Recipes for Survival_English_tcm46-28192

Recipes for Survival:Controlling the Bushmeat TradeReport 2006Across the globe, forests are being treatedas convertible, rather than renewableresources. The consequences of thebushmeat trade for endangered species,biodiversity and people are no longer indoubt – unless a concerted, multifacetedeffort, equal in gravity to the severity ofthe crisis is initiated, the ‘empty forestsyndrome’ will be realised in theforeseeable future.WPSA Headquarters89 Albert EmbankmentLondon SE1 7TPTel: +44 (0) 20 7587 5000Fax: +44 (0) 20 7793 0208email: wspa@wspa.org.ukWebsite: www.wspa.org.ukApe Alliance reportfunded by WSPA

Cover:Black-frontedduiker carried bypoacher, DRCRecipes for Survival:Controlling the Bushmeat TradeIan Redmond, Tim Aldred, Katrin Jedamzikand Madelaine Westwood2006Funded by the World Society for the Protection of Animals

3.4. The effects of bushmeat hunting onspecies and ecosystems ................................................... 323.4.1. Importance of forest wildlife ....................................... 343.4.2. Species vulnerability .................................................. 353.4.3. Geographic repercussions .......................................... 363.4.4. Species at risk .......................................................... 383.4.5. Outlook .................................................................... 403.5. Bushmeat supply, demand and price dynamics ............... 403.5.1. Supply ...................................................................... 403.5.2. Demand ................................................................... 413.5.3. Price ........................................................................ 423.6. Global health concerns linked to the bushmeat trade ..... 423.7. Outlook ................................................................................. 434. Primate bushmeat: current situation ...................................... 444.1. Introduction .......................................................................... 454.2. Scale and distribution of the problem ............................... 464.3. Exacerbating factors ........................................................... 464.3.1. Hunting techniques .................................................... 464.3.2. Armed conflict .......................................................... 464.3.3. Economic importance ............................................... 474.3.4. Persecution ............................................................... 474.3.5. The primate pet trade ............................................... 474.4. Primates at risk ................................................................... 494.5. Health implications .............................................................. 564.5.1. Simian immunodeficiency viruses and HIV .................... 574.5.2. Ebola haemorrhagic fever .......................................... 584.5.3. Simian foamy viruses ................................................. 584.5.4. Anthrax ..................................................................... 584.5.5. T-lymphotropic viruses ............................................... 584.6. Ethical Implications............................................................... 594.7. Outlook........................................................................ ..........595. Actions ongoing and their effectiveness .............................. 605.1. General actions ongoing and their effectiveness ............. 615.1.1. Government and policy ............................................... 615.1.1.1. Africa ........................................................ 615.1.1.2. USA .......................................................... 625.1.1.3. Europe ...................................................... 635.1.1.4. UK ............................................................ 635.1.1.5. International ............................................... 645.1.2. Private sector ............................................................ 655.1.3. Public awareness and education.................................. 665.1.4. Protection and management ....................................... 66CONTENTS5WSPA/APE ALLIANCE4RECIPES FOR SURVIVALContentsPageAcknowledgments .................................................................................... 7Executive Summary ................................................................................. 8Preface ..................................................................................................... 121. Introduction ...................................................................................... 142. History ............................................................................................... 183. The broader bushmeat issue: current situation ................. 203.1. Scale and distribution of the bushmeat crisis .................. 223.2. The socio-economic importance of bushmeat ................. 233.2.1. Social significance ..................................................... 233.2.2. Food security..............................................................233.2.3. Economic significance ................................................ 233.2.4. Cultural significance .................................................. 243.3. Factors contributing to commercial bushmeat hunting ... 253.3.1. Increasing human population and rising demand ........... 253.3.2. Uncontrolled access to forest wildlife facilitatedby logging, mining and hydroelectric or fossilfuel transport companies ............................................ 273.3.3. War and civil strife ..................................................... 293.3.4. Weak governance, institutional deficiencyand civil disobedience ................................................ 293.3.5. Sophistication of hunting techniques ........................... 303.3.6. Lack of capital or infrastructure for domesticmeat production ........................................................ 313.3.7. Changes in the cultural environment and discardingof social taboos and traditional hunting embargoes ...... 323.3.8. Structural adjustment plans imposed by internationalfinancial institutions resulting in civil service job losses.. 323.3.9. Unemployment, poverty and dysfunctional economies,with lack of alternative monetary opportunities ............. 32

RECIPES FOR SURVIVAL5.1.5. Capacity building ....................................................... 675.1.6. Symposia and conferences ........................................ 675.1.7. Research and monitoring ............................................ 685.1.8. Community support ................................................... 685.2. Primate-specific actions ongoing and their effectiveness 685.2.1. Policy ....................................................................... 685.2.2. Protection ................................................................. 696. Organisations involved in projects and campaigns ........... 707. Obstacles to change .................................................................... 768. Potential solutions ......................................................................... 808.1. General solutions ................................................................ 818.1.1. Protein alternatives ................................................... 818.1.2. Improving agricultural infrastructure ............................ 838.1.3. Economic opportunities and employment .................... 848.1.4. Strengthening governance and political capacityto address the bushmeat crisis ................................... 858.1.5. Community ............................................................... 868.1.6. Private sector ........................................................... 878.1.7. Protection ................................................................ 888.1.8. Education ................................................................. 898.1.9. Integration of conservation and development .............. 908.1.10. Research ................................................................ 908.1.11. Improving hunting efficiency ..................................... 918.1.12. Market dynamics ..................................................... 928.1.13. Resolving institutional deficiencies ............................. 928.2. Primate-specific solutions .................................................. 949. Conclusions...................................................................................... 989.1. General conclusions ........................................................... 999.2. Primate-specific conclusions ..............................................101Appendices ..............................................................................................102Appendix 1 Species worldwide recorded as being huntedfor bushmeat ...............................................................102Appendix 2 Primate species worldwide recorded as being huntedfor bushmeat ...............................................................104Appendix 3 Organisations involved in bushmeat projectsand campaigns ............................................................108Appendix 4 Index of organisations involved in bushmeat projectsand campaigns ............................................................108References ...............................................................................................109ACKNOWLEDGMENTS7WSPA/APE ALLIANCE6AcknowledgmentsThe authors are grateful to WSPA for funding this research, and to all the organisationsand individuals who contributed information and their thoughts and opinions. The listof organisations is appended in Appendix 3, but in particular we would like to thank theBushmeat Crisis Task Force and the members of the Ape Alliance for responding toour questionnaire and subsequent emails. Any mistakes or omissions are solely ourresponsibility, and we encourage readers to send us corrections and updates.We also thank BCTF and IUCN for the use of their online resources when producingour databases.Special thanks go to Jane Wisbey for her skilful editing in the final stages, and to WSPAand especially Jo Hastie and Garry Richardson for their help.Participants in the Ape Alliance/WSPA Bushmeat Side-event at the GRASP Inter-Governmental Meeting in Kinshasa, DRC (5th – 9th September 2005), made manyuseful comments which we incorporated as appropriate.We would also like to recognise the role of our families and friends for their supportand tolerance during many late nights and working weekends.

8RECIPES FOR SURVIVALExecutive SummaryThe bushmeat trade provides a staple in the diet of the people of West and Central Africa,as well as in many other parts of the world under different names (wild-meat, game, bushtucker,chop, etc.). Over a thousand species are hunted / traded, from caterpillars toelephants, but many of these species are facing population crashes through overexploitationfor commercial purposes. This ‘bushmeat crisis’ will inevitably lead to speciesextinction and consequent protein shortages unless it can be brought under control. Thereare also serious public health concerns regarding potential zoonoses on poorly preservedbushmeat. Thus, for bushmeat to be acceptable, it must be legal, sustainable and diseasefree(or ‘LSD’, Redmond, In press). In other words, Legal – no hunting or trading ofprotected species or hunting in protected areas; Sustainable – numbers hunted must beless than or equal to reproductive capacity, and Disease-free – markets should be subjectto meat inspections and other public health regulations the same as domestic meat.These are the standards that, if enforced, would protect endangered species, publichealth, food security and sustainable livelihoods. In an ideal world, the animals wouldalso be killed using humane methods, thereby reducing animal suffering too.Bushmeat and apesDespite the wide range of taxa and the complex issues involved, media coverage of the‘bushmeat crisis’ has focused largely on the great apes. Bushmeat, however, is seldomape-meat. Surveys of African markets have shown that ape-meat, if present, comprisesonly one or two per cent of the trade (Stein, 2002b); the rest is mostly meat of forestungulates, large-bodied rodents and monkeys. Even so, ape populations decline underalmost any level of hunting, because they reproduce so slowly and the sudden deathof key individuals disrupts their complex societies.What of the few cultures for whom eating apes is a tradition? It is important that peoplewho grew up thinking it normal to eat gorilla, chimpanzee or bonobo body-parts, arenot demonised by those who baulk at the thought. But equally, people who do eatapes must realise that they will stop doing so soon. At current inferred rates of decline– there will simply be none left within our lifetime. Surely it is better to stop now,by choice, than later by extinction?EXECUTIVE SUMMARYConclusionsThis review set out to examine the current state of knowledge of the bushmeat trade,and how the conservation community has reacted to the bushmeat crisis. Manyorganisations have raised money to respond to the threats posed to charismaticendangered species; it is interesting to note how this money has been applied. Insummary, the results show:• Hundreds of species are being hunted for food but surprisingly, preliminary resultsshow that 45 per cent of them are insects, and only 23 per cent mammals and 20per cent bird species.• 27% of recorded mammals, 63% of birds, 61% of reptiles and 35% of amphibianshunted are listed by IUCN as endangered or vulnerable to extinction.• The greatest number of recorded bushmeat projects concern research at 24%, theneducation at 11% and protection 9%. Very few projects address the issue of providingalternative protein sources, better management of wildlife or alternative livelihoods.• The number of projects commencing per year increased dramatically in 1999 and2000; the first Ape Alliance bushmeat review was published in 1998.• The Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC) has the most projects (58), followed byCameroon (53), Gabon (35) and Congo (23), but most countries have only one or ahandful. The USA ranks third with 47 projects, but these are mainly awareness raisingand education.How can the bushmeat trade be controlled?Whilst it is clearly necessary to understand a problem before designing a solution,there is a growing feeling that more research is not the top priority at this stage. Otheractivities urgently need funding if the bushmeat trade is to be reduced to sustainableoff-take levels of legally hunted species. These activities include (in no particular order):Education – is needed at every level of society, and materials / activities must be tailoredto the target audience: in villages with hunters and traders, in urban markets / restaurantswith traders and consumers; law-enforcement agents, judiciary and decision-makers.Further funding is also needed for NGOs and Education Ministries to reproduceeducational materials for schools and wildlife centres. Training should be provided forenvironmental journalists to increase the number and quality of articles in local pressand stories on local radio / television news channels. The Great Ape Film Initiative hasestablished a system of increasing the number of ape documentaries shown in rangestates, but it limited by lack of funds.Wildlife law enforcement and prosecution – is weak throughout the regions wherebushmeat is traded. There is an urgent need to:• build the capacity of law enforcement agencies,9

WSPA/APE ALLIANCERECIPES FOR SURVIVAL• provide incentives for wildlife law enforcement officers, e.g. set up open andtransparent bonus and award schemes for good work• train officers in evidence gathering and preparing cases for prosecution• give training in wildlife law to members of the judicial system, and• publicise fines and prison sentences to deter others.These are the approaches practiced by the Last Great Ape Organisation (LAGA) inCameroon. Following reports of initial successes using this approach in Cameroon, LAGAhas been requested by DRC authorities to advise on setting up a similar project there, andother African countries are showing interest. This suggests a need to run training coursesand possibly explore secondments in Cameroon for officials from surrounding countries.One might also investigate the secondment to the region of enforcement officers ormembers of the judiciary from UK / Europe to work with counterparts in building capacity.Sanctuaries and Wildlife Centres – play an important role in housing confiscatedlive animals and serve as centres for education and awareness-raising of the bushmeatcrisis. Some countries which have a significant problem with live animal trade andillegally held pets, still have nowhere to house confiscated animals, and so confiscationsare rare and require special arrangements each time.The country from which many of the confiscated African forest primates originatesis the DRC. Sanctuaries in Kenya, Zambia, South Africa (via Angola), etc are full ofsmuggled primates – especially chimpanzees – from DRC. But apartfrom Lola ya Bonobo, there are no adequate facilities in DRC, and sofew confiscations. As part of the DRC National Great Ape Survival Plan(NGASP), there is a move to convert DRC’s three zoos (Kinshasa,Kisangani and Lubumbashi) into sanctuaries / wildlife education centres.If a firm commitment that meets the concerns of NGO partners can bereached, we will have the opportunity to do for chimpanzees and otherillegally traded wildlife, what Lola ya Bonobo has done for bonobos.Gabon also has an illegal wild animal trade and no facility to houseconfiscated animals – hence, no confiscations, and no law enforcementor prosecutions. The draft Gabon NGASP highlights this need, andseeks support for a sanctuary to be established for this purpose.Alternative protein – is the corollary of improved law enforcement. If the bushmeat tradein legal species is to be reduced to sustainable levels, and the illegal trade stopped,alternative sources of protein must be introduced to the system. These might include:• vegetable protein sources (nuts, mango-kernels, soy beans, smoked texturedvegetable protein (TVP))• domestic animals: improved husbandry of traditional domestic stock;• developing methods of humane farming of wild species, such as grass-cutters, landsnails;farming edible insects – an as yet untried option with many advantages –EXECUTIVE SUMMARYperhaps adapting the methods used for silkworms to suitable African species (thishas been done for silk rearing in Uganda, but not yet as a food source).• managing sustainable hunting of legal species in forests (where hunting is allowed).These are effectively business opportunities for enterprising entrepreneurs, andtherefore more likely to appeal to development organisations. It is, however, animportant measure to support, so interested donors could, for example, hold seminarsadvising bushmeat dealers of how to source alternatives, perhaps making small loansto set them up in business importing or manufacturing smoked vegetable proteinproducts designed for bushmeat consumers.Alternative livelihoods – are one way of removing poachers from the bushmeat trade.Jobs in conservation, research, tourism, cultural crafts and displays, improved farmingtechniques, sustainable harvest of Non-Timber Forest Products all present possibilities.Bio-monitoring – is essential for good wildlife management; the training ofcommunities and/or rangers to gather data on the health of the forest, speciesnumbers, and also the health of human population in and around hunting zones, areimportant measures in establishing a system to control the bushmeat trade. Whereexisting projects have established a formula that works, these should be expandedor replicated (with necessary adaptations for local differences) in another area ofhigh-biodiversity value habitat under threat from commercial bushmeat hunters.Protection of species function,not just survival of speciesFor more than a century, protected areas have been at the centre of conservationthinking, and efforts have concentrated on ensuring that protected areas includerepresentative populations of important species. This gives the impression that aslong as a population of a species survives somewhere, then we have achieved ourconservation goal. But preventing total extinction is surely a last resort goal, andwe should not be setting this last resort as our target. Such a goal (and much ofthe popular conservation literature) carries with it the idea that species are like livingornaments that it would be a shame to lose, and ignores the important role eachspecies plays in the ecology of the habitat that evolved with it. Large mammalsin particular, such as apes and elephants, play such an important ecological role –dispersing seeds in their dung, pruning trees as they pluck leaves and creating lightgaps in the canopy as they break branches – that they are sometimes referred to asthe gardeners of the forest. As such, they are needed in habitats which have evolvedto depend on them across the whole of their historical range, and in densitiesappropriate to their function. If we value forests for the products and services theyprovide, and want healthy forest ecosystems, is it not foolish to shoot the gardeners?11WSPA/APE ALLIANCE10Above:Chimpanzeeorphans atthe TacugamaChimp Sanctuary,Sierra Leone© WSPA

WSPA/APE ALLIANCE12RECIPES FOR SURVIVALPrefaceIt is a decade since WSPA drew the world’s attention to the Slaughter of the Apes.The report was influential in triggering the launch of the Ape Alliance in 1996 andthe commissioning of The African Bushmeat Trade – Recipes for Extinction, a detailedreview of what was then known about bushmeat trade (Ape Alliance, 1998). There hassince been a flurry of academic and NGO activity, and a widespread recognition of the‘bushmeat crisis’ by governments and inter-governmental agencies. This new reviewwas commissioned in late 2004 by WSPA to summarise the current state of knowledgeof the bushmeat trade, and assess what is being done to solve the problems that thislargely unregulated trade causes. It is hoped that the database of projects andreferences compiled will be of use to all those interested in this issue, and that theconclusions drawn will help to guide the application of funds in the future. For furtherdetails on the database, see Section 6As well as the Ape Alliance network, resources used in researching and compiling thisreport include the scientific literature, reports from organizations involved in thebushmeat issue, media and news reportage, documentaries, personal contacts and theWorld Wide Web.Species analysis:The IUCN Red List website (www.redlist.org) was the principal resource for compilingthe species database, which was developed with information from the scientificliterature, reports and research data from concerned organisations.The databases presented in this report are by no means exhaustive, but represent adetailed overview and are designed to be used and expanded upon. Likewise, thegraphs and figures generated from our data are thorough but not fully comprehensiveand should be used as an interpretative tool.The data and research presented here should be treated as an active, ongoingresource and as such, comments, corrections and further contributions are welcome.With effective communication, the ever-changing international bushmeat crisis can betackled with appropriate and novel solutions.Comments and corrections should be sent to: BushmeatWG@4apes.comTaxonomic note:Except where indicated otherwise, this work follows Groves (2001), which recognisestwo species in each of the three great ape genera, Gorilla, Pan and Pongo. We note thenewly described sub-species of Eastern Chimpanzee, Pan troglodytes marungensisdescribed in Groves (2005).The authors are grateful to WSPA for funding this research, and to all the organisationsand individuals who contributed information and their thoughts and opinions. The listof organisations is appended in Appendix 3, but in particular we would like to thank theBushmeat Crisis Task Force and the members of the Ape Alliance for responding toour questionnaire and subsequent emails. Any mistakes or omissions are solely ourresponsibility, and we encourage readers to send us corrections and updates.We also thank BCTF and IUCN for the use of their online resources when producingour databases.Special thanks go to Jane Wisbey for her skilful editing in the final stages, and to WSPAand especially Jo Hastie and Garry Richardson for their help.Participants in the Ape Alliance/WSPA Bushmeat Side-event at the GRASP Inter-Governmental Meeting in Kinshasa, DRC (5th – 9th September 2005), made manyuseful comments which we incorporated as appropriate.We would also like to recognise the role of our families and friends for their supportand tolerance during many late nights and working weekends.PREFACE13

IntroductionIt is ten years since the alarm bells first began to ring about ‘the bushmeat crisis’, asthe booming trade in the meat of wild animals quickly became known. In this decade,we have seen bushmeat rise from a fringe concern of a few NGOs to being firmly on theinternational agenda, of equal concern to both conservation and development agencies.The problems raised by the commercial bushmeat trade – whether its activities arelegal or illegal – are complex, and any solutions proffered must reflect this. Bushmeatcuts across concerns about endangered species and biodiversity loss, povertyalleviation, food security, livelihoods and the sustainable utilisation of natural resources.The problems it raises are widespread and cannot be approached in isolation fromother global environmental challenges, such as climate change, desertification,declining marine fish stocks and emerging diseases in an increasingly crowded world.Prevailing scientific opinion is that we are entering a period of mass extinction, forwhich the human species is almost entirely accountable. The geographic nuclei ofthese extinctions are areas where human populations and pressure from hunting andagriculture are most intense (Ceballos & Ehrlich, 2002). Human use of biodiversity isnatural, but the scale of that use has risen exponentially in the past century.INTRODUCTIONAbove: Legaltraditional huntersbutcher a duiker,Central AfricanRepublic15© Ian Redmond© Ian Redmond1Opposite:Bushmeat vendor,DRC, with monkeycarcass, smoked topreserve meat.

WSPA/APE ALLIANCERECIPES FOR SURVIVALreaches international markets as part of the US$159 billion annual global wildlife trade(Wasser et al, 2004).Even in the world’s most productive ecosystems, modern hunting has proved to beunsustainable, and in tropical forests, where the meat productivity is too low to supporteven subsistence hunting if the human density is more than about one person per squarekilometre, the threat posed by commercial trade is acute (Bennett et al, 2002).Moreover, in forested habitats, where wildlife is difficult to observe, the impact of huntingmay go undetected until after the damage is too severe to rectify (Wasser et al, 2004).The bushmeat crisis is a complex, multifaceted issue that poses one of the mostchallenging problems in contemporary conservation. An all encompassing descriptionwas devised by Mainka and Trivedi in 2002:“Wildlife populations and the livelihoods of people in many countries are threatened byescalating unsustainable use of wild meat, driven by increasing demand due to humanpopulation growth, poverty and consumer preferences and aggravated by problems ofgovernance, use of increasingly efficient technology and provision of hunting access inremote areas by logging roads.”Awareness of and support for addressing the crisis was instituted during the mid-1990s and has since been mainstreamed by wildlife and humanitarian concerns, alongwith the global health implications of hunting and eating bushmeat. Much work hasalready been carried out to combat the bushmeat trade, yet despite progress, huntingstill continues unabated.In this report, we will explore the current status of the bushmeat trade, both in broadterms and for primates in particular. We will outline the scale and consequences ofhunting and the factors and stakeholders driving it. We will assess what has alreadybeen achieved and what successes need to be built upon to bring about further change.INTRODUCTION17WSPA/APE ALLIANCE16Despite progress in agricultural productivity and plantation forestry, natural biodiversityis still important to humans in providing food security, micronutrients, medicines, fuel,construction materials, raw materials, farming inputs (such as fodder, compost, fencingand stakes), ecosystem services (such as soil, watershed, pollinator and wildlifehabitat) and as an asset convertible into other assets, such as savings, investments,barter or trade (ABCG, 2004).Though for decades deforestation has been cited as the most immediate threat totropical wildlife in forest habitats, popular contemporary belief is that hunting is causefor greater concern. The term ‘empty forest syndrome’ (Redford, 1992) has now beenintroduced in recognition of major global anxiety over commercialised hunting and thewidespread prediction that large species will disappear long before the forests do.‘Empty savannah syndrome’ is also becoming a reality, with the rise of commercialbushmeat trade from savannah habitats in Africa and elsewhere.Below:The Goldencrowned sifakais threatened bybushmeat huntingand deforestation.Traditionally, decision-makers and forest managers in the developed world havedisregarded the value of non-timber forest products to people, ranking them belowthe more productive timber industry (Nasi, 2001). The subsistence of traditional forestpeople on wildlife has occurred since humans first evolved, but the past decade hasseen a drastic increase in the amount of wild meat being removed from forests (Wilkie& Carpenter, 1999). People eat bushmeat because it is affordable, familiar, culturallytraditional or prestigious, and because it tastes good and adds variety to domesticallycultivatedprotein (Wilkie et al., 2005). Economic recession over the past 20 years hasdriven the commercialisation of bushmeat as a trade item, and today, bushmeat© Pete Oxford/naturepl.com

HistoryWildlife has been hunted for food since humans first evolved, but this has onlyrecently become a problem of crisis proportions. In rural Africa, people havetraditionally generated income by growing and selling rice, coffee, cacao, cottonand peanuts; hunting wildlife for meat was mostly subsistence-motivated or for barter.Historically, in Congo and Cameroon, bartering existed between Baka pygmies andBantu farmers, who exchanged wild meat and agricultural produce respectively(Pearce & Ammann, 1995). Subsistence hunting is still important today in thesecommunities (Matsura, 2004).The past 20 years has seen a degradation of roads and trading routes in the war-tornregions of the Congo Basin, making it difficult to transport bulky agricultural goods tomarkets (Wilkie & Eves, 2001). The commercial bushmeat trade emerged here due tothe imperative of rural people to replace their incomes with relatively high value, easilytransportable goods such as bushmeat and/or ivory. Hunting camps were soonestablished by migrants suffering economic hardships in outlying cities; they provedeven less inclined to practice restraint than rural hunters nutritionally dependent onwildlife. It has now become difficult to differentiate subsistence and commercial hunting(Bowen-Jones & Pendry, 1999).The sudden boom in the bushmeat trade was facilitated in no small way by the loggingindustry. Traditionally, hunters would have to trek for days to reach new hunting areas,carrying snares, spears, bows and arrows and bringing back only what bushmeat theycould physically carry. Logging provided road access to remote areas, as well ascheap transport for importing large numbers of carcasses to urban markets, therebyincreasing capacity to hunt and inflating profitability of the trade. Furthermore, shotgunsbecame more readily available after the colonial period (Barnes, 2002) and werevirtually universally adopted by anyone who could afford to buy one (or hire one from anentrepreneur) to increase hunting success. Thus, for a small investment, the economicpay-off was substantial, and uncontrolled hunting became widespread.Today, bushmeat continues to be an economically important food and trade item.Much evidence exists to show that, for most species, the current level of huntingis unsustainable.HISTORY2Opposite: Lorrytransportingtimber fromprimary rainforest,Sabah, Borneo.19© Neil Lucas/naturepl.com

THE BROADER BUSHMEAT ISSUEThe broader bushmeatissue: current situation3There are two broadly opposing academic views of the bushmeat ‘crisis’, which can becharacterised as:(i) Anthropocentric – in which declining stocks of prey species are seen as loss of ahuman resource, leading to:• threat to livelihoods• threat to food security• threat to cultural values• loss of other potential human uses of ecosystem, e.g. ecotourism, NTFPs (non timberforest products), bio-prospecting.(ii) Biocentric, in which the same situation is seen in terms of a loss of biodiversity:• common species become rare, endangered species become extinct• breakdown in ecological processes• local loss of ecological services leads to negative impact on biosphere, ultimatelyaffecting all life-forms.These views are sometimes characterised as ‘pro-people versus pro-wildlife’, but thereality is much more complex than that; efforts to aid sustainable development arehampered by political and economic factors far removed from the biological systemson which they depend, and yet the destruction of those systems due to overexploitationwill negatively impact on the very people the aid is designed to help(for a discussion of these issues, see Robinson, 2006, versus Brown 2006 anda response by Redmond 2006).Bushmeat harvesting has strong parallels with fisheries. Both:• are open access resources, where it is difficult to control off-take• have hidden assets, and so difficult to assess stocks• show improved yield with modern technology, and better access leads toover-exploitation• show boom and bust pattern of exploitation as population crashes lead to localextinction.Opposite:Wild animals forsale on marketstall, Lagos,West Africa.21© Fabio Liverani/naturepl.com

WSPA/APE ALLIANCERECIPES FOR SURVIVALAnd in both cases, restraining measures in response to declining stocks face:• resistance to change by those whose livelihood depends on harvesting or trade• cultural conservatism in consumption patterns despite evidence of declining stocks• difficulty in imposing top-down restraint (law enforcement)• lack of self-restraint because open access resource – the ‘tragedy of the commons’.3.1 Scale and distribution of the bushmeat crisisThere is evidence to show that the multi-million dollar bushmeat trade has nowsurpassed habitat loss as the greatest threat to tropical wildlife (Brashares et al, 2004;Bennett et al, 2002). In the Congo Basin, researchers estimate that up to five millionmetric tons of bushmeat is traded annually (Wilkie & Carpenter, 1999; Fa et al, 2002),representing the most immediate threat to the region’s wildlife over the next 5 – 25years (Wilkie & Carpenter, 1999; Robinson et al, 1999; BCTF, 2004b). By comparison,up to 0.15 million tons is traded in the Amazon Basin (Fa et al, 2002; Robinson &Redford, 1991), with an estimated market value of $190.7 million. (Peres, 2000).Annual harvest rates in Sarawak reach 23,500 tons (Bennett, 2000); elsewhere in Asia,the scale of the problem is largelyunquantified, though local extinctionshave occurred (Kümpel, 2005).The commercial trade in bushmeatoccurs across almost all of tropicalAfrica, Asia and the Neotropics(Robinson & Bennett, 2000), but it ismost critical in the densely forestedregions of Central and West Africa.Here, the magnitude of hunting is sixtimes the sustainable rate (Bennett,2002). The Congo Basin is the world’ssecond largest rainforest, stretchingacross 10 countries and housingmore than half of Africa’s animalspecies. Uncontrolled bushmeathunting in this region thereforethreatens the health of a forestecosystem of planetary importance,both in terms of biodiversity and ofglobal climate stability.Until recently, bushmeat hunting in East and Southern Africa was thought of as asubsistence-motivated activity, carried out exclusively by rural families with a history oftraditional use, but commercial trade across the region is now of serious conservationTHE BROADER BUSHMEAT ISSUEconcern (Barnett, 2000; Born Free, 2004). At least 25% of meat in Nairobi butcheriesis bushmeat, sold under the auspices of domestic meat, and a further 19% is adomestic-bushmeat mix, suggesting mixing and cross-contamination during storageor transit (Born Free, 2004).Bushmeat is also a problem on a global scale, since a proportion of it (albeit low)enters international markets. It is not difficult to find bushmeat in Paris, Brussels,London and New York (Agnagna, 2002). Between 4,000 and 29,000 tons of illegalmeat enters the UK annually from non-EU countries, with more entering undetected(Kümpel, 2005). Much of this is meat of domestic animals; the proportion ofbushmeat is not known.Evidence shows that illegal wildlife trade in the UK operates through existing organisedcrimesmuggling routes. 50% of people prosecuted for wildlife trade have had previousconvictions for drugs and firearms (Cook et al, 2002). The UK has some of thestrongest CITES legislation in the EU, fortified by COTES (Control of Trade inEndangered Species) regulations. But offenders are rarely prosecuted, because HerMajesty’s Customs and Excise (HMCE) destroy all confiscated meat on the groundsof health risks, without first identifying the species (Kümpel, 2005). The proportionof meat from endangered species in UK imports has not, therefore, been quantified.Bushmeat imported into Europe is on the increase, indicating a need for strongercontrols at airports (CITES, 2004).3.2 The socio-economic importance of bushmeat3.2.1 Social significanceThe network of people involved in the bushmeat industry includes (locally) the ruralpoor, commercial poachers, traders, vendors (including restaurateurs), loggingcompanies, vehicle drivers (who ferry meat to urban centres) and local administrations,as well as (internationally) foreign businesses that consume tropical timber, governmentand non-governmental organisations.3.2.2 Food securityThe loss of wildlife threatens the livelihoods and food security of those who mostdepend on it as a staple or supplement to their diet (ABCG, 2004). Wildlife providesprotein for many poor rural families without land or access to agricultural markets.In several tropical countries, there is no replacement for bushmeat (Kaul et al, 2004).Surveys reveal that bushmeat represents 80% of all animal-based household proteinconsumed in Central Africa, and more in some regions (Draulans & Van Krunkelsven,2002; Pfeffer, 1996). Where crop-based agriculture is practiced, bushmeat hunting ofcrop-raiding species occurs in tandem to fulfil the twin imperatives of meeting proteinneeds and defending crops to maximise agricultural output for further economic gain.23WSPA/APE ALLIANCE22Below: WestAfrican monkey,smoked, on sale inLondon. The vendorwas successfullyprosecuted.© Ian Redmond

WSPA/APE ALLIANCERECIPES FOR SURVIVALThe Food and Agriculture Organization recommends an annual intake of 22kg of meatprotein per capita. In many areas, bushmeat consumption exceeds this (Barnett, 2000).With average Central Africans eating as much meat per capita as Americans but lackingthe abundant agricultural protein sources found in the US and Europe, a reduction inbushmeat hunting and consumption could force already malnourished people to furtherreduce their meat consumption (Barnett, 2000).Of 800 million people in developing countries, 200 million in Sub-Saharan Africa areundernourished (ABCG, 2004). In many African regions, agricultural productivity isdiminished by poor soils giving disappointing yields, land tenure security, high seasonalvariability and by prevalence of tsetse fly and trypanosomiasis, which kills livestock(Barnett, 2000, Stein & BCTF, 2001). Even in areas where livestock can be raisedsuccessfully, they are largely regarded as insurance commodities, relied on as a bufferduring periods of severe hardship. Domestic meat tends to be available only in rural orurban markets that are situated close to savannahs and ethnic groups with a traditionof pastoralism (Barnett, 2000). In Gabon, 38% of people are dependent on agriculturecompared with 60 – 70% in the Central African Republic (CAR) and Democratic Republicof Congo (DRC) (Fa et al, 2003).The current non-bushmeat protein sources are mainly starchy root vegetables such asmanioc or agricultural meat, seafood and fish. Some of this is available domesticallyand some imported (6% imported in DRC and 55% in Congo-Brazzaville (Congo-B)). Ingeneral, the food production in this region has not increased significantly in the past40 years; in Congo-B, it has decreased by 10% annually (Fa et al, 2003).3.2.3 Economic significanceThe annual contribution of the bushmeat trade to national economies is difficult toestimate, because it is largely unregulated and un-taxed. Nevertheless, it has beenestimated to equal US$24 million in Gabon, US$42 million in Liberia, US$117 million inCôte d’Ivoire and up to US$150 million in Ivory Coast (Bowen-Jones & Pendry, 1999;Kümpel, 2005). The estimated overall annual value of the trade could exceed US$1 billion,with commercial hunters in Central Africa making up to US$1,000 per year – more thanthe average household income (BCTF, 2000c; Wilkie & Eves, 2001). Many rural familiesliving in extreme poverty are making less than US$1 per day (Merode et al, 2004).In Central and West Africa, the trade in bushmeat can supply 90% to 100% of allhousehold income for rural families (Matsura, 2004; Williamson, 2001). In Eastern andSouthern Africa, 39% of household income is supplied by the bushmeat trade; in theKitui District of Kenya, even part-time trading provides an income competitive with moreformal professions (Barnett, 2000). A study found that 74.5% of people arrested forillegal hunting in Serengeti National Park said that they hunted to generate cash incomeand only 24.7% claimed they hunted to obtain food (Loibooki et al, 2002). The samestudy reported that those who owned livestock were significantly less likely to hunt wildanimals but that those who did hunt relied on hunting to supply 51.4% of their protein.THE BROADER BUSHMEAT ISSUEAn estimated 5,226 young adult men from the subsistence farming communities on theboundary of the National Park obtained their primary income from illegal hunting. Foodexpenditure for both poor and wealthy families in Kenya represents more than 70%of monthly income, and so savings made from eating no-cost bushmeat significantlycontribute to living standards (Barnett, 2000).In 1996, it was estimated that wild meat represented 1.4% (about US$150 million) ofCôte d’Ivoire’s gross national product (Williamson, 2001); 120,000 tons of wild meatwas harvested – more than double the annual production from domestic livestock(Caspary, 1999, cited by Williamson, 2001).Bushmeat allows people to purchase materials and items that a subsistence life cannotprovide, as well as generating income for shelter, clothing, taxes and schooling (Ziegleret al, 2002; Bowen-Jones & Pendry, 1999). At a time when per capita spending on socialservices is decreasing, and incomes have plummeted due to falling agricultural prices andcurrency devaluation, the monetary incentive for hunting bushmeat is highly attractive.The likelihood of detection or punishment is minimal and the cost/benefit ratio is veryfavourable, further enhancing the appeal and justification for hunting wildlife. Indeed, theimportance of bushmeat in the Gross Domestic Product and national economy is nowbeing recognised in Central and West Africa (Barnett, 2000; Kümpel, 2005).3.2.4 Cultural significanceCultural and religious importance is also attributed to bushmeat (Apaza et al, 2002).Hunters in Kenya, Botswana, Zambia and Zimbabwe have esteemed status, becausethey provide food for the less capable elderly and female-led households (Barnett,2000). Hunting is, in many cases, a revered activity and/or a social pastime.Furthermore, bushmeat is often sought after by urban elites seeking to retain links toa traditional village lifestyle (BCTF, 2004). In Sarawak, for example, city-dwelling menhunt recreationally, just as do many of their North American and European equivalents.3.3 Factors contributing to commercialbushmeat huntingThe most important driving factors in commercial bushmeat hunting are:1. Increasing human population and rising demand2. Uncontrolled access to forest wildlife facilitated by logging, mining and hydroelectricor fossil fuel transport companies3. War and civil strife4. Weak governance, institutional deficiency and civil disobedience5. Sophistication of hunting techniques6. Lack of capital or infrastructure for meat production7. Changes in the cultural environment and discarding of social taboos and traditional25WSPA/APE ALLIANCE24

WSPA/APE ALLIANCE26RECIPES FOR SURVIVALhunting embargoes8. Structural adjustment plans imposed by international financial institutions resulting incivil service job losses9. Unemployment, poverty and dysfunctional economies, with lack of alternativemonetary opportunitiesLocal factors, including topography, available infrastructures, market access, taboos,religions, weapon availability and hunting seasons, are also important in affecting trade(Bowen-Jones & Pendry, 1999).3.3.1 Increasing human population and rising demandWhere people live at low densities, wildlife populations are given the chance to recoverfrom gradual harvesting. But as human populations increase, so, inevitably, does therate of forest loss and demand for bushmeat.There are 522 people per km 2 in Asia, 99 per km 2 in West and Central Africa and 46per km 2 in Latin America (Milner-Gulland et al, 2003). Between 1950 and 1992, thepopulation of Sub-Saharan Africa increased by 387% (ABCG, 2004).Thirty-four million people living in the forests of Central Africa are consuming approximately1.1 metric tonnes of bushmeat annually – the domestic equivalent of 4 million cattle –matching consumption rates of meat in Europe and North America (BCTF, 2000c).In West Africa, human population densities are even higher, and hunting here has beenso extensive that dietary dependence on rodents, the only group remaining inabundance, has emerged (BCTF, 2004). The current rate of population growth in WestAfrica is 2.6% per annum, but as the number of people grows and the area of forestshrinks, pressure and demand will exceed this rate (Barnes, 2002).Across Africa, the number of consumers has increased from 100 million in 1900 tomore than 800 million in 2000. A projected increase to 1.6 billion is expected in lessthan 25 years (Apaza et al, 2002). National statistics obscure exponential pressures(Barnes, 2002), and across Africa, it is likely that bushmeat demand will increase by2 – 4% annually (Eves et al, 2002). Wildlife populations are incapable of replenishingrapidly enough to supply current demand, let alone future projections (Wilkie &Carpenter, 1999).If the main protein source in a tropical moist forest is wild meat, then the sustainablecarrying capacity should be no more than one person per km 2 (Robinson & Bennett,2000, Ling et al, 2002). Even then, trade routes would need to be poorly establishedand population growth rates low (BCTF, 2004b).The demand for bushmeat around the world is increasing as expatriate Africanpopulations expand. Up to 427kg of animal products (including bushmeat) areTHE BROADER BUSHMEAT ISSUEconfiscated at Heathrow each week. A suitcase of bushmeat can have a street valueof £1000. The preparation of bushmeat for transport makes it very hard to identifyspecies confiscated; DNA (mitochondrial) analysis is becoming an important tool inidentification and law enforcement (Kelly et al, 2003).Sustainable subsistence hunting may still be possible in the few areas where humanpopulation densities do not exceed two people per km 2 , growth rates are low and tradingroutes to bushmeat markets have yet to be established (BCTF, 2004). But for great apesand other species with slow reproduction rates and slow maturation, a hunting pressureof even a few percent per annum can result in a decline leading to extinction.3.3.2 Uncontrolled access to forest wildlife facilitated by logging,mining and hydroelectric or fossil fuel transport companiesPrivate logging companies have timber exploitation rights to major tracts of tropicalforest (Elkan, 2002). In Central Africa, annual forest loss ranges from 0.2% in Congo-Brazaville to 0.7% in DRC (Fa et al, 2003). An estimated 80,000ha of forest isdestroyed in the Congo Basin each year for a total of 80 commercially logged species(Gouala, 2005; BCTF, 2004).Africa’s annual production of about 11 million cubic metres of wood make it the thirdmost important timber producer worldwide (Pearce & Ammann, 1995). In 1996, 81%of exploited Cameroonian forests were under the control of EU-based companies(WSPA, 1996). In Gabon, logging is particularly prevalent, with the area of harvestableforest rising from 3 million hectares in 1960 to 11 million (60% of the national territory)in 2000 (WRI, 2000, cited by Medou, 2001).There are currently no FSC-accredited logging concessions in the whole of CentralAfrica (Peterson, 2003). Forest recovery periods are generally not satisfied before newconcessions are allocated (Bowen-Jones & Pendry, 1999).Though ‘defaunation’ of forests is widely perceived as a greater threat to tropicalspecies survival than habitat loss, it is the synergy between the hunting anddeforestation that is the greatest cause for concern (Milner-Gulland, 2002). The loggingindustry provides the transport infrastructure (roads, airports, ferries) and tradingroutes necessary for the bushmeat industry, and there is evidence to suggest that,where transport infrastructure is poor, hunting is less severe (Butynski & Koster, 1994).Pearce (1995) reported a significant reduction of hunting when Congolese loggingtrucks were on strike, and some hunting camps closed completely.Roads built by prospecting logging companies cause indiscriminate fragmentation offorests and provide commercial hunters with virtually unlimited access to remote areas,forcing rural families that lack the legal or practical capacity to restrict hunting toharvest as much as possible before others do (BCTF, 2000a).27

WSPA/APE ALLIANCERECIPES FOR SURVIVALWithin logging concessions, large numbers of workers create a massive demand forbushmeat and provide an in-situ market for hunters to sell meat. As a result, some ofthe most lucrative hunting settlements are those established within logging townships.Families living in logging communities eat two to three times more bushmeat than ruralcommunities (Wilkie & Eves, 2001). Very few logging concessions currently providefood for their work force.Mining for tantalum, a rare metal used in capacitors for mobile phones and portablecomputers, has created further pressure on Central African wildlife. The demand forPlayStations in 2000 led to a world shortage of tantalum and a massive increase in itsprice from $40 to $500 per pound (Hayes, 2002). In eastern DRC, protected areassuffered an influx of thousands of miners wishing to exploit the newly lucrative marketfor columbo-tantalite (an ore of tantalum known as coltan). The mining camps subsistedon bushmeat and were responsible for decimating the most important population ofEastern lowland gorilla Gorilla beringei graueri (an endemic subspecies) as well asEastern chimpanzees, forest elephants, buffalo, antelope and many medium-bodiedspecies (Redmond, 2001; Hayes, 2002). Panic-buying by major companies during theperiod of shortage created temporary stockpiles and reduction in demand/unit price.Some miners have withdrawn but others cannot afford to stop, and it is likely thatbushmeat dependency will increase as the population suffers from chronic poverty(Hayes, 2002). Reports from the Kahuzi-Biega National Park staff indicate that somemining settlements are now cultivating crops in the lowland sector of the park. Thefull extent of the large mammal population crash has yet to be established, becausecontinuing insecurity has prevented surveys (Bernard Iyomi, pers. comm.).Thibault and Blaney (2003) have reported that the oil industry has a significant impacton the bushmeat problem and recruits more people into the forest than logging.In 1963, Shell Gabon was granted an exploration permitwithin the Gamba protected areas complex in Gabon. Workerswere recruited nationally, and thousands of people moved tothe area, necessitating the creation of a township within thepark. Bushmeat was exploited to meet the protein demand,and company vehicles, including private jets, were used tosupply outlying urban areas, despite company policiesforbidding this. In 1986, a collapse in oil prices forced men toreturn to their natal villages, where hunting provided the onlyalternative source of income (Barnes, 2002).The Congo Basin is a likely target for further oil exploration,because it holds high-quality petroleum and production costsare low in the region. Currently, oil companies are not requiredto provide the means necessary to mitigate their impact onbiodiversity.THE BROADER BUSHMEAT ISSUE3.3.3 War and civil strifeAccording to the UN Security Council, the illegal mining of coltan (and other naturalresources) has helped support the civil war in DRC, which began in 1996. War affectsbushmeat hunting in a number of ways, not least of which is the increased circulationof weapons and ammunition, which are used successfully for hunting. Most soldiers areunpaid and rely on terrorising villagers and traders for food. They have been recordedwith live parrots, monkeys and apes on their way to markets (Draulans & VanKrunkelsven, 2002). Refugees may also include armed factions, who practice terrorismand increase pressure on locally available resources as well as forests, which arecleared for refugee camps. Harrassment often drives local people into the forests,where they try to make a living from hunting (Draulans & Van Krunkelsven, 2002).Civil unrest in DRC has led to collapse of the transport system due to river and roadblocks, where goods can be confiscated or stolen (Draulans & Van Krunkelsven, 2002).Though it appears that reduced trading opportunities for bushmeat leads to huntingbeing abandoned in some areas, there is evidence to suggest that hunting continuesand yields are hidden in the forest until such time that trading can resume (Draulans& Van Krunkelsven, 2002).In the proposed Lomako Reserve area of DRC, the ongoing war has led to a decreasein hunting, because villagers are too scared to enter the forest, where they riskmeeting soldiers (Dupain et al, 2000).In Liberia, timber and wildlife harvesting have been very poorly regulated since theend of the civil war, when the country has been in social and economic crisis (Hoyt& Frayne, 2003).3.3.4 Weak governance, institutional deficiency and civil disobedienceWeak governance and corrupt administrations are common in areas where bushmeat ishunted. Even where legislation regimes exist, resources and political will to enforce them donot (Kümpel, 2005). Political instability, armed conflict, economic and social strife and AIDShamper state capacity for proper management and are significant disincentives for wildlifeconservation (CITES, 2000). Wildlife policies are seldom regarded as legitimate, mandatorylaws. Hunters have little fear of breaking the law (Eves et al, 2002), not least becauseofficials themselves often benefit from the trade by accepting bribes (Kümpel, 2005).In 1995, Cameroonian traders licensed by the government were recorded collectingup to 200kg of bushmeat on trips to hunting camps, despite the fact that many of thespecies had been hunted illegally. The government has also been known to suspendclosed hunting seasons to encourage the bushmeat trade (Pearce & Ammann, 1995).Anecdotal evidence also exists of hunters being commissioned by policemen to shootgorillas (WSPA, 1994).29WSPA/APE ALLIANCE28Below:Skull of friendly,habituated gorillakilled for bushmeatduring war, Kahuzi-Biega NationalPark, DRC.© Ian Redmond

WSPA/APE ALLIANCERECIPES FOR SURVIVAL3.3.5 Sophistication of hunting techniquesSnaring is currently the cheapest and easiest way to catch wild animals for meat; itaccounts for 84% of village-based hunting harvests (WCS, 1996). Snaring requires littletime and, compared with hunting with firearms, reduces the risk of apprehension. Butit usually results in more animals being trapped than can be retrieved (Barnett, 2000).Studies have shown that about a quarter of animals trapped by snaring are lost todecomposition or scavengers and a third escape injured (Newing, 2001; Noss, 1998).Snaring is indiscriminate and inevitably affects non-target species. Though carnivoresare often able to chew themselves free, death from residual injuries is probable (Ray,Stein & BCTF, 2002).Firearms have been ubiquitous in forests since colonial times (Barnes, 2002). Theyhave greatly improved hunting success, particularly of arboreal species, such asprimates, which are less easily snared.THE BROADER BUSHMEAT ISSUEResearch in the Peruvian Amazon showed no difference in harvests between traditionalhunters using bows and those using shotguns, even though the latter were four timesmore effective (Alvard, 1995). In larger communities, however, overexploitation andthe potential for extinction in some species was observed, suggesting that demand,rather than modern technologies, is driving the hunting to crisis state (Bowen-Jones& Pendry, 1999).Table 1 shows the hunting activity and techniques employed by native hunters incapturing wild mammals in central-western Tanzania (December 1995 to February1996) (Carpaneto & Fusari, 2000).3.3.6 Lack of capital or infrastructure for domestic meat productionOver the past 30 years, funding for agricultural research and development in Centraland West Africa has declined significantly. Over the same period, the US and Australiahave doubled and quadrupled their spending respectively (Milner-Gulland et al, 2003).Forest-dwellers are often hostile to the idea of livestock farming (CITES, 2004),because the costs involved are far more prohibitive than those incurred by commercialbushmeat hunters, who are able to avoid paying for animal husbandry, veterinary care,transport, slaughter and certification (Born Free, 2004). Moreover, agricultural marketspromote unfair prices, and rural communities often lack the skills or resources tonegotiate trade practices more favourable to their needs (ABCG, 2004).In Asia, bushmeat is generally a luxury for wealthy city-dwellers; rural people haveturned to domestic meat to compensate for the lack of wild species (Kümpel, 2005).31WSPA/APE ALLIANCE30Left: Dikdikcaught in snareand Right:Bushmeat drying,Tsavo NationalPark, Kenya.Taxonomic group Guns Traps Spears Dogs Total %Insectivors – 9 – 1 10 4.23Nocturnal Primates – 2 – – 2 0.84Diurnal Primates 6 1 4 3 14 5.93Carnivora 22 8 4 20 54 22.88Hyracoidea 1 – – 1 2 0.84Suidae 7 – 5 – 12 5.08Hippopotamidae 1 – – – 1 0.42Bovidae 82 9 10 3 104 44.06Pholidota – 1 – 1 0.42Rodenta 6 6 2 3 17 7.20Lagomorpha 2 10 – 7 19 8.05Total 127 45 26 38 236 100% 53.81 19.06 11.01 16.1 100Table 1: Numberof specimens foreach taxonomicgroup killed bynative huntersduring the studyperiod in centralwesternTanzania(Source:Carpaneto &Fusari, 2000)© David Sheldrick Wildlife Trust© www.sheldrickwildlifetrust.org

WSPA/APE ALLIANCERECIPES FOR SURVIVALIt is unlikely that this opportunity will be available to Africans faced with a shortage offorest wildlife. As well as problems of low agricultural productivity (due to poor soils,prevalence of disease and frequent wars), African forest-dwellers have lower accessthan Asians to coastline and fish supplies (Kümpel, 2005).3.3.7 Changes in the cultural environment and discarding ofsocial taboos and traditional hunting embargoesThe continuous, year-round demand for bushmeat has gradually eradicated traditionalhunting seasons, and wildlife no longer benefits from recovery periods during closedseasons (Barnett, 2000). Moreover, gender selection and embargoes on pregnantindividuals, as well as traditional taboo and totem restrictions are being abandonedin favour of maintaining supply (Barnett, 2000).Bushmeat represents a coping mechanism during periods of prolonged drought andfamine, when domestic stocks are likely to have perished and horticultural produce isscarce (Merode et al, 2004). Wild animals become more nomadic as they search forwater and are easier to locate in the typically thinner vegetation (Barnett, 2000).Thus, bushmeat hunting can be seasonally acute.3.3.8 Structural adjustment plans imposed by internationalfinancial institutions resulting in civil service job lossesWhilst hunting is a traditional way of life for some people, many commercial bushmeathunters in Africa have turned to hunting after being made redundant. This has beenobserved in countries forced to slim down the civil service to curb governmentspending. With family responsibilities, there are few opportunities for alternativeemployment and many have turned to commercial hunting because it is profitableand requires little capital to start a business.3.3.9 Unemployment, poverty and dysfunctional economies,with lack of alternative monetary opportunitiesThis has been discussed in section 3.2.3.4 The effects of bushmeat hunting on speciesand ecosystemsA list of species worldwide recorded as being hunted for bushmeat is included asAppendix 1 (see separate document). Figure 1 and Graphs 1 and 2 respectivelysummarise the taxonomic composition of species hunted internationally for bushmeat,the number of species hunted for bushmeat per geographic region, and the number ofspecies hunted for bushmeat per taxa per geographic region.THE BROADER BUSHMEAT ISSUE33WSPA/APE ALLIANCE328007006005004003002001000Insecta 45%Mammalia 23% Aves 20%Reptiles6%Amphibia6%Figure 1:Taxonomiccomposition ofspecies huntedinternationally forbushmeatCarribbean Islands Asia Europe Latin America Africa North America OceaniaRegionGraph 1: Numberof species huntedfor wild meat pergeographic regionNumber of species

WSPA/APE ALLIANCERECIPES FOR SURVIVAL3.4.1 Importance of forest wildlifeInvertebrates, amphibians, insects, fish, reptiles, birds and mammals are all targetedby the bushmeat trade. Forest animals are ecologically fundamental, and many forestplants – some of which are economically valuable – are reliant on herbivory andpredation practices for pollination, seed dispersal and germination (Williamson, 2001;Serio-Silva & Rico-Gray, 2002; Riley, 2002).In Gabon, regeneration of tree species such as Irvingia gabonensis and Tieghemella sp. islow in areas where animals responsible for dipersing their seeds are rare (Medou, 2001).Large-bodied frugivores, the seed dispersal agents of plants with large fruits are chieftargets of bushmeat hunters. Moore (2001) showed that Inga ingoides trees in Bolivia hadsignificantly lower genetic diversity in areas where there sole seed vectors (Spidermonkeys) had been driven to extinction.150 species of fruit among the rumen contents of duikers suggests that they arecrucial for seed dispersal (Eves, Stein & BCTF, 2002). Up to 80% of all tree speciescould have their seed dispersal affected by the loss of tropical forest frugivores(Peres & van Roosmalen, 2002, cited by Apaza et al, 2002).Over-exploitation of wildlife is expected to alter forest composition, architecture andbiomass, as well as altering ecosystem dynamics, such as regrowth and successionpatterns, deposition of soil nutrients and carbon sequestration (Apaza et al, 2002).The ‘empty forest syndrome’ therefore threatens thefuture not only of species but also of the ecosystemas a whole.3.4.2 Species vulnerabilityResearch suggests that bushmeat use is positivelycorrelated with availability, the most commonly huntedspecies being those that are abundant, proximal tohuman habitation and commonly regarded as pests(Bowen-Jones & Pendry, 1999). Habitat type andlocation are also crucial factors; bushmeatconsumption is more prevalent in forest communitiesthan in any other type of habitat (see Graph 3), despiteevidence that tropical forests are relativelyunproductive compared to other habitat types (Kümpel,2005). In agricultural park-boundary areas, whereonly small game is present, the loss from cropraiding can exceed the gain from bushmeat hunting (Naughton-Treves et al, 2003).The most profitable species to hunt are large-bodied animals, weighing more than1kg (for example, apes and duikers), which provide more meat per gun cartridge thansmaller species (Kaul et al, 1994; Robinson, 1995). Concurrently, large-bodied animalsare also the most vulnerable to hunting due to their low reproductive rates (Barnes,2002). Even when the most productive species to hunt become scarce, hunting will7654321ForestMosaicSavannaMangrove035RodentsMonkeysAntelopesPangolinsWild birdsSnakesWild pigs & hippoWild catsSnailsChimpanzeesInsectsElephantsGorillasBatsTaxaWSPA/APE ALLIANCEAverage number of meals per person per month600500400300Number of species© Ian Redmond200AmphibiaAvesMammaliaReptilesInsectsAll1000Carribbean IslandsEast AsiaEuropeMesoAmericaNorth AfricaNorth AmericaNorth AsiaOceaniaSouth AmericaSouth and SE AsiaSouth and SW AsiaSub-Saharan AfricaWest/Central Asia34RegionGraph 2: Numberof species huntedfor wild meat pertaxa pergeographic regionleft Graph 3:Consumption ofbushmeat taxa byhabitat (Source:Wolfe, 2004)THE BROADER BUSHMEAT ISSUEBelow: Mbinzo(smoked caterpillars):nutritious, legalbushmeat for sale inKinshasa, DRC.

