Herbal Healing 204

combination of philosophy, pharmacy, science, chemistry, mathematics, and astrology.As time went on people in the field started to branch out in various directions so thattoday we have separate fields for all of these studies. However, at one time thesestudies were done as a unit called alchemy.Alchemy embraced the idea of searching for the methods of spiritual and physicaltransformation of animals, minerals, plants and people.Recommended Texts for this UnitJunivs, Manfred. “The Practical Handbook of Plant Alchemy: An Herbalist’s Guide toPreparing Medicinal Essences, Tinctures and Elixers.”Burckhart, Titus. “Alchemy: Science of the Cosmos, Science of the Soul.”Ody, Penelope. “The Complete Guide to Medicinal Herbs.”Required Reading for this Unit1. HHC_204_Chapter 1_Intro to Herbs.rtf :Herzog, Joyce. “Herbal Database of Medicinal Herbs.”http://www.egregore.com/misc/herbindx.htmNelson, Lee. “An Herbal Database.”http://www.herb-database.org/M. Grieves. “A Modern Herbal.”http://www.botanical.com/botanical/mgmh/mgmh.htmlMichael Moore’s Clinical Herb Manualshttp://herbsforhealth.about.com/gi/dynamic/offsite.htm?site=http%3A%2F%2Fsunsite.unc.edu%2Flondon%2FSWSBM%2FManualsMM%2FMansMM.html2. HHC_Chapter2_Culpeppers Herbal.rtf :This contains the second half of Culpepper's herbal and all the recipes and instructionsfor using herbs. The information on the individual herbs is contained inIHC 9_5 Culpeppers herbs.doc3. HHC_204_Chapter 3_Alchemy.rtf:Excerpts from Alchemy: Ancient and ModernBy Redgrove, Herbert Stanley, 1887-1943The Treasure of Treasures for Alchemists by ParacelsusA Short Catechism Of AlchemyTract on the Tincture and Oil of Antimony by Roger Bacon

Optional Readings:Redgrove, Herbert Stanley, 1887-1943 . Alchemy: Ancient and Modern4. HHC 204_Chapter 4_Culpeppers Herbal Part Two.rtfThe rest of Culpepper's Herbal - The Materia Medica of Herbs5. HHC 204_Chapter 5_Belief Systems and Herbal Medicine.rtfThe 12 Steps to Natural Healing: Living Closer to Nature and Its Maker by KristieKarima Burns, Mh, ND6. HHC 204_Chapter 6_History of Herbal Healing.rtfThe History of Modern Medicine by Sir WILLIAM OSLER, Bart., M.D., F.R.S.Visual: Ginger the History of an HerbVisual: Herbal Medicine Timeline from the point of view of the Arab WorldHerb’n Home Healing Classes : You are HERE!101 Nutritional Healing201 Herbal Preparations202 Herbal First Aid203 Herbs for Women204 Herbal Healing301 Aromatherapy401 Reflexology501 Iridology502 Advanced Iridology601 Homeopathy Case Taking602 Homeopathic Remedies701 Consultations801 TypologyNOTE: All student work done in this course becomes the property of “Herb’n Home”to use and distribute as they see fit. Credit for work will be given when used and thisusage does not cancel your joint ownership of the material or rights to use it in any wayyou also see fit.

HHC 204: Chapter 1: All About HerbsNote about this ChapterYou are not expected to read these herbals completely but to use them as referencesfor your papers and later, in your practice. I want you to browse the first three andmake sure you know how to use them. I will be asking you some usage questions inthe quiz. I also want you to browse the portions of Michael Moore’s Clinical HerbalManual that I have indicated below. Quiz questions for this unit will be focused onyour understanding of how to USE these manuals and not your memorization of them(you are not even expected to read them all word for word). Herbalists use three mainskills: 1. Knowledge of herbs and practical knowledge gained through usage of them.2. Intuition 3. The ability to say “I remember reading that somewhere...” and beingable to find the information again or being able to reference information aboutunfamiliar herbs and be able to glean useful information from their resources.Herzog, Joyce. “Herbal Database of Medicinal Herbs.”http://www.egregore.com/misc/herbindx.htmNelson, Lee. “An Herbal Database.”http://www.herb-database.org/M. Grieves. “A Modern Herbal.”http://www.botanical.com/botanical/mgmh/mgmh.htmlMichael Moore’s Clinical Herb ManualsHerbal Materia MedicaHerbal – Medical ContraindicationsHerbal Energetics in Clinical PracticeMedical Herbal GlossaryHerbal Repertory for Doctorshttp://www.swsbm.com/ManualsMM/MansMM.htmlThis site lists all of Michael Moore’s clinical herb manuals that he uses in his ownherbal healing course. You may browse through his manuals to find whateverinterests you. You can also use his manuals for research.I am assigning you to browse the following manualsspecifically…Herbal-Medical Contraindications at:http://www.swsbm.com/ManualsMM/HerbMedContra1.txtYou can also access this manual at the site above in Adobe Acrobat format. I wantyou to browse this, not read it completely. I want you to get an idea that there aremany contraindications for herbs and I want you to have browsed this document soyou know where to find this information again when someone comes to you askingfor help with herbs. I will have some questions on this in the quiz.

Medical-Herbal Dictionaryhttp://www.swsbm.com/ManualsMM/MedHerbGloss2.txtI want you to browse through this. I have also included this link on the private studentsite so whenever you need to you can link to it to find meanings of words. You canalso print it out to keep as a reference by your desk. You don’t need to read all of this.I just want you to browse it and see what is there. I will ask you for some specificanswers in the quiz.Additional ResourcesThe following site has a copy of David Hoffman’s famous “Natural HealingHandbook.” Where you can look under specific diseases to find an herbal solution.This is a good example of Western herbalism and NOT Islamic healing. However, itcan provide a reference of some sort.http://www.healthy.net/clinic/therapy/herbal/prevent/alpha/index.aspThe Eclectic Materia Medica, Pharmacology and Therapeuticsby Harvey Wickes Felter, M.D. (1922)http://www.ibiblio.org/herbmed/eclectic/kings/main.htmlNOTE: This is one of several important Eclectic medical publications dating from the1920s that represented the last, articulate, but in the end, futile attempt to stem the tideof Standard Practice Medicine, the antithesis of the model of the rural primary care"vitalist" physician that was the basis for the Eclectic Curriculum.Founded during the 1840s as part of an immense populist anti-medical movement inNorth America, the American School of Medicine ("Eclectics" as they came to beknown) trained physicians in a dozen or so privately funded medical schools,principally located in the midwest. The movement "peaked" in the 1880s and 1890s,and by WWI, states and provinces were adopting curriculum requirements thatfollowed those articulated by the AMA, which effectively forced the Eclectic MedicalSchools to either adopt the new model or fold...the last one closed in Cincinnati in1939The American Materia Medica, Therapeutics and Pharmacognosy by FinleyEllingwood, M.D., 1919.Located at: http://www.ibiblio.org/herbmed/eclectic/ellingwood/main.htmlMateria Medica and Clinical Therapeutics by Fred J. Petersen, M.D. , 1905.Located at: http://www.ibiblio.org/herbmed/eclectic/petersen/main.htmlThe British Pharmaceutical Codex Published by direction of theCouncil of the Pharmaceutical Society of Great Britain, 1911.Located at: http://www.ibiblio.org/herbmed/eclectic/bpc1911/main.htmlAssignment

For your assignment I want you to chose THREE of the herbals above and tell me:How is it organized?From what era is this herbal? Is it eclectic? Islamic? European?Who wrote this herbal?What does this person say about the herb: Cumin?Does this person include any foods such as honey or apples in their herbal?Does this person include instructions on how to make herbal preparations?How would this person cure a disease using thyme?What would this person recommend to cure arthritis?Essay QuestionChoose three herbs and write a paragraph about each using references from at leastfour sources above.

