease levels were highest. Levels of headFusarium were low, but more attention will be needed to ensure good control of head Fusariumunder reduced tillage.ErgotErgot is a disease which can attack a wide range of grasses. It is a problem because thefungal bodies which develop on the heads and which are harvested with the grain are poisonous.Previous outbreaks tend to be associated with open flowering varieties of triticale, rye, wheat andbarley. Where the weather is cool at flowering, it can prolong the flowering period, increasing therisk of infection. Ergots which fall to the ground generally survive no more than one year. Wherethey are buried by ploughing, they will not be a source of disease. In a reduced tillage situation,ergots will remain on or near the surface, so there is a greater risk of infection in a second year. Agreater increase in cereal volunteers may also increase the risk of carry over between cerealcrops. Where disease levels become high, ploughing will need to be considered to bury the ergotson the surface.Cephalosporium leaf stripeIn the majority of cases, the disease is no more than a curiosity, but there are cases inScotland under reduced tillage, where yield losses can be excessive. These cases tend to be heavyclay continuous wheat fields where the trash is incorporated into the field. This is not surprising given- 82 -

(Seed Health Management for Better Productivity)the fungus is a slow growing fungus which carries over in trash. As such, there are usually warningsigns of a serious problem developing in a field over 2-3 years. The yield loss is predominately dueto excessive number of small tillers which die early, hence having poor grain fill.A complete break from wheat (and preferably barley, oats, grasses and volunteers) for atleast two years and in severe cases three years, is the best way to get disease levels back undercontrol. There is evidence in the USA and also Scotland that a single year break is insufficient timeto eradicate the problem. Seed treatments are not known to prevent the problem. This is notsurprising for a soilborne disease. Again in the USA there are indications of varietal differences,but there is insufficient information on the susceptibility of UK varieties.ConclusionIt can be concluded that RCT’s in seed crop health can be crucial for ensuring quality seedproduction at economical cost to help achieve sustainable food production in India. Productioncapacity, production efficiency and crop protection are the major pillars supporting the nationalproductivity. The major challenges involved in the agriculture are replacing the traditional tillagepractices and better utilization of the conservation practices by educating and training the farmersand extension functionaries in RCT. In long run, no technology option will alone be sufficient tomaintain food security or preserve soil and water resources. Thus, policies are needed to beframed and implemented to promote on large scale the efficient use of RCT in all kinds ofproduction systems.REFERENCES1. Bisht, P.S.; Pandey, P.C. and Singh, D.K. (2006). Effect of different sources of nutrients on riceyield and nutrients status in rice-wheat cropping. Extended summary. Golden JubileeNational Symposium on Conservation Agriculture and Environment. Oct., 26-28,2006, at New Delhi. On page 193-194.2. Grover, D.K. and Sharma, T. (2007). Zero-tillage-A profitable and resource saving technology,Indian Farming, April issue.3. Gupta, R. ; Jat. M.L.; Singh, S.; Singh, V.P. and Sharma, R.K. (2006). Resource conservationtechnology for rice production. Indian Farming. 57(7):42-45.4. Sahu, J.P.; Singh, N.P.; Kaushik,M.K.;Sharma,B.B. and Singh,V.K.2002.Effect of Rhizobiumphosphorus and potoash application on the productivity of lentil. Indian J.PulsesRes.15 (1): 39-42.5. Singh, N.P.; Sachan, R.S.; Pandey, P.C. and Bisht, P.S. (1999). Effect of decade long termfertilizer and manure application on soil fertility and productivity of rice-wheat systemin Mollisol. J. Indian Soc.Soil Sci. 47 (1): 72-80.6. Singh, K.P. (2004), IPM in Rice-Wheat Cropping System. Research Bulletin. No. 138. MicrosoftTechnoprint (I) Pvt. Ltd. Dehradun. 67p.- 83 -

(Seed Health Management for Better Productivity)Advances in Breeding and Seed Production Techniques of CucurbitsD.K. SinghDepartment of Vegetable Science, G.B.P.U.A.&T., Pantnagar-263145 (Uttarakhand)The cucurbitaceae consists of about 118 genera and 825 species. The cucurbits shareabout 5.6% of the total vegetable production of India and according to FAO estimate, cucurbitswere cultivated on about 42.9 lakh ha with the productivity of 10.52 t/ha. According to an estimateIndia will need to produce 215mt vegetable by 2015 to provide food and nutritional security at anindividual level and being the largest group of vegetable, cucurbits provide better scope toenhance overall productivity and production. Investment in hybrid technology is particularlyrelevant for developing countries, where feeding the increasing population in the face ofdecreasing agricultural areas and a declining resource base, already poses formidable problems.This is a real option to meet huge production increases that are required in the decades ahead.Presently about 15% of area of vegetable is under hybrids. The term hybrid variety is used todesignate F 1 populations that are used for commercial planting. The F 1 s are obtained by crossinggenetically unlike parents. Rapid advances in plant breeding and associated seed productiontechnologies have served to enhance the competitiveness of hybrids by increasing crop and seedyield per hectare reducing the cost involved and improving seed quality. Therefore,exploitation of hybrid and different seed production technologies involved for cucurbits have beendiscussed.CucurbitsThe commonly grown cucurbits are listed below with their Hindi name, English name andbotanical name:Hindi Name English Name Botanical NameKheera Cucumber Cucumis sativusKharbuza Muskmelon Cucumis meloTurbuz Watermelon Citrullus lanatusLauki Bottle gourd Lagenaria sicerariaKaddu Pumpkin Cucurbita moschataKarela Bitter gourd Mormordica charantiaChikani Torai Sponge gourd Luffa cylindricaNasadar Torai Ridge gourd Luffa acutangulaParwal Pointed gourd Trichosanthes dioicaPetha Ash or wax gourd Benincasa hispidaTinda Round melon Praecitrullus fistulosusKakri Long melon Cucumis melo var. utilissimusChichinda Snake gourd Trichosanthes cucumerinaChappan Kaddu Summer squash Cucurbita pepoVilayati Kaddu Winter squash Cucurbita maximaAskas Chayote Sechium eduleKakora Kakora Momordica sinensisPhoot Snap melon Cucumis melo var. momordicaKundru Ivy gourd Momordica cochinchinensisSend Mango melon Cucumis melocultusthe- 84 -

(Seed Health Management for Better Productivity)Area, Production and Productivity of Cucurbits in World and IndiaGroup of Cucurbits Area (ha) Production (mt) Yield (mt/ha)Cantaloupes and MelonsWorldIndia1297077315002717926864500020.9520.48Cucumber and GherkinsWorldIndiaPumpkins, Squash andGourdsWorldIndiaWatermelonWorldIndia2345625180001462934360000343197320000398401041200001898090135000009309926625500016.986.6712.979.7227.1312.75Source: Anonymous (2004) FAO website: www.fao.orgBreeding AchievementA. Open-Pollinated VarietiesCucurbits OP VarietyMuskmelon Pusa Sarbati, Hara Madhu, Pusa Madhuras, Arka Rajhans, Arka Jeet,Durgapura Madhu, NDM-15 Punjab Rasila, Arka Rajhans, Hisar Madhur,RM-43, RM-50, Kashi MadhuWatermelon Durgapura Meetha, Arka Manik, Durgapura Kesar, Durgapura LalBitter gourd Priya, RHRBG-4-1, KBG-16 Coimbatore Long, Pusa Do Mausmi, PusaVishesh, Punajb-14, Kalyanpur Baranasi, CO-1, CO-2, Balam Pear,Coimbatore Green, Arka Harit, Kalyanpur Sona, Hirkani, Prithi Priyanka,Punjab-14.Pumpkin CM-14, Pusa Vishwas, Arka Chandan, Arka Suryamukhi, CM-350,NDPK-24, CO-1, CO-2, Narendra Amrit, Lashi Harit, Azad Kaddoo-1,Pusa Vikas, SuvarnaCucumber Swarna Ageti, Swarna Sheetal, Japanese Long Green, Pusa Uday,Himangi, Swarna Poorna, Sheetal, CO-1Ridge gourd Swarna Manjari, Arka Sumit, Swarna Uphar, CO-1 PKM-1, Arka Sujat,Pusa Nasdar, Punjab Sadabahar, Haritham, Hisar KalitoriBottle gourd Pusa Naveen, Narendra Jyoti, NDBG-132, Arka Bahar, Pusa Sandesh,Pusa Summer Prolific Round, Pusa Summer Prolific Long, PunjabRound, Punjab Long, Punjab Komal, CO-1, Narendra Dharidar, NarendraShishir, Kashi Ganga, Kalyanpur Long Green, Azad Harit, Azad NootanSponge gourd Pusa Chikni, CHSG-1, JSGL, Pusa Supriya, Pusa Sneha, PSG-9Rajendra Nenua-1 Kalyanpur Torai Chikni Azad Torai-1Ash gourd Pusa Ujjwal, CO-1, CO-2, Mudliar, Indu, KAU Local, Kashi Dhawal, PAG-3Long melon Arka Sheetal, Punjab Long melon-1Round melon Arka Tinda, Punjab TindaSnake melon CO-1, CO-2, PKM-1, Kaumudi, Baby, H-8, H-371, H-372, IIHR-16ASummer Punjab Chappan Kaddu-1, Patty Pan, Australian GreensquashSnap melon Pusa Shandesh, Grism Bahar, Kwari Bahar- 85 -

(Seed Health Management for Better Productivity)B. Cucurbits HybridsCucurbitsMuskmelonWatermelonCucumberBottle gourdBitter gourdSummer squashPumpkinHybrid varietyMHY-5, Pusa Rasraj, Punjab Hybrid-1, MHY-3, MHL-10, DMH-4Arka Jyoti, RHRWH-12Hybrid No.1, Pusa Sanyog, AAUC-1, AAUC-2NDBH-4, Pusa Manjari, Pusa Hybrid-2, NDBGH-7, Kashi Bahar,Azad Sankar-1Pusa hybrid, NBGH-167, RHRBGH-1Pusa AlankarPusa Hybrid-1, NDPKH-1Seed Production TechniquesClimateMost of cucurbits require long period of warm preferably dry weather for successful growth.They do not withstand even light frost. A warm period of 120-150 days is essential. Generally 21-30° C temperature is favorable for proper growth and development.Land RequirementLand should be free from volunteer plants and soil should be well drained and aerated.Cucurbits can be grown in almost any fertile and well drained soil. For early maturity, the light soilsuch as sandy loam or silt loam is best however for high yield heavy soil is preferred.IsolationCucurbits are cross pollinated in nature and cross pollination is done by insect. For pureseed production an isolation distance all around the seed field is required to separate it from thefield of other varieties, field of some varieties not confirming varietal purity and from wild cucurbitspecies. An isolation distance of 800 m. for foundation, 400 m. for certified andhybrid seed production should be maintained.Sowing TimeSeed RateNorth- Summer-Jan-Feb, Kharif-July-Aug.South-Oct-Nov1500 m. forS.N. Name of Crop Seed rate (kg/h.) Distance1. Bitter Gourd 4.0-6.0 Hills are prepared at proper spacing by2. Bottle Gourd 3.5-6.0 adding organic matter and 3-4 seed per3. Cucumber 2.0-3.5 hills are sown. 1.5-2.5 cm depth is4. Water Melon 3.0-7.0 optimum. 9 inches deep furrows are5. Ridge gourd 3.0-5.0 made at proper spacing. Seeds sown on6. Sponge Gourd 3.5-5.0 ridge of furrows either on one side or7. Musk Melon 2.5-3.5 bottom.8. Snake Gourd 5.0-6.09. Ash Gourd 5.0-7.010. Pumpkin 5.0-8.011. Squash 8.0-10.012. Long Melon 2.5-3.5- 86 -

(Seed Health Management for Better Productivity)Manure and FertilizersIn general practice 30-35 tons well rotten organic manure per hectare is added at land preparationtime. In addition to this following chemical fertilizer may be addedHybrid Seed-Why F 1 Hybrids?Crop N (kg) P(kg) K (kg)Water melon 80 60 60Cucumber & Musk Melon 60 50 50Other cucurbits 60 30 30In general, hybrids offer opportunities for improvement in:1. Productivity2. Earliness3. Uniformity4. Quality5. Deployment of dominant genes conferring resistance to diseases and pests6. Adaptability7. High prices for seed producers8. Built-in-exclusivity conferred by the ownership and maintenance of the parent lines of asuccessful hybrid.Hybrid Seed: Current Status1. Hybrids are considered as one of the most important ingredients to achieve current statusof vegetable production in world scenario.2. Hayes and Jones (1916) first suggested the exploitation of heterosis in vegetable crops.3. F 1 hybrid eggplants were used at commercial scale in Japan since 1925.4. First report of hybrid vigor flashed at national level by IARI in chilli during 1933.5. First hybrid of bottle gourd “Pusa Meghdoot” in 1971 and after two years in 1973 hybrids ofsummer squash (Pusa Alankar) and cucumber (Pusa Sanyog) were developed.6. Beginning of hybrid research persuaded private sector under taking and Indo-AmericanHybrid Seed Company released hybrids of tomato “Karnataka” and capsicum “Bharat” in1973 for commercial cultivation7. Introduction of new seed policy declared in 1988.8. ICAR New Delhi started big programme “Promotion of Hybrid Research in VegetableCrops” during 1995.9. Important private companies conducting research in vegetable include M/S Indo-Americanhybrid Seed Co., Namdhari Seed Pvt. Ltd., Ankur Seed, Syngenta India Ltd., BeejoSheetal, MAHYCO, Nunhems, Pro-Agro Seeds, Century Seeds, New Delhi.Steps in Hybrid Seed Production‣ Production of inbred parental lines.‣ Testing for combining ability (GCA and SCA).- 87 -

(Seed Health Management for Better Productivity)‣ Production of hybrid seed.‣ Maintenance of inbred parents.Methods of Hybrid Seed Production in Cucurbits1. Hand pollination – a. Without emasculationb. With emasculation2. Defloration and insect pollination3. Use of gynoecious lines and insect pollination4. Use of genetic male sterility – utilization of morphological markers5. Use of monoecious line6. Chemical suppression of male flowers and open pollination.1. Hand Pollination: a. Without EmasculationApplicable for monoecious cucurbits (Cucumber, Squash, Pumpkin, Bitter gourd)Hand Pollination: b. With EmasculationApplicable for andromonoecious cucurbits1942- Munger – Hybrid seed production in melonsFemale plantHermaphrodite flowerEmasculation + baggingCover with cottonMale plantMale flower(Before anthesis)Pollination (after anthesis)Planting ratio: 6:1Bagging – F 1 seed collected2. Defloration and Insect PollinationCucumber, Watermelon, Pumpkin and Gourds (Bottle gourd, Ash & Bitter gourd)♀Seed parent♂Pollen parentRemoval of ♂ flowerbefore anthesis♂ flowerNatural cross pollination by beeF1 SeedsOne medium sized bee colony/ha is enough for good HSPIsolation distance: 400mPlanting ratio:Bottle gourd: 3:1Squash: 4:1- 88 -

(Seed Health Management for Better Productivity)3. Use of Gynoecious Lines and Insect Pollination Planting ratio (3 gynoecious female line: 1 pollinator line). Natural pollination by bees. Any other variety except parents should not be there. Blending – to improve pollination in gynoecious hybrid seeds (10% monoecious types. Sumter cultivar – most common blender. If parthenocarpic gynoecious hybrid – no blending.Commercial gynoecious hybrids In cucumber Pusa Sanyog, DCH-1, 2 (T.A. More and V.S. Sheshadri in early ninties), Phule Prachi (Gyc-2) and Phule Champa (Gyc-4) (More, 2002) In muskmelon MH-10 (Dhatt et al.,2005)4. Use of Genetic Male Sterility• Planting ratio (2 female : 1 male)• Planting of 6 seedlings per hill for seed parent• Pierce anthesised flowers from female parent• Tag male sterile plants• Rouging of male plants for 8-10 days• Allow natural pollination• Punjab Hybrid-1 – ms -1 x Hara MadhuMaintenance: Rouging of male fertile plants from female line by morphological marker trait (malesterility associated with glabrous foliage in watermelon)5. Chemical Suppression of Male Flowers Planting ratio : 5:1 in Cucurbita pepo 2-true leaf stage is most responsive for application of chemicals Natural pollination/hand pollination.6. Foliar Spray of PGRS to Induce Increased Proportion of Pistillate FlowersPGRConc (mg/l) CucurbitsCycocel (CCC) 250-500 Most cucurbits, effective in cucumberEthephon (CEPA) 150-200 Most cucurbitsGibberellic Acid (GA) 150-200 WatermelonIndole acetic acid (IAA) 10 Snake gourd & bitter gourdNAA 20-200 Cucumber, melons & gourdsMaleic hydrazide (MH) 25-10050-150Cucumber, muskmelon, bottle gourd, ridgegourd- 89 -

(Seed Health Management for Better Productivity)Flowering BehaviourCrop Anthesis Dehiscence Availability ofviable pollenReceptivity of stigmaAsh gourd 6-7 hr 3-4 hr 7-16hr 12 hr before to 36 hr afteranthesisBitter gourd 9-10:30hr 7-8 hr 5-12hr 24 hr before to 24 hr afteranthesisBottle gourd 17-20hr 13-14 hr On day ofanthesis till nextmorning36 hr before to 90 hr afteranthesisCucumber 4:30-7 hr 4:30-0hr Up to 14 hr 2 hr before to 2-3 hr afteranthesisMuskmelon 5:30-6:30 hr 5-6 hr 5-14 hr 2 hr before to 2-3 hr afterWater melon 6-7:30 hr 5-6:30 hr 5-11 hr 2 hr before to 3 hr afteranthesisRidge gourd 17-20 hr 17-20 hr On the day ofanthesis till 2-3days afteranthesis in winterand 1.5days inrainy season6 hr before to 84 hr afteranthesisSnake gourd 18-21 hr Shortly beforeanthesis10 hr beforeanthesis to 49 hrafter dehiscenceSpongegourd4-8 hr 4-8 hr On the day ofanthesisPumpkin 3:30-6 hr 21-3 hr 16 hr afteranthesisIrrigationRouging7 hr before to 51 hr afteranthesis10 hr before to 120 hr afteranthesis2 hr before to 10 hr afteranthesisKalloo (1988)If crops grown in summer, required frequent irrigation preferably in the evening.At least 3 timesHarvestingBefore flowering:a. Rouging on basis of leaf size, shape and colour, vigor, bushy or training habit.During flowering and immature fruit stage:a. Check for flower colour, ovary shape, size, and colour, fruit shape and colour of thevariety to be taken in seed production programme.Maturity stage:a. Check the fruits of the seed crop variety, in respect to size. Color and shape.b. During all the three stages wild species plants as well as mosaic affected plants.Invariably be rouged out.Cucurbits should be allowed to reach full maturity stage to get the seed of higher germination. In bottlegourd, sponge gourd and ridge gourd along with some others do not pose problem for maturity but incase of muskmelon and water melon more care needed to harvest only matured fruits.- 90 -

(Seed Health Management for Better Productivity)Seed extractionIt is more important to extract the seed from the matured fruits at appropriate time and method tobe used to separate the seed; because slight ignorance may deteriorate the germination. In bottlegourd, sponge gourd and ridge gourd fully ripened and dried fruits are crushed and seeds areseparated.YieldS.N. Name of crop Seed yield/ha. (Kg)Bitter Gourd 60-120Bottle Gourd 60-120Water Melon 200-400Musk Melon 100-300Cucumber 100-300Ridge gourd 80-120Sponge Gourd 80-120Snake Gourd 80-120Ash gourd 100-150Pumpkin 150-350Seed Certification Standards(Field standard specific requirements)Factor Max permitted (%)Foundation Certified* off-type 0.10 0.20Objectionable Weed plant None NonePlants affected by seed bornedisease only in musk 0.10 0.20melonPlants affected by virus disease 0.10 0.2Seed standardFoundation CertifiedPure seed (maximum) 99.0% 99.0%Inert matter (maximum) 01.0% 01.0%Other crop seed (maximum) 0.05% 0.01%Weed seeds (maximum) None NoneObjectionable weed seed (maximum) None NoneOther distinguishing varieties (maximum) 0.1% 0.2%Germination (minimum) 60% 60%Moisture (maximum) 07.0% 07.0%For vapor proof containers (maximum) 06.0% 06.0%- 91 -

(Seed Health Management for Better Productivity)REFERENCES1. Anonymous. 2004. FAO website: www.fao.org2. Dhatt, A.S., Singh, Malkit, and Sidhu, A.S. 2005. Studies on F 1 hybrid seed production ofgynoecious line in muskmelon. In: Abstracts: National Seminar on Cucurbits,GBPUA&T, Pantnagar. 22-23 September, 2005. pp. 90.3. Hayes, H.K. and Jones, D.F. 1916. First generation crosses in cucumber. Ann. Rep. Conn. Agric.Exp. Sta., 1916. 319-322.4. Kalloo, G. 1988. Vegetable Breeding. Vol. 1, CRC Press, Inc. Boca Raton, Florida. pp. 24-27.5. More, T.A., Nishimura, S., Ezura, H., Matsuda, T. and Tazake, A. 2002. Development andexploitation of tropical gynoecious lines in F1 hybrid of cucumber. Acta Hort. 588:261-267.6. Munger, H.M. 1942. The possible utilization of first generation muskmelon hybrids and animproved method of hybridization. Proc. Amer. Soc. Hort. Sci. 40: 405-410.- 92 -

(Seed Health Management for Better Productivity)Integrated Disease Management for Vegetable Seed ProductionS.N. VishwakarmaDepartment of Plant Pathology, G.B.P.U.A.&T., Pantnagar-263145 (Uttarakhand)Vegetable are important source of dietary, minerals and vitamins. All the developed anddeveloping countries realize the importance of vegetables as an essential diet due to medicinaland nutritional value for human health. There is steady upward trend in vegetable production.China is ranking first in world and currently produces 237 million tons of vegetables. India has aquantum jump in vegetable production securing the second positions in the world. The totalproduction of vegetable is more than 91 million tons in the country. In spite of this, the productivityof vegetable per unit area is very low. Thus the produces at present is approximately half of therequirement as per dietary standard against 250-300gms/ day/adult. Vegetable being moresucculent and rich in nutrient are more prone to disease infection, thereby incurring high yieldlosses during pre and post production period. Disease pressure in vegetable crop from seedlingstage to harvest caused by mainly fungi, bacteria and virus are the most important constraints forlow production of vegetable seeds.Management of vegetable diseases-An over view:The survey of literature reveals that vegetables either grown directly or throughtransplanted seedling suffer from a variety of biotic, mesobiotic and abiotic causes. Controlmethods invariably recommended includes cultural practices, host resistance, chemical control,physical and biological control methods. Individually different methods have been recommendedfor management of different disease, but among the recommendation application of pesticides isreally high and thereby posing problems of residue poisoning, pest resistance and economic.Under this situation application of integrated disease management (IDM) appears mostappropriate as production is to increase and harmful effect of pesticide is to decrease.Integrated Disease Management (IDM):The philosophy, principles and objective of IDM state that “A desirable approach to theselection, integration and use of methods on the basis of their anticipated economic, ecologicaland sociological consequences”. Under the concept of disease management reduction in lossescause to vegetable must take into account that following criteria for developing IDM schedules:• Develop the schedule which is economical. The cost of application and loss due to diseasemust be proportionately balanced in favour of producers.• The schedule development fit in the production protection schedules practiced by thegrowers.• The schedules developed must strive to manage most pest and disease simultaneously inthe crop concerned.• To ensure success the IDM schedule in the vegetables need to be applied as communityprogramme and /or cooperative programme.- 93 -

(Seed Health Management for Better Productivity)Management of vegetable diseases: The existing technology:Based on nature of vegetable diseases, the control strategies could be prophylactic or hostresistance. The principle of prophylaxis could be achieved by applying the principle of exclusion,eradication and protection. To achieve exclusion method such as quarantine, inspection andcertification and seed treatment have been recommended. In order to achievement the eradicationof inoculum methods like biological control, crop rotation, rouging, crop refuse destruction,sanitation including distruction of collateral and alternate hosts have been recommended.In protection, those practice which function as a barrier between host and pathogens (nocontact). The practices are cultural practices such as methods of planting, time ofsowing/transplanting, balanced fertilizer; controlled irrigation, spray of micro nutrients andapplication of pesticides, fungicides, antibiotics, nematicide etc. are recommended.Principally, the use of resistant genotype looks the best method for diseases management.The methods used to develop resistant genotype are introduction, selection, and hybridization, andmutation, biotechnological and molecular technique. Development and use of resistant genotype iscontinuous and never ending process due to evaluation of new biotype/pathotype/races. Theresistant is broken down as a matter of fact development of resistant to disease in vegetable is yetto get place and recognition given to place cereals and pulses.Guide lines for developing IDM:• Vegetable are raised repeatedly following the principles of intensive farming. This practicesfavour survival of primary inoculum and subsequently infection and spread of secondaryinoculum in the crops. To ensure success of any IDM schedule the impact and the effect ofintensive cultivation on diseases must be the major input in developing the schedule.• The vegetable in India is still today are grown on small scale. Cucurbits and beans aregrown ever around the house and the crops are reserviour of inoculum of number ofpathogens as no control measure is invariably applied. This major source of inoculum mustalso be considered for developing the schedule.• The schedule develop must be easy approachable and effective to be used at communityor co-operative level.Development of IDM schedule for diseases of brinjal-An example: Brinjal suffers due todisease caused by Fungi, Bacteria, Viruses, Phytoplasma and Nematodes. However, among thedisease, damping-off (in nursery), Alternaria leaf spot, Cercospora leaf spot, Phomopsis blight andfruit rot, Sclerotinia blight and fruit rot, Bacterial wilt and Root-knot are the most important ones.The primary inoculum of the diseases listed above survives either in/on seed or soil as restingstructures or the infected crop debris as facultative saprophyte. The secondary inoculumsproduced after infection, disseminate through the agency of air, water, insect and duringintercultural operations and therefore schedule development must attack initial as well assecondary inoculums.- 94 -

(Seed Health Management for Better Productivity)The schedulei. Use raised nursery bed and soil should be solarized, maintain plant density and soilii.iii.iv.moisture.Avoid frequent irrigations and heavy nitrogen application.Use healthy and certified seeds.Treat seed by physical and chemical means using heat or fungicide. Among fungicide,Thiram, Captan@ 0.25%, Carbendazim @ 0.1%, Apron @ 0.4%.v. Destruction of crop debris, deep summer ploughing, organic amendment, crop rotation,vi.vii.viii.ix.date of sowing/transplanting to be used as per recommendation.While transplanting root treatment either with fungicide or bio-agent.Application of nematicide /fungicide/ for the control of inoculum existing in soil.Foliar application of required pesticides.Use of resistant/to tolerant varieties/ cultivars.Table: Minimum field standards for diseases in certification of vegetable seed production.Sl.No.Crop Named ofdisease1. Brinjal Phomopsis blightand fruit for2. Cabbage Black leg Black rotand andCauliflower Soft rotCausal organism (s)Maximum disease level atflowering/poding stage(%)Foundation Certifiedseed seedPhomopsis vexans 0.10 0.50Phoma lingamX. campestris pv.campestrisErwinina carotovorapv. carotovora0.10 0.503. Capsicum Anthracnose Colletotrichum capsici 0.10 0.50and Chilli4. Muskmelon Mosaic Cucumber mosaic virus 0.10 0.205. Raddish Black rot and X. campestris pv. 0.10 0.50Black legcampestrisPhoma lingam6. Tomato Early blight/leaf Alternaria solanispot, mosaic Tobacco mosaic virus7. Turnip Black rot X. campestris pv.campestrisREFERENCE0.10 0.500.10 0.501. Sherf, F. Ardem and A.A. Macnab 1986. Vegetable disease and their control. Second Ed. A WileyInter Science Pub, New Yourk, 727pp.2. Chaube, H.S and Ramji Singh, 2001. Introductory Plant Pathology, IBD Co.Lucknow PP.341- 360.3. Singh, R. S. Introduction to Principles of Plant Pathology, Oxford & IBH Publishing Co.New Delhi, 402 pp.4. Verm, L.R. & R.C. Sharm. 1999. Diseases of Horticultural Crops (Vegetables, Ornamental andMushroom) Indus Publishing Company New Delhi, 731 pp.- 95 -

(Seed Health Management for Better Productivity)Seed Cane Health for Sustaining Higher Sugarcane ProductivityS.K. SainiDepartment of Agronomy, G.B.P.U.A.&T., Pantnagar-263145 (Uttarakhand)Sugarcane is a important commercial crop occupying 4.4 m ha area with cane productivityof 67 t/ha. Cane yield losses due to diseases account 19-20% and due to insects account 25-30%.The major carrier of disease/pest is planting material (seed cane).Seed cane is sugarcane stalk used for propagation purpose while cane seed is the trueseed of cane arising from natural pollination of the flower. The true seeds differ in characters andnone exactly like the parents. Hence, true seed or fuzz is not used for commercial purpose. Theasexual or vegetative method produces new plants in all respect like the cane from which seedpieces were taken. That’s why sugarcane is propagated commercially by the vegetative methodusing seed canes / setts.Sugarcane seed material is traded in different forms in the country. In the northern region itis generally in the form of seed canes whereas in the southern region it is in the form of sugarcanesetts.Setts are parts of stripped canes, each having two three buds (one at each node) obtainedby cutting the canes across with a sharp instrument. Setts obtained from top portion of the canesmay have more buds, but they shall not be more than six.The millable cane meant for sugar extracting is possesses different quality parameter thanthe seed cane meant for planting. The seed cane should meet the following seed qualitystandards.Table 1: Seed cane quality standardAttributesValuesSett moisture >8-65%Nodes with viable/soot bud 5.0%Lodged cane >10.0%Dried cane >62.0%Germ inability of buds >85.0%Swollen/sprouted buds beyond 1 cm from rind >5.0%Genetic purity 99.9%Physical purity 98.0%Crop management for healthy seed cane productionSelection of planting materialUse of quality seed is highly important to establish a good initial crop stand and thus toensure a good crop. In India, sugarcane planting and harvesting operations coincide in mostplaces. Farmers usually drawn setts from the crops that are being harvested. Selection of plantingmaterial is one of the important aspects which is grossly neglected by the cane farmers. Selectionof suitable planting materials and subjecting them to various treatments before planting are the key- 96 -

(Seed Health Management for Better Productivity)to healthy crop. Preference should be given to healthy seed materials; free from pests anddiseases like red rot, wilt, smut etc. The top one third to half portion of a cane being comparativelyimmature, has buds of high viability and is the best for planting. The tops are inferior with regard tosugar content therefore, when top setts or cuttings are used for planting, less sugar is wasted.Moreover, top portion contains healthy buds, more moisture, nutrients and reducing sugars, whichhelps in quick and better germination. The upper buds are protected by leaf sheaths, whichconserve their germination ability. Bottom portion of cane is rich in sugar and takes a long time ingermination; this should be used in jaggery making. If only upper half of the cane is utilized forsetts, comparatively higher germination is secured. Seed cane should be taken from wellmanured, erect and healthy crop of not more than 10 month age. Ratoon crop is not suitable forseed purpose as these canes may carry the disease of the previous crop. Medium thick, fresh andtender stalks should be selected for planting. The eye bud should be prominent but not overmature.If canes are brought from distance place, it is advisable to bring along with leaves to avoiddrying of cane and mechanical damage to the buds.Srivastava et. al. (1990) reported that the seed material as seed cane crop, shall confirm tothe following;1. The age of the crop at harvest for seed purpose should be from 8 to 12 months.2. The seed material should not include any portion of either the floral axis or three internodesbelow the highest node of a flowered cane.3. The seed material should be fresh and the seed setts should be planted within 24 hours ofcutting seed canes.4. Each node should bear at least one sound bud. The number of nodes without sound budsshall not exceed 10 per cent by count of the total number of buds per cane.5. The swollen buds or the buds which have projected out to the extent of more than onecentimeter from the surface of the cutting shall not exceed 5 per cent of the total number ofbuds.6. The seed cane shall be free from sett roots. The number of nodes having sett roots allround should not be more than 5 per cent of the total number of nodes in the seed cane.7. The seed material shall be free from splits and splinters caused during harvesting and inthe preparation of setts. Split caused during sett cutting shall not extend beyond the nearbyinternode.8. The seed material should have 80 per cent viable buds. In case of area declared frostaffected, the viability of the buds shall not be less than 50 per cent.9. The seed material shall be of only one variety. No admixture is permissible.10. The setts shall be cut in such a manner that the distances of the cut and from the nearestnode shall not be less than 4 cm.11. The setts should contain moisture as per following standards.- 97 -

(Seed Health Management for Better Productivity)(i)(ii)Internodes of lower end - Not less than 60 per cent on fresh weight basis.Any other internodes - Not less than 66 per cent on fresh weight basis.12. The number of sugarcane setts showing a pithy area or cavity more than one fourth of thetotal area of the cut end shall not exceed 3 per cent by count of the total number of setts.13. The seed cane crop be inspected a different permissible stages to meet following standerstolerance limit of disease and pest for the commercial seed is as under.Table 2: Field standards (diseases) of seed cane cropS.No. Factors Stage of fieldMaximum permissible limitsinspection foundationCertifiedi. Off-types I,II,III None Noneii. Plants affected with designated diseases- Red rot I,II,III None None- Smut I 0.02* 0.10*II 0.01* 0.10*III None None- GrassyII 0.05* 0.50*shootIII None None- Wilt III 0.01* 0.01*- LeafscaldII 0.01* 0.05*III None NoneTable 3: Field standard (insects) of seed cane cropFactors Stage of field Maximum permissible limitsinspection foundationCertified- Top borer II & III 5.0 5.0- Internode borer III 10.0None**10.0None**- Stalk borer III 20.0None**20.0None**- Plassey borer,Gurdaspur borer,Scale insect, mealybugIII 5.0None**5.0None**Preparation of settsThe germination of a bud is controlled by apical dominance which is exerted throughauxins. When apical dominance is removed by clipping off the top bud, the buds below tend togerminate. Because of this fact instead of planting an entire cane, it is cut in to 2-3 budded settsusually 30-45cm long.Sett treatmentTo prevent the seed setts from fungal diseases and to improve germination, the settsshould be dipped into 0.5 per cent solution of agallol (3%) or 0.25 per cent solution of aretan (6%)or tafasan (6%) for 10 minute before planting. Alternatively, setts may be treated with 0.1 per centsolution of carbendazim (Bavistin).- 98 -

(Seed Health Management for Better Productivity)If setts are brought from long distance, dip for 24 hours in a solution containing 500g limein 200 litre of water. This will invigorate the buds. If setts are infested with scale insects, mealybugs or white flies, treat with 265 ml of dimethoate (roger) per 100 litre water for five minutesbefore planting.Whenever facilities for hot water treatment are available the setts may be treated for 2hours at 50 0 C in hot water to check the chronic diseasees like grassy shoot, smut and red rot. Inlieu of this, moist hot air treatment (MHAT), evolved to control setts transmissible diseases beused. It also sterilizes canes against certain insects like scale, mealy bug etc. In MHAT unit seedcane be treated with above 95% humidity at 54 0 C for 4 hours. This system is highly useful toeliminate smut infected buds.Planting timeSugarcane crop raised exclusively for seed purpose is known as a ‘short crop’. The shortcrop is usually harvested at around 8-10 months. In the case of a short crop, entire stalk can beused for preparing setts, discarding only the bottom most buds.As the best age of harvest of a nursery crop is around 8-10 months, the planting dateshould be accordingly adjusted. For example, for autumn crop, the nursery planting should bedone from February to March. For spring crop, the nursery planting should be done in April.Site selectionSaline, alkaline and acidic soils are not suitable. Preference should be given to fertile soilswith good drainage, high organic carbon content and good water holding capacity at least to adepth of 50 cm. The effective soil depth for adequate root development should be at least 1 m.The soils should not be too shallow with hard pans as the roots will not penetrate deep; resulting inlodging and earthing will be difficult.The pH of soil should be 6.5 to 8.0. If the soils are saline; they need to be amended byapplying gypsum, sulphur and or organic matter. Water logged soils should be avoided for takingseed crop. The upland field is selected for raising the seed crop. The rain water traversing fromadjoining field is prevented to check spread of red rot.Field preparationSugarcane needs deep tillage. One deep ploughing followed by two cross harrowing orrotavator are required to prepare good seed bed.Levelling can be carried out by using a tractor operated leveller. A fairly level bed ensuresa uniform crop stand, proper distribution of irrigation and good crop growth. Sub-soiling is effectiveto break hard pan, ensuring better internal drainage.Seed rateHigher seed rate is preferred at reduced spacing. For 1.0 hectare land 50,000 three budedsetts or 75,000 two buded setts would be sufficient to raise a good seed crop, by weigh about 80-85 quintal seed will required for one hectare land.Other cultural operations- 99 -

(Seed Health Management for Better Productivity)Earthing : Full earthing up is done after the final manuring, at 90-120 days after plantingcoinciding with the peak tiller population stage.Detrashing : Detrashing in some of the varieties results in swelling of buds making them moreliable to mechanical damage. However, problems of some pests like white flies, mealy bugs,scales etc. are minimized by detrashing.Propping / wrapping : In order to prevent lodging tying of the crop should be done when it attainsa height of 2.0 meters. Lodged cane is more liable to bud sprouting, hence, seed cane quality inlodged cane is poor. If needed crop may be propped 2-3 times.Roguing and cleaning : Roguing of diseased plants, off type plants or the plants of other varietiesis a must to produce good quality and genetically pure seed of sugarcane. So the seed cropshould be inspected carefully at regular internals from germination stage till harvest and keptscrupulously clean of all pests and diseases. The affected clumps are ronged out as soon as thesymptoms are visible. The crop should be kept free from insects-pests by adopting properprophylactic measures.Nutrient managementTo attain faster rate of growth and good quality seed crop higher amount of nutrients and theirlate split application is advantageous. Apply well decomposed organic manures (compost, FYM, etc)@ 20 t/ha or vermicompost @ 5 t/ha at the time of last harrowing and well mixed with soil.Seed crop should receive 25% more nitrogen and phosphours and 50% more potassiumthan those recommended for the commercial crop in region. Generally 180-190 kg N, 80 kg P 2 O 5and 80 kg K 2 O per hectare is applied for seed crop. The fertilizer may be given in four split viz, 1/4N and full phosphorus and potassium as basal remaining nitrogen in equal split at 60, 90 and 120days after planting.Mehar Chand et al. (2004) from Karnal (Haryana) reported that sugarcane seed cropfertilized with 25% more of the recommended nitrogen (150 kg N/ha) gave the highest stalks andseed cane, cane yield and seed germination. Nitrogen fertilizer application in three equal split atplanting and 60 and 90 days after planting resulted in maximum cane seed, cane numbers andseed cane yield.Pre–fertilizationTo obtain healthy setts with more moisture, reducing sugars and higher nutrient contentpre-fertilizing the nursery crop about 6 to 8 weeks prior to harvest is suggested. A dosage of 50 kgN, 25 kg P 2 O 5 and 25 kg K 2 O per ha may be applied.Weed ManagementComplete weed control cannot be achieved by using any one method. Combination ofdifferent weed control methods is very beneficial to check the growth of different types of weeds.In general pre-emergence spray of atrazine or metribuzin @ 1.0 kg a.i./ha and postemergence spray of 2,4-D sodium salt @ 1.0 kg a.i./ha 45 days after planting followed by onehoeing at 90 days after planting is advantageous.- 100 -

(Seed Health Management for Better Productivity)IrrigationFrequent irrigation are needed for seed crop. To save the crop from the ill effects of frost,the seed crop should be adequately irrigated. During the germination phase light irrigation atfrequent internals may be given to facilitate early and uniform sprouting.During grand growth phase where internode elongation occurs, water requirement is high.Shortage of water at this stage will result shortening of internodes and thus cane length.Adequate supply of water during ripening phase leads to continued vegetative growth thus hampersucrose accumulation, which is desirable for a good seed cane crop. Irrigate the crop 10-15 daysbefore the harvestingDrainageDrainage of excess water from sugarcane field is an important aspect of watermanagement. Excess water adversely affects the crop growth and seed cane yield. Drain awayexcess water from the field by making drainage channels. Furrow may be used for draining thewater from the field. Under waterlogged condition crop is subjected to lodging and root premordiastart sprouting due to which the quality of seed cane deteriorates greatly.REFERENCES1. Anonymous (2006). Sugarcane Seed Cane Standards Sugar Tech News. Vol. 36(4):6-72. Mehar Chand, Srivastava, S.N.L. and Tamak, J.C. 2004. Nitrogen management for sugarcane seedcrop. Haryana Journal of Agronomy, 2004 (Vol. 20) (No. 1/2) 96-97.3. Srivastava, S.C., Shukla, U.S., Yadav, R.A. and Banerjii, D.K. 1990. Standards for sugarcane seedmaterial technical bulletin No. 25. Indian Institute of Sugarcane Research, Lucknow. pp. 1-5.- 101 -

