KFRI Research Report - Kerala Forest Research Institute

KFRI Research Report S4BASELINE STUDIES FOR THE PROPOSED NATURE STUDIESCENTRE AT KALADY IN THE MALAYATTOOR FOREST DIVISIONEditors:S. Chand BashaK.K.N. NairKERALA FOREST RESEARCH INSTITUTEPEECHI, THRISSUR1993 Pages: 248

CONTENTSPage1 Introduction 1 r.s4.22 Angiosperm Flora and SpecialisedEcological Niche of Malayattoor 15 r.s4.33 Macrofungal Flora and Checklist ofPlant Diseases of Malayattoor 87 r.s4.44 Wildlife and Landuse Pattern ofMalayattoor 111 r.s4.55 Status Survey of Insect Fauna ofMalayattoor 135 r.s4.66 Soil Characteristics and Mapping ofMalayattoor 159 r.s4.77 Vegetation Analysis and Mapping ofMalayattoor 227 r.s4.8File

GENERAL INTRODUCTIONK.K.N. Nair

1. GENERAL INTRODUCTIONK.K.N.NairBotany DivisionKerala Forest Research Institute,Peechi, Kerala, IndiaContents1.1. Location1.2. Topography1.3. Vegetation1.3.1. Forest plantations1.3.2. Natural forests1.3.2.1. Evergreen1.3.2.2. Moist deciduous1.3.2.3. Dry deciduous1.3.2.4. Scrubs1.4. Remarks on the forest types of MalayattoorMalayattoor (Ernakulam District, Kerala State, India) is aknown place in the central part of Kerala, mainly because of thewellpre-sence of one of the seven Churches which St. Thomas established in theState. The place is also historically reputed as it is very proximalto the birth place of Ad1 Shankara at Kalady, where there exists atemple and a Stupa (tower), and is the seat of the proposed firstSanskrit University in India. For the reasons mentioned above, atpresent, Malayattoor is often visited by both pilgrims and tourists,and to facilitate this, a tourist complex is also coming up there toprovide accommodation and recreational facilities to the people who1

visit the area. Also, there is a forest path that leads to the top ofthe hillock Kurishumudi at Malayattoor, where thereis the GoldenCross and a church. Christians from different parts of South Indiacome here to worship, almost round the year, which was rather seasonalin the past.To enjoy the sylvan environment of Malayattoor, lot oftourists and also people visiting the birth place of Adi Shankara andthe Stupa at Kalady also extend their trips to Malayattoor. Anaddedattraction of Malayattoor is the Manappattu Chira - a shallow but vastpondat the foothills of Kurishumudi with boating facility - which isnow being beautified by the Tourism Development Corporation to attractmore visitors.Itis near this well known religious and tourist centre thatKerala Forest Department is planning to establish the "Adi SankaraNature Study Centre" with financial support from the World Bank.Asenvisaged, the Study Centre tries to incorporate informative detailson various aspects of natural and man-made forests of the State to beof educative value to nature lovers, students, forest dwellers, scien-tists, tourists, etc. who frequent the area.For this, information onvarious aspects of the natural and man-made forests of Kerala is apre-requisite and the present study is intended to generate the samefor Kurishumudi and surrounding forest areas of Malayattoor.1.1. LOCATIONThe study area comes within the Kalady Forest Range ofMalayattoorForest Division, situated between 9 o 47' and 10 o 17' North2

latitude and 76 o 16' and 76 o 57' East longitude, in the ErnakulamDistrict of Kerala State (Fig. 1.1). The Forest Division includes fourranges, namely Kalady, Kodanad, Kothamangalam and Thodupuzha with a2total of about 680 km of forest land belonging to it with an effectiveforest cover of 570 km 2 (Chandrasekharan, Forest Resources ofKerala, 1973).Kalady Forest Range covers about 7199 ha and is bordered ontheSouth by Periar river, East by a canal that joins Periar (locallyknown as Illithodu which is also the name of a place nearby), North bya tarred road that extends from Perum-Thodu to Post Office Junctionnear Pandupara Church and on the West by a tarred road that leads toAngamali through Manjappra village. The Range is divided into foursections (Fig. 1.2) namely Karakad (1887 ha), Kurishmudi (1118 ha),Kannimangalam (2237 ha) and Evergreen (1958 ha).The tarred road that deviates towards North from Kalady Junctionof the Main Central Road of Kerala, after traversing for about 20 kmin a northern direction ends at a point called Kadapara in the footof Kurishmudi peak.From this point, to the top of Kurishumudi, thereis a forest path of about 20 m width, now planted with shade treesonboth sides of it to provide shade for people during summer when theygo to the church at the top of the hill for worship.The path ends atthetop of Kurishumudi peak (387 m above msl), where the Golden Crossand church of St. Thomas are situated.AtKadapara, along the northern boundary of the pond Manappattu-Chira, there goes a tarred road towards West which after a course of3

about 500 metres joins the road that leads to Angamali viaManjappra,mentioned earlier. Southern border of this road is the Manappattu-Chira, a shallow pond, which get almost dried up during summer, whenseveral aquatic and semiaquatic species colonize at its bottom.Hereand there, in the wet bottom of the pond, local people raise smallpatches of paddy crop when it is empty. The pond is with well builtboundary walls around it and is provided with a boat landingplatformin the middle on its sourthern side.About 500 metres before reaching the bottom of Kurishumudi peak,there is a metalled road which takes an easterly direction and runsalong the side of I11i-thodu to link the tarred road that leads toP.O. Junction near Pandupara. Similarly, a forest road that goesinterior from the P.O. Junction-Manjappra--Angamali road, from nearKannimangalam Guard Station, runs through the Kannimangalam forestsection and meets the above mentioned road that runs paralleled toI11i-thodu. Apart from these, there is no motorable path within thereserveforest area. Hence, many parts of it are either approachableonly by foot or inaccessible mainly due to topographical peculiaritiesand steep slopes with steep rock, characteristic to the area.1.2. TOPOGRAPHYThe study areais situated along the western slope of theWestern Ghats of Kerala. The maximum height of the area is about 387mabove msl at the apex of Kurishumudi peak which comes down to 50 min the foothills. The whole area is hilly in character and ground4

surface is highly undulating and rugged. From the plains of Kalady,the hillock Kurishumudi suddenly rises to attain a height of 387 mabove m5l. The southern slope of this hillock is steep, whereas to-wards West,the slope is gradual. In this region plantations of Casheware quite common. Towards the eastern side of Kurishumudi also thesouth-eastern part is rather undulating and gradually descendingwhereas the narrow top of the ridge continues in an easterly directionandafter taking a southern course comes down almost suddenly to theplains. The northern side of Kurishumudi is sometimes with suddendecends with sheet rock here and there and sometimes with shallowdepressions harbouring moist deciduous forests. As it reaches thefoothills, plantations of teak and a disturbed natural forest whichwas under illegal occupation previously and evicted during the emergencyperiod, exist. In this area are quite common fruit trees likeJack, Mango, Citrus, Tamarindus and so on, and Glyricidia as hedge,planted by the encroachers.Even boundaries of each of the encroachedprivate holdings are seen now in this area. When it reaches thebottom of the hillock, towards the north-eastern part, there exists anextensive grassland surrounded by moist deciduous forests and teakplantations. This grassland, during rainy season, become water-logged.Around this grassy patch is seen luxuriant natural moist deciduousforests with fairly rich floristic diversity. It is through thisvalley that the forest road that starts from Kannimangalam traversesand meets the above mentioned road bordering Illi-thodu, the easternboundary of the Forest Range. Towards the northern side of the ridgethat traverses the area from Kurishumudi, about a kilometer East ofthe peak, there is a depression harbouring a small patch ofevergreenforest. This evergreen patch slowly descend, engulfing a small hill5

stream and a waterfall.Beyond this, the forests get transformed intomoist deciduous type, followed by plantations of teak, the once en-croached area and the grassy open land. Beyond the evergreen patch,the narrow ridge of the hill extending from Kurishumudi peak takes asouthern direction with sheet rock here and there and merges withtheagricultural land on the South-eastern boundary of the Forest Range.Thesudden change in the direction of theridgehas createdanextensive valley of moist deciduous forests at aplaceknown as Pottahtowards the eastern side of Kurishumudi. Thiss a hghlydisturbedarea due to human interferences like collection ofgreenmanure,fodder, firewood, medicinal plants, and so on. The valley, when itreaches the southern limit of the reserved forest, is with severalextensions of sheet rock or rock overlaiden with a thin layer ofsoilwhere there is a totally failed plantation of teak.This area is nowbeing planted up with several indigenous timber species like Dalbergialatifolia, Albizia odoratissima, Tamarindus indica, Casuarina equi -setifolia, etc. by the Forest Department.Here and there, bordering or penetrating into the reservedforests, are private holdings. In such holdings, crops like coconut,pineapple, cocoa, rubber, arecanut, etc. are grown by private parties.Such areas are present in Karakad and Kurishumudi sections also, quiteinterior, surrounded by reserved forests of the dry or moist deciduoustypes.Quarrying in a common phenomenon, mainly within the reservedforests of Karakad and Kurishumudi sections. Rocky areas in the two4

sections are given on lease by the Forest Department to private partiesfor this purpose. Several small approach roads of temporarynature also start from these quarries, connecting the nearby tarredroads, to enhance transportation facility.There is a large canal being dug through the reserved forestarea to take water from Bhoothathankettu BarrangeIEdamalayar dam. Thisis to distribute water to the plains of Kalady for agricultural purposer;.In some areas, the canal is 10-15 m deep depending upon thetopography of the area. Largescale removal of rock and soil takesplace here also. There is also a small bridge being constructed tolink the two portions of the reserve forest which were separated bythe digging of the canal.1.3. VEGETATIONThe study area possess both natural and man-made forests. Thenatural forests are mainly of the tropical moist deciduous type.Man-made forests include plantations of teak and cashew.On one side, theforests of the area are highly disturbed and degraded, and on theother, plantations of teak, first established in 1865, are mostlyunsuccessful due to various reasons including poor site quality.How-ever, cashew plantations raised as an alternate crop on very poorlaterite sites have performed quite well in Malayattoor. Healthyandhigh yielding plantations of this cash crop may be seen in the foot-hills, especially of the Karakad section and to some extend in theKannimangalam part of the reserved forest.7

1.3.1. Forest plantationsAs mentioned earlier, in and around Kurishumudi, forest planta-tions of teak and cashew are quite prevalent.Failed teak plantationsare also seen in Kurishumudi, Karakkad and Kannimangalam sections.Towardsthe western side of Kurishumudi, on the way to Evergreen sec-tion, there are areas of failedteak plantations which are now plantedup with native species like Dalbergia latifolia, Tamarindus indica,Pterocarpus marsupium, etc. in an effort to convert those areas into aproductive zones. Along the southern side of the Kurishumudi peak alsosimilar planting progrmmes have already been started. As such, thereis no successful teak plantation on the South, East and westernsidesof Kurishumudi hillock which faces us once we reach the bottom ofKurishumudi. However, some teak plantations of Kannimanqalam sectionon the northern side of Kurishumudi peak is more or less surviving. In'the failed teak plantation areas and as undergrowth in thoseexistingplantations in Kannimangalam section, ground flora is rather poordueto various types of disturbances and also poor site quality.Towardsthe western side of Kurishumudi, spread over in Karakadand Kannimangalam sections, are seen fairly large areas of cashewplantations that are performing quite well.Most of the cashew plant-ations were raised on lateritic areas, bordering the sides of thetarred road that leads to Angamali via Manjappra.In the cashew plan-tations, eventhough human interferences are very high, species ofOsbeckia, Ziziphus, Alstonia, Memecylon, Syzygium, etc. are quitecommon which are mostly bushy in nature.8

1.3.2. Natural forestsWithin the four sections of Kalady range, viz. Karakad,Kannimangalam, Kurishumudi and Evergreen, the forest types met withinclude evergreen, semievergreen, moist deciduous, dry deciduous andscrub vegetation. At the outset, it is worth mentioning that all theforest portions of the Kalady Range are in a much fragmented and degradedstate due to various reasons., the most important among thembeing human interferences and poor site factors.1.3.2.1. Evergreen forestsThe only patch of evergreen forest in the whole of the studyarea is seen in a depression of the mount Kurishumudi, towards itsnorth-eastern side.Here, there is a rich assemblage of several ever-green species which include trees, woody shrubs, herbs, lianas andtuberous species. The top canopy is composed of lofty trees likeMyristica dactyloides, Knema attenuata, Vateria indica, Artocarpushirsutus, etc. The middle storey trees include Baccaurea courtallensis,Caryota urens, Hydnocarpus pentandrus, Saraca asoca, Ixorabrachiata, Chionanthus mala-elengi, Olea dioica, Neolitsea cassia,and so on. On the ground, stunted trees and large shrubs likeXanthophyllum flavesrens, Ixora arborea, Polyalthia longifolia, Polyalthiarufesrens, Dichapetalum gelonoides, Maesa perrottetiana, Ancistrocladusheyneanus, Sapindus emarginatus, Nothopegia travancorica,etc. and ground herbs like species of Nilgirianthus, Ophiorrhiza,Pavetta, Peperomia, Calamus, Elatostemma, Begonia, Chasalia, Aegenitia,etc. are fairly common. Also, epiphytic on tall and medium9

sized trees of the forests may be seen orchids like Dendrobium macrostachyum,Vanda tessellata, etc. There is a small hill stream stratingfrom a depression within this evergreen patch, which after a steepfall of about 15 m hiqh, continues to flow into the plains and joinswith Perum-thodu, far beyond the eastern boundary of the reservedforest. Along the sides of this hill stream may be seen species likeCalamus thwaitesii, Saraca asoca, Ochlandra travancorica, and so on.growing luxuriantly. The everqreen patch, in its northern limit,merges with the moist deciduous forest of Kannimangalam sectionwhichin turn borders the teak plantations.1.3.2.2. Moist deciduous forestsThe moist deciduous forests are rather well distributed in thestudy area, eventhough it is much fragmented and degraded.Borderingthe evergreen patch, both on its southern and northern limits in theKurishumudi and Kannimanqalam sections, a major share of moist deciduousforest of the study area is seen. Also, in the Kannimangalamsection, starting from the Kannimanqalam Guard Station premises, itextends eastwards up to the bottom of the hill that abode the evergreenforest patch. Similarly, towards the eastern side of the paththat leads to Kurishumudi top up to the forest path from Pottah toevergreen patch is a fairly extended patch of moist deciduous forestsclothing the slanting hillside. This, and also the patch inKannimangalam section, are in a much degraded state, mainly due tohuman interferences. Dominant tree species met with in the foresttype at Malayattoor include Albizia odoratissima, Dalbergia latifolia,Dalbergia lanceolaria, Pterocarpus marsupium, Terminalia paniculata,Grewia tiliaefolia, Lagerstroemia microcarpa, Dillenia pentagyna,10

Tetrameles nudiflora, etc. Subcanopy trees like Chionanthus mala-elengi , Grewia tiliaefolia, Haldina cordifolia, Aglaiaroxburghiana,Madhuca longifolia, etc. and climbers like Calycopteris floribunda,Zizyphus oenoplia, Calamus thwaitesii, Pothos scandens, Ancistrocladusheyneanus, Asparagus racemosus, Wagatea spicata, Dalbergia horrida,etc. are also common in the forest type, depending upon the level ofdegradation and availability of moist and shady conditions. Theforest floor i s also fairly rich with several shrubaceous speciesandground herbs like species of Psychotria, Pavetta, Chasalia, Ixora,Grewia, Glycosmis, Cipadessa,Asparagus, Cyclea, Cissampelos,Canthium, Breynia, Bridelia, Securinega,Anamirta, Ancistrocladus, and so on.It is in this moist deciduous forest type that two patches ofaquatic/semiaquatic formations are seen in the whole of the studyarea.In one such patch, a species of aroid, viz. Lagenandra ovata isseen colonized in an area of about a hectare.It is form this marshyarea that a small water course starts and proceeds to form a canalthat crosses the forest road and runs further eastwards to joinIlli-thodu.The other aquatic formation found in the study area is belowthe evergreen patch on the hillside and during summer it transformsinto a carpetted grassland extending to about 3-4 hectares. Here andthere, within this open grassland, bushes of Xeromphis uliginosa,Ixora arborea, etc. are seen. Boarding this open area are also seenan array of tree species and lianas like Albizia odoratissima, Chio-nanthus mala-elengi,Elaeocarpus munronii, Dalbergia latifolia, Ptero-carpus marsupium, Terminalia paniculata, Dalbergia horrida, Calyco-pteris floribunda, etc. During rainy season the grass carpetted areaget a thin layer of water, which drains quickly through one end ofit11

as a canal.During this season, truly aquatic species like Eriocaulonquinquangulare, Impatiens chinensis, Utricularia graminifolia, etc.are seen in plenty. As such, this qreen-carpetted area and the forestsurrounding it makes this spot very picturesque and attractive.Bordering the moist deciduous forest in the Kannimanqalam sec-tion are teak plantations. Naturally, all over in the forest typehere, a sprinqling of Tectona grandis trees is seen.1.3.2.3. Dry deciduous forestsThe forest type is distributed mostly along hilltops, rockyareas and disturbed outskirts of Malayattoor reserved forests. It isseen in the eastern and western part of the mountain chain withpatcheshere and there, depending upon moisture and site conditions.Trees like Xylia xylocarpa, Grewia tiliaefolia, Terminalia paniculata,Pterocarpus marsupium, Lagerstroemia microcarpa, Dalbergia lanceolaria,Dillenia pentagyna, Trema orientalis, etc. are seen in theforest type either in groups or as scattered trees between the rockyoutcrops. The forest type also contains scattered, stunted trees ofTectona grandis. Climbers like Ziziphus oenoplia, Asparagus racemosus,Dalbergi a horrida, D. volubi 1 is, Calycopteris floribunda,Wagatea spicata, Breynia rhamnoides, Bridelia scandens, Securinegaleucopyrus, etc. are seen on such trees. Ground flora in the foresttype is rather poor and the plants like Leea indica, Abrusprecatorius, Luffa acutangula, Hemidesmus indicus, Naregamia alata,etc. that come up during monsoon are mostly removed as qreen manureand fodder.12

1 .3.2.4. ScrubsScrub forests of Malayattoor are seen mostly around cashew plan-tations, especially in the Karakad section. Here also, removal ofplants for fodder, green manure, firewood, etc. is quiteprevalent,rendering the vegetation highly degraded and sparse. Bushy shrubs likeMemecylon edule, Osbeckia aspera, Osbeckia zeylanica, Cipadessa bacci-fera, Canthium angustifolium, Glycosmis mauritiana, Helicterisisora,Ixora coccinea, etc. may be seen with climbers like Asparagus race-mosus and Cissampelos pareira in this zone. In the shurbby areas,excessive leaching is a common phenomenon, exposing the lateritecap,on which the shrubby species struggle to survive as clumps and harnesshumus and water for their survival.1.4. REMARKS ON THE FOREST TYPES OF MALAYATTOORAs mentioned earlier, in general, natural forests of Malayattoorare in a much degraded state. This is the outcome of an array offactors, of which human interferences can be ranked as the primedis-turbing factor that affect the natural flora of this region.Removalof lorry loads of green manure has highly affected the regeneration ofseveral tree species like Xylia xylocarpa, Grewia tiliaefolia, Dal-bergia latifolia, etc. and there are areas within the forest whereonly huge t rees of the said species are seen without any seedlingsorsaplings.Groundflora is also completely removed from certain partsof the forests, where accessibility and transportation facilitiesarebetter. Excessive leaching mainly due to the removal of groundflora,forest fire, colonization of weeds l ike Mikania micrantha, Eupatorium13

adenophorum and Lantana camera var. aculeata, removal of firewood,windfall due to the creation of open areas here and there in theforests, etc. are all factors that had contributed substantially tothe degradation of the natural forests of Malayattoor. Still, thereexists small patches of evergreen, semi-evergreen, moist deciduous anddry deciduous forests which must be preserved in toto to serve asdemonstration areas, when the Nature Study Centre w i l l be established.Same is the case with the aquatic formations of the area which arereally curious to any nature lover.Two extensive pure patches, one of Pterocarpus marsupium and theother of Terminalia paniculata are seen in the Kannimangalamsection.Possibly planted earlier, they are growing very well and serve as anindicator of the performance of native species in almost pure patches,similar to monoculture forest plantations.14

ANGIOSPERM FLORA ANDSPECIALISED ECOLOGICAL NICHEOF MALAYATTOORK.K.N. Nair and M .S Mukteshkumar

2. ANGIOSPERM FLORA AND SPECIALIZED ECOLOGICAL NICHEOF MALAATTOORK.K.N. Nair and M.S.MukteshkumarBotany DivisionKerala Forest Research InstitutePeechi, Kerala, IndiaContentsAbstract2.1. Introduction2.2. Methodology2.3. Review of literature2.4. Flora2.4.1. Dicotyledons2.4.2. Monocotyledons2.5. Synopsis of the flora2.6. Flora of specialised ecological niche2.6.1. Evergreen patch2.6.2. Pure patches2.6.3. Aquatic formations2.7. Conclusions2.8. Rcknowledgements2.9. Literature cited2.10. Appendix I (Index to medicinal plants)2.11. Species index15

Floristic surveys were conducted to cover four forest sectionsof Kalady Range in Malayattoor Division, viz. Kurishumudi, Karakad,Kannimangalam and Evergreen. From the natural flora and forest plantationsof the region, altogether 215 taxa of flowering plants (angiosperms)were recorded during the survey. They belong to 183 genera and74 families, which are enumerated in the report with up to date names,citations to Hooker's Flora of British India (1872-97) and Gamble'sFlora of the Presidency of Madras (1915-36). Brief notes are alsoprovided for each of them with regard to their diagnostic features,medicinal and other economic importance and availability and distributionwithin the area. Three specialised ecological niche, viz. anevergreen patch, two pure patches of Pterocarpus marsupium andTermi-nalia paniculata and an aquatic formation with Lagenandra ovata andspecies of Utricularia, Eriocaulon and Impatiens dominating, were alsoanalysed for their floristic make-up and details presented in thereport.2.1. INTRODUCTIONThe botanical component of the study envisages to generate in-formation on the following aspects pertaining to the natural floraofthe region. The study was restricted to four forest sections of KaladyForest Ranqe namely Karakad, Kurishumudi, Kannimangalam andEvergreensec t ions.16

1. Preparation of a checklist of the flora of the region11. Analysis of the floristic composition of differentecological associations of specialized ecological niche,if any, in the study area.111. Establishment of a herbarium of demonstrative value,to elucidate the identity, availability anddistributionof various components of the forest flora of the region.2.2. METHODOLOGYDuring the one year operational duration of the project, monthlyfield surveys were conducted to collect, as many herbarium samples aspossible, offlowering or fruiting materials of flowering plants(angiosperms) growing naturally or planted in the study area.ssary field notes were also recorded during such field surveys.Nece-Itis very well known that, within the short duration of the project, allthe plant species could not be collected in the flowering or fruitingstate to make them into herbarium specimens. Therefore, the occu-rrence of several species, mostly very common, were recorded byfieldobservations.They are also incorporated into the floristic enumera-tion that is presented in this report, with whatever notes that couldbe gathered at the time of field observations. While progressing thefloristic surveys, notes were also taken on the specialized ecologicalformations that are found in the region. This information formed thebasis of that part of the report which follow.17

The specimens collected were processed and made intoherbariumspecimens following standard methods. Their identifications were con-firmed by consulting the Herbarium of Botanical Survey ofIndia,Coimbatore.Two specimens for each species were collected from thestudy area and lebelled with up-to-date botanical name, local name,distribution details, habit and other notes. They are kept ready forestablishing the demonstration herbarium as and when necessaryinfra-structure facilities are developed as part of the Nature Study Centre.2.3. REVIEW OF LITERATUREApart from the inclusion of some species found in Malayattoor innational, regional or State floras like those of Hooker (1872-97),Bourdillon (1908), Rama Rao (1914), Gamble (1915-36), etc. there is nopublished literature specific to the flora of Malayattoor forests.Ofcourse, Nair (1989), while generating benchmark data on the proposedPooyamkutty hydro-electric project area had intensively surveyed certainforest areas coming under Malayattoor Forest Division, which doesnot include this part of the Forest Division.In the recent Working Plan for Malayattoor Forest Division1974-75 to 1984-85, Kurian Akkara(l980) had endevoured to listabout 191 plant species as occurring in the Forest Division withtails like botanical names, family names, local names, habitatforoutdeandtrade names. As there is no mention about their exact locality ofoccurrence and distribution within the Division with four widely sepa-ratedforest ranges, there is no indication available from this list18

as to what are the species occurring in the study area, whichformonly a part of the Kalady Range. Viswanathan's (1956) Working Planfor the Muvattupuzha part of the Malayattoor Forest Division also,obviously, does not include this area and hence the list containedinthis Working Plan is also not indicative of the plant wealth of thispart of Malayattoor forests.2.5. FLORAFloristic surveys conducted for about an year could collect orrecorda total of 215 species of flowering (angiosperms) plants fromthe four forest sections of Malayattoor, viz.Kurishumudi, Karakad,Kannimangalam and Evergreen. For species marked with astrix, speci-mens are available in the demonstration herbarium andthe remainingtaxa are field records.In the floristic enumeration that follows, different familiesare arranged according to the system of Bentham and Hooker (1862-83).They are givenfollowing the sequence and concept of families asgiven in Gamble's Flora of the Presrdency of Madras (1915-35), exceptfor Leguminosae where the subfamilies Papilionaceae, Caesalpiniaceaeand Mimosaceae are treated as separate families. This is to facilitateeasy reference by students, nature lovers and tourists who visitthe study area, as Gamble's Flora will be more familiar to them ascompared to other old or recent floras covering region. While enumeratingdifferent taxa, effort has been made, as far as possible, to19

give the latest name of the species with full citation and also syno-nyms, if any, by which the species are known in Hooker's, (1872-97)Flora of British India (FBI) and Gamble's (1915-35) Flora of the Pre-sidency of Madras (FPM), with citationsgiven to them as abbreviated.This again is to facilitate those who consult the floristic list togather more information on each taxa, as such details can not find aplace in a checklist like this. Brief notes are also added on thegeneral habit, distribution and medicinal or other economic importanceof various taxa in the four forest sections of Malayattoor forests,both for which herbarium specimens could be collected during the studyperiod and also which are field recorded species.In the enumeration part, within each family, genera are arrangedalphabetically. Whenever more than one species is present within agenus, they are also enumerated in an alphabetical sequence. Localnames, wherever available, are also provided for each plant.20

2.5.1. DICOTYLEDONSRANUNCULACEAENaravelia Adans.*Naravelia zeylanica (L.) A. DC. Syst. 1:167. 1817; FBI 1:7. 1872; FPM1:3. 1915.Tendril climbing shrubs with light yellow flowers and tailed seeds.Rare, along hedges above Pottah area on the way to Evergreen section.DILLENIACEAEDillenia L.Dillenia pentagyna Roxb. Pl. Corom. 1:21. t.20. 1795; FBI 1:38. 1872:FPM 1:6. 1915.Large trees with leathery leaves. Fairly common in the open, degradedand fire affected areas of Kurishumudi section and lower elevationsof Evergreen section.ANNONACEAEArtabotrys R.Br.Artabotrys zeylanicus Hook. f. F1. Brit. India 1:54. 1872; FPM 1:14.1915.Straggling shrubs with oblong lanceate leaves and brown flowers infascicles. Rare, in Pottah area on the way to the Evergreen section.Polyal thia Bl.+Polyalthia longifolia (Sonner.) Thw. Enum. P1. Zeyl. 398. 1864; FBI1:62. 1872; FPM 1:16. 1915.Shrubs with greenish white flowers. Rare, as an undergrowth in theEvergreen section.*Polyalthia rufescens Hook. f. et Thoms. F1. Brit. India 1:66. 1872;FPM 1:16. 1915.Woody shrubs with black stem and pale white flowers. Rare, in theEvergreen section as an undergrowth in the dense, shady forests.21

MENISPERMACEAEAnamirtaColebr.*Anamirta cocculus Wt. et Arn. 446. 1834; FBI 1:98. 1871: FPM 1:27.1915.Large climbing shrubs with broadly ovate, cordate leaves and greenishflowers in long panicles. Common in Kurishumudi section. A medicinalplant.Cissampelos L.Cissampelos pareira L. Sp. Pl. 1031. 1753; FBI 1:103. 1872; FPM 1:30.1915.Twining undershrubs with pale white flowers and rounded leaves.Fairly common along hedges and on bushes in Kannimangalam, Karakad andKurishumudi sections. A medicinal plant.Cyclea Arn. ex Wt.Cyclea peltata (Lamk.) Hook.f. et Thoms. Fl. Ind. 1:201. 1855; FPM1:31. 1915. -- C. burmanii (DC.) Hook. f. et Thoms. Fl. Ind. 1:201.1855; FBI 1:104. 1872.Twining undershrubs with peltate leaves which are almost triangular inshape. Fairly common along the hedges, especially in Kannimangalarnand Kurishumudi sections. A plant having medicinal properties.PAPRVERACEAEArgemone L.*Argemone mexicana L. Sp. Pl. 508. 1753; FBI 1:117. 1872; FPM 1:35.1915.Along the sides of the forest path that leads to the top ofKurishumudi peak. A cosmopolitan weed common in the area. A medicinalherb.CAPPARIDACEAECleome L.*Cleome monophylla L. Sp. Pl. 672. 1753; FBI 1:170. 1872; FPM 1:41.1915.Erect pubescent herbs with simple leaves and violet flowers. Rather22

common on the top of the hill near Evergreen patch, in the soilmulated in rock depressions during monsoon.accu-*Cleome viscosa L. Sp. P1. 762. 1753; FBI 1:170. 1872: FPM 1:41. 1915.Erect herbs with 3-5 foliate leaves and yellow flowers. Rather,common during monsoon in soil deposited in the depressions of rocksnear the evergreen patch. A medicinal herb.BIXACEAEFlacourtia Comm. ex L'. H'erit.+Flacourtia indica (Burm. f.) Merr. Interpr. Herb. Amb. 277. 1917. --F. ramontchi L'. H'erit. Strip. NO v. 3:59. t. 30. 1785; FBI 1:193.1872 (excl. var. latifolia and var. occidentalis); FPM 1:54. 1915.Much branched thorny shrubs with green subglobose capsules. Rare, asbushes in the middle and along the sides of the grassy plain inKannimangalam section.Hydnocarpus Gaertn.Hydnocarpus pentandrus (Ham.) Oken, Allg. Natur. 3(2):1381. 1841. --H. wightiana B1. Rumph. 4:22. 1848; FBI 1:196. 1872; FPM 1:52. 1915.Marotti.Trees with buttressed roots and globose fruits. Occasional, along thesides of seasonal water courses in Kannimangalam and Kurishumudi sections.A plant having medicinal properties.PDLYGALACEAEXanthophyllumRoxb.*Xanthophyllum flavescens Roxb. P1. Corom. 3:82. t. 284. 1820; FBI1:209. 1872; FPM 1:60.1915.Large shrubs or small trees with dark green foliage, yellowish whiteflowers and green fruits. Fairly common as undergrowth in theevergreen patch.DIPTEROCARPACEAEVateria L.Vateria indica L. Sp. P1. 515. 1753; FBI 1:313. 1874; FPM 1:61.1915.Tall trees with clean bole and pale white flowers in terminal, hoary23

pubescent panicles. Rare but dominant trees in the Evergreen section.Yields white dammer having medicinal nroperties.ANCISTROCLADACEAEAncistrocladus Wall.Ancistrocladus heyneanus Wall. ex Grah. Cat. Pl. Bombay and Vicin. 28.1839; FBI 1:299. 1874; FPM 1:86.1915.Lianas or shrubs with long spathulate leaves and twining terminalbranches. Fairly common as undergrowth in the evergreen forest patchand rarely seen in Kannimangalam section, in thickly shaded areas.MALVACEAEAbutilon M ill.Abutilon indicum (L.) Sw. Hort. Brit. ed. 1:54. 1826-27: FBI 1:326.1875; FPM 1:91. 1915.Uran, Katturan.Undershurbs with stellate hairy branches and yellow flowers. A weed,common in all the four sections of Malayattoor forests. A medicinalplant.*Abutilon persicum (Burm. f.) Merr. Philip. J. Sci. 19:364. 1921. --A. polyandrum (Roxb.) Wt. et Arn. Prodr. 55. 1834; FBI 1:325. 1875;FPM 1:91. 1915.Herbs with yellow flowers. Fairly common in the disturbed, open areasabove Pottah on the way to Evergreen section, as a weed.Bombax L.*Bombax insigne Wall. PI. Asiat. Rar. 1:71. t. 79,80. 1830.; FBI1:349. 1874; FPM 1:lOO. 1915.Trees with unarmed trunk and obovate, cuspidate leaflets. Common inKurishumudi section.Hibiscus L.+Hibiscus platanifolius (Willd.) Sw. Hort. Brit. ed. 1:51. 1826-27;FPM 1:98. 1915. -- H. collinus Roxb. Fl. Ind. 3:198. 1832; FBI1:338. 1874.Undershrubs with green, pointed fruits.in the disturbed forest areas.Rare undergrowth above Pottah24

*Hibiscus surattensis L. Sp. P1. 696. 1753; FBI 1:334. 1874; FPM 1:97.A prickly trailing herb with many branchlets. Stem red in colour andwith yellow flowers. Fairly common in the outskirts and disturbedareas of Kurishumudi section.Sida L .Sida cordifolia L. Sp. PI. 684. 1753; FBI 1:324. 1874; FPM 1:89. 1915.Kurum-thotti.Much branchea herbs or undershurbs witn woody base and yellow flowers.Common in the forest openings at lower altitudes of all the four sectionsof Malayattoor forests. A medicinal plant.Thespesia Soland. ex Corr.*Thespesia lampas (Cav.) Dalz. ex Dalz. & Gibs. Bombay F1. 19. 1861;FBI 1:345. 1874. -- Hibiscus lampas Cav. Diss. 3:154. t.. 56. f.2. 1787; FPM 1:98. 1915.Small trees with densely stellate hairy young parts, cordate palmately3 lobed leaves and large yellow flowers. Frequent in Kurishumudisection. Fruits and roots medicinal.STERCULIACEAEHelicteris L.*Helicteris isora L. Sp. P1. 963. 1753; FBI 1:365. 1874; FPM 1:107.1915.Edamp irii-Val amp i r 1.Shrubs with brick red flowers and characteristically twisted fruits.Fairly common in Kurishumudi section and lower part of Evergreen section.A medicinal plant.Melochia L.Melochia corchorifolia L. Sp. Pl. 675. 1753; FBI 1:374. 1874; FPM1:llO. 1915.Herbs with reddish brabches and terminal, yellow flowers. Common inthe plains of Kurishumudi and Karakkad sections.Sterculia L.*Sterculia populnifolia Roxb. Fl. Ind. 3:148. 1832; FBI 1:361. 1874;FPM 1:106. 1915.25