DR. REASON and DR. EXPERIENCE, and took a voyage to visit my mother NATURE,by whose advice, together with the help of DR. DILIGENCE, I at last obtained mydesire; and, being warned by MR. HONESTY, a stranger in our days, to publish it tothe world, I have done it.But you will say, What need I have written on this Subject, seeing so many famousand learned men have written so much of it in the English Tongue, much more than Ihave done?To this I answer, neither GERRARD nor PARKINSON, or any that ever wrote in thelike nature, ever gave one wise reason for what they wrote, and so did nothing else buttrain up young novices in Physic in the School of tradition, and teach them just as aparrot is taught to speak; an Author says so, therefore it is true; and if all that Authorssay be true, why do they contradict one another? But in mine, if you view it with theeye of reason, you shall see a reason for everything that is written, whereby you mayfind the very ground and foundation of Physic; you may know what you do, andwherefore you do it; and this shall call me Father, it being (that I know of) never donein the world before.I have now but two things to write, and then I have done.1. What the profit and benefit of this Work is.2. Instructions in the use of it.The profit and benefit arising from it, or that may occur to a wise man from it aremany; so many that should I sum up all the particulars, my Epistle would be as big asmy Book; I shall quote some few general heads.First. The admirable Harmony of the Creation is herein seen, in the influence ofStars upon Herbs and the Body of Man, how one part of the Creation is subservient toanother, and all for the use of Man, whereby the infinite power and wisdom of God inthe creation appear; and if I do not admire at the simplicity of the Ranters, never trustme; who but viewing the Creation can hold such a sottish opinion, as that it was frometernity, when the mysteries of it are so clear to every eye? but that Scripture shall beverified to them, Rom. i. 20: ``The invisible things of him from the Creation of theWorld are clearly seen, being understood by the things that are made, even hisEternal Power and Godhead; so that they are without excuse.''--And a Poet couldteach them a better lesson:``Because out of thy thoughts God shall not pass,His image stamped is on every grass.''This indeed is true, God has stamped his image on every creature, and therefore theabuse of the creature is a great sin; but how much the more do the wisdom andexcellency of God appear, if we consider the harmony of the harmony of the Creationin the virtue and operation of every Herb!Secondly, Hereby you may know what infinite knowledge Adam had in hisinnocence, that by looking upon a creature, he was able to give it a name according toits nature; and by knowing that, thou mayest know how great thy fall was and behumbled for it even in this respect, because hereby thou art so ignorant.Thirdly, Here is the right way for thee to began at the study of Physic, if thou artminded to begin at the right end, for here thou hast the reason of the whole art. I wrotebefore in certain Astrological lectures, which I read, and printed, intituled,Astrological Judgment of Diseases, what planet caused (as a second cause) everydisease, how it might be found out what planet caused it; here thou hast what planetcures it by Sympathy and Antipathy; and this brings me to my last promise, viz.Instructions for the right use of the book.

And herein let me premise a word or two. The Herbs, Plants, &c. are now in thebook appropriated to their proper planets. Therefore,First, Consider what planet causeth the disease; that thou mayest find it in myaforesaid Judgment of Diseases.Secondly, Consider what part of the body is afflicted by the disease, and whether itlies in the flesh, or blood, or bones, or ventricles.Thirdly, Consider by what planet the afflicted part of the body is governed: that myJudgment of Diseases will inform you also.Fourthly, You may oppose diseases by Herbs of the planet, opposite to the planetthat causes them: as diseases of Jupiter by herbs of Mercury, and the contrary;diseases of the Luminaries by the herbs of Saturn, and the contrary; diseases of Marsby herbs of Venus, and the contrary.Fifthly, There is a way to cure diseases sometimes by Sympathy, and so everyplanet cures his own disease; as the Sun and Moon by their Herbs cure the Eyes,Saturn the Spleen, Jupiter the Liver, Mars the Gall and diseases of choler, and Venusdiseases in the instruments of Generation.NICH. CULPEPERfrommy house inSPITALFIELDSnext door toTHE RED LION5th September1653TO HIS DEAREST CONSORTMrs. Alice CulpeperMY DEAREST,THE works that I have published to the world (though envied by some illiteratephysicians) have merited such just applause, that thou mayest be confident inproceeding to publish anything I leave thee, especially this master-piece: assuring myfriends and countrymen, that they will receive as much benefit by this, as by myDispensatory, and that incomparable piece called Semiotica Uranica enlarged, andEnglish Physician.These are the choicest secrets, which I have had many years locked up in my ownbreast. I gained them by my constant practice, and by them I maintained a continualreputation in the world, and I doubt not but the world will honour thee for divulgingthem; and my fame shall continue and increase thereby, though the period of my Lifeand Studies be at hand, and I must now bid all things under the sun farewell. Farewell,my dear wife and child; farewell, Arts and Sciences, which I so dearly loved;farewell, all worldly glories; adieu, readers,NICHOLAS CULPEPER* * *NICHOLAS CULPEPER, the Author of this Work, was son of Nicholas Culpeper, aClergyman, and grandson of Sir Thomas Culpeper, Bart. He was some time a studentin the university of Cambridge, and soon after was bound apprentice to anApothecary. He employed all his leisure hours in the study of Physic and Astrology,

which he afterwards professed, and set up business in Spital-fields, next door to theRed Lion, (formerly known as the Half-way House between Islington and Stepney, anexact representation of which we have given under our Author's Portrait), where hehad considerable practice, and was much resorted to for his advice, which he gave tothe poor gratis. Astrological Doctors have always been highly respected; and thosecelebrated Physicians of the early times, whom our Author seems to have particularlystudied, Hippocrates, Galen; and Avicen, regarded those as homicides who wereignorant of Astrology. Paracelsus, indeed, went farther; he declared, a Physicianshould be predestinated to the cure of his patient; and the horoscope should beinspected, the plants gathered at the critical moment, &c.Culpeper was a writer and translator of several Works, the most celebrated ofwhich is his Herbal, ``being an astrologo-physical discourse of the common herbs ofthe nation; containing a complete Method or Practice of Physic, whereby a Man maypreserve his Body in Health, or cure himself when sick, with such things only as growin England, they being most fit for English Constitutions.''This celebrated and useful Physician died at his house in Spital-fields, in the year1654. This Book will remain as a lasting monument of his skill and industry.``Culpeper, the man that first ranged the woods andclimbed the mountains in search of medicinaland salutary herbs, undoubtedly meritedthe gratitude of posterity''DR. JOHNSONDirections for making Syrups,Conserves, &c. &c.HAVING in divers places of this Treatise promised you the way of making Syrups,Conserves, Oils, Ointments, &c, of herbs, roots, flowers, &c. whereby you may havethem ready for your use at such times when they cannot be had otherwise; I come nowto perform what I promised, and you shall find me rather better than worse than myword.That this may be done methodically, I shall divide my directions into two grandsections, and each section into several chapters, and then you shall see it look withsuch a countenance as this is.SECTION IOf gathering, drying, and keeping Simples, and their juicesCHAPTER IOf Leaves of Herbs, or Trees1. Of leaves, choose only such as are green, and full of juice; pick them carefully,and cast away such as are any way declining, for they will putrify the rest. So shallone handful be worth ten of those you buy at the physic herb shops.2. Note what places they most delight to grow in, and gather them there; for Betonythat grows in the shade, is far better than that which grows in the Sun, because itdelights in the shade; so also such herbs as delight to grow near the water, shall be