(Seed Health Management for Better Productivity)Approaches for Healthy Seed Production in SugarcaneO.K. SinhaIndian Institute of Sugarcane Research, Lucknow- 226 002 (UP)Sugarcane diseases cause about 19 per cent losses in cane productivity. Such diseasesare transmitted through seed cane or air/soil. The economically important diseases like red rot,smut, wilt, ratoon stunting, leaf scald, grassy shoot and mosaic are transmitted through seed cane.Non-seed transmitted diseases like rust, eye spot, yellow spot, pineapple sett rot, etc., becomeoccasionally important. Among seed-transmitted diseases, red rot is a dreaded disease whichleads to cent per cent mortality of plants in an affected area.For healthy seed production in sugarcane, basic requirement is the Nucleus Seed which isfurther multiplied to Breeder Seed, Foundation Seed and Certified Seed. For nucleus seedproduction, variety resistant to red rot and recommended for the region is selected. Moreover,nucleus seed crop may get infected by the pathogens of seed transmitted diseases throughvarious means.For seed production, freedom of seed is absolutely necessary. For this,thermotherapy of seed cane is practised. Thus, varietal resistance and thermotherapy are twoimportant aspects for healthy seed production of sugarcane.i) Varietal resistance: At national level, the sugarcane genotypes are evaluated atmultilocations against red rot, smut and wilt under All India Coordinated Research Project onSugarcane. Of these, red rot is given greater emphasis. A few genotypes like Co 7314 and Co7704 have been identified as a good general combiner sources of resistance to red rot. Severalother genotypes like BO 91 and CoS 767 as well as clones of Saccharum spontaneum are goodsources of red rot resistance. Such resistant donors are being utilized in sugarcane breedingprogramme for development of red rot resistant varieties.Virulence diversity of red rot pathogen (Colletotrichum falcatum) is monitored in the countryevery year. So far, 11 pathotypes of this pathogen have been identified, 11 in sub-tropical and 4 intropical India. For varietal evaluation, regional pathotypes are used for inoculation purpose.Biotechnological tools are also being used for developing disease resistant varieties.However, limited success have been achieved so far. Somaclones resistant to smut, eye spot,downy mildew and rust have been developed. Attempts have been made through in vitro selectionusing pathotoxin of eye spot pathogen. Dual culture of host and pathogen may be useful inevaluation for resistance.Recently, plant defence response genes have been identified and could be utilized indeveloping transgenics resistant to a disease. Although marker assisted selection for diseaseresistance have been successful in some crops, it is yet to be explored in sugarcane.ii)Thermotherapy : It is an important component of healthy seed production as it hasproved most effective in eliminating seed-borne pathogens. Out of four methods viz., hot water- 102 -

(Seed Health Management for Better Productivity)treatment, moist hot air treatment, aerated steam therapy and hot air treatment, the former threemethods are being practised in different parts of the country.Hot water treatment: The seed cane is treated at 50 0 C for 2 to 3 hours. The method is effectiveagainst smut, wilt, leaf scald, ratoon stunting, grassy shoot, mosaic and chlorotic streakpathogens. Although the therapy is effective, there are certain demerits, e.g., specific heat of wateris 1.0, therefore, the buds may become soft and are liable to be damaged during transport oftreated seed cane.Hot air treatment: The seed cane is treated in specially designed hot air treatment (HAT) unitat 54 0 C for 8 hours. It is effective against grassy shoot and ratoon stunting pathogens. Thetreatment is not in practice due to demerits like desiccation of buds, poor germination of buds,longer duration of treatment and less effective against may other diseases.Aerated stem therapy: The seed cane is treated at 50 0 C for 1-3 hours in specially designedaerated stem therapy (AST) unit. It is effective against grassy shoot, ratoon stunting and smutpathogens. The specific heat of the medium is 0.5 and therefore, less lethal to buds. It is inpractice in most parts of tropical states of the country.Moist hot air treatment: The seed cane is treated in specially designed moist hot air treatment(MHAT) unit at 54 0 C for 2.5 hours at 95-99 % RH. It is effective against smut, grassy shoot, leafscald, ratoon stunting, incipient infection of red rot pathogens.The specific heat of medium is 0.5 and, therefore, it is less lethal to buds.Quality seed production:The quality seed production consists of following steps :i. Heat treatment of nucleus seed or, if not available, breeder seed. The latter can also beproduced through tissue culture raised plants adopting recommended protocol.ii. Production of Foundation Seed from Breeder Seed. At each stage, the seed is multipliedabout 10 times by conventional method of planting. The seed crop is monitored for thepresence of designated diseases and insect pests by trained technical personnel. Theaffected plants clumps are uprooted.iii. Production of Certified Seed from Foundation Seed. Again, the Seed is multiplied 10times by conventional method of planting. The seed crop is monitored as in case ofFoundation Seed. Certified seed is made available to the sugarcane growers forcommercial cane production. It is recommended that after 5 years of commercialcultivation, the planting should be done with certified seed to contain the diseases andinsect pests in the field.- 103 -

(Seed Health Management for Better Productivity)Detection of Smut and Red Rot Pathogens in Sugarcane for Productionof Healthy SeedO.K. SinhaIndian Institute of Sugarcane Research, Lucknow- 226 002 (UP)Of economically important seed transmitted diseases of sugarcane, smut and red rot are ofgreater significance in sugarcane cultivation especially in seed production. The spread of the twodiseases takes place primarily through inadvertent movement of infected seed material, as theincipient infection cannot be distinguished. The only dependable method for detection of thepathogens is through planting the setts and wait for appearance of symptoms.Due to this constraint, the methods of in situ detection of the two pathogens have beendeveloped as detailed below:1. Detection of smut pathogen (Ustilago scitaminea Syd.) in nodal buds of sugarcane bystain techniqueNature of diseaseSmut of sugarcane is a systemic disease. The fungus colonizes the meristematic tissue ofnodal buds and apical meristem.During development of plant (mother shoot and tillers), the fungus is seated in nodal budspresent at each node and in apical growing point.Material required1. Naturally infected bud2. Forceps3. Scalpel/blade4. Distilled water5. Trypan blue stain (0.1%)6. 1-N Sodium hydroxide solution (6%)7. Ethanol (80%)8. Lactophenol9. Hot plate10. Micro-slide & cover-slip11. Light microscopeMethodology1. Scoop out nodal bud with the help of scalpel.2. Take thin cross sections of infected bud from basal side till circular rings of bud scales arevisible.3. Press the bud so that growing point is ejected. Pick it with forceps.4. Put growing point in Trypan blue + NaOH (1:1, v/v) solution for 3.5 hours.5. Remove and wash in distilled water. Put in ethanol for 2 min for dehydration.- 104 -

(Seed Health Management for Better Productivity)6. Place in lactophenol and heat to boiling for 2 min.7. Mount on microslide.by giving slight pressure on coverslip.8. Observe blue stained hyphae under light microscope.Under light microscope, the infected growing point shows a network of blue-stained hyphaeof the fungus.Applied value of the stain technique1. Help estimate the percentage of smut infected buds in seed lot (setts). Thus, of significanceat quarantine station and healthy seed production.2. Screening of smut susceptible genotypes.2. PCR-based detection of smut pathogen in infected tissue (nodal bud or apical meristem)Methodology1. Excise nodal bud/apical dome2. Take out growing point tissue3. Isolate DNA4. Amplify DNA using internal trancribed spacer regions (ITS 4 & 5) of rDNA followed byelectrophoresis.5. PCR product of – 460 bp is observed.3. PCR – based detection of red rot pathogen (Colletotrichum falcatum Went)Nature of diseaseRed rot is not a systemic disease, but can affect all the plant parts, mainly the stalk whererotting of pith tissue takes place. At later stage, whole plant dries. The incipient infection isconfined mainly to leaf scar region.Methodology1. Excise leaf scar region.2. Isolate DNA3. Amplify DNA using internal trancribed spacer regions (ITS 4 & ITS 5) of rDNA followed byclectrophoresis.4. PCR product of -169 bp is observed.Applied value of the technique1. Help estimate the percentage of red rot infected canes. Thus, of significance in healthyseed production.2. Can detect the red rot pathogen in mixed infections.- 105 -

(Seed Health Management for Better Productivity)Disease Free Seed Production of CerealsM.K. NautiyalDepartment of Gen. and Plant Breeding, BSPC, G.B.P.U.A.&T., Pantnagar-263145 (Uttarakhand)Seed is a mature ovule consisting of an embryonic plant together with store of foodsurrounded by a protective layer i.e. seed coat. Seed is the basic, vital and cheapest input ofagriculture. Use of quality seed results in 10-15 percent increase in agriculture productivity. Itshould have uniformity, safe moisture content and high germination and vigour of seedling. Itshould be perform diseases and insect pests.Principles of Seed Production:Production of good quality seed is the main objective of any seed production programme. Itis known that the quality of seed deteriorates over a period of time after development due toseveral reasons namely: i) mechanical mixture, ii) natural out crossing iii) infection by diseasecausing organisms, iv) developmental variation, v) mutation, vi) minor genetic variations, and vii)instability due to segregation and cytogenetic causes. Seed production essentially follows a strict seedgeneration system from nucleus to breeder, breeder to foundation, foundation to certified and certifiedto truthfully labelled seed or commercial production. Nucleus and breeder seed production ismonitored by breeder seed monitoring team, whereas foundation and certified seed production issupervised and certified by State Seed Certification Agency in the light of seed Act, 1966. In addition tothe above kind of seeds, truthfully labelled seed is also produced without certification. However, thetruthfully labelled seed must meet almost all the standards prescribed for certified seed.Precautions in Seed ProductionRaising of crop for seed purpose differ from growing crop for commercial purpose inseveral respects. Precautions are required in seed production during crop production, harvesting,processing, storage and marketing so that the desired quality of seed is produced and processed.Important considerations in seed production are as follows:1. Seed SourceAppropriate class or source of seed is used for production of desired kind of seed. Forexample the nucleus seed is the source for breeder seed and breeder seed is source forfoundation seed and foundation seed is source for certified seed.2. Selection of LandLand to be used for seed production should be fertile, well drained and free of volunteerplants. The field should not have the different varieties of same crop in previous season. Volunteerplants are a very serious problem in Brassica species. Self-grown plants continue to appear for 3-4years. Volunteer plants are also problem in legumes, pearl millet, and sorghum. When rice istransplanted after puddling the soil, volunteer plants are rare.3. Registration of Seed Crop for CertificationAs per implementation of seed act 1966 and seed rules 1968 foundation and certified seedproduction is registered with state Seed Certification Agency which certifies the seed productionand issues appropriate seed tags. The registration for seed production is done by the seedproducer with the concerned State Seed Certification Agency.- 106 -

(Seed Health Management for Better Productivity)4. Seed StandardsIn India standards for foundation and certified seeds have been prescribed. There are twotypes of standards, i) field standards which apply to the standing crop, and ii) seed standardswhich are applicable at seed level. Field standards includes requirement isolation distance,maximum permissible level of off types, inseparable other plants, objectionable weed plants,pollen shedders (in male-sterile or A lines), plants infected by seed borne disease etc. Seedstandards relate to genetic purity, physical purity, germination, other crop seeds, weed seeds,moisture content etc.Standards for breeder seed have not been prescribed but breeder seed has stricterstandards than those prescribed for foundation and certified seeds. Breeder seed must be 100%genetically pure.5. Isolation Distance for Seed CropIsolation is essential to avoid mechanical mixture during harvesting or collection of produceand out crossing. In strictly self-pollinated crops it is mainly to avoid mechanical mixture fromadjoining plots. Isolation requirements in cereal crops like wheat and paddy is 3 meter.Sources of contamination could be other varieties of the same crop, same variety notconforming to varietal purity requirements of the category of seed under production, other crops(mustard and turnip; maize and teosinte) or weeds. In wheat isolation requirement from othervarieties is only 3 m, whereas isolation from fields of wheat, triticale and rye of infection of loosesmut in excess of 0.1% and 0.5% is 150 m in case of foundation and certified seed.6. Time of SowingSeed crops are generally sown at their planting time as recommended for commercialcrops. However, depending on incidence of diseases and pests, and monsoon, some adjustmentin sowing time could be made. Care should be taken that monsoon do not coincide with theflowering, seed filling and seed maturity stage, especially with kharif crops.7. Method of SowingThe seed crop should be sown in lines with a seed drill/ planting equipment. One directionsowing helps in cultural operations and inspection. Before and after sowing a variety, the seed drillmust be subjected to thorough cleaning of pipes, seed cups and box. The seed crop must be sownin such a way that it facilitates the movement of the personnel to execute roguing effectively.Skipping one row after every eight to ten rows or more may provide sufficient path for movementduring roguing in wheat seed crop. Similarly, paired row planting in rice, green gram and chickpeais very useful. In crops like maize, pearl millet, sorghum, pigeon pea etc. the row to row spacing iswide enough for the purpose of roguing.8. Cultural PracticesCultural practices such as seed bed preparation, fertilization, weeding, irrigation etc. areusually the same for seed crop as recommended for commercial crop. All recommended- 107 -

(Seed Health Management for Better Productivity)agronomic practices should be followed to provide conditions for optimal growth and developmentof plant and seeds, which favour production of healthy and vigorous seed. Clean cultivation withproper weed control during seed production makes subsequent cleaning and grading easier.Phosphate and potassium fertilizers are generally more important for seed crops than forcommercial crops and their recommended doses must be applied.9. RoguingRoguing is the removal of Off-type plants. It is an important aspect of seed production tomaintain varietal purity. Any plant which does not conform to the characteristics of the variety iscalled an Off-type. Off-types are generally considered to arise from segregation of residualheterozygosity, out-crossing with varieties, admixtures or natural mutations. Off-types could bedistinct from plants of variety with reference to any character such as plant height, days toflowering, waxiness, pigmentation, ear shape, ear size, ear density, ear colour etc. It is essentialthat Off-types are removed before they flower, particularly in cross-pollinated crops, to avoidcontamination by pollen from Off-type plants. Roguing may need to be carried out several timesduring the crop season. Composite, synthetic and open pollinated varieties of cross-pollinatedcrops generally have broad genetic base and some amount of variability is inevitable. Roguing insuch varieties should not be very rigid so that the varietal gene pool is not disturbed. Only obviousOff-types and diseased plants etc. should be removed.In addition to roguing, all plants that do not conform to the varietal descriptors, inseparableother crops plants, objectionable weeds as well as plants infected with seed-borne diseasesshould also be removed. As a general rule, the Off-types should be removed and taken away fromthe seed production plot and destroyed. The back of the person doing roguing should face sun tofacilitates easier detection of Off-types.In hybrid seed production, some additional operations may be required such asdetasselling in the seed parent rows in maize and removal of pollen shedders from the male-sterilerows in pearls millet, sorghum, sunflower and rice. During flowering period, pollen shedders mustbe removed daily early in the morning before they shed pollen. Certain special techniques likespraying of GA 3 and rope pulling are required in hybrid rice seed production. Supplementarypollination in hybrid seed production of sunflower by putting beehives in close proximity of seedcrop ensure good seed set.10. Inspection of Seed Plots by Certification Agency OfficialsThe production of foundation and certified seed is supervised and approved by the StateSeed Certification Agency. The seed production plots are inspected by the certification staff. Thenumber of inspections vary from a minimum of 2-4. Those plots which conform to field standardsof certification are approved. Breeder seed has been kept out of the purview of certification agencyas it is not meant for public sale. Moreover, its production is done under the direct supervision ofqualified plant breeder. However, breeder seed crop is monitored by a joint inspection team ofplant breeders and officials of State Seed Certification Agency and National Seeds Corporation.11. HarvestingAfter the seed field is approved for field standards, seed crop should be harvested at a timethat will ensure maximum yield and best quality seed. The moisture content is good indicator of the- 108 -

(Seed Health Management for Better Productivity)time to harvest for most seed crops. From stand point of minimizing the seed damage due tomechanical harvesting safe moisture content for wheat is 15-17%, paddy 17-20%, soybean 13-15% and maize 25-30%. The thresher, combine harvester should be properly adjusted so as toavoid damage to the seed.In hybrid seed production where two parents are involved the male parent rows are harvestedfirst and removed from the field. The whole field is then inspected to see any broken or lodged maleplants which are to be removed before harvesting of female parent rows for hybrid seed.The thresher, combines, trailers, threshing floors etc. must be thoroughly cleaned inhandling of different varieties to avoid any mechanical admixture.12. Post Harvest Handlinga) Seed Drying: Seed crop is harvested and threshed usually at high moisture content. In orderto preserve seed viability and vigour it is necessary to dry the seed to a safe moisture contentfor storage and processing. Care should be taken to dry the seed quickly through naturaldrying (sun drying) or through artificial drying (using solar dryer/ fuel dryer). Ensure that nomechanical admixture take place during drying.b) Storage of Raw Seed: After proper drying, the raw seed is filled in new/ neat and clean gunnybags with proper marking of name of variety, plot, lot number etc. The raw seed is stored forshort period before processing in a seed grader machine. The stacks of bags should be kepton wooden racks away from side walls. The height of stacks should not be more than 3-4meter in case of case of cereals, and 2-3 meters in case of other crops. The godown for seedstorage should be dry, cool, clean and sprayed with insecticide (Nuvan/ Deltamethrin) andfumigated, if necessary.c) Processing, Testing and Labelling of Seed: Seed is processed in seed processing/ gradingmachines for removal of physical impurities, over size/ under size seeds and treatment with properfungicide/ seed treatment chemical. After processing, the sample of seed lot is sent to the notifiedseed testing laboratory for analysis and verification of seed standards. If the seed test report issatisfactory and seed meets the prescribed seed standards then the seed lot is approved and thetags and certificate are issued by the Seed Certification Agency to the seed producer. The validityperiod for seed standards (especially germination) is 9 months (6 months for soybean). Validityperiod can be extended to further six months provided the seed lot meets the prescribed standardson retesting. Each class of seed will have of different colour tags which is to be stitched properly onsealed seed bags. The colour and size of tags are as follows:Breeder Seed : Golden yellow (12 x 6 cm)Foundation Seed : White (15 x 7.5 cm)Certified Seed : Blue (Azure blue) (15 x 7.5 cm)Truthfully labelled seed : Opel green (15 x 7.5 cm)Seed Certification standards for Different Crops (at Field Level)CropNumbersof Plants/ear headsper countIsolation distance(in Meter )% of other varietyplants/ ear heads% ofinseparableplants/earObjectionableweed plantsPlants/earaffected by seedborne diseaseMinimuminspectionrequiredRemarksheadsF.S. C.S. F.S. C.S. F.S. C.S. F.S. C.S. F.S. C.S.- 109 -

(Seed Health Management for Better Productivity)1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14Wheat 1000 3 3 0.05 0.2 0.01barley,oat,gram,triticale0.05barley,oat,gram,triticale& & 0.10 0.50 ThreeinspectionsvegetativefloweringmaturityDistancefromloosesmutaffectedcrop(150m)Paddy 1000 3 3 0.05 0.2 & & 0.01WildRice0.02WildRice& & - do - &HybridPaddyMaizeCompositeHybridMaize1000 200 100 0.05*0.05Female0.05Male0.10*0.20.2& & 0.01WildRice0.02WildRice& & Fourinspectionsvegetativefloweringmaturity100 400 200 1.00 1.00 & & & & & & Threeinspectionsvegetativefloweringmaturity100 200 Samegraincolour 300differentgraincolour& 1% Female0.05% Male2.00% in allthreeinspections& & & & & & & FiveinspectionsvegetativefloweringmaturitySorghum 1000 200 100 0.05 0.10 & & & & 0-05 0.10 Three400 400Grainsmts inspectionsJohnsongrass andfoddersorghumJohnsongrass andfoddersorghumhandsmats vegetativefloweringmaturityPearl 100 400 200 0.05 0.10 & & & & 0.05 green pod ThreeMillet0.02 0.04 argot Inspections0.05 0.01 vegetativeCandula floweringmaturityHybrid 100 1000 200 0.05 0.10* & & & & & & FivePearlFemale* 0.10inspectionsMillet0.05 FemalevegetativeFemale 01.0flowering0.05 MalematurityMalePollenshedders infemaleparent5% ormoreplantsshouldhavereceptivesilk&&Pollensheddersin femaleparent- 110 -

(Seed Health Management for Better Productivity)Seed Certification Standard (Standard (in %))Foundation class: F.S., Certified class: C.S.CropPure seed(minimum)Inert matter(maximum)`Other cropsseed(maximum)Total weedseed(maximum)Objectionable weedseedO.D.V.GerminationMoistureSimplecontainerVapourproofcontainerF.S. C.S. F.S. C.S. F.S. C.S. F.S. C.S. F.S. C.S. F.S. C.S. F.S. C.S. F.S. C.S. F.S. C.S.1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19(A) CerealsWheat 98 98 2 2 10/kg 20/kg 10/kg 20/kg 2/kg 5/kg & & 85 85 12 12 8 8Paddy 98 98 2 2 10/kg 20/kg 10/kg 20/kg 2/kg 5/kg 10/kg 20/kg 80 80 13 13 8 8Barley 98 98 2 2 10/kg 20/kg 10/kg 20/kg & & 10/kg 20/kg 85 85 12 12 8 8(B) MilletsMaize(inbreads)Maize(hybrid)Maize(compost)98 98 2 2 5/kg & & & & & 5/kg & 80 & 12 & 8 && 98 & 2 & 10/kg & & & & & 10/kg & 90 & 12 & 898 98 2 2 5/kg 10/kg & & & & 10/kg 20/kg 90 90 12 12 8 8Open pollinatedPearl millet(variety andhybrid)98 98 2 2 10/kg 20/kg 10/kg 20/kg & & & & 75 75 12 12 8 8Sorghum 98 98 2 2 5/kg 10/kg 5/kg 10/kg & & 10/kg 20/kg 75 75 12 12 8 8Millets(commn,finger,ittelian, kodo,little andbarnyard)97 97 3 3 10/kg 20/kg 10/kg 20/kg & & & & 75 75 12 12 8 8- 111 -

(Seed Health Management for Better Productivity)Seed Health Management for Better Productivity in PulsesH.S. TripathiDepartment of Plant Pathology, G.B.P.U.A.&T., Pantnagar-263145 (Uttarakhand)Chickpea (Cicer arietinum L.) is an important grain legume in the Indian sub-continent,West Asia, Northern and Eastern Africa, and Central and SouthAmerica. Mainly two types ofchickpea are grown, brown seeded called "Desi", and white seeded called "Kabuli". Movement ofseeds of germplasm and breeding materials from one location to another is important in any cropimprovement progamme. However, with the movement of seeds there is a danger of introductionof new pathogen (s) or pathotype (s) in new areas. So far 33 fungal, 1 bacterial and 7 viraldiseases have been reported on chickpea from different parts of the world (Nene, 1980). Some areof economic importance; these are Fusarium wilt (Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. ciceri), dry root rot(Rhizoctonia bataticola), black root rot (Fusarium solani), collar rot (Sclerotium rolfsii), and wet rootrot (R. solani). Among the leaf diseases, Ascochyta blight is considered most important. Other leafdiseases like Botrytis grey mould (Botrytis cinerea), Colletotrichum and Alternaria blights have alsobeen reported serious in some years.Of the several diseases recorded on chickpea very few are reported as seed-borne. Theseed-borne nature of Ascochyta rabiei was described by Luthra and Bedi (1932) and subsequentlyconfirmed by Maden et al (1975). Howare et al (1978) described the seed-borne nature of F.oxysporum f. sp. ciceri. During 1979-80, 1980-81, and 1981-82 crop seasons, production ofchickpea in Northern India and Pakistan suffered heavy losses due to Ascochyta blight andBotrytis grey mould. These diseases have the potential of devastating the crop, particularly whenthe humidity and temperatures are high. There is some evidence that the sudden outbreak ofthese diseases in the commercial fields was partly due to infected seeds.Pulse growers can minimize losses from these diseases by using high quality seed. Seedtesting is required to establish whether or not seed is infected .Seed health tests are currentlyavailable to detect all the important seed-borne pathogens of pulses. Only seed that is pathogenfreeshould be used for sowing. Testing seed before sowing will identify potential diseaseproblems and allow steps to be taken to reduce the disease risk. Laboratory testing is usuallyrequired as infected seed may have no visible disease symptoms.Importance of seedborne diseasesUncontrolled movement of infected seed between regions can also result in the rapidexpansion of the area affected by these diseases. Pathogens can adversely affect germinationand cause seedling infection or damage to mature plants. The transmission of fungal and bacterialpathogens, from seed to crop can vary considerably depending on growing conditions. Diseasescaused by viruses usually have higher transmission rates than those caused by fungi and bacteriaand are less affected by seasonal conditions. Consequently, there are different tolerance levels forseed infection for different pathogens. Seed - borne diseases often strike early in the growth of a- 112 -

(Seed Health Management for Better Productivity)plant and cause poor crop establishment and reduced plant vigor which results in lower yields.Most seed borne diseases cause reduced yields e.g. Cucumber mosaic virus in lupines. However,some diseases can cause total crop loss e.g. ascochyta in chickpea.Preventing seed borne diseasesIt will be best to sow pathogen-free seed. Testing seed before sowing will establishwhether or not seed is free of disease. The next best option is to select seed from crops whichshow no sign of disease. Seed with high levels of seedborne disease should not be used forsowing .For some fungal diseases it may be possible to reduce the risk of disease by applying afungicide to seed prior to sowing. However, seed treatments are not available for the control ofvirus or bacterial diseases.Seed productionCrop hygiene is important in the production of pathogen-free seed. Avoid contamination ofclean seed. Harvest disease-free crops first. Seed can be contaminated during harvesting orfollowing harvesting if the equipment being used is contaminated. Infected seed may sometimesbe smaller, shriveled or discoulored. Cleaning and grading seed may reduce the proportion ofdiseased seed (small or shriveled).Colour sorting may sometimes be used to remove seed that isaffected by disease and discoloured.Extent of transmission from seed to crop (epidemiological rates)Development of seed-borne disease is dependent primarily on three factors: (1) theamount of seed-borne inoculum, (2) the extent of transmission of this inoculum to the seedling(seed plant transmission), and (3) the rate of increase of disease in the field.Crop losses are likely to be higher for pathogens that invade the roots soon aftergermination (and there is little chance of escape), than for pathogens that affect the shoots ofyoung plants. The extent of 'seed plant transmission' of fungal and bacterial pathogens is known tovary considerably depending on infection conditions. Poor germination and diseased seedlingscan result from the use of infected seed lots.EpidemiologyTransmission from seed to seedling is usually highest for viruses and varies from around0.1-5% for AMV and CMV, up to 100% for PSBMV. Transmission rates for fungal and bacterialpathogens are affected more by the environment and some diseases can also be carried over insoil and/or on crop residues. There is a wide range of tolerance levels for different pathogens. Forviral diseases a threshold of

(Seed Health Management for Better Productivity)the infectivity of the pathogen in seed). Most seed tests measure the proportion of infected seed.Because low levels of seedborne inoculum can lead to considerable disease, the most sensitivetest should be used to determine the level of seed infection.Fungi may be detected using a standard blotter test or an agar plate test, the latter being the moresensitive. Seed-borne bacteria can also be detected using an agar plate test. Seeds are oftensurface sterilized with Na O Cl before testing to eliminate other saprophytic fungi, although this pretreatment can reduce the percentage recovery of the pathogens where infections are not deepseated. Results of these standard tests indicate the proportion of infected seed they provide noinformation on the amount of inoculum per seed. Where a high percentage of seed is infectedthere is often more inoculum per seed associated with larger infections and deeper penetration.Seed-borne viruses are usually detected using ELISA or PCR tests. It is important that thediagnostic tests are conducted on germinated seed (seedlings) as virus may sometimes infect theseed test a without infect in the embryo or seedling e.g. PSBMV.Survival on seedSeed borne pathogens can often survive for several years in and on seed. Pathogens arenot always carried on the seed coat but can be harboured deep inside seeds. Fungi and bacteriaare mostly located in the seed coat, and embryo infection is uncommon. Infestation levels of mostpathogens decrease rapidly during storage and long-term storage can eliminate some pathogensfrom seed. Unfortunately, there is likely to be a marked reduction in the viability of seed stored fora long period and this may negate any benefits from lowering disease levels in seed. Viruses arenot carried on the seed coat and are only found in the seed embryo or tissues of the seed coat.Infection of seedMost fungal and bacterial diseases are favoured by wet conditions and seed producedunder warm, humid conditions usually becomes heavily infected while seed produced in drierregions is often free of infection. Seed infection levels are determined primarily by weatherconditions between flowering and maturity and warm, humid conditions during this period oftenresult in heavy pod and seed infection. Dry weather between flowering and maturity minimizes podinfection and is essential for the production of pathogen free seed. There is often considerablevariation between genotypes in their resistance to seed infection.Virus infection in seed depends on the amount of spread of virus between plants during thegrowing season, often by aphid vectors, and the genetic susceptibility of the host plant.Important seed borne diseasesVirusesAlfalfa Mosaic Virus (AMV)Plants may develop a bright yellow leaf mottle, tip necrosis, stunting, pod flattening andblackening. Yields are reduced through plant death, the production of small seeds, and seeds withbrown coat discolouration.Cucumber Mosaic Virus (CMV)- 114 -

(Seed Health Management for Better Productivity)Plants may develop leaf chlorosis (yellowing), stunting, distortion or bunchy appearanceand pods may be flattened and turn purple-brown.Pea Seedborne Mosaic Virus (PSBMV)Plants may develop downward rolling of leaf margins and slight clearing of the veins inyoung leaves. Production of small seeds with distinctive brown staining and 'tennis ball' marking iscommon. Seed discolouration can significantly reduce the commercial value of grain.Bean Yellow Mosaic Virus (BYMV)Plant leaves may develop leaf mottle or a distinctive yellow mosaic pattern, stunting andreduced leaf size. Early infections can seriously reduce plant growth and grain yield.BacteriaBacterial blight (Pseudomonas syringae pv pisi and Pseudomonas syringae pv syringae)Important seed borne disease of field peas. Both these pathogens may be carried by theseed either internally or externally. Water-soaked leaf, stem and pod lesions may occur at anygrowth stage. Yields are reduced through plant death, crop damage and the production of smallseeds. Brown discolouration of the seed coat can sometimes occur.FungiGrey mould and chocolate spot (Botrytis cinerea and Botrytis fabae)Stem infection can cause the damping-off of young seedlings. Later infection causes grey mouldor chocolate spot on foliage and flowers. Yields are reduced through plant death, crop damageand flower abortion. Infected seed can be small and badly discoloured.Ascochyta blight (Ascochyta fabae, Ascochyta lentis, Ascochyta pisi, Ascochyta rabiei,Mycosphaerella pinodes Phoma pinodella)Tan coloured lesions form on leaves, stems and pods. Infected leaves may dropprematurely. Yields are reduced through plant death and crop damage. Infected seed can beshriveled or badly stained.Lupin anthracnose (Colletotrichum lupini)Bending and twisting of stems with a lesion in the crook of the bend. Stem infection oftenresults in the death of plants and major yield losses. Affects both narrow leaf lupins and albuslupins.Phomopsis stem blight (Phomopsis leptostromiformis)Causes yellow-brown lesions on leaves stems and pods. Severe infection can kill plants.Infected seed can be covered with a web-like grey mould. Toxin produced by infected stubble cankill animals.Brown leaf spot (Plieochaeta setosa)Can cause both root rot and leaf spotting. Affected roots develop large dark brown lesions.Irregularly shaped dark brown lesions develop on infected leaves. Can seriously reduce plantgrowth and grain yield.REFERENCES- 115 -

(Seed Health Management for Better Productivity)1. Agarwal, V.K. (1981). Seed-borne fungi and viruses of some important crops. Research Bulletin108. Directorate of Experiment Station G.B. Pant Univ. of Agril. & Tech. Pantnagar.2. Haware, M.P., and Y.L. Nene, and R. Rejeshwari (1978). Eradication of Fusarium oxysprorum f.sp. ciceri transmitted in chickpea seed. Phytopathology 68: 1364-1367.3. Haware M.P., Y.L. Nene and S.B. Mathur (1986). Seed-borne diseases of chickpea. Technicalbulletin from the Danish Government institute of seed pathology for developingcountries. copenhagen, denmark No. 1. In collaboration with international cropsresearch institute for the semi-arid tropics (ICRISAT)4. Luthra, J.C., and k.S. Bedi Bedi (1932). Some preliminary studies on gram blight with reference toits cause and mode of perennation. Indian Journal of agricultural Science 2: 499-512.5. Maden, S., D. Singh, S.B. Mathur, abd P. Neergaard (1975). Detection and location of seedborneinoculum of Ascochyta rabiei and its transmission in chickpea (Cicer arietinum).Seed Science and Technology 3: 667-681.6. Nene, Y. L. (1980). A World List of Pigeonpea (Cajanus cajan (L.) Millsp.) and Chickpea (Cicerarietinum L.) Pathogens. ICRISAT Pulse Pathology Progress Report no. 8: 1-14.7. Nene, Y. L. (1972). A Survey of Viral Diseases of Pulse crops in Uttar Pradesh. Research BulletinNo. 4 Directorate of Experiment Station G.B. Pant Univ. of Agril. & Tech. Pantnagar.- 116 -

(Seed Health Management for Better Productivity)Role of Cultural Practices on the Management of Seed Borne DiseasesR.P. AwasthiDepartment of Plant Pathology, G.B.P.U.A.&T., Pantnagar-263145 (Uttarakhand)The life cycle of a plant begins with the introduction of seed germination in soil andultimately ends up with the seed production. During different stages of life cycle, a seed passesthrough many stages of growth from germination and emergence of a tender seedling to profusevegetablegrowth, and subsequently, bearing flowers, fruits and ultimately the seed. Duringdifferent stages of plant, growth, the plant interacts with number of pathogens/ microorganisms.At different seed development stages of plant, commencing from flowering to seedmaturation, a number of microorganisms including viruses may enter and establish a pathogenicrelationship within the seed tissue. Once the seed is infected, it may serve as a carrier of thepathogen or as a consequence of infection; the seed itself may be victimized or killed.The microorganism such as fungi, bacteria and nematodes including viruses may be bornein the seed or carried on the surface of the seed or may be admixtured with the seed duringharvesting or threshing processes. What so ever may be the location of infection in seed, themechanism of seed infection is very much influenced by the environmental conditions during seed/crop development stages.Many different types of control methods aim at eradicating or reducing the amount of pathogenpresent in an area, a plant, or plant parts (such as seeds). Many such methods are cultural, that is,they depend primarily on certain actions of growers, such as host eradication, crop rotation, sanitation,improving plant growing conditions, creating conditions unfavourable to pathogens, polythenemulching, trickle irrigation, ecofallow, and, sometimes reduced tillage farming.Selection of seed production areasSeed should be produced in areas where the pathogens of major concerns are unable toestablish or maintain themselves at critical levels during period of seed development. Area withlow rainfall and low relative humidity generally are favourable for production of high quality seedswith low inoculum levels. Moderately cool climate, with dry summers, is ideal for production of highquality cabbage seeds relatively free of Xanthmonas campestris pv. campestris and Leptospheriamaculans. Area with low rainfall during boll opening of cotton is best for cottonseed production asthere is reduced infection by Alternaria alternata, Diplodia gossypina, Fusarium oxysporum, F.roseum, Glomerella gossypii and Nigrospora sphaerica.Selection of high quality seedsPlanting seeds should be free of the pathogen as possible. Seed should come from acarefully maintained, generally pure block and should be in selected production fields. They shouldbe cleaned commercially and treated chemically or non- chemically.Seeding Rate- 117 -

(Seed Health Management for Better Productivity)The seeding rate should not be excessive. A high seeding rate can increase the number offocuses of primary infection that may develop in the field which ultimately can result in higherdisease incidence and seed infection.Planting TimePlant at a time when requirements of the host and pathogen do not correspond and thusthe plant may escape infection. Winter wheat sown early in autumn may escape infection fromTilletia caries and T. foetida because plants pass the susceptible stage before bunt sporegerminate. Crops sown later may get infected. Planting oat seeds in early spring reduces theincidence of Ustilago avenae. Adjusting planting of soybean such that it matures at the end of therainy season reduces the amount of seedborne Colletotrichum truncatum. In this case althoughthe seed yield is lower than those producing during the rainy season, seed quality is superior.Balanced FertilityAdequate, balanced soil fertility, coupled with near neutral pH, is important in reducingseed infection. Plants under stress from deficient or toxic levels of nutrients are more susceptibleto disease than those grown in soil with well balanced fertility. Insufficient phosphorus or potash insoybean can increase losses from bacterial blight, bacterial pustules, charcoal rot, pod and stemblight, soybean cyst nematode, and several root and stem decaying pathogens. An excessiveapplication of fertilizer may result in a greater disease incidence.The incidence of seedborne Alternaria padwickii in rice increases proportionally to increasenitrogen from 0 to 200kg/ ha. Above 100kg/ ha, the incidence of Curvularia lunata, Phoma sp. andTrichothecium sp. increases compared to 0 and 50kg/ ha.Planting MethodPlanting method is effective in reducing seed transmission of TMV in tomato. A low transmissionwas obtained in direct planting (5%) as compared to transplanting (71%). Sowing wheat on the surfaceof recently flooded land results in a low incidence of flag smut (0.08 to 0.2%): in plots irrigated aftersowing at 4cm deep, a moderate incidence results (2.4 to 3.2%), and in soil moist enough for ploughingthere is a high incidence (8.1 to 8.6%). Rice seeded in water is less infested with the nematodeAphelenchoides besseyi than that drilled in and flooded when 6 to 9 cm high. Quiescent nematodesprobably revive in water, move about, and die in the water before seed emergence.SpacingReduced spacing between plants favour seed borne infections. Close spacing results inhigh humidity among plantswhich can be conducive for heavy seedborne infections. At 15 cmbetween rice plants , therer was a higher percentage of seedborne Alternaria alternata, A.longissima, A. padwickii, Curvularia lunata, Drechslera oryzae, Fusarium semitectum, andSclerotium sp. than at wider distances. Soybean seeds from narrow- row (25 cm) compared to- 118 -

(Seed Health Management for Better Productivity)wide- row (76 cm) spacing gives higher recovery of total fungi and bacteria which adversely affectthe quality of clean seeds.Depth of PlantingDepth of planting greatly influences seed transmission of smuts. Shallow planting in soilsprotects wheat plants from Urocystis tritici (flag smut) in wheat.Water ManagementWater management practices influences disease development. Irrigation can be tuned toreduce stress. Water management strategies vary depending upon growing areas, most commondiseases, soil types, etc. Irrigation especially at the seed development stage, may favour seedinfection. Irrigation time and amount of water should be controlled so that the relative humidity isnot raised to such an extent that it becomes conducive for seed infection. Overhead irrigationshould be avoided where possible.Crop RotationCrop rotation and play an important role in controlling seedborne pathogens because manyimportant bacterial and fungal pathogens survive between crops in or on crop debris. Rotatingsoybean with a non-host crop every second year is effective for reducing most foliage and stempathogens, and a rotation every third year for soil borne pathogens.Isolation DistancesThe distance between seed production and commercial plots has been worked out forreducing seedborne loose smut of barley and wheat. The distance between plots may vary fromregion to region depending on weather conditions. Barley and wheat crops should be isolated byat least 50 m from any source of loose smut infection for production of certified seeds.RougingRouging should be practiced where possible. In seed production fields, infected plantsshould be rouged and destroyed. Rouging has been followed successfully in the control of loosesmut of barley and wheat.TillageTillage has a significant influence on the abiotic and biotic soil environment. Under zerotillage soil water content, penetration, and retention are increased and erosion decreased ascompared with conventional tillage practices such as ploughing. Soil temperatures generallydecrease as more crop residue is left on the soil surface. Direct tillage results in changes to thesoil moisture and temperature, which in turn impacts the biological activity of soil microflora andfauna. The changes effected by direct tillage may favour some pathogens while limiting growth ofothers. Conservation tillage can have a beneficial influence on other soil properties including: soilcrusting, bulk density, drainage, and porosity. Soil organic matter and soil microbial activity mayalso be enhanced under conservation tillage. Changing tillage practices can alter the ecosystem inthe field due to changes in natural enemies, microenvironment and crop residues.Conclusion- 119 -

(Seed Health Management for Better Productivity)Innumerable studies and practical experience show that adoption of individual, evenexceptionally effective plant protection measures cannot ensure long term suppression of anumber of harmful organisms. This can be achieved only by systemic, coordinated application ofall the available prophylactic and destructive measures. The judicious use of different methods ofpest control can play a significant role in combating pest problems in the system. Theimplementation of such a strategy would be really viable in case its components are well workedout. Among all components, the agronomic practices play a vital role in mitigating diseaseproblems as it involves no expenditure and is free from all ill- effects. This unique method ofcontrol can serve as a backbone of any sustainable system of pest management. Furthermore, themodifications in agronomic practices can be blended with any available technique such asbiological control, resistant varieties etc. without adversely affecting the environment.REFERENCES1. Bockus, W.W. and Shroyer. 1998. The impact of reduced tillage on soilborne plant pathogens.Annu. Rev. Phytopathol. 36: 485-500.2. Prew, R.D., Ashby, J.E., Bacon, E.T.G., Christian, D.G., Gutteridge, R.J., Jenkyn, J.F., Powell, W.,and Todd, A.D. 1995. Effects of incorporating or burning straw, and of differentcultivation systems, on winter wheat grown on two soil types, 1985-91. J. Agric. Sci.Cambridge 124: 173-1943. Windels, C.E., and Wiersma, J.V. 1992. Incidence of Bipolaris and Fusarium on subcrowninternodes of spring barley and wheat grown in continuous conservation tillage.Phytopathology 82:699-705.- 120 -