WSPA/APE ALLIANCERECIPES FOR SURVIVALstill be profitable, because small-bodied species will remain common (Fa et al, 2001).The opportunistic nature of hunting keeps pressure on large animals high andaccelerates their extinction (Barnes, 2002; Wilkie and Carpenter, 1999).The vulnerability of a species to hunting is, therefore, a product of biologicalcharacteristics, including size, growth rate and reproductive biology, as well asdemographic factors, including population density, distribution and habitat specificity.3.4.3 Geographic repercussionsHunting of wild animals for meat is not just an African problem. Twenty-five tonnes of turtlesare exported every week from Sumatra, Indonesia, 1,500 forest rats are sold per week in aSulawesi market and 28,000 primates are hunted annually in Loreto, Peru (Milner-Gulland etal, 2003). Referring to wild meat rather than bushmeat reflects the global nature of thisissue. Preliminary research presented in Appendix 1 suggests that 27% of Latin Americanmammals, 50% of Asian mammals and 50% of African mammals recorded amongstbushmeat harvests are categorised as endangered or vulnerable to extinction.The status of many forest species is difficult to determine by traditional censustechniques (Ray, Stein & BCTF, 2002). Annual variations mean that accurate estimatescan be made only by several surveys over consecutive years (Barnes, 2002).Table 2:Composition ofbushmeatcaptured in theCongo Basin(Source: Wilkie &Carpenter, 1999)Species loss occurred in Asia first. Many species have been hunted to extinction,including 12 species of mammal in Vietnam since 1975 (Whitfield, 2003). Bushmeatis still consumed in large quantities throughout Asia (Kümpel, 2005). In Indonesia, thetrade in babirusa is purely commercial, with no subsistence motivation at all (Milner-Gulland & Clayton, 2002).In Central Africa, hunting pressure has been specifically identified as a threat to 84Location Ungulates a Primates Rodents OtherInturi forest, DRC 1 60 – 95% 5 – 40% 1% 1%Makokou, Gabon 2 58% 19% 14% 9%Diba, Congo 3 70% 17% 9% 4%Ekom, Cameroon 4 85% 4% 6% 5%Brazzaville, Congo 13 76% 8% 6% 10%Ouesso, Congo 5 57% 34% 5% 4%Ndoki and Ngatongo, Congo 6 81 – 87% 11 – 16% 2 – 3% 2 – 3%Dzanga-Sangha, CAR 7 77 – 86% 0% 11 – 12% 2 – 12%Libreville, Port Gentil, Oyem, and Makokou, Gabon 8 34 – 61% 20 – 45% 5 – 27% 3 – 12%Bioko and Rio Muni, Equatorial Guinea 9 36 – 43% 23 – 25% 31 – 37% 2 – 4%Dja, Cameroon 12 88% 3% 5% 4%Ekom, Cameroon 10 87% 1% 6% 6%Oleme, Congo 11 62% 38%THE BROADER BUSHMEAT ISSUESpecies Hunted individuals/km 2 Unhunted individuals/km 2 ImpactCephalophus sylvicultur 0 0.03 -100%Gorilla gorilla 0 0.24 -100%Cercocebus albigena 2.5 51.2 -95%Pan troglodytes 0.03 0.36 -92%Cephalophus callipygus 0.6 6.7 -91%Clolbus abyssinicus 0.8 6.8 -88%Tragelaphus spekei 0.005 0.03 -83%Potamochoerus porcus 0.36 1.7 -79%Hyemoschus aquaticus 0.02 0.09 -78%Cercopithecus nictitans 21.9 80.2 -73%Cephalophus dorsalis 2.5 5.8 -57%Cercopithecus pogonias 11.1 19.8 -44%Cercopithecus cephus 12.5 22 -43%Cephalophus monticola 30.4 53 -43%mammalian species and subspecies (IUCN, 2000) (see Tables 2 and 3). Thirty-fourspecies are listed as threatened by extinction, the majority of which are primates (17),and the rest duikers (12), carnivores (4) and rodents (1) (CITES, 2004). Localextinctions have been recorded in populations of leopard Panthera pardus, golden catProfelis aurata and elephant Loxodonta africana, with similar declines expected forgiant pangolins Smutsia gigantaea and slender-snouted crocodiles Crocodyluscataphractus (various authors cited by Bowen-Jones & Pendry, 1999).Commercial bushmeat hunting in West Africa has already caused local extinctions(BCTF, 2000a).Table 3:Bushmeat speciesdensities in huntedand unhuntedforest in theCongo Basin(Source: Wilkie &Carpenter, 1999)Kenya provides a model for East Africa, where wildlife populations have declined by58% over the past 20 years and the scale of hunting appears to be escalating (BornFree, 2004). Decreasing wildlife populations have intensified hunting effort,necessitating more sophisticated and unsustainable methods, such as night torchhunting (Barnett, 2000).According to a recent comparative study of 57 and 31 mammalian taxa in the Congoand Amazon Basins respectively, 60% of Congo animals were exploited unsustainably,compared with no Amazon species (Fa et al, 2002). This research also showed that Congomammals must annually produce 93% of their body mass to balance extraction rates,whereas Amazon species need only produce 4%. Conversely, studies in 25 Amazonianforest sites showed that even small-scale subsistence hunting reduced the number oflarge-bodied game species (Peres, 2000). Milner-Gulland et al (2003) assert that we canexpect extinctions in even the remote areas of Latin America in the next 10 – 20 years.37WSPA/APE ALLIANCE36

WSPA/APE ALLIANCERECIPES FOR SURVIVAL3.4.4 Species at riskAfrican forest hunters generally favour duikers and primates, but opportunistic huntingof carnivores also occurs and can be economically significant, for example the trade inleopard skins (Ray, Stein & BCTF, 2002). Forest carnivores such as leopards, golden cats,crowned eagles and snakes rely on bushmeat-hunted species for prey, and thus the tradealso affects them indirectly (Wilkie & Eves, 2001; Apaza et al, 2002). The ecologicalimpact of carnivore relative to herbivore loss may be considerable because of carnivores’low densities, low reproductive rates and trophic rankings (Ray, Stein & BCTF, 2002).Duikers represent a major proportion of bushmeat hunted for subsistence and trade,principally because they are large and abundant and easy to trap with wire snares(BCTF, 2003). 28 million bay duikers and 16 million blue duikers are killed in CentralAfrica each year (Wilkie & Carpenter, 1999). In Liberia, three quarters of the bushmeatharvest comprises duikers (Bowen-Jones & Pendry, 1999). Duikers are currentlyestimated to comprise 40 – 80% of meat available in Central African markets, andsignificant population declines have been observed in West Africa, where habitat losshas reinforced commercial hunting (Eves, Stein & BCTF, 2002).Though populations are hard to observe and monitor in the wild, duikers are easilyhunted with guns and snares and are transportable on foot (Eves, Stein & BCTF, 2002).Hunted populations are replenished by individuals migrating from undisturbed areas,thus disguising the effects of unsustainable harvesting. But as logging activities swallowup undisturbed areas, populations that can seemingly tolerate hunting will begin tosuffer (Eves, Stein & BCTF, 2002). Extinction of several duiker species is alreadyconsidered imminent, and the repercussions could be catastrophic for the predator andtree species that rely on them for their survival and seed dispersal (Eves, Stein & BCTF,2002). Low reproductive rates and territorial behaviour eliminate the potential forhusbandry (Eves, Stein & BCTF, 2002).Rodents are also hunted for bushmeat, particularly where other, more charismaticTHE BROADER BUSHMEAT ISSUEspecies have been depleted by overhunting (Eves et al, 2002). Unlike the larger,preferred species, rodents have high reproductive rates and are adaptable to conditionsof human disturbance and cultivation. Though the amount of meat per carcass is small,the abundance of rodents means they can be hunted in greater numbers to compensatefor the lack of larger game. Rodents therefore represent a viable subsistence base. Inmany cases, rodents are nutritionally superior to bigger species (Barnett, 2000).In Equatorial Guinea, rodents were found to comprise 32% of meat at markets (50%when pooled with blue duiker Cephalophus monticola) (Fa et al, 1995; Juste et al,1995). Where there are significant duiker populations supplying the bulk of bushmeat tomarkets, rodent hunting is opportunistic, but local extinctions have occurred whereoverpopulation and overhunting have already depleted the larger, more marketablespecies (Stein et al, 2002a). Giant pouched rats and greater cane rats have sufferedpopulation extinctions even where laws require that hunters hold licences for killingunprotected rodents (Stein et al, 2002a). Human consumption of rodents is linked toLassa fever, a viral illness whose reservoir is the multi-mammate rat Mastomys sp.Nevertheless, a preference for rodents over beef in some markets fortifies proposalsfor cane rat domestication and farming to provide an alternative source of nutritiousprotein. The percentage of rodents and ungulates in the offtake could be used toindicate site over-exploitation (rodents indicate reduced availability of larger, morecharismatic species).Elephant bushmeat is further cause for concern. Some authors have reported localextinctions as a result of hunting (Bowen-Jones & Pendry, 1999). The ivory trade andslow maturation and reproductive rates make elephants especially vulnerable to overexploitationfrom commercial hunting (Stein & BCTF, 2001, Draulans & Van Krunkelsven,2002). One outcome of this is decreasing tusk size and subsequent loss of profit fromthe ivory trade, encouraging the commercialisation of meat use to recover earnings(Eves & Ruggiero, 2000). Elephant hunting has recently been particularly severe inCentral Africa (Wasser et al, 2004), where the meat and tusks of 273 elephants killedduring four months in 1995 – 1996 sold for US$400 per animal (Stein & BCTF, 2001).The Monitoring of Illegal Killing in Elephants program (MIKE) emphasised at CITES (11thConference of the Parties) that, in some instances, tusks appeared to be a secondaryby-product to the bushmeat trade, though some research has suggested otherwise(Raffaele, 2005).The current range of African elephants lies largely outside protected areas, makingthem yet more susceptible to illegal hunting and encroachment, particularly in Centraland Eastern Africa, where political unrest has motivated the presence of illegalweapons (Eves & Ruggiero, 2000). Refugees also intensify demand.Twenty five percent of birds in the order Galliformes are at risk from extinction, partlydue to the extent to which they are over-hunted (McGowan & Garson, 2002).Galliformes provide one of the most important sources of avian protein in subsistence39WSPA/APE ALLIANCE© David Sheldrick Wildlife Trust38Right: Snaringaffects manyspeciesindiscriminately:Lesser kudu caughtin Tsavo NationalPark, Kenya

WSPA/APE ALLIANCERECIPES FOR SURVIVALdiets, not least because they are principally large, ground-dwelling birds and can occurat high densities.Almost all Asian turtles (as well as tortoises and terrapins) are hunted and barteredfor consumption, medicine and the pet trade (the only species left unreported are eitherexceptionally rare or believed extinct) (TRAFFIC, 1999). Softshell turtles command thehighest price per kilogram (up to six times that of lamb or chicken in India) and smallerindividuals are preferred because they have a higher proportion of cartilage andgelatinous skin and can be served whole in restaurants (TRAFFIC, 1999). Behler(1997) cites research from McCord that suggests one specimen of Cuora trifasciata isworth $10,000. Most meat is exported, with estimates of volume ranging from 50,000turtles daily (Behler, 1997) to 12 million annually (Salzberg, 1998). Wai-Neng Lau et al.(1998) described a 25-fold increase in turtles being imported to Hong Kong between1977 and 1996.Primates are among the most highly endangered species hunted for the bushmeattrade and are considered in section 4.3.4.5 OutlookTropical forests are relatively unproductive ecosystems and are more vulnerable toexploitation than other habitat types (Kümpel, 2005; Fa et al, 2005). Though intuitively,we might expect gradual declines in wildlife as a result of over-hunting, research hasshown that a sudden, unexpected collapse of forest populations is more likely – theboom-and-bust situation observed in some fisheries (Barnes, 2002). It is unlikely thatgovernments will tackle the bushmeat problem during the boom phase of goodharvests – they won’t perceive a problem until it’s too late (Barnes, 2002). Stochasticfactors such as low food availability or disease and other environmental catastrophesare circumstances in which such a collapse might be instigated (Barnes, 2002).Large herbivores, large carnivores and most primates are unlikely to persist inpermanently settled, multiple-use zones around national parks unless hunting isrestricted. Only small, rapidly reproducing animals such as rodents and small antelopesare likely to withstand the pressure from commercial hunting (Wilkie & Eves, 2001).3.5 Bushmeat supply, demand and price dynamics3.5.1 SupplyA recent study has shown that, in Ghana, people have increased their reliance onbushmeat as a result of depleted fish stocks, facilitated in part by EU-subsidised fleetsoperating in the region (Brashares et al, 2004). This has consequently led to abruptpopulation declines in 41 mammal species.Investigating the operation of a bushmeat commodity chain in Takoradi, Ghana, showedTHE BROADER BUSHMEAT ISSUEthat the primary trade route was from commercial hunters (who received the largestfinancial benefits), via wholesalers to chopbars (cafés) (Cowlishaw et al, 2005).In several countries across east and southern Africa, including Kenya and Malawi, illegalbrew bars are a platform for trading bushmeat, since they satisfy the need for secretcommerce (Barnett, 2000). Direct house-to-house sales are also popular, and somehunters and traders operate with contracts to fortify confidentiality (Barnett, 2000).Bushmeat trade is more open in areas with less adequate law enforcement, includingMozambique (Barnett, 2000) and the Central and West African region.3.5.2 DemandWealthier inhabitants of urban areas are willing to pay more for bushmeat, which isperceived as a luxury product and a way of retaining cultural links to a traditional villagelifestyle (Barnett, 2000). People living in urban areas eat bushmeat out of preference, ratherthan necessity, and decrease the supply available to those who need it most (ABCG, 2004).Consumer demand can be decreased by:• Changing consumer preferences and tastes• Decreasing the price of substitutes and increasing availability• Increasing the price of bushmeatChanging preferences through environmental education is only likely to have an effectin areas where bushmeat is consumed as a luxury item, for example in urban areas(urban elites, restaurants and expatriates) rather than rural areas, where fewsubstitutes are available.Increasing the price of bushmeat could be achieved by decreasing the supply throughlaw enforcement (Wilkie and Carpenter, 1999), but unless there are substitutesavailable, a price increase would bolster economic incentives for hunting.3.5.3 PriceIt has been suggested that the practice of eating bushmeat is entrenched in some culturesand inherently preferred over domestic meat, even where the latter is cheaper (Rose, 2001,cited by Apaza et al, 2002). But some research suggests consumption habits are moresensitive to price and consumers choose the most affordable meat available or hunt forthemselves at no cost (Wilkie & Carpenter, 1999; Bowen-Jones, 1998; Apaza et al, 2002).Many studies have been carried out to determine price trends (Barnett, 2000; Steel,1994; King, 1994; Noss, 1998; Wilkie et al, 2005; Cowlishaw et al, 2005), but there isno governing precedent in bushmeat price across regions. Price dynamics are complexand influenced by fluctuating supply and demand. Typically, however, bushmeat is mostexpensive in urban areas (where supply is low) and least expensive in rural areas, wheresupply is high (Barnett, 2000). Fresh bushmeat is more expensive than the smokedproduct, which is common in urban centres because smoking preserves the meatduring transportation.41WSPA/APE ALLIANCE40

WSPA/APE ALLIANCERECIPES FOR SURVIVALA recent study in Ghana, West Africa, estimated that café owners were the mostimportant vendors of bushmeat, accounting for 85% of sales to the public (Cowlishawet al, 2005). The same study found that transport costs affected the price of bushmeat.In cities, bushmeat is perceived as a luxury product commanding a very high price,particularly during religious festivals (Barnett 2000, BCTF 2002). In Libreville, Gabon,the average price for the most popular bushmeat species was 1.6 times more expensivethan the most popular cut of beef (Steel, 1994). By contrast, in rural areas, domesticmeat is expensive and seldom available whereas bushmeat can be hunted for free.Bushmeat prices peak when abundance is low and demand is high, resulting in furtherhunting pressure on depleted species. A high price of certain bushmeat speciesindicates the parallel problems of reduced abundance and continuing demand (Barnett,2000). The higher the price, the greater the hunting pressure will be on these alreadybeleaguered species, resulting in trade-motivated hunters entering protected areas toensure supply (Barnett, 2000).Among the Tsimane’ Ameridians in the Bolivian rainforest, hunting for bushmeat waslowest where the cheapest fish and meat from domestic livestock was available (Apazaet al, 2002), suggesting that increased market access and a reduction in price ofdomestic relative to wild meat could alleviate unsustainable hunting of wildlife. Wilkieand Godoy (2001) report that reducing the price of beef by 10% can reduce bushmeathunting by up to 74%.In Gabon, consumption of bushmeat, fish, chicken and livestock was positivelycorrelated with household wealth (Wilkie et al, 2005). Bushmeat consumptiondecreased as price increased, and fish was utilised as a dietary substitute. A smallincrease in the wealth of poor rural families had a large impact on the consumption ofanimal protein. These results imply that taxation or decrease in supply through betterlaw enforcement could reduce wildlife consumption (though if efforts are focused onlyon reducing unsustainable bushmeat harvesting, there may be adverse effects on theexploitation of fish). Development aid to increase the wealth of the rural poor may,therefore, in this case, negatively impact wildlife consumption (Wilkie et al, 2005).Bushmeat price is thus influenced by supply, wealth and cultural/taste preferences.In both rural and urban areas, it is preferred over alternative animal proteins.3.6 Global health concerns linked to the bushmeat tradeEbola, SARS (Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome), Anthrax and HIV-AIDS are humandiseases all thought to be transmitted by butchering, processing and consumptionof bushmeat.THE BROADER BUSHMEAT ISSUEAt least 25% of meat in Nairobi butcheries is bushmeat, and at least 19% is adomestic-bushmeat mix, suggesting cross-contamination during storage or transit (BornFree, 2004) and introducing the possibility of acquiring wildlife diseases from domesticmeat (Born Free, 2004).3.7 OutlookAt present, wild animal protein is the major factor preventing protein malnutrition forthe people of the Congo Basin. But at current exploitation rates, the bushmeat proteinsupply is expected to drop 81% in less than 50 years in all Congo Basin countries (Faet al, 2003). Only three Congo Basin countries could maintain a protein supply above therecommended daily intake in the event of reduced bushmeat availability (through strictlyenforced laws or reduction in supply) (Fa et al, 2003). Four countries would not be ableto produce enough non-bushmeat protein to feed their people (Fa et al, 2003). Concernsover wildlife extinction and protein malnutrition should, therefore, be equal in gravity.To assess the impact of bushmeat hunting on wildlife populations we need to know:• The harvest rates of bushmeat species;• The maximum possible production per unit area of forest for primary bushmeatspecies;• Densities of primary bushmeat species in areas of known off-take and production.Nutrient-rich floodplain forests contain consistently more game biomass that nutrientpoornon-flooded forest, showing that consideration of forest productivity and foresttype is important in establishing game management plans (Peres, 2000).Tools that allow indirect assessment of the effect of hunting are currently being usedin the fisheries industry and in IUCN red listing (Milner-Gulland & Akcakaya, 2001).Models currently exist for estimating sustainability of hunting and effectiveness ofdifferent policy options (Rowcliffe et al, 2003; Robinson & Bodmer, 1999; Redford &Robinson, 1991). Some of these are prone to overestimating the sustainable offtake,leading to recommendations for a more precautionary approach (Milner-Gulland &Akcakaya, 2001). Nevertheless, one such model that suggested unsustainable huntingwas occurring in Sarawak led the Malaysian government to stipulate a ban oncommercial hunting (Whitfield, 2003).43WSPA/APE ALLIANCE42

Primate bushmeat:current situation4.1 IntroductionUnsustainable hunting levels have been observed in a large diversity of species (seesection 3), but it was the trade in primates, and great apes in particular, that broughtattention to the bushmeat crisis during the 1990s. Apes provided a jumping-on pointfor conservation groups to get involved in bushmeat and begin campaigning andimplementing measures to curb the problem.The fact that Western lowland gorillas were hunted for meat was well known (see forexample Harcourt and Stewart, 1980), but drew little attention from the conservationcommunity. It was the ape orphans of the bushmeat trade that first attracted theattention of NGOs and the media in the late 1980s. The efforts by certain expatriatesto save young gorillas and chimpanzees, and the shipping of some of these rescuedapes to Western zoos led the International Primate Protection League to questionwhether this was trade under the guise of ape-rescue. An investigation in Congo(Redmond, 1989) concluded that the orphaned apes were indeed a by-product of thebushmeat trade, although infants would certainly be captured to order if anyoneexpressed an interest in buying one. The use of ape fingers and other body-parts intraditional African medicine was also highlighted. Rescued gorilla infants at that timesuffered a mortality rate of 80 per cent, but chimpanzees were more resilient; theimages of starving chimpanzees in the now defunct Parc Zoologique de Point Noireprompted Jane Goodall to begin her long-term support to chimpanzee orphans in Congo.Much has changed in the intervening 15 years, but ape numbers continue to fall and itremains to be seen whether the newly adopted Global Strategy for the Survival of GreatApes will reverse the trend. On a more positive note, however, many of the great aperange states have developed (or are developing) National Great Ape Survival Plans andmost have signed the UN Declaration on Great Apes, agreed in Kinshasa on 9thSeptember 2005. This will have wider repercussions than just improving the survivalchances of great apes. Under the paradigm of ‘umbrella species’, it is believed thatconservation efforts focused on apes and their habitat have benefited non-primatespecies also hunted for food.PRIMATE BUSHMEAT4Opposite:Infant chimpanzeerescued frombushmeat tradeduring the war inLiberia45© Ian Redmond

WSPA/APE ALLIANCERECIPES FOR SURVIVAL4.2 Scale and distribution of the problemEvidence suggests that primates of international conservation value are being huntedto dangerously low levels and harvesting rates have been recorded at up to 28 timesthe sustainable level (Fa et al, 1995). Seven million red colobus are killed in CentralAfrica each year (Fa & Peres, 2001, cited by Bennett et alI, 2002). Local extinctionshave been recorded in Preuss’ red colobus (Waltert et al, 2002), as has the completeextinction in 2000 of Miss Waldron’s red colobus (Whitfield, 2003; Oates et al, 2000).In West and Central Africa, primates comprise 15% of market carcasses, with greatapes constituting 1% (Stein et al, 2002b). In terms of biomass, however, thesignificance of great apes is higher (Stein et al, 2002b).It is likely that the proportion of ape meat at markets is underestimated for a numberof reasons. Vendors are usually aware that it is illegal to hunt endangered species; thepreservation process of smoking meat conceals its origin from all but DNA analysis(Stein et al, 2002b). The difficulty in transporting large ape carcasses and preferencefor their meat could mean that they are eaten by villagers rather than traded (Bowen-Jones & Pendry, 1999). Furthermore, bushmeat is often transported regionally andacross borders, making it difficult to track its origin (Stein et al, 2002b).4.3 Exacerbating factors4.3.1 Hunting techniquesThe use of firearms can increase harvest rates by 10 times that of snare-based hunting(Wildlife Conservation Society, 1996), though gorillas, chimpanzees and bonobos haveall been recorded as having been injured or killed from non-discriminatory snares(Bowen-Jones & Pendry, 1999; Thompson-Handler et al, 1995).In Korup National Park, South-west Cameroon, hunting with dogs increases huntingsuccess, particularly for endangered drills, which are easily driven up trees and killedin large numbers at a time (Waltert et al, 2002). Bonobos are hunted in much the sameway (Lee et al, 1988).Primates are more expensive to hunt than other species that are easily snared. Whilethe availability of guns has made primate hunting lucrative, each animal that is shotcosts a shotgun shell (BCTF, 2003).4.3.2 Armed conflictOf 23 protected areas worldwide containing great apes, two thirds have been affectedby military conflicts in the past decade (Draulans & Van Krunkelsven, 2002).4.3.3 Economic importanceIn Korup National Park, Cameroon, 7% of hunters’ income was generated from trade indrills, Africa’s most threatened primate (Bowen-Jones & Pendry, 1999). Encounters withdrills are rare, but where they do occur, up to 30 animals can be dispatched at once(Bowen-Jones & Pendry, 1999).Chimpanzee or gorilla carcasses can be sold in Africa for the equivalent of $20 – 25.With annual incomes at well under $1,000, the hunting of apes is clearly aneconomically rational practice in the short term for hunters (Marshall et al, 2000).In Bangui, the capital of Central African Republic (CAR), bushmeat is appealing becauseof its low cost – smoked gorilla can sell for as little as 25 cents per pound in a villagemarket, despite its lower availability relative to duiker (Raffaele, 1995).4.3.4 PersecutionMountain gorillas and chimpanzees have been implicated in crop-raiding incidents aswell as attacks on people. This may have resulted from animals being enticed on tocultivated land during food shortages or from habituation (deliberate or resulting fromproximity to settlements) reducing their natural fear of humans (WWF, 2003).4.3.5 The primate pet tradeUnlike most other species hunted for bushmeat, primates in general and great apes inparticular suffer from a subsidiary trade in live animals. Hunters often speculate on thevalue of these rare animals without knowing that they are difficult to sell – laws againstpurchase prevent zoos, private collecters and captive breeding centres from displayingthem (White, 2002).PRIMATE BUSHMEAT47WSPA/APE ALLIANCE46Left: Hunters'children dependon their fathers'success, butkilling gorillas isillegal. Congo(Brazzaville).

RECIPES FOR SURVIVALPRIMATE BUSHMEATWSPA/APE ALLIANCEMany baby great apes are fatally injured by the shots that kill their mother or by thefall from the forest canopy, but those that survive represent extra income to thehunters when they are traded as pets (IFAW & BCTF, 2003; IFAW 2005). They areusually kept and transported in deplorable conditions. A great number die, even if theyare rescued. Estimates suggest that for every chimpanzee, gorilla or bonobo enteringthe pet trade, 10 – 50 more will have died in hunting camps or en route to cities (IFAW& BCTF, 2003). Redmond (2002a) used a multiplier of 15 gorillas removed from thepopulation for each infant that reaches competent care, based on the 80 per centmortality of infants arriving at the Brazzaville gorilla orphanage prior to 1989, whenimproved veterinary care lowered this rate, and at least two adults being killed for eachinfant – thus: (1infant+2adults)x5=15 gorillas, one alive and 14 dead. This means thatthe six gorillas reported to have been held by Ibadan Zoo prior to shipment of theTaiping Four probably represented 84 dead gorillas, and 90 lost to the wild population.be more emotionally robust than gorillas and, as such, have been exploited to supplythe international pet trade. Between 1970 and 1976 (before CITES came into force),it is estimated that 1,582 chimps were shipped from Sierra Leone into Europe, Americaand Japan (WSPA, 1996). Governments often report a disincentive for enforcingappropriate laws regarding the pet trade, because there are insufficient facilitiesfor re-housing confiscated orphans.A growing number of primate sanctuaries are operating across Africa to rehabilitateorphaned victims of the bushmeat trade; several countries that no longer harbour wildpopulations of apes have also established sanctuaries simply to cater for individualsthat enter the country through international trade.The Pan African Sanctuary Alliance (PASA) was founded in 2000 to support thesesanctuaries and act as a hub for information sharing, fundraising and standardisationof values. PASA comprises 17 member sanctuaries as of March 2005, with plans for19 by June 2005 (Doug Cress, pers. comm.).Sanctuaries have been instrumental in securing areas of forest and effectivelyprotecting them from hunters, as well as successfully running rehabilitation and releaseprograms (IFAW & BCTF, 2003). But there are too few sanctuaries to adequately houseall confiscated animals, most existing sanctuaries have reached saturation levels anddo not have the capacity to accept more individuals. In other areas, there are noadequate facilities (DRC currently has good facilities only for bonobo orphans, althoughplans are in hand to improve this situation).4.4 Primates at riskAbove left: Infantchimpanzee forsale in bushmeatmarket, Libreville,Gabon.As highly evolved organisms, great apes are vulnerable to mental suffering and trauma.Many confiscated orphans are found with broken limbs, smashed teeth and broken jaws(indicating failed attempts to extract teeth to prevent biting), untreated open woundsfrom chains and other injuries, dehydration, malnourishment, infections and parasiticinfestations (IFAW & BCTF, 2003).In DRC, during the mid 1990s chimps were regularly offered for sale on roadsides foras little as $5, a tenth of their value elsewhere (WSPA, 1996). Chimps are thought toPrimates have a low rate of meat production relative to body size, and so hunting has aparticularly negative impact on this taxon. A list of primate species worldwide recordedas being hunted for bushmeat is included as Appendix 2.A recent study cited hunting as the most important cause for declines in Preuss’ redcolobus (Procolobus pennantii preussi), drill (Mandrillus leucophaeus leucophaeus) andcrowned monkey (Cercopithecus pogonias) in Korup National Park, South-westCameroon (Waltert et al, 2002). It is likely that this represents the situation for manymore species, although the density of some common and abundant species (forexample, greater white-nosed and moustached monkeys Cercopithecus nictitansand C. cephus) appears to be unaffected by hunting (White, 1994).Great apesThe hunting of great apes for sale and consumption has been recorded across most oftheir African range. Gorilla and chimpanzee meat is available on a daily basis in townsand villages across Central Africa. Harvesting rates are difficult to estimate because of© Ian Redmond© Ian Redmond48 49

WSPA/APE ALLIANCERECIPES FOR SURVIVALcontentious population estimates (Bowen-Jones & Pendry, 1999), but across Africa, asmany as 3,000 – 6,000 great apes and many more monkeys are being killed annually(WWF, 2003) – more than are kept in zoos and laboratories worldwide.Ape populations are declining in 96% of protected areas where they are being studied,and without even assessing the contribution of habitat loss, most are faced withextinction in the next 10 – 50 years, (Marshall et al, 2000). Apes are hunted by humansin 62% of all protected areas; prevalence of snaring and armed conflict in protectedareas amounts to 57% and 70% respectively. There are 33 national parks and 308other conservation areas in Africa containing ape populations. The protection affordedthe great apes by international conventions, such as CITES, makes both hunting andtrading them illegal (Marshall et al, 2000).Little research has been conducted outside protected areas, but the increased levelof poaching in conjunction with commercial logging activities would suggest an evenbleaker situation than is widely perceived.Apes, and great apes in particular, are attractive to hunters because of their large sizeand high volume of meat per unit effort. Subsistence hunting of great apes is alreadyunsustainable, and further targeting by commercial hunters will guarantee extinction.Every square kilometre of forest that is logged represents the loss of habitat for oneape (Marshall et al, 2000).Low population sizes and reproductive rates, as well as long-term infant dependencyand stress sensitivity, make the great apes vulnerable to even small increases inmortality levels. A female ape typically has a reproductive rate a quarter that of othermammals and will produce offspring (from the age of 15) only every 5 – 8 years(Marshall et al, 2000). It therefore takes a long time to replace a single individual lostfrom the population.Female apes are selectively hunted, because they pose less risk to hunters than do males,who are likely to charge even when shot. With a generation time ranging from 15 to nearly30 years, each adult female lost represents some 2 – 6 lost offspring in the next 15 – 30years, and so gender selection accelerates population loss (Marshall et al, 2000).Stochastic factors such as food supply, mating success, random catastrophes (forexample, drought and fire), erosion of genetic diversity, hunting and human disturbanceare severely threatening to all apes (Marshall et al, 2000). Ape social structure can alsoexacerbate the impact of hunting; infanticide of infants emigrating from a group whosesilverback has been killed is common (Fossey, 1983).At least some populations of seven African great ape sub-species (Western, Central, andboth Eastern chimpanzees* see taxonomic note in Preface and on p.37), bonobos,Western and Eastern lowland gorillas and mountain gorillas) inhabit countries afflicted bycivil unrest, where firearms are ubiquitous and law enforcement is weak or non-existent.It is estimated that 12 – 17 mountain gorilla deaths, representing 3.7 – 5.2% of theVirungas population, were accountable to military activity between 1992 and 2000(WWF, 2003).For poachers, new territories are much more productive, because chimps and gorillashave less fear and are less vigilant. Some hunters in Southern Cameroon confirmedthey had wiped out local gorillas near their base camp within six months of itsestablishment; one successful hunter in Ouesso, Republic of Congo claimed a rateof 3 – 4 gorillas per week (WSPA/ENVIRO-PROTECT, 1996).Population estimates for all eight African great apes sub-species, as presented by WWF,are shown in Table 5.At the IUCN Primate Specialist Group Workshop on Western Equatorial Africa’s apes,held in Brazzaville in May 2005, there was a reluctance to give new population figuresuntil new surveys had been conducted (Tutin et al, 2005). Nevertheless, here followsa review of various authors’ past attempts.Chimpanzee Pan troglodytesChimpanzees are present in 21 African countries and are believed to have declinedfrom 2 million to 115,000 this century (Marshall et al, 2000).PRIMATE BUSHMEATWSPA/APE ALLIANCE50Below: Mountaingorillas are notnormally killed forbushmeat, but maydie in antelopetraps or due tocivil war.51© Ian Redmond

WSPA/APE ALLIANCERECIPES FOR SURVIVALA frequently published estimate is between 100,000 and 200,000, but this is likely tohave declined significantly due to the bushmeat trade and ebola outbreaks (Walsh et al,2003). The species estimate comprises four sub-species (see taxonomic note in Preface):Western Chimpanzee P. t. verus: 21,300 – 55,600 (Kormos and Boesch, 2003)Nigerian Chimpanzee P. t. vellorosus: 5,000 – 8,000 (Kormos and Boesch, 2003)Central Chimpanzee P. t. troglodytes: 62,000 (Butynski, 2000)Eastern Chimpanzee P. t. schweinfurthii*: 96,000 (Butynski, 2000) – note,this sub-species has now been divided into two, with all populations south ofRutshuru to Murungu in the DRC, and those in Rwanda, Burundi and Tanzaniabeing in the newly described P. t. marungensis (Groves, 2005).Estimated harvest rates range from 131 annually in North-east Congo (Kano & Asato,1994) to 400 annually in Cameroon (Pearce & Ammann, 1995). Across the CongoBasin, up to 3,000 chimpanzees are harvested (killed) each year (Marshall et al, 2000;Pearce & Ammann, 1995).In the Lopé reservation of Gabon, chimpanzee density has declined by up to 30% as aresult of logging activities (Medou, 2001).Bonobo Pan paniscusBonobos are endemic to the Democratic Republic of Congo, with a pre-war estimatedpopulation of 10,000 – 50,000, based on extrapolation from small-area densitysurveys. A much published guesstimate is 15,000, but Butynski (2000) gave 30,000 –50,000 and Myers Thompson (1997) calculated 29,500, contrasting with the fearexpressed in the 1995 Action Plan that ‘The wild population may already number lessthan 5,000’ (Thompson-Handler et al, 1995).Few figures are based on recent fieldwork, except a report of 75% decline in Lomakopopulation since 1998 (Ammann, Bowman and Dupain, 2002).Commercial hunting and capturing of bonobos began in 1984 and has risen during theabsence of researchers as a result of political and economic crisis (Thompson-Handleret al, 1995). Animals were typically killed for their meat, medicinal or magicalproperties (some body parts thought to enhance strength and increase sexual vigour),and illegal export of live animals to Europe and the Far East for zoos, pets andbiomedical research (Lee et al, 1988). Deteriorating economic conditions drove peopleinto previously undisturbed areas, particularly Wamba and the Lomako Forest wherebonobos numbers are significant.PRIMATE BUSHMEAT53WSPA/APE ALLIANCE© Ian Redmond52Species IUCN status Estimated population DistributionWestern Chimpanzee Endangered 21,000 – 55,000 Côte d’Ivoire, Ghana, Guinea, GuineaPan troglodytes verus Bissau, Liberia, Mali, Senegal, SierraLeone, NigeriaNigeria Chimpanzee Endangered 4,000 – 7,000 E. Nigeria & W. CameroonPan troglodytes vellerosusCentral Chimpanzee Endangered 47,000 – 78,000 Gabon, Cameroon, Republic of Congo,Pan troglodytes troglodytes Central African Republic (CAR), EquatorialGuinea, Angola (Cabinda), SE Nigeria,(Democratic Republic of Congo, DRC)?Eastern Chimpanzee Endangered 75,200 – 117,000 Burundi, CAR, DRC, Rwanda, Sudan,Pan troglodytes schweinfurthii, Tanzania, Uganda.(includes newly describedP.t.marugensis)Bonobo Endangered 25,000 – 50,000 DRCPan paniscus (A2cd)Western lowland gorilla Endangered 110,000 (WWF, 2003) Gabon, Republic of Congo, AngolaGorilla gorilla gorilla 40,000 (Raffaele, 2005) (Cabinda), Cameroon, CAR, EquatorialGuinea (Western DRC?)Cross river gorilla Critically

WSPA/APE ALLIANCERECIPES FOR SURVIVALThe magnitude of commercial bonobo hunting is not known, but their meat is openlysold in Kinshasa, Democratic Republic of Congo (Thompson-Handler et al, 1995). Thedemand for orphans is much reduced following the exodus of expatriates after rioting in1991, but poor law enforcement during the same period may have invited illegal exportof bonobos, chimpanzees and other endangered species (Thompson et al, 1995).The most recent survey conducted by the Congolese Institute for Nature Conservation(ICCN) and the World Conservation Society (WCS), in conjunction with the CITESprogramme for monitoring the illegal killing of elephants (MIKE) revealed numbers maybe down to 2% of previous levels (Black, 2004). In Salonga NP ‘where bonobos hadpreviously been found’, scientists recorded only indirect evidence of the species (calls,nests, droppings) in a quarter of the surveyed area and at lower densities thanpreviously measured. In contrast, there was abundant evidence of human encroachmentand poaching (Black, 2004). In the only country where bonobos are found, Salonga isthe sole national park within its range. Armed militias have used the dense forests innational parks to hide and they use their munitions to subsist on bush meat, includingbonobos and elephants. The Congolese Institute for Nature Conservation has beenunable to function during the war, which ended in 1996.Although Salonga was established in 1970 to protect bonobos, no sizeable populationshave ever been confirmed. A 1987 survey revealed a group of about 20 (Meder et al,1988, cited by Thompson-Handler et al, 1995) and several other anectdotal sightings exist(d’Huart, 1989, Alers et al, 1989). The civil war suspended surveys, but a one-year studybetween 1989 and 1991 reported just one encounter (Thompson-Handler et al, 1995).Gorillas are present in 10 African countries. Since 2000, the new taxonomy hasregarded Western and Eastern gorillas as separate species.Western Gorilla Gorilla gorillaA frequently published estimate is about 95,000, but this is likely to have declinedsignificantly owing to the bushmeat trade and ebola outbreaks (Walsh et al, 2003).The figure comprises:Western Lowland Gorilla G. g. gorilla: 94,000 (Butynski, 2000)Cross River Gorilla G. g. diehli: 200 – 250 (Oates, pers.com., Butynski, 2000)Eastern Gorilla Gorilla beringeiMountain Gorilla G. b. beringei: Two populations, which some regard as separate subspeciesbut this has not yet been formally described. The Virunga population is nowestimated at up to 380 and the Bwindi population at about 320 individuals.Eastern Lowland Gorilla G. b. graueri: Last census in 1996 gave a figure of 16,900(range 8,660 – 25,499, Hall et al, 1998), but a massive reduction in the population inand around Kahuzi-Biega National Park during the Coltan boom has led to fears of an80 – 90% crash, with perhaps only 2,000 – 3,000 remaining in small, scatteredpopulations (Redmond, 2001, Hayes, 2002). Recent reports from the Dian FosseyGorilla Fund International suggest that some populations may not have declined asmuch as feared, but accurate census data for the Kahuzi-Biega and Kasese Forest(which comprised 86 per cent of the 1996 estimate) is still being gathered by ICCN,with assistance from WCS and the Born Free Foundation.As well as being hunted for bushmeat, there is demand for gorilla hands and skulls,which are valued as trophies and for their supposed witchcraft and medicinal properties(a finger might be tied around a baby’s waist (Redmond, 1989) or ground into a powderand sprinkled into babies’ baths to help them grow strong (Pearce & Ammann, 1995)).Where bushmeat hunting is regular, gorillas are one of the first species to beeradicated (Plumptre et al, 1999).Regional estimates of annual gorilla kills range from 62 in North-east Congo (Kano &Asato, 1994), 400 – 600 in northern Congo (Redmond, 1989,) and 800 in Cameroon(Pearce & Ammann, 1995). More recent estimates for the Congo Basin as a wholesuggest an annual harvest of 4,500 (Marshall et al, 2000).In contrast, the population of mountain gorillas has risen by 17% in the past decadein the Virunga volcanoes, despite civil strife in the region (White, 2002; Kirby, 2004).Two mountain gorillas were killed in Parc National des Volcans, Rwanda, in May 2002.Before that, no such poaching had been recorded since 1985. Meat wasn’t taken, butone infant was missing, and so the presumption is that hunters were looking for babiesto sell (Redmond, 2002). Two further deaths were recorded, and another infantpresumed missing.Orangutans are restricted to the two South-east Asian islands of Borneo (shared byIndonesia and the Malaysian states of Sabah and Sarawak – orangutans are not foundin Brunei) and Sumatra (part of Indonesia). It has been estimated that in the last 10years, orangutans have lost almost half of their habitat to illegal logging, gold mining,conversion to palm-oil plantations and fires (Marshall et al, 2000) and, unlike the Africangreat apes, this threat is more immediate than that of hunting. Some of the forestdwellingpeople, such as Dayaks, are known to occasionally kill and eat orangutan, butthis has never escalated to a commercial trade. Nonetheless, even a very low huntingpressure leads to a population decline in such a slow-reproducing species. It isnoticeable that orangutans are more likely to survive in Moslem areas, where primatemeat is taboo, than elsewhere.Sumatran Orangutan Pongo abeliiOne estimate in late 2002 was about 3,500 and declining (Wich et al, 2003), downfrom an estimate in 1997 of 12,770 (Rijksen and Meijaard, 1999). The SumatranPRIMATE BUSHMEAT55WSPA/APE ALLIANCE54

WSPA/APE ALLIANCERECIPES FOR SURVIVALpopulation is now thought to be about 7,500 (PHVA, 2004). It is estimated, however,that since 1998, some 1,000 Sumatran orangutans have been lost annually and if thisrate continues, clearly extinction would be expected within a decade.Bornean Orangutan Pongo pygmaeusThe 1993 Population and Habitat Viability Assessment concluded that only10,200 – 15,500 orangutans remained in Borneo, but this lacked data on somepopulations, and was before the forest fires and illegal logging of recent years (Tilsonet al, 1993). Three sub-species are now recognised, P. p. pygmaeus, P. p. wurmbii andP. p. morio. Estimates have been substantially revised in the light of new data, but eventhough there may be more than had been feared, the downward trend is clear. Thecurrent Bornean population is estimated to be about 50,000 (Meijaard et al, 2004),compared with an estimate last century of 180,000 (Marshall et al, 2000). About8,000 individuals occur within national parks, but these are fragmented in smallpopulations, which are highly vulnerable to extinction if migration between protectedareas is not allowed (Marshall et al, 2000).Economic crises in Indonesia have led to poaching pressure on orangutans, mainly tosupply the pet trade (Yeager, 1999). Given the low population growth rate, the numberof animals removed for this purpose far exceeds what can be replaced (Marshall et al,2000). Furthermore, each orangutan orphan represents at least one dead parent, andmany orphans don’t even survive long enough to be traded. Thus, the pet trade is asignificant threat to the remaining population.4.5 Health implicationsEmerging zoonotic diseases are one of the most important public health threats facinghumanity. Close genetic correlation between humans and apes means that many of thesame viruses (for example, the common cold, influenza, pneumonia, tuberculosis,measles, yellow fever, ebola fever, hepatitis B and poliovirus) and parasites (forexample, schistosomiasis, filariasis, giardiasis, salmonellosis) affect both parties andare transmissible between the two (WWF, 2003; Wolfe, 2004).Primate butchering and consumption practices and the pet trade have vastly increasedhuman exposure to and risk from wildlife diseases (Redmond, 1995; BCTF, 2003).Access to remote forests and improved transport and trade have escalated these risks,as well as supporting the emergence of new zoonotic infections (Peeters et al, 2002).At the same time, primates are at risk from human diseases. Chimpanzee populationshave been documented suffering from fatal disease outbreaks, such as scabies,pneumonia and gut parasites, believed to originate from humans (WWF, 2003).Mountain gorillas in Rwanda, habituated for tourism, are at risk from human diseases,as are other habituated ape populations and those living near dense human settlements(WWF, 2003). Stress and fragmentation or reductions in populations as a result ofpoaching are likely to increase this risk.Simian retroviruses have long incubation periods and we may therefore see diseaseepidemics in the future as a result of infections occurring now (Peeters, 2004; Wolfeet al, 2004)4.5.1 Simian immunodeficiency viruses (SIV) and humanimmunodeficiency virus (HIV)In humans, AIDS is the end result of infection with one of two lentiviruses (HIV type 1or 2), both of zoonotic origin (BCTF, 2003). SIVchz from chimpanzees and SIVsm fromsooty mangabeys have been transmitted to humans on at least seven occasions;presumably this occurred in connection with the processing and consumption of thesespecies, since transmission occurs through body fluids such as blood (Stein et al,2002b). These transmissions are the original cause of HIV-AIDS in humans (BCTF,2003) and are an example of how pathogens that do not cause disease in their naturalhost may evolve to do so in humans. The lack of symptoms in primates carryingSIVs suggests they might be key in curing HIV-AIDS in humans (Marshall et al, 2000).As well as HIV-1 (which occurs internationally) and HIV-2 (which is restricted to WestAfrica), new recombinants are appearing in forested areas, where hunting andpopulation growth have affected the dynamics of virus transmission (BCTF, 2003).SIVs appear to be widespread in the wild. They have been reported in 26 differentspecies of African primates, many of which are hunted for consumption; these includecolobus, sun-tailed and DeBrazza monkeys, mandrills, drills, chimpanzees and redcappedmangabeys (Stein et al, 2002b; BCTF, 2003). In Cameroon, 13 of 16 primatespecies hunted for bushmeat were found to carry SIV lineages and, 16% of speciesconsumed are thought to be SIV-infected (Peeters, 2004, Wolfe et al, 2004).PRIMATE BUSHMEAT57WSPA/APE ALLIANCE© Ian Redmond56Below: Monkeycarcass for sale inKinshasa Market,DRC; skull openedto eat brains, apractice that inother species ledto transmission ofprions causingscrapie, kuru, CJDand BSE.

WSPA/APE ALLIANCERECIPES FOR SURVIVALResearch is currently underway to determine prevalence and risk factors associatedwith SIVs, including the development of diagnostic assays designed to detect infectionin both human and nonhuman primates.4.5.2 Ebola haemorrhagic feverBy December 2004, 1,290 fatal cases of Ebola haemorrhagic fever had been recordedin humans across Africa (WHO, 2004). These infections have been linked to directcontact with gorillas, chimpanzees, monkeys, forest antelopes and porcupines, whichwere found dead in the rainforest (WHO, 2004).Ebola virus has been documented in wild populations of chimpanzees, gorillas andduikers. Epidemics have decimated ape populations in Gabon and the Republic ofCongo, reducing numbers by as much as 90% (WHO, 2004; WWF, 2003). One estimatesuggests that 10,000 apes have been killed by Ebola in recent years (Racer, 2004).Bushmeat vendors in Ouesso, Republic of Congo, reported a drop in bushmeat salesduring an Ebola outbreak in 2003, when people switched to eating fish, beef or chicken(IRIN, 2003).Training of local people to monitor the health of gorillas has assisted in theidentification and response to recent Ebola outbreaks (BCTF, 20003), but someexperts warn that international smuggling of Ebola-contaminated bushmeat couldtrigger outbreaks outside Africa, for example, in the US and Europe (Raffaele, 2005).4.5.3 Simian foamy viruses (SFV)Recent studies in Cameroon have shown that 10 out of 1,000 people in regular contactwith primates are infected with SFV, which can be interpreted to mean that thousandsof rural people have acquired SFVs from primates (most notably from Western lowlandgorillas, DeBrazza’s guenons and mandrills (Wolfe, 2004)). The implications of this interms of disease and human-human transmission have not yet been established.4.5.4 AnthraxSeveral sudden deaths in groups of well-studied chimpanzees in Taï National Park,Ivory Coast, between October 2001 and June 2002 have been attributed to infectionwith anthrax. They may have acquired it through eating infected meat, and humanseating infected bushmeat may also be susceptible (Leedendertz et al, 2004).Anthrax is a highly infectious, airborne virus, which can be transmitted through theskin (unlike SIVs, which are transmitted through body fluids) (Kümpel, 2005). Newevidence from Taï National Park and Dja Reserve, east Cameroon has identified uniqueanthrax strains in gorillas and chimpanzees that were previously unknown to science(Leendertz et al, 2000)4.5.5 T-Lymphotropic virusesT-lymphotropic viruses passed on from primates to humans are associated in humanswith lymphoma, leukaemia and neurological disorders.11% of primate species hunted for bushmeat are infected with T-lymphotropic viruses(Peeters, 2004; Wolfe et al, 2004).4.6 Ethical implicationsNo review of the bushmeat trade in relation to primates, especially the great apes,would be complete without some consideration of the ethical implications of eatingspecies so closely related to ourselves. This issue has been discussed by manyauthors (see for example Redmond, 1995, 1996, Peterson and Ammann, 2003). Somehave likened the consumption of ape-meat as almost cannibalism, whereas others arguethat long-standing cultural traditions should not be swept aside by Western values(although the latter argument could be used to defend actual cannibalism and manyother 'traditional' practices no longer considered acceptable in the 21st Century).Evolutionary proximity is a difficult argument to wield across the spectrum of taxa takenfor bushmeat - where do we draw the line for acceptable consumption? Ninety-sevenpercent shared DNA? (just apes off limits) or Ninety-five percent? (all primates?) Giventhat we share nearly half our DNA with plants, this poses questions even for vegetarians!Rather than genetic measures, some have raised the issue of self-awareness. RobertBarron (1993, cited in Redmond, 1996) observed that "what makes human beingsmorally relevant is their possession of consciousness; in particular their consciousnessof pain... and of themselves as individuals with present and future desires that they wishto fulfil. The degree to which chimpanzees (or any form of life) share these features is thedegree to which they command ethical consideration.” Thus, species with demonstrableself-awareness and ‘higher order intelligence’ – such as great apes, elephants andcetaceans – are arguably deserving of greater consideration than others lacking theseabilities.For great apes, at least, these arguments are academic because all species areprotected by law, and so hunting, trading and consumption of their meat, body-parts orinfants is illegal in every range state. Thus, their conservation is more an issue of lawenforcement than philosophy.4.7 OutlookPrimate extinctions are already occurring, both locally and completely. It is widelyconsidered that the great apes face their last 10 – 50 years but some researchsuggests this might not be the case for all species. For example, Marshall et al (2000),calculated time scales in which we can expect to see ape populations reduced by half.The results indicated a halving time of 58 years for gorillas, 14.4 years forchimpanzees and 11 years for orangutans.PRIMATE BUSHMEAT59WSPA/APE ALLIANCE58

Actions ongoing andtheir effectiveness5.1 General actions ongoing and their effectiveness5.1.1 Government and policy5.1.1.1 AfricaThe CITES Bushmeat Working Group (CITES BWG) has developed National BushmeatStrategies and Action Plans for three of the six Central African countries (Cameroon,Gabon and the Republic of Congo). The Government of the Republic of Congo hassince validated and adopted its National Strategy and is now seeking funding forimplementation (CITES, 2004).CITES BWG also investigated wildlife laws and regulations in Central Africa, and thefindings of the study were adopted by all six countries. This study now serves as thebasis for review of national wildlife legislation, and some countries (Cameroon and theRepublic of Congo) are now reviewing and re-adjusting existing wildlife laws.CITES BWG was instrumental in the inclusion of bushmeat-related issues into the FinalCommuniqué of the 32 Ministers of the Africa Forest and Law Enforcement andGovernance ministerial conference held in Yaoundé, Cameroon (CITES, 2004).CITES BWG has developed partnerships with regional biodiversity conservationinitiatives to integrate the bushmeat problem into Central African agenda (Agnagna,2002). The crisis proportions of the bushmeat problem are now being mainstreamedinto the Yaoundé Summit process through the Conférence sur les Ecosystèmes deForêts Denses et Humides d’Afrique Centrale (CEFDHAC), the Organisation for theConservation of Wildlife in Africa (OCFSA), the Council of Ministers for Forests ofCentral Africa (COMIFAC) and the Agency for the Development of EnvironmentalInformation (ADIE), thanks to the effective lobbying by CITES BWG. Ministers of theregion have strengthened the role of OCFSA as a direct result of this lobbying(CITES, 2004).The IUCN Regional Office for Central Africa (ROCA) is addressing the bushmeat problemin response to a resolution adopted by the IUCN in October 2000 and has become aACTIONS ONGOING5Opposite: Blackfrontedduiker,Rwanda61© Ian Redmond

WSPA/APE ALLIANCERECIPES FOR SURVIVALleader in pioneering action in Central Africa (wa Musiti, 2002). It has facilitatedCEFDHAC (Central African Moist Forest Ecosystems), which assists collaboration ofconcerned groups in the Central African region. IUCN-ROCA has also circuated a GlobalEnvironment Fund/United Nations Development Program (GEF/UNDP) proposal forimplementing management strategies and instituting alternatives to bushmeat (waMusiti, 2002). Collaboration of IUCN-ROCA with the UN Food and AgricultureOrganisation (FAO) and CITES Bushmeat Working Group has assisted in developmentof a National Bushmeat Action Plan and establishment of the Central African WorldHeritage Forest Initiative (CAWHFI).In 2001, the Congolese government’s Ministry of Forestry Economy stipulated thatall forest concessions operating in Northern Congo were to develop and fund wildlifemanagement programmes (Elkan, 2002). In 2002, it proposed the design,implementation and monitoring of standardised guidelines for achieving this.In February 2005, leaders of seven Central African nations signed a treaty to establishcross-border partnerships to help save the Congo Basin. Striving for protection againstillegal logging, poaching and the ivory and bushmeat trades, the project is relying on a60% contribution from international aid. The total projected budget for 2004 – 2013 ise1.25 billion. So far, only France and the US have contributed, donating e50 millionand $53 million respectively (Gouala, 2005).Five African Presidents have also talked about creating a megapark in West Africa.(Black, 2004).In September 2005, a ‘Strategie et Plan d’Action pour la Survie des Grandes Singesen Republique Democratique du Congo’ was produced after a national workshop andextensive consultation with stake-holders, forming the basis for government policyin relation to all great apes and their habitats in the Democratic Republic of Congo.5.1.1.2 USAThe US led in facilitating the historic launch of the Congo Basin Forest Partnership(CBFP) at the World Summit of Sustainable Development in Johannesburg, South Africa,in 2002. CBFP comprises 29 partners, including 15 governments, 7 NGOs, 2 industryassociations and 5 international organisations (McAlpine & Roth, 2002). The USDepartment of State, US Agency for International Development (USAID) and the UnitedStates Fish and Wildlife Service (USFWS) have supported the CITES Bushmeat WorkingGroup and Bushmeat Crisis Task Force (BCTF, 2004c).The USFWS’s Division of International Conservation (DIC) is involved in project supportthroughout sub-Saharan Africa (Ruggeiro, 2002). The USFWS administers fourmultinational species conservation funds, which include the African ElephantConservation Fund (AfECF), The Great Ape Conservation Fund (GACF) and theRhinoceros and Tiger Conservation Fund. Together with USAID’s Central AfricanProgram for the Environment (CARPE), the USFWS uses these funds to assist Africangovernments, NGOs and conservationists to address the bushmeat crisis. This includesthe Noubabalé-Ndoki National Park (NNNP) partnership in the Republic of Congo, whichis becoming a model for international government collaboration (Ruggiero, 2002).CARPE also provides support for gorilla conservation in Central Africa (BCTF, 2002).The US Forest Service (USFS), a CARPE partner, has also been instrumental insupporting bushmeat work and providing support for various symposia throughout1990 – 2002 (BCTF, 2002). Other US institutions, including the Subcommittee onFisheries Conservation, Wildlife and Oceans, and US Department of the Interior,have been involved in bushmeat symposia (BCTF, 2002).5.1.1.3 EuropeIn March 1996, a resolution drawn up by the World Society for the Protection ofAnimals (WSPA) was passed at the African, Caribbean and Pacific Group and EuropeanUnion (ACP-EU) joint assembly in Namibia, calling for political action to end hunting andkilling of apes for food in Central and West Africa. However, this did not succeed inreaching political agendas.In 2001, European zoos participated in an extensive campaign initiated by theEuropean Association of Zoos and Aquaria (EAZA) and the International Fund for AnimalWelfare (IFAW). A resulting petition against the illegal bushmeat trade, signed by 1.9million people, was presented to European Parliament in January 2002, resulting ina resolution being passed in January 2004.5.1.1.4 UKGovernment action in the UK, as at February 2005, has been described by theParliamentary Office of Science and Technology (Kümpel, 2005) and is outlined herein summary.ACTIONS ONGOING63WSPA/APE ALLIANCE62Below: Eland andelephants arespecies huntedfor their meat.© David Sheldrick Wildlife Trust© Ian Redmond