gathered near it, though happily you may find some of them upon dry ground. TheTreatise will inform you where every herb delights to grow.3. The leaves of such herbs as run up to seed, are not so good when they are inflower as before (some few excepted, the leaves of which are seldom or never used).In such cases, if through ignorance they were not known, or through negligenceforgotten, you had better take the top and the flowers, then the leaf.4. Dry them well in the Sun, and not in the shade, as the saying of physicians is; forif the sun draw away the virtues of the herb, it must need do the like by hay, by thesame rule, which the experience of every country farmer will explode for a notablepiece of nonsense.5. Such as are artists in astrology, (and indeed none else are fit to make physicians)such I advise: Let the planet that governs the herb be angular, and the stronger thebetter; if they can, in herbs of Saturn, let Saturn be in the ascendant; in the herbs ofMars, let Mars be in the mid heaven, for in those houses they delight; let the Moonapply to them by good aspect, and let her not be in the houses of her enemies; if youcannot well stay till she apply to them, let her apply to a planet of the same triplicity;if you cannot wait that time neither, let her be with a fixed star of their nature.6. Having well dried them, put them up in brown paper, sewing the paper up like asack, and press them not too hard together, and keep them in a dry place near the fire.7. As for the duration of dried herbs, a just time cannot be given, let authors pratetheir pleasure; for,1st. Such as grow upon dry grounds will keep better than such as grow on moist.2dly. Such herbs as are full of juice, will not keep so long as such as are drier.3dly. Such herbs as are well dried, will keep longer than such as are slack dried.Yet you may know when they are corrupted, by their loss of colour, or smell, or both;and if they be corrupted, reason will tell you that they must needs corrupt the bodiesof those people that take them.4. Gather all leaves in the hour of that planet that governs them.CHAPTER IIOf Flowers1. The flower, which is the beauty of the plant, and of none of the least use inphysick, grows yearly, and is to be gathered when it is in its prime.2. As for the time of gathering them, let the planetary hour, and the planet theycome of, be observed, as we shewed you in the foregoing chapter: as for the time ofthe day, let it be when the sun shine upon them, that so they may be dry; for, if yougather either flowers or herbs when they are wet or dewy, they will not keep.3. Dry them well in the sun, and keep them in papers near the fire, as I shewed youin the foregoing chapter.4. So long as they retain the colour and smell, they are good; either of them beinggone, so is the virtue also.CHAPTER IIIOf Seeds

1. The seed is that part of the plant which is endowed with a vital faculty to bringforth its like, and it contains potentially the whole plant in it.2. As for place, let them be gathered from the place where they delight to grow.3. Let them be full ripe when they are gathered; and forget not the celestialharmony before mentioned, for I have found by experience that their virtues are twiceas great at such times as others: ``There is an appointed time for every thing under thesun.''4. When you have gathered them, dry them a little, and but a little in the sun, beforeyou lay them up.5. You need not be so careful of keeping them so near the fire, as the otherbeforementioned, because they are fuller of spirit, and therefore not so subject tocorrupt.6. As for the time of their duration, it is palpable they will keep a good many years;yet, they are best the first year, and this I make appear by a good argument. They willgrow sooner the first year they be set, therefore then they are in their prime; and it isan easy matter to renew them yearly.CHAPTER IVOf Roots1. Of roots, chuse such as are neither rotten nor worm-eaten, but proper in theirtaste, colour, and smell; such as exceed neither in softness nor hardness.2. Give me leave to be a little critical against the vulgar received opinion, which is,That the sap falls down into the roots in the Autumn, and rises again in the Spring, asmen go to bed at night, and rise in the morning; and this idle talk of untruth is sogrounded in the heads, not only of the vulgar, but also of the learned, that a mancannot drive it out by reason. I pray let such sapmongers answer me this argument: Ifthe sap falls into the roots in the fall of the leaf, and lies there all the Winter, thenmust the root grow only in the Winter. But the root grows not at all in the Winter, asexperience teaches, but only in the Summer. Therefore, if you set an apple-kernel inthe Spring, you shall find the root to grow to a pretty bigness in the Summer, and benot a whit bigger next Spring. What doth the sap do in the root all that while? Pickstraws? 'Tis as rotten as a rotten post.The truth is, when the sun declines from thetropic of Cancer, the sap begins to congeal both in root and branch; when he touchesthe tropic of Capricorn, and ascends to us-ward, it begins to wax thin again, and bydegrees, as it congealed. But to proceed.3. The drier time you gather the roots in, the better they are; for they have the lessexcrementitious moisture in them.4. Such roots as are soft, your best way is to dry in the sun, or else hang them in thechimney corner upon a string; as for such as are hard, you may dry them any where.5. Such roots as are great, will keep longer than such as are small; yet most of themwill keep a year.6. Such roots as are soft, it is your best way to keep them always near the fire, andto take this general rule for it: If in Winter-time you find any of your roots, herbs orflowers begin to be moist, as many times you shall (for it is your best way to look tothem once a month) dry them by a very gentle fire; or, if you can with conveniencekeep them near the fire, you may save yourself the labour.

7. It is in vain to dry roots that may commonly be had, as Parsley, Fennel, Plantain,&c. but gather them only for present need.CHAPTER VOf Barks1. Barks, which physicians use in medicine, are of these sorts: Of fruits, of roots, ofboughs.2. The barks of fruits are to be taken when the fruit is full ripe, as Oranges,Lemons, &c. but because I have nothing to do with exotics here, I pass them withoutany more words.3. The barks of trees are best gathered in the Spring, if of oaks, or such great trees;because then they come easier off, and so you may dry them if you please; but indeedthe best way is to gather all barks only for present use.4. As for the barks of roots, 'tis thus to be gotten. Take the roots of such herbs ashave a pith in them, as parsley, fennel, &c. slit them in the middle, and when you havetaken out the pith (which you may easily do) that which remains is called (tho'improperly) the bark, and indeed is only to be used.CHAPTER VIOf Juices1. Juices are to be pressed out of herbs when they are young and tender, out ofsome stalks and tender tops of herbs and plants, and also out of some flowers.2. Having gathered the herb, would you preserve the juice of it, when it is very dry(for otherwise the juice will not be worth a button) bruise it very well in a stonemortar with a wooden pestle, then having put it into a canvas bag, the herb I mean, notthe mortar, for that will give but little juice, press it hard in a press, then take the juiceand clarify it.3. The manner of clarifying it is this: Put it into a pipkin or skillet, or some suchthing, and set it over the fire; and when the scum rises, take it off; let it stand over thefire till no more scum arise; when you have your juice clarified, cast away the scum asa thing of no use.4. When you have thus clarified it, you have two ways to preserve it all the year.(1) When it is cold, put it into a glass, and put so much oil on it as will cover it tothe thickness of two fingers; the oil will swim at the top, and so keep the air fromcoming to putrify it. When you intend to use it, pour it into a porringer, and if any oilcome out with it, you may easily scum it off with a spoon, and put the juice you usenot into the glass again, it will quickly sink under the oil. This is the first way.(2) The second way is a little more difficult, and the juice of fruits is usuallypreserved this way. When you have clarified it, boil it over the fire, till (being cold) itbe of the thickness of honey. This is most commonly used for diseases of the mouth,and is called Roba and Saba. And thus much for the first section, the second follows.SECTION II

The way of making and keeping all necessary CompoundsCHAPTER IOf distilled WatersHitherto we have spoken of medicines which consist in their own nature, whichauthors vulgarly call Simples, though sometimes improperly; for in truth, nothing issimple but pure elements; all things else are compounded of them. We come now totreat of the artificial medicines, in the form of which (because we must beginsomewhere) we shall place distilled waters; in which consider:1. Waters are distilled of herbs, flowers, fruits, and roots.2. We treat not of strong waters, but of cold, as being to act Galen's part, and notParacelsus's.3. The herbs ought to be distilled when they are in the greatest vigour, and so oughtthe flowers also.4. The vulgar way of distillations which people use, because they know no better, isin a pewter still; and although distilled waters are the weakest of artificial medicines,and good for little but mixtures of other medicines, yet they are weaker by manydegrees, than they would be were they distilled in sand. If I thought it not impossible,to teach you the way of distilling in sand, I would attempt it.5. When you have distilled your water, put it into a glass, covered over with a paperpricked full of holes, so that the excrementitious and fiery vapours may exhale, whichcause that settling in distilled waters called the Mother, which corrupt them, thencover it close, and keep it for your use.6. Stopping distilled waters with a cork, makes them musty, and so does paper, if itbut touch the water: it is best to stop them with a bladder, being first put in water, andbound over the top of the glass.Such cold waters as are distilled in a pewter still (if well kept) will endure a year;such as are distilled in sand, as they are twice as strong, so they endure twice as long.CHAPTER IIOf Syrups1. A syrup is a medicine of a liquid form, composed of infusion, decoction andjuice. And, I. For the more grateful taste. 2. For the better keeping of it: with a certainquantity of honey or sugar, hereafter mentioned, boiled to the thickness of new honey.2. You see at the first view, that this aphorism divides itself into three branches,which deserve severally to be treated of, viz.1. Syrups made by infusion.2. Syrups made by decoction.3. Syrups made by juice.Of each of these, (for your instruction-sake, kind countrymen and women) I speak aword or two apart.1st, Syrups made by infusion, are usually made of flowers, and of such flowers assoon lose their colour and strength by boiling, as roses, violets, peach flowers, &c.They are thus made: Having picked your flowers clean, to every pound of them addthree pounds or three pints, which you will (for it is all one) of spring water, made