MALPIGHIACEAEHip tage Gaertn.Hiptage benghalensis (L.) Kurz, J. Asiat. Soc. Bengal, Pt. 2. Nat.Hist. 43:136. 1874. -- Hiptage madablota Gaertn. Fruct. Sem. P1.2:169. t. 116. f. 4. 1790; FBI 1:418. 1874; FPM 1:128. 1915.Large climbing shrubs, with simple, opposite, oblong, acuminate leavesand yellow flowers in terminal and axillary panicles. Rare, inKurishumudi section. Leaves medicinal.GERANIACEAEBiophytum DC.*Biophytum sensitivum (L.) DC. Prodr. 1:690.FPM 1:133. 1915.1824; FBI 1:436. 1872;Mukkutti.Herbs with rosetted leaves, short stem and yellow flowers produced onslender, erect stalks. Common in open areas of all the four forestsections of Malayattoor, mostly at lower elevations. A herb withmedicinal properties.Impatiens L.*Impatiens chinensis L. Sp. P1. 937. 1753; FBI 1:444. 1874; FPM 1:139.1915.Small succulent herbs with simple, opposite, linear-oblong leaves andpink flowers. Common, in Kannimangalam section in the grassland areaduring monsoon. A medicinal plant.RUTACEAEGlycosmis Correa*Glycosmis mauritiana (Lamk.) Tanaka, Bot. Not. 1928: 159. 1928. -- G.pentaphylla sensu Narayanaswami, Rec. bot. Surv. India 14(2):12. 1941;FPM 1:153. 1915.Kattu-panal, Malam-panal.Rromatic shrubs with fleshy berries. Common in the outskirts and openareas of the forest, especially in Kannimangalam section. A medicinalshrub.27

Naringi Rdans.*Naringi crenulata (Roxb.) Nirolson, F1. Hassan D t. 387. 1976. ---Limonia acidissima auct. multi.; FBI 1:507. 1875. FPM 1:157. 1915.Branched herbs with bright green leaves and white, prominentflowers.Common on laterite cuttings around Pottah, at lower elevations ofMalayattoor forests. A medicinal plant.MELIACEAEAglaiaLour.*Aglaia elaegnoidea (Juss.) Benth. F1. Austrl. 1:383. 1863. -- A.roxburghiana Miq. Ann. Bot. MU~. Luqd. Batav. 4:41. 1868; FBI 1:555.1875; FPM 1:180. 1915.Trees with dense foliage and brownish flowers. Rather rare inKannimangalam section. Fruits medicinal.Cipadessa B1.*Cipadessa baccifera (Roth) Miq. Ann. Bot. Mus. Lugd. Batav. 4:6.1969-70; FPM 1:176. 1915. -- C. fruiticosa B1. Brijdr. 162. 1825; FBI1:545. 1875.Shrubs with pubescent branchlets, qreenhish-yellow flowers and scarletfruits. Kannimanqalam and Karakad sections in the outskirits offorests and along hedges; rather common.Naregamia Wt. et Arn.Naregamia alata Wt. et Arn. Prodr. 117. 1834; FBI 1:542. 1875; FPM1:174. 1915.Undershrubs with 3 foliate, petiolate, winged leaves; leafletssessile, cuneate or obovate. Common in the Kurishumudi section. Aplant having medicinal properties.DICHAPETALACEAEDichapetalum Du Petit - Thou.*Dichapetalum gelonioides (Roxb.) Engl. Pflam. 3(4): 348. 1891; FPM1:188. 1915. -- Chailletia gelonioides Bedd. For. Nan. Bot. 59. t.9/1. 1871; FBI 1:570. 1875.Undershrubs with elliptic or elliptic-lanceate leaves and pale white28

flowers clustered in the axils. A rare species forming part of theground flora in Evergreen section.ICACINACEAENothapodytes Bl.+Nothapodytes nimmuniana (Grah.) Mabb. Bot. Hist. Hort. Malab. 88.1980. -- Mappia foetida Miers, Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. 2,9:395. 1852; FBI1:1875; FPM 1:141. 1915.Shrubs with slender, woody branches and white flowers.shaded forest floor of Kannimangalam section.Rai?, in theRHAMNACEAEZiziphus Mill.*Ziziphus oenoplia (L.) Mill. Gard. Dict. ed. 8: 3. 1768; FBI 1:634.1875; FPM 1:220. 1915.Thudali-mullu, Kotta-valli.Armed lianas with globose fruits, black when ripe. A common undergrowthin forest plantations and open areas of Kannimangalam section.A medicinal plant.*Ziziphus rugosa Lamk. Encyl. Meth. Bot. 3:319. 1789; FBI l:636. 1875;FPM 1:221. 1915.ThodaliStraggling, thorny shrubs with cream-coloured fruits. Rare in theEvergreen section, especially along the sides of the small canal originatingfrom there. Flowers are medicinal.V I TACEAELeea D. Royen ex L.*Leea asiatica (L.) Ridsd. in Bot. & Hist. Hort. Malab. 189. 1980. --L. aspera Edgew. Trans. Linn. Soc. London 20:36. 1846; FBI 1:665.1875; FPM 1:240. 1918.Large shrubs with greenish white flowers.tion.Rare, in Kurishumudi sec-*Leea indica (Burm. f.) Merr. Philp. J. Sci. Bot. 14:245. 1919. --L.sambucina Willd. Sp. P1. 1:1177. 1797; FBI 1:666. 1875 (pro parte);FPM 1:240. 1918.Mani-parant a29

Straggling or erect shrubs with stem often striated when old. Ratherrare in Evergreen, kurishumudi and Kannimangalam sections, in forestopenings. A medicinal plant.SAPINDACEAECardiospermum L.Cardiospermum1:244. 1918.helicacrbum L. Sp. P1. 366. 1753; FBI 1:670. 1875; FPMDelicate, straggling or climbing herbs with tendrils and membraneous,inflated fruits. A weed in the open areas and waste places of Karakadand Kurishumudi sections. A medicinal plant.Sapindus L.*Sapindus laurifolius Vahl, Symb. Bot. 3:54. 1794; FPM 1:250. 1918. --S. trifoliata auct. non L.; FBI 1:6B2. 1873 (pro parte).Stunted trees with creamy white flowers and leathery leaves. Rare,near the evergreen patch on top of the hill. A medicinal plant.ANACARDIACEAEAnacardium L.Anacardium occidentale L. Sp. P1. 383. 1753; FBI 2:20. 1876; FPM1:260. 1918.Kasu-mavu, Paranki-mavu.Spreading trees with rough, resinous bark and colourful, fleshyfruits producing the cashewnut of commerce. Often raised as plantations,especially in Karakad and Kannimangalam sections, rarely runningwild. An exotic from North America.Mangifera L.Mangifera indica L. Sp. P1. 200. 1753; FBI 2:13. 1876; FPM 1:259.1918.Trees, common in the outskirts and homesteads, often in cultivation,rarely running wild in Kannimangalam section. A medicinal plant.Nothopegia El.*Nothopegia travancorica Bedd. ex Hook. f. Fl. Brit. India 2:40.1876; FPM 1:265. 1918.30

Woody shrubs with black stem and white flowers. Very rare, formingpart of the undergrowth in the evergreen patch of Evergreen section.PAPILIONACEAEAbrus L .*Abrus precatorius L. Syst. Nat. (ed. 12) 2:472. 1767; FBI 2:175.1876; FPM 1:349. 1919.Rather conspicuous, wiry climbers with pink flowers and usually scarletseeds. Common in Kurishumudi section. A medicinal plant.Butea Roxb. ex Willd.Butea parviflora Roxb. Fl. Ind. 3:248. 1832. -- Spathalobus roxburghiiBenth. Pl. Jungh. 238. 1851-52; FBI 2:193.1876; FPM 1:358. 1919.Huge lianas with twisted stem and compound leaves, often hanging fromthe top of trees. Very rare, in the periphery of the evergreen patchon top of the hill. A plant with medicinal properties.Crotalaria L.Crotalaria juncea L. Sp. P1. 714. 1753; FBI 2:79. 1876; FPM 1:297.1919.Erect herbs with yellow flowers. Rather common in open areas, especiallyin the outskirts and plains of Karakad and Kurishumudi sections.*Crotalaria walkeri Arn. Nov. Acto. Acad. Caes. Leop. - Nat. Cur.18(1):328. 1840; FPM 1:294. 1919. -- C. semperflorens Vent. var.walkeri (Arn.) Baker in FBI 2:78. 1876.Herbs with white flowers.in the openings.Rare in the disturbed forests above Pottah,Dalbergia L. f .Dalbergia horrida (Dennst.) Mabb. Taxon 25:538. 1977. -- D.sympathetica Nimmo ex Grah. Cat. Pl. Bombay & Vicin. 55. 1839; FBI2:234. 1876; FPM 1:381. 1918.Ana-mul lu.Scandent, woody plants with strong thorns, climbing on trees. Rare, inKannimanqalam section, on trees bordering the open grassy area there.Dalbergia lanceolaria L.f. Suppl. Pl. 316. 1781; FBI 2:235, 1876; FPM1:270. 1918.Velleti, Mala-muringa.31

Much branched trees with rough, flaking bark and almost bifariousbranchlets producing pinkish blue flowers. Rare, in Kannimanqalam,Karakad and Kurishumudi sections. Bark and seeds medicinal.Dalbergia lotifolia Roxb. Pl. Corom. t. 113. 1799 & Fl. Ind.3:221.1832; FBI 2:231. 1876; FPM 1:383. 1918.Trees with flaking bark, imparipinnate leaves and creamy whiteflowers. Rather rare, in Kurishumudi, Kannimanqalam and lower partsof Evergreen section. A medicinal plant.Dalbergia volubilis Roxb. Pl. Corom. t. 191. 1805; FBI 2:235. 1876;FPM 1:279. 1918.Cheru-mu lu.Erect shrubs or lianas with ridged old stem and white, bluish or pinkishtinged flowers. Very rare, in Kurishumudi, Kannimangalam andKarakad sections. Roots and leaves of this plant are medicinal.Desmodium Desv.*Desmodium gangeticum (L.) DC. Prodr. 2:237. 1825; FBI 2:168. 1876.incl. var. maculatum Gamble; FPM 1:345. 1918.Undershrubs with green fruits. Rare, as undergrowth in the disturbedforest areas above Pottah towards the top of the hill. A medicinalplant.*Desmodium motorium (Houtt.) Merr. J. Arn. Arb. 19:345. 1938. -- D.gyrans (L.f.) DC. Prodr. 2:326. 1825; FBI 2:174. 1876; FPM 1:348.1918.Erect undershrubs with glabrous stem and branches, leaves trifoliate,ovate, oblong and flowers pink in axillary racemes. Common inKurishumudi section.*Desmodium triquetrum (L.) DC. Prodr. 2:326. 1825; FBI 2:163. 1876;FPM 1:345. 1918.Erect herbs with purple flowers and green fruits. Common on the wayup to Evergreen section, in disturbed open areas. Extract of leavesmedicinal.*Desmodium velutinum (Willd.) DC. Prodr. 2:328. 1825. -- D. latifoliumDC. Prodr. 2:328. 1825; FBI 2:328. 1876. (pro syn.); FPM 1:346. 1918.Undershrubs with pinkish red flowers. Rare, in the open areas of thehill top, near the evergreen patch. Roots medicinal.Erythrina L.Erythrina indica Lamk. Encyl. Meth. Bot. 2:391. 1785; FBI 2:188. 1876;FPM 1:249. 1918.32

Deciduous, armed trees with very prominent red flowers in terminalinf lorescence. Rare, in the outsk irts and along hedges of Kurishumudisect ion.Pongami a Vent .Pangamia pinnata (L.) Pierre, F1. Cochinch. sub. t. 385. 1899. -- P.glabra Vent. Jard. Malm. 28. 1803; FBI 2:240. 1876; FPM 1:385. 1918.Trees with spreading branches and pinkish white flowers in pendulous,terminal panicles. Rare, in the outskirts of the forests ofKurishumudi section. A medicinal plant.Pterocarpus Jacq.Pterocarpus marsupium Roxb. P1. Corom. 5:2,9, t. 116. 1798; FBI 2:239.1876; FPM 1:385. 1918.Venga, Chora-venga.Trees with fissured bark and yellow flowers in showy terminal inflorescence.Scattered in the forests of Kurishumudi and Evergreen sections,with a pure patch of the species in Kannimangalam section. Gumand leaves of this tree are medicinal.Rhynchosia Lour.*Rhynchosia rathii Benth. ex Aitch. Cat. P1. Punjab & Sindh 50. 1869.-- Rhynchosia sericea Span. Linnaea 15:195. 1841, non Hook. et Arn.1834; FBI 2:225. 1876; FPM 1:375. 1918.Climbing shrubs with trifoliate leaves, purple flowers in long axillary,dense racemes and flat, densely villous pods. Rare, inKurishumudi section.Tephrosia Pers.*Tephrosia purpurea (L.) Pers. Syn. 2:329. 1807; FBI 2:112. 1876; FPM1:320. 1918.Herbs or undershurbs in the outskirts of the forest, especiallyKarakad and Kannimangalam sections. A weed.inCAESALPINIACEAEBauhinia L.*Bauhinia malabarica Roxb. F1. Ind. 2:321. 1832; FBI 2:277. 1878; FPM1:407. 1919.33

Trees with white flowers. Rather rare in the dry deciduous forests,along the sides of Kurishumudi peak.Caesalpinia L.*Caesalpina mimosoides Lamk. Encycl. Meth. Bot. 1:452. 1785; FBI1:256. 1878; FPM 1:394. 1919.Very prickly climbing shrubs with many short pinnae, each with 10-20pairs of small leaflets and bright yellow flowers in axillary or terminalracemes. Common in Kurishumudi section.Cassia L.Cassia fistula L. Sp. Pl. 377. 1753; FBI 2:261. 1878; FPM 1:400.1919.Kani-konna, Konna.Deciduous trees with bright yellow drooping inflorescence, oftenplanted and also running wild in the lower parts of all the four sectionsof Malayattoor forests. A medicinal tree.*Cassia siamea Lamk. Encyl. Meth. Bot. 1:648. 1785; FBI 2:264. 1878;FPM 1:402. 1919.Trees with dense crown and yellow flowers in showy clusters. Oftenplanted along both the sides of the path that leads to Kurishumuditop.Delonix Raf.Delonix regia (Bojer ex Hook.) Raf. Fl. Tell. 2:92. 1836. -- Poincianaregia Bojer ex Hook. Bot. Nag. t. 2884. 1829; FBI 2:260. 1878; FPM1:396. 1919.Gul-mohr.Trees with brick-red, very attractive flowers. An avenue tree,planted along the sides of the path that leads to Kurishumudi top.Saraca L.Saraca asoca (Roxb.) de Wilde, Blumea 15:393. 1968. -- S. indica auct.non L. 1769; FBI 2:271. 1878; FPM 1:408. 1919.Graceful trees with dense foliage and red flowers produced on terminalbranches. Very rare, along the sides of the hill stream that originatesfrom the Evergreen section. A highly medicinal tree.34

Wagatea Dalz.*Wagatea spicata Dalz. Hook. J. Bot. Kew. 3:90. 1851; FBI 2:261. 1874;FPM 1:397. 1919.A prickly, shrubaceous straggler or climber with brown stem and scarletcalyx and orange petals for the flowers. Common in the moistdeciduous forests of Kannimangalam section.MIMOSACEAEAcacia Mill.*Acacia auriculiformis A. Cunn. ex Benth. in London J. Bot. 1:377.1842.Trees, planted in the outskirts and along the sides of the path thatleads to the top of Kurishumudi. Flowers yellow.Acacia torta (Roxb.) Craib, Kew bull. 1915: 410. 1915; FPM 1:428.1919. -- A. intsia Willd. var. caesia (Wt. et Arn.) Baker in Hook. f.FBI 2:297. 1878.Straggling lianas with pale white flowers in globose inflorescence.Common, in the open areas of Kannimangalam, Evergreen and Kurishumudisect ions.Albizia Durazz.Albizia chinensis (Osbeck. f.) Merr. Am. J. Bot. 3:575. 1916. -- A.stipulata Boiv. Encyl. 19, 2:33. 1838; FBI 2:300. 1878; FPM 1:433.1919.Deciduous trees with pinkish flowers in terminal inflorescence. Rare,in Kannimangalam section and also below Evergreen section, in thePottah area. A medicinal tree.Albizia lebbeck (L.) Benth. in Hook. London J. Bot. 3: 87. 1844; FBI2: 298. 1878; FPM 1:432. 1919.Vaka.Deciduous trees with bipinnate leaves and white flowers in terminal,umbellate heads. Rather rare, in all the four sections of Malayattoorforests. A medicinal plant.*Albizia odoratissima (L.f.) Benth. in Hook. London J. Bot. 3:88.1844; FBI 2:229. 1878; FPM 1:431. 1919.Kunni-vaka, Puli-vaka.Huge trees with dark, rough bark and white, fragrant flowers in terminalinflorescence. Fairly common in Kannimangalam and in Pottah areaon the way to Evergreen section.35

Mimosa L.Mimosa pudica L. Sp. Pl. 518. 1753; FBI 2:29l. 1878; FPM 1:421. 1919.Thotta-vadi.Armed, prostrate herbs with rose-coloured flowers. Common in thewaste, open areas of the foothills. A weed. The whole plant is medicinal.Xylia Benth.*Xylia xylocarpa (Roxb.) Theob. in Mason Burma ed. Theob. 2:541. 1883;FPII 1:417. 1919. - X. dolabriformis Benth. in Hook. J. Bot. 4:417.1844 (nom. illeg.); FBI 2:286. 1878.Irul, Iru-pool.Rather rare, deciduous trees with rough bark and creamy white flowers,in the drier areas of all the four forest sections of Malayattoor. Amedicinal plant.COMBRETACEAECalycopteris Lamk.Calycopteris floribunda (Roxb.) Lamk. Encyl. Meth. Bot. 2:41. 1811;FBI 2:449. 1878; FPM 2:467. 1919.Pullani-valli.Scandent shrubs with peeling bark, rather common in Kannimangalamsection, especially adjacent to the teak plantations. A medicinalplant.Terminal i a L .*Terminalia crenulata Roth, Nov. P1. Sp. 380. 1821. -- T. tomentosavar. typica C. B. Clark in FBI 1:447. 1878; FPM 1:465. 1919.A large tree with nearly glabrous, rather thin leaves and glabrousfruits. Rather rare, in the drier areas of Kurishumdui section. Barkmedicinal.*Terminalia paniculata Roth, Nov. P1. Sp. 383. 1821; FBI 2:448. 1878;FPM 1:465. ,1919.Maruthu.Trees with rough, black bark and terminal reddish, showy inflorescence.Fairly common in all the four sections of Malayattoorforests. Flowers medicinal.36

LECYTHIDACEAECareya Roxb.Careya arborea Roxb. P1. Corom. 3:14. t. 218. 1819; FBI 2:511. 1879;FPM 1:488. 1919.Pezhu.Deciduous trees with fibrous bark and leaves aggregated towards theapex of branchlets. Rare, in the outskirts of the forest in Karakadand Evergreen sections. Bark medicinal.MELASTOMATACEAEHemecylon L.Memecylon umbellatum Burm. f. F1. Ind. 87. 1768; FPM 1:504. 1919. --M.edule Roxb. P1. Corom. 1:82. 1798; FBI 2:563. 1879 (excl. var.).Kana1 i.Woody shrubs with deep blue flowers crowded in the axils of leaves andyellow fruits borne in the axils. Rather rare in the open, dry areasof Kurishumudi and Karakad sections. A medicinal plant.Osbeckia L.Osbeckia aspera (L.) El. Flora 474. 1831; FBI 2:519. 1879; FPM 1:492.1919.Shrubs with short branches and terminal, deep rose-coloured flowers.Common in laterite cuttings of Karakad section.Osbeckia zeylanica L.f. Suppl. 215. 1781; FBI 2:516. 1879; FPM 1:494.1919.Kal am-pat t a.Erect herbs with hairy branches, purple flowers and truncate capsules.Rather common in the outskirts of Karakad section in drier areas.LYTHRACEAELagerstroemia L.Lagerstroemia microcarpa Wt. lc. P1. Indiae Orient. t. 109. 1839. --L. lanceolata Wall. ex Clarke, FBI 2:576. 1879; FPM 1:513. 1919.Venthekku, Vellilavu.Tall deciduous trees with smooth, pale-white bark peeling off regularly,and flowers tinged rose, produced terminally. Rare, on the waysides to Kurishumudi top and lower part of Evergreen section, atPottah.37

Lagerstroemia speciosa (L.) Pers. Syn. 2:72. 1806. -- L . flos-reginaeRetz. Obs. But. 5:25. 1788; FBI 2:577. 1879; FPM 1:513. 1919.An ornamental tree with thick foliage, peeling bark and mauve flowers.Planted along the pathsides to Kurishumudi top, running wild inKannimanqalam and Karakad sections, especially near seasonal watercourses. Fruits medicinal.PASSIFLORACEAEPassi flora L.Passiflora foetida L. Sp. P1. 959. 1753; FBI 2:599. 1879; FPM 1:524.1919.Tendril climbing herbs with a foetid smell, bearing white flowers andyellow, edible fruits. Rare, in the forest outskirts of Kurishumudisection. A medicinal herb.CUCURBITACEAEDiplocyclos (Endl.) Post & Ktze.*Diplocyclos palmatus (L.) Jeffry, Kew Bull. 15:352. 1962; FBI 2:622.1879. -- Bryonopsis lancinosa Naud. Ann. Sc. Nat. Ser. 4,12:141. 1859(non (L.) Naud.); FPM 1:534. 1919.Slender climbers with deeply 5 - lobed leaves and yellow fascicledflowers. Rare, in the drier areas of Kurishumudi section.Luffa Mill.*Luffa acutangula (L.) Roxb. Hort. Beng. 70. 1814; FBI 2:615. 1879. --L . amara Roxb. Hort. Beng. 70. 1814; FPM 1:533. 1921.Climbers with usually scabrous and pubescent leaves and small fruits.Rare, in Kurishumudi section as climbers on hedges. A medicinalplant.DASTICACEAETetrameles R.Br.Te trameles nudiflora1:544.1921.Chini-maram.R. Br. Obs. 230. 1826; FBI 2:657.1879FPMLofty, deciduous trees with buttressed base, huge trunk and1 ess38

anched apex bearing white flowers. Rather common as isolated treesin the highly degraded forest above Pottah, on the way to Evergreensection. Bark medicinal.BEGONIACEAEBegonia L.Begonia malabarica Poir. in Lamk. Encyl. Meth. Bot. 1:393. 1785; FBI2:655. 1879; FPM 1:546. 1919.Erect herbs with Jointed, reddish stem, oblique leaves and rosecolouredflowers. Rare, in shaded, wet areas on the way to Evergreensection.ALANGIACEAEAlangium Lamk.*Alangium salvifolium (L.f.) Wagner in Engl. Pflanzenr. 4, 20B: 9.1910; FPM 1:572. 1919. -- A. lamarckii Thw. Enum. P1. Zeyl. 133. 1859;FBI 2:741. 1879.Shrubs with very attractive and edible, red fruits. Rare, along hedgesin forest openings above Pottah on the way to Evergreen section. Amedicinal plant.RUBIACEAECanthium Lamk.*Canthiurn angustifolium Roxb. F1. Ind. 2:169. 1824.; FBI 3:135. 1880.-- Plectronia rheedii (DC. ) Bedd. var. angustifolia Gamble, FPM 2:625.1925.Armed shrubs with greenish-white flowers, common as an undergrowththe Kannimangalam section.inChasalia Comm. ex Poir.*Chasalia ophioxyloides (Wall.) Gard. Bull. Strait Settl. 6:474. 1930.-- C. curviflora sensu Hook. f. F1. Brit. India 3:176. 1880; FPM2:643. 1921.Herbs with dark blue flowers, rarely found as an undergrowth in theEvergreen section. A medicinal plant.39

Haldina Ridsdl.*Haldina cordifolia (Roxb.) Ridsdl. Blumea 24:361. 1978. -- Adinacordifolia Hook. f. ex Brandis For. F1. N.W. & Central India 263.1874; FBI 3:24. 1880; FPM 2:584. 1921.Man j a-kadambu .Trees with rough bark, almost rounded, cordate leaves and globoseinflorescence bearing pinkish-white flowers. Rare, in Kannimangalamsection near the Guard station, in moist deciduous forests. A medicinalplant.Hedyotis L.Hedyotis umbellata (L.) Lamk. Encyl. Meth. Bot. 1:272. 1789. -- Oldenlandiaumbellata L. Sp. P1. 174. 1753; FBI 3:66. 1880; FPM 2:601.1921.Erect or suberect herbs with much branched stem and white flowers.Fairly common in the plains of Karakad and Kurishumudi sections. Amedicinal plant.Ixora L.*Ixora brachiata Roxb. F1. Ind. 1:391. 1820; FBI 3:142. 1880; FPM2:631. 1921.Shrubs with green buds and red stalk for the flowers and redRather common, a5 undergrowth in the evergreen patch.fruits.Ixora coccinea L. Sp. P1. 110. 1753; FBI 3:145. 1880; FPM 2:631. 1921.Chethi, Thechi.Shrubs with red, corymbose flowering branches and red, pulpy, ediblefruits. Rare, in the lateritic soil, especially in the cuttings andother openings of Karakad, Kannimangalam and Evergreen sections. Animportant medicinal plant.Knoxia L.Knoxi a sumatrensis (Retz.) DC. Prodr. 4:569. 1830.K. corynbosa auct. nun Willd. 1797; Wt. et Arn. Prodr. 439. 1834; FBI3:128. 1880; FPM 2:622. 1921.Erect herbs with oblong-lanceate leaves and flowers in corymbose panicles.Rare, in Kurishumudi section.--Nussaenda L.*Mussaenda glabrata (Hook. f.) Hutch. ex Gamble, F1. Presid. Madras2:610. 1921. -- M. frondosa var. glabrata Hook. f. FBI 3:90. 1880.Vel li la.40

Straggling shrubs with brick red flowers having white showy calyxlobes Rather common, in the forest outskirts above Pottah, in disturbedareas. c\ medicinal plant.Ophiorrhiza L.Ophiorrhiza mungos L. Sp. P1. 150. 1753; FBI 3:77. 1880; FPM 2:608.1921.Undershrubs with simple, opposite leaves and white flowers in subumbellatecymes An undergrowth in Kurishumudi section. Roots medicinal.Psychotria L.*Psychotria congesta (Wt. et Arn.) Hook. f. F1. Brit. Ind. 3:162.1880; FPM 2:640. 1921.Herbs with white flowers. Very rare, in the crevices of rocks in theEvergreen section.Psychotria octosulcata Talbot, J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. ll:237. 1897;FPM 2:642. 1921.Shrubs with terminal, white flowers growing in shades. Fairly commonin the Evergreen section and rare in Kannimangalam and Kurishumudisect ions.Xeromphis Rafin.Xeromphis uliginosa (Retz.) Mahesw. Bull. bot. Surv. India 3:92. 1961.-- Randia uliginosa (Retz.) DC. Prodr. 4:386. 1830; FBI 3:ll0. 1880;FPM 2:615. 1925.Armed shrubs with creamy white flowers. Rather rare, forming bushesin the grassland of Kannimanqalam section. Fruits and roots medicinal.COMPOSITCIEAgeratum L .Ageratum conyzoides L. Sp. P1. 839. 1753; FBI 3:243. 1881; FPM 2:677.1925.A softly hairy annual herb with simple, opposite, ovate leaves andbluish white small flowers in corymbose heads. Common in Kurishumudisection. A weed with medicinal properties.41

Blainvillea Cass.Blainvillea acmella (L.) Philips, Blumea 6:350. 1950; FRl 3:305. 1878.-- B. rhomboidea Cass. Dict. Nat. 29:493. 1823; FPM 2:706. 1921.Erect, scabrous herbs with smelling leaves and white, terminal inflorescence.A weed growing in waste places and shaded areas in almostall the four sections of Malayattoor forests.Blumea DC.Blumaea lacera (Burm. f.) DC. in Wt. Contrib. Ind. Jot. 14. 1834;2:263. 1878; FPM 2:687. 1925.FBISmelling herbs with yellow flowering heads. Rather common in openareas of almost all the four sections of Malayattoor forests. A medicinalplant.El ephan topus L .Elephantopus scaber L. Sp. P1. 814. 1753; FBI 3:242. 1878; FPM 2:676.1921.Ana-chuvadi.Herbs with rosetted, spathulate leaves and violet flowering heads.Weed, common in the waste places of Kurishumudi and Karakad sections.A medicinal herb.Emilia Cass.Emilia sonchifolia (L.) DC. in Wt. Contrib. Ind. Bot. 24. 1834; FBI3:336. 1881; FPM 2:716. 1924.Muy a1 -chev 1 an.Herbs with very variable leaves and pinkish flowering heads. A weed inthe waste places of Kannimangalam and Karakad sections. A medicinalplant.Eupatorium L.Eupatorium adenophorum Spreng. Syst. 3:420. 1826.Seema-pacha, Communist-pacha.Glandular hairy, straggling or erect herbs with pinkish or bluishwhite flowering heads. An exotic weed, gregarious in the outskirtsand disturbed areas of the forest in all the four sections.Mikania Wi lld.*Mikania micrantha H.B.K. Nov. Gen. et Sp. 4:134. 1820; K.K.N. Nair,Evergreen (KFRI Newsletter) 20:13-14. 1988.42

Gregarious, straggling herbs with pale white flowers. Very commonweed in forest openings especially in Kurishumudi, Kannimangalam andPottah areas on the way to Evergreen section.MYRSINACEAEMaesa Forssk.*Maesa perrottetiana A. DC. Trans. Linn. Soc. London 17:80. 1834; FPM2:749. 1921. -- M. indica var. perrottetiana (A. DC.) Clarke in FBI3:509. 1882.Undershurbs with very small bluish-white flowers produced on slenderstem. Very rare, as undergrowth in Evergreen section. A medicinalherb.SAPOTACEAEMadhuca Hamil ton ex Gmel.*Madhuca longifolia (Koen. ex L.) Mac Bride, Contr. Gray Herb. Harwardn.s, 53:17. 1918. -- Bassia longifolia Koen. ex L. Mant. 2:563. 1771;FBI 3:544. 1882; FPM 2:537. 1921.Deciduous trees with fissured bark and terminal flowers. Rather rare,in Karakad and Kannimangalam sections, especially near seasonal watercourses. A medicinal plant.OLEACEAEChionanthus L.*Chionanthus mala-elengi (Dennst.) P.S. Green, Bull. bot. Surv. India26:123-124. 1985. -- Linociera malabarica Wall. ex G. Don Syst. 4:53.1838; FBI 3:607. 1882; FPM 2:794. 1921.Graceful trees with leathery leaves and white flowers with reddishtinge. Rather common in Kannimanqalam section especially around theopen grassland and rarely seen in Evergreen section.Olea L.*Olea dioica Roxb. F1. Ind. 1:105. 1820; FBI 3:612. 1882; FPM 2:796.1921.Small trees with bright green foliage, white flowers and blue colouredfruits. Fairly common in the perifery of the evergreen patch. Barkmedicinal.43

APOCYNACEAEErvatamia (DC.) StapfErvatamia heyneana (Wall.) Cooke, F1. Presid. Bombay 2:134. 1904; FPM2:813. 1923. - Tabernaemontana heyneana Wall. in Edgw. Bot. Reg. t.1273. no.7. 1829; FBI 3:647. 1882.Pala, Koonam-pa1a.Trees with milky latex, fragrant flowers and yellow fruits. Rare, inthe disturbed forest patches on the way to Evergreen section. A medicinalplant.Holarrehna R.Br.*Holarrehna antidysentricd (Roth) A. DC. Prodr. 8:413. 1844; FBI3:644. 1882; FPM 2:811. 1923.Shrubs with profuse milky latex, showy white flowers and green fruits.Rare, along the sides of rocks right on the top of the hill, near theevergreen patch. Has medicinal properties.Rauvol f ia L.*Rauvolfia serpentina (L.) Benth. ex Kurt, For. F1. Burma 2:171. 1877;FBI 3:632. 1882; FPM 2:807. 1923.Herbs with deep red flowers and fruits maturing black in colour. Arare undergrowth in the Evergreen section. A popular medicinal plant.ASCLEPIADACEAEHemidesmus R.Br.*Hemidesmus indicus (L.) R. Br. in Aiton, Hort. Kew. ed. 2, 2:75.1811; FBI 4:4. 1884; FPM 2:825. 1923.Naru-neendi.Much branched twining herbs with wiry stem and tuberous roots producingyellowish white flowers. Rare, along hedges, mostly in theKurishumudi section. A medicinal plant.GENTIANACEAECanscora Lamk .*Canscora diffusa (Vahl) R. Br. Prodr. 451. in obs. 1810; FBI 4:103.1883; FPM 2:878. 1923.44

A very pretty slender, annual herb with pink flowers and leaf likebracts. Rare, in wet areas of Kurishumudi section. A medicinal herb.BORAGINACEAEHeliotropium L.*Heliotropium scabrum Retz. Obs. Bot. 2:8. 1781; FBI 4:152.2:897. 1923.Erect or procumbent herbs in wet areas and forest openings.the foothills of Kurishumudi section. A medicinal plant.1883; FPMCommon inCONVOLVULACEAEArgyreia Lour.*Argyreia nervosa (Burm. f.) Bojer, Hort. Maurit. 224. 1837. -- A.speciosa (L.f.) Sweet, Hort. Lond. 289. 1827; FBI 4:185. 1883; FPM2:907. 1923.Scandent shrubs with ovate-deltoid leaves, flowers in axillary andterminal cymes and indehiscent fruits. Rare, in the forest outskirtsat Kurishumudi.Evolvulus L.Evolvulus alsinoides (L.) L. Sp. P1. ed. 2(1):392. 1762; FBI 4:220.1883; FPM 2:923. 1923.Spreading herbs with hairy branches, oblong-lanceate leaves and lightblue flowers. Common in the open areas and waste places of Karakadand Kurishumudi sections. A common ingredient in Ayurvedic medicines.Xpomoea .L .*Ipomoea hederifolia L. Syst. Nat (ed. 10) 925. 1759. -- quamocl i tpheonica (Roxb.) Choisy, Mem. SO~. Phys. Geneve. 6:433. 1834; FPM2:919. 1923. Ipomoea coccinea auct. Clarke in Hook. f. FBI 4:199.1883. nun L. 1753.Twining herbs; stem sparsely pubescent with ovate to sub-orbicularleaves, solitary flowers in lax cymes and subglobose fruits. Rare, inforest outskirts of Kurishumudi section.Merremia Dennst. ex Endl.*Merremia vitifolia (Burm. f.) Hall. f. Bot. Jahrb. Syst. 16:552.45

1893; FPM 2:928. 1923. -- Ipomoea vitifolia (Burm. f.) B1. BiJdr.705'. 1825; FBI 4:213. 1883.Twining herbs with hirsute stem, palmately 5-7 lobed leaves andflowers in 1-3 flowered axillary cymes. Rather common in Kurishumudisection, in the outskirts.SOLANACEAEPhysalis L.Physalis minima L. Sp. Pl. 183. 1753; FBI 4:238. 1883; FPM 2:939.1923.Jgot a-nod i an.Succulent herbs with hispid branches and bladder-like fruits. A weed,rather very common in waste places and wet areas of the outskirts ofKarakad and Kurishumudi sections. A medicinal plant.Solanum L.*Solanum violaceum Ort. Hort. Mart. Dec. 56. 1798. -- S. indicum auct.L.; FBI 4:234. 1883; FPM 2:938. 1923.Undershrubs with spinous stem and leaves and white terminal flowerswith yellow anthers. Common in the outskirts of the forests atPottah, as a weed. A medicinal herb.SCROPHULARIACEAEScoparia L.Scoparia dulcis L. Sp. PI. 116. 1753; FBI 4:289. 1884; FPM 2:964.1923.Erect, branched herbs with globose capsules produced profusely.Common in wet areas of the forest outskirts, especially of Kurishumudisection. A medicinal plant.Torenia L.*Torenia bicolor Dalz. in Hook. J. Bot. Kew Gard. Misc. 3:38. 1851;FBI 4:278. 1884.; FPM 2:957. 1923.Trailing herbs with sparsely hairy stem, broadly ovate or deltoidleaves, axillary flowers and linear oblong capsules. Common, in wetareas of the outskirts of the forest adjacent to Kurishumudi section.44