WSPA/APE ALLIANCERECIPES FOR SURVIVALThe Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs (Defra) is the UK governmentdepartment involved with bushmeat. Defra proposed the creation of the CITESBushmeat Working Group (CITES BWG) in 2000 and has since contributed funds tosupport this. It has also funded the UK Tropical Forest Forum’s Bushmeat WorkingGroup (UK-TFF-BWG). It funds the Darwin Initiative, which is currently involved in threebushmeat projects, as well as funding a separate UK-based bushmeat research project.Defra, together with the Foreign and Commonwealth Office (FCO), has contributed morethan £500,000 to GRASP (the UNEP/UNESCO Great Ape Survival Project).In 2002, a new Imported Food Division was established within the Food Standards Agency(FSA) to address public health issues in the context of imported food. In the same year, theUK Bushmeat Campaign was launched, a coalition of more than 30 conservationorganisations led by Barry Gardiner, Member of Parliament (MP), and Robert Evans, Memberof European Parliament (MEP). This campaign seeks to mainstream awareness of thebushmeat trade among international forums and consumers of timber and mining products.In April 2003, Her Majesty’s Customs and Excise (HMCE) acquired responsibility foranti-smuggling controls of wildlife products at all borders. HMCE is expected to receive£25 million in ministerial support during the first three years of this responsibility.The National Audit Office plans to publish findings of a study to determine progress,constraints and the capacity of HMCE to detect and mitigate illegal meat imports.A UK parliamentary Early Day motion on bushmeat in 2003 was the third most popularin that session, receiving 322 signatures.In 2004, CITES parties called upon the UN Food and Agricultural Organisation (FAO)to organise a workshop for developing new international strategies for addressing thebushmeat crisis. The creation of the Inter-departmental Ministerial Group on Biodiversityfollowed in the same year, including among its members Defra ministers, theDepartment for International Development (DFID) and FCO.The UK had a presence at the 2004 African Forest Law Enforcement and Governance(AFLEG) conference and was one of 40 countries to sign a ministerial declaration onillegal logging, including measures to mitigate bushmeat hunting.Since the mid-1990s, DFID has been negotiating poverty reduction strategy papers withcentral governments and providing funding for their implementation. But wildlife isseldom regarded by partner governments as a mechanism for alleviating poverty andis rarely included in these strategies (DFID, 2002).5.1.1.5 InternationalThe World Conservation Union (IUCN) adopted a resolution on bushmeat in October2000, calling for increased funding, law enforcement and collaboration to help curb thecrisis (wa Musiti, 2002).5.1.2 Private sectorInternational media attention has encouraged some multinational logging companiesto collaborate with NGOs and install pilot activities to reduce the impact of logging onwildlife (Tutin et al, 2001, cited by Nasi, 2001). Many companies are beginning to altertheir practices and management policies to reduce both direct and indirect impacts onbiodiversity (BCTF, 2000b).The Zoological Society of London (ZSL) and Timbnet (the UK’s leading hardwood trader)are planning to pilot a project in a Ghana concession to evaluate the feasibility of‘bushmeat stewardship’. It would be expensive, but Timbnet argue that public moneycould support early production until consumer demand has increased to absorb the cost.In 1999, the World Conservation Society (WCS) began collaborating with the loggingindustry (Congolese Industrielle des Bois (CIB)) and the government of the Republic ofCongo to preserve wildlife in four concessions within Nouabalé-Ndoki National Park (NNNP).CIB’s administration fostered prohibitions on the hunting of protected species and theexportation of bushmeat from its concessions, as well as establishing no-hunting areas,buffer zones and community hunting zones (Elkan, 2002). Under the auspices of theMinistry of Forestry Economy, ecoguards were recruited from local communities,sentries established at trafficking points and regular patrols mobilised throughout thepark (Elkan, 2002). In addition, the project has conducted surveys of consumer tasteand market preference and implemented a system of beef importation, tilapiaproduction and chicken farming, as well as the provision of food by CIB to its workforce.Over the first two and a half years of the project, wildlife management was extended tomore than 500,000ha in a 1 million ha concession (Elkan, 2002). Protection has beencostly but effective. In the first two years, a 10-fold reduction in snaring was observed,and 160 prosecutions made (Elkan, 2002). Funding has been received from theRepublic of Congo government, WCS, USAID, the Central African Regional Program forthe Environment (CARPE), the International Tropical Timber Organisation (ITTO), USFWSand Columbus Zoo among others.More recently, Global Forest Watch (GFW), World Resources Institute (WRI), WorldConservation Union (IUCN) and Interafrican Forest Industries Association (IFIA) haveestablished the Forest Concession Monitoring System for Central Africa (FORCOMS).This system of independent, voluntary monitoring of concessions in Central Africa iscurrently in its first operational phase (IFIA, 2005) and aims to work with pro-activeforest companies to ensure their operations conform to regulations and sustainablemanagement. WRI-GFW carried out their first mission to Cameroon in November andDecember 2004 and anticipate missions in the Republic of Congo and Gabon during2005. More than 35 forest enterprises have already subscribed to the initiative (IFIA,2005). A schedule of aims, activities and context of the initiative was published in2004 (Beck & Méthot, 2004).ACTIONS ONGOING65WSPA/APE ALLIANCE64

WSPA/APE ALLIANCERECIPES FOR SURVIVALIn June 2004, the Forest Stewardship Council (FSC) were finalising revised standardsfor chain of custody and product labelling (green label = pure FSC, brown label = partFSC, and another label to indicate recycled) (Ambus & Dempsey, 2004).5.1.3 Public awareness and educationMedia coverage of the bushmeat issue has increased from an estimated 35 articlesbefore 1999 to more than 800 during the period 2000 – 2004 (BCTF, 2004c).The proportion of babirusas making up the trade in wild pig meat in Sulawesi, Indonesia,was approximately 39% from 1993 – 1997; in 1998, it had decreased to 14%. Duringthis time, much effort was made in public education, guarding particular forest sites anddiscussions with dealers and villagers. The observed drop in proportion of babirusasindicates, at first sight, that this effort had a very positive impact, but an overall declinein the availability of babirusas has also had an effect (though such a sudden drop isunlikely to be due to population decline alone) (Milner-Guland & Clayton, 2002).Born Free, in conjunction with Kenyatta University Travelling Theatre has a touringproduction called Carcasses, performed in schools and communities in Nairobi to raiseawareness of the implication of bushmeat hunting and trade.In Central Africa, environmental education about the bushmeat crisis remains mostlyineffective, and in some cases, non-existent (CITES, 2004). Nevertheless, in NorthernCongo, education efforts have been successful in achieving local, regional and nationalawareness through meetings, seminars, television, media, individual contact and schoolnature groups (Elkan, 2002).5.1.4 Protection and managementVolcans, Rwanda. Over a two-year period, protection efforts in Nouabalé-Ndoki National Park, NorthernCongo, resulted in the confiscation of 15 high-calibre elephant guns, 27 tusks and15,000 snares; snaring subsequently decreased by an order of magnitude and, duringthe same period, 160 prosecutions were made (Elkan, 2002).Anti-poaching patrols in Volcanoes National Park, Rwanda, resulted in convictions of ninepoachers, some receiving prison terms and fines of up to US$6,000. Since October 2002,there have been no more records of mountain gorilla poaching in Rwanda (WWF, 2003).Anti-poaching patrols in Dzanga-Sangha Dense Forest Special Reserve, Central AfricanRepublic (CAR), have led to the arrest and imprisonment of 20 poachers, and subsequentlya noticeable decline in bushmeat availability at Bayanga market (Raffaele, 2005). In thesame area, several discouraged poachers now work as guards, encouraged by the highsalary offered by WWF-employed park adviser David Greer (Raffaele, 2005).Between May & July 2003, 630 anti-poaching patrol days in Kahuzi-Biega National Park,Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC), resulted in 52 arrests and seizure of 700 snares,3 firearms and 2 live chimpanzees (WWF, 2003).In the 1990s, WWF proposed that Lomako Forest, DRC, be designated a protectedarea for bonobos, since the only national park within the species’ range (SalongaNational Park) did not have a sizeable bonobo population. But, because of the civil war,this plan was not followed up.Law enforcement activity in Indonesia, involving overnight checkpoints on the Trans-Sulawesi highway and visits to the market by government wildlife staff, resulted in areduction in babirusa sales, but no prosecutions were made. As traders graduallyrealised that no significant punishment would follow, sales increased again (Milner-Guland & Clayton, 2002).5.1.5 Capacity buildingIn Central Africa, the capacity to tackle the bushmeat trade has improved and thisshould be capitalised upon. Improvements include increased awareness of the crisisproportions of the trade, as well as the establishment of trans-boundary parks, statecollaboration and increased donor interest and funding to governments (CITES, 2004).The CITES Bushmeat Working Group states that adequate knowledge of national andCITES trade regulations fortifies the capacity of governments to enforce legislation.5.1.6 Symposia and conferencesIn 2001, The World Conservation Union (IUCN), UN Food and Agriculture Organisation(FAO) and TRAFFIC held a conference in Yaounde, Cameroon, to discuss the linksbetween bushmeat, livelihoods and food security. The conference highlighted theproblems that conservation agencies were having in relation to development agencies.The relationship between these two parties is incredibly important in overcoming thebushmeat crisis.ACTIONS ONGOING67WSPA/APE ALLIANCE66Left: Educationactivities forcommunitiesbordering aNational Parkin Kenya.Right: Antipoachingteam,Park National des© WSPA© Ian Redmond

WSPA/APE ALLIANCERECIPES FOR SURVIVALDevelopment agencies aim to reduce by one half the number of people living inextreme poverty (less than $1 per day) by 2015, as well as address gender disparitiesand improve health and education. They also have an environmental sustainability andregeneration target, which aims to have national strategies for sustainable developmentin place by 2005 and to see the loss of environmental resources reverse by 2015 atglobal and national levels. In reality, the international development targets are, however,considered by some to be weakly linked to conservation goals.The Bushmeat Crisis Task Force website has a comprehensive list of bushmeat-relatedconferences and symposia, detailed chronologically.5.1.7 Research and monitoringLong term conservation and/or research projects create employment and can bringsignificant resources to the communities surrounding the project. This is seldomreflected in development discussions, but there are many examples around the world.The presence of researchers in the Democratic Republic of Congo, for example, hasbeen shown to effectively deter poachers (Thompson-Handler et al, 1995).People who have found a route out of poverty through conservation will, like almostevery family in the world, probably celebrate by eating more meat – though it is to behoped that this will not be illegal bushmeat! But improved standards of living do lead toa higher demand for meat in the area, and can exacerbate the illegal bushmeat trade ifthey are not coupled with better enforcement of regulations, better education as to therationale behind the regulations and better supplies of legal protein to provide analternative to illegal bushmeat.5.1.8 Community supportThe Communal Areas Management Programme for Indigenous Resources (CAMPFIRE)grants proprietorship of natural resources to local populations in Zimbabwe and has beensuccessful at regulating commercial hunting activities (Bowen-Jones & Pendry, 1999).5.2 Primate-specific actions ongoing and their effectiveness5.2.1 PolicyIn 2001, UNEP and UNESCO launched the Great Ape Survival Project (GRASP) in aneffort to raise awareness among key decision-makers in ape range states and todevelop national action plans, as well as raising awareness and generating supportfor great ape conservation.The signing of the Kinshasa Declaration by 16 range states and 6 donor countries inSeptember 2005 is a public commitment to implementing policies that will ensure greatapes do survive. The targets agreed include slowing the decline of great apes by 2010and ensuring the protection of key populations of each taxa by 2015.ACTIONS ONGOINGThe GRASP Scientific Commission has drawn up a list of priority sites and populations forall species and sub-species of great apes. There are only 94 sites, in which the 112 keypopulations are found (some sites have two species present). If these 94 sites can beprotected, the survival of all taxa of great apes is assured (unless climate change causesshifts in rainfall patterns that alters their habitat beyond their ability to cope).5.2.2 ProtectionTable 8 shows the number and size of African national parks that contain apes, andTable 9 shows the number and size of African conservation areas other than nationalparks that contain apes.In 2003, WWF AfGAP (African Apes Programme) provided emergency support to helpthe ICCN (Democratic Republic of Congo parks authority) continue anti-poaching patrolsin Kahuzi-Biega National Park. But long-term support will be required to ensure ICCN’scapacity for controlling poaching in this area is maintained.69WSPA/APE ALLIANCE68Table 8: Numberand size of Africannational parks thatcontain apes(Source: Marshallet al, 2000).National parks Bonobo Only Chimpanzee Gorilla only Chimpanzee No apes Totalonly and gorillaNumber known to contain: 1 20 2 8 67 98Total area (km 2 ) 36,560 47,058 169 31,557 24,6035 361,379% all national parks 1.0 % 20.4 % 2.0 % 8.2 % 68.4 % 100.0% area of all national parks 10.1 % 13.0 % 0.0 % 8.7 % 68.1 % 100.0Non-park Bonobo Chimpanzee Gorilla Chimpanzee No apes No ape Totalconservation area Only only only and gorilla data foundNumber known to contain: 0 14 2 10 162 120 308Total area (km 2 ) 0 12,113 98 20,435 360,934 129,021 522,603% (excluding where no ape 0.0 % 7.4 % 1.1 % 5.3 % 86.2 % 100.0data found) that contain:% size of all non-park 0.0 % 3.1 % 0.0 % 5.2 % 91.7 % 100.0conservation areas withdata available that contain:Table 9: Numberand size of Africanconservationareas other thannational parks thatcontain apes(Source: Marshallet al, 2000).

ORGANISATIONS INVOLVEDSurvey of organisationsinvolved in projects andcampaigns6The Bushmeat Crisis Task Force website (www.bushmeat.org) was a valuable tool increating the Ape Alliance projects database produced for this report, which grewsubsequently as a result of personal contact with many of the organisations concerned.Thorough investigation of websites and further resources on the World Wide Web wereundertaken, and many organisations offered useful information and literature. Wedistributed electronic surveys to 157 of the organizations in the database in order tokeep project data updated. Approximately two thirds of them responded. The surveyformat was as follows:The Ape Alliance is updating its list of bushmeat related projects. We notefrom the excellent database compiled by the Bushmeat Crisis Task Force thatyour project ' ……….’ Dated………has been completed / currently in progressand wondered whether there was any more recent news please. Specifically wehave a few questions which we hope you may be able to answer for us:1. Are you going to pursue any similar projects in future? If so where?2. What is the current status of your project?3. As the project is complete, how are you monitoring it?4. Aspects that haven't been successful and aspects that have?5. How much funding were you able to create for the project? How muchprojected funding would you need for any future projects?6. Which aspects of your project have had most impact?7. Where and how are you focusing current and future effort? Education?Training? Policy? Public awareness?8. How have you generated support (from other organisations or the public)for the project?9. Was your initial budget sufficient or would more funding improve successof the project?10. Did you collaborate with policy makers? Other organisations? Has thisbeen successful?11. If working directly with the public, what has been their response?12. When and why did you get involved with bushmeat?13. Has timing been a factor? i.e. do you feel attitudes tobushmeat / awareness / issues have improved over time?Opposite:Bonobo inLola ya BonoboSanctuary, DRC.71© WSPA

WSPA/APE ALLIANCERECIPES FOR SURVIVALProjects were categorised according to the rough criteria below. We recognise that thisis a somewhat arbitrary process, with much overlap between certain categories, but itis necessary for an assessment of where funds have been applied in response to thebushmeat crisis:Awareness – E.g. bushmeat awareness groupsCampaigning – Broad term used for major inititaitives like EscAPE, which are aproduct of many of the other categories in the listCollaboration – Used for cross-sectoral initiatives (e.g. Bushmeat working groups,BCTF, etc.)Consumerism – Projects aimed at reducing impact of consumers buying productslinked to illegal bushmeat trade (e.g. timber certification, developing market forethically-sourced coltan)Development – Economic, social and community development projectsEconomic – Alternatives – projects offering employment/economic incentives to stophunting (e.g. coffee-growing)Education – Educational centres, exhibits, information packs, college workshops etcEvents – Awareness and fund-raising events.Funding – Financial support/sponsorshipHealth – Disease researchInformation – Databases, research archives, website resourcesLaw-enforcement – Anti-poaching and equipment supportManagement – Management and monitoring plansMedia – Documentary, RadioPolicy – Government lobbying and collaboration – Ape Alliance postcard camapign,AFLEG (African Forest Law Enforcement and Governance Process), GRASP (The UNGreat Apes Survival ProjectPrivate-Sector – Codes of conduct, monitoring of concessionsProtected-Areas – Demarcation of protected areasProtection – Snare removal, targeted species projects such as International GorillaConservation ProgrammeProtein-Alternatives – Development and promotion of alternative food sourcesResearch – Survey, Census, Viability assessment, Studies...Sanctuaries – Facilities caring for animals (mainly primates) orphaned bybushmeat huntersTourism – Eco-tourism projectsTrade – Projects focusing on trade routes/collaboration with transport companiesTraining – Training for rangers and guardsThe organisations involved in bushmeat projects and campaigns are indexed inAppendix 3 and their activities are detailed in Appendix 4 (see separate documents).Bushmeat projects are analysed in Graphs 1 – 4.ORGANISATIONS INVOLVED73Protected-AreasProtectiionProtein-AlternativesResearchSanctuariesTourismTradeTrainingLaw-enforcementManagementMediaPolicyPrivate-SectorInformationHealthWSPA/APE ALLIANCE72908070605040302010AwarenessCampaigningCollaborationConsumerismDevelopmentEconomic-AlternativesEducationEventsFunding0Graph 1: Number of bushmeat projectsworldwide distinguished by project typeProject typeNumber of Projects50454035302520151050YearGraph 2: Number of bushmeatprojects worldwide initiated per year19691973197819801982198319861987Number of Projects1989199019911992199319941995199619971998199920002001200220032004Publication of Ape AllianceRecipe for Extinction ” report

MaliBeninBrazilChinaWSPA/APE ALLIANCERECIPES FOR SURVIVALORGANISATIONS INVOLVED75GabonFranceGhanaGermanyGuatemalaGuineaGuinea-BissauIndiaIndonesiaItalyIvory CoastJapanKenyaCôte d’IvoireDRCEquatorial GuineaEthiopiaWSPA/APE ALLIANCE74250200150100Number of Projects500Africa Asia Europe International Latin America North America Oceania USARegion706050403020100RegionCongo BasinCongo BrazavilleCentral African RepublicCanadaCameroonCambodiaBurundiBurkina FasoBotswanaBoliviaBelgiumAngolaAustralia706050403020100RegionGraph 4: Number of bushmeatprojects per countrySierra LeoneSeychellesSwitzerlandSouth AfricaTanzaniaThailandThe GambiaTogoUgandaUKUSAZambiaZimbabwePeruRwandaSao Tomé & PrincipeSenegalNigeriaParaguayNigerNicaraguaNetherlandsNambiaMyanmarMozambiqueMauritiusMalaysiaMalawiMadagascarLiberiaLesothoLaosNumber of ProjectsNumber of ProjectsGraph 3: Number of bushmeat projectsper geographical region

OBSTACLES TO CHANGEObstacles to change7The economic importance of bushmeat is likely to be the single most important barrierto controlling the over-exploitation of bushmeat; producers and consumers will resistattempts to change their behaviour, and governments have little incentive to imposerestrictions (Wilkie & Carpenter, 1999).For the rural poor without land or access to agricultural markets, the forest providesbuilding materials, fuel, traditional medicines, food and income (van Andel, 2000, cited byNasi, 2001). Bushmeat carries social, economical, nutritional and cultural significance, andpeople traditionally supported by forest products view hunting as their prerogative. Evidencefrom outside Africa suggests that bushmeat consumption starts to drop only when familiesbecome wealthy enough to buy more expensive domestic meats (BCTF, 2000c).Wildlife provides the primary source of animal protein to most poor, forested nationsand provides higher than average incomes for hunters (Apaza et al, 2002). Bushmeatis the most important source of protein in many Central and West African cultures(Wilkie & Carpenter, 1999).Subsistence hunters and their families benefit from the commercial bushmeat trade,and if laws were strictly enforced, their incomes would be affected. Across sub-SaharanAfrica, the limitations on raising livestock due to trypanosomiasis make bushmeathunting a lucrative alternative.Bushmeat is often preferred even where domestic livestock and poultry are readilyavailable and cheaper to purchase (WWF, 2003). Furthermore, people like the tasteof certain species (Peterson, 2003).Many African governments recognise that bushmeat is a major problem but claim theyare powerless to act without necessary resources. In 1996, the Ministry of Agriculture,Water and Forests in Congo-Brazzaville issued a resolution listing measures alreadytaken against the bushmeat trade and those that would, or could, be taken (forexample, the use of anti-poaching teams and education) if funding was available fromthe international community and NGOs (WSPA correspondence). Furthermore, despitea Ministry clamp down on the trade, which included a ban on airline bushmeatOpposite: Animalparts for sale ontraditionalmedicine stall,Bamako, Mali.77© Ian Redmond

WSPA/APE ALLIANCERECIPES FOR SURVIVALtransport, WSPA recorded planes from Ouesso, Republic of Congo, carrying meat intoBrazzaville airport. All existing Ministry agents responsible for ensuring bushmeat wasnot loaded onto Brazzaville-bound planes were sacked as a result, but the incidenthighlights a weakness in implementation and monitoring measures.A representative of the British High Commission in Cameroon said it was extremelydifficult to stop even their drivers from carrying bushmeat back from any field trip,claiming it was an accepted bonus when going out of town (Report of WSPA/ENVIRO-PROTECT Conference, 1996).Population growth has a strong impact on bushmeat demand – an increased need forhousing and agriculture leads to clearing of land and increased extraction of forestproducts (BCTF, 2000a).Over-fishing by foreign and pirate fleets off the coast of West Africa is an example ofactivities that indirectly affect the bushmeat problem and which need to be tackled intandem with direct causes.Conservation and development agencies have different agendas, but to overcome thebushmeat crisis, they need to work together, realising that issues such as poverty andfood insecurity are closely linked to the bushmeat problem. Until these two agencytypes can communicate effectively and realise common goals, few problems will beresolved (Davies, 2002).The focus of scientific research is often analysis of the problem rather than ways inwhich to solve it. For example, many resources have been devoted over the years toassessing meat found in markets but little into researching the most appropriate proteinalternatives and establishing the infrastructure for these to become feasible. While longtermstudies are beneficial in terms of comprehensive data analysis of the bushmeatproblem (for example, Milner-Guland & Clayton, 2002), recommending extensiveresearch over years or decades to come in areas where extinctions are imminent isfutile and resources would be better targeted at putting measures in place to haltspecies decline on a practical level.The 16th Annual Meeting of the Society for Conservation Biology in Canterbury, UK,July 2002, found no novel solutions for tackling the bushmeat problem (Ling et al,2002). Lack of new ideas may be an obstacle to change.No global, information-sharing network exists to disseminate information (for example,within the private sector) and translate theoretical recommendations into action(CITES, 2004).In 2004, CITES BWG reported a number of obstacles to policy and legislative reform inCentral Africa:OBSTACLES TO CHANGE1. Lack of capacity to manage the bushmeat problem with regard to trainedpersonnel, materials, finances and organisation.2. Where political will is present, lack of resources defies implementation.3. The forces of law and order and the judiciary are not always aware of laws andregulations against illegal bushmeat and wildlife.4. Inadequacy of management capacity of wildlife administrative authorities of the sixcountries of the sub-region.5. Poaching of wildlife for domestic consumption and commercial bushmeat tradecontinues unabated in countries of the sub-region.6. Data on trends in wildlife and bushmeat consumption and trade is scanty anddispersed.7. There is still no sub-regional databank on wildlife and bushmeat trade andconsumption.8. Food security and livelihood, issues of prime importance in the fight against thebushmeat crisis, are still not a priority for programmes established to manage thecrisis.9. The private sector has still not been completely wooed into the fight against thebushmeat crisis.10. Environmental education about the bushmeat crisis remains ineffective and in somecases non-existent in the sub-region.11. The absence of a strong institutional platform for the management of the crisis inthe sub-region has reduced the possibility of consistency and uniformity inmanagement approaches.12. Monitoring and regulation of bushmeat trade and consumption remains weakthroughout the sub-region.13. Partnership with international NGOs and organisations working in the policy arenaand at field level to fight against the bushmeat crisis has been minimal.14. No strategy has yet been developed to guarantee the effective association of localcommunities in the management of the bushmeat problem.79WSPA/APE ALLIANCE78

POTENTIAL SOLUTIONSPotential solutions88.1 General solutionsHaving attained professional consensus that the bushmeat crisis is a top global priority,it is time to shift the emphasis from quantifying the problem to constructing andinstalling solutions. A good starting point is tackling the key areas of (i) reducing localsupply (ii) reducing commercial supply and (iii) reducing demand. All areas of huntingneed to be addressed – not all hunting is for meat, and so even if bushmeat demandis reduced, some hunting will continue (Raffaele, 2005).Collaboration of conservation groups, government agencies and world health andfinancial institutions to eliminate trade will be necessary.Conservation concerns have traditionally dominated strategies to curb the bushmeatproblem, and the sole approach has been the more effective management of protectedareas, or the management of hunting and consumption itself (Rowcliffe, 2002).Increasing attention is now being given to multi-disciplinary methodologies (Ling et al,2002). Local conservation projects must give equal gravity to economic and biologicalconsiderations and draw on a number of different approaches to rationalise which ismost appropriate (Ling et al, 2002).All these solutions require money, and this needs to be sourced internationally. Perhapsthe greatest priority, therefore, is to raise the profile of the bushmeat crisis in theinternational political forum in an effort to solicit major financial support.8.1.1 Protein alternativesBushmeat will not be a significant source of nutritional support for a large proportionof the next generation. If we aim to reduce hunting to sustainable levels, proteinalternatives need to be developed and promoted immediately. Rodents, insects andbirds represent sources of protein that are often nutritionally superior to traditionallyfavoured species (Barnett, 2000); they also have high reproductive rates, making themsuitable for captive breeding projects. Sourcing local species for such projects ensuresmaintenance of customs and also provides an opportunity to replenish wild populations81© Ian Redmond

WSPA/APE ALLIANCERECIPES FOR SURVIVAL(though the cost of increasing bushmeat supply in the forest would match or exceedthat of livestock rearing). Alternatives should be palatable and economically competitive(initial subsidisation may be required to make the products cheaper than bushmeat –BCTF, 2000c). In Liberia, replacing protein from wildlife with domestic meat could costup to US$100 million per annum, more than the income generated from bushmeattrade (Bowen-Jones & Pendry, 1999).Willingness to accept alternatives can vary from region to region. In the Uttaranchalregion of the Indian western Himalayas, 80% of hunting respondents were willing tostop hunting if alternative protein was supplied free of charge, but in the neighbouringHimachal Pradesh, 41% would not give up hunting under any circumstances(Kaul et al, 2004).Domestication can involve economic constraints such as the cost of fencing andveterinary care, but many species can breed in very simple facilities, harnessed fromlocal materials; cane rat and giant rat production are possible even using domesticfood scraps and agricultural waste. Some farmers have expressed interest in canerat domestication, because the species is more popular than livestock and is notassociated with any cultural taboos (Stein et al, 2002a). It is important, therefore,to research cane rat biology to assess the risks of zoonotic disease transmission.Rabbit raising has been effective in Cameroon in areas where bushmeat is alreadyscarce (Wilkie & Carpenter, 1999), and intensive breeding of cane rats and Emin’s ratshas had some success (Bowen-Jones & Pendry, 1999). Pilot projects with blue duikers,sitatunga, red river forest hogs and brush-tailed porcupines have also been attempted(Bowen-Jones & Pendry, 1999; Jori et al, 1998).Domestication enterprises may result in wildlife habitat loss as forests are convertedinto pasture or fodder. Where there is cultural, taste or other preference for bushmeat,it will be more difficult to institute alternatives. Equally, there is no reason to expectpeople not to exercise their ‘right’ to cost-free bushmeat. But if bushmeat alternativesare not available, the continuing demand for bushmeat will drive supplies down andprices up, inviting yet more people to enter the trade.Development of protein alternatives, ecologically sound community farms andbushmeat-free markets should be focused in village, farm and urban areas wherethey are needed most – where bushmeat is currently irreplaceable.In West Africa, marine and freshwater fish are the primary source of protein. Improvedfisheries management by foreign and domestic fleets could help prevent extinctions.Large, heavily subsidised foreign fleets fish off the West African coast. The EU has thelargest foreign presence, and its harvest increased by a factor of 20 between 1950and 2001. Pirate fishing vessels from foreign ports are also a major problem, andincreased policing of exclusive fishing zones could help (Brashares et al, 2004).POTENTIAL SOLUTIONS8.1.2 Improving agricultural infrastructureDevelopment of traditional agricultural economies has been proposed to satisfy tandemneeds for alternative protein and economic opportunities (BCTF, 2000a). A variety ofreasons exist to support hostile attitudes towards agriculture in Africa. These includethe higher costs of rearing livestock relative to hunting free bushmeat and theprevalence of trypanosomiasis affecting domestic animals. Furthermore, poor soiland high rainfall leaching away nutrients means that both wild and domestic meatproduction in forests is limited, whether the land has been cleared or not (Barnes,2002). The most predominant foliage is at canopy level, out of reach of herbivores,and energy passing through trophic levels tends to go directly from plants toinvertebrate decomposers (Barnes, 2002). Mammalian biomass is therefore low.Domestic stock is also commonly regarded as a cultural and capital asset andexploited only in times of hardship.Fa et al (2003), proposed necessary changes for instituting increased agriculturalproduction in the Congo Basin:1. Changes in policies and institutions that encourage private investment and moreeffective public investment in basic education, health, and nutrition;2. Research extension;3. Development of appropriate technologies;4. Rural infrastructure;5. Developing and strengthening social organisations representing farms and localcommunities;6. Approaches that address the needs of women farmers.Ecological zones other than forest are better suited to pastoralism. Forest edge, forexample, is twice as productive as the interior. Edge species such as rodents representopportunities for sustainable hunting (Barnes, 2002). Savannah is ten times moreproductive than forest (Robinson & Bennett, 2000). Cattle and pigs have beenadvocated as the best livestock to focus on (Bowen-Jones & Pendry, 1999; Newing,2001), but breeding would have to be restricted to areas where tsetse flies andtrypanosomiasis were not a problem. Improved land tenure management could helpimprove willingness to undertake agricultural practices (Stein & BCTF, 2001).Ecoagriculture integrates farm and forest production, with the provision of ecosystemfunction at a landscape scale. Large-scale development and adoption of ecoagricultureis urgent. The strategies include: expanding natural areas, establishing reserves thatbenefit farmers, creating habitat networks, raising farm productivity, managing wildspecies, enhancing ecosystem value of lands under production, reducing agriculturalpollution, modifying management of soil, water and natural vegetation, mixing speciesto mimic the structure and function of natural ecosystems, and diversifying householdincomes (ABCG, 2004). Human livelihoods are most effectively sustained in highlymodified ecosystems, where humans have intensified agriculture and grazing systems(ABCG, 2004).83WSPA/APE ALLIANCE82

WSPA/APE ALLIANCERECIPES FOR SURVIVAL8.1.3 Economic opportunities and employmentAnnual income generated by hunting ranges between US$400 and US$1,100 (BCTF,2004b), which is comparable to or greater than the salaries of people charged withwildlife protection. If the latter salaries could compete, poachers and people migratingfrom cities to capitalise on the bushmeat trade might be encouraged to use theirknowledge of wildlife and forests as park guards, field assistants, census takers,teachers or tour guides.Policing the Congo Basin would involve one guard per village of 50 people, paid atleast $1 per day, with an additional $1 per day for equipment and supplies. This wouldamount to more than $46,720,000 per year for the Basin (Wilkie & Carpenter, 1999).No national agency can afford this, and international donors are unlikely to pay (Wilkie& Carpenter, 1999). But there is potential for control methods to work in loggingconcessions, becauses the industry could be required to pay for policing.It is important that enough guards are allocated to areas where illegal hunting is rife –unsupported guards may become demotivated in the face of rampant poaching. Ateam should be on 24-hour alert, and check-points/roadblocks established to bettercontrol bushmeat transport. Adequate protection is also an issue. Rebels, soldiersand poachers are frequently armed, whereas park guards are usually not (Stein et al,2002b). Guards in Dzanga-Sangha, Central African Republic, are heavily outgunned bypoachers, and many go on patrol unarmed, despite shootings within the park(Raffaele, 2005).Game ranching (the commercial management of wildlife for meat and skins) could beanother way of generating revenue (Eves et al, 2002). On privately owned land, thiscould have the potential for harnessing significant contributions to the national economy(Barnett, 2000; Barnes, 2002). In East and Southern Africa, game ranching andpopulation cropping/culling are being practised but have been criticised for beingunsustainable and irreversibly damaging to wildlife populations (Stein & BCTF, 2001).POTENTIAL SOLUTIONSLicensed sport hunting has also been proposed as an alternative source of income, butthis undermines more lasting, non-consumptive revenue opportunities from ecotourism(Stein & BCTF, 2001). Even where sport hunting is a major activity, the economicimpact can be trivial (TRAFFIC, 2002).Barnett (2000), notes that legal game-production methods (cropping/culling,ranching/farming, licensed sport hunting and problem animal control) are viewed asinferior land-use options in East and Southern Africa due to economic underperformance– illegal bushmeat hunting is more lucrative. This is likely to be evenmore pertinent to the less productive forests of Central and West Africa.8.1.4 Strengthening governance and political capacityto address the bushmeat crisisAny efforts to control or regulate the commercial bushmeat trade will fail withoutpolitical complicity in the regions concerned. Raising international funds for actionat local level is a major priority for facilitating commitment of strong governmentalleadership in these areas, which lack the resources to strictly enforce or evenlegitimise current policies and laws.Leaders of the G8 nations should be urged to encourage the G8 to mobilise supportfor countries lacking the capacity to combat the bushmeat trade. The EU should (i)financially support African states to ensure proper capacity for law enforcement; (ii)enforce code of conduct for all EU logging companies operating concessions in areaswhere hunting is a problem; and (iii) increase support for projects aimed at tackling thebushmeat trade.In Central Africa, some improvements have already occurred and should be capitalisedon. These include increased awareness of the crisis proportions of the trade, as wellas the establishment of trans-boundary parks, state collaboration and increased fundingto governments (CITES, 2004).Williamson (2002), advocates the use of “systematic thinking” to make sensibledecisions with limited resources.Legislation should be reviewed and updated, where necessary, taking into considerationthe interests of all stakeholders, while providing an effective means for conservingwildlife. Adaptive solutions that are flexible, sympathetic and responsive are crucial forsuccess within the context of local political, ecological, economic and cultural conditions.Legislation needs to be better implemented and reviewed to ensure that short-termeconomic gains are successfully reconciled with long-term survival benefits. Judicial andlaw enforcement officers should be fully trained in conservation law and the applicationof interdiction and prosecution for non-compliance. A comprehensive, easy-to-understandmanual on current wildlife-related legislation could be produced and distributed to85WSPA/APE ALLIANCE84Below: Poacherswith bushmeat andtools of their tradein Kenya© David Sheldrick Wildlife Trust© David Sheldrick Wildlife Trust

WSPA/APE ALLIANCERECIPES FOR SURVIVALgovernment agencies, police and judicial departments as well as the private sector.Law enforcement officers would need to be offered transport logistics, guns, uniformsand other equipment for effective operation, as well as competitive salaries.Public health officers should confiscate bushmeat found in urban markets and applyprohibitive fines or even close down traders to prevent re-offence. In Kenya, domesticmeat is stamped at the slaughterhouse and checked before despatch so anyunstamped meat found in markets is likely to be bushmeat (Born Free, 2004).Trade bans will not work if people depend on bushmeat as a nutritional “safety net”(Kümpel, 2005). People ignore the law because they see hunting as their imperative –a necessary means of surviving and making a living. They are unlikely to stop huntingunless they can generate income in other ways. To suddenly implement prosecutions,without the infrastructure in place to allow people to engage in legal activities instead,would be unjustified.In West Africa, it is necessary to improve policing of waters to deter pirate ships and tolimit the access of the large, heavily-subsidised foreign fleets, which are depleting fishstocks (Brashares et al, 2004).8.1.5 CommunityAll stakeholders with an interest in sustaining the huge revenue from bushmeat hunting(including hunters, traders, truck drivers, market-resellers, restaurateurs, consumersand the private sector) should be involved in conservation planning processes. Evidencefrom Ghana suggests that there is no one clear actor group that can be targeted toreduce bushmeat hunting/trade/consumption, and a multi-actor approach is thereforenecessary (Cowlishaw et al, 2005).Rural families will suffer most from restriction, and unless they have a stake in decidingrational use of wildlife, poaching is likely to continue. Moreover, they should becompensated for economic losses attributed to conservation.Where wildlife can be exploited for economic reward other than through hunting,communities have an incentive to support survival of species in the long-term. Yet asuccessful policy for reconciling poverty alleviation and reliance on bushmeat currentlyremains elusive. Conservation concerns have dominated strategies to mitigate hunting,resulting in a preference for strictly enforced protected areas and trade bans, whichhave neglected livelihood considerations and had negative social impacts.Traditionally, people were forcibly removed from areas designated for conservationand denied access to resources they had previously relied on, without receiving anydirect benefits from these areas (for example, jobs through ecotourism, huntingroyalties, taxes and income from commercial trade (CITES, 2004; Rigava, 2001)).Now, a more decentralised approach is prevalent, involving proprietorship of resourcesPOTENTIAL SOLUTIONSamong rural communities, the allocation of responsibility, equitable sharing of financialbenefits and the right to protect and benefit from their natural heritage (Rigava, 2001).In this way, rural people can be motivated to implement quota systems and discourageand regulate commercial hunting activities in their areas. Fences, making propertymore private, might help to achieve this. A study in Lima, Peru (Loja et al. 2000) foundthat hunters who were most heavily exploiting local populations of game were also themost motivated to participate in community-based wildlife conservation projects.It is crucial that conservation strategies do not compromise the health, welfare orsecurity of local communities. Conservation and development agencies, governmentaland non-governmental departments, must be sensitive to personal circumstances,needs and realities and offer viable alternatives and economic opportunities (BCTF,2000a). Set-aside payments could be made to communities during hunting moratoria,and training could be instated to optimise economic returns from harvested animals(for example, utilising skin, fur, horns and so on (Williamson, 2002b)). Alliances couldbe instituted between indigenous cultures and conservation organisations (Stearman,2000), as could working relationships with hunters, to increase the sustainabilityof hunting and eliminate dependence on bushmeat by introducing alternatives(Noss, 2000).Eves and Ruggiero (2000), proposed the establishment of conservation villages,whereby villagers are employed to manage and protect wildlife by enforcing huntinglaws. Alternatively, willingness to engage in wildlife management plans could bereciprocated by granting exclusive hunting licences in certain areas (Fimbel et al, 2000).8.1.6 Private sectorCollaboration of private sector stakeholders (including logging transporters, loggingconcessionaires, agro-industrials, safari hunters, aeronautic companies and railwaycompanies) is important for the implementation of good practice guidelines and benefitsharingregimes (CITES, 2004).Logging companies play the key facilitation role in the commercial bushmeat tradeand have management responsibilities over large areas of the affected forests (BCTF,2004b). More widespread adoption of sustainable hunting practices and subsequentcertification should be the goal.Companies operating timber concessions will need to: prohibit the transport ofbushmeat and hunters on their vehicles, ban settlement in existing and closedconcessions, close roads when operations cease, prevent employees from purchasingand eating bushmeat, and provide protein for their workforces. An employee bonusscheme could be introduced to reward compliance. Abandoned logging concessionscould be converted into safari camps for alternative activites such as game ranchingand vegetable gardening.87WSPA/APE ALLIANCE86

RECIPES FOR SURVIVALSupport for certification by the Forest Stewardship Council (FSC), African TimberOrganisation (ATO) or International Tropical Timber Organisation (ITTO), as well asa growth in consumer demand for certified wood will help in mainstreaming thesechanges. European timber companies, looking to increase profits as a result ofcompetition with Asian rivals, could be responsive to the demand for sustainablyharvested wood (Bowen-Jones & Pendry, 1999). Trade organisations such as ITTOcould be more involved in regulating imports of timber.Tropical timber certification needs to be contingent on control of bushmeat hunting, andany timber sold under the label of sustainable should be evaluated for the impact of itsextraction on wildlife. Periodic revision of agreements between government and forestexploiters in accordance with the state of the ecosystem should also be put in place.Codes of conduct for exploiters of forest and wildlife products need to be developedand adhered to. Conservation bonds have been proposed as an incentive for loggingcompanies to do this, but have yet to be successfully implemented.8.1.7 ProtectionIncreases in the number, size and protection of wildlife reserves and in donor supportare needed. Reserves should be established in areas where large populations ofendangered species exist unprotected. Areas that harbour the most biodiversityshould be prioritised.The size of the protected areas is also important. Studies have shown that smallerparks suffer a greater impact from hunting than larger ones (Wilkie et al, 1998).Law enforcement is a prerequisite of successful conservation in protected areas.The management concept for the National Park of Upper Niger, West Guinea, wherebushmeat hunting is widely commercialised, does not prohibit hunting in the bufferzones, on the grounds that it is an economically important activity for the local people(Zielger et al, 2002). A “participatory” approach is adopted, whereby hunters areeducated about sustainable use.Though war, in some cases, can be beneficial to wildlife, this is usually the case onlywhen it secures certain areas from human presence (Draulans & Van Krunkelsven,2002). Demilitarized ‘peace parks’ such as those created for trans-boundary parks(for example, the Virunga chain) could usefully be applied to war zones. Reluctanceof conservationists to collaborate with soldiers and military authorities may bemisconceived in areas where chronic war is having a severe impact on wildlife. Theurgency of the threats faced by many species suggests that waiting for an improvedpolitical situation is an impractical option (Draulans & Van Krunkelsven, 2002).POTENTIAL SOLUTIONS8.1.8 EducationGreater recognition of the value of and the services provided by tropical forests andtheir biodiversity is important. Trade in timber and other forest products generatesa huge amount of money, yet the economic significance of forests is rarely taken intoaccount when assessing Gross Domestic Product (Nasi, 2001). Furthermore, theservices provided by a tropical forest (carbon dioxide absorption, oxygen production,erosion control, nutrient recycling and so on) far outweigh the GDP of tropical countriesin an economic context.Public awareness could be increased through local and global media materials (books,magazines, television and cinema materials, as well as radio and newspapercampaigns) and social marketing techniques that give threatened species nationalemblem status. Television advertisements in developed countries (mainly Europe)showing graphic bushmeat-related images could increase awareness without relyingon people watching entire programmes.People involved at all levels of the trade (hunters, traders, truck drivers, marketresellers,restaurateurs and consumers) need to be educated on the imperativeto conserve protected species and on relevant laws and regulations, with preciseinstructions to prevent them participating directly or indirectly in bushmeat trade.School presentations (including theatre and dancing) could be implemented more widelyto reach the younger generation. School and university curricula could be adapted tohighlight the social, ecological and economic importance of viable wildlife populations.89WSPA/APE ALLIANCE© WSPA88Above: Protectedwildlife habitat atthe TacugamaChimp Sanctuary,Sierra Leone.

WSPA/APE ALLIANCERECIPES FOR SURVIVALEducation campaigns need to distinguish where appropriate between legal, subsistencebasedhunting to meet basic protein needs, and illegal, commercial hunting thatthreatens both wildlife and the livelihoods of future generations.8.1.9 Integration of conservation and developmentThe alleviation of poverty is often proposed as a solution to addressing the twinimperatives of species conservation and livelihood/food security but historically hasbeen unsuccessful (Robinson & Bennett, 2002). Involvement of development agencieswho are experienced with tackling problems faced by rural poor and in using policyinterventions to secure livelihoods is important. But there is some conflict of interests –development agencies aim to alleviate poverty and place emphasis on people, notwildlife (Milner-Gulland, 2002).Rural hunters lacking the education, skills and cultural context to exploit income-earningjob opportunities have been peripheralised by development aid biased towards themore educated urban and semi-urban poor (Robinson & Bennett, 2002). Developmentby outsiders consumes the land and resources of traditional populations and increasesdemand, providing further incentive to hunt (Robinson & Bennett, 2002).Communication between development agencies and conservation agencies is vital insolving the bushmeat crisis. Davies (2002), lists particular information that developmentagencies could be responsive to:1. A regulated and sustainable bushmeat trade has the potential to contribute toeconomic growth in countries with few other options.2. It is worth investing in a regulated bushmeat trade for the benefit of the rural poor,whose livelihoods may depend on it (the bulk of the profits currently go to tradersand retailers).3. Weak local governance and unfair terms of trade are underlying causes in both thebushmeat crisis and poverty.4. Conservationists can help improve poverty assessment models to incorporateenvironmental concerns.5. Strategic environmental assessments and environmental impact assessments,carried out after development corporation investment in areas such as improvingaccess/road building, need to include bushmeat-specific questions to assess theimpact on the bushmeat trade.8.1.10 ResearchMuch research has already been carried out on the commercial bushmeat trade, andit has been argued that the focus should now be shifted from further quantifying theproblem to constructing and installing solutions. But research into the problem couldstill prove useful, particularly with regard to hunting methods, market chains, andsupply, demand and price dynamics (Williamson, 2002b).POTENTIAL SOLUTIONSThe most expensive bushmeat species are those in high demand and limited supply.In the absence of sufficient methodologies for obtaining accurate census data, pricecould be used as a surrogate for determining relative abundance of species. Thiswould, at least, be adequate for determining priority species and rationalising thedistribution of conservation resources where they are most urgently needed.Data about the relative proportions of harvested meat that are consumed by rural andurban communities are incongruous, and there is ambiguity surrounding the effects oflower harvesting rates on food security and economies (Bennett et al, 2002). There iscurrently no clear data on the ecological effects of unsustainable hunting and the extentto which wildlife consumption is affected by price relative to domestic alternatives(Bennett et al, 2002). Comprehensive conservation programmes that aim to resolveoutstanding deficiencies in knowledge and communicate information more effectivelyto governments and development/private sectors are crucial (Bennett et al, 2002).Increasing field research and media attention on areas less known for bushmeatproblems (for example, Asia and South America) would help determine the broaderscale of the crisis and help spread resources more equitably.More research outside protected areas is needed, because hunting estimates innational parks are likely to be unrepresentative of non-protected areas.More research on the hunting of forest carnivores is necessary to document adverseeffects of habitat loss and hunting on their long-term survival (Ray, Stein & BCTF,2002). Reliable monitoring techniques should be developed to achieve this.Detailed research and analysis is needed to determine pathogen loads in bushmeat andto identify more comprehensively the health risks associated with its consumption.However, others suggest that uncertainty over our ability to quantify bushmeatconsumption, offtake rates and productivity is because of difficulties associated withstudying tropical forest animals, rather than a lack of research effort. Wilkie andCarpenter (1999) argue that the substantial increase in effort required to have all theinformation that scientists would ideally like before taking action is not worth it, asfigures may never be correct and that resources, therefore, should be spent onmitigation rather than further study.8.1.11 Improving hunting efficiencyThe effects of hunting can be reduced by increasing hunting efficiency. The use ofindiscriminate snares has a detrimental effect on non-target (and often endangered) species(Newing, 2001). Control of snaring is important to avoid arbitrary wastage and could beachieved by establishing a zone around villages, beyond which snaring is restricted (Bowen-Jones & Pendry, 1999). Remote snaring is likely to be unimportant to villagers, becauseanimals caught are likely to decompose or be scavenged before collection.91WSPA/APE ALLIANCE90

WSPA/APE ALLIANCERECIPES FOR SURVIVAL8.1.12 Market dynamicsIt is important to determine how the economic environment affects consumer choice(Milner-Gulland, 2002). Taxation of bushmeat trade, targeted at traders, could reduceprofit and demand, and some of the tax could be returned to local communities ascompensation for the decreased revenue from hunting (Bowen-Jones & Pendry, 1999).Alternatively, taxation might increase the price of bushmeat, encouraging consumersto seek alternatives (BCTF, 2000c), especially if it is attended by a reduction in theprice of domestic meat.To achieve this, local governments will need to invest in agricultural research andextension activities to increase the productivity of domestic meat without clearingforest for grazing land (Apaza et al, 2002).Bushmeat price dynamics are complicated and linked to preference, and so actionsaffecting price would need to be closely monitored. It is possible that increasing theprice of bushmeat and reducing that of domestic meat could result in bushmeat beingperceived as an even greater luxury, further increasing demand in urban markets.Hunters should be encouraged to sell directly to markets rather than operating throughcommercial sponsors (“middlemen”), thus securing a more reasonable income for alower volume of harvested meat (Bowen-Jones & Pendry, 1999).8.1.13 Resolving institutional deficienciesInstitutional frameworks will need to be strengthened allowing for better protection andmonitoring of ecosystems, vulnerable and endangered species, improved habitatrestoration and enhanced life conditions of local communities (Medou, 2001).Institutional partnerships could have a role to play, involving collaboration of the World Bank,EU, IUCN, UNESCO, CITES, FAO, ITTO, WHO, governments, NGOs and the private sector.POTENTIAL SOLUTIONSTo date, though, coordination between such bodies is often lacking, with the exception ofthe World Summit on Sustainable Development Type II partnerships such as GRASP and theCongo Basin Forest Partnership.The NGO community has long urged such a coordinated response, for example theApe Alliance drew up a series of proposals for the various parties involved in the timberand bushmeat trade to address the threat they pose to endangered species (ApeAlliance, 1998)Bennett & Robinson (2000), offer a more detailed set of recommendations to thedifferent players at national and local levels:1. National governments• Establish a network of effectively managed protected areas, where hunting is notallowed or strictly managed, as well as areas protected as extractive reserves.• Ensure legal, technical and administrative mechanisms are in place, as well as trainedpersonnel, to enforce the regulations in protected areas.• Ensure laws exist and are enforced to protect vulnerable species from hunting.• Control the wildlife trade and sale of modern hunting technologies.• Minimise the building of roads through protected areas.• Establish regulations so that logging companies are responsible for preventing theirstaff from hunting.• Support research and monitoring of hunting and feed results into management decisions.• Promote education and awareness programmes about wildlife conservation.2. Local communities and agencies working with them• Establish a system of land use that supports local protected areas.• Ensure local people are involved in monitoring, management and decision-makingregarding hunting.• Encourage practices that reduce the use of harmful technologies and prevent huntingof vulnerable species.• Establish registers of people allowed to hunt in extractive reserves and mechanismsto exclude outsiders.• Establish mechanisms to reduce the sale of wildlife outside local hunting areas.3. Timber companies• Enact, comply with and enforce regulations to stop workers from hunting and buyingwild meat from local people.• Supply fresh protein supplies to workers.• Prevent company vehicles from carrying wildlife and wild meat.• Close all roads after logging.• Protect all key areas for wildlife (for example, salt licks and breeding grounds).• Create a system of unlogged blocks as refuges for less tolerant wildlife.93WSPA/APE ALLIANCE92Above:Conservationcosts should bebuilt into the priceof valuablehardwood timber.© Ian Redmond

WSPA/APE ALLIANCERECIPES FOR SURVIVAL4. NGOs and academic institutions• Act as intermediaries between government and international agencies, localcommunities and logging companies.• Promote and conduct research and disseminate results.• Promote and conduct education and awareness campaigns at all levels, from localcommunities to policy-makers.• Support programmes to encourage alternative livelihoods.• Encourage and train professional field staff skilled in addressing both biologicalresource use and local development.5. International donors• Ensure the issue of hunting is addressed in all development and conservationprogrammes.• Ensure development programmes are based on what is biologically feasible andappropriate in the local political, social and cultural context.• Promote conservation and extension programmes that reduce hunting and promotealternative sources of food and income.• Promote the establishment of protected areas and extractive reserves.8.2. Primate-specific solutionsPotential solutions relating to the primate bushmeat trade include targeting efforts to:• Monitor logging companies through independent authorities to ensure theircommitment to reducing their involvement in the bushmeat trade (for example, byproviding alternative food for their staff, prohibiting the transport of bushmeat ontheir trucks and prohibiting hunters from setting up camp in their concessions).• Educate consumers about using their buying power to support exclusive use oftimber products certified for wildlife and forest-friendly management practices.• Use ‘Ape-friendly’ stickers on wood.• Educate local people through public service radio broadcasts. WSPA (1994) foundthat village elders in hunting camps throughout Central Africa possessed small radios.These were the focal point of villages and represented an education opportunitythrough public service broadcasts, which could be followed up by distribution ofprinted materials to towns, villages, schools, animal welfare organisations andgovernment agencies.• Combat the commercial bushmeat trade by educating and seeking collaboration fromcaptains of riverboats, a major portal for bushmeat transport from remote regions tocities. Boats could be used to distribute educational materials to remote regions.• Combat the pet trade by: approaching governments to pass and enforce legislationbanning ownership of wild species; approaching development agencies to securesupport for facilities to accommodate, rehabilitate and, where possible, releaseorphaned primates; ensuring national wildlife authorities incorporate sanctuaries intoconservation agendas.POTENTIAL SOLUTIONS• Use confiscated orphaned animals as educational ‘ambassadors’ while they are keptin sanctuaries, with outreach programmes to hunting camps, homes, businesses, etc.to engender positive conservation values in local people.• Advertise in newspapers favoured by expatriates to educate against buying apes andother protected species as pets.• Design and install methods to identify, analyse, monitor, prevent and treatinterspecies viral and bacterial transmissions in areas where bushmeat hunting andcommerce, pet- and orphan-caretaking and other human contact with wildlife occurs.• Build capacity at local, national and international levels to achieve successfulmonitoring and surveillance of disease, as well as the infrastructure for healthcareand readiness to deal with outbreaks (BCTF, 2003). Investment to achieve this shouldbe sought on the grounds of public health and scientific concern. Expertise should beadopted in the fields of anthropology, primatology, epidemiology, virology, medicine,history, ecology, economics and politics (BCTF, 2003).• Prevent, or at least manage, the circumstances under which zoonotic diseasetransmission is favoured, and pursue relevant education and training (BCTF, 2003).• Carry out more research on the host/reservoir dynamics of Ebola to prevent thisdisease from exacerbating the impact of poaching (the natural reservoir is notcurrently known); implement strategies to minimise effects on people and apes.• Obtain greater funding for research. Ape populations are declining more slowly inprotected areas where the presence of researchers deters poachers (Marshall et al,2000). Researchers who involve locals in research projects also help to ensure thatspecies protection is in the interest of local people (Dupain et al, 2000).• Investigate ammunition being used specifically for primates.• Assemble and analyse all information about protected areas containing great apesthat is currently unpublished and inaccessible. This should give a clearer picture ofthe current and future status of great ape species.• Develop well-managed tourism to attribute alternative economic value to apes.Habituated troops of mountain gorillas in Rwanda, DRC and Uganda are a principlefactor in generating tourism-based state income.• Address other aspects of human-ape conflict such as crop-raiding, not just hunting.BonobosApplying these general recommendations to specific sites requires careful analysis oflocal conditions, coupled with extensive consultation with local communities and NGOs.Bonobos present a useful example of this, because their conservation can only beviewed in the context of the recent political, military and social upheavals of their solerange state, the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC).The creation of a 3,800km 2 reserve along the Lamako River, is considered one of themain actions necessary for the conservation of the bonobo. A proposal was submittedby WWF to the Congolese Institute for Nature Conservation (ICCN) in 1990, butconservation activities in the region were largely halted by the civil wars in the 1990s.95WSPA/APE ALLIANCE94

WSPA/APE ALLIANCERECIPES FOR SURVIVALThompson-Handler et al (1995) described the bonobo situation and set out potentialsolutions:Surveys completed in 1995 showed that, until recently, bonobos occurred in highdensities throughout the proposed Lomako reserve, DRC, but as a result ofdeterioration of the economy, road and river transport systems, profits from agriculturehave decreased and bushmeat hunting increased.The south-central part of the proposed reserve still contains high densities of bonobos(1.1 – 3.4 individuals per km 2 ) and lacks human settlement. But commercial huntersare now entering the proposed reserve area and rapidly decimating bonobo and otherprimate populations.Old logging roads, where concessions have been abandoned, are facilitating accessfor commercial hunters. Bushmeat has a high value in DRC and is transported as faras Kinshasa, using logging company boats.POTENTIAL SOLUTIONSPotential solutions relating specifically to bonobos include targeting efforts to:• Survey areas where bonobos are most concentrated.• Implement immediate research and local conservation education where bonobopopulations are on the brink of extinction.• Carry out longer-term research and conservation programmes where larger, lessdisturbedpopulations exist, and develop tourism in these areas.• Establish reserves in areas other than Salonga (as recommended on a number ofoccasions, for example, Lee et al, 1988; Thompson et al, 1995; WWF, 2003), withthe financial and technical means to protect these areas and prevent poaching.Salonga’s importance remains dependent on surveys to confirm a sizeable bonobopopulation within the park. If significant numbers are confirmed, funding will beneeded to improve park infrastructure.• Use social marketing methods, including television, radio, street theatre and music,to make people identify more with bonobos and to raise the species to emblem status.The plight of the okapi generated public sympathy due to its status as a nationalsymbol and profile on products such as Okapi Cigarettes and the Hotel Okapi.In DRC, gorilla and elephant comic books were produced as education tools anddistributed through zoos and conservation sponsors, as well as through regularmarket channels; the comics included succesful quizzes with prizes such as t-shirts.School notebooks containing conservation messages were distributed (and read byother family members as well as schoolchildren). Soap (a highly prized and frequentlytraded commodity) was embossed with a conservation message.The role of primate bushmeat in the spread of disease could be a suitable target forsocial marketing.The most up-to-date summary of what is known of the bonobo’s current situation isto be found in the World Atlas of Great Apes and their Conservation (Lacambra et al,2005). Many of these ideas have informed the newly published (September 2005)‘Strategie et Plan d’Action pour la Survie des Grandes Singes en RepubliqueDemocratique du Congo’. This was produced, with the assistance of GRASP, aftera national workshop and extensive consultation with all the stake-holders. It forms thebasis for government policy in relation to all great apes and their habitats in the DRC.Several range states have now adopted such policy documents thanks to the effortsof GRASP, and as a result, the political climate for effective conservation action ismuch improved.97WSPA/APE ALLIANCE96Below: Bushmeatsurvivors - bonobomother and infantin Lola ya BonoboSanctuary, DRC© WSPA

Conclusions9.1 General conclusionsThe twin threats of deforestation and hunting are decimating tropical wildlife populationson a massive scale. Investment in possible solutions is not the sole domain ofconservation organisations which, by themselves, do not have the capacity for curbingthe crisis in the long term.The bushmeat problem encompasses more than just the loss of endangered species –it is a humanitarian issue as well. Milner-Gulland (2002) has described the bushmeatproblem as the toughest challenge yet for human-centred conservation because: it isimportant in the general economy and in traditional cultures; it is widely distributedgeographically, often in areas of poor law enforcement; it involves many people(hunters, traders, vendors, consumers); it supplies subsistence and commercialmarkets, with commodity chains reaching cities and spanning international borders;and it is important for livelihoods. These factors all militate against successfulwildlife conservation and rationalise disincentives to restrict hunting and trade (Wilkie& Eves, 2001).Rural families, with few options for making money to provide even the most basicneeds, are easily drawn into the lucrative trade and quickly come to rely on it. Thesecommunities are characterised by malnutrition and daily incomes below US$1, and soexpecting them to cease exploitation of wild species is unjustified. However, modernhuman populations cannot be sustained by wild meat in perpetuity and though theeconomic rewards of hunting are expedient to poor families in the short term, huntersmust be made aware that unsustainable use places future generations in jeopardy.Regulating the trade in bushmeat will require that alternative ways are found to securethe livelihoods of those people inadvertently causing the crisis.At current levels of demand, policies that aim to conserve wildlife are likely to imposerestrictions that will directly impact various stakeholders. The successful conservationof bushmeat-hunted species will almost certainly incur a nutritional and financial costCONCLUSIONS999© Ian Redmond