oiling hot; first put your flowers into a pewter-pot, with a cover, and pour the wateron them; then shutting the pot, let it stand by the fire, to keep hot twelve hours, andstrain it out: (in such syrups as purge) as damask roses, peach flowers, &c. the usual,and indeed the best way, is to repeat this infusion adding fresh flowers to the sameliquor divers times, that so it may be the stronger) having strained it out, put theinfusion into a pewter bason, or an earthen one well glazed, and to every pint of it addtwo pounds of sugar, which being only melted over the fire, without boiling, andscummed, will produce you the syrup you desire.2dly, Syrups made by decoction are usually made of compounds, yet may anysimple herb be thus converted into syrup: Take the herb, root, or flowers you wouldmake into a syrup, and bruise it a little; then boil it in a convenient quantity of springwater; the more water you boil it in, the weaker it will be; a handful of the herb or rootis a convenient quantity for a pint of water, boil it till half the water be consumed,then let it stand till it be almost cold, and strain it through a woollen cloth, letting itrun out at leisure: without pressing. To every pint of this decoction add one pound ofsugar, and boil it over the fire till it come to a syrup, which you may know, if younow and then cool a little of it with a spoon. Scum it all the while it boils, and when itis sufficiently boiled, whilst it is hot, strain it again through a woollen cloth, but pressit not. Thus you have the syrup perfected.3dly, Syrups made of juice, are usually made of such herbs as are full of juice, andindeed they are better made into a syrup this way than any other; the operation is thus:Having beaten the herb in a stone mortar, with a wooden pestle, press out the juice,and clarify it, as you are taught before in the juices; then let the juice boil away tillabout a quarter of it be consumed; to a pint of this add a pound of sugar, and when itis boiled, strain it through a woollen cloth, as we taught you before, and keep it foryour use.3. If you make a syrup of roots that are any thing hard, as parsley, fennel, and grassroots, &c. when you have bruised them, lay them in steep some time in that waterwhich you intend to boil them in hot, so will the virtue the better come out.4. Keep your syrups either in glasses or stone pots, and stop them not with cork norbladder, unless you would have the glass break, and the syrup lost, only bind paperabout the mouth.5. All syrups, if well made, continue a year with some advantage; yet such as aremade by infusion, keep shortest.CHAPTER IIIOf Juleps1. Juleps were first invented, as I suppose, in Arabia; and my reason is, because theword Julep is an Arabic word.2. It signifies only a pleasant potion, as is vulgarly used by such as are sick, andwant help, or such as are in health, and want no money to quench thirst.3. Now-a-day it is commonly used--1. To prepare the body for purgation.2. To open obstructions and the pores.3. To digest tough humours.4. To qualify hot distempers, &c.

4. Simple Juleps, (for I have nothing to say to compounds here) are thus made:Take a pint of such distilled water, as conduces to the cure of your distemper, whichthis treatise will plentifully furnish you with, to which add two ounces of syrup,conducing to the same effect; (I shall give you rules for it in the next chapter) mixthem together, and drink a draught of it at your pleasure. If you love tart things, addten drops of oil of vitriol to your pint, and shake it together, and it will have a finegrateful taste.5. All juleps are made for present use; and therefore it is vain to speak of theirduration.CHAPTER IVOf Decoctions1. All the difference between decoctions, and syrups made by decoction, is this:Syrups are made to keep, decoctions only for present use; for you can hardly keep adecoction a week at any time; if the weather be hot, not half so long.2. Decoctions are made of leaves, roots, flowers, seeds, fruits or barks, conducingto the cure of the disease you make them for; are made in the same manner as weshewed you in syrups.3. Decoctions made with wine last longer than such as are made with water; and ifyou take your decoction to cleanse the passages of the urine, or open obstructions,your best way is to make it with white wine instead of water, because this ispenetrating.4. Decoctions are of most use in such diseases as lie in the passages of the body, asthe stomach, bowels, kidneys, passages of urine and bladder, because decoctions passquicker to those places than any other form of medicines.5. If you will sweeten your decoction with sugar, or any syrup fit for the occasionyou take it for, which is better, you may, and no harm.6. If in a decoction, you boil both roots, herbs, flowers, and seed together, let theroots boil a good while first, because they retain their virtue longest; then the next inorder by the same rule, viz. 1. Barks. 2. The herbs. 3. The seeds. 4. The flowers. 5.The spices, if you put any in, because their virtues come soonest out.7. Such things as by boiling cause sliminess to a decoction, as figs, quince-seed,linseed, &c. your best way is, after you have bruised them, to tie them up in a linenrag, as you tie up calf's brains, and so boil them.8. Keep all decoctions in a glass close stopped, and in the cooler place you keepthem, the longer they will last ere they be sour.Lastly, the usual dose to be given at one time, is usually two, three, four, or fiveounces, according to the age and strength of the patient, the season of the year, thestrength of the medicine, and the quality of the disease.CHAPTER VOf Oils

1. Oil Olive, which is commonly known by the name of Sallad Oil, I supposebecause it is usually eaten with sallads by them that love it, if it be pressed out of ripeolives, according to Galen, is temperate, and exceeds in no one quality.2. Of oils, some are simple, and some are compound.3. Simple oils, are such as are made of fruits or seeds by expression, as oil of sweetand bitter almonds, linseed and rape-seed oil, &c. of which see in my Dispensatory.4. Compound oils, are made of oil of olives, and other simples, imagine herbs,flowers, roots, &c.5. The way of making them is this: Having bruised the herbs of flowers you wouldmake your oil of, put them into an earthen pot, and to two or three handfuls of thempour a pint of oil, cover the pot with a paper, set it in the sun about a fortnight or so,according as the sun is in hotness; then having warmed it very well by the fire, pressout the herb, &c. very hard in a press, and add as many more herbs to the same oil;bruise the herbs (I mean not the oil) in like manner, set them in the sun as before; theoftener you repeat this, the stronger your oil will be. At last when you conceive itstrong enough, boil both herbs and oil together, till the juice be consumed, which youmay know by its bubbling, and the herbs will be crisp; then strain it while it is hot,and keep it in a stone or glass vessel for your use.6. As for chymical oils, I have nothing to say here.7. The general use of these oils, is for pains in the limbs, roughness of the skin, theitch, &c. as also for ointments and plaisters.8. If you have occasion to use it for wounds, or ulcers, in two ounces of oil,dissolve half an ounce of turpentine, the heat of the fire will quickly do it; for oil itselfis offensive to wounds, and the turpentine qualifies it.CHAPTER VIOf ElectuariesPhysicians make more a quoil than needs by half, about electuaries. I shall prescribebut one general way of making them up; as for ingredients, you may vary them as youplease, and as you find occasion, by the last chapter.1. That you may make electuaries when you need them, it is requisite that you keepalways herbs, roots, flowers, seeds, &c. ready dried in your house, that so you may bein a readiness to beat them into powder when you need them.2. It is better to keep them whole than beaten; for being beaten, they are moresubject to lose their strength; because the air soon penetrates them.3. If they be not dry enough to beat into powder when you need them, dry them bya gentle fire till they are so.4. Having beaten them, sift them through a fine tiffany searce, that no great piecesmay be found in your electuary.5. To one ounce of your powder add three ounces of clarified honey; this quantity Ihold to be sufficient. If you would make more or less electuary, vary your proportionaccordingly.6. Mix them well together in a mortar, and take this for a truth, you cannot mixthem too much.7. The way to clarify honey, is to set it over the fire in a convenient vessel, till thescum rise, and when the scum is taken off, it is clarified.