(Seed Health Management for Better Productivity)Smuts, Bunts and Ergots their Significance and Management in SeedCropR.C. SharmaSeed Technology Centre, Punjab Agriculture University, LudhianaSmuts, Bunts and Ergot are important seed borne diseases, the primary inoculum of whichis carried in or on seed (smuts and bunts) or go as an admixture (ergot) with the seed.Smuts and BuntsThe word smut means a soft, charcoal-like substance or a sooty powder. The organismscausing smuts and bunts belong to order Ustilaginales. The resting spores, commonly known assmut spores are thick-walled and on germination produce septate or aseptate promyceliumbearing basidiospores (called sporidia) laterally and apically or in groups at the apex of thepromycelium. Sporidia are haploid and when they germinate, a haploid mycelium (primarymycelium) is produced which later gets dikaryotic. This mycelium invades the host plant, usuallykeeps pace with the meristematic region of the host.Types of infections in SmutsThe infection by the smuts fungi may be primary or secondary, systemic or local,depending upon the species in question. On the basis of primary infection the following three typesmay be remembered for better control of these diseases:1. Seedling infection: The smut spores are usually smooth-walled, externally seedborne,and germinate along with the germinating seed to cause seedling infection. The infection ofseedling takes place before its emergence out of the soil. Change of haplophase todiplophase occurs before infection (Flag smut and covered smuts).2. Floral or blossom infection or Intra-seminal Infection: The spores are usually roughwalledand wind-borne to fresh flowers where they germinate to cause infection of theovary after diplodization. The binucleate hyphae reach the embryo, ramify, and becomedormant with maturity of the seed. The infection is thus carried internally with the seed andwhen the latter germinates the fungus also grows up and finally appears as black powderymass in the inflorescence (Loose smut diseases).3. Shoot Infection: This is usually localized infection. The spores may fall on the surface ofthe host, germinate, and cause infection of young buds, young flowers, developing seeds,or may fall on the ground, perennate there ultimately germinating next year causinginfection of the host parts through wind-borne sporidia (Karnal bunt of wheat and Kernelsmut of rice).- 121 -

(Seed Health Management for Better Productivity)Ustilaginales_______________________________________________________Cup-shapedbasidiocarppresentNo basidiocarp formed_____________________________Promycelium septate, Promycelium septate,basidiospores produced basidiospores formedlaterally from each cell apically in a clusterof the promyceliumUstilaginaceae(Smuts)Tilletiaceae(Bunts)Ustilago sagetum tritici Tilletia foetidaU. hordeiU. avenae T. cariesU. kolleri Neovassia horridaU. scitamineaU. maydis N. indicaTolyposporium penicillariaeSphacelotheca sorghiS. reilianaVarious smut diseases caused on different hosts are described as belowLoose smut of Wheat (Ustilago sagetum tritici)Loose smut occurs more seriously in humid areas than in dry areas. In India, the disease ismore prevalent in northern parts resulting in 3-4 % crop losses however some individual fields mayshow up to 20 % smutted heads. The disease is characterized by the presence of black smutspores in place of grains which later are blown away by wind leaving behind the bare rachis. Asthe pathogen is internally seed borne (embryo infection), seed treatment is the most effectivecontrol measure including hot water treatment, solar treatment and seed dressing with systemicfungicides viz vitavax (2 g/kg), bavistin 2.0-2.5g/kg and raxil 1g/kg. The tolerance levels in thefield for loose smut of wheat are fixed at 0.1 and 0.5 % for foundation and certified seed,respectively. The isolation distance is of 150 m.Flag smut of wheat (Urocystis agropyri)The disease has been appearing and causing significant losses since 1848 in Australiafrom where it is believed to be introduced into India and spread to various wheat growing areas.The disease was observed to be in severe from in 1964-65 in Rajasthan and in 1971 in Kullu (HP).Usually up to 10% loss has been common due to this disease. The leaves of infected plantsbecome twisted and assume a dropping habit, and the plant remains sterile bearing no grains.Grayish black bands running parallel to veins (having smut spores) also appear on older leaves.- 122 -

(Seed Health Management for Better Productivity)The disease perpetuates through seed and soil, so same seed treatment as for loose smut iseffective. To avoid soil inoculum, shallow sowing is recommended. Sowing in acidic or sandy soilsshould be discouraged, as in such soils, the disease incidence is more.Karnal Bunt of Wheat (Neovossia indica)The disease causes 5-20 % losses in some wheat cultivars but annual yield loss of 0.2-0.3% of total production has been reported from Punjab. The disease initially being reported fromIndia (Karnal) has now assumed international significance because of enforcement of quarantineby more than 20 countries. The disease has been reported from J&K, HP, UP, MP, WB, Haryanaand Rajasthan. Though the disease does not cause significant yield losses, it is responsible fordeterioration of quality. Infected seeds also show significant reduction in seed germination andvigor. As the disease is initiated by air borne sporidia at the time of flowering, seed treatment is ofno value and hence different strategies viz. crop rotation late sowing, avoiding use of excessivenitrogen and irrigation, foliar sprays (propiconazole and tebuconazole) have been recommended.The tolerance levels for karnal bunt of wheat are fixed at 0.05 and 0.25 % for foundation andcertified seed, respectively.Hill Bunt of Wheat (Tilletia caries and T. foetida)Hill bunt causes about 10-20 % yield losses, being restricted to northern hilly areas,however sporadic appearance in plains have been reported which might be due to use ofcontaminated seed from hills. The infected ear-heads remain green for a longer period and emit afoul smell due to presence of trimethylamine which is characteristic feature of the disease. Beingseed borne the disease can be effectively controlled by the seed treatment with the samechemicals as used for loose smut of wheat.Covered smut (Ustilago hordei) and loose smut (U. nuda) of BarleyCovered smut of barley is more common than loose smut and has been reported fromnorthern parts of India, causing considerable losses on susceptible varieties. Infection of both thesmuts leads to the production of black mass of smut spores in place of grains. However the sporemass is covered by a persistent membrane (epidermis) in covered smut, the thin membranecovering the spores in loose smut ruptures during emergence, and a bare rachis is left after thedispersal of spores. Mode of infection in case of covered smut is through seedling while loosesmut fungi enter through florets. Loose smut being internally seed borne and covered smut beingexternally seed borne, seed treatment as in case of loose smut of wheat has been the effectiveand economical. Hot water treatment has also been recommended against loose smut of barley.Covered smut (U. kolleri) and loose smut (U. avenae) of OatsOats suffer from both the smuts, which are worldwide in occurrence. Usually, the twodiseases occur simultaneously in the same field. Often the covered smut is more common than the- 123 -

(Seed Health Management for Better Productivity)loose smut. The smut spores being formed in place of grains get blown away by wind as the thinmembrane ruptures leaving behind the bare rachis in loose smut, while the inflorescence tend toretain its shape in case of covered smut infection due to presence of persistent membrane(epidermis) covering the smut spores. Loose smut and covered smut being internally andexternally seed borne respectively can be best managed by seed treatment with differentchemicals as used for loose smut of wheat.Rice Leaf Smut (Entyloma oryzae)The disease initially reported from India and Burma is now known to occur in Japan,Taiwan; Philippines, Afghanistan Venezuela, USA and China. However, the disease is noteconomically much important. The disease is characterized by distinct lead black colored sporeslinear, rectangular or angular in shape, and covered by epidermis which ruptures only when theleaves are soaked in water. As disease perpetuates through hypophyllous sori lying in the field indiseased leaf trash, it can be controlled by following clean cultivation practices.Paddy Bunt (Neovossia horrida or Tilletia barclayana)Paddy bunt initially being reported from Japan has now spread to almost all rice growingareas in India and abroad in Uttar Pradesh, the loss has been estimated up to 3.2 per cent. Thedisease has become a major bottleneck in hybrid seed production. Because of localized air borneinfection all ears in a stool and all grains in a ear are not affected. Usually the sori are hidden byglumes but sometimes glumes are forced apart giving a appearance of minute black pustules orstreaks as a feature of disease. As the disease is initiated by air borne sporidia produced fromtetiospores lying in the soil at the time of flowering, seed treatment is not so effective, howeverfoliar sprays of the same chemicals as used for karnal bunt of wheat are recommended atflowering stage. Cultural practices like crop rotation, field sanitation etc. help in reducing inoculum.Usually early sowing varieties escape infection of florets by air borne sporidia The tolerance levelsfor kernel smut of rice are fixed at 0.1 and 0.5 % for foundation and certified seed, respectively..Smut of Sugarcane (U. scitaminea)The disease has been reported from all sugarcane growing areas of the world except Australia.In India, it is more serious in tropical regions (Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, and Kerala)causing both cane yield and quality losses. The disease is characterized by the formation of whip likestructure having black smut spores arising from the central axis of plant. The affected canes becomeslender and thin. As the disease perpetuates through smut spores present on infected canes/canesets or ratooned canes, the disease can be managed by following cultural practices like removal ofsmutted whips, avoiding preparation of plant sets from smutted canes, discouraging the practice ofratooning, along with disinfection of sets before planting with Agallol (0.25% suspension), mercuric- 124 -

(Seed Health Management for Better Productivity)chloride (0.1%) formalin (1.0%), Bordeaux mixture (4:4:50), vitavax, benlate, bavistin. Hot watertreatment (55-60°C for 10 min) has also being recommended against smut.Common Smut of Maize (U. maydis)Common smut of maize is of minor importance, being confined to Kashmir; less common inPunjab and rarely noticed in North Western parts of UP. The disease is distinct because of itseffect on maize which is not common among smut fungi and results in to formation of galls.Infection of female flowers gives rise to galls while stem galls result in bending of stalk. Themembrane (epidermis) covering the galls later ruptures, exposing the black spore mass. Being soilborne, the disease can be reduced drastically by following crop rotation, field sanitation and seedtreatment.Head Smut of Maize (U. reiliana)Head smut has been found moderately destructive in Sub-temperate Himalayas and hillyareas of Rajasthan, while a minor incidence has also been reported from TN, Andhra Pradesh, UPand Punjab. The whole tassel is converted in to a large sac having smut spores with floral bractsgrowing in to leafy structures. Columella is not formed. Disease is soil borne so crop rotation,sanitation and seed treatment is effective in reducing soil inoculum. The tolerance levels in thefield for head smut of sorghum are fixed at 0.05 and 0.1 % for foundation and certified seed,respectively.Grain Smut of Sorghum (Sphacelotheca sorghi)Grain Smut despite being known to cause huge losses in different countries (US Myanmar,S. Africa, Italy) has been reported to be a destructive disease causing up to 25 % grain losses inIndia. The disease results in to formation of oval dirty gray sori having black smut spores andcentral hard column called Columella composed of host tissues. Infection of plant occurs atseedling stage and hence the disease can be controlled by solar heat treatment, treatment withFormalin (0.5% for 2 hrs), Copper Sulphate Solution (0.5-3.0 % for 15 min). The tolerance levels inthe field for grain smut of sorghum are fixed at 0.05 and 0.1 % for foundation and certified seed,respectively.Loose Smut of Sorghum (S. cruenta)In India it is prevalent in Andhra Pradesh, Bombay, Karnataka and TN causing not onlygrain damage but also affects plant growth and hence fodder yield. The smutr spores produced inplace of grains get exposed duer yto rupturing of membrane. Columella is formed and persistseven after dispersal of spores. The management practices followed against grain smut also takescare of loose smut in sorghum.Head Smut of Sorghum (S. reiliana)- 125 -

(Seed Health Management for Better Productivity)Head smut is prevalent as a minor disease in T.N, UP, MP, Karnataka, Bombay andPunjab. Instead of each individual grain, the whole inflorescence is converted in to a long sporesac. The smut spores are covered by a membrane which breaks easily during emergence of ear.Columella is not formed. As the disease is predominantly soil borne, sanitation crop rotation andseed treatment help in greatly reducing the disease. The tolerance levels in the field for head smutof sorghum are fixed at 0.05 and 0.1 % for foundation and certified seed, respectively.Long Smut of Sorghum (Tolyposporium ehrenbergi)This smut has wide occurrence through out the world (West Africa, Egypt, Iran, Pakistan).In India it has been reported from TN, Maharashtra, Karnataka, MP, UP. Each individual gain isconverted in to smut sori. The infected grains are usually surrounded by healthy grains. Columellais not formed. Infection being air borne-seed treatment is of less use. Early sowing helps inescaping infection of flowers. Crop rotation and field sanitation help in reducing the production ofair borne sporidia from soil inhabiting smut spores.Smut of Bajra (Tolyposporium penicillariae)Smut of Bajra is a important disease in India as well as other countries causing a yield lossof 5-20% which may be higher under favorable conditions. The disease has been reported to bemore severe on CMS based single cross hybrids than open pollinated varieties. The smut soriformed in this disease are pear or oval shaped larger than the size of grain and are projectingclearly beyond the glumes. These sori have black smut spores covered by tough membranecomposed of host tissues. The disease perpetuates through soil borne smut spores germinate andproduce sporidia at the time of flowering. These sporidia become air borne and cause floretinfection. As a result of air borne infection, seed treatment is not so effective. The control practicesinvolve removal of smutted ears use of clean seed, hot weather deep ploughing, field sanitationand crop rotation. The tolerance levels for smut of bajra are fixed at 0.05 and 0.1 % for foundationand certified seed, respectively.False smut of riceThe pathogens (Ustilaginoidea) appears almost in all rice growing states in India and othercountries causing considerable grain losses.The pathogen was first described under the name ofUstilago virens but later classified under Ascomycetes as it closely related to claviceps. Theeffects of the parasite are visible only on the grains. Due to development of the fructifications ofthe pathogen, scattered individual grains are transformed into large, velvety, green masses,sometimes more than twice the diameter of the normal grains. Inside the mass the colour isorange yellow on the periphery and nearly white in the centre. The fungus perennates through thehard soporiferous masses which become sclerotia. The infection of ovaries takes place through- 126 -

(Seed Health Management for Better Productivity)conidia at an early stage. The disease can be managed by developing resistant varieties,fungicidal foliar sprays and use of sclerotia free seeds (through steeping or processing).Ergot DiseasesThe fungi causing ergot diseases belong to order Sphaeriales of class pyrenomycetes(Subdivision: Ascomycotina). The fungus has been named so because of formation of hard, darkcolored compact fungal structures called sclerotia or ergot on infected parts of plants. The ergotdiseases have been reported on many graminaceous plants viz. rye, oats, barley, wheat, pearlmillet sugarcane, however ergot of bajra is more common. The disease had occurred inepiphytotic form in 1956 at South Satara area of Maharashtra and since then, it has become amajor limiting factor in the cultivation of improved bajra hybrid varieties. Average incidence ofdisease has been observed up to 62.4% causing a grain loss of about 58% under favorableconditions. Presence of toxic alkaloids in the ergot adds to the importance of disease causingnuisance to both animals as well as human beings. Infection is evident from blossoming tomaturity. Initially disease manifests as a conidial honeydew stage on inflorescence with masses ofconidia exuded in sugary suspension. Later in the season, the infected kernels get transformed into black horny structures called ergots. Various management practices include destruction ofcollateral hosts (C. ciliaris and P. antidotales), early sowing of crop to escape high temperature atflowering, use of sclerotium free seed and spray of protective fungicides at flowering (Ziram Cuoxychloride).The tolerance levels for ergot of bajra are fixed at 0.02 and 0.04 % for foundation andcertified seed, respectively.- 127 -

(Seed Health Management for Better Productivity)Ear Rot and Banded Leaf & Sheath Blight of MaizeS.C. SaxenaDepartment of Plant Pathology, G.B.P.U.A.&T., Pantnagar-263145 (Uttarakhand)Banded leaf and sheath blight of maize caused by Hypochonus sasakii is one of the mostwidespread and destructive disease of maize due to its wide host range and adaptability in south eastAsian countries. The disease manifest on leaves, leaf sheaths, stalks lesions or rind spotting resultingin stem breakage, clumping and cracking of styles and ear rot etc. resulting in cent per cent graindamage and lodging of plants in severe conditionsPantnagar is one of the hot spot for this disease and the studies are being carried out at thislocation for last 25 years on epidemiology, pathogen variability and disease management usingchemicals, cultural practices, bio-control agents including evaluation of maize genotype for resistancesources.Studies carried out with respect to chemicals only Tilt (Propocanozole) showed someeffectiveness. Cultural practices do not fit in normal recommended technology of maize production.Use of bio-control agents opens up a new era for management. But in this case use of T. harzianum acommon bio-agent exhibited synergistic effect on ear rot development. Few newer bio-agents areunder experimental stage. An another new chemical Divident 3 WS (Diphenoconazole) is being alsotested. Few inbred lines/genotypes have also been identified which are under confirmation for use inresistant breeding programme. A set of experiment is also in execution for use of integrated approachto manage the banded leaf and sheath blight to success.IntroductionMaize ( Zea mays L. ) is the third most important cereal crop in the world agricultural economyas food for man and feed for livestock. The total area under maize cultivation in the world is about127.38 m.ha with a total production of 470.5 m tonnes with the average yield of 3694 kg/ha.About 112 diseases of maize have been reported so far from different parts of the world, ofthese 65 are known to occur in India. The major diseases in different agro-climatic regions are, seedrots and seedling blight, leaf spots and blights, downy mildews, stalk rots, banded leaf & sheath blight,smuts & rots leading to about 15-20 percent yield losses annually.Pantnagar, being the hot- spot for a number of diseases. At present it has been the maincentre for maize pathology research for 3 major diseases among which, Banded leaf and sheath blight(BLSB) is the most important one. This diseases is known under many names, viz.,sclerotialdisease, banded sheath rot, banded sclerotial disease, sharp eye spot., oriental leaf and blight,Rhizoctonia ear rot, leaf & sheath blight, sheath blight, sheath rot and corn sheath blight.The disease is caused by Rhizoctonia solanni = Hypochonus sasakii (Thanatephorus cucumeris(frank) Donk). It is one of the most widespread, destructive and versatile pathogen. It is found inmost parts of the world and is capable of attacking a wide range of host plants including maizecausing seed decay, damping-off, stem canker, root rot, aerial blight and seed/ cob decay. It is- 128 -

(Seed Health Management for Better Productivity)due to combination of its competitive saprophytic ability and high pathogenic potential that makesH. sasakii a persistent and destructive plant pathogen.(Saxena, 1997).Economic lossesThe disease was earlier reported as a minor disease on maize (Payak and Renfro 1966).The importance of the disease was only realized in early 1970s when an epidemic occurred inwarm and humid foot hill areas, in the Mandi district of Himachal Pradesh. The disease results inthe direct loss exhibiting premature death, stalk breakage and ear rot. Losses to the extent of 11-40 per cent were reported while evaluating 10 different varieties of maize.Losses in grain yield showed a high positive correlation with premature death of plants anddisease index that caused drastic reduction in grain yield to the tune of 97 per cent. A directcorrelation with other yield parameters exibited.in a yield loss of 5 to 97.4 per cent at diseasescore levels ranging from 3.0 to 5.0.Host RangeThe pathogen has wide host range and infects plant belonging to over 32 families in 188genera. H. sasakii infects by artificial inoculations a number of crop plants belonging to familiesGraminae, Papilionacae and Solanaceae : Paspalum scrobiculatum, Pannisetum purpureem,Setaria italica, Panicum miliaceum, Coix lachryma –jobi, Echnochola fromentacea, Pennisetumamericanum, Zea maxicana Zea mays, Oryza sativa, Saccharum officinarum Sorghum bicolor,Arachis hypogea, Glycine max, Pisum sativum, Vigna radiata and Lycopersicum esculentum. Riceand maize isolates are, however, indistinguishable on the basis of cross inoculation tests, hostrange, virulence, number of nuclei per hyphal cell, and other morphological characters includingpathogenicity. Comparison studies of rice maize, sugarcane and sorghum isolates revealed thatmaize and rice are similar than those isolates of sugarcane and sorghum.SymptomsThe symptoms of the Banded leaf & sheath blight are observed on all aerial parts of themaize plant except tassel. The disease manifests itself on leaf, leaf sheaths, stalks and ears asleaf & sheath blight, stalk lesions or rind spotting and stalk breakage, clumping and cracking ofstyles (silk fibre), horse-shoe shaped lesions with banding of caryopses, ear rots, etc. Undernatural conditions, disease appears at pre- flowering stage on 30 to 40 day-old plants but infectioncan also occur on young plants which may subsequently result in severe blighting and death ofapical region of growing plants.On LeavesUnder natural conditions, dropping blades especially the distal halves of leaves proximateto soil surface are affected. Infection spreads from leaf shealths to the basal portion of leaves.Lesions appear as in irregular patches, similar in colour but larger in size and spread more rapidlythan on leaf sheath, covering greater areas with alternating dark bands.On Leaf SheathsThe symptoms are more common on sheaths than on leaves. The disease appears onbasal leaf sheaths as water soaked, straw colored, irregular to roundish spots on both the- 129 -

(Seed Health Management for Better Productivity)surfaces. A short of wave pattern of disease advancement can be seen not only on leaves butalso on sheaths and husk leaves. In early stages marginal chlorosis and rotting of laminaeproceed inwardly. Later as the infection becomes older numerous sclerotial bodies are also seen.On StalkThe pathogen also causes elongated dark brown to black spots of lesions on the rind of thestalk under the affected sheaths. These spots coalesce together extending the lesions andcovering almost an internode. Individual lesion range in size from 2-10 x 3-15 mm to those whichcover the whole internodes. Some times these lesions are transformed into cankers and a fewgirdle near the nodes. Under artificial inoculation entire rind is some times affected, the stalkthereby weakened and breaks easily.On EarsThe disease observed first of all, on basal part of the outermost husk leaves forwarding tosheath from which the ear emerge. The same types of lesions are found on ear but the bands arefairly prominent, giving a blackened appearance. The affected ears become brown and numeroussclerotia are observed on husks, lightly attached to the cob. Whitish mycelium and sclerotia are alsoseen frequently on silks between and on kernel rows and glumes.The grain showed light greyish to dark brown discoloration, drastically reduced in size and wrinkled,and under severe conditions, the grain became chuffy and light in weight.Inoculum PreparationA pathogenic isolate of R. solani obtained from fresh diseased leaf sheath of maize wasused throughout the investigations. For preparation of large scale inoculum, sorghum grains weresoaked in water for 24 hours and after thorough washing in running tap water, the soaked grains40-g were filled in 250 ml Erlenmeyer flask after removing excess water. These flasks were tightlyplugged with non-absorbent cotton and aluminum foil. Grain filled flasks were then autoclavedtwice at 151b psi for 30 minutes. The second sterilization was repeated after 24 h of first one.Each flask was shaken to remove formation of grain clots. This grain medium was used forinoculation with actively growing culture of R. solani in PDA plates. One or two discs were seededin each flask and then the flasks were incubated at 28+ 1 0 C for 7-10 days. During incubation, thegrains in flasks were also shaken to provide uniform fungal growth on all grains. These grainswere then used for artificial inoculation in field experiments wherever required.Artificial Inoculation Technique:Field inoculations were carried out by inserting two sorghum grains between the leafsheath and stem on lower third/fourth internode above the ground level just before the tasselemergence stage of the crop. The inoculations were repeated after 3 days of first inoculation tosafeguard the plants against the escapes. Observations on the BLSB disease were recorded twoweeks after flowering following 1-5 disease scale where 1.0 = No infection; 2.0= Partial infectionupto lower four leaf sheaths and leaves; 3.0 = Heavy infection upto lower four leaf sheath andleaves, partial on upper leaf sheaths below the ear placement, no cob infection, 4.0 = Heavy- 130 -

(Seed Health Management for Better Productivity)infection on all leaf sheaths and leaves below the ear placement partial infection on cobs, 5.0 =very little or no grain formation, grain become chuffy or cob may be rotten.Chemical ControlThe experiment was planned using 18 fungicides in three replications following randomizedblock design. The plot size was kept 5 x 3 m 2 with 4 rows at 75 cm apart. All the plants wereartificially inoculated at 40 th and 50 th day of planting followed by foliar sprays of fungicides after 3days of inoculation. The observation on disease severity, 1000-grain weight, grain yield per haand cobs/plant were recorded and analyzed statistically. Only thiobendazole was found mosteffective followed by Duter & Vitavax in reducing the disease severity and resulting in higher grainyield while in following year only 10 fungicides were included based on the performance inprevious year testing. Of these vitavax (carboxin), TPTH (Triphenyl tin hydroxide) andthiobendazole were found to be most effective.During last few years, some newer chemicals which are claimed to be effective againstsheath blight disease were also tested under different sets of experiments. The chemicals viz.,Propaconazole, 0.1% (Tilt) & carbendazin, 0.05% (Savistin or Bavistin) were tried followingdifferent methodology.Both the chemicals were applied as foliar sprays at 30, 40 and 50 th day ofplanting alone or in combinations of application. The experiments were planted in threereplications following Randomized Block Design. The plot size was 7.5 m 2 with 2 rows of 75 cmapart. Artificial inoculations were carried out after 40 th day of planting and repeated after 2 days offirst one. The chemicals were applied as per treatment and the data on disease severity and yieldparameters were recorded and analyzed statistically. The result indicated that the effectiveness ofPropaconazole was markedly observed when the chemical was applied at initial stages at 30 th or40 th day of planting and the second spray at 10 days after first. Foliar sprays of Carbendazimshowed the ineffectiveness against BLSB as well as on the yield parameters.Visualizing the efforts on chemical control which were not so effective from practicalapplication point of view, the other approaches for disease management were also included in thestudies.Biological ControlBio-control agents Trichoderma harzianum, Gliocladium virens, Pseudomonas sp. weretried alone or in combination with propaconazole and carbendazim along with a cultural controltreatment with common check. All the methodology was the same as discussed in previousexperiments.None of the treatment effectively reduced the disease but foliar sprays of T. harzianum +Tilt followed by T. harzianum sprays, Saivistin + Tilt + T. harzianum, Savistin + Tilt and Savistinalone could exhibit some reduction in disease levels. Cultural practice, removal of lower leavesalone was not be so effective and would not be practicable to the farmers. While evaluating thebiocontrol bacteria against R. solani, the fluorescent Pseudomonas could not reduce the BLSB.- 131 -

(Seed Health Management for Better Productivity)Subsequently in nature, it had been observed that the pathogen H. sasakii, when infectscob shank and husk, the T. harzianum also parasitizes the fungus. The mycoparasitism byTrichodioma leads to a synergistic action in increasing the cob rot and grain infection. To find outthe synergistic action of both the fungi, an experiment was planned following randomized blockdesign and three replication in field under artificial inoculation of the organism alone or incombinations which indicated that the present of R. solani followed by the infection of Trichodermawas more harmful that is what happening in nature also.Disease ResistanceDifferent genotypes received from various sources since 1975 were evaluated under AllIndia Coordinated Research Project on Maize at Pantnagar using artificial inoculation techniques.Following genotypes are grouped as resistant/moderately resistant.CM-103, CM-104, CM-105, CM-211,CM-117,CM-118-1, CM-118-2, CM-200,CM-201, CM-202, CM-205, CM-300, CM-500, CM-600, Eto 182, Aust 25, P217, P 407, CML- 267, AntiguaGr.II, JML-32, JML-306, JML-403, VL-43, CM 107 x CM 108, RN 6 Ht 1 A x GE 440.- 132 -

(Seed Health Management for Better Productivity)agriculture.Aflatoxin in MaizeS.C. SaxenaDepartment of Plant Pathology, G.B.P.U.A.&T., Pantnagar-263145 (Uttarakhand)Fungal contamination of agricultural crops has plagued farmers since the beginning ofAflatoxin DiscoveryThe current epoch of fungal research in food/feed safety emerged as a result of anoutbreak of disease in turkeys in England in 1960. Fortunately, the English penchant for thoroughand detailed explanations initiated a search for the causative agent of the disease; this effort wasthe beginning of a new area of agricultural research that has been labeled mycotoxicology. Initialhistological examination of tissues from the diseased birds demonstrated an acute hepaticnecrosis associated with bile-duct proliferation. Examination of bird rations showed that a commonfactor in disease outbreaks was the use of a Brazilian peanut meal. Subsequent tests showed thecommon occurrence of fungal isolates associated with the Aspergillus flavus group. Two closelyrelated species, A. flavus and A. parasiticus, have since been identified as the toxin-producingspecies.Four closely related compounds were characterized and were generically named aflatoxinsB 1 and B 2 G 1 and G 2 (B= blue fluorescence; G= green fluorescence). A. flavus to produceexclusively B 1 and B 2 , whereas A. parasiticus exhibited the capacity to produce all four toxins.Plant Pathology/mycotoxicologyTo explain the differences between parasites and saprophytes broadly grouped into twobiotrophy or parasitism (deriving nutrients living material and necrotrophy or saprotrophy (derivingnutrient from non living material). Obligate saprotrophy and obligate or facultative necrotrophy.Numerous mycotoxin-producing fungi can be saprophytic, but they also occur in living tissues andare difined as facultative necrotrophs, i.e., species that are usually saprotrophic, but which canalso function as parasites.Aflatoxin in Postharvest Maize Storage fungiThe development of storage fungi in a post harvest commodity is determined by a numberof factors, such as availability of inoculum, physical integrity of seed, moisture, temperature,aeration and nature of the substrate. Among the variables, moisture is clearly a dominant factor.Storage fungi, principally Aspergillus and Pencillium spp. are commonly found in maize stores at13 to 18% moisture. The A. glaucus group predominates at 13 to 15% moisture, but above 15%other microbes appear, including the toxin-producing species A. flavus, A. ochraceus and A.versicolor. It has been reported that A. flavus did not invade starchy grains below 17.5% moisture.In response to observations relating moisture levels to fungal growth, the US Department ofAgriculture (USDA) assumed a very conservative position, describing drying techniques for control- 133 -

(Seed Health Management for Better Productivity)of mycotoxins in post harvest maize and recommending reduction of moisture to 13% within 24hours after harvest.Storage fungi water requirementsIn defined media, an optimum (available water) of 0.91 to 0.99 has been observed forgrowth of A. flavus and A. parasiticus . Although an aw. of 0.87 did not dramatically reduce fungalgrowth, however the aflatoxin production was restricted.The moisture requirements in intact seeds clearly differ from submerged fermentations. Inmature maize kernels, A. flavus does not routinely exhibit extensive growth below an aw of 0.85.However, at slightly higher levels (aw/0.87), the fungus grows and produces aflatoxin. A. numberof microbial species have been identified as effective competitors with the aflatoxin-productionstrains. For example, A. niger, A. oryzae and R. nigricanes can effectively reduce development ofA. flavus and A. parasiticus.Moisture in stored maizeAlthough A. flavus appears to require at least 17.5% moisture for development on a starchygrain, the moisture distribution within a stored lot is critical. Moisture retention in high-moisturegrain relative to drier grain has been attributed to hysteresis. High moisture (27 to 28%) and lowmoisture(10%) maize blends that have mean moisture levels of 14% or less will support A. flavusdevelopment and aflatoxin production.Temperature effect on storage fungiIn conjunction with moisture, temperature plays an important role in the development ofstorage fungi. Generally, fungi grow readily between 20 0 and 60 0 C, with a restrictive range of 0 0 to60 0 C optimum 36 0 - 38 0 C, but ranges from 6 0 to 46 0 C. In laboratory media, maximum aflatoxinproduction has been observed at 25 0 C, with no toxin biosynthesis below 7.5 0 C or above 40 0 C.Other factors affecting storage fungiThe microbial profile of a freshly harvested crop influences subsequent competitiveinteractions. Damaged grain provides an opportunity for a fungus to circumvent the naturalprotection of the integuments and establish infection sites in the vulnerable interior. Aeration canalso be a particularly critical factor for storage microbes since fungi are aerobic. Reduced oxygenor increased carbon dioxide levels reduce fungal activity and toxin production. Evidences areavailable for a relationship between genetically transmitted traits in kernel pericarp thickness andsusceptibility to fungal infection; and some other genetically mediated differences in stored maizekernels to invasion by storage fungi.Confirmation of aflatoxin contamination in preharvest maizeKernels inoculated between two weeks after flowering to maturity yielded aflatoxin with littleeffect from insecticide treatment. Visual observations of maize at various locations in the USAidentified the presence of bright greenish-yellow fluorescence (BGYF) on preharvest kernels inGeorgia. The fluorescence had initially been observed in cotton fibers in association with A. flavusdevelopment. Investigation of the origin of BGY-fluorescence material demonstrated that it was not- 134 -

(Seed Health Management for Better Productivity)aflatoxin but a derivative of kojic acid, another relatively unique fungal metabolite. Bright greenishyellowfluorescence in maize kernels was adapted as a presumptive test for presence of fungi inthe A. flavus group.Sixty ears from each of 60 fields in a four-country area of southeastern Missouri, 600 earsfrom two Missouri field and 750 ears from five fields in southern Illinois were collected. Mycologicalstudies of kernels demonstrated an average A. flavus incidence of about 5%, with elevatedoccurrence in kernels from insect damaged ears. Although earlier reports had identified thepresence of A. flavus in preharvest maize, the 5% incidence exceeded prior observations.Morphological tests identified elevated occurrence of A. flavus relative to A. parasiticus in kernelsand insects. After shelling, drying and cracking, 237 samples of the 3600 ears in the generalsurvey and 12 of 1350 ears in the intensive study exhibited BGY fluorescence. Aflatoxin testsshowed that 120/3600 in the general survey and 6/1350 in the intensive study contained aflatoxinlevels exceeding 20 ppb.A number of facts concerning the preharvest contamination process had been established asbelow:• Yellow and white maize were equivalent in susceptibility to fungal infection;• A positive relationship was obwerved between BGY-fluorescing particles and presence ofaflatoxin;• Aflatoxin contamination varied both intra-and inter regional;• Aspergillus flavus predominated in aflatoxin-contaminated maize kernels and associatedinsects;• Kernel damage by insects increased the potential for aflatoxin accumulation;• Intensive insecticide application reduced but did not eliminate preharvest toxin production;• Aspergillus flavus infection occurred from two weeks after flowering to physiologicalmaturity, with maximum infection in the late-milk to early-dough stage (20 days postflowering);• Variation in timing of maize maturation appeared to be linked to contamination;• Stress factors during crop development seemed to incrase susceptibility; and• Genotypic determinants, such as enhanced husk development, were linked to reducedpreharvest aflatoxin contamination.Preharvest moistureMoisture was a major factor among many that affected the contamination process.Although the xerotolerance of A. flavus provided and opportunity for competitive development atmoistures between 17 and 22%, it was apparent that the fungus was infecting kernels at 50%moisture and above. To examine the moisture-related factors of preharvest toxin contamination,an interregional study was carried out in maize grown in Illinois, Missouri and Georgia. The resultsdemonstrated that early aflatoxin contamination occurred in three diverse environments, butmoisture levels did not appear to independently exert a controlling influence in the process.- 135 -

(Seed Health Management for Better Productivity)Preharvest temperaturesIn the field, moisture and temperature are obviously confounded, since elevatedtemperatures increase poant development rates, evaporation and water utilization. Althoughlaboratory temperature studies have identified A. flavus as a mesophile, it does not exhibit any ofthe properties of an authentic thermophile.Ability of A. flavus to grow on degreening silks and to infect kernels directly without insect activity.These observations have made an important contribution to understanding the breadth ofmetabolic capabilities of A. flavus. However, there appear to be some relatively strict limitations onA. flavus substrate requirements. Broad natural occurrence of aflatoxin in US markets has onlybeen observed in maize, cottonseed, peanuts, grain sorghum, millet, copra, tree nuts and figs.Absence of aflatoxin in freshly harvested soybeans presents an intellectual challege tomycotoxicologists. Since soybean are grown in the southern USA in close proximity to aflatoxincontaminatedmaize, absence of inoculum can not explain the inability of the fungus to establish atoxin-producing presence.Information gathered on preharvest aflatoxin contamination has since been modified byseveral observations:• Characterization of definite association between elevated temperature during kerneldevelopment and increased aflatoxin accumulation;• Elucidation of a mechanism for kernel infection by A. flavus without insect activity and toxincontamination of intact kernels;• Identification of A. flavus resistance factors in inbred lines that reflect variations based onthe inoculation method;• Characterization of a direct correlation between water stress in developing maize andsusceptibility to A. flavus infection and toxin contamination;SummaryScientists gathered under the banner of mycotoxicology have shared unique experiencesduring eh past 15 years. They have participated in the evolution of a new discipline. Creating anew area of inquiry can be controversial and the study of toxic fungal metabolites is no exception.The fundamental dilemma in mycotoxicology is its multidisciplinary nature; the scope and thediversity of professional interests make it difficult to establish a single discipline. The workinherently requires the expertise of microbiologists, plant pathologists, plant physiologists,veterinarians, entomologists, mycologists, agronomists, plant breeders, soil scientists,toxicologists, immunologists, oncologists, biochemists, chemists, public health scientists,epidemiologists, climatologists and nutritionists. In mycotoxicology the dialogue amongpractitioners has often resulted in recognizing common research interests and continuouslylearning new skills.- 136 -

(Seed Health Management for Better Productivity)Sampling and Detection Techniques for Aflatoxin in MaizeThe objectives of sampling maize (Zea mays L.) for aflatoxin analyses may be to check forthe presence, distribution or concentration of aflatoxin in a given lot or among a population of lots.The method of sampling should be appropriately designed. To check for the presence of aflatoxinor to determine the incidence of aflatoxin among different lots, the sampling procedure should bebiased towards the inclusion of kernels that are more likely to contain aflatoxin.The aflatoxin concentration in a lot of maize is usually estimated from a sample drawn fromthe lot. A previous study has demonstrated that replicated aflatoxin tests on the same lot of shelledmaize may be highly variable. Because the toxin concentration in individual kernels of a lot mayrange from 0 to over 500,000 g/kg (12,19), a large sample of kernels is required to insure that thesample concentration is in reasonable agreement with the lot concentration.Using Bright Greenish-Yellow Fluorescence to Detect Aflatoxin ContaminationA bright greenis-yellow fluorescence (GBYF) under longwave (365nm) ultraviolet light hasbeen associated with the presence of aflatoxin in maize, cottonseed and pistachio nuts.Aflatoxin contamination of food and feed is important in human and animal health, becausethe aflatoxins are toxic and carcinogenic. The toxic and carcinogenic properties of the aflatoxinsmake experimental safety a very important issue in all work with aflatoxins or the fungi. Aspergillusflavus and A. parasiticus that produce aflatoxins.Biological safetySpores and other viable propagules of A. flavus A. parasiticus and other fungi can causethree types of disease in humans: allergy, poisoning and infection. Airborne spores and dustcontaining propagules of the A. flavus group may cause allergies in some people and the inhaledparticles may contain aflatoxins. Two thinlayer chromatographic (TLC) methods have beendeveloped to measure aflatoxins in maize and grain dust. A. flavus infection in humans isuncommon but possible.Aflatoxin Testing Methods Presumptive and screening methodsQuantitative methodsThin-layer chromatographyHigh-performance liquid chromatographyELISA and RIASelection of Analytical ApproachInfection Process Colonization of external silksThey reported silk condition to be a better indicator of silk susceptibility than chronologicalage since many factors influence the rate of silk senescence in the field. In a comparison of threesilk stages (green unpollinated, yellow-brown and brown) they found yellow-brown silks to be themost susceptible. Silks at this stage have begun to senesce but are still succulent. In four to eighthours, conidia of A. flavus germinated on these silks, first nearest the pollen grains. Then thefungus spread rapidly across the silk, producing extensive growth and lateral branching. By 48- 137 -

(Seed Health Management for Better Productivity)hours conidiophores and conidia were present on pollen grains. In contrast, few conidiagerminated on unpollinated silks by 24 hours and those that did failed to establish significantmycelial growth. Brown silks also supported little growth of fungus, and growth was centratedaround pollen grains.Aspergillus flavus penetrated yellow-brown silks both directly and indirectly through cracksand intercellular gaps. Internal colonization of the silks was restricted to the parenchymatoustissue, and growth was oriented parallel to the silk axis.Internal silk and kernel colonizationAspergillus flavus grows down silks very rapidly. In a controlled-environment chamber witha 34 0 C day and 30 0 C night, a color mutant of A. flavus was recovered from the tip of the ear twodays after inoculation and from the base four days after inoculation. The fungus was found on theglumes of the kernels and adjacent silks six days after inoculation, but not on the seed pericarp.Growth of the fungus from incubated silk segments was first observed from the cut ends, indicatingthat the fungus may move down the silks internally. Such directed growth down the silks couldexplain the rapidity by which the fungus reaches the base of the ear.Kernel infectionThe colonization silks shortly after pollination and the rapid growth of A. flavus down thesilks suggest that the fungus may be following the same path as does the pollen tube, i.e., thestylar canal. Such a route has been proposed for A. flavus.Factors Influencing the Infection Process• Inoculum levels• Drought stress• Temperature- 138 -