RECIPES FOR SURVIVALto hunters and traders, and will diminish the resources of governments enforcingprotection (Kümpel, 2005). But unless the situation is taken in hand, the nextgeneration will pay long-term livelihood costs.Food security and livelihoods need to be given just as much priority as wildlifeconservation. Sustainable, legal hunting programmes for local communities will ensurea long-term, wildlife-based resource is available to maintain livelihoods and quality of lifefor traditional forest people (Elkan, 2002).The burden of responsibility cannot be placed on poor countries, where the crisisoriginates, because wealthy nations have just as much impact. Internationalco-operation is now urgently needed to prevent local extinctions becoming regionalones. Efforts aimed at tackling root causes to provide across-the-board benefits forall hunted species are crucial.Over the past decade, the urgency of the bushmeat crisis has brought to light manyuseful suggestions for curbing the anticipated extinction of commercially huntedspecies. But the momentum needed for their success can only be mobilised byinternational commitment to enormous investment and national commitment toa shift in attitudes.A collaborative effort is needed, with the support of communities, landowners,government agencies, NGOs, media, private citizens, wildlife services and interestedindividuals, drawing together expertise from many different disciplines to implementand monitor effective strategies.Novel solutions are crucial to build upon the successes of old ones, necessitatinginnovations in policy reform, capacity building, sustainable investment, long-termsupport for protected areas, regulation of hunting and trade, development of economicand dietary alternatives, management efforts in logging and mining concessions andwidespread education/awareness programmes.A holistic conservation approach needs to consider the economic, geographic,political, cultural and social scale of the problem. Active commitment from thecountries involved is a prerequisite to the success of conservation strategies,whether local or international.Across the globe, forests are being treated as convertible, rather than renewableresources. The consequences of the bushmeat trade for endangered species,biodiversity and people are no longer in doubt – unless a concerted, multifacetedeffort, equal in gravity to the severity of the crisis is initiated, the ‘empty forestsyndrome’ will be realised in the foreseeable future.9.2 Primate-specific conclusionsIt has often been noted that if we can’t save our closest evolutionary ‘cousins’ fromextinction, there can be little hope for more distantly related species. Great apes, asflagship species, have the greatest potential for mobilising action and funding frompublic and institutional bodies. Their command of public sympathy makes them goodcandidates for promoting awareness of the bushmeat crisis. But it is important torecognise that statements such as these, while accurate, could demean the broaderbushmeat problem or brand other species with subordinate levels of concern.The vast majority of bushmeat is of non-primate origin, and evidence suggestsextinction is more likely in non-primate groups (Bowen-Jones & Pendry, 1999; Bennett& Rao, 2002, cited by McGowan & Garson, 2002). Conservation strategies thatperipheralise the cross-taxonomic scope of the problem would be both negligent andirresponsible. Rather, apes can be used as a vehicle to engender support for broaderconservation efforts and the ecosystem in general.Time is running out for great apes. Their future rests on the commitment of the currentgeneration. Either we seize the opportunity to preserve our closest kin or we allowthem to be hunted to extinction – an action that, inevitably, will mark us as a historicallyirresponsible generation.“The plight of Africa’s people bears comparison to no one else for poverty, diseaseand repression. But allowing chimpanzees, gorillas and bonobos to die won’t improvepeople’s lives; it will impoverish them. Saving them would cost peanuts compared withrescuing destitute people.” (Richard Leakey, cited by Black, 2004).The signing of the Kinshasa Declaration brings new hope for the great apes and theirhabitats. The governments, NGOs and UN agencies that signed it agreed to work withina global strategy to ensure that 112 priority populations of all taxa of great apes, in 94sites (some of which are trans-boundary), receive the protection they need to survive.If these fine words are turned into action on the ground, the future of the great apeswill finally be assured.CONCLUSIONS101WSPA/APE ALLIANCE100

and harvest rates of bushmeat species in afrotropical forests. Biological Conservation121: 167 – 176.Carpaneto G.M. & Fusari A. (2000). Subsistence hunting and bushmeat exploitationin central-western Tanzania. Biodiversity and Conservation 9: 1571 – 1585.Fa J.E., Yuste J.E.G. & Castelo R. (2001). Bushmeat markets on Bioko Island as ameasure of hunting pressure. Conservation Biology 14: 1602 – 1613.The 2004 IUCN Red list of Threatened Species (2004) http://www.redlist.org/Kaul, R., Hilaluddin, Jandrotia, J.S. & McGowan, P.J.K. (2004). Hunting of largemammals and pheasants in the Indian Western Himalaya. Oryx 38: 426 – 431.Milner-Gulland E.J. & Clayton L. (2002). The trade in babirusas and wild pigs inNorth Sulawesi, Indonesia. Ecological Economics 42: 165 – 183.Mittermeier, R.A., Valladares-Pádua, C., Rylands, A.B., Eudey, A.A., Butynski, T.M.,Ganzhorn, J.U., Kormos, R., Aguiar, J.M. & Walker, S. (2005). Primates in Peril: Theworld’s 25 most endangered primates 2004 – 2006. IUCN/SSC, Washington, D.C.Peres C.A. (2000). Effects of subsistence hunting on vertebrate community structurein Amazonian forests. Conservation Biology 14: 240 – 253.Rowcliffe, J.M., Cowlishaw, G. & Long, J. (2003). A model of human huntingimpacts in multi-prey communities. Journal of Applied Ecology 40: 872 – 889Stein, J.T. and BCTF (2001). Species Affected by the Bushmeat Trade. BushmeatCrisis Task Force, Washington D.C.Thibault M. & Blaney S. (2003). The oil industry as an underlying factor in thebushmeat crisis in Central Africa. Conservation Biology 17: 1807 – 1813.APPENDIXWSPA/APE ALLIANCE102RECIPES FOR SURVIVALAppendix 1Species worldwide recorded as being hunted for bushmeatSee separate documentIn 1998, Bowen-Jones listed 25 species at risk from bushmeat hunters, a figure thathas risen more than 50-fold since. It is almost impossible to quantify exactly how manyspecies are affected, because of the opportunistic nature of hunting and the use ofindiscriminate techniques such as snaring. The data in this appendix are notcomprehensive but are representative of global bushmeat off-take (primarily in tropicalcountries, excluding Australia and including southern Africa). See separate documentfor list of species; literature sources include:Barnett, R. (2000). Food for Thought: The Utilisation of Wild Meat in Eastern andSouthern Africa. TRAFFIC/WWF/IUCN, Nairobi, Kenya.Bowen-Jones, E. (1998). The African Bushmeat Trade – A Recipes for Extinction. ApeAlliance, UK.Bowen-Jones, E. & Pendry, S. (1999). The threat to primates and other mammals fromthe bushmeat trade in Africa, and how this threat could be diminished. Oryx 33: 233 – 246.Cowlishaw, G., Mendelson, S. & Rowcliffe, J.M. (2005). Structure and Operation ofa Bushmeat Commodity Chain in Southwestern Ghana. Conservation Biology 19: 139.de Foliart, G.R. (2002). The Human Use of Insects as a Food Resource: ABibliographic Work in Progress. University of Wisconsin, USA; http://www.wisc.edu/de Merode E., Homewood K. & Cowlishaw G. (2004). The value of bushmeat andother wild foods to rural households living in extreme poverty in Democratic Republic ofCongo. Biological Conservation 118: 573 – 581Fa J.E., Ryan S.F. & Bell D.J. (2005). Hunting vulnerability, ecological characteristics103

RECIPES FOR SURVIVALAPPENDIXWSPA/APE ALLIANCEAppendix 2Primate species worldwide recorded as being huntedfor bushmeatSee Appendix 1 for literature sources.ATELIDAEOreonax flavicauda Yellow-tailed woolly monkey CR B1+2ABCDE, C2A South AmericaCALLITRICHIDAESaguinus nigricollis Tamarin LC South AmericaCEBIDAESaimiri sciureus Squirrel monkey LC South AmericaAlouatta seniculus Howler monkey LC South AmericaAteles hybridus brunneus Brown spider monkey CR A3CD South AmericaAteles paniscus Spider monkey LC South AmericaCacajao calvus Bald uakari NT South AmericaCacajao melanocephalus Black uakari LC South AmericaCallicebus moloch Titi monkey LC South AmericaCebus apella Capuchin LC South AmericaCebus xanthosternos Buff-headed tufted capuchin CR A2CD; C2A(I) South AmericaCebus xanthosternos Yellow-breasted capuchin CR A2CD; C2A(I) South AmericaChiropotes albinasus Red-nosed saki LC South AmericaChiropotes chiropotes Bearded saki LC South AmericaChiropotes satanus Bearded saki EN A2CD; B2AB (I,II,III); South AmericaC2A (I)Chiropotes utahickae Uta Hick's bearded saki VU A3CD South AmericaLagothrix lagotricha Humboldt's woolly monkey LR/LC South AmericaPithecia aequatorialis Equatorial saki LR/LC South AmericaPithecia albicans Buffy skai LC South AmericaPithecia irrorata Gray monkey saki LC South AmericaPithecia monachus Geoffroy's monk saki LC South AmericaPithecia pithecia Golden-faced saki LC South AmericaCECOPITHECIDAEBrachyteles hypoxanthus Northern muriqui CR B1AB(I,II,III,IV,V) South America+2AB(I,II,III,IV,V)Cercocebus agilis Agile mangabey NR Sub-Saharan AfricaCercocebus albigena Grey cheeked mangabey (W&C) LR/LC Sub-Saharan AfricaCercocebus atys Sooty mangabey LR/NT Sub-Saharan AfricaCercocebus atys lunulatus White-naped mangabey LR/NT Sub-Saharan AfricaCercocebus galeritus Crested mangabey LR/NT Sub-Saharan AfricaCercocebus mitis White-collared mangabey / LR/LC Sub-Saharan AfricaSamango monkeyCercocebus torquatus Collared mangabey (W&C) LR-NT Sub-Saharan AfricaCercocebys sanjei Sanje mangabey NR Sub-Saharan AfricaCercopithecus aethiops Grivet monkey LR/LC Sub-Saharan AfricaCercopithecus ascanius Red-tailed monkey LR/LC Sub-Saharan AfricaCercopithecus campbelli Campbell’s monkey LR/LC Sub-Saharan AfricaCercopithecus cephus Moustached monkey (W&C) LR/LC Sub-Saharan AfricaCercopithecus denti Dent's monkey NR Sub-Saharan AfricaCercopithecus diana Diana guenon EN A1CD+2CD Sub-Saharan AfricaCercopithecus dryas Dryad monkey DD Sub-Saharan AfricaCercopithecus erythrogaster Red-bellied guenon EN A1CD Sub-Saharan AfricaCercopithecus erythrotis Red-eared guenon VU A1CD+2CD Sub-Saharan AfricaCercopithecus hamlyni Owl faced monkey (W&C) LR-NT Sub-Saharan AfricaCercopithecus mitis Samango monkey (E&S) LR/LC Sub-Saharan AfricaCercopithecus neglectus De Brazza's monkey LR/LC Sub-Saharan AfricaCercopithecus nictitans Greater white nosed monkey (W&C) LR/LC Sub-Saharan AfricaCercopithecus petaurista Lesser spot-nosed monkey LR/LC Sub-Saharan AfricaCercopithecus pogonias Crowned guenon (W&C) EN Sub-Saharan AfricaCercopithecus preussi Preuss's guenon EN A1CD+2CD Sub-Saharan AfricaCercopithecus sclateri Sclater's guenon EN B1+2C Sub-Saharan AfricaCercopithecus solatus Sun-tailed guenon VU B1+2ABCDE, C1 Sub-Saharan AfricaCercopithicus mona Mona monkey (W&C) LR/LC Sub-Saharan AfricaChlorocebus tantalus Tantalus monkey LR/LC Sub-Saharan AfricaColobus angolensis Angolan colobus LR/LC Sub-Saharan AfricaColobus badius pennanti Red colobus (W&C) EN Sub-Saharan AfricaColobus guereza Eastern black & white colobus (W&C) LR/LC Sub-Saharan AfricaColobus polykomos Black-and-white colobus LR/NT Sub-Saharan Africa104 105

WSPA/APE ALLIANCERECIPES FOR SURVIVALColobus satanas Black colobus VU A1CD+2CD Sub-Saharan AfricaColobus vellerosus Geoffroy's black-and-white colobus VU A1CD+2CD Sub-Saharan AfricaErythrocebus patas Patas monkey LR/LC Sub-Saharan AfricaLophocebus aterrimus Black crested mangabey LR/NT Sub-Saharan AfricaMacaca assamensis Assam macaque VU A1CD East Asia, SouthAnd SE AsiaMacaca fascicularis Long-tailed macaque LR/NT South And SE AsiaMacaca nemestrina Pig-tailed macaque VU A1CD South And SE AsiaMacaca silenus Lion-tailed macaque EN C2A(I) South And SE AsiaMandrillus leucophaeus Drill EN A1ACD+2CD Sub-Saharan AfricaMandrillus sphinx Mandrill VU A2CD Sub-Saharan AfricaMiopithecus talapoin Talapoin (W&C) LR/LC Sub-Saharan AfricaPapio anubis Olive baboon LR/LC Sub-Saharan AfricaPapio cynocephalus Yellow baboon LR Sub-Saharan AfricaPapio hamadryas Hamadryas baboon LR/NT Sub-Saharan AfricaPresbytis hosei canicrus Miller's grizzled surili DD South And SE AsiaPresbytis melalophos Banded leaf monkey LR/NT South And SE AsiaProcolobus badius Red colobus EN A1CD+2CD, B1+2ABC Sub-Saharan AfricaProcolobus pennantii Pennant's red colobus EN A2CD Sub-Saharan AfricaProcolobus rufomitratus Eastern red colobus CR B1+2ABCDE, C2A Sub-Saharan AfricaPygathrix cinerea Grey-shanked douc EN A1CD South And SE AsiaSemnopithecus johnii Black leaf monkey VU C2A(I) South And SE AsiaSemnopithecus vetulus nestor Western purple-faced langur EN A1CD South And SE AsiaSimias concolor Pig-tailed langur EN A1CD+2C South And SE AsiaTrachypithecus delacouri Delacour's langur CR A2CD+3CD; C2A(I) South And SE AsiaTrachypithecus obscurus Dusky leaf monkey LR/LC South And SE AsiaTrachypithecus poliocephalus Golden-headed langur CR A2CD, C2AB South And SE AsiapoliocephalusGALAGONIDAEGalago alleni Allen’s squirrel galago LR/NT Sub-Saharan AfricaGalago elegantulus Elegant needle-clawed galago LR/NT Sub-Saharan AfricaGalagoides potto Demidoff’s galago NR Sub-Saharan AfricaGalagoides sp. Nov Mt. Rungwe galago NR Sub-Saharan AfricaOtolemur crassicaudatus Greater galago LR/LC Sub-Saharan AfricaHOMINIDAEGorilla beringei graueri Eastern gorilla EN A2CD Sub-Saharan AfricaGorilla gorilla gorilla Western gorilla EN A2CD Sub-Saharan AfricaPan paniscus Bonobo EN A2CD Sub-Saharan AfricaPan troglodytes Chimpanzee EN A3CD Sub-Saharan AfricaAPPENDIXGorilla beringei beringei Mountain gorilla CE Sub-Saharan AfricaGorilla gorilla ssp. Diehli Cross River gorilla (W&C) CE Sub-Saharan AfricaPongo abelii Sumatran orangutan CR A2BCD South And SE AsiaPongo pygmaeus Orang-utan EN A2CD South And SE AsiaHYLOBATIDAEHylobates lar White-handed gibbon LR/NT South And SE AsiaLoris lydekkerianus Horton Plains slender loris NR South And SE AsianycticeboidesNomascus gabriellae Buff-cheeked gibbon VU A1CD+2CD South And SE AsiaNomascus leucogenys White-cheeked gibbon DD East Asia, SouthAnd SE AsiaINDRIDAEPropithecus candidus Silky sifaka NR Sub-Saharan AfricaPropithecus perrieri Perrier's sifaka NR Sub-Saharan AfricaLEMURIDAEEulemur albocollaris White-collared lemur NR Sub-Saharan AfricaProlemur simus Greater bamboo lemur CR A2CD Sub-Saharan AfricaLORIDAEArctocebus aureus Golden angwantibo LR/NT Sub-Saharan AfricaArctocebus calabarensis Angwantibo LR/NT Sub-Saharan AfricaPerodicticus potto Potto gibbon (W&C) LR/LC Sub-Saharan Africa107WSPA/APE ALLIANCE106

108RECIPES FOR SURVIVAL.Organisations involved in bushmeat projects andcampaignsSee separate document.ReferencesNote: Appendix 5 (see separate document) contains the abstracts for some of thereferences cited.ABCG (2004). African Biodiversity Collaborative Group & Bushmeat Crisis Task Forcemeeting notes from: Food Security and Conservation in Africa: Addressing hunger andfarming issues to conserve wildlife. USAAgnaga, M. (2004). The CITES Bushmeat Working Group Programme for theManagement of Bushmeat in the Central African Sub-region: A proposal for the secondphase of the CITES Bushmeat Working Group for Central Africa. CITES, Yaounde,Cameroon.Agnagna, M. (2002). Global and government efforts to address the bushmeat crisis.In AZA Communique, ppp35 – 37. American Zoo Association, US.Alers, M.P.T., Blom, A., Sikubwabo, Sikubwabo Kiyengo, Tshobo Masunda(1989). Reconnaissance des elephants des forets du Zaire: Rapport de mission(Janvier-Mars, 1989). WCI/IZCN/WWF.Alvard, M. (1995). Shotguns and sustainable hunting in the Neotropics. Oryx 29:58 – 65.Ambus, L.M. & Dempsey, J. (2004). Update on the 4th session of the United NationsForum on Forests: Highlights from the sidelines. Taiga News 47: 2.Ammann, K., Bowman, K. and Dupain, J. (2002) Expedition to the People and theBonobos of the Proposed Lomako Forest Reserve, Equateur Province, DemocraticRepublic of Congo, November 8 – 29 2002: The Report. Available fromjefdupain@iccnet.cmApaza, L., Wilkie, D., Byron, E., Huanca, T., Leonard, W., Pérez, E., Reyes-Garcia, V., Vadez, V. & Godoy, R. (2002). Meat prices influence the consumption ofwildlife by the Tsimane’ Amerindians of Bolivia. Oryx 36: 382 – 388.REFERENCES109

Bennett, E.L., Milner-Gulland, E.J., Bakarr, M., Eves, H.E., Robinson, J.G. &Wilkie, D.S. (2002). Hunting the world’s wildlife to extinction. Oryx 36: 328 – 329Black, R. (2004). Congo Poachers Leave Bonobo at Risk. BBC News UK pressrelease, 9 December 2004, British Broadcasting House.Bodmer, R. E. & Robinson, J. G. (in press) in People in Nature: Wildlife conservationin the neotropics (eds Silvius, K., Bodmer, R. E. & Fragoso, J.). Columbia UniversityPress, New York.Bowen-Jones, E. & Pendry, S. (1999). The threat to primates and other mammalsfrom the bushmeat trade in Africa, and how this threat could be diminished. Oryx 33:233 – 246.Brashares, J.S., Arcese, P., Sam, M.K., Coppolillo, P.B., Sinclair, A.R.E. &Balmford, A. (2004). Bushmeat hunting, wildlife declines, and fish supply in WestAfrica. Science 306: 1180 – 1183.Brown, D. (In press) Let Them Eat Cake? Some Skeptical Thoughts on ConservationStrategies in the Bushmeat Range States. In State of the Wild 2006: A Global Portraitof Wildlife, Wildlands and Oceans. (Edited by Sharon Guynup) Washington, DC: WildlifeConservation Society/Island Press.Butynski, T.M. (2000) An Overview of Apes in Africa. Gorilla Journal 21, Dec 2000:15 – 18. (Shortened version of a paper in Africa – Environment & Wildlife, 8 (5), June2000).Butynski, T.M. & Koster, H. (1994). Distribution and conservation status of primatesin Bioko Island, Equatorial Guinea. Biodiversity and Conservation 3: 893 – 909.Ceballos, G. & Ehrlich, P.R. (2002). Mammal population losses and the extinctioncrisis. Science 296: 904 – 907.Cook, D., Roberts, M. & Lowther, J. (2002). The International Wildlife Trade andOrganised Crime. WWF/TRAFFIC, Regional Research Institute, University ofWolverhampton, UK.Cowlishaw, G., Mendelson, S. & Rowcliffe, J.M. (2005). Structure and Operation ofa Bushmeat Commodity Chain in Southwestern Ghana. Conservation Biology 19: 139.d’Huart, J.P. (1989). The bonobo in the wild: ongoing conservation and researchprojects in Zaire. Bonobo workshop, 1 December, European Environmental Press.REFERENCESWSPA/APE ALLIANCERECIPES FOR SURVIVALApe Alliance (1998). The African Bushmeat Trade – Recipes for Extinction. Availablefrom P.O.Box 308, Bristol, UK or www.4apes.comBarnes, R.F.W. (2002). The bushmeat boom and bust in West and Central Africa.Oryx 36: 236 – 242.Barnett, R. (2000). Food for Thought: The utilisation of wild meat in eastern andsouthern Africa. TRAFFIC/WWF/IUCN, Nairobi, Kenya.BCTF (2000a). BCTF Fact Sheet: Social ecology. Bushmeat Crisis Task Force,Washington, DC.BCTF (2000b). BCTF Fact Sheet: The role of the logging industry. Bushmeat CrisisTask Force, Washington, DC.BCTF (2000c). BCTF Fact Sheet: Eco-economics. Bushmeat Crisis Task Force,Washington, DC.BCTF (2002). Global and government efforts to address the bushmeat crisis. In AZACommunique, p35 – 37. American Zoo Association, US.BCTF (2003). BCTF Fact Sheet: Global human health. Bushmeat Crisis Task Force,Washington, D.C.BCTF (2004a). BCTF Fact Sheet: Bushmeat and international collaboration. BushmeatCrisis Task Force, Washington, DC.BCTF (2004b) Bushmeat: A wildlife crisis in West and Central Africa and around theworld. Bushmeat Crisis Task Force, Washington, DC.BCTF (2004c.) BCTF Phase I Report. Bushmeat Crisis Task Force, Washington, DC.Beck, J. & Méthot, P. (2004). Independent Forest Concession Monitoring System inCentral Africa. World Resources Institute, USA.Bennett, E.L. & Rao, M. (2002). Wild meat consumption in Asian tropical countries: Isthis a glimpse of the future for Africa? In Links Between Biodiversity Conservation,Livelihood and Food Security: The sustainable use of wild species for meat (eds. S.A.Mainka & M. Trivedi), pp. 39 – 44. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge, UK.Bennett, E.L. (2002). Is there a link between wild meat and food security?Conservation Biology 16: 590 – 592.111WSPA/APE ALLIANCE110

Gouala, J. (2005). Forum breathes life into Africa’s oxygen lung. Business Report(published on internet), 7 February 2005.Groves, C. (2001) Primate Taxonomy. Smithsonian Institute. Pp. 298 – 307.Groves, C.P. (2005). Geographic variation within Eastern Chimpanzees (Pantroglodytes cf. schweinfurthii Giglioli 1872). Australian Primatology, in press.Hall, J.S., Saltonstall, K., Inogwabini, B.I., and Omari, I. (1998) Distribution,abundance and conservation status of Grauer’s gorilla. Oryx 32 (2): 122 – 130.Harcourt, A.H. and Stewart, K.J. (1980). Gorilla-eaters of Gabon. Oryx, 15 (3):248 – 251.Hayes, K. (2002). Update on coltan mining in the Democratic Republic of Congo.Oryx 36: 12 – 13.Hoyt, R.A., Frayne, J.E., & Reed, K. (2003). Unpublished data from Hunter Survey(2000), Urban Public Opinion & Bushmeat Survey (2002), Village Off-Take Survey(2003), and Monrovia Market Survey (2003).IFAW & BCTF (2003). BCTF Fact Sheet: Bushmeat orphans and primate sanctuaries.Bushmeat Crisis Task Force, Washington, DC.IFIA (2005). A common project IUCN/WRI/IFIA: FORCOMS: A step forward towardsproving legality of timber activities in Central Africa. IFIA Newsletter, 12 January 2005.Interafrican Forest Industries Association, Abidjan, Ivory Coast.IRIN (2003). Integrated Regional Information Networks website, 6 March 2003.Juste, J., Fa, J.E., Perez del Val, J. & Castroviejo, J. (1995). Market dynamics ofbushmeat species in Equatorial Guinea. Journal of Applied Ecology 32: 454 – 467.Kano, T. & Asato, R. (1994). Hunting pressure on chimpanzees and gorillas in theMotaba River area, northeastern Congo. Africa Study Monographs 15:143 – 162.Kaul, R., Hilaluddin, J.S., McGowan, J. & McGowan, P.J.K. (2004). Hunting oflarge mammals and pheasants in the Indian western Himalaya. Oryx 38: 426 – 431.Kelly, J. et al. (2003). Unpublished data from Species Identification in Bushmeat usingGenetic Analysis. Anglia Ruskin University, Cambridge, UK.King, S. (1994). Utilisation of wildlife in Bakossiland, West Cameroon, with particularreference to primates. TRAFFIC Bulletin 14, 63 – 73.REFERENCESWSPA/APE ALLIANCERECIPES FOR SURVIVALDFID (2002). Wildlife and Poverty Study. Department for International Development,Livestock and Wildlife Advisory Group, London, UK.Draulans, D. & Van Krunkelsven, E. (2002). The impact of war on forest areas inthe Democratic Republic of Congo. Oryx 36: 35 – 40.Elkan, P. & S. (2002). Engaging the private sector. In AZA Communique, November2002, pp40 – 42. American Zoo Association, USAEves, H.E. and Ruggiero, R.G. (2000). Socio-economics and the sustainability ofhunting in the forests of northern Congo (Brazaville). In Hunting for Sustainability in TropicalForests (eds. Robinson, J.G. & Bennett, E.L.). Columbia University Press, New York.Eves, H.E., Stein, J.T., Wilkie, D.S. & BCTF (2002). BCTF Fact Sheet: Thebushmeat crisis in West & Central Africa. Bushmeat Crisis Task Force, Washington, DC.Eves, H.E., Stein, J.Y. & BCTF (2002). BCTF Fact Sheet: Duikers and the Africanbushmeat trade. Bushmeat Crisis Task Force, Washington, DC.Fa, J.E. & Peres, C. (2001). Hunting in tropical forests. In Conservation of ExploitedSpecies (eds J.D. Reynolds, G.M. Mace, K.H. Redford & J.G. Robinson), pp203 – 241.Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK.Fa, J.E., Currie, D. & Meeuwig, J. (2003). Bushmeat and food security in the CongoBasin: linkages between wildlife and people’s future. Environmental Conservation,30 (1): 71 – 78.Fa, J.E., Juste, J., Perez del Val, J. & Castroviejo, J. (1995). Impact of markethunting on mammal species in Equatorial Guinea. Conservation Biology 9: 1107 – 1115.Fa, J.E., Peres, C.A. & Meeuwig, J. (2002). Bushmeat exploitation in tropicalforests: an intercontinental comparison. Conservation Biology 16: 1232 – 1237.Fa, J.E., Ryan, S.F. & Bell, D.J. (2005). Hunting vulnerability, ecologicalcharacteristics and harvest rates of bushmeat species in afrotropical forests. BiologicalConservation 121 (2): 167 – 176.Fimbel, C., Curran, B. & Usongo, L. (2000). Enhancing the sustainability of duikerhunting through community participation and controlled access in the Lobéké region ofSoutheastern Cameroon. In Hunting for Sustainability in Tropical Forests (eds. Robinson,J.G. & Bennett, E.L.). Columbia University Press, New York.Fossey, Dian. (1983). Gorillas in the Mist. Houghton Mifflin, Boston, USA.113WSPA/APE ALLIANCE112

McGowan, P.J.K. & Garson, P.J. (2002). The Galliformes are highly threatened:should we care? Oryx 36: 311 – 312Meder, A., Burgel, P.H. & Breasch, C. (1998). Pan paniscus in Salonga NationalPark. Primate Conservation 9: 110 – 111.Medou, C.M. (2001). Suggested actions for an improved management of forestbiodiversity in Gabon. CBD Technical Series No. 3: Assesssment, Conservation andSustainable Use of Forest Biodiversity. Secretariat of the Convention on BiologicalDiversity, UNEP.Meijaard, E. and Dennis, R et al (2004). Borneo Orangutan PHVA Habitat Units:Compositè dataset developed by Meijaard and Dennis (2003) and amended bydelegates at the Orangutan PHVA Workshop, Jakarta, 15 – 18 January 2004.Merode E., Homewood K. & Cowlishaw G. (2004). The value of bushmeat and otherwild foods to rural households living in extreme poverty in Democratic Republic ofCongo. Biological Conservation 118: 573 – 581Milner-Gulland, E. J. & Resit Akçakaya, H. (2001). Sustainability indices for exploitedpopulations under uncertainty. Trends in Ecology and Evolution 16: 686 – 692.Milner-Gulland, E.J. & Bennett, E.L. (2003). Wild meat: the bigger picture. Trends inEcology and Evolution 18: 351 – 357.Milner-Gulland, E.J. (2002). Is bushmeat just another conservation bandwagon?Oryx 36: 1 – 2.Myers Thompson, J.A. (1997) The history, taxonomy and ecology of the bonobo (Panpaniscus) with a first description of a wild population living in a forest/savannah mosaichabitat. Doctoral dissertation. University of Oxford, England. 358pp.Nasi, R. (2001). Harvesting of non-timber forest products: is sustainability achievable?CBD Technical Series No. 3: Assesssment, Conservation and Sustainable Use of ForestBiodiversity. Secretariat of the Convention on Biological Diversity, UNEP.Njiforti, H.L. (1996). Preferences and present demand for bushmeat in northernCameroon: some implications for wildlife conservation. Environmental Conservation23: 149 – 155.Noss, A. (2000). Cable snares and nets in the Central African Republic. In Hunting forSustainability in Tropical Forests (eds. Robinson, J.G. & Bennett, E.L.). ColumbiaUniversity Press, New York.REFERENCESWSPA/APE ALLIANCERECIPES FOR SURVIVALKirby, A. (2004). Fences can help apes’ survival. BBC News UK press release, BritishBroadcasting House, 5 May 2004.Kormos, R. and Boesch, C. (2003) Regional Action Plan for the Conservation ofChimpanzees in West Africa. IUCN SSC with Conservation International, WildChimpanzee Foundation, GRASP and 11 other organisations.Kümpel, N. (2005). The bushmeat trade. Postnote No. 236, Parliamentary Office ofScience and Technology UK.Lacambra, C. J. Thompson, T. Furuichi, H. Vervaecke, & J. Stevens (2005).Bonobo (Pan paniscus) Chapter 5 in World Atlas of Great Apes and their Conservation,UNEP-WCMC and GRASP, Cambridge, UK.Lee, P.C., Thornback, J. & Bennett, E.L. (1988). Threatened Primates of Africa:The IUCN Red Data Book. IUCN Gland, Switzerland, and Cambridge, UK.Leendertz, F.H., Yumulu, S., Pauli, G., Boesch, C., Couacy – Hymann, E et al(2006). A new bacillus anthracis found in wild chimpanzees and a gorilla from West andCentral Africa. P105 Pathology 2:e8Ling, S., Kümpel, N. & Albrechtsen, L. (2002). No new recipes for bushmeat.Oryx 36: 330.Loja, J., Gironda, A. & Guerra, L. (2000). Biología y uso de la fauna silvestre enTambopata: un caso de estudio. Conservación Internacional, Program Peru, Lima, Peru.Mainka, S.A. & Trivedi, M. (2002). Links between Biodiversity Conservation,Livelihoods and Food Security: The sustainable use of wild species for meat. IUCNGland, Switzerland, and Cambridge, UK.Marshall, A.J., Holland-Jones, J. & Wrangham, R.W. (2000). The Plight of theApes: A Global survey of great ape populations. Harvard University, Massachusetts, US.Matsura, N. (2004). Residential group of Babongo Pygmies in southern Gabon. In: AnInternational Symposium: African great apes evolution, diversity and conservation;formation of a strategic base for the multidisciplinary strategy for biodiversity. KyotoUniversity, Japan.McAlpine, J. & Roth, D. (2002). Global and government efforts to address thebushmeat crisis. In AZA Communique, November 2002, p 35 – 37. American ZooAssociation, USA.115WSPA/APE ALLIANCE114

Redmond, I. (2001) Coltan Boom, Gorilla Bust: The Impact of Coltan Mining on Gorillasand other Wildlife in Eastern DRC. A Report for the Dian Fossey Gorilla Fund Europe andthe Born Free Foundation, pdf version at www.bornfree.org.uk/coltan (A shortenedversion appeared in Gorilla Journal 22: 13 – 16).Redmond, I. (2002a) Malaysian zoo swaps tigers for gorillas. BBC Wildlife, 20 (4):Redmond, I. (2002b) I mourn for my old friends. BBC Wildlife, 20 (7): 37.Redmond, I. (2006). Let Them Eat LSD Bushmeat – Thoughts Arising from Brown vs.Robinson. In State of the Wild 2006: A Global Portrait of Wildlife, Wildlands and Oceans.(Edited by Sharon Guynup) Washington, DC: Wildlife Conservation Society/Island Press.Rigava, N. (2001). Participatory wildlife quota setting process: linking biodiversityconservation, sustainable use and equity issues. CBD Technical Series No. 3:Assesssment, Conservation and Sustainable Use of Forest Biodiversity. Secretariatof the Convention on Biological Diversity, UNEP.Rijksen, H.D. and Meijaard, E. (1999) Our Vanishing Relative: The Status of WildOrangutans at the Close of the Twentieth Century. Kluwer Academic Publishers,Dordrecht, Netherlands.Riley, J. (2002). Mammals on the Sangihe and Talaud Islands, Indonesia, and theimpact of hunting and habitat loss. Oryx 36: 288 – 296.Robinson, J. G. & Bodmer, R. E. (1999). Towards wildlife management in tropicalforests. Journal of Wildlife Management 63: 1 – 13Robinson, J. G. (In press) Biting the Hand That Feeds You – The Consumption ofNature and Natural Resources in the Tropics. In State of the Wild 2006: A GlobalPortrait of Wildlife, Wildlands and Oceans. (Edited by Sharon Guynup) Washington, DC:Wildlife Conservation Society/Island Press.Robinson, J.G. & Bennett E.L. (2000). Hunting for sustainability in tropical forests.Columbia University Press, New York.Robinson, J.G. & Redford, K.H. (1991). Neotropical Wildlife Use and Conservation.Chicago University Press, Chicago, US.Robinson, J.G. (1995). Hunting for Wildlife in Forest Patches: An ephemeral resource.Wildlife Conservation Society, New York, US.Robinson, J.G., Redford, K.H. & Bennett, E.L. (1999). Wildlife harvest in loggedtropical forest. Science 284: 595 – 596.REFERENCESWSPA/APE ALLIANCERECIPES FOR SURVIVALNoss, A.J. (1998). Cable snares and bushmeat markets in a Central African Forest.Environmental Conservation 25: 228 – 233.Oates, J.F., Abedi-Lartey, M., McGraw, W.S., Struhsaker, T. & Whitesides, G. (2000).Extinction of a West African red colobus monkey. Conservation Biology 14: 1526 – 1532.Othman, M. (2002). Global and government efforts to address the bushmeat crisis. InAZA Communique, November 2002, pp35 – 37. American Zoo Association, US.Pearce, J. & Ammann, K. (1995). Slaughter of the apes: how the tropical timberindustry is devouring Africa’s great apes. World Society for the Protection of Animals,London, UK.Peeters, M., Courgnaud, V., Abeta, B. et al (2002). Risk to human health from apletnoro of simian immunodeficiency viruses in primate bushmeat. Emergence ofInfectious Diseases 8:451 – 457Peterson, D & Ammann, K. (2003). Eating apes. University of California Press, USA.Racer, P. (2004). Ebola virus may be spreading to humans through infected meat.Associated Press website, 15 January 2004.Raffaele, P. (2005). Stop the carnage. Smithsonian Institute magazine, pp40 – 46,January 2005.Ray, J.C., Stein, J.T. & BCTF (2002). BCTF Fact Sheet: Forest carnivores and theAfrican bushmeat trade. Bushmeat Crisis Task Force. Washignton, DC.Redford, K. H. & Robinson, J. G. (1991). Sustainable Harvest of Neotropical ForestAnimals. In: Neotropical Wildlife Use and Conservation (eds. Redford, K. H. & Robinson,J. G.), pp415 – 429. University of Chicago Press, Chicago.Redford, K.H. (1992). The empty forest. Bioscience 42: 412 – 422.Redmond, I. (1989) Trade in gorillas and other primates in the People’s Republic ofCongo. An investigation for International Primate Protection League, 42pp plusappendices and photographs.Redmond, I. (1996). The ethics of eating ape. BBC Wildlife, 13 (10): 72 – 74.Redmond, I. (1995). Elephant family values. In The Exploitation of MammalPopulations, Eds. Taylor, V. and Dunstone, N., Chapman & Hall, London. pp.358 – 375.117WSPA/APE ALLIANCE116

Latin name Common nameARTIODACTYLABOVIDAEAepyceros melampus impalaAlcelaphus buselaphus hartebeestAntidorcas marsupialis springbokBLACKBUCKAntilope cervicapraBoocercus euryceros bongoBubalus bubalis ASIAN BUFFALOBubalus depressicornis ANOABubalus mindorensis TAMARAWCapra falconeri MARKHORCapricornis sumatraensis SEROWCephalophus adersi ADERS' DUIKERCephalophus callipygus Peter's duikerCephalophus dorsalis BAY DUIKERCephalophus grimmia Common duikerCephalophus harveyi HARVEY'S DUIKERCephalophus jentinki JENTINK'S DUIKERCephalophus leucogaster WHITE-BELLIED DUIKERCephalophus maxwellii MAXWELL'S DUIKERCephalophus monticola Blue duikerCephalophus natalensis NATAL DUIKERCephalophus niger BLACK DUIKERCephalophus nigrifrons BLACK-FRONTED DUIKERCephalophus ogilbyi OGILBY'S DUIKERCephalophus sylvicultor Yellow-backed duikerCephalophus zebra BANDED DUIKERConnochaetes taurinus wildebeestDamaliscus lunatus topiGazella bennettii CHINKARAGazella granti Grant's gazelleGazella thomsonii Thomson's gazelleHemitragus jemlahicus HIMALAYAN TAHRHippotragus equinus Roan antelopeHippotragus niger sable antelopeKobus ellipsiprymnus waterbuckKobus vardoni pukuMadoqua kirkii dik dikNaemorhedus caudatus CHINESE GORALNaemorhedus goral GoralNeotragus batesi BATES' PYGMY ANTELOPENeotragus moschatus suniNeotragus pygmaeus Royal antelopeOreotragus oreotragus klipspringerOryx gazella gemsbok or oryxOurebia ourebi oribiOvis musimon European mouflonPseudoryx nghetinhensis SAOLA (F, S)Raphcierus melanotis Sharpe's GrysbokRaphicerus campestris steenbokRaphicerus melanotis Cape grysbokRaphicerus sharpei Sharpe's grysbokRedunca arundinum southern or common reedbuckRedunca redunca Bohor reedbuckSyncerus caffer AFRICAN BUFFALOSyncerus caffer nanus forest buffaloTragelaphus (Taurotragus) oryx common elandTragelaphus angasii nyalaTragelaphus imberbus lesser kuduTragelaphus scriptus bushbuckTragelaphus spekei sitatungaTragelaphus strepsiceros greater kuduCERVIDAEAlces alces elkCapreolus capreolus Roe deerCervus elaphus Red deerCervus nippon sika deerDama dama Fallow deerMazama americana Brocket deerMuntiacus crinifrons BLACK MUNTJACMuntiacus muntjak Barking deerMuntiacus truongsonensis TRUONG SON MUNTJAC

Muntiacus vuquangensis GIANT MUNTJACOdocoileus virginianus white-tailed deerRangifer tarandus fennicus forest reindeerGIRAFFIDAEGiraffa camelopardalis giraffeOkapia johnstoni OKAPIHIPPOPOTAMIDAEHippopotamus amphibius hippopotamusMOSCHIDAEMoschus chrysogaster Musk DeerSUIDAEBabyrousa babyrussa BabirusaHylochoerus meinertzhageni giant forest hogPhacochoerus aethiopicus warthogPhacochoerus africanus Common warthogPotamochoerus larvatus Bush pigPotamochoerus porcus bush pigSus scrofa Wild boarTAYASSUIDAETayassu pecari White-lipped peccaryTayassu tajaca Collared peccaryTRAGULIDAEHyemoschus aquaticus WATER CHEVROTAINCARNIVORACANIDAEAlopex lagopus domestic arctic foxCanis adustus Side-striped jackalCanis lupus wolfCanis mesomelas black backed jackalNyctereutes procyonoides raccoon dogOtocyon megalotis bat eared foxVulpes vulpes red foxFELIDAEFelis aurata golden catLynx lynx Eurasian lynxNeofelis nebulosa CLOUDED LEOPARDPanthera pardus leopardHERPESTIDAEAtilax paludinosus Marsh mongooseBdeogale nigripes Black-legged mongooseCrossarchus obscurus Long-nosed cusimanseHelogale parvula Dwarf mongooseHerpestes naso Long-nosed mongooseIchneumia albicauda White-tailed mongooseMungos mungo Banded mongooseHYAENIDAECrocuta crocuta SPOTTED HYAENAMELLIVORINAEMellivora capensis honey badger or ratelMUSTELIDAEAonyx capensis AFRICAN CLAWLESS OTTERAonyx congicus CAMEROON CLAWLESS OTTEREira barbara TayraGulo gulo wolverineLutra lutra European otter

Lutra maculicollis spot-necked otterMartes martes pine martenMeles meles Eurasian badgerMellivora capensis Honey badgerMustela erminea stoatMustela putorius western polecatMustela vison American minkPHOCIDAEHalichoerus grypus grey sealPhoca hispida ringed sealPhoca vitulina common sealPROCYONIDAENasua nasua South American coatiPotos flavus KinkajouProcyon lotor raccoonURSIDAEHelarctos malayanus MALAYAN SUN BEARUrsus arctos Brown bearUrsus thibetanus Asiatic black bearVIVERRIDAEArctictis binturong BinturongCivetictis civetta African civetEupleres goudotii FALANOUCGenetta cristata Crested genetGenetta johnstoni Johnston's genetGenetta servalina small spotted genetGenetta tigrina Large-spotted genetLiberiictis kuhni Liberian mongooseNandinia binotata two spotted palm civetOsbornictis piscivora aquatic genetParadoxurus jerdoni BROWN PALM CIVETPoiana richardsonii liberiensis Leighton’s linsangCHIROPTERACRASEONYCTERIDAECraseonycteris thonglongyai HOG-NOSED BATHIPPOSIDERIDAEHipposideros gigasHipposideros jonesi JONES'S ROUNDLEAF BATHipposideros lamottei LAMOTTE'S ROUNDLEAF BATHipposideros ruber NOACK'S ROUNDLEAF BATMOLOSSIDAEChaerephon ansorgei ANSORGE'S FREE-TAILED BATChaerephon nigeriae NIGERIAN FREE-TAILED BATNYCTERIDAENycteris gambiensis GAMBIAN SLIT-FACED BATNycteris grandis LARGE SLIT-FACED BATPTEROPODIDAEAcerodon jubatus GOLDEN-CAPPED FRUIT BATDobsonia chapmani NEGROS NAKED-BACKED FRUIT BATEidolon helvum Straw-coloured fruit batEpomophorus gambianus GAMBIAN EPAULETTED FRUIT BATEpomophorus grandis LESSER ANGOLAN EPAULETTED FRUIT BATHypsignathus monstrosus HAMMER-HEADED FRUIT BATLatidens salimalii SALIM ALI'S FRUIT BATLissonycteris angolensis ANGOLAN FRUIT BATLissonycteris smithi SMITH'S FRUIT BATNeopteryx frosti SMALL-TOOTHED FRUIT BATPteropus dasymallus RYUKYU FLYING-FOXPteropus insularis CHUUK FLYING-FOXPteropus mariannus MARIANAS FLYING FOXPteropus niger GREATER MASCARENE FLYING FOX

Pteropus ornatus ORNATE FLYING FOXPteropus rufus MADAGASCAN FLYING FOXPteropus voeltzkowi PEMBA FLYING FOXRousettus aegyptiacus LONG-HAIRED ROUSETTERousettus lanosus EGYPTIAN FRUIT BATRHINOLOPHIDAERhinolophus alcyone HALCYON HORSESHOE BATRhinolophus guineensis GUINEAN HORSESHOE BATRhinolophus hilliRhinolophus hillorum HILL'S HORSESHOE BATRhinolophus ruwenzorii RUWENZORI HORSESHOE BATRhinolophus silvestris FOREST HORSESHOE BATRhinolophus ziamaDIPROTODONTIAMACROPODIDAEDorcopsis atrata BLACK DORCOPSIS WALLABYMacropus fuliginosus Western grey kangarooMacropus giganteus Eastern grey kangarooMacropus rufus Red kangarooPHALANGERIDAESpilocuscus rufoniger BLACK-SPOTTED CUSCUSHYRACOIDEAPROCAVIIDAEDendrohyrax dorsalis tree hyraxHeterohyrax brucei Yellow-spotted hyraxINSECTIVORAERINACEIDAEAtelerix albiventris Four-toed hedgehogLAGOMORPHALEPORIDAELepus europaeus European brown hareLepus saxatilis scrub hareLepus timidus Arctic hareLepus yarkandensis YARKLAND HAREOryctolagus cuniculus European rabbitPoelagus marjorita Uganda grass hareSylvilagus brasiliensis TapetiSylvilagus insonus OMILTEME COTTONTAILMACROSCELIDEAMACROSCELIDIDAEPetrodromus tetradactylus Four-toed elephant shrewRhynchocyon chrysopygus Golden-rumped elephant shrewMONOTREMATATACHYGLOSSIDAEZaglossus bruijni LONG-BEAKED ECHIDNAPERISSODACTYLAEQUIDAEEquus burchelli zebraTAPIRIDAETapirus bairdii BAIRD'S TAPIRTapirus indicus ASIAN TAPIRTapirus pinchaque ANDEAN TAPIRTapirus terrestris BRAZILIAN TAPIRPHOLIDOTAMANIDAEManis gigantea Illiger giant pangolinManis temminckii Ground pangolinManis tricuspis Rafinesque common/tree pangolin

Phataginus tricuspis Tree pangolinSmutsia gigantea Giant pangolinUromanis tetradactyla Long-tailed pangolinPRIMATESATELIDAEOreonax flavicauda YELLOW-TAILED WOOLLY MONKEYCALLITRICHIDAESaguinus nigricollis TamarinCEBIDAESaimiri sciureus Squirrel monkeyAlouatta seniculus Howler monkeyAteles hybridus brunneus Brown spider monkeyAteles paniscus Spider monkeyCacajao calvus Bald UakariCacajao melanocephalus Black UakariCallicebus moloch Titi monkeyCebus apella CapuchinCebus xanthosternos Buff-headed tufted capuchinCebus xanthosternos YELLOW-BREASTED CAPUCHINChiropotes albinasus Red-nosed sakiChiropotes chiropotes Bearded sakiChiropotes satanus Bearded sakiChiropotes utahickae Uta Hick's bearded sakiLagothrix lagotricha Humboldt's woolly monkeyPithecia aequatorialis Equatorial sakiPithecia albicans Buffy skaiPithecia irrorata Gray monkey sakiPithecia monachus Geoffroy's monk sakiPithecia pithecia Golden-faced sakiCECOPITHECIDAEBrachyteles hypoxanthus Northern muriquiCercocebus agilis Agile mangabeyCercocebus albigena grey cheeked mangabey (W&C)Cercocebus atys Sooty mangabeyCercocebus atys lunulatus White-naped mangabeyCercocebus galeritus CRESTED MANGABEYCercocebus mitis White-collared mangabey / Samango monkeyCercocebus torquatus collared mangabey (W&C)Cercocebys sanjei Sanje mangabeyCercopithecus aethiops Grivet monkeyCercopithecus ascanius Red-tailed monkeyCercopithecus campbelli Campbell’s monkeyCercopithecus cephus moustached monkey (W&C)Cercopithecus denti Dent's monkeyCercopithecus diana DIANA GUENONCercopithecus dryas DRYAD MONKEYCercopithecus erythrogaster RED-BELLIED GUENONCercopithecus erythrotis RED-EARED GUENONCercopithecus hamlyni owl faced monkey (W&C)Cercopithecus mitis samango monkey (E&S)Cercopithecus neglectus De Brazza's monkeyCercopithecus nictitans greater white nosed monkey (W&C)Cercopithecus petaurista Lesser spot-nosed monkeyCercopithecus pogonias crowned guenon (W&C)Cercopithecus preussi PREUSS'S GUENONCercopithecus sclateri SCLATER'S GUENONCercopithecus solatus SUN-TAILED GUENONCercopithicus mona Mona monkey (W&C)Chlorocebus tantalus Tantalus monkeyColobus angolensis Angolan colobusColobus badius pennanti red colobus (W&C)Colobus guereza eastern black & white colobus (W&C)Colobus polykomos Black-and-white colobusColobus satanas BLACK COLOBUSColobus vellerosus GEOFFROY'S BLACK-AND-WHITE COLOBUSErythrocebus patas Patas monkeyLophocebus aterrimus BLACK CRESTED MANGABEYMacaca assamensis ASSAM MACAQUEMacaca fascicularis Long-tailed macaqueMacaca nemestrina Pig-tailed macaqueMacaca silenus LION-TAILED MACAQUEMandrillus leucophaeus DRILLMandrillus sphinx Mandrill

Miopithecus talapoin talapoin (W&C)Papio anubis Olive baboonPapio cynocephalus Yellow baboonPapio hamadryas Hamadryas baboonPresbytis hosei canicrus Miller's grizzled suriliPresbytis melalophos Banded leaf monkeyProcolobus badius RED COLOBUSProcolobus pennantii PENNANT'S RED COLOBUSProcolobus rufomitratus EASTERN RED COLOBUSPygathrix cinerea Grey-shanked doucSemnopithecus johnii BLACK LEAF MONKEYSemnopithecus vetulus nestor Western purple-faced langurSimias concolor PIG-TAILED LANGURTrachypithecus delacouri Delacour's langurTrachypithecus obscurus Dusky leaf monkeyTrachypithecus poliocephalus poliocephalus Golden-headed langurGALAGONIDAEGalago alleni Allen’s squirrel galagoGalago elegantulus Elegant needle-clawed galagoGalagoides potto Demidoff’s galagoGalagoides sp. nov Mt. Rungwe galagoOtolemur crassicaudatus Greater galagoHOMINIDAEGorilla beringei graueri EASTERN GORILLAGorilla gorilla gorilla WESTERN GORILLAPan paniscus BONOBOPan troglodytes CHIMPANZEEGorilla beringei beringei mountain gorillaGorilla gorilla ssp. Diehli Cross River gorilla (W&C)Pongo abelii Sumatran orangutanPongo pygmaeus ORANG-UTANHYLOBATIDAEHylobates lar White-handed gibbonLoris lydekkerianus nycticeboides Horton Plains slender lorisNomascus gabriellae BUFF-CHEEKED GIBBONNomascus leucogenys WHITE-CHEEKED GIBBONINDRIDAEPropithecus candidus Silky sifakaPropithecus perrieri Perrier's sifakaLEMURIDAEEulemur albocollaris White-collared lemurProlemur simus Greater bamboo lemurLORIDAEArctocebus aureus GOLDEN ANGWANTIBOArctocebus calabarensis ANGWANTIBOPerodicticus potto potto gibbon (W&C)PROBOSCIDEAELEPHANTIDAELoxodonta africana AFRICAN ELEPHANTRODENTIAAGOUTIDAECuniculus paca AgoutiANOMALURIDAEAnomalurus derbianus Lord Derby's scaly-tailed squirrelCAPROMYIDAEGeocapromys brownii BROWN'S HUTIAPlagiodontia aedium CUVIER'S HUTIACASTORIDAE

Castor canadensis Canadian beaverCastor fiber European beaverCRICETIDAECricetomys gambianus Gambian ratDASYPROCTIDAEDasyprocta variegata AgoutiMyoprocta acouchy Green acouchiMyoprocta exilis Red acouchiERITHIZONTIDAECoendou coendu Bicolor-spined porcupineCoendou koopmani Koopman's porcupineCoendou prehensilis Brazilian porcupineCoendou rothschildi Rothschild's porcupineHYDROCHAERIDAEHydrochaeris hydrochaeris CapybaraHYSTRICIDAEAtherurus africanus brush-tailed porcupineHystrix africaeaustralis Cape porcupineHystrix cristata North African crested porcupineHystrix indica Indian porcupineMURIDAEBeamys major GREATER HAMSTER-RATCricetomys emini giant ratOndatra zibethicus muskratMYCOCASTORIDAEMyocastor coypus coypuMYOXIDAEGlis glis Edible dormousePEDETIDAEPedetes capensis springhareSCIURIDAECallosciurus adamsi EAR-SPOT SQUIRRELCallosciurus albescens KLOSS SQUIRRELCallosciurus baluensis INABALU SQUIRRELCallosciurus caniceps GRAY-BELLIED SQUIRRELCallosciurus erythraeus PALLAS'S SQUIRRELCallosciurus finlaysonii FINLAYSON'S SQUIRRELCallosciurus inornatus INORNATE SQUIRRELCallosciurus melanogaster MENTAWAI SQUIRRELCallosciurus nigrovittatus BLACK-STRIPED SQUIRRELCallosciurus notatus PLANTAIN SQUIRRELCallosciurus orestes BORNEO BLACK-BANDED SQUIRRELCallosciurus phayrei PHAYRE'S SQUIRRELCallosciurus prevostii PREVOST'S SQUIRRELCallosciurus pygerythrus IRRAWADDY SQUIRRELCallosciurus quinquestriatus ANDERSON'S SQUIRRELEpixerus ebii Ebian's palm squirrelEuxerus erythropus SquirrelFunambulus tristriatus JUNGLE PALM SQUIRRELFunisciurus anerythrus THOMAS'S ROPE SQUIRRELFunisciurus bayonii LUNDA ROPE SQUIRRELFunisciurus carruthersi CARRUTHER'S MOUNTAIN SQUIRRELFunisciurus congicus CONGO ROPE SQUIRRELFunisciurus isabella LADY BURTON'S ROPE SQUIRRELFunisciurus lemniscatus RIBBONED ROPE SQUIRRELFunisciurus leucogenys RED-CHEEKED ROPE SQUIRRELFunisciurus pyrropus FIRE-FOOTED ROPE SQUIRRELFunisciurus substriatus KINTAMPO ROPE SQUIRRELHelioschiurus ruwenzorii Ruwenzori sun squirrelHeliosciurus rufobrachium Squirrel

Myosciurus pumilio African pygmy squirrelParaxerus poensis SquirrelParaxerus vincenti VINCENT'S BUSH SQUIRRELProtoxerus stangeri SquirrelRatufa indica INDIAN GIANT SQUIRRELSciurus spp. SquirrelsSciurus vulgaris (Eurasian) red squirrelSundasciurus brookei BROOKE'S SQUIRRELSundasciurus davensis DAVAO SQUIRRELSundasciurus fraterculus FRATERNAL SQUIRRELSundasciurus hippurus HORSE-TAILED SQUIRRELSundasciurus hoogstraali BUSUANGA SQUIRRELSundasciurus jentinki JENTINK'S SQUIRRELSundasciurus juvencus NORTHERN PALAWAN TREE SQUIRRELSundasciurus lowii LOW'S SQUIRRELSundasciurus mindanensis MINDANAO SQUIRRELSundasciurus moellendorffi CULION TREE SQUIRRELSundasciurus philippinensis PHILIPPINE TREE SQUIRRELSundasciurus rabori PALAWAN MONTANE SQUIRRELSundasciurus samarensis SAMAR SQUIRRELSundasciurus steerii SOUTHERN PALAWAN TREE SQUIRRELSundasciurus tenuis SLENDER SQUIRRELTHRYONOMYIDAEThrionomys swinderianus greater cane ratSIRENIATRICHECHIDAETrichechus senegalensis West African manateeTUBULIDENTATAORYCTEROPODIDAEOrycteropus afer AarvarkXENARTHRABRADYPODIDAEBradypus torquatus MANED SLOTHBradypus tridactylus PALE-THROATED SLOTHBradypus variegatus BOLIVIAN THREE-TOED SLOTHDASYPODIDAEDasypus hybridus SOUTHERN LONG-NOSED ARMADILLODasypus kappleri GREATER LONG-NOSED ARMADILLODasypus novemcinctus COMMON LONG-NOSED ARMADILLODasypus pilosus HAIRY LONG-NOSED ARMADILLODasypus sabanicola LLANOS LONG-NOSED ARMADILLODasypus septemcinctus BRAZILIAN LESSER LONG-NOSED ARMADILLOPriodontes maximus GIANT ARMADILLOTolypeutes tricinctus BRAZILIAN THREE-BANDED ARMADILLOMYRMECOPHAGIDAEMyrmecophaga tridactyla Giant anteaterTamandua tetradactyla Southern tamanduaANSERIFORMESANATIDAEAnas acuta pintailAnas bernieri MADAGASCAR TEALAnas clypeata northern shovelerAnas crecca TealAnas luzonica PHILIPPINE DUCKAnas penelope WigeonAnas platyrhynchos MallardAnas querquedula garganeyAnas strepera gadwallAnser anser greylag gooseAnser fabalis bean gooseAythya ferina common pochardAythya fuligula tufted duckBranta canadensis Canada gooseBucephala clangula Common goldeneyeCairina scutulata WHITE-WINGED DUCKClangula hyemalis long-tailed duck