8. The usual dose of cordial electuaries, is from half a dram to two drams; ofpurging electuaries, from half an ounce to an ounce.9. The manner of keeping them is in a pot.10. The time of taking them, is either in a morning fasting, and fasting an hour afterthem; or at night going to bed, three or four hours after supper.CHAPTER VIIOf Conserves1. The way of making conserves is twofold, one of herbs and flowers, and the otherof fruits.2. Conserves of herbs and flowers, are thus made: if you make your conserves ofherbs, as of scurvy-grass, wormwood, rue, and the like, take only the leaves andtender tops (for you may beat your heart out before you can beat the stalks small) andhaving beaten them, weigh them, and to every pound of them add three pounds ofsugar, you cannot beat them too much.3. Conserves of fruits, as of barberries, sloes and the like, is thus made: First, Scaldthe fruit, then rub the pulp through a thick hair sieve made for the purpose, called apulping sieve; you may do it for a need with the back of a spoon: then take this pulpthus drawn, and add to it its weight of sugar, and no more; put it into a pewter vessel,and over a charcoal fire; stir it up and down till the sugar be melted, and yourconserve is made.4. Thus you have the way of making conserves; the way of keeping them is inearthen pots.5. The dose is usually the quantity of a nutmeg at a time morning and evening, or(unless they are purging) when you please.6. Of conserves, some keep many years, as conserves of roses: other but a year, asconserves of Borage, Bugloss, Cowslips and the like.7. Have a care of the working of some conserves presently after they are made;look to them once a day, and stir them about, conserves of Borage, Bugloss,Wormwood, have got an excellent faculty at that sport.8. You may know when your conserves are almost spoiled by this; you shall find ahard crust at top with little holes in it, as though worms had been eating thereCHAPTER VIIIOf PreservesOf Preserves are sundry sorts, and the operation of all being somewhat different, wewill handle them all apart. These are preserved with sugar :1. Flowers2. Fruits3. Roots4. Barks1. Flowers are very seldom preserved; I never saw any that I remember, save onlycowslip flowers, and that was a great fashion in Sussex when I was a boy. It is thusdone: Take a flat glass, we call them jat glasses; strew on a laying of fine sugar, on

that a laying of flowers, and on that another laying of sugar, on that another laying offlowers, so do till your glass be full; then tie it over with a paper, and in a little time,you shall have very excellent and pleasant preserves.There is another way of preserving flowers; namely, with vinegar and salt, as theypickle capers and broom-buds; but as I have little skill in it myself, I cannot teach you.2. Fruits, as quinces, and the like, are preserved two ways:(1) Boil them well in water, and then pulp them through a sieve, as we shewed youbefore; then with the like quantity of sugar, boil the water they were boiled in into asyrup, viz. a pound of sugar to a pint of liquor; to every pound of this syrup, add fourounces of the pulp; then boil it with a very gentle fire to their right consistence, whichyou may easily know if you drop a drop of it upon a trencher; if it be enough, it willnot stick to your fingers when it is cold.(2) Another way to preserve fruits is this: First, pare off the rind; then cut them inhalves, and take out the core: then boil them in water till they are soft; if you knowwhen beef is boiled enough, you may easily know when they are. Then boil the waterwith its like weight of sugar into a syrup; put the syrup into a pot, and put the boiledfruit as whole as you left it when you cut it into it, and let it remain until you haveoccasion to use it.3. Roots are thus preserved. First, scrape them very clean, and cleanse them fromthe pith, if they have any, for some roots have not, as Eringo and the like. Boil them inwater till they be soft, as we shewed you before in the fruits; then boil the water youboiled the root in into a syrup, as we shewed you before; then keep the root whole inthe syrup till you use them.4. As for barks, we have but few come to our hands to be done, and of those thefew that I can remember, are, oranges, lemons, citrons, and the outer bark of walnuts,which grow without side the shell, for the shells themselves would make but scurvypreserves; these be they I can remember, if there be any more put them into thenumber.The way of preserving these, is not all one in authors, for some are bitter, some arehot; such as are bitter, say authors, must be soaked in warm water, oftentimeschanging till their bitter taste be fled. But I like not this way and my reason is this:because I doubt when their bitterness is gone, so is their virtue also. I shall thenprescribe one common way, namely, the same with the former, viz.: First, boil themwhole till they be soft, then make a syrup with sugar and the liquor you boil them in,and keep the barks in the syrup.5. They are kept in glasses or in glazed pots.6. The preserved flowers will keep a year, if you can forbear eating of them; theroots and barks much longer.7. This art was plainly and first invented for delicacy, yet came afterwards to be ofexcellent use in physic; For,(1) Hereby medicines are made pleasant for sick and squeamish stomachs, whichelse would loathe them.(2) Hereby they are preserved from decaying a long time.CHAPTER IXOf Lohocks

1. That which the Arabians call Lohocks, and the Greeks Eclegma, the Latins callLinctus, and in plain English signifies nothing else but a thing to be licked up.2. They are in body thicker than a syrup, and not so thick as an electuary.3. The manner of taking them is, often to take a little with a liquorice stick, and letit go down at leisure.4. They are easily thus made; Make a decoction of pectoral herbs, and the treatisewill furnish you with enough, and when you have strained it, with twice its weight ofhoney or sugar, boil it to a lohock; if you are molested with much phlegm, honey isbetter than sugar; and if you add a little vinegar to it, you will do well; if not, I holdsugar to be better than honey.5. It is kept in pots, and may be kept a year and longer.6. It is excellent for roughness of the wind-pipe, inflammations and ulcers of thelungs, difficulty of breathing, asthmas, coughs, and distillation of humoursCHAPTER XOf Ointments1. Various are the ways of making ointments, which authors have left to posterity,which I shall omit, and quote one which is easiest to be made, and therefore mostbeneficial to people that are ignorant in physic, for whose sake I write this. It is thusdone.Bruise those herbs, flowers, or roots, you will make an ointment of, and to twohandfuls of your bruised herbs add a pound of hog's grease dried, or cleansed from theskins, beat them very well together in a stone mortar with a wooden pestle, then put itinto a stone pot, (the herb and grease I mean, not the mortar,) cover it with a paperand set it either in the sun, or some other warm place; three, four, or five days, that itmay melt; then take it out and boil it a little; then whilst it is hot, strain it out, pressingit out very hard in a press: to this grease add as many more herbs bruised as before;letthem stand in like manner as long, then boil them as you did the former. If you thinkyour ointment is not strong enough, you may do it the third and fourth time; yet this Iwill tell you, the fuller of juice the herbs are, the sooner will your ointment be strong;the last time you boil it, boil it so long till your herbs be crisp, and the juiceconsumed, then strain it pressing it hard in a press, and to every pound of ointmentadd two ounces of turpentine, and as much wax, because grease is offensive towounds, as well as oil.2. Ointments are vulgarly known to be kept in pots, and will last above a year,some above two years.CHAPTER XIOf Plaisters1. The Greeks made their plaisters of divers simples, and put metals into the mostof them, if not all; for having reduced their metals into powder, they mixed them withthat fatty substance whereof the rest of the plaister consisted, whilst it was thus hot,continually stirring it up and down, lest it should sink to the bottom; so they

continually stirred it till it was stiff; then they made it up in rolls, which when theyneeded for use, they could melt by the fire again.2. The Arabians made up theirs with oil and fat, which needed not so long boiling.3. The Greeks emplaisters consisted of these ingredients, metals, stones, diverssorts of earth, feces, juices, liquors, seeds, roots, herbs, excrements of creatures, wax,rosin, gums.CHAPTER XIIOf Poultices1. Poultices are those kind of things which the Latins call Cataplasmata, and ourlearned fellows, that if they can read English, that's all, call them Cataplasms, because'tis a crabbed word few understand; it is indeed a very fine kind of medicine to ripensores.2. They are made of herbs and roots, fitted for the disease, and members afflicted,being chopped small, and boiled in water almost to a jelly; then by adding a littlebarleymeal, or meal of lupins, and a little oil, or rough sweet suet, which I hold to bebetter, spread upon a cloth and apply to the grieved places.3. Their use is to ease pain, to break sores, to cool inflammations, to dissolvehardness, to ease the spleen, to concoct humours, and dissipate swellings.4. I beseech you take this caution along with you: Use no poultices (if you can helpit) that are of an healing nature, before you have first cleansed the body, because theyare subject to draw the humours to them from every part of the body.CHAPTER XIIIOf Troches1. The Latins call them Placentula, or little cakes, and the Greeks Prochikois,Kukliscoi, and Artiscoi; they are usually little round flat cakes, or you may make themsquare if you will.2. Their first invention was, that powders being so kept might resist theintermission of air, and so endure pure the longer.3. Besides, they are easier carried in the pockets of such as travel; as many a man(for example) is forced to travel whose stomach is too cold, or at least not so hot as itshould be, which is most proper, for the stomach is never cold till a man be dead; insuch a case, it is better to carry troches of wormwood, or galangal, in a paper in hispocket, than to lay a gallipot along with him.4. They are made thus: At night when you go to bed, take two drams of fine gumtragacanth; put it into a gallipot, and put half a quarter of a pint of any distilled waterfitting for the purpose you would make your troches for to cover it, and the nextmorning you shall find it in such a jelly as the physicians call mucilage. With this youmay (with a little pains taken) make a powder into a paste, and that paste into cakescalled troches.5. Having made them, dry them in the shade, and keep them in a pot for your use.