(Seed Health Management for Better Productivity)Production of Quality Seed in Tree SpeciesSalil TewariDepartment of Genetics and Plant Breeding, G.B.P.U.A.&T., Pantnagar-263145 (Uttarakhand)Nature has endowed India with vast forest wealth of great diversity, having from tropicalevergreen forests to dry alpine forests. There are about 15,000 species of flowering plants, thewoody vegetation constitute about 2,486 tree species of angiosperms (2,417 dicotyledons and 69monocotyledons) and 21 gymnosperms. Increase in the pace of industrialization afterindependence, coupled with a tremendous growth of human and livestock populations, placedenormous pressure on forests, resulting in their depletion at a fast rate. Now there is a large gap indemand and supply of the various forest products. The National Forest Policy, 1988, places greatemphasis on the maintenance of environmental stability through preservation of forests andconserving natural heritage.Tree improvement consists of a “marriage” of silviculture and tree parentage to obtain thegreatest overall returns. Tree improvement has an important role in Forest Management whenproduction of high volumes of good quality timber or non-timber forest products is the principalmanagement objective (Zobel and Talbert, 1984). Success in the establishment and productivity offorest tree plantations is determined largely by the species used and the source of seed withinspecies. The most successful tree improvement programs are those in which proper seed sourcesand provenances are used. Research has shown that if forests are to be of increased valueincluding the aspects of stability, adaptation, resistances, productivity and diversity, it is necessaryto use reproductive material, which is genetically and phenotypically suited to the site and is ofhigh quality.At present, most of the genetic material (seeds/planting stock material) used inforestry sector in India is obtained from unspecified sources, from stands, natural or planted, whichare neither classified nor managed specifically for seed or planting stock material production.A typical tree breeding programme primarily consists of selection of phenotypically superiortrees, utilizing desirable genes, mass multiplication of improved planting materials, andmaintaining a population with broad genetic base for advanced generation breeding. Detailedknowledge of genetic principles, species biology, past history of selection, and the economicimportance of the trait to be improved is a prerequisite for implementation of such a dynamicprogramme. All tree improvement programmes should have dual objective of (1) obtainingimmediate genetic gain in terms of better quality, wide adaptability and higher productivity and (2)maintaining broad genetic base for continued improvement over many generations. Maximumgains are achieved by the judicious use of a very few best parents (elite trees) to supply plantingstock in operational forestry programme. Following sections describe basic principles of plus treeselection and their utilization.India has been at the forefront since organized research in agroforestry started worldwide.The All India Coordinated Research Project (AICRP) on Agroforestry with 20 centers all over- 139 -

(Seed Health Management for Better Productivity)country was launched in 1983 to implement the major recommendations of the aforesaid seminar.Further, National Research Centre for Agroforestry was established on 8 th May in 1988 at Jhansito accelerate the basic, strategic and applied research in agroforestry. At present there are 36centers under All India Coordinated Research Project on Agroforestry with project coordinatingunit at National Research Center for Agroforestry, Jhansi. These centers represent almost all theagroclimates of the country. In addition to ICAR, Indian council of forestry research and education(ICFRE) and its regional centres, private institutions and NGOs such as WIMCO, ITC, BAIF,IFFDC, West Coast Paper Mills Ltd, Hindustan Paper Mills Ltd, National Tree GrowersCooperatives are also engage in research and promotion of agroforestry in the country.Agroforestry research and education has been started in more than ten State AgriculturalUniversities (SAUs). More than 2000 scientists and technicians are engaged in agroforestry R&Dat present. The major thrust of agroforestry research in the beginning was mainly on the aspectof, Diagnostic survey and appraisal of existing agroforestry practices, Collection and evaluation ofpromising tree species/cultivars of fuel, fodder and small timber, and Studies on managementpractices of agroforestry systems.One of the major aspect of the research endevours under agroforestry was collection andevaluation of promising tree species/cultivars of fuel, fodder and small timber. A lot of germplasmhas been collected and evaluated in arboretum established by different Centres of the project.About 184 promising tree species have been determined based on growth performance trials atthese centers. The promising tree species identified include Ulmus wallichiana, Ailanthus excelsa,Morus alba, Robina pseudoacacia and Grewia optiva for Western Himalayan region: Acaciaauriculiformis, Alnus nepalensis, Bamboos, Parasanthes falcataria and Gmelina arborea foreastern Himalayan region; Poplar, Eucalyptus and Dalbergia sissoo for Indogangetic region:Dalbergia sissoo, Acacia tortilis, A. nilotica, Ailanthus excelsa, Prosopis cineraria and Leucaenaleucocephala and Azadiracta indica for arid and semi arid regions; Albizzia spp. Erythrina,Gliricidia, Acacia auriculiformis for humid and sub humid regions; and Casuarina equisetifolia,Toona ciliata, Grevillea robusta for the coastal and island region. The efforts made so far hascreated voluminous database, which is strength. The information collected may be utilized forcreating local and regional volume tables. However, the tree improvement work has notprogressed to the desired level except in case of two or three important species.The most important input in any nursery is the genetically improved seed which will makeby far the most important contributions to the growth rates and quality of the timber produced.Genetically improved seedlings or clonal planting stock supported with improved package ofpractices can usher in a new revolution for vast improvements in productivity and quality ofplantation timbers. For example, clonal planting stock of poplars and eucalypts, being promoted bysome of the wood based industries on a limited scale supported with good technical extensionservices, has improved productivity to an average of 25-30 m 3 /ha/year with very significantimprovements in the quality of timber (Lal et al., 2006). Very high productivity up to 50 m 3 /ha/year- 140 -

(Seed Health Management for Better Productivity)has also been achieved by many farmers both in case of poplars and clonal eucalyptusplantations.Seed should either be procured only from most dependable and trust-worthy sources orcollected under personal supervision of user agencies. However unfortunately, even the StateForest Departments and ICFRE institutions have not developed adequate sources for productionand supply of required quantities of genetically improved seed. Bulk of the seeds being used byForest Departments and private nurseries, even for most important timber species like teakcontinues to be collected from unimproved seed sources of poor genetic quality. That is the mainreason for extremely low productivity of plantations in India.The National Wasteland Development Board drawn an ambitious programme torehabilitate the 175 ha of Wasteland, requiring plantation of nearly 5 million ha land per annum.However, lack of infrastructure and insufficient availability of seeds has limited the achievementsto 2 million ha per annum. The most essential factor for the success of the plantations is readyavailability of seeds, which is estimated to be more than 10,000 tonnes per annum for raising 2million ha of plantations timber and other multipurpose species (Khullar et. al. 1991). The nonavailabilityof quality seed is a serious constraint in the way of realizing the above national target.The seed being used in the current plantations programme is of poor quality in many respects,such as low germination percentage, poor emergence in nursery beds and poor adaptability etc.Because of poor quality the quantity of seed being used is much more than really required, therebyincreasing the investment on seed procurement enormously. So, there is need for a soundnational programme on production, testing, storage and supply of forestry seeds to ensure thesustained supply of quality seeds and conservation of valuable germplasm. A brief account of thecollection, testing and storage of forestry seeds is presented with respect to the indigenous treespecies.REFERENCES1. Bisht, N.S. and Ahlawat S.P. 1999. Seed Technology, SFRI Information Bulletin no.-7. StateForest Research Institute. Itanagar, Arunachal Pradesh Pp, 1-23.2. Hartmann, H.T. and Keskar D.E. 1983. Plant Propagation : Principles and Practices. Prentice-Hallof India Pvt. Ltd. New Delhi.3. Martin, A.C. and Barkley W.D.1961. Seed Identification Mannual. Oxford and IBH Publishing Co.New Delhi.4. Maithani, G.P., Bahuguna V.K. and Thapliyal R.C.1989. Preliminary Silvicultural techniques forplanting of shrubs in the Siwaliks and Himalayas for rehabilitation of wastelands anddegraded sites. The Indian Forester, 115 (1) : 3-10.5. Schmidt, L. 1993. Seed Orchards. Guidelines on Establishment and Management Practices. FieldManual No. 4. RAS/91/004, UNDP/FAO, Philippines.6. Toda, R. 1974. Forest Tree Breeding in the World. Yamatoya Ltd., Tokyo, Japan.7. Zobel, B.J. and Talbert, J. 1984. Applied Forest Tree Improvement. Wiley & Sons, New York, USA- 141 -

(Seed Health Management for Better Productivity)Management of Plant Propagating Material for Quality Control in ForestCropsP.R. RajputDepartment of Agronomy, G.B.P.U.A.&T., Pantnagar-263145 (Uttarakhand)Civilization throughout the world is largely based upon man’s ability to propagate and growplants which can provide food, shelter, clothing aesthetic and other requirement. Plant propagationhas been a fundamental occupation since the time of Riguveda (1400 BC). Plant propagation aimsat the reproduction of selected individuals or group of individuals, in this basic principle of lifeimpose certain requirements which must be met with in practice for successful propagationnecessarily requires acknowledge of the science of structure, growth and function.Plant propagation requires a perfect knowledge of scientific back ground of life process,mechanical manipulation and technical skill to achieve desirable success. Plant reproduces bymeans of sexual and asexual methods which are detailed here.Propagation by SeedsPropagation by seed which an end product of sexual reproduction in flowering plants isvery common in nature as well as adopted by man for most of annuals, biennials and perennials.Some seeds germinate just after completion of their development while some seeds do notgerminate and pass through a period of rest i.e. dormancy. Dormant seeds need pregerminationtreatment such as scarification, acid or hot water treatment.Though propagation by seed is very common for field crops but it has certain limitationswith fruit trees, where number of seeds to be sown, production of fruits and their quality are ofparamount importance. Certified, nondormant vigorous and viable seeds are required to reproducea variety. Seedlings plants in number of cases are not true to the image of the parent. Seedlingsfrom cross fertilized seeds are generally heterozygous and produce plants which are not identicalto their parents on the contrary the homozygous seeds produce plants identical to their parents.The vigour and other quantitative and qualitative characters can be achieved if plants aresubjected asexual methods of reproduction.Forest tree species commonly propagated by seedAcacia nilotica,Adina cordifolia,Dalbergia sissoo,Erythrina blakei,Pinus roxburghii,Gmelina arborea,Prosopis juliflora,Toona ciliata, etc.- 142 -

(Seed Health Management for Better Productivity)Advantage of propagation by seedlings Seedlings are long lived, hardy and easier to propagate. Only method of propagation where large scale vegetative propagation is not possible as inthe case of mangosteen, phals papaya etc. The hybrids are first raised from seeds to develop a variety. Polyembryonic seedlings raise plants true to the type. These may be used to raiseuniformaly identical plants. Root-stock of plants propagated by seeds in usually hardy.Disadvantages of propagation by seeds Genetic variation occurs in seed from cross-pollinated plants Some plants take a long time to grow from seed to maturityVegetative PropagationVegetative or asexual reproduction is based on the ability of plants to regenerate its partsand tissues. Vegetative propagation is the formation of new independent plants from a part of theparent tissue. Vegetative propagation ensures the production of exact copies of trees selected forsuperior characters. Vegetative propagation can be achieved in several ways by involvingadventitious or dormant buds. The vegetative parts of plants are able to develop roots when theyare planted by different ways e.g. by coppice and root suckers, branch and stem cuttings, rhizomecuttings in bamboos, root section cuttings and stump cuttings. Various horticultural techniques viz.,layering, grafting, budding, tissue culture techniques, etc. are useful for propagation of somespecies.Advantages of Vegetative Propagation A single stock can provide large number of plants. Plants are genetically identical to parent plants and have similar growth and form When trees are not producing seeds or if the seeds are not viable vegetative propagation methodsare quite useful. Plants take less time to develop therefore; it is normally easier and cheaper. Ithelps to utilize maximum genetic gains in a shortest time. It helps to make investment in trees moreattractive by (a) increasing yield and quality and (b) shortening rotation.Disadvantages of Vegetative PropagationOnly few species can be raised by this method. Many species do not root even incontrolled conditions. Even if they root the rooting is poor and unsatisfactory. The thickness, age,etc. of cutting should be proper. Vegetative propagation is easier with young trees, but becomesmore difficult as trees age. The plant tissue culture techniques may be useful in propagating oldtrees. The physiological and environmental factors play an important role in the propagation ofwoody plants.Methods of Vegetative Propagation Macro-propagation and- 143 -

(Seed Health Management for Better Productivity) Micro-propagation or tissue cultureMethods of Macropropagation of Forest Trees Root suckers Coppice Cuttings Layering Grafting BuddingRoot SuckersThe shoots when arise from the roots are called root-suckers. The propagation by rootsuckersare obtained by felling the tree or injury to roots. In case of Dalbergia sissoo, D. latifolia,etc. the root suckers originate at the cut ends. The species such as Acacia planifrons, A.leucophloea, A. dealbata, and A. decurrens form root suckers freely whereas root suckers areoccasionally formed in Acacia nilotica and Acacia catechu when the roots are exposed.Stereospermum and Millingtonia are able to produce natural root suckers at far away distancesfrom parent trees and without severance or root wounding. The root suckers can be promoted bytrenching around trees and running trenches through tree areas. This stimulates sprouting at thecut ends. The shoots emerge out the buds developed on roots close to the ground surface. Thespecies preferred for obtaining root-suckers are : Populus spp., Diospyros melonoxylon, Dalbergiasissoo, D. latifolia, Capparis aphylla, Platanus spp., Millingtonia hortensis, Nyctanthes arbor-tristis,Phoenix humilis, Prunus padus, Robinia pseudoacacia, Salvadora oleoides, Azadirachta indica,Aegle marmelos, Boswellia serrata, Garuga pinnata, Butea monosperma, Melia azedarach, Xyliaxylocarpa, and Zizyphus nummularaia, etc.CoppiceNew shoots are sprouted from the pollarded plants or from damaged buds. Sal, Teak andShisham coppice well. Conifers do not coppice but chir pine coppices in very young stage.Coppice growth is quite vulnerable to high winds, rains and floods because the sprouts shear offeasily at the point of attachment to old tree growth. Coppice shoots have fast growth because offood supply left in the stump and root system. Seedling coppice can be carried out every year forsome species for the desired purpose if original shoot is injured. Sal and Eucalyptus are the bestexamples of seedlings coppice. There are nearly more than hundred species which coppice buttheir coppicing power differs and for some species coppicing power depends on the size of treeand availability of light. In teak plantation coppice shoots are tall and vigorous and can be easilydistinguished from planted trees. Only one dominating shoot should be retained from the coppice.The coppice stumps cut from saw are always dressed along the periphery by an axe well beforerainy season.Cuttings- 144 -

(Seed Health Management for Better Productivity)It is the cheapest and best method of multiplying the stock. Many plants are propagated bystem and root cuttings. Generally poplars and willows show good response. Any portion viz., stem,root or branch can be taken as cutting. The cuttings can be of soft wood, hard wood or semi-hardwood depending upon species and lignin content.i.) Rhizome CuttingsA piece of bamboo rhizome including a growing plant is capable of growing andreproducing when planted out. A large number of bamboo species are propagated by Rhizomeplanting. Some of them are Bambusa arundinacea, Bambusa vulgaris, Dedrocalamus strictus etc.ii) Stem and Branch CuttingsThe cuttings can be of three types :o Softwood,o Semi-hardwood oro Hardwood.They are further divided into stem and branch cuttings. The softwood cuttings includeherbaceous cuttings i.e., a portion of soft succulent seed plants which do not typically developwood tissues, and green wood cuttings i.e., cuttings taken prior to lignification. The differencesbetween hardwood and greenwood cuttings are determined by the degree of lignification of stems.The cuttings of 1-2 year old growth are taken out in dormant season when the tissues are fullymatured. The cuttings of size 20-25 cm long 1 to 2 cm diameter are prepared by a sharpinstrument. The lower cut is given in a slanting manner. The cuttings are taken out from the aerialparts of the parent plant. The lower leaves are removed from the cuttings whereas upper leavesare retained. The bases of the twigs are embedded in the well prepared nursery beds or polybagscontaining moist rooting medium for rooting to occur. Softwood cuttings root faster and more easilythan hardwood cuttings. In conifers, cuttings collected from the healthy lower branches root better.Sufficient moisture in the soil and humidity in the atmosphere is necessary. Fungus, bacteria andnematode attack should be checked. While planting the cuttings are buried about two-third insidethe soil in a slanting position. The end of the cutting in the soil should not be loose to allow air tocome in otherwise rooting may not occur at all. The soil should be good sandy loam with goodfertility. To prevent evaporation of moisture, watering with fine rose is done till new leaves comeout. Watering should be sufficient. In nurseries, cuttings can be raised in beds, trays, polybags orany other containers. For favourable root development soil temperature between 65 0 F to 70 0 F isdesirable. Some popular species preferred for cutting are : Poplars, Alnus, Willow, Mullberry,Bougainvillea, Bamboos Grewia, Duranta, Bursera, Platanus, Lagerstroemia, Plumeria rubra,Boswellia serrata, Tamarix aphylla and Ficus. Sometimes Bamboos like Bambusa vulgaris etc. areraised by cuttings.iii) Root section cuttingsThe propagation by root cuttings is generally limited to plants, roots of which are capable ofproducing shoots. Buds are either formed from the latent buds laid down during the initial period of- 145 -

(Seed Health Management for Better Productivity)growth or from adventitious buds formed after roots are taken out. The length of root sections mayvary from 5 cm to 30 cm and diameter from 0.5 cm to 2 cm. Root sections are cut during dormantseason of plant growth. These are called “thongs” and put in the soil horizontally. Tree species likeBombax ceiba, Artocarpus indica, Ailanthus excelsa, Robinia pseudacacia, Cinnamomumcamphora, Ougenia oojeinsis, Capparis aphylla, etc. can be raised by this method.iv) Root and shoot or stump cuttingsFor the species such as Tectona grandis, Bombax ceiba, Gmelina arborea or Dalbergiasissoo, stumps are prepared from nearly one year old seedlings raised in the nursery beds. Theplants are taken out or uprooted with naked roots. The main axis of plant is cut to include a portionof stem and taproot having nearly 30 cm length. The cut is given just 2 or 3 cm above the collarwith a sharp knife, axe or pruning scissor. The length of a normal stump for teak is nearly 8 to 10inches. The taproot is cut at 15-25 cm from collar. The thickness may vary from 1 to 2 cm. ForDalbergia sissoo the normal stump size can be about 6 inches. Planting by this method isconvenient and economical. In dry areas longer root-shoots are required. Undersized stumps canbe planted in polythene bags for beating up of causalities.LayeringLayering is a common practice to form roots on branches when they are attached to thetree. After rooting, stem is detached and planted. Layering can be of two types : Air layering Soil layeringAir LayeringThe air layering is employed for plants that do not graft or do not root from cuttings. Airlayered branch is a part of parent tree even after layering and have in general better balanced rootsystem than cuttings. In this method a strip of bark or cambium is removed around the branchbefore or during the summer and then this wound is covered with moss or other moisture holdingmaterial and tightly fastened around with polythene piece so that moisture is retained. Rootinducing harmones can also be applied. It takes nearly 3 to 4 months in rooting. After rootingbranch is severed and can be used for planting in pot or whereas desired. Dalbergia sissoo, Morusalba, and Ficus carica can be propagated by air layering.Soil LayeringOne end of the branch or shoot is bent and buried flat into the soil. When adventitious rootsare developed at the base these are severed or removed to form new plants. For some species aring of bark 1 cm wide is removed at a place where rooting is desired. Morus alba and Ficus canbe propagated by method.GraftingGrafting is the joining together of plant parts by means of tissue regeneration. The part thatprovides the root is called the stock and the added piece is called the scion. The scion is detachedfrom the parent plant and the shoot of the other plant is severed to get a new plant. The success of- 146 -

(Seed Health Management for Better Productivity)the graft depends on the matching of the cambia of scion and stock. The scion and stock can beunited in many ways and this decides the type of grafting. When the scion consists of a single budthe process is called budding. In grafting the stock and scion is placed in intimate association sothat the resulting callus tissue forms a living continuous connection. Tape, rubber, etc. can beused to achieve close contact. The grafting is successful when the stock and scion are of thesame species. Grafting is impossible or very hard to promote rooting in different species. Normallydormant scion and actively growing stock are collected. The best period of grafting begins whenthe buds of the stock plants start to swell and continues throughout late-spring. Soft-wood graftingis done from late spring to early summer. Grafting in winter is not done as low temperature will notallow the survival of grafts. If the scions are to be transported to long distance the cut ends aredipped in melted wax to check drying. The various type of grafting are : cleft grafting, veneergrafting, side grafting, whip and tongue grafting, splice grafting, bark grafting, etc. In cleft graftingthe shoot tip of stock plant is removed and a vertical cut is made through the centre of pith. Thescions 30 to 45 cm long are prepared by making tapering cuts in the form of wedge-shapedsegment. Now the scion is inserted into the split and the union is fastened by rubber or tape. Thestock is selected from 2 to 3 year old nursery plants having girth of 1 to 2 cm at 20 to 25 cm heightfrom the ground. April and May are the best period for cleft grafting. In veneer grafting the base ofthe scion is cut diagonally and a wedge shaped patch of bark of almost same size is removed fromthe side of stock. Now the scion and stock after matching are tied together. After the graft whenunion gets healed the upper portion of the under stock is removed.BuddingIn budding, a bud with some portion of the bark of a genetically superior plant is grafted onan inferior plant to produce shoot when the old shoot of the stock is cut off. The bud is grafted inthe form of a patch after removing the bark of the stock or by making a T-shaped incision in thestock. The scion is tied on the stock but the uncovered. April and may are the best period for thebudding. The budding has been demonstrated for raising teak seed orchards. The teak seedorchards raised through bud grafting can be used for getting quality seeds of teak.Vegetative Propagating StructuresThe various types of propagating structures are :1. Shed-roof2. Shade house3. Propagating frames or misting units4. Green house5. Mist chamber6. Growth area chamber or hardening chamberAll these structures aim to optimize following five environmental factors that are necessaryfor growth and development of plants : (i) light (ii) water (iii) temperature (iv) gases and (v) mineralnutrients.- 147 -

(Seed Health Management for Better Productivity)Plant Tissue Culture or MicropropagationIn macropropagation such as through cutting, budding, grafting, air layering etc., large pieces oftissues are involved, but in the plant tissue culture technique or micropropagation, very small plant parts,tissues or cells are used. Plant has the potency to regenerate whole plant from single cell; therefore itcan be multiplied by tissue culture technique. For this any part of the plant like root, apicalshoot/meristem, axillary shoot, leaf, anther, microspore, ovary, ovule or embryo can be used explant fromthe parent plant. Micropropagation produces many propagules from each original explant. Whereasvegetative propagation methods do not produce significant results as compared to the tissue culturetechnique. In this tissue culture technique small space is needed for rapid production of large amount ofmaterial throughout the year without depending on season. Special laboratory having low temperature(25 2 0 c), light 2-4 K lux, and relative humidity, 60% is developed to prepare tissue culture plants. In vitrocultures can be developed by adventitious means or directly from dormant buds of leaf axil, which maybe axillary or terminal. One shoot bud can yield 3 to 10 plantlets within 3 to 4 months depending uponplant species and physiological status of the explant. The methods include induction of adventitious budson cultured explant like cotyledon and entire embryos, induction or stimulation of adventitious or axillarybuds on cultured shoot tips and regeneration of adventitious shoots and complete plants fromunorganised callus and cell cultures. Both macro and micro methods share similarity in respect ofphysiological principles of auxins which induce root formation. The species that are easy to root throughcuttings etc. are also easy to multiply in culture.MediumThe basal medium generally used for tissue culture is Murashige and Skoog (MS) mediumwhich consists of all the essential macro and micro-elements, vitamins, amino acids, carbohydrateetc. for the plant growth and development. Agar-agar (0.6-1.0%), is used as gelling agent in themedium. Basal medium is supplemented with auxins (IAA, IBA, NAA, 2, 4-D, 2, 4, 5-T) andcytokinins (kinetin, BAP, 2-IP, Zeathin) either alone or in combination in different concentration &depending upon the objectives. Generally high auxin (1.0-5.0 mg/l) and low cytokinin (0.1-0.5 mg/l)are used for callus induction and reverse of it is used for shoot induction. Auxin alone (0.1-5.0mg/l) with low salts medium (half or one fourth strength of MS) is preferred for root induction fromthe micro-shoots in culture.Medium used for Shoot Induction and multiplication(a) Shoot induction and multiplication medium ; MS + IAA (0.1-0.5 mg/l) + BAP/Kn (1 to 10 mg/l)(b) Callus induction medium ; MS +NAA/IAA/2, 4-D (1-5 mg/l) + Kn (0.1-1.0 mg/l)(c) Callus differentiation medium ; MS +IAA/NAA (0.1-0.5 mg/l) + kn/BAP (1.0-5.0 mg/l)(d) Root induction medium ;MS/2 + IAA/NAA/IBA (0.1-10.0 mg/l)Kn-Kinetine; BAP- benzylaminopurine.Cultures- 148 -

(Seed Health Management for Better Productivity)The different types of cultures are :(i) Embryo or Cotyledon CulturesEmbryonic or very young (less than 2-3 months old) seedling tissues can be used both forhardwood as well as for conifer trees. The shoot buds are induced with one or more cytokinins.The cytokines are removed then to elongate buds into shoots. Shoots are now treated with anauxin to induce root initiation after which removal of auxin permits roots elongation.(ii) Shoot Tip CultureShoot apex or shoot tip culture includes culture of the shoot apical meristem from terminalor lateral buds which generally include many leaf primordia. The adventitious shoot buds or shootsbuds in the axils of branch are stimulated with cytokinins. These buds when elongated areseparated and rooted with auxins. The hardwood trees which are 100 years old have beeninduced to micropropagation.(iii) Callus and Cell CulturesCallus tissues are formed when the plant is injured. Callus tissues grow in an unorganizedmanner. These callus cells may be grown (a) on a solid nutrient medium or (b) as a cell culture i.e.suspension medium of cells in liquid medium. The treatment with cytokinins induces callus cells toelongate into a shoot which are then treated with an auxin to form roots. High frequency plantregeneration can be obtained from the callus either by direct differentiation in shoots or throughsomatic embryogenesis. The plantlets formation through tissue culture have been achieved inDalbergia sissoo, Santalum album, Eucalyptus hybrid, Tectona grandis, etc. but the transfer of invitro raised plants is hardly any successful. The trees plantlets are not easy to take to the field. Forthe forest tree improvement and propagation, Indian Council of Forestry Research and Education(ICFRE) institutes at Coimbatore, Jabalpur and Jodhpur are actively engaged on micropropagationthrough tissue culture. They have taken up important species like Tecomella undulate, Anogeissupendula, Azadirachta indica and Dendrocalamus strictus to multiply through tissue culture.Micropropagation technique has already been developed for the Anogeissus pendula and A.sericea. In the recent years, pilot plants, have been established in Tata Energy Research Institute,Delhi and National Chemical Laboratory, Puna, for the large scale micro-propagation of importanttree species.- 149 -

(Seed Health Management for Better Productivity)Management of Seed Borne Bacterial Diseases in Seed ProductionPlotsY. SinghDepartment of Plant Pathology, G.B.P.U.A.&T., Pantnagar-263145 (Uttarakhand)Use of clean seed and clean transplants is recommended as the starting point formanaging plant diseases. Starting crop production wilt clean seed and or transplants seemssimple, logical and obvious, yet it is very difficult to achieve. Seed borne bacterial diseasescontinue to be problematic and cause significant economic losses worldwide. Infested seeds areresponsible for the reemergence of the diseases of the past, movement of pathogens acrossinternational borders, or the introduction of diseases into new areas. In today’s era of globalizationand free trade, seed accounts more than ever for the movement of plant pathogens across vastdistances, natural barriers, and political borders. Seed borne bacterial pathogens are of particularconcern, because, unlike seed born fungi, strategies for the management of bacterial diseases areinadequate. Therefore, in this write up, attempt has been made to address various strategies forthe management of seed borne bacterial diseases.(I) Quarantine: The first step in disease control is to prevent movement of the pathogenicbacterium from infested to non infested areas by restricting the transfer of seeds, vegetativepropagules, plants and plant products etc. Both international and domestic transfer may bepotentially controlled by plant quarantine regulations. Many plant pathogens introduced fromabroad have caused serious epidemics in new areas where they were previously unknown. InIndia 550 plant pathogens have been notified in the Plant Quarantine (Regulation of Import intoIndia) Order, 2003. Out of this, 65 are plant pathogenic bacteria. The hazardous means ofintroduction of phytopathogenic bacteria are on the infested or infected seeds, and budwoods andyoung plants. It is imperative to detect, isolate and identify these bacteria by following specificdetection techniques to avoid inadvertent introduction of the exotic quarantine bacteria.(II). Disease management by cultural /farming practicesA. Production and use of pathogen free planting materialMany bacterial plant pathogens are transmitted by establishing themselves on or in theseed or other vegetative propagating material or as contaminants . For successful disease controlthis source of inoculums must be destroyed.i. Seed production areas:- Seed should be produced in areas where the pathogens of majorconcern are unable to establish or maintain themselves at critical level during periods of seeddevelopment. Areas with low rainfall and low relative humidity are favourable for production of highquality seeds e.g., bacterial blight of legumes. Certain guidelines have been suggested forwatermelon seed production free from bacterial fruit blotch of cucurbitsAcidovorax avenae sup sp. citrulli . These(BFB) caused byguidelines include producing seed in dry and cool- 150 -

(Seed Health Management for Better Productivity)climate and in countries or areas of Countries, known to be free of the pathogen (Gitaitis andwalcott, 2007).ii. Inspection of seed production plots:- Periodical inspection of crops raised for seedproduction is an important procedure in the production of clean and healthy seeds. Destruction ofdiseased plants/ organs at the time of inspection helps in reducing inoculum in the field and thus,the percentage of healthy seeds in the produce is increased. If the disease incidence is very high,the entire crop may be rejected for seed. However, Walcott et al., (2003) demonstrated thatsymptomless watermelon fruits derived from symptomless plants could still harbour infested seed.A. avenae sub sp. citrulli was detected in seed from 44% of the watermelon fruits that developedfrom inoculated blossoms, despite the absence of fruit symptoms.B. EradicationEradication methods are applied directly against the pathogen, to the host plants oralternate hosts. Practical eradication procedures include fumigation of storage houses andmachinery, heat treatment, solarization , or flooding of soil, and burning or removal of plantresidues.C. Field hygieneRemoval of diseased plant or plant parts from field is important to reduce the density ofinoculum. Defoliated leaves of pruned twigs of fruit trees and straw of cereals are preferably burnt.Infected woody stems such as tomato, eggplant and tobacco should be ploughed into soil becausethey may remain partly undecomposed in the soil. Disinfection of tools and equipment is importantto control the spread of bacterial pathogens through pruning or harvesting practices.D. Control of weeds and insectsAnother aspect of field sanitation is keeping the field free from weeds and insects. Weedsreduce the amount of nutrients available for the plants and by lowering their vitality increase theirdisease proneness’. Excess of weeds in the field also helps in increased humidity. In additionmany weeds harbour the pathogens which subsequently on release attack the crops in the field.Bacterial leaf blight of rice Pathogen survives on weed (Leersia spp.) which grows along canalsand ditches. The bacterium is dispersed through irrigation water and infects rice seedlings inlowland nurseries or those transplanted in paddy. Cruciferous weeds play role in diseasedevelopment of black rot of crucifers. Therefore, as sanitary precaution destruction of these weedsis necessary. Diseases like black rot of crucifers are facilitated by injuries caused by insects suchas stripped cabbage flea beetle, cabbage worm and cabbage armyworm.E. Disinfection of Seed and planting materials:-In perennial crops such as fruit trees, new diseases are often introduced by infectednursery stokes. Crown gall, citrus canker, and fire blight pathogens have been spread in thismanner. Because bacterial wilt of carnation is mostly spread by cuttings , hygienic treatment isrequired throughout the entire process of propagation. In seed borne diseases, the frequency ofprimary infection through infected seeds is generally low. However, pathogens can readily- 151 -

(Seed Health Management for Better Productivity)disseminate from the primary infection centers by wind driven rain droplets, aerosols or farmingpractices. The disinfection of infested or infected seeds by heating or chemicals is, therefore animportant and effective measure to eliminate the primary inoculum and to prevent diseaseestablishment in fields.Hot water treatment of 45 0 C for 20 minutes effectively eliminated Erwinia spp. on bulb ofgarlic and increased the yield by 26.68 %. Application of Agreft 20WP (0.2%) applied as drenchingand spraying could suppress Erwinia spp. infection by 38% (Hanudin and Handayati, 1992). Hotwater and bactericide treatment of seeds has been found effective in reducing disease incidenceof watermelon fruit blotch (Nomura & Shirakawa, 2001). Hot water treatment of seeds at 50 0 C for15-20 minute has been found effective for the management of black rot of crucifers. Infection ofbacterial canker of tomato is also eradicated by treating with hot water at 55 0 C for 25 minutes.F Disease escapePlants can escape from bacterial infection by a change in their cultivation period. Severedamage of BLB in rice could be avoided by planting early maturing cultivars and setting thecultivation period early enough to harvest before the typhoon season starts.G RotationBecause the same pathogen may survive in the field and cause infection in addition toinfection through infested and infected seed, disease development may be controlled by practicingat least 3-4 years crop rotation. However, rotation may not be effective when the pathogen havewide host ranges or are well adapted for long term survival in the field.H. IrrigationIn potato common scab caused by Streptomyces scabies, irrigation for several weeks aftertuber initiation is effective in reducing scab. Practical control of the disease at the RothamstadExperiment station is accomplished by irrigation that maintains a soil moisture deficit of 0.6 for 3-4weeks in the tuber initiation period.I. Nutrition and Plant DensityAdequate plant density and fertilization are obviously important for growing healthy plants.High nitrogen levels and dense spacing may increase disease susceptibility of host plants andresident populations of the pathogen because proliferated dense foliage reduces air movementand drying of leaf and stem surfaces.J. GraftingMuskmelon and watermelon are usually grafted on pumpkin root stocks to prevent infectionof Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. melonis and F. oxysporum f. sp. niveum. Severe infection due to P.syringae pv. lachrymans and X. campestris pv. cucurbitae may occur on these plants throughpumpkin stocks that are raised from infected seeds. To control bacterial wilt, tomato and eggplantmay be grafted on root stocks of LS-89, Solanum torvum, S. intergrifolium or S. mammosum thatare highly resistant to R. solanacearum.- 152 -

(Seed Health Management for Better Productivity)(III). Disease resistant varieties: - Use of disease resistant cultivars is economically andtechnically the most practical method of disease control. A number of breeding programmes havebeen highly successful, and commercially acceptable cultivars are available against manybacterial diseases.(IV). Biological control:- Biological control has attracted great interest is plant pathologybecause the unnecessarily frequent use of pesticides is increasingly causing concern in terms ofhuman toxicity and hazardous effects on natural environment. A practical method of commercialbiological control is found in crown gall and has been developed in Australia with the strain K-84 ofA. radiobacter. This is undoubtedly one of the most innovative and important advances inbiological control of bacterial plant diseases. The effectiveness of the method has been confirmedin many laboratories in the world with various host plants such as Prunus, Rubus, Salix, Vitis ,Chrysanthemum, Rosa, Pyrus, etc. Because damage due to crown gall is particularly severe onyoung trees, control with the strain K-84 is effective in preplanting dip of Seeds, cuttings, or graftednursery plants. Fungal biocontrol agent Trichoderma sp. (strain SKT-1) at 2 × 10 5 -1× 10 6 conidia/ml gave high control of bacterial seedling blight, bacterial grain rot and bacterial brown stripe ofrice (Kumakura et al., 2003) Biological seed treatment with antagonistic Pseudomonas fluorescenshas been shown to drastically reduce the bacterial wilt incidence in chilli caused by Burkholderiasolanacearum (Umesha et al., 2005)(V). Chemical Control:- Chemical compounds used for controlling bacterial diseases includestreptomycin, kasugamycin, oxytetracycline, novobiocin copper compounds, polycarbamate,tecloftalam and pyroquilon as foliar sprays, sodium hypochlorite and oxolinic acid as seeddisinfectants and metam- ammonium and thiram as soil disinfectants. Sodium hypochlorite is usedfor sterilizing the surface of such fruits as oranges and apples. It is also widely used for disinfectingseeds, tubers and agricultural equipments.REFERENCES1. Gitaitis, R and Walcott, R. 2007. The epidemiology and Management of Seed borne BacterialDiseases. Annu. Rev. Pytopathol.45; 371-97.2. Walcott, RR, Gitaitis, RD and Castro, AC. 2003. Role of blossom in watermelon seed infestationby Acidovorax avenae sub sp. citrulli Phytopathology 93: 548-34.3. Nomura,T and Shirakawa, T. 2001.Efficacy of hot water and bactericide treatment of watermelonseeds infested by Acidovorax avenae sub sp. citrulli, Proc. Kansai Pl. Protec. Soc.43:1-6.4. Kamakura, K, watnabe, S., Makino, T, Iyozumi, H, Chikawa, T and Nagayama, K. 2003. Effect ofTrichoderma sp. SKT-1 on suppression of six different seed borne diseases of rice.Japanese J. of Phytopathology.69 (4) : 393-402.5. Umesha S, Kavitha , R and shetty, H.S. 2005. Transmission of seed borne infection of Chilli byBurkholderia solancearum and effect of biological seed treatment on diseaseincidence. Archives of Phytopathology and Plant Protection. 38 (4): 281-293.- 153 -

(Seed Health Management for Better Productivity)Seed Borne Diseases of Rice and their ManagementA.P. Sinha & Lalan SharmaDepartment of Plant Pathology, G.B.P.U.A.&T., Pantnagar-263145 (Uttarakhand)Rice (Oryza sativa L) is the major staple food for nearly one half of the world’s population.There is a pressing need to double or even treble our rice production to keep pace with theincreasing population. In the quest for increasing rice production, man has resorted to intensivemethods of rice cultivation involving high-yielding susceptible cultivars, higher plant population perunit area, high doses of nitrogenous fertilizers and staggered sowing and planting which intensifiedthe severity of several diseases.Rice suffers from a number of diseases caused by fungi, bacteria, viruses and nematodes.Many of these pathogens survive on and /or in the seeds from one season to other season indifferent forms and initiate primary infection on the next crop of rice. Rice diseases, many of thembeing highly destructive in nature causing often total loss of crop yield, pose serious obstacles offsetting the efforts to increase production levels. Brown spot and bacterial leaf blight are probablyworldwide in distribution. Other important rice diseases are blast, sheath blight, false smut,bacterial leaf streak, and grain discoloration. Higher incidence of rice diseases has been reportedfrom those rice growing areas where heavy doses of nitrogenous fertilizers are applied to highyielding cultivars. Some of the rice diseases are known to cause severe yield losses, dependingon the degree of severity of the disease, crop stage and environment conditions. In the presentdisease management strategies, an integrated approach based upon host tolerance, judicious useof fertilizers, adoption of appropriate cultural practices , judicious use of fungicides and use ofbiological antagonists is suggested to minimize losses caused by these diseases. In this article anattempt has been made to furnish relevant information on the important diseases of rice and theirmanagement.The seed borne diseases of rice may be broadly classified into two groupsi. Pathogens invading both hulls and kernels, andii.Fungi invading only hulls and producing spore masses on infected spikelets andreducing the quality of the seed.In addition to these, kernel bunt caused by Tilletia barclayana, false smut caused byUstilaginoidea virens becomes important at places. The inoculum of these goes along with theseed as contaminant. In the second group number of week parasites and saprophytes e.g.Curvularia spp. Alternaria spp. Epicoccum spp., Bipolaris spp. Fusarium spp. etc. attack theglumes and cause various types of glumes and kernel discoloration, thereby reduce the qualityand germination of the seeds.1. BlastIt is caused by Magnaporthe grisea which infects the plant from seedling to grain formationstage; but the most diagnostic symptoms are produced on leaves as water –soaked, bluish,spindle shaped lesions which turn grey in the centre, and is surrounded by a dark- brown band.The most destructive symptom appears at the flowering stage causing ‘neek rot’ in which the grainfilling is partially or completely checked depending on the stage of infection. The disease spreadsmainly through infected seeds and host debris. In temperate and subtropical regions, the pathogenover-winters as mycelium and conidia on diseased straw and seeds. In plains, over wintering; ofthe pathogen on seeds has been reported, but their role in the perpetuation of the pathogen is stillnot certain. The seeds from diseased panicles show the pathogen in the lemma, palea, empty- 154 -

(Seed Health Management for Better Productivity)glumes, hilum and placenta. It is also observed on pericarp and in the endosperm. At the time ofseed germination the fungus grows from hilum through pericarp to the extruded tip of the scutellumor epiblast to the coleoptile and then to the first leaf.Several epiphytotics of the disease have been recorded in different parts of the world,resulting in serious losses in yield. In korea, it is the only rice disease that has ever caused aserious problem. The loss in yield during 1953, an epidemic year, was estimated at about 800,000tons in Japan. Yield losses were estimated at over 90% in Bicol during 1962 and at 50-60% inLeyet during 1963, in the province of Philippines. In India, epiphytotics have been reported in theTanjore area of Madras state in 1919. In the hills blast may cause more than a 65% loss in yield.Control Treat the seed with Thiram + carbendazim (1:1) @ 3.0 g/ kg or Beam @ 4 g/ kg. Early plantings have less disease than late plantings. Seedlings raised in upland nurseries are more susceptible to blast even after transplanting. Close spacing also often increase the severity of the disease. Controlled irrigation waterreduces damage from blast. Foliar sprays with carbendazim or Hinosan @ 0.1% in nursery, at maximum tillering stage andat 50% flowering stages to check neck blast. Single spray of Beam @ 600g/ha checks thedisease development at all stages of plant growth.2. Brown spotIt is caused by Dreschslera oryzae. The fungus infects at all the growth stages of the crop.On leaves oval, light to dark brown lesions are produced which join each other and kill the leafprematurely it causes discolouration of grain at flowering stage and shriveling of kernel. Thedisease is mainly seed-borne and causes seedling blight in cooler region.Symptoms appear as lesion (spots) on the coleoptile, leaf blade, leaf sheath, and glumes,being most prominent on the leaf and glumes. The lesions are brown at first, and later becometypically ellipsoidal, oval to circular measuring about 0.5-22mm x 2-5mm. At maturity, they have alight brown or grey center with a dark or reddish brown margin. Larger lesions are typical of moresusceptible cultivars. On the coleotile, the spots are brown and small, whereas on the glumes theyare dark brown to black in colour with olivaceous velvety growth. In severe infection, the wholegrain surface becomes blackened and the seeds are shriveled and discolored.Seedlings are often heavily attacked with numerous lesions about 2.5 mm in diameter andin such cases, leaves may dry out and ultimately die. Badly affected nurseries can often berecognized from a distance by their brownish, scorched appearance, although seedlings areusually not killed by the disease. Brown spot infection has been found to cause grain yield lossesup to 29 per cent and seed rot up to 37.3 per cent. The disease is primarily seed borne butprimary infection is likely to be severe only when the soil temperature at the sowing time is below26 0 C. Black spots appear on glumes. Poor germination of infected seeds has been reported. Dueto general weakening of plants, shriveled and poor settings of seeds are common. Disease- 155 -