Dendrocygna arborea BLACK-BILLED WOOD-DUCKMergus merganser goosanderMergus serrator red-breasted merganserMergus squamatus CHINESE MERGANSERPteronetta hartlaubii HARTLAUB'S DUCKRhodonessa caryophyllacea PINK-HEADED DUCKSomateria mollissima common eiderCASUARIIFORMESCASUARIIDAECasuarius casuarius SOUTHERN CASSOWARYCasuarius unappendiculatus NORTHERN CASSOWARYCHARADRIIFORMESCHARADRIIDAECharadrius thoracicus BLACK-BANDED PLOVERSCOLOPACIDAEGallinago gallinago SnipeGallinago nemoricola WOOD SNIPEScolopax rusticola WoodcockTringa guttifer NORDMANN'S GREENSHANKCICONIIFORMESARDEIDAEArdea humbloti MADAGASCAR HERONArdea insignis IMPERIAL HERONArdeola idae MADAGASCAR POND-HERONEgretta eulophotes CHINESE EGRETGorsachius goisagi JAPANESE NIGHT-HERONGorsachius magnificus WHITE-EARED NIGHT-HERONCICONIIDAECiconia boyciana JAPANESE WHITE STORKCiconia stormi STORM'S STORKLeptoptilos dubius GREATER ADJUTANTLeptoptilos javanicus LESSER ADJUTANTMycteria cinerea MILKY STORKTHRESKIORNITHIDAEBostrychia bocagei DWARF OLIVE IBISLophotibis cristata MADAGASCAR CRESTED IBISNipponia nippon CRESTED IBISPseudibis davisoni WHITE-SHOULDERED IBISThaumatibis gigantea GIANT IBISThreskiornis bernieri MADAGASCAR SACRED IBISThreskiornis melanocephalus BLACK-HEADED IBISCOLUMBIFORMESCOLUMBIDAECaloenas nicobarica NICOBAR DOVEColumba argentina GREY WOOD-PIGEONColumba caribaea RING-TAILED PIGEONColumba elphinstonii NILGIRI WOOD-PIGEONColumba eversmanni PALE-BACKED PIGEONColumba inornata PLAIN PIGEONColumba leucocephala WHITE-CROWNED PIGEONColumba oenops PERUVIAN PIGEONColumba pallidiceps YELLOW-LEGGED PIGEONColumba palumbus Wood pigeonColumba punicea PALE-CAPPED PIGEONColumba thomensis MAROON PIGEONColumba torringtoni CEYLON WOOD-PIGEONColumba trocaz MADEIRA LAUREL PIGEONDidunculus strigirostris TOOTH-BILLED PIGEONDrepanoptila holosericea CLOVEN-FEATHERED DOVEDucula aurorae POLYNESIAN IMPERIAL-PIGEONDucula bakeri BAKER'S IMPERIAL-PIGEONDucula brenchleyi CHESTNUT-BELLIED IMPERIAL-PIGEONDucula carola SPOTTED IMPERIAL-PIGEONDucula cineracea TIMOR IMPERIAL-PIGEONDucula galeata MARQUESAN IMPERIAL-PIGEONDucula goliath GIANT IMPERIAL-PIGEONDucula mindorensis MINDORO IMPERIAL-PIGEON

Ducula oceanica MICRONESIAN IMPERIAL-PIGEONDucula pickeringii GREY IMPERIAL-PIGEONDucula whartoni CHRISTMAS IMPERIAL-PIGEONGallicolumba crinigera MINDANAO BLEEDING-HEARTGallicolumba erythroptera POLYNESIAN GROUND-DOVEGallicolumba hoedtii WETAR GROUND-DOVEGallicolumba keayi NEGROS BLEEDING-HEARTGallicolumba kubaryi CAROLINE GROUND-DOVEGallicolumba platenae MINDORO BLEEDING-HEARTGallicolumba salamonis THICK-BILLED GROUND-DOVEGallicolumba sanctaecrucis SANTA CRUZ GROUND-DOVEGallicolumba stairi FRIENDLY GROUND-DOVEGeotrygon caniceps GREY-HEADED QUAIL-DOVEGeotrygon versicolor CRESTED QUAIL-DOVEGoura cristata BLUE CROWNED-PIGEONGoura scheepmakeri MAROON-BREASTED CROWNED-PIGEONGoura victoria VICTORIA CROWNED-PIGEONLeptotila battyi BROWN-BACKED DOVELeptotila ochraceiventris OCHRE-BELLIED DOVEPhapitreron brunneiceps MINDANAO BROWN-DOVEPhapitreron cinereiceps DARK-EARED BROWN-DOVEPtilinopus arcanus NEGROS FRUIT-DOVEPtilinopus dohertyi RED-NAPED FRUIT-DOVEPtilinopus huttoni RAPA FRUIT-DOVEPtilinopus marchei FLAME-BREASTED FRUIT-DOVEPtilinopus merrilli CREAM-BELLIED FRUIT-DOVEPtilinopus roseicapilla MARIANA FRUIT-DOVEStarnoenas cyanocephala BLUE-HEADED QUAIL-DOVETreron calva African green pigeonTreron capellei LARGE GREEN-PIGEONTreron floris FLORES GREEN-PIGEONTreron formosae WHISTLING GREEN-PIGEONTreron psittacea TIMOR GREEN-PIGEONTuracoena modesta BLACK CUCKOO-DOVEZenaida graysoni SOCORRO DOVECORACIIFORMESBUCEROTIDAEAceros everetti SUMBA HORNBILLAceros leucocephalus MINDANAO WRINKLED HORNBILLAceros narcondami NARCONDAM HORNBILLAceros nipalensis RUFOUS-CHEEKED HORNBILLAceros subruficollis PLAIN-POUCHED HORNBILLAceros waldeni VISAYAN WRINKLED HORNBILLAnthracoceros marchei PALAWAN HORNBILLAnthracoceros montani SULU HORNBILLBuceros rhinoceros RHINOCEROS HORNBILLBycanistes cylindricus BROWN-CHEEKED HORNBILLBycanistes subclindricus black and white casqued hornbillCeratogymna atrata black-casqued hornbillCeratogymna elata YELLOW-CASQUED HORNBILLPenelopides mindorensis MINDORO HORNBILLPenelopides panini TARICTIC HORNBILLTockus alboterminatus CROWNED HORNBILLTockus bradfieldi BRADFIELD'S HORNBILLTockus camurus RED-BILLED DWARF HORNBILLTockus deckeni VON DER DECKEN'S HORNBILLTockus erythrorhynchus RED-BILLED HORNBILLTockus fasciatus AFRICAN PIED HORNBILLTockus flavirostris EASTERN YELLOW-BILLED HORNBILLTockus hartlaubi BLACK DWARF HORNBILLTockus hemprichii HEMPRICH'S HORNBILLTockus jacksoni JACKSON'S HORNBILLTockus leucomelas SOUTHERN YELLOW-BILLED HORNBILLTockus monteiri MONTEIRO'S HORNBILLTockus nasutus AFRICAN GREY HORNBILLTockus pallidirostris PALE-BILLED HORNBILLCORACIIDAEAtelornis crossleyi CROSSLEY'S GROUND-ROLLERBrachypteracias leptosomus SHORT-LEGGED GROUND-ROLLERBrachypteracias squamiger SCALED GROUND-ROLLERUratelornis chimaera LONG-TAILED GROUND-ROLLERCRACIFORMESCRACIDAENothocrax urumutum Nocturnal currasow

CUCULIFORMESCUCULIDAECarpococcyx viridis SUMATRAN GROUND-CUCKOOHyetornis rufigularis BAY-BREASTED CUCKOOPhaenicophaeus pyrrhocephalus RED-FACED MALKOHAMUSOPHAGIDAECorythaeola cristata blue plantaineaterTauraco ruspolii PRINCE RUSPOLI'S TURACOOpisthocomidaeOphistocomus hoazin HoatzinFALCONIFORMESACCIPITRIDAEAccipiter tachiro African goshawkCircus maillardi MADAGASCAR HARRIERGypohierax angolensis Palm nut vultureGyps coprotheres CAPE GRIFFONHaliaeetus sanfordi SANFORD'S FISH-EAGLEHaliaeetus vocifer African fish eagleHarpyopsis novaeguineae NEW GUINEA EAGLEHenicopernis infuscatus BLACK HONEY-BUZZARDPithecophaga jefferyi GREAT PHILIPPINE EAGLESpizaetus philippensis PHILIPPINE HAWK-EAGLEStephanoaetus coronatus crowned hawk eagleGALLIFORMESCRACIDAEAburria aburri WATTLED GUANChamaepetes unicolor BLACK GUANCrax alberti BLUE-BILLED CURASSOWCrax blumenbachii MUTUMCrax daubentoni HOCCO DE DAUBENTONCrax globulosa WATTLED CURASSOWCrax mitu ALAGOAS CURASSOWCrax pauxi HELMETED CURASSOWCrax rubra GREAT CURASSOWCrax unicornis HORNED CURASSOWOreophasis derbianus HORNED GUANOrtalis erythroptera RUFOUS HEADED CHACHALACAOrtalis superciliaris BUFF-BROWED CHACHALACAPenelope albipennis WHITE-WINGED GUANPenelope barbata BEARDED GUANPenelope jacucaca WHITE-BROWED GUANPenelope ochrogaster CHESTNUT-BELLIED GUANPenelope ortoni BAUDO GUANPenelope perspicax CAUCA GUANPenelope pileata WHITE-CRESTED GUANPenelopina nigra HIGHLAND GUANPipile jacutinga BLACK FRONTED CURASSOWPipile pipile TRINIDAD PIPING-GUANMEGAPODIIDAEAepypodius bruijnii BRUIJN'S BRUSH-TURKEYEulipoa wallacei MOLUCCAN MEGAPODEMacrocephalon maleo GRAY'S BRUSH-TURKEYMegapodius bernsteinii SULA SCRUBFOWLMegapodius geelvinkianus BIAK MEGAPODEMegapodius laperouse MARIANAS SCRUBFOWLMegapodius layardi NEW HEBRIDES SCRUBFOWLMegapodius nicobariensis NICOBAR MEGAPODEMegapodius pritchardii NEVAFOU MEGAPODEMELEAGRIDIDAEMeleagris ocellata OCELLATED TURKEYNUMIDIDAEAgelastes meleagrides WHITE-BREASTED GUINEAFOWLPHASIANIDAEAfropavo congensis CONGO PEAFOWL

Alectoris chukar Chukar partridgeAlectoris rufa Red-legged partridgeArborophila ardens HAINAN PARTRIDGEArborophila cambodiana CHESTNUT-HEADED PARTRIDGEArborophila davidi ORANGE-NECKED PARTRIDGEArborophila gingica RICKETT'S HILL-PARTRIDGEArborophila mandellii CHESTNUT-BREASTED PARTRIDGEArborophila orientalis WHITE-FACED HILL-PARTRIDGEArborophila rufipectus SICHUAN PARTRIDGEArborophila torqueola Common hill partridgeArgusianus argus GREAT ARGUSCaloperdix oculea FERRUGINOUS PARTRIDGECatreus wallichi Cheer pheasantCoturnix coturnix QuailCrossoptilon crossoptilon WHITE EARED-PHEASANTDendrortyx barbatus BEARDED WOOD-PARTRIDGEFrancolinus camerunensis CAMEROON FRANCOLINFrancolinus francolinus Black francolinFrancolinus griseostriatus GREY-STRIPED FRANCOLINFrancolinus nahani NAHAN'S FRANCOLINFrancolinus ochropectus DJIBOUTI FRANCOLINFrancolinus swierstrai SWIERSTRA'S FRANCOLINGuttera edouardi Crested guineafowlLophophorus impejanus Himalayan monalLophophorus lhuysii CHINESE IMPEYANLophophorus sclateri CRESTLESS MONALLophura bulweri BULWER'S PHEASANTLophura diardi DIARD'S FIREBACKLophura edwardsi EDWARDS'S PHEASANTLophura erythrophthalma CRESTLESS FIREBACKLophura hatinhensis VIETNAMESE PHEASANTLophura hoogerwerfi ACEH PHEASANTLophura inornata SALVADORI'S PHEASANTLophura leucomelanos White-crested kalijMelanoperdix nigra BLACK PARTRIDGENumida meleagris helmeted or tufted guinea fowOdontophorus dialeucos TACARCUNA WOOD-QUAILOdontophorus melanonotus DARK-BACKED WOOD-QUAILOdontophorus strophium GORGETED WOOD-QUAILPavo muticus GREEN PEAFOWLPerdix perdix Grey partridgePhasianus colchicus Common pheasantPolyplectron emphanum NAPOLEON'S PEACOCK-PHEASANTPolyplectron germaini GERMAIN'S PEACOCK-Polyplectron schleiermacheri BORNEAN PEACOCK-PHEASANTPucrasia macrolopha Koklass pheasantRheinardia ocellata CRESTED ARGUSSyrmaticus ellioti CHINESE BARRED-BACKED PHEASANTSyrmaticus humiae HUME'S BAR-TAILED PHEASANTSyrmaticus reevesii REEVES'S PHEASANTTetraogallus himalayensis Himalayan snowcockTragopan blythii BLYTH'S TRAGOPANTragopan caboti CABOT'S TRAGOPANTragopan melanocephalus BLACK-HEADED TRAGOPANXenoperdix udzungwensis UDZUNGWA FOREST-PARTRIDGETETRAONIDAEBonasa bonasia hazel grouseBonasa sewerzowi CHINESE GROUSEDendragapus falcipennis SIBERIAN GROUSELagopus lagopus Red grouseLagopus lagopus willow grouseLagopus mutus PtarmiganTetrao tetrix Black grouseTetrao urogallus CapercaillieGRUIFORMESHELIORNITHIDAEHeliopais personata ASIAN FINFOOTMESITORNITHIDAEMesitornis unicolor BROWN MESITEMesitornis variegatus WHITE-BREASTED MESITEMonias benschi MONIASPsophiidae

Psophia crepitans GREY-WINGED TRUMPETERPsophia leucoptera PALE-WINGED TRUMPETERPsophia viridis DARK-WINGED TRUMPETERRALLIDAEAramidopsis plateni PLATEN'S RAILFulica atra common cootGallinula pacifica SAMOAN MOORHENGallinula silvestris MAKIRA MOORHENGallirallus sylvestris LORD HOWE ISLAND WOODHENGymnocrex rosenbergii BALD-FACED RAILMegacrex inepta NEW GUINEA FLIGHTLESS RAILRallina leucospila WHITE-STRIPED FOREST-RAILRallus wetmorei PLAIN-FLANKED RAILPASSERIFORMESCAMPEPHAGIDAECoracina newtoni RÉUNION CUCKOO-SHRIKECORVIDAECorvus leucognaphalus WHITE-NECKED CROWCorvus palmarum HISPANIOLAN PALM CROWCOTINGIDAECephalopterus penduliger LONG-WATTLED UMBRELLABIRDXipholena atropurpurea WHITE-WINGED COTINGADREPANIDIDAEPsittirostra psittacea 'O'UEMBERIZIDAEEmberiza aureola YELLOW-BREASTED BUNTINGESTRILDIDAEPadda oryzivora JAVA SPARROWMUSCICAPIDAECichlherminia lherminieri FOREST THRUSHPicathartes gymnocephalus BARE-HEADED ROCKFOWLZoothera cinerea ASHY THRUSHPARADISAEIDAEEpimachus fastuosus BLACK SICKLEBILLMacgregoria pulchra MACGREGOR'S BIRD-OF-PARADISEParadisaea rudolphi BLUE BIRD-OF-PARADISEPITTIDAEPitta kochi KOCH'S PITTAPitta schneideri SCHNEIDER'S PITTAPTILONORHYNCHIDAESericulus bakeri ADELBERT BOWERBIRDSTURNIDAEAplonis brunneicapillus WHITE-EYED STARLINGAplonis pelzelni POHNPEI MOUNTAIN STARLINGAplonis santovestris MOUNTAIN STARLINGPELECANIFORMESANHINGIDAEAnhinga melanogaster ORIENTAL DARTERPELECANIDAEPelecanus philippensis GREY PELICAN

Pelecanus rufescens Pink-backed pelecanPICIFORMESPICIDAECampephilus imperialis IMPERIAL WOODPECKERRamphastidaePteroglossus aracari BLACK-NECKED ARACARIPteroglossus azara IVORY-BILLED ARACARIPteroglossus beauharnaesii CURL-CRESTED ARACARIPteroglossus bitorquatus RED-NECKED ARACARIPteroglossus castanotis CHESTNUT-EARED ARACARIPteroglossus erythropygius PALE-MANDIBLED ARACARIPteroglossus frantzii FIERY-BILLED ARACARIPteroglossus inscriptus LETTERED ARACARIPteroglossus mariae BROWN-MANDIBLED ARACARIPteroglossus pluricinctus MANY-BANDED ARACARIPteroglossus sanguineus STRIPE-BILLED ARACARIPteroglossus torquatus COLLARED ARACARIPteroglossus viridis GREEN ARACARIPROCELLARIIFORMESPROCELLARIIDAEPseudobulweria rostrata TAHITI PETRELPterodroma axillaris CHATHAM ISLANDS PETRELPterodroma baraui BARAU'S PETRELPterodroma caribbaea JAMAICA PETRELPterodroma hasitata BLACK-CAPPED PETRELPterodroma magentae CHATHAM ISLAND TAIKOPterodroma solandri PROVIDENCE PETRELPuffinus creatopus PINK-FOOTED SHEARWATERPuffinus gravis Great shearwaterPSITTACIFORMESPSITTACIDAEAgapornis nigrigenis BLACK-CHEEKED LOVEBIRDAmazona arausiaca RED-NECKED AMAZONAmazona brasiliensis RED-TAILED AMAZONAmazona guildingii SAINT VINCENT AMAZONAmazona imperialis IMPERIAL AMAZONAmazona ventralis HISPANIOLAN AMAZONAmazona versicolor SAINT LUCIA AMAZONAmazona vittata PUERTO RICAN AMAZONAnodorhynchus glaucus GLAUCOUS MACAWAnodorhynchus hyacinthinus HYACINTH MACAWAra ambigua GREAT GREEN MACAWCacatua haematuropygia PHILIPPINE COCKATOOCyanopsitta spixii LITTLE BLUE MACAWNestor meridionalis KAKAOgnorhynchus icterotis YELLOW-EARED CONURETriclaria malachitacea BLUE-BELLIED PARROTSTRIGIFORMESSTRIGIDAEBubo philippensis PHILIPPINE EAGLE-OWLOtus capnodes ANJOUAN SCOPS-OWLOtus moheliensis MOHELI SCOPS-OWLScotopelia ussheri RUFOUS FISHING-OWLSTRUTHIONEFORMESSTRUTHIONIDAEStruthio camelus ostrichTINAMIFORMESTINAMIDAECrypturellus kerriae CHOCÓ TINAMOUCrypturellus noctivagus YELLOW-LEGGED TINAMOUCrypturellus saltuarius MAGDALENA TINAMOUCrypturellus transfasciatus PALE-BROWED TINAMOUTinamus osgoodi BLACK TINAMOU

CROCODILIACROCODYLIDAECrocodylus cataphractus African slender-snouted crocodileCrocodylus niloticus Nile crocodileMelanosuchus niger Black caimanOsteolaemis tetraspis Dwarf crocodileSQUAMATABOIDAEPython sebae rock pythonIGUANIDAECtenosaura flavidorsalis YELLOWBACK SPINY-TAILED IGUANACtenosaura oaxacana OAXACAN SPINY-TAILED IGUANACyclura carinata BAHAMAS ROCK IGUANACyclura cychlura NORTHERN BAHAMIAN ROCK IGUANACyclura lewisi CAYMAN ISLAND GROUND IGUANAIguana delicatissima LESSER ANTILLEAN IGUANAVARANIDAEVaranus niloticus monitor lizardTESTUDINESBATAGURIDAEBatagur baska BatagurCallagur borneoensis Painted batagurChinemys megalocephala Chinese broad-headed pond turtleChinemys nigricans (kwangtungensis) Red-necked pond turtleChinemys reevesi Chinese pond turtleCuora amboinensis South Asian box turtleCuora aurocapitata Yellow-headed box turtleCuora flavomarginata Yellow-margined box turtleCuora galbinifrons Indochinese box turtleCuora mccordi McCord's box turtleCuora pani Pan's box turtleCuora serrata Flowerback box turtleCuora trifasciata Chinese three-striped box turtleCuora zhoui Zhou's box turtleCyclemys dentata Asian leaf turtleCyclemys tcheponensis Stripe-necked leaf turtleGeoclemys hamiltonii Black pond turtleGeomyda depressa Arakan forest turtleGeomyda spengleri Black-breasted hill turtleGeoemyda silvatica CANE TURTLEHardella thurjii Crowned river turtleHeosemys grandis Giant Asian pond turtleHeosemys spinosa Spiny terrapinHieremys annandaleii Yellow-headed temple turtleKachuga dhongoka Three-striped roof turtleKachuga kachuga Bengal roof turtleKachuga smithii Brown roofed turtleKachuga sylhetensis Assam roofted turtleKachuga tentoria Indian tent turtleKachuga trivittata Burmese roofed turtleLeucocephalon yuwonoi Sulawesi forest turtleMalayemys subtrijuga Malayan snail-eating turtleMauremys annamensis Annam leaf turtleMauremys iversoni Fujian pond turtleMauremys mutica Asian yellow pond turtleMauremys pritchardi Pritchard's pond turtleMelanochelys edenianaMelanochelys indopeninsularis Bengal black turtleMelanochelys tricarinata Three-keeled land tortoiseMelanochelys trijuga Indian black turtleMorenia ocellata Bengal eyed terrapinMorenia petersi Indian eyed turtleNotochelys platynota Malayan flat-shelled turtleOcadia glyphistoma Guanxi stripe-necked turtleOcadia philippeni Philippen's striped turtleOcadia sinensis Chinese stripe-necked turtleOrlitia borneensis Bornean river turtlePyxidea mohoutii Jagged-shelled turtleSacalia bealei Beal's eyed turtleSacalia pseudocellata Chinese false-eyed turtle

Sacalia quadriocellata Four-eyed turtleSiebenrockiella crassicollis Black mud turtleCARETTOCHELYIDAECarettochelys insculpta Fly river turtleCHELIDAEChelus fimbriatus Mata mataChelodina mccordi Roti Island snake-necked turtleChelydra serpentina Western short-necked turtlePELOMEDUSIDAEPodocnemis expansa Giant South American turtlePodocnemis unifinis Yellow-spotted river turtlePLATYSTERNIDAEPlatysternon megacephalum Big-headed turtleTESTUDINIDAEGeochelone chilensis Argenitne tortoiseGeochelone denticulata Brazilian giant tortoiseGeochelone elegans Indian star tortoiseGeochelone platynota Burmese starred tortoiseIndotestudo elongata Elongated tortoiseIndotestudo forstenii Celebes tortoiseKynixis erosa Schweigger forest tortoiseManouria emys Asian giant tortoiseManouria impressa Impressed tortoiseTestudo horsfieldii Afghan tortoiseTRIONYCHIDAEAmyda cartilaginea Asiatic Softshell TurtleAspideretes gangeticus Indian softshell turtleAspideretes hurum Indian peacock softeshell turtleAspideretes leithii Leith's softshell turtleChitra chitra Striped narrow-headed softeshell turtleChitra indica Narrow-headed softshell turtleDogania subplana Malayan softshell turtleLissemys andersoni (punctata) Anderson's flap-shelled turtleLissemys scutata Burmese flapshell turtleNilssonia formosa Burmese peacock softshellPalea steindachneri Wattle-necked softshell turtlePelochelys bibroni Asian giant softshell turtlePelochelys cantorii Cantor's giant softshellPelodiscus sinensis Chinese softshell turtleANURAASTYLOSTERNIDAELeptodactylodon bicolorTrichobatrachus robustus HAIRY FROGBUFONIDAEBufo bankorensisBufo gargarizans Himalayan toadBufo himalayanus ASIATIC TOADHYLIDAEHyla annectansHyla miotympanum CALATESHyla taeniopus RANA-DE ÁRBOL JAROCHAPhrynohyas coriaceaLEPTODACTYLIDAELeptodactylus fallax GIANT DITCH FROGLeptodactylus pentadactylus SAPO-TORO COMUNTelmatobius cirrhacelisTelmatobius vellardiMANTELLIDAE

Mantidactylus grandidieriMantidactylus guttulatusMantidactylus microtympanumMEGOPHRYIDAEBrachytarsophrys chuannanensisBrachytarsophrys feae GLANDULAR HORNED TOADLeptobrachium hainanenseOreolalax rhodostigmatusVibrissaphora leishanensisXenophrys major GLANDULAR HORNED TOADMICROHYLIDAECallulops stictogasterCalluella guttulataGlyphoglossus molossusKaloula mediolineataPIPIDAESilurana tropicalis TROPICAL CLAWED FROGXenopus andrei ANDRE'S CLAWED FROGXenopus fraseri FRASER'S CLAWED FROGXenopus pygmaeus BOUCHIA CLAWED FROGXenopus ruwenzoriensis UGANDA CLAWED FROGXenopus vestitus KIVU CLAWED FROGXenopus wittei DE WITTE'S CLAWED FROGRANIDAEAmolops hainanensisChaparana fansipaniChaparana quadranusChaparana unculuanusConraua goliath GOLIATH FROGConraua robustaDiscodeles guppyi KUHL'S CREEK FROGEuphlyctis hexadactylus SIBERIAN WOOD FROGFejervarya cancrivora ASIAN BRACKISH FROGFejervarya nepalensis ASIATIC GRASS FROGHoplobatrachus crassusHoplobatrachus occipitalisHoplobatrachus tigerinus PEREZ'S FROGLimnonectes acanthiLimnonectes blythii BLYTH'S RIVER FROGLimnonectes diuatus EASTERN MINDANAO FROGLimnonectes grunniens CROWNED BULLFROGLimnonectes ibanorumLimnonectes kadarsani SIBERIAN WOOD FROGLimnonectes kuhliiLimnonectes macrocephalus LUZON FANGED FROGLimnonectes macrodon FANGED RIVER FROGLimnonectes magnus GIANT PHILIPPINE FROGLimnonectes malesianus MALESIAN FROGLimnonectes shompenorumLimnonectes visayanus GIANT VISAYAN FROGLimnonectes woodworthiPaa arnoldiPaa boulengeriPaa bourretiPaa exilispinosaPaa jiulongensisPaa liuiPaa maculosaPaa robertingeriPaa shiniPaa spinosaPaa verrucospinosaPaa yunnanensisRana aurora RED-LEGGED FROGRana amurensis INDIAN GREEN FROGRana andersonii JERDON'S BULLFROGRana arfaki INDIAN BULLFROGRana chensinensisRana dybowskii KUHL'S CREEK FROGRana erythraea WOODWORTH'S FROGRana esculenta European edible frog

Rana fukienensisRana grahamiRana guentheri COMMON GREEN FROGRana huanrenensisRana jingdongensisRana megapodaRana montezumaeRana nigromaculata BLACK-SPOTTED POND FROGRana perezi CROWNED BULLFROGRana schmackeri INDIAN BULLFROGRana tiannanensisRana tytleri INDIAN BULLFROGRHACOPHORIDAEBuergeria oxycephalusBuergeria robustaPolypedates feaeCAUDATAAMBYSTOMATIDAEAmbystoma altamirani AJOLOTE (S)Ambystoma rivulareCRYPTOBRANCHIDAEAndrias davidianus CHINESE GIANT SALAMANDERHYNOBIIDAEBatrachuperus pinchonii STREAM SALAMANDERHynobius dunni OITA SALAMANDERHynobius stejnegeri AMBER-COLOURED SALAMANDERPachyhynobius shangchengensisRanodon shihi WUSHAN SALAMANDERRanodon tsinpaensis TSINPA SALAMANDERSALAMANDRIDAEPachytriton brevipes BLACK-SPOTTED STOUT NEWTPachytriton labiatus SPOTLESS STOUT NEWTParamesotriton deloustali TAM DAO SALAMANDERTylototriton verrucosus HIMALAYAN SALAMANDERCOLEOPTERABruchidaeAlgarobiusCaryobruchus scheelaeaNeltumiusBuprestidaeBuprestisChalcophoraChrysobothris fatalisChrysobothris femorataEuchroma giganteaPsiloptera wellmaniSteraspis amplipennisSternoceraSternocera aequisignataSternocera feldspathicaSternocera funebrisSternocera orissaCarabidaeEuryscaphusScaritesTricholespisCerambycidaeAcanthophorus capensisAcanthophorus confinisAcanthophorus maculatusAcrocinus longimanus

Agrianome spinicollisAncylonotus tribulusAplagiognathusAplagiognathus spinosusAppectrogastra flavipilisApriona germariArophalus rusticusBardistus cibariusBatoceraBatocera numitorBatocera rubusBatocera albofasciataCallipogon barbatusCoelostermaCoelosterma scabrataDihamnusDorysthenes forficalusEndoxylaEndoxyla eucalyptiErgates spiculatusEurynassa odewahniHoplocerambyx severusHoplocerambyx spinicornisLagocheirus rogersiMacrodontia cervicornisMacrotoma edulisMallodon costatusMnemopulis edulisMonochamus maculosusMonochamus scutellatusNeocerambyx parisNeoclytus conjunctusOmacantha gigasPlocoederus frenatusPrionoplus reticularisPrionus californicusRhagium lineatumRhynchophorus phoenicisStenodontes damicornisStenodontes downesiStenodontesmaxillosusTrichoderes piniXylotrechus nauticusXysteroceraXysterocera globosaZographus feroxChrysomelidaeLeptinotarsa decemlineataCicindelidaeCicindela curvataCicindela roseiventrisProagsternusCorixidaeCorixa esculentaCurculionidaeAnthonomusCyrtotruchelus longimanusEugnoristus monachusHypodisa talacaHypomeces squamosusLarinus mellificusLarinus onopordiLarinus rudicollisLarinus syriacusMetamasius spinolaePolycleis equestrisPolycleis plumbeusRhinaRhynchophorusRhynchophorus chinensisRhynchophorus cruentatusRhynchophorus ferrugineus

Rhynchophorus ferrugineus papuanusRhynchophorus palmarumRhynchophorus schahRhynchoporus bilineatusScyphophorus acupunctatusSipalinus aloysiiDytiscidaeCybisterCybister bengalensisCybister explanatusCybister gueriniCybister hovaCybister japonicusCybister limbatusCybister sugillatusCybister tripunctatusDytiscusDytiscus marginalisEretes stictusEretes stictus sticticusElateridaePyrophorusTetralobus flabellicornisElmidaeAustrelmis chilensisAustrelmis condimentariusHisteridaeHomoleptaHydrophilidaeHydrophilus olivaceusHydrousHydrous bilineatusHydrous cavisternumHydrous hastatusHydrous pallidipalpisHydrous picicornisTropisternus tinctisLucanidaeCladognathus serricornisPassalidaeOleus reinatorPassalus interruptusPassalusunctigerScarabaeidaeAdoretus compressusAdoretus convexusAncognathaAnomala antiquaAnophlognathus viridiaenneusApogoniaAteuches sacarAugosoma centaurusBlapsCamentaCoprisCyclocephala dimidiataCyclocephala villosaExopholis hypoleucaExopholis punctumExopotusGnathoceraGoliathusHelicoprisHelicopris bucephalus

HolotrichiaLepidiotaLepidiota anatinaLepidiota masnonaLepidiota nitidicollisLepidiota stigmaLepidiota vogeliLeucopholisLeucopholis irrorataLeucopholis pulverulentaLeucopholis roridaMegaceras crassumMegasoma actaeonMegasoma hectorMelolonthaOnitisOnitis virensOnthophagousOryctesOryctes boasOryctes centaurusOryctes monocerosOryctes owariensisOryctes rhinocerosPachylomera fermoralisPhyllophagaPhyllophaga fuscaPhyllophaga rubellaPimeliaPlatygeniaPlatygenia barbataPodischnus agenorPolyphylla crinitaPopilliaPopillia femoralisPsilophosisScapanesScarabaeus molossusStrategusTenebrioXyloryctesXylotrupes gideonTenebrionidaeTenebrio molitorMisc ColeopteraLamia tribulusMelanaster chinensisPachyrrhynchus moniliforisPaxillus leachiPsacothea hilarisPsodocerusRhantusDIPTERACalliphoridaeChrysomyia megacephalaChaoboridaeChaoborus edulisEphydridaeEphydra cinereaEphydra gracilisEphydra macellariaHydropyrus hiansMossilus tibialisMuscidaeMusca domesticaMusca domestica vicinaOestridae

Hypoderma bovisOedemagena tarandiRhagionidaeAtherixSimuliidaeSimulium rubrithoraxStratiomyidaeChrysochlorinaSyrphidaeCopestylum haaggii JTipulidaeHolorusia rubiginosaTipula derbyiTipula quayliiTipula simplexEphemeropteraCaenidaeCaenis kunguHEMIPTERABelostomatidaeAbedusAbedus ovatusBelostomaBelostomatid sp.LethocerusLethocerus americanusLethocerus indicusCoreidaeAcanthocephala luctuosaPachilis gigasCorixidaeCorisella mercenariaCorisella edulisCorisella texcocanaKrizousacorixa aztecaKrizousacorixa femorataLeptocorisa acutaSternocoris varicornisGerridaeGerrisGerris spinoleNaucoridaeSphaerodema molestumSphaerodema rusticaNepidaeLaccotrephes griseaNepaNotonectidaeNotonectaNotonecta undulataNotonecta unifasciataPentatomidae

Bagrada pictaCoridius chinensisCoridius nepalensisCyclopelta subhimalayensisEdessa conspersaEdessa mexicanaEdessa petersiiErthesina fulloEuchistus sufultusEuchistus taxcoensisEuchistus crenatorEuchistus lineatusEuchistus strennuszopilotensisEuchosternum delegorgueiPentascelis remipesPentascelis wahlbergiPharylpia fasciataTessaratoma javanicaTessaratoma papillosaMisc HemipteraBrachymona arcane tenebrosaNezara robustaSphaerocorisHOMOPTERAAphididaeHyalopterus arundinisHyalopterus pruniApidaeApis melliferaCicadellidaeEuscelis decoratusOpsius jucundusCicadidaeAfzeliadaBaeturiaCicadaCicada veridesCicadid sppCicadinaCosmopsatriaDiceroprocta apacheDiceropygaDundubia intermerataGraptopsaltria nigrofasciataIoba leopardinaLobaLobo leopardinaMagicicadaMagicicada cassiniMagicicada septendecimMagicicada tredecassiniMagicicada tredecimMagicicada tredeculaMonomotapaOkanagana bellaOkanagana cruentiferaOrapaPhremnia rubraPlatypedia areolataPlatypleuraPlatypleura adoumaPlatypleura insignisPlatypleura stridulaPomponia imperatoriaProarnaPyonaRihanaTibicen puinosa

Ugada giovanninaUgada limbalisUgada limbimaculataCoccoideaApiomorpha pomiformisAustrotachardia acaciaeFulgoridaePyrops madagascariensisKerridaeKerria laccaMembracidaeHoplophorion monogramaUmboniaUmbonia reclinataUmbonia spinosaPseudococcidaeNaiacoccus serpentinusTrabutinaTrabutina manniparaPsyllidaeChermesEucalyptolymaPsyllaPsyllinaSpondyliaspis eucalyptiHymenopteraAnthophoridaeXylocopa confusaXylocopa latipesApidaeApis dorsataApis floreaApis indicaApis laboriosaApis mellifera adansoniiApis mellifera capensisApis zonataBombus appositusBombus diligensBombus formosusBombus mediusBombus nevadensisBombus terricola occidentalisBombus vosnesenskiiLestrimelita limaoMelipona beeckeiMelipona fasciata querreroensisMelipona minutaMelipona viduaMeliponula bocandeiOxytrigonaOxytrigona tatairaPartamonaScaptotrigona mexicanaScaptotrigona nigro hirtaTetragonisca a. angustulaTrigonaTrigona braunsiTrigona chanchamayoensisTrigona clavipesTrigona erythra interpositaTrigona jatyTrigona lendlianaTrigona nigra nigra

Trigona occidentalisTrigona richardsiTrigona spinnipesTrigona trinidadensisCynipidaeAulacidea levantinaDiprionidaeNeodiprion guilleteiFormicidaeAtta cephalotesAtta laevigataAtta mexicanaAtta sexdensCamponotusCamponotus consobrinusCamponotus inflatusCarebara viduaColobopsis grasseriCrematogasterFormica rufaLasius nigerLiometopum apiculatumLiometopum occidentaleluctuosumMelophorus bagotiMelophorus cowleyiMelophorus midasMyrmecia pyriformisMyrmecia sanguineaMyrmecocystusMyrmecocystus melligerMyrmecocystus mexicanus hortideorumMyrmecosystus melliger melligeraMyrmecosystus mexicanusOecophyllaOecophylla smaragdinaOecophylla smaragdina longinodaOecophylla virescensPogonomyrmexPogonomyrmex californicusPogonomyrmex desertorumPogonomyrmex occidentalisPogonomyrmex owyheeiPolyrhachis vicinaSternotornisHalictidaeNomiaPerilampidaeTrachilogastirSphecidaeSceliphronVespidaeAmnophilaApoica thoracicaBrachygastra lecheguanaBrachygastra aztecaBrachygastra mellificaEumenes petiolataMischocyttarusParachartegus apicalisPolistesPolistes canadensisPolistes canadensis erythrocephalusPolistes instabilisPolistes majorPolistes pacificuspacificus modestusPolistes versicolor

PolybiaPolybia diguetanaPolybia ignobilisPolybia occidentalis bohemaniPolybia occidentalis nigratellaPolybia parvulinaPolybia rejectaStelopolybia angulataSynagrisVespaVespa aurariaVespa cinctaVespa japonicaVespulaVespula diabolicaVespula lewisiVespula pennsylvanicaVespula squamosaXylocopidaeXylocopaIsopteraHodotermitidaeHodotermesMicrohodotermes viatorOdontotermitidaeOdontotermes feaeRhinotermitidaeCoptotermes formosanusReticulitermes flavipesReticulitermes tibialisTermitidaeBellicositermesCornitermesCubitermesMacrotermesMacrotermes barnyiMacrotermes bellicosusMacrotermes falcigerMacrotermes natalensisMacrotermes subhyalinusMacrotermes swaziaeMacrotermes vitrialatusOdontotermesOdontotermes badiusPseudacanthotermesPseudacanthotermes spinigerSyntermes parallelusSyntermes snyderiTermesTermes atroxTermes capensisTermes destructorTermes fataleTermes flavicolleTermes gabonensisTermes mordaxTermes sumatranumLepidopteraArctiidaeArctia caja americanaDiacrisia obliguaeBombycidaeBombyxBombyx moriCossidae

Catoxophylla cyanaugesComadia redtenbachiCossid sppCossusXyleutes amphiplectaXyleutes biarpitiXyleutes boisduvaliXyleutes eucalyptiXyleutes leucomochlaXyleutes leuconotusZeuzera citurataZeuzera coffeaeZeuzera eucalyptiGelechiidaePectinophora gossypiellaGeometridaeSynopsia mexicanariaHepialidaeAbantiades marcidusHepialus armoricanus CordycepsOxycanusPhassusPhassus trajesaPhassus triangularisTrictena argentataTrictena argyrostichaHesperiidaeCaeliades libeonHyblaeidaeHyblea pueraLasiocampidaeBombycomorpha pallidaBoroceraBorocera madagascariensisCatalebeda jamesoniGonometa posticaLibethra cajaniMalacosomaPachypasa bilineaRombyx radamaMegathymidaeAegiale hesperiarisMegathymus yuccaeNoctuidaeAgrotis infusaAscalapha odorataBusseola fuscaHeliothis obsoletaHeliothis zeaHomoncocnemis fortisHydrillodes morosaMocis repandaNyodes prasinodesSphingomorpha chloreaSpodoptera exemptaSpodoptera frugiperdaNotodontidaeAnapheAnaphe infractaAnaphe pandaAnaphe reticulata

Anaphe venataAntheua insignataDesmeocraeraDrapetides uniformisElaphrodes lacteaRhenea mediataSpodoptera exiguaPieridaeCatasticta teutilaEucheira socialisPsychidaeClania moddermanniDebarrea malagassaEumeta cervinaEumeta rougeotiPanacelaPyralidaeAglossa dimidiataBryhaspa atrostigmellaLaniifera cycladesSaturniidaeAntheraea assamensisAntheraea paphiaAntheraea pernyiAntheraea royleiAntherina surakaAnthoceraAnthocera monippeAnthocera teffrariaArsenura armidaAthletes gigasAthletes semialbaBunaeaBunaea alcinoeBunaeopsisBunaeopsis aurantiacaCinabra hyperbiusCirina butyrospermiCirina fordaColoradia pandoraGonimbrasia belinaGonimbrasia hecateGonimbrasia richelmanniGonimbrasia zambesinaGoodia kuntzeiGoodia kuntzeiGynanisaGynanisa maiaGynanisa maia ataHolocerina agomensisHyalophora euryalusHylesiaHylesia frigidaImbrasiaImbrasia dioneImbrasia epimetheaImbrasia ertliImbrasia macrothyrisImbrasia obscuraImbrasia rubraImbrasia truncataLatebraria amphipyroidesLobobunaeaLobobunaea christyiLobobunaea saturnusMelanocera menippeMelanocera parvaMicragone ansorgeiMicragone canaMicragone herillaMicrogoneMicrogone cana

NudaureliaNudaurelia oyemensisPseudantheraea discrepensPseudobunaeaSamia cynthiaSamia riciniSaturnia marchiSaturnia pyretorumTagaropsis flavinataTagoropsisUrota sinopeUsta terpsichoreSphingidaeAgrius convolvuliClanis bilineataCoenotes eremophilaeHerse convolvuliHyles lineataHyles lineata livornicoidesMacrosila carolinaManduca sextaNephele commaMisc LepidopteraCoenostegia diegoiStrigops grandisMantodeaMantidaeHierodula sternostictaTenoderaMisc MontodeaHierodulaHierodula coarctataHierodula westwoodiTenodera sinensisNEUROPTERACorydalidaeCorydalusOdonataAeshnidaeAcisoma parnorpaidesAeschnaAnaxAeshna multicolorAnax guttatusLibellulidaeCrocothemisLibellula pulchellaNeurothemisMacromiidaeMacromiaMisc OdonataEpophtholmiaRhyothemisOrthopteraAcrididaeAcanthacris ruficornisAcorypha nigrovariegataAcrida bicolor

Acrida giganteaAcrida lataAcrida sulphuripennisAcridium melanocorneAcridium peregrinumAcrydium aerigonosumAcrydium ranunculumAcrydium rubescensAelopus tamulusAffroxyrrhepesAffroxyrrhepes proceraAidemona aztecaAmblyptymusAmpeArphia fallaxArphia pseudonietanaBoopedon flaviventrisCamnula pellucidaCantatopsCantatops ornatusCantatops spissusCardeniopsis guttatusChirista comptaChorticetes terminiferaCyathosternumCyrtacanthacrisCyrtacanthacris aeruginosaCyrtacanthacris aeruginosa unicolorCyrtacanthacris septemfasciataCyrtacanthacris tartariaEncoptlophus herbaceousGastrimargus africanusHeteracris guineensisHomoxyrrhepes punctipennisLocustaLocusta danicaLocusta m. migratoriaLocusta mahrattarumLocusta migratoidesLocusta migratoriaLocusta migratoria capitoLocusta migratoria manilensisLocusta migratoria migratorioidesLocusta tartaricaLocustana pardalinaMecapoda elongataMelanoplusMelanoplus atlanisMelanoplus bivittatusMelanoplus devastatorMelanoplus differentialisMelanoplus femurrubrumMelanoplus mexicanusMelanoplus sanguinipesOchrotettixsalinusOedaleus nigrofasciatusOedaloenotus enigmaOrnithacrisOrnithacris cyaneaOrnithacris turbidaOrphulellaOsmiliaOsmilia flavolineataOxya chinensisOxya japonica japonicaOxya sinuosaOxya veloxOxya yezoensisOxycantatops congoensisPatanga succinctaPlectrotettra nobilisPoecilocerastisSchistocercaSchistocerca americana cancellataSchistocerca americana paranensisSchistocerca gregariaSchistocerca paranensisSchistocerca peregrinatoriaSchistocerca shoshoneSchistocerca venusta

Spharagemon aequaleSphenariumSphenarium histrioSphenarium magnumSphenarium purpurascensTrimerotropisTropinotus mexicanusTruxaloides constrictusValanga irregularisXanthippus corallipesBlattidaeBlatta orientalisNeostylophygaPeriplaneta americanaPeriplaneta australasiaeStylophyga rhombifoliaGryllacrididaeStenopelmatus fuscusGryllidaeAchetaAcheta bimaculatusBrachytrupesBrachytrupes achetinusBrachytrupes membranaceusBrachytrupes portentosusGryllodes melanocephalusGryllusGryllus assimilisGryllus bimaculatusGryllus campestrisGryllus testaceousLiogryllus bimaculatusTeleogryllus commodusGryllotalpidaeGryllotalpaGryllotalpa africanaPyrgomorphidaeZonocerus elegansZonocerus variegatusRomaleidaeRomaleaRomalea colorataTaeniopodaTropidacris c. cristatalatreilleiTettigoniidaeAnabrus simplex HaldemanCaediciaConocephalus angustifronsEuconocephalusHolochlora albidaHolochlora indicaLima cordidMicrocentrumRuspolia differensRuspolia vicinusScudderiaTettigoniaValangaTettigonioideaTettigonioid sp.Misc OrthopteraThylotropides ditymus

PhasmatodeaPhasmatidaeEurycantha horridaExtatosoma tiaratumPhyliidaeMictisPhasmidaEurycnema versirubraHaaniella grayi grayiPlatycrana viridanaPlecopteraPerlodidaeIsoperlaPteronarcidaePteronarcys californicaTrichopteraHydropsychidaeLeptonemaMisc TrichopteraStenopsyche griseipennisSTYLOMMATOPHORAHELICIDAEHelix pomatia Edible snail

IUCN Red List Status Region(s) HuntedMAMMALIALR-cd Sub-Saharan AfricaLR-cd Sub-Saharan AfricaLR-cd Sub-Saharan AfricaNorth America, South America, South and South and SE Asia, West/Central AsiaNTLR-nt Sub-Saharan AfricaEN A2e, C1 South and South and SE AsiaEN C1+2a South and South and SE AsiaCR C1 South and South and SE AsiaEN A2cde South and South and SE Asia, West/Central AsiaVU A2cd East Asia, South and South and SE AsiaCR A4acd Sub-Saharan AfricaLR-nt Sub-Saharan AfricaLR/nt Sub-Saharan AfricaLR/lc Sub-Saharan AfricaLR/cd Sub-Saharan AfricaVU A1c, C1 Sub-Saharan AfricaLR/nt Sub-Saharan AfricaLR/nt Sub-Saharan AfricaLR-lc Sub-Saharan AfricaLR/cd Sub-Saharan AfricaLR/nt Sub-Saharan AfricaLR/nt Sub-Saharan AfricaLR/nt Sub-Saharan AfricaLR-nt Sub-Saharan AfricaVU A1c, C1 Sub-Saharan AfricaLR-cd Sub-Saharan AfricaLR-cd Sub-Saharan AfricaLC South and SE Asia, West & Central AsiaLR-cd Sub-Saharan AfricaLR-cd Sub-Saharan AfricaVU A2cde East Asia, South and South and SE AsiaLR/cd Sub-Saharan AfricaLR-cd Sub-Saharan AfricaLR-cd Sub-Saharan AfricaLR-cd Sub-Saharan AfricaLR/lc Sub-Saharan AfricaVU A2cd East Asia, North Asia, South and South and SE AsiaLR/nt South and South and SE AsiaLR/nt Sub-Saharan AfricaLR-cd Sub-Saharan AfricaLR/nt Sub-Saharan AfricaLR-cd Sub-Saharan AfricaLR-cd Sub-Saharan AfricaLR-cd Sub-Saharan AfricaNR EuropeEN C1+2a(i) South and South and SE AsiaLR-cd Sub-Saharan AfricaLR/lc Sub-Saharan AfricaLR-cd Sub-Saharan AfricaLR/cd Sub-Saharan AfricaLR-cd Sub-Saharan AfricaLR/cd Sub-Saharan AfricaLR/cd Sub-Saharan AfricaLR-cd Sub-Saharan AfricaLR-cd Sub-Saharan AfricaLR-cd Sub-Saharan AfricaLR-cd Sub-Saharan AfricaLR/lc Sub-Saharan AfricaLR-nt Sub-Saharan AfricaLR-cd Sub-Saharan AfricaLR/lc EuropeLR/lc EuropeEast Asia, Europe, MesoAmerica, North Africa, North America, North Asia,LR/lcOceania, South and SE Asia, South America, West & Central AsiaLR/lc EuropeLR/lc EuropeDD South AmericaVU C1 East Asia, South and South and SE AsiaLR/lc South and South and SE AsiaDD South and South and SE Asia

DD South and South and SE AsiaLR/lc EuropeNR EuropeLR-cd Sub-Saharan AfricaLR/nt Sub-Saharan AfricaLR/lc Sub-Saharan AfricaLR/nt South and South and SE AsiaVU A1cd South and South and SE AsiaLR/lc Sub-Saharan AfricaLR/lc Sub-Saharan AfricaLR/lc Sub-Saharan AfricaLR/lc South and South and SE AsiaLR/lc Sub-Saharan AfricaLR/lc South and South and SE Asia, EuropeLR/lc South AmericaLR/lc Caribbean Islands, MesoAmerica, North America, South AmericaDD Sub-Saharan AfricaLC EuropeLC Sub-Saharan AfricaLC EuropeLC Sub-Saharan AfricaLC EuropeLC Sub-Saharan AfricaLC EuropeVU C2a(i) Sub-Saharan AfricaNT EuropeVU C2a(i) East Asia, South and South and SE AsiaLC Sub-Saharan Africa, South and South and SE AsiaLR/lc Sub-Saharan AfricaLR/lc Sub-Saharan AfricaLR/lc Sub-Saharan AfricaLR/lc Sub-Saharan AfricaLR/lc Sub-Saharan AfricaLR/lc Sub-Saharan AfricaLR/lc Sub-Saharan AfricaLR/cd Sub-Saharan AfricaLR/lc Sub-Saharan AfricaLC Sub-Saharan AfricaDD Sub-Saharan AfricaLR/lc South AmericaVU A2c EuropeNT Europe

VU North Africa, Sub-Saharan AfricaLR/lc EuropeLR/lc EuropeLR/lc Sub-Saharan AfricaLR/lc EuropeLR/lc EuropeNR EuropeLR/lc EuropeNR EuropeLR/lc EuropeLR/lc South AmericaLR/lc South AmericaLR/lc EuropeDD East Asia, South and South and SE AsiaLR/lc South and South and SE Asia, EuropeVU A1cd South and South and SE AsiaLR/lc South and South and SE AsiaLR/lc Sub-Saharan AfricaEN C2a Sub-Saharan AfricaEN Sub-Saharan AfricaDD Sub-Saharan AfricaLR/lc Sub-Saharan AfricaLR/lc Sub-Saharan AfricaEN Sub-Saharan AfricaLR/lc Sub-Saharan AfricaDD Sub-Saharan AfricaVU B1+2bc South and South and SE AsiaDD Sub-Saharan AfricaEN B1+2c, C2b South and South and SE AsiaLC Sub-Saharan AfricaNT Sub-Saharan AfricaCR B1ab(iii) Sub-Saharan AfricaLC Sub-Saharan AfricaLC Sub-Saharan AfricaLC Sub-Saharan Africa, West & Central AsiaLC Sub-Saharan AfricaLC Sub-Saharan AfricaEN A1cd South and South and SE AsiaEX South and South and SE AsiaLC North Africa, Sub-Saharan AfricaLC Sub-Saharan AfricaDD Sub-Saharan AfricaLC Sub-Saharan AfricaEN B1ab(iii)+2ab(iii) South and South and SE AsiaLC Sub-Saharan AfricaLC Sub-Saharan AfricaVU A2cd South and South and SE AsiaEN A1ce East AsiaCR A1cd OceaniaEN A1cd+2cde East Asia, OceaniaVU A1d+2cd Sub-Saharan Africa

VU A2c OceaniaVU A2b+3d Sub-Saharan AfricaVU D2 Sub-Saharan AfricaLC Sub-Saharan Africa, West & Central AsiaLC West & Central AsiaLC Sub-Saharan AfricaVU B2ab(iii) Sub-Saharan AfricaCR B1ab(iii) Sub-Saharan AfricaVU A4c; B2ab(iii) Sub-Saharan AfricaVU A4c; B1ab(iii) Sub-Saharan AfricaVU B2ab(iii) Sub-Saharan AfricaEN B1ab(iii) Sub-Saharan AfricaEN B1+2c OceaniaLR/lc OceaniaLR/lc OceaniaLR/lc OceaniaEN A1d Oceania, South and South and SE AsiaLR/lc Sub-Saharan AfricaLR/lc Sub-Saharan AfricaLR/lc Sub-Saharan AfricaLR/lc EuropeLR/lc Sub-Saharan AfricaLR/lc EuropeLR/nt East AsiaLR/lc EuropeLR/lc Sub-Saharan AfricaLR/lc South AmericaCR A1ac, B1+2c MesoAmericaLR/lc Sub-Saharan AfricaEN B1+2c Sub-Saharan AfricaEN A1ac Oceania, South and South and SE AsiaLC Sub-Saharan AfricaEN A2abcd+3bce MesoAmerica, South AmericaVU A2c+3c+4c South and South and SE AsiaEN A2cd+3cd; C1; E South AmericaVU A2cd+3cd+4cd South AmericaLR/lc Sub-Saharan AfricaLR/nt Sub-Saharan AfricaLR/lc Sub-Saharan Africa

NR Sub-Saharan AfricaNR Sub-Saharan AfricaLR/lc Sub-Saharan AfricaCR B1+2abcde, C2a South AmericaLC South AmericaLC South AmericaLC South AmericaCR A3cd South AmericaLC South AmericaNT South AmericaLC South AmericaLC South AmericaLC South AmericaCR A2cd; C2a(i) South AmericaCR A2cd; C2a(i) South AmericaLC South AmericaLC South AmericaEN a2cd; B2ab (i,ii,iii); C2a (I) South AmericaVU A3cd South AmericaLR/lc South AmericaLR/lc South AmericaLC South AmericaLC South AmericaLC South AmericaLC South AmericaCR B1ab(i,ii,iii,iv,v)+2ab(i,ii,iii,iv,v) South AmericaNR Sub-Saharan AfricaLR/lc Sub-Saharan AfricaLR/nt Sub-Saharan AfricaLR/nt Sub-Saharan AfricaLR/nt Sub-Saharan AfricaLR/lc Sub-Saharan AfricaLR-nt Sub-Saharan AfricaNR Sub-Saharan AfricaLR/lc Sub-Saharan AfricaLR/lc Sub-Saharan AfricaLR/lc Sub-Saharan AfricaLR/lc Sub-Saharan AfricaNR Sub-Saharan AfricaEN A1cd+2cd Sub-Saharan AfricaDD Sub-Saharan AfricaEN A1cd Sub-Saharan AfricaVU A1cd+2cd Sub-Saharan AfricaLR-nt Sub-Saharan AfricaLR/lc Sub-Saharan AfricaLR/lc Sub-Saharan AfricaLR/lc Sub-Saharan AfricaLR/lc Sub-Saharan AfricaEN Sub-Saharan AfricaEN A1cd+2cd Sub-Saharan AfricaEN B1+2c Sub-Saharan AfricaVU B1+2abcde, C1 Sub-Saharan AfricaLR/lc Sub-Saharan AfricaLR/lc Sub-Saharan AfricaLR/lc Sub-Saharan AfricaEN Sub-Saharan AfricaLR/lc Sub-Saharan AfricaLR/nt Sub-Saharan AfricaVU A1cd+2cd Sub-Saharan AfricaVU A1cd+2cd Sub-Saharan AfricaLR/lc Sub-Saharan AfricaLR/nt Sub-Saharan AfricaVU A1cd East Asia, South and SE AsiaLR/nt South and SE AsiaVU A1cd South and SE AsiaEN C2a(i) South and SE AsiaEN A1acd+2cd Sub-Saharan AfricaVU A2cd Sub-Saharan Africa