CHAPTER XIVOf Pills1. They are called ‏,وPilul because they resemble little balls; the Greeks call themCatapotia.2. It is the opinion of modern physicians, that this way of making medicines, wasinvented only to deceive the palate, that so by swallowing them down whole, thebitterness of the medicine might not be perceived, or at least it might not beunsufferable: and indeed most of their pills, though not all, are very bitter.3. I am of a clean contrary opinion to this. I rather think they were done up in thishard form, that so they might be the longer in digesting; and my opinion is groundedupon reason too, not upon fancy, or hearsay. The first invention of pills was to purgethe head, now, as I told you before, such infirmities as lie near the passages were bestremoved by decoctions, because they pass to the grieved part soonest; so here, if theinfirmity lies in the head, or any other remote part, the best way is to use pills,because they are longer in digestion, and therefore the better able to call the offendinghumour to them.4. If I should tell you here a long tale of medicine working by sympathy andantipathy, you would not understand a word of it. They that are set to make physiciansmay find it in the treatise. All modern physicians know not what belongs to asympathetical cure, no more than a cuckow what belongs to flats and sharps in music,but follow the vulgar road, and call it a hidden quality, because 'tis hidden from theeyes of dunces, and indeed none but astrologers can give a reason for it; and physicwithout reason is like a pudding without fat.5. The way to make pills is very easy, for with the help of a pestle and mortar, and alittle diligence, you may make any powder into pills, either with syrup, or the jelly Itold you before.CHAPTER XVThe way of mixing Medicines according to the Cause oftheDisease, and Parts of the Body afflictedThis being indeed the key of the work, I shall be somewhat the more diligent in it. Ishall deliver myself thus;1. To the Vulgar.2. To such as study Astrology; or such as study physic astrologically.1st, To the Vulgar. Kind souls, I am sorry it hath been your hard mishap to havebeen so long trained in such Egyptian darkness which to your sorrow may be felt. Thevulgar road of physic is not my practice, and I am therefore the more unfit to give youadvice. I have now published a little book, (Galen's Art of Physic,) which will fullyinstruct you, not only in the knowledge of your own bodies, but also in fit medicinesto remedy each part of it when afflicted; in the mean season take these few rules tostay your stomachs.1. With the disease, regard the cause, and the part of the body afflicted; forexample, suppose a woman be subject to miscarry, through wind, thus do;

(1) Look Abortion in the table of diseases, and you shall be directed by that, howmany herbs prevent miscarriage.(2) Look Wind in the same table, and you shall see how many of these herbs expelwind.These are the herbs medicinal for your grief.2. In all diseases strengthen the part of the body afflicted.3. In mixed diseases there lies some difficulty, for sometimes two parts of the bodyare afflicted with contrary humours, as sometimes the liver is afflicted with choler andwater, as when a man hath both the dropsy and the yellow-jaundice; and this isusually mortal.In the former, suppose the brain be too cool and moist, and the liver be too hot anddry; thus do;1. Keep your head outwardly warm.2. Accustom yourself to the smell of hot herbs.3. Take a pill that heats the head at night going to bed.4. In the morning take a decoction that cools the liver, for that quickly passes thestomach, and is at the liver immediately.You must not think, courteous people, that I can spend time to give you examplesof all diseases. These are enough to let you see so much light as you without art areable to receive. If I should set you to look at the sun, I should dazzle your eyes, andmake you blind.2dly, To such as study Astrology, who are the only men I know that are fit to studyphysic, physic without astrology being like a lamp without oil: you are the men Iexceedingly respect, and such documents as my brain can give you at present (beingabsent from my study) I shall give you.1. Fortify the body with herbs of the nature of the Lord of the Ascendant, 'tis nomatter whether he be a Fortune or Infortune in this case.2. Let your medicine be something antipathetical to the Lord of the sixth.3. Let your medicine be something of the nature of the sign ascending.4. If the Lord of the Tenth be strong, make use of his medicines.5. If this cannot well be, make use of the medicines of the Light of Time.6. Be sure always to fortify the grieved part of the body by sympathetical remedies.7. Regard the heart, keep that upon the wheels, because the Sun is the foundation oflife, and therefore those universal remedies, Aurum Potabile, and the Philosopher'sStone, cure all diseases by fortifying the heart.The English Physician andFamily DispensatoryAN ASTROLOGO-PHYSICAL DISCOURSE OF THEHUMAN VIRTUES IN THE BODY OF MAN; BOTHPRINCIPAL AND ADMINISTERINGHUMAN virtues are either principal for procreation, and conservation: or administering, forAttraction, Digestion, Retention, or Expulsion.Virtues conservative, are Vital, Natural, and Animal.By the natural are bred Blood, Choler, Flegm, and Melancholy.The animal virtue is Intellective, and Sensitive.The Intellective is Imagination, Judgment, and Memory.

The sensitive is Common, and Particular.The particular is Seeing, Hearing, Smelling, Tasting, and Feeling.The scope of this discourse is, to preserve in soundness and vigour, the mind andunderstanding of man; to strengthen the brain, preserve the body in health, to teach aman to be an able co-artificer, or helper of nature, to withstand and expel Diseases.I shall touch only the principal faculties both of body and mind; which being keptin a due decorum, preserve the body in health, and the mind in vigour.I shall in this place speak of them only in the general, as they are laid down to yourview in the Synopsis, in the former pages, and in the same order.Virtue Procreative : The first in order, is the Virtue Procreative: for natural regardsnot only the conservation of itself, but to beget its like, and conserve in Species.The seat of this is the Member of Generation, and is governed principally by theinfluence of Venus.It is augmented and encreased by the strength of Venus, by her Herbs, Roots, Trees,Minerals, &c.It is diminished and purged by those of Mars, and quite extinguished by those ofSaturn.Observe the hour and Medicines of Venus, to fortify; of Mars, to cleanse this virtue;of Saturn, to extinguish it.Conservative : The conservative virtue is Vital, Natural, Animal.Vital : The Vital spirit hath its residence in the heart, and is dispersed from it by theArteries; and is governed by the influence of the Sun. And it is to the body, as the Sunis to the Creation; as the heart is in the Microcosm, so is the Sun in the Megacosm: foras the Sun gives life, light, and motion to the Creation, so doth the heart to the body;therefore it is called Sol Corporis, as the Sun is called Cor Cœli, because theiroperations are similar.Inimical and destructive to this virtue, are Saturn and Mars.The Herbs and Plants of Sol, wonderfully fortify it.Natural : The natural faculty or virtue resides in the liver, and is generallygoverned by Jupiter, Quasi Juvans Pater; its office is to nourish the body, and isdispersed through the body by the veins.From this are bred four particular humours, Blood, Choler, Flegm, and Melancholy.Blood is made of meat perfectly concocted, in quality hot and moist, governed byJupiter. It is by a third concoction transmuted into flesh, the superfluity of it into seed,and its receptacle is the veins, by which it is dispersed through the body.Choler is made of meat more than perfectly concocted; and it is the spume or frothof blood: it clarifies all the humours, heats the body, nourishes the apprehension, asblood doth the judgment. It is in quality hot and dry; fortifies the attractive faculty, asblood doth the digestive; moves man to activity and valour: its receptacle is the gall,and it is under the influence of Mars.Flegm is made of meat not perfectly digested; it fortifies the virtue expulsive,makes the body slippery, fit for ejection; it fortifies the brain by its consimilitude withit; yet it spoils apprehension by its antipathy to it. It qualifies choler, cools andmoistens the heart, thereby sustaining it, and the whole body, from the fiery effects,which continual motion would produce. Its receptacle is the lungs, and is governed byVenus, some say by the Moon, perhaps it may be governed by them both, it is coldand moist in quality.Melancholy is the sediment of blood, cold and dry in quality, fortifying theretentive faculty, and memory; makes men sober, solid, and staid, fit for study; stays