OROBANCHACEAEAeginetia L.*Aeginetia indica L. Sp. PI. 632. 1753; FBI 4:320. 1884; FPM 2:974.1924.Very colourful herbs with pink stem and flowers. A root parasite,very rare, growing along the sides of rocks in Evergreen andKannimangalam sections.*Aeginetia pedunculata Wall. P1. Asiat. Rar. t. 219. 1832; FBI 4:320.1884; FPM 2:974. 1924.Herbaceous root parasites with reddish stem and orange colouredflowers. Very rare, in the Pottah area on the way to Evergreen section.LENTIBULARIACEAEUtricularia L.Utricularia graminifolia Vahl, Enum. 1:95. 1804; FPM 2:981. 1924. --U. caerulea auct. non L.; FBI 4:331. 1884.Erect, filiform herbs with pinkish white flowers. Common during monsoonin the grassland area of Kannimangalam section, in a thin layerof water among grasses.ACANTHACEAENil gi rian thus Bremek.Nilgirianthus barbatus (Nees) Bremek. Verh. K. Ned. Akad. Wt.41(1):174. 1944. -- Strobilanthus barbatus Nees in Wall. P1. Asiat.Rar. 3:85. 1832; FBI 4:437. 1884; FPM 1:1037. 1924.Kuringi.Undershrubs with light green foliage and white flowers. A fairlycommon undergrowth in the evergreen forests of Evergreen section.Thunbergia Retz.*Thunbergia fragrans Roxb. P1. Corom. t. 67. 1796; FBI 4:390. 1884;FPM 2:1007. 1924.A slender herb with variable, narrow, oblong, lanceate leaves, andaxillary, solitary flowers. Rare, in Kurishumudi section, along thewet sides of rocks.47

VERBENACEAECallicarpa L.*Callicarpa tomentosa (L.) Murr. Syst. Veg. ed. 13:130. 1774. -- C.lanata L. Mant. 2:331. 1771; FBI 4:567. 18135; FPM 2:1092. 1924.Fulvous stellate hairy trees with leaves crowded towards the apex ofbranchlets. Rather rare in Kannimanyalam section, in disturbedforests and teak plantations. A medicinal plant.Clerodendrum L .*Clerodendrum serratum (L.) Moon. Cat. P1. Ceylon 46. No. 382. 1824;FBI 4:592. 1885; FPM 1:llOO. 1924.Shrubs with 4-angular stem, elliptic-lanceate, acuminate, serrateleaves and flowers in terminal panicles. Rare, in the open, disturbredareas of Kurishumudi section. A weed with medicinal properties.*Clerodendrum vircosum Vent. Jard. Malm. t. 25. 1803. -- C.infortunatum auct. multi. non L.; FBI 4:594. 1885; FPM 2:llOO. 1924.Peruvu.Shrubs with white flowers, common in distrubed areas and forest openings,especially in Kurishumudi, Karakad and Kannimanqalam sections.A medicinal shrub.Lantana L.Lantana camara L. var. aculeata (L.) Mold. Torreya 34:9. 1934. -- L.aculeata L. Sp. P1. 627. 1753; FPM 2:1087. 1924. - L . camara auct. nonL.; FBI 4:562. 1885.Konqini, Seema-pacha.Straggling, armed shrubs with angular stem, yellowish red flowers andglobular fruits. An exotic weed, straggling on hedges in Kurishumudisection, possessing medicinal properties.Stachyt a rph et a V ah 1Stachytarpheta jamaicensis (L.) Vahl, Enum. P1. 1:206. 1804; -- S.indica (L.) Vahl, Enum, P1. 1:206. 1804; FBI 4:564. 1885; FPM 2:1090.1924.Seema-kongini.Herbs with simple, opposite, elliptic or ovate leaves and blue flowersin terminal slender spikes with closely packed bracts. Rather commonas a hedge plant in the outskirts of Kurishumudi section. A medicinalplant.48

Tectona L.f.Tectona grandis L..f. Suppl. P1. 151. 1781; FBI 4:570. 1885; FPM2:1092. 1924.The k ku.The common teak tree growing in Malayattoor, both in plantation andin wild. A medicinal tree.LAMIACEAEHyp ti s J acq .Hyptis suaveolens (L.) Poit. Ann. Mus. Nat. Hist. Paris 7:472.t. 29. 1806; FBI 4:630. 1885; FPM 2:1129. 1924.Herbs with pungent smell and hispid branches. Common in the open, dryareas of Karakad and Kurishumudi sections and on the rocky flat top ofthe hill near the evergreen patch.Leucas R.Br.Leucas aspera (Willd.) Link, Enum. Hort. Berol. 2:112. 1822; FBI4:690. 1885; FPM 2:1150. 1924.Thumba.Herbs with angled, hipid, green stem and terminal white flowers.Common in the plains of Kurishumuci and Karakad sections. A medicinalplant.Pogostemon Desf.*Pogostemon paniculatus (Willd.) Benth. in Wall. Pl. Asiat. Rar. l:30.1830: FBI 4:631. 1885; FPM 2:1132. 1925.Aromatic herbs with bluish white flowers. A common weed in the outskirtsof forests and waste places, especially in Kurishumudi andKarakad sections.NYCTAGINACEAEBoerhavia L.Boerhavia diffusa L. Sp. Pl. 3.1753; FPM 2:1162. 1925. -- B. repens L.Sp. Pl. 3. 1753; FBI 4:709. 1885.Diffuse, trailing herbs with light reddish stem and pinkish flowers.Fairly common in wet, open areas in the outskirts of the forests ofKurishumudi section. A medicinal plant.49

AMARANTHACEAEAchyranthes L .Achyrrnthes aspera L. Sp. P1. 204. 1753; FBI 3:730. 1885; FPM 2:1176.1925.An erect herb reaching 3 feet in height with velvetty, orbicular,obovate or elliptic, usually obtuse, thick leaves and slender spikes;the fruits easily adhere to animals or clothings. Rather common inthe outskirts of Kurishumudi section. A medicinal plant.Aerva Forsk.Aerva Ianata (L.) Juss. Ann. Mus. Hist. Nat. Paris 2:131. 1803; FBI4:728. 1885; FPM 2:1178. 1925.A small herb with long tap root and many pubescent shoots, simple,alternate, obovate leaves and very small greenish white flowers insmall dense axillary spikes. A weed in the outskirts of the forestsaround Kurishumudi section. A medicinal plant.PIPERACEAEPeperomia Ruiz. et Pav.Peperomia dindigulensis Miq. Syst. Piper. 122. 1843; FBI 5:98. 1886;FPM 2:1210. 1925.Erect or subdecumbent, fleshy herbs with greenish spikes towards theapex of branches. Rare, in shaded areas, sometimes epiphytic on rocksor trees in the Evergreen section of Malayattoor forests.Piper L.*Piper longum L. Sp. P1. 29. 1753; FBI 5:83. 1886; FPM 2:1205. 1925.Slender undershrubs with ovate or ovate-oblong glabrous leaves andcylindrical, thick fruiting spikes; the fruits are red whenripe. In the forest floor of Kurishumudi section as an undergrowth.A medicinal plant.MYRISTICACEAEKnema Lour.*Knema attenuata (Hook. f. ex Thoms.) Warb. Monogr. Myrist. 590. 1897;FPM 2:1215. 1925. -- Myristica attenuata Wall. ex Hook. f. et Thoms.F1. Ind. 157. 1855; FBI 5:110. 1886.50

Lofty trees with clean, straight trunk, yellowish flowers and lightyellow pubescent fruits. Fairly common in the evergreen patch on topof the hill.Myristica Gronov.Myristica dactyloides Gaertn. Fruct. 1:195. t. 41. 1788. - M. beddomeiKing, Notes Roy. bot. Gard. Calcutta 4:291. t. 118. 1893; FPM 2:1215.1925. - M. laurifolia Hook. f. var. lanceolaria Hook. f. FBI 5:103.1886.Tall trees with straight, :lean trunk and pubescent branchlets.Fairly common in the evergreen patch as a top canopy tree. A medicinaltree.Litsea L.*Litsea stocksii Hook. f. F1. Brit. India 5:176. 1886; FPM 2:1236.1925.Trees with lanceate-oblong leaves and creamy white perianth and ellipsoidberries. Rare, in Kurishumudi section. A medicinal plant.Neolitsea (Benth.) Merr.Neolitsea cassia (L.) Kosterm. J. Sci. Res. Indonesia 1:85. 1952. - N.zeylanica (Nees) Merr. Philipp. J. Sci. Bot. Suppl. 1(1):57. 1906; FPM2:1230. 1925. -- Litsea zeylanica Nees, Amoen. Bot. Bonn. Fasc. 1:58.t. 5. 1823; FBI 5:176. 1886. (pro parte).Trees with terminal inflorescence and fruits with persistent perianthlobes. Rather rare, in Evergreen and Kannimangalam forest sections ofMalayattoor. A medicinal and aromatic tree.LORANTHACEAEDendroph thoe Mart .Dendrophthoe falcata (L.f.) Etting, Derikschr. Akad. Wissen. Math.Natur. Cl. 32:52, 53, 58. fig. 14. 1872. --Loranthus longiflorusDescr. Lamk. Encyl. Meth. Bot. 3:598. 1789; FBI 5:214. 1886; FPM2:1253. 1925.Ithi-kanny, Ithil.Shrubaceous branch parasites on trees with pink fruits. Rather commonon trees like Tectona grandis L.f. and Pterocarpus marsupium Roxb. inKarakad and Kannimangalam sections. A medicinal plant.51

Hel ixanthera Lour.*Helixanthera wallichiana (Schult.) Danser, Bull. Jard. Bot. Burtz.3,10:317. 1929. -- Loranthus intermedius Wt. ex Hook. f. FBI 5:265.1886; FPM 2:1251. 1925.Branch parasites on small trees of Xeromphis uliginosa, in the openingof the forest where the grassland is seen in Kannimangalam section.EUPHORBIACEAEAntidesma L.*Antidesma alexiteris L. Sp. P1. 1027. 1753 (pro parte); FBI 5:359.1887. -- A. zeylanicum Lamk. Encyl. Meth. Bot. 1:207. 1783; FPM2:1297. 1925.Undershrubs with green fruits. Rather rare in the evergreen patch,forming part of the ground flora.*Antidesma bunius Spreng. Syst. Veg. 1:826. 1825; FBI 5:358. 1887; FPM2:1298. 1925.Shrubs with dark green foliage and green fruits. A rare undergrowth inthe Evergreen section. Leaves medicinal.Aporusa B1.*Aporusa lindleyana (Wt.) Baill. Etud. Gen. Euph. 645. 1874; FBI5:349. 1887; FPM 2:1309. 1925.Vetti.Small trees with globular fruits. Rare, in Kannimangalam section, inopen areas. Roots medicinal.Baccaurea Lour.Baccaurea courtallensis (Wt.) Muell.- Arg. DC. Prodr. 15(2):459. 1866;FBI 5:367. 1887; FPM 2:1310. 1925.Graceful trees with red flowers and red fruits produced cauliflorously.Fairly common in the evergreen patch.Baliospermum B1.*Baliospermum montanum (Willd.) Muell. in DC. Prodr. 15:1125. 1866;FPM 3:1342. 1925. -- B. axillare B1. Bijdr. 604. 1826; FBI 5:461.1887.Leafy undershrubs with leaves variable in size and shape; large leaves52

ovate, otlonq or rounded and small ones lanceate. Rare, in forestedareas of Yurishumudi section. A medicinal plant.Breynia Forst. f.*Breynia rhamnoides (Retz.) Muell. - Arg. DC. Prodr. 15(2):440. 1866;FBI 5:330. 1887; FPM 2:1304. 1925.Shrubs, 1-3 m high with green fruits. Rare, in the openings and alonghedges in Kannimanqalam section. A medicinal plant.Bridelia Wi lld.*Bridelia scandens (Roxb.) Willd. Sp. P1. 4:979. 1806; FPM 2:1281.1925. -- B. stipularis Hook. f. (non Bl.) FBI 5:270. 1887 (proparte).Stragglers with brown flowers and green fruits. Very common inKannimangalam section, along hedges. All parts of the plant medicinal.Croton L .Croton bonplandianum Baill. Adansonia 4:339. 1864. -- C. sparsiflorusMorong. in Ann. N.Y. Acad. Sci. 7:221. 1893; FPM 2:1316. 1925.Erect, much branched herbs with greenish-white flowers in terminalinflorescence. A weed in waste places, especially along the way sidesto Kurishumudi top.*Croton caudatus Geisel. Croton Monogr. 73. 1807; FBI 5:388. 1887; FPM2:1315. 1925.Shrubs with creamy white flowers. Rather common along the sides ofthe hill stream in Evergreen section. A medicinal plant.Euphorbia L.Euphorbia antiquorum L. Sp. P1. 450. 1753; FBI 5:255. 1887; FPM2:1273. 1925.Armed fleshy shrubs with copious milky latex and jointed green stemdevoid of leaves. Often planted along hedges around Kurishumudi andKarakad sections. Latex medicinal.Ja tropha L .Jatropha gossipifolia L. Sp. P1. 1006. 1753; FBI 5:583. 1887; FPM2: 1340. 1925.Shrubs with watery latex and reddish flowers in terminal clusters.53

Common in Kurishumudi section in waste places and also at Illithodu inthe outskirts of the forests. A medicinal plant.Kirganelia Baill.*Kirganelia reticulata (Poir.) Baill. Etud. Gen. Euphorb. 613. 1858;FPM 2:1294. 1925. -- Phyllanthus reticulatus Poir. Lamk. Encyl. Meth.Bot. 5:298. 1804; FBI 5:288. 1887.Branched shrubs with distichous leaves and globose, purple fruits.Rare, in the forest outskirts of Karakad and Kurishumudi sections.Macaranga Thou.Macaranga peltata (Roxb.) Muell. - Arg. DC. Prodr. 15(2):1010. 1866;FPM 2:1326. 1925. -- M. roxburghii Wt. lc. P1. India Orient. t. 1852.1853; FBI 5:445. 1887.Vatta, Oothooni.Trees with latex and almost circular leaves. Rather common in disturbedforest areas of all the four sections of Malayattoor forests,especially in the otskirts. Gum medicinal.Mallotus Lour.*Mallotus philippensis (Lamk.) Muell. - Arg., Linnaea 34:196. 1865;FBI 5:442. 1887; FPM 2:1322. 1925.Shrubs or small trees with creamy white flowers. Common in the moistdeciduous forests and teak plantations of Kannimangalam section.Whole plant is medicinal.Phyllanthus L .Phyllanthus emblica L. Sp. P1. 982. 1753; FBI 5:289. 1887. -- P. officinalisGaertn. Fruct. 122-123. 1790; FPM 2:12?5. 1925.Nelli.Medium sized trees with linear-oblong leaves and depressed globose,edible fruits. Rare, in the deciduous forests of Kannimangalam,Karakad and Kurishumudi sections. A medicinal plant.Securinega Comm. ex A. Juss.*Securinega leucopyrus (Willd.) Muell. in DC. Prodr. 15(2):451. 1866.-- Fluggea leucopyrus Willd. Sp. Pl. 4:757. 1806; FPM 2:1296. 1925.Shrubs with greenish white flowers and green fruits. Rare, inKannimangalam section, in the openings. Leaves medicinal.54

ULAMCEAETrema Lour.*Trema orientalis (L.) B1. Mus. Bot. Lugd. Bat.5:484. 1888; FPM 3:1350. 1928.2:62. 1856; FBIAmathali, Malan-thodali.Aggressive trees with pale greenish-white flowers. Fairly common inthe forest openings and disturbed areas of Kannimangalam section. Amedicinal plant.MORACEAEArtocarpus J.R. &G. Frost.Artocarpus hirsutus Lamk. Encyl. Meth. Bot. 3:210. 1789; FBI 5:541.1888; FPM 3:957. 1928.Anji1i.Tall trees with thick crown and edible fruits. Rather rare inKurishumudi and Karakad sections and lower elevations of Evergreensection. Dried leaves medicinal.Ficus L.Ficus benghalensis L. Sp. P1. 1059. 1753; FBI 5:499. 1888; FPM 3:1361.1928.Aal, Aal-maram.Spreading trees with aerial roots and orange-coloured fruits. Alongpathsides in the outskirts of Kurishumudi section. A medicinal plant.*Ficus callosa Willd. Mem. Acad. Roy. Sci. Hist. Berlin 102. 1798; FBI5:516. 1888; FPM 3:1364. 1928.Trees with buttressing base and smooth bark, producing green fruits.Rare, along the forest boundary in Kannimangalam section.*Ficus religiosa L. Sp. P1. 1059. 1753; FBI 5:513. 1888; FPM 3:1363.1928.Stunted trees with green fruits. Rare, along the sides of rocks onthe flat hilltop near the evergreen patch. A medicinal plant.*Ficus tinctoria Forst. f. ssp. parasitica (Willd.) Corner, Gard.Bull. Str. Settl. 17:476. 1960. -- F. gibbosa B1. var. parasiticaKing, Ann. Roy. Bot. Gard. 1:t. 2 a-b. 1887; FBI 5:497. 1888; FPM3:955. 1928.Medium sized trees with latex and green fruits. Rather common in theforests of Kurishumudi section. Leaves and roots medicinal.55

StreblusLour.Streblus asper Lour. Fl. Cochinch. 615. 1760; FBI 5:489. 1888; FPM3:1353. 1925.Shrubs with twiggy branches and rough leaves. Rare, in the dry, openareas of Kannimangalam section near the forest guard station. A medicinalplant.URTICACEAEBoehmeri a J acq .*Boehmeria glomerulifera Miq. in Zoll. Syst. Verz. Ind. Archip. 101,104. 1854. -- B. malabarica Wedd. Arch. Mus. Hist. Nat. Paris 8:35.1855-56; FBI 5:575. 1888; FPM 3:1387. 1931.Shrubs with white flowers clustered in the axils. Fairly common asundergrowth in semi-evergreen forest in Evergreen section.Elatostemma Forst. et Forst. f.Elatostemma lineolatum Wt. lc. P1. Ind. Orient. t. 1934. 1853; FBI5:565. 1888; FPM 3:1376. 1931.Shade-loving herbs with distichous leaves, much variable in shape.Fairly common in the evergreen forest floor of Evergreen section.Laportea Gaud.Laportea crenulata (L.) Chew, Gard. Bull. Singapore 21:200. 1965. -Fleurya interrupta (L.) Gaud. Freyc. Voy. Bot. 497. 1830; FBI 5:548.1888; FPM 3:1372. 1931.Chor i-kannam.Herbs with stinging hairs and yellowish flowers. Occasional, inKannimangalam section as undergrowth along stream sides, and also onthe way to Evergreen section. Seeds and roots medicinal.Pouzol zi a Gaud.Pouzolzia zeylanica (L.) Benn. P1. Jav. Rar. 67. 1838. -- P. indica(L.) Guad. Freyc. Voy. Bot. 503. 1826; FBI 5:581. 1888; FPM 3:1328.1931.Erect herbs with greenish-white flowers. Rare, in shades and alongthe sides of rocks in the Pottah area on the way to Evergreen section.A medicinal plant.56

2.5.2. MONOCOTYLEDONSORCHIDACEAEAcampe Lindl.Acampe praemorsa (Roxb.) Blatt. & Mc Cann, J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc.35:1495. 1932. -- Saccolobium wightianum Hook. f. F1. Brit. India.6:62. 1890; FPM 3:1447. 1928.Epiphytic herbs with stout, elongated stem, thick roots and leavesthat are distichuos and linear-oblong. Flowers yellowish red colourand lip white with red stripes. Fairly common on trees of Kurishumudisection, in thick forests. A medicinal plant.Dendrobium Sw.*Dendrobium macrostachyum Lindl. Gen. et Sp. Orch. 78. 1830; FBI5:735. 1890; FPM 3:1416. 1928.Subpendulous, epiphytic herbs with drooping, showy inflorescence.Rare, on tree trunks in Kannimangalam and forests on the way to evergreenpatch.Geodorum J ac k .*Geodorum densiflorum (Lamk.) Schltr. Feddes Rep. Beih. 4:269. 1919;FPM 3:1437. 1928. -- G. purpureum R. Br. Ait. Hort. Kew ed. 2,5:207.1813; FBI 6:17. 1890.Pseudobulbous leafy herbs with incurved inflorescence and pale roseflowers, dropping compact at the apex only. Rare, in Kurishumudisection.PholidotaLindl.Pholidota pallida Lindl. Bot. Reg. sub. t. 1777. 1825. -- P. imbricatasensu Lindl. Bot. Reg. t. 1213. 1825; FBI 5:845-46. 1888; FPM 3:1431.1928.Pseudobulbous epiphytes with creamy white flowers borne on slenderspikes. Rare, in teak plantations of Kannimangalam and Kurishumudisect ions.Rhynchostylis B1.*Rhynchostylis retusa B1. Bijdr. 286. pl. 49. 1825; FBI 6:32. 1890;FPM 3:1440. 1928.57

Herbs with pale pink flowers, spotted with darker pink colour.in Curishumudi section. A medicinal orchid.Rare,Satyrium Sw.*Satyrium nepalense D. Don, Prodr. F1. Nepal. 26. 1825; FBI 6:168.1890; FPM 3:1476. 1928.Ground orchids with white flowers. Very rare, in the thickets on theflat top of the hill near evergreen patch. A medicinal orchid.Vanda R. Br.Vanda tessellata (Roxb.) Hook. ex D. Don in London Hort. Brit. 372.1830; FPM 3:1445. 1928. -- V. roxburghii R. Br. in Bot. Reg. 6:t. 506.1820; FBI 6:52. 1890.Mara-vazha.Epiphytic on trees with spreading fleshy leaves and subpendulous inflorescence.Rare, in Kannimangalam section and in the Pottah part ofthe reserve forest on the way to Evergreen section. A medicinalorchid.ZINGIBERACEAECostus L.*Costus speciosus (Koen.) Smith, Trans. Linn. Soc. London 1:249. 1800;FBI 6:249. 1892; FPM 3:1490. 1928.An a- kuv a, K ann a- kuv a.Erect, fleshy herbs with red inflorescence and pinkish-white flowers.Common, above Pottah on the way to evergreen patch. A medicinalplant.Curcuma L.*Curcuma neilgherrensis Wt. Ic. P1. India Orient. t. 2006. 1853; FBI7:210. 1892; FPM 3:1482. 1928.Tuberous herbs with oblong-lanceate leaves and dense spikes with paleyellowish green bracts. Rather rare, in the open forests on the wayto Evergreen section. A medicinal plant.Globba L .*Globba ophioglossa Wt. lc. P1. India Orient. t. 2002. 1853; FBI6:201. 1890; FPM 3:1480. 1931.58

Erect herbs with flat, distichous leafy stem and deep yellow flowersin terminal inflorescence. Rare, above Pottah on the way to Evergreensection, in the openings.MUSACEAEEnsete BruceEnsete superbum (Roxb.) Cheesm. Kew Bull, 1947:l00. 1948. -- Musasuperba Roxb. P1. Corom. t. 223. 1805. FBI 6:261. 1890; FPM 3:1497.1931.Kal lu-vazha.Plants with pseudostem, very attractive, especially when in flower.Very rare, in the shady areas of Kurishumudi section and on the rocksides along the hill top before the evergreen patch.AMARYLLIDACEAECurculigo Gaertn.*Curculigo orchioides Gaertn. Fruct. 1:63. t. 13. 1788; FBI 6:278.1892; FPM 3:1502. 1931.Scapigerous herbs with yellowish flowers. Common in open, dry areas ofKurishumudi and Kannimangalam sections. Roots medicinal.DIOSCOREACEAEDioscorea L.*Dioscorea oppositifolia L. Sp. P1. 1033. 1753; FBI 6:292. 1892; FPM3:1512. 1931.Herbaceous climbers with brown flowers. Common in the openings alongthe sides of Kurishumudi hill. Underground stem medicinal.Dioscorea pentaphylla3:1511. 1931.Nuran, Kattu-kachil.L. Sp. P1. 1032. 1754; FBI 6:289. 1892; FPMShrubaceous climbers, twining to the left, producing undergroundtubers. Rather rare, in the Kurishumudi section, along hedges and inthe thickets. Tubers medicinal.59

LILIACEAEAsparagus L.Asparagus racemosus Willd. Sp. Pl. 2:152. 1799; FBI 6:316. 1892; FPM3:1517. 1931.Sathavari.Slender, armed climbers with light yellow stem and green falcateleaves producing slender tuberous roots. Rare, in Kannimanqalam section,in small thickets. Roots medicinal.Dracaena Vand. ex L.*Dracaena terniflora Roxb. Fl. Ind. 2:159. 1832; FBI 6:,328. 1892; FPM3:1521. 1931.Erect undershrubs with leafy stem and white terminal inflorescence.Undergrowth, fairly common in the Evergreen section.Gloriossa L.*GIoriossa superba L. Sp. P1. 305. 1753; FBI 6:358. 1889; FPM 3:1519.1931.Naadi-poovu.Slender climbers with leaf apex transformed into tendrils and veryprominent flowers. Rare, in the lower part of Kurishumudi section andon the way to Evergreen section above Pottah. A medicinal plant.COMMELINACEAEAmischophacelus Rolla Rao et Kammathy*Amischophacelus axillaris (L.) Rolla Rao et Kammathy, J. Linn. Soc.London 59:306. 1966. -- Cyanotis axillaris (L.) Schult. et Schult. f.Veq. 7(2):1154. 1830; FBI 6:388. 1894; FPM 3:1550. 1931.Creeping herbs with reddish brown, straited stem and blueKarakad and Kurishumudi sections, in wet, shaded areas.flowers.Commelina L.Commelina benghalensis L. Sp. P1. 41. 1753; FBI 6:370. 1894; FPM3:1539. 1931.Diffuse herbs with blue flowers. Common in dry open areas alonglower altitudes of Karakad, Kurushumudi and Pottah areas.the60

Floscopa Lour.*Floscopa scradens Lour. F1. Coch:inch. 193. 1790; FBI 5:390. 1892; FPM3:1552. 1931.Subscandent herbs with elliptic-lanceate leaves, small purple flowersand ellipsoid capsules. Rare, along the wet sides of rocks inKurishumudi section.Murdannia Royle*Murdannia zeylanicum (Dl.) Bruck. Engl. & Prantl, Pflanzenfam.15a:173. 1930. -- Aneilena zeylanicum Clarke in DC. Won. Phan. 3:206.1881; FBI 6:376. 1883; FPM 3:1544. 1931.Subpendent herbs with fleshy stem and bluish flowrs. Rather commonabove Pottah on the way to Evergreen section, along the wet sides ofrocks.P ALMACEAECalamus L.Calamus thwaitesii Becc. et Hook. f. F1. Brit. Ind. 6:441. 1892. -- C.thwaitesii var. camaranus Becc. in FBI 6:441. 1892; FPM 3:1567. 1931.Common in the evergreen patch and also scattered in the Kannimanqalamsection. Only seedlings and no mature plants are seen. The commoncommercial cane.Caryota L.Caryota urens L. Sp. P1. 1189. 1753; FBI 6:422. 1892; FPM 3:1560.1931.Choondappana, Kal ipana.Tall palms with leaves crowded towards the apex of the trunk. Seedlingsand half-grown trees of this palm are rather common in the evergreenpatch. Notably, no mature palms were seen in the area. Acommon palm with many uses.ARACEAELagenandra Dalz.*Lagenandra ovata (L.) Thw. Enum. P1. Zeyl. 334. 1864; FBI 6:495.1993; FPM 3:1576. 1931.Karim-pola.61

Gregarious marshy herbs with purplish flowers, forminq a pure patch inkannimangalam section, in a partially aquatic depression.Pothos L.*Pothos scandens L. Sp. P1. 965. 1753; FBI 6:551. 1894; FPM 3:1592.1931.Pareel, Pareelkai-valli.Root climbers with leaves having winged petioles. Rather common inKannimangalam section, on trees bording the seasonal water course.Stem and leaves medicinal.ERIOCULACEAEEriocaulon L .*Eriocaulon quinquangulare L. Sp. P1. 87. 1753; FBI 6:582. 1893; FPM3:1620. 1931.Herbs with thick leaves and white globose inflorescence produced onlong stalks. Common during monsoon, in the watery, open grassland ofKannimangalam section.GRAMINEAEBambusa Schreb.Bambusa bamhos (L.) Voss, Besch. Pflanzen. deutsche Gaerten 2:584.1896. -- Bambusa arundinacea Willd. Sp. P1. 2:245. 1799; FBI 7:395.1896; FPM 3:1859. 1931.Armed, arborescent bamboos with green stem. Common, as discontinuouspatches on the hill top, near the Evergreen section. Commerciallyimportant bamboo.Cymbopogon Spreng.Cymbopogon flexuous (Nees ex Steud.) Wats. in Atkin. Gar. N.W. Bov.392. 1882; FPM 3:1756. 1931. -- Andropogon nardus L. var. flexuosusNees ex Steud. in DC. Mon. Phan. 6:603. 1889; FBI 7:206. 1896.Tall aromatic grasses forming clumps in open, lateritic dry soilsespecially above Pottah and in some parts of Karakad section. A medicinalgrass.Cynodon Rich.Cynodon dactylon (L.) Pers. Syn. P1. 1:85. 1805; FBI 7:288. 1896; FPM3:1835. 1931.Karuka-pullu.42

Trailing, stoloniferous herbs forming mat on the ground. Common inopen areas and along path sides of Karakad and Kurishumudi sections.A highly medicinal grass.Ochlandra Thw.Ochlandra travancorica Benth. in Gamble, Ann. Roy. Bot. Gard. Calcutta7: t. 111. 1896; FBI 7:419. 1897; FPM 3:1863. 1934.Tall grasses with culms about 1-1.5 cm in diameter and dull whiteflowers. Rather rare, along the sides of the stream that originatesfrom the Evergreen section. A species of high commercial im ortancefar pulp and cottage industries.2.6. SYNOPSIS OF THE FLORAAltogether, there are 215 taxa of angiosperms recorded from thefour forest sections of Malayattoor, namely Kurishumudi, Karakad,Kannimangalam and Evergreen. They belong to 183 genera and 74 fami-lies of flowering plants.Out of them, 63 families are dicotylednousand the remaining 11 families are Monocotyledons. With regard togeneric and species content of these two groups, there are 155generaand 185 species of dicotyledons and 29 genera and 30 species of mono-cotyledons. The data is tabulated below (Table 2.1).Dicots 63 154 185Monocots 11 29 30Withregard to generic representation, the families Papiliona-ceae and Euphorbiaceae have 17 and 16 species each, respectively,63

epresenting the families with maximum number of genera and specieswithin them in the study area.Among rest of the families, followingare represented by 4 or more genera as shown in parenthasis.Rubiaceae (11), Compositae (7), Malvaceae (5), Caesalpiniaceae (6),Mimosaceae (4), Verbenaceae (5), Convolvulaceae (4) and Urticaceae(4). The rest of the dicotyledonous families are with only 3,2 orsingle genus as representatives in the flora of the region. Amongmonocotyledons, Orchidaceae with 7 genera and Commelinaceae and Gramineaewith 4 genera each rank as first three families in generic concentrationand the rest of the families are represented by 3 or a lessnumber of genera. A majority of families of both dicotyledons andmonocotyledonscontain only one or two genera and a few species asrepresented in the area. This is partly because of the very highdisturbance on the flora of the region bringing down the diversity.Desmodium (4 species), Ficus (4 species) and Dalbergia (4species) are the genera with maximum species content in theMalayattoor flora. Rest of the genera of both dicotyledons and monocotyledonspossess only one, two or rarely 3 species each in the studyarea.A majority of genera are represented only by a single spciesunder them which also indicates the highly disturbed and degradedstatus of the flora of the region.2.7. FLORA OF SPECIALIZED ECOLOGICAL NICHEAs mentioned earlier, the flora of Malayattoor forestscontainfloristic combinations that resulted in evergreen, moistdeciduous,64

dry deciduous,, scrub and isolated pure patches of certain species likeTerminalia paniculata and Pterocarpus marsupium. They are in additionto those small aquatic or semi-aquatic formations which are mostlyseasonal in nature.With regard to the forest types seen in the area,there is nothing characteristic to the region apart from the fact thatthey are at various stages of degradation. As specialized ecologicalniche, only the evergreen formation, pure patches of Terminalia andPterocarpus and aquatic formations of seasonal nature deserve considerationas they are quite characteristic in this highly degraded foresttract (Fig.2.1).2.7.1. Evergreen patchThis is a small forest patch occurring in a depression towardsthe North-eastern side of Kurishumudi peak. An area of 4-5 ha comesunder this ecological niche, which still posses almost all features ofa truly evergreen forest - closed top canopy, sparse subcanopy andpoor ground flora composed of shade and humidity loving species.Accumulation of humus harbouring a rich microflora and occurance ofseveral smaller animal species had made this patch locally known a5'Patta-kund'. As in the case of any other virgin evergreen forest,from here also, there originates a small hill stream which suddenlydescends to about 15 metres within the patch itself and subsequentlyproceeds through the moist deciduous forest and teak plantations toJoin I11i-thodu flowing along the boundary of the reserved forests.Even on sunny days, due to the closed nature of the canopy, sunlightseldom penetrates to the ground, and because of this, the ground is65

humid throughout the year. As a peculiarity of the forest type inMalayattoor may be mentioned the total absence of blood-suckingleeches which are quite common in the evergreen forests of Kerala.Floristically, the vegetation type is not very much diverse as in thecase of any other part of Kerala where the forest type is seen.Thetop canopy of the vegetation of the region includes lofty trees withdense crown like Myristica malabarica, Hydnocarpus pentandrus, Saracaasoca, Knema attenuata, Vateria indica and so on.The subcanopy treesof the patch include Baccaurea courtallensis, Xanthophyllum flave-scens, lxora arborea, Chionanthus mala-elengi,Neolitsea cassia, Anti-desma bunius, etc. The endemic palm Caryota urens with lot of seed-lings and medium-sized plants is a common feature of the vegetationhere.Surprisingly, there is not even a single fully grown palm be-longing to the species in the evergreen patch of Malayattoor.Groundflora is composed of herbaceous species like Elatostemmalineolatum,Nilgirianthus barbatus, Pavetta blanda, Calamus thawitesii, Dracaenaterni flora, Chasalia curvi flora, Ancistrocladus heyneanus, etc. Infact, Ancistrocladusheyneanus is rather profusely growing in theregion other than any other element of the ground flora.As a typicalexample ofan evergreen forest, this patch can be of demonstrativevaluefor the visitors of the Nature Study Centre which is very nearto and is accessible by foot.2.7.2. Pure patchesIn Kannimangalam section, there are two pure patches, one ofPterocarpus marsupium and the other of Terminalia paniculata, eachnaving an extent of about 5-6 hectares. It seems they were raised

earlier, but now growing in the natural condition without any silviculturalor management inputs. Eventhough ground flora is very poorin these two patches, the tree flora is by and large composed of oneof these two species only giving the appearence of a monoculture plantation.The pure patch of Pterocarpus marsupium is located in thewestern periferyof Kannimangalam section, beyond a small seasonalh 11 stream.The area is with several rocky outcrops and ground f orais formed mostly by species like Asparagus racemosus, Eupatoriumade-nophorum, Cipadessa bacci fera, Microros paniculata, Canthiumangusti-folium, Clerodendrum viscosum, Curculigo orchioides,Cymbopogon flex-uosus, etc. During summer, the area is almost devoid of a luxuriantground flora and graceful stands of Pterocarpus marsupium, all ofthesame size and height, are seen almost as a pure stand.Growth is alsofound to be very good for the trees.The pure patch of Terminalia paniculata is also in theKannimangalam section, in a valley along the sides of a seasonal watercourse.Here also, practically, the ground flora is formed only ofseasonal herbs and lofty, clean-boled trees of this species are evenlydistributed as a monoculture plantation which extends to about 5-6hectares. Along the borders of this pure patch are plantations ofteak. Species like Cyclea peltata, Cissampelos pareira, Glycosmismauritiana, Nothapodytes nimmoniana, Wagatea spicata, Canthium angustifolium,Calamus thwai tesii and Pothos scandens are quite prevelanthere adding to the floristic diversity of this pure patch of Terminaliapaniculata.67

