118/119 Biodiversity and Tropical Forest Assessment for Angola

ACRONYMSCITESConvention on International Trade on Endangered SpeciesCRcritically endangered speciesCTMATechnical Multisectoral Commission for the EnvironmentENendangered speciesENDIAMA National Diamond Company of AngolaEUEuropean UnionFAA Foreign Assistance Act of 1961FAOFood and Agricultural Organization of the United NationsGDPgross domestic productGEFGlobal Environmental FacilityGOAGovernment of AngolaGTZGerman Technical Cooperation AgencyIDFInstitute for Forestry DevelopmentIUCNInternational Union for Conservation of NatureMINADER Ministry of Agriculture and Rural DevelopmentMINUAMinistry of Urbanism and EnvironmentNBSPNational Biodiversity Strategic PlanNDENational Directorate for the EnvironmentNDNRNational Directorate for Natural ResourcesSADCSouthern African Development CommunitySONANGOL Angolan National Oil CompanyUNDPUnited Nations Development ProgrammeUNFCCCUnited Nations Framework Convention on Climate ChangeUNHCRUnited Nations High Commission for RefugeesVUvulnerable species118/119 BIODIVERSITY AND TROPICAL FOREST ASSESSMENT FOR ANGOLA vii

EXECUTIVE SUMMARYIntroductionSection 118 of the Foreign Assistance Act (FAA) of 1961 requires that every USAIDcountry development strategy statement or country plan include an analysis of: “1) theactions necessary in that country to achieve conservation and sustainable managementof tropical forests; and 2) the extent to which the actions proposed by the agency meetthe needs thus identified.” Section 119 dictates that every country strategic plandeveloped by USAID shall include: “1) the actions necessary in that country to conservebiological diversity; and 2) the extent to which the actions proposed for support by theagency meet the needs thus identified.” Hence, the use of the 118/119 report to assistthe development of country level plans or strategies is a legal requirement.This document analyzes the status of biodiversity and tropical forest conservation inAngola, identifies principal problems and their causes, and provides the USAID missionwith recommendations for including biodiversity and tropical forest conservation in aportfolio that is appropriate to Angola’s medium-term development needs. It has fiveobjectives:1. Assess the current state of biodiversity conservation and forest management inAngola.2. Identify the root causes of processes and trends that threaten biodiversity andtropical forests.3. Identify the immediate causes for the threats to biodiversity and tropical forests.4. Identify priority actions necessary to better conserve tropical forests andbiological diversity in Angola.5. Provide specific recommendation to USAID/Angola on how to incorporateactions that will help conserve biodiversity and tropical forests into its strategicpriorities given budget and programmatic constraints.The lack of recent quantitative data detracts from the precision of this document, butfrom not its conclusions and recommendations.This assessment was conducted by a team of five environmental specialists: two fromthe United States and three from Angola. The team, led by Joao S. de Queiroz,amalgamated a broad range of technical expertise and a thorough knowledge ofAngola’s environment and its institutional and legal frameworks. The assessmentincluded meetings with 29 key individuals from government institutions, donoragencies, NGOs, extractive industries, and with land owners, park managers, andfarmers. The team took three field trips to protected areas and areas of high biodiversity.Country ProfileAngola covers 1,256,700 km 2 . It is situated on the west coast of Africa and bordersNamibia (1,376 km), the Democratic Republic of Congo (2,511 km), the Republic ofthe Congo (201 km), and Zambia (1,110 km). Its coast extends for 1,650 km.118/119 BIODIVERSITY AND TROPICAL FOREST ASSESSMENT FOR ANGOLA ix

The country is divided into 18 provinces, and its population is estimated at 16 to 18million, concentrated in urban areas such as Luanda, Huambo, Lubango, and Benguelaand in the central plateau region. The bulk of the country supports population densitiesless than 10 inhabitants per km 2 . This population distribution is a result of the protractedconflict, during which the agricultural sector collapsed and massive movements ofpeople from rural areas to urban centers turned Angola into one of the most urbanizedcountries in Africa.Angola’s climate is varied, due to the country’s extension, topographic variability, andthe north-flowing Benguela current. Annual rainfall in the southwestern corner is lessthan 100 mm, while in the northeast and some highland areas it exceeds 1,500 mm.Angola ranges in altitude from sea- level to more than 2,500 m. The country harbors avariety of soil types, but most of its surface is dominated by infertile, coarse-texturedArenosols and highly weathered Ferralsols. More fertile Luvisols occur in regeneratedrain and cloud forest areas once used for shade-coffee cultivation. The climatic,topographic, and edaphic variability interact to generate considerable ecologicaldiversity. Angola is considered one of the most biodiverse countries in Africa.Hydrologically, Angola is crucially important to southern Africa and the Congo basin.Seven of its nine watersheds, including the Cunene, Cuando, Cubango, Zaire, andZambezi, are shared by neighboring countries. The country’s densely populated “centralplateau,” where the Kwanza, Cunene, and Okavango rivers originate, is perhaps themost important landform in Southern Africa from a hydrologic viewpoint.Updated quantitative information on Angola’s vegetation cover is lacking. Estimates forforested land range from 19 percent to 53 percent. This wide range owes itself todifferent definition of “forests” and the lack of current information about the country’svegetation cover. Nonetheless, it can be stated with a reasonable degree of certainty thatmiombo woodland is the predominant vegetation, covering more than 50 percent of thecountry. True rainforests, where the bulk of the country’s terrestrial biodiversity reside,occupy less than 2 percent of the country’s surface. Savannahs and miombo cover morethan 80 percent of Angola’s surface.Angola’s economy is experiencing extraordinary growth. In 2006 its gross domesticproduct (GDP) grew by 18.6 percent. Projections for 2007 range from 27 percent tomore than 30 percent. This unusual economic performance and the building boom itfuels have yet to have a significant impact on poverty reduction: 68 percent of Angolanslive below the poverty level, 28 percent of them in extreme poverty. Unemployment inurban areas is almost 50 percent. The country occupies position 161 on the UnitedNations Development Programme (UNDP) Human Development Index, one of thelowest in the world.Oil and gas constitute 60 percent of Angola’s GDP. Hydrocarbons account for 90percent of the country’s exports. Diamonds contribute 9 percent to the country’s GDP.Extractive industries are the backbone of Angola’s economy. Oil and diamondproduction are expected to grow exponentially over the coming years.x118/119 BIODIVERSITY AND TROPICAL FOREST ASSESSMENT FOR ANGOLA

Legal Framework Related to the EnvironmentMost of Angola’s legal environmental framework dates back to colonial times. Laws areincompatible with Angola’s status as an independent and democratic country and do notincorporate the advancements in conservation and environmental management thinkingthat have taken place over the past four decades.The country has ratified several international conventions and protocols that have abearing on the environment:• Convention on Biological Diversity (1998)• The United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (1990)• International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources (2006)• United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification (2000)• Convention on the Conservation of Migratory Species (2003)• Convention on International Trade on Endangered Species (CITES; 2001) 1• International Convention on Pollution Prevention by Ships (MARPOL 73/78)• International Convention on Cooperation and Combat against (shipping) Pollutionby Hydrocarbons• United National Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC; 2000)• The Kyoto Protocol (2007)Angola has also signed a number of regional and continental environment-relatedprotocols and conventions, and is drafting a new constitution. Many of the provisionsfrom the current constitution are likely to be carried over to the new constitution. The1992 constitution states:“All natural resources existing in the soil and subsoil, in internal and territorial waters,on the continental shelf and in the exclusive economic zone shall be the property of theState, which shall determine under what terms they are used, developed, and exploited.“The State shall promote the protection and conservation of natural resources byguiding the exploitation and use thereof for the benefit of the community as a whole.“All citizens shall have the right to live in a healthy and unpolluted environment.The State shall take the requisite measures to protect the environment and nationalspecies of flora and fauna throughout the national territory and maintain ecologicalbalance.”The Angolan Environmental Framework Law of 1998 is the overarching instrument forthe implementation of the constitutional provisions. Article 13(1) prohibits “allactivities that threaten the biodiversity, conservation, reproduction, quality, and quantityof biological resources … especially those threatened with extinction.” The regulatoryframework for the application of the law is incomplete or inadequate. This isparticularly important in the case of regulations pertaining to environmental impactassessments.1 Since the ratification and adoption of CITES have not yet been published in the Official Diary, its legal status is inlimbo.118/119 BIODIVERSITY AND TROPICAL FOREST ASSESSMENT FOR ANGOLA xi

A number of sector-specific legal instruments also have a bearing on the environment.Whereas some are relatively modern, such as the Biological Aquatic Resources Lawenacted in 2004, others are hopelessly outdated. The legal framework dealing withforests dates back to colonial times. New legal instruments for the sector are currentlyunder development by the Government of Angola (GOA) with assistance from the Foodand Agricultural Organization (FAO) of the United Nations.Protected areas in Angola were created during the colonial era. The current legal basisfor protected areas is provided by decree 43/77, which established the structure of theMinistry of Agriculture and defined five categories of protected areas: national parks,strict nature reserves, partial reserves, regional nature parks, and special reserves. Nocommunity-managed category is currently recognized.Article 10 of the Land Law, enacted in 2005, states that all natural resources are stateproperty and that the state’s rights over the land are not transmissible. Article 14establishes that the state can intervene in the management and concession of land for thepurposes of environmental protection, while Article 16 affirms that the occupation anduse of the land depends on a number of norms and standards for environmentalprotection, particularly with respect to the protection of landscape, flora and fauna, thepreservation of ecological equilibrium and the right of citizens to a healthy and nonpollutedenvironment.Other environmentally important sector specific legislation includes the Law onGeologic and Mining Activities, which gives the state the authority to suspend miningactivities that are harmful to the environment, and instructs concession holders toprotect the environment. Sanctions are seldom, if, ever applied in spite of miningpractices that are severely damaging to the environment.In summary:• The constitution recognizes the importance of the environment to the quality of life.• Angola’s legal environmental framework is transitioning from that of a colonial andwar-torn past to one of a more modern state.• Some legal instruments, particularly these pertaining to forestry and protected areasare outdated.• Regulations for the application of certain instruments (i.e., the Decree onEnvironmental Assessment) are lacking or deficient.• Sector specific regulatory instruments related to oil and mining cater for theprotection of the environment but are largely ignored by the mining sector.Institutional FrameworkThe Ministry of Urbanism and Environment (MINUA), established at the end of 2002,is responsible for formulating and executing environmental policy. The Ministry hastwo principal sub-structures: the National Directorate for the Environment (NDE) andthe National Directorate for Natural Resources (NDNR). The NDE is responsible forenvironmental education, environmental planning, environmental policing, and thedevelopment of environmental regulations. The NDNR is in charge of the protection offauna, flora, and habitat, for the regeneration of degraded areas, and supporting thecreation and management of conservation units.xii118/119 BIODIVERSITY AND TROPICAL FOREST ASSESSMENT FOR ANGOLA

While MINUA has legal jurisdiction over environmental matters, it has not assumed fullresponsibilities over important sectors of the environment. Furthermore, some of itsunits, such as the National Institute for the Conservation of Nature and the NationalInstitute for the Promotion of the Environment, are not yet operational. MINUA has nopresence in any protected area in the country, is chronically understaffed, and wasunable to spend the more than $40 million in its 2007 budget. In light of thesefunctional deficiencies, other ministries, especially the Ministry of Agriculture andRural Development (MINADER), play an important role in addressing environmentalconcerns.MINADER has the mandate to define forestry policy and planning and directing alltasks related to forest resource management. MINADER’s Institute for ForestryDevelopment (IDF) continues to play a reduced and ineffective role in the managementof forests and protected areas.In addition to MINUA and MINADER, the Ministry of Energy and Water and theMinistry of Fisheries have a bearing on biodiversity conservation and environmentalmanagement. The Ministry of Fisheries is supposed to collaborate in the conservation ofnature, especially for the marine environment.There is no set provincial-level institutional structure for the environment that repeatsitself from province to province. In most cases, however, jurisdiction overenvironmental matters is ascribed to the Provincial Directorate for Agriculture Fisheriesand Environment. Directorate sectoral responsibilities fall under three ministries:MINADER, MINUA and the Ministry of Fisheries. In other cases, provincialgovernments have established an Environment Department under a Directorate ofUrbanism and Environment, aligned with MINUA.In summary, there is an acute lack of clarity about the environmental responsibilities ofcertain sectoral ministries and MINUA. This is particularly serious with respect to thefunctional overlap of MINUA and MINADER for the forestry sector.International DonorsThe international donor community in Angola has not yet targeted the environment forinvestment. Nonetheless, a noticeable shift is evident; for example, the GermanTechnical Cooperation (GTZ) and the Global Environmental Facility (GEF) recentlyapproved projects with environmental components. Other donors are also exploring thepossibility of undertaking environment-related activities in Angola. The FAO iscontributing to forestry policy and legislation development, and UNDP is supporting theimplementation of Angola’s National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan. In short,donor interest in Angola’s environmental issues is on the upswing.Financial support for environmental activities from the extractive industries is small butsignificant. Esso (Exxon) is a key supporter of the Giant Sable Conservation Project,and SONANGOL has donated $300,000 to the Kissama Foundation for its efforts tosave Kissama National Park.118/119 BIODIVERSITY AND TROPICAL FOREST ASSESSMENT FOR ANGOLA xiii

The Status and Trends of Tropical Forests and BiodiversityProtected areas. There are 20 protected area units in Angola covering approximatelyabout 6 percent of the national territory, the lowest percentage of any African country.Of Angola’s six national parks, only three (Kissama, Cangandala, and Bicuar) have aminimal degree of management. The management of these three areas is a result ofspecific initiatives that could collapse without the tenacity of key individuals. MINUAis virtually absent from protected areas. The situation is grave; the International Unionfor Conservation of Nature considers Angola’s protected areas “system” to be undersevere threat. Some national parks (Mupa) are no longer viable as conservation units.Others are headed in the same direction.Forests, savannas, and woodlands. During its 27 years of civil war Angola experienceda virtual depopulation of rural regions. This phenomenon allowed the vegetation cover,rivers, and streams to recover in areas that were once cultivated or used for livestockproduction. Poaching, however, decimated animal populations in most of the country. Incontrast, the semi-arid and arid areas in the southwest third of the country, wheretranshumant pastoral systems exist, escaped this trend. In these areas, productionsystems remained relatively unaffected while urban areas and transport network weredestroyed. These systems were threatened, however, by cattle ranches, which thatinterfered with migratory routes and access to water resources. Now, five years after theadvent of peace, the situation is mostly unchanged: a healthy habitat without animals toinhabit it, and increasing urban demand for forest resources.Angola is quickly losing its forest cover. Using a number of data sources, the teamestimated that deforestation rates due to wood extraction for charcoal and firewood isresponsible for an annual deforestation rate between 0.9 percent and 1.0 percent,concentrated around urban areas in ever-widening circles of deforestation. The slow butrelentless reactivation of Angola’s agricultural sector is associated with the expansion ofslash-and-burn agriculture, another important driver of deforestation.Coastal and marine systems. Angola’s mangroves estuarine systems and coastal zonesin general are under a number of pressures due their proximity to population centers andirregular settlements established during the war. Peace and rapid economic growthwithout effective environmental governance are compromising the future of some of themost productive coastal ecosystems in the country. The team was unable to undertakean exhaustive assessment of the situation of coastal systems, but the situation in keycoastal ecosystems serves to illustrate the situation.• Cacuaco Bay is severely impacted by human wastes from squatter camps, shantytowns, and industrial wastes from Angola’s largest cement factory (CIMANGOL),the SONANGOL oil refinery, an asbestos tubing and sheet factory (CIMIANTO),and others.• Ships using the bay have significant negative impacts on Luanda Bay and environsas they wash out bilges in or near the bay. Maintenance work on hulls is carried outwithout controls. Storm water from Luanda discharges directly into the bay,carrying with it human waste from broken sewage pipes. The bay also experiencespressures from mega-development projects along its southern shoreline.• Estuaries and mangroves are under a number of pressures, including woodextraction and heavy poaching of manatees. International interests aim to establishxiv118/119 BIODIVERSITY AND TROPICAL FOREST ASSESSMENT FOR ANGOLA