the unbridled toys of lustful blood, stays the wandering thoughts, and reduces themhome to the centre: its receptacle is in the spleen, and it is governed by Saturn.Of all these humours blood is the chief, all the rest are superfluities of blood; yetare they necessary superfluities, for without any of them, man cannot live.Namely; Choler is the fiery superfluities, Flegm, the Watery; Melancholy, theEarthly.Animal : The third principal virtue remains, which is Animal; its residence is in thebrain, and Mercury is the general significator of it. Ptolomy held the Moon signifiedthe Animal virtue; and I am of opinion, both Mercury and the Moon dispose it; andmy reason is, 1, Because both of them in nativities, either fortify, or impedite it. 2, Illdirections to either, or from either afflict it, as good ones help it. Indeed the Moonrules the bulk of it, as also the sensitive part of it: Mercury the rational part: and that'sthe reason, if in a nativity the Moon be stronger than Mercury, sense many times overpowersreason; but if Mercury be strong, and the Moon weak, reason will be masterordinarily in despite of sense.It is divided into Intellective, and Sensitive.1. Intellective : The Intellectual resides in the brain, within the Pia mater, isgoverned generally by Mercury.It is divided into Imagination, Judgment, and Memory.Imagination is seated in the forepart of the brain; it is hot and dry in quality, quick,active, always working; it receives vapours from the heart, and coins them intothoughts: it never sleeps, but always is working, both when the man is sleeping andwaking; only when Judgment is awake it regulates the Imagination, which runs atrandom when Judgment is asleep, and forms any thought according to the nature ofthe vapour sent up to it. Mercury is out of question the disposer of it.A man may easily perceive his Judgment asleep before himself many times, andthen he shall perceive his thoughts run at random.Judgment always sleeps when men do, Imagination never sleeps; Memorysometimes sleeps when men sleep, and sometimes it doth not: so then when memoryis awake, and the man asleep, then memory remembers what apprehension coins, andthat is a dream. The thoughts would have been the same, if memory had not beenawake to remember it.These thoughts are commonly (I mean in sleep, when they are purely natural,)framed according to the nature of the humour, called complexion, which ispredominate in the body; and if the humour be peccant it is always so.So that it is one of the surest rules to know a man's own complexion, by his dreams,I mean a man void of distractions, or deep studies: (this most assuredly shewsMercury to dispose of the Imagination, as also because it is mutable, applying itself toany object, as Mercury's nature is to do;) for then the imagination will follow its oldbent; for if a man be bent upon a business, his apprehension will work as much whenhe is asleep, and find out as many truths by study, as when the man is awake; andperhaps more too, because then it is not hindered by ocular objects.And thus much for imagination, which is governed by Mercury, and fortified by hisinfluence; and is also strong or weak in man, according as Mercury is strong or weakin the nativity.Judgment is seated in the midst of the brain, to shew that it ought to bear rule overall the other faculties: it is the judge of the little world, to approve of what is good,and reject what is bad; it is the seat of reason, and the guide of actions; so that allfailings are committed through its infirmity, it not rightly judging between a real andan apparent good. It is hot and moist in quality, and under the influence of Jupiter.

Memory is seated in the hinder cell of the brain, it is the great register to the littleworld; and its office is to record things either done and past, or to be done.It is in quality cold and dry, melancholic, and therefore generally melancholic menhave best memories, and most tenacious every way. It is under the dominion ofSaturn, and is fortified by his influence, but purged by the luminaries.2. Sensitive : The second part of the animal virtue, is sensitive, and it is divided intotwo parts, common and particular.Common sense is an imaginary term, and that which gives virtue to all theparticular senses, and knits and unites them together within the Pia Mater. It isregulated by Mercury, (perhaps this is one reason why men are so fickle-headed) andits office is to preserve a harmony among the senses.Particular senses are five, viz. seeing, hearing, smelling, tasting, and feeling.These senses are united in one, in the brain, by the common sense, but areoperatively distinguished into their several seats, and places of residence.The sight resides in the eyes, and particularly in the christaline humour. It is inquality cold and moist, and governed by the luminaries. They who have them weak intheir genesis, have always weak sights; if one of them be so, the weakness possessesbut one eye.The hearing resides in the ears; is in quality, cold and dry, melancholy, and underthe dominion of Saturn.The smelling resides in the nose, is in quality hot and dry, choleric, and that is thereason choleric creatures have so good smells, as dogs. It is under the influence ofMars.The taste resides in the palate, which is placed at the root of the tongue on purposeto discern what food is congruous for the stomach, and what not; as the meseraikveins are placed to discern what nourishment is proper for the liver to convert intoblood. In some very few men, and but a few, and in those few, but in few instancesthese two tasters agree not, and that is the reason some men covet meats that makethem sick, viz. the taste craves them, and the meseraik veins reject them. In quality hotand moist, and is ruled by Jupiter.The feeling is deputed to no particular organ, but is spread abroad, over the wholebody; is of all qualities, hot, cold, dry, and moist, and is the index of all tangiblethings; for if it were only hot alone, it could not feel a quality contrary, viz. cold, andthis might be spoken of other qualities. It is under the dominion of Venus, some say,Mercury. A thousand to one, but it is under Mercury.The four administering virtues are, attractive, digestive, retentive, and expulsive.The attractive virtue is hot and dry, hot by quality, active, or principal, and thatappears because the fountain of all heat is attractive, viz. the sun. Dry by a qualitypassive, or an effect of its heat; its office is to remain in the body, and call for whatnature wants.It is under the influence of the Sun, say authors, and not under Mars, because he isof a corrupting nature, yet if we cast an impartial eye upon experience, we shall find,that martial men call for meat none of the least, and for drink the most of all othermen, although many times they corrupt the body by it, and therefore I see no reasonwhy Mars being of the same quality with the Sun, should not have a share in thedominion. It is in vain to object, that the influence of Mars is evil, and therefore heshould have no dominion over this virtue; for then,1. By the same rule, he should have no dominion at all in the body of man.2. All the virtues in man are naturally evil, and corrupted by Adam's fall.