2.7.3. Aquatic formationsEventhough there is no true aquatic vegetation in the studyarea, a seasonal aquatic formation and a wetland pure patch formed ofthe avoid species, Lagenandra ovata, are found in the Kannimangalamsection of Malayattocrr forests which are quite characteristic ecologicalformations.Asmentioned earlier, the grassland formation in Kannimangalamsect on, which during monsoon get covered by a thin layer of water, isregu arly drained by a small canal that runs from one end of it.Inthis grassland area, during monsoon when it becomes wet and marshy,aquatic species like Utricularia graminifolia, Impatiens chinensis,Eriocaulon quinquangulare, etc. colonize giving a gracefulappearenceto the whole area when those species are in bloom. During summer, thegrassland is left with only certain bushy species like Xeromphisuli-ginosa, Flacourtia indica and Helixanthera wallichiana, concentratedin 2-3 patches leaving the rest of the area as an open grassland.Thenoteworthy feature of the grassland here is that it always remain as agrass carpet without any growth, except for the shrubaceous speciesfound here and there.As such, this is a peculiar ecological niche inthe whole of the Malayattoor forests worth preserving as a demonstra-tion area. Along the sides of this grassland there is a very luxu-riant growth of tree species and climbers like Chionanthus mala-elengi,Dalbergia horrida, Aporusa lindleyana, Elaeocarpus munronii,Xeromphis uliginosa, Neolitsea cassia and Mallotus philippensis.68

2.8. GENERAL OBSERVRTIONS AND CONCLUSIONSIn general, theflora of Malayattoor forests is scanty innature, due to degradation of the vegetation types met with there byvarious factors and also because of the presence of sheet rockandlateritic caps here and there. Floristic diversity is; also rathervery poor as is evident from the checklist and synopsis of the floragiven earlier. Tree species are also less in number, so also liana.Ground flora is not rich and invasion of weeds like Mikania micrantha,Eupatorium adenophorum, Argemone mexicana, Lantana camera var. aculeata,etc. is quite common both in the outskirts and also quite interiorin the forest. As most of the elements of the ground flora areexotic weeds that are aggressive, there is every possibility thatthenative ground herbs were suppressed to a maximum extent, thereby re-ducing their diversity and representation in the area.Added to this,there is heavy anthrcpogenic influences by way of large scaleremovalof fodder, green manure and other economically or medicinally impor-tant species which also have contributed to the general decline of thevegetation, so also its diversity and regeneration.However, in certain pockets, still there are patches of moreorless undisturbed forest vegetation with several native or rare andendangered species.Example of such areas include the evergreen patchwith lofty trees like Vateria indica, Knema attenuata and rare treesof Saraca asoca. In this patrh, there are also quite a good number ofendemic species of South-West India namely Baccaurea courtallensis,Nilgirianthus barbatus, Polyalthia rufescens, Ancistrocladus heyneanus,Caryota urens, Nothopegia travancorica, etc. and two species the

curious root parasitic herb:, Aeginetia indica and Aeginetia pedunculata.Similarly, in Kannimanqalam and Kurishumudi sections alsothere are a few noteworthy species like Grewia lawsoniana, Grewiaglabra, Canscora diffusa, Piper longum and orchids like Acampe praemosa,Geodorum densiflorum, Rhynchostylis retusa, and so on. It isonly the Karakad section which is very poor in native flora, mainlydue to the establishment of cashew plantations, poor site qualityandvery heavy human disturbances. It is hoped that, with the establishmentof the Nature Study Centre, there will be more attention givenfor the protection of the flora of the region. It is also expectedthat people, who will be educated on the importance of our floristicwealth and need to protect it through the activities of the NatureStudy Centre, will contribute much to the cause of conservingtheflora of Malayattoor in future.2.9. AKNOWLEDGEMENTSWe are thankful to the Kerala Forest Department for financialsupport to undertake this study. Thanks are also extended toDr. S. Chand Basha, Director, KFRI for his continued interest andfacilities made available for the study.The identities of severalspecimens were confirmed at Herbarium of the Botanical Survey ofIndia, Coimbatore and we are thankful to Dr. N.P.Balakrishnan, Dr.A.N. Henry and Shri. P. Bhargavan for the same. Officials of theKerala Forest Department at Malayattoor and Kodanad extended allhelpand cooperation during field visits and to them also we are very muchgrateful. The maps presented in this report were prepared by Shri.Subash Kuriakose, KFRI and to him also we are grateful.70

2.10. LITERATURE CITEDBentham, G. and J.D. Hooker, 1862-83. Genera Plantarum.&Co. London.3 vols. ReeveBourdillon, T.F. 1908. The Forest Trees of Travancore. Govt. Press,Trivandrum.Gamble, J.S. 1915-36. Flora of the Presidency of Madras. 3 vols.Adlard & Sons Ltd., London.Hooker, J.D. 1872-97. The Flora of the British India. 7 vols. Reeve &Co., London.Kurien, Akkara 1980. Working Plan for the Malayattoor Forestfor 1974-75 to 1984-85. Govt. Press, Shornur.DivisionRama Rao, Rao Sahib, M. 1914. Flowering Plants of Travancore. Govt.Press, Trivandrum.Nair, K.K.N. 1989. Floristic Studies. In K. Balasubramanian et al.Long-term Environmental and Ecological Studies of PooyamkuttyHyrdro-electric Project in tho Western Ghats of Kerrlr -Preconstruction Stage Analysis. KFRI Research Report. KFRI,Peechi:40-140.Viswanathan, T.P. 1956. Working Plan for the Moovattupuzha Part of theMalayattoor Division for 1951-52 to 1966-67. Govt. Press,Eranakulam.71

APPENDIXIINDEX TO MEDICINAL PLANTSAbrus precatorius, 31Abutilon indicum, 24Acampe praemorsa, 57Achyranthes aspera, 50Aerva lanata, 50Ageratum conyzoides, 41Aglaia elaegnoidea, 28Alanqium salvifolium, 39Albizia chinensis, 35Albizia lebbeck, 35Anacard ium occ ident al e , 30Anamirta cocculus, 22Antidesma bunius, 52Aporusa lindleyana, 52Argemone mexicana, 22Artocarpus hirsutus, 55Asparagus racemosus, 60Baliospermum montanum, 52Biophytum sensitivum, 27Blumaea lacera, 42Boerhavia diffusa, 49Breynia rhamnoides, 53Bridelia scandens, 53Butea parviflora, 3172

Callicarpa tomentosa, 48Calycopteris floribunda, 36Canscora diffusa, 44Cardiospermum helicacabum, 30Careya arborea, 37Cassia fistula, 34Chasalia ophioxyloides, 39Cissampelos pareira, 22Cleome viscosa, 23Clerodendrum serratum, 48Clerodendrum viscosum, 48Costus speciosus, 58Croton caudatus, 53Curculigo orchioides, 59Curcuma neilgherrensis, 58Cyclea peltata, 22Cymbopogon flexuous, 62Cynodon dactylon , 62Dalbergia lanceolaria, 31Dalbergia latifolia, 32Dalbergia volubilis, 32Dendrophthoe falcata, 51Desmodium gangeticum, 32Desmodium triquetrum, 32Desmodium velutinum, 32Dioscorea oppositifolia, 59Dioscorea pentaphylla, 5973

Elephantopus scaber, 42Emilia sonchifolia, 42Ervatamia heyneana, 44Euphorbia antiquorum, 53Evolvulus alsinoides, 45FICUS benqhalensis, 55Ficus reliqiosa, 55Ficus tinctoria, 55Gloriossa superba, 60Glycosmis mauritiana, 27Haldina cordifolia, 40Hedyotis umbellata, 40Helicteris isora, 25Heliotropium scabrun, 45Hemidesmus indicus, 44Hiptaqe benghalensis, 27Holarrehna antidysentrica, 44Hydnocarpus pentandrus, 23Impatiens chinensis, 27Ixora coccinea, 40Jatropha gossipifolia, 5374

Lagerstroemia speciosa, 38Lantana camara, 48Laportea crenulata, 56Leea indica, 29Leucas aspera, 49Litsea stocksii, 51Luffa act tangula, 38Macaranqa peltata, 54Madhuca longifolia, 43Maesa perrottetiana, 43Mallotus philippensis, 54Mangifera indica, 30Memecylon umbellatum, 37Microcos paniculata, 26Mimosa pudica, 36Mussaenda glabrata, 40Myristica dactyloides, 51Nareqamia alata, 28Narinqi crenulata, 28Neolitsea cassia, 51Olea dioica, 43Ophiorrhiza mungos, 41Passiflora foetida, 38Phyllanthus emblica, 5475

Physalis minima, 46Piper longum, 50Pongamia pinnata, 33Pothos scandens, 62Pouzolzia zeylanica, 56Pterocarpus marsupium, 33Rauvolfia serpentina, 44Rhynchostylis retusa, 57Sapindus laurifolius, 30Saraca asoca, 34Satyrium nepalense, 58Scoparia dulcis, 46Securinega leucopyrus, 54Sida cordifolia, 25Solanum violaceum, 46Stachytarpheta jamaicensis, 48Streblus asper, 56Tectona grandis, 49Terminalia crenulata, 36Terminalia paniculata, 36Tetrameles nudiflora, 38Thespesia lampas, 25Trema orientalis, 5576

Vanda tessellata, 58Vateria indica, 23Xeromphis uliginosa, 41Xylia xylocarpa, 36Ziziphus oenoplia, 29Ziziphus rugosa, 2977

SPECIES INDEXAbrus precatorius, 31Abutilon indicum, 24Abutilon persicurn, 24Acacia auriculiformis, 35Acacia torta, 35Acampe praernorsa, 57Achyranthes aspera, 50Aeginetia indica, 47Aeginetia pedunculata, 47Aeqinetia pedunculata, 47Aerva lanata, 50Ageratum conyzoides, 41Aqlaia elaegnoidea, 28Alanqium salvifolium, 39Albizia chinensis, 35Albizia lebbeck, 35Albizia odoratissima, 35Amischophacelus axillaris, 60Anacardium occidentale, 30Anarnirta cocculus, 22Ancistrocladus heyneanus, 24Antidesma alexiteris, 52Antidesrna bunius, 52Aporusa lindleyana, 52Arqernone mexicana, 22Argyreia nervosa, 4578

Artabotrys zeylanicus, 21Artocarpus hirsutus, 55Asparagus racemosus, 60Baccaurea courtallensis, 52Baliospermum montanum, 52Bambusa bambos, 62Bauhinia malabarica, 33Begonia malabarica, 39Biophytum sensitivum, 27Blainvillea acmella, 42Blumaea lacera, 42Boehmeria glomerulifera, 56Boerhavia diffusa, 49Bombax insigne, 24Breynia rhamnoides, 53Bridelia scandens, 53Butea parviflora, 31Caesalpinia mimosoides, 34Calamus thwaitesii, 61Call icarpa tomentosa, 48Calycopteris floribunda, 36Canscora diffusa, 44Canthium angustifolium, 39Cardiospermum helicacabum, 30Careya arborea, 37Caryota urens, 6179

Cassia fistula, 34Cassia siamea, 34Chasalia ophioxyloides, 39Chionanthus mala-elengi, 43Cipadesa baccifera, 28Cissampelos pareira, 22Cleome monophy la, 22Cleome viscosa, 23Clerodendrum serratum, 48Clerodendrum viscosum, 48Commelina benghalensis, 60Costus speciosus, 58Crotalaria juncea, 31Crotalaria walkeri, 31Croton bonplandianum, 53Croton caudatus, 53Curculigo orchioides, 59Curcuma neilgherrensis, 58Cyclea peltata, 22Cymbopogon flexuous, 62Cynodon dactylon, 62Dalbergia horrida, 31Dal berg 1 a 1 anceol ari a, 31Dalbrrgia latifolia, 32Dalbergia volubilis, 32Delonix regia, 34Dendrobium macrostachyum, 5780

Dendrophthoe falcata, 51Demodium gangeticum, 32Desmodium motorium, 32Desmodium triquetrum, 32Desmodium velutinum, 32Dichapetalum gelonioides, 28Dillenia pentagyna, 21Dioscorea oppositifolia, 59Dioscorea pentaphylla, 59Diplocyclos palmatus, 38Dracaena ternif lora, 60Elaeocarpus munronii, 26Elatostemma lineolatum, 56Elephantopus scaber, 42Emilia sonchifolia, 42Ensete superbum, 59Eriocaulon quinquangulare, 62Ervatamia heyneana, 44Erythrina indica, 32Eupatorium adenophorum, 42Euphorbia antiquorum, 53Evolvulus alsinoides, 45Ficus benghalensis, 55Ficus callosa, 55Ficus religiosa, 55Ficus tinctoria, 5581

Flacourtia indica, 23Floscopa scandens, 61Geodorum densif lorum, 57Globba ophioqlossa, 58Gloriossa superba, 60Glycosmis mauritiana, 27Grewia glabra, 26Grewia lawsoniana, 26Grewia serrulata, 26Haldina cordifolia, 40Hedyotis umbellata, 40Helicteris isora, 25Helictropium scabrum, 45Helixanthera wallichiana, 52Hemedesmus indicus, 44Hibiscus platanifolius, 24Hibiscus surattensis, 25Hiptage benghalensis, 27Holarrehna antidysentrica, 44Hydnocarpus pentandrus, 23Hyptis suaveolens, 49Impatiens chinensis, 27Ipomoea hederifolia, 45Ixora brachiata, 40Ixora coccinea, 4082

Jatropha gossipifolia, 53Kirganelia reticulata, 54Knema attenuata, 50Knoxia sumatrensis, 40Lagenandra ovata, 61Lagerstroemia microcarpa, 37Lagerstroemia speciosa, 38Lantana camara, 48Laportea crenulata, 56Leea asiatica, 29Leea indica, 29Leucas aspera, 49Litsea stocksii, 51Luffa acutangula, 38Macaranga peltata, 54Madhuca longifolia, 42Maesa perrottetiana, 42Mallotus philippensis, 54Mangifera indica, 30Melochia corchorifolia, 25Memecylon umbellatum, 37Merremia vitifolia, 45Microcos paniculata, 26Mikania micrantha, 42Mimosa pudica, 3683

Murdannia zeylanicum, 61Mussaenda qlabrata, 40Myristica dactyloides, 51Naravelia zeylanica, 21Naregamia alata, 28Narinyi crenulata, 28Neolitsea cassia, 51Nilgirianthus barbatus, 47Nothapodytes nimmoniana, 29Nothopegia travancorica, 30Ochlandra travancorica, 63Olea dioica, 43Ophiorrhiza mungos, 41Osbeckia aspera, 37Osbeckia zeylanica, 37Passiflora foetida, 38Peperomia dindigulensis, 50Phol idota pal 1 ida, 57Phyllanthus emblica, 54Physalis minima, 46Piper longum, 50Pogostemon paniculatus, 49Polyalthia longifolia, 21Polyalthia rufescens, 21Pongamia pinnata, 3384

Pothos scandens, 62Pouzolzia zeylanica, 56Psychotria congesta, 41Psychotria octosulcata, 41Pterocarpus marsupium, 33Rauvolfia serpentina, 44Rhynchosia rothii, 33Rhynchostylis retusa, 57Sapindus laurifolius, 30Saraca asoca, 34Satyrium nepalense, 58Scoparia dulcis, 46Securinega leucopyrus, 54Sida cordifolia, 25Solanum violaceum, 46Stachytarpheta jamaicensis, 48Sterculia populnifolia, 25Streblus asper, 56Tectona grandis, 49Tephrosi a purpurea, 33Terminalia crenulata, 36Terminalia paniculata, 36Tetrameles nudiflora, 38Thespesia lampas, 25Thunbergia fragrans, 4785

Torenia bicolor, 46Trema orientalis, 55Utricularia graminifolia, 47Vanda tessellata, 58Vateria indica, 23Waqatea spicata, 35Xanthophyllum flavescens, 23Xeromphis uliqinosa, 41Xylia xylocarpa, 36Ziziphus oenoplia, 29Ziziphus ruqosa, 2986

MACROFUNGAL FLORA AND CHECKLISTOF PLANT DISEASES OF MALAYATTOORK. V. Sankaran and E J. M. Florence

3. MACROFUNGAL FLORA AND CHECKLIST OFPLANT DISEASES OF MALAYATTOORK.V. Sankaran and E.J.M.FlorencePathology DivisionKerala Forest Research InstitutePeechi, Kerala, IndiaCon t en t sAbstract3.1. Introduction3.2. Materials and methods3.2.1. Collection and identification of macrofunqi3.2.2. Isolation of fungi associated with plant diseases3.3. Results and discussion3.3.1. Macrofungal flora3.2.2. Survey for plant diseases3.4. Acknowledgements3.5. ReferencesAn inventory of the macrofungal flora of Malayattoor forestswas prepared by making intensive collections from the area for aperiod of one year. A survey for the occurrence of plant diseases inthe area was also conducted during the same period.87

A total of 44 species of fungi belonging to 28 genera werecollected from the study area. The majority (61%) of the fungi be-longed to Aphyllophorales (Basidiomycotina). The Agaricales(Basidio-mycotina) was represented by eleven species, Ascomycotina by fiveandMyxomycetes by one species. Of the fungi collected, 14 species werereported to be very frequent in distribution in Kerala and elsewhereinIndia, 16 were common and one species, viz. Phellinus dependens,infrequent.The occurrence of the following four species, viz. Corio-lopsis telfarii, Loweporus fusco-purpureus, Microporellus obovatus andTrdmetes varians were only rarely recorded from India. This studyforms the second report of M.obovatus and T. varians in India.The survey for plant diseases revealed the occurrence of atotal of 25 foliar diseases affecting 23 species of plants. Colletotrichumgloeosporioides was the most frequent fungus associated withleaf diseases. Other pathogens included Sclerotium rolfsii, Phomopsisspp., Colletotrichum dematium and a species of Bortryosphaeria.Of thediseases recorded, all except three (viz. Colletotrichum leaf spot ofHaldina rordifolia and Strychnos nux-vomica and Phomopsis leaf spot ofClerodendrum viscosum) formed new host records for the respectivefungi in India.The study indicated that continued exploration andsystematicstudy of fungi in tropical forests would bring to light manyunknownand poorly known species which are economically important and whichmay be of potential use in biotechnology.88

3.1. INTRODUCTIONThe fungi are a major component of tropical ecosystems through-out the world. They are involved in innumerable interactions withplants, animals and man, ranging from saprophytism to parasitismandsymbiosis (Subramanian, 1982). However, the biodiversity of fungi hasnot received much attention mostly due to lick of awareness amongbiologists of the signiftion and human progresscance of fungi in evoHawksworth, 1991).ution, ecosystem func-Itis widely accepted that the tropical fungal flora is morediversein form and structure. But, only very few attempts have beenmade to study the tropical fungi systematically. Vast tracts in thetropical belts, and diverse habitats and substrates in them remaincompletely unexplored for fungi (Subramanian, 1982).It is against this background that the present study was undertaken.The main objectives of the study were:1. to gather information on the macrofungal flora of theMalayattoor forests of Kerala, and.ii. to prepare a checklist of plant diseases in the area.3.2. MATERIALS AND METHODS3.2.1. Collection and identification of macrofungiCollection of the macrofungi were made during September, 1991to October, 1992. General macrocharacters of the fruit bodies89

including colour of different tissues were noted in the fielditself.The fruitifications were wrapped in paper bags and brought to thelaboratory. Spore deposits were taken on microslides by keepingfreshfruit body in humid condition. Measurements and detailed observationof the fruit bodies were made in the laboratory.Microscopic details of various representative areas of thefruit body, hyphal system and spores of members of Aphyllophoraleswere studied as suggested by Teixeira (1962). Five percentKDH andlactophenol were used as the general mounting media. Congo redandcotton blue were also used. Amyloid reaction of the spores were stu-died using Melzer's reagent. Identifications of the fungi were basedon macro and micro characters of the fruit body. Type of rot producedbythe fungus on wood was also considered for identifying members ofAphyllophorales. Books and monographs used for identifying the macrofungiinclude, 1. Indian Polyporaceae by Bakshi (1971), 11. a preliminarypolypore flora of East Africa by Ryvarden and Johansen (1980),111. studies on wood-inhabiting macrofungi of Kerala by Ganesh (1988),iv. a preliminary agaric flora of East africa (Pegler, 1977), v.Aga-ric flora of Sri Lanka (Pegler, 1986) and vi. The agaricales in moderntaxonomy (Singer, 1975).3.2.2. Isolation of fungi associated with plant diseasesSamples of plant parts showing symptoms of various diseases werecollected from the study area during September, 1991 to October, 1992.In the laboratory, small portions of the infected tissues were surface90

sterilized in 0.1% mercuric chloride solution and washed in severalchanges of sterile water. These were then platedon potato-dextroseagar(PDA) and incubated at 25 + 2 o C for one week. The morphologyofthe isolates was studied and identification done using mycologicalkeys and monographs.3.3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION3.3.1. Macrofungal floraAn enumeraton of macrofungi collected from Malayattoor forestsfollows.The distribution of these fungi in India and their economicimportance are also given with each of the species.1. Chlorophyllum molybdities (Meyer ex Fr.) Massee (Agaricales -Basidomycotina)Locality(L): Illithode, Malayattoor, Kerala. Date of collection(Date): 26 Sept. 1991. Distribution: Very common in Kerala (LittleFlower, 1983) and other parts of India (Manjula, 1983).2. Clarkeinda trachodes (Berk.) Singer (Agaricales - Basidiomycotina)L: Illithode. Date: 26 Sept. 1991. Distribution: Common. Reportedfrom Kerala by Leelavathy et a1.(1981) and Little Flower(1983).91

3. Collybia leucophaea (Berk. & Br.) Sacc. (Agaricales-Basidiomycot ina)L: Mulamkuzhi, Malayattoor, Kerala. Date: 20 July 1992. Distribu-tion: Common. Reported from Kerala by Manimohan (1988).4. Coriolopsis caperata (Berk.) Murr. (Aphyllophorales-Basidiomycotina)L: Mulamkuzhi, Malayattoor, Kerala. Date: 21 Oct. 1992. Distribu-tion: Common. Reported from Assam, Bengal, Madhya Pradesh,Andamans and Madras (Bakshi, 1971). Known to occur in Nilambur,Silent Valley and Wynad (Kannoth and Begur reserve forests)forests in Kerala (Ganesh, 1988). Economic Importance (EI): Asso-ciated with white fibrous rot of dead logs.5. Coriolopsis telfarii (Kl.) Ryv. (Aphyllophorales-Basidiomycotina)L: Illithode, Malayattoor, Kerala. Date: 26 Sept. 1991. Distribution:Rare. Reported as Polyporus zeylanicus Berk. by Bakshi etal. (1972) from Dehra Dun. Ganesh (1988) recorded C. telfarii fromNilambur, Tirunelli (Wynad Dt.) and Malakkappara (Trichur Dt.)inKerala. EI: Causes white rot of wood.6. Favolus brasiliensis (Fr.) Fr. (Aphyllophorales-Basidiomycotina)L: Mulamkuzhi. Date: 23 Oct. 1992. Distribuion: Common. Known tooccur in Uttar Pradesh, Sikkim, West Bengal (Bakshi, 1971;Bilgrami et al. 1991) and Kerala (Ganesh, 1988). EI: Causes whitefibrous rot.92

7. Flavodon flavus (K1.) Ryv. (Aphyllophorales-Basidiomycotina)L: Illithode, Mulamkuzhi and Kannimanqalam. Date: 26 Sept.1991, 22Oct. 1992, 23 Oct. 1992. Distribution: Common in Kerala andStates of India (Bakshi, 1971). EI: Associated with whiteotherfibrousrot.8. Fomitopsis rhodophaeus (Lev.) Imaz. (Aphyllophorales-Basidiomycotina)L: Illithode and Mulamkuzhi. Date: 22 Oct. 1992. Distribution:Common in Kerala forests (Ganesh, 1988). Known to occur inKarnataka, Tamil Nadu and West Bengal (Bakshi, 1971). EI: Causesbrown cuboidal rot of wood.9. Hexagonia tenuis (Hook.) Fr. (Aphyllophorales-Basidiomycotina)L: Illithode, Kannimanqalam and Kurisumudi. Date: 26 Sept. 1991,23 Oct. 1992. Distribution: Common in Kerala and other States inIndia (Bakshi, 1971; Ganesh, 1988). EI: Causes white fibrous rotof wood.10. Hygrocybe conica (Scop. : Fr.) Kummer (Agaricales-Basidiomycotina)L: Mulamkuzhi. Date: 20 July 1992. Distribution: Common in Kerala(Little Flower,1983)11. Lenzites acuta Berk. (Aphyllophorales-Basidiomycotina)L: Illithode, Mulamkuzhi, Kannimangalam and Kurisumudi. Date: 26Sept. 1991, 21 Oct. 1992, 23 Oct. 1992. Distribution: Widespread

throughout India. Occurs in all types of habitats includingforests, wooded areas, garden, timber depots andexposed woodenstructure of buildings (Bakshi, 1971; Ganesh, 1988;Bilgrami, etal. 1991). Synonym: Daedalea flavida Lev. EI: Causes whitespongyrot of dead branches of living trees. This is one of the commonestspecies found in Kerala which shows a lot of morphologicalvaria-t ions (polymorphic ).12. Lepista hyalodes (Berk. & Br.) Pegler (Agaricales-Basidiomycotina)L: Illithode. Dated: 26 Sept. 1991. Distribution: Very common inKerala (Manimohan & Leelavathy, 1989).13. Loweporus fusco-purpureus (Pers.) Ryv. (Aphyllophorales-Basidiomycotina)L: Illithode and Mulamkuzhi. Date: 22 Oct. 1992. Distribution:Rare. Known to occur in Andaman and Nicobar Islands (Bakshi,1971). Collected from Sholayar (Trichur) and Nadukani (Nilambur)forests i n Kerala by Ganesh (1988). EI: Associated with white fib-rous rot.14. Leucocoprinus birnbaumii (Corda) Singer (Agaricales-Basidiomycotina)L: Kurishumudi. Date: 20 July 1992. Distribution: Very common inKerala (Little Flower, 1983) and other parts of India (Manjula,1983).94

15. Marasmiellus purpureoalbus (Petch.) Singer (Agaricales-Basidiomycotina)L: Illithode. Date: 26 Sept. 1991. Distribution: Very common inKerala (Manimohan and Leelavathy, 1989).16. Marasmius haematocephalus (Mont.) Fr. (Agaricales-Basidiomycotina)L: Kurishumudi. Date: 20 July 1992. Distribution: Common. Knownto occur in Kerala (Manimohan, 1988) and Tamil Nadu (Manjula,1983).17. Microporellus obovatus Ryv. (Aphyllophorales-Basidiomycotina)L: Kurisumudi, Malayattoor, Kerala. Date: 23 Oct. 1992. Distribu-tion: flare. This is the second record of this fungus from India.Ganesh(1988) reported its occurrence in Nilambur, Sholayar andVellarimala(Wynad) forests in Kerala. EI: Associated with whitefibrous rot of wood.18. Microporus affinis (Blume & Nees ex. Fr.) Kuntze(Aphyllophorales-Basidiomycotina)L: Illithode. Date: 26 Sept. 1991. Distribution: Widely distri-buted in forests of Kerala (Ganesh, 1988). Known to occur in otherStates of India also (Bakshi, 1971; Bilgrami, et al. 1991). EI:Causes white rot of wood.19. Microporus xanthopus (Fr.) Kuntze (Aphyllophorales-Basidiomycotina)L: Illithode, Mulamkuzhi and Kurisumudi. Date: 26 Sept. 1991, 21Oct. 1992, 23 Oct. 1992. Distribution: Common in Kerala forests95

growing mostly on small branches or twigs (Ganesh, 1988). El:Causes white rot.20. Nigroporus vinosus (Berk.) Murr. (Aphyllophorales-Basidiomycotina)L: Mulamkuzhi. Date: 21 Oct. 1992. Distribution: Common in Keralaforests (Ganesh, 1988). Reported to occur in Dehra Dun, AssamandWestBengal (Bakshi, 1971). EI: Associated with white spongy rotof wood.21. Phellinus fastuosus (Lev.) Ryv. (Aphyllophorales-Basidiomycotina)L: Mulamkuzhi. Date: 21 Oct. 1992. Distribution: Common on livinghard wood trees in evergreen forests and open areas in Kerala(Ganesh, 1988). Known to occur in other States in India also(Bakshi, 1971; Bilgrami, e t al. 1991). EI: Causes heart rot inTerminalia spp. and other trees.22. Phellinus dependens (Murr.) Ryv. (Aphyllophorales -Basidiomycotina)L: Illithode and Mulamkuzhi. Date: 22 Oct. 1992. Distribution: Notcommon. Reportedfrom Sholayar and Kathiyur reserve forests inKerala(U.P.)(Ganesh, 1988). Bakshi (1971) recorded it from Nainitaland the Himalayas. EI: Associated with white pocket rot ofheart wood.

23. Phellinus gilvus (Schw.) Pat. (Aphyllophorales-Basidiomycotina)L: Illithode, Kurisumudi. Date: 26 Sept. 1991, 23 Oct. 1992. Distribution:Cosmopolitan. EI: Causes white rot of commerciallyimportant timber species in Kerala (Ganesh, 1988).24. Polyporus arcularius (Batsch.) Fr. (Aphyllophorales-Basid iomycol i na )L: Illithode and Mulamkuzhi. Date: 22 Oct. 1992. Distribution:Widespread.Reported from several parts of Uttar Pradesh, Orissaand Kerala (Bakshi, 1971; Ganesh, 1988; Bilgrami, et al. 1991).EI: Causes white rot of wood.25. Polyporus grammocephalus Berk. (Aphyllophorales-Basidiomycotina)L: Mulamkuzhi. Date: 31 Oct. 1992. Distribution: Very common inthe plains of North and South India (Bakshi, 1971; Bilgrami, etal. 1991). Ganesh (1988) reported its occurrence in several partsof Kerala. EI: Causes white stringy rot of wood.26. Pycnoporus sanguineus (Linn. ex Fr.) Murr. (Aphyllophorales-Basidiomycot ina)L: Illithode and Mulamkuzhi. Date: 22 Oct. 1992. Distribution:Very common in Kerala and other parts of India (Bilgrami, et al.1991). Synonym: Polyporus sanguineus. EI: Causes white stringyrot.97

27. Rigidoporus lineatus (Pers.) Ryv. (Aphyllophorales-Basidlomycotina)L: Illithode, Mulamkuzhi and Kurisumudi. Date: 26 Sept. 1991, 21Oct. 1992, 23 Oct. 1992. Distribution: Widely distributed inteakplantations and natural forests in Kerala (Ganesh, 1988). Re-corded from Uttar Pradesh, West Bengal and South Andamans (Bakshi,1971). EI: Associated with white pocket rot of wood.28. Skeletocutis nivea (Jungh.) Keller (Aphyllophorales-Basidiomycotina)L: Mulamkuzhi. Date: 21 Oct. 1992. Distribution: Cosmopolitan. Re-corded from Parambikulam, Nilambur and Calicut University Campusin Kerala (Ganesh, 1988). EI: Associated with white fibrous rot ofdecorticated branchlets.29. Termitomyces microcarpus (Berk. & Br.) Heim. (Agaricales-Basidiomycotina)L: Mulamkuzhi. Date: 20 July 1992. Distribution: Very common inKerala and other parts of India (Manjula, 1983; Leelavathy, etal. 1985). EI: edible.30. Termitomyces eurrhizus (Berk.) Heim. (Agaricales-Basidiomycotina)L: Mulamuzhi. Date: 20 July 1992. Distribution: Common. Reportedfrom Kerala (Leelavathy et al., 1985) and other parts of India(Manjula, 1983; Bilgrami, et al. 1991).EI: edible.

31. Termitomyces heimii Natarajan (Agaricales-Basidiomycotina)L: Illithode. Date: 20 July 1992. Distribution: Common. Known tooccur in Kerala (Leelavathy, et al. 1985). EI: edible32. Trametes cingulata Berk. (Aphyllophorales-Basidiomycotina)L: Kannimangalam, Malayattoor, Kerala. Data: 23 Oct. 1992. Distribution:Common throughout India (Bakshi, 1971). Known to occur inParambikulam, Sholayar and Silent Valley forests in Kerala(Ganesh, 1988). EI: Causes white rot of timber.33. Trametes lactinea (Berk.) Pat. (Aphyllophorales-Basidiomycotina)L: Illithode and Mulamkuzhi. Date: 22 Oct. 1992. Distribution:Common in plains of India (Bakshi,l971; Bilgrami, et al. 1991).Collectedfrom Tirunelli (Wynad) in Kerala by Ganesh (1988). EI:Associated with white stringy rot.34. Trametes scabrosa (Pers.) G.H. Cunn. (Aphyllophorales-Basidiomycotina)L: Mulamkuzhi. Date: 21 Oct. 1992. Distribution: Widespread inopen areas and evergreen forests in Kerala (Ganesh, 1988). EI:Causes white stringy rot. An ubiquitous member of polyporaceae.35. Trametes varians Van der Byl. (Aphyllophorales-Basidiomycotina)L: Kurisumudi. Date: 23 Oct. 1992. Distribution: Rare. This is thesecond record of this fungus from India. It has been reported earlierfrom Sultan Battery (Kerala) by Ganesh (1988). EI: Associatedwith white pocket rot.