LR/lc Sub-Saharan AfricaLR/lc Sub-Saharan AfricaLR Sub-Saharan AfricaLR/nt Sub-Saharan AfricaDD South and SE AsiaLR/nt South and SE AsiaEN A1cd+2cd, B1+2abc Sub-Saharan AfricaEN A2cd Sub-Saharan AfricaCR B1+2abcde, C2a Sub-Saharan AfricaEN A1cd South and SE AsiaVU C2a(i) South and SE AsiaEN A1cd South and SE AsiaEN A1cd+2c South and SE AsiaCR A2cd+3cd; C2a(i) South and SE AsiaLR/lc South and SE AsiaCR A2cd, C2ab South and SE AsiaLR/nt Sub-Saharan AfricaLR/nt Sub-Saharan AfricaNR Sub-Saharan AfricaNR Sub-Saharan AfricaLR/lc Sub-Saharan AfricaEN A2cd Sub-Saharan AfricaEN A2cd Sub-Saharan AfricaEN A2cd Sub-Saharan AfricaEN A3cd Sub-Saharan AfricaEN A2cd Sub-Saharan AfricaCR Sub-Saharan AfricaCR A2bcd South and SE AsiaEN A2cd South and SE AsiaLR/nt South and SE AsiaNR South and SE AsiaVU A1cd+2cd South and SE AsiaDD East Asia, South and SE AsiaNR Sub-Saharan AfricaNR Sub-Saharan AfricaNR Sub-Saharan AfricaCR A2cd Sub-Saharan AfricaLR/nt Sub-Saharan AfricaLR/nt Sub-Saharan AfricaLR/lc Sub-Saharan AfricaVU A2a Sub-Saharan AfricaNR South AmericaLC Sub-Saharan AfricaVU A1cd Carribbean Islands, MesoAmericaVU A1ac Carribbean Islands

LR/lc EuropeNT EuropeLC Sub-Saharan AfricaNR South AmericaLR/lc South AmericaDD South AmericaLR/lc South AmericaLR/lc South AmericaLR/lc South AmericaLR/lc South AmericaLR/lc South AmericaLC Sub-Saharan AfricaLC Sub-Saharan AfricaLC Sub-Saharan AfricaLR/lc South and South and SE AsiaNT Sub-Saharan AfricaLC Sub-Saharan AfricaLR/lc EuropeLR/lc EuropeLR/nt EuropeVU Sub-Saharan AfricaLR/lc South and SE AsiaLR/lc South and SE AsiaLR/lc South and SE AsiaLR/lc South and SE AsiaLR/lc South and SE AsiaLR/lc South and SE AsiaLR/lc South and SE AsiaLR/lc South and SE AsiaLR/lc South and SE AsiaLR/lc South and SE AsiaLR/lc South and SE AsiaLR/lc South and SE AsiaLR/lc South and SE AsiaVU A1cd South and SE AsiaVU A1cd South and SE AsiaDD Sub-Saharan AfricaNR Sub-Saharan AfricaLR/nt South and South and SE AsiaDD Sub-Saharan AfricaDD Sub-Saharan AfricaLC Sub-Saharan AfricaLC Sub-Saharan AfricaLC Sub-Saharan AfricaDD Sub-Saharan AfricaDD Sub-Saharan AfricaLC Sub-Saharan AfricaDD Sub-Saharan AfricaLR-lc Sub-Saharan AfricaLC Sub-Saharan Africa

DD Sub-Saharan AfricaLC Sub-Saharan AfricaCR B1ab(iii,v) Sub-Saharan AfricaLC Sub-Saharan AfricaVU B1+2c South and South and SE AsiaNR South and SE AsiaNT EuropeLR/nt South and SE AsiaLR/lc South and SE AsiaLR/lc South and SE AsiaLR/lc South and SE AsiaLR/lc South and SE AsiaVU B1+2c South and SE AsiaEN B1+2b South and SE AsiaLR/lc South and SE AsiaLR/lc South and SE AsiaLR/nt South and SE AsiaLR/lc South and SE AsiaVU A1c, B1+2b South and SE AsiaVU B1+2c South and SE AsiaLR/nt South and SE AsiaLR/lc South and SE AsiaNR Sub-Saharan AfricaVU A1cd Sub-Saharan AfricaLC Sub-Saharan AfricaEN A1cd South AmericaLR/lc South AmericaLR/lc South AmericaLR/lc South AmericaLR/lc South AmericaLR/lc South AmericaVU B1+2c South AmericaDD South AmericaLR/lc South AmericaEN A1cd South AmericaVU A1bcd South AmericaVU A1cd South AmericaLR/lc South AmericaAVESLC EuropeEN C2a(ii) Sub-Saharan AfricaLC EuropeLC EuropeVU A2bcd+3cd; C1 East Asia, South and South and SE AsiaLC EuropeLC EuropeLC EuropeLC EuropeLC EuropeLC EuropeLC EuropeLC EuropeLC EuropeLC EuropeEN A2cd+3cd; C2a(i) South and South and SE AsiaLC Europe

VU B2ab(i,ii,iii,iv,v) Carribbean IslandsLC EuropeLC EuropeEN C1 East Asia, North Asia, South and South and SE AsiaNT Sub-Saharan AfricaCR D South and South and SE AsiaLC EuropeVU A2bcd Oceania, South and South and SE AsiaVU C2a(i) Oceania, South and South and SE AsiaVU C2a(i); D1 Sub-Saharan AfricaLC EuropeVU C1 East Asia, South and South and SE Asia, West/Central AsiaLC EuropeEN C2a(i) East Asia, North Asia, Oceania, South and South and SE AsiaEN C2a(ii) Sub-Saharan AfricaEN A3cd; C2a(i) South and South and SE AsiaEN C2a(ii) Carribbean Islands, Sub-Saharan AfricaVU C2a(i) East Asia, North America, North Asia, South and South and SE AsiaEN C2a(i) East Asia, North Asia, Oceania, South and South and SE AsiaEN C2a(i) East Asia, South and South and SE AsiaEN A3c East Asia, North Asia, South and South and SE AsiaEN A2c+3c; C2a(i) South and South and SE AsiaEN A3cde ver 3.1 (2001) South and South and SE Asia, West/Central AsiaVU A2cd+3cd; C1 East Asia, South and South and SE AsiaVU A2c+3cd South and South and SE AsiaCR D Sub-Saharan AfricaNT Sub-Saharan AfricaEN D East Asia, North AsiaCR A2cd+3cd; C2a(i) East Asia, South and South and SE AsiaCR C2a(ii) South and South and SE AsiaEN C2a(ii) Sub-Saharan AfricaNT East Asia, North Asia, South and South and SE Asia, West/Central AsiaNT Oceania, South and South and SE AsiaCR D South and South and SE AsiaVU B1ab(i,ii,iii,v); C2a(ii) Carribbean IslandsVU C1 South and South and SE AsiaVU A2bcd+3bcd East Asia, North Asia, South and South and SE Asia, West/Central AsiaVU C2a(i) Carribbean IslandsNT Carribbean Islands, MesoAmerica, North America, South AmericaVU B1ab(i,ii,iii,v); C2a(i) South AmericaEN C2a(i) OceaniaLC EuropeVU C2a(i) East Asia, South and South and SE AsiaVU D1 Sub-Saharan AfricaVU B1ab(i,ii,iii,iv,v)+2ab(i,ii,iii,iv,v); C2a(i) South and South and SE AsiaNT EuropeEN A2bcd; B1ab(ii,iii,v); C1+2a(i) OceaniaNT OceaniaEN B1ab(i,ii,iii,iv,v); C2a(i); D OceaniaVU C2a(i) OceaniaVU A2cd+3cd; C2a(i) OceaniaVU A2bcd+3bcd; C1 South and South and SE AsiaEN B1ab(ii,iii,iv,v) South and South and SE AsiaCR B1ab(v); C2a(ii) OceaniaNT OceaniaVU A2cd+3cd; B1ab(ii,iii,iv,v); C2a(i) South and South and SE Asia

NT OceaniaVU B1ab(ii,iii,iv,v) South and South and SE AsiaVU D1+2 OceaniaEN C1 South and South and SE AsiaCR C2a(i) OceaniaEN A2cd+3cd South and South and SE AsiaCR C1+2a(i) South and South and SE AsiaVU C2a(i); D1 OceaniaCR C2a(i) South and South and SE AsiaCR D OceaniaEN B1ab(ii,iii,v) OceaniaVU C2a(i) OceaniaVU A2bcde+3bcde; C1 Carribbean IslandsNT Carribbean IslandsVU A2cd+3cd South and South and SE AsiaVU A2bcd+3bcd Oceania, South and South and SE AsiaVU A2bcd+3bcd Oceania, South and South and SE AsiaVU B1ab(i,ii,iii,v) MesoAmericaVU A2c+3c; B1ab(i,ii,iii,iv,v); C2a(i) South AmericaVU A2cd+3cd; C2a(i) South and South and SE AsiaCR A3c South and South and SE AsiaCR C2a(ii); D South and South and SE AsiaVU C2a(ii) South and South and SE AsiaVU D1+2 OceaniaVU A2cd+3cd; C2a(i) South and South and SE AsiaNT South and South and SE AsiaEN B1ab(iii,v) OceaniaEN C2a(i) Carribbean IslandsLC Sub-Saharan AfricaVU A2c+3c South and South and SE AsiaVU C2a(i) South and South and SE AsiaNT East Asia, South and South and SE AsiaEN A2cd+3cd South and South and SE AsiaVU A2cd+3cd South and South and SE AsiaEW MesoAmericaVU B1ab(ii,iii,iv,v); C2a(ii) South and South and SE AsiaNT South and South and SE AsiaVU D1+2 South and South and SE AsiaVU A2cd+3cd East Asia, South and South and SE AsiaVU A2cd+3cd South and South and SE AsiaCR A2cd+3cd; C2a(i) South and South and SE AsiaVU A2cd+3cd South and South and SE AsiaCR A3bcd; C2a(ii); D South and South and SE AsiaNT South and South and SE AsiaNT Sub-Saharan AfricaNR Sub-Saharan AfricaLC Sub-Saharan AfricaNT Sub-Saharan AfricaEN B2ab(i,ii,iii,iv,v); C2a(i) South and South and SE AsiaEN A2cd+3cd; B2ab(i,ii,iii,iv,v); C2a(i) South and South and SE AsiaLC Sub-Saharan AfricaLC Sub-Saharan AfricaLC Sub-Saharan AfricaLC Sub-Saharan AfricaLC Sub-Saharan AfricaLC Sub-Saharan AfricaLC Sub-Saharan AfricaLC Sub-Saharan AfricaLC Sub-Saharan AfricaLC Sub-Saharan AfricaLC Sub-Saharan AfricaLC Sub-Saharan AfricaLC Sub-Saharan AfricaLC Sub-Saharan AfricaNT Sub-Saharan AfricaVU A3c; C1 Sub-Saharan AfricaVU A3c; C1 Sub-Saharan AfricaVU A3cd Sub-Saharan AfricaLC South America

CR C2a(ii) South and South and SE AsiaEN B1ab(i,ii,iii,iv,v) Carribbean IslandsVU C2a(i) South and South and SE AsiaLC Sub-Saharan AfricaVU B1ab(ii,iii,iv,v) Sub-Saharan AfricaNR South AmericaLC Sub-Saharan AfricaEN B1ab(iii); D Sub-Saharan AfricaLC Sub-Saharan AfricaVU A2bcd+3bcd; C1+2a(ii) Sub-Saharan AfricaVU C2a(i); D1 OceaniaLC Sub-Saharan AfricaVU C2a(ii) OceaniaVU C2a(ii) OceaniaCR C1 South and South and SE AsiaVU A2cd+3cd; C2a(i) South and South and SE AsiaLC Sub-Saharan AfricaNT South AmericaNT MesoAmericaCR A3bcd South AmericaEN B1ab(i,ii,iii,v); C2a(i); D South AmericaNT South AmericaVU A2bcd+3bcd; C2a(i) South AmericaEW South AmericaVU C2a(i) South AmericaNT MesoAmerica, South AmericaVU B1ab(i,ii,iii,v) South AmericaEN C2a(i) MesoAmericaVU A2cd+3cd; B1ab(i,ii,iii,v); C2a(i) South AmericaNT South AmericaCR C2a(i) South AmericaVU B1ab(i,ii,iii,v) South AmericaVU A2bcd+3bcd South AmericaVU B1ab(i,ii,iii,iv,v); C2a(i) South AmericaEN A2cd+3cd South AmericaEN B1ab(i,ii,iii,v); C2a(i) South AmericaNT South AmericaNT MesoAmericaEN A2cd+3cd South AmericaCR C2a(ii) Carribbean IslandsVU D1 South and South and SE AsiaVU A2d+3cd; C1 South and South and SE AsiaEN A2bcd+3bcd South and South and SE AsiaNT South and South and SE AsiaVU C1 South and South and SE AsiaEN B1ab(ii,iii,iv,v) OceaniaVU C1 OceaniaVU C1 South and South and SE AsiaEN B1ab(v) OceaniaNT MesoAmericaVU A2cd+3cd Sub-Saharan AfricaVU C2a(i) Sub-Saharan Africa

LC South and SE AsiaLC EuropeVU A2cd+3cd; B1ab(ii,iii,iv,v)+2ab(ii,iii,iv,v); C2a(i) East AsiaVU B1ab(ii,iii,iv,v); C1+2a(i) South and South and SE AsiaEN B1ab(ii,iii,iv,v); C2a(i) South and South and SE AsiaVU C2a(i) East AsiaVU C2a(i) East Asia, South and South and SE AsiaVU A2cd+3cd; B1ab(ii,iii,v) South and South and SE AsiaEN C2a(i) East AsiaLC South and SE AsiaNT South and South and SE AsiaNT South and South and SE AsiaVU C2a(I) South and South and SE AsiaLC EuropeNT East AsiaVU A2cd+3cd; B1ab(i,ii,iii,v); C2a(i) MesoAmericaEN B1ab(i,ii,iii,v); C2a(ii) Sub-Saharan AfricaLC South and SE AsiaVU B1ab(i,ii,iii,v); C2a(i) Sub-Saharan AfricaEN B1ab(ii,iii,v) Sub-Saharan AfricaCR A2bcd+3bcd Sub-Saharan AfricaVU B1ab(i,ii,iii,v); C2a(i) Sub-Saharan AfricaNR Sub-Saharan AfricaLC South and SE AsiaVU C2a(i) East AsiaVU C2a(i) East Asia, South and South and SE AsiaVU A2cd+3cd; C2a(i) South and South and SE AsiaNT South and South and SE AsiaEN B1ab(ii,iii,iv,v); C2a(i) South and South and SE AsiaVU A2cd+3cd South and South and SE AsiaEN B1ab(ii,iii,iv,v); C2a(i) South and South and SE AsiaVU C2a(ii) South and South and SE AsiaVU C2a(i) South and South and SE AsiaLC South and SE AsiaVU A2cd+3cd South and South and SE AsiaLC Sub-Saharan AfricaVU D2 MesoAmerica, South AmericaVU B1ab(i,ii,iii,v) South AmericaCR B1ab(i,ii,iii,v) South AmericaVU A2cd+3cd; C2a(i) East Asia, South and South and SE AsiaLC EuropeLC EuropeVU A2cd+3cd; B1ab(i,ii,iii,iv,v); C1 South and South and SE AsiaVU C2a(i) South and South and SE AsiaEN C1+2a(i) South and South and SE AsiaLC South and SE AsiaVU A2cd+3cd South and South and SE AsiaVU A2cd+3cd East AsiaVU C2a(i) East Asia, South and South and SE AsiaVU A2cd+3cd; C2a(i) East AsiaLC South and SE AsiaVU C2a(i) East Asia, South and South and SE AsiaVU C2a(i) East AsiaVU C2a(i) South and South and SE Asia, West/Central AsiaEN B1ab(v)+2ab(v) Sub-Saharan AfricaLC EuropeNT East AsiaNT East Asia, North AsiaLC EuropeLC EuropeLC EuropeLC EuropeLC EuropeVU A2cd+3cd; C1 South and South and SE AsiaVU A2cd+3cd; C2a(i) Sub-Saharan AfricaVU A2cd+3cd; B1ab(i,ii,iii,v)+2ab(i,ii,iii,v) Sub-Saharan AfricaVU A3cd Sub-Saharan Africa

LC South AmericaLC South AmericaLC South AmericaVU C2a(i) South and South and SE AsiaLC EuropeCR D OceaniaCR D OceaniaEN D OceaniaVU C2a(i) South and South and SE AsiaNT Oceania, South and South and SE AsiaNT South and South and SE AsiaEN B1ab(i,ii,iii,iv,v); C2a(i) South AmericaEN B1ab(iii); D Sub-Saharan AfricaVU A2cd; B1ab(i,ii,iii,v); C2a(i) Carribbean IslandsNT Carribbean IslandsVU A2cd+3cd; C2a(i) South AmericaEN B1ab(i,ii,iii,iv,v) South AmericaCR D North AmericaNTEast Asia, Europe, North Africa, North America, North Asia, South and South andSE Asia, West/Central AsiaVU A2bd+3bd; C1 MesoAmerica, North America, Oceania, South and South and SE AsiaVU A2cde Carribbean IslandsVU A2cd+3cd; C2a(i) Sub-Saharan AfricaVU A2cd+3cd South and South and SE AsiaVU C2a(i) Oceania, South and South and SE AsiaVU B1ab(ii,iii,iv,v)+2ab(ii,iii,iv,v); C2a(i) Oceania, South and South and SE AsiaVU C2a(i) OceaniaVU A2cd+3cd South and South and SE AsiaVU C2a(i) South and South and SE AsiaVU B1ab(iii,v) OceaniaEN C2a(i) OceaniaCR D OceaniaVU D1+2 OceaniaNT South and South and SE Asia, West/Central AsiaVU A2cde+3cde East Asia, South and South and SE Asia

LC Sub-Saharan AfricaCR D MesoAmericaLC South AmericaLC South AmericaLC South AmericaLC South AmericaLC South AmericaLC South AmericaLC South AmericaLC South AmericaLC South AmericaLC South AmericaLC South AmericaLC South AmericaLC South AmericaNT MesoAmerica, Oceania, South and South and SE AsiaCR B1ab(v)+2ab(v) OceaniaEN B1ab(iii,v) Oceania, South and South and SE Asia, Sub-Saharan AfricaCR D Carribbean IslandsEN B1ab(i,ii,iii,iv,v) Carribbean Islands, Europe, MesoAmerica, North America, South AmericaCR A2ce; B1ab(v)+2ab(v); C2a(ii) OceaniaVU D2 North America, OceaniaVU D2 MesoAmerica, North America, Oceania, South AmericaCaribbean Islands, Europe, North Africa, North America, Oceania, South AmericaLCSub-Saharan Africa, West & Central AsiaVU C2a(ii) Sub-Saharan AfricaVU D1+2 Carribbean IslandsVU A2bcd+3bcd; B1ab(i,ii,iii,v); C2a(i) South AmericaVU D1+2 Carribbean IslandsEN D Carribbean IslandsVU A2bcd Carribbean IslandsVU D1+2 Carribbean IslandsCR D Carribbean IslandsCR D South AmericaEN A2bcd South AmericaVU A2cd+3cd MesoAmerica, South AmericaCR A2bcd South and South and SE AsiaCR D South AmericaVU C1 OceaniaCR B1ab(i,ii,iii,v) South AmericaNT South AmericaVU A2c+3c; C1+2a(i) South and South and SE AsiaCR B2ab(i,ii,iii,v); C2a(ii) Sub-Saharan AfricaCR B1ab(i,ii,iii,v) Sub-Saharan AfricaEN C2a(i) Sub-Saharan AfricaLC Sub-Saharan AfricaVU B1ab(i,ii,iii,v); C2a(i) MesoAmerica, South AmericaNT South AmericaCR D South AmericaNT South AmericaVU B1ab(i,ii,iii,v) South America

REPTILIADD Sub-Saharan AfricaLR/lc Sub-Saharan AfricaLR/cd South AmericaVU A2cd Sub-Saharan AfricaNR Sub-Saharan AfricaEN B1ab(iii,v)+2ab(iii,v) MesoAmericaCR B1ab(iii,v) MesoAmericaCR B1ab(i,ii,iii,iv,v) Carribbean IslandsVU A2bce; B1ab(i,ii,iii,iv,v) Carribbean IslandsCR A2abce; B1ab(i,ii,iii,iv,v)+2ab(i,ii,iii,iv,v); C2a(i); D Carribbean IslandsVU A1acde+2cde, B1+2abcde Carribbean IslandsNR Sub-Saharan AfricaCR A1cd South and SE AsiaCR A1bcd South and SE AsiaEN A1d+2d South and SE AsiaEN A1d+2d South and SE AsiaEN A1cd South and SE AsiaVU A1d+2d South and SE AsiaCR A1d+2d South and SE AsiaEN A1cd+2cd South and SE AsiaCR A1d+2d South and SE AsiaCR A1d+2d South and SE AsiaCR A1d+2d South and SE AsiaNR South and SE AsiaCR A1d+2d South and SE AsiaCR A1d+2d South and SE AsiaLR/nt South and SE AsiaNR South and SE AsiaVU A1d+2d South and SE AsiaCR A2cd, B1+2c South and SE AsiaEN A1cd+2cd South and SE AsiaEN B1+2c South and SE AsiaVU A1cd+2cd South and SE AsiaVU A1d+2cd South and SE AsiaEN A1bcd South and SE AsiaEN A1cd+2d South and SE AsiaEN A1cd+2cd South and SE AsiaCR A1cd South and SE AsiaLR/nt South and SE AsiaEN B1+2c South and SE AsiaLR/lc South and SE AsiaEN A1c South and SE AsiaCR A1cd+2cd, C1 South and SE AsiaVU A1d+2d South and SE AsiaCR A1d+2d South and SE AsiaDD South and SE AsiaEN A1cd+2cd South and SE AsiaDD South and SE AsiaNR South and SE AsiaNR South and SE AsiaVU B1+2c South and SE AsiaLR/nt South and SE AsiaVU A1cd+2cd South and SE AsiaVU A1cd+2d South and SE AsiaVU A1cd+2cd South and SE AsiaDD South and SE AsiaDD South and SE AsiaEN A1cd South and SE AsiaEN A1d+2d South and SE AsiaEN A1d+2d South and SE AsiaEN A1d+2d South and SE AsiaDD South and SE Asia

EN A1d+2d South and SE AsiaVU A1cd+2cd South and SE AsiaVU A1bd South and SE AsiaNR South AmericaCR A1d, B1+2e South and SE AsiaCR A1c, B1+2c, C1+2b, D South and SE AsiaLR/cd South AmericaNR South AmericaEN A1d+2d South and SE AsiaVU a1cd South AmericaVU a1cd+2cd South AmericaLR/lc South and SE AsiaCR A1cd+2cd, C2a South and SE AsiaEN A1cd+2cd South and SE AsiaEN A1cd+2cd South and SE AsiaDD Sub-Saharan AfricaEN A1cd+2cd South and SE AsiaVU A1acd, B1+2acd South and SE AsiaVU A2d South and SE AsiaVU A1cd+2cd South and SE AsiaVU A1d+2d South and SE AsiaVU A1cd+2d South and SE AsiaVU A1c South and SE AsiaCR A1cd, B1+2c South and SE AsiaEN A1cd+2cd South and SE AsiaLR/lc South and SE AsiaLR/lc South and SE AsiaDD South and SE AsiaEN A1cd+2d, B1+2c South and SE AsiaEN A1cd+2cd South and SE AsiaVU A1cd+2cd South and SE AsiaVU A1cd+2cd South and SE AsiaVU A1d+2d South and SE AsiaAMPHIBIAVU B1ab(iii) Sub-Saharan AfricaLC Sub-Saharan AfricaLC East AsiaLC East AsiaLC North Asia, South & SE Asia, West & Central AsiaLC East Asia, South and SE AsiaNT MesoAmericaVU B1ab(iii) MesoAmericaLC South AmericaCR A2ace Carribbean IslandsLC MesoAmerica, South AmericaCR A2ace;B1ab(i,ii,iii,iv,v)+2ab(i,ii,iii,iv,v) South AmericaCR A2ace;B2ab(i,ii,iii,iv,v) South America

LC Sub-Saharan AfricaLC Sub-Saharan AfricaEN B2ab(iii) Sub-Saharan AfricaDD East AsiaLC East AsiaVU B1ab(iii)+2ab(iii) East AsiaVU B2ab(iii,v) East AsiaEN B1ab(v) East AsiaLC South and SE AsiaLC OceaniaLC South and SE AsiaNT South and South and SE AsiaNT South and South and SE AsiaLC Sub-Saharan AfricaLC Sub-Saharan AfricaLC Sub-Saharan AfricaLC Sub-Saharan AfricaDD Sub-Saharan AfricaLC Sub-Saharan AfricaLC Sub-Saharan AfricaEN B2ab(iii,v) East AsiaDD East Asia, South and South and SE AsiaNT East AsiaEN A2ad East AsiaEN A2d+3d Sub-Saharan AfricaVU B1ab(iii)+2ab(iii) Sub-Saharan AfricaLC East AsiaLC East AsiaLC East AsiaLC East AsiaLC East AsiaLC East AsiaLC Europe, East AsiaVU B1ab(iii) South and South and SE AsiaNT South and South and SE AsiaVU B1ab(iii) South and South and SE AsiaLC North Africa, MesoAmericaNT South and South and SE AsiaLC North AsiaLC North Asia, OceaniaNT South and South and SE AsiaVU B2ab(iii,iv,v) South and South and SE AsiaNT South and South and SE AsiaNT South and South and SE AsiaLC OceaniaVU B1ab(iii,v) South and South and SE AsiaLC OceaniaNT East Asia, South and South and SE AsiaEN A2acd East AsiaDD South and South and SE AsiaVU A2acd East AsiaVU B2ab(iii,v) East AsiaVU B1ab(iii,v)+2ab(iii,v) East AsiaEN B2ab(v) East AsiaEN B1ab(v) East AsiaVU A2abc East AsiaVU A2abc East Asia, South and South and SE AsiaNT South and South and SE AsiaEN A2acd East Asia, South and South and SE AsiaNT MesoAmerica, North AmericaLC South and SE AsiaLC South and SE AsiaLC South and SE AsiaLC South and SE AsiaLC South and SE AsiaLC South and SE AsiaLC Europe

LC South and SE AsiaNT East Asia, South and South and SE AsiaLC South and SE AsiaLC South and SE AsiaVU A2acd East AsiaVU B2ab(i,ii,iii) MesoAmericaLC South and SE AsiaNT East Asia, North Asia, West/Central AsiaLC Sub-Saharan AfricaLC Sub-Saharan AfricaNT East AsiaLC West & Central AsiaVU B1ab(iii)+2ab(iii) East AsiaLC East AsiaLC East Asia, South and SE AsiaEN A2ace; B1ab(iii,v)+2ab(iii,v) MesoAmericaDD MesoAmericaCR A2ad East AsiaVU A2ad East AsiaEN B2ab(iii) East AsiaVU B1ab(iii) East AsiaVU B1ab(iii,v) East AsiaNT East AsiaVU B1ab(iii,v)+2ab(iii,v) East AsiaLC East AsiaLC East AsiaVU B2ab(iii,v) South and South and SE AsiaLC East Asia, South and SE AsiaINSECTANorth AmericaSouth AmericaNorth AmericaSouth and SE AsiaMesoAmericaSub-Saharan AfricaSouth and SE AsiaSouth AmericaSub-Saharan AfricaSub-Saharan AfricaSouth and SE AsiaSouth and SE AsiaSub-Saharan AfricaSub-Saharan AfricaSub-Saharan AfricaOceaniaSub-Saharan AfricaSub-Saharan AfricaSub-Saharan AfricaSub-Saharan AfricaSub-Saharan AfricaSouth America

OceaniaSub-Saharan AfricaMesoAmericaMesoAmericaOceaniaSouth and SE AsiaMesoAmericaOceaniaOceaniaSouth and SE AsiaWest/Central Asia, South and SE AsiaSouth and SE AsiaMesoAmericaWest/Central AsiaWest/Central AsiaOceaniaNorth AfricaOceaniaOceaniaNorth AmericaOceaniaOceaniaSouth and SE AsiaMesoAmericaCarribbean Islands, South AmericaSub-Saharan AfricaOceaniaOceaniaNorth AmericaNorth AmericaWest/Central AsiaNorth AmericaSub-Saharan AfricaSub-Saharan AfricaOceaniaNorth AmericaNorth AmericaSub-Saharan AfricaCarribbean Islands, South AmericaSub-Saharan AfricaMesoAmericaMesoAmericaNorth AmericaWest/Central AsiaWest/Central AsiaSub-Saharan AfricaMesoAmericaMesoAmericaMesoAmericaSub-Saharan AfricaNorth AfricaSouth AmericaEast AsiaSub-Saharan AfricaSouth and SE AsiaSouth and SE AsiaSouth and SW AsiaSouth and SW AsiaSouth and SW AsiaSouth and SW AsiaMesoAmericaSub-Saharan AfricaSub-Saharan AfricaSub-Saharan AfricaSouth and SE Asia, Sub-Saharan AfricaWest/Central Asia, East AsiaNorth AmericaWest/Central Asia, South and SE Asia, Oceania

OceaniaMesoAmerica, Carribbean Islands, South AmericaSouth and SE AsiaOceaniaMesoAmericaSub-Saharan AfricaSouth and SE Asia, East AsiaEast AsiaNorth America, MesoAmericaEast AsiaSub-Saharan AfricaEast AsiaSouth and SE Asia, East AsiaEast AsiaEast Asia, South and SE AsiaEast AsiaEast AsiaSouth and SE AsiaWest/Central AsiaCarribbean IslandsSub-Saharan AfricaSouth AmericaSouth AmericaMesoAmericaWest/Central AsiaSouth and SE AsiaSouth and SE Asia, East AsiaEast AsiaSouth and SE Asia, East AsiaEast AsiaSouth and SE AsiaMesoAmericaSub-Saharan AfricaMesoAmericaSouth America, West/Central AsiaMesoAmericaSouth and SE AsiaSouth and SE AsiaSouth AmericaSouth and SE AsiaOceaniaSouth and SE AsiaNorth AfricaSub-Saharan AfricaNorth Africa, South and SW AsiaSub-Saharan AfricaSouth and SE AsiaNorth AmericaNorth AmericaSouth and SE AsiaSouth and SE AsiaSouth and SE AsiaSub-Saharan AfricaSub-Saharan AfricaSouth and SE AsiaSouth and SE Asia

South and SE AsiaSouth and SE AsiaSub-Saharan AfricaSub-Saharan AfricaSub-Saharan AfricaSouth and SE AsiaOceaniaSouth and SE AsiaSouth and SE AsiaSouth and SE AsiaSouth and SE AsiaSouth AmericaSouth and SE AsiaSouth AmericaMesoAmericaSouth and SE AsiaSouth and SE AsiaSouth and SE AsiaOceaniaSub-Saharan AfricaOceaniaSub-Saharan AfricaSub-Saharan AfricaWest/Central Asia, South and SE Asia, OceaniaSub-Saharan AfricaMesoAmericaNorth AmericaMesoAmericaNorth Africa, South and SW AsiaSub-Saharan AfricaSub-Saharan AfricaSouth AmericaNorth AmericaSub-Saharan AfricaSub-Saharan AfricaSouth and SE AsiaOceaniaEast AsiaMesoAmericaNorth Africa, SW AsoaMesoAmericaSC , South and SE Asia, OceaniaMesoAmericaSouth AmericaEast AsiaSouth and SE AsiaMesoAmericaEast AsiaSouth and SE AsiaMesoAmericaEast AsiaSub-Saharan AfricaNorth AmericaNorth AmericaNorth AmericaNorth America, MesoAmericaMesoAmericaMesoAmericaEast Asia

North AmericaNorth AmericaNorth AmericaSouth AmericaSouth AmericaMesoAmericaNorth AmericaNorth AmericaNorth AmericaNorth AmericaSub-Saharan AfricaMesoAmericaMesoAmericaMesoAmerica, Sub-Saharan AfricaEast AsiaMesoAmericaNorth AmericaWest/Central Asia, East AsiaMesoAmericaMesoAmericaMesoAmericaMesoAmericaMesoAmericaMesoAmericaMesoAmericaSouth and SE AsiaSouth and SE AsiaWest/Central AsiaWest/Central AsiaSouth and SE AsiaSouth and SE AsiaSouth and SE AsiaSub-Saharan Africa, South and SE AsiaSouth and SE AsiaSouth and SE AsiaMesoAmerica

West/Central AsiaWest/Central AsiaWest/Central AsiaWest/Central AsiaMesoAmericaMesoAmericaMesoAmericaWest/Central AsiaMesoAmericaMesoAmericaMesoAmericaMesoAmericaMesoAmericaSub-Saharan AfricaSub-Saharan AfricaSub-Saharan AfricaMesoAmericaSouth and SE AsiaSouth and SE Asia, East AsiaMesoAmericaSub-Saharan AfricaSub-Saharan AfricaNorth AmericaNorth AmericaMesoAmerica, South and SE Asia, East AsiaSouth and SW AsiaSouth and SW AsiaSub-Saharan AfricaOceaniaWest/Central AsiaWest/Central AsiaEast AsiaOceaniaSouth and SE AsiaNorth AmericaOceaniaSouth and SE AsiaEast AsiaSub-Saharan AfricaSub-Saharan AfricaSub-Saharan AfricaSouth and SE AsiaNorth AmericaNorth AmericaNorth AmericaNorth AmericaNorth AmericaSub-Saharan AfricaNorth AmericaNorth AmericaSub-Saharan AfricaSub-Saharan AfricaNorth AmericaSub-Saharan AfricaSub-Saharan AfricaSouth and SE AsiaSub-Saharan AfricaSouth and SE AsiaMesoAmericaSub-Saharan AfricaSouth and SE AsiaMesoAmerica

Sub-Saharan AfricaSub-Saharan AfricaSub-Saharan AfricaOceaniaOceaniaSub-Saharan AfricaSouth and SE AsiaMesoAmericaMesoAmericaMesoAmericaSouth AmericaSouth and SW AsiaSouth and SW AsiaSouth and SW AsiaSouth and SW AsiaOceaniaSub-Saharan Africa, OceaniaOceaniaOceaniaSouth and SE AsiaSouth and SE AsiaWest/Central Asia, South and SE AsiaSouth and SE AsiaSouth and SE AsiaWest/Central AsiaSub-Saharan AfricaSub-Saharan AfricaSouth and SE AsiaNorth AmericaMesoAmericaMesoAmericaMesoAmericaNorth AmericaNorth AmericaNorth AmericaMesoAmericaMesoAmericaMesoAmericaSouth and SE AsiaSouth and SE AsiaSub-Saharan AfricaSouth AmericaSouth AmericaMesoAmericaMesoAmericaSouth AmericaSouth AmericaMesoAmerica, Oceania, Sub-Saharan AfricaSub-Saharan AfricaSouth AmericaSouth AmericaSub-Saharan AfricaMesoAmericaSub-Saharan AfricaMesoAmerica

Sub-Saharan AfricaSub-Saharan AfricaSouth AmericaSouth AmericaSouth and SW AsiaMesoAmericaMesoAmerica, South AmericaSouth AmericaMesoAmericaSouth AmericaNorth AmericaOceaniaOceaniaSub-Saharan AfricaOceaniaSouth and SE AsiaNorth AmericaNorth AmericaMesoAmericaMesoAmericaOceaniaOceaniaOceaniaOceaniaOceaniaSouth AmericaNorth AmericaNorth AmericaMesoAmericaMesoAmericaSub-Saharan AfricaWest/Central Asia, South and SE Asia, OceaniaSub-Saharan AfricaOceaniaMesoAmerica, North AmericaNorth AmericaNorth AmericaNorth AmericaNorth AmericaEast AsiaSub-Saharan AfricaSouth and SE AsiaOceaniaSub-Saharan AfricaMesoAmericaSouth AmericaMesoAmericaMesoAmericaMesoAmericaSouth and SE AsiaMesoAmerica, South AmericaMesoAmericaMesoAmerica, East AsiaMesoAmericaSouth AmericaMesoAmericaMesoAmericaSouth AmericaSouth America

MesoAmericaMesoAmericaSouth AmericaMesoAmericaMesoAmericaMesoAmericaSouth AmericaSouth AmericaSub-Saharan AfricaSouth and SE Asia, East AsiaSouth and SE AsiaSouth and SE AsiaEast AsiaEast Asia, North AmericaNorth AmericaEast AsiaNorth AmericaMesoAmericaMesoAmerica, West/Central AsiaSub-Saharan AfricaSub-Saharan AfricaWest/Central AsiaEast AsiaSouth and SE AsiaNorth AmericaSub-Saharan AfricaSouth AmericaSub-Saharan AfricaSouth and SE Asia, South America, Sub-Saharan AfricaEast AsiaSub-Saharan AfricaSub-Saharan AfricaSub-Saharan AfricaSub-Saharan AfricaSub-Saharan AfricaSub-Saharan AfricaSub-Saharan AfricaSub-Saharan AfricaSub-Saharan AfricaSub-Saharan AfricaSouth AmericaSouth AmericaSub-Saharan Africa, West/Central AsiaSouth and SE AsiaSub-Saharan AfricaSouth America, South and SE AsiaSouth and SE AsiaSouth America, South and SE AsiaSub-Saharan AfricaSouth and SE AsiaSouth and SE AsiaNorth AmericaWest/Central AsiaWest/Central AsiaWest/Central Asia, South and SE Asia, East Asia

OceaniaMesoAmericaEast AsiaOceaniaOceaniaOceaniaOceaniaOceaniaOceaniaSouth and SE AsiaOceaniaSouth and SE AsiaOceaniaEast AsiaMesoAmericaOceaniaEast AsiaOceaniaMesoAmericaMesoAmericaMesoAmericaOceaniaOceaniaSub-Saharan AfricaSouth and SE AsiaSub-Saharan AfricaSub-Saharan AfricaSub-Saharan AfricaSub-Saharan AfricaSub-Saharan AfricaSub-Saharan AfricaNorth America, West/Central AsiaSub-Saharan AfricaSub-Saharan AfricaMesoAmericaNorth AmericaOceaniaMesoAmericaSub-Saharan AfricaSub-Saharan AfricaMesoAmerica, North AmericaNorth AmericaEast AsiaSouth AmericaSub-Saharan AfricaSub-Saharan AfricaSub-Saharan AfricaNorth America, MesoAmerica, South AmericaSub-Saharan AfricaSub-Saharan AfricaSub-Saharan AfricaSub-Saharan Africa

Sub-Saharan AfricaSub-Saharan AfricaSub-Saharan AfricaSub-Saharan AfricaSub-Saharan AfricaSub-Saharan AfricaSub-Saharan AfricaMesoAmericaMesoAmericaSub-Saharan AfricaSub-Saharan AfricaSub-Saharan AfricaSub-Saharan AfricaOceaniaEast AsiaSouth and SE AsiaMesoAmericaWest/Central AsiaWest/Central AsiaEast AsiaWest/Central AsiaSub-Saharan AfricaSub-Saharan AfricaSub-Saharan AfricaSub-Saharan AfricaMesoAmericaSub-Saharan AfricaSub-Saharan AfricaSub-Saharan AfricaSub-Saharan AfricaSub-Saharan AfricaSub-Saharan AfricaSub-Saharan AfricaSub-Saharan AfricaSub-Saharan AfricaNorth AmericaSub-Saharan AfricaSub-Saharan AfricaSub-Saharan AfricaSub-Saharan AfricaSub-Saharan AfricaSub-Saharan AfricaSub-Saharan AfricaSub-Saharan AfricaSub-Saharan AfricaSub-Saharan AfricaNorth AmericaMesoAmericaMesoAmericaSub-Saharan AfricaSub-Saharan AfricaSub-Saharan AfricaSub-Saharan AfricaSub-Saharan AfricaSub-Saharan AfricaSub-Saharan AfricaSub-Saharan AfricaMesoAmericaSub-Saharan AfricaSub-Saharan AfricaSub-Saharan AfricaSub-Saharan AfricaSub-Saharan AfricaSub-Saharan AfricaSub-Saharan AfricaSub-Saharan AfricaSub-Saharan AfricaSub-Saharan Africa

Sub-Saharan AfricaSub-Saharan AfricaSub-Saharan AfricaSub-Saharan AfricaWest/Central AsiaWest/Central AsiaSub-Saharan AfricaEast AsiaSub-Saharan AfricaSub-Saharan AfricaSub-Saharan AfricaSub-Saharan AfricaSub-Saharan AfricaEast AsiaOceaniaSub-Saharan AfricaMesoAmerica, North AmericaOceaniaNorth AmericaNorth AmericaSub-Saharan AfricaSub-Saharan AfricaOceaniaOceaniaOceaniaSouth and SE AsiaWest/Central AsiaWest/Central AsiaSouth and SE AsiaSouth AmericaWest/Central AsiaWest/Central AsiaMesoAmerica, South and SE AsiaNorth AmericaSouth and SE AsiaSouth and SE AsiaSouth and SE AsiaSouth and SE AsiaSouth and SE AsiaSouth and SE AsiaSouth and SE AsiaSub-Saharan AfricaSub-Saharan AfricaSub-Saharan Africa

West/Central AsiaEast AsiaSub-Saharan AfricaWest/Central AsiaWest/Central Asia, North AfricaSouth and SE AsiaSouth and SE AsiaSouth and SE AsiaSouth and SE AsiaSub-Saharan AfricaSub-Saharan AfricaSouth AmericaSub-Saharan AfricaSub-Saharan AfricaMesoAmericaNorth AmericaMesoAmericaNorth AmericaSub-Saharan AfricaSub-Saharan AfricaSub-Saharan AfricaSub-Saharan AfricaSub-Saharan AfricaOceaniaSub-Saharan AfricaSub-Saharan AfricaSub-Saharan AfricaSub-Saharan AfricaSub-Saharan Africa, South and SW AsiaSub-Saharan Africa, South and SE AsiaMesoAmericaSub-Saharan AfricaSub-Saharan AfricaSub-Saharan AfricaSouth and SE Asia, Sub-Saharan AfricaSouth and SE AsiaSub-Saharan AfricaWest/Central AsiaSub-Saharan AfricaOceania, Sub-Saharan Africa, South and SE Asia, East AsiaSub-Saharan AfricaEast AsiaSub-Saharan AfricaSub-Saharan AfricaSub-Saharan AfricaWest/Central AsiaMesoAmericaNorth AmericaNorth AmericaNorth AmericaNorth AmericaNorth America, MesoAmericaNorth America, MesoAmericaNorth AmericaMesoAmericaSub-Saharan AfricaNorth AmericaSub-Saharan AfricaSub-Saharan AfricaSub-Saharan AfricaSouth AmericaSouth AmericaMesoAmerica, South AmericaEast AsiaEast Asia, South and SE AsiaEast AsiaSouth and SE Asia, East AsiaEast AsiaSub-Saharan AfricaSouth and SE AsiaMesoAmericaSub-Saharan AfricaSub-Saharan Africa, MesoAmerica, South AmericaSouth AmericaSouth AmericaSub-Saharan Africa, North Africa, South and SW Asia, West/Central AsiaMesoAmericaSub-Saharan AfricaNorth AmericaNorth America

MesoAmericaMesoAmericaMesoAmericaMesoAmericaMesoAmericaMesoAmericaMesoAmericaSub-Saharan AfricaOceaniaCarribbean IslandsSouth and SE AsiaSouth and SE AsiaEast AsiaEast AsiaSouth and SE AsiaNorth AmericaSub-Saharan AfricaWest/Central AsiaSouth and SE AsiaWest/Central AsiaSub-Saharan AfricaSouth and SE AsiaWest/Central AsiaSub-Saharan AfricaNorth AmericaSub-Saharan Africa, South and SE AsiaCarribbean IslandsSouth and SE AsiaWest/Central AsiaOceaniaSouth and SE Asia, OceaniaSub-Saharan Africa, West/Central Asia, South and SE AsiaSub-Saharan AfricaSub-Saharan AfricaMesoAmericaMesoAmericaMesoAmericaSouth AmericaNorth AmericaOceaniaSouth AmericaSouth and SE AsiaWest/Central AsiaWest/Central AsiaWest/Central AsiaMesoAmericaSub-Saharan AfricaSub-Saharan AfricaSouth and SE AsiaSub-Saharan AfricaOceaniaEast AsiaWest/Central Asia

OceaniaOceaniaOceaniaSouth and SE AsiaSouth and SE AsiaSouth and SE AsiaNorth AmericaMesoAmericaMesoAmerica, South AmericaEast AsiaGASTROPODANR Europe

PRIMATESATELIDAEOreonax flavicauda YELLOW-TAILED WOOLLYMONKEYCR B1+2abcde, C2a South AmericaCallitrichidaeSaguinus nigricollis Tamarin NR South AmericaCebidaeSaimiri sciureus Squirrel monkey NR South AmericaAlouatta seniculus Howler monkey NR South AmericaAteles hybridus brunneus Brown spider monkey ? South AmericaAteles paniscus Spider monkey NR South AmericaCacajao spp. Uakari NR South AmericaCallicebus moloch Titi monkey NR South AmericaCebus apella Capuchin NR South AmericaCebus xanthosternos Buff-headed tufted capuchin ? South AmericaCebus xanthosternos YELLOW-BREASTED CR A2cd; C2a(i) South AmericaCAPUCHINChiropotes spp. Saki NR South AmericaLagothrix lagotricha Humboldt's woolly monkey NR South AmericaPithecia spp. Saki NR South AmericaCECOPITHECIDAECercocebus agilis Agile mangabey NR Sub-Saharan Africagrey cheeked mangabeySub-Saharan AfricaCercocebus albigena(W&C) NRCercocebus atys Sooty mangabey LR/nt Sub-Saharan AfricaCercocebus atys lunulatus White-naped mangabey ? Sub-Saharan AfricaCercocebus galeritus CRESTED MANGABEY LR/nt Sub-Saharan AfricaCercocebus mitis White-collared mangabey / NR Sub-Saharan AfricaSamango monkeyCercocebus torquatus collared mangabey (W&C) LR-nt Sub-Saharan AfricaCercocebys sanjei Sanje mangabey ? Sub-Saharan AfricaCercopithecus aethiops Grivet monkey NR Sub-Saharan AfricaCercopithecus ascanius Red-tailed monkey NR Sub-Saharan AfricaCercopithecus campbelli Campbell’s monkey NR Sub-Saharan AfricaCercopithecus cephus moustached monkey (W&C) NR Sub-Saharan AfricaCercopithecus denti Dent's monkey NR Sub-Saharan AfricaCercopithecus diana DIANA GUENON EN A1cd+2cd Sub-Saharan AfricaCercopithecus dryas DRYAD MONKEY DD Sub-Saharan AfricaCercopithecus erythrogaster RED-BELLIED GUENON EN A1cd Sub-Saharan AfricaCercopithecus erythrotis RED-EARED GUENON VU A1cd+2cd Sub-Saharan AfricaCercopithecus hamlyni owl faced monkey (W&C) LR-nt Sub-Saharan AfricaCercopithecus mitis samango monkey (E&S) NR Sub-Saharan AfricaCercopithecus neglectus De Brazza's monkey NR Sub-Saharan AfricaCercopithecus nictitans greater white nosed monkey NR Sub-Saharan Africa(W&C)Cercopithecus petaurista Lesser spot-nosed monkey NR Sub-Saharan AfricaCercopithecus pogonias crowned guenon (W&C) EN Sub-Saharan AfricaCercopithecus preussi PREUSS'S GUENON EN A1cd+2cd Sub-Saharan AfricaCercopithecus sclateri SCLATER'S GUENON EN B1+2c Sub-Saharan AfricaCercopithecus solatus SUN-TAILED GUENON VU B1+2abcde, C1 Sub-Saharan AfricaCercopithicus mona Mona monkey (W&C) NR Sub-Saharan AfricaChlorocebus tantalus Tantalus monkey NR Sub-Saharan AfricaColobus angolensis Angolan colobus NR Sub-Saharan AfricaColobus badius pennanti red colobus (W&C) EN Sub-Saharan AfricaColobus guereza eastern black & white colobus NR Sub-Saharan Africa(W&C)Colobus polykomos Black-and-white colobus LR/nt Sub-Saharan AfricaColobus satanas BLACK COLOBUS VU A1cd+2cd Sub-Saharan AfricaColobus vellerosus GEOFFROY'S BLACK-AND- VU A1cd+2cd Sub-Saharan AfricaWHITE COLOBUSErythrocebus patas Patas monkey NR Sub-Saharan AfricaLophocebus aterrimus BLACK CRESTEDLR/nt Sub-Saharan AfricaMANGABEYMacaca assamensis ASSAM MACAQUE VU A1cd East Asia, South andSE AsiaMacaca fascicularis Long-tailed macaque LR/nt South and SE AsiaMacaca nemestrina Pig-tailed macaque VU A1cd South and SE AsiaMacaca silenus LION-TAILED MACAQUE EN C2a(i) South and SE AsiaMandrillus leucophaeus DRILL EN A1acd+2cd Sub-Saharan AfricaMandrillus sphinx Mandrill VU A2cd Sub-Saharan AfricaMiopithecus talapoin talapoin (W&C) NR Sub-Saharan AfricaPapio anubis Olive baboon NR Sub-Saharan Africa

Papio cynocephalus Yellow baboon LR Sub-Saharan AfricaPapio hamadryas Hamadryas baboon LR/nt Sub-Saharan AfricaPresbytis hosei canicrus Miller's grizzled surili ? South and SE AsiaPresbytis melalophos Banded leaf monkey LR/nt South and SE AsiaProcolobus badius RED COLOBUS EN A1cd+2cd, Sub-Saharan AfricaB1+2abcProcolobus pennantii PENNANT'S RED COLOBUS EN A2cd Sub-Saharan AfricaProcolobus rufomitratus EASTERN RED COLOBUS CR B1+2abcde, C2a Sub-Saharan AfricaSemnopithecus johnii BLACK LEAF MONKEY VU C2a(i) South and SE AsiaSemnopithecus vetulus nestor Western purple-faced langur ? South and SE AsiaSimias concolor PIG-TAILED LANGUR EN A1cd+2c South and SE AsiaTrachypithecus delacouri Delacour's langur ? South and SE AsiaTrachypithecus obscurus Dusky leaf monkey NR South and SE AsiaTrachypithecus poliocephalus poliocephalus Golden-headed langur ? South and SE AsiaGalagonidaeGalago alleni Allen’s squirrel galago LR/nt Sub-Saharan AfricaGalago elegantulus Elegant needle-clawed galago LR/nt Sub-Saharan AfricaGalagoides potto Demidoff’s galago NR Sub-Saharan AfricaGalagoides sp. nov Mt. Rungwe galago ? Sub-Saharan AfricaOtolemur crassicaudatus Greater galago NR Sub-Saharan AfricaHOMINIDAEGorilla beringei graueri EASTERN GORILLA EN A2cd Sub-Saharan AfricaGorilla gorilla gorilla WESTERN GORILLA EN A2cd Sub-Saharan AfricaPan paniscus BONOBO EN A2cd Sub-Saharan AfricaPan troglodytes CHIMPANZEE EN A3cd Sub-Saharan AfricaGorilla beringei beringei mountain gorilla CE Sub-Saharan AfricaGorilla gorilla ssp. Diehli Cross River gorilla (W&C) CE Sub-Saharan AfricaPongo abelii Sumatran orangutan ? South and SE AsiaPongo pygmaeus ORANG-UTAN EN A2cd South and SE AsiaHylobatidaeHylobates lar White-handed gibbon LR/nt South and SE AsiaNomascus gabriellae BUFF-CHEEKED GIBBON VU A1cd+2cd South and SE AsiaNomascus leucogenys WHITE-CHEEKED GIBBON DD East Asia, South andSE AsiaLORIDAEArctocebus aureus GOLDEN ANGWANTIBO LR/nt Sub-Saharan AfricaArctocebus calabarensis ANGWANTIBO LR/nt Sub-Saharan AfricaPerodictus potto potto (W&C) NR Sub-Saharan AfricaMisc PrimatesBrachyteles hypoxanthus Northern muriqui ? South AmericaEulemur albocollaris White-collared lemur ? Sub-Saharan AfricaLoris lydekkerianus nycticeboides Horton Plains slender loris ? South and SE AsiaProlemur simus Greater bamboo lemur ? Sub-Saharan AfricaPropithecus candidus Silky sifaka ? Sub-Saharan AfricaPropithecus perrieri Perrier's sifaka ? Sub-Saharan AfricaPygathrix cinerea Grey-shanked douc ? South and SE Asia

Principal Orgs Funders Activities Country RegionA.K.Taylor International A.K.Taylor International Community based conservationinitiative, involving environmentaleducation & support programmes,desnaring and anti poachingKenyaAfrican WildlifeFoundation, Fauna &Flora International, WWF,Office Rwandais deTourisme et des ParcsNationaux, UgandaWildlife Authority, InstitutCongolaise pou laConservation de la Nature(ICCN)FFI, AWF, WWF International Gorilla ConservationprogrammeAmerican Society ofPrimatologists1.Special bushmeat sessionsduring ASP annual conferences,2.Annual small conservationgrantsConsensus statement onbushmeatAmerican Zoo &USAAquarium AssociationApe Alliance Member organizations The Great Ape Event UKRwanda, Uganda,DRCUSAAfricaAfricaNorth-AmericaNorth-AmericaApe Alliance Member organizations Postcard campaign to UKgovernmentUKEuropeApe Alliance, IFAW, BFF,BCTF, CWAF, IPPL-UK,TFF, WSPABushmeat Working Group UKATIBT (Association Technique Internationaledes Bois Tropicaux), FRM(Forest ResourceManagement), CIRAD(International Centre forAgricultural Research forDeveloping Countries),ONFi (Office National desForêts International), TWE(Tropical WoodEnvironment), WWF,ADIE (Agency for theDevelopment ofEnvironmentalInformation)ADIE Practical forest management planfor natural, tropical Africanproduction forestsAfricaEuropeEuropeBBC “Slaughter of the Apes”Newsround Extra documentaryBBC, TVE “The Ape Hunters”, bushmeatdocumentaryBBC, TVE "Blood Timber" Earth Report onlogging and bushmeatBeaver College, Arcadia Beaver College, CARPE, WWF, Margo Beaver College Bioko BiodiversityUniversityMarsh Biodiversity Fund, Beneficia Protection ProgramFoundation, Mobil, CMS Foundation,Berggorilla & RegenwaldDirekthilfe (MountainGorilla and RainforestDirect Aid)UKUKUKEquatorial GuineaEAZA ‘Protecting Great Apes in the Wild’ DRC, Uganda,Nigeria, CAR,Cameroon.AfricaEuropeEuropeEuropeAfricaAfrica

Berggorilla & Regenwald Stuttgart Zoo, Berggorilla & RegenwaldDirekthilfe (Mountain Direkthilfe, Association of GermanGorilla and Rainforest Zoodirectors (VDZ), IFAWDirect Aid), WilhemiaZoological & BotanicalGardens Stuttgart,Bonobo in situ project,Rettet den Regenwald,WCF, WSPA, IFAW, GTZ,BCTF, Ape Alliance,Pandrillus, NouvellesApproachesBeulah Land Eco-villageLtd.Exhibition in German zoos“Gorillas in the Soup, theeradication of African wildlifethrough the bushmeat trade”GermanyTwo centers offering (1)GhanaEducational and recreationalresources (“learning though play”)and (2) Ecological packages fortourists, with a view towardssustainable land use.EuropeBiosynergy Institute Newman’s Own Foundation, BelleriveFoundationBiosynergy Instituteitute,Gorilla Foundation, Univ.Toronto, Yaounde WildlifeSanctuaryThe Bushmeat Project, provides USAinformation, funding and supportfor bushmeat-active organizationsand projectsGorilla Foundation, Private Donors Conservation Education Program:Fostering Empathy for AfricanWildlifeBjorn Schulte-Herbruggen Cleveland Metro parks zoo, PittsburghZoo, Univ Edinburgh, RGS, BritishEcolgical Society, Anglo Peruvian Soc.,Linnean Soc., Percy Slater memorialFund, CE Wikstroms Minnesfond, i-objects, Gesamtschule Vowinkel, Zeiss,Otter Boxes, British Knife GuildEcological consequences of illegallogging & associated subsistencehunting on duirnal mammalsCameroonPeruAfricaNorth-AmericaAfricaBonobo ConservationInitiativeCongolese government World Space Digital radio in DRC,with educational programmingDRCLatin AmericaBonobo ConservationInitiativeDRC Gov., CI, Global Conservation Fund,U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service, NGSBonobo Community- basedReserves ProjectDRCAfricaBonobo ConservationInitiativeU.S Fish & Wildlife Service (Great ApeConservation Fund).Bonobo Survey and InformationExchange projectDRCAfricaBonobo ConservationInitiative“Shadows in the Forest” Bonobolore awareness campaignDRCAfricaBonobo ConservationInitiativeBonobo ConservationInitiativeBonobo ConservationInitiativeBonobo ConservationInitiativeThe Jazz Scene Collaboration with Congolesemusician to promote bonoboconservation through radio, TVand CD’s.Partnerships with religiousnetworks to promote creationistargument for protecting bonobos.Biodiversity learning center inKinshasaGreat Apes Conservation Act &Millennium CampiagnDRCDRCDRCDRCAfricaAfricaAfricaAfricaAfrica