shrimp farms in mangroves within protected areas (Kissama National Park) Plans tobuild several hydroelectric dams along the Kwanza River 2 may have a dramaticimpact on coastal mangrove ecosystems if they do not include adequateenvironmental impact mitigation and avoidance mechanisms.In addition to damage to coastal habitats, seas turtles and manatees are under seriousthreat. An indicator of this is the decline in the probability of sighting a manatee in theKwanza estuary, from 50 percent to 10 percent.Species diversity and threatened species. Angola is home to at least 8,000 plant species,275 mammal species, 78 amphibian species, 227 reptile species, and 915 bird species.The number of insect species exceeds 300. The country has the second highest numberof endemic plant species in Africa (1,260), 10 endemic bird species, and 19 endemicreptile species. The country’s two most famous endemics are the prostrate conifer(Welwitschia mirabilis) and the giant sable antelope (Hippo tragus Niger variani).Angola is home to 88 endangered, vulnerable, and critically endangered species.Endemic bird species live primarily in the afro-montane forests that are not representedin Angola’s protected areas system. Other threatened species include the green turtle(Chelonia mydas), leatherback turtle (Dermochelys coriacea), the olive ridley turtle(Lepidochelys olivacea), the chimpanzee (Pan troglodytes), and the lowland gorilla(Gorilla gorilla).Diamonds and rivers. Mining practices in Angola have no regard for the environment.To mine diamonds from riverine alluvial deposits, the mining companies, with theacquiescence of Angola’s National Diamond Company (ENDIAMA), move the riverinto artificial channels and use high pressure hoses to wash and sift the alluvium in theoriginal channel for diamonds. The long-term environmental impacts are drastic and, ina time scale relevant to humans, irreversible. There are no measures to avoid, mitigate,or reverse the impact of diamond mining.Principal Root Causes of Angola’s Environmental ThreatsThis assessment indicates that behind the negative trends affecting Angola’senvironment is a fast-growing economy without appropriate environmental governance.In short, the country’s vertiginous economic growth in the absence of an institutionaland regulatory framework to ensure that the environmental impact of economicactivities are incorporated into development planning and implementation is a rootcause of environmental degradation and biodiversity loss.This problem is compounded because Angola’s economic growth, which is based on theexport of non-renewable resources such as oil and diamonds, does not generatesufficient employment.Immediate Causes of Specific Environmental ProblemsDeforestation as a result of charcoal production and fuelwood extraction. The limitedeconomic options available for nearly 50 percent of Angola’s population, and theirability to freely exploit renewable natural resources, is a root cause for the unsustainable2 The team heard of 11 such structures but was unable to confirm the number or magnitude.118/119 BIODIVERSITY AND TROPICAL FOREST ASSESSMENT FOR ANGOLA xv

exploitation of these resources and the loss of biodiversity, forest, and aquatic resources.The principal direct cause of deforestation is charcoal production, subtended by ademand for fuel by urban and rural households and the lack of alternative sources ofincome by urban and rural dwellers.Depletion of wildlife populations in forested areas as a result of commercial hunting.The large number of freshly killed carcasses for sale along roads in the country’snorthern humid forests (Bengo, Uíge) indicates that poaching for commercial purposesthreaten otherwise healthy populations of primates and small antelopes of Angola’snorthern forest areas. Poaching is a relatively easy source of cash in a country withlimited employment possibilities.Degradation of coastal ecosystems, particularly mangroves, due to deforestation andhunting of keystone species. Internally displaced people have not returned to their placesof origin with the advent of peace. Many that settled along coastlines have elected tostay. The team saw evidence that the movement of people towards coastal areascontinues at a reduced rate. The pressure on coastal resources, particularly onmangroves, continues unabated. In the absence of effective controls, wood harvestingand the killing of keystone species such as the African manatee are degrading mangroveecosystems. The survival of marine turtles (leather back, olive, and green) that useAngola’s coastline is in jeopardy due to the raiding of nests and killing of adult females.Absence of controls renders Angola’s protected areas vulnerable to poaching,deforestation, and encroachment. Angola’s protected areas are in critical condition.There is practically no effective government control in any of the six national parks.This lack of control makes it easy for poachers, charcoal producers, and livestockherders to practice their trades within park boundaries. In some cases, foreign interests,with the acquiescence of local authorities, plan to establish large development projects(shrimp farms, hotels) within park boundaries. The absence of government controls orpresence in protected areas renders these areas vulnerable to a broad spectrum ofpressures. If this situation continues, many of Angola’s protected areas will soonbecome unviable as conservation units.Lack of legal and de facto protection renders Angola’s centers of high biodiversity andendemism highly vulnerable. Angola’s afro-montane forests, known to be habitats forseveral species of endemic birds and plants, are not represented in the country’s systemof protected areas. Angola’s northwestern forested areas, formerly coffee farms, areareas of high biodiversity. Neither ecosystem is represented in Angola’s protected areassystem. Because Angola’s most biodiverse ecosystems are not represented in thecountry’s system of protected areas, they are seriously threatened. Legal protection doesnot ensure the conservation of habitats or species in Angola, but a legally recognizedconservation category does offer hope.Poaching and habitat encroachment threaten the survival of Angola’s national symboland most charismatic endemic: the giant sable. A giant sable population with anestimated 30 individuals exists in Cangandala National Park, and there are indicationsof a larger, unprotected population in Luando Reserve to the south of Cangandala. Theever-expanding circle of deforestation is now within a few kilometers of Cangandala’sboundaries. More families are beginning to settle in the park’s vicinity, where theypractice slash-and-burn cultivation. The situation in Luando Reserve is unknown butxvi118/119 BIODIVERSITY AND TROPICAL FOREST ASSESSMENT FOR ANGOLA

likely to be critical. Unless a more concerted and sustained effort is made to save thegiant sable, these pressures will lead to its extinction.Without environmental impact assessment and regulatory capacity, unbridled growththreatens waterways and coastal systems. Angola’s environmental governanceapparatus is highly ineffective and the environmental consciousness of decision makersis quiescent. Under these circumstances, the environment is being trampled under thebanner of development. This threat applies to virtually every ecosystem in Angola, butit is most imminent in waterways and coastal areas where large development projectsare planned. In the absence of an effective environmental impact assessment, mitigationand enforcement system these activities will seriously affect the ecology of thesewaterways and associated coastal systems.Poor environmental management by mining companies has devastating environmentalimpact on rivers and riverine vegetation. To Angola’s national diamond company,ENDIAMA, the environmental impact of its activities is a normal side-effect of doingbusiness. Environmental management and impact mitigation are unessential costs.Hence, partner companies operate without addressing the negative environmentalimpact of their mining activities leaving behind devastated stretches of river andriverine vegetation.Actions Necessary to Decrease Pressures on Biodiversity and TropicalForests, and Recommendations to USAIDCurrent USAID actions that address threats to biodiversity and tropical forests. Thethree program areas under USAID/Angola’s strategy — 1) investing in people; 2)economic growth; and 3) governing justly and democratically — do not explicitlyaddress the root causes of negative environmental trends in Angola. The current strategywill guide the mission’s investments through FY2009. There was no clear indicationthat an environmental component would be included the next strategy.The need for a conceptual shift. There are indications that the mission has shifted thestrategic focus under program area 2 from the one-dimensional “economic growth” tothe multi-dimensional “economic development. 3 ” This is a step in the right direction;however, the concept of “sustainable development” would explicitly recognize theimportance of good environmental stewardship to the future of the country and the wellbeing of its people.Elevating the Environmental Consciousness of Angolan Government and CivilSocietyThe need: Angola’s government is focused on getting the country’ economy back on itsfeet, and the first step in this process has been the rebuilding of the country’sinfrastructure. Environmental concerns are low-priority. Likewise, Angolan householdsare more concerned about meeting daily needs than on the negative environmentalimpacts that their activities may have. Therefore, it is necessary to elevate the3 The USAID/Angola Web site lists three program areas 1) democracy and governance; 2) economic growth; 3)health. The information suggesting a strategic shift from “economic growth” to “economic development” wasprovided by a reviewer of this document’s first draft.118/119 BIODIVERSITY AND TROPICAL FOREST ASSESSMENT FOR ANGOLA xvii

environmental consciousness of the Angolan government about the importance of goodenvironmental stewardship.Recommendation: The donor community, perhaps under USAID’s leadership, can helpplace the environment on the government’s screen by initiating a discussion about theimportance of Angola’s environment, particularly from the standpoint of the country’spost-petroleum future. The point of departure could be the organization of a highvisibilityconference on the environment sponsored by several donors, including theUnited Nations.Help Create Protected Areas in High Biodiversity EcosystemsThe need: Angola’s afro-montane forests are not represented in the country’s protectedareas system. The same is true of the country’s humid forests in what were once coffeeproducing areas. This situation places a great deal of Angola’s natural heritage in peril.There is a need to designate and legalize representative segments of Angola’s mostbiodiverse ecosystems (afro-montane and humid Guineo-Congolian forests) as protectedareas.Recommendation: USAID could help conserve Angola’s biodiversity by working withan interested provincial government and MINUA to create at least one protected area inhighland forest areas. Previous reports (IUCN 1992) recommended that legal protectionbe secured for sections of the afro-montane forest of Morro do Moco. Illustrativeactivities include: 1) a biological and socio-economic study to identify parts of thesebiodiverse ecosystems that could be conserved; 2) map and prioritize these areas; 3)propose a legal figure and management model; 4) develop a business plan; and 5) assistthe local government or/and MINUA prepare a proposal for the creation of a protectedarea to the Council of Ministers. If successful, USAID should help to establish theprotected area, providing personnel training, development of geo-reference databases,and development of threats-reduction program.Help Save Protected Areas through a Development and Conservation ActivityThe need: There are two good reasons to support the management of selected protectedareas. First, there is an urgent need to conserve elements of Angola’s natural heritage.Second, Angola needs examples of well-managed protected areas.Recommendation: Three protected areas in Angola have rudimentary managementsystems: Kissama National Park, Cangandala National Park, and Bicuar National Park.USAID should choose one or more of these parks in which to implement sustainableprotected area management systems, including 1) community-based natural resourcesmanagement with communities within and near park boundaries; 2) a protected areapatrol system, preferably using local inhabitants; 3) an ecosystem management andrecovery component; 4) a training component for park guards, tourist guides, and fieldbiologists; and 5) a sustainable financing component.Activate the Giant Sable Conservation FundThe need: Angola’s current government budgeting procedure does not ensure a constantflow of resources for on-the-ground conservation activities. The financial situation ofxviii118/119 BIODIVERSITY AND TROPICAL FOREST ASSESSMENT FOR ANGOLA

individual conservation activities is precarious. This condition typifies the Giant SableConservation Project.Recommendations: The Giant Sable Fund is a nonprofit organization, established in theUnited States, to fund activities to protect and study the Giant Sable. The fund isaffiliated with Citizens Energy, which provides legal, financial, and tax audit andreview supervision. USAID should commission an analysis to determine how best tocapitalize and activate the fund so that it can start to realize its potential.Strengthen Angolan Conservation NGOsThe need: The Government of Angola is currently unable to manage protected areas. Inthe meantime, Angolan NGOs have taken the lead but have limited capacity to assumethis task effectively.Recommendation: The Kissama Foundation leads one of the most visible conservationactivities in Angola, the management of Kissama National Park. The foundation hassecured resources from SONANGOL and other donors to cover administrative expensesand field operations. USAID/Angola should consider working with the KissamaFoundation, in the context of a conservation project for Kissama National Park, toimprove its technical administrative and financial management capabilities anddiversify its sources of funding.118/119 BIODIVERSITY AND TROPICAL FOREST ASSESSMENT FOR ANGOLA xix

SECTION A. INTRODUCTIONA1. Legal RequirementSection 118 of the Foreign Assistance Act (FAA) of 1961 requires that every USAIDcountry development strategy statement or country plan include an analysis of: “1) theactions necessary in that country to achieve conservation and sustainable managementof tropical forests; and 2) the extent to which the actions proposed by the agency meetthe needs thus identified.” Section 119 dictates that every country strategic plandeveloped by USAID shall include: “1) the actions necessary in that country to conservebiological diversity; and 2) the extent to which the actions proposed for support by theagency meet the needs thus identified.” Further legal requirements for an environmentalassessment is provided by Section 117: “Special efforts shall be made to maintain and,where possible, restore the land, vegetation, water, wildlife and other resources uponwhich depend the economic growth and human well being, especially of the poor.”The current USAID/Angola strategic plan runs from FY2006 to FY2009. This year(2008), the mission will initiate the process towards the completion of a full-blownCountry Assistance Strategy for the FY2009-FY2014 period. Unless directed to proceeddifferently, the mission will continue to use the current strategy to guide its activitiesthrough 2009.The current USAID/Angola strategy incorporates three program areas:1. Investing in people 42. Economic growth3. Governing justly and democraticallyThese program areas and associated activities respond to the needs of a countryemerging from four decades of war. Now that Angola is six years into a period of peace,the mission has shifted its focus from recovery to sustainable development; after all,Angola currently has the fastest economic growth rate in the world. One concernexpressed in this document is the impact of this extraordinary economic growth on theenvironment.This is an opportune moment to address environmental issues. This document providesthe USAID mission with suggestions for including biodiversity and tropical forestconservation in a portfolio that is appropriate to Angola’s medium-term developmentneeds. It recognizes the hurdles that must be overcome to elevate environmentalconcerns to the appropriate level in Angola’s development agenda. Theserecommendations also tie in with other mission interests, such as governance andeconomic development.A 118/119 analysis for Angola was conducted in 2006 as part of the 2006-2009USAID/Angola strategic planning process. While limited by the lack of recent originalinformation, the analysis provides a good overview of the situation at that time. Thisdocument updates and expands the 2006 document, adding important insights and4 During the meeting with the USAID/Angola staff, it was stated that the “investing in people” program area focusedon health.118/119 BIODIVERSITY AND TROPICAL FOREST ASSESSMENT FOR ANGOLA 1

suggestions based on interviews, field visits, and recent studies and documents.Unfortunately, the lack of recent quantitative information that compromised the depth ofthe 2006 analysis continues to be a limiting factor for any environmental analysis inAngola, including the development of the National Biodiversity Strategy and ActionPlan (MINUA 2006a). The lack of quantitative, up-to-date information does not,however, detract from the conclusions and recommendations in this report.The report is organized into five sections. This introduction, Section A, describes thepurpose and objectives of the assessment. Section B is a country profile that describesthe physical environment, social conditions, and institutional and legal framework thataffect the status of forest resources and biodiversity. Section C assesses the status ofbiodiversity and tropical forest resources, followed by a discussion of the root causesfor the environmental problems in Section D. The document ends with recommendedactions to help reduce the threats to biodiversity and tropical forests in Angola.A2. Purpose and ObjectivesThe purpose of this assessment is to ensure compliance with Sections 118 and 119 ofthe FAA, as amended, and to inform USAID/Angola’s strategic planning exercise as perthe Strategic Framework for Foreign Assistance and country strategy guidelines underADS 201.3.4.11 and ADS 204.5. The objectives of the assessment are to:• Assess the current state of biodiversity and forested areas in Angola.• Identify the root causes of processes and trends that threaten biodiversity andtropical forests.• Identify the immediate causes for the threats to biodiversity and tropical forests.• Identify priority actions necessary to better conserve tropical forests and biologicaldiversity in Angola.• Provide specific recommendation to USAID/Angola about how to incorporatebiodiversity and tropical forests conservation actions into its strategic prioritiesgiven budget and programmatic constraints.A3. MethodsA3a. Team CompositionThis assessment was conducted by team leader Joao S. de Queiroz, Hugh Safford of theU.S. Forest Service, and local counterparts Vladimir Russo, Pedro Vaz Pinto, and AbiasHuongo.• Dr. Queiroz holds a Ph.D. in range science, a M.Sc. in soil genesis, and a B.Sc. insoil science. He has more than 23 years of experience in natural resources andenvironmental issues, including 10 years in Africa. He worked with USAID forseven years and has designed, managed, and evaluated biodiversity conservationprojects.• With a Ph.D. in ecology, Hugh Safford is the senior Pacific Southwest regionalecologist for the U.S. Forest Service. He has conducted ecological research andtraining in Angola and other African countries.• Mr. Russo is senior advisor to Angola’s Ministry of Urbanism and Environment(MINUA) and director of Holisticos, an environmental consulting firm in Luanda.2 118/119 BIODIVERSITY AND TROPICAL FOREST ASSESSMENT FOR ANGOLA