36. Xylaria spp. (species 1 to 4) (Sphaeriales-Ascomycotina)L: Kurisumudi. Date: 23 Oct. 1992. Distribution: The genus is cos-mopolitan in distribution.37. Cookenia sp. (Pezizales-Ascomycotina)L: Mulamkuzhi. Date: 21 Oct. 1992. Distribution: Widespread in thetropics.38. Stemonitis sp. (Stemonitales-Myxomycetes)L: Mulamkuzhi. Date: 21 Oct. 1992. Distribution: Widespread.The collections also included one unidentified species each ofFlavolus, Phellinus and Hexagonia.A total of 44 species of fungi belonging to 28 genera were collectedfrom the study area. The majority (61%) of the fungi belongedto Aphyllophorales (Basidiomycotina). Agaricales (Basidiomycotina)was represented by eleven species, Ascornycotina by five and Myxomycetesby one species. Of the fungi collected (those identifiedto species level), 14 species were reported to be widespreadindistribution in Kerala and elsewhere in India, 16 species werecommon and one species viz., Phellinus dependens infrequent inoccurrence. The following four species, viz. Coriolopsis telfarii,Loweporus fusco-purpureus, Microporel lus obova tus and Trametesvarians were only rarely recorded from India. This reportformsthe second record of M.obovatus and T. varians in India.100

Though most of the species recorded during this study were commonon occurrence in Kerala/India, a few of the rare species couldalso be collected. It is felt that a detailed study (spread over alonger period) on the macrofungal flora of the area would bemuchmore rewarding.3.2. SURVEY FOR PLANT DISEASESA checklist of various plant diseases recorded from Malayattoorforests is provided in Table 3.1.101

A total of 25 foliar diseases affecting 23 species of plantswere recorded from Malayattoor forests during the present survey. Nodisease other than leaf diseases was observed during the studyperiod. Colletotrichum gloeosporioides was the most frequent fungusassociated with the diseases. It was isolated from majority (60%) ofthe affected leaf samples. Sclerotium rolfsii could be isolatedfromleaf spots in 2 plants. Phomopsis spp. were found to be associatedwith foliar infections in Hyptis suaveolens and Ipomea hederifolia.Combined infection by Collitotrichum gloeosporioides and Phomopsis sp.was noticedin Grewia tiliaefolia. Incidence of pathogens such asPhoma sp., Colletotrichum dematium and Botryosphaeria sp. were alsorecorded.Colletotrichum gloeosporioides is world-wide in distribution andhas an extremely wide host range (Mordue, 1971). In India, it is reportedto cause diseases in a large number of cultivated and wildplants (Bilgrami, et al. 1991). Colletotrichum leaf spot of Haldinacordifoliaand Strychnos nux-vomica recorded during this survey hasbeen reported earlier from Kerala by Nair, et al.(1989) and Sankaran,et al. (1980). All the other leaf spot diseases caused byC. gloeo-sporioides enlisted here, are new host records for this fungus inIndia (Bilgrami, et al. 1991).Diseases caused by Sclerotium rolfsii occur mainly intropicaland subtropical areas where high temperatures prevail during the rainyseason (Aycock, 1966). The infection of foliage of plants by106

S. rolfsii, though not very common, has been reported earlier on diff-erent hosts in USA and Indonesia (Aycock, 1966). Cassia fistula andJasminum rottlerianum are new host records for S. rolfsii.Phomopsis spp. and Phoma spp. are also widespread in occurrencecausing diseases in several plant specices (Sutton, 1980). Theoccurr-enceof Phomopsis clerodendri on Clerodendrum viscosum was reportedearlier by Kamal and Singh (1980) from Gorakhpur in Uttar Pradesh.There are no earlier reports on the association of Phomopsis spp. withleaf spot disease in Ipomea hederifolia and Hyptis suaveolens(Bilgrami, et al. 1991). The association of Phoma spp. with foliarinfectionin Glycosmis mauri tiana and Eupatorium adenophorum are re-ported here for the first time from India. Likewise, Piper longumandSchleicheraoleosa are new host records for Colletotrichum dematiumand Botryosphaeria sp. , respectively.The results of this study indicate that continued exploration andsystematic study of both saprophytic and parasitic fungi in tropicalforests would bring to light many unknwon and poorlyknown specieswhichare economically important and which may be of potential use inbiotechnology.3.4. ACKNOWLEDGMENTSThe authors are grateful to Dr. S. Chand Basha IFS,Director,Kerala Forest Research Institute for encouragement; to Dr. J.K.Sharma, Scientist-in-Charge, Division of Forest Pathology, for guid-ance; to Dr. P.N.Ganesh, Lecturer, Sree Krishna College, Guruvayur,107

for kind help in identifying some of the fungi collected; to Mr.K.I.Nauhad for help in the field work and to the Social Forestry Wing ofKerala Forest Department for providing necessary funds.3.5. REFERENCESAycock, R. 1966. Stem rot and other diseases caused by Sclerotiumrolfsii. Tech. Bull. No.174, North Carolina Agri. Exp. Station,USA. 202 p.Bakshi, B.K. 1971. Indian Polyporaceae (on trees and timber). ICAR,New Delhi. 246 p.Bakshi, B.K., M.A.R. Reddy, Y.N. Puri and S. Singh 1972. Survey ofthe Diseases of Important Native and Exotic Forest Trees inIndia. PL-480 Report. FRI, Dehra Dun.Bilgrami, K.S., S. Jamaluddin and M.A. Rizwi 1991. Fungi of India -List and References. Today & Tomorrow's Printers and Publishers,New Delhi. 798 p.Ganesh, P.N. 1988. Studies on Wood-inhabiting Macrofungi of Kerala.Ph.D. Thesis, University of Calicut.Hawksworth, D.L. 1991. The fungal dimension of biodiversity:tude significance and conservation. Nycol. Res. 95: 641-655.magni-Kamal and Singh, R.P. 1980. Fungi of Gorakhpur XXVI. Env. India 3:14-17.Leelavathy, K.M., S. Zachariah and K.V. Sankaran 1981. Clarkeindatrachodes, an agaric new to India. Mycologia 73: 204,-207.108

WILDLIFE AND LANDUSE PATTERNOF MALAYATTOOR

4. WILDLIFE AND LANDUSE PATTERN OF MALAYATTOORP. Vijayakumaran Noir and E.R. JaysonWildlife Biology DivisionKerala Forest Research InstitutePeechi, Kerala, IndiaContentsAbstrac t4.1. Introduction4.2. Methodology4.2.1. Fauna4.2.1.2. Birds4.2.2. Geographic information system (GIS)4.2.2.1. Altitude and topography4.2.2.2. Communication4.2.2.3. Water bodies4.2.2.4. Landuse data4.3. Results4.3.1. Fauna4.3.1.1. Mammals4.3.1.2. Birds4.3.1.3. Reptiles4.3.1.4. Amphibians4.3.1.5. Fishes4.3.2. Geographic information system (GIS)4.4. Discussion4.5. Acknowledgements4.6. References111

ABSTRACTIn this report, a list of larger mammals, reptiles,amphibians,fishes_ and birds observed from the study area falling in the forestsof Malayattoor is provided. Side by side, landuse pattern of theareawas also analysed using GIS techniques. Larger mammals found in thearea include Bonnet Macaque (Macaca radiata), Sambar (Cervus unicolor),Wild boar (Sus scrofa) and Jackal (Canis aureus) and indirectevidences on the occurrence of Porcupine, Pangoline, Hare and Todaycat were noted. Flying lizard (Draco dussumieri),a Malayan element inSouth Indian fauna, is alsc observed in the study area apart from 71bird species inhabiting the region. Detailed landuse pattern whichwill be useful for the establishment of the Nature Study Centre isalso added basedon GIS analysis.4.1. INTRODUCTIONThe Malayattoor Nature Study Centre is proposed to be set up in3an area of i5 km of forest land. This comes within the Kalady rangeof Malayattoor forest division. The place is well known as it is anotable pilgrim centre. Just below the proposed area, a fresh waterlake is situated. The Periyar river is situated a few kilometers tothe South.112

2For the purpose of this study, an area of about 24 km and rang-ing between 76'29' to 76'32' and 10°11.3' to 10°13.7'N is chosen(Fig. 4.11. The area contains fairly good patches of dry and moistdeciduous forests. There are also a few patches of semi-evergreen/evergreen forests. The majority of the area is, however, adegraded forest. Degradati in has taken place because of reasons likeannual fire, fuelwood and leaf manure collection by local people,forest plantation activities and general rocky nature of the area. Aconsiderable part is also under teak plantations. The failedplantation areas have been planted with cashew, eucalypts andmiscellaneousspecies of trees. There are about half a dozen granitemining quarries in and around the proposed area. Altitude of the studyarea varies from 100 m to 380 m. Because of this altitudinalrangewithin a short distance, a large part of the area is very steep. Thenorth-eastern face of the hill is a rocky cliff (Fig. 4.2).The present status of wild animals in the area is examined.Thedata collected for this component as well as the data from landusecomponent is brought into a Geographic Information System (GIS) frame-work. This is primarily intended to serve as a management toolduringthe process of establishment of the study centre. From the database,sites for meeting different plantation requirements, cropping require-ments and infrastructure planning can be selected.The database con-tains topographical information including gradient, status of floraandfauna, soil and present landuse. In this report, two aspects arecovered namely Wildlife component and GIS component.113

4.2. METHODOLOGY4.2.1. Fauna4.2.1.1. MammalsThe observations were carried out from August, 1991 toSeptember, 1992. Eight field trips were made during the study period.The entire study area was surveyed on foot for detecting the presenceof animals. The method of line transects were employed to censusmammals in the intensive study areas (Rodgers, 1991). Four line transectswere identified in the study area covering all representativevegetation types namely, evergreen, moist-deciduous, teakplantationsand cashew plantations. The location of the transects are shown inFig. 4.1, the following is their description.ii.iii.iv.i. Bottom of Kurishumudi to top of Kurishumudi (1,500 m),Kannampuzha estate to Pattapparakundu (2,000 m),Kannimanqalam Junction to Evergreen camp shed (1,500 m), andInside cashew plantations near Kurishumudi (1,000 m).While moving through the transects, all the mammals noticed onboth sides of the transects were recorded, and following details werealso collected.ii.iii.iv.i. Name of species,Number of animals in the group,Activity at the time of observation, andVegetation type.114

Apart from this, all indirect evidences of animals such assence of pellets, scats, spoor, pugmarks, foot prints, dungs andpre-dro-ppings were noted down and identified.4.2.1.2. BirdsLine transect sampling and point sampling methocs were usedforcensusing birds. Four line transects were chosen with .one kilometrelength. A l l the transects were covered between 7 AM to 12 noon. Fifteenminutes were spent at each point for point sampling of birds.This method was employed in areas not covered by the line transects.All the vegetation types identified in the area were covered withthese two methods.4.2.2. Geographic Information System (GIS)For GIS implementation, data is recorded on the following maplayers (Figs. 4.3 to 4.6).4.2.2.1. Altitude and topographyThis information was obtained from 1:25,000 scale survey ofIndia toposheets.4.2.2.2. CommunicationCommunication layer included roads and foot path obtained fromSurvey of India maps and also marked from the field.115

4.2.2.3. Water bodiesLakes, rivers and streams were recorded from toposheets.4.2.2.4. Landuse dataTheinformation obtained from available satellite images andaerial photographs were found to be insufficient for the purpose.landuse was recorded by field checking on the 1:5OOO scale map onThethestudy area prepareu by the land surveyor of the Forest Department. Theaccuracy of roads, plantations and boundary was closely examinedandcorrections and subclassifications marked on the map. In this way,forest and plantations of different degradation status could bemar-ked. The maps were digitized using the Roots digitizing package(Curson-Rickert, 1992). The maps were converted to high resolutiongrid images (about 10 m x 10 m) and transported to GIS package foranalysis. IDRISI was the GIS package used for the analysis(Eastman,1992).4.3. RESULTS4.3.1. FaunaFaunistically, the area is not very rich when compared to wildl-ife sanctuaries in Kerala. The degraded natural forests and largescale human habitations around are the reasons. However, theavifaunais fairly rich. This is probably due to the presence of diversetypesof habitats such as natural forest, plantations andagriculturallands. The valley on the north-eastern side of the church is probably116

the best anxmal habitat. The comparatively dense forest with thepre-sence of streams and some degree of remoteness makes it a richhabitat. The area immediately behind the proposed nature studyanimalcentreis contiguous with a fairly large forest tract. Elephants rarely visitsome parts of the study area. The degraded areas and plantationshaveonly animals like Porcupine, Hare and Wild pigs.4.3.1.1. MammalsSightings of large mammals were very few. Following speciewereobserved in the study area.Common nameScientific name1. Bonnet Macaque Macaca radiata2. Sambar Cervus unicolor3. Wild Boar Sus scrofa4. Jackal Canis aureusIndirect evidences of Porcupine (Hystrix indica), Pangoline(Manis crassicaudata), Hare (Lepus nigricollis) and Toddy cat(Para-doxurus hermaphroditus) were also recorded. A lone female adult Sambarwas sighted in the evergreen forests behind the Kurishumudi. Wild pigswere sighted throughout the study area and in the evergreen forests.Bonnet Macaques were seen near Kurishumudi and in the evergreen forests.A troop composed of 8 to 10 individuals in both the areas. Asingle Jackal was sighted near Kurishumudi during the study period.In the course of study, a Flying Lizard (Draco dussumieri)wasobserved in the evergreen patches of Pattapparakundu. A single malewas observed gliding from tree to tree, at a height of about 10 m.117

Brightlemon-yellow throat appendage was waved intermittently duringthe observation.4.3.1.2. BirdsSeventy one species of birds were recorded from the studyarea.Maximum number of birds were recorded from evergreen forests andmoist deciduos forest, followed by teak and cashew plantations. Listof biros recorded from the study area is given in Table 4.1.Yabitat use of birds: The pilgrims path from bottom ofKurishumudi to top of Kurishumudi is planted with tree species likeAcacia, Eucalyptus, Jack, Mango and other miscellaneous species.Thispatchhas a width of about 50 m. Both sides of this way is borderingwith teak plantations and due to this it has an ecotone effect.Following species of birds were recorded from this area.Common nameScientific name1.2.3.4.5.6.7.8.9.10.11.12.Chestnutheaded Bee-eaterSmaller green BarbetYellowfronted Pied WoodpeckerRedwhiskered BulbulBlack DrongoCommon MynaSouthern tree PieJungle CrowBlackheaded Cuckoo ShrikeGoldenfronted ChloropsisJungle BabblerIndian RobinMerops leschenaul tiMegalaima viridisPi coides mahrat tensisPycnono t u s J oc osu sDicrurus adsimi 1 isAcridotheres tri stisDendrocitta luecogastraCorvus macrorhynchosCoracina melanopteraChloropsis auri f ronsTurdoides stri atusSaxicoloides fulicata118

Table 4.1.List of birds recorded from the study areaFamily: Phalacrocoracidae1. Little Cormorant Phala crocorax niger ReservoirFamily: Ardeidae2. Pond Heron Ardeol a grayi i ReservoirFamily : Accipiridae3. Blackwinged Kite Elanus caeruleus MDF&Forestedges4. Black Eagle Ictinaetus malayensis Forest5. Crested Serpent Spilornis cheela MDF andEagleevergreensFamily: Phasianidae6. Grey Jungle Fowl Gallus sonnerattii MDF7. Red Spur Fowl Ga 11 ope rdix spa di cea MDF8. Jungle Bush Quail Perdicula asiatica EvergreenFamily: Rallidae9. WhitebreastedWaterhenAmaurornis phoenicurusRe servoi rFamily: Charadriide10. Redwattled Lapwing Vanellus indicus GrasslandsFamily: Columbidae11. Spotted Dove Streptopelia chinensis Forest Edges12. Greyfronted Green pegion Treron pompadora MDFFamily: Psittacidae13. Roseringed Parakeet Psittacula krameri Forest EdgesBlossomheaded Parakeet Psittacula cyanocephala ForestEdges119

Family: Cuculidae14. Common Hawk-Cuckoo Cucu us vari us15. Indian Cuckoo Cuculus micropterus16. Koel Eudynamys scolopacea17. Crow-pheasant Centropus sinensisMDFMDFMDFBus he sFamily: Strigidae18. Brown Wood Owl Strix leptogrammica19. Brown Fish Owl Bubo zeylonensis20. Jungle Owlet Glaucidium radia t umForestNear ReservoirMDFFamily : Caprimulgidae21. Indian Jungle Caprimulgus indicusNightj arMDFFamily : Alcedinidae22. WhitebreastedKingfisher23. Small BlueKingfisherHalcyon smyrensisAlcedo atthisReservoirStreamsFamily: Meropidae24. Chestnutheaded Merops leschenaul tiBee-eater25. Green Bee-eater Merops orientalisForest EdgesTeak plantationsFamily: Coraciidae26. Indian Roller Coracia s benghalensi s Edges(Fairy Bluebird)Family : Vupupidae27. Hoopoe Upupa epopsForestEdges120

Family: Bucerotidae28. Malabar GreyHornbillTockus griseusForestFamily: Capitonidae29. Small Green BarbetMegal aima vi ri di sForestFamily: Picidae30. Small YellownapedWoodpecker31. Indian GoldenbackedThreetoed Woodpecker32. Lesser GoldenbackedWoodpecker33. HeartspottedwoodpeckerPi cus chloroloph usDinopium javanenseDin opi um ben gh a 1 ens eHemicircus canenteMDFMDFTeakPlantationForestedgesFamily : Hirundinidae34. House SwallowHirundo tahiticaNear habitationFamily: Laniidae35. Baybacked Shrike36. Brown ShrikeLanius vittatusLanius cristatusMDFMDFFamily: Oriolidae37. Golden Oriole38. Blackheaded Oriole39. Blacknaped OrioleOriol us oriol usOriolus xanthornusOriolus chinensisMDFEvergreenMDFFamily : Dicruridae41. Racket-tailed Drongo Dicrurus paradiseus42. Bronzed Drongo Dirurus aeneusTeak plantationsMDFEvergreen121

Family: Sturnidae43. Common Myna Acridotheres tristis44. Jungle Myna Acridotheres fuscusHabitationsMDFFami ly : Corvi da e45. Indian Tree Pie Dendrocitta vagabunda46. Whitebellied Dendrocitta leucogastraTree Pie47. House Crow Corvus spl endens46. Jungle Crow Corvus macrorhynchosMDFEvergreenHabitationsHabitationsFamily : Campephagidae49. Large Wood Shrike Tephrodornis virgotus50. Blackheaded Co ra ci n a me 1 an op t eraCuckoo Shrike51. Scarlet minivet Pericrocot us flammeusMDFMDFMDFFamily: Irenidae52. Goldenfronted Chloropsis aurifrons Edgeschloropsis53. Goldmantled Chloropsis cochinchinesis EdgeschloropsisFamily : Pycnonotidae54. Redwhiskered Bulbul Pycnonotus jocosus Rocky areas55. Red vented Bulbul Pycnonotus cafer Scrubs56. Yellowbrowed Bulbul Hypsipetes indicus EvergreenFamily: Timalinae57. Whiteheaded Babbler Turdoides affinis Bushes56. Jungle Babbler Turdoides striatus BushesFamily: Muscicapinae59. Paradise Flycatcher Terpsiphone paradisi60. Blacknaped Flycatcher Hypothymis azureaEvergreenMDF122

Family: Sylviinae61. Tailor Bird62. Dull GreenLeaf WarblerOrthotomus sutoriusPhylloscopus trochiloidesEdgesMDFFamily: Turdinae63. Magpie Robin64. Indian RobinCopsy ch us sau1arisSa xi col oi des fu1icataHabitationDry areaFamily: Paridae65. Grey TitParus majorMDFFamily: Sittidae66. Velvetfronted Sitta frontalisNuthatchEdgesFamily : Montaci 11 ida e67. Yellow Wagtail Motacilla flava68. Pied Wagtail Motacilla albaNear waterNear waterFamily: Nectariniidae69. Purplerumped Sunbird Nectarinia zeylonica Scrubs70. Small Sunbird Nec t a rini a minima TreesFamily: Ploceidae71. Blackheaded Munia Lonchura malaca Teak plantatlons123

Undergrowthin the teak plantations were sparse. Only few spe-cies of birds were recorded from the teak plantations. Following isalist of common birds found in the teak plantations.Common nameScientific name1. Spotted Dove2. Racket-tailed Drongo3. Scarlet Minivet4. Redwhiskered Bulbul5. Jungle Babbler6. Indian Robin7. Blackheaded MuniaStreptopelia chinensisDicrurus paradiscusPericrocotus flammeusPycnonotus jocosusTurdoides striatusSaxicoloides ful icataLonchura malacaCashew plantations hardly harboured any species of birds. White-headed Babbler, Redwhiskered Bulbul, Magpie Robin and Black Drongowere mostly seen in the cashew plantations.Evergreen forests found at Pattapparakundu and in the evergreensection contained the following species of birds.Common nameScientific name1. Crested Serpant Eagle2. Grey Jungle Fowl3. Malabar Grey Hornbill4. Golden Oxiole5. Black Drongo6. Golden fronted chloropsis7. Yellowbrowed BulbulSpilornis cheelaGallus sonnerattiiTockus gri seusOriolus orilusDicrurus adsimilisChloropsis aurifronsHypsi pe tes indicusanother important vegetation type found in the area is moistdeciduous forest. Following species were found in this forest type.124

Common nameScientific name1.2.3.4.5.4.7.8.9.10.11.Grey Jungle FowlSpotted DoveBlossomheaded ParakeetChestnutheaded Bee-eaterSmall Green BarbetGoldenbacked woodpeckerB 1 ac khe ad ed Or iol eBlack DrongoRacket-tailed DrongoScar 1 e t min i vetPurplerumped SunbirdGa l l us sonnerattiiStreptopelia chinensisPsittacula cynocephalaMerops leschenaultiMegalaima viridisDinopium javenenseOriolus xan thornusDicrurus adsimilisDicrurus paradiscusPericrocotus flammeusNectarinia zeylonicaPied Wagtail, Pond Heron, Whitebreasted Kingfisher andLittleCormorant were found in the vicinity of the newly formed reservoir. Nomigrant water fowls were seen in the reservoir.Foodand feeding: Mixed feeding flocks were found in the edgesand evergreen forests. In the forest edges the mixed feeding flockincluded species like Magpie Robin, Black Drongo, WhiteheadedBabblerand Scarlet Minivet. Some stray observations on feeding is worthmen-tioning. Black Drongo were found feeding on insects like Glynoceramalabarica. Common Myna, Racket-tailed Drongo and Jungle Babblers werefeeding on Hyblea purea larvae in the infected teak plantations.Blackheaded Cuckoo Shrike was found feeding on insects on Delonyxregiatree and Goldenbacked Woodpeckers, Jungle Babblers and Racket-tailed Drongo were found on Xylia xylocarpa. Small Green Barbet wasfound feeding on Tetramelus flowers.125

4.3.1.3. Reptilesarea.The following species of reptiles were reported from the studyCommon nameScientific name1.2.3.4.5.6.7.8.9.10.11.12.13.14.TortoiseCobraKraitRussell’s ViperPitviperRat snakeWater snakePythonGreen whip snakeCommon Garden LizardChamae 1 eonMonitor lizardFlying DragonSkinksNaja najaBungarus caeruleusVipera russelliTrimeresurus malabaricusP tyas mucosusXenochrophis piscatorPython mol urusAhaetulla sp.Caloles versicolorChamaeleon zeylanicusVaranus bengalensisDraco dussumieriMabuya sp.4.3.1.4. Amphibiansarea.Following species of amphibians were recorded from the studyCommon nameScientific name1. Green Frog2. Common Frog3. Tree frog4. ToadRana hexadactylaRana tigerinaRhacophorus sp.Ansonia sp.4.3.1.5. FishesFollowing species of fishes were recorded from the study area.126

1. Ophiocephalus sp.2. Tilapia sp.3. Smaller carps4. Saccobranchus5. Wallago atto4.3.2. Geographic Information System (GIS)As mentioned earlier altitude, roads, water bodies and landusewere the layers recorded. The Periyar river, which flows along thesouth western corner of the study area, is at the lowest elevationatabout 10 m from sea level. The foothills up to about 200 m have relativelyplain ground. The area between the hill top (387 m) and foothillsis rather steep. There is motorable road almost all around theproposed site. Few short distance roads lead to plantation areas.There is a pilgrim's trek path of about 1,500 m long to the hilltop.The water bodies consist of the Periyar river, the lake at the foothillsand various streams draining the area. Most of these streams dryup in summer. An irrigation channel from Idamalayar towards part ofthe study area is under construction. The landuse was recorded indetail. The landuse pattern inside the sampled area and immediatesurroundings are tabulated (Table 4.3) separately. The following table(Table 4.2) shows the overall landuse pattern in the 24 km 22covers the proposed 15 km .area which127

2Table 4.2. Overall landuse pattern of 24 km area around the studycent re1. Evergreen/semi evergreen 2,586 1.22. Moist deciduous forest 23,930 11.53. -Do- degraded 18,448 8.94. Dry deciduous forest 7,149 3.45. -Do- degraded /sc rub 8,735 4.26. Barren rocky area 2,590 1.27. Teak plantations full grown 19,949 9.68. -Do- medium grown 600 0.39. Teak replanted 1,881 0.910. Teak + fresh miscellaneous 6,200 3.011. Cashew plantations 7,973 3.812. Rubber plantations 13,796 6.613. Eucalyptus 78 0.0314. Coconut 52 0.0215. Plantain 134 0.0616. Homesteads 72,696 34.9128

17. Paddy 602 0.318. Lake + river 5,718 2.719. Quarry 127 0.120. Replanted with miscellaneous trees 2,372 1.121. Others 34,724 28.2The non-forest area is either homesteads or plantations ofrubber, cashew or other crops. Homesteads contain coconut trees, plantainand a variety of other crops. There are patches of rubber estateson the western side. There are also patches of cashew plantations.There is a small area of paddy cultivation by the side of a rivulet.There i s a rocky area and a belt of deciduous forest around it onthenorth-western side. On the eastern side teak plantations anddegradeddeciduous forests predominate. The southern sides are habitations,lake, river and teak plantations (Fig. 4.6). The forests on the eas-tern side have been reduced to scrub vegetation due to biotic distur-bance and rocky terrain. There are patches of semi-evergreen/evergreenforests near Kannimangalam valley near the church, and atPat t apparakundu .The land use inside the sampled area around Kurishumudi andtheenclaves is described below.129