(Seed Health Management for Better Productivity)involves attack on grains themselves. Glumes are covered with dense black mass of spores.Such grains are undesirable for use as seed and reduce market value of the produce. Fungus inhusked rice grain is viable for three years. However, in rice panicles viability of the fungus hasbeen reported up to 5 years. Survivability period of the fungus in the seed varies under differentconditions. Padmanabhan (1974) demonstrated that the pathogen was viable from one year to thenext growing season only on the seed. The diseased seeds need not always necessarily give riseto infected seedlings. Sometimes the coleoptile and roots are affected but due to the rapid growthof leaves, lesions may not be formed on the subsequent leaves. Leaf spots generally arise fromsecondary infection by air borne conidia. The plants are most susceptible when they are in boot orin flowering stages of growth.Keeping in view the nature of brown spot disease, its frequent and widespread occurrence,it is necessary to manage the disease with an integrated approach.Control Seed treatment with Thiram @ 2.5g/ kg. reduce seed borne inoculum, increasegermination, seedling vigour Field sanitation, crop rotation, adjustment of planting dates, proper fertilization and goodwater management should be followed. Severity of disease increases in potash deficient soils. Therefore potassic fertilizers shouldbe added to correct potash deficiency in soil. Spraying of mancozeb @ 0.25% at an interval of 10-12 days as the initial symptoms ofthe disease appears.3. Stack burnThe disease, caused by Trichoconis pawickii Ganguly, was first recorded in 1947. Althoughconsidered a minor disease, it is very commonly detected in the seed indicating wide occurrenceof grain infection due to the disease. Maximum spore load in the air around rice fields wasobtained at heading stage of the crop when infection of glumes may take place.The mycelium of the fungus was observed in embryos of infected seeds clearly showingthat the disease is internally seed-borne. A technique was also reported for the separation of thewhole embryo of rice grains for the detection of fungal mycelium. The pathogen may cause loss ofseedlings due to the production of toxin by the fungus. Prominent disease symptoms develop onthe coleoptile at 28 0 C while least favorable temperatures are 22 0 C with no disease development at15 0 C. In a study seed infection increased proportionately as the doses of nitrogen applicationincreased from 0 to 200kg/ha.Control: Seed treatment with mancozeb (0.3%) or hot water treatment is known to control seedborneinfection. Foliar sprays with fungicides like Hinosan, Kitazin and Benlate gave better control of bothsheath and grain infections.- 156 -

(Seed Health Management for Better Productivity)4. Sheath rot:It is caused by Sarocladium oryzae. Sheath rot was observed during 1972 and 1973 inseveral states and its first occurrence in India was reported independently from Karnataka, AndhraPradesh, West Bengal and Tamil Nadu. Since then it has been reported from several other statesfrom Kerla, Orissa, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Punjab and Rajasthan. The pathogens attack the uppermost leaf sheath enclosing the young panicles. It causes total sterility, chaffiness and nonemergenceof panicles resulting in loss in grain yield. On 0 to 9 scale, disease scores up to 3 didnot cause yield reduction but scores from 4 to 9 caused 3 to 80 % yield loss. Discoloration of riceseeds due to sheath rot pathogen has been observed. Qualities of rice grains are also affected.Seeds germination / protien content of grains are also reduced. (Vidyasekaran, 1989). Thepathogen survives for 4 months in seed and 10 months in leaf sheath in the field.Control Seed treatment with Benomyl or carbendazim reduce seedling mortality and improve seedgermination. Foliar sprays with carbendazim or propiconazole @ 0.1% is the effective treatment againstsheath rot.5. Bunt of RiceThe disease occurs in most of the rice growing areas of the world (Agarwal et al., 1989). Ithas been reported in India from Andhra Pradesh, Andeman and Nicobar, Orissa, Punjab,Rajasthan and Tamil Nadu. The disease has potential to cause extensive yield loss to the crop. Itcaused about 15 million dollars loss in the Texas region in the USA (whitney and Fredrikesen,1971) and up to 87% panicle infection has been reported from Pakistan (Hassan, 1971). In India,10-15% infection has occurred in Assam, 0.75-18.5% in Tamil Nadu, up to 27% in Orissa, 0.1-22.5% in Karnataka, 0.2-1.6% in Andaman and Nicobar islands and 30% in Rajasthan(Chowdhary, 1951: Widespread occurrence and up to 80% incidence (infected panicles) of thedisease have been observed in 1997 in the Punjab State.The disease is found in the field at the time of maturity of the rice crop. Only a few grainsin a panicle are infected. Normally only a part of the grain is affected but many a times the entiregrain may be replaced by black powdery mass of bunt spores. The infected seeds often showgreenish black discoloration, which can be detected during visual observation of the seed lot.Minute black pustules or dots can be seen on the glumes. In severe infections rupturing glumesshow beak- like out growths. When the smut balls burst open, the black powdery mass of the buntspores scatter on to the other seeds or leaves. Some times, the infected grains may be detectedby their dull color before the glumes burst open. Most often, in the field, the infected grains exhibitno external symptoms.The seed-borne bunt inoculum poses a serious threat for widespread distribution ofdisease in rice growing regions. The partially or completely infected grains may not be easilydetected visually in seed lots. This may escape the notice of workers. Association of bunted seeds- 157 -

(Seed Health Management for Better Productivity)with healthy lost may aggravate the inoculums potential. Moreover, the spores which infest soil arealso potential source for initiating infection either in the same location where rice is grown in thepreceding season or even to newer areas with the soil movement through irrigation.The central Seed Certification Board has prescribed a maximum of 0.1% and 0.5% percent infected seed in the foundation and certified seed lots, respectively.ControlThe losses and damage caused by Tilletia barclayana are not heavy in most parts of thecountry and therefore detailed investigation on suitable control measures has not been conducted.Keeping in view the nature and etiology of the disease, following preventive /eradicative methodsfor its control have been recommended. Sowing of only healthy and uncontaminated seeds. Chemical seed treatment with systemic fungicide, namely, Vitavax. Spraying of Tilt @ 1 ml/l to the crop at flowering stages to restrict seed infection. Sanitary practices to avoid soil infestation with bunt spores Testing of seed health in laboratory before a seed lot is recommended for sowing. Clean storage of seed after harvest. Grains from infected panicles should not be usedas seed.6. Sheath BlightSheath blight of rice caused by Rhizoctonia solani was known from the beginning of thiscentury in some eastern and south-eastern Asian countries. In India sheath blight was firstreported from Punjab in 1963 and is now prevalent in almost all the rice growing tracts causingconcern to the rice farmers. There are various estimates for yield losses from negligible to 50%when infection reaches to the upper moist flag leaf. Yield losses from 10 to 36% depending on thegrowth stage of the plants have been recorded in Assam. Although there are records about seedborne infection, the reports about extent of damage are conflicting. Seeds may be infected if thefungus could reach the rachis through external infection but not internally. The rice seeds maycarry sheath blight inoculum and produce 4-6.6% infection in India. It is likely that the seeds on thelodged panicles catch inoculum from soil. But on transplanting the infected seedlings are unable todevelop disease earlier.The symptoms of the disease appears on leaf and leaf sheath at or above water level asgreenish-grey lesions, 2-3 cm long turning to straw colour and surrounded by bluish –grey narrowbands. Lesions on the upper portions of the plants extend rapidly coalescing with each other tocover the entire tillers from the water line to flag leaf. Hemispherical or spherical grayish- blacksclerotia are formed on the lesions which fall in the field with slight jerk. In diseased ear grainsremain unfilled.Control Burn the infected crop debris after harvest. Keep the field weed free and cleaning ofbunds is necessary to control the disease.- 158 -

(Seed Health Management for Better Productivity) The primary inoculum comes from soil. There fore, less prone crop should be grown inthe infected fields. Drain the water after pudding. Spraying of propaconazole @ 1litre/ ha or hexaconazole @ 2 litre /ha at an interval of 15days as the initial symptoms of the disease appear in field.7. Grain discolorationIn the second group number of week parasites and saprophytes attack the glumes andcause various types of glumes and kernel discoloration, thereby reduce the quality andgermination of the seeds. Seed discoloration of rice considered to be a minor disease till recentlyis now receiving move attention in tropical rice growing areas. In many regions of India the earlymaturing rice varieties grown particularly in the wet season are generally exposed to highly humidand warm environmental conditions during the flowering and post flowering stages. Such weatherparameters are ideal for tropical fungi to colonize and/ or infect the crop. Since last few years thematuring panicles of a large number of rice varieties have exhibited seed discoloration in variousparts of India. Rice seeds may be infected by various organisms before or after harvest, causingseed damage in the form of discoloration. These discolorations could be pathological, nonpathologicalor both in nature and depend upon the environmental factors interacting with inherentreactions of host variety and existing microflora. Different names viz; ‘glume discoloration’, ‘dirtypanicle’, ‘pecky rice’ or ‘glume spot’ have also been assigned by number of workers to suchabnormality. Seed discoloration in rice has been reported from all over the world wherever ricecrop is grown.Seed discoloration has been shown to result in poor seed setting in panicles, reduction inseed quality and seedling vigour. Discolored seeds are distorted and result in reduction in theirgermination which is proportional to severity of discoloration. Discolored seeds are lighter inweight and may be blown off during the cleaning operations. Weight loss is associated with seeddiscoloration as weight losses up to 31.2 per cent and 50.2 per cent have been reported in seedshaving less than 50 per cent and more than 50 per cent area discolored, compared with seedsclassified as healthy and with no discoloration, respectively. Reduction in seed yield due to seeddiscoloration has been reported in case of infection by Bipoaris oryzqe. Sarocladium oryzae andAlternaria padwickii. The viability and germination are reduced as a result of seed discoloration.Reduced viability and germination due to seed discoloration has been observed and also thatseeds having discoloration on both embryo and endosperm regions result in maximum loss inseed viability and germination.The seedling vigour of rice is adversely affected due to seed discoloration. Ou (1985)mentioned that Curvularia spp. causing black discoloration result in reduction of seedling vigour inrice. It has been found significant reduction in seedling height due to seed discolouration. Thediscolouration in the embryonal region significantly reduces shoot and root length in discolouredrice seeds. The quality of the harvested product is of considerable importance. The presences of- 159 -

(Seed Health Management for Better Productivity)discoloured seeds in high proportion in a seed lot have been shown to adversely affect theappearance. Seed discoloration poses a serious problem in seed certification. Discoloured seedswhich may otherwise be viable with recommended germinability as per certification standards,many a time may not be acceptable as a seed because of poor physical look and high expectedincidence of seed borne fungi. It has been observed that discolored seeds had lower dry weightsfor rough and brown rice than healthy seeds. Investigation on milling qualities of discolored seedsof varieties IET 7191, IR 50 and IET 9381 revealed a decrease in moisture content and brown ricecontent whereas an increase in whit husk content, bran content and broken rice as a result ofincrease in seed discoloration for less than 1 per cent to more than 50 per cent observed thathealthy seeds expanded more than spotted seeds on cooking.Discolouration of rice seeds due to infection of Nagrospora spp., Alternaria alternata,Curvualria lunata, Sarocladium oryzae, Drechslera oryzae has been shown to reduce seed vigour.Fungal infection associated with discoloured rice seeds may result in deterioration of nutritionalvalue of seeds due to physical, physiological and chemical changes in seeds. The infection ofseeds by Bipolaris oryzae has been shown to increase protein content of infected seeds andreduction in soluble sugar and starch reported decreased total sugars, protein, nitrogen, starchand amylase content whereas increased phenol reducing sugar and amino acid content indiscolored rice seeds. Some of the fungi associated with seed discoloration have been shown toproduce mycotoxins in rice seeds. There is a report indicating production of a mycotoxin in yellowrice seeds due to infection of Penicillium spp. Mycotixin produced by Sarocladium oryzae indiscolored rice seeds also showed hazardous effects. Report are also on hand indicating thatconcentration of aflatoxin B 1 produced by Aspergillus flavus in rice seeds increased from 30 ppb to60 after storage.SymptomsThe symptoms of the seed discoloration have been described by different workersdepending on fungi involved, such as red, pink, blue, purple, yellow brown black discoloration. Reddiscoloration, yellow discoloration, pale brown to white glumes, black point, light brown tinge,chest nut brown to white spots, black flecks, black dots, brown and purple discolorations, blackand brown spots black gumes and pale brown spots on glumes are some major types ofdiscolorations reported with rice seeds. Besides above-mentioned categories of rice seeddiscoloration, spotting on rice seeds have also been reported ash gray, eye shaped, light brown,dark brown, light pink, dark purple, light to dark brown spots and black discolorations from riceseeds. A number of fungi have been found associated with rice seeds. Some of these fungi underfavourable conditions in a susceptible host are reported to cause seed discoloration, while somedo not exhibit any type of discolorations. All the fungi recorded on rice which have or have notbeen shown to result in seed discoloration are given in Table 1.Table 1. Fungi associated with different types of discoloration of rice SeedsSl. No. Type of discoloration Fungi- 160 -

(Seed Health Management for Better Productivity)1. Ash grey Alternaria alternate2. Black or brown spots Bipolaris oryzae3. Black dots on gulme Phyllosticta, waracola, Sporidesmium,oryzaecolus4. Black glume discoloration A.padwickii,B. oryzae, Cuvularia clavata,C. affini,C.eragrostidis, C.fallax,C. geniculata,C.inequalis,C. intermedia, C.lunata,C. pallescens,Nigrospora oryzae5. Black point B. oryzae-6. Brown or black flecks Penicillium, citroviridae, P. citrinum, P. islandicum7. Brown discoloration Fusarium roseum, B. oryzae, N. oryzae8. Dark brown spots B. oryzae9. Dark purple discoloration B. oryzae10. Ebony black to chocolate brown C.lunatastains11. Eye shape spot C. geniculata, C. lunata, Pyricularia grisea12. Fluffy black seeds B. oryzae13. Light brown discoloration Sarocladium oryzae14. Light brown tinge B. oryzae15. Light to dark brown dot like spots B. oryzae16. Pale brown to white glumediscolorationA. padwickii17. Pink grain discoloration Epicoccum purpurascens18. Red discoloration Monascus purpurascens19. Yellow discoloration Wolkia decolorans20. General seed discoloration andspottingFactors affecting Seed InfectionA. alternate, A. padwickii, Aspergillus niger,Cephalosporium gramineum, Cercospora oryzae,Chaetomium sp., Chaetomium globosum,Cladosporium sp. Cladosporium cladosporioides,Curvularia affinis, C. eragrostidis, C.geniculata, C.lunata, C. pallescens, C. verruculosa, Fusariummoniliforme, F. graminearum, F. pallidoroseum,Magnaporthe salvinii, Microdochim oryzae,Nigrospora oryzae, Penicillium sp. Pestalotiaoryzae, Phaeotrichoconis crotalariae, Phomasorghina, Phyllosticta glumarum, Sarocladiumoryzae, Trichothecium roseum, Verticilllium sp.The incidence of seed discoloration of rice has been shown to be influenced byenvironmental factors prevailing at crop maturity, field and crop management practices and themorphological characteristics of flower, a positive correlation was found between rainfall, relativehumidity and seed discoloration (Ray and Gangopadhyay, 1990). High temperature and frequentrain especially at the time of anthesis have been shown to favour seed discoloration (Narain, 1992).Sundraraman 1922) observed that heavy rain at the time of ear formation followed by flooding and illdrained conditions favour seed discoloration due to B. oryzae. High temperature and humidity havebeen shown to favour infection of A. padwickii and C. lunata (Tisdale, 1922; Martin, 1939). Highmoisture content in rice seeds result in a higher seed infection by Epicoccum purpurascens causing- 161 -

(Seed Health Management for Better Productivity)pink discoloration (tanaka and Tsuchiya, 1987). Prevalence of low temperature has been shown tofavour infection by Phyllosticta glumarum, Epicoccum hyalopes and Magnaporthe grisea (Padwick,1950; Suryanarayan, 1958). Ray (1993) suggested that maximum seed discoloration occurs duringwet season when rainfall and relative humidity are high. Dash and Narain (1988) reported highincidence of glume discoloration by several fungi in wet as well as dry seasons at some places dueto low temperature, which predisposes the crop to fungi.Seed discoloration also increases with the increasing levels of nitrogen and phosphaticfertilizers (Misra an Dharam Vir, 1992). Ayotada and Salako (1980) reported that the rainfedwetland conditions and unbalanced nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium application favours seeddiscoloration. Application of silica increased total seed weight and effectively reduced seeddiscoloration (Yamauchi and Winslow, 1987; Korndorfer et al., 1999). Yamauchi and winslow(1989) reported that application of silica and magnesium protected rice plants against seeddiscoloration and seed yield increased by an average of 34 per cent. A higher seed infection anddiscoloration was rerecorded when older seedlings were transplanted as compared to youngseedlings and discoloration was more in transplanted crop as compared to direct sown crop (Misraand Dharam Vir, 1992).In West Africa, coarse upland soils and free draining soil water regimes increased seeddiscoloration severity while lowland soils and water saturation minimized it (Dobson and Aluri,1990). Late sowing, wider plant spacing (20x25cm), less nitrogen fertilization, application ofchemical fertilizers in combination with cattle manure decrease the seed infection as well as seeddiscoloration (Muhammad Saifulla et al., 1995; Mathew, 1996).ControlRice varieties/germplasms such as Improved White Ponni, Mahsuri, Intan Gowri, Prakash,ADT 39 (IR8xIR20), RAU 4045-2A (Fine Gora x IET 2832), Panikoili,, CTH 4, IET 11220, CTH 3,IET 10131, IET 10626, CTH 1, IET 11221 and Mangala were found resistant against seeddiscoloration (Prasad and Tomar, 1989; and Muhammad Saifulla, 1996).Seed treatment with different fungicides has been tried to reduce seedborne inoculum.Singh and Kang (1992) found that seed treatment with Thiram + carbendazim controlled seed rotand improved germination. Seed treatment with tricyclazole (0.2 per cent), carbendazim (0.2 percent) and mancozeb (0.3 per cent) gave effective control of P. grisea and B. oryzae (Geetha andSivaprakasam, 1993). Hetty and Shetty (1987) reported that paddy seeds treated with aqueousextracts of stem bark, leaf and seed of Strychnos nux-vomica effectively inhibited the developmentof Dreshlera oryzae, Trichoconiela padwickii, Alternaria alternata Nigrospora oryzae penicilliumspp. Curvularia sp and improved the germinability of the seeds.Fungicidal sprays of carbendazim, mancozeb at flowering stage and of Mancozeb andpropiconazole at boot leaf stage effectively controlled A.padwickii, C. lunata, C. oryzae, B. oryzae,F. moniliforme, F. pallidoroseum, C. pallescens, C. geniculata, C. eragrostidis, Nigrospora oryzaeand Trichothecium roseum causing seed discoloration (Sisterna and Ronco, 1994; Deka et al.,- 162 -

(Seed Health Management for Better Productivity)1996). Sharma et al., (1987) observed that seed treatment with Derosal, Emisan and Thiram wereeffective in improving germination of discoloration seeds.8. Bacterial Leaf BlightBacterial leaf blight caused by Xanthomonas oryzae pv. oryzae is said to have been firstseen by farmers in the Fukuoka area of Japan in 1884. The disease has been reported fromPhilippines, Korea, USSR, China, Indonesia, Taiwan, Mexico, Thailand, Bangladesh, Nepal,Pakistan, Latin American Countries, Niger and West Africa, and Ukraine. The disease was firstreported in India by Srinivasan et al. in 1959 from Maharashtra, where it was widespread anddestructive since 1951. The disease appeared in an epiphytotic form in Shahabad district of Biharin 1963 on variety BR-34 (Srivastava and Rao, 1963). After the introduction and cultivation over alarge acreage of new high yielding but susceptible rice cultivars, the disease has become one ofthe most serious problems on rice in India (Ou, 1972).Reductions of 20-30 percent have been observed in grain yields when infectionwas moderate and over 30 per cent when it was severe. A loss of about 47-75 per cent in yieldhas been reported in artificially inoculated crop. Bacterial leaf blight caused yield losses up to 50per cent in paddy field. The loss in yield has been attributed due to increase in chaffiness,decrease in grain weight and number of panicle. As a result of reduction in the number of filledgrains in diseased panicle, a loss in weight of 20.38 per cent was obtained In assessing the effectof X. oryzae, 33.2 per cent more chaffy glumes and reduction in 1,000 grain weight were recordedin infected tillers than in healthy tillers. At IRRI, Philippines, losses in yield were 74.89 and 46.88 percent in IR-1 and Taiwan-8, respectively.It has been observed that the bacterium commonly present in the husk and endosperm ofthe grains. Survival of Xoo in the seed varied depending on the environmental conditions underwhich seeds were stored. Under low temperature and low humidity Xoo does survive for more then6 months, where as under high humidity and temperature survival was found much shorter. Abilityof seeds to transmit the disease to new plants has been reported by several workers. In China,seed transmission is the main source of inoculum in field. Srivastava et al (1967) observed thatseed was able to carry the Xoo when planted following year. Seed transmission was foundnegative in India, Japan and Philippines, where high humidity and warm temperature do existseed transmission does not play important role in transmission to new field.Symptoms appear as yellow or straw coloured wavy water soaked stripes beginning from oneor both margins covering the whole leaf blade which dry premature. Lesions may develop on anyportion of leaf blade or on the mid rib. Small orange coloured beads may be seen in early morningduring wet nights. These are the bacterial exudates which further spread the disease when mixedwith rain water. Kresek phase is characterized by drying or wilting of the whole plant and may beobserved during early growth stage of rice plants up to 4-6 weeks after transplanting. Theinfection becomes systemic and spreads through out the plant. The leaves roll inwardlongitudinally along the midrib with dull green water soaked lesions on them followed by drying of- 163 -

(Seed Health Management for Better Productivity)entire leaf and sheath. Under severe conditions, the infected plants are killed completely and looklike plants damaged by the stem borers.Control• Apply balanced fertilizers. Excessive nitrogenous fertilizers should be avoided and it shouldbe applied in split doses.• Drain the standing water from the field.• Spray Streptocycline 15g+ copper oxychloride 500g dissolved in 500 liters of water in onehectare as the initial symptoms of the disease appear. Second spray should be given at aninterval of 10-12 days.REFERENCES1. Bhatt,J.C. and Singh, R.A. (1992). Blast of Rice. In Plant Diseases of International Importance.Prentice Hall Inc. USA, pp 80-113.2. Dodan and Singh, R (1996) False smut of rice: Present Status. Agric. Rev. 17: 227-240.3. Gangopadhyay, S. and Chakrabarti, N.K. (1982) Sheath blight of rice. Rev. Plant Path. 61: 451-4604. Kaul M.H, Sharma KK. 1987. Bacterial blight in rice. A review. Biol. Zent.Bl. 106:141-675. Padmanabhan S.Y. (1973) Control of Rice diseases in India. Indian Phytopath. 27: 1-28.6. Padmanabhan SY. (1983). Integrated control of bacterial blight of rice. Oryza 20:188-947. Premlata Dath (1990) Sheath blight disease of rice and its management. Associated PublishingCo., New Delhi, 129 pp8. Shukla, S.N.,.Sunder, S., .Singh, R., Sharma, S.K. and Sinha, A.P., (2003) Ann. Rev.Plant Path.2: 351-378.9. Singh, R. and Dodan, D.S. (1995).Sheath rot of rice. Intl. Trop. Plant Diseases, 13: 139-152.10. Srivastava D. N. 1972 Bacterial blight of rice. Indian Phytopath. 25: 1-13.11. Ou SH. 1985 Rice Diseases. 2 nd Edition, common wealth mycological Institute. Kew.England.pp370.12. Roy, A.K. (1993) Sheath blight of rice in India. Indian Phytopath. 46: 197- 205.13. Chahel, S.S. (1998) Kernel smut of rice. Nat.Agril.Tech.Inf.Centre, Ludhina. pp 8.14. Savitri, H, and M.A.Sattar (1996) Bunt of rice. National Seed Project, Seed Technology ResearchUnit (N.S.P.) A.P.A.U. Rajendra Nagar, Hyderabad. pp5.- 164 -

(Seed Health Management for Better Productivity)Insect Pest Stored Seed and their ManagementS.N. TewariDepartment of Entomology, G.B.P.U.A.&T., Pantnagar-263145 (Uttarakhand)During storage the seed is infested by several species of insects belonging to orderColeoptera and Lepidoptera.Stored-product ColeopteraFAMILY ANOBIIDAESmall oval or cylindrical beetles with head strongly deflexed below the thorax.Lasioderma serricorne (Fabricius) - Cigarette BeetleAdult stoutly oval, 2-2.5mm long, light brown in color. Elytra smooth, with very short hairs,but without striae. Antennae about half as long as body, 11 segment, 4-10 segment serrate.Larvae white and scarabaeiform.Stegobium paniceum (Linnaeus) – Drug Store BeetleSimilar to Lasioderma serricorne but last three segments of antennae form a large looselysegmented club. Elytra have longitudinal striae.FAMILY BOSTRICHIDAEBody cylindrical, head ventral to prothorax. Pronotum have rasp like teeth or hooks,antennae straight and have a loose 3 or 4 segmented club. Apically elytra flattened and slopeventrally more or less steeply (declivity). Tarsi 5 segmented.Rhyzopertha dominica (Fabricius) – Lesser Grain BorerAdult 2-3mm long typical Bostricid . Pronotum rounded at front with transverse rows ofteeth. Flattened tubercles centrally and posteriorly. Scutellum between Pronotum and elytra almostsquare. Elytra have regular row of punctures and short setae that curve posteriorly. Apically elytragently convex. Antennae 10 segment with a loose 3 segment club.Larvae white and parallel sided. Leg short, head capsule small.Prostephanus truncatus (Horn) – Larger Grain BorerTypical cylindrical bostrichid shape. Body 3-4.5mm long. Declivity flattened and steep,many small tubercles over surface. The limit of declivity Apically and laterally marked by carina.Antennae 10 segmented with a loose 3 segmented club. Stem of antennae slender and clothedwith long hairs and the apical club segment is as wide as, or wider than , preceding segments.Larvae white and parallel sided. Leg short, head capsule small. Thoracic segments areconsiderably larger than those of abdomen.FAMILY BRUCHIDAEBody clothed in short hairs, compact. The elytra covers all but last abdominal tergum(pygidium), antennae relatively long.- 165 -

(Seed Health Management for Better Productivity)Callosobruchus chinensis (Linnaeus) – Pulse BeetleAdults have a pair of distinct ridges (inner and outer) on the ventral side of each hindfemur, and each ridge has a tooth near the apical end. The inner tooth is slender, rather parallelsided, and equal to (or slightly longer than) the outer tooth. Antennae pectinate in male and serratein female. Elytra pale brown with small median dark marks and larger posterior patches which maymerge to make entire posterior part of elytra dark in color. The side margins of abdomen havedistinct patches of coarse white setae.Callosobruchus maculatus (Fabricius) – Pulse BeetleAdults have a pair of distinct ridges (inner and outer) on the ventral side of each hindfemur, and each ridge has a tooth near the apical end. The inner tooth is triangular, and equal to(or slightly longer than) the outer tooth. The antennae of both sexes are slightly serrate. Femaleoften have strong markings at elytra consisting of two large lateral dark patches mid-way along theelytra and smaller patches at anterior and posterior end , leaving a paler brown crossed shapedarea covering the rest. Males are much less distinctly marked.Callosobruchus analis (Fabricius)Antennae filiform. Coloration and patterning of both sexes is similar to that of an averagefemale C. maculatus, except that the pronotum of C. analis is uniformly red-brown (usually blackor dark brown in C. maculatus). In freshly emerged specimens, white setae at the center ofposterior half of each elytron are very conspicuous in C. analis but inconspicuous in C. maculatus.As in all Callosobruchus species, each hind femur has a pair of ridges on the ventral edge; in C.analis the outer ridge bears the usual noticeable blunt tooth, but the inner tooth is usually muchsmaller or even absent.FAMILY CURCULIONIDAEAll adults are characterized by a rostrum, which is forward snout-like extension of the headand carries the mouth part. The antennae are elbowed in shape while at rest. The larvae are leglessSitophilus oryzae (Linnaeus) - Rice WeevilSitophilus zeamais Motschulsky - Maize WeevilBoth the species are almost indistinguishable from each other externally. Both havecharacteristic rostrum and elbowed antennae which have eight segments and often carried in anextended position when the insect is walking. Both species usually have four pale reddish-brownor orange brown oval marking on the elytra, but these are often indistinct.Sitophilus granarius (Linnaeus) – Granary WeevilSitophilus granarius is similar in appearance to S. oryzae and S. zeamais, but can bedistinguished by the absence of metathoracic flight wings (only small vestigial wings are present)and by the oval shape of punctures on the prothorax.- 166 -

(Seed Health Management for Better Productivity)FAMILY DERMESTIDAEBeetles generally ovoid but some times stoutly oval in shape and vary in length from 1.5 –12 mm. Usually clothed in hairs or colored scales. Antennae relatively short with 10 or 11segments. A fairly distinct three segmented antennal club is common. The larvae arecharacteristically very hairy.Trogoderma granarium Everts – Khapra BeetleAdults are reddish-brown, with or without darker vague marking, but the thorax isdarker brown. They are oval in shape and vary in size from 2-3 mm, females beingsomewhat larger than the males. The dorsal surface is moderately clothed in fine hairs. Amedian ocellus present between compound eyes. The number of antennal segment isusually 11 but some fusion of segments may take place so that there can be as few as 9.The fairly distinct antennal club consists of 3-5 segments. In the male the apical segment ofthe club is much elongated in comparison with that of female. The antennae fit into ventralgrooves in the prothorax. The larvae are typically very hairy. Spicisetae of various length arearranged over the dorsal surface and a ‘brush’ of long spicisetae on the ninth abdominalsegments project posteriorly like a tail.Dermestes maculatus DegeerThe body of adult is subparallel and 6-10mm long with a dark brown or black cuticle.Dorsally the body is clothed in black and grayish hairs. Ventrally, the abdomen is thicklycovered in white hairs with the patches of black hairs laterally and apically. Antennae 11segmented and have three-segmented club. First instar larvae measure about 1.5mm; themature larvae are about 15mm. They are very hairy and have dark brown tergites betweenwhich lie cream coloured inter segmental membranes.FAMILY SILVANIDAEBeetles generally parallel sided and rather short (2-4mm). Most species have projectionson the prothorax which are in the form of teeth or swelling at the anterior angle or several teethalong the lateral margin.Oryzaephilus mercator (Fauvel) and O. surinamensis (Linnaeus)Adults of both species are slender dark brown beetle, 2.5-3.5 mm long. The antennae arerelatively short and clubbed. The prothorax have six distinct tooth like projections along each side.The length of the temple (the side of head behind eye) is much shorter in O. mercator than in O.surinamensis. The larvae are white, elongate, somewhat flattened and about 4-5 mm long whenfully grown.- 167 -

(Seed Health Management for Better Productivity)FAMILY TENEBRIONIDAEThe adults are 3-10 mm long and usually rather parallel-sided. Antennae 11 segmented,are of moderate length, and are either simple in form or have a more or less distinct club. Tarsi ofhind legs have four segments while those of the front and middle legs have five.The larvae have a characteristic shape and are generally well sclerotized, often having adistinctly banded appearance and one or two pointed projections (urogomphi) at the end of body.Tribolium castaneum (Herbst) – Rust-red Flour BeetleAdults are typically tenebrionid in shape, 2.3-4.4 mm in length and red-brown in color. Themales possess a hairy puncture on the ventral surface of anterior femur; this puncture is absent infemale.The larvae are typically tenebrionid and possess two upwardly curved urogomphi on theninth abdominal segment.Stored-product LepidopteraFAMILY GELECHIIDAESitotroga cerealella (Olivier) - Grain MothThe fore-wings are pale ochreous brown and often have a small black spot in the distalhalf; they have a span of 10-18 mm. The hind wing have a long fringe of hairs, longer than half thewidth of the wing and are sharply pointed at the tip. The labial palps are long, slender and sharplypointed. The larva possesses true legs but the prolegs are greatly reduced and have only twocrochets each.FAMILY PYRALIDAEEphestia (Cadra) cautella (Walker) – Almond MothThe fore-wings of adult are greyish-brown with an indistinct pattern. The wing span is 11-20mm. And both fore- and hind-wings have broadly rounded tips and only short fringes of hairs. Thelabial palps curve upward in the front of head and are rather blunt at the tip.Plodia interpunctella (Hubner)The fore-wing of adult is cream coloured in the basal two-fifth, while rest of the wing iscopper coloured (dark reddish brown) with some dark grey markings. The wing span is 14-18 mm.And the labial palps point directly forwards.Corcyra cephalonica (Stainton) – Rice MothIn the adults the hind-wings are pale buff, and the fore-wings are mid-brown or greyishbrownwith thin vague lines of a darker brown along the wing veins. The fringes of hairs along thewing margins are relatively short and wing span is usually 15-25 mm. The labial palps pointforward or downward; in the female they are long and pointed and in the male they are very short,blunt and inconspicuous.- 168 -

(Seed Health Management for Better Productivity)Management of Insect Pests of Stored SeedAdopt following code of practices at different stage for management of insect pests ofstored seed:A.Harvesting and threshing stage Harvest fully mature crop Use only properly cleaned and disinfested equipments for harvesting operations Use moisture, insect and rodent free threshing yards located away from stores andgodowns Disinfest the threshing yards with recommended pesticideso Deltamethrin 2.5 WP 40g/litreo Malathion 50 EC 10 ml/litreo Pirimiphos methyl 50 EC 10 ml/litre- 169 -

(Seed Health Management for Better Productivity) Spray solutiono Smooth surface 3-5 litre/100 m2 areao Polythene surface 3-5 litre/100 m2 areao Rough surface 6-8 litre/100 m2 areao Jute Bag 8-10 litre/100 m2 area For threshing operations choose the equipment giving minimum breakage Keep the polythene / tarpaulin sheet ready for covering of harvested crop or grain afterthreshing for protection from untimely rain.B. Preparation of grain for storage Clean the seed. If some grains are brocken during threshing, screen them out from healthy ones. Dry the seed properly under sun or in mechanical dryers to bring its moisture content atsafe level Before filling the seed in the storage receptacles, cool it to room temperature and fillimmediately after it. To protect the seed from insect infestation it may be treated with deltamethrin 2.5 WP atthe rate of 40mg/kg seed If the seed is not treated with insecticides and any infestation is noticed, fumigate the seedwith aluminium phosphide just after filling the grain.C. Selection and preparation of storage structure / premises Never store the seed in bed room. Select only moisture proof, rodent proof, insect proof scientific storage structures whichcould be made reasonably airtight. Maintain perfect store hygiene as it is a pre requisite for successful storage andeffectiveness of all ongoing measures. Always ensure that there is no entry of water inside the structure. Remove all domestic articles from storage structure / premises; plaster the cracks andcravices if any. If rat burrows are there, seal them with brocken glass pieces, stone , concrete and cement. Fix the wire mesh on ventilators or windows to check entry of birds. Clean the storage structure/premises thoroughly and white wash it. Disinfest the storage structure/premises before keeping the seed by sprayingDeltamethrin 2.5 WP solution In case of bag storage, always stack bags on wooden or LPDE poly pellets which areatleast 10 cm high. Arrange the bag in 3or 5 units with ears of bags pointing inwards. The size of stack should not exceed 4 and 3 meter high in case of jute and plastic bag- 170 -

(Seed Health Management for Better Productivity)respectively. Leave a space of atleast 1 meter between stacks or stack and wall and 1.5 meter betweenstack and roof.D. Storage of grain After filling the seed, never keep the structure open for longer period as it will facilitateinfestation and entry of moisture. Inspect the seed from time to time and adopt counter measures as per requirements. As the chances of insect infestation and deterioration due to moisture are very high duringrainy season, special attention is needed during this period. If there is any infestation or entry of water and increase in moisture in seed it should bechecked immediately. If any stored grain insect or any other sign of infestation is noticed during storage period,fumigate the grain immediately. In fumigation phosphin is used under airtight condition to kill the insects.o Aluminium phosphide (ALP) can be used on all type of grain, but only undertechnical supervision.o It is recommended only when relative humidity is above 30 per cent and storagestructure is completely airtight.o It should never be used in living room.o ALP 56% 3g tablet 1-2 tablet per tonne or 150 g/100 m3 (Grainfumigation)o ALP 56% 3g tablet 150 g/1000 m3 (Empty godown and shed)o ALP 15% 12g tablet 1 tablet per tone or 600 g / 100 m3 (Grain fumigation)o ALP 56%(F)10g bag 1bag/5 qtl grain(Grain fumigation)o ALP 56%(F)34g bag 1bag/15 qtl grain(Grain fumigation) The minimum exposure time depends on the temperature, the relative humidity and theformulation used, and on whether there is any resistance against phosphine. Under normal condition exposure period of 5 days is sufficient. With a relative humidity of below 60 % up to 6 days and more In case of resistance: at least 3 days more in each case Fumigation is ineffective if the relative humidity is below 30 %. When mites are present, a minimum exposure period of 10 days is required.- 171 -

(Seed Health Management for Better Productivity)Nanotechnology in Diagnosis of Plant DiseasesD.B. Parakh, V. Celia Chalam & R.K. KhetrapalDivision of Plant Quarantine, NBPGR, New Delhi- 110 012The word nanotechnology derives from namometer, which is one-thousandth of amicrometer (micron) or approximately the size of a single molecule. Nanotechnology is the nextrevolution in science and technology for betterment of mankind. It is the next stop in theadvancement of miniature technology that gave us micro-electronics, microchip and microcircuits.As microprocessors and microcircuits shrink to nanoprocessors and nanocircuits, in times to comesilicon chips will be replaced by bichips and DNA-chips by the use of nanotechnology.Nanotechnology is the study, manipulation and manufacture of ultra-small structures made of asfew as one molecule. Nanotechnology manipulates a single molecule and measures the electromagneticforces between them. It joints breakthroughs to those in molecular biology and canaccomplish many goals that are difficult or impossible to achieve by other means.1. Plant disease diagnosis2. Rapid diagnosis of tens of thousands of samples using microarray technology3. Integrating nanotechnology in plant pathogens4. Understanding biology of plant pathogens5. Basic study of understanding host-pathogen interactions and analysis of various defenseresponses in crops at nano-scale6. Identify disease resistance in plants germplasm7. Establishment of nano database on diseases and pest of high economic significance.Research and development activities in the area of nanotechnology and plant health willboost Indian Agriculture and trade in long run and will make it more competitive in years to come innanotech revolution.The database of US Government Nanotechnology Programme will establish investigatorcollaboration on animal and plant diseases and pests of high economic impact that are currentlyendemic in US. This database will be utilized for international trade in agriculture.As Plant Quarantine Division of NBPGR is the only R&D facility for plant quarantine setupin India, therefore, a collaborative project using this frontier nanotechnology for rapid diagnosis ofpathogens in imported germplasm, screening of germplasm for disease resistance, establishmentof nano database on endemic diseases of high economic significance for international trade andHRD in nanotechnology is of utmost importance.The Government of India has already set up and Indo-US Nano Cooperation Group in HighTechnology Cooperation Area in Department of Science and Technology, New Delhi in January2005.- 172 -

(Seed Health Management for Better Productivity)Application of DNA Techniques in Seed IndustryS. MarlaDepartment of MBGE, CBSH, G.B.P.U.A.&T., Pantnagar-263145 (Uttarakhand)The valuable contribution of seed industry in bringing high quality seeds of elite varieties &hybrids of various crops to the fields of Indian farmers and making green revolution successful andsustainable is highly appreciative. However with changing times there is a necessity to adopt newtechnologies to improve productivity in farmers fields. Emergence of DNA based techniques suchas Molecular biology, genomics, proteomics and Bioinformatics has contributed to betterunderstanding of basic mechanisms of crop growth and yield improvement and with potentiallydirect applications in seed industry. Today several molecular biology based DNA techniques foreasy identification of crop varieties/hybrids, identification & isolation of genes responsible foragronomically important traits such as high grain yields, nutritional quality, resistance to diseases& pests, drought etc. transgenic Cotton and rice plants with introduced pet & disease resistanceare an example of the success story.We shall limit in this article on How DNA techniques can potentially benefit seed industry.One of the prime mandates of seed production is mainteneance of seed purity starting fromnuclear seed to foundation seed Produced. Identification different crop varieties and hybrids witheasy to use simple techniques is the need of the hour. It is not always possible to identify a truetype of seed using field, morphological or biochemical techniques as there are not manyphenotypic markers available. Where as the existing differences among genotypes at geen levelusing DNA techniques can record variations (polymorphisms) fully with out loss and influence ofenvironment. The DNA based techniques are cheap, efficient and much faster without having towait for the data recorded from raised adult plants in the field. Several scorable molecular (gene)markers are now available (some linked to phenotypic traits such as seed color and shape) thatare being employed for true type seed identification, detection of diseased seed lots or presenceor absence of gene of our interest in the examined seed sample. Plant breeders can employthese techniques to monitor flow of desirable parental geens across the segregating populationas.The seed industry has already started using some of these techniques to true hybriditytesting or identification of an original variety. With increased theft of elite seed by some of thespurious industry competitors, the DNA techniques are increasingly being accepted by Police andJudiciary in conflict resolution as a valid proof.The polymorphism which exists in different DNA sequences of crop varieties can bestudied by following either PCR based approaches or non PCR based approaches.What is PCr (Polymerase Chain reaction) of DNA:.The existing polymorphism among analysed varieties can be recorded at the level of DNAemploying molecular biology techniques- Polymerase Chain reaction (PCR) and Electrophoresis.The variations (polymorphism) in DNA can be separated based on their nucleotide sizes and- 173 -