He has a master’s degree in environmental education and post-graduate training inenvironmental legislation.• Vaz Pinto has a degree in forestry and natural resources management. He is thedirector of the Kissama Foundation and coordinator of the Research Center forEnvironment and Natural Resources Management at the Catholic University ofAngola. Mr. Vaz is also the director of the Giant Sable Conservation Project and arenowned Angolan bird expert.• Mr. Huongo is a psychologist who has become a producer of environmental radioshows and leader of a number of environmental organizations and networks.A3b. Meetings and InterviewsThe team conducted open-ended interviews with 29 individuals (Annex A), includingpolitical appointees in high-level positions in the Ministry of Urbanism andEnvironment (MINUA), Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development (MINADER),Angolan NGOs Action for Rural Development and Environment, the KissamaFoundation, Rede Maiombe, and Futuro Verde, the Angolan National DiamondCompany (ENDIAMA), British Petroleum, Tullow Oil, the Food and AgriculturalOrganization of the United Nations (FAO), the United Nations Development Program(UNDP), the European Union (EU), and the United Nations High Commission forRefugees (UNHCR). The team also met with field personnel in Kissama andCangandala national parks.A3c. Literature ReviewThe team reviewed a number of key documents, which are listed in the bibliography,and the following Web sites: the World Conservation Union (www.iucn.org), BritishPetroleum (www.bp.com), USAID/Angola (www.usaid.gov/ao), Benguela CurrentLarge Marine Ecosystem Program (www.bclme.org) Angolan Ministry of Finance(www.minfin.gv.ao), the Biodiversity Convention (www.cbd.int), and the WorldResources Institute’s Earthtrends (www.earthtrends.wri.org).A3d. Field TripIn a country where data on the environment is deficient or outdated, field observationsand conversations with local people provide valuable insights. The team coveredapproximately 2,400 km by road:• 200 km northeast of Luanda, beyond Caxito in the Dembos forest area, the teamvisited abandoned coffee farms and roadside stalls and markets selling dried gamemeat and freshly killed carcasses.• 180 km south of Luanda, in Kissama National Park (KNP), the team visited thegame warden, mangroves, and enclosures where animals have been introduced, andobserved the pressures to which the park is being subjected.• 800 km to Cangandala National Park (CNP), where the team met with communityguards, observed activities of the Giant Sable Conservation Project, and witnessedthreats to the survival of this species and the integrity of the park.118/119 BIODIVERSITY AND TROPICAL FOREST ASSESSMENT FOR ANGOLA 3

SECTION B. COUNTRY PROFILEAngola’s varied ecosystems render the country one of the most biodiverse in Africa.This section describes key features of Angola’s environment. It provides thebackground for the ensuing discussions on threats, root causes, and opportunities forinterventions that will help conserve biodiversity and tropical forests.B1. PhysiographyB1a. Location and Administrative DivisionsAngola covers 1,256,700 km 2 . It is situated on the west coast of Africa between 4° 22’and 18° 02’ south latitude and 11º 41’ and 24 º 05’ west longitudes (Exhibit 1). Thecountry borders Namibia in the south (1,376 km), the Democratic Republic of Congo(2,511 km) and the Republic of the Congo (201 km) in the north, and Zambia (1,110km) in the east. Angola’s coast extends 1,650 km. Angola is divided into 18 provinces.Exhibit 1. Administrative map of AngolaB1b. ClimateTwo factors have a strong effect on Angola’s climate: the South Atlantic high-pressurecell and the cold northward flowing Benguela current. The high-pressure cell limits thesouthward migration of the inter-tropical convergence zone; the Benguela currentgenerates a strong temperature inversion along the coast that has a pronounced118/119 BIODIVERSITY AND TROPICAL FOREST ASSESSMENT FOR ANGOLA 5

stabilizing effect on the lower atmosphere. This preempts the upward movement ofcloud-forming moist air along the Namibian and southern portions of the Angolancoastline. The result is a gradient of increasing precipitation from south to north andfrom west to east (Exhibit 2).In the extreme southwest, part of the Namib Desert biome, average rainfall is less than100 mm per annum. Here, the endemic conifer Welwitschia mirabilis occurs. As onemoves north along the coast, rainfall increases to more than 1,000 mm in Cabinda. Theincrease in precipitation without changes in altitude is caused by changes in thetrajectory of the cold, north-flowing Benguela current.As one moves inland, the effect of the Benguela current' is attenuated and topographichighs create conditions that favor cloud formation and therefore increased precipitation.The topography-induced gradient in precipitation is steepest in the transitional zone thatseparates the coastal area from the elevated inland. In mountainous areas, moistureavailable to plants as mist is a strong determinant of vegetation (Barbosa 1971). Hence,the elevated areas (≥1,500 m) around Huambo (Exhibit 3) receive more than 1,500 mmof rainfall. To the east and northeast, precipitation is more related to continentalconditions and the movements of the inter-tropical convergence zone. In the extremenortheast, Angola receives more than 1,500 mm of rainfall.Temporal rainfall distribution is characterized by distinct wet (October – May) and dry(June – September) seasons. March and April are the wettest months; June and July arethe driest. Mean annual temperatures range from 14°C at the highest points to more than26°C in some low-lying northwestern coastal areas. The cold season coincides with thedry season.Exhibit 2. Rainfall in Angola. Thecold Benguela current creates asteep precipitation gradient alongthe coastline. Inland, the climate iscontrolled by topography,continental conditions, andmovements of the inter-tropicalconvergence zone (IUCN 1992).Precipitation (in millimeters)0-100 100-250 250-500 500-750 750-1000 |1000-1250 1250-1500 1500+6 118/119 BIODIVERSITY AND TROPICAL FOREST ASSESSMENT FOR ANGOLA

B1c. Topography and GeologyA low-lying (0-200 m) undulating coastal belt stretches from Cabinda to the southernborder with Namibia (Exhibit 3). This geomorphic unit, composed of sedimentary rocksand weakly consolidated sediments, ranges in width from 200 km south of Luanda toaround 10 km between Benguela and Namibe. To the east, a deeply incised stripseparates the coastal belt from the interior plateau and mountainous areas. Thistransitional geomorphic unit — etched on schists, arkoses, and quartzites — rangesfrom 200-500 m in altitude and from 60-250 km in width. Geomorphologically, it iscomposed of pediments in the arid south and residual hills and narrow valleys that gainaltitude as one moves inland. In its southern reaches, the transitional belt sportsinselbergs and massifs that tower 1,000 m above the regional base level.Exhibit 3. Topographic map of AngolaAltitude (in meters)0-200 200-500 500-1,000 1,000-1,500 1,500-2,000 |2,000-2,500An elevation bulge between 1,500 and 2,000 m located in the midwestern section of thecountry (Exhibit 3) is known as the “central plateau.” This is a rolling erosional surfaceunderlain mostly by basement complex rocks such as gneiss, granites, and migmatites.Considering southern Africa’s regional hydrology, the central plateau is an extremelyimportant land unit. It hosts the headwaters of the Cunene and Cubango rivers and feedssome of Angola’s principal rivers, such as the Kwanza, Cutato, and Cunhinga. TheCubango is the primary source of water for the Okavango River and its delta inBotswana.A number of important mountains separate the central plateau from the westerly slopingtransitional zone. These elevated points exceed 2,000 m and support afro-montane118/119 BIODIVERSITY AND TROPICAL FOREST ASSESSMENT FOR ANGOLA 7

forests considered to be centers of high biodiversity and endemism. One such elevatedfeature is Mount Moco.Most of the country east of the coastal areas and the central plateau lies between 1,000and 1,500 m. These areas are mostly undulating and covered by medium- to coarsetexturedsediments associated with the Kalahari system.B1d. SoilsAngola hosts significant soil variety (Exhibit 4). The two dominant soil groups areArenosols and Ferrasols. Arenosols dominate the eastern two-thirds of the country,where the parent material consists of coarse-textured sediments. Ferrasols occupy largeportions of the western highlands and adjacent areas. These two infertile soil groupscover more than 80 percent of Angola’s surface. Other important soil types includeLuvisols, Calcisols, and Cambisols. The Luvisols are common in the northeastern hillsand adjacent slopes where coffee cultivation used to be an important activity duringcolonial times. This area is now covered by dense forests that support a healthypopulation of small antelopes and avian fauna. Because of its relatively high agriculturalpotential, the opportunity cost of conservation in these fertile areas is higher than inareas dominated by Arenosols, where cultivation is a marginal activity at best. That ismost likely one reason why the colonial government did not create any protected areasin Angola’s highly productive highlands.Exhibit 4. Generalized soils map ofAngola (adapted from FAO, 1997).Due to scale and original map qualitylimitations, not all soil types arerepresented in the legend. Poorlegend color choices in the originalmap made it difficult to identifysmaller units.Arenosol Ferralsol Luvisol Calcisol Cambisol Regosol Solonetz Vertisol8 118/119 BIODIVERSITY AND TROPICAL FOREST ASSESSMENT FOR ANGOLA

B1e. HydrographyExcluding the province of Cabinda, Angola may be subdivided into nine largehydrographic basins (Exhibit 5):1. Perennial coastal system2. Ephemeral coastal system3. Zaire system4. Cunene system5. Kwanza system6. Cubango system7. Cuando system8. Zambezi system9. Cuanhama, or Etosha, systemExhibit 5. Angola’s principal hydrographic basinsCoastal(perennial)Coastal(ephemeral)Principal Hydrographic BasinsZaire Cunene Kwanza Cubango Cuando Zambezi Cuanhama(Etosha)118/119 BIODIVERSITY AND TROPICAL FOREST ASSESSMENT FOR ANGOLA 9

A glance at Exhibit 5 reveals two important facts. First, seven of the nine majorhydrographic basins are transnational. Of these, four originate in Angola (Cunene,Cubango, Cuando, and Cuanhama). Furthermore, the Cunene, Cubango, and Cuandorivers flow into two arid countries, Namibia and Botswana. The Cuanhama system is anenclosed basin that feeds into Namibia’s Etosha pan system, one of the most importantwildlife conservation areas in Southern Africa. How Angola treats its hydrographicbasins is of utmost importance to neighboring countries, particularly those to the souththat are dominated by aridic conditions.Second, from a hydrologic viewpoint, the central plateau is of utmost importance toAngola and to the entire Southern Africa region. The headwaters of three major rivers— Kwanza, Cunene, and Cubango — originate there, with the majority of secondaryrivers that make up the coastal drainage systems.From a regional standpoint, the well-being of Angola’s shared watersheds is extremelyimportant, with its central plateau perhaps the most important water catchment in theregion. The economic well-being of millions of people in the region depends on howthese watersheds are managed. This is both an opportunity for collaboration and apotential source of regional conflict.B1f. VegetationThere is no reliable data on vegetation cover in Angola. According to FAO (2003), IDF(2004), and MINUA (2006a), “forested” land covers about 53 million ha of Angola,about 43 percent of the national territory. This number is identical to the number givenin the 1970 “Carta Fitogeográfica de Angola” (Barbosa 1970), and is likely a reliableestimate of actual forest cover at that time. However, other estimates differ. Forexample, IDF (2004) estimates 35 percent using the same number of hectares, USAID(2006) estimates 19 percent, United Nations Environment Programme (2002) estimates56 percent, Caetano (1999) estimates 17 percent, and the Mondabay Rainforest Web siteestimates 47.4 percent. The discrepancies may be due to poor math or different ways ofclassifying vegetation cover. 5 Furthermore, no post-war forest assessment exists; thenumbers provided here are only indicative. Based on arguments provided in asupporting paper prepared by Safford (2008), a best-guess estimate of current forestcover is probably 40-45 million ha, or 35 percent of the national territory.Of the area currently covered by forest, however defined, MINADER/MINUA (2006)states that about 80 percent is miombo and savannah formations, and only 2 percent israinforest sensu strictu. Mangrove formations, of extreme importance for coastalecosystem function (species diversity, primary productivity, fish reproduction, sedimentretention, water purification, etc.) are found on about 1,250 km 2 of estuarine lands, orabout 0.1 percent of the Angolan national territory. Aside from forestlands, othergeneral land categories include rangelands (savannahs), about 23 percent of the nationalterritory, and arable lands (including permanent cultivation), which add to about 3percent (MINUA 2006a).5 The standard international definition of “forest” is an area with >25 percent canopy cover by trees (UNESCO 1973;“savannah” is usually considered to be a grass-dominated system with sparse trees [by the UNESCO definition,

The proportional representation of major potential vegetation types, according to IDF(2004), is given in Exhibit 6. These numbers do not apply to the current vegetationcover, but rather to the potential cover in the absence of major anthropogenicdisturbance. IDF (2004) estimates that although more than 45 percent of Angola wouldlikely support miombo woodland (Exhibit 6), but the actual coverage is lower, as muchmiombo has been cleared for agriculture, urban construction, charcoal production, andthe like. Based on these estimates, it appears that 60-70 percent of Angola has thecapacity to support tree-dominated landscapes (i.e., in the absence of major humandisturbance); or 80-90 percent if savannah systems are included. IDF’s estimates appearto be based on the 1970 Carta Fitogegráfica de Angola (Barbosa 1970), which dividespotential vegetation into 32 types, many of which are mosaics of different life forms.Exhibit 6. Estimates of cover for broad vegetation categories (source: IDF 2004)Potential vegetation type% of total areaOpen tropical forest (Miombo) 45.4Dry tropical woodland (savannah) 24.2Miombo-savanna mosaic (transition) 19.8Grassland/meadow 5.2Steppe 3.1Tropical rainforest (Maiombe) 2.0Desert 0.3Miombo, such as this one inCangandala National Park, is thepredominant vegetation type inAngola.Exhibit 7 is a generalized map of the broad potential vegetation types, derived fromBarbosa’s (1970) detailed map and extracted from MINUA (2006a). Miombo is clearlythe dominant ecoregion, while Angolan afro-montane forests (much “patchier” thanExhibit 6 indicates) are the rarest.In terms of species diversity, endemism, and deforestation threat, the afro-montaneforests are of particular note. Unfortunately, there are no conservation units within thisecoregion.118/119 BIODIVERSITY AND TROPICAL FOREST ASSESSMENT FOR ANGOLA 11

Exhibit 7. Simplified potential vegetation cover map of AngolaB2. The Human EnvironmentB2a. Demographics and Quality of LifeBecause there has not been a population census in Angola in more than 30 years, its sizeis unknown. Population estimates range from 16 to 18 million people (C.Theodoropoulos, senior protection officer, UNHCR) of whom more than 60 percent arebelieved to be less than 20 years of age. The average life expectancy is 42 years. Whilethe spread of HIV/AIDS was contained during the war, the rate of infection is now12 118/119 BIODIVERSITY AND TROPICAL FOREST ASSESSMENT FOR ANGOLA

increasing. Child mortality extremely high: 250 of every 1,000 children younger thanage five.Angola’s civil war had a profound impact on all aspects of social and economic life inthe country. Approximately 4 million people were internally displaced and 600,000 leftthe country as refugees; of these, about 80 percent have since returned to Angola(UNHCR 2007). Most internal displacement was from rural to urban areas.Whereas the expectations were that most people would settle back in the rural areaswith the onset of peace (IUCN 1992), current trends indicate that the rural-urbanmigration continues. This is explained by the lack of basic services in rural areas, thelack of roads and economic opportunities, and reflects the fact that Angolan society lostmuch of its agricultural knowledge and tradition due to forced migration into urbancenters and the collapse of the country’ agricultural sector. Thus, the country is left witha sparsely populated countryside and congested urban centers. The existence of largepopulation centers in Benguela, Lobito, Huambo, Lubango, N’dlatando, and Malanje,and the fact that Luanda’s population alone (estimated at 5.5 million) is about one-thirdof the entire Angolan population, suggest that Angola is one of the most urbanizedcountries in Africa.Exhibit 8 confirms this assertion. With the exception of the central plateau region —always one of the most densely populated areas in Angola — and urban areas, the bulkof the country supports population densities of less than 10 people per km 2 . The easternhalf and southeastern corner are almost depopulated. This reflects not just the impact ofthe war, but also the inherently low soil fertility and limiting climatic conditions. Theeffect of the diamond industry is evident in the relatively high population along therivers and in the northeast section of Lunda Norte. The forested zones of Uíge andKwanza Norte, where the more fertile soils are found, also are areas of relatively highpopulation.Angola’s economy is experiencing extraordinary growth. In 2006 its gross domesticproduct (GDP) grew by 18.6 percent, and projections for 2007 range from 27 percent tomore than 30 percent. This unusual economic performance has yet to have a significantimpact on poverty reduction. For example, the country’s poverty reduction strategystates that 68 percent of Angolans live below the poverty level, 28 percent of them inextreme poverty. Unemployment in urban areas is almost at 50 percent. Access to basicsocial services is often impossible due to the limited and unbalanced distribution of theservices across the country. The social indicators for Angola are consistently among theworst in the world; it ranks at position 161 on the UNDP Human Development Index.118/119 BIODIVERSITY AND TROPICAL FOREST ASSESSMENT FOR ANGOLA 13