Table 4.3.2Landuse pattern of the sampled area of 15 km1. Evergreen/semi evergreen 685 0.62. Moist deciduous forest 4,038 3.33. -Do- degraded 9,792 8.04. Dry deciduous forest 2,337 1.15. -Do- degraded/scrub 4,658 3.86. Barren rocky area 0 0.07. Teak plantations full grown 1,353 1.18. -Do- medium grown 600 0.59. Teak replanted 1,876 1.510. Teak + fresh miscellaneous 6,205 5.111. Cashew plantations 3,459 2.912. Rubber p l ant ati ons 1,992 1.613. Eucalyptus79 0.114. Coconut 57 0.0515.Plantain 132 0.116.Homesteads 42,671 0.0130

~~~ ~~17. Paddy 0 0.018. Lake + river 5,700 4.619. Quarry 134 0.1--20. Replanted with miscellaneous trees 2,360 1 .921. Others 12,386 5.8The proposed nature study centre contains mainly moist deciduousforests and teak plantations. The moist deciduous (landuse #2) regionscontain Lagerstroemia microcarpa, Tetrameles nudi flora, Terminaliapaniculata,Terminalia bellerica, Xylia xylocarpa, etc. There is al-most a pure patch of natural Lagerstroemia microcarpa near theculti-vated enclave. The forest near the habitation is degraded due to graz-ing, fire and leaf manure collection. There is a patch of moistdeci-duous forest near the Illithode farm also. The relatively dry parts onthe western side of the church harbour dry deciduous forest (landuse#4) with Terminalia tomentosa, Pterocarpus marsupium, Terminalia paniculata,Terminalia bellerica, Artocarpus hirsuta, Xylia xylocarpa,Tetramelus nudi flora, Macaranga pel tata, etc. Some parts of this havebeen severely degraded (landuse #5). A homogenous patch of Lagerstroemiaspeciosa and another of Terminalia tomentosa are found in thearea. These are the growths of the afforestation programmes taken upin the past.131

The area has beensubjected to much plantation activities in thepast. Teak plantations were attempted about 60 years ago. Areas withlanduse #7 contain mature teak plantation. Landuse #8 include teakplantations of about 20-30 years age and medium height. Landuse #9isactually failed teak plantation areas, which have been recently re-planted. These areas now have the look of a 3-5 year old teakplanta-tion. There is high incidence of teak borer Cossus cadambae in thearea. There are two large patches of cashew plantations (landuse #11)and a small patch of eucalyptus is also found inside the area. Afreshwater lake (landuse #20) and a tourism department guest house havecome up at the foot hills.There is an enclave of cultivation totally inside the area.There are notable patches of agricultural area along the southernside. The enclave inside is planted with plantain near the streamandrubber around it. The crops in the other part include coconut andplantain, as pure crops as well as in combination (landuse #16). Thepotential of using the information in various layers for planning isdealt with in the discussion part.4.4. DISCUSSIONAs the area is highly degraded due to various humanactivities,it is only logical that the large mammals would be very scarce.Onlylittle area remains unaltered. Indirect evidences of elephants werefound about one kilometre away from the camp shed in the evergreensect ion.132

The presence of Draco or Flying Lizard is worth mentioning. Thisspecies is an example of Malayan element in the fauna of SouthernIndia. Similar species of genus Draco occur in eastern Himalayas andfurther East. Even though the distribution of Flying Lizard is said tobe common in many parts of Kerala, its distribution is erratic(Daniel, 1983). Suqathan (1984) reported this species from thenearbyThattakkadu forests. Inger and others (1984) reported this speciesfrom Ponmudi area in SouthKerala.The GIS analysis provides detailed landuse pattern. The databasecreated can be used in a variety of ways during the execution phase ofthe study centre. Selection of sites for buildings is one example.Level ground near to the road can be located from the database. Italso can provide information on alignment of new roads. An optimumroute that covers different plantations and crop patterns can alsobegenerated. Forests can be examined for proximity to habitations, wateravailability, etc. The database can also be used for irrigation plann-ing.4.5. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS1 edged.Help rendered by the local forest officers is gratefully acknow-133

4.6. REFERENCESCorson-Rikert,J. 1992. The Roots Digitizing System. User Manual.Decision images, New Jersey, USA.Daniel, J.C. 1983. The Book of Indian Reptiles. Bombay natural HistorySociety. pp.46-47.Eastman, J.R.USA.1992. IDRISI, Version 4. C ark University, Masachusetes,Inger, R.F., H. Bradley Shaffer, Mammen Kashy and Ramesh Bakde 1984. Areport on a collection of amphibians and reptiles from thePonmudi, Kerala, South India. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 81: 558.Rodgers, W.A. 1991. Techniques for Wildlife Census in India. A FieldManual 12. Wildlife Institute of India. Dehra,Dun. pp.46-51.Sugathan, R. 1984. Occurrence of Flying Lizard (Draco dussumeri) inthe Nilgiris. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 81: 710.134

STATUS SURVEY OF INSECT FAUNAOF MALAYATTOORGeorge Mathew

5. STATUS SURVEY OF INSECT FAUNA OF MALAYATTOORGeorge MathewEntomology DivisionKerala Forest Research InstitutePeechi, Kerala, IndiaContentsAbstrac t5.1. Introduction5.1.1. Study area5.2. Materials and methods5.3. Results5.3.1. Fauna5.3.2. Distribution pattern of insects in the study area5.3.2.1. Natural forests5.3.2.2. Zone of intergradation between natural forestsand teak plantations5.3.2.3. Banks of streams5.3.2.4. Plantations5.4. Discussion5.5. Acknowledgements5.6. References5.7. Appendix I (List of insects recorded from Malayattoor)ABSTRACTAbout 400 species of insects belonging to 11 insect Orders havebeen collected during this study. Of them, the identity of about 250135

species have been confirmed. A major share of insects recorded in thisstudy belongs to Lepidoptera and Hemiptera.The distribution of insects in the various biocoenoses in thestudy area indicated rich species diversity in the zone of interqrada-tion between natural forests and adjoining teak plantations due tooccurrence of duel ecological condition?. The forest marginsadjacentto farmlands showed a preponderance of agricultural pests. Of the teakand cashew plantations covered in this study, the latter was rela-tively poor in the faunal elements, probably due to the scarceunder-storey vegetation. The impact of forest disturbance on the fauna wasevident. Wherever such disturbances were noticed, there was a reductionin species diversity coupled with local outbreaks of a few species.However, the existing habitats support a characteristic faunawhich include some endemic as well as protected species.5.1. INTRODUCTIONInsects constitute about three fourth of all the living species.Of about 1.4 million species of invertebrates that have beendescribed, 0.75-1 million are insects (Wells, et al. 1983). A majorshare of insects that have been described are from forests. Tropicalforests which occupy about 7% of the land area hold about 2/5th of a1known species. Recent studies in the rain forests of Panama, PeruBrazil using canopy fogging method have indicated that there couldandbeas many as 30 million species of insects in the forests.Due to de-forestation, the insect life in these forests is fast becomingextinct136

at an alarming rate even before we could understand their role intheecosystem.Systematic studies on the forest insects of India may be saidto have started with the establishment of the Forest ResearchInsti-tute, Dehra Dun in1914. Detailed studies were made on the phytopha-gous as well as wood feeding insects. However these studies were quiteinadequate considering the vast as well as diversified forest eco-systems of India which range from the boreal Himalayan forests to thetropical wet evergreen forests of the western ghats. The mostcompre-hensive treatise on the forest insects of India contained only 3378species (Beeson, 1941). Attempts to list the forest insects were continuedresulting in a series of publications dealing with some 2140plant species (Bhasin and Roonwal, 1954-58; Mathur and Singh,1959-61). Insects being dominant components in many food webs in boththe production and decomposition chains of the forest ecosystem,areimportant in the sustenance of natural habitats. Many species of wildplants are insect pollinated. They are also important as naturalenemies of various pest species and as indicators of environmentalquality. The ecological as well as economic importance of many speciesof Insects is still unknown. Due to disturbances in the habitat amajor portion of the insect fauna is fast disappearing. Information onthe faunistic elements as well as their interactions is essentialfordeveloping ecologically sound conservation strategies.As per a recent estimate by the Zoological Survey of India,about 67,000 species of insects have been recorded from India. However137

no information is available on the extent of forest nsects. Informa-tion on the faunal elements is required in order to utilize the richgenetic diversity to our advantage.5.1.1. Study areaThe proposed site of the Nature Study Centre comprises about484 ha of forest land in the Malayattoor Forest Divison. A majorportion of this area belongs to moist deciduous forests besidesplantations of teak and cashew. The river Periar flows along the East.On the South and West are agricultural lands which were originallynatural forests. In the North the area merges with the forests ofChalakudy Forest Division. The teak plantations are above 30 years ageand are planted on the eastern and northern regions. In the West arethe cashew plantations. The natural forests contain species likeHaldina cordifolla, Terminalia crenulata, Dillenia pentagyna, Bombaxmalabaricum, Xylia xylocarpa, Schleichera oleosa and Grewiati 1 i aefol ia.5.2. MATERIALS AND METHODSThe insects were sampled either by sweep nets or by setting uptraps. Sampling was carried out during different months of the year.For sweep net sampling a belt transect of 5 mwidth was taken in plan-tations while a line transect was taken in the natural forests.138

Insects collected in the samplings were recorded. Information thusgathered were further supplemented by making light trap catches atdifferent placer;. A modified Pensylvanian type light trap operatedbya 6 watt battery was used. An 8 watt UV tube was used forillumination. Habitats selected for sampling by light traps arethefollowing:1. Natural forests11. Teak plantationsiii. Cashew plantationsiv. Valleys along the natural forests including banks of streamsv. Edges of plantations5.3. RESULTS5.3.1. FaunaAltogether 400 species of insects belonging to 75 families havebeen recorded in this study. The Orders Lepidoptera and Hemipteracontained maximum number of species. Coleoptera, Hymenoptera andDiptera were only poorly represented (Table 5.1). The relative numbersof various groups of insects recorded in this study need not betakenas an indication for their actual abundance as the sampling was con-fined to only one season. However, the data gathered herein give somebaseline information on the faunal elements for future comparisons.An examination of the species listed in this study indicatesthat many of the insects recorded here were economically importantas139

pests of various aqricultural crops and forest trees. The high propor-tion of agricultural pests could be due to the close proximity ofthestudy area to agricultural farms. The important agricultural pestsrecorded include Nymphula depunctalis (paddy case worm), Scirpophagaincertulas(paddy stem borer), Nephotettix virescens (paddy hopper);Riptortes spp., (pests of pulse crops); Utetheisa pulchella, AchaeaJana and Prodenia litura (pests of vegetables) as well as Otheri:ancilla ( fruit pest ). The tree pests included Helopeltis antonii(Cashew bug), Oregma sp. (bamboo aphid), Rhipiphorothrips cruentatus(pest of several tree species), Hyblaea puera (teak defoliator),Alcterogystia cadambae (teak borer), Eurema spp. (defoliator ofAlbi-zia spp.), Oenospila quadraria (defoliator of mango trees) as wellasEumelia rosalia (defoliator of Xylia xylocarpa). Certain species ofHesperiidae (Tagiades menaka , Celaenorhinus ambareesa and C. leuco-cera) as well as some unidentified Lycaenidae found in the teakplan-tations were very characteristic being not found in similar habitatselsewhere. It may also be noted here that the butterflies recordedfrom this area included two species having protected status underthelndian Wildlife Act, viz. Hypolimnas missipus and Castallus rusimon.The butterflies Tirumala limniace leopardus, Parantica aglea aglea(Danaidae) and Pachliopta pandiyana (Papilionidae) listed in thisstudy are endemic to southern India.5.3.2. Distribution pattern of insects in the study areaObservations on the habitat preferences of various species re-corded in this survey have indicated distinct patterns of insect140

distribution within different ecological niches found in this area.The specialities of faunal elements found in the various habitatsarediscussed below.5.3.2.1. Natural forestsThe natural forest strips in the study area exhibited varyingdegrees of disturbances leaving patches of open areas whicgot subse-quently colonised by secondary vegetation which included variousspe-cies of weeds and shrubs. Several such areas showed excessive growthof the exotic weed Mikania micrantha which completely suppressed theground vegetation. Such patches of natural forests were found to bepoor in the faunal diversity although large populations of one or morespecies of chrysomelid beetles (Hoplasoma sp. and Aulacophora foevicollis)were noticed to colonise such areas.Insect fauna of undisturbed patches of natural forests, espe-cially at higher elevations, appears to be much diverse; butdetailedstudies could not be undertaken due to poor accessibility.Observations on the incidence of various insects on differentforest trees have indicated that there were no major pest damage ex-cept for occasional incidence of certain pests on Dilleniapentagyna,Xylia xylocarpa and Haldina cordifolia. In all the above cases thedamage was caused by leaf feeding caterpillars.5.3.2.2. Zone of intergradation betweennatural forests and teak plantationsThe edges of natural forest where it merges with the teak plan-tations were probably the best habitats with regard to the survival of141

a wide variety of insects. An important feature of this habitat is theavailability of different types of ecological conditions, viz. the dryconditions offered by the more or less open canopy of the teak plantationand the cool, shady habitat formed by the closed canopy of theadjoining natural forest. This condition is ideal for the survival ofa large number of species having varied ecological requirements.Butterflies formed the major group of insects colonising this habitat.The pierids Leptosia nina, Eurema blanda, E. hecabe and Catopsiliapomona; the nymphalids Hypolimnas bolina, H. missipus, Moduza procris,Junonia sp., Ariadne merione, Euthalia garuda and Neptis hylas aswell as the danaids Parantica aglea aglea, Tirumala limniace leopardus,Danaus genuita and Euploea core which prefer the open habitats,were found abundantly in the teak plantations where they subsisted onthe nectarfrom Cassia tora, Caesalpinia cristata, Clerodendron visco-sum, Chromolaena odoratum,Helicteres isora, Mimosa pudica, etc. grow-ing under teak. The canopy was occupied by the pierid Deliaseucharisprobably due to its preference for its preferred host mistletoe.Inside the natural forest especially along the edges, largeaggregations of the papilionids Troides helena, T. minos and Papiliopolymnester parinda were noticed on plants like Mussaenda laxa. Thesatyrids Mycalesis sp., Elymnias caudata and Melani tis sp. besidesseveral species of moths mostly belonging to Geometridae and Pyralidaewere present on the understorey vegetation close to groundlevel.Besides Lepidoptera, this habitat was also found to be richingrass hoppers, crickets, ants and wasps. Three species of acridids,142

viz. Acrida exul tata, Attractomorpha crenulata, and Oxya velox werefound in fairly large numbers on variousshrubby plants growing in theplantation. About 10 species of ants were noted on the ground as wellas on the trunks of trees of which Polyrachis rastellata and Phido-logiton diversus werevery characteristic to this area. Wasps belong-ing to Vespoidea and Sphecoidea as well as a few species ut bees havealso been collected from this area.5.3.2.3. Banks of streamsThick vegetation consisting of trees like Schleichera oleosa,Lagerstroemia reginae, Baccaurea courtellensis, Trewia polycarpa, etc.have been found growing along the banks of streams. Many groups ofinsects preferring cool, moist conditions like the Lycaenidae(Curetis sp., Castalius rosimon, Odonata, as well as several waterinsects (Dytiscidae, Belostomatidae, Hydrophilidae) were abundantlyfound in this habitat. The marshy lands along the streams alsoattracted several species of insects notably butterflies anddragonflies. Small aggregations of the butterflies of Graphiumsarpedon teredon, Tros hector, Papilio polytes and Catopsilia sp.have been noticed on patches of grass or boulders in such areas.5.3.2.4. P 1 ant ationsPlantations of teak and cashew were two distinct habitats in thestudy area. Most teak plantations located adjacent to the naturalforests had luxuriant understorey vegetation which supported severalgroups of insects as discussed earlier. However, plantationsadjacentto human settlements had very scarce ground flora probably due to143

continued grazing by cattle as well as other disturbances of anthro-pogenic origin. Such areas often showed predominance of certain weedslike Hyptis sp., Cassia tora, amaranthus, milk weed, etc. As a resultthefauna also showed specialisations and contained more common spe-cies.Moths of the caseworms Nymphula depunctalis and N. fluctuo-salis, the stem borer Scirpophagaincertulas, the cutworm Prodenialitura as well as the hairy caterpillar Porthesia sp. have beencollectedin fairly large numbers. Other species of moths collectedfrom this area included some vegetable pests like Utetheisa pul-chella, Argina cribraria, Diacrisia obliqua and Achaea janata.Eumeliarosalia, a pest of Xylia xylocarpa has also been recorded from thisarea. In addition to these, several species of cicadellids and chryso-melid beetles were found in good numbers on various weeds found inthis habitat. The cicadellids included Nephotettix virescens,Jassusindicusand Cofana maculata. Of the beetles recorded from this habi-t at, Halys denta tus, Aul acophora foevicollis,Phyl lotre ta cruciferaeandHaltica cyanea were the common ones. This habitat was also notedfor the predominance of the milkweed butterflies Danaus genuita andTirumala limniace leopardus.Incidence of pests was another aspect covered in this study.In teak plantations, the skeletonizer Hyblaea puera and the borerAlcterogystia cadambae, were noticed in some plantations under observation.Of these, the first was present uniformly throughout the plantationsduring September to October. However, this insect was notfound to cause much economic damage. Incidence of A. cadambae was144

noticed in some plantations in the kurishumudi area. As much a5 40 %of trees in some patches were found to be heavily affected by thisinsect with a high degree of tree mortality. As this insect is likelyto spread to other teak plantations in the study area, it is essentialthat appropriate control measures are undertaken. For this, thestrategy suggested by Mathew (1990) may be followed. This involvesextraction of the affected trees d iring silvicultural operations andprotecting the trees from mechanical injuries due to lopping of branches,plucking of leaves, etc.In the cashew plantations the relative number of insects collec-ted was less probably due to sparse undergrowth. The trees werefoundto be affected by the usual pests which included the leaf webberLamida moncusalis (Pyralidae) and the inflorescence bug Helopeltisantonii (Miridae) .5.4. DISCUSSIONThe insect fauna of Malayattoor is interesting in that it containsfaunal elements belonging to diverse ecological niches. Theforest area in this region is fragmented and the different biocoenoseshave characteristic vegetation and associated invertebratefauna.Of the various habitats recognized in this study, the naturalforests and the adjacent teak plantations harboured a rich and diversefauna due to the availability of duel ecological conditions. Theareaof interqradation between natural forests and the warm teak forestsoffer ideal conditions for the survival of a variety of insect species

having different ecological requirements. Among the insects recordedfrom this area were some endemic species which included Tagiadesmenaka, Celaenorhinus ambareesa (Hesperiidae); Pachliopta pandiyana(Papilionidae); Tirumala limniace leopardus and Parantica agleaaglea(Danaidae). The butterflies H. missipus and Castal ius rosimonrecorded from this area are having protected status under theIndianWildlife Act. The riverine fauna was very rich in odonates, waterbeetles and certain groups of butterflies. A comparison of forestplantations in this area indicated much species diversity in theteakplantations located adjacent to natural forests. Teak plantations inthe vicinity of agricultural lands which were Subjectto heavy grazingwere scarce in the faunal elements. Some of these plantations werealso found to be affected by the borer Alcterogystia cadambae.Disturbances to forest vegetation is known to have repercussionson animal survival (Webb, 1989). A recent study on the impact ofselection felling on forest fauna (Johns, 1985) has indicated thatalthough some species are not affected by changes in the flora, severalothers may find survival difficult. The imbalances in the speciescomposition may also affect the functioning of the ecosystem. Lenski(1982) who studied the impact of forest cutting an the diversity ofground beetles has reported a significant increase in the within genuscomponent of species diversity following forest cutting. The abundanceof certain species of Chrysomelidae (Hoplasoma sp., Aulacophora sp.,etc.) on the secondary vegetation in the disturbed patches cfnaturalforests reported in the present study could be due to the erosion ofspecies diversity consequent to disturbances. Althoughthe forests ofMalayattoor are very much fragmented and disturbed, it ai11 contains146

faunal elements which are of interest as being endemic or rare. Byconserving the existing natural habitats in this area we will beableto protect the surviving species. Although the Malayattoor forests aresubject to varying degrees of disturbances, there is much to conserveespecially the insects by the establishment of the Nature StudyCentre.5.5. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTSI am grateful to Dr.K.S.S.Nair (Scientist-in-Charge, EntomologyDivision) and Dr. S.Chand Basha (Director) for their keen interest inthis study. Shri. Gigi K. Jospeh, ProjectAssistant, has helped in thefieldstudies. This study was sponsored by the Kerala Forest Depart-ment.5.6. REFERENCESBeeson, C.F.C. 1941. The Ecology and Control of Forest Insects ofIndia and the Neighbouring Countries. Govt. of India. 1961 Re-print. 767 pp.Bhasin, G.D. and M.L. Roonwal 1954. A list of insect pests of forestplants in India and the adjacent countries. Part 1. GeneralIntroduction by M.L. Roonwal. Part 2. List of insect pests ofplant genera (A). Indian Forest Bulletin 171(1). 93 pp.147

Bhasin, G.D. and M.L. Roonwal 1958. A list of insect pests of forestplants in India and the adjacent countries. List of insect pestsof plant genera ’A’ (Appendix only) ‘B’(Baccaurea to Baxus) and’C‘ (in part) (Cadaba to Citrus). Indian forest Bulletin 171(2).126 pp.Johns, Andrew, D. 1985. Selective logging and wild life conservationin tropical rain forests: Problems and recommendations. BiologicalConservation 33: 355-375.Lenski, Richard, E. 1982. The impact of forest cutting on the diversityof ground beetles (Coleoptera : Carabidae) in the southernApp a 1 ac hians , Ecol og ica 1 En tomol ogy 7 : 385-390.Mathew, George 1990. Biology and Ecology of the Teak Trunk BorerCossus cadambnae Moore and its Possible Control. KFRI ResearchReport 68. 41 pp.Mathur, R.N. and Singh, Balwant 1959 - 1961. A list of insect pestsof forest plants in India and the adjacent countries. Parts 4 to8. Indian Forest Bulletin 171(3). 45 p; 171(4). 165 p; 171(5).91 p; 171(6). 148 p; 171(8). 130 p.; 171(9). 116 p.Webb, N.R. 1989. Studies on the invertebrate fauna of fragmentedheathland in Dorset, U.K. and the implications for conservation.Biological Conservation 47:153-165.Wells, Susan M., M. Pyle, Robert and Mark Collins, N. 1983. The IUCNInvertebrate Red Data Book. IUCN, Switzerland. 632 p.148

Table 5.1.Taxonomic break up of insects recorded in this studyNo. of species coll.*Order No. of from different habitats Total No.family.........................represented 1 2 3 4 5of speciesOdonat a 2 7 7Orthoptera 3 2 9 415--Dictyoptera 2 5 5- - -10Heteroptera 22 16 15 9 48 10 98Thysanoptera 1-2- - -2Neuroptera 2 1 - 23Trichoptera 1- - - -5 5Lepidoptera 21 32 52 13 44 5 148Diptera 2 2 1-1-4Hymenoptera 4 - 195 - 24Coleoptera 15 25 19 14 17-77Total 75 82 123 38 121 29 393*1. Natural forest2. Teak plantation3. Cashew plantation4. Edges of forests adjoining farm lands5. Banks of streams149

5.7. APPENDIXLIST OF INSECTS RECORDED FROM THE MALAYATTOOR FORESTSOrder/Family/SpeciesHabitats*ODONATANeurothemi s tulli a tull i a DruryDipl aeodes tri vi al i s Ramb.Orthetrum sabina (Drury)unidentified species (4 Nos.)555ORTHOPTERAAcrididaeAcrida exultata (Walker)Heiroglyphus banyan Fb.Orthacris sp.Oxya velox (Fb. )Atractomorpha crenulata(Fb. )Ca tan tops sp .Tri lophidea sp.Spathosternum prasini ferum (Wlk.)2222,52222Gryll idaeLiogryllus bimaculatusDe GeerGryllotalpidaeGryllotalpa africana PallasDICTYOPTERABlatt idaeunidentified species (3 Nos.)Mant idaeUnidentified species (2 Nos.)HEM I PTERAMiridaeHelopeltis antonii SignoretPachypeltis maesarum (Kirkaldy)Cal ocoris angus ta tus Le th i erryEnicocephal idaeEnicocephalus sp.331,21,5150

NabidaeNabis sp.TingitidaeStephanites typicus DistantCochlocheila bullita StalUrentius echinus DistantDulinus conchatus DistantPyrrhocoridaeDysdercus cingulatus Fb.Lyg ae id aeOxycarenus 1 aetus KirbyReduv idaeUnidentified species’ ( 4 Nos.)CoreidaeRiptortes linearis (Fb. )R.pedestris(Fb. )Leptocorisa varicornis (Fb. )Cl e tus bipunc ta tus ( Wes twood )PlataspididaeCoptosoma cribrari a (Fb. )2,4Pent atom id aeAspungopus janus (Fb.)Nezara viridula (Lin.)Bagrada picta (Fb.)Halys dentatus (Lin.)Menida histrio (Fb. )Dolicoris indicus StalTessarotoma javanica Thunk.2,4444444CercopidaePhymatostetha deschampsi Lethi.Clovia lineaticollis (Motsch.)1,44CicadellidaeNephotettix virescens Dist.N. higropictus S t a 1Krishna strigicollis SpinolaKolla unimaculata (Signoret)441,41151

Jassus indicus Lethi.Cicadella spectra Dist.Neodartus acocephaloides Melich.Del tocephalus sp.Penthimia sp.Cofana unimaculata (Sign.)Bothrogoni a ferruginea Fb.MembracidaeGargara mixta (Buckton)Leptocentrus taurus (Fb. )Tricentrus sp.Anchon pilosum Westwood3,43,43,44Meenopl idaeNisia atrovinosa Lethi.Cicad i daePlatypleura polita (Wlk.)Derb idaeProutista moesta (Westwood)Diostrombus carnosus(Westwood)Eur yb r ach id aeEurybrachys tomentosa (Fb. ) 4De 1 ph ac id aeNilaparvata lugens (Stal)Sogatella furci fera (Haworth)44Cocco i de aIceria sp.Drosicha mangi ferae Green3,42,4Psyll idaePhacopteron lentiginosum Buckt.Diaphorina ci tri Kuwayama12Al eurodidaeBemisia tabaci GennadiusAl eurocan thus sp .44AphididaeAphis craccivora Koch.Oregma sp.42152

ThysanopteraHeliothrips bi formis (Baqnall)Rhi pi horoth ri ps cruen t a tus Hood22NEUROPTERACh rysop i daeChrysopa sp .Ankylopteryx sp.55Myrme 1 eonidaePalparesinfi rmus Fb.TRICHOPTERAUnidentified species (5 Nos.)LEPIDOPTERAHesper idaeGangara thyrsi sMooreParnara mathias Fb.@Cel aenorhinus ambareesa MooreC.leucocera (Kollar)@Tagiades menaka MooreTagiades sp.NymphalidaePrecis iphi ta CramerAriadne merionecramerEuthalia garuda MooreHypolimnas bollinaH.missipus Lin.Tanaeci a l epidi aJunoni a l emoni asJunonia stygiaJunonia sp.Moduza procri s Cram.Cirrochroa thais thais FelderElymnias caudata ButlerNeptis hylas varmona MooreNeptis sp.Limnites sp.Lycaen idaeCuretissp.Cas tal ius rosimon (Fb. )Lampides boeticus Lin.#22,52,5153

SOIL CHARACTERISTICS ANDMAPPING OF MALAYATTOORM. Balagopalan

SOIL CHARACTERISTICS AND MAPPING OF MALAYATTOORM. BalagopalanSoil Science DivisionKerala Forest Research InstitutePeechi, Kerala, IndiaContentsAbstract6.1. Introduction6.2. Study area6.3. Soils6.4. Methodology6.5. Results and discussion6.5.1. Soil properties in evergreen forests6.5.2. Soil properties in moist deciduous forests6.5.3. Soil properties in teak plantations6.5.4. Soil properties in cashew plantations6.5.5. Soil properties in grasslands6.5.6, Soil properties in different ecosystems - a comparison6.5.7. Soil map6.5.7.1. Typical red ferrallitic soils6.5.7.2. Lessivated red ferrallitic soils6.5.7.3. Shortened red ferrallitic soils6.5.7.4. Concretionary red ferrallitic soils6.6. Conclusions6.7. Acknowledgements6.8. References159

ABSTRACTNatural forests have been under continuous exploitation andconstant pressure from the local people for the last many decades withthe result there was tremendousdecline in the extent and deteriora-tion in quality . Along with this, there is considerable change inthe land use pattern leading to variations in the soil properties aswell.A thorough knowledge of the nature and properties of soils ofdifferent forest ecosystems is important for proper management oftheenvironment and utilisation of resources.This study was initiated tocharacterise the soils and prepare soil map of natural forests andplantations of different species of Nature Study Centre in theMalayattoor Forest Division.Sites were selected in the evergreen and moist deciduousforests, grassland and plantations of teak (Tectona grandis) andcashew (Anacardium occidentale). Eight soil pits, each, from ever-green and moist deciduous forests, 20 from teak, five from cashewandfour from grassland were taken. Samples were collected from 0-20, 10-40 and 49-60 cm layers of soil pits. Analyses were carriedout for particle-size separates, soil pH, organic carbon, exchangeablebases, exchange acidity, extractable N,P,K,Ca and Mg.Gravel contentswere also determined. Soils in the evergreen and cashew are sandyloam while in the moist deciduous and teak they are loamy sand.Thesoils are very strongly acid in the evergreen where as in allothers,they are strongly acid. The nature and properties of soils variedconsiderably between vegetation types. Analysis of variance of soilproperties between vegetation types showed that excluding gravel,160

silt, P, Ca and Mg, all other properties differes significantly.Soils in the plantations are found to be deteriorated when compared tothose in natural forests. The soils, in the evergreen dnd moistdeci-duous forests, teak and cashew plantations and grassland areclassi-fied into four sub types of the type red ferrallitic. They are typi-calred ferrallitic in the evergreen forest, lessivated in the moistdeciduous forest, concretionary in %he teak andcashew plantations,and shortened in grassland.6.1. INTRODUCTIONSoils play an important role in the growth and development offorests. Differences in soil properties influence both the compositionof forest vegetation and the rate of tree growth and vice versa.A thorough knowledge of the nature and properties of soils of forestecosystems is important for proper management of the environment andutilisation of resources. Ecosystem studies per se are relativelyrecent. No safe soil management system can be devised without adequateknowledge of the dynamic interaction between 5011, climate andforest management. Land classification and mapping are invaluablesfor resource inventories and site selection. Soil mapping makes arational use and conservation of soils and imparts significantinflu-ence a5 a basis for technical and ecological knowledge as well as forland-use planning and the conservation of natural areas (Bonneau andSouchier, 1982). Maps can also be used In determining site quality,the appropriate types of forest management and thinning regimes to161

follow, and soil areas that are particularly fragile, erosive or defi-cient in nutrients.No systematic attempt has so far been made to characterise thesoils in the natural forests and plantations of different species ofproposed Nature Study Centre. Soil mapping of this small portion hasalso not been carried out. This study was undertaken to evaluate thenature and properties of soils and to prepare the soil map of theproposed Nature Study Centre in Malayattoor Forest Division.6.2. STUDY AREAThe study area is covered with evergreen and moist deciduousforests, grasslands, and plantations of teak and cashew. Majorportion of the forests lie on the upper part of the hill while theplantations dominate the lower portions.Mast of the area is coveredwith moist deciduous forest and teak plantations. Elevation rangesfrom 50 m to 375 m. The hill lies East to West and belong to thecrystalline rocks of Archean age comprising chiefly of graniticqneisses. The area receives bath south west and north east monsoons.The climate i s warm humid for the qreater part of the year with adrycool spell from December to February and hot summer from March to May.

6.3. SOILSThe soils have developed on hilly topography resulting in sha-llow soils on the upper part of the hill and on steep slopes, andmoderately deep soil on mid slopes. Laterisation is a common pheno-mena and the presence of leaf litter accumulation is a usualfeature.The soils in general are red in colour, sandy loam to loamy sand intexture and strongly acid. They are generally loose, friable, granularand porous on the surface but turn slightly compact, massive andless porous with depth.Presence of gravel of varying-sizes is a common feature. Con-cretions of iron, aluminium and manganese are met with in the planta-tions and their contents vary considerably.Most of the feeding rootsare found to be concentrated in the 0-20 cm layer.Few roots are seenbeyond 60 cm. The natural forests are subjected to anthropic distur-bances.Fire-wood collection on headloads to neighbouring places is aregular affair and it is noticed that this is the main source of incomefor the people staying near the proposed Nature Study Centre.Fire, grazing and illicit lopping of branches of trees for greenmanure are of common occurrence. Run off and erosion of soils arealso found to be severe in the plantations. The disturbance to theecosystem is partly due to the pilgrimage during the months of Apriland May every year.163

6.4. METHODOLOGYSampling sites were selected based on a reconnaissance in thearea and representative soil pits up to a depth of 60 cm were takenfrom evergreen and moist deciduous forests, grassland and teakTectona grandis), and cashew (Anacardium occidentale) plantations.Altogether 45 soil pits were taken from an area of of 1500 ha of whicheight each were from evergreen and moist deciduous forests, 20 fromteak plantation, five from cashew plantation and four fromgrassland.Soil samples were collected from 0-20, 20-40 and 40-60 cm layers ofsoil pits. Samples were air dried, passed through 2 mm sieve andgravel contents were determined. Analyses were carried out forparticle-size separates, soil pH, organic carbon, exchangeablebases,exchange acidity, cation exchange capacity, extractables N, P, K, Caand Mg as per standard procedures (American Society of Agronomy 1965;Jackson, 1958).The morphological description, and the physical and chemicalproperties of soils in different layers in the five ecosystems arepresented in Tables 6.1 to 6.45 and their mean values in differentlayers are given in Tables 6.46 and 6.47. Analyses of variance ofsoil properties (Snedecor and Cochran, 1975) between vegetationtypesare represented in Table 6.48.The s oil map of the area is also givenas Fig. 6.1.164