(Seed Health Management for Better Productivity)viewed on a sheet attached to electrical current in the form of bands (tiny spots, Fig. 1 & 2).However the quantity of DNA extracted from seed or leaf or root tissue is too small and it isdifficult to view such tiny spots. Hence the tissue extracted DNA needs to be amplified manytimes to obtain required quantity using PCR. Thermal cycler is used for running the PCR reactionand amplifieng DNA in sufficient quantities (Fig.3). To run a PCR the essential ingredients are-High quality plant tissue extracted DNA, Primers( starter DNA for initiating amplification),enzymes and chemical budffers to amplify DNA. DNA will only duplicate itself, if there is a primeror “starter DNA” in the mix, which is compatible with the DNA. The primer sets (for duplicatingboth forward and reverse DNA strands) specific to our Gene of interest can be designed insillicousing Bioinformatics tools such as PRIMER3 and DNASTAR.Fig. 2. Thermal CyclerFig.3. Gel Electrophoresis apparatus forfor DNA amplification. viewing DNA polymorphisms.Two important commonly used techniques viz. RFLP and RAPD will be discussed in detailbelow in order to explain their importance in discrimination of the crop varieties:Various PCR or non PCR based molecular markers which are used for varietalidentification of crop plants are also used for determination of hybridity of crop plants. The use ofRFLP and RAPD in determination of hybridity is discussed below :RFLP: RFLP markers behave as codominant markers. RFLP’s can successfully be employed todetermine genetic contribution of each parents and can be used to determine the extent ofheterozygosity. Two selected varieties ( say A and B) are crossed to produce F1 and F2/backcrossgenerations. DNA is isolated from the parental varieties, the F1 and F2 generation and used todetermine RFLP’s with various probes for which they show polymorphism. For example, probe 1detects a relatively slower moving band in variety A and a faster moving band in variety B. Thesebands may be regarded as two different alleles of a single gene, say allele A for slow moving bandand allele a for fast moving band. Similarly, probe 2 detects a fast moving band in strain A ( thiswe may denote as allele b) and a slow moving one in strain B ( designated as allele B). The F1hybrid between varieties A and B will show both slow and fast moving bands for each of the twoprobes.- 174 -

(Seed Health Management for Better Productivity)RAPD:RAPD’s are generated by using random sequence, ordinarily, 10 base long oligonucleotides asprimers for PCR amplification of genomic DNA extracted from different varieties. Polymorphism isproduced due to complementary sequence for the primer used being used in one strain (variety A)but not in the other ( variety B). As aresult an amplification product will be detectable as a band instrain A while strain B will not show the product. The F1 hybrid will two strains will show the bandwhile in F2 a 3:1 ratio will be obtained. Thus RAPD’s behave as dominant markers. Further thepresence of amplification product can be regarded as dominant allele and it’s absence asrecessive allele.RAPds have similar applications to those of RFLP. However they are faster andmore convenient to perform than RFLP.Biotechnological tool for maintenance of hybridityBarnase-barstar system : Gene barnase encodes an RNAse which kills the cells in which it isexpressed by degrading RNA. The expression of barnase was confined to tapetal cells by fusing itwith the promoter of tobacco tapetum specific gene TA29 ( gene construct : pTA29- barnase; ppromoter ). When the chimaeric gene construct was transferred and expressed in tobacco andoilseed rape, the tapetal cells of anthers were destroyed and there was no pollen development.However there was no effect on female fertility. Since the male sterility due to barnase isdominant, the male sterile lines are always heterozygous (barnase/- ; the – sign indicates absenceof barnase gene in homologous chromosome) and they have to be maintained by crossing to anynormal, non transformed male fertile line (-/-; barnase gene absent). Thus male sterile lines (barnase/-) will have to be crossed to be normal fertile lines (-/-), and only 50% of the progeny fromsuch crosses will be male sterile while rest 50% will be male fertile (-/-). In a hybrid seedproduction programme the male fertile plants present in male sterile line must be identifiedandeasily eliminated. This has been done by linking the barnase gene with the bar gene fromStreptomyces: bar gene confers resistance to herbicide phosphinothricin.When such male sterile(barnase-bar/-) plants are maintained by crossing with normal male fertile (-/-), all the male sterileprogeny ( barnase-bar/- ) are resistant to the herbicide, while all the male fertile plants (-/-) areherbicide susceptible. The male fertile plants are therefore eliminated by a herbicide spray at anearly stage of plant growth.The male fertility of barnase male steriles is restored by another gene, barstar, of thebacterium B.amyloliquefaciens. The gene barstar encodes a specific inhibitor of barnase encodedRNase. The barstar product forms a higly stable 1:1 noncovalently bound complex with thebarnase RNase; this reaction provides protection to the bacterial cells from their own RNaseproduct. Transgenic plants expressing barstar are male fertile without any phenotypic effect, andare easily maintained in the homozygous state. When a homozygous barstar male fertile line iscrossed with a barnase male sterile all the progeny plants are male fertile since barstar geneproduct effectively inhibits the barnase RNAse in barnase-bar/barstar plants. This male- 175 -

(Seed Health Management for Better Productivity)sterility/fertility system has shown commercial promise in maize and oilseed rape and can beeasily extended to other crop species. The much popular Terminator technology is anotherapplication of DNA technology with potential negative affects in favor of commercial seed firmsallegdly taking away farmers rights to recycle their own seed for future sowings.on farmersrights.Fig.1. Identification ofTrue HybridsFinger Printing Verities & HybridsA DNA fingerprint can be called a genetic photograph of an individual, whether thatindividual is a plant, animal or person. The technique of DNA fingerprinting has been developedusing the science of genetics. Genetics is the study of genes, tiny units of deoxryribonucleic acid,or DNA. This chemical is located in the nucleus of every cell. An organism's DNA contains theblueprint of its characteristics --in the case of plants, that would include features like yield, droughtresistance and starch content. Making a DNA fingerprint involves several steps as follows:1. To obtain the DNA necessary for the test, a small sample of the plant cells is required.2. The sample is treated with chemicals to extract DNA from the cells.3. Enzymes (proteins which promote chemical reactions) are added to the DNA. The enzymesact like scissors. They are used to cut the DNA into fragments of various lengths.4. The fragments are placed on a bed of gel. Next, an electrical current is applied. The currentsorts the fragments by length and organizes them into a pattern. This process is similar toplacing sand in a series of sieves to sort the particles by size.5. The DNA pattern is transferred to a nylon sheet by placing the gel and the nylon next toeach other.6. A probe of radioactive DNA is introduced to the pattern on the nylon sheet. The probe,which is a short strand of DNA treated to make it radioactive, is designed to bind to specifyDNA fragments.- 176 -

(Seed Health Management for Better Productivity)7. Finally, X-ray film is exposed to the nylon sheet containing the radioactive probes. Darkbands, which resemble consumer product bar codes, develop at the probe sites in a patternunique to the organism. The bands indicate the site where a probe has bound to the DNAfragments. The DNA of each individual is unique, producing a unique set of fragments. Thismakes each pattern of probe-binding unique.Simplifying the SearchDNA fingerprinting can be of use to plant breeders to simplify their work and reduce theamount of time it takes to produce crops with desirable new traits. For example, once a scientistisolates a specific gene that expresses a certain crop trait, a batch of seed is then produced whichthe scientist hopes carries the trait. At one time, the researcher would have to grow the crop to seeif the trait is present. But now, the DNA of the seed batch can be tested to determine if the seedscontain the sought-after gene. The DNA test can also be used to identify and keep track of genesas they are isolated and transferred into crops. As well, it can become a tool to simplify the moretraditional methods of selective breeding, by identifying what are known as "markers." Since DNAfingerprints are taken from the same DNA that carries the entire genetic blueprint for the plant,pieces of DNA that are close together tend to be passed on together from one generation to thenext. If one particular band of a DNA fingerprint is found to be inherited along with a useful trait,that band serves as a marker for that trait. This marker shows which offspring may carry the trait,without having to search for the specific genetic material.Guaranteeing CropsProtecting plant breeders's rights (the breeders' patents on specific types of seed), isanother use for the DNA test. Disputes over the true identify of seed varieties can be easilyresolved, since the test will be able to isolate the specific traits that distinguish one seed varietyfrom another. The ability to identify seed varieties will make the test important to guaranteeing theauthenticity of a crop being purchased. Often it is very important to the buyer that the crop beingpurchased is of a particular type. For example, millers want wheat which produces a high qualitymilling flour that can be made into bread. Pasta producers are looking for wheat which produces asoft, doughy flour the kind that makes a good noodle. As well, new international rules are requiringcrops which are genetically altered to be separated from ordinary crops. Crops may have specificgenes inserted which, for example, make the plants resistant to a certain type of herbicide. Thisherbicides resistance reduces farmers' input costs by reducing the amount of chemical they use tocontrol weeds.Until recently, a commodity buyer had to rely on the seller for assurance that the crop wasexactly what the buyer wanted. With DNA fingerprinting, a buyer no longer has to simply acceptthe sellers' word. Another way that DNA fingerprints can be used is if a farmer grows a crop and itsperformance does not match the claims made for it. A fingerprint could be taken to show whether- 177 -

(Seed Health Management for Better Productivity)the seed which the farmer planted was in fact the variety that was chosen. DNA fingerprinting mayalso be used in the future to identify disease infection in crops. Each disease-causing agent, suchas a fungus, bacteria or virus, has a unique DNA fingerprint. If a DNA test indicated the presenceof a disease organism, infection might be detected at an early stage, and a farmer could takeappropriate preventive steps.Building a Library of Varietal Finger Prints:In order for the seed industry or others to effectively use DNA tests, both private andgovernment labs are working on building a library of crop DNA profiles. As new samples areanalyzed, a computer scan can produce matches between the samples and DNA profiles alreadyrecorded. These labs plan to offer the testing service at a reasonable cost. That means DNAtesting will likely becomes as commonplace as other agricultural testing services, like soil samplingand seed germination testing.- 178 -

(Seed Health Management for Better Productivity)Role of Biotechnology in Improving Seed Health ManagementAnil Kumar and Pushpa LohniDepartment of MBGE, CBSH, G.B.P.U.A.&T., Pantnagar-263145 (Uttarakhand)During the past two decades, the technology of producing seeds and seedlings hasdeveloped rapidly. However, all this innovation means that the people involved in seed productionhave a continuous need to update their expertise. With the increase in seed production, seedhealth need to be insured. Seed health testing is essential for the control of seedborne and seedtransmittedpathogens and continues to be an important activity for their regulation and controlthrough phyto-sanitary certification and quarantine programs in domestic and international seedtrade. Seed health testing is also critical for insuring the health of basic seed stocks used for seedproduction and for plant germplasm utilized in research and product development. As aconsequence of increased product liability as well as competitive pressures within the seedindustry, seed health has also become an increasingly important quality trait in the marketplace,particularly in vegetable crops. Seed health testing methods include examination of dry seeds,seed soak and washing test, culture tests, infectivity test, seedling symptom test, histo-pathologyand molecular techniques such as immunoassays and nucleic acid based techniques.Biotechnology has a great role to play not only in the production of healthy seeds andplanting material but also in detection of pathogens associated with seeds. Pathogens which caninduce systemic infection in their host plants include viruses, viroids, phytoplasmas and somebacteria. As mentioned above, these pathogens can be transmitted from infected mother plants toseedlings, or to planting materials such as scions, cuttings, bulbs, and tubers through vegetativepropagation. In fact, vegetative propagation by tissue culture, which has become the dominantmethod of propagating numerous plant species, is considered to be the most efficient way ofmultiplying and disseminating planting materials infected with systemic pathogens.Disease surveillance programmeFrom seedling to harvest, constant vigilance against diseases is required in order to growhealthy crops to its potential yield and quality. Diseases can reduce profits, and if detected late,may cause total crop loss. An effective disease surveillance programme is thus mandatory tocombat major outbreaks of the disease. These measures can be put in place well before there areany symptoms are seen in the fields by detection of the main disease entities of the causativepathogens. An integrated package incorporating the use of fungicides against seed and air borneinoculum, adoption of appropriate cultural practices and bio-suppression techniques against thesoil borne inoculum and use of host resistance is the key approach. However, seed health testingand seed certification using modern diagnostic tools is highly advocated as an integral componentof this package. Therefore, efforts are needed to focus the attention of academia, the seedindustry and government on the following needs.- 179 -

(Seed Health Management for Better Productivity)1. Determination of true incidence, causes and financial/ personal impact of seed bornediseases.2. Development of more effective methods of salvation and for the testing of seeds (routinemonitoring/epidemiological tools)3. Divestment of better methods for controlling the risks associated with seeds.4. Development of better means of risk assessment including pathogen load andpathogenicity/ toxicity for crops and differential risks among other crops.In order to limit the transmission of the pathogen in to disease free areas, transportation ofinfected/ infested seed from the disease prone areas has been restricted. To meet therequirement, the central seed certification board has formulated strict seed certification standards.To limit the dispersal and build up of Karnal bunt infection, tolerance limits (certification standards),based on visual inspection, are applied to foundation and certified seeds i.e., maximum of 0.05 forfoundation seeds and 0.25 percent for certified seeds. A seed-washing test to quantify the seedborne teliospores for the purpose of seed certification has also been suggested. However, theseed certification standards can be improved by taking account of the total pathogen load on seedlot rather than per cent-wise infection which does not take of a grade of infection. If the teliosporecontamination is beyond 25 spores per grain, the seed lot is rated as contaminated.The seed scientists have developed techniques for analyzing large numbers of samples forseed certification and plant quarantine. The International Seed Testing Association (ISTA) hasimportant roles in defining and promoting standard procedures, and establishing tolerances forseed tests. The advent of newer molecular diagnostics based on nucleic acid and immunologicalreaction permit the sensitive detection of KB. The Pantnagar University took an initiative in 1997 tocombine the know-how so as to formulate standard detection and seed certification methods. Theimmunological formats developed in our laboratory are quite promising not only for the detection ofKarnal bunt infection in seeds but also for use in detection of infestation of KB teliospores. Thesignificance of seed health testing is to ensure the safe movement of germplasms, for the purposeof research and trade. It is also a means of quality control of seedling stocks for crop production.Essential requirements of seed health diagnosticsIn a regulatory climate in which the presence of a single pathogen could lead to regulatoryaction, the need for a reliable method for detecting and identifying the disease entities in grainscan not be overstated. Such a method must meet three requirements: (a) a detection sensitivityapproaching few causative agents; (b) an extraction method that is quick and cost effective in theevaluation of a large number of samples; and (c) compatibility with available biochemical,immunological and molecular methods for identification of pathogenic entities.Molecular diagnostics for diseasesDisease diagnostics and pathogen detection, a primary component of any cropmanagement programme, is also helpful in monitoring sanitary and phyto-sanitary measures to- 180 -

(Seed Health Management for Better Productivity)seed quality. Molecular diagnostics based on immunological and DNA techniques can provide aneasy-art-technology for disease surveillance and disease forecasting. Testing for and monitoring ofpathogens is a component of seed quality control. For current seed health testing, seed-bornepathogens are usually recovered by conventional agar plating, blotter tests or by serologicaltechniques. These traditional methods of detection and identification are often time consuming andlabor intensive. Over the past decade, considerable advancement has taken place in thedevelopment of molecular diagnostics for detection of pathogens in seeds. Potential benefits(rapid, same-day analysis specific and sensitive tests) this new technology offers make itextremely attractive. The recent and rapid pace of developments in molecular biology has providednew opportunities in diagnostic areas.Modern diagnostic methods are based on high affinity biomolecular interaction betweenligand and binder. These include the nucleic acid hybridization (DNA based) and antibody basedtechniques involving complementary interaction of DNA-DNA, DNA-RNA, RNA-RNA and antigen–antibody (Ag–Ab) interactions that have been applied to KB diagnostics and pathogen detection atthe field level.Sample preparation in diagnosticsThe foremost element to be taken into account in the development and application ofanalytical methods in plant diagnostics is the sample preparation. Discussion of some of thesemethods is relevant at this stage because many of them are distinguished by the relative lack ofsample preparation required before the analysis can be performed. However, some methods dorequire the sample preparation for biological amplification. The biological amplification consists ofextraction stage and culture of pathogen on an enriched medium. Table 1 summarizes attributes tobe considered in the primary selection of diagnostic methods for seed borne plant pathogens.Extraction of seed-borne pathogensSeveral methods of seed-borne pathogens isolation are a modification of general seedwash assays and being currently used by most international seed health laboratories, that havebeen improved by the incorporation of suitable detergents commonly used for extracting fungi fromsoil.Detection techniques based on cellular and molecular differencesFor differentiating one from other pathogens many techniques can be employed. Thepresent methods for testing grain for the presence of seed borne pathogens include microscopicanalysis, pathogenicity tests; isozyme analysis that identifies disease causing entities. However,the procedures have many drawbacks as they rely on individual examiners and are highlysubjective in their nature. The techniques include conventional techniques, biophysical, isozymeand DNA based marker and immunological techniques.- 181 -

(Seed Health Management for Better Productivity)Conventional techniques: Conventional techniques include light microscopy based detection andmorphological studies. The pathogen can also be distinguished by fluorescence microscopy(epifluorescent microscopy).Isozyme based techniques: Isozymes are enzymes which have the same substrate specificitybut different enzyme kinetics and molecular weights. Isozyme analysis is carried out to study thegenetic variation for taxonomy. However, use of such analysis is very tedious, cumbersome andneeds expertise.DNA based techniques: Seed borne pathogens are often present in very low numbers incontaminated seeds. DNA based techniques have been developed, which are highly sensitive forthe detection of pathogens. DNA based techniques can detect 2-3 cells per ml of original seedwashing. These techniques are 100 times more sensitive than other techniques. The polymerasechain reaction (PCR) in conjunction with six short arbitrary primers of random sequences can beused to perform RAPD profiling of seed borne pathogens and exhibit distinct polymorphic DNA.Efforts are going on to develop an accurate molecular based method to identify teliospores of T.indica using BIO-PCR. As few as 5 teliospores could be detected per 50 g of wheat seed. PCRbased technique is important in this case because KB teliospores are morphologically similar to T.barclayana. At the FDWSRU, at Ft. Detrick, several real time PCR assays have been developedusing TaqMan probe. Initially developed using the AVI77100 sequence detection system, theseassays have been adapted for use with both the smart cyclers and the RAPID for rapididentification at remote locations or at field sites.PCR testing is very accurate, but it is also rather expensive and technically difficult. The D-Genos firm from Angers (France) has developed assays based upon PCR (Polymerase ChainReaction) for the specific detection of pathogenic bacteria in seed soakings. Although DNA-basedtechniques are generally accepted as being more sensitive and specific for pathogen detectionthan the serological ones, they have some defects. These include the higher cost, the difficulty ofreproducing results, and the possibility of false positives and cross-contamination betweensamples. These problems need to be solved before DNA-based techniques can be used as theroutine basis of diagnosis.Immunological techniques: Immunological techniques are the most efficient for the detectionand differential diagnosis of the diseases. Various immunological techniques have been employedsuccessfully for the detection of various pathogens.Immunoassay techniques to detect plant pathogens have been largely adapted frommethods widely used in medical diagnosis. They are now routinely utilized for disease indexingplant material. Immunoassays have been revolutionized by the introduction of highly specificmonoclonal antibodies and enzyme linked immunosorbent assays (ELISAs) as routine methods todetect only the molecules (antigens) or antibody binding sites (epitopes) that are unique to the- 182 -

(Seed Health Management for Better Productivity)infecting organism, or its metabolite. These diagnostic assays are rapid and can be completed inseveral hours instead of days or even weeks.ELISA is an efficient and low-cost way to detect plant virus diseases. ELISA is based onantibodies produced by animals (usually rats or rabbits). Provided suitable antibodies areavailable, ELISA testing is usually the method of choice. It is sensitive, easy to use, and needsminimal equipment. Enzyme-Linked Immuno Sorbent Assay (ELISA) has been modified into asemi-automated system that can process thousands of samples in one day. When suitableantibodies are available, the most sensitive and efficient test for plant virus is ELISA. ELISA iswidely used, since it is easy to apply and does not need any expensive equipment.Immuno-detection strategies for disease surveillanceSeveral assay formats exist but the most common are the enzyme immunoassay basedsystems. These formats have many advantages as they are highly sensitive, easily replicated,automated and quantified. The only disadvantage is that they require lab facilities. A number of'user friendly', membrane bound, dot blot and dipstick assays, which do not require laboratoryfacilities have been developed and are being used increasingly as 'on site' screening tests. Someimmunofluorescence assays, which were developed for the immunodetection, have not beenadopted widely due to involvement of microscopy and a UV light source. In our lab we havedeveloped antibody and DNA-based as well as biophysical methods for KB diagnostics (Table 2).Among the serological methods are micro-titre ELISA, Immunofluorescence staining test (IFST),Seed immunoblot binding assay (SIBA), and Dyed latex bead agglutination test and immunodipstikassay. These immunoassay systems could be allowed for reliable quantitative assessments in ahigh throughput manner in regulatory laboratory facilities if developed in an appropriate formatsuch as easy- art technologies in the form of kits. They would be well suited for detecting KBinfestations in the field. The immunodiagnostic assays for field use are inexpensive, rapid and donot require highly trained personnel.Seed health testing: An integral component of disease managementThe Seed Health Testing Laboratory tests for over 200 viral, bacterial, and fungalpathogens on most crops, including corn, soybeans, vegetables, and flowers using a variety ofmethods. Tests are available to address nearly all phytosanitary and quality assurance concerns.All phytosanitary certification is performed in accordance with National Seed Health System(NSHS) standards. The Seed Heatlth Testing Lab is NSHS accredited, in accordance with USDA-APHIS regulations.Customers typically inquire in regards to particular seed health testing as qualitychallenges arise in field or storage. Below is examples of the test available, but many otherpathogens are available.Techniques- 183 -

(Seed Health Management for Better Productivity)Examination of dry seeds: i. Visual observation of seeds. ii. Observations using a bright fieldmicroscope. iii. Observation under near-ultraviolet/UV light. iv. Use of adhesive tape.Seed soak and washing test: i. Seed soak test. ii. Washing test. iii. Spore identification.Culture methods: i. Incubation methods. ii. Dilution plate method. iii. Fluorescence method. iv.Tissue culture. v. Conductimetric assays. vi. Vegetative compatibility group analysis.Seeding symptom test: 1. Blotter test. ii. Agar test. iii. Rolled paper towel test. iv. Soil test. v.Seedling paraquat test. vi. Bell method. vii. Plant growth medium.Infectivity test: i. Fungi. ii. Bacteria. iii. Viruses. iv. Viroids.Histopathological test: i. Whole seed stain. ii. Seed component. iii. Microtome seed sections. iv.Embryo count method.Non-destructive seed assays: i. Biopsis assay. ii. Ultrasound analysis. III. Chlorophyllfluorescence. iv. High speed optical sorters. v. Near infrared reflectance spectroscopy (NIRS). vi.Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) photoacoustic. vii. Computer image analysis.Bacteriophage testsImmunoassays: i. Precipitin test. ii. Enzyme linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). iii. Dotimmunobindingassay (DIBA). iv. Single antibody dot immunoassay (SADI). v. Serologicallyspecific electron microscopy (SSEM). vi. Immunofluorescence assay (IF). vii. Immunofluroscencecolony staining (IFC). viii. Radiommunoassays (RISA). ix. Solid phase radioimmunoassay(SPRIA). x. Immunogold labelling. xi. Enzyme linked fluorescent assay (ELFA). xii.Dispersedyeimmunoassay (DIA). xiii. Solid phase immunosorbent methods. xiv. Direct immunostainingassay. xv. Vector based assays.Nucleic acid based techniques: 1. Nucleic acid probes. ii. Restriction fragment lengthpolymorphisms (RFLP) analysis. iii. Polymerase chain reaction (PCR).Electrophoresis: i. Starch get electrophoresis. ii. Polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis. iii. Isozymenanalysis.Estimation of fungal metabolites: i. Chitin and glucosamines. ii. Ergosterol. iii. Volatilemetabolites.Estimation of fungicides on treated seeds: i. Visual observation of seeds for dye intensity. ii.Bioassay. iii. Colorimetric methods.Seed Testing ServicesKeeping pace with the changing needs of the seed industry, University can provide acomprehensive variety of tests designed and integrated to meet the needs of our customers.Standard seed testing procedures including vigor (accelerated aging andelectroconductivity), viability (standard germination and TZ), physical purity, noxious weed examsand analysis of seed mixtures.- 184 -

(Seed Health Management for Better Productivity)Isozyme Electrophoresis testing is a protein-based technology providing genetic purityinformation for hybrid and inbred seed lots. Powerful and effective, it can accurately detect thepresence of unwanted plant types in hybrid and inbred seed lots.Isoelectric Focusing is a highly versatile genetic purity testing method, with the ability toevaluate proteins from many different seed and crop species. IEF technology can be used toseparate the genetics of hybrids based upon either total protein markers or various enzymeproteins. IEF testing is a very accurate, reliable method of determining the genetic purity of a seedlot. Once the variety testing procedures have been identified selfing and outcrossing can quicklyand accurately be detected.To verify trait purity of genetically modified crops, ELISA (Enzyme-Linked Immuno SorbentAssay) technology is used to detect the presence of proteins produced by specific transgenes.This technology allows to perform: Qualitative tests for the presence or absence of protein Quantitative tests to determine the level of protein expressionDNA-based technology is the most specific and sensitive method of genetic purity testing.Using PCR (Polymerase Chain Reaction) technology, DNA detection can: Verify the presence of valuable genes Identify genetic contamination in seed lots Detect and quantify adventitious presence (AP) of biotech events in seed lots or fieldpopulations Quantify the % sterile seeds in a seed lot Measure the percent recurrent parent and homozygosity in backcross breeding programs Map qualitative and quantitative traitsDetermine zygosity of selected traitsPlant tissue culture: a mean of producing disease-free planting materialsTissue culture is now being used for the mass production of plants that are reproducedvegetatively (by cuttings), or which are difficult to grow from seed for other reasons. Seedlingsgrown by tissue culture are rather expensive, compared to those grown from cuttings. However,tissue culture has the great advantage that it can remove viruses and other pathogens, ensuringthat the seedlings are free of any disease. It is thus a good technique for producing healthyfoundation stock. Tissue culture has made possible the mass production of disease-free anduniform plants. The technique thus brings farmers the great benefit of high-quality plantingmaterials of new high-value crops.Molecular typing for genetic purity determinationDifferent DNA markers are available, including RFLP (restriction fragment lengthpolymorphism), RAPD (random amplified polymorphic DNA) and AFLP (amplified fragment lengthpolymorphism). These markers are used to characterize a variety or line, and in this way protect- 185 -

(Seed Health Management for Better Productivity)the intellectual property rights of the plant breeder. They are also used to evaluate the purity ofseeds, and to detect genetic drift in germplasm collections. In the National Laboratory for seedtesting, the Laboratory for biotechnology runs the following tests:verification of species and hybridsdetection of genetic modification of seed and food of plant originIdentification and determination of genetic purity of maize, sunflower, wheat, barley seedsand seeds of other agricultural plants are done on the basis of isoenzyme and reserve proteinsaccording to current domestic and ISTA Rules.Quantitative and qualitative detection of genetic modification in plant material and food ofplant origin is done using Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR) technology. Qualitative GMOanalysis makes it possible to determine if genetic modification is present in seed or not.Percentage of GM of soybean, maize, oil rape, potato and tomato is determined using Real Time,and PCR method.Disease diagnosis and molecular typing of seeds/plants is being revolutionized through thedevelopment of DNA probes as well as antisera and monoclonal antibody (MAb) kits. With thesetools, disease detection becomes more rapid and accurate, replacing the need to culturepathogens for identification. Besides, these tools are being used not only in seed health testing butalso identification of plant varieties.Table 1 Attributes to be considered in selection of diagnostic method----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------1. Sampling planRandomizationNumbers to be drawn per predefined lot2. Sample preparationNon destructive diagnostic methodsDestructive diagnostic methodsHandling before examinationTransportationIncubation3. Biological amplificationExtraction and isolationCulture in case of pathogensPreparation of macerate and dilutionsComposition of extraction fluid4. Enumeration procedureQualitative testQuantitative test5. OperationSimple, Fast, Rapid.----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 186 -

(Seed Health Management for Better Productivity)Table 2 Diagnostic technique developed for detection of Karnal bunt of wheatType of diagnosticassays techniquesConventional techniquesSeedling test, Blolter test,Agar test, Embryo testPathogenic entityGerminatingTeliospores and mycelialgrowthPurposeSubjective techniques forpathologistsLight microscopy Teliospores Detection and differentiation ofteliospores ofTilletia sps based onmorphological he diesEpifluorescents Microscopy Teliospores Differentiation of teliospores basedon emission of fluorescenceBiophysical techniquesOptical sorting Telispores in Kernels Separation of bunted grains fromseed wheatPhotospectroscopyacousticTeliospores myceliumIsozyme based techniquesStarch gel electrophoresis Single teliosporesfor isozyme analysis mycelial culturesNuclic acid basedtechniquesBio.PCR Single teliosporesmycelial culturesRAPD-PCR Single telisoporesFluoragenic PCR 5huclatide PCR assayRSPD-PCRRAPD- PCRSpecific – PCRPCRRFLP & RAPDmycelial culturesSingle teliospore mycelialculturesDifferentiation and detection basedon characteristics photoaccousticpeaks and intensity of signalDifferentiation based on isozymeprofilesDifferential amplification of genefragmentsDiffernetial RAPD profilesDifferentiation of tilliosporesGene tic variability amongst Tilletiaindica isolatesIdentification of Tilletia based onamplification of species specificmitochondria DNA amplificationIdentification of tillletia indicaGenetic variability amongst tilletiaspsGenetic relationship between buntfungiRAPD and ribosomal DNAmarkersAntibody based techniquesImmunofluorescent assay Teliospores Differentiation of teliospores of buntfungiMicrotitre ELISA Funal Mycelium Detection and quantitation of KBmyceliumModulation of antigenicity duringgrowth cycleImmunopatholsing of KB isolatesFluorescent immunostaining festTeliosporesDyed latex beadSolubilized teliosporesagglertination testImmunodipstick test Intact & solublizedteliosporesDetection and differential diagnosisof seed borne pathogensCharacterization of anligenicepitopes of teliosporesIdentification of teliosporesDo- 187 -

(Seed Health Management for Better Productivity)Seeds: The Tale of BiotechnologyAnil Kumar and Dinesh YadavDepartment of MBGE, CBSH, G.B.P.U.A.&T., Pantnagar-263145 (Uttarakhand)“Seeds are the connection between the past and the future. They contain the accumulatedgenetic wisdom of the past, and the potential for its perpetuation in the future”Seed is the most important determinant of agricultural production potential, on whichthe efficacy of other agriculture inputs is dependent. Seeds of appropriate characteristics arerequired to meet the demand of diverse ago-climatic conditions and intensive croppingsystems. Sustained increase in agriculture production and productivity is dependent to alarge extent, on development of new improved varieties of crops and an efficient system fortimely supply of quality seeds to farmers. The seed sector has made impressive progressover the last three decades. There has been considerable progress in production of goodquality seeds at commercial level with the involvement of multinational companiesthroughout the world. The production and distribution of seeds is a complex processinvolving farmers, growers, government agencies, research institutions and otherstakeholders. The demand for hybrid seeds and transgenic seeds is also increasing basedon the added benefit of better yield and incorporation of desired traits. Seeds are the sourceof life and delivery systems for agricultural biotechnology. Quality seeds are the most criticaland basic input for agricultural output, and accounts for 25-30% of yield increase. In India80% of the farmers rely on farm-saved seeds which may results in low yield. Indian seedsprogramme recognizes three kind of seed generations namely breeder, foundation andcertified seeds. There has been substantial increase in the production of foundation seedsand distribution of quality/ certified seeds as compared to breeder seed in the recent years.The area under certified seeds has increased from less than 500 hectares in 1962-63 to over5 lakh hectares in 1999-2000. The quantum of quality seeds has crossed 100 lakh quintals.The seed sector is seen as a major driver of agriculture sector in the country and isexpected to enhance the production based on increased seed replacement rate, higherconversion, wider use of proprietary hybrids, increased farmer awareness of new methodsand introduction of technologically advance products that offer improved biotic and abiotictraits. The commercial seed market in the country accounts for 25 per cent of the totalmarket potential and the remaining 75 per cent is dominated by vareital seeds that farmersretain from prominent food and commercial crops. Seed quality is an important considerationin agricultural practices and needs to be evaluated for better production. Seed quality is acomplex trait being influenced by interaction of numerous genetic and environmental factors.High quality seed leads to excellent seedling performance in the field and is need of thehour. Conventional plant breeding approach in combination with modern biotechnological- 188 -

(Seed Health Management for Better Productivity)tools can enhance physiological quality, vigor and synchronity of seeds to establish a crop in thefield under diverse environmental conditions.Varietal identification: A core issue in seed productionConventionally identification of any cultivar has relied on morphological markers, whichrequires a detailed study of seeds and or growing plants and the observation recording andanalysis of a number of morphological characters. However, these methods are subjective andmay be influenced by environmental conditions. Further these markers were not quite enough toexpose the genetic diversity between the morphological overlap cultivars and the morphologicalidentical accessions. The need, therefore, for new method such as molecular methods wasdisparate. These methods are independent of cultivar morphology and physiology, and offersignificant advantages over morphological methods of variety and/or species identification in thatthey are rapid, relatively cheap, eliminate the need to grow plants to maturity and are largelyunaffected by the growing environment.Molecular methods for variety identification can be divided in to two classes:1. Protein based methods and 2. DNA based methodsBecause of the increased emphasis on quality of food product for specific purposes, thereis a need for development of methods which ensure quality assurance, variety identitypreservation, seed purity and product traceability. Exporters, importers and consumers globally aredemanding higher quality products, including specific varieties of grain for specific purposes.Hence, with the advent of new technology, stricter quality control and international competition, theimportance of efficient varietal identification techniques can not be neglected. Varietal identificationtechniques are also required for enforcement of Intellectual property rights and resolution ofcontroversial issues related with the use of patented variety and introduction of a variety forcommercial production. Varietal identification is required for discrimination of various crop varietiesof agriculture and horticulture and is crucial from seed technology view point. For example, it isessential for maintenance of plant breeders rights, and implementation of rigid standards forvarietal identity and purity. Varietal identification techniques are also important to check hybridity ofthe cultivars which is essential to detect if varieties are segregating or not.Seed quality improvementSeed technologies include priming, pelleting, coating, artificial seeds, and other novel seedtreatment methods for quality improvement. Seed germination is controlled by environmentalfactors (light, temperature, water) and on plant hormones as endogenous regulators (gibberellins,abscisic acid, ethylene, auxin, cytokinins, brassinosteroids). The utilization of plant hormones andinhibitors of their biosynthesis and action in seed treatment technologies affects seed germinationand seedling emergence. The genes, enzymes, signaling components and down-stream targets ofplant hormones provide molecular marker for seed quality and seedling performance.Various mechanical techniques like polishing off or rubbing off seed coat (testa) or fruitcoat (pericarp) projections or hairs and seed sorting by sizes and seed density can contribute to- 189 -

(Seed Health Management for Better Productivity)the seed quality assurance. Different methods can be used to enhance seeds and seedlingperformances namelyi) Film-coating methods: It allows the chemicals to be applied in a synthetic polymer that issprayed onto the seeds and provide a solid, thin coat covering them. The advantage of thepolymers is that they adhere tightly to the seed and prevent loss of active materials like fungicides,nutrients, colorants or plant hormones. Some novel applications of film coating are used to modifyimbibitions and germination. They can confer temperature-sensitive water permeability to seeds oraffect gaseous exchange. By this they control the timing of seed germination and seedlingemergence.ii) Seed pelleting methods: This adds thicker artificial coverings to seeds, which can be used tocover irregular seed shapes and add chemicals to the pellet matrix, e.g. of sugar beet or vegetableseeds. The pellet matrix consists of filling materials and glue. Loam, starch, tyllose (cellulosederivative) or polyacrylate/polyacrylamide polymers are commercially used. Seed pelleting is alsoused to increase the size of very small horticultural seeds. This provides improved plantingfeatures, e.g. singulate planting, the use of planting machines, or precise placement and visibilityin/on the soil.iii) Seed Priming methods: It is the most important physiological seed enhancement method.Seed priming is a hydration treatment that allows controlled imbibition and induction of the pregerminativemetabolism ("activation"), but radicle emergence is prevented. The hydrationtreatment is stopped before desiccation tolerance is lost. An important problem is to stop thepriming process in the right moment; this time depends on the species and the seed batch.Molecular marker can be used to control the priming process. Priming solutions can besupplemented with plant hormones or beneficial microorganisms. The seeds can be dried back forstorage, distribution and planting. Germination speed and synchrony of primed seeds areenhanced and can be interpreted in the way that priming increases seed vigor. A widertemperature range for germination, release of dormancy and faster emergence of uniformseedlings is achieved. This leads to better crop stands and higher yields. A practical drawback ofprimed seeds is often a decrease in storability and the need for cool storage temperatures.Several types of priming viz. Osmopriming, Hydropriming and Matrixpriming are commonly used.i) Osmopriming (osmoconditioning) is the standard priming technique. Seeds are incubated inwell aerated solutions with a low water potential, and afterwards washes and dried. The low waterpotential of the solutions can be achieved by adding osmotica like mannitol, polyethyleneglycol(PEG) or salts like KCl.ii) Hydropriming (drum priming) is achieved by continuous or successive addition of a limitedamount of water to the seeds. A drum is used for this purpose and the water can also be appliedby humid air. 'On-farm steeping' is the cheep and useful technique that is practiced by incubatingseeds (cereals, legumes) for a limited time in warm water.- 190 -

(Seed Health Management for Better Productivity)iii) Matrixpriming (matriconditioning) is the incubation of seeds in a solid, insoluble matrix(vermiculite, diatomaceous earth, cross-linked highly water-absorbent polymers) with a limitedamount of water. This method confers a slow imbibition.Hybrid seeds production:The contribution of agriculture to the national economy has been constantly declining45.2% to 21% during 2005-06 in India. The challenge is to increase productivity in the scenario ofreducing/ stagnant resources of land and water, and significant losses due to several biotic andabiotic stresses. Hybrid seed technology can contribute to the overall productivity once usedjudiciously.The successful development and use of hybrid rice technology in china during 1970’s ledthe way for development and release of rice hybrid varieties elsewhere. India has made goodprogress in this regard and numbers of hybrid varieties of rice are being used by the farmers.Hybrid-rice can be produced in the following ways.1. Three-line system: The hybrid seed production involves multiplication of cytoplasmicgeneticmale sterile line(A line), maintainer line (B line) and a restorer line (R line); andproduction of F1 hybrid seed (AxR)2. Two-line system: The hybrid seed production involves the use of photo-period sensitivegenetic male steriles (PSMS). Any normal line can serve as a restorer.3. By using chemical emasculators: Chemicals that can sterilize the stamen, with little or noeffect on the normal functioning of the pistil, can be used to emasculate female parents forhybrid rice production. The advantages are obvious, no special development of malesterile or restorer lines is required, and extensive varietal resources are available.Chemical emasculators such as male gametocie 1(MF1) and male gametocie 2(MG2) weredeveloped in China and have been successfully used in hybrid rice production. In chemicalemascultion, physiological male sterility is artificially created by spraying the rice plant withchemicals to induce stamen sterility without harming the pistil. In hybrid seed production,two varieties are planted in alternate strips, and one is chemically sterilized and pollinatedby the other.Artificial seeds production:Cell culture and regeneration techniques allow the mass production of somatic embryos,which can subsequently be packed in a suitable gel-type matrix (agar- agar, gums, dextrans) andcovered with artificial seed coat and are referred as artificial seeds. This can be used to generategenetically identical seedlings of poplar, orchids and other species. Further it can be used as animportant packaging system.Biotechnological interventions in quality seed productionAlthough conventional plant breeding methods have led to development of crop varietieswhich eventually resulted in sustained increase in crop productivity, they are now superseded byselection procedures based on modern biotechnological tools such as marker assisted selection- 191 -