Exhibit 8. Angola’s population density (source: FAO, UNDP/GEF 2007)Population (people/km 2 )0 - 23 - 1011 - 2021 – 5051 – 100101 - 200201 - 500501 - 1000>1000B2b. EconomyOil and gas constitute more than 60 percent of Angola’s GDP and 90 percent of itsexports. More than a million barrels per day were produced in 2004, and the figure wasexpected to double by 2007. Diamonds are also important (around 9 percent of GDP).The contribution of other sectors, including agriculture, is secondary. It is estimated thatin 2004 agriculture, forestry, and fisheries contributed a mere 8 percent to the GDP,with the main crops being maize, rice, cassava, potatoes, beans, bananas, sugar cane,and coffee.It is likely, however, that the contribution of Angola’s agricultural and fisheries sectorsto the subsistence economy of rural households is crucial to their survival. It is alsoestimated that 80-90 percent of Angolans rely entirely on fuelwood or charcoal for theircooking and heating needs, and that fuel and charcoal use consumes approximately 6million m 3 of wood products annually (FAO 2003, MINUA 2006a). This accounts foran estimated 65 percent of energy used in Angola. Field observations suggest thatcharcoal production and sales is the most important, and at times the only source of cashincome for rural households. The estimate (UNDP/GEF 2007) that 100,000 peopleproduce and sell charcoal is most likely an underestimate.Both oil and diamond productions are expected to expand significantly. For example,the value of Angola’s formal diamond production has increased from $690 million in2002 to more than $1 billion in 2005 (PAC 2007). This increase may have seriousenvironmental repercussions. Whereas oil companies tend to adhere to internationalenvironmental standards, Angola’s diamond industry shows no such pretense.14 118/119 BIODIVERSITY AND TROPICAL FOREST ASSESSMENT FOR ANGOLA

B3. Legal Instruments Related to the EnvironmentMost of Angola’s legal framework pertaining to the environment dates back to thecolonial era, is incompatible with Angola’s status as an independent and democraticcountry, and does not incorporate the last four decades of advancements in conservationand environmental management thinking. Nonetheless, since the end of hostilities in2002 there have been important advances in Angola’s legal environmental framework.Below is a synopsis of key legal instruments pertaining to the environment.B3a. International ConventionsAngola ratified several international conventions and protocols with a bearing on theenvironment. A selection of these is below (MINUA 2006b), with ratification dates:• Convention on Biological Diversity (1998)• United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (1990)• International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources, (2006)• United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification (2000)• Convention on the Conservation of Migratory Species (2003)• Convention on International Trade on Endangered Species (CITES) (2001) 6• International Convention on Pollution Prevention by Ships (MARPOL 73/78)• International Convention on Cooperation and Combat against (shipping) Pollutionby Hydrocarbons• United National Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC 2000)• Kyoto Protocol (2007)It is important to note that Angola is not a party to the Ramsar Convention on Wetlands,a significant omission since the country has some of the most important wetlands inSouthern Africa. Furthermore, Angola has yet to produce its first greenhouse gasemissions national communication as required by the UNFCCC.B3b. African ConventionsIn addition to global treaties, Angola has signed the following continent-wide accords:• The African Convention for the Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources• The Lusaka Accord on concerted coercive measures against the illegal commerce ofwild fauna and floraB3c. Southern African Development Conference ProtocolsAt the Southern Africa regional level, Angola has signed the following protocols:• Fisheries Protocol (signed, ratified, but not published)• Protocol for the Conservation of Wildlife (signed but not ratified)• Protocol on Forestry Activities (signed but not ratified)• Protocol on Shared Water Resources (signed but not ratified)6 Since the ratification and adoption of CITES has not yet been published in the Official Diary, its legal status is inlimbo.118/119 BIODIVERSITY AND TROPICAL FOREST ASSESSMENT FOR ANGOLA 15

Of note is the lack of follow-through by the Angolan government towards theratification and adherence to regional (SADC) agreements. In particular, the country hasfailed to ratify the SADC protocol on shared water resources.B3d. Cross-Cutting Legal InstrumentsAngola is currently drafting a new constitution to replace its 1992 constitution;therefore, the legal instruments referred to in this report may be modified to align withthe provisions in this new carta magna. Nonetheless, many of the articles in the currentconstitution will likely be carried over into Angola’s new constitution.Article 12 of the current constitution vests the property and responsibility over allnatural resources to the state:“All natural resources existing in the soil and subsoil, in internal and territorial waters,on the continental shelf and in the exclusive economic zone shall be the property of theState, which shall determine under what terms they are used, developed, and exploited.“The State shall promote the protection and conservation of natural resources byguiding the exploitation and use thereof for the benefit of the community as a whole.“Land, which is by origin the property of the State, may be transferred to individuals orcorporate bodies, with a view to sound and full use thereof, in accordance with thelaw.”Article 24 stipulates the rights of Angolan’s citizens to a healthy environment andascribes the responsibility of ensuring these rights to the state:“All citizens shall have the right to live in a healthy and unpolluted environment.“The State shall take the requisite measures to protect the environment and nationalspecies of flora and fauna throughout the national territory and maintain ecologicalbalance.“Acts that damage or directly or indirectly jeopardise conservation of the environmentshall be punishable by law.”The Angolan Environmental Framework Law (EFL) of 1998 is the overarchinginstrument for the implementation of the constitutional provisions. Article 13(1)prohibits “all activities that threaten the biodiversity, conservation, reproduction,quality, and quantity of biological resources … especially those threatened withextinction.” Article 13(2) states that the government must ensure that adequate measuresare taken to “maintain and regenerate animal species, recover damage habitat, andcontrol, especially, the activities or substances likely to be harmful to animal speciesand their habitat.” Article 14(1) creates the legal basis for the establishment andmaintenance of a network of protected areas and specifies that these may have a“national, regional, local, or international scope.” Finally, Article 12 bestows on thegovernment the responsibility to “defend” the environmental patrimony through theinvolvement of communities and environmental defense associations among others. TheEFL also establishes the need to conduct environmental impact assessments of activities16 118/119 BIODIVERSITY AND TROPICAL FOREST ASSESSMENT FOR ANGOLA

likely to negatively impact the environment, and gives any citizen that is negativelyaffected by environmental damage the right to take legal action against the perpetrator.Ministerial Decree No. 51/04 on Environmental Impact Assessment regulates thestipulations of the EFL with respect to environmental impact assessments. It referencesbut is vague about what public participation means. The process for validation andapproval of the EIA is also unclear.B3e. WaterThe Biological Aquatic Resources Act of 2004 is perhaps the most important piece oflegislation relating to water resources. Some of its objectives are: to establish principlesand rules for the protection of biological water resources and marine ecosystems; topromote the protection of the marine environment and coastal areas; and to establishprinciples and rules for responsible fishing. The act makes provisions for the protectionof endangered aquatic species, the creation of marine and fluvial protected areas, settingfishing quotas, regulating fishing, and prohibiting damaging fishing methods, amongothers.The Water Law, enacted in 2002, focuses on regulating the management anddistribution of water resources. It establishes priorities and recognizes the responsibilityof polluters to bear the costs of pollution.B3f. ForestsAngola’s legal framework on forest resources is being developed with the assistance ofthe FAO. A forestry law has been drafted but has yet to be approved, and laws andregulations applicable to the forestry sector currently in use date back to colonial times.These are complemented by recent stop-gap measures, such as ministerial “orders.”As things stand, the Forest Regulation Decree No. 44.531 issued by the colonialgovernment in 1962 is still the regulating document for the forestry sector. The decree isprescriptive and heavily weighed toward command and control measures. It createdforest reserves with the objectives of conserving forests, regulating the hydrographicand climatic regimes, conserving flora with special scientific value or prone toextinction, and conserving and rehabilitating eroded soils.Ministerial Order 149/00 issued by the MINADER in 2000 pertains to the licensingrequirements and procedures for forest exploitation. It outlines the requirements andprocedures for obtaining forest exploitation permits and attributes the responsibility forestablishing the amount of timber to be extracted under permits to MINADER’sInstitute for Forestry Development Institute.B3g. Protected AreasThe establishment of protected areas (national parks, nature and forest reserves) wasfirst mentioned in a colonial “regulation” in 1936, and the first protected area, ParqueNacional de Caça do Iona, was established in 1937. The first statute on natureconservation and on the establishment of protected areas — initially for huntingpurposes and later for nature conservation — was issued on January 20, 1955 throughColonial Decree No. 40.040 (published in the Portuguese Official Bulletin on 9118/119 BIODIVERSITY AND TROPICAL FOREST ASSESSMENT FOR ANGOLA 17

February 1955). This decree covered aspects related to the protection of soil, fauna andflora, the conservation and use of game, the establishment of national parks, naturereserves, and controlled hunting areas. It created the Nature Conservation Council as theorganization responsible for managing protected areas and developing conservationlegislation. This legislative package included the Hunting, Forestry, and National ParksRegulations and included a list of mammals and bird species that were illegal to hunt.Some of this legislation was revoked after independence by Decree No.43/77 of 5 May1977. Nonetheless, in the absence of up-to-date legislation, some of colonial regulationsare still in vogue.Besides revoking selected legal instruments, Decree No. 43/77 approved the structure ofthe Ministry of Agriculture and defined five categories of protected areas; namely:• National park. An area reserved for the protection, conservation, and propagation ofwild animal life and indigenous vegetation, for the benefit and enjoyment of thepublic.• Strict nature reserve. An area for the total protection of wild flora and fauna.• Partial reserve. An area where it is forbidden to hunt, kill or capture animals, or tocollect plants, other than for authorized scientific or management purposes.• Regional nature park. An area reserved for the protection and conservation ofnature, in which hunting, fishing, and the collection or destruction of wild animalsor plants and the conduct of industrial, commercial or agricultural activities areprohibited or placed under limits.• Special reserve. An area where the killing of certain species, whose conservationcannot be ensured in any other manner, is prohibited.These categories do not cover the creation of community-managed conservation areas;nor do their definitions clarify specific conservation objectives.Ministerial decree No. 41/89 created the Institute for Forestry Development (IDF)located within the Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development (MINADER) andtasked the IDF with the development and enforcement of legislation on protected areas.The institutional problems created by this IDF mandate are discussed below.In 1996 the MINADER issued an order establishing hunting seasons and listing theanimals that could and could not be hunted. It is now illegal to hunt 28 mammals, 19birds, and four reptile species, including the giant sable, manatee, giraffe, elephants,rhinos, penguins, cranes, turtles, and crocodiles.B3h. Land LawA new Land Law (Law 9-04), which superseded previous land legislation, was enactedin February 2005. The Land Law considers land to be the property of the state andproposes the following land-use categories:• Provide shelter and home for the inhabitants of Angola.• Serve as a source of natural resources which can be used for mining, agriculture,forestry and land planning.• Provide support for economic, agricultural and industrial activities.18 118/119 BIODIVERSITY AND TROPICAL FOREST ASSESSMENT FOR ANGOLA

The Land Law contains a number of environment-related articles and clauses:• Article 10 states that all natural resources are state property and that the state’srights over the land are not transmissible.• Article 14(b) establishes that the state can intervene in the management andconcession of the land affected by the present Act. Two important objectives are theprotection of the environment, and economically efficient and sustainable use of theland.• Article 16 affirms that the occupation and use of the land depends on norms andstandards for environmental protection, particularly relating to the protection oflandscape, flora and fauna, the preservation of ecological equilibrium, and the rightof citizens to a healthy and non-polluted environment. It further states that theoccupation and use of the land shall not compromise its regenerative capacity or itsability to produce.• Article 19 presents land classification for administrative purposes and affirms theright of the government to establish marine and terrestrial protected areas.• Clause 70/1(a) recognizes that environmental organizations can play an importantrole in environmental protection.B3i. Law on Geologic and Mining Activities (No. 1/92)From an environmental perspective the Law on Geologic and Mining Activities isimportant, in that it states in Article 13/03 that the competent authority may authorize“suspension of the activity when justified technically, economically, or in case ofsituations that are harmful to the environment.” The law further stipulates that mininglicense/concession holders must protect the environment, including “human health,vegetation, animals, soil, superficial and subterranean water, and other naturalelements.” Unfortunately, this legal provision is largely ignored by diamond concessionholders.B3j. Legal Framework Pertaining to Petroleum Exploration and ExtractionThe Angolan National Oil Company (SONANGOL) is responsible for signingproduction sharing agreements with the oil companies. Government decree mandatesthat these agreements include a clause obligating the holder to “control and combatpollution situations caused by petroleum operations.” Furthermore, Decree No. 39/00requires concession holders to elaborate environmental impact assessments of newinstallations, develop “spill response” and waste management plans, and stipulates thatthe concession holder must either remediate environmental impacts or compensate thestate for damage.B3k. Summary and Conclusions on Legal FrameworkBecause the environment is cross-cutting, a number of different legal instrumentsimpinge on it. A comprehensive treatise is out of scope for this document. Nonetheless,a few conclusions can be derived from this abbreviated analysis:• The Angolan constitution recognizes the importance of the environment to thequality of life.118/119 BIODIVERSITY AND TROPICAL FOREST ASSESSMENT FOR ANGOLA 19

• Angola’s legal environmental framework is transitioning from that of a colonial andwar-torn past to that of a more modern state.• Some legal instruments, particularly those pertaining to forestry and protected areas,are outdated.• The legal framework recognizes the social role of protected areas.• Angola is actively working on its environmental legislation.• Regulations for the application of certain instruments (i.e., the Decree onEnvironmental Assessment) are lacking or deficient.• The sectoral legislative and regulatory instruments related to oil and mining cater tothe protection of the environment but are largely ignored by the mining sector.B4. Institutional FrameworkB4a. Ministry of Urbanism and EnvironmentThe Ministry of Urbanism and Environment (MINUA), established at the end of 2002,is responsible for the formulation and execution of environmental policy. It also has acoordination role. MINUA’s mandate is to:• Promote and facilitate sustainable development in all sectors.• Promote the elaboration of legislation related to the environment and naturalresources utilization.• Collaborate with other organisms in all actions inherent in the execution of projectsthat are related to the environment, ensuring adherence to environmental law.• Promote and support environmental protection activities and stimulate the use ofclean technologies by Angolan and foreign companies.MINUA has two principal sub-structures: the National Directorate for the Environment(NDE) and the National Directorate for Natural Resources (NDNR). The NDE isresponsible for environmental education, environmental planning, environmentalpolicing, and development of environmental regulations. NDNR is in charge ofprotection of fauna, flora, and habitat, regeneration of degraded areas, and supportingthe creation and management of conservation units.While the EFL and MINUA’s statutes give this institution jurisdiction overenvironmental matters, it has yet to fully assume its mandate. For example, theMINADER retains competencies related to forest management and biodiversityconservation, the Ministry of Fisheries has jurisdiction over aquatic biologicalresources, and the Ministry of Energy and Water has jurisdiction over hydrologicresources. Furthermore, given MINUA’s relatively short existence, some of its units,such as the National Institute for the Conservation of Nature and the National Institutefor the Promotion of the Environment, are not yet operational. MINUA has no presencein any protected area in the country, and is chronically understaffed, with 10 individualsin Luanda and virtually none outside the capital city. As a result, MINUA is unable tospend the more than $40 million in its budget. In the meantime, Angola’s entireprotected areas system has been declared under threat (IUCN). While this situationpersists, other ministries, such as MINADER, will continue to play an important role inaddressing environmental concerns.20 118/119 BIODIVERSITY AND TROPICAL FOREST ASSESSMENT FOR ANGOLA