6.5. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION6.5.1. Soil properties in evergreen forestsTerrain is hilly with elevation ranging from 150 to 300 m.soils are moderately well drained with good accumulation of freshTheandpartially decomposed litter.The marphological description and physl-cal and chemical properties of soils in different layers in the evergreenforest are givenin Table 6.1 to 6.8 and their mean values aregiven in Tables 6.46 and 6.47. In general, clay contents increasewhile sand. pH, organic carbon, exchange acidity, cation exchangecapacity, extractable N,P,K and Mg decrease with depth. There is nochange for silt contents while gravel, exchangeable bases andext actable Ca followeo no pattern. The soil is sandy loan and verystrongly acid.Mean values of gravel, sand, silt and clay in the 0-60 cm layersare 21,78,11 and 11 %, respectively. They are 5.0, 1.53%, 8. 6.4 ana14.4 me/l00q soil for soil pH, organic carbon, exchangeable bases,exchange acidity and cation exchange capacity. Extractable N, P, k,Ca and Mg contents are 135, 6, 295,14 and 9 ppm, respectively.6.5.2. Soil properties in moist deciduous forests;The forests are on hills withelevation ranging from 150 to300 m. The soils are well drained. The morphological descriptions,and physical and chemical properties of soils in different layers inmoist deciduous forest are given in Tables 6.9 to 6.16.165

Table 6.1Vegetation type : Everpreen forest Soil pit No.01Descr ip t i on0-20 cm Dark yellowish brown, loamy sand, granular, friable,moderately gravelly, abundant coarse roots, commonmedium and larger voids of roots, strongly acid.20-40 cm Dark brown, loamy sand, blocky, moderately gravelly,abundant medium roots, d istinct in decayed channels,strongly acid.40-60 cm Strong brown, loam, blocky, slightly firm, many mediumroots, very strongly acid._____________---------------0-20 20-40 40-60 0-60____---_-_-_-_-_-__---------- _-----Gravel %27 22 2224Sand'I81 81 7579s11 t "10 10 1311Clay'I9 9 1210PH5.3 5.2 5.05.2Organic carbon XExch. bases me/100 gExch. acidity "2.07 1.38 0.931 1 17.0 5.3 4.51.4615.6Av. Nppm193 114 85131Extr. P "5 3 65Extr. KI'660 540 420540Extr. Ca "Extr. Mg "Cation exch.capacity me/100 g26 12 128 6 58.0 6.3 5.51766.6166

Table 6.2Vegetation type : Evergreen forest Soil pit No. 02Description0-20 cm Dark brown, loamy sand, granular, very friable,slightly gravelly, abundant coarse and medium roots,decaying leaves and roots forming a mat on and closelybelow surface, strongly acid.20-40 cm Very dark grayish brown, loamy sand, massive, slightlygravelly, abundant medium and fine roots, medium acid.40-60 cm Very dark grayish brown, loamy sand, massive,slightly gravelly, abundant fine roots, medium acid.Proper t i e sGravel % 11 12 12 12Sand " 84 85 85 85Silt I' 9 9 9 9Clay " 7 6 6 6PH 5.5 5.6 5.6 5.6Organic carbon X 1.98 1.44 1.14 1.52Exch. bases me/100 g 6 4 2 4Exch. acidity " 5.3 5.8 4.2 5.1Av. N ppm 171 108 90 123Extr. P 'I 38 28 24 30Extr. K I' 820 270 180 423Extr. Ca " 68 48 48 55Extr. Mg I' 18 11 14 14167

Table 6.3Vpgetation type: Evergreen forest Soil pit No. 03Desc r 1 p t i on0-20 cm Dark yellowish brown, lcamy sand, granular, veryfriable, slightly gravelly, abundant coarse roots,earthworms, strongly acid.20-40 cm Dark yellowish brown, loam, biocky, moderatelygravelly, infiltration of humiferous materials fromupper layer, many medium roots, very strongly acid.40-60 crn Dark yellowish brown, loam, massive, moderatelygravelly, many medium and fine roots, distinct indecayed root channels, i~ery strongly acid.Gravel i, 14 22 28 21Sand " 80 74 73 76Sllt " 11 11 12 11Clay " 9 15 15 13PH 5.2 4.9 5 .O 5.0Organic carbon % 1.65 0.90 0.87 1.14Exch. bases me/100 g 7 8 9 8Exch. acidity " 6.5 5.5 8.5 6.8Av. N ppm 153 82 59 98Extr. P 'I 4 4 4 4Extr. K " 140 310 390 280Extr. Ca " 28 16 20 21Extr. Mq " 20 8 10 13Cation exch.capacity me/100 g13.5 13.5 17.5 14.8

Table 6.4VEbgetation type: Evprqreen forest SO] 1 FI i t NO. C)4Desc r i p t ion0-20 cm Dark yellowish brown, loamy sand, granular, moopratelygravelly, very friable, abundant coarse and mediumroot5, common mediuni and larger voids of ronts,E-trongly acid.20-40 cm Dark yellowish brown, loamy sand, blocky, moderatelygravelly, clay-humus infiltration along old root andtermite channels, many medium and fine roots, verystruiigly acid.40-00 cm Dark yellowish brown, loamy sand, blocky, slightlyfirm, moderately gravelly, many fine roots, verystrongly acid.Gravel % 17 17 19 18Sand " 84 79 79 81Silt " 9 11 11 10Clay 'I 7 10 10 9PH 5.1 4.9 4.9 5.0Organic carbon % 2.10 0.96 1.08 1.38Exch. bases me/100 Q 11 9 9 10Exch. acidity " 7.5 6.0 6.0 6.5Av. N ppm 197 88 92 126Extr. P " 6 5 9 7Extr. K " 230 50 50 110Extr. Ca " 22 12 16 17Extr. Mg " 20 13 8 14169

Table 6.5Vegetation type: Evergreen forestSoil pit No.05D e sc. r i p t i on0-20 cm Dark brown, loamy sand, granular, very friable,moderately gravelly, abundant coarse and mediumroots, common medium arid larger voids of roots, verystrongly acid.20-40 cm Strong brown, loam, blocky, moderately gravelly,abundant medium and fine roots, distinct in decayed roochannels, very strongly acic.40-60 cm Strong brown, sandy loam, massive, slightly firm,moderately gravelly, very strongly acid.Proper t 1 esDepth (cm)0-20 20-40 40-60 0-60Gravel % 16 19 21 19Sand " 79 75 76 77Silt " 12 13 10 12Clay " 9 12 14 11PH 5 .0 5.0 4.9 5 .OOrganic carbon % 2.12 1.29 1.09 1.50Exch. bases me/100 9 12 8 10 10Exch. acidity I' 6.5 6.2 6.2 6.3Av. N ppm 203 101 90 131Extr. P I' 9 7 6 7Extr. K " 230 230 50 170Extr. Ca I' 38 18 14 23Extr. Mg " 1R 5 4 9Cation exch.capacity me/100 g18.5 14.2 16.2 16.3170

Table 6.6Vegetation type: Evvgreen forest Soil pit No.06Descr ip t ion0-20 cm Dark yellowish brown, sandy loam, granular, veryfriable, 1.tghtly gravelly, ahundant coarse and mediumroclt~, orgmic debris at surface, strongly acid.20-40 cm Strong brown, loam, blocky, moderately gravelly, manymedium and fine roots, scattered faunal voids, verystrongly acid40-60 cm Yellowish red, loam, massive, slightly firm, slightlygravelly, abundant fine roots, very strongly acid.Proper t i esDepth (cm)0-20 20-40 40-60 0-60Gravel XSand "47 29 32 3676 69 68 71SlltI'11 11 12 11Clay "PHOrganic carbon %13 20 20 185.3 4.8 4.8 5.02.44 1.76 1.32 1.84Exch. bases me/l0O g 11 10 10 10Exch. acidity " 6.4 5.8 5.4 5.9Av. N ppm212 155 117 161Extr. P'I6 6 6 6Extr. K "Extr. Ca "350 310 180 28034 10 8 17Extr. Mg 'I 10 2 2 5Cation exch.capacity me/100 g17.4 15.8 15.4 15.9171

Table 6.7Vegetation type: Evergreen forest Soil pit No.07Desc r i p t i on0-20 cm Dark brown, loamy sand, granular, friable, moderatelygravelly anundant coarse roots, plentiful decomposingorganic litter and manuy roots, strongly acid.20-40 cm D,irk brown, loam, blocky, moderately gravelly, manympdium roots, strongly acid.40-60 cm Dark yellowish brown, loam massive, moderatelygravelly, few fine roots, very strongly acid.Gravel % 27 17 19 21Sand I' 78 : 5 71 74Silt " 12 13 11 12Clay I' 10 14 18 14PH 5.3 5.1 4.8 5.1Organic carbon % 2.28 1.43 1.17 1.63Exch. bases me/100 g 11 9 9 10Exch. acidity I' 6.2 7.9 7.3 7.1Av. N ppm 209 132 101 147Extr. P I' 9 6 6 7Extr. K 'I 420 140 90 217Extr. Ca I' 28 10 14 17Extr. Mg I' 10 4 7 7Cation exch. 17.2 16.9 16.3 17.1capacity me/100 g172

Table 6.8Vegetation type: Evergreen forest sol1 pit No.08Description0-20 cm Dark brown , sandy loam, granular, very friable,slightly gravelly, abundant coarse and medium roots,decaying leaves forming a mat on and closely belowsurface, very strongly acid.20-40 cm Dark brown, sandy loam, blocky, moderately gravelly,many medium roots, decaying organic matter mixed inlower horizons, ver; strongly acid.40-60 cm Strong brown, loam, blocky, moderately gravelly, fewfine roots, very strongly acid.PropertiesDepth (cm)-_-----------------------------------0-20 20-40 40-60 0-60Gravel % 10 18 24 17Sand " 79 79 73 77Silt 'I 10 10 12 11Clay I' 11 11 15 12PH 4.6 4.6 4.9 4.7Organic carbon % 2.65 1.66 1.06 1.79Exch. bases me/100 g 8 9 10 9Exch. acidity 'I 9.3 9.1 6.2 8.2Av. N ppm 237 149 90 159Extr. P " 6 4 5 6Extr. K " 470 230 310 337Extr. Ca I' 18 12 12 14Extr. Mg 'I 4 6 4 5173

T;.ble 6.9Vcgetation type: Moist deciduous forestSoil pit No.09Desc r i p t 1 on0-20 cm Very dark brown, loamy sand, granular, friable,moderately gravelly, abundant coarse and medium rootsforming surface mat, strongly acid.20-40 cm Dark brown, loamy sand, blocky, slightly gravelly,infiltration of humiferous materials from upperlayer, many medium roots, strongly acid.40-60 cm Dark brown, loamy sand, massive, slightly firm,slightly gravelly, few fine roots, strongly acid.Grav 1 %1691313SandI'87858586SiltIT10131312Clay "3222PH5.55.55.25.4Organic carbon %2.581.921.471.99Exch. bases me/lCO q13101011Exch. acidity "6.18.37.97.4Av. Nppm229149108162Extr. P "6355Extr. K "1040440550677Extr. Ca "132322663Extr. Mq I'4511821Cation exch.capacity me/100 g19.118.317.918.4174

Table 6.10Vegetation type: Moist deciduoi,s forestSoil pit No.10Desc r ipt ion0-20 cm Dark brown, loamy sand, granular, friable, moderatelygravelly, abundant coarse and medium roots, stronglyacid.20-40 cm Dark brown, loamy sand, blocky, slightly firm,moderately gravelly, many medium roots, medium acid.40-60 cm Dark brown, loamy sand, massive, slightly firm,moderately gravelly, many fine roots, few faunalchannels of termites, strongly acid.Gravel % 16 17 19 17Sand " 86 86 84 85Silt 'I 12 12 13 12Clay 'I 2 2 3 3PH 5.5 5.6 5.5 5.5Organic carbon % 2.13 1.49 1.32 1.65Exch. bases me/100 9 14 8 6 9Exch. acidity " 8.6 8.6 8.3 8.5Av. N ppm 207 120 109 145Extr. P "Extr. K "3 4 3 3110 440 540 363Extr. Ca 'I 44 24 14 27Extr. Mg I' 17 7 7 10Cation exch.capacity me/100 g22.6 16.6 14.3 17.5175

Table 6.11Vegetation type: Moist deciduous forest Soil pit No.11Desc r i p t i on0-20 cm Dark brown, loamy sand, granular, friable, moderatelygravelly, plentiful coarse and medium roots, organicdebris at siirfacp, strongly acid.20-40 cm Dark brown, loamy sand, block,)/, slightly firm,moderately gravelly, medium and fine roots,earthworms, fine faunal voids, strongly acid.40-60 cm Dark brown, loamy sand, massive, slightly firm,moderately gravelly, abunoant fine roots, medium acid.GravFi % 22 22 18 21Sand " 68 87 87 67Sllt I' 10 12 11 11Clay " 2 1 2 2PH 5.4 5.1 5.6 5.4Organic carbon % 2.60 1.64 1.67 2.04Exch. bases me/100 g 12 9 9 10Exch. acidity " 9.4 8.8 8.3 8.8Av. N ppm 241 151 133 175Extr. P " 3 3 3 3Extr. k " 580 90 160 283Extr. Ca " 50 16 16 28Extr. Mg " 7 6 4 6Cation exch.capacity me/100 g21.4 17.6 17.3 18.6176

Table 6.12Vegetation type: Moist deciduous forestSoil pit No.12Description0-23 cm Dar< brown, loamy sand, granular, friable, moderatelygravelly, many fine interstitial tubular pores,abundant coarse roots, much deCOmpOSing organiclitter and many roots, medium acid.20-40 cm Dark brown, loamy sand, massive, slightly firm,moderately gravelly, gradL a1 wavy boundary, abundantmedium roots, scattered faLnal voids, medium acid.40-60 cm Dark brown, loamy sand, massive, slightly firm,moderately gravelly, diffuse wavy boundary, few fineroot

Table 6.13Vegetation type: Moist dec:iduous forestSoil pit No.13Descr ip t ion0-20 cm Dark brown, lotimy sand, granular, friable, moderatelygravelly, abundant coarse roots, plentiful decomposingorganic litter, strongly acid.20-40 cm Very dark grayish brown, loamy sand, blocky, slightlyfirm, moderately gravelly, many medium roots, distinctin de-ayed root chavnels, strongly acid.40-60 cm Dark yellowish browq, loamy sand, firm, moderatelygravelly, few very fine roots, medium acid.PropertiesDepth (cm)0--20 20-40 40-60 0-60Gravel % 10 27 24 23Sand " 89 90 88 89Silt " 9 8 10 9Clay " 2 2 2 2PH 5.3 5.4 5.7 5.5Organic carbon % 2.38 1.59 1.09 1.69Exch. bases me/100 9 17 7 6 10Exch. acidity " 9.7 9.0 8.4 9.0Av. N ppm 197 130 92 140Extr. P " 7 3 2 4Extr. K 'I 500 230 180 303Extr. Ca " 110 36 20 55Extr. Mg I' 28 10 5 14Cation exch.capacity me/100 g26.7 16.0 14.4 19.0178

Table 6.14Vegetation type: Moist deciduous forestSoil pit No.14Description0-20 cm Very dark grayish brown, loamy sand, granular,friable, slightly gravelly, abundant coarse roots,faunal voids including termite nests, medium acid.20-40 cm Very dark grayish brown, loamy sand, blocky, firm,slightly gravelly, many medium and fine rocits,scattered faunal voids mainly termite channels andchambers, strongly acid.40-60 cm Dark brown, loamy sand, blocky, firm, moderatelygravelly-few fine and very fine roots, strongly acid.Prop e r t i esDepth (cm)0-20 20-40 40-60 0-60Gravel % 13 14 23 17Sand " 86 88 83 86Silt " 11 10 13 11Clay " 3 2 4 3PH 5.7 5.4 5.3 5.5Organic carbon % 2.71 1.79 1 .@7 1 .B6Exch. bases me/100 g 23 15 6 15Exch. acidity " 6.9 8.0 7.0 7.3Av. N ppm 229 152 93 158Extr. P " 6 2 3 4Extr. K " 740 310 270 440Extr. Ca " 92 36 8 45Extr. Mg I' 5 1 8 5Cation exch.capacity me/100 929.9 23.0 13.0 22.3179

Table 6.15Vegetation typii: Moist deciduous forestSoil pit No.15Description0-20 cm Very dark grayish brown, loamy sand, granular,fri3ble, slightly gravelly, abundant coarse roots,root mat and disintegrating organic debris, mediumaciJ.20-40 cm Dark brown, loamy and, 3locky, firm, moderatelygravelly,, many medium roots material interfingeringin lower horizons throuch faunal voids and old rootchannels, strongly acid.40-60 cm Dark brown, loamy sand, massive, firm, moderatelygravelly, few medium and fine roots, strongly acid.Gravel %9172316Sand "888684El6Silt "1191010Clay'I3564PH5.75.35.55.5Organic carbon %1.810.920.721.15Exch. bases me/100 9209411Exch. acidity "7.79.27.88.2Av. Nppm1658765106Extr. P "6244Extr. K "270700270413Extr. Ca "82242443Extr. Mg "49141125Cation exch.capacity me/100 g27.718.211.819.2

Table 6.16Vegetation type: Moist deciduou5 forest. Soil pit No. 16Desc r i p t ion0-20 cm Dark brown, loamy sand, granular, friable, moderatelygravelly, abundant coarse roots, much decomposingorganic litter and many decomposing roots, mediumacid.20-40 cm Dark brown, loamy sand, blocky, slightly firm,slightly gravelly, many coarse and medium roots,pockets of filled-in maserial from upper horizon,medium acid.40-60 cm Strong brown, sandy loam, massive, firm, moderatelygravelly, few fine roots, strongly acid.Proper t 1 esGravel % 15 12 20 16Sand " 84 77 77 79Sllt " 9 13 12 11Clay I' 7 10 11 10PH 5.7 5.7 5.5 5.6Organic carbon % 2.75 1.74 1.15 1.88Exch. bases me/100 g 7 4 4 5Exch. acidity " 6.3 6.2 4.5 5.7Av. N ppm 24 1 121 99 154Extr. P " 11 9 8 9Extr. K 'I 1210 660 50 640Extr. Ca I' 98 42 40 60Extr. Mq 'I 29 16 16 20Cation exch.capacity me/100 q13.3 10.2 8.5 10.7181

The mcan V~~LIP:, of SD;~ propprties are shown in Tables 6.46 and 6.47.Sand, organic carbon, egchangeable base5, extractable N,P,K,Ca and Mqand cation exchange capacity decrease whereas gravel, silt and claycontents increase with depth. There is no change in pH values whileexchange acidity followed no trend. The soil is loamy sand andstrongly acid.The average values of gravel, sand, silt, and clay in the 0-60 cmlayer are 18, 86, 11 and 3%, respectively. They are 5.5, 1.78% and10, 8 and 18 me/100q soil for soil pH, organic carbon, exchangeablebases, exchange acidity and cation exchange capacity. ExtractableN,P,K, Ca and Mg contents are 149, 4, 437, 27 and 14 ppm, respectively.6.5.3. Soil properties in teak plantationsThe plantations are on hills with elevation ranging from 50 to200 m. The soils are well drained. Most of the area is covered withrocky out crops. The morphological description, and physical andchemical properties of soils in different layers in the teak plantationare presented in Tables 6.17 to 6.36. The mean values of soilproperties are bestowed in Tables 6.46 and 6.47. Organic carbon,exchangeable bases, exchange acidity, extractable N, K, Ca, Mq andcation exchange capacity decrease while gravel, silt and clay contentsincrease with depth.There is no trend for sand, pH and extractable Pvalues. The soils are loamy sand and strongly acid.182

Table 6.17Vegetation type: Teak plantation Soil pit No. 17Desc r 1 p t i on0-20 cm Very dark grayish brown, loamy sand, granular,triable, slightly gravelly, abundant coarse roots,strongly acid.20-40 cm Dark brown, loamy sand, blocky, slightly firm,moderately gravelly, many medium roots, occasionalpieces of broken iron pan which is easily breakable,medium acid.40-60 cm Strong brown, loamy sand, massive, firm, moderatelygravelly, few medium and fine roots, few breakablepieces of laterites with reddish, yellowish and blackcolours, medium acid.Gravel X12252119Sand "85807580Silt "11141513Clay "46107PH5.55.65.65.6Organic carbon %2.050.980.771.27Exch. bases me/100 g6334Exch. acidity "9.47.57.0E.0Av. Nppm1928964115Extr. P I'8937Extr. KI'160803090Extr. Ca "42282231Extr. Mq I'1911512Cation exch.capacity me/100 q15.410.510.012.0

Table 6.18Vegetation type: Teak plantation Soil pit No. 18Descr ip t i on0-20 cm Strong brown, loamy sand, granular, friable, slightlyqravelly, abundant coarse roots, fine faunal voids,strongly acid.20-40 cm Dark reddish brown, sandy loam, blocky, slightly firm,slightly rravelly, many medium roots, fine subroundedFe/Mn cmc retions, strongly acid.40-60 cm YellOLJlSh red, loamy, massive, firm, moderatelygravelly, few fine roots, common medium and coarsedistinct mottles becominq more prominent and slightlyredder with depth, strongly acid.Proper t i esGravel %Depth (cm)____________________-----------------0-20 20-40 40-60 0-60-_______--_-----__---------------------_10122516SandI'79767476SiltI'12121312Clay "9121312PH5.45.35.35.3Organic carbon %1.970.790.641.13Exch. bases me/100 96334Exch. ac:dity'I6.75.94.95.8Av. Nppm181653995Extr. P'I10788Extr. K "801306090Extr. Ca I'36242629Extr. Mg "12111011Cation exch.capacity me/100 g12.78.97.99.8184

Table 6.19Vegetation type: Teak plantation Soil pit No. 19Desc r ip t i on0-20 cm Dark brown, loamv

Table 6.20Vegetation type: leak plantation Soil pit No. 20Desc r i p t i on0-20 cm Dark brown, loamy sand, granular, friable, moderatelygravelly, abundant coarse roots, gradual wavyboundary, strongly acid.20-40 cm Dark reddish brown, loamy sand, blocky, sllghtly firm,sliqhtly gravelly, few fine roots, scattered remnantsof aterite, strongly acid.40-60 cm Dark reddish brown, sandy loam, massive, firm,moderately gravelly, very few very fine roots, mottledwith brownish and reddish particles, medium acid.Gravel %19141817Sand'I81797679Silt12131313Clay'I78118PH5.55.25.65.4Organic carbon %1.320.790.630.91Exch. bases me/100 94544Exch. acidity "7.56.15.76.4Av. Nppm117654074Extr. P "3365Extr. K "32029030213Extr. Ca "42363034Extr. Mg "10567Cation exch.capacity me/100 Q11.511.19.710.4

Table 6.21Vegetation type: leak plantation Soil pit No. 21Description0-20 cm Dark brown, loamy sand, granular, friable, slightlygravelly, atundant coarse roots, decaying leavesforming a met on and closely below surface, stronglyacid.20-40 cm Dark reddish brown, loam, blocky, slightly firm,moderately gravelly, many medium T 3ots, clear andlocally abrupt smooth boundary, strar dly acid.40-60 cm Reddish brown, loam, massive, firm, moderatelygravelly, few fine roots, granite fragments of stoneand gravel-size in various stages of weathering butmostly soft and easily breakable, medium acid.Gravel %12181615Sand'I79747476Sllt "12141413Clay "9121211PH5.35.35.85.5Organic carbon %1.901.060.891.28Exch. bases me/100 g7898Exch. acidityI'7.25.24.55.6Av. N ppm1638860104Extr. P "3222Extr. K "29060320223Extr. Ca "28403835Extr. Mg 'I88119Cation exch.capacity me/100 914.213.213.514.6

Table 6.22Vegetation type: Teak plantation Soil pit No. 22Description0-20 cm Dark yellowish brown, loamy sand, granular, friable,slightly gravelly, abundant medium roots, animalvoids, subsurface earthworm casts, strongly acid.20-40 cm Dark brown, loamy sand, blocky, slightly firm,moderately gravelly, many medium roots, plentifulmottles, mostly multic7loured, strongly acid.40-60 cm Dark brown, loamy sand, massive, firm, moderatelygravelly, few fine roots, medium acid.Gravel 7. 12 19 18 16Sand I' 82 81 80 81Silt I' 13 13 13 13Clay " 5 6 7 6PH 5.4 5.2 5.8 5.5Organic carbon 7, 1.76 1.25 1.04 1.35Exch. bases me/100 9 18 18 16 17Exch. acidity I' 8.6 6.6 5.6 6.9Av. N ppm 158 108 89 118Extr. P " 9 6 4 6Extr. K " 470 140 470 360Extr. Ca " 38 32 38 36Extr. Mg " 5 6 4 5Cation exch.capacity me/100 926.6 24.6 21.6 23.9188

Table 6.23Vegetation typi?: leak plantation Soil pit No. 23Desc r ip t ion0-20 cm Dark brown, loamy sand, granular, friable, slightlygravelly, abundant coarse roots, bleached quartzgrains at the surface, strongly acid.20-40 cm Dark yellowish brown, loam, blocky, firm, moderatelygravelly, many medium root^,, earth worms, fine faunalvoio i, strongly acid.40-60 cm Dark brown, loamy sand, massive, firm, moderatelygravelly, few flne roots, plentiful pieces ofunrounded quartz, medium acid.Gravel % 10 15 ' 21 15Sand " 81 75 82 79Silt 11 13 9 11Clay 'I 8 12 9 10PH 5.2 5.3 5.6 5.4Organic carbon % 2.03 1.09 0.96 1.36Exch. bases me/100 g 20 14 14 16Exch. acidity "9.4 7.8 7.1 8.1Av. NExtr. PppmI'190 100 89 1269 4 5 6Extr. K "350 310 50 237Extr. Ca 'IExtr. Mg "541828 16 3319 35 24Cation exch.capacity me/100 g29.4 21.8 21.1 24.1189

Table 6.24Vegetation type: Teak plantation Soil pit No. 24Descr ip t i on0-20 cm Dark brown, loamy sand, granular, slightly hard,moderately gravelly, abundant coarse roots, bleachedsand grains, clear smooth boundary, medium acid.20-40 cm Dark reddish brown, loam, blocky, firm, moderatelygravelly, many medium roots, few pieces of lithomarge,few mottles, very strongly acid.40-60 cm Strong brown, loam, massive, very firm, moderatelygravelly, few very fine roots, scattered remnants oflaterite, very strong acid,,Gravel % 23 25 26 25Sand " 82 72 70 75Sllt " 9 12 13 11Clay " 9 16 17 14PH 5.6 5.0 4.9 5.2Organic carbon % 1.85 1.51 0.64 1.33Exch. bases me/100 9 16 12 10 13Exch. acidity " 7.1 7.2 5.9 6.76v. N ppmExtr. P163 123 53 1139 3 3 5Extr. KI'620 180 180 327Extr. Ca "84 28 30 47Extr. Mg " 48 17 17 27Cation exch.capacity me/100 g23.1 19.2 15.9 19.7190

Table 6.25Vegetation type: Teak plantation Soil pit No. 25Desc r i p t i on0-20 cm Dark yellowish brown, loamy sand, granular, slightlyhard, moderately gravelly, abundant medium roots, fewfaunal voids, locally mixing with underlying layer,strongly acid.20-40 cm Yellowish red, loam, blocky, firm, moderatelygravelly, common medium roots, abundant mottles, verystrongly acid.40-60 cm Red loam, massive, very firm, moderately qravelly, fewfinE roots, plentiful concretions, very strongly acid.____-__________-________________________------------------------Depth (cm)Proper t i es_______________---__-----------------0-20 20-40 40-60 0-60_____________---________________________--------------Gravel %18181918Sand "79696772Sllt "11121312Clay "10192016PH5.24.84.64.9Organic carbon %1.940.780.841.19Exch. bases me/100 913101111Exch. acidity "7.36.76.46.8Bv. Nppm1796380107Extr. P'Ib344Extr. K "470180430360Extr. Ca 'I76222240Extr. Mg 'I12232420Cation exch.capacity me/100 g20.316.717.417.8191

Table 6.26Vegetation type: leak plantation Soil pit No. 26Desc r i p t i on\0-20 cm Dark yellowish brown, loamy sand, granular, slightlyhard, moderately gravelly, bleached sancJ grains,abrupt wavy boundary, strongly acid.20-40 cm Dark brown, loam, blocky, firm, moderately gravelly,many medium roots, few rounded fine hard Fe/Mnconcretions with shiny surfice, strongly acid.40-60 cm Dark brown, sandy loam, massive, very firm, moderatelygravelly, common few medium roots, interfingering ofdark coloured material from upper layer alongcracks, strongly acid.Gravel '/, 19 19 20 19Sand " 86 76 77 80Silt " 8 12 13 11Clay I' 6 11 11 9PH 5.5 5.4 5.3 5.4Organic carbon % 2.67 1.53 1.41 1.87Exch. bases me/100 9 15 12 12 13Exch. acidity " 9.0 7.5 6.6 7.7Av. N ppm 240 131 120 164Extr. P " 6 3 5 5Extr. K " 620 90 140 283Extr. Ca " 38 32 30 33Extr. Mg " 22 17 18 19Cation exch. 24.0 19.5 18.6 20.7capacity me/100 g192

Table 6.27Vegetation type: leak plantation Soil pit No. 27Desc r i p t i on0-20 cm Dark brown, loamy sand, granular, slightly hard,moderately gravelly, abundant coarse roots, fewsubrounded water washed quartz gravels less than 0.5cm across, strongly acid.20-40 cm Dark brown, loamy sand, blocky, slightly firm,moderately gravelly, many medium and fine roots,. subrounded Fe/Mn concretions, strongly acid.40-60 cm Dark brown, loamy sand, massive, firm, moderatelygravelly, few fine roots, Fe/Mn concretions, stronglyacid.Gravel %26272626Sand'I83817780SlltI'11121513Clay "6787PH5.55.55.45.5Organic carbon %1.771.341 .oo1.37Exch. bases me/100 g18171617Exch. acidity "9.89.18.49.1Av. Nppm14911791119Extr. P'I7466Extr. K "35047023035 0Extr. Ca "62383846Extr. Mg "26302627Cation exch.capacity me/100 g27.826.124.426.1

Table 6.28Vegetation type: Teal.. plantation Soil pit No. 28Desc r ip t i on0-20 cm Dark brom, loamy sand, granular, slightly hard,moderately gravelly, abundant coarse roots, stronglyacid.20-40 cm Dark brown, sandy loam, blocky, slightly firm,moderately gravelly, many medium and fine roots,moderate amount of fine quartz locally interbedded inlaterite, very strongly ac.d.40-60 cm Dark yellowish brown, loam, blocky, slightly firm,moderately gravelly, few very fine roots,unconsolidated Fe/Mn concretions, strongly acid.P roper t 1 esDepth (cm)0-20 20-40 40-60 0-60Gravel %25292025Sand'I83767377Sllt'I10131412ClayI'7111311PH5.55.05.35.3Organic carbon 7,Exch. bases me/100 g .1.59150.98140.76131.1114Exch. acidity' I10.99.58.29.54v. N ppm143856999Extr. P "b355Extr. KI'310230140227Extr. Ca I'24283027Extr. Mg I'18202421Cation exch.capacity me/100 g25.923.521.223.5

Table 6.29Vegetation type: Teak plantation Soil pit No. 29Description0-20 cm Very dark grayish brown, loamy sand , granular,slightly hard, moderately gravelly, abundant coarseroots, strongly acid.20-40 crri Dark brown, loamy sand, blocky, slightly firm,moderately gravelly, abundant medium roots, roundedFe/Mn co~cretions, abrupt wavy boundary, stronglyacid.40-60 cm Dark yellokish brown, loamy sand, blocky, slightlyfirm, moder,tely gravelly, many fine roots, mottleswith red patches and blotches, strongly acid.Gravel % 22 23 21 22Sand 'I 86 80 78 81Silt I' 9 13 15 12Clay 'I 5 7 7 7PH 5.6 5.5 5.2 5.4Organic carbon 1.63 0.93 0.85 1.14Exch. bases me/100 9 11 15 15 14Exch. acidity " 10.1 9.7 8.6 9.5Av. N ppm 15 1 83 71 102Extr. P 'I 8 3 5 5Extr. K " 620 90 270 327Extr. Ca I' 36 14 16 22Extr. Mg " 20 13 10 14Cation exch.capacity me/100 921.1 24.7 23.6 23.5195

Table 6.30Vegetation type: leak plantation Soil pit No. 30Desc r i p t 1 on0-20 cm Very dark grayish brown, loamy sand, granular,slightly hard, slightly gravelly, abundant coarseroots, ruptic where boulders are outcropping, stronglyacid.20-40 cm Dark yellowish brown, loamy sand, blocky, firm,slightly gravelly, many medium rc,ots, some thinvertical cracks, strongly acid.40-60 cm Dark brown, loamy sand, massive, firm, moderatelygravelly very few very fine roots, few hard Fe/Mnconcretions, strongly acid.Gravel % 13 11 20 15Sand " 85 80 81 82Sllt " 9 13 12 11Clay 'I 6 7 7 7PH 5.4 5.4 5.2 5.3Organic carbon % 1.37 0.88 0.92 1.06Exch. bases me/100 g 17 15 13 15Exch. acidity " 7 .? 7.4 6.4 7.2Av. N ppm 128 77 78 94Extr. P " 6 6 4 5Extr. K " 470 350 230 350Extr. Ca " 42 30 32 35Extr. Mg 'I 30 12 6 16196

Table 6.31VegPtation type: Teak plantation Soil pit No. 31Descr ip t ion0-20 cm Dark brown, loamy sand, granular, very firm, slightlygravelly, abundant coarse roots, weathering gravels 2-3 mm reddish skin and blackish interior,strongly acid.20-40 cm Dark brown, loamy sand, blocky, slightly firm,moderatcly gravelly, abundant medium roots, commonfine anc medium faint mottles, very strongly acid.40-60 cm Dark yellowish brown, loamy sand, massive, firm,moderately gravelly, many fine roots, many fine andmedium distinct mottles, strongly acid.Gravel %13162317Sa id "85818082s1: t I'10121312Cldy8 ,5776PH5.15 .o5.25.1Ortjanic carbon %1.510.870.450.94Erch. bases me/100 910111111E, rh. acidity 'I8.67.06.476,. N ppm139693882E) tr. P I'6656E> tr. K "18090230167Eltr. Ca "44242631E

Table 6.32Vegetation type: Teal plantation Soil pit No. 32Descr ip t ion0-20 cm Dark brown, loamy sand, granular, slightly hard,highly gravelly, abundant coarse and medium roots,strongly acid.20-40 crn Dark brown, loamy sand, blocky, slightly firm,moderately gravelly, many medium roots, Fe/Mn nodules,rounded, medium-hard '.o hard, strongly acid.'40-60 cm Dark yellowish brown, loamy sand, blocky, firm,moderately gravelly, many fine roots, many mediumdistinct mottles, mainly reddish yellow, red andblack, strongly acid.PropertiesDepth (cm)____l__l..__.-_____________ -------------' 0-20 20-40 40-60 0-60Gravel % 36 26 21 28Sand I' 88 85 83 85Silt 'I 8 10 11 10Clay " 4 5 6 5PH 5.2 5.2 5.3 5.2Organic carbon % 2.03 1.70 0.98 1.57Exch. bases me/100 9 17 10 15 14Exch. acidity " 9.6 9.5 8.1 9.1Av. N ppm 181 148 89 139Extr. P " L2 4 9 7Extr. K " 310 310 230 283. Extr. Ca " 62 28 18 36Extr. Mg I' 20 12 12 15Cation exch.capacity me/100 926.6 19.5 23.1 23.1198

Table 6.33Vegetation type: Teak plantiition Soil pit No. 33Desc r i p t ion0-20 cm Very dark grayish brown, loamy sand, granular,slightly hard, slightly gravelly, abundant coarseroots, strongly acid.20-40 cm Dark yellowish brown, loamy sand, blocky, slightlyfirm, moderately gravelly, many medium roots, manyme'ium and coarse distinct reddish and yellowishmo,tles, strongly acid.40-60 cm Dark brown, loamy sand, blocky, firm, highly gravelly,abundant fine roots, soft Fe/Mn nodules, stronglyacid.Gravel % 4 16 31 27Sand 'I 85 86 84 85Sllt " 11 10 10 10Clay " 4 4 6 5PH 5.7 5.5 5.5 5.6Organic carbon % 2.94 1.80.1.07 1.94Exch. bases me/100 g 31 16 18 22Exch. acidity 'I 8.8 8.2 6.7 7.9Bv. N ppm 263 145 91 166Extr. P " 5 8 8 7Extr. K " 270 10 50 110Extr. Ca 'IExtr. Mg "Cation exch.capacity me/100 q194 84 58 11238 17 13 2339.8 24.2 24.7 29.9199

Table 6.34Vegetation type: leak plantation Soil pit No. 34Descr ip t i on0-20 cm Dark yellowish brown, loamy sand, granular, friable,slightly gravelly, abundant coarse roots, many mediumand coarse prominent sharp dark brown mottles withreddish fringes, strongly acid.20-40 cm Dark brown, loamy sand, blocky, slightly firm,n2derately gravelly, abundant medium roots, Fe andF j/Mn concretions, strongly acid.40-60 cm Dark brown, loamy sand, blocky, firm, moderatelygravelly, many fine roots, few Fe and Fe/Mn nodules,slightly acid--_____--______-____--------------------------------------------Depth (cm)Proper t 1 es0-20 20-40 40-60 0-60Gravel %14251919SandI'85828183Silt'I9101130ClayI'6887PH5.15.36.25.5Organic carbon %1.651.060.631.11Exch. bases me/100 915211818Exch. acidityI'10.49.42.87.5Av. N PPm1539949100Extr. PI'9111813Extr. K'I27018050167Extr. Ca "52322235Extr. Mg I'1610410Cation exch.capacity me/100 g25.430.420.825.5200

Table 4.35Veqet, tion type: leak plantation Soil pit No. 35Desc r ip t I on0-20 cm Dark brawn, loamy sand, grani~lar, :;lightly hard,moderately gravelly, abundant coarse rciots, stronglyacid.20-40 cm Very dark grayish brown, loamy sand, blocky, slightlyfirm, moderately gravelly, many medium roots, Fe andFe/Mn concretions, very fine hard to soft, verystrongly acid.40-40 cm Very dark grayish brown, loamy sand, massive, firm,moderately gravelly, many fine roots, moderately hardFe nodules within red mottles, medium acid.Gravel % 20 17 26 31Sand " 88 88 86 87Sllt " 8 8 10 9Clay 'I 4 4 4 4PH 4.9 5.0 5.6 5.2Organic carbon % 2.45 1.84 1.39 1.89Exch. bases me/100 g 21 15 16 17Exch. acidity " 11.1 9.0 7.7 9.3Av. N ppm 212 158 101 157Extr. P " 10 6 3 6Extr. K I' 350 325 300 325Extr. Ca " 52 20 18 30Extr. Mq " 16 8 8 11Cation exch. 32.1 24.0 23.7 26.3capacity me/100 920 1

Table 6.36Vpyctation type: Teak plantation Soil pit No. 36Description0-20 cm Very dark grayi'sh brown, loamy sand, granular,friable, slightly gravelly, abundant coarse and mediumroots, strongly acid.20-40 crn Very dark grayisn brown, loamy sand, blocky, firm,moderately gravelly, many medium roots, Fe/Ynconcretions mainly reddish, some black, medium acid40-60 cm Dark brown, loamy sand, massive, very firm, moderatelygravelly, many fine roots, common fine with reddishand black concretions, strongly acid.Gravel % 13 21 27 20Sand " 85 83 82 83Silt " 11 12 12 12Clay " 4 5 6 5PH 5.7 5.6 5.4 5.6Organic carbon % 2.77 1.99 1.67 2.14Exch. bases me/100 g 20 18 14 17Exch. acidity " 11.1 10.1 9.1 10.1Av. N ppm 219 171 102 164Extr. P " 8 2 7 bExtr. K 'I 500 350 230 360Extr. Ca " 48 32 30 37Extr. Mg " 23 10 10 14Cation exch.capacity me/100 q31.1 28.1 23.1 27.1202

M~an values for gravel, 5an0, silt and rlay in the 0-60 cm layerare19, 80, 12 and 8%, respectively. They are 5.4, 1.32%, and 13, 7.8and 20.8 me/100 g soil for soil pH, organic carbon, exchangeablebases, exchange acidity and cation exchange capacity, respectively.For extractable N,P,K,Ca and Mg, they are 114, 6, 250, 22 and 15 ppm,respectively.6.5.4. Soil properties in cashew plantationsThe plantations are on gently undulating terrain, elevationranging from 50 to 100 m. The soil1 are well drained. The morpholo-gical description, and physical and chemical properties of soils indifferent layers in cashew plantation are portrayed in Tables 6.37to6.41. The mean values of soil properties are presented in Tables 6.46and 6.47. Silt, clay and extractable Ca and 17q increase while sand,organic carbon, exchange acidity, extractable K and cation exchangecapacity decrease with depth. There is no trend for gravel,exchangeable bases, extractable N, P values whereas soil pH valuesremain the same in the three layers. The soil is sandy loam andstrongly acid.The mean gravel, sand, silt and clay contents in the 0-60 cm are22, 76, 11 and 13%, respectively. Corresponding values for soil pH,organic carbon, exchangeable bases, exchange acidity and cation exchangecapacity are 5.3,1.46% and 3,6.3 and 9.3 me/100 g soil. Theyare 128, 6, 341, 17 and 11 ppm for extractable N,P,K,Ca and Mg, respectively.203

Table 6.37Vegetatio, type: Cashew plantation Soil pit No. 37Desc r i p t 1 on0-20 cm Dark reddish brown, sandy loam, granular, ~ery hard,highly gravelly, abundant coarse roots, daruter organicspots, strongly acid.20-40 cm Dark reddish brown, loam, blocky, sliglltly firm,moderately gravelly, many medium roots, common fineand medium faint browner mottles including somemottles around root channels, strongly acid.40-60 cm Yellowish red, loam, blocky, firm, moderatelygravelly, few fine roots, sub-rounded reddish Fe/Mnconcretions,very strongly acid._____-_______-______----_------------------------------------Depth (cm)Proper t i es_________________--_-_------------------0-20 20-40 40-60 11-60Gravel %37232324Sand'I77706772Silt'I10111010Clay "13i92318PH5.25.15 .o5.1Organic carbon %2.071.470.961.50Exch. bases me/100 q3312Exch. acidity "5.86.16.06.0bv. Nppm18913082134Extr. P "4233Extr. K'I7 0035 0140397Extr. Ca I'10222017Extr. Mg6455Cation exch.capacity me/100 q .8.89.17.08.0204

Tablrc 6.38Vecjetdtion type: Cashew plantation Soil pit No. 38Descr ip t 1 on0-20 cm Dark brown, loamy sand, granular, very hard,moderately gravelly, abundant coarse and medium roots,strongly acic'.20-40 rm Dark reddish brown, sandy loam, blocky, slightly firm,moderately gravelly, many medium and fine roots, Fe/Mnconcr.tions concentrated in an indistinct stone line,stron,ly acid.40-60 cm Yellowish red, sandy loam, massive, firm, moderatelygravelly, many fine roots, common dark yelloruish brownsoft ferruginous nodules, strongly acid.Gravel % 18 19 16 18Sand I' 83 77 75 78Sllt " 8 11 12 10Clay " 9 12 13 12PH 5.4 5.2 5.3 5.3Organic carbon % 1.81 1.35 0.86 1.34Exch. bases me/100 g 2 3 3 3Exch. acidity " 9.2 7.4 6.6 7.7Av. N ppm 160 109 79 ' 116Extr. P I' 5 8 3 5Extr. K " 420 390 310 373Extr. Ca " 26 26 30 27Extr. Mg I' 10 4 10 9Cation exch.capacity me/100 g11.2 10.4 9.6 10.7205

Table 6.39Vegetation type: Cashew plaritation Soil pit No. 39Descr ipt ion0-20 cm Dark brown, loamy sand, granular, friable, moderatelygravelly, abundant medium roots, few small faintbrownish mottles, strongly acid.20-40 cm Reddish brown, loam, blocky, firm, moderatelygravelly, few medium roots, reddish patches withbleached quartz grains, strongly acid.40-60 cm Dark red, loam, massive, very firm, moderatelygravelly, very few medium and fine roots, plentifulmuch coloured mottles, strongly acid.Gravel 7, 17 24 24 22Sand " 79 73 76 76Sllt 'I 11 13 13 12Clay " 10 14 11 12PH 5.3 5.3 5.5 5.4Organic carbon 'A 2.08 1.55 0.96 1.53Exch. bases me/100 g 3 3 2 3Exch. acidity " 7.1 6.3 4.9 6.1Av. N ppm 189 129 81 133Extr. P " 6 7 7 7Extr. K " 500 500 140 380Extr. Ca 'I 28 28 30 29Extr. Mg 'I 18 17 18 18Cation exch. 10.1 9.3 6.9 9.1capacity me/100 g206