Bonobo ConservationInitiativeBonobo ConservationInitiativeBonobo ConservationInitiativeAustralian government Community Conservation Centers DRCIUCN Conservation Breeding SpecialistGroup (CBSG), Institute Congolaise pourConservation de le Nature (ICCN)International BonoboSummit/Population and HabitatViability AssessmentDRCSustainable development DRCAfricaAfricaBonobo ConservationinitiativeBonobo ConservationInitiativeBonobo ConservationInitiative, IUCNConservation BreedingSpecialist Group,Congolese InstitutionsEco-tourism DRCCapacity-building of localCongolese organisationsKinshasa Bonobo Population &Habitat Viability AssessmentBorn Free Foundation Primate Campaign UKBorn Free Foundation Helping Hands Appeal UKBorn Free Foundation,GTZBorn Free Foundation,JGI, GTZBorn Free Foundation,Kenyatta Universityraveling Theatre Group,Youth for ConservtaionBorn Free Foundation,Youth for ConservationKahuzi-Biega National ParkprotectionDRCDRCDRCLwiro Sanctuary DRCAnimal Welfare Institute, Land Rover (1) Theatrical production “Carcasses”, raising awareness ofbushmeat throughout East Africa(2) Surveys to assess impact ofplayKenyaBFF Study of bushmeat in NairobimarketsBoston College, WCS, National Science Foundation The role of culture and economicsin the consumption of bushmeatBristol Museum The Bushmeat Game UKKenyaGabonAfricaAfricaAfricaAfricaEuropeEuropeAfricaAfricaAfricaAfricaAfricaBristol Zoo GardensGardens, Living Earth,CWAF, MINEFU.S. Fish & Wildlife Service Service,Oakland ZooEducation programmme with inschool,at-centre and outreachcomponenetsCameroonEuropeAfricaBrookfield Zoo Bushmeat Action group USA North-AmericaBushmeat AwarenessGroupInternationalOnline Discussion group forsharing views and information onthe bushmeat crisis.Bushmeat Crisis ActionGroup, Oakland ZooOakland Zoo (1) Bushmeat Crisis Action Group(2) BCAG Information Stations atOakland ZooUSAInternationalBushmeat Crisisdiscussion groupBushmeat Crisis TaskForceSeeking funding Wildlife Conservation educationprogrammeInformation Packet (Fact Sheets) USACameroonNorth-AmericaAfricaBushmeat Crisis TaskForceResearch Archive (Library ofreports, peer-reviewedpublications and media articles)USANorth-AmericaBushmeat Crisis TaskForceBushmeat Crisis TaskForceProjects Database USABCTF Info CD-Rom & Phase IreportInternationalNorth-AmericaNorth-AmericaNorth-America

Bushmeat Crisis TaskForceJGI African Wildlife CollegesCurriculum WorkshopsAfricaBushmeat Crisis TaskForceBushmeat Crisis TaskForceBushmeat Crisis TaskForceSupport for U.S. Great ApeConservation FundOrganization and input to policyproposalsBushmeat Information Event onCapitol HillUSAUSAUSAAfricaUSAUSABushmeat Crisis TaskForceBushmeat Crisis TaskForceBushmeat Crisis TaskForceBushmeat Crisis TaskForceBushmeat Crisis TaskForceBushmeat Crisis TaskForceCleveland Metroparks Zoo, ColumbusZoo, Oakland ZooBCTF Collaborative ActionPlanning (CAP) MeetingBCTF Executive Reception at theNational Press ClubUSAUSAMedia Support USACentral Africa Public AwarenessCampaignPublic Awareness Resource page USAThe Bushmeat Promise USACentral AfricaNorth-AmericaUSANorth-AmericaNorth-AmericaAfricaNorth-AmericaBushmeat Crisis TaskForce , IUCNConservation BreedingSpecialist Group (IUCN-CBSG), EndangeredWildlife TrustBushmeat Crisis TaskForce, American Zoo &Aquarium AssociationBushmeat Crisis TaskForce, GFW, WRIBushmeat Hunting and MarketSites QuestionnaireDisney Wildlife Conservation Fund Bushmeat Education ResourceGuide (BERG)South AfricaUSABushmeat InformationUSAManagement and Analysis Project(Bushmeat IMAP)North-AmericaAfricaNorth-AmericaBushmeat Crisis TaskForce, WWFCanadian Great ApeAllianceBushmeat CurriculumCameroonDevelopment and CourseImplementation at École de Faunede GarouaCanadian Broadcast Corporation Bonobo documentary “Ghosts of DRCLomako”North-AmericaAfricaCanadian Great ApeAllianceCanadian Great ApeAlliance, Sir SandfordFleming CollegeDiscovery Channel, Canada Documentary: Bushmeat,Slaughter of the Apes? GIS Applications for BonobosconservationCare for the Wild Participation in Campaign: “2001 – AfricaAn Ape Odyssey”.,Care for the Wild Chimp appeal to raise funds for AfricaKenyan santuaryCentral AfricaCentral AfricaAfricaAfricaNorth-AmericaAfricaAfrica

Central African RegionalProgram for theEnvironment (CARPE),Congo Basin ForestPartnershipCentre for AnimalRehabilitation andEducation (CARE)Centre for AppliedBiodiversity ScienceUSAID Small Grants Program for forestand biodiversity conservation inCentral AfricaRehabilitation and reintroductionof orphaned chacma baboonsCentre for Applied Biodiversity Science Field testing solutions andproducts: Addressing the problemof bushmeat huntingCheyenne Mountain Zoo Bushmeat Education display USACentral AfricaSouth AfricaWest AfricaChimpanzeeChimpanzee Rehabilitation Center The GambiaRehabilitation TrustCIAID, SNV Int Fund Animal Welfare Gorilla research & tourism report CameroonAfricaAfricaAfricaUSAAfricaCincinnati Zoo & BotanicGarden,Cincinnati Zoo & Botanic Garden, PrivateDonors,CITES Bushmeat Working Defra, U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service,GroupMacArthur Foundation, USA Departmentof State, USAIDEducation Project on theBushmeat TradeTraining for bushmeat trade lawenforcementUSACameroon, CAR,Congo, DRC,Equatorial Guinea,GabonAfricaUSACITES Bushmeat Working Defra, U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service,GroupMacArthur Foundation, USA Departmentof State, USAIDCITES Bushmeat Working Defra, U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service,GroupMacArthur Foundation, USA Departmentof State, USAIDCITES Bushmeat Working Defra, U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service,GroupMacArthur Foundation, USA Departmentof State, USAIDCITES Bushmeat Working Defra, U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service,GroupMacArthur Foundation, USA Departmentof State, USAIDMonitoring and development ofbushmeat trade databaseReview of wildlife managementauthority structuresDevelopment of wildlifemanagement guidelines withinlogging concessionsAfricaCameroon, CAR,Congo, DRC,Equatorial Guinea,Gabon AfricaCameroon, CAR,Congo, DRC,Equatorial Guinea,Gabon AfricaCameroon, CAR,Congo, DRC,Equatorial Guinea,Gabon AfricaPublic awareness campaigns Cameroon, CAR,Congo, DRC,Equatorial Guinea,CITES Bushmeat Working Defra Study on wildlife legislation andGrouppolicies in Central AfricancountriesCITES, Convention on Macarthur Foundation, U.S. Fish &Biological Diversity, UN Wildlife Service, Defra, IFAWFood & Agri Org., Int.Tropical Timber Org,WWF, CI, WCS,ECOFAC, WRI, CBFP,Central African WorldHeritage Forest Initiative, ,,Gabon AfricaCameroon, CAR,Congo, DRC,Equatorial Guinea,Gabon, AfricaCITES Bushmeat Working Group Cameroon, CAR,Republic of Congo,DRC, EquatorialGuinea, Gabon,Benin, Côted’Ivoire, Ghana,Guinea, Kenya,Liberia, Mali, Niger,Sierra Leone,Togo, ZambiaCleveland Metroparks Zoo Cleveland Metroparks Zoo Survey of Zoo visitor knowledge about bushmeat & preferences forgraphic vs non graphic photos inbushmeat educationUSACleveland Metroparks Zoo Cleveland Metroparks Zoo Bushmeat Roving Theatreeducation at Clevelandmetroparks ZooUSAAfricaUSAUSA

COMIFAC (Council ofMinisters for Forests ofCentral Africa)Plan of Convergence, promoting Central Africasustainable forest management inCentral AfricaConservation International “Say no to Bushmeat: Stop killingwild animals”Conservation International ConservationSangha River Network, ForestInternationalernationalernationalernational Wildlife Utilisation dynamics inCentral Africa and emerging viraldiseasesConservation InternationalCenter for AppliedBiodiversity Science(CABS)Conservation InternationalCenter for AppliedBiodiversity Science(CABS)ConservationInternational, Governmentof GhanaConservationInternational, Univ.Science & Tech, KumasiGhanaConservation of Wildlife &heritage of KodaguConservation Society ofSierra Leone, Ministry ofAgriculture, Forestry andMarine ResourcesHunting and bushmeat utilizationin the African rainforestGhanaCentral AfricaAfricaBushmeat workshop USACritical Ecosystem Partnership Fund Hunting to extinction: addressingthe bushmeat crisis in GhanaCI Overview of bushmeat issue inWest Africa, Phase 1-3Save The Tiger Fund, WCS Community Leadership for WildlifeConservation, NagaraholeVoluntary resettlementGhanaGhanaIndiaWSPA, IPPL, Dewer Wildlife Trust Tacugama Chimpanzee Sanctuary Sierra LeoneCross River State Columbus Zoo, Bernhardine Fund, RoyalForestry Commission, Rotterdam Zoo & Botanical gardens,Pandrillus, City University, Margo Marsh Foundation, PrimateNY.Conservation Inc. Inc.,Ecology & Conservation of CrossRiver Gorillas in Afi MountainsWildlife SanctuaryNigeriaAfricaAfricaAfricaAfricaUSAAfricaAfricaAsiaAfricaCWAF Bristol Zoo Gardens, Oakland Zoo,Givskud Zoo, Direct Marketing SupportLtd, Toronto ZooYaounde Zoo ConservationCentreCameroonAfricaCWAF , CameroonAfricaCWAF, Ape Alliance,Univ. Toronto, WildlifeProtectors Fund,Biosynergy Institute,Canadian Great ApeAllianceWildlife Protectors Fund, Save TheSpecies Fund, Gorilla Foundation,Biosynergy Institute, Great Ape Fund,Toronto Zoo Great Ape Fund PrivateDonorsHuman Centred Solutions to theBushmeat Crisis: Conservationvalues, Humane values Researchand biosynergy awarenessprogrammeCameroonAfricaDABAC (Developpementd’Alternatives auBraconnage en AfriqueCentrale)European Union Development of ProteinAlternatives in Central Africa.Defra “If in doubt, leave it out” campaignagainst illegal meat imports.Gabon, Cameroon,Republic of CongoUKAfricaAfricaEurope

Department forInternational Development(DFID)Wildlife and Poverty Study UKDete Animal Rescue Trust(DART), The Fund forAnimalsDian Fossey Gorilla FundInternationalUSAID, CARPE, Congo Basin ForestPartnership, Conservation IInternationalTreatment of snare-injured Zimbabweanimals, relocation andrehabilitationUGADEC (Union des Associations DRCde Conservation des Gorilles pourle Développment Communautaireá l’est de la RépubliqueDémocratique de Congo (Sevengorilla reserves covering >10,000km2 including corridor project tolinkMaiko NP and the TaynaGorilla Reserve))EuropeAfricaDian Fossey Gorilla Fund,InternationalDian Fossey Gorilla Fund Mountain Gorilla Census DRC, Rwanda,UgandaAfricaDian Fossey Gorilla Fund,International,USAID, CARPE, CI Field Expedition report, Cassiteriteand ColtanDRCAfricaDian Fossey Gorilla Fund,International,Dian Fossey Gorilla Fund,International,ConservationIInternationalUSAID, CARPE, Congo Basin ForestPartnership, CIUSAID, CARPE, Congo Basin ForestPartnership, Conservation IInternational,ICCN (Institut Congolais pour la Protectionde la Nature).Tanyna Gorilla Reserve DRCNew Conservation programme inCongo, The Maiko Tayna KahuziBiega landscapeCongoAfricaAfricaDisney’s Animal Kingdom Disney’s Animal Kingdom Engangered Animal RehabilitationCentre- Permanent ExhibitionDr Thompson Lukuru Foundation, Friends of Lukuru Lukuru Wildlife Research project DRC.USAAfricaUSADr Thompson Lukuru Foundation, Friends of Lukuru Lukuru Wildlife Research project.Regional effortDRC.AfricaDr Thompson Columbus Zoo & Aquarium, Margo MarshBiodiversity FundLukuru Wildlife Research project.Restoring Conservation capacityto protect pan paniscusDr Thompson Lukuru Foundation, Friends of Lukuru Parc National de la Salonga DRC.DRCAfricaAfricaDr Thompson Lukuru Foundation, Friends of Lukuru Bososandja Faunal reserve DRC.AfricaDr Thompson, OaklandZooOakland Zoo & 40 institutions Outfit a ranger campaign DRCAfricaAfrica

EAZA EAZA, IFAW EAZA Petition against thebushmeat tradeNetherlandsEAZA ? Great apes ecology, bushmeathunting, logging and communitybased management around theDja Faunal Reserve, Cameroon:rethinking conservation issues innon protected areas”CameroonEAZA ? Bushmeat working Group NetherlandsEuropeAfricaECOFAC, Government ofRepublic of CongoECOFAC, Ministry ofEnvironment and ForestsECOFAC, Ministry ofWater and Forests, WCSWWF, seeking additional funding Reducing the impact of Ebola onpeople and great apes in theCongo BasinCongo BasinEuropean Dev Fund Wildlife population in Western DJA CameroonReserveWWF, seeking additional funding Conservation of western lowlandgorillas and central chimpanzeesin Odzala National Park, Republicof CongoCongo BrazavilleEuropeAfricaAfricaEco-Portal Environmental SustainabilityInformation Source, links tobushmeat-active organisationsEuropean Commission EU Action Plan for Forest LawEnforcement, Governance andTrade (FLEGT)USAEuropeAfricaUSAEuropean Commission,International governmentsAfrican Forest Law Enforcementand Governance (AFLEG)programmeAngola, Belgium,Benin, Botswana,Burkina Faso,Burundi, CAR,Cameroon,Canada, Republicof Congo, Côted’Ivoire, DRC,Ethiopia, EuropeanCommission,France, Gabon,The Gambia,Germany, Ghana,Guinea, Guinea-Bissau, Italy,Kenya, Lesotho,Madagascar,Mauritius,Mozambique,Namibia, Niger,Nigeria, Senegal,Seychelles, SouthAfrica, Switzerland,Togo, Uganda, UK,USA, Zambia,ZimbabweEuropeInternational

Fauna & FloraInternational, UN GlobalCompact GroupForest ConservationPortalForest StewardshipCouncil (FSC)Vodafone, ATT, Bell-Canada Developing market for ethicallysourcedcoltanAustrian, Dutch and Mexicangovernments, European Commission,Ford Foundation, MacArthur Foundation,WWF, IUCN, Swedish Society for NatureConservationFriends of Bonobos, IFAW Wasmoeth Wildlife Foundation, ColumbusZoo, Oakland ZooOnline information and newsservice reporting on forestconservation issuesEnvironmental Impact Principleaimed at protecting species,habitats and controlling hunting inmanaged areas.DRCUSALola Ya Bonobo Sanctuary DRCInternationalFund for Animals Bilateral Ranger training Initiative Rwanda, UgandaAfricaUSAInternationalAfricaFund for Animals, Presentation to schools about theinterdependency of animals andpeopleGEF, UNDP, UNOPS,WWFGlobal Environment Facility Conservation of Biodiversitythrough effective management ofwildlife tradeKenyaGabonAfricaAfricaGilman InternationalConservationGilman International Conservation Cane Rat domestication Project DRCAfricaGlobal Forest Watch(GFW), World ResourcesInstitute (WRI), IUCN,InterAfrican ForestIndustries Association(IFIA), WWFBMZ, World Bank, USFSIP, USAID-CARPEForest Concession MonitoringSystem for Central Africa(FORCOMS)Central AfricaAfricaAfricaGorilla Foundation Maui Ape Preserve sanctuary USA Pacific-IslandsGorilla Foundation’s Save the Species Foundation “Michael Leo Rion” sanctuary for CameroonWildlife Protectors Fund,CWAFgorillas in Mefou NP, Cameroon.AfricaGovernment of Republic USA government, CARPE, EU, G8of Congo, Cameroon, nations, private sector, NGO’sCentral African Republic,DRC, Equatorial Guinea,Gabon, USA, UK, Japan,Germany, France andSouth Africa,ConservationIInternational, WCS,WWF, WRI, ForestTrends, Society ofAmerican Foresters,American Forest andPaper Association, ATIBT(Association TechniqueInternationale des BoisTropicaux), World Bank,ITTO.Congo Basin Forest Partnership Congo Brazaville,Cameroon, CentralAfrican Republic,DRC, EquatorialGuinea, Gabon,USA, UK, Japan,Germany, France,South AfricaGTZ ? Impact of bushmeat hunting ongorilla populations of East DRCDRCInternationalGTZ, Berggorilla &Regenwald DirekthilfePrivate Berggorilla & RegenwaldDirekthilfeCentral & WestAfricaAfricaAfrica

Heifer International South West Farmers Project,Phase IHumane Society of theUSICCN (Congolese Institutefor Nature Conservation),CARPE, CITES, MIKE,UNEP/UNESCO GrASP,WCS, Zoological Societyof MilwaukeeCameroonSupport for anti-poaching efforts in South Africa,Kruger NP, South Africa, and Central AfricaEmergency Relief Mission forCongo’s National ParkWWF, seeking additional funding Conservation of great apes in theDemocratic Republic of CongoDRCAfricaAfricaICCN, GTZ (GermanTechnical Co-operation)ICCN, Zoological Societyof MilwaukeeWWF, seeking additional funding Eastern lowland gorillaconservation in Kahuzi-BiiegaNational Park, Democratic republicof CongoDRCWWF, seeking additional funding Establishing and managing DRCprotected areas for bonobosAfricaAfricaIFAW “Protected by Law: the threats facing wild animals hunted forfood”, Bushmeat education packfor schools.UKIFAW Monkey Business in Gabon: A Gaboncase study of bushmeat in CentralAfricaIFAW-EU, WWF Addressing bushmeat transport in GabonGabon on the TransgabonaisrailwayIn defense of animals, GAP Project, Private donors, US Sanaga-Yong Chimpanzee CameroonDVMEmbassy, Cameroon, IDARescue CenterAfricaEuropeAfricaAfricaIn Situ WildlifeConservationLetter to Dutch Students, Petitionto Dutch StudentsIndividuals CARPE, AIDIE Yike Pindi EnvironmentalEducation centreNetherlandsGabonAfricaEuropeIndividuals Oakland Zoo Arua Sensitization Workshop UgandaAfricaIndividuals NORAD, NGS, Cleveland Zoo Society, CI,JGIBudongo Forest project UgandaAfricaIndividuals Columbus Zoo & Aquarium, International Chimfunshi Wildlife Orphanage ZambiaFund for Animals, Tusk Trust, SummerieeFoundationIndividuals, Prof kang’ethe WWF Bushmeat Identification KenyaAfricaAfricaInstitute Agriculture, Res& Dev.Cane Rat Project CameroonAfricaAfrica

Int group of social &medical scientistsInt Soc. For Ecosystem health, CI, McGillUniv, U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service ServiceWorking group on Wildlife & Viraldisease Emergence in TropicalforestsInternationalInterafrican forestindustries assoc.Industrial groups Social & economic dev. Throughwise use of forest resourcesCentral & WestAfricaInternationalInterafrican ForestIndustries Association(IFIA)(1) Logging code of conduct, (2)Preparation of Pan-African ForestCertification (PAFC)Central & WestAfricaAfricaInternationalPrimatological Society,Wisconsin PrimateResearch Center(University of Wisconsin),American Society ofPrimatologists, AssocicionPrimatologica Espanola,AssociazionePrimatologica Italiana,Australian PrimatologicalSociety, DuetschePrimatologischeGesellschaft, PrimateSociety of Great Britain,Primate Society of Japan,Societe Francophone dePrimatologieOnline information and researchdatabase with links to bushmeatactiveorganisationsUSAAfricaIPPL IPPL (1) IPPL-UK Battles British UKBushmeat Trade, (2) THE ISSUE:Bushmeat campaignIPPL IPPL South American Bushmeat Crisis UKIPPL, CERCOPAN, CrossRiver State Department ofForestryIPPL, Cross River StateDepartment of ForestryIPPL CERCOPAN Centre and ReleaseSite (Centre for Education,Research and Conservation ofPrimates and Nature)IPPL, Arcus Foundation (1) Drill Rehabilitation andBreeding Center (“Drill Ranch” (2)Drill Ranch Chimpanzee UnitNigeriaNigeriaIRAD, DGEG (Projet de Dévéloppement au Gabonde l’Elevage de Gibier,DABAC (Dévéloppementd’Aletrnatives auBraconnage en AfriqueCentraleEU, DABAC IRAD Cane rat breeding project CameroonIUCN ConservationBreeding Specialist Group(IUCN-CBSG)CBSG Bushmeat Working Group USAUSAEuropeEuropeAfricaAfricaAfricaUSA

IUCN Conservation Breeding Specialist Group(IUCN-CBSG)U.S. National Science Foundation Models and Meta-Networks forInterdisciplinary Research inBiodiversity Risk Assessment,including models of humanbiological and social processesdriving the bushmeat tradeIUCN, EU, UNESCO European Union Delegation in Gabon Ipassa Mingouli Project, engagingthe Rougier Group, a timbercompany operating concessions inthe areaIUCN-ROCA Gov. Netherlands, European Commission,BSP\CARPE, GEF\, UNDP (UnitedNations Development Programme)Jane Goodall Inst, Ministryof the Environment,Ministry of Primary andSecondary EducationCEFDHAC (Conférence sur lesEcosystèmes de Forêts Denses etHumides d’Afrique Centrale),Forest conservation programmeworking on solutions forunsustainable exploitation ofwildlifeJGI (1) PLANET programme (Pland’Action pour la Nature etl’Education à Tchimpounga),based in Tchimpounga NaturalReserve chimpanzee sanctuary.(2) Handbook on NatureEducation in Tchimpounga, withinformation about the bushmeatcrisis and how to resolve it.USAGabonUSAAfricaCameroon, CAR,DRC, EquatorialGuinea, Gabon,Republic of Congo,Burundi, Rwanda,Sao Tomé,Principe AfricaCongo BrazavilleJane Goodall Inst. Bushmeat Fact Sheet Central AfricaJane Goodall Inst. Jane Goodall Inst., WCS Census programme in Uganda UgandaAfricaAfricaJane Goodall Inst. Cleveland Zoo, Funders sought Country wide EnvironmentalEducation for school children &adultsUgandaAfricaJane Goodall Inst. Jane Goodall Inst, Oakland Zoo,Brookfield Zoo, Columbus Zoo, IFAWSnare removal Project in BudongoForest ReserveUgandaAfricaJane Goodall Institute David Greybeard ChimpanzeeSanctuarySouth AfricaJane Goodall Institute Tchimpounga Sanctuary Congo BrazavilleJane Goodall Institute UNDP Kitwe Point Sanctuary TanzaniaJane Goodall Institute Andrus Family Fund Congo Basin Project to eliminatethe illegal commercial bushmeattrade in endangered speciesCongo BasinAfricaAfricaAfricaAfricaJane Goodall Institute UNDP, GEF Western Tanzania Biodiversity and Community Development,including assessment of bushmeathunting.TanzaniaAfricaAfrica

Jane Goodall Institute Consumer Awareness Guide toproducts having an effect ofconservation in Central AfricaJane Goodall Institute Chimpanzee Distribution andConservation Poster, withinformation about bushmeathuntingJane Goodall Institute,CAWHFI, CBFPMengame Wildlife Survey, VillageWildlife Program, to determinescale of commercial bushmeattrade.USAUSACameroonUSAUSAJane Goodall Institute,IFAW, Sudan Cons. Soc,Born Free Foundation,Kenya Wildlife Ser., EastAfrican Wildlife Soc.Jane Goodall Institute,IFAW, UWEC (UgandaWildlife Education CenterTrust), Born FreeFoundation, ZoologicalBoard of New SouthWalesJane Goodall Institute,WCS, WWF, CISweetwater Sanctuary KenyaOakland Zoo Ngamba Island Sanctuary UgandaUNESCO, FAO Central African Forestry WorldHeritage Initiative, with a focus onmarket aspects of commercialbushmeat tradeWest Africa,Central AfricaAfricaAfricaAfricaJohn Aspinall Foundation,Gov CongoJohn Aspinall Foundation, Gov Congo Projet protection des Gorillas Congo BrazavilleAfricaKenya Wildlife Service Fund for Animals Anti-poaching unit KenyaLast Great ApeOrganizationWorld Bank, seeking additional funding Civil Society Watchdog activites CameroonAfricaAfricaLes Amis des Animaux auCongo the Friends ofAnimals in Congo), DRCMinistry of EnvironmentAAC Bonobo Sanctuary inKinshasaDRCAfricaLincoln Park Zoo Lincoln Park Zoo Bushmeat Education USAAfricaLouisville Zoo Bushmeat Education, GorillaForest exhibitLusaka Agreement TaskForceUSAGovernment of Kenya, UNEP, IFAW, David Shepherd ConservationFoundation, U.S. Fish and WildlifeService, Council of Agriculture of theRepublic of China, Humane Society of theU.S.A.Law enforcement operations and capacity building throughout AfricaKenyaUSAUSAAfrica

MINEF Anti-poaching unit CameroonMinistry of Environment andForests, CameroonianNational Railway(CAMRAIL), WCS, IUCNWorld Bank, Cameroon government Program to use CAMRAIL railways Cameroonas a collaborating partner forcombating the illegal bushmeattradeAfricaMinistry of Environment,Department for NatureProtection, WildChimpanzee FoundationWWF, seeking additional funding Conservation of western Côte d’Ivoirechimpanzees in Tai National Park,Côte d’IvoireAfricaMinistry of Forestry,UNGE (UniversidadNacional de GuineaEcuatorial), AlcaláUniversityMinistry of Health, Ministryof Defense, Ministry ofEnvironment and Forests,Ministry of ExternalRelations, Peace Corps,HEVECAM rubberplantation, CameroonDevelopment Corporationplantation, Rural villagesites, Care & HealthProgram, University ofYaoundé,Conservation IInternational, BiokoBiodiversity Protection ProgramMount Cameron Project, UK Department for InternationalMinistry of Environment Development (DFID), GTZ (Germanand Forests (MINEF), LTS Technical Co-operation Service), GEFInternational(Global Environment Facility), MCPCommunity Support Fund, MountCameroon Region ConservationFoundation.Protected Area demarcation planfor Bioko, with signage indicatingthat hunting is illegalJohn Hopkins Cameroon Program– examining impact of hunting ondisease emegence(1) A community wildlifemanagement model from MountCameroon, (2) Participatorybiodiversity conservation strategyEquatorial GuineaCameroonCameroonAfricaAfricaAfricaMount Cameroon Project,MINEF, LTS InternationalUK Department for InternationalDevelopment (DFID), GTZ (GermanTechnical Co-operation Service), GEF(Global Environment Facility), MCPCommunity Support Fund, MountCameroon Region ConservationFoundation.Mokoko Wildlife managementAssociation and WildlifeManagement Committees atBatoke, Etome and Bakingili,comprising indigenous and nonindigenoushunters, trappers andpepper soup sellers, traditionalcouncils and societies.CameroonAfricaAfrica

NRI, FFI, ODI Dept Environment, Transport & Regions, Bushmeat – pilot study Central & WestAfricaODI MacArthur Foundation Contribution of forest insects to food security and forestconservation: caterpillars inCentral AfricaCentral AfricaODI MacArthur Foundation The bushmeat trade and fishing Ghanalicense agreements in West AfricaODI MacArthur Foundation Barren ground caribou comanagementin the EasternCanadian Arctic: lessons forbushmeat managementODI MacArthur Foundation Wild meat harvest and trade inLiberia: managing biodiversity,economic and social impactsODI MacArthur Foundation The Bushmeat commoditychain:patterns of trade andsustainability in a mature urbanmarket in West AfricaODI, MacArthur Foundation Wild meat, Livelihoods securityand conservation in the tropicsOxford University (Wildlife Norwegian Research Council (NorgesConservation Research Forskningeråd)Unit)Bushmeat hunting, trade andconsumption study.Canadian ArcticLiberiaPAAZAB Awareness Campaign AfricaWest AfricaInternationalEquatorial GuineaAfricaAfricaAfricaNorth-AmericaAfricaAfricaAfricaAfricaPAAZAB Supply of equipment and antipoachingpatrols in Cross RiverNP, NigeriaNigeriaAfricaPAAZAB Bushmeat poster AfricaAfricaPan African Association ofZoological Gardens,Aquaria and BotanicGardens (PAAZAB),Montecasino BirdGardens, Monkey Land,East London Aquarium,Mitchell Park ZooBushmeat Working Group AfricaPan African Sanctuary AllianceEAZA, IFAW, Oakland Zoo Collaboration with 19 primate sanctuariesAfricaPandrillus, MINEF Pandrillus, Int. Primate Protection League, Limbe Wildlife Centre CameroonGov. Cameroon, Local Business, UK Gov.Int. Dev Fund (Cameroon), ArcusFoundation, Pro Wildlife, Gorilla Haven,Columbus Zoo, Brigitte Bardot FoundationAfricaAfricaAfricaPeopleandPlanet.net Bushmeat Newsfile UKAfricaEurope

Philadelphia Zoo Bushmeat Education Task Force USAPhiladelphia Zoo, GrandGedeh CommunityServant AssociationCritical Ecosystem Partnership Fund Bushmeat awareness andsustainable development insoutheast LiberiaLiberiaUSAPhiladelphia Zoo, Society American Zoo & Aquarium Association,for the Conservation of Conservation IInternationalNature of Liberia, ForestryDevelopment Authority,University of Liberia,Cuttington UniversityCollege, ConcernedEnvironmentalists for theEnhancement ofBiodiversity, One withNature, NationalEnvironmentalCommission of Liberia,Talking Drums Studios,Flomo TheatreProductions Society,Society AgainstEnvironmentalDegradationPPEA (Projet Promotionde l’Elevage d’Aulacodes)Primate ConservationInc., Inc.Primate PreservationGroup???, Funding needed PrimatePreservation Group1. Urban public opinion andbushmeat survey, 2. Rural publicopinion and bushmeat survey, 3.National public awarenesscampaignCane Rat Raising PromotionProjectProvision of grants to supportresearchers and conservationistsin the field, including thoseinvolved with bushmeatLiberiaBeninOnly Livestock Organisation NigeriaAsia, Africa,Madagascar, SouthAmericaAfricaAfricaAfricaInternationalPrimate Society of GreatBritainPSGB Conservation WorkingParty, involved with research andallocation of bi-annual grants forPrimate Conservation Inc.UKAfricaProject Primate Inc. &Primates GuineaHSUS, WSPA, Arcus Foundation, Edith JGoode Foundation, Prince BernaardFund, Private donorsChimpanzee Conservation centre GuineaEuropeProspect Park Zoo Bushmeat Curriculum for 7thgradePurdue Univ., Univ WWF-US, CARPE The effects of interacting HumanTorontodisturbances on African Forestrymammal communitiesUSACentral AfricaAfricaUSARainforest Action Network Richard and Rhoda Goldman Fund Campaign to protect rainforest and Central Africawildlife in the Congo basinRainforest Foundation Community Hunting Zone, CameroonDjaposten, CameroonAfricaAfricaAfrica

Rougier-Gabon, IGAD Rougier-Gabon Programme of Agricultural(Gabonese Institute ofTraining in the forest concessionSupport for Development)of Haut-Abanga, Gabon.GabonRoyal Zoological Societyof Antwerp, University ofAntwerpSABC, DiscoveryCommunications EuropeRoyal Zoological Society of Antwerp, The Bonobo in situ Project (Iyema- DRCKBC, Leakey Foundation, King Leopold III Lomako, Equateur Province,Fund for Nature Exploration and DRC).Conservation, WCS, Bonobo EEP.Sky Calypso Society Humane Soc. Of USA, WorldConservation Union, Real Networks, MyAcre of Africa“Africa’s New Refugees”documentarySky Calypso Society: Airship inKrugerSouth AfricaSouth AfricaAfricaAfricaAfricaSociety for theConservation of Nature ofLiberia, AIESEC-Liberia,BIOSA-Biology StudentsAssociation, Uinversity ofLiberia, CEEB(ConcernedEnvironmentalists for theEnhancement ofBiodiversity), CEEP,ConservationIInternational, Culture ArtStudio, CuttingtonUniversity College, FACE,FAO, FFI-Liberia, FlomoTheatre, ForestryDevelopment Authority,GECOMSA, LiberianSenate Committee on theEnvironment, RadioVeritas, SAED, SAMFU,Talking Drum Studio,WWF-LiberiaSODEPAL (La Sociétéd'Exploitation du Parc dela Lékédi)Liberia Bushmeat Working Group LiberiaBreeding and local foodproductionSolcomhouse Bushmeat information page onwebsiteGabonUSAAfricaAfricaAfricaSpecies Survival Network Primates working Group, Wildlife USAUse Working GroupSt Louis Zoo ? St Louis Zoo Biodiversity Project NicaraguaUSAUSAToronto Zoo Bushmeat Education USALatin AmericaToronto Zoo Canadian Association forBushmeat Awareness (CABA)USAUSAUSA

TRAFFIC Review of bushmeat trade in Eastand Southern AfricaEast and SouthernAfricaTraffic, Univ Alberta, Primary Investigators Wildlife Trade at Tachilek South east AsiaAfricaTraffic, Univ Alberta, Primary Investigators Trade & Status of Serow South East AsiaAsiaTulsa Zoo Tulsa Zoo Conservation Kiosks USAAsiaUK Government , ZSL,Ciel Logistics, EAZA,IFAW, BFF, Ape Alliance,FFI, Federation ofZoological Gardens ofGreat Britain & Ireland,WWF-UK,The Bushmeat Campaign Group UKUSAUK Tropical Forest Forum(comprising 19organizations)Defra Bushmeat Working Group UKUNEP, UNESCO, Scientific and CulturalOrganization), IFAW,BFF, CI, Ape Alliance,CITES, Convention onBiological Diversity,Convention on MigratorySpecies, African WildlifeFoundation, (AWF),Bristol Zoo GardensGardens, BCTF, DFGF,FFI, The InternationalGorilla ConservationProgramme (IGCP), TheInstitute for TropicalForest Conservation, JGI,The OrangutanFoundation, PASA, UNEPWorld Conservationmonitoring Centre(WCMC), WildChimpazee Foundation(WCF), WCS, WWF, Carefor the WildBrigitte Bardot Foundation, DHL GrASP (Great Ape Survivalproject)UNESCO, ICCN, IUCN,GTZ, WWF, WCS,Zoological Society ofMilwaukee, InternationalRhino FoundationUSAThe UN Foundation The UN Foundation, providing financial support for DRC’s worldheritage sites (Virunga NP, Kahuzi-Biega NP, Garamba NP, SalongaNP, Okapi Wildlife Reserve)DRCUniv Alberta Calgary Zoo, WCS, NSERC Canadian Bushmeat Initiative CanadaEuropeEuropeInternationalAfricaNorth-America

Univ Alberta, WCS,Canadian InteranationalDev. AgencyWCS, Canadian Interanational Dev.AgencyThe Analysis of bushmeatUtilization in Phu Kheio WildlifeSanctuaryThailand.Univ Alberta, WCS, MaejoUniversityMaejo University A Pilot study of BushmeatUtilization in Sri LankaThailandAsiaVeterinaire sans Frontiere European Union Developpement au Gabon del’Elevage de GibierGabonAsiaWasmoeth WildlifeFoundation“Project Congo”, Coffee-growing DRCproject in DRC to encouragealternative economic opportunitiesto the bushmeat tradeAfricaWasmoeth WildlifeFoundationFunded publication of “ConsumingNature” photo-essay anddistributed 700 copies toEuropean Parliamentarians inBrussels.WCS WCS, USAID, Macarthur Foundation Community based management ofhunting in MadidiEuropeBoliviaAfricaEuropeWCS WCS 1. Jaguar hunting impactassessmentWCS Liz Claiborne & Art Ortenberg Foundation,WCSWCS WCS, Biodiversity Support Program, LizClaiborne & Art Ortenberg FoundationWCS WCS, Nat Fish & Wildlife Foundation,Cline FamilyEconomics and dynamics ofbushmeat tradeStudying ways to enhance thesustainability of duiker huntingthrough community participationand controlled access in LobekeregionConservation education on theuse of wildlife products, esp fortraditional Chinese medicineBrazilCameroonCameroonChinaLatin AmericaLatin AmericaAfricaAfricaWCS WCS Sustainability of hunting & effectsof hunting on the biology andecology of hunted speciesDRCAsiaAfrica

WCS WCS Determining economics ofbushmeat trade, sources anddestinations of meatGabon.WCS WCS Compilation & synthesis of data on Internationalthe sustainability of hunting intropical forests world wideAfricaWCS WCS Study of hunting for subsistence &trade in Maya Biosphere ReserveWCS WCS, Natural Resourcemanagement\EPIQThe effect of hunting & wildlifetrade on wildlife populations inNorth SulawesiGuatemalaIndonesiaInternationalLatin AmericaWCS WCS Study of the Wildlife trade in South LaosWest LaosAsiaWCS WCS Meat & ammunition prices in LatinAmericaLatin AmericaAsiaWCS WCS Sustainability of hunting inSarawak and SabahMalaysiaLatin AmericaWCS WCS Study of hunting of endangeredwildlife populations in NorthernMyanmarMyanmarAsiaWCS WCS, Durrell Institute, Univ of Kent Monitoring and co-managementwith local communities ofsubsistence and commercialhunting in Northern PeruvianAmazonWCS WCS Management study of thesustainability of garden hunting inTambopataWCS WCS, Columbus Zoo, Busch Gardens Mbeli Bai Gorilla Study Congo BrazavillePeruPeruAsiaLatin AmericaLatin AmericaWCS WCS, Columbus Zoo & Aquarium Mombongo Conservation &research ProjectCongo BrazavilleAfricaAfrica

WCS WCS, American Zoo & AquariumAssociation, Columbus Zoo & AquariumGoualougo Triangle ChimpanzeeResearch ProjectCongo BrazavilleWCS, WCS, USAID, Liz Claiborne & ArtOrtenberg Foundation, Shared EarthFoundation1.Studies sustainability of huntingfor subsistence \trade in GranChacoWCS, WCS, USAID Management plan for sustainableharvesting of bushmeat in OkapiWildlife ReserveWCS, Bronx Zoo WCS Pattycake Fund Working with the nationalgovernment to establish newprotected areas for gorillas in thehighlands of Cameroon andNigeriaBoliviaDRCCameroonAfricaLatin AmericaAfricaWCS, Bronx Zoo WCS Pattycake Fund Community campaigns to raiseawareness about poaching ofgorillas and reinforce traditionalhunting bans to protect gorillasaround Takamanda ForestReserveWCS, Bronx Zoo WCS Pattycake Fund Activities to block major bushmeattrade routes such as railwaythrough central CameroonCameroonCameroonAfricaAfricaWCS, Bronx Zoo WCS Pattycake Fund Creation of protection and antipoachingpatrols for isolatedgorilla populations in centralCameroonCameroonAfricaWCS, Bronx Zoo WCS Pattycake Fund Anti-poaching patrols in andaround Mbam Djerem NPCameroonAfricaWCS, Bronx Zoo WCS Pattycake Fund Anti-poaching patrols and trainingof park guards in Nouabale NdokiNP, Conkouati-Douli NP & LacTele Community ReserveDRCAfricaWCS, Bronx Zoo WCS Pattycake Fund Environmental education and community awareness campaignsabout the protected status ofgorillas and other wildlifeDRCAfricaWCS, Bronx Zoo WCS Pattycake Fund Establishment of new protectedareas for gorillasGabonAfricaWCS, Bronx Zoo WCS Pattycake Fund Anti-poaching patrols around the GabonGamba Reserve and the Langoue-Ivindo areaAfricaAfrica

WCS, Bronx Zoo WCS Pattycake Fund Working with nationalgovernments to reduce the illegaltrade in bushmeatGabonWCS, Bronx Zoo WCS Pattycake Fund Campaigns to raise awarenessabout laws protecting gorillas andother wildlife.GabonAfricaWCS, Bronx Zoo WCS Pattycake Fund Research to find better ways tomonitor the populations of gorillasin protected areas and to reducethe impacts of poachingGabonAfricaWCS, Bronx Zoo WCS Pattycake Fund Community awareness andenvironmental educationcampaigns about gorillas andhunting lawsNigeriaAfricaWCS, Bronx Zoo WCS Pattycake Fund Working with the government toreinforce the protection of gorillasin protected areasNigeriaAfricaWCS, Bronx Zoo WCS Pattycake Fund Training of national staff and parkguards to manage and betterprotect national parksNigeriaAfricaWCS, CIB, CongoleseMinistry of ForestEconomy and theEnvironment (MEFE)CIB, WCS, USAID, CARPE, ITTO, U.S.Fish and Wildlife Service, Columbus Zoo,Government of Switzerland, Governmentof Japan, Government of the USA,Government of FranceProject for BiodiversityManagement and Conservationadjacent to a Totally ProtectedArea (Nouabal National Park),Northern Congo).Congo BrazavilleAfricaWCS, CongolaiseIndustrielle de Bois,Ministere de L’EconomieForestiereWCS, USAID, U.S. Fish & Wildlife ServiceServiceManagement of hunting andbushmeat trade in a CIB loggingconcession and associatedprotected areasCongo BrazavilleAfricaWCS, DFW UK Gov, World Bank, WCS, TRAFFIC,WWFWCS, Gabonese Ministryof Water and Forests,Gabonese WildlifeDepartment, Max PlanckInstitute, SmithsonianInstitution, KyotoUniversity, University ofWageningenPilot study of wildlife trade CambodiaWWF, seeking additional funding Great ape monitoring and the development of ecotourism inGamba Protected Areas Complex,Gabon.GabonAfricaAsiaWCS, Gov. Cameroon, WCS, Liz Claiborne & Art OrtenbergFoundation, Dutch Gov.Sustainable management ofbushmeat hunting in Bangyang-MboCameroonAfricaAfrica

WCS, Mysore Centre forEcological ResearchWCS Impact of hunting on Largemammals in NagaraholeWCS, PNPQ WCS, Bay Foundation, NGS, WWF 1.Evaluating the impact andsustainability of subsistencehunting in AmazonIndiaBrazilAsiaWCS, Royal Thai ForestryDept., WildaidWCS, Sarawak ForestDeptWCS, Sarawak ForestDeptWCS Study and management of wildlifehunting associated with the illegalcollection of aloe-wood in KhaoYaiWCS, Sarawak Forest Dept The impact of logging roads onwildlife densities & huntingpatterns of the PenanWCS, Sarawak Forest Dept A Master Plan for Wildlife inSarawakThailandMalaysiaMalaysiaLatin AmericaAsiaAsiaWCS, The environmentministeries of Cameroonand Nigeria, NigerianConservation Foundation,Fauna and FloraInternationalWWF, seeking additional funding Transboundary conservation ofcross river gorillas and Nigeriachimpanzees in Cameroon andNigeriaCameroon &NigeriaAsiaWCS, Univ Minnesota, WCS, USAID, Lincoln Park Zoo, UMN,Roger Williams Park ZooComparison of methods formonitoring the effects of huntingon game populations in a forestryconcessionWCS, Univ New Mexico WCS Long term community basedmonitoring and manaegment ofsubsistence hunting by AcheIndiansCongo BrazavilleParaguayWellington Zoo Wellington Zoo Report to Pan African workshop, Press releases, Bushmeat infoevening, Raised NZ$3000, Displayto zoo goersAustraliaWesternGorilla.org U.S. Fish & Wildlife service Network of researchers and Central Africaconservationists working in allmajor Western Gorilla researchWild ChimpanzeeFoundationColumbus Zoo & Aquarium, Privatedonorsand conservation sites.(1) Chimp conservation through Ivory Coasteducation & public awareness, TaiNat Park (2) Educational playAfricaAfricaLatin AmericaOceaniaAfricaWildlife & EnvironmentalSociety of MalawiCollaboration with communities to Malawidevelop guinea fowl rearing, beekeeping and production of baobaband tamarind fruit juices asalternative livelihood options tobushmeat huntingAfricaAfrica

Wildlife Conservation Society, American Zoo & Aquarium Association, The Fund for Animals, African WildlifeFoundation, International Fund for Animal Welfare, ConservationAfrican Wildlife Foundation, American Association of Zoookeepers, AmericanSociety of Primatologists, American Zoo &Aquarium Association, ConservationInternational Center for AppliedBiodiversity Science, Center forConservation and Bahaviour – GeorgiaTech, Chicago Zoological Society –Bushmeat Crisis Task Force USAIInternational, WWF-USA, Brookfield Zoo, Cincinnati Zoo andAmerican Society of Primatologists, Jane Goodall Institute, Philadelphia Zoo, Columbus Zoo, Lincoln Park Zoo, Oakland Zoo, Botanical Garden, Cleveland MetroparksZoo, Columbus Zoo and Aquarium, DallasZoo, Detroit Zoological Park, Dian FosseyGorilla Fund International, Disney WildlifeConservation Fund, The Fund for Animals,Happy Hollow Zoo, Houston Zoo, HumaneDian Fossey Gorilla Fund Society of the United States, InternationalInternational, Harvard University, Biosynergy Instituteitute, Bushmeat Crisis Discussion Group, Bristol Zoo Gardens GardensFund for Animal Welfare, Jane GoodallInstitute, Lincoln Park Zoological Gardens,Louisville Zoological Garden, OaklandZoo, Oklahoma City Zoo, SedgwickCounty Zoo, Toronto Zoo, WildlifeConservation Society, WWF-USA, WorldResources Institute, Zoo New England,Zoological Society of Philadelphia,Zoological Society of San Diego,Cheyenne Mountain Zoo, FolsomChildren’s Zoo and Botanical Garden, TheLittle Rock Zoo, Saint Louis Zoo, SanAntonio Zoological Gardens and AquariumWildlife First ? Wildlife First IndiaUSAWildlife First, WCS Save The Tiger Fund, WCS Community Leadership for WildlifeConservation, BhadraIndiaAsiaWildlife First, WCS Save The Tiger Fund, WCS Community Leadership for WildlifeConservation, KudremukhIndiaAsiaWildlife First, WCS Save The Tiger Fund, WCS Community Leadership for WildlifeConservation, NagaraholeWisconsin PrimateResearch Center(University of Wisconsin)International Primatological Society,Primate Society of Great BritainIndia(1) Primate Info Net, information USAservice for Primate ConservationInc. and research, (2) Educationalresources for teachersWorld Bank CEO Working Group, acts to USAreduce the impact of the bushmeattrade.AsiaAsiaUSAWorld Bank, World bank Role of forest industry in improvedforest management in tropicalAfricaCentral & WestAfricaUSAWorld bank, WWF World Bank, WWF Gabon protected areas evaluation GabonAfricaAfrica

World Society for theProtection of Animals(WSPA)EscAPE campaign, (1)UKPresentation to MEP’sencouraging pressure on AfricabasedEU logging companies toadhere to hunting laws (2) Appealto MACC arms factory in Congocalling for ceased production ofchevrotine and ballette cartridgesused exclusively for hunting apes.World Society for theProtection of Animals(WSPA)World Society for theProtection of Animals(WSPA)Supports Tacaguma chimpsantuaryProject proposal: Enforcement ofWildlife Protection Laws inCameroon.Sierra LeoneCameroonEuropeAfricaWWF WWF Implementing the Convention onBiological Diversity in CameroonCameroonAfricaWWF WWF South West Forest project CameroonAfricaWWF WWF Codes of Conduct, Hunting andtransporting speciesCameroonAfricaWWF WWF CAR: Conservation & Dev intropical forests of SW CARCARAfricaWWF WWF Integrated Conservation &Development in BangassouDense ForestCARAfricaWWF MacArthur Foundation, DGIS Utilization of natural resources forfood and nutrition security of ruralpopulations living in GambaGabonWWF WWF Gamba, Protected Area Complex GabonAfricaAfricaAfrica

WWF ? Vision for Biodiversity in Congobasin: Bushmeat TradeGabonWWF WWF Minkebe Conservation Project GabonAfricaWWF WWF Designing national Conservation GabonStrategies for Endangered speciesAfricaWWF, ? Vision for Biodiversity in Congobasin: training & SurveysGabonAfricaWWF, African Wildlife Foundation, BonoboConservation Initiative,CARE, CI, DFGF, GilmanInternationalConservation, InnovativeResources Management,Jane Goodall Institute,Lukuru Wildlife ResearchProject, NationalAeronautics and SpaceAdministration, NationalPark Service, SmithsonianInstitute, United StatesFish & Wildlife Service,University of Maryland,USAID, United StatesDepartment of AgricultureForest Service –International Programs,WCS, IUCN, WRI,University of Virginia,Peace CorpsUSAID Central African Regional Programfor the Environment (CARPE)Central Africanrepublic, EquatorialGuinea, Gabon,Republic of Congo,Burundi,Cameroon, DRC,Rwanda, SaoTome, PrincipeAfricaWWF, Cameroon Ministryof Environment andForests, North CarolinaZooIdentification of migration routesfor Cameroonian elephants andpositioning of rangers to deterpoachers in priority areasCameroonYale Univ, McGill Univ. Yale Univ., McGill Univ. Sangha River Network, Central Africa.Zambian Wildlife Authority African Conservancy, Zambia’s Northern Anti-poaching patrols, roadblocks, ZambiaProvince Honorary Wildlife Police Officers train searches, confiscation ofUnitillegal meat and firearmsZoo soc Milwaukee, Zoo soc Milwaukee, WWF-US, MargoMarsh Foundation, Atlanta Zoo, PrideZoo, USAIDBonobo preservation &Biodiversity InitiativeZSL Darwin Initiative Park protection , military conflict &bushmeat tradeDRCDRCAfricaAfricaAfricaAfricaAfricaAfrica

ZSL Bushmeat Research Programme InternationalZSL Bushmeat and ForestsConservation ProgrammeZSL, Cambridge Univ.,DWCT (Durrell WildlifeConservation Trust),Imperial College London,UCL (University CollegeLondon), OxfordUniversity (WildlifeConservation ResearchUnit)ZSL, DWCT, Oxforduniversity, InstituteZoologyDarwin Initiative, ESRC (Economic andSocial Research Counil), NERC (NaturalEnvironment Research Council)Bio-economic modelling ofbushmeat harvest systemsESRC, NERC Solutions to bushmeat exploitationin the Sanga-Cross regionEquatorial AfricaCameroon, DRC,Equatorial Guinea,Ghana, Nigeria,Sierra leoneInternationalAfricaAfricaCameroon, NigeriaZSL, Imperial Coll.London, DWCT (DurrellWildlife ConservationTrust), Cambridge Univ.ESRC (Economic and Social ResearchCounil), NERC (Natural EnvironmentResearch Council)Incentives for the sustainablehunting of bushmeatEquatorial GuineaAfricaZSL, UCL ESRC, NERC Trade & sustainability along abushmeat commodity chainGhanaAfricaZSL, UCL ESRC Habitat quality & bushmeatsurveysSierra LeoneAfricaAfrica

Categories Keywords Dates Contact UpdateAnti poaching, Education,Community, Awareness,Data collection, Provisionof veterinarian, Wildliferescues1999-Present Explore@aktaylor.comProject update inappendix, *ProtectionConservation plan,Tourism, Management,Transfrontier, Education,Communities, Training,Anti poaching,Equipment, Gorillas,Capacity building,Collaboration, Monitoring,Community, Policy1990-2010 Alanjouw@awfk *e.orgFunding, SymposiaProtection1997-presennt Janette WallisCollaboration, FundingConsensus,Collaboration CollaborationEvents, AwarenessCampaigning, PolicyAwareness, Code-ofconductManagement,Sustainability,Community, BushmeatEventsPolicyCollaboration1999 59 signatories as ofMarch 2000.2000 KatrinJedamzik,katy@4apes.com? KatrinJedamzik,katy@4apes.com? KatrinJedamzik,katy@4apes.com2001 - present ChristinaConnollyManagementMedia, Documentaries,Apes MediaMedia, Documentaries,Apes MediaMedia, DocumentariesMediaBushmeat, Datacollection, Education,census, Sea Turtles,Mammals ProtectionRangers equipment,Land Purchase,Information workshops,Local initiativesProtection1995 Marshall Corwin2002 Jeremy Bristow2004 Rob Sullivan1996-Present Dr Gail Hearn, *Hearn@beaver.edu

Exhibitions, Education,Awareness2000 - 2001 Iris Weiche, DrMarianneHoltkötterNow available online.EducationCommunity,Partnerships, Education,Tourism, Health,Sustainability,Development,Campaigning,Exhibitions, Sanctuaries,Rabbits, Sheep, Pigs,Ducks, Chickens,Donkeys, Training,Management EducationCollaboration,Awareness, Information,FundingBushmeat, Education,GorillasBushmeat, Logging,Hunting, Data collection,Economics, Mammals,Black Spider Monkey,Red Howler Monkey,Brown cappuchinmonkey, PeccariesMedia, Education,Awareness, Education,Sustainabledevelopment, AIDS/HIV,Creation of Park,Awareness, Feasibilitystudy, Surveys,Expedition, Music\media,Office, Summit,Information exchange,Government, Education,Management, Surveys,ReserachCampaigning, Media,Taboos, EducationMedia, EducationEducationEducationResearchMediaProtected-AreasResearchEducation2004 Lydia Hall,Lydia@beulahland.co.ukDr Anthony OnlineRose,Rose@biosynergy.org2000 Dr Anthony *Rose,Rose@biosynergy.org2002-Present Bjorn Schulte- Herbruggen,Bjoern@savemonkeys.com*2004-Present Bci@bonobo.org, Sally jewellCoxe2004-present Bci@bonobo.org, Sally jewellCoxeOngoing bci@bonobo.orgIn development bci@bonobo.orgIn development bci@bonobo.org**Bonobo folk tales willbe disseminatedthrough print, radioand other media toreinforce huntingtaboos.HIV/AIDS, Religion,CampaigningEducation, Awareness,Research, Information,Campiagning, MediaMediaCampaigningEducationCampaigningIn development bci@bonobo.orgIn development bci@bonobo.orgIn development bci@bonobo.orgPlans for a sistercenter in Kisangani,Congo Brazzaville.

Surveys, Research,Community ResearchMeetingsResearchAgriculture,Development,Sustainability, HerbalMedicine DevelopmentEcotourismTourismResearch, Management,CollaborationPolicySymposia, Policy,Research, CensusOngoing bci@bonobo.orgIn planning bci@bonobo.orgIn planning bci@bonobo.orgIn planning bci@bonobo.orgbci@bonobo.orgIn development bci@bonobo.orgResearchCampaigning, PrimatesCampaigningCampaigning, PrimatesCampaigningRangers, Vehicles,Animals:, East lowlandGorillas ProtectionSanctuary, Rescue,Medical, Enclosures,Animals:, Chimps SanctuariesTheatre, AwarenessDavidj@bornfree.org.ukDavidj@bronfree.org.uk2000 Davidj@bornfree.org.uk2003 Davidj@bornfree.org.uk2004 - present Davidj@bornfree.org.ukResearchBushmeat, Economics,Culture, ConsumptionEducation, AwarenessEducation, AwarenessEducationResearchResearchEducation2001-14monthsEducationSymposia, Policy Collaboration 2000Awareness, BushmeatAwareness, Bushmeat,Information, Legislation,CampaigningCollaboration2004 Davidj@bronfree.org.ukDr David Wilkie, *WCS, 001 718894 9605, Fax2005 Ed Drewitt,ed_drewitt@bristol-city.gov.uk2001 Bryan Carroll,bcarroll@bristolzoo.org.ukbushmeatawarenessgroup@hotmail.com, TimSinclair-Smith2000-Present Anne Warner, *Anne@oaklandzoo.ogEducation, Awareness,Training, BushmeatEducation, Awareness,Information, Publications,Research, Publications,Education, Awareness,Information, Media,DatabaseCollaborationEducationEducationInformationInformation, Education,Awareness, Projects,Database InformationInformation, Education,AwarenessInformation2001-present Samuel Fopa, Samfopa@yahoo.com*2000 Heather Eves, 5,000 packetsinfo@bushmeat distributed, fact.orgsheets availableonline.2000 - present Heather Eves, Ongoing. Availableinfo@bushmeat online..org2000 - present Heather Eves, Ongoing, Availableinfo@bushmeat online..org2004 - present Heather Eves, Ongoing, distributedinfo@bushmeat by post and available.orgonline.