B4b. Ministry of Agriculture and Rural DevelopmentThe Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development (MINADER) is still responsiblefor defining national forestry policy, promoting forestry research, and planning anddirecting all tasks related with forest resources management.Currently, and in light of MINUA’s limitations, the IDF exercises the mandate tomanage forests and protected areas. The IDF is understaffed and under-equipped;however, its presence in protected areas is minimal, and its control of forest exploitationand timber transport and commerce is ineffective. The IDF does maintain an extensivenetwork of control points along roadways and works in coordination with provinciallevel environmental authorities.B4c. OtherIn addition to MINUA and MINADER other ministries have a bearing on biodiversityconservation and environmental management. For example the Ministry of Energy andWater retain among its responsibilities the establishment of strategies and thecoordination for the sustainable use of hydrologic resources. The Ministry of Fisheriesis tasked with the definition of policy for the conservation of fisheries resources and forensuring that the conditions exist for the protection and conservation of these resources.The Ministry of Fisheries is also supposed to collaborate in the conservation of nature,especially the conservation of the marine environment.B4d. Provincial Level Government InstitutionsThere is no set provincial-level institutional structure for the environment that repeatsitself from province to province. In most cases, however, the jurisdiction overenvironmental matters is ascribed to the Provincial Directorate for Agriculture Fisheriesand Environment, which encompasses a provincial-level Department of Environment.This arrangement agglutinates in the directorate sectoral responsibilities of MINADER,MINUA, and the Ministry of Fisheries. In other cases, where provincial governmentshave established an Environment Department under a Directorate of Urbanism andEnvironment, the link to MINUA is clearer. Hence, a provincial government’s decisionhow to organize itself determines support for environmental concerns.B4e. Cross-Sectoral CoordinationTo foster cross-sectoral coordination on environmental matters, the government createdthe Technical Multisectoral Commission for the Environment (CTMA) in 2000. Thecommission is supervised by MINUA and composed of technical representatives fromselected sectoral ministries, technical representatives of provincial governments, guestspecialists, and representatives of environmental organizations. The CTMA is aconsultative body with the faculty to issue pronouncements on policies, programs, andactions related to the environment, and coordinate actions by different sectors thatimpinge on the environment.B4f. Conclusions on Institutional FrameworkThe above discussion leads to the following conclusions about Angola’s institutionalenvironmental framework:118/119 BIODIVERSITY AND TROPICAL FOREST ASSESSMENT FOR ANGOLA 21

• Angola’s institutional framework is undergoing a process of evolution andconsolidation. This is particularly true of MINUA, the institution with overallresponsibility for the environment. Nonetheless, the implementation structures arenot yet set and the Ministry is chronically understaffed.• There is a chronic lack of clarity as to the respective environmental responsibilitiesof certain sectoral ministries and MINUA. This is particularly serious with respectto the MINADER. In light of this lack of definition and poor institutional capacity,protected areas and environmental regulation chores are left unattended.• There is some movement towards cross-sectoral coordination on environmentalmatters through the CTMA.B5. International CooperationB5a. Bilateral and Multilateral DonorsGiven Angola’s post-conflict status, over the past five years the donor communitycentered its attention on the country’s immediate needs: getting its agriculture sectorback on its feet, reinserting ex-combatants into the economy, strengthening governance,repatriating refugees, and meeting health needs, among others. The focus is nowbeginning to shift, or broaden, to include issues of sustainability; among themenvironmental management and conservation.For example, in February 2008 the German Technical Cooperation Agency (GTZ)signed a two-year, $2 million agreement with the GOA to provide capacity building ondifferent aspects of conservation and environmental management. One aspect of theagreement is training ex-combatants to become park guards. The GEF has signed a $1.9million agreement with the government to increase sustainable land managementcapacity in Huambo Province. Finally, while conducting interviews in Luanda the teamlearned that the European Union, the Netherlands, Sweden, and Norway are consideringincluding the environment in their assistance portfolio.The United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization is a key player in thedevelopment of the forestry policy and proposed forestry law. FAO, supported by theNetherlands, is conducting a forestry inventory and developing the regulatoryframework for wildlife (hunting), conservation areas, forestry, and monitoring.The UNDP is developing a project to support the implementation of the NationalBiodiversity Strategy and Action Plan. One of the components will establish animplementation unit within MINUA.At the regional level, the GEF provides $5 million to FAO, in coordination with theOkavango River Basin Water Commission (OKACOM), for a project aimed atimproving management and utilization of resources in the Okavango River Basin.In short, there is a clear indication that donor-interest on environmental issues in Angolais on the upswing. There are a number of initiatives under development and a clearenunciation by certain donors that they are prepared to fund environmental activities.22 118/119 BIODIVERSITY AND TROPICAL FOREST ASSESSMENT FOR ANGOLA

B5b. Extractive IndustriesThe financial support of extractive industries to environmental activities has been smallbut significant. Esso (Exxon) is a key supporter of the Giant Sable Conservation Project,to which it donated approximately $50,000. SONANGOL supports the KissamaFoundation’s effort to save the Kissama National Park, and donated $300,000 to helpfund the erection of an electric fence, reintroduce a number of species from SouthAfrica, and pay the salary of a park manager. British Petroleum funds research on theimpact of platforms on the deep sea environment and environmental education.Investments by oil companies from Angola-derived revenue on development assistanceprojects in Angola must be approved by SONANGOL, because any investment in nonoilrelated activities detracts from the bottom line. This is not the case, however, if thefunds are provided from company funds from outside the production sharingagreements.The petroleum industry has provided some assistance towards very specificenvironmental management and conservation activities. The magnitude of theassistance, however, is small relative to the size of their operations in Angola. The teamfound no evidence that the mining industry is contributing to conservation in Angola,beyond that which is required by law.118/119 BIODIVERSITY AND TROPICAL FOREST ASSESSMENT FOR ANGOLA 23

SECTION C. THE STATUS AND ECOLOGICAL TREND OFTROPICAL FORESTS AND BIODIVERSITYC1. Protected AreasThere are 20 protected area units in Angola (Exhibit 9). These cover approximately68,000 km 2 , or about 6 percent, of the national territory, the lowest percentage of anyAfrican country. These areas are divided in Angola’s National Biodiversity Strategy andAction Plan (NBCSAP; MINUA 2006) into four broad categories: national parks,regional parks, reserves, and game reserves. Judging from the definitions of thedifferent categories of protected areas presented in section B3g, the legal conservationsignificance of this classification is unclear.Exhibit 9. Angola’s protected areasExhibit 10 summarizes the worrisome condition of Angola’s national parks. OfAngola’s six national parks, only three — Kissama, Cangandala, Bicuar — have even aminimal degree of management. The national authority responsible for managing theseareas (MINUA) is virtually absent from all areas. What management there is in thesethree areas is a result of specific initiatives that could collapse without the tenacity ofcertain key individuals. Some areas, such as Mupa National Park, are believed to bebeyond recovery.Although there is limited information about the condition of the other categories ofprotected areas, it is safe to assume that their situation is more precarious than that ofthe national parks.118/119 BIODIVERSITY AND TROPICAL FOREST ASSESSMENT FOR ANGOLA 25

Exhibit 10. The situation in Angola’s national parksNationalParkArea (ha)Dominant VegetationTypesKissama 969,000 Semi-arid Baobab savannas,mangroves, wetlandsCurrent Status (general) Management Status Major ThreatsVegetation in good condition, fauna severely depleted.Small northern section (10,000+ ha)under-administration by KissamaFoundation. Minimal presence in restof park. Re-introduction of selectedspecies managed within enclosure.Development in park (shrimpfarming), encroachment,cultivation in wetlands, oilproduction, livestock grazing,charcoal productionCangandala 63,000 Miombo and edaphic (poorlydrained) savannasVegetation in excellent condition. Fauna seriouslydepleted but residual number of large (roan) and small(duiker) antelopes persist. Important population (30+) ofgiant sable (Hippotragus niger) persists.Park benefiting from Giant Sableproject. Community guards patrolpark on regular basis. CatholicUniversity of Angola, the Ministry ofEnvironment, and the ProvincialGovernment of Malanje.AbsentPoaching, humanencroachment/agriculture,charcoal production.Iona 1,600,000 Namib Desert, sparselyvegetated gravel plains andplateaus, scrubland, dunesand extensive beaches,gravel plains. Welwitschiamirabilis habitatBicuar 740,000 Miombo and Mopanewoodlands crisscrossed byephemeral drainage linesDesert elephant (Loxodonta Africana), black rhino(Diceros bicornis), desert lions (Panthera leo) presumedextinct. Oryx (Oryx gazelle) and springbok (Antidorcasmarsupialis). Zebras present in residual numbers.Previously known for large herds of common antelopes(elephant); roan (Hippotragus equinus); eland(Taurotragus oryx); Kudu (Tragelaphus strepsiceres);wildebeest (Connochaetes taurinus); and some rarespecies (wild dog). All species populations believed to beseverely reduced.Incipient collaborative effort betweenProvincial Government of Huila andMINUA to establish management.Livestock grazing, poachingPoaching, humanencroachment, commercialfarming within park limits,illegal logging.Mupa 560,000 Mopane woodlands Established to conserve Angola’s Giraffe (Camelopardalisangolensis) believed to be extinct in wild. Speciespreviously present (black rhino, hippopotamus(Hippopotamus amphibious), eland, kudu, and predatorsbelieved to be locally extinct. Large sections believed tobe beyond recovery.Cameia 1,400,000 Extensive grasslands andperiodically inundatedgrasslandsHad large herds of migratory animals (wildebeest) andanimals adapted to flooded areas such as sitatunga(Tragelaphus spekei) and red lechwe (Kobus lechwe)among many others. All believed to be severely reduced.AbsentAbsentInvasion by refugees;poaching; humanencroachment; subsistenceagriculture; commercialfarming along the CuneneRiver; charcoal; logging.Poaching, humanencroachment, fires, anduncontrolled fishing.26 118/119 BIODIVERSITY AND TROPICAL FOREST ASSESSMENT FOR ANGOLA

It is important to note that Angola’s protected area “system” does not include some ofthe most biodiverse ecosystems in Angola: the afro-montane cloud forests representedin the country’s highest points, such as the Morro do Moco in Huambo, and othersites in Bié Province. These residual patches are repository of a significant number ofbird and plant species endemic to Angola. They are severely threatened by burningand felling.The semi-deciduous humid forests of Angola’s northwestern highland (Uíge, CuanzaNorte, and Bengo) are also excluded from the country’s protected area system.Floristically, they are related to the Guineo-Congolian biome in what was Angola’scoffee producing area. These coffee plantations have been abandoned and nowsupport a healthy population of small antelopes, primates, and an impressive avifauna.The wildlife, primarily primates and antelopes, are under heavy hunting pressure aswitnessed by the large number of fresh carcasses and smoked game meat observed atroadside stalls.C2. Forests, Savannas, and WoodlandsC2a. GeneralAntelopes and primates thatescaped the period of warfare inAngola’s humid forests are nowunder hunting pressure, primarilyfor commercial purposes, asdocumented by the photograph inthe highlands of Bengo Province.In three decades of warfare, Angola experienced massive population movements fromrural areas to urban centers. IUCN’s mission in 1992 (IUCN 1992) reported that thevirtual depopulation of rural areas, save for certain zones in the Central Plateau,allowed the vegetation cover, rivers, and streams to recover in areas that were oncecultivated or used for livestock production. Poaching, however, had decimated animalpopulations in most of the country. On the other hand, the semi-arid and arid regionsin the country’s southwest, where the dominant production system is transhumantpastoralism, escaped this trend. In these areas the production systems remainedrelatively unaffected while the urban areas and transport network were destroyed.These pastoral systems were being compromised, however, by the implementation ofcattle ranches that interfered with migratory routes and access to water resources.Now, five years after the cessation of hostilities the situation remains much the same:healthy habitats virtually devoid of wild animals. The trends have not changedsubstantially, as predicted by the IUCN team; a result of the massive movement ofpeople to their original rural areas. Angola continues to be one of the most urbanized118/119 BIODIVERSITY AND TROPICAL FOREST ASSESSMENT FOR ANGOLA 27

countries in Africa, with at least 60 percent of its population living in urban and periurbanareas. The problem results in increasing demand from urban centers forvegetation resources.C2b. Deforestation RatesIn a paper prepared as part of this assessment, Safford (2000) cites estimates fordeforestation rates ranging from 0.2 percent to 0.5 percent. He noted that these are notbased on hard data and attempts to provide a more realistic figure based on estimatesof charcoal and firewood demand in Angola.Assuming a demand of slightly more than 9 million m 3 of wood for charcoalproduction to satisfy the energy needs of 80 percent of Angola’s population, andestimates of wood volume extracted from the literature, Safford estimates thatdeforestation rates due to wood extraction for charcoal alone is probably between 0.9percent to 1.0 percent per year. This is concentrated around urban areas in everwidening circles of deforestation. With the rehabilitation of the road network, the areaof extraction is likely to expand unless drastic measures are put in place to replace theprimary source of energy used by Angolan households, from charcoal and firewood tosomething else.In addition to deforestation resulting from charcoal and firewood extraction, Saffordcalls attention to the impact of slash-and-burn cultivation on vegetation cover,especially where soil fertility is limiting. Based on Angola’s rural population density,and the time it takes the soil to recover, Safford arrived at the following conclusions:1. Population growth in Angola is rapid enough that sustainable slash-and-burncultivation cannot supply enough food to feed the rural population.2. Over the short- to medium-term, more people can be supported in rural areaswhen fallow periods are shortened, and/or if the rate of new clearing isincreased.3. As seen in other southern African nations, short-term needs for food willprobably increase current rates of forest-clearing for cultivation to the pointthat soil fertility and forest cover will be negatively impacted in the long-term.Charcoal production is one of themost important forces drivingdeforestation. As the radius ofdeforestation expands out fromurban centers, it threatensprotected areas. This photographwas taken a few kilometers fromthe boundary of CangandalaNational Park, one of the lastrefuges of the giant sable.28 118/119 BIODIVERSITY AND TROPICAL FOREST ASSESSMENT FOR ANGOLA

C3. Coastal and Marine SystemsC3a. GeneralAngola’s mangroves, estuarine systems, and coastal zones in general are under anumber of pressures due their proximity to population centers and irregularsettlements established during the war. These were described by IUCN in 1992; now,peace and rapid economic growth in the absence of effective environmentalgovernance compromise the future of some of the most productive coastal ecosystemsin the country, such as the Kwanza and Longa River mouths, and other estuaries andbays near urban centers.Angola possesses some of themost impressive mangroves inAfrica. These ecosystems, such asthis one in Kissama National Park,are under a number of threatssuch as deforestation and thehunting of keystone species.The discussion below focuses on a few areas along Angola’s extensive coastline. Theexamples illustrate the status and trends affecting coastal ecosystems in the country,but are far from comprehensive.C3b. The Status of Selected Bays, Estuaries, and Coastal StripsCacuaco Bay is 15 km north of Luanda. In 1992 IUCN noted that the bay wasseverely impacted by human wastes from squatter camps, shanty towns, and industrialwastes from Angola’s largest cement factory (CIMANGOL), the SONANGOL oilrefinery, and an asbestos tubing and sheet factory (CIMIANTO), among others. Thesecontinue to operate and pollute.Luanda Bay and Environs is Angola’s principal port and shipyard. Ships using thebay have significant negative impacts as they wash out bilges in or near the bay.Maintenance work on hulls, including the application of molluscicidal paints, isoccurs without controls. Given the increase in Angolan imports and ship traffic, theproblems caused by the shipping industry are likely to have augmented since 1992.Storm water from Luanda discharges directly into the bay carrying with it humanwaste from broken sewage pipes. Luanda Bay is also experiencing pressures along itssouthern shoreline from mega-development projects that include extensive earthfilling.118/119 BIODIVERSITY AND TROPICAL FOREST ASSESSMENT FOR ANGOLA 29