Table 6.40Vegetation type: Cashew plantation Soil pit No. 40Desc r ipt 1 on0-20 cm Strong brown, loamy sand, granular, hard, moderatelygravelly abundant coarse roots, common fine faintclear yellowish brown mottles, strongly acid.20-40 cm Dark reddish brown, loam, blocky, firm, moderatelygravelly, many medium roots, few Fe/Mn concretions,medium acid.40-60 cm Red loam, blocky, very firm, moderately gravelly, fewfine roots, scattered remnants of laterite, stronglyacid.PropertiesGravel %Sand "Silt "Clay "198011918 22 2073 72 7514 13 1313 15 12PHOrganic carbon %5.1 5 . t, 5.4 5.41.91 1.26 0.72 1.30Exch. bases me/lOO q 3 1 1 2Exch. acidity I' 7.0 5.1 4.5 5.5c\v. Nppm180 112 59 117Extr. P "Extr. K "Extr. Ca 'I10 3 8 7490 390 420 4 3322 34 30 29Extr. Mg " 14 14 13 14Cation exch.capacity me/100 910.0 6.1 5.5 7.5207

Table 6.41Vegetation type: Cashew plantation 5111 pit No. 41Description0-20 cm Strong brown loamy sand, granular, very hard,moderately gravelly, abundant coarse roots, gradualsmooth boundary, strongly acid.20-40 cm Dark reddish brown, sandy loam, blocky, firm,moderately gravelly, many coarse and medium roots,occasional pier-es of broken iri'n pan, strongly acid.40-60 cm Dark reddish brown, loam, massive, very firm, highlygravelly, abundant fine roots, scattered Fe/Mnconcretions ranging from soft to hard, someinfiltration in vertical streaks, strongly acid._---___-________________________________--------------Proper t i es---_--_---------_L---------------------------Depth (cm).....................................0-20 20-40 40-60 0-60____-_____-_______Gravel 7,19233626SandI'82767377SiltI'10131312Clay "0111411PH5.45.45.25.3Organic carbon %2.121.461.241.61Exch. bases me/100 g1433Exch. acidityI'7.37.04.66.3plv. Nppm20 1117104141Extr. P "7476Extr. KI'1809090120Extr. Ca "24303229Extr. Mg I'8131211Cation exch.capacity me/100 g8.311.07.69.3208

6.5.5. Soi1 properties in grasslandsGrasslands are on hilly areas with elevation ranging from 100 to150 m. The morphological description, and physical and chemicalproperties of soils in different layers in grassland are given inTables 42 to 45. The mean values of soil properties are shown inTab1es 46 and 47. The soils are well drained. Sand, organic carton,exchange acidity, extractable N, K and Ca and cation exchange capacitydecrease whereas clay and pH values increase with depth. No patternis observed for gravel, silt, exchangeable bases, extractable P and Mgcontents.The soil is sandy loam and strongly acid.The average values for gravel, sand, silt and clay in the0-60 cm layer are 15, 78, 11 and 11%. The analogous values for soilpH, organic carbon, exchangeable bases, exchange acidity and cationexchange capacity are 5.2, 1.51% and 10, 7.4 and 17.4 me/100 g soil.Extractable N, P, K, Ca and Mg values are 127,7,330,21 and 14 ppm,respectively.6.5.6. Soil properties in the different forest ecosystems -a comparisonIn the study area, a comparison of soil properties in theevergreen and moist deciduous forests, grassland, teak and cashewplantations reveals the state of the site.209

Table 6.42Vcge t a t i or1 type : brass 1 and 5011 pit No. 42Descr ip t ion0-20 cm Very dark grayish brown, loamy sand, granular, hard,slightly gravelly, abundant medium roots, few smallfaint brownish mottles, strongly acid.20-40 cm Strong brown, loam, blocky, firm, moderatelygravelly, many medium root5, occasional pieces of ironpan which are easily breakable, very strongly acid.4( --hO cm Dark tirown, sandy loam, blocky, firm, slightlygravelly, few fine roots, strongly acid.Gravel X 13 19 15 16SanL " 81 74 77 77Silt " 11 13 10 11Clay I' 8 13 13 12PH 5.2 4.8 5.4 5.1Organic carbon % 2.82 1.29 1.29 1.80Exch. bases me/100 q 16 10 11 12Exch. acidity " 9.6 7.2 5 .O 7.3Av. N ppm 223 103 98 141Extr. P " 10 4 8 7Extr. K " 470 310 270 35 0Extr. Ca 'I 44 24 12 27Extr. Mg " 22 20 16 19Cation exch. 25.4 17.2 16.0 19.3capacity me/100 g210

Table 6.43Vegetation type: Gi dssland Soil pit No. 43Description0-20 cm Dark brown, loamy sand, granular, hard, moderate:.^gravelly, abundant medium roots, some faunal void!,,including termite nests, very strongly acid.20-40 cm Strong brown, sandy loam, blocky, slightly firm,moderately gravelly, many medium roots, many fine subroundedFe/Mn concretions, strongly acid.40-60 cm Yellowish red, sandy loam, massive, slightly firm,slightly gravelly, abundant fine roots, many fine andmedium distinct clear brownish mottles, strongly acid.________--__________---------_--_---------------------------Depth (cm)Properties____________________------_----0-20 20-40 40-60 0-60________________________________________-----------Gravel 7,17201517Sand "81757577Silt'I11121111Clay8131412pH4.85.45.45.2Organic carbon %2.401.500.781.56Exch. bases me/100 g1181010Exch. acidityI'6.66.24.95.9Av. N ppm21811169133Extr. P "11678Extr. KI'5404705035 3Extr. Ca I'56423444Extr. Mg "18141215Cation exch.capacity me/100 g17.614.214.915.921 1

Table 6.44Vegetation type: Grassland Soil pit No. 44Description0-20 cm Dark brown, loamy sand, granular, friable, slightlygravelly, abundant medium roots, mat of fibrous rootsalong the leaves, strongly acid.20-40 cm Strong brown, loamy sand, blocky, slightly firm,moderately gravelly, many medium roots, occasionalFe/Mn concret ons and softer nodules, strongly acid.40-60 cm Dark brown, sandy loam, massive, firm, slightlyqravelly, abundant fine roots, distinct clear reddishmottles, strongly acid.Gravel % 7 19 10 12Sand " 85 79 77 80Silt " 8 12 12 11Clay " 7 9 11 9pH 5.1 5.4 5.4 5.3Organic carbon % 1.69 1.09 0.67 1.15Exch. bases me/100 g 14 12 10 12Exch. acidity I' 11.3 9.7 7.0 9.3Av. NExtr. PExtr. Kppm'II'143 95 58 997 6 4 6500 4 30 90 340Extr. Ca "44 42 40 49Extr. Mg 'I 14 12 17 14Cation exch.capacity me/100 g25.3 21.7 17 .O 21.3212

Table 6.45Vegetation type: Grassland Soil pit No. 45Descr ip t ion0-20 cm Dark brown, loamy sand, granular, hard, slightlygravelly, abundant medium roots, surface litter andmat of fine fibrous roots, very Strongly acid.20-40 cm Very dark grayish brown, loamy sand, blocky, firm,slightly gravelly, many medium roots, scatteredremnants of laterite, strongly acid.40-60 cm Dark brown, sandy loam, massive, very firm, slightlygravelly, few fine roots, few fine and medium faintred mottles, strongly acid.Gravel % 12 12 15 13Sand 'I 82 79 76 79Silt I' 10 11 12 11Clay " 8 10 12 10pH 5 .0 5.2 5.3 5.2Organic carbon % 2.40 1.35 0.87 1.54Exch. bases me/100 q 7 7 8 7Exch. acidity I' 8.2 7.1 6.1 7.1Av. N ppm 221 108 71 133Extr. P " 11 6 4 7Extr. K I' 350 250 230 277Extr. Ca " 26 18 18 21Extr. Mg " 10 5 8 8Cation exch.capacity me/100 g15.2 14.1 14.1 14.5213

exchange acidity values, while in the moist deciduous forests, theyare vice versa, except for gravel contents which are nighest ingrass1 and. Teak soils have the maximum silt contents where as inthe other three they remain same and are lower also. Acidity is;highest in soils of evergreen forest and that in moist deciduous; isleast acidic. Organic carbon, extractable N and K contents are morein moist deciduous forests, in contrary to the lowest values inteak.Soils in teak plantation process more exchangeable bases contents andcation exchange acidity values whereas they are found to be least incashew plantations. Extractable P contents are lowest in moistdeciduous forests and are highest in grassland. Evergreen forestsoils contain lowest Ca and Mg contents while they are found to behighest in moist deciduous forestsand teak plantations, respectively.Thus, it could be seen that the nature and properties ofvary considerably between vegetational types. Excluding gravel,soilssilt,extractable P, Ca and Mg, all other properties are found to differsignificantly between the five vegetation types(Tab1e 48).Hence theparticular vegetation depends on the soil for its supply of waterandnutrients as well as for physical support. At the same time, itimplies the soil in a specific way by way via the type and amountoflitter deposited on the surface, the microclimate it creates, and, asa consequence of these two influences, the result of the activity ofthe particular decomposer systems associated with it. The vegetationchanges therefore influence the soil and eventually, its functions asa supplier of nutrients and water.214

The natura1 forests are found to be disturbed. Degradation ofthe forests is originating from the foothi is and radiates towardsthe hill top.It is possible to visualise a circle of human influenceon the surrounding forests and plantations and the radius of thecircle is characterised by increasing distance and declining intensityof forest degradation. Mushrooming of private lands on all sides ofnatural forests and plantations has attributed to a linearity in thedegradation pattern on the whole and in certain cases, the patternisradial.The structural and functional adaptations of the natural foreststo the climatic and edaphic environment are relatively efficient tomaintain and conserve a viable, perpetual ecosystem when compared tothe plantations. In the natural forests, it could be seen that thetop soil has a more favourable structure and comparatively highorga-nic matter content.It is also found that there is dense developmentof feeder roots, the microclimate is relatively even and, there is ahigh nutrient inventory. Combination of these characteristics resultin better conservation of nutrients and topsoil by preventinglossesthrough leaching and erosion. In terms of their texture, soils intheevergreen forests and cashew plantations are sandy loam while in theother two, it is loamy sand.The soil belong to the group of red soils or oxisols or redferrallitic soil. The colour of these soils is red, of differentintensities and lines depending on the content of Fe2O-5, A1203 andS102. The content of crystallized forms of iron compounds is high inthe plantations. The latter is evidenced by the presence of iron215

concreations in most of the pits. These concretions indicate boththeonset of the initial stages of laterisation and various forms oflatter’s manifestation. These soils have originated from theweatner-ing of acid crystalline rocks aided by warm humid climate and forestvegetation. Relief and tree cover play a major role in the formationand degradation of these soils. Areas devoid of natural forest areseen to be more eroded. The soil thickness decrease in slopes andagain increases at the foothills, owing to the material eroded fromthe elevated parts of such slopes.The natural evolution of these soils may proceed in differentways. The tropical red ferrallitic soils may turn into red lessivatedand later by kaolinization and mottling to concretionary type andfurther by dehydration and compaction to laterites. The transitionbetween these stages are closely related to the alterations of vegeta-tion covers, the intensity of disturbance and over all, effectoffire.Thus the soil cover is characterised by soils which are redleached with mottled horizons in the plantations.Concretions of ironare also seen in most of the pits in the plantations. The generaltendency is towards laterisation which will be enhanced byalterationin the vegetation cover and other environmental impacts.The structure of soils in the plantations of teak and cashewreveals that soil deterioration is partly due to the hardening of pre-existing lateritic soils on exposure.On slopes and where leaf litter216

The change in the vegetation composition and structure has hadits impact on the soil cover too. Most of the soils inthe planta-tions have been Subjectedto intensive erosion and thereby skeletonis-ing. The soil thickness is maintained I y deposits from hill top. Inthe middle portions of the slopes, the soil has been denuded as evi-denced by the shortening of the humus accumulative horizon. Theorga-nic matter is the main store house of plant nutrients and the sameisthe result of rhythms in forest growth and development and the ratesof constant exchange of matter and enerqy between plants and soils.Even the soils in the plantations are found to be highlydeterioratedin the sense that organic matter and N decreased and the levels ofmost nutrients continued to decrease when compared with those of thenatural forests. This also shows tha? organic matter and nutrientcycles are more open under plantations.The decrease in soil organic matter in the plantations may beexplained by the low rate of addition and incorporation of fresh andpartially decomposed litter material,at the same time as the normalrate of oxidation of soil humus continues. The structural deteriora-tion is associated with the decrease in soil humus.It is also quitelikely that the small biomass of fine roots under the plantations willnot be able to maintain a high porosity. A decrease in soil porositymay lead to lower infiltration rate and loss of soil moisture retentioncapacity which results in surface run-off and erosion.217

The most obvious and remarkable features appearing from theTables 6.1 to 6.16 are the very high and evenly distributed nutrientcontent of the soils in the natural forests. The only exceptions arethe extractable P values which are quite low due to the fixation of P.Mineral nutrient levels are more varied and complicated. Theindividual nutrient contents may both increase or decrease in condi-tions under forest, as a result of various management andecologicalconditions.The clearing of the natural forest vegetation is a drama-tic ecological event with far-reaching implications on, among else,the soil conditions of the site. Following canopy closure and up tothe time of clearfelling, it is the tree crop itself and its ecolo-gical conditions that exert a dominant influence on soil andnutrientdynamics (Lundgren, 1978).The soil pH values indicate that the monoculture has not producedmuch influence on soil acidity. There is a more or less closednutrient cycle between soil and vegetation in the natural forest. Adense development of feeder roots in the litter and topsoil, oftenwith very intense mycorrhiza development, relatively high organicmatter content in the top soil, which substantially increases thenutrient retention capacity, various N fixing mechanisms and a favour-able top soil structure preventing losses by surface erosion aresomeimportant adaptations to the soil conditions in the natural forest.Another fact is that the amount of organic matter and nutrients storedin the living vegetations is very high in relation to the annuallycirculated amount which reduces the risk of high losses during seasons218

of excessive rain fall. It is most likely that a monoculture planta-tions will possess. the Same spectrum of N-fixing mechanism as a natu-ralforest.Fears of soil changes under plantations have been repeatedly andincreasingly expressed during the last decades and comparatively fewstudies have been carried out to elucidate the problem (Lundgren,1978). The scarcity of factual informations on this point is strikingand embarrassing. In the present study it could be seen that biologicaluniformity, the fragility of top soil structure, the disturbanceof decomposer activity, the repeated exposure of soils to sun andrain, the effects of associated management practices have made thesoils in the plantations less fertile.The observations of Campbell and Souster (1982), Mwonga andMochoge (1989) and Aborisade and Aweto (1990) on soil contrastsresulting from differences in vegetation types corroborate the presentf indings.6.5.7. Soil mapThe soils are classified into four subtypes of the type redferrallitic. The base map is prepared in the scale 1:25000.Ferrallitic soils are characterised by a complete weathering ofthe primary minerals accompanied by the elimination of the majorpartof the alkaline and earth bases and of a large part of the silica. Inthe study area, the following four subtypes of this soil type are metwith (Fig. 6.1).219

6.5.7.1. Typical red ferrallitic soilsThis subtype is found only in evergreen forest.The upper hori-zon is rich in organic matter and concretionary layers are conspicu-ously absent,. This subtype occupies only 3% of the total area.6.5.7.2. Lessivated red ferrallitic soilsLocated in the moist deciduous forest this subtype occupies 53%of the area.The soil is deep with more organic carbon and sand con-tent than the typical subtype. This subtype is an indicator of theonset of vegetation degradation.6.5.7.3. Shortened red ferrallitic soilsIntensiveerosion has removed the upper layers of this subtypeexposing the lower ones. These soils are low in organic matter andhigh in exchangeable bases. This subtype is present in 10% of thearea and occurs in grasslands.6.5.7.4. Concretionary red ferrallitic soilsThis subtype is the most dominant one occupying 34% of the area.The soil is shallow, contains mottles or concretions indicating advancingstages of laterisation of the soil. This subtype occurs in plantationsof teak and cashew.6.6. CONCLUSIONSStudy of soils in evergreen and moist deciduous forests, grass-land and cashew and teak plantations in the proposed Nature Study224

Centre of Malayattoor forest Division reveals that they are loose inthe evergreen forest with a favourable structure. Soils are sandyloam in the evergreen forest, grassland and cashew plantations whilein the moist deciduous forests and teak plantations, they are loamysand. Soils ate very strongly acid in the evergreen, whereas, inother vegetation types, they are strongly acid. The nature and propertiesof soils in the five ecosystems varied significantly. Thesoils are classified into four subtypes of the type redferrallitic.Evergreen forest soils aretypical red ferrallitic while those in themoist deciduous are lessivated. Grassland soils are classified asshortened red ferrallitic whereas soils in teak and cashew plantationsare concretionary. The soils in the planta'ions are found to bedeteriorated and necessary management measures are recommended topreserve and enhance the fertility of the land.6.7. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTSI express my sincere thanks to Dr. S. Chand Basha, IFS, Directorfor his keen interest in this study and constant encouragement;Dr.S.Sankar, Scientist-in-Charge, Division of Soil Science for valuablesuggestions; Smt. P. Rugmini, Scientist, Division of Statistics forstatistical advice and help and Sri. G. Haridas, Project Assistant,for laboratory assistance.225

6.8. REFERENCESAborisade, k.D and A. Aweto 1990. Effect of exotic tree plantationsof teak (Tectona grandis) and qmelina (Gmelina arborea) on aforest soil in South-Western Nigeria. Soil use and Management6: 43-45.American Society of Agronomy (ASA) 1965. Methods of Soil Analysis.Parts 1&2. C.A. Black et al (eds.), American Society of Agronomy(ASA), Madison, Wisconsin, USA. 1572P.Bonneau, M. and B. Souchier 1982. Constituents and Properties ofSoils. Academic Press Inc. (London) Ltd., London. 496P.Campbell, C.A and W. Souster 1982. Loss of organic matter and poten-tially mineralisable N from Saskatchewan soils due to cropping.Can. J. Soil Sci. 62: 651-656.Jackson, M.L. 1958. Soil Chemical Analysis. Prentice Hall Inc., USA.498 p.Lundgren, B. 1978. Soil Conditions and Nutrient Cycling Under Naturaland Plantation Forests in Tanzanian Highlands. Reports inForest Ecology and Forest Soils 31, Department of Forest Soils,Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Uppsala. 426 p.Mwonga, S. and B.O. Mochoqe 1989. The effects of cultivation on somephysical and chemical properties of three Kenyan soils. Proc.of the National Workshop-Soil and Water Conservation in Kenya 3:38-49.Snedecor, W.G and G.W. Cochran 1975. Statistical Methods. Oxford &IBH Publ. Co., New Delhi. 593p.226

VEGETATION ANALYSIS ANDMAPPING OF MALAYATTOOR

7. VEGETATION ANALYSIS AND MAPPING OF MALAYATTOORA.R.R.MenonEcology DivisionKerala Forest Research InstitutePeechi, Kerala, IndiaCon t en t sAbstract7.1. Introduction7.1.1. Study area7.1.2. Vegetation analysis7.2. Methodology7.2.1. Digital image analysis7.2.2. Aerial photo-interpretation7.2.3. Vegetation analysis7.3. Discussion and conclusions7.3.1. Mapping7.3.2. Vegetation analysis7.4. Acknowledgements7.5. References7.6. Appendix I (Formulae used)ABSTRACTLanduse and land cover inventories in the form of maps areprepared for the forests of Malayattoor based on the technique ofdigital imaging of satellite data. The structural aspects of the vege-tation of the area were studied from stratified samples usingquadrat227

methods, density, abundance, frequency, relative density, relativefrequency, relative basal area and important value index ofimportantspecies in fourteen locations of the study area is given table-wise inthe report along with a land cover map of the area based on digitalimage processing.7.1. INTRODUCTIDN7.1.1. Study areaThe study area possess an undulating terrain and the majorforest type of the area is moist deciduous, with semievergreen forestsalong the river courses. The altitude of the area range from 50 to350 m and the highest peak is Kurishumudi (387 m). The general directionof the drainage system is East - West and the area is welldrained to Periyar river.7.1.2. Vegetation analysisThe landuse/land cover inventories in the form of maps arehighly essential for the optimal utilization and management of landresources. Further, information on the spatial distribution oflandcover categories and the patterns of their change is a pre-requisitefor planning, utilization and management of land resources of anyarea. This information permits a better understanding of the landutilization aspects like cropping patterns, fallow lands, forests,waterbodies, etc. The land cover map of the study area was prepared228

using remote sensing aata products, to get a general idea regarding,the distribution of different cover classes. The techniques of digitalimaging of satellite data (IRS-1A) was mainly used for the mapping.The visual interpretation techniques were also adopted for the generationof maps from aerial photographs (Panchromatic black and whiteaeri a1 photographs of 1975).The information extraction from the satellite data couldbeachieved either through visual interpretation or digital image pro-cessing technique.The digital image analysis permits fast computerprocessing and handling voluminous data. Also, digital analysis allowsmaximisation of information extraction, removal of subjectivity in in-terpretation, better output accuracy, etc.7.2. METHODOLOGY7.2.1. Digital image analysisThe digital image analysis of satellite data (preprocessed CCTof IRS 1A-LISS2, Path 26, Row 61, of Feb. 1989) was carried out on aVAX-11/780 System at Regional Remote Sensing Service Centre(RRSSC),Bangalore, using VIPS-32 software. A false colour composite (FCC) ofthe row image of bands 4, 3 and 2 in red, green and blue coloursres-pectively was created for the preliminary appraisal of the area. Thefalse colour composites generated by various combinations ofoutputs and row data were initially assessed for their visualenhancedinter-pretability. An area of 512 x 512 Pixel size covering the field area229

vised classification system using maximum likelihood algorithm wasadopted to stratify vegetation on the basis of species Composition,type and physiognomy. Stretching and enhancement, classseparability,band ratioing, smoothening, etr. are the other major functions per-formed. The common image enhancement techniques were also performed.7.2.2. Aerial photo-interpretationA vegetation map of the study area was also prepared fromaerial photographs of 1975, using standard photo-interpretationtech-niques (Tomer and Masilkar, 1972). Black and white aerialphotographsof 1:40,000 scale with 60% t o 80% forward overlap, 10% t o 40%lateraloverlap and 23 cm x 23 cm format size were used for the study. Thephoto-stratification scheme was adopted for the purpose of interpretation,using various photo elements such as tone, texture, etc. Basedon the interpretation key thus prepared (Table 7.15), cover classdelineationwas done and prefield maps were taken to field for spotchecking with the existing natural stands. Density stratification ofcover types were done and the major forest types were further subdividedinto three density classes arbitrarly, viz. sparse (less than 30%canopy cover), medium (30-60% canopy cover) and dense (more than 60%canopy coverage). The structural aspects of vegetation was studiedfrom the stratified samples using quadrat methods.230

7.2.3. Vegetation analysisThe quadrat data was processed using the standard formulae (seeAppendix I) to obtain structural statistics of vegetation (Muller-Dombois and Ellenberg, 1978). The vegetation parameters like density,percentage frequency, abundance, Important Value Index (IVl), etc.thus generated are supplemented or further references (Tables 7.1 -7.14).7.3. DISCUSSION FIND CONCLUSIONS7.3.1. MappingThe spectral separability of various forest types and landuse/land cover categories has been evaluated using training set stati-stics. The mean spectral plots, bivariate distributinn, divergencematrix analysis and confusion matrix comparison were used forachiev-ing the best possible classification of IRS-1A digital data (Jensen,1986). Thus the major stages in digital image analysis performed usingsample segment approach consists of the following steps.1. loading of image from CCT to disc,ii.locating the sample segment on the image,iii. extraction and storing of sample segments (optional task),iv. identification of ground truth sites and generation ofing signaturs,train-v. supervised classification and its evaluation (feed back loopto step 314 if necessary), andvi. final cover class proportion in each segment.231

Because of the rigged and hilly nature of the terrain (Fig.7.1) shadows are more and are mixing with water bodies 1n the area.Hence, ratioing and normalization were done for water bodies in thearea and ratioed output image was combined with the classified outputimage.study.The hardcopy outputs are taken by the Dunn Camera for furtherThe colour coded classified output generated was used for thepreparation of vegetation map of he study area (Fig. 7.2).7.3.2, Vegetation analysisThe structural aspects of vegetation were studied throughsampling method.;. The development of sampling methods and primitivestatisticalanalysis of samples was substantially simultaneous withthe origin of ecology. Quantitative sampling methods using small areasor quadrats were introduced in a few of the earliest vegetationstudies (Pound and Clements, 1898; Raunkaier, 1934; Goodall, 1952;Greig-Smith, 1964). The phytosociological nature of the vegetation wasstudied from the quadrat data collected from the selectedlocalities(Fig. 7.3). The size of the quadrat was standardised at the optimumone for the specific forest type (Sharma, et al. 1983) and it wasfixed as 10 m x 10 m in the present study for the calculation convenience.Piecewise linear transect design (Anderson, et al. 1979) wasadopted for each selected cover types and census quadrats were laiddown systematically along the linear transect line.The census qua-drat of 10 m x 10 m was thus laid at a distance 2 km apart (approxi-mately) in the selected localities. The site selection was based on232

the terrain physiography and cover type distribution so a5 to acco-mmodate all the major types. A cursory perusal of the elevation map(Fig. 7.1) prepared from the Survey of India toposheets shows thatmost of the selected localities are within the range of 50 m to 200maltitudinal zone, and the highest peak is at 387 m(Kurishumudi).Table 7.1.Location: Kurishumudi1 Tectona grandis 1.1 80 1.38 52.612 Terminalia crenulata 0.9 80 1.13 61.203 Bombax ceiba 0.5 50 1 .oo 32.974 Albizia procera 0.3 30 1 .oo25.385 Ziziphus xylopyrus 0.9 70 1.29 31.456 Alstonia scholaris 0.4 40 1 .oo 29.187 Holarrhena antidysenterica 1.6 90 1.78 47.388 Strychnos nux-vomica 0.3 30 1 .oo 19.83233

Table 7.2.Location: Kurishumudi (Cashew plantation)1 Caesalpinia sp. 0.7 50 1.40 26.032 Zi zyphus xyl opyrus 0.9 70 1.29 35.893 Cl erodendrum viscosum 0.4 30 1.33 15.674 Meyna luxiglora 1 .o 40 1.67 39.305 Anacardium occidentale 1.4 70 2.00 79.606 Albizia procera7 Strychnos nux-vomica0.5 50 1 .oo 37.940.2 20 1 .oo 15.018 Gmelina arborea 0.2 20 1 .oo 25.089 Grewia tiliaefolia 0.3 30 1 .oo 25.48234

Table 7.3. Location: Kannimangalam1Mi tragyna parvi foli a0.6601 .oo36.452Xyli a xyl ocarpa0.8601.3349.063Grewi a ti 1 i aefol ia0.3301 .oo34.624Terminal ia crenulata0.5501 .oo47.325Buteasuperba0.3201 .5013.496Acacia instia0.5501 .oo23.867Strychnos nux-vomica0.2201 .oo9.618Cl erodendrum vi scosum10.1101 .oo9.799Bambusa sp.0.3201 .50--1011Artocarpus integrifoliaDioscorea sp .0.20.220101 .oo2.0010.3413.8212Fi cus h i sp 1 da0.2201 .oo--13Macaranga peltata0.3301 .oo17.1814Mallotus philippensis0.2201 .oo14.26235

Table 7.4.Location: Panduparasl.No.Name of speciesD % F Ab IVI1 Grewia tiliaefolia 0.8 60 1.33 43.842 Xylia xylocarpa3 Acacia instia4 Limonia acidissima5 Gardenia sp.6 Albizia procera7 Terminalia bellirica0.6 60 1 .oo 37.430.5 40 1.25 23.740.5 40 1.25 24.310.2 20 1 .oo 11.590.3 30 1 .oo 23.550.2 20 1 .oo 39.598 Strychnos nux-vomica0.3 30 1 .oo19.419 Bambusa sp.0.5 50 1 .oo 27.0110 Haldina cordi folia 0.2 20 1 .oo 49.58Table 7.5.Location: Kolappara Mudisl.No,Name of speciesD % F Ab IVI1 Polyalthia sp. 0.5 50 1 .oo 55.962 Calamus sp. 0.5 40 1.25 38.883 Garcinia sp. 0.3 30 1 .oo 42.044 Cinnamomum sp . 0.4 40 1 .oo 44.635 Schleichera oleosa 0.2 20 1 .oo 40.786 Dillenia pentagyna 0.1 10 1 .oo 25.027 Baccaurea courtallensis 0.2 20 1 .oo 25.118 Hydnocarpus laurifolia 0.2 20 1 .oo27.60236

Table 7.6. Location: Kurusumudi(Lower slope)Albizia procera0.4401 .oo32.02Alstonia scholaris0.4401 .oo34.42Haldina cordifoli a0.3201.5050.09Xyliaxylocarpa0.2201 .oo25.54Grewia tiliaefolia0.3301 .oo34.27Limmonia acidissima0.7401.7533.17Ziziphus xylopyrus0.4401 .oo24.30Bambusa sp.0.3301 .oo19.52Cassia fistula0.8601.3346.67237

Table 7.7.Location: Kannimangalam (Near Check Post)1 Xylia xylocarpa2 Mallotus philippensis3 Grewia tiliaefolia4 Terminalia crenulata5 Ficus hispida6 Albizia lebbeck7 Macaranga peltata8 Flacourtia indica9 Strychnos nux-vomica10 Bauhinia sp.1.2 70 1.71 46.810.3 30 1 .oo 18.801.1 80 1.38 50.200.4 40 1 .oo 24.870.3 20 1.50 12.960.4 4c 1 .oo 37.520.2 20 1 .oo 23.200.1 20 1 .oo 8.790.5 40 1.25 20.320.7 50 1.40 24.2211 Ziziphus xylopyrus 0.4 40 1 .oo 16.1512 Ca 1 ycop t e ri s f 1ori bunda 0.4 40 1 .oo 16.15238

Table 7.8.Location: Kannimangalam (Mid slope)1Xyli a xylocarpa1.8902.0061.032Haldina cordifolia0.6601 .oo42. a63Terminalia bellirica0.3301 .oo21.024Aacia instia0.5301.6715.785Terminallia crenulats0.3301 .oo25.776Macaranga peltata0.1101 .oo13.487Tetrameles nudiflora0.3301 .oo23.268Bambusa sp.0.8701.1430.139Ziziphus xylopyrus0.2201 .oo8.4610Strychnos nux-vomica0.2201 .oo10.5611Grewia tiliaefolia0.2501.2035.0312Cal ycoptereis floribunda0.3301 .oo12.45239

Table 7.9. Location: Kannimangalam(Upper slope)sl.No.Name of speciesD % F Ab IVI1 Tectona qrandis 0.9 80 1.13 44.832 Lagerstroemia microcarpa 0.8 60 1.33 36.793 Ficus hispida 0.3 30 1 .oo 16.514 Grewia tiliaefoli a 0.7 60 1.17 39.515 Zizyphus xylopyrus 0.3 30 1 .oo 13.136 Terminalia bellirica 0.5 50 1 .oo 36.487 Albizia lebbeck 0.3 30 1 .oo 26.258 Terminalia crenulata 0.2 20 1 .oo 17.919 Xylia xylocarpa 0.8 70 1.14 30.2310 Calycop teris flori bunda 0.6 40 1.50 19.8011 Cassia fistula 0.1 10 1 .oo 6.4012 Macaranga pel ta ta 0.1 10 1 .oo 12.16240

Table 7.10. Location: Near KFDC (Plantation)1 Tectona grandis 0.8 70 1.14 41.882 Terminalia crenulata 0.4 40 1 .oo 26.683 Cassia fistula 0.4 40 1 .oo 24.424 Xylia xylocarpa 1.5 80 1.88 52.885 Albizia sp. 0.4 40 1 .oo 34.936 Alstonia scholaris 0.3 30 1 .oo 28.257 Macaranga peltata 0.3 30 1 .oo 18.708 Ziziphus xylopyrus 1.1 80 1.38 36.289 Calycopteris floribunda 0.3 30 1 .oo 14.0310 Pambusa sp. 0.6 50 1 .%O 21.2424 1

Table 7.11.Location: Pandupara (Mid slope)1 Tectona grandis 0.7 60 1.17 42.302 Albizia sp. 0.4 40 1 .oo 35.183 Ficus hispida 0.5 40 1.25 24.374 Xylia xylocarpa 1 .o 80 1.25 53.995 Grewia tiliaefolia 0.6 50 1 ."O 45.05b Acacia instia 0.4 40 1 .oo 21.127 Alstonia scholaris 0.3 30 1 .oo 27.838 Lagerstroemia microcarpa 0.2 20 1 .oo 16.729 Gmelina arborea 0.1 10 1 .oo 10.2210 Artocarpus hirsutus 0.2 20 1 .oo 23.00242

Table 7.12.Location: Illithodu1Tec tona grandi s1 .o701.4342.882Terminaliacrenulata0.4301.3320.573Xyli a xylocarpa0.5401.2524.844Dalbergia sissoides0.5501 .oo26.035Flacourtia indica0.5501 .oo22.286Swietenia mahagoni0.7601.1758.107Albizi a procera0.4401 .oo26.828P t e roca rpus ma rsupi um0.4401 .oo22.849Fi cus h i spi da0.4401 .oo19.1710Haldina cordifolia0.2201 .oo36.44,243

Table 7.13.Location: Kurishumudi (South)sl.No.Name of speciesD % F F\b IVI1 Terminalia crenulata2 Albizia l ebbeck3 Ficus hispida4 Haldina cordifolia0.8 70 1.14 46.770.4 40 1 .oo 28.580.6 40 1.50 24.730.5 50 1 .oo 54.685 Alstonia scholaris 0.5 50 1 .oo 37.74b Calycopteris floribunda 0.6 40 1 .SO 23.957 Grewia tiliaefolia0 Gmelina arborea9 Strychnos nux-vomica10 Ziziphus xylopyrus11 Bambusa sp.0.4 40 1 .oo 28.940.1 10 1 .oo 11.720.2 20 1 .oo 14.780.3 30 1 .oo 15.720.3 20 1.50 12.68244

Table 7.14.Location: Pandupara (Upper slope)1 Terminalia crenulata 0.7 70 1 .oo 47.352 Lannea coromandelica 0.3 30 1 .oo 21.713 Acacia instia 0.3 30 1 .oo 16.974 Grewia tiliaefolia 0.5 40 1.25 32.445 Xylia xylocarpa 0.3 30 1 .oo 24.616 Albizia lebbeck 0.4 40 1 .oo 44.667 Calycopteris floribunda 0.3 30 1 .oo 16.468 Bambusa sp. 0.5 50 1 .oo 26.799 Terminal ia be1 1 i rica 0.4 30 1.33 53.6310 Dalbergia sissoides 0.2 20 1 .oo 15.20245

Table 7.15. Image interpretation key for land cover mapping using panchromaticblack and white aerial photographssl.No.Cover typeTone Texture Pat t ern/Remarks1Evergreen forestsBlackFineSmooth2Moist deciduousforestsGreyishMediumMedium3Dry deciduous forestsBlackCoarseRough4ScrubGreyCoarseRough5Plantation (Rubber)BlackFineSmooth6I,(Teak)Light greyNed i umArrangements seenin young plantations78 ,(Eucalyptus)GreyishMed iumMedium8I,(Cashew)Dark greyMediumArrangements seen9,I (Mixed)Grey mixedMediumMedium10AgricultureWhitish grey --Shape, size,locat ion, association,etc.considered11Forest blankWhitish12Exposed rockLight grey13Hab i t at ionWhite--14Water bodiesBlack--246

7.4. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTSI am thankful to Head, Regional Remote Sensing Centre,Bangalore, for providing digital imaging facility.7.5. REFERENCESAnderson, D.R., Jeffrey, L. Laake, Bradford R. Crain and kenneth P.Burnham 1979. Guidelines for a transect sampling of biologicalpopulations. J. Wildl. Manage 43(1): 70-78.Goodal, D.W. 1952. Quantitative aspects of plant distribution.Rev. 27: 194-245.Biol.Greig-Smith, P. 1964. Quantitative Plant Ecology. Butterworths,London. 256 p.Jensen, J.R. 1986. Introductory Digital Image Processing. PrenticeHall, New York.Muller-Dombois, D. and H. Ellenberg 1978.tion Ecology. Wiley International, New Vork.Aims and Methods of Vegeta-Pound, R. and F.E. Clements 1898. A method of determining the abund-ance of secondary species. Minn. Bot. Stud. 2: 19-24.Raunkaier, C. 1934. The Life-forms of Plants and Statistical PlantGeography. Clarendon Press, Oxford. 632 p.Sharma, S.K., M. George and K.G. Prasad 1983. Forest vegetation andclassification with special reference to South India. 1. Vegetationsurvey and quadrat analysis. Indian For. 109: 364-394.Tomer, M.S. and A.R. Masilkar 1972. Aerial Photographs for Landuseand Forest Survey. Survey of India.247

APPENDIX IFORMULAE USEDDensity (D)Abundance (Ab)-Total number of individualsNo. of quadrats of occurrence% Frequency (%F)-No. of quadrats of occurrenceTotal number of quadrats studiedx 100Relative density (RD)No. of individuals of the species= _________________________________________ x 100No. of individuals of all speciesRelative frequency (RF)=No. of occurrence of the speciesin the quadratx 100No. of occurrence of all species,Basal area of the speciesRelative basal area (RBA) = .........................Basal area of all speciesx 100Important Value Index (IVI) = Relative Density + Relative Frequency +Relative Basal Area248

KFRI Research Report - Kerala Forest Research Institute

Create successful ePaper yourself

Delete template?

Save as template?