Education, Awareness,TrainingFunding, PolicyPolicy, SymposiaSymposia, PolicySymposia, PolicyPolicy, SymposiaMedia, Awareness,EducationCampaigning,Awareness, EducationAwareness, EducationEducation, BushmeatSuveys, ResearchEducationFundingPolicyEventsPolicyEventsMediaEducationInformationCampaigning2001 - 2002 Heather Eves, Currently encouraginginfo@bushmeat fundraising and.orgadoption of bushmeatcurricula.2000 Heather Eves, Monitoringinfo@bushmeat implementation &.orgrenewal2000 - present Heather Eves, Ongoinginfo@bushmeat.org2000 Heather Eves, Brought National andinfo@bushmeat Worldwide attention to.orgthe bushmeat crisis2001 Heather Eves, Proceedings availableinfo@bushmeat online.org2004 Heather Eves,info@bushmeat.org2000 - present Heather Eves, Ongoinginfo@bushmeat.org2003 - present Heather Eves, In development withinfo@bushmeat CARPE.org2004- present Heather Eves, Ongoing, periodicallyinfo@bushmeat updated..org2002 Dr Kristen *Lukas,Kel@clevelandmetroparks.com2003 Philip Miller,pmiller@cbsg.orgEducation, Awareness,Training, Curriculum,Zoos, EvaluationResearchEducationInformation, Analysis,Education, Awareness,Database, Management,Legislation, Research,Media, Logging, Privatesector,Settlements,Populations, Speciesdistribution,Oil, Gas,Coltan, Cobalt, Mining,Pipelines, Protectedareas,Development,Forests, Governments,TradeInformationEducation, TrainingAwareness, EducationAwareness, EducationEducationMediaMediaMapping, Deforestation,Data Collection, BonobosResearchCampaigningCampaigningCampaigning,Sanctuaries Campaigning2001 - 2004 Heather Eves, Six-CD setsinfo@bushmeat distributed in 2003-.org2004. Now availableonline.2003-present Heather Eves,info@bushmeat.orgOngoing, Betaversion availableonline.2002 – (2006) Heather Eves, Bushmeat courseinfo@bushmeat running since 2003..org2002-3 Dr KerryBowman, KarlAmman, JefDupain2001 Dr KerryBowman, KarlAmman2002 ,2002

Funding, Research1995 - presentFundingSantuaries,Baboons,Rehabilitation,Reintroduction, OrphansSanctuariesResearch, Biodiversity,Health, Hunting,Economics, SocialResearchInformation, Awareness,Education EducationChimpanzees,rehabilitation SanctuariesBushmeat, Tourism,GorillasResearchEducation, Awareness,Campaigning, Bushmeat,legal EducationPublications, Policy,Livelihoods,Sustainability,Information-gathering,Management, Training,Databases, Lawenforcement,Awareness,Research, Policy,Logging Law-enforcementInformation, Databases,Trade, Monitoring,AwarenessInformationResearch, Management1989 info@primatecare.org.za1999-Present *20031969 - present Stella Marsden2000 Anthony Rose, *Bushmeat@aol.com2001-Present Penny Jarrett,Cincinnati Zoo2002-2004*Management, Logging,Forests, Private-sector,SustainabiltyAwareness,Campaigning,Information, Education.Publications, Policy,Institutions, Legislation,ResearchConference, Trade ,Management, Solutions,Research, Governments,Legislation, Forests,Alternatives,Collaboration,Communities, Benefit-Sharing, Governance,Monitoring, Institutions,Information, Capacitybuilding,Education,Communication,Sustainability ,ResearchPrivate-SectorCampaigningResearch, Policy2003 Yadji Bello2000-2003 marcelinagnagn Phase I completeda@yahoo.fr 2003. Now in PhaseII.Survey, Bushmeat,EducationEducation, BushmeatCollaborationResearchEducation2002 Dr Kristen *Lukas,Kel@clevelandmetroparks.com2002-2003 Chriss Kmiecik, Project update, *Cdk@clevelandmetroparks.com

Sustainability,ManagementMedia, DocumentariesHealth, Hunting,Monitoring, Management,Publications, Education,ResearchPolicyMediaResearch2002 infocomifac@wwfcarpo.org2002 Falvia Castro,video@conservation.org2000 Rebecca.hardin@ *yale.edu,Philippe.Auzel@wanadoo.frUS$22 millionreceived for priorityobjectives 2003-2005.SymposiaResearch1999Strategies, Handbook,RegulationsAwareness, Conservationalliances, Research,Management habitats,Legal, Alternatives, Tribalculture, MediaAnti poaching, Education,Consumption,Communities,Resettlement, TigerSanctuaries,Chimpanzees,Rehabilitation, Rescue,OrphansEconomics, Training,Sanctuary, Management,Research, Lawenforcement, Awareness,GorillasSanctuary, Animal -Welfare, Education,Release, Primates,Chimpanzees, Gorillas,MonkeysEducation, Research,Training, MuseumCollaborationPolicyResearchProtectionSanctuariesProtectionSanctuariesEducationEducation, Awareness,Bushmeat, Research,Data collection, Ecology,Humane values,Conservation values,Biosynergy, Gorillas,Attitudes, Beliefs,Surveys ResearchProtein Alternatives,Rodents, Livestock,Breeding2001 - 20032001-present William Oduro,EurekaAdomako,MohamedBakarr2001-2004 Sanjay Gubbi, *Gubbi@wcsindia.orgi1995 - present BalaAmarasekaran,sab@sierratel.sl1996-present Kelley Mc Farland,Afigorilla@netzero.netProject Update, *1997-present Neil Madison, Project update inNmaddison@br appendix ,istolzoo.org.uk Enclosures,educational facility,dev 1044 hectare siteNeil Madison,Nmaddison@bristolzoo.org.uk1999- present Dr Rose, *Rose@biosynergy.org2002 Dabac@assala.netCampaigning, Imports,TradeProtein-AlternativesCampaigning2004 Lord Whitty

Livelihoods, Poverty,2002 Joanna Elliott (J-Policy, Institutions,Elliot@dfid.gov.Donors, Food-security,uk)Tourism, Governments,Private-sector,Governance,Communities,Management,Sustainability,Agriculture, Employment,ResearchRehabilitation, RelocationReserves, Protection,GorillasSanctuariesChris Wolf2004-present Funding available fornext three years.Census, Monitoring,Protection, Training,EquipmentData collection, Mining,Economics, Pollution,Animal Trade, Animals:,E.L. GorillasProtected-AreasResearchResearchCommunity naturereserves, Biologicalcorridors, Protected-AreasCommunity naturereserves, Biologicalcorridors, Equipment,Vehicles, Anti poaching,Agriculture, Animals:,Nile Croc, CongoPeacock, Okapi,Leopard, Congo BayOwl, Chimps, Elephant,Eastern Lowland Gorillas,Protected-AreasAwareness,Conservation, Education,Bushmeat SanctuariesResearch, Education,Conservation,Campaigning, Populationdensities, Relief MissionResearchCommunity, Education,Data collectionEquipment, Datacollection, Bonobo’sCommunity, Equipment,Maintenance buildingsCommunity, Funding,Data collection, BonobosEquipmentResearchResearchProtected-AreasProtected-AreasLaw-enforcement2004 Erika Archibald,Prnature@aol.com, 404 62458812004 Erika Archibald,Prnature@aol.com, 404 62458812000 PatrickMehlman2004 PatrickMehlman2001-Present Nancy Pratt, Nancy.pratt@disney.com*1992-Present Dr Jo*Thompson,Jat434@aol.com1992-present Dr JoThompson,Jat434@aol.com*2001 Dr Jo*Thompson,Jat434@aol.com1994-present Dr Jo*Thompson,Jat434@aol.com1997-present Dr Jo*Thompson,Jat434@aol.com2000-2002 Dr JoCompleted, *Thompson,Jat434@aol.com

Petitions, CampaigningCommunal wildlife zone,Communities, Datacollection, Humandisturbance, Animals:Gorillas, ChimpsPolicy1999 1.9 million signaturescollected andpresented toEuropean Parliamentin Jan 2002.resolution passed Jan20042000 Philipe Auzel,Jef DupainPetition, Education,Fundraising, Awareness,Lobbying, CampaigningEbola, People, GreatapesHunting, AlternativesResearchCollaborationHealthResearchGorillas, Chimpanzees,Documentation,Distribution, Ebola,Trade, Awareness,Logging, Authorities, Antipoachingpatrols, SocioeconomicProtectionInformation, EducationLaw-enforcement,Governance, Trade,Illegal-logging,Partnerships, Licensing,Private-sector, Code-ofconduct,Capacitybuilding,PolicyLegislation, Policy,Governance,Communities, Privatesector,Capacity-building,Sustainability, Lawenforcement,Training,Information-sharing,Databases,Management, Monitoring,Auditing,Decentralization, Forestfires,Trade, Illegalhunting,Alternativeprotein,Concessions,Transboundary-reserves,Transparency,Accountability,Participatory-forestmanagement,Livelihoods, Institutionalsupport,Post-conflictreconstruction,Economicreforms,Povertyreduction-strategyprograms,Certification,Governments,PartnershipsMediaPolicy2001-2004 Bryan Carroll,bcarroll@bristolzoo.org.ukMarch 2003-Dec 2004July 2004-June2005PeterStephensonPJStephenson@wwfint.org1995 Pia K. Muchaal, *Ecofac@camnet.cmPeterStephensonPJStephenson@wwfint.org1999 - present Glen Barry,gbarry@forests.org, ,2001 - present2003 - present Ministerial declarationadopted by countrieslisted in Oct 2003.Policy

Coltan, MiningInformation , EducationTimber, Certification,Forestry, Commiunities,Sanctuaries, Education,Creation of Reserve,Animals:, BobobosConsumerismMediaConsumerismSanctuariesTraining, InformationSharing, Lawenforcement TrainingEducation, AwarenessConservation plan,Management, Legal,Training, Monitoring,Trade, Bushmeat, Socioeconomic, Community,Regional developmentAlternatives, Bushmeat,Management, Cane rat,Red Duiker, Blue Duiker,EducationManagement2002 Karen Hayes Coltan processors areshowing support forthe initiative.1993 - present Glen Barry,GlenBarry@EcologicalInternet.org1993 - present MatthewWeban-Smith,policy.standards@fsc.org1994Chris Wolf,Chris Wolf1994-1997 Mahenau Agha, *Mahenau.agha@undp.org1996-present Karlr@wogilman.com, Karl orRosie Ruf*Information, ForestCompanies, Logging,Sustainability, ForestManagement, Monitoring,Private Sector, Legality,TimberProtein-AlternativesPrivate-SectorSanctuaries, Gorillas Sanctuaries 2004 - presentSanctauries, GorillasPartnerships, Economicdevelopment,Povertyalleviation,Improvedgovernance,Protection,Reserves, Management,Communities,Sustainability,Livelihoods, Concesions,Logging, Agriculture,Ecotourism, Governance,Law-enfotrcent, AntipoachingSanctuaries2004 - present Com.ifia@wana Carried out missionsdoo.fr to Camroon, Republicof Congo & Gabon.Results of trials to bediscussed at steeringcommittee meeting,April 2005.2001 - present Anthony Rose,rose@gorilla.org2002 -presentIn-progress MauisanctuaryPolicyBushmeat, Hunting,Conservation plan, Datacollection, meetings,Community, GorillasResearchAnti poaching,Equipment, Training,Education, Research,Awareness, Westernlowland Gorillas Protection2000 Neil@nchampio *n.junglelink.co.uk1982-present I.Weiche@tonline.de,Angela.meder@t-online.deProject update inappendix, *

Protein-alternatives,Livestock, Bees, Pigs,Trees Protein-AlternativesCampaigning, Funding2001 - 2005Teresa TeleckyBonobos, GorillasProtectionJuly 2002 toJune 2005PeterStephensonPJStephenson@wwfint.orgProtectionAnti-poaching patrols,Gorillas, Equipment,Training, Monitoring,Census ProtectionBonobos, Park,Protection, Equipment,Anti-poaching patrols,Training, Surveys,CensusProtected-AreasEducation, Awareness,Schools,ResearchEducationJan 2004-Dec2005Jan 2004-Dec2005PeterStephensonPJStephenson@wwfint.orgPeterStephensonPJStephenson@wwfint.org2004 ClaireWallerstein,cwallerstein@ifaw.org2001Available online.Transport, BushmeatResearchIn developmentSanctuaries, Education,Rehabilitation,Campaigning,ChimpanzeesTradeSanctuariesCampaigns, PetitionCampaigningEducation, Communityvalues, Training,Economics, Animals:,Butterflies EducationEducation, Lawenforcement, Awareness,AlternativesEducationConservation, Research,Education, chimpsRescue, Rehabilitation,Sanctuary, Chimps,EquipmentBushmeat, IdentificationProtectionSanctuaries1999 Sheri Speede, *Sspeede@idausa.org2004 www.i-wc.org2000 Jason Glass\Jenny Myers2000 Cheryl *Montgomery,Chimpldy@imul.com1990-Present FredProject update inbabweteera, appendix, *Bfp@africaonline.com, ProfvernonReynolds,Vernon.reynolds@bioanth.ox.ac.uk1983-Present Doug*CressSBCress@aol.com2002-2003 Traffic@inconn ect.co.ke, RobBarnett, ProfKang’ethe,Ekangethe@wananchi.com**Alternatives, Breeding,TrainingResearchProtein-Alternatives2000-03 Chris Wanzi Ian Redmond video’dChris showing hisproject in 2003

Policy making, Exchangeinfo, Discussion,Feedback, HealthHealthTimber, Forestresources, Economicdev., Informationnetwork, Social dev.,Local industrialisation,Internationalrepresentation DevelopmentPrivate sector, Logging,Information-sharing,Management,Legislation,Reforestation, Training,Training, Development,Breeding, Pisciculture,Agro-forestry,EmploymentPrivate-SectorInformation, Research,Primates2001-2004 Rebecca hardin,Rebecca.hardin@mcgill.ca,AdrienneMinsterminster@fas.harvard.edu*1996-present 106422.711@c *ompuserve.com, Jean JacuesLandrot1996 - present ifia@wanadoo.frRichardWrangham,wrangham@fas.harvard.eduInformationLegal, Trade,Identification,Investigation, Mediaawareness CampaigningTrade, Subsistencehunting CampaigningRescue, Rehabilitation,Reintroduction,Education, Guenons,Mangabeys, SanctuariesRescue, Rehabilitation,Release, Sanctuaries,Drills, ChimpanzeesDomestication, Breeding,Protein Alternatives,Cane ratsSanctuariesSanctuaries1973- present Steven Brend2003 Lucy Molleson1995 - present Zena Tooze,zena_cercopan@yahoo.co.uk1996 - present Liza Gadsby &Peter Jenkins2000 C.S.Wanzie,wanziec@yahoo.comOver 50 farmers fromall over Cameroontrained as of Feb2003Protein-AlternativesCollaboration1999 - present Philip Miller,pmiller@cbsg.org

Popoulation-Viability-Analysis, Models,Economy, Sociology,Political, Harvestingrates,Data-collection,Management, Analysis,Research ResearchLogging conduct,Primates, Elephants,BuffalosPrivate-SectorConference, Sustainableforest management,Information-sharing,ProtectionDevelopment, Farming,Agriculture,Sustainability,Chimpanzees, Pet-trade,rehabilitation, Protection,Education, Awareness,Teaching, Schools,Students, Learning,Sustainability, Training,Library, Curriculum,Capacity-building,Authorities, InstitutionsPolicyPhilip Miller,pmiller@cbsg.org1995 Project failed, sinceRougier did notadhere toagreements.1996 Roca.iucn@ca *mnet.cm,Angu.cefdhaciucn@camnet.cm2003 - present Debby Cox, JGI implements aJane Goodall programme ofInst.,activities in the nearbyChimpldy@imul communities of Mpili.comand Tchissangasurrounding theReserve. As of Sep2004, Tchimpoungahas received 53school excursions and940 students as wellas private and localcompanies,development andnational institutions,NGO’s andgovernment bodies,EducationEducation , Awareness,Bushmeat InformationDensity, ChimpsEducation, Communities,Conservation, ChimpsProtection, Snareremoval, chimpsResearchEducationProtectionSanctuaries,Chimpanzees, EducationSanctuariesSantuaries,Chimpanzees SanctuariesSanctuaries,Chimpanzees SanctuariesTrade, Regulation,Sustainability,Management,Collaboration,Governments,Communities, Privatesector,Stakeholders ProtectionChimpanzees,Agriculture,Communities,Development,Management,Sustainability, Refugees,Hunting, FuelwoodDevelopment1999-2002 Debby Cox, Jane GoodallInst.,Chimpldy@imul.com*2003-2006 Debby Cox, *Jane GoodallInst.,Chimpldy@imul.com1997-Present Debby Cox, *Jane GoodallInst.,Chimpldy@imul.com200119921994Christina Ellis,cellis@janegoodall.org2002 Christina Ellis,cellis@janegoodall.org

Awareness, Timber,Furniture, Coltan, Mobilephones,Computers,Diamonds, GoldChimpanzees,Information,Communities, Surveys,Research, Trade,Development,Sustainability,Livelihoods, Institutions,Training, Governments,Census, Communities,Surveys, Monitoring,Habituation, Gorillas,Chimpanzees,Elephants, Eco-guards,Apes, Health, Tourism,Forestry, Stakeholders,Reproduction, EducationConsumerismInformation? Christina Ellis,cellis@janegoodall.org? Christina Ellis,cellis@janegoodall.org2002 Christina Ellis,cellis@janegoodall.orgRescue, Rehabilitation,Animals;, ChimpsResearch1994Sanctuaries, Relocation,Populations, Datacollection, Eco tourism,Education, Outreach,Animals:, ChimpsSanctuaries1998SanctuariesCollaboration, Markets,Communities,Development,Sustainability, livelihoods,StakeholdersRehabilitation,Confiscation, trade,Release, Bushmeat,Trade, AwarenessProtected-AreasSanctuariesAnti-poaching, LawenforcementLaw-enforcementLaw-enforcement,Investigations,Prosecution,Law-enforcementBonobos, Sanctuaries,Edication, Private-sector,Schools, Diseases,Lobbying, Protection,Governments, MediaSanctuariesEducation, Awareness,Bushmeat, websiteInformation, Awareness,Exhibitions, GorillasLaw enforcement,Protection, CapacitybuildingEducationEducationLaw-enforcementChristina Ellis,cellis@janegoodall.org1986-Present Mr AmosCourage\SueHunt, AspinallFoundation,0207 235 2768Chris Wolf2004 - present Giuseppe Topa,gtopa@worldbank.org19952001-2004 Kristen Lukas,Klucas@lpzoo.org, RobertDavis,Bdavis@lpzoo.org1999 - present Emily SKisamo,administratior@lusakaagreement.org**

Anti-poaching, LawenforcementLaw-enforcementTrade, Government,Private-sectorChimpanzees, Capacity,Monitoring, Awareness,People, Park, Protection,Training, Equipment,Surveys, Education,CommunitiesProtection, ManagementTradeProtectionJan 2004 – Dec2006Etoga Gilles2001 Giuseppe Topa,gtopa@worldbank.org, JuergenBlaser,jblaser@worldbank.orgPeterStephensonPJStephenson@wwfint.org2002 Javier Garcia,DavidFernandezNo follow-up wasmadeDiseaseProtected-Areas1997 - present Nathan WolfeLicensing, Sustainability,Quotas, Sanctions,Monitoring, Control,Management, Policy,Community, Livelihoods,Protection, Capacitybuilding,Informationexchange,PublicationsHealth1994 - present Kristin Olsen,OLSEN927@aol.comCommunity, Hunting,Data collection,Research, Bushmeat,Education, Monitoring,Training, ChimpsManagementManagement1997-present Alex Forbes,Amforbes@compuserve.com,( Edinburgh)MWMA has 100members from 11villages and has beensuccessful in securingmore equitable benefitsharing from wildlifeexploitation. , BatokeWMC has a bushmeatoff-take subcommittee.TheWMCs haveencouraged all localhunters to registertheir guns with theauthorities andnegotiated a 60%reduction in cost ofhunting permits.MWMA and WMCmembers haveagreed to suspendtheir right tosubsistence huntinguntil quota systemsare in place. Somemembers arenevertheless noncompliant.

Bushmeat, Trade,Methodologies,Education, Economics,Ecology, WorkshopsPolicy Briefing, Animals:,caterpillarsPolicy Briefing, Animals:,FishPolicy Briefing,Communities,Management, EconomicsPolicy Briefing,Consumption,Biodiversity,ManagementPolicy Briefing,Economics, SustainabilityResearchResearch, Surveys,Interviews, Economics,Awareness,Campaigning, EducationLaw-enforcement, Antipoaching,Equipment,Eco-guardsInformation, Publications,Awareness, EducationAwareness,Campaigning,Information, Education,Publications, Antipoaching,Equipmant,Funding, LawenforcementResearchResearchResearchResearchResearchResearchResearchResearchCampaigningLaw-enforcementInformationCollaborationSanctuaries, Apes,Orphans SanctuariesRescue, Education,Rehabilitation,Awareness, Primates,Gorillas, Chimpanzees,Drills, Mandrills,Baboons, Mangabeys,Guenons, Ungulates,Training SanctuariesInformation, AwarenessInformation2000-2001 Natural Resources Institute, 01634883 051,E.Robinson@greenwich.ac.uk(NRI),Ebjno2@compuserve.com(FFI),d.brown@odi.org.uk(ODI)Project update inappendix, *2004 PaulVantomme,paul.vantomme.fao.org2004 Ian Watson,Fishiwatson@aol.com2004 Andrew Hurst,a.hurst@odi.org2004 Reginald Hoyt,reg.hoyt@forestpartnersinternational.org2004 Guy Cowlishaw,guy.cowlishaw@ioz.ac.uk20042001 LiseAlbrechtsenKarl Westphal,karlw@prcsu.durban.gov.za,Dave Morgan,davetsp@iafrica.comKarl Westphal,karlw@prcsu.durban.gov.za,Dave Morgan,davetsp@iafrica.comKarl Westphal,karlw@prcsu.durban.gov.za,Dave Morgan,davetsp@iafrica.com2001 - present Karl Westphal,karlw@prcsu.durban.gov.za,Dave Morgan,davetsp@iafrica.comDoug Cress1994- present Davis Lucas, Project update ininfo@limbewildl appendix, *ife.org2003 Planet21@totalise.co.uk

Information, Awareness,ExhinitionsEconomic-alternatives,livestock, awareness,surveys, communities,management, protectedareasResearch, Surveys,Pygmy hippopotamus,Forest elephant, Jentink’sduiker, Awareness,Economics, Datacollection, Training,Education, Campaigning,Community, Radio,Theatre, CommunitiesEducationEconomic-Alternatives2002-20032001-2004 Reg Hoyt,Hoyt.reg@phillyzoo.orgProtein AlternativesResearch, FundingResearch, AwarenessProtein-Alternatives1992 - present Noel Rowe,nrowe@primate.orgBushmeat, Research,Education, Protection,Alternatives, Livestock,Gorilla, Colobus, ChimpsSurveys, Research,Education, Training,FundingTrade, Sanctuary,Release programme,Campaign, Hunting,Education, Awareness,ChimpanzeesFundingProtein-AlternativesResearch, FundingSanctuariesEducationEducationHuman induceddisturbance, Hunting,Data collection,Research, Primates,Ungulates, Carnivores,Rodents, Shrews ResearchCampaigning,CampaigningCommmunity,Management, ControlledHunting Management1998-2000 Ernest Ike Nwufoh,Epsilon@beta.linkserve.com*1997 - present Dr C. Harcourt,cwp@psgb.org1996-2006 NleeBailey@aol *.com NancyBailey, EstelleRaballand,Estel@yahoo.com,2001-2004 Justina.ray@utoronto.ca,Several bushmeatspecificprojectssupported (e.g.“Trade in primatemeat in the Oban Hillsregion of Nigeria”(Edem Eniang, 1999),“Discontinuous greatape density in huntingareas versusprotected researchareas” (Jef Dupain,2003)).1998 ErickBrownstein2004 First phasecompleted.*

Self-sufficiency, Foodsecurity,Foodalternatives,Agriculture,Crop-raiding, Training,Development,Management,CommunitiesProtection, ReservesProtein-Alternatives2003 - present Eric Chezeaux Rougier are extendingthe programme toother Gabonreseconcessions. Microprojectsincludingchicken and cattlerearing are to beimplemented.1996 - 1998 Jef Dupain Project site had to bevacated due tooutbreak of warMedia, Documentaries,ChimpanzeesMonitoring, Antipoaching, Videos\media,Data collection, Web site,Educational, Video linksPartnerships,Collaboration, Education,ResearchProtected-AreasMediaMedia2000 Danic van derValt???2003 CatherineAmelink,Camelink@skycalypso.com2002 - present JamesColeman,scnlib2001@yahoo.com*Protein Alternatives,Breeding, Fish, Wildboar, Rodents, LivestockInformation, EducationCollaborationProtein-AlternativesInformationCollaborationCollaborationConservation plan,Training, Bushmeat,Consumption,Community, Datacollection, Monitoring,Distribution, Mammals,Birds ResearchInformation, Awareness,ExhibitionsEducationAwarenessAwareness1990-1995 sodepal@netfly.fr1999 – present Charles Welch,contact@solcomhouse.com1992 - present info@ssn.org2001 Cheryl Asa *Kim Meehan,kimseml@hotmail.com

ResearchSurveys, Trade,Trophies, Tradionalmedicine, Lawenforcement, Bushmeat,Awareness, ResearchResearch1998-2000 Rob Barnett, Results pblished intraffic@iconnec 2000 report “Food fort.co.ke thought: Theutilization and trade ofwild meat in easternand southern Africa”.1998-2002 ChrisShepherd\Nolan Magnus,Nolanmagnus@hotmail.com*Anti poaching, Trade,Protection, Hunting,Traditional medicines,Trophies, SerowEducationConference,CampaigningResearchResearchEducation2000-Present ChrisShepherd\Nolan Magnus,Nolanmagnus@hotmail.com*2003-Present Kathaleen Buck,Kathaleenbuck@ci.tulsa.ok.usProject update, *2002 Adam In July 2003, 297Matthews, British MP’s signed anBarry Gardiner, Early Day MotionRobert Evans, calling forinfo@thebushm international action toeatcampaign.or address the bushmeatgcrisis.Logging, Management,Policy, Code-of-conduct,Communities, ForestsProtection, Fund-raising,Governments, Policy,Communication,PolicyCollaboration1999 - present JaneThornback,J.Thornback@btinternet.com2001 - present Jim Sniffen,sniffenj@un.org,Melanie.virtue@unep.orgProotection, National-Parks, FundingPolicy2003-2007Protected-AreasBushmeat, Education,Research, Awareness,Dev bushmeatprogramme. Education2001-2003 Nolanmagnus@hotmail.com

Bushmeat, Utilization,Sustainability, Datacollection, Hunting,Primates, Tiger,Elephants, Butterflylizard, Deer, Boar, Whitebreasted water hen,Squirrels, Tre shrews,rats ResearchHunting, Bushmeat,Surveys, Consumption,Identification2000-2002 Nolan magnus,Nolanmagnus@hotmail.com2000 Nolan magnus,NolanMagnus@hotmail.com**ResearchBreeding techniques,Game rearing,Alternatives, Training,Bushmeat, Cane rat,Porcupine, Rodents,Duiker, River hog, Africansnails, FrancolinesProtein-AlternativesAlternatives, Agriculture,EconomiesFunding, PublicationsEconomic-Alternatives1997-2000 Patrick Houbendavid Edderai,Vsfgab2@internetgabon.com2001 - present info@wasmoethwildlife.org2003 info@wasmoethwildlife.org*The project has hadlimited success inreducing poachingand the theWasmoeth WildlifeFoundation hasannounced amoratorium on buyingthe coffee in 2005.Purchase mayresume in 2006 ifcertain conditions arefulfilled. If not, theproject will be closed.During 2005, a“correction, educationand enforcement”program will be put inplace to establishcommunicationnetworks and a teamof ecoguards.FundingCommunity,Management, Hunting,Monitoring, Biology, Landrights ManagementHunting, JaguarsBushmeat, EconomicsCommunity, Hunting,Data collection,Management, BlueDuiker, Red Duiker,ResearchResearchResearchTraditional medicine,Awareness, Lawenforcement, Forensics,Education, Campaigning,Training, Monitoring,Tiger EducationHunting, Ecology,Biology, Data Collection,DuikerResearch1999-2007 WCS, *1999-present Dr Alan Rabinowitz,WCS, Bronx,USA*2000-2003 Dr Wilkie, *Dwilkie@rcn.com1994-1996 Dr Peter *Howard, WCS,Phoward@wcs.org1996- present Dr Zhang, + 86 *21 62861965 (fax), Dr JoshuaGinsberg,WCS, Bronx1978-present Dr John hart,WCS, Bronx,001 718 3644275 ( fax)*

Bushmeat, Trade,Sources, EconomicsHunting, Data collection,Awareness, legalResearch2000-2002 Dr PeterHpward,Phoward@wcs.org2000-Present Dr Elizabeth *Bennett, WCS,Sarawak, DrJohn Robinson,WCS BronxResearchHunting, Trade,Consumption,Sustainability ResearchHunting, Trade,Population densities,Bushmeat, Legal, Datacollection, Humanactivities, Awareness,Monitoring, Training,Barbirusa, Anoa, CrestedBlack Maqaque, Flyingfoxes ResearchTrade, Bushmeat,Traditional Medicine,Pets, Trophies,Mammals, Birds, ReptilesData collection,Bushmeat, Economics,Ammunition,Hunting, Food,Economics, Datacollection, Community,Management, Primates,Hornbills, Deer, PigsBiology, Economics,Traditional medicine,Food, Data Collection,Densities, Tigers, Deer,Bears, Otters, RhinosCommunities, Monitoring,Densities, Trade,Bushmeat, Management,Tapir, PrimatesHunting, Crop raiding,Sustainability, Bushmeat,CommunitiesResearchResearchResearchResearchManagementManagementBehaviour, Education,Research, habituation,Data collection, Training,Monitoring, Antipoaching, Gorillas,Elephants ResearchEcology, Community,Legal, Land-use,Campaigning, Monitoring,Safari Hunting, Datacollection, Educational,Awareness, Behaviour,Training, Research, Soiluse, Habitat, Wildlifeprotection films,Mammals, Antelope2000 Dr AndrewTaber, WCSBronx1994-1997??? Dr Rob Lee,WCS, Sulawesi1991-1992 DrSrikosamatara,DeptConservationBiology,Mahidol Univ,Bangkok*2002-2003 Dr David *Wilkie,Dwilkie@wcs.org1993-1995 Dr Eliz. *Bennett, WCS,Sarawak1990-2001 Dr Mahdu Rao,WCS, Bronx1992-Present Dr RichardBodmer, UnivKent2000 Dr LisaNaughton, DrAndrew Taber,WCS, Bronx1995-Present Dr Emma Stokes,Mbeli@compuserve.com*1996-Present Paul& Sarah Elkanelkan@ssmail.net*Project update inappendix, *Project update, ****Research

Population, Density,Foods, Research,Training, Data Collection,Logging, Chimps,Gorillas, ElephantsResearchHunting, Trade,Communities, Monitoring,Training, Densities,Biology ResearchCommunity, Hunting,Bushmeat, DatacollectionManagementPolicy, Government,Protection, GorillasCampaigning,Community, Awareness,Gorillas, Hunting bansTrade, TransportProtection, Antipoaching,GorillasPolicyCampaigningTradeProtectionAnti-poaching, ProtectionAnti-poaching, Training,Guards, GorillasEducation, CommunityAwareness,Campaigning, GorillasProtection, GorillasLaw-enforcementLaw-enforcementEducationProtected-AreasAnti-poaching, ProtectionLaw-enforcement1998-Present David Morgan, *Bomassa@assmail.net1991-2007 Dr AndrewNoss, WCSBolivia2000-2003 Dr Howard,WCS, Bronx,R.Mwinyihau2002 StephenSautner,ssautner@wcs.org, JohnDelaney,jdelaney@wcs.org2002 StephenSautner,ssautner@wcs.org, JohnDelaney,jdelaney@wcs.org2002 StephenSautner,ssautner@wcs.org, JohnDelaney,jdelaney@wcs.org2002 StephenSautner,ssautner@wcs.org, JohnDelaney,jdelaney@wcs.org2002 StephenSautner,ssautner@wcs.org, JohnDelaney,jdelaney@wcs.org2002 StephenSautner,ssautner@wcs.org, JohnDelaney,jdelaney@wcs.org2002 StephenSautner,ssautner@wcs.org, JohnDelaney,jdelaney@wcs.org2002 StephenSautner,ssautner@wcs.org, JohnDelaney,jdelaney@wcs.org2002 StephenSautner,ssautner@wcs.org, JohnDelaney,jdelaney@wcs.org**

Policy, Government,Gorillas, TradeCampaigning,Awareness, Laws,GorillasResearch, Monitoring,Protection, GorillasCommunity, Awareness,Education, Campaigns,Gorillas, LawsGovernment, Policy,Protection, GorillasTraining, Guards,Management, ProtectionRegulations, Bushmeat,Hunting, Snares,Exportation,Concessions, Protection,Zoning, Communities,Education, Awareness,Ecoguards, Proteinalternatives,Research,Surveys, MonitoringPolicyEducationResearchEducationPolicyTrainingProtectionCommunity, Logging,Hunting, Trade,Management, Legal, Lawenforcement, Training,Gorilla, Chimps,Elephant, Leopard,Bongo ManagementTrade, Law enforcement,Legal, TrainingResearchCommunities, Monitoring,Protection, Development,Research, Ecotourism,Distribution, Density,Sustainability,Livelihoods, Awareness2002 StephenSautner,ssautner@wcs.org, JohnDelaney,jdelaney@wcs.org2002 StephenSautner,ssautner@wcs.org, JohnDelaney,jdelaney@wcs.org2002 StephenSautner,ssautner@wcs.org, JohnDelaney,jdelaney@wcs.org2002 StephenSautner,ssautner@wcs.org, JohnDelaney,jdelaney@wcs.org2002 StephenSautner,ssautner@wcs.org, JohnDelaney,jdelaney@wcs.org2002 StephenSautner,ssautner@wcs.org, JohnDelaney,jdelaney@wcs.org1999 - 20041998-2005 Dr Paul Elkan,Dr PeterHoward, WCS,Bronx2000-2001 Dr Colin Poole,WCS,CambodiaJan 2004-June2005PeterStephensonPJStephenson@wwfint.org**Bushmeat, Management,Densities, Economics,Education, Datacollection, CommunityProtection, TourismManagement1996-present Dr Howard, *Phoward@wcs.org

Law enforcement,Hunting, Densities, LargeMammals ResearchEvaluation, Hunting,Densities, Comparisonhabitats, Primates,Ungulates, Squirrels,Rodents, Cracids,Tinamous, Trumpeters,Wood-quails, TortoisesResearchHunting, Trade, Lawenforcement, Training,Densities, Monitoring,Anti poaching, Tiger,Wild Dogs, Aloe-wood Research, ManagementLogging, Hunting,Economics, DataCollection, Food,Bushmeat, Fish ResearchConservation Plan,Management, Hunting,Awareness, Education,Campaigning, Legal PolicyGorillas , Chimpanzees,Park, Protection,Legislation, Assessment,Management, Training,Staff, Rangers,Education, Awareness,Communities, Monitoring,1994-1996 Dr K.UllasKaranth, WCSBronx1987-1996 Dr CarlosPererz, UnivEast Anglia,Norwich2000-2002 Dr AnthonyLynam, WCS1999-2000 Cynthia Chin,WCS, Bronx1995-Present Dr Eliz Bennett *Jan 2004 – Dec2006PeterStephensonPJStephenson@wwfint.org**, 24 Sites in Brazil,**ProtectionResearch, Hunting,Densities, Monitoring,Training, Logging,Management, ResearchHunting, Monitoring,Management, Densities,Data collection,Bushmeat, CommunityManagementEducation, Bushmeat,AwarenessResearchEducationResearchAwareness, Education,Habitat conservation, Antipoaching, Conflictreduction, Campaigning,ChimpsAgriculture, Breeding,Protein-alternatives,Guineafowl, Bees, Fruit,Baobab, Tamarind,Communities,Sustainability, AIDSEducationProtein-Alternatives1999-2001 Paul Elkan,Elkan@ssmail.net1980-1985 &1994-20042001-2003 AlexisDr Kim Hill,DeptAnthropology,Univ NewMexicoManirakiza@wcc.govt.nz2003 - present info@westerngorilla.org2000-Present Wcf@wildchimp A survey has showns.orgthat 27% ofinterviewees nolonger eatchimpanzee meat asa result ofcampaigning activitiesin this area.***

Trade, Governments,Information-sharing,Policy, Databases,Awareness, Media,Education, Campaigning,Collaboration,Partnerships,Fundraising, Actionplanning,Decisionmaking,Publications,Development,Curriculum, Teaching,Institutions,1999 - 2007 Heather Eves, Phase I completed atinfo@bushmeat end of 2004. Phase II.orgnow in progress.Anti poaching, Education,Consumption,CommunitiesCollaborationProtectionLaw enforcement,Training, Anti poaching,Equipment, Welfare,Education, Management,Tiger ProtectionLaw enforcement,Training, Anti poaching,Equipment, Welfare,Education, Management,Tiger ProtectionAnti poaching, Education,Consumption,Communities, TigerProtectionInformation, Research,Primates2010-PermanentSanjay Gubbi, *Gubbi@wcsindia.orgi2001-2004 Sanjay Gubb, *Gubbi@wcsindia.orgi2001-2004 Sanjay Gubbi, *Gubbi@wcsindia.orgi2001-2004 Sanjay Gubbi, *Gubbi@wcsindia.orgiCynthiaRobinsonManagement, Forests,Private-sector,Sustainability,Partnerships, Code-ofconduct,LawenfoecementResearch1997 - present Giuseppe Topa,gtopa@worldbank.org, JuergenBlaser,jblaser@worldbank.orgManagement, Bushmeat,Economics, Trade, Antipoaching, Training,Curriculum, Policyimplementation, PlanningCollaboration1998-present SimonReitbergen,IUCN, Gland,Switz.*Private-SectorEvaluation, Creatingnational Parks,Database, Datacollection, Logging,Mining, Human activities,Legal, Creationsanctuaries, Nationalconference Research2000-2001 Andre Kamden *Toham,Kamden.toham@internetgabon.com

Campaigning, Primates,Apes, Awareness,Santuaries, Education,Communities, Orphans,Gorillas, Chimpanzees,Orangutans, Ammunition,Governments, Lawenforcement,Confiscation, Logging1994 – (2000?) ? (1) Resolution drawnup by WSPA, callingfor political action toend ape hunting, waspassed by MEPs andgovernmentrepresentatives atMarch 1996 ACP-EUjoint assembly,Namibia. Theresolution didn’t getanything ontoagendas. (2) MACCfactory ceasedproduction ofchevrotine for 2 years.(3) Public educationcampaigns taken onby the government ofCongo followingmeeting with Ministerof the Environment.Sanctuaries, Primates,Chimpanzees, FundingProtection, Legislation,Law-enforcement,Education, Awareness,Governments,Communities, Logging,SustainabilityLegal, Awareness,Management, Bushmeat,Trade, Data collection,Conservation Plan,Gorillas, ChimpsConservation plan, Landuse,Legal, Law enforcement,Awareness, Training,Bushmeat, Equipment,Anti poaching, Gorillas,ChimpsCreate National Park,Education, Health,Tourism, Management,Protection, Ruraldevelopment, Training,Anti poaching,AwarenessCommunity,Conservation plan,Census, Protection,Training, Data collection,Elephants, ChimpsCampaigningFundingLaw-enforcementManagementProtected-AreasPrivate-SectorFood consumption,Health, Nutrition,Management, Datacollection ResearchManagement, Education,Awareness, AlternativesDevelopment, ProtectionDevelopment, ProtectionProtected-Areas? ?1997 - 2000 JonathanPearce2000-2002 Elisinge@aol.com, EsterineLisingeFotabong1999-2002 Martin Tchamba,MTchamba@wwfnet.org*1999-2000 Mtchamba@ww *fnet.org, MartinTchamba1987-present ? *1994-98 ? *This project proposalwas rejected.1999-2004 Soniablaney@h Project update inotmail.com appendix, *2000 Marc Thibault,Marc.m.tibault@shlgbgmb.simis.com**

Bushmeat, Trade, Datacollection, Education,Campaigns, Lawenforcement, Economics,Animals:, Mandrill, ApesConservation plan,Management,Alternatives,Infrastructure, FundingBushmeat, Trade,Ecomics, Populationassessment, Monitoring,Management,Awareness, Lawenforcement, AlternativesTraining, Monitoring,Butterflies, Ants,Mammals, Birds, Plants,Fish, Snails, Frogs, FruitFliesForests, Deforestation,Management,Stakeholders,SustainabilityTradeProtected-AreasProtectionTraining2000-2001 Andre Kamden *Toham,Kamden.toham@internetgabon.com2000 Paul de *Wachter,Dewachter.p@internetgabon.com2001-2002 Andre Kamden *Toham,Kamden.toham@internetgabon.com2001 Andre Kamden *Toham,Kamden.toham@internetgabon.com1995-2015 Deidre Smith,dsmith@hermes.geog.umd.eduResearch, Satellite &Radio-tracking,ElephantsPolicyDr Mike Loomis(NC Zoo)ResearchEducation, Research,TrainingProtected-AreasAnti-poaching, Lawenforcement, Equipment,Transport,Law-enforcementData collection,Awareness, Education,Conservation plan,Census ProtectionAvailability of prey,Hunters, Consumption,Sales\economies, Datacollection, Parkmanagement, Militaryconflict,Protection1997-Present Sangha@yale.e *du, TheresaSilla1997- present Gayr@uwm.edu, Dr GayeReinartz1996-1997 Emmanuel deMerode*Published 2000-2001

Research, Modeling,Birds, Fish, Primates,Population ViabilityAnalysis, Geese,Chameleons, Tortoises,Policy, SustainabilityProtection, Management,SustainabilityData Collection, Hunters,Population dynamics ,Economics, Policies,Management, Animals:,Squirrels, L.T.macaque,B.Leafed macaque,D.Leafed monkey, Binturong, GibbonSupply\demandbushmeat, Speciesbiology, Landscapeecology, Nutrition, MarketSurveys,Hunters, Socio economic,Subsistence hunting,Commercial huntingResearchProtectionResearchResearch1994 - presentGuy Cowlishaw,MarcusRowcliffe2000-Present MarcusRowcliffe, GuyCowlishaw,Janice Long2001-03 John Fa, DavidMacDonald,Rajan Amin,MarcusRowcliffe, GuyCowlishaw,2001- present Noelle Kumpel,MarcusRowcliffe, GuyCowlishaw, E.J.Milner-Gulland,John FaEconomic-AlternativesSocial processes,Economic processes,Traders, Hunters,Wholesalers, Outlets,Data collection, TransportResearchEcological studies,Population densities,Data collection, Huntersurveys, Comparisonreports with 1950’s,Socio\economic ,Animals:, Antelope,PrimatesResearch1999- present SamanthaMendleson,Guy Cowlishaw,KatherineHomewood? Glyn Davies,Paul Richards

Acronym OrganisationAWF African Wildlife FoundationA.K.Taylor InternationalAfrican ConservancyADIE Agency for the Development of Environmental InformationAIESEC-LiberiaAlcalá UniversityAmerican Association of ZoookeepersAmerican Forest and Paper AssociationAmerican Society of PrimatologistsAmerican Zoo & Aquarium AssociationAndrus Family FundAnglo Peruvian SocietyAnimal Welfare InstituteApe AlliancePAAZAB Pan African Association of Zoological Gardens, Aquaria and Botanic GardensArcadia UniversityArcus FoundationVDZ Association of German ZoodirectorsAssociazione Primatologica ItalianaAssocicion Primatologica EspanolaATIBT Association Technique Internationale des Bois TropicauxAtlanta ZooATTAustralian governmentAustralian Primatological SocietyAustrianBay FoundationBBCBCTF Bushmeat Crisis Task ForceBeaver CollegeBell-CanadaBellerive FoundationBeneficia FoundationBerggorilla & Regenwald DirekthilfeBernhardine FundBeulah Land Eco-village Ltd.BFF Born Free FoundationBSP Biodiversity Support ProgramBioko Biodiversity Protection ProgramBIOSA-Biology Students AssociationBiosynergy InstituteBjorn Schulte-HerbruggenBMZBonobo Conservation InitiativeBonobo EEP.Bonobo in situ projectBoston CollegeBrigitte Bardot FoundationBristol MuseumBristol Zoo GardensBritish Ecolgical SocietyBritish Knife GuildBronx ZooBrookfield ZooBusch GardensBushmeat Awareness GroupBushmeat Crisis Action GroupBushmeat Crisis Discussion GroupCalgary ZooCambridge Univ.CameroonCameroon Development Corporation plantation

Cameroon governmentMINEF Cameroon Ministry of Environment and ForestsCAMRAIL Cameroonian National RailwayCanadaCanadian Broadcast CorporationCanadian Great Ape AllianceCanadian Interanational Dev. AgencyCARE Centre for Animal Rehabilitation and EducationCare & Health ProgramCare for the WildCARPE Central African Regional Program for the EnvironmentCAWHFI Central African World Heritage Forest InitiativeCBFP Congo Basin Forest PartnershipCE Wikstroms MinnesfondCEEB Concerned Environmentalists for the Enhancement of BiodiversityCEEPCenter for Conservation and Bahaviour – Georgia TechCentral African RepublicConservation International Centre for Applied Biodiversity ScienceCERCOPANCheyenne Mountain ZooChicago Zoological Society – Brookfield ZooChimpanzee Rehabilitation TrustCI Conservation InternationalCIAIDCiel LogisticsCincinnati Zoo and Botanical GardenCIRAD International Centre for Agricultural Research for Developing CountriesCITESCity UniversityCleveland Metroparks ZooCleveland Zoo SocietyCline FamilyCMS FoundationColumbus Zoo and AquariumCOMIFAC Council of Ministers for Forests of Central AfricaCIB Congolaise Industrielle de BoisCongolese governmentCongolese InstitutionsMEFE Congolese Ministry of Forest Economy and the EnvironmentConservation of Wildlife & heritage of KodaguConservation Society of Sierra LeoneConvention on Biological DiversityConvention on Migratory SpeciesCouncil of Agriculture of the Republic of ChinaCross River State Department of ForestryCross River State Forestry CommissionCulture Art StudioCuttington University CollegeCWAF Cameroon Wildlife Aid FundDABAC Dévéloppement d’Aletrnatives au Braconnage en Afrique CentraleDallas ZooDarwin InitiativeDavid Shepherd Conservation FoundationDefra Department for the Environment, Food and Rural AffairsDFID Department for International DevelopmentDepartment for Nature ProtectionDept EnvironmentDART Dete Animal Rescue TrustDetroit Zoological ParkDewer Wildlife TrustDFGF Dian Fossey Gorilla FundDFW

DGEG Projet de Dévéloppement au Gabon de l’Elevage de GibierDGISDHLDirect Marketing Support LtdDiscovery ChannelDiscovery Communications EuropeDisney Wildlife Conservation FundDisney’s Animal KingdomDr ThompsonDRCDRC Gov.DRC Ministry of EnvironmentDuetsche Primatologische GesellschaftDurrell InstituteDutch and Mexican governmentsDutch Gov.DVMDWCT Durrell Wildlife Conservation TrustEast African Wildlife Soc.East London AquariumEAZA European Association of Zoos and AquariaECOFACEco-PortalEdith J Goode FoundationEndangered Wildlife TrustEquatorial GuineaESRC Economic and Social Research CounilEU European UnionEuropean CommissionEuropean Dev FundEuropean Union Delegation in GabonFACEFAO Food and Agricultural AssociationFFI Fauna & Flora InternationalFederation of Zoological Gardens of Great Britain & IrelandFlomo TheatreFolsom Children’s Zoo and Botanical GardenFord FoundationForest Conservation PortalFSC Forest Stewardship CouncilForest TrendsForestry and Marine ResourcesForestry Development AuthorityFrance and South AfricaFriends of BonobosFriends of LukuruFRM Forest Resource ManagementFund for AnimalsPrimate Preservation GroupG8 nationsGabonGabonese Ministry of Water and ForestsGabonese Wildlife DepartmentGAP ProjectGECOMSAGEF Global Environment FacilityGermanyGesamtschule VowinkelGFW Global Forest WatchGilman International ConservationGivskud ZooGlobal Conservation FundGorilla Foundation

Gorilla HavenGov CongoGov. CameroonGov. NetherlandsGovernment of FranceGovernment of GhanaGovernment of JapanGovernment of KenyaGovernment of Republic of CongoGovernment of SwitzerlandGrand Gedeh Community Servant AssociationGreat Ape FundGTZ German Technical Co-operation ServiceHappy Hollow ZooHarvard UniversityHeifer InternationalHEVECAM rubber plantationHouston ZooHSUSHumane Society of the U.S.A.ICCN Institut Congolais pour la Protection de la Nature (Congolese Institute for Nature Conservation)IDAIFAW International Fund for Animal WelfareIGAD Gabonese Institute of Support for DevelopmentImperial College LondonIn defense of animalsIn Situ Wildlife ConservationInc.Innovative Resources ManagementIndividualsIndustrial groupsInstitute AgricultureInstitute ZoologyInt group of social & medical scientistsInt Soc. For Ecosystem healthInt. Primate Protection LeagueIFIA InterAfrican Forest Industries AssociationInternationalInternational governmentsInternational Primatological SocietyInternational Rhino Foundationi-objectsIPPL International Primate Protection LeagueIRADITTO. International Tropical Timber OrganisationIUCN World Conservation UnionJGI Jane Goodall InstituteJapanJohn Aspinall FoundationKBCKenya Wildlife ServiceKenyatta University raveling Theatre GroupKing Leopold III Fund for Nature Exploration and ConservationKumasi GhanaKyoto UniversityLand RoverLast Great Ape OrganizationLeakey FoundationLes Amis des Animaux au Congo the Friends of Animals in Congo)Liberian Senate Committee on the EnvironmentLincoln Park Zoological GardensLinnean Soc.Living Earth

Liz Claiborne & Art Ortenberg FoundationLocal BusinessLouisville Zoological GardenLTS InternationalLukuru FoundationLukuru Wildlife Research ProjectLusaka Agreement Task ForceMacarthur FoundationMaejo UniversityMargo Marsh FoundationMax Planck InstituteMcGill UnivMCP Community Support FundMember organizationsMIKE Monitoring of Illegal Killing in ElephantsMINEF Ministry of Environment and ForestsMinistere de L’Economie ForestiereMinistry of AgricultureMinistry of DefenseMinistry of EnvironmentMinistry of External RelationsMinistry of ForestryMinistry of HealthMinistry of Primary and Secondary EducationMinistry of the EnvironmentMinistry of Water and ForestsMitchell Park ZooMobilMonkey LandMontecasino Bird GardensMount Cameroon ProjectMount Cameroon Region Conservation Foundation.My Acre of AfricaMysore Centre for Ecological ResearchNational Environmental Commission of LiberiaNat Fish & Wildlife FoundationNASA National Aeronautics and Space AdministrationNational Park ServiceNational Science FoundationNatural Resource management\EPIQNERC Natural Environment Research CouncilNewman’s Own FoundationNGO’sNGSNigerian Conservation FoundationNORADNorth Carolina ZooNorwegian Research Council (Norges Forskningeråd)Nouvelles ApproachesNRINSERCNY.Oakland ZooODIOffice Rwandais de Tourisme et des Parcs NationauxOklahoma City ZooOne with NatureONFI Office National des Forêts InternationalOtter BoxesOxford universityPAAZAB Pan African Association of Zoological GardensPASA Pan African Sanctuary AlliancePandrillus

Peace CorpsPeopleandPlanet.netPercy Slater memorial FundPhiladelphia ZooPittsburgh ZooPNPQPPEA Projet Promotion de l’Elevage d’AulacodesPride ZooPrimary InvestigatorsPrimate Conservation Inc.Primate Preservation GroupPrimate Society of Great BritainPrimate Society of JapanPrince Bernaard FundPrivatePrivate Donorsprivate sectorPro WildlifeProf kang’etheProject Primate Inc. & Primates GuineaProspect Park ZooPurdue Univ.Radio VeritasRainforest Action NetworkRainforest FoundationReal NetworksRes & Dev.Rettet den RegenwaldRGSRichard and Rhoda Goldman FundRoger Williams Park ZooRougier-GabonRoyal Rotterdam Zoo & Botanical gardensRoyal Thai Forestry Dept.Royal Zoological Society of AntwerpRural village sitesSABC South Africa Broadcasting CorporationSAED Society Against Environmental DegradationSaint Louis ZooSAMFUSan Antonio Zoological Gardens and AquariumSarawak Forest DeptSave the Species FoundationSave The Tiger FundScientific and Cultural OrganizationSedgwick County ZooShared Earth FoundationSir Sandford Fleming CollegeSky Calypso SocietySmithsonian InstituteSNVSociete Francophone de PrimatologieSociety for the Conservation of Nature of LiberiaSociety of American ForestersSODEPAL La Société d'Exploitation du Parc de la LékédiSolcomhouseSpecies Survival NetworkStuttgart ZooSudan Cons. SocSummeriee FoundationSwedish Society for Nature ConservationTalking Drum StudioTFF Tropical Forest Forum

The environment ministeries of Cameroon and NigeriaThe Institute for Tropical Forest ConservationIGCP International Gorilla Conservation ProgrammeThe Jazz SceneThe Little Rock ZooThe Orangutan FoundationUN FoundationToronto ZooTRAFFICTransport & RegionsTulsa ZooTusk TrustTWE Tropical Wood EnvironmentTVEU.S. Fish & Wildlife ServiceU.S. National Science FoundationUCL University College LondonUganda Wildlife AuthorityUniversity of LiberiaUKUK GovernmentUK Gov. Int. Dev Fund (Cameroon)UMNUN Global Compact GroupUNDP United Nations Development ProgrammeUNEP United Nations Environment ProgramGrASPUNESCOUNGE Universidad Nacional de Guinea EcuatorialUnited States Department of Agriculture Forest ServiceUniv AlbertaUniv EdinburghUniv MinnesotaUniv New MexicoUniv of KentUniv of KentUniv. Science & TechUniv. TorontoUniversity of AntwerpUniversity of MarylandUniversity of VirginiaUniversity of WageningenUniversity of YaoundéUNOPSUS EmbassyUSAUSA Department of StateUSA governmentUSAIDUSAID-CARPEUSFSIPUWEC Uganda Wildlife Education Center TrustVeterinaire sans FrontiereVodafoneWasmoeth Wildlife FoundationWCS Wildlife Conservation SocietyWellington ZooWesternGorilla.orgWCF Wild Chimpanzee FoundationWildaidWildlife & Environmental Society of MalawiWildlife FirstWildlife Protectors Fund

Wisconsin Primate Research Center (University of Wisconsin)World BankWRI World Resources InstituteWSPA World Society for the Protection of Animals (WSPA)WWF World Wildlife FundYale UnivYaounde Wildlife SanctuaryYouth for ConservationZambia’s Northern Province Honorary Wildlife Police Officers UnitZambian Wildlife AuthorityZeissZoo New EnglandZoological Society of MilwaukeeZoological Board of New South WalesZoological Society of PhiladelphiaZoological Society of San DiegoZSL Zoological Society of London

Number of projects511211113511171131112111111121111131111211311151112141115211121221

111114121311161211121211241219161118121111121121126212193 UK Department for International Development (DFID)1111181

111111216111111113116411115 ESRC, ESCR541113 UN Food & Agri Org.7 Fauna and Flora International, FFI-Liberia, Flora and Fauna International12 Flomo Theatre Productions Society111111211416 International Fund for Animals, The Fund for Animals11111113 GEF\1122 Gilman Conservation International114 Gorilla Foundation’s Wildlife Protectors Fund

122111112 Governments of Republic of Congo1119 GTZ (German Technical Co-operation)1111114 Humane Soc. Of USA, Humane Society of the United States, Humane Society of the U7 Institut Congolaise pou la Conservation de la Nature (ICCN), Institute Congolaise pour117 IFAW-EU, Int Fund Animal Welfare12 Imperial Coll. London111151111113 Interafrican forest industries assoc.312116 IPPL-UK13 Int. Tropical Timber Org13 IUCN Conservation Breeding Specialist Group, IUCN Conservation Breeding Specialist23 Jane Goodall Inst, Jane Goodall Inst., The Jane Goodall Institute1112 Kenya Wildlife Ser.1111111114 Lincoln Park Zoo11

411 Louisville Zoo241115 McArthur Foundation14 Margo Marsh Biodiversity Fund12 McGill Univ.2217 Min.Environments & Forests, Ministry of Environment & Forestry, Ministry of Environme111111111111112 Mount Cameron Project21111111141111111111111 Oakland Zoo & 40 institutions7111113 Oxford University (Wildlife Conservation Research Unit)423

2114111122 Primate Conservation13111511111111111111111111122 St Louis Zoo1122 Save The Species Fund4111112 Smithsonian Institution11211112 Wilhemia Zoological & Botanical Gardens Stuttgart1112 Talking Drums Studios2

11111115 Toronto Zoo Great Ape Fund Private Donors412 Tulsa Zoo Conservation Committee11215 U.S Fish & Wildlife Service (Great Ape Conservation Fund)., U.S. Fish and Wildlife Serv1312 Uinversity of Liberia12 UK Gov11142 UNEP World Conservation monitoring Centre (WCMC)14 UNESCO (United Nations Educational11511111121111111152 Government of the USA1811111368 WCS Pattycake Fund, WCS,114 Wild Chimpazee Foundation (WCF)1142

286 World Resources Institute (WRI)742 WWF-Liberia, WWF-UK, WWF-US, WWF-USA1 Yale Univ.12 Youth for Conservtaion11114 Zoo soc Milwaukee1119

Recipes for Survival_English_tcm46-28192

Create successful ePaper yourself

Delete template?

Save as template?