Mussulo Bay is under pressure from artisanal fishing, tourism development, andsettlements along its shoreline. Fishing has had a serious impact on turtle populations.Raw untreated sewage is certain to lead to euthrophic contaminated conditions.Estuaries and mangrove ecosystems are under pressure from wood extraction andheavy poaching of manatees. There are also international (Chinese) interests lookingat mangroves within protected areas as potential sites for shrimp farms. The KissamaFoundation stopped one such attempt in Kissama National Park, but the Chinesecompany continues to pressure local officials. More important, however, are plans forthe construction of several hydroelectric facilities along the Kwanza River 7 . If notproperly constructed and operated, these may have a dramatic impact on coastalmangrove ecosystems.Mangroves, such as this one at themouth of the Kwanza River, areunder pressure. The plan for largeupriver development projects andoveruse of key species threatensthe ecological health of thesehighly productive ecosystems.One of the few original ecological studies conducted since 1975 in Angola looked atthe status of the manatee populations and habitat in the Kwanza estuary (Morais, et al.2007). Although centered on the Kwanza, the results of the study are likely to reflectthe situation in other mangrove ecosystems such as the ones associated with the riversZaire, Loge, Onzo, Dande, Bengo, and Longa.Most of the human population now residing along the lower reaches of the Kwanzaoriginate from other parts of the country and have neither knowledge of nor culturalattachment to the estuarine ecosystems. Almost everyone interviewed had consumedmanatee meat at least once. The original residents indicated that “before” theyexpected to see a manatee once every other outing (50 percent), whereas now thechance of sighting a manatee is less than 10 percent. Most attribute this decline to7 The team heard of 11 such structures but was unable to confirm the number or magnitude.30 118/119 BIODIVERSITY AND TROPICAL FOREST ASSESSMENT FOR ANGOLA

indiscriminate hunting. Other negative trends documented included the reduction inthe cover of mangroves and pollution.C4. Threatened SpeciesC4a. Data LimitationsInformation on the status of Angola’s plant and animal species should be regardedwith a dose of skepticism for two reasons. First, there have been no significanttaxonomic studies in the country for nearly four decades. In this period, taxonomistselsewhere have recognized new species and subspecies and eliminated others basedon new taxonomic techniques and criteria. Second, there have been no significantfield studies or surveys since 1975 to establish the actual status of different species incountry. What we know today about Angola’s biodiversity is actually less than whatwas known in 1975 when Angola achieved independence.Nonetheless, even the outdated information leads to the conclusion that Angola is oneof the most biodiverse countries in Africa. This is a result of its diverse climate,topography, edaphology, marine currents, and extensive coastline and network ofrivers and streams.C4b. Species DiversityAccording to IUCN (1992), Angola is home to at least 8,000 plant species, 275mammal species, 78 amphibian species, 227 reptile species, and 915 bird species. Thenumber of insect species catalogued exceeds 300, but the total number is likely to beconsiderably higher.Angola reputedly has the second highest number of endemic plant species in Africa(1260). It hosts 10 endemic bird (Exhibit 11) and 19 endemic reptile species. Thecountry’s two most famous endemics are the prostrate conifer (Welwitschia mirabilis)and the giant sable antelope (Hippotragus Niger variani).Exhibit 11. Bird species known to be endemic to AngolaScientific Name Common English Name Common Portuguese NameFrancolinus griseostriatus Grey-striped Francolin Perdiz de estrias cinzentasFrancolinus swierstrai Swierstra’s Francolin Perdiz da montanhaTauraco erythrolophus Red-crested Turaco Turaco-de-crista-vermelhaColius castanotus Red-backed Mouse Bird Rabo de jungo de rabadilhavermelhaSheppardia gabela Gabela’s Akalat Tordito da GabelaXenocopsychus ansorgei Angola Cave Chat Tordo das furnasMecrosphenus pulitzeri Pullitzer’s Longbill Rouxinol de pulizerMelaenornis brunneus Angolan Fly Catcher Papa-moscas de AngolaPlatysteira albifrons White-fronted Wattle-eye Olho de curruncula de testabrancaPrionops gabela Gabela Helmet Shrike Atacador de popa da GabelaA search of IUCN’s Red List for vulnerable (VU), endangered (EN), criticallyendangered (CR) and extinct species yielded 88 species of plants and animals (Exhibit12) in these categories in Angola. Interestingly, the search did not capture the giantsable or Welwitschia mirabilis. It also left out six of the 10 endemic species of birds118/119 BIODIVERSITY AND TROPICAL FOREST ASSESSMENT FOR ANGOLA 31

Common Name Scientific Name StatusCommon name not listed Entandrophragma utile VUCommon name not listedGossweilerodendronbalsamiferumENCommon name not listed Gossweilerodendron joveri VUCommon name not listed Hallea ledermannii VUCommon name not listed Hallea stipulosa VUCommon name not listed Mikaniopsis vitalba VUCommon name not listed Nauclea diderrichii VUCommon name not listed Swartzia fistuloides ENCommon name not listed Tapinanthus preussii VUCommon name not listed Turraeanthus africanus VUReptilesAFRICAN DWARF CROCODILE Osteolaemus tetraspis VUGREEN TURTLE Chelonia mydas ENLEATHERBACK Dermochelys coriacea CROLIVE RIDLEY Lepidochelys olivacea ENFishBIGEYE TUNA Thunnus obesus VUDUSKY GROUPER Epinephelus marginatus ENGREENHEAD TILAPIA Oreochromis macrochir VUQUEEN TRIGGERFISH Balistes vetula VUTHREESPOT TILAPIA Oreochromis andersonii VUAFRICAN WEDGEFISH Rhynchobatus luebberti ENANGULAR ROUGH SHARK Oxynotus centrina VUBLACKCHIN GUITARFISH Rhinobatos cemiculus ENBOTTLENOSE SKATE Rostroraja alba ENCOMMON GUITARFISH Rhinobatos rhinobatos ENCOMMON SAWFISH Pristis pristis CRGREAT WHITE SHARK Carcharodon carcharias VUGULPER SHARK Centrophorus granulosus VULARGETOOTH SAWFISH Pristis perotteti CRLIVER-OIL SHARK Galeorhinus galeus VUMONKFISH Squatina aculeata CRMONKFISH Squatina oculata CRNIGHT SHARK Carcharhinus signatus VUWHITE-TIPPED SHARK Carcharhinus longimanus VUWIDE SAWFISH Pristis pectinata CRWHALE SHARK Rhincodon typus VUBirdsAFRICAN PENGUIN Spheniscus demersus VUYELLOW-NOSED ALBATROSS Thalassarche chlororhynchos ENBLACK-BROWED ALBATROSS Thalassarche melanophrys ENCAPE GANNET Morus capensis VUEGYPTIAN VULTURE Neophron percnopterus ENGABELA AKALAT Sheppardia gabela ENGABELA BUSH-SHRIKE Laniarius amboimensis ENGABELA HELMET-SHRIKE Prionops gabela ENLAPPET-FACED VULTURE Torgos tracheliotos VULESSER KESTREL Falco naumanni VULOANGO WEAVER Ploceus subpersonatus VUORANGE-BREASTED BUSH-SHRIKE Laniarius brauni ENPULITZER'S LONGBILL Macrosphenus pulitzeri ENSWIERSTRA'S FRANCOLIN Francolinus swierstrai VUTRISTAN ALBATROSS Diomedea dabbenena EN118/119 BIODIVERSITY AND TROPICAL FOREST ASSESSMENT FOR ANGOLA 33

Common Name Scientific Name StatusWATTLED CRANE Grus carunculatus VUWHITE-HEADED ROBIN-CHAT Cossypha heinrichi VUWHITE-HEADED VULTURE Trigonoceps occipitalis VUCR = Critically Endangered, EN = Endangered, VU = VulnerableC5. Diamonds and RiversAs reported in the IUCN (1992) report, Angola’s rivers were in good condition in1992. Save for areas near urban centers and selected estuaries, this is still the situationin most of Angola with one serious exception: the rivers in the diamond producingareas, especially in Lunda Norte, particularly the Cuango River.Mining practices in Angola show no regard for the environment. To mine diamondsfrom riverine alluvial deposits, the mining companies, with the acquiescence ofENDIAMA, move the river into artificial channels and use high pressure hoses towash and sift the alluvium in the original channel for diamonds. The long-termenvironmental impacts are drastic and, in a time scale relevant to humans,irreversible. There are no measures to avoid, mitigate, or reverse the impact ofdiamond mining. In the words of one high-ranking ENDIAMA official, “If it isbetween money and the environment, money wins.” Public relations materialdisplayed on ENDIAMA’s office wall reflect this attitude: they proudly displayphotographs of large earth moving equipment amid ravaged landscapes.The north-flowing diamond bearing rivers in Lunda Norte are fringed by galleryforests that have species composition representative of the Guineo-Congolian biome,in sharp contrast with the surrounding dystrophic savannahs and woodlands thatdominate the landscape on the region. From a biodiversity conservation perspective,they are far more important than their relatively small extension suggests.34 118/119 BIODIVERSITY AND TROPICAL FOREST ASSESSMENT FOR ANGOLA

D1b. Reduced Economic Alternatives and Ill-defined Property Rights Lead toUnsustainable Exploitation of Renewable ResourcesAccording to some estimates, unemployment and underemployment affect nearly 50percent of the Angolan population. There are few alternatives for a large proportion ofthe population but to eke a living out of the exploitation of natural resources:producing and selling charcoal; poaching wild animals for subsistence andcommercial purposes; and illegal logging of valuable timber. Uncontrolled use andunclear resource and land tenure regimes, which render wildlife, land, and trees freeaccessresources, compound the situation. Limited economic options available fornearly 50 percent of Angola’s population, and their ability to freely exploit renewablenatural resources is a root cause for the unsustainable exploitation of these resourcesand the demise of the country’s biodiversity, forests, and aquatic resources.D2. Immediate Causes to Specific Environmental ProblemsD2a. Deforestation as a Result of Charcoal Production and FuelwoodExtractionThe primary source of energy for an estimated 80 percent of Angola’s households ischarcoal and fuelwood. This creates a demand for these resources and promoteswidespread deforestation by individuals who sell them to earn a living. Charcoalproduction is generating an ever-widening circle of deforestation around urbancenters, a process that is facilitated by the unclear resource tenure regime thatpredominates in Angola’s rural areas. Hence, the principal direct cause ofdeforestation is charcoal production, which is subtended by a demand for fuel byurban and rural households and a lack of alternative sources of income for urban andrural dwellers. The substitution of natural gas for charcoal in cooking would go a longway toward resolving this problem.D2b. Depletion of Wildlife Populations in Forested Areas as a Result ofCommercial HuntingIn three decades of war, large segments of Angola’s population preyed on wildlife asa source of sustenance. This led to the decimation of wildlife populations in savannahareas. Only residual populations exist from the estimated 200,000 buffalo, 35,000zebras, 70,000 elephants, 15,000 hippopotamus, and 200,000 antelopes that populatedAngola’s protected areas before independence (MINUA 2006c).Whereas Angola’s wildlife populations from savannah areas entered the post-warperiod in a critically depleted state, the large number of freshly killed carcasses forsale along roads in the country’s northern humid forests (Bengo, Uíge) attest to theexistence of healthy populations of small antelopes (duikers, bush buck) and primatesin those areas. The survival of these species in forested ecosystems is threatened bythe heavy hunting pressure that emerged with the advent of peace. Therefore,poaching for commercial purposes threatens populations of primates and smallantelopes in Angola’s northern forest areas. Poaching is a relatively easy source ofcash in a country with limited employment possibilities.36 118/119 BIODIVERSITY AND TROPICAL FOREST ASSESSMENT FOR ANGOLA

D2c. Degradation of Coastal Ecosystems, Particularly Mangroves, Due toDeforestation and Hunting of Keystone SpeciesDuring the war, large numbers of people flocked to coastal areas to escape theviolence and have access to sources of protein. Mangroves, a highly productiveecosystem, were particularly attractive, as displaced people fished and extracted woodfor construction and fuel. Given the ease with which they can be hunted and theamount of meat they yield, the African manatee became a favorite prey. The pressureextended to marine turtles; people raided nests and occasionally butchered adults.Internally displaced people have not returned to their places of origin as expected.Many that settled along coastlines have elected to stay. The team saw evidence thatthe movement of people towards coastal areas continues, albeit at a reduced rate. Thepressure on coastal resources, particularly mangroves, continues unabated. Hence, inthe absence of effective controls, the harvest of wood and the killing of keystonespecies such as the African manatee are degrading mangrove ecosystems. Thesurvival of marine turtles (leatherback, olive, and green) that use Angola’s coastline isin jeopardy due to raiding of nests and killing of adult females.D2d. Absence of Controls Renders Angola’s Protected Areas Vulnerable toPoaching, Deforestation, and EncroachmentAngola’s protected areas are in critical condition. There is practically no effectivegovernment control in any of the six national parks. Where there is somemanagement, it is a result of specific projects catalyzed by the initiative of individualsor national NGOs. This lack of control makes it easy for poachers, charcoalproducers, and livestock herders to practice their trade within park boundaries.Foreign interests, with the acquiescence of local authorities, have plans to establishlarge development projects (shrimp farms, hotels) within some park boundaries. Otherparks have been encroached upon by large farms and small scale agriculturalproducers. In short, the absence of government controls or presence in protected areasrenders these areas vulnerable to a broad spectrum of pressures. Unless the situation isreversed in the short term, many of Angola’s protected areas will become unviable asconservation units.D2e. Lack of Legal and De Facto Protection Renders Angola’s Centers of HighBiodiversity and Endemism Highly VulnerableAngola’s afro-montane forests are not represented in the country’s system ofprotected areas. In 1992 IUCN reported that they were under intensive pressure fromfires and cultivation. These areas are habitats for several species of endemic birds andplants. Furthermore, Angola’s northwestern forested areas, once used as coffee farms,are now areas of high biodiversity. Neither of these ecosystem types are representedin Angola’s protected areas system. Because Angola’s most biodiverse ecosystemsare not represented in the country’s system of protected areas, they are seriouslythreatened. Whereas legal protection does not ensure the conservation of habitats orspecies in Angola, a legally recognized conservation category does offer the hope thatthe practical problems can be solved and conservation achieved.118/119 BIODIVERSITY AND TROPICAL FOREST ASSESSMENT FOR ANGOLA 37

D2f. Inadequate Support, Poaching, and Habitat Encroachment Threaten theSurvival of Angola’s National Symbol: the Giant SableThe giant sable, Angola’s national symbol and its most charismatic and famousendemic is on the brink of extension. Through the Giant Sable Conservation Project,biologist Pedro Vaz Pinto is studying a giant sable population of approximately 30individuals in Cangandala National Park. The project receives financial assistancefrom Exxon and other occasional donors, and collaboration from the IDF andMINUA. The project’s principal element is a community park guard program. Mr.Pinto believes that there is a larger, unprotected giant sable population in LuandaReserve, to the south of Cangandala.The many pressures on Cangandala include its proximity to the expanding circle ofdeforestation, now within a few kilometers of its boundaries. More families arebeginning to settle in the park’s vicinity. Cangandala is in an area of infertile soils andcultivators practice slash-and-burn agriculture, expanding their agricultural footprint.The situation in Luando Reserve is unknown but likely to be critical. Unless a moreconcerted and sustained effort is made to save the giant sable, these pressures willlead to the extinction of Angola’s national symbol. The government’s lack ofemphasis on conserving the giant sable indicates its lack of environmentalconsciousness and capacity. As things stand, the existence of this species hinges onthe efforts of one individual: Mr. Pinto.D2g. Without Environmental Impact Assessment and Regulatory Capacity,Unbridled Growth Threatens the Ecology of Waterways and Coastal SystemsAngola’s environmental governance apparatus is highly ineffective and theenvironmental consciousness of decision makers is quiescent. Under thesecircumstances, the environment is being trampled under the development banner. Anumber of ongoing and planned projects will profoundly impact Angola’s ecosystem.This threat applies to virtually every ecosystem in Angola, but it is most imminent inthe case of certain waterways and coastal areas. The team could not identify all majordevelopment projects in the pipeline, but heard from different sources that severalhydroelectric projects are planned for the Kwanza River, and witnessed attempts by aChinese company to establish a shrimp farm within Kissama National Park. In theabsence of an effective environmental impact assessment, mitigation and enforcementsystem these activities will seriously affect the ecology of these waterways andassociated coastal systems.D2h. Poor Environmental Management by Mining Companies Has DevastatingEnvironmental Impact on Rivers and Riverine VegetationThe state mining company ENDIAMA is responsible for developing Angola’sdiamond sector. It does so largely through joint ventures with multinationalcompanies, in which it retains a majority ownership position. ENDIAMA’s profitsdepend on the net income of the various joint ventures in which it participates.ENDIAMA officials view investments in environmental management and mitigationwith skepticism. Partner companies are allowed to operate without taking into accountthe full environmental impacts of their mining activities. This results in miningpractices that leave behind severely degraded riverine ecosystems.38 118/119 BIODIVERSITY AND TROPICAL FOREST ASSESSMENT FOR ANGOLA