This attractive virtue ought to be fortified when the Moon is in fiery signs, viz.Aries and Sagitary, but not in Leo, for the sign is so violent, that no physic ought to begiven when the Moon is there: (and why not Leo, seeing that is the most attractivesign of all; and that's the reason such as have it ascending in their genesis, are suchgreedy eaters.) If you cannot stay till the Moon be in one of them, let one of themascend when you administer the medicine.The digestive virtue is hot and moist, and is the principal of them all, the other likehandmaids attend it.The attractive virtue draws that which it should digest, and serves continually tofeed and supply it.The retentive virtue, retains the substance with it, till it be perfectly digested.The expulsive virtue casteth out, expels what is superfluous by digestion. It is underthe influence of Jupiter, and fortified by his herbs and plants, &c. In fortifying it, letyour Moon be in Gemini, Aquary, or the first half of Libra, or if matters be come tothat extremity, that you cannot stay till that time, let one of them ascend, but both ofthem together would do better, always provided that the Moon be not in the ascendent.I cannot believe the Moon afflicts the ascendent so much as they talk of, if she be welldignified, and in a sign she delights in.The retentive virtue is in quality cold and dry; cold, because the nature of cold is tocompress, witness the ice; dry, because the nature of dryness, is to keep and hold whatis compressed. It is under the influence of Saturn, and that is the reason why usuallySaturnine men are so covetous and tenacious. In fortifying of it, make use of the herbsand plants, &c. of Saturn, and let the Moon be in Taurus or Virgo, Capricorn is not sogood, say authors, (I can give no reason for that neither;) let not Saturn nor his illaspect molest the ascendent.The expulsive faculty is cold and moist; cold because that compasses the superfluities;moist, because that makes the body slippery and fit for ejection, and disposes it to it.It is under the dominion of Luna, with whom you may join Yerus, because she is ofthe same nature.Also in whatsoever is before written, of the nature of the planets, take notice, thatfixed stars of the same nature, work the same effect.In fortifying this, (which ought to be done in all purgations,) let the Moon be inCancer, Scorpio, or Pisces, or let one of these signs ascend.Although I did what I could throughout the whole book to express myself in such alanguage as might be understood by all, and therefore avoided terms of art as muchas might be, Yet, 1. Some words of necessity fall in which need explanation. 2. Itwould be very tedious at the end of every receipt to repeat over and over again, theway of administration of the receipt, or ordering your bodies after it, or to instructyou in the mixture of medicines, and indeed would do nothing else but stuff the bookfull of tautology.To answer to both these is my task at this time.To the first: The words which need explaining, such as are obvious to my eye, arethese that follow.1. To distil in Balno ‏,وMari is the usual way of distilling in water. It is no more thanto place your glass body which holds the matter to be distilled in a convenient vesselof water, when the water is cold (for fear of breaking) put a wisp of straw, or the likeunder it, to keep it from the bottom, then make the water boil, that so the spirit may bedistilled forth; take not the glass out till the water be cold again, for fear of breaking.It is impossible for a man to learn how to do it, unless he saw it done.

2. Manica Hippocrates. Hippocrates's sleeve, is a piece of woolen cloth, new andwhite, sewed together in form of a sugar-loaf. Its use is, to strain any syrup ordecoction through, by pouring it into it, and suffering it to run through withoutpressing or crushing it.3. Calcination, is a burning of a thing in a crucible or other such convenient vesselthat will endure the fire. A crucible is such a thing as goldsmiths melt silver in, andfounders metals; you may place it in the midst of the fire, with coals above, below,and on every side of it.4. Filtration, is straining of a liquid body through a brown paper: make up thepaper in form of a funnel, the which having placed in a funnel, and the funnel and thepaper in it in an empty glass, pour in the liquor you would filter, and let it run throughat its leisure.5. Coagulation, is curdling or hardening: it is used in physic for reducing a liquidbody to hardness by the heat of the fire.6. Whereas you find vital, natural, and animal spirits often mentioned in the virtuesor receipts, I shall explain what they be, and what their operation is in the body ofman.The actions or operations of the animal virtues, are, 1. sensitive, 2. motive.The sensitive is, 1. external, 2. internal.The external senses are, 1. seeing, 2. hearing, 3. tasting, 4. smelling, 5. feeling.The internal senses are, 1. the Imagination, to apprehend a thing. 2. Judgment, tojudge of it. 3. Memory, to remember it.The seat of all these is in the brain.The vital spirits proceed from the heart, and cause in man mirth, joy, hope, trust,humanity, mildness, courage, &c. and their opposite: viz. sadness, fear, care, sorrow,despair, envy, hatred, stubbornness, revenge, &c. by heat natural or not natural.The natural spirit nourishes the body throughout (as the vital quickens it, and theanimal gives it sense and motion) its office is to alter or concoct food into chile, chileinto blood, blood into flesh, to form, engender, nourish, and increase the body.7. Infusion, is to steep a gross body into one more liquid.8. Decoction, is the liquor in which any thing is boiled.As for the manner of using or ordering the body after any sweating, or purgingmedicines, or pills, or the like, they will be found in different parts of the work, asalso in page 307.The different forms of making up medicines, as some into syrups, others intoelectuaries, pills, troches, &c. was partly to please the different palates of people, thatso medicines might be more delightful, or at least less burdensome. You may makethe mixtures of them in what form you please, only for your better instruction atpresent accept of these few lines.1. Consider, that all diseases are cured by their contraries, but all parts of the bodymaintained by their likes: then if heat be the cause of the disease, give the coldmedicine appropriated to it; if wind, see how many medicines appropriated to thatdisease expel wind, and use them.2. Have a care you use not such medicines to one part of your body which areappropriated to another, for if your brain be over heated, and you use such medicinesas cool the heart or liver you may make bad work.3. The distilled water of any herb you would take for a disease, is a fit mixture forthe syrup of the same herb, or to make any electuary into a drink, if you affect suchliquid medicines best; if you have not the distilled water, make use of the decoction.

4. Diseases that lie in the parts of the body remote from the stomach and bowels, itis in vain to think to carry away the cause at once, and therefore you had best do it bydegrees; pills, and such like medicines which are hard in the body, are fittest for sucha business, because they are longest before they digest.5. Use no strong medicines, if weak will serve the turn, you had better take one tooweak by half, than too strong in the least.6. Consider the natural temper of the part of the body afflicted, and maintain it inthat, else you extinguish nature, as the heart is hot, the brain cold, or at least thecoldest part of the body.7. Observe this general rule: That such medicines as are hot in the first degree aremost habitual to our bodies, because they are just of the heat of our blood.8. All opening medicines, and such as provoke urine or the menses, or break thestone, may most conveniently be given in white wine, because white wine of itself isof an opening nature, and cleanses the reins.9. Let all such medicines as are taken to stop fluxes or looseness, be taken beforemeat, about an hour before, more or less, that so they may strengthen the digestionand retentive faculty, before the food come into the stomach, but such as are subjectto vomit up their meat, let them take such medicines as stay vomiting presently aftermeat, at the conclusion of their meals, that so they may close up the mouth of thestomach; and that is the reason why usually men eat a bit of cheese after meat,because by its sourness and binding it closes the mouth of the stomach, therebystaying belching and vomiting.10. In taking purges be very careful, and that you may be so, observe these rules.(1) Consider what the humour offending is, and let the medicine be such as purgesthat humour, else you will weaken nature, not the disease.(2) Take notice, if the humour you would purge out be thin, then gentle medicineswill serve the turn, but if it be tough and viscous, then such medicines as are cuttingand opening, the night before you would take the purge.(3) In purging tough humours, forbear as much as may be such medicines as leave abinding quality behind them.(4) Have a care of taking purges when your body is astringent; your best way, isfirst to open it by a clyster.(5) In taking opening medicines, you may safely take them at night, eating but alittle supper three or four hours before, and the next morning drinking a draught ofwarm posset-drink, and you need not fear to go about your business. In this manneryou may take Lenitive Electuary, Diacatholicon, Pulp of Cassia, and the like gentleelectuaries, as also all pills that have neither Diagrydium nor Colocynthus, in them.But all violent purges require a due ordering of the body; such ought to be taken in themorning after you are up, and not to sleep after them before they are done working, atleast before night: two hours after you have taken them, drink a draught of warmposset-drink, or broth, and six hours after eat a bit of mutton, often walking about thechamber; let there be a good fire in the chamber, and stir not out of the chamber tillthe purge have done working, or not till next day.Lastly, take sweating medicines when you are in bed, covered warm, and in thetime of your sweating drink posset-drink as hot as you can. If you sweat for a fever,boil sorrel and red sage in your posset-drink, sweat an hour or longer if your strengthwill permit, then (the chamber being kept very warm) shift yourself all but your head,about which (the cap which you sweat in being still kept on) wrap a napkin very hot,to repel the vapours back.

outwardly applied, they take off scurf, morphew, or freckles from the face, clear theskin, and ease the pains of the gout.Asclepiadis, vincetoxici. Of Swallow-wort, hot and dry, good against poison, andgripings of the belly, as also against the bitings of mad dogs, taken inwardly.Asari. Of Asarabacca: the roots are a safer purge than the leaves, and not so violent,they purge by vomit, stool, and urine; they are profitable for such as have agues,dropsies, stoppings of the liver, or spleen, green sickness.Asparagi. Of Asparagus, or