(Seed Health Management for Better Productivity)and genetic engineering to transfer relevant genes in to our crops. Modern biotechnologicalmethods have enabled to unravel the molecular basis of a trait which has led to identification ofcandidate genes/proteins. Genetic engineering has potential to transfer these important candidategene/protein across the species which is otherwise not possible by conventional plant breedingmethods. As a result of this complementation superior crop varieties are now being generatedwhich are highly productive, nutritive and tolerant to various biotic and abiotic stresses as well costeffective both for consumers and farmers.Biotechnology will be a key factor in development in the coming decades. Geneticengineering/modification techniques hold enormous promise in developing crop varieties with ahigher level of tolerance to biotic, abiotic stress and insect resistance (BT). Some genes usuallyconfer resistance to herbicides, insects, pests and resistance to draught and salinity. This providesstrength to harness useful genes for developing plant types with in-built resistance for biotic andabiotic stresses and improved nutritional quality. A conducive atmosphere for application of frontiersciences in varietals development and for enhanced investments in research and development is apressing requirement. At the same time, concerns relating to possible harm to human health andbio-safety as well as interests of farmers, must be addressed.Genetically modified seedsModern biotechnology has introduced new agricultural products based on the preciserecombinant DNA technology incorporating the desired gene with important agronomical traits inthe recent years. The introduction of genetically modified Bollgard cotton seeds containing aprotein from soil microbe called Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt), which protects the crop from bollwormsand requires less pesticides has been a successful story in India. India's average per-hectareyield has risen by two-thirds to 501 kg since farmers started planting GM seeds in 2002.In 2004, the global area of transgenic crops continued to grow for the eight consecutiveyears at a sustained growth rate and was found to approx 83 million hectares in year 2004compared with 67.7 million hectares in 2003. Of six leading GM crop countries (USA, Argentina,Canada, Brazil, China and South Africa), China and South Africa had the highest year to yearincrease with approx. 40% growth rate. China increased its Bt cotton area for the sixth consecutiveyear. The US$ 2.5 billion GM seed market is dominated by a single corporation that sells GMseeds for four major crop commodities (soybean, maize, cotton, canola) in three countries (USA,Argentina and Canada). The expansion in this direction could include possibilities such as:1. The application of GM technology to a wider range of crop types giving improved yield andquality.2. A range of more valuable agronomic traits, such as resistance to common pests orimprovements in the efficiency with which crops can assimilate nutrients.3. GM foods with consumer benefits, such as longer shelf life, or health benefits, such asimproved nutritional content or reduced allergenicity.- 192 -

(Seed Health Management for Better Productivity)4. A wide range of non-food crops, which could include the production of pharmaceuticals,industrial oils, renewable materials and crops which could be used directly in theproduction of energy and fuel. Production for fuel could become increasingly attractive inthe event of more favorable revenue conditions applying to bio-fuels.The GM seed market represents about 10% of the commercial seed market worldwide.The total GM seed market in India has an estimated value of US$25 million. India increased its BTcotton area by 100%; India placed 8 th partition with 0.1 million hectares production. GEAC hasapproved the commercialized cultivation of BT cotton in April 2002 in six states in the country,which include Maharashtra, Gujarat, M.P., A.P., Tamil Nadu and Karnataka. Other crops such asmustard, soybean corn and potatoes are expected to receive approval in the near future. The GMseeds segment in India is dominated by various companies such as Mahyco, Monrto, ProAgro,Aduantor, Mahyco Monsanto.Biotechnological tool for maintenance of hybridityBarnase-barstar system : Gene barnase encodes an RNAse which kills the cells in which it isexpressed by degrading RNA. The expression of barnase was confined to tapetal cells by fusing itwith the promoter of tobacco tapetum specific gene TA29 ( gene construct : pTA29- barnase; ppromoter ). When the chimaeric gene construct was transferred and expressed in tobacco andoilseed rape, the tapetal cells of anthers were destroyed and there was no pollen development.However there was no effect on female fertility. Since the male sterility due to barnase isdominant, the male sterile lines are always heterozygous (barnase/- ; the – sign indicates absenceof barnase gene in homologous chromosome) and they have to be maintained by crossing to anynormal, non transformed male fertile line (-/-; barnase gene absent). Thus male sterile lines (barnase/-) will have to be crossed to be normal fertile lines (-/-), and only 50% of the progeny fromsuch crosses will be male sterile while rest 50% will be male fertile (-/-). In a hybrid seedproduction programme the male fertile plants present in male sterile line must be identified andeasily eliminated. This has been done by linking the barnase gene with the bar gene fromStreptomyces: bar gene confers resistance to herbicide phosphinothricin. When such male sterile (barnase-bar/-) plants are maintained by crossing with normal male fertile (-/-), all the male sterileprogeny ( barnase-bar/- ) are resistant to the herbicide, while all the male fertile plants (-/-) areherbicide susceptible. The male fertile plants are therefore eliminated by a herbicide spray at anearly stage of plant growth.The male fertility of barnase male steriles is restored by another gene, barstar, of thebacterium B. amyloliquefaciens. The gene barstar encodes a specific inhibitor of barnase encodedRNase. The barstar product forms a highly stable 1:1 non-covalently bound complex with the barnaseRNase; this reaction provides protection to the bacterial cells from their own RNase product.Transgenic plants expressing barstar are male fertile without any phenotypic effect, and are easilymaintained in the homozygous state. When a homozygous barstar male fertile line is crossed with abarnase male sterile all the progeny plants are male fertile since barstar gene product effectively- 193 -

(Seed Health Management for Better Productivity)inhibits the barnase RNAse in barnase-bar/barstar plants. This male sterility/fertility system has showncommercial promise in maize and oilseed rape and can be easily extended to other crop species.Seeds as target for molecular farming:One of the emerging fields of plant biotechnology, referred to as “Molecular Farming”, hasbeen used in recent years to produce value-added products for nutraceuticals, pharmaceuticals,and other industrial applications. Molecular farming is defined as the production of proteins orother metabolites valuable to medicine or industry in plants traditionally used in an agriculturalsetting. The concept of using plants as hosts for the production of valuable proteins has beencalled "molecular farming". A wide range of pharmacologically interesting proteins can beexpressed in diverse plant organs and seeds can be one important host. This has as anadvantage that these transgenic seeds harboring the protein of interest can be stored in the drystate for a long time and the integrity of the pharmacologically interesting protein is kept. Modifiedseeds storage proteins and modified oleosin proteins have been used for this purpose.The accumulation of recombinant antibodies in seeds allows long-term storage at ambienttemperatures because the proteins amass in a stable form. Seeds have the appropriatebiochemical environment for protein accumulation, and achieve this through the creation ofspecialized storage compartments, such as protein bodies and storage vacuoles, which arederived from the secretory pathway. Seeds are also desiccated, which reduces the exposure ofstored proteins to non enzymatic hydrolysis and protease degradation. Cereal seeds also lack thephenolic substances that are present in tobacco leaves, so increasing the efficiency ofdownstream processing. Maize is now the main commercial production crop for recombinantproteins, which reflects advantages such as high biomass yield, ease of transformation and in vitromanipulation, and ease of scale-up. Maize is also being used for the production of recombinantantibodies and further technical/pharmaceutical enzymes, such as laccase, trypsin and aprotinin.The use of barley grains as bioreactors for highly active and thermo-tolerant hybrid cellulase (1,4-ßglucanase) was investigated .Alfalfa and soybean produce lower amounts of leaf biomass than tobacco, but have theadvantage of using atmospheric nitrogen through nitrogen fixation, thereby reducing the need forchemical inputs. Both species have been used to produce recombinant antibodies. Pea is beingdeveloped as a production system, although at present the yields that are possible with thisspecies are low.Seed storage proteins as target for nutritional quality improvements anddevelopment of nutraceuticalsIn general, cereal seed storage proteins are low in lysine and tryptophan while legumes aredeficient in the sulfur containing amino acids, methionine and cysteine and hence can beconsidered as nutritionally poor. Biotechnological approach for improving seed storage proteinquality can be i) protein sequence modification ii) synthetic genes iii) overexpression ofhomologous genes and iv) Transfer and expression of heterologous genes. In order to establishragi as nutraceutical crop, value added products for diabetics, pregnant women and children in theform of breakfast and meals can be prepared based on the scientific rationale explored in our lab.- 194 -

(Seed Health Management for Better Productivity)New Approaches to Pest Risk Analysis for Quarantine Pests(Mrs.) Ruchira TiwariDepartment of Entomology, G.B.P.U.A.&T., Pantnagar-263145 (Uttarakhand)What is Pest Risk Analysis (PRA)Pest Risk analysis is a process of investigation, evaluation of information and decisionmaking with respect to a certain pest, that starts once it is known or determined that this pest is aquarantine pest. Subsequently, an evaluation of the potential of introduction of the pest into thecountry is done along with its economic, social and environmental consequences. Withidentification, determination and evaluation done, the process culminates with decision making toavoid or reduce the probability of entrance or establishment of the pest into the country.There are generally two initiation points for a PRA:The identification of a pathway, usually an imported commodity, that may allow theintroduction and/or spread of quarantine pestsThe identification of a pest that may qualify as a quarantine pestThe review or revision of phytosanitary policies and priorities.The PRA process as described in the International Standards For Phytosanitary Measures(ISPM) is divided into four phases –Pest risk initiation, Pest risk assessment, Pest riskmanagement and Pest risk communication/documentation.General Requirements for Pest Risk Analysis (Pra)Phase 1: Pest Risk InitiationThe initiation phase begins with the identification of the pest. In the PRA process, foraccess of a commodity such as a fruit, a seed or a grain, the specific commodity has to beidentified botanically and the parts of the plant that form this commodity have to be determined.Once this is completed, a list of pests in the country of import and export, can be prepared.There are generally three initiation points for a pest risk analysis (see Figure 1):1. PRA Initiated by a PathwayA requirement for a new or revised PRA originating from a specific pathway willmost frequently arise in the following situations:- International trade is initiated in a new commodity (usually a plant or plant product) or acommodity from a new origin.- New plant species are imported for selection and scientific research purposes.- A pathway other than commodity import is identified (natural spread, mail, garbage,passenger's baggage etc.).- A policy decision is taken to establish or revise phytosanitary regulations or- requirements concerning specific commodities.- A new treatment, system or process, or new information impacts on an earlier decision.- 195 -

(Seed Health Management for Better Productivity)- The pests which are likely to follow the pathway (e.g. be carried by the commodity) arethen listed, and each is then subjected to Stage 2 in the PRA process. If no potentialquarantine pests are identified as likely to follow the pathway, the PRA stops at this point.2. PRA Initiated by a PestA requirement for a new or revised PRA originating from a specific pest will mostfrequently arise in the following situations:- An emergency arises on discovery of an established infestation or an outbreak of a newpest within a PRA area.- An emergency arises on interception of a new pest on an imported commodity.- A new pest risk is identified by scientific research.- A pest is introduced into a new area other than the PRA area.- A pest is reported to be more damaging in a new area other than the PRA area itself, thanin its area of origin.- Audits reveal that a particular pest is repeatedly intercepted.3. PRA initiated by the review or revision of a policyA requirement for a new or revised PRA originating from policy concerns will mostfrequently arise in the following situations:- A national decision is taken to review phytosanitary regulations, requirements or operations- A proposal made by another country or by an international organization (RPPO, FAO) isreviewed- A new treatment or loss of a treatment system, a new process, or new information impactson an earlier decision- A dispute arises on phytosanitary measures- The phytosanitary situation in a country changes, a new country is created, or politicalboundaries have changed.The specific pest identified is then subjected to Stage 2 in the PRA process.Phase 2. : Pest Risk AssessmentAfter Stage 1, a pest, or list of pests (in the case of initiation by a pathway),are identifiedwhich are to be subjected to risk assessment. Stage 2 considers these pests individually (seeFigure 2). It examines, for each, whether the criteria for quarantine pest status are satisfied or not:Quarantine pests- "a pest of potential economic importance to the area endangered therebyand not yet present there, or present but not widely distributed and beingofficially controlled".In this context, "area" should be "an officially defined country, part of a country, or all or partof several countries", and "endangered area" should be "an area where ecological factorsfavour the establishment of a pest whose presence in the area will result in economicallyimportant loss".- 196 -

(Seed Health Management for Better Productivity)In doing so, the PRA considers all aspects of each pest and in particular actual informationabout its geographical distribution, biology and economic importance. Expert judgment is thenused to assess the establishment, spread and economic importance potential in the PRA area.Finally, the potential for introduction into the PRA area is characterized.1. Economic Importance CriteriaFor potential economic importance to be expressed, a pest must become established andspread. Thus the risk of a pest, having entered, becoming established and spreading in the PRAarea must be characterized. The factors to be considered are set out below.a. Establishment potentialIn order to estimate the establishment potential of a pest, reliable biological information (lifecycle, host range, epidemiology, survival etc.) should be obtained from the areas where the pestcurrently occurs. Examples of the factors to consider are:- availability, quantity and distribution of hosts in the PRA area- environmental suitability in the PRA area- potential for adaptation of the pest- reproductive strategy of the pest- method of pest survival.If a pest has no potential for establishment in the PRA area, then it does not satisfy thedefinition of a quarantine pest and the PRA for the pest stops at this point.2. Spread potential after establishmentIn order to estimate spread potential of the pest, reliable, biological information should beobtained from areas where the pest currently occurs.Examples of the factors to consider are:- suitability of the natural and/or managed environment for natural spread of the pest- movement with commodities or conveyances- intended use of the commodity- potential vectors of the pest in the PRA area- potential natural enemies of the pest in the PRA area.The information on spread potential is used to estimate how rapidly a pest's potentialeconomic importance may be expressed within the PRA area. This also has significance if the pestis liable to enter and establish in an area of low potential economic importance and then spread toan area of high potential economic importance. In addition it may be important in the riskmanagement stage (see Figure 3) when considering the ease with which an introduced pest couldbe contained or eradicated.3. Potential economic importanceThe next step in the PRA process is to determine whether the pest is of potential economicimportance in the PRA area. In order to estimate the potential economic importance of the pest,information should be obtained from areas where the pest currently occurs. For each of these- 197 -

(Seed Health Management for Better Productivity)areas, note whether the pest causes major, minor or no damage. Note whether the pest causesdamage frequently or infrequently. Relate this, if possible, to biotic and abiotic effects, particularlyclimate. The situation in the PRA area can then be carefully compared with that in the areas wherethe pest currently occurs.Examples of the factors to consider are:- type of damage- crop losses- loss of export markets- increases in control costs- effects on ongoing integrated pest management (IPM) programmes- environmental damage- capacity to act as a vector for other pests- perceived social costs such as unemployment.If a pest has no potential economic importance in the PRA area, then it does not satisfy thedefinition of a quarantine pest and the PRA for the pest stops at this point.4. Introduction PotentialThe final stage of assessment concerns the introduction potential which depends on thepathways from the exporting country to the destination, and the frequency andquantity of pests associated with them. Documented pathways for the pest to enter new areasshould be noted. Potential pathways which may not currently exist should be assessed if known.The following is a partial checklist that may be used to estimate the introduction potential dividedinto those factors which may affect the likelihood of entry and those factors which may affect thelikelihood of establishment.Entry- opportunity for contamination of commodities or conveyances by the pest- survival of the pest under the environmental conditions of transport- ease or difficulty of detecting the pest at entry inspection- frequency and quantity of pest movement into the PRA area by natural means- frequency and number of persons entering from another country at any given port ofentry.Establishment:- number and frequency of consignments of the commodity- number of individuals of a given pest associated with the means of conveyance- intended use of the commodity- environmental conditions and availability of hosts at the destination and duringtransport in the PRA area.Conclusion for Stage 2- 198 -

(Seed Health Management for Better Productivity)If the pest satisfies the definition of a quarantine pest, expert judgement should be used toreview the information collected during Stage 2 to decide whether the pest has sufficient economicimportance and introduction potential, i.e. sufficient risk, for phytosanitary measures to be justified.If so, proceed to Stage 3; if not, the PRA for the pest stops at this point3.Phase 3: Pest Risk ManagementPest risk management (see Figure 3) to protect the endangered areas should beproportional to the risk identified in the pest risk assessment. In most respects it can be based onthe information gathered in the pest risk assessment. Phytosanitary measures should be appliedto the minimum area necessary for the effective protection of the endangered area.1. Risk Management OptionsA list of options for reducing risks to an acceptable level should be assembled. Theseoptions will primarily concern pathways and in particular the conditions for permitting entry ofcommodities. Examples of the options to consider are:- inclusion in list of prohibited pests- phytosanitary inspection and certification prior to export- definition of requirements to be satisfied before export (e.g. treatment, origin from pest freearea, growing season inspection, certification scheme).- inspection at entry- treatment at point of entry, inspection station or, if appropriate, at place of destination- detention in post-entry quarantinepost-entry measures (restrictions on use of commodity, control measures)- prohibition of entry of specific commodities from specific origins.2. Efficacy and Impact of the OptionsThe efficacy and impact of the various options in reducing risk to an acceptable levelshould be evaluated, in terms of the following factors:- biological effectiveness- cost/benefit of implementation- impact on existing regulations- commercial impact- social impact- phytosanitary policy considerations- time to implement a new regulation- efficacy of option against other quarantine pests- environmental impact.In order to determine which options are appropriate, it may be advisable to communicate withinterested and affected groups within and outside the PRA area.Conclusion for Stage 3At the end of Stage 3, the appropriate phytosanitary measures concerning the pest- 199 -

(Seed Health Management for Better Productivity)or pathway should be decided. Completion of Stage 3 is essential; it is in particular not justified tocomplete only Stages 1 and 2 and then take phytosanitary measures without proper assessmentof risk management options. After implementation of the phytosanitary measures, theireffectiveness should be monitored and the risk management options should be reviewed, ifnecessary.4. Documenting THE Pra ProcessA PRA should be sufficiently documented so that when a review or a dispute arises, thePRA will clearly state the sources of information and the rationales used in reaching amanagement decision regarding phytosanitary measures taken or to be taken. The main elementsof documentation are:- purpose for the PRA,- pest, pest list, pathways, PRA area, endangered area,- sources ofinformation,- categorized pest list, conclusions of risk assessment, probability, consequences, riskmanagement, options identified, options selectedNecessary Information on a Product which is to be subjected to the PRA pocess1. Scientific name, genus, species and family of the plant, product or by-product of interest.2. Localization, altitude, and latitude of the areas of production designated to exportation inthe country of origin.3. Map of the country showing the areas of production designated to exportation and otherareas.4. Climatical conditions in the areas of production- Maximum and minimum temperatures- Level of precipitation- Predominant winds- Relative humidity5. Phenology of the crop, emphasizing the most important phases of growth according to theuse and destiny of the product: leaf development, flowering and fructification6. Phytosanitary management of the crop, showing dates and stages of major pestincidences.7. List of quarantine pests by stages of development of the crop, emphasizing the importantpests related to the part of the plant which is being imported8. List of pests of quarantine importance according to the A1 and A2 pest lists both of theimporting and exporting country.9. Biology, and actual situation, distribution, economic damage of the important quarantinepests in the production zone designated for export- A 1 Pest list- list of quarantine pests associated with the plant product which are notpresent in the importing country- 200 -

(Seed Health Management for Better Productivity)- A 2 Pest List- list of pest of quarantine importance associated with the product foundonly in parts of the importing country and are subjected to official control10. Pre and post harvest phytosanitary treatments for important quarantine pests.11. Interior phytosanitary regulations of the exporting country related to the crop of interest, orpests identified as quarantine pests if such regulations are present in the country .12. Vigilance and monitoring systems to prevent the outbreak of pests of quarantineimportance if such systems are present in the country.13. Infrastructure for the application of recognized quarantine treatments for the pests ofquarantine importance.14. Volumes of production and exportation15. List of natural enemies of the pests of quarantine importance, if they exist in the exportingcountry related to the plant, product or byproduct of interest.Figure 1PEST RISK ANALYSISStage 1: InitiationIdentifypathwayIdentifypestSTOP YesValidearlieranalysis?Validearlieranalysis?YesSTOPnonoSTOPnoPotentialquarantine pestsidentified?PotentialquarantinepestYesGO TO STAGE 2- 201 -

(Seed Health Management for Better Productivity)Figure 2PEST RISK ANALYSISStage 2: AssessmentPotentialquarantine pestnoPresent inPRA area?yesAreasuitable forestablishment?noLimiteddistribution?yesSTOPyesWill haveeconomicimportance?nononoAlreadyunder officialcontrol?yesHas economicimportance?yesyesHas economicimportance?Put underofficial controlyesSTOPQuarantinepestEvaluateintroductionpotentialGO TO STAGE-3- 202 -

(Seed Health Management for Better Productivity)Figure 3PEST RISK ANALYSISStage 3: Management from stage 2Generate, evaluateand comparemanagement optionsSelect optionMonitor andevaluate afterimplementation- 203 -

(Seed Health Management for Better Productivity)Communication Skills for TeachingB. KumarDepartment of Agriculture Communication, G.B.P.U.A.&T., Pantnagar-263145 (Uttarakhand)What is so sacred about teaching. Anybody with educational qualification feels qualified toteach. Teaching is not same as lecturing or preaching. It is not simply telling facts. Effectiveteaching is orderly, businesslike and focused on learning outcome.All good teachers approachteaching systematically and at the level of the learners. Learning is different among individuals.Teachers must understand learners’ interests experiences and needs. Effective teaching ismotivating and pleasant experience.What is teaching?Learners do not have empty minds. They have experiences, habits and presumptions. Soteaching is stimulating them to absorb. It requires more then more knowledge of the subject.Agood teacher must know his subject thoroughly. He should understand the learners, psychologyand level of learning besides, a must have knowledge and skills in methods of teaching. In order toteach someone effectively a personal report is needed. Thus, teacher must be skilled incommunication.An Expert Highly Commented that Teaching is the technique or better still the art whichenables use to proceed from merely knowing to “making known”. A gift for teaching is possessionof a dynamic force which brings out an inner store of knowledge. It is the force which enlivensknowledge and give the capacity is art of making others understand what we have understoodourselves.Thus, the focus of teaching is not merely on scholarship or expertise but also the techniqueof communication through which learners can be motivated to learn. Such a technique can comeform in-depth observation of learner and the way they learn. All individuals differ in learning. So theteaching must provide variable learning solutions.Such a knowledge in case of agricultural education is not only the critical but practical andrelated to field problem. Thus, the teacher must have sufficient fields experience to understand thesolutions. He should know how to organize learning experience to choice desire learning outcome.It is thus, clear that teaching requires special understanding about the ways and means to makeothers learn.Pattern Of Effective TeachingVarious researches an teaching have concluded some common pattern about teaching asgiven below: Clarity: Effective teaching is simple and clear. It is easy for learners to understand and apply.Teachers relate topic to the experiences and level of understanding of learners. They employexample and analogies to clarify the subject. Variability: good teaching has Varity. Varity comes from audio-visuals stimuli used byteachers. If a teacher talks continuously in the same tone, learners get bored. A teacher mayvary volume, he may use visuals. He may shift from lecturing to getting inputs of learners.Various Sources Of Variability In The Classroom May Be:‣ Speaking to writing/drawing.‣ Chang in volume‣ Change in pace of speaking- 204 -

(Seed Health Management for Better Productivity)‣ Shift from teacher talk to student talk‣ Shift from listing only to solving problem‣ Shift in movement from podium to classroom Enthusiasm: Enthusiasm is contagious. It effects others. If teacher is full of enthusiasm aboutthe subject he may communicate to students in no uncertain term. Students feel motivated. Ithas been a common of effective teacher. Business Like Behaviour: an effective teacher is a professional. He plans his lesson,approaches class in step by step manner to loads to the learning outcome. He should beginand end class in time. He should use audio-visual aids and verity of teaching methodsappropriate to the subject and learners. Recommendation: thus, some of the general practices recommendations for making effectiveare as below: Plan Your Teaching: well in advance no matter how experienced and adept you are in thesubject, you must organize your lesson step by step from beginning to end. It is better todevelop the sequence of teaching in the beginning of semester. So that audio-visual aids,hands-out, exercises and assignments can be detailed before hand. Maintain A Positive Atmosphere: classrooms are not meant for perching and controlling.Students in higher education are adults. They must be respected and treated with care. Knowstudents by name. involve in classroom instruction and know their special talents. Knowingthem, giving them praise and solving their problems helps in creating positive relationship. Involve Students In The Class: learning is enhanced if students are octively involved. Inorder to involve students, ask for their inputs form time to time a sense of learnership. You maypose a practical problem and seek their views. Involve students in discussion. Use Various Sense: learning is best when different senses re used. Apart from lectures planvisits, practical season, discussion and seminars to create interest. It is common inprofessional subjects to assign project related with topic to help students work independently. Lead to Higher of Learning: learning fats by memorizing is not enough. Professionalsubjects like agriculture is meant for problem solving. Students must discuss and solveproblems and analysis cases to develop. Through Understanding: become an experiment list in teaching to test various methods andapproaches and know that works better .Some Do’s‣ Focus on concrete learning outcome. Make it pleasant experience.‣ Involve learners‣ Instill in them a desire to learn‣ Manage time effectively‣ Praise good work- 205 -

(Seed Health Management for Better Productivity)‣ Supervise learning closelySome Don’ts Know students as persons Do not use enviroment as substitute to teaching.You may pass time with humour but it will be liked by lazier section of the class. All willknow the game you are playing. Do not favour a particular section of class over other.Teachers may have own basis. Mostly we focus more attention as those who respondfrequently. The other section feels neglated. Be discreet in asking questions or assigning roles. Do not over use examples from your own life.If you always quote examples from your travel abroad or hard work students may make fun of itand the story will pass generation to generation. Do not give blind assignmentsAssignments must be based on the lesson objective and be feasible. Giving a reading assignmentto 30 students when only three confess of the related title is available in library is not proper.Students know its value. Do not make class a prison wantA certain amount of discipline is required to conduct class effectively but too much of it makes theclass dull and boring. Do not try to control them unnecessarily by rules.Finally teaching is facilitating the process of learning by motivating the students, creatingconducive environment, organizing subject matter systematically and providing meaningfulexperience. Good teaching influences and moulds behaviour. To facilitate, is to help something(usually a process) move along. The word derives from "facile" which is French for "easy". Tofacilitate, them, is to make something easier. Through facilitation, the instructor provides booststo participants through a series of experiences to create a desired effect. Facilitate does not mean"solving a problem" or "doing it for someone". It means doing something that makes a process runa little better. . However, facilitation can also be understood to mean all the behaviors, whichinfluence the experience of the individuals and the group.- 206 -

(Seed Health Management for Better Productivity)Seed Health Management in PotatoV.S. PundhirDepartment of Plant Pathology, G.B.P.U.A.&T., Pantnagar-263145 (Uttarakhand)Potato is a wonder crop that can grow under diverse range if conditions (65 0 N to 47 0 S). Itis being cultivated in 149 countries with annual production of 320 million tones. Indo-Chinaproduces about 30% of this. Over one billion people eat potato. Short duration, high yield per unitarea and time and wide flexibility in planting and harvesting time are important virtues of potatothat enable its inclusion in intensive cropping system. Realizing potato as the potential food offuture, United Nation has identified year 2008 as “International Potato Year”. It is being identifiedas the crop that can fill the cereal deficit, thus a God’s blessing to poor people. Potato produces inone hectare what cereals will produce in 2-4 hectares. In addition, 85% of potato crop is ediblewhile in case of cereals it is only 50%.Potato was introduced in India in 17 th century by Portuguese and by 1931 it became anestablished crop in cooler regions of countries. Organized research on potato started byestablishment of Central Potato Institute (Patna / Shimla) in 1949. Further, All India Coordinatedpotato Improvement Project (AICPIP) was initiated in 1970. In India 82% area is under plains (Oct.March, winter), 10% area in plateau (Peninsular India: Summer/ autumn) and 8% area is in hills(summer long day Feb – October). CPRI has released total 41 cvs. (1958) of these 25 are for shortduration (plain). In1998 first industrial / processing cv, Chipsona -1 was released, after that Chipsona -2 &Chipsona -3 has also come. Total seed requirement in India is 4.2 – 5.25 mt. In India 2500 tonesof BS is produced which undergoes in seed production channel (Certified-1, Certified-2,Foundation-1 and Foundation-2). India in not only self sufficient for seed required but can alsoexport quality seed.During 1952 Survey of potato growing areas was initiated and it was found that in N-W andCentral Indo-Gangatic Plains aphid population was very low in October – December (20aphids/100 compared leaves). Thus quality potato seed can be produced. In 1959: Seed PlotTechnique was developed at CPRI, with conditions that 75 aphid free days were available forproduction of healthy Seed under low aphid population with use of insecticide. Dehaulming is to bedone in Jan 2nd week (no re-groth is permitted and an isolation of 25m from ware crop. Followingwere the impact of SPT: Quality Seed production on large area Seed of right Physiological State Soil-borne pathogen of hills not carried- 207 -

(Seed Health Management for Better Productivity)Problems related with potato seed:POTATO VIRUSES(a) Diseases caused by fungal pathogenDiseaseLate BlightPowdery ScabBlack ScurfCharcoal RotFusarium WiltVerticillium WiltDry RotSilver ScurfPink RotLeakBlack DotGangreneWartFungal PathogenPhytophthora infestansSpongospora subterraneaRhizoctonia solaniMacrophomina phaseolinaFusarium oxysporumVerticillium spp.Fusarium sambucinumHelminthosporium solaniPhytophthora erythrosepticaPythium spp.Colletotrichum atramentariumPhoma exigua var. exiguaSynchytrium endobioticum(b) Diseases caused by bacterial pathogenDiseaseCommon ScabBacterial Wilt or Brown RotBlack LegSoft RotRing RotPink Eye(c) Mechanical and physiological disordersDiseaseCrackingGreeningBlack heartHollow heartBlack spotPermissible limits of purity and diseases in cropsBacterial PathogenStreptomyces scabiesRalstonia solanacearumErwinia caratovora var. atrosepticaErwinia caratovora var. caratovoraClavibacter michiganensis sub sp. sepedonicusPseudomonas marginaliaBacterial PathogenBruises, cuts and deep abrasionsExposure to sunlightLow oxygen level in the interior of the tuberOver fertilization, high soil moisturePressure bruisingGrade of% plants infected withseed Off Mild Severe mosaic PLRV, Total Brown rot PSTVtype mosaic PVY, yellows virusesFS-I 0.05 1.0 0.5 1.0 - -FS-II 0.05 2.0 0.75 2.0 3 pl/ha -Certified 0.10 3.0 1.0 3.0 3 pl/ha -Permissible limits of seed tuber damages and diseasesGrade% incidence of tuber borne diseasesof seed Common scab Black scurf Cut/bruised LB Dry rot TotaldiseaseFS-I 5.0 5.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 5.0*FS-II 5.0 5.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 5.0- 208 -

(Seed Health Management for Better Productivity)Certified 5.0 5.0 5.0 1.0 1.0 5.0Plant Protection Schedule (healthy seed crop: hills)Chemical Insect/disease Doses Time of applicationChlorpyriphos Cutworms & white 15 kg/ha At planting in seed rows.(Dursban) grubMetasystox Aphids, jassids, 1.251/ha Drench the ridges when damage iswhite fliesnoticed.Rogor Aphids, jassids, 1.121/ha Every 10 days from 3rd week of Maywhite fliestill 1st week of August.Dithane M-45 Early blight, late 2 kg/ha Every 10 days from 3rd week of Mayblight & Phomatill 1st week of August.Metalaxyl(Ridomil)Late blight 2.5 kg/ha 3rd week of June & 1st week of Julycombined with insecticide at 8-10 daysinterval.Sevin Epilachna beetle,caterpillars & otherdefoliating insects.2.5 kg/ha In 2nd week of July on noticing the lateblight.Thiodan Epilachna beetle & 1.5 l/ha As & when damage on foliage isother defoliatingnoticed.insectsFuradan Cyst nematode 65kg/ha Soil application at the time of planting.Plant Protection Schedule (healthy seed crop: plains)Chemical Insect/disease Doses Time of applicationMetasystox Aphids, jassids, 1500ml/ha in At 10 days interval from 2nd week ofwhite flies 1000 lit water November to 3 rd week of December inUP, Punjab, Haryana & 1 st week ofJanuary in MP, Bihar & West Bengal.Rogor Aphids, jassids, 1250 ml/ha in At 10 days interval from 2nd week ofwhite flies 1000 lit water November to 3 rd week of December inUP, Punjab, Haryana & 1 st week ofJanuary in MP, Bihar & West Bengal.Dithane M-45 Early and late 2 kg/ha 2 nd week of November onward &blights, phomacombined with insecticide at 8-10 daysblightsinterval.Metalaxyl(Ridomil)Late blight 2.5 kg/ha On noticing the late blightPotato production in IndiaYearAreaProduction (million t) Yield (t/ha)(million ha)2000-01 1.211 22.142 18.22001-02 1.218 24.082 19.72002-03 1.337 23.181 17.32003-04 1.289 23.060 17.82004-05 1.318 23.631 17.9- 209 -

(Seed Health Management for Better Productivity)Quality Spawn ProductionK.P.S. KushwahaDepartment of Plant Pathology, G.B.P.U.A.&T., Pantnagar-263145 (Uttarakhand)The term spawn used for the vegetative growth of the mushroom mycelium and the substrateon which it grows and use to seed the compost. The word spawn is derived from old French verb,'espandre' meaning to expand. Sinden (1972) defined that veg. growth of mushroom for seeding thecompost is called spawn. Thus it consist of the mushroom mycelium and supporting medium whichprovides nutrition to the fungus during its growth. Hence the sawn is equivalent to vegetative seeds ofthe mushroom. Mushroom spawn at present, is often referred to in terms of the substrate, e.g. grainspawn, manure spawn and tobacco stem spawn etc. Now a days only grain spawn is being used forseeding the compost through out the world. In foreign countries rye grain are preferred over othergrain whereas, in India, wheat, jowar and bajra are commonly used for spawn preparation.Spawn plays on important role in the mushroom industry because the failure or success ofmushroom cultivation depends upon the availability of the quality spawn. The quality of spawn and yield ofmushroom is mainly governed by the genetic make up of the strain and to some extent, the technologyincluding and to some extent, the technology including the substrates used in spawn production.Production of spawn in large quantities needed for commercial use is much more difficult than forexperimental use. Strict hygiene must be observed when spawn has to be produced daily and also greatcare need to be taken in the maintenance of strains; failure to do so can have disastrous consequences.Spawn preparationMethods of spawn preparation can be divided into three steps.I. Raising of pure culture:There are two ways of raising pure culture:a) Tissue culture raised from a mushroom tissue.b) Spore culture raised from single or multispores.a) Tissue cultureA big and healthy fruit body with veil still intact is selected from cropping tray for tissue culture.Lower portion of the stipe is cut off at the soil level with the help of a pre-sterilized knife and fruit bodyis cleaned with a bit of cotton moistened in 50 per cent ethanol to remove the soil particles if any,adhering to the surface of pileus and stipe and finally dipped in a 0.1 per cent mercuric chloridesolution for 30-60 seconds to avoid any chance of contamination.A small piece of tissue from the 'unction of cap and stem is taken out with the help of sterilizedinoculating needle' and the same is transferred aseptically in 2% malt extract-agar medium in culturetubes. The inoculated tubes are incubated at 25 0 C for about 10-15 days till the surface of the medium.is fully covered with the mycelial growth.b) Spore culture(i) Spore collection: A big and healthy fruit body with veil still intact but tightly stretched is selected for- 210 -

(Seed Health Management for Better Productivity)basidiospore collection a sterilized petridish. Lower portion of the stipe is cut off at the soil level with thehelp of a pre-sterilized knife and the fructification is washed with distilled water and dipped 0.1.per centmercuric chloride solution for 30-60 seconds to avoid any chance of contamination to be introduced withthe spore mass. The fruit bodies is then mounted on a sterilized petridish so that the lower portion of stipeas well as pileus do not touch the petridish. This is covered by a sterilized beaker for 24-48 hours After athick deposition of spore mass, the glass beaker and mushroom alongwith the wire-stand are removedand sterilized lid is place on the petridish which is then stored in refrigerator until use.(ii) Single spore culture: In order to isolate single spore, spores are transferred aseptically with thehelp of inoculation needle (pre-wetted with sterilized distilled water) into sterilized distilled water anddiluted. One ml of spore suspension containing about 20 spore is transferred and mixed with 2 percent melted water agar medium in petri dish. After solidifying the petri dishes are turned up-side downand single spores are located under microscope and marked with ink. Single spore are pickedindividually and transferred on to wheat extract agar medium in test tubes. These tubes are incubatedfor 10-15 days at 28C for spore germination.It must be remembered that all the monosporous cultures of mushrooms of heterothallic nature(Agaricus bitorquis, Lentinus edodes) are sterile. In secondary homothallic fungus (A. bisporus), 30per cent of monosporous cultures are sterile.(iii) Multispore culture: Spore suspension (1%) is mixed with 10 ml liquid malt extract agar mediumin culture tubes and slants are prepared. The slants are incubated at 28C for spore germination forabout two week. The mycelial threads become visible on slant surface after 14-15days.II. Preparation of master spawn / stock cultureNext step in the spawn preparation is' the preparation of master culture. Pure culture raisedeither from tissue or spore is inoculated in a suitable substrate (wheat, jowar, bajra, or rye grains)which provides food to the mycelium. In principle the quality of spawn is determined by the biologicalvalue of the strain. However, there are some important aspects of spawn making such as properunderstanding of moisture content, pH and sterilization which deserve special: attention for qualityspawn production. Therefore, boiling, soaking, addition of calcium carbonate and calcium sulphateand sterilization of substrate assumes special significance. For spawn preparation ten kg of wheatgrain or any other substrate is boiled in 15 litres of water for 20 minutes and allowed to remain soakedin the hot water for another 15 minutes without heating which gives a moisture content of 48-50% ofgrains after sterilization. At this moisture content the mycelial growth is fast and number of days takenby the mycelium to cover the entire substrate is less. Next day 13.5 g calcium sulphate and 3.5gcalcium carbonate are mixed with one kg of boiled grains. The calcium sulphate prevents the stickingof grains together and calcium carbonate is necessary to adjust the pH (6.6).The grain is filled into half or one litre milk bottles (250 or 450 g/bottle). Bottles are pluggedwith non-absorbent cotton and sterilized at 1.54 kg/cm 2 for 2 hours. After autoclaving, bottles areallowed to cool down slightly and later shaken vigorously to avoid clumping of grains. The sterilizedbottles are surface sterilized by dipping in 2 per cent formalin solution without wetting the cotton plug.- 211 -

(Seed Health Management for Better Productivity)These bottles are inoculated with approximately equal mycelial bits obtained from pure culture.Inoculated bottles are incubated at 25 0 C. About 7 days after inoculation, bottles are shaken vigorouslyso that mycelial threads are well mixed with the grain. About 20 days after inoculation, the bottles areready as stock/master culture for further multiplication of the spawn.III. Preparation of Commercial SpawnThe spawn is also prepared in similar way as described for the preparation of stock culture /master spawn. One bottle of stock culture is sufficient for inoculation of 25-30 bags of commercialspawn. Inoculated bags are incubated at 25 0 C. In two weeks spawn bags are ready for use.Characteristics of good spawnThe spawn should be fast growing in the compost, and should form pin heads quickly aftercasing, should be high yielding and should produce good quality mushrooms. There should be aproper coating of the mycelium around every grain used as a substrate for spawn production. Noloose grain should be seen in the bottles when these are bound together with the mycelium. Thegrains left over without mycelial coating will invite mould growth in the compost during spawn runningperiod. The growth of the mycelium in the spawn bottles should be silky/strandy type. It should not becottony type growth because there is likelihood of snioma formation on the casing layer, whichinterferes with gaseous exchanges and absorption of water in the casing material resulting in lowyields.The growth of fresh spawn is more or less white. Brown colouration develops as spawngrows older. Fresh spawn gives higher yield than the old one. There should not be any slimy growthin spawn bottle which is an indication of bacterial contamination. There should not be any greenishor blackish spot in the spawn bottles. Such type of spots indicate that the spawn is contaminatedwith moulds.Transit and storage of spawnStudies on thermal death point show that the spawn bottles exposed to 40C for 48h result inkilling of the mycelium. However, the spawn exposed to 35C remains viable for 14 days. Care mustbe taken during transit that spawn bottles are not exposed to a temperature higher than 35 0 C. Toavoid such risk spawn bottles can be packed in thermocol boxes containing ice cubes or can betransported during when it is cool.Storage of spawn should be avoided as far as possible. However, the spawn can be storedbetween 3-5C for one to six months in case it is not used due to certain unavoidable circumstances.- 212 -

(Seed Health Management for Better Productivity)Bio-intensive IPM for Crop Disease Management on Small FarmsJ. KumarDepartment of Plant Pathology, G.B.P.U.A.&T., Pantnagar-263145 (Uttarakhand)Bio-intensive farming system is based on the agro-ecological principles of sustainable organicagriculture system and participatory rural development. These principles include the scientific croprotation, mixed farming system with specialized crop and/or livestock/agroforestry enterprise(s),optimization of organic recycling, participatory and sustainable management of natural resources (land,forest, water, plant/animal biodiversity), participatory research and extension, and higher degree ofeconomic self-reliance of farm households against external techno-economic shocks.Pest management on such farming systems is an ecological matter. The most effectivesuppression of pests, diseases and weeds (pests) is achieved when producers integrate a variety oftactics that prevent, avoid or mitigate crop losses, with limited need for the use of suppressivemeasures, including pesticides. The term Integrated Pest Management (IPM) is used to define thisapproach, which is based on an understanding of the ecology of the pest organism and the relativecontributions that cultural, biological and chemical approaches make to pest suppression. The termBiointensive IPM, defines the more dynamic and ecologically-informed approach to IPM that considersthe farm as part of an agroecosystem, with particular characteristics that need to be understood andmanaged in order to minimize pest damage. This approach is information-intensive, and it relies upondiagnosis and observation, combined with a commitment to longer-term, ecologically-based solutionsto pest problems.Biointensive IPM incorporates ecological and economic factors into agricultural system designand decision making, and addresses public concerns about environmental quality and food safety. Thebenefits of implementing biointensive IPM can include reduced chemical input costs, reduced on-farmand off-farm environmental impacts, and more effective and sustainable pest management. Anecology-based IPM has the potential of decreasing inputs of fuel, machinery, and syntheticchemicals—all of which are energyintensive and increasingly costly in terms of financial and environmental impact. Suchreductions will benefit the grower and society. The primary goal of biointensive IPM is to provideguidelines and options for the effective management of pests and beneficial organisms in an ecologicalcontext. The flexibility and environmental compatibility of a biointensive IPM strategy make it useful inall types of cropping systems.Bio-intensive IPM make use of proactive options, such as crop rotations and creation of habitatfor beneficial organisms, permanently lower the carrying capacity of the farm for the pest. The carryingcapacity is determined by factors like food, shelter, natural enemies complex, and weather, which affectthe reproduction and survival of a species. Cultural controls are generally considered to be proactivestrategies and largely involve maintaining healthy, biologically active soils (increasing belowgrounddiversity) and creating habitat for beneficial organisms (increasing aboveground diversity).- 213 -