SECTION E. ACTIONS NECESSARY TO DECREASEPRESSURES ON BIODIVERSITY AND TROPICAL FORESTSAND RECOMMENDATIONS TO USAIDThe three program areas under USAID/Angola’s strategy — 1) investing in people; 2)economic growth; and 3) governing justly and democratically — do not explicitlyaddress any of the root causes of negative environmental trends affecting the country.The current strategy is slated to guide the mission’s investments through FY2009.There was no clear indication that the mission is contemplating including anenvironmental component in its next strategy.It is possible to argue that by investing in people’s education and improvedgovernance in general under program areas 1 and 3, the mission is implicitlyaddressing some of the causes behind the loss of biodiversity and forests such as poorenvironmental governance. To help Angola tackle threats to its ecology and addressthe root and immediate causes for the loss of biodiversity and degradation of forestedareas, however, the mission must significantly change its strategy.The team learned that the mission has shifted the strategic focus under program area 2from the one-dimensional “economic growth” to the multi-dimensional “economicdevelopment. 8 ” This is a step in the right direction. However, the concept of“sustainable development” would explicitly recognize the importance of goodenvironmental stewardship to the future of the country and the well being of itspeople. It would also create the strategic space for the mission to help safeguardAngola’s tourism potential and regenerative capacity of its renewable resource base inpreparation for the country’s post-petroleum future. The sections below describe somepriority intervention areas.E1. Elevate the Environmental Consciousness of Government and Civil SocietyThe need: The environment relegated to low priority imperils long-term developmentgoals.Angola is lifting itself up from three decades of civil war. The government focus is ongetting the country’s economy back on its feet, and the first step has been to rebuildthe country’s infrastructure. Environmental concerns are low-priority. Flush withfunds from the oil and diamond mining sectors, the government does not need toresort to multilateral or bilateral donors, and it has no reason to follow internationalenvironmental guidelines. Likewise, Angolan households are too concerned withmeeting daily needs to consider the negative environmental impacts that theiractivities may have in the medium-term. Except for a few tenacious Angolanenvironmentalists, the environment has not been on anyone’s screen; there are nolarge international NGOs operating in the country, and the donor community,including USAID, has focused their attention elsewhere.8 The USAID/Angola Web site lists three program areas: 1) democracy and governance; 2) economic growth; 3)health. The suggestion of a strategic shift from “economic growth” to “economic development” was provided by areviewer of this document’s first draft.118/119 BIODIVERSITY AND TROPICAL FOREST ASSESSMENT FOR ANGOLA 39

It is necessary to elevate the environmental consciousness of the Angolan governmentabout the importance of good environmental stewardship. This process will take time.There is evidence — the signing of the UNFCC, the Biodiversity Convention, and theKyoto Protocol — that the government responds to international opinion.Recommendation: The team found evidence that the donor community has turned itsattention to the environment. As indicated earlier in this report, there are severaldonor activities that will result in the implementation of environmental programs.Furthermore, Angola recently completed its National Biodiversity ConservationStrategy and Action Plan.The problem in Angola is not a lack of resources, but a lack of willpower and humanresources. The donor community, perhaps with USAID leadership, can elevateenvironmental issues by initiating a discussion about the importance of Angola’senvironment, particularly from the standpoint of the country’s post-petroleum future.The starting point could be a high-visibility conference on the environment sponsoredby several donors, including the United Nations. High-ranking officials and scientists,at the level of the director-general of the United Nations Environment Program,should be invited to show Angolans that the world is concerned and ready to help.E2. Help Create Protected Areas in High Biodiversity EcosystemsThe need: There are ecosystems with high levels of endemism and biodiversitywithout representation in Angola’s protected areas system.This report, and others dating to pre-independence, notes that Angola’s protectedareas system does not include its afro-montane forests. The same is true of thecountry’s humid forests. This situation places a great deal of Angola’s natural heritagein peril. There is a need to designate and legalize representative segments of Angola’smost biodiverse ecosystems (afro-montane and humid Guineo-Congolian forests) asprotected areas.Recommendation: Resource and land tenure is not well-defined in Angola. In manyareas of the country, land and renewable resources have become a free-accessresource. This situation creates room for local (provincial or municipal governments)to establish and manage reserves for conservation purposes. In the case of BicuarNational Park, the provincial government has taken the initiative to improve parkmanagement. Furthermore, the current budget assignation process means that localgovernments may submit “project” proposals for funding.USAID could help conserve Angola’s biodiversity by working with an interestedprovincial government and MINUA to develop a project to create at least oneprotected area in highland forest areas. Previous reports (IUCN 1992) recommendedlegal protection for sections of the afro-montane forest of Morro do Moco. OnceMINUA and the respective provincial government (Huambo) agree, USAID shouldfinance the following activities:• Conduct a biological and socio-economic study to identify parts of thesebiodiverse ecosystems that maintain ecological integrity, and are in a socioeconomiccontext (no population, positive attitude of population towards protected40 118/119 BIODIVERSITY AND TROPICAL FOREST ASSESSMENT FOR ANGOLA

areas or conservation, ownership status) that favor the establishment of a protectedarea. The study should also identify threats and opportunities.• Map and prioritize these areas.• Propose a legal figure and management model (local government, community, comanagement)for the protected area.• Develop a business plan that includes management needs.• Help the local government or/and MINUA prepare a proposal for the creation of aprotected area to the Council of Ministers.If the exercise is successful, USAID should help to establish the protected area,including personnel training, development of geo-referenced databases, anddeveloping threats-reduction strategy.E3. Help Save Protected Areas Through a Development and ConservationActivityThe need: There are no functioning protected areas in Angola nor models appropriatefor management and conservation of protected areas.Every protected area in Angola is under serious threat and there are no good examplesof protected area management in the country. Targeted efforts have helped conservesmall areas (Kissama National Park) and specific ecosystem components (giant sablein Cangandala). One incipient initiative (Bicuar National Park) is trying an alternativeadministrative model, in which the provincial government takes an active role.There are at least two good reasons to support management of selected protectedareas. First, there is the need to conserve elements of Angola’s natural heritage beforeit is too late. Second, Angola needs examples of well-managed protected areas, todraw lessons, train conservationists, and raise environmental consciousness.Recommendation: Three protected areas in Angola have rudiments of a managementsystem: Kissama National Park, Cangandala National Park, and Bicuar National Park.A small part of Kissama is currently being protected by the Kissama Foundation, withresources provided by SONANGOL. Cangandala is the Giant Sable ConservationProject site, and Bicuar is the subject of a protected area management experiment bythe Huila Provincial Government.Contingent on the availability of resources, USAID should choose one or more ofthese national parks for sustainable protected area management systems. Kissama isunique because of the range of ecosystems it harbors (mangroves, coastal areas,baobab savannas, extensive wetlands). It offers the advantage of proximity to Luanda,where a potential tourism market exists. Cangandala is home to one of the lastremaining populations of giant sable. Bicuar provides an opportunity to modelprotected area management in which local government plays a prominent role.A protected area management and conservation program focused on one or more ofthese areas should have the following components:• A community-based natural resources management program that would work withcommunities within and near park boundaries. This component should encompass118/119 BIODIVERSITY AND TROPICAL FOREST ASSESSMENT FOR ANGOLA 41

improved agricultural practices to reduce the need for the expansion ofconservation areas.• A protected area patrol system, preferably using local inhabitants.• An ecosystem management and recovery component that could include the use ofrange management tools, such as the use of fire to influence animal distribution,fences for the creation of animal re-introduction areas, and the actual reintroductionof species that have been locally extinct.• A training component for park guards, tourist guides, and field biologists.• A sustainable financing component, including tourism development if feasible andfunds from extractive industries and the government.• Development of an appropriate management model.E4. Strengthen Government Institutions and Define the Regulatory FrameworkThe need: Angola’s environmental governance is deficient: some laws are outdated,others are under elaboration and regulations have yet to be drafted. Angola hasundefined institutional mandates and lack of capacity.Angola is emerging from three decades of war. The environment is low-priority andenvironmental institutions and legal instruments are not fully developed.MINADER’s IDF continues to exercise functions that are now legally ascribed toMINUA; the forestry law is under development; and regulations and procedures forexisting laws are at times nonexistent and at others faulty.Recommendation: Given government sensitivities, USAID should only attempt tohelp strengthen environmental governance capacity if explicitly asked to do so. Thistask may be better left United Nations organizations such as the FAO and the UNDP.On the other hand, USAID should offer capacity building in environmental impactassessment, rapid ecological surveys, participatory methods, and enhancing remotesensing capability.E5. Activate the Giant Sable Conservation FundThe need: The Giant Sable Conservation Project has no reliable funding source.Angola’s current government budgeting procedure does not ensure a constant flow ofresources for on-the-ground conservation activities. Furthermore, most conservationactivities are undertaken by NGOs or projects with funding from a variety of sources,primarily oil companies such as SONANGOL and EXXON. The few individualbiologists who lead these conservation activities find themselves overwhelmed notonly by their conservation chores, but also by the need to continuously developproposals and lobby for small amounts of money necessary to keep field-levelactivities going. The financial situation of these efforts is extremely precarious. Thiscondition typifies the Giant Sable Conservation Project.Recommendation: The oil industry in Angola has shown a modest willingness to fundconservation activities. Although funding has been sporadic and limited, the moneyhas helped meet essential expenditures and keep alive the two most important42 118/119 BIODIVERSITY AND TROPICAL FOREST ASSESSMENT FOR ANGOLA

conservation activities in Angola: the Giant Sable Conservation Project and theKissama Foundation’s effort to manage Kissama National Park.Given financial resources that oil companies currently generate in Angola, and theirtepid but existing commitment to the environment, they may be able to contribute toconservation funds with very specific objectives and a well designed managementstructure.In the case of the Giant Sable Conservation Project, there already exists a Giant SableFund which is a nonprofit organization established in the United States to fundactivities to protect and study the Giant Sable. Its offices are located at 88 BlackFalcon Avenue in Boston Massachusetts. The fund is affiliated with Citizens Energy,which provides legal, financial, and tax audit and review supervision. This is the sameorganization and structure used to manage the Angola Educational Assistance Fund, aUSAID grant recipient.USAID should commission an analysis to determine how best to capitalize andactivate the fund so that it can start to realize its potential. This analysis should lead toidentification of potential donors, a marketing strategy, the design of a disbursementand reporting mechanism, and a management structure, among other things.E6. Strengthen Angolan Conservation NGOsThe need: the Government of Angola cannot manage protected areas. Angolan NGOshave taken the lead but have limited capacity.The Kissama Foundation is leading one of the most visible conservation activities inAngola, the management of Kissama National Park. The foundation has managed tosecure resources from SONANGOL and other donors to cover its administrativeexpenses and field operations, but the needs far exceed current funding levels. Arecently approved GTZ-funded capacity building project will help support theKissama Foundation’s efforts. Other than that, the foundation is able to capture smallamounts of resources from different organizations for very specific purposes.Recommendation: The USAID mission should consider working with the KissamaFoundation to improve its technical administrative and financial managementcapabilities and diversify its sources of funding. This can be done in the context of aconservation project for the Kissama National Park.118/119 BIODIVERSITY AND TROPICAL FOREST ASSESSMENT FOR ANGOLA 43

BIBLIOGRAPHY“Angola, Environment status quo assessment report.” Regional Office for SouthernAfrica, International Union for Conservation of Nature, Harare, Zimbabwe, 1992.“Angola Forestry Report,” Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations,http://www.fao.org/forestry/site/18308/en/ago, 2003.“Angola – Recursos florestais e suas potencialidades” (brochure), Instituto deDesenvolvimento Florestal (Institute for Forestry Development), Luanda, Angola,2004.Barbosa, L.A. “Carta Fitogeográfica de Angola. Instituto de Investigação Científicade Angola,” Luanda, Angola, 1970.Caetano, T.P. “A importância das florestas na manutenção dos equilíbriosecológicos,” Proceedings of the First National Environment Forum: 137-159,Ministério das Pescas e Ambiente, Luanda, Angola, 1999.Cohen, M.E: and M.C. Kiala. “Legislacao sobre a Biodiversidade em Angola,”Ministerio do Urbanismo e Ambiente, Luanda, Angola, 2006.“Diamond Industry Annual Review: Republic of Angola – 2007,” Partnership Africa-Canada, Ottawa, Canada, 2007.“Durable Solutions for Angolan Refugees,” United National High Commission forRefugees, Luanda, Angola, 2007.Morais, M., L. Velasco, E. Carvalho, “Avaliacao da Condicao e Distribuicao doManatim Africano (Trichelus senegalensis) al Longo do Rio Cuanza.” Ministerio eUrbanismo e Ambiente/Universidade Agostinho Neto, Luanda, Angola, 2006.Ministério do Urbanismo e Ambiente (MINUA), Relatório Geral do Estado do MeioAmbiente em Angola, Luanda, Angola, 2006a.Ministério do Urbanismo e Ambiente (MINUA), National Biodiversity Strategy andAction Plan 2007-2012. Luanda, Angola, 2006b.Política Nacional de Florestas, Fauna Selvagem e Áreas de Conservação, Ministérioda Agricultura e do Desenvolvimento Rural (MINADER) e Ministério do Urbanismoe Ambiente (MINUA), Luanda, Angola, 2006.U.S. Agency for International Development, Conservation of tropical forests andbiological diversity: FAA 118-119 Analysis. Luanda, Angola, 2006.118/119 BIODIVERSITY AND TROPICAL FOREST ASSESSMENT FOR ANGOLA 45

APPENDIX A. INDIVIDUALS INTERVIEWEDName Position Organization ContactAbias Huongo Associate Holisticos andJuventude EcologicaAngolanahuongoam@hotmail.com(244) 923325668(244) 923318989Pedro Vaz Pinto Associate/Biologist Holisticos pedrovazpinto@gmail.com(244) 923325668(244) 923318989Suzan Brens Director USAID/Angola sbrens@usaid.gov(244) 22641114(244) 22641114Josefa Gomes Program Assistant and USAID/Angola jgomes@usaid.govMission Env. OfficerVictor DuarteGeneral DevelopmentOfficerUSAID/Angola vduarte@usaid.gov(244) 22641114Doreen Bailey Political Officer U.S. Embassy/Angola (244) 222641000Ranca TubaDemocracy andGovernance OfficerUSAID/Angola rtuba@usaid.gov(244) 22641114Mervyn Farroe Program Officer USAID/Angola mfarroe@usaid.gov(244) 22641114Antonio Nascimento Forestry Officer MINUA/DNAPF (244) 912527053Miguel AlmeidaFatima ProençaDirector of Geologyand MiningDevelopmentDirector CorporateResponsibilityDirector GeneralENDIAMAmpalmeida@hotmail.com(244) 923460379(244) 222396597ENDIAMA (244) 222396597Sergio de AssisCalundungoAction for Rural Dev.and Environments.calundungo@adraao.org(244) 222398653Januario Augusto Secretary General Red Maiombe (244) 924112658Simao dos Santos Executive Secretary Futuro Verde (244) 923456330Nazare Velosos Director MINUA/DNAF Nazadom12@yahoo.com.br(244) 912213801Tomais Caetano Director MINADER/IDF (244) 912516048Walter Viegas Officer EU/Angola (244) 912518300Kamia Carvalho Poverty SpecialistOfficerUNDPCelso da Cunha Director Provincial Director ofUrbanism andEnvironmentKamia.carvalho@undp.org(244) 222331181(244) 923602726Vladimir Ruisso Director Holisticos roquerusso@nexus.ao(244) 912218975Paulo Vicente Senior Assistant toResident Rep.FAO/AngolaPaulo.vicente@fao.org(244) 912218975ChristosTheodoropoulosSenior ProtectionOfficerUNHCRtheodoro@unhcr.org(244) 222332046Francisca Pires Director General National Institute for (244) 222309077DelgadoFisheries ResearchTako KoningAdvisor, SocialProjects and PublicRelationsTullow Oil (Angola) takokoning@nexus.aoMaria Martins Environmental Advisor BP Angola (BusinessUnit)Maria.martins@bp.com(244) 222637386Jorge LeonEnvironment TeamLeaderBP Angola (BusinessUnit)Jorge.leon@bp.com(244) 222637386Ronie Galeger Senior EnvironmentAdvisorBP Angola (BusinessUnit)Ronnie.galeger@bp.com(244) 222637386Bjorn Axelsen Senior Scientist Institute of Marine bjorna@imr.noResearch (Norway)Roland Goetz Director Kissama National Park qissama@hotmail.com(244) 924114459118/119 BIODIVERSITY AND TROPICAL FOREST ASSESSMENT FOR ANGOLA 47

APPENDIX B. SCOPE OF WORKI. Purpose and ObjectiveScope of Work118/119 Biodiversity and Tropical Forest AssessmentUSAID/AngolaThe purpose of this task is to conduct an assessment of: (1) the current state ofbiodiversity and forest conservation in Angola, (2) the actions necessary in Angola toconserve tropical forests and biological diversity, and (3) the extent to which theactions proposed for support by USAID/Angola meet or could meet the needs thusidentified. This assessment is intended to serve as a planning tool to assistUSAID/Angola in better integrating environmental concerns into their existing andproposed programs in the short- and medium-term future. The assessment is alsonecessary for the purposes of complying with sections 118 and 119 of the ForeignAssistance Act of 1961, as amended, as well as critical to informing operational plansand the country assistance strategy.The assessment will build on the 2007-2012 National Biodiversity and Strategy Plan(NBSP), and the briefly completed USAID/Angola FAA 118-119 Biodiversity andTropical Forestry Analysis done in March 2006. The 2008 assessment will be carriedout by a team of two international short-term consultants with experience in USAIDstrategic planning and sound knowledge of USAID’s environmental policies andprocedures, legislation and requirements as governed by the Foreign Assistance Act.The team will also include the mission environmental officer, Josefa Gomes and twoAngolan consultants. The regional environmental advisor for USAID/SouthernAfrica, Camilien J. W. Saint-Cyr, based in Pretoria, South Africa, will have anadvisory role.II. Background2.1 Angola Environmental Profiles:Located in southwestern Africa, Angola is divided into 18 provinces bordered by1,650 km of Atlantic coastline on the west, by the Democratic Republic of Congo andZambia on the north and east, and by Namibia to the south. Angola is ecologicallydiverse due to its large size, tropical latitude, and physical variations in soils andaltitudes. Angola has a total land area of 1,246,700 km 2 with nearly three quarters ofthe country situated on a plateau with altitude ranging between 1,000 and 1,300 m.The highest mountain is Morro do Moco with an altitude of 2,620 m. The climate isgenerally tropical but varies with latitude. Coastal zones are moderated by the coldBenguela Current. Rainfall ranges from more than 1,800 mm in the northern part ofthe country to a paltry 100 mm in Namibe Province (in the south, bordering Namibia).The population of Angola is estimated at about 12.3 million people (2007), with 34percent of the population living in the country’s urban areas.Angola possesses valuable and expansive forest resources and a large portion of thecountry was historically covered by natural forests and savannah. There has been nosystematic survey or inventory of forest resources since the 1970s, producing118/119 BIODIVERSITY AND TROPICAL FOREST ASSESSMENT FOR ANGOLA 49

significant discrepancies among the estimates of forest cover in Angola today, rangingfrom 40 percent to 62 percent. A recent estimate from the Institute for ForestryDevelopment indicated that forests cover approximately 50 million ha, 8 million ofwhich had some form of protected status on paper. There is minimal capacity tocontrol or enforce rules related to forestry, wildlife and protected areas.Angola is thought to be one of the most biologically diverse countries in Africa, witha large number of species of almost all groups of organisms distributed in differentbiomass and terrestrial ecosystems. However, it has been impossible to conduct fieldstudies in most parts of Angola for the past three decades due to war, so only minimalrecent data are available to confirm this and the existing information is rather diffuse.In 2007 Angola, completed its National Biodiversity Strategic Plan (NBSP). TheNBSP presents actions to incorporate measures into development policies andprograms to prevent degradation of ecosystems and loss of biodiversity. The NBSP isto be implemented by the Ministry of Urban Affairs and Environment with supportfrom private organizations and civil society.III. General TaskUnder the direction of a team leader, the assessment team will evaluate biodiversityand tropical forest issues in Angola. The focus of all activities taken under thisassignment is threefold: 1) Assess the conservation status of biodiversity and forestsin Angola; 2) identify actions necessary to better conserve biodiversity and tropicalforests; and 3) describe how and to what extent actions proposed in the countryoperational plans meet, or could meet, the biodiversity and tropical forest needs thusidentified.IV. Specific TasksThe assessment team shall perform the following activities:A. Data Collection• Prior to departure, meet or phone the bureau environmental advisor, otherBureau for Africa technical staff, and other Washington, D.C.-basedorganizations to gather relevant information on regional and Angolaspecificprograms and agency environmental regulations.• Obtain, review and analyze existing documentation on biodiversityconservation (and tropical forest conservation) in Angola, such as thatprepared by government agencies, bilateral donors, and national andinternational NGOs. Available online materials will be gathered prior tothe country visit (links to known literature examples are shown in sectionVII).• Meet with USAID/Angola to get an understanding of the Mission’songoing sectoral assessments, program goals and objectives under itscurrent and proposed strategies. The Mission also may provide the teamwith advice and protocol on approaching USAID partners and host countryorganizations with respect to this assignment. The team will discussorganizations to be contacted and any planned site visits with the Missionand coordinate as required.50 118/119 BIODIVERSITY AND TROPICAL FOREST ASSESSMENT FOR ANGOLA

B. AnalysisC. Report• Meet with and gather information from relevant ministries and agencies,donor organizations, international NGOs, and other organizations that areinvolved in forest and biodiversity conservation or other cross-cuttingissues, or are implementing noteworthy projects.• Conduct one to three priority site visits, as necessary, to supplement theunderstanding gained from interviews, literature, and other second-handsources.1. Summarize the status of biodiversity and tropical forests in Angola.2. Summarize the social, economic, institutional, legal, and policy context fortheir use and conservation, including actions currently being taken bygovernment, other donors, NGOs, and the private sector.3. Identify critical needs that should be addressed for the strategy topositively influence the conservation of tropical forests, biodiversity, andwater resources and improve the sustainable management of naturalresources in Angola.4. Identify the key direct and indirect threats to biodiversity and tropicalforests. Identify the actions necessary to conserve and sustainably managenatural resources, biodiversity and tropical forests in Angola based on ananalysis of country donor and NGO responses currently in place to meetthese needs.5. Analyze the existing Mission portfolio and proposed USAID/AngolaOperational Plan through an environment lens and identify someenvironmental threats and opportunities in each strategic area ofintervention including their potential impacts on FAA section 117, 118 and119 issues and climate.• Prepare a report on the status of biodiversity conservation efforts inAngola and implications for USAID or other donor programming that shalldefine the actions necessary for conservation. This report shall clearlymeet the legal requirement of FAA Sec 118 and 119. An illustrativeoutline for the report is provided below, of which Sections “c”, “d” and“e” will be written by the environment and natural resource management(ENRM) specialist.• Drawing on the report (even before it is finalized, if necessary), theconsultant shall produce the mandatory Environmental Annex required forthe USAID/Operational Plan. This annex should be 8-10 pages, andaddress explicitly the FAA 118-119 concerns in tropical forestry andbiodiversity, key threats and opportunities for USAID/Angola’s response,and recommended actions. These will be taken up as appropriate in theUSAID/Angola operational plan and country assistance strategy.Illustrative Outline:a. Introduction, describing the purpose of the analysis and methods used inconducting it, including the timing of the analysis in relation to the timingof USAID strategy development.118/119 BIODIVERSITY AND TROPICAL FOREST ASSESSMENT FOR ANGOLA 51

. An overview of the social, economic, legislative, and political context forsustainable natural resources management and the conservation ofbiodiversity and forests in Angola.c. An overview of the status of tropical forests and terrestrial and aquaticbiodiversity in Angola, including ecosystem diversity, species diversity,threatened and endangered species, genetic diversity, agriculturalbiodiversity, ecosystem services, and protected areas. Specific attentionwill be focused on how logging, charcoal production, and land-use changeaffect forest cover. The Specialist will identify the root and immediatecauses for these processes — economic importance and potential values ofbiodiversity will also be included.d. A summary of government, NGO, and donor programs and activities thatcontribute to conservation and sustainable natural resources management,including a brief assessment of their effectiveness, strengths, andweaknesses.e. An assessment of the threats to tropical forests and biodiversity, includingdirect threats and indirect threats or root causes of the direct threats.Specific mention of logging, charcoal production and other land-usechanges that affect forest cover.f. Programmatic actions necessary to conserve biodiversity and forests inAngola.g. An assessment of how USAID Angola’s program currently addresses thekey threats to biodiversity and forest conservation, including how activitiescan be modified to more effectively address these issues for futureplanning.h. All references used and cited in the report, including web URLs.i. Appendices will include: the SOW for the analysis, biographical sketchesof analysis team members, a list of persons contacted and their institutionalaffiliation, and other background or supporting material as needed,including maps and photographs. Copies of key document, relevant mapsand images, and copies of photographs obtained during the assessmentshould also be appended in a CD ROM with electronic versions of allwritten materials.V. DeliverablesThe primary deliverable under this task order is the above-referenced report with anassessment of: (1) The status of biodiversity and forest conservation in Angola; (2)the actions necessary in Angola to conserve tropical forests and biological diversity,and (3) the extent to which the actions proposed for support by USAID meet theneeds thus identified in the assessment.There shall be seven deliverables under this activity:1. Preliminary work plan and schedule: The contractor shall provide USAID witha work plan and schedule prior to traveling to Angola.2. Progress report to the CTO and MEO after 10 working days from the start date(o/a February 21, 2008)3. Oral debriefing within five working days preceding the departure date. Theteam shall meet with USAID/Angola to provide them with a brief of the report52 118/119 BIODIVERSITY AND TROPICAL FOREST ASSESSMENT FOR ANGOLA

findings. The exit brief shall be accompanied by a short written summary ofinitial key findings and recommendations.4. Draft report: The Contractor shall submit a draft report to the MissionEnvironment Officer and USAID/Southern Africa regional environmentaladvisor (as necessary) no later than (TBD) (based on timing of assessment).The draft report shall follow the generic outline discussed above, as refinedduring the course of the contract in consultation with USAID.5. Final report: Following a two-week comment and review period, a revisedfinal report incorporating all comments will be submitted within two weeks ofthe review period end date.6. Ten copies of the bound final draft will be made available when the final isapproved by the mission, as well as electronic copies in MS Word and AdobeAcrobat PDF.7. A short (8-10 p.) environmental plan (tropical forestry and biodiversity)annex, which consists of a summary and syntheses of the findings andrecommendations of the assessment, including recommended actions forUSAID/Angola within its strategic areas.VI. Logistics and MethodologyAFR/SD Biodiversity Analysis and Technical Support (BATS) will cover thetechnical assistance and associated expenses, including the service of up to two localconsultants.A three- to four-person team with the following composition and expertise is desirableto conduct this analysis. Total estimated LOE: 40 days (expat plus one local assistant)or up to 55 days (expat plus two local assistants).International Technical Assistance from Chemonics/Team Leader (1 person): Theteam leader will be an environment and natural resource management (ENRM)specialist with prior natural resource experience in Africa. The team leader will haveknowledge of the USAID Strategic Planning process related to tropical forestry andbiodiversity (FAA Sections 118 and 119).He will also have knowledge of and be responsible for providing information relatedto Angolan protected areas, rangelands, agro-biodiversity, the policy and legalframeworks governing environmental management in Angola, the analysis of relevantpolicies, biodiversity threats, opportunities, tourism and extractive industries.The team leader will also be responsible for ensuring that all deliverables are handedin on time and that team members are aware of their particular responsibilities withrespect to preparation, in country activities, and making contributions to deliverables.Estimated LOE for International Technical Assistance includes: 2 days forpreparatory work, 11 workdays in Angola, 8 days for follow-up and report writing,and 4 days for travel. Total estimated LOE: 25 days.International Technical Assistance from US Forest Service International Program (1person): This team member will be an environment and natural resource management(ENRM) specialist with prior natural resource experience in Africa. S/he will also118/119 BIODIVERSITY AND TROPICAL FOREST ASSESSMENT FOR ANGOLA 53

have knowledge of and be responsible for collecting background information andreporting on Angola’s vegetation ecology, tropical forest threats and root causes,forestry industries, and opportunities to mitigate threats. S/he will also report onforestry institutions, including policies, laws, and regulatory issues that relate toforestry and biodiversity conservation in Angola.Estimated LOE: Team member will contribute 26 days on this assignment, including3 days for preparation, 11 workdays in Angola, 8 days for follow-up and reportwriting, and 4 days for travel. LOE will be provided separately through the U.S.Forest Service International Program.Local technical and administrative assistance (1 or 2 persons): Senior-level protectedareas specialist with demonstrated experience in/knowledge of Angolan protectedareas, wetlands, rivers and coastal ecosystems -- in particular mangroves, the policyand legal frameworks governing environmental management in Angola, the analysisof relevant policies, biodiversity threats, opportunities, tourism and extractiveindustries. The local technical specialist has good contacts within Angolangovernment agencies, NGOs, international donors, and private sector preferred. S/hewill arrange meetings with government ministries, local NGOs and other relevantorganizations and to arrange all logistical support including car hire and chauffeur,hotel reservations and airport pick up/drop off. Estimated LOE for local technicalassistance includes: 2 days for preparation, 11 workdays in Angola, and 2 days forfollow-up and report writing. Total estimated LOE: 15 days or up to 30 days.VII. Duration of Assignment, Level of Effort and SupervisionMeetings, phone calls, and preparatory research will take place in December prior todeparture for Angola. Work in Angola will take place from February 11-22, 2008. Asix-day in-country work week is authorized for this consultancy. The consultancy willbe carried out during the period of o/a February 11 – March 1, 2008. About 11 dayswill be in Angola, 8 days preparation and wrap-up, and 4 days travel. Theinternational consultant will oversee the work of the local-hire consultants. Theconsultants will work under the technical direction of the USAID/Angola programofficer team leader of the analysis team and the MEO. The regional environmentaladvisor based at USAID/Southern Africa, Pretoria/South Africa, will have an advisoryrole, to the extent available.VIII. Illustrative Budget (IQC: Direct Contract rates used)IX. Supporting documentation• Angola - Biodiversity. Convention on Biological Diversity, October 2007.www.cbd.int/countries/default.shtml?country=ao• Best practices for biodiversity and tropical forest assessments ChemonicsInternational Inc., USAID/EGAT/Office of Agriculture. April 2005. 28 pp.(508 KB), PN-ADE-673. http://pdf.usaid.gov/pdf_docs/PNADE673.pdf• Earthtrends Biodiversity and Protected Areas,www.earthtrends.wri.org/gsearch.php?kw=angola&action=results54 118/119 BIODIVERSITY AND TROPICAL FOREST ASSESSMENT FOR ANGOLA

• Hirji, R., et al. “Defining and Mainstreaming Environmental Sustainability inWater Resources Management in Southern Africa.” SADC, IUCN, SARDC,and World Bank/IBRD. Maeru/Harare/Washington D.C. 318 pp., 2002• Red List of Threatened Species, October 2007 National Biodiversity StrategicAction Plan – 2007-2012. IUCN. www.iucnredlist.org/• SADC Facts and Figures 2000 [booklet].• Tropical forestry and biodiversity (FAA 118 and 119) analyses: lessonslearned and best practices from recent USAID experience. (655 KB)Associates in Rural Development, Inc. USAID/EGAT/Office of Environmentand Natural Resources. September 2005. 74 pp., PN-ADE-195.http://pdf.usaid.gov/pdf_docs/PNADE195.pdf• USAID/Angola FAA 118/119 Environmental Analysis, March 2006.www.encapafrica.org/documents/biofor/Angola%20FAA%20118-119%20Analysis%20Mar%2013_06.doc118/119 BIODIVERSITY AND TROPICAL FOREST ASSESSMENT FOR ANGOLA 55

118/119 Biodiversity and Tropical Forest Assessment for Angola

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