(Seed Health Management for Better Productivity)Maintaining and increasing biological diversity of the farm system is a primary strategy ofcultural control. Decreased biodiversity tends to result in agroecosystems that are unstable and proneto recurrent pest outbreaks and many other problems . Systems high in biodiversity tend to be more“dynamically stable”—that is, the variety of organisms provide more checks and balances on eachother, which helps prevent one species (i.e.,pest species) from overwhelming the system. There aremany ways to manage and increase biodiversity on a farm, both above ground and in the soil. In fact,diversity above ground influences diversity below ground. Research has shown that up to half of aplant’s photosynthetic production (carbohydrates) is sent to the roots, and half of that (along withvarious amino acids and other plant products) leaks out the roots into the surrounding soil, providing afood source for microorganisms. These root exudates vary from plant species to plant species and thisvariation influences the type of organisms associated with the root exudates. Factors influencing thehealth and biodiversity of soils include the amount of soil organic matter; soil pH; nutrient balance;moisture; and parent material of the soil. Healthy soils with a diverse community of organisms supportplant health and nutrition better than soils deficient in organic matter and low in species diversity.Research has shown that excess nutrients (e.g., too much nitrogen) as well as relative nutrient balanceualamounts of both) in soils affect insect pest response to plants. Imbalances in the soil can make a plantmore attractive to insect pests , less able to recover from pest damage, or more susceptible tosecondary infections by plant pathogens. Soils rich in organic matter tend to suppress plant pathogens.In addition, it is estimated that 75% of all insect pests spend part of their life cycle in the soil, and manyof their natural enemies occur there as well. For example, larvae of one species of blister beetleconsume about 43 grasshopper eggs before maturing. Both are found in the soil. (Unfortunately,although blister beetle larvae can help reduce grasshopper populations, the adult beetles can be aserious pest for many vegetable growers.) Overall, a healthy soil with a diversity of beneficialorganisms and high organic matter content helps maintain pest populations below their economicthresholds. Such an approach is best suited to small farms such as in uttarakhnad hills where farmerslargely make use of on-farm available resources for sustenance of agriculture production.Small-scale farmers are the bedrock of Himalayan economic development. The tremendouspressure on farmers to make a living from the land and yet maintain a healthy environment hasgathered momentum all around. This translates into market demand for constant and consistentsupplies of higher quality and safer food at even lower prices, all with in the context of farmers’awareness of the environment and its sustainability. Often the response is high levels of chemicalinputs, reduced rotations and extensive monocultures. The search for greater and ever-cheaperproduction with increased intensification reduces the biodiversity of the system itself. Thus impact ofdiseases increases over the time. Control of these diseases has traditionally depended upon soilquality improvement strategies and has greater relevance at the end of small farmers.- 214 -

(Seed Health Management for Better Productivity)Small farmers have poor infrastructure and market access, it is economic for small farmers touse high levels of external inputs. The challenge is to develop low-external –input technologies thatboost labor and land productivity.Rainfed farming and intensive cultivation on small and fragmented lands is characteristic ofagriculture in Uttaranchal hills. On an average land holding of less than a hectare, production per kgseed sown is low and, which is on the decline. Such a situation has arisen due to intensive croppingand declining fertility of soil; increasing impact of plant diseases; not being able to follow crop rotation,deep ploughing and leaving the field fallow even for a short period; greater reliance on the use ofchemicals; vagaries of weather; etc. Yet pressure of producing more out of a meager land is evermounting. Less land per person requires more high yielding agriculture. To increase yield fromexisting land requires good crop protection against losses before and after harvesting, which, must beachieved within the framework of Integrated Pest Management (IPM). Increased agriculturalproductivity and increased damage due to diseases and insect pests have intimate relationship. IPM,nevertheless, offers an important principle on which sustainable crop protection can be based. It offersthe best combination of cultural, biological, and chemical measures that provides the most costeffective, environmentally sound and socially acceptable method of managing diseases, insects, andpests.Farmers in the region, over the time, have been fighting to save their crops from the onslaughtof diseases and pests. Infact, their agricultural practices are making their crops more vulnerable to theattack of biotic and abiotic agents. The amount of profit on small farms is less, thus farmers do nothave capacity to bear any amount of losses. The challenge is to apply research to issues that lead toinsecurity amongst small and marginal farmers as regards crop management and protection.Under crop diversification plan in the state, off-season vegetable cultivation is poised to play aunique role in the hill farming system in Uttaranchal state. Being low volume and high value crops theyare rated to be potential cash earners. Unfortunately, however, all these cash crops suffer recurrentchronic losses due to a variety of diseases and pests. The per hectare agrochemical usage in thevegetable crops is very high as compared to cereal crops with a simultaneous increase in the pesticideconsumption. This trend where on one hand threatens the highly fragile Himalayan ecosystem, on theother it does not fit with in the frame work of organic farming, which is the state policy. Seed and soilborne pathogens cause much of the recurrent losses (nearly 80%) in vegetables each season in theregion. The cost of soil borne pathogens to society and the environment far exceeds the direct coststo growers and consumers. The use of chemical pesticides to control soil borne pathogens hascaused significant changes in air and water quality, altered natural ecosystems resulting in direct andindirect effects on wild life, and caused human health problems. Long-term chemical applications maypermanently alter the microbial community structure to an extent that sustainable agriculture may beimpossible. The opportunity, therefore, exists to address the issues relating to IPM across ecosystemsthrough a Common Minimum Programme, which can alleviate considerable losses to vegetablesthat result only from soil borne problems. Other location-specific problems could be addressed- 215 -

(Seed Health Management for Better Productivity)through supplementary intervention(s). The key components of CMP are, a) plastic mulching (soilsolarization) of nursery beds and fields, b) use of bioagents for seed treatment, seedling treatment, soiltreatment and foliar application, c) Bio-composting including vermi composting and d) use of valueaddedvermicompost and FYM. Other location-specific problems could be addressed throughsupplementary intervention(s).At small farms, it is appropriate to develop disease control strategies that have an ecologicalbase such that the agroecosystem should encourage the growth and diversity of soil inhabiting andepiphytic microorganisms that can exert beneficial and pathogen antagonistic influence. Biologicalcontrol of plant pathogens, broadly refers to the use of one living organism to curtail the growth andproliferation of another, undesirable one, is promising alternative to the use of chemicals. In nature,some microorganisms affect or suppress growth of pathogenic microorganisms. These beneficialorganisms are collectively called as ‘biological control agents or biocontrol agents’. Biologicalprotection against infection is accomplished by destroying the existing pathogen inocula, by preventingthe formation of additional inocula, or by weakening and displacing the existing virulent pathogenpopulation. This is achieved through protection of plant material and roots with biological seedtreatments, or suppression of pathogens by the introduction of plant associated antagonists into therhizosphere. Microbial agents may be stimulated in the plant rhizosphere by the addition ofsuppressive composts such as vemricompost. Vermicomposting, is a natural process by whichearthworms and micro-organisms convert organic waste into humus that is used as a nutrient-rich soilconditioner. Earthworms play a key role in soil biology. They harness beneficial soil microflora, destroysoil pathogens, convert organic wastes into valuable products such as biofertilizers, biopesticides,vitamines, enzymes, growth hormones, and proteineous worm biomass. Use of vermicompost hasbeen found to reduce the menace of white grub, which more often propagates and spreads throughundecomposed farm yard manure. Soil solarization is a ‘low-investment high value’ technology andleads to disease and weed control, better plant stand, health and vigour, and early readiness ofseedlings for planting. Plants emerged out of solarized beds are healthier, grow faster and the bedshave lesser weed population. Value addition of vermicomposts through the incorporation of bioagentsensures goodness of vermicompost and adds value of the bioagents.Root rot complex (caused by Fusarium solani. f.sp. pisi and Rhizoctonia solani) and collar rot(caused by R. solani) are the serious most threats to most vegetables in the nurseries as well as in thefield in most farming situations. Inadequate rotations aggravate crop losses. Use of syntheticchemicals for management of diseases is largely uneconomical and does not fit within the frameworkof ‘organic farming’, the state policy. Through adoption of Common Minimum Programme lossesthrough seed and soil borne diseases could be severely minimized. The ultimate aim is to raisehealthy plant, which can resist/ withstand attacks of biotic and abiotic agents and host plant growthpromoting rhizobacteria and antagonists. This is achieved through maintaining microbial diversity inthe soil, creating conditions suitable for their growth and development through providing habitats fortheir growth. Common minimum programme tends to fulfill these objectives. Through the adoption of- 216 -

(Seed Health Management for Better Productivity)CMP farmers can reduce cost of production, minimize losses due to pests and diseases, increasebenefit-cost ratio and raise value-added crop. Small farmers are experimenters and inventors.Improving farmers’ ability to manage disease requires knowledge, capacity for innovation and on-farmdecision-making. Through farmers’ field schools farmers have been oriented to learn necessity ofadoption of CMP and the role it can play in bringing sustainability into their agriculture.Through adoption of Common Minimum Programme losses through seed and soil bornediseases as well as insects could be severely minimized. The ultimate aim is to raise healthy plant,which can resist/ withstand attacks of biotic and abiotic agents. This is achieved through maintainingmicrobial diversity in the soil, creating conditions suitable for their growth and development throughproviding habitats for their growth. Common minimum programme tends to fulfill these objectives.Through the adoption of CMP farmers can reduce cost of production, minimize losses due to pestsand diseases, increase benefit-cost ratio and raise value-added crop. During initial few years, CMP isbeing adopted by over 3000 farmers from 55 villages in districts Tehri, Pauri, Almora, Champawat,Nainital and Udham Singh Nagar. Depending on the extent of damage to the soil ecology throughindiscriminate use of chemicals, varying degree of success has been achieved. However, withcontinuous adoption of CMP success rate can be quite high. Thus, the ‘zero’ or ‘low cost technology’while on one hand offers a solution to the recurrent diseases and pest problems, on the other falls within the framework of organic farming, which is the state policy. To the predominantly agrarian economyin the state, CMP can prove handy to the small farmers in the years to come. There, however,remains the necessity to enforce implementation of CMP through extension functionaries in the statefor its widespread adoption and implementation. On similar lines, such plans that apply ecologicalprinciples in pest management need to be developed for other crops.REFERENCES1. Altieri, Miguel A. 1994. Biodiversity and Pest Management in Agroecosystems. The Haworth Press,Binghamton, NY. 185 p.2. Marschner, H. 1998. Soil-Root Interface: Biological and Biochemical Processes. p. 191-232. In: SoilChemistry and Ecosystem Health. P.M. Huang (ed.). Soil Science Society of America,Inc., Madison, WI.3. Phelan, L. 1997. Soil-management history and the role of plant mineral balance as a determinant ofmaize susceptibility to the European Corn Borer. Biological Agriculture andHorticulture. Vol. 15. (1-4). p. 25-34.4. Daane, K.M. et al. 1995. Excess nitrogen raises nectarine susceptibility to disease and insects.5. California Agriculture. July-August. p. 13-18.6. Schneider, R.W. 1982. Suppressive Soils and Plant Disease. The American PhytopathologicalSociety. St. Paul, MN. 88 p.7. Metcalf, Robert L. 1993. Destructive and Useful Insects: Their Habits and Control, 5th ed. McGraw-Hill, NewYork, NY.8. Zhu, Y., H. et al. 2000. Genetic diversity and desease control in rice. Nature. 17 August. p. 718-722.9. Leslie, Anne R. and Gerritt Cuperus. 1993. Successful Implementation of Integrated PestManagement for Agricultural Crops. CRC Press,Boca Raton, FL. 193 p.- 217 -

VALEDICTORY ADDRESSbyProf. A.P. SharmaVice-ChancellorG.B. Pant University of Agriculture & Technology, Pantnagar- 263 145onApril 17, 2008It is a pleasure having to deliver thevaledictory address on the successful completionof the CAS training on “Seed HealthManagement for Better Productivity” (March 28to April 17, 2008). I am sure that you all haveenjoyed the scientific interaction during your stayat Pantnagar as well as exposure trip to NBPGR,New Delhi (April 03-05, 2008).In my view, the greatest threat to thewell-being of mankind is over population. Humanpopulation is projected to grow at ca 80 millionsper annum, increasing by 35% to 7.7 billion by2020, then by about 75% before leveling off atabout 10 billion. This increased populationdensity, coupled with changes in the dietaryhabits in developing countries towards highquality food and the increasing use of grains forlivestock feed, is projected to cause the demandfor grain production to more than double.However land suitable for agriculture productionis limited, and most of the soil with highproductivity potential are already undercultivation. In addition, the availability of water isrestricted, and in some regions land resourcesare depleted and the cultivated area is shrinking.Given these limitations, sustainable production atelevated levels is urgently needed. Theavailability and conservation of fertile soils andthe development of high-yielding varieties aremajor challenges to agriculture production.Safeguarding crop productivity by protectingcrops from damage by weeds, pests andpathogens is also a major requisite for providingfood and feed in sufficient quantity and quality.Improved crop management systemsbased upon genetically improved cultivars,enhanced soil fertility via chemical fertilization,pest control via synthetic pesticides, andirrigation were the hallmarks of the GreenRevolution. The combined effect of these factorsallowed world food production to double in thepast 35 years. The three annual crops viz., rice,maize and wheat, occupy almost 40% of theglobal crop land and are the primary sources forhuman nutrition world wide. As yield of theseand some cash crops positively respond to highproduction levels and/or cultivation may belargely mechanized, in the last decades, worldwidecrop production has focused on a limitednumber of plant species. Diverse ecosystemshave been replaced in many regions by simpleagro-ecosystems which are more vulnerable topest attack. In order to safe guard productivity tothe level necessary to meet the demand, thesecrops have to be protected from pests.The yield of cultivated plants isthreatened by competition and destruction frompests, especially when grown in large scalemonocultures or with heavy fertilizer applications.However, problems created by seed-bornedisease are highly ignored and control measuresunknown or inadequate. The consequence ispoor seed quality, dissemination and buildup ofseed-borne diseases and yields far below thei

potential. An improvement in quality and healthof seed for sowing constitutes a largeunexploited potential for increased foodproduction of unknown dimensions.As I reminded you earlier in my inauguraladdress, “Seed Health Management is one of thepathways to achieving the UN MillenniumDevelopment Goal relating to the elimination ofhunger and poverty” as has been believed by Prof.Swaminathan. There is, thus, every need toaddress the use of quality seed for boostingproduction and productivity. Undoubtedly, thescience of Plant Pathology and seed pathology inparticular, has an important role in the futuresuccess of programs and policies designed toincrease and sustain food production.Unawareness of quality seed particularly thehealthy disease free seed is one of the majorconcerns of today. Infected seeds not onlydisseminate the pathogens in previously diseasesfree areas but also lead to reduced germination,seedling vigor and ultimately the yield of the crop. Itis estimated that 30% disease are seed borne andcan be managed through disease free seed. SeedHealth testing is needed to be understood, in thelight of general evolution of seed sector in modernagriculture. Seed health testing may be used as atool to establish predictive relationship betweenseed borne inoculum and disease incidence,suggestive measures for effective seed treatmentfor better productivity.Seed replacement rate (SRR) in differentcrops is still very low in the country. For themajor crops such as wheat and rice it isapproximately 10.0 % and 20.0% respectively,(report form NSP). For other crops also situationis not so encouraging. In crops where hybridsare available, SRR should be 100%, whichunfortunately is not being maintained. Thus,there is urgent need to increase the quality ofseed produced so that SRR may be increased toa satisfactory level.The importance of seed may be realizedby the fact that the ICAR has launched “NationalSeed Project” and recently a “Mega SeedProject”, nationwide, with different disciplines forquality seed production in India. Still with theefforts and improvements in the SeedProgramme, the area coverage under qualityseed is only about 12 % while the rest is underfarmers own seed. Therefore, it of paramountimportance to improve the status of healthyseed production and its use through educatingfarmers, replacement of the seed frequency,demonstration of seed production andmanagement practices at the farmers level.In my opinion, the only farm with a futurewill be farms that are sustainable, economicallyviable, ecologically sound and sociallyresponsible. Sustainable crop production,therefore, holds big promise for the futureprovided quality seed is made available to thefarmers.I am delighted to know that all abovepoints have been appropriately addressed in thisparticular training course, which I am sure wasvery well designed and appropriately conducted.It is hoped that you would use theknowledge gained here in teaching, researchand extension activities at your respectiveinstitution/university. You are now in a wayalumini of this university and I am sure that youwill maintain this linkage in a dynamic manner forour mutual benefit in the pursuance of scienceof Plant Pathology, especially in the area of seedhealth management.I wish you a safe and comfortable returnjourney back home and fruitful professionalcareer ahead.“Jai Hind”ii

ANNEXURE-ICENTRE OF ADVANCED STUDIES IN PLANT PATHOLOGYCollege of Agriculture, Pantnagar-263 145 (Uttarakhand)Following committees have been constituted for smooth conduct of the trainingprogramme on “Seed Health Management for Better Productivity” scheduled onMarch 28 to April 17, 2008.1. Overall SupervisionDr. J. Kumar, Director CASPPDr. S. C. SaxenaDr. K.P. SinghDr. R.P. SinghDr. A.P. SinhaDr. H.S. Tripathi3. Inaugural and Closing FunctionCommitteeDr. H.S. Tripathi– ChairmanDr. A.K. TewariMr. Narender SinghMr. S.P. YadavMr. Mani Ram2. Course FacultyDr. J. Kumar – Course DirectorDr. S.C. Saxena, Course CoordinatorDr. H.S. TripathiDr. R. P. AwasthiDr. (Mrs.) K. VishunavatDr. V.S. Pundhir4. Inaugural Session & Intersession TeaCommitteeDr. Pradeep Kumar – ChairmanDr. K.K. MishraDr. Ajeet KumarMr. S. P. YadavMr. Jagannath5. Budget CommitteeDr. R. P. Awasthi – ChairmanDr. Yogendra SinghMr. K. S. Bhatnagar (Acco. Officer)Mr. A. B. JoshiMr. Praveen KumarMr. Het Ram7. Boarding & Loading CommitteeDr. V.S. Pundhir – ChairmanDr. R.K. BansalMr. S. P. YadavMr. Dev Kumar Chaube6. Transport and Reception CommitteeDr. R. R. Dwivedi – ChairmanDr. K.P.S. KushwahaMr. Prakash JoshiMr. Bhuwan Chand SharmaMr. Bhupesh Kabadwal8. Registration CommitteeDr. (Mrs) K. Vishunavat – ChairpersonDr. P. KumarDr. (Mrs.) Kanak SrivastavaDr. (Mrs.) Renu Singhi

9. Session Arrangement CommitteeDr. S.C. Saxena – ChairmanDr. P. KumarDr. Y. SinghMr. Prakash JoshiMr. Vikram PrasadMr. Leela Ram11. Field / Excursion Trip CommitteeDr. R. R. Dwivedi – ChairmanDr. R.K. SahuDr. M.K. SharmaMr. K. S. BishtMr. R. B. Sachan13. Committee for Typing, CorrespondenceworkDr. S. N. Vishwakarma - ChairmanDr. Akhilesh SinghSmt. Meena SinghMr. Vishnu RaiMr. Mehboob10. Editing, Publication, Printing,Certificates, etc. CommitteeDr. (Mrs.) K. Vishunavat - ChairpersonDr. A.K. TewariDr. Ajeet KumarMr. Praveen KumarMr. P.C. Khulbe12. Laboratories & General MaintenanceCommitteeDr. K.S. Dubey– ChairmanDr. Akhilesh SinghMr. A. B. JoshiMr. Bhupesh Chandra KabdwalMr. Rajendra Pandey14. Audiovisual Aid & Publicity CommitteeDr. A.P. Sinha-ChairmanDr. Akhilesh SinghDr. A.K. TewariMr. R.C. SinghMr. Ramakant SinghMr. Bupesh Kabdwalii

LIST OF PARTICIPANTSANNEXURE-IISl.No.1. Dr. Lal Bahadur YadavName and AddressAsstt. Professor, Plant PathologyV.C.S.G. College of Hort., BharsarPauri Garhwal-246 123 (UK)2. Dr. Sanjeev SharmaAsstt. Prof./SMS (Plant Protection)Krishi Vigyan Kendra,Bharsar Via Chipalghat,Pauri Garhwal- 246 123 (UK)3. Dr. Satish ChandJRO, Department of HorticultureCollege of AgricultureG.B.P.U.A.&T., Pantnagar-263 145 (UK)4. Dr. (Mrs.) Nirmala BhattSMS/Asstt. Professor (Plant Protection)Krishi Vigyan Kendra, Gaina-Aincholi,Pithoragarh- 262 530 (UK)5. Dr. (Mrs.) SwatiPhone/E-mail(O): 01348-226071(R): 01348-226003, 226018E-mail: yadav_lalbahadur@yahoo.co.in(O): 01348-226076(R): 01348-226058E-mail: sanjuneeru@rediffmail.com(O): 05944-233556(R): 05944-233111E-mail: sc_1966@rediffmail.comsatishchandhort@yahoo.com(O): 05964-252175(R): 9412044788E-mail: nirmala_bhatt@rediffmail.com(R): 05944-233297JRO, Wheat BreedingDepartment of Genetics & Pl. BreedingGBPUA&T, Pantnagar- 263 145 (UK)6. Dr. Anil KumarJRO, Genetics & Plant BreedingGBPUAT, Pantnagar- 263 145 (UK)7. Dr. Mukesh VyasAsstt. ProfessorDeptt. of Plant Breeding & GeneticsRajasthan College of Agriculture,M.P.U.A.&T., Udaipur- 313 001 (Raj.)8. Dr. R.R. Ahir(O): 05944-233210(R): 05944-230392E-mail: anilkfirohi@rediffmail.com(O): 0294-2423119(R): 0294-2481388E-mail: vyas.mukesh66@gmail.com(Mb.) 09414516629Asstt. Prof. Deptt. of Plant PathologySKN College of Agriculture,Jobner, Jaipur- 303 329 (Rajasthan)i

9. Dr. Pradip Kumar BorahSr. Scientist, STR, Director of ResearchSeed Technology Research, NSP CropsAssam Agricultural University,Jorhat- 785 013 (Assam)10. Dr. Anil Kumar SachanAsstt. Prof./Asstt. Director, Seed & FarmsC.S.A.U.A&T., Kanpur- 208 002 (UP)11. Dr. Ramesh Singh YadavAsstt. Prof. Deptt. of Plant PathologyS.V. Bhai Patel Univ. of Agri.&Tech.,Meerut- 250 110 (UP)12. Dr. (Mrs.) Savita EkkaJr. Scientist cum Asstt. Prof., Plant Path.Birsa Agricultural University,Ranchi- 834 006 (Jharkhand)13. Prof. Bhatu Shripat PatilAsstt. Prof. of Plant PathologyMPKV, College of AgricultureDhule- 424 004 (Maharashtra)14. Mr. Sanjay Baburao GawadeAsstt. Seed Research Officer (Asstt. Prof.)Department of Agricultural BotanyMPKV, Rahuri-413 722Distt. Ahmednagar (Maharashtra)15. Dr. M.P. BasavarajappaSMS (Plant Pathology)Krishi Vigyan KendraRegional Agricultural Research StationRaichur- 584 101 (Karnataka)16. Dr. A.G. NajarSr. Scientist-cum-Assoc. Prof. (Pl. Path)Division of Plant Pathology,SKUAST-Kashmir, ShalimarSrinagar- 191 121 (J&K)17. Mr. Tanveer Ahmad WaniAsstt. Professor/Jr. ScientistDivision of Plant PathologySKUAST-K Srinagar- 191 121 (J&K)(O): 0376-2340015(R): 0376-2340636(Mb.) 9954729041E-mail: pkborah@aau.ac.in(O): 0512-2533925(R): 0512-2600392(Mb.) 09450124265E-mail: anilksachan63f@rediffmail.com(O): 09412833798(R): 0121-6453467E-mail: kritikajune2004@rediffmail.com(O): 0651-2450616(R): 9835160359E-mail: savitaekka@gmail.com(O): 02562-230368(R): 02562-275017(Mb.): 9422961793(O): 02426-243330(Mb.): 9420639394(O): 08532-220196(Mb.) 09341459469E-mail: basump@rediffmail.com(O): 0194-2461258-3600(R): 9419720384(Mb.) +91 951951-23346E-mail: drmasoodi_50@yahoo.com.in(O): 9419033782(R): 01952-235290E-mail: tanveer_14_july@yahoo.comii

18. Dr. C. Anil KumarScientist-BDepartment of Genetic ResourcesTropical Botanic Garden & Res. InstituteThiruvananthapuram- 695 562 (Kerala)19. Dr. Dinesh Singh TomarAssistant Professor, Deptt. of Pl. Path.JNKVV, College of Agriculture,Tikamgarh- 472 001 (MP)20. Dr. Mayani Naran GhusabhaiAsstt. Prof. Department of Plant Path.Junagadh Agril. University,College of AgricultureJunagadh- 362 001 (Gujarat)21. Dr. Deepak SinghSMS (Plant Protection)Krishi Vigyan Kendra,Sitamarhi- 843 320 (Bihar)(O): 0472-2869226(R): 9495729076E-mail: canildeepa@yahoo.com(O): 07683-245136(Mb.) 09826485150E-mail: dineshst74@yahoo.comtomar_sd@rediffmail.com(O): 0285-2672080-90Ext. 355, 403(Mb.) 9428438473E-mail: ngmayani@yahoo.co.in(O): 06228-286321/225598(R): 9430867197E-mail: sitamarhikvk@yahoo.comsitamarhikvk@rediffmail.comS U M M A R YSl. No. State No. of participants1. Assam 012. Bihar 013. Gujarat 014. Jharkhand 015. Jammu & Kashmir 026. Kerala 017. Karnataka 018. Madhya Pradesh 019. Maharashtra 0210. Rajasthan 0211. Uttarakhand 0612. Uttar Pradesh 02Total Participants 21iii

TRAININGONANNEXURE-IIISEED HEALTH MANAGEMENT FOR BETTER PRODUCTIVITY(March 28 to April 17, 2008)VenueSponsored byFacultyCommittee Room, Department of Plant PathologyCentre of Advance Studies in Plant Pathology (ICAR, New Delhi)Dr. J. Kumar, Director CAS Plant PathologyDr. S.C. Saxena, Course CoordinatorDr. H.S. Tripathi, ProfessorDr. R.P. Awasthi, ProfessorDr. (Mrs.) K. Vishunavat, ProfessorDr. V.S. Pundhir, ProfessorGUEST SPEAKERS/CONTRIBUTORSDr. R.C. Sharma Professor, Seed Technology Centre, Punjab AgricultureUniversity, LudhianaDr. A.K. Gaur Janakpuri, New Delhi- 110 058Dr. Y.P. SinghScientist, Forest Pathology Division, Forest Research Institute,Dehradun-248 006Dr. R.D. KapoorRegulatory Lead, Monsento India Ltd., 6-B Jorbagh Lane GroundFloor- New Delhi- 110 063Dr. O.K. SinhaPrincipal Scientist & Coordinator (AICRP Sugarcane), IndianInstitute of Sugarcane Research, Lucknow (UP)Dr. R.L. Agrawal A-731 Indira Nagar, Lucknow- 226 016Dr. U.S. SinghSouth Asia Coordinator, IRRI, DelhiDr. S.K. SharmaDirector, NBPGR, New DelhiDr. R.K. Khetrapal Head, Plant Quarantine, NBPGR, New DelhiDr. Baleshwar Singh Principal Scientist, Plant Pathology, NBPGR, New DelhiDr. RajanPrincipal Scientist, Nematology, NBPGR, New DelhiDr. V.C. ChalamSenior Scientist, Plant Pathology, NBPGR, New DelhiDr. D.B. ParakhPrincipal Scientist, Plant Pathology, NBPGR, New DelhiDr. P.C. AgarwalPrincipal Scientist, Plant Pathology, NBPGR, New DelhiDr. (Mrs.) Usha Dev Principal Scientist, Plant Pathology, NBPGR, New DelhiDr. (Mrs. Kavita Gupta Senior Scientist, Ag. Entomology, NBPGR, New DelhiDr. B. LalPrincipal Scientist, Ag. Entomology, NBPGR, New DelhiDr. (Mrs.) Shashi Bhalla Principal Scientist, Ag. Entomology, NBPGR, New DelhiDr. (Mrs.) M.L. Kapoor Principal Scientist, Ag. Entomology, NBPGR, New Delhii

LOCAL SPEAKERSDr. J.P. TiwariDr. V.P.S. AroraDr. J. KumarDr. K.P. SinghDr. S.C. SaxenaDr. A.P. SinhaDr. H.S. TripathiDr. S.N. VishwakarmaDr. R.P. AwasthiDr. (Mrs.) K. VishunavatDr. V.S. PundhirDr. R.R. DwivediDr. P. KumarDr. R.K. SahuDr. K.P.S. KushwahaDr. S.K. SainiDr. P.R. RajputR.S. VermaDr. Shri Ram YadavDr. S.N. TewariDr. Ruchira TewariDr. B. MishraDr. Balwinder SinghDr. D.K. SinghDr. H.S. ChawlaDr. S.C. ManiDr. Salil TewariDr. M.K. NautiyalDr. B.B. SinghDr. Deepak PandeyShri H.K. SinghDr. N.S. MurtyDr. B. KumarDr. Anil KumarDr. S. MarlaDr. Arundhati KausikDean, College of AgricultureDean, CABMProfessor and Head-cum-Director CAS Plant PathologyDirector Extension EducationProfessor (Guest Faculty), Plant PathologyProfessor, Plant PathologyProfessor, Plant PathologyProfessor, Plant PathologyProfessor, Plant PathologyProfessor, Plant PathologyProfessor, Plant PathologyProfessor, Plant PathologyProfessor, Plant PathologyProfessor, Plant PathologySRO, Plant PathologyProfessor & Head, AgronomyProfessor, AgronomyProfessor, AgronomyProfessor, EntomologyProfessor, EntomologyAsstt. Prof., EntomologyProfessor, Soil ScienceAssoc. Prof., Vet. AnotomyAssoc. Prof., Vegetable ScienceProfessor, Genetics and Plant BreedingProfessor, Genetics and Plant BreedingProfessor, Genetics and Plant BreedingAssoc. Prof., Genetics and Plant BreedingVisiting Professor, Genetics and Plant BreedingJt. Chief Seed Production Officer, TDCGeneral Manager, TDCProfessor, AgrometeorologyProfessor & Head, Agriculture CommunicationProfessor and Head, MBGEAssoc. Professor, MBGEAssistant Librarianii

ANNEXURE-IVCENTRE OF ADVANCED STUDIES IN PLANT PATHOLOGYG.B. Pant University of Agri. & Tech., Pantnagar-263 145Course Schedule (March 28 to April 17, 2008)“SEED HEALTH MANAGEMENT FOR BETTER PRODUCTIVITY”Venue: PG Lab- Department of Plant PathologyDay & Date Time Topic ( Lecture/ Lab) Speaker/ContactFridayMarch 28SaturdayMarch 29SundayMarch 30MondayMarch 31TuesdayApril 0109:30-10:30 hrs Registration and Introduction with Plant PathologyFaculty & Visit to Plant Pathology Labs10:30-11:30 hrs Department of Plant Pathology and CAS activities atPantnagar11:30-11:45 hrs Tea Break11:45-13:00 hrs Visit to DepartmentRegistrationcommittee, PG LabDr. J. KumarDirector CAS Pl.Pathology13:00-14:30 hrs Lunch14:30:17:00 hrs Visit to CRC, LRC, HRC, VRC, University Campus Dr. R.K. Sahu09:30-11:00 hrs Inaugural FunctionVenue: Conference Hall, Agriculture College11:00-11:30 hrs Tea Break11:30-11:45 hrs College of Agriculture at a glance Dr. J.P. Tewari,Dean13:00-14:30 hrs Lunch14:30-17:00 hrs Visit-CD-ROM search (University Library) Dr. ArundhatiKaushik09:30-12:30 hrs Quality spawn Production and visit to different units Dr. K.P.S.of MRTCKushwaha09:30-10:30 hrs Priorities in Seed Pathology and Seed healthTesting ResearchDr. K. Vishunavat10:30-11:30 hrs Seeds: The tale of biotechnology Anil Kumar, CBSH11:30-11:45 hrs Tea Break11:45-13:00 hrs Quality seed production and soil health Dr. B. Mishra13:00-14:30 hrs Lunch14:30-15:30 hrs Seeds : Intellectual Property Dr. H.S. Chawla15:30-15:45 hrs Tea Break15:45-17:00 hrs TA business Dr. R.P. Awasthi09:30-10:30 hrs Quality seed for better sugarcane productivity Dr. S.K. Saini10:30-11:30 hrs Integrated disease management for vegetable seedproduction11:30-11:45 hrs Tea Break11:45-13:00 hrs Development of Immunochemical and PCRMethods for Qualitative Detection of seed bornepathogensDr. S.N.VishwakarmaDr. S. Marla,CBSHi

WednesdayApril 02ThursdayApril 03FridayApril 04SaturdayApril 0513:00-14:30 hrs Lunch14:30-15:30 hrs Seed Health Testing and seed quality managementin pulses15:30-15:45 hrs Tea Break15:45-17:00 hrs Management of Plant Propagating material forquality control in forest cropsDr. H.S. TripathiDr. P.R. Rajput09:30-10:30 hrs Scientific stress management Dr. Shri Ram10:30-11:30 hrs New approaches to pest risk analysis for quarantinepests11:30-11:45 hrs Tea Break11:45-13:00 hrs Seed health and banded leaf & sheath blight ofmaize13:00-14:30 hrs Lunch14:30-17:00 hrs Common Laboratory Seed Health Testing Methodsfor Detecting Fungi20:30 hrs. Departure to Plant Quarantine Division, NBPGR,New DelhiDr. RuchiraTewariDr. S.C. SaxeanDr. K. VishunavatDrs. R.R. Dwivedi& R.P. Awasthi14:00-14:45 hrs Transboundary movement of seed transmittedpests: A global perspectiveRK Khetarpal,Kavita Gupta,Rajan14:50-15:30 hrs Detection of seed transmitted fungi in quarantine PC Agarwal, UshaDev15:35-16:25 hrs Detection of seed transmitted bacteria in quarantine Baleshwar Singh,PC Agarwal16:30-17:00 hrs Salvaging of seed transmitted fungi and bacteria inquarantineUsha Dev,Baleshwar Singh09:30-10:15 hrs Seed certification and policy issues in plantprotection10:20-11:00 hrs Detection and management of seed bornenematodes in quarantine11:00-13:00 hrs Visit to National Gene Bank13:00-14:15 hrs Lunch BreakRK Khetarpal,Kavita Gupta andVC ChalamRajan, Arjun Lal,Naresh Kumar14:15-15:00 hrs Detection and management of seed transmittedviruses in quarantineVC Chalam, DBParakh, RKKhetarpal15:00-16:00 hrs Post entry quarantine facilities and requirements DB Parakh, VCChalam, RKKhetarpal16:00-17:30 hrs Detection of GMOs VC Chalam,Digvender Pal, RKKhetarpal09:30-10:15 hrs Detection of insects and mites infesting seeds in B Lal, ShashiquarantineBhalla10:20-11:00 hrs Detection and salvaging of hidden infestation ofbruchids in seedsShashi Bhalla,Kavita Gupta,Charan Singhii

SundayApril 6MondayApril 7TuesdayApril 08WednesdayApril 09ThursdayApril 1011:00-11:45 hrs Management of insects and mites in seeds inquarantine11:45-13:00 hrs Quarantine processing for transgenics (Viewing ofCD)13:00-14:00 hrs Lunch14:00 hrs Departure to Pantnagar09:30-10:30 hrs Visit to University Library09:30-10:30 hrs Screening bio-control agents for control of seedborne pathogenManju Lata Kapurand Kavita GuptaKavita GuptaDr. U.S. Singh10:30-11:30 hrs Resource conservation techniques in seed crop Dr. K.P. Singh11:30-11:45 hrs Tea BreakDEEd.11:45-13:00 hrs Agronomic management for seed quality Dr. R.S. Verma13:00-14:30 hrs Lunch14:30-15:30 hrs Seed-borne Diseases and their management ofRice15:30-15:45 hrs Tea BreakDr. A.P. Sinha15:45-17:00 hrs Role of biotechnology in seed health management Dr. Anil Kumar09:30-10:30 hrs Quality Control arrangements in the seedproduction10:30-11:30 hrs Contribution of UA Seed & TDC in the prosperity offarmers11:30-11:45 hrs Tea Break11:45-13:00 hrs Insect pest of seeds under storage and their13:00-14:30 hrs Lunchmanagement14:30-15:30 hrs Role of university in seed production and15:30-15:45 hrs Tea Breakpopularization of varieties15:45-17:00 hra Group Photograph09:30-10:30 hrs Smut ,bunts and ergots their significance andmanagement in seed cropDr. DeepakPandey, TDCDr. H.K. Singh ,TDCDr. S.N. TewariDr. S.C. ManiDr. R.C. Sharma,PAU10:30-11:30 hrs Production of quality seed in tree species Dr. Salil Tewari11:30-11:45 hrs Tea Break11:45-13:00 hrs Seed health management for fungal and bacterialdiseases of potato13:00-14:30 hrs LunchDr. V.S. Pundhir14:30-17:00 hrs Electron Microscopy-lab visit 107 Heritage HallCollege of V.Sc.Dr. BalwinderSingh09:30-11:00 hrs Seed health testing in retrospect Dr. A.K. Gaur,New Delhi11:00-11:30 hrs Tea Breakiii

FridayApril 11SaturdayApril 12SundayApril 13MondayApril 1411:30-13:00 hrs Forest Seed Health Management Dr. Y.P. Singh,Dehradun13:00-14:30 hrs Lunch14:30-15:30 hrs Coordination between DNA technique and seedindustry15:30-15:45 hrs Tea Break15:45-17:00 hrs Methods for production of disease-free seed incerealsDr. S. Marla,CBSHDr. M.K. Nautiyal09:30-10:30 hrs Delivering new technologies through seeds Dr. R.D. Kapoor,ensuring health and productivity of crops.New Delhi10:30-11:30 hrs Trends in Indian Agriculture Dr. B.V. Singh11:30-11:45 hrs Tea Break11:30-13:00 hrs How to analyse a seed sample for seed health Dr. A.K. Gaur,New Delhi13:00-14:30 hrs Lunch14:30-15:30 hrs Communication skills for teaching professionalsContd.....15:30-15:45 hrs Tea BreakDr. B. Kumar15:45-17:00 hrs Communication skills for teaching professionals Dr. B. Kumar09:30-10:30 hrs Seed and Agri business Dr. V.P.S. Arora,Dean CABM10:30-11:30 hrs Approaches for health seed production in Dr. O.K. Sinha,sugarcaneLucknow11:30-11:45 hrs Tea Break10:45-13:00 hrs Diagnosis of red rot and smut pathogens in13:00-14:30 hrs Lunchsugarcane for production of health seed14:30-15:30 hrs Role of cultural practices in management of seedborne diseases15:30-15:45 hrs Tea Break15:45-17:00 hrs Visit to seed processing plant TDC Haldi09:30-10:30 hrs University Library- updating the literature09:30-10:30 hrs Recent advances in cucurbits breeding & seedproduction techniquesDr. O.K. Sinha,LucknowDr. R.P. AwasthiDr. D.K. Singh10:30-11:30 hrs Use of Agrometeorology in quality seed production Dr. N.S. Murty11:30-11:45 hrs Tea Break11:45-13:00 hrs Management of seed borne bacterial disease in13:00-14:30 hrs Lunchseed production plots14:30-17:00 hrs Epidemiological Approaches to DiseaseManagement through Seed Technology & Practicalexercise on seed pathologyDr. Y. SinghDr. K. Vishunavativ

TuesdayApril 15WednesdayApril 16ThursdayApril 1709:30-10:30 hrs Management of seed crops through indigenous Dr. J. Kumartechnologies- an alternative to small and marginalfarmers10:30-11:30 hrs Strategies for regulation of seed borne diseases in Dr. R.L. Agrawalorganic farming11:30-11:45 hrs Tea Break11:45-13:00 hrs Seed treatment a new challenge in organic seed Dr. R.L. Agrawalproduction13:00-14:30 hrs Lunch14:30-15:30 hrs Aflatoxin in maize seeds Dr. S.C. Saxena15:30-15:45 hrs Tea Break15:45-17:00 hrs Departure to Patwadangar/MajheraVisit to Patwadangar/Majhera19:00 hrs. Return to Pantnagar09:30-10:30 hrs Presentation by Participants10:30-11:30 hrs Presentation by Participants11:30-11:45 hrs Tea Break11:45-13:00 hrs Panel Discussion13:00-14:30 hrs Lunch14:30-17:00 hrs Closing and Valedictory Functionv

Seed Health Management for Better Productivity - Govind Ballabh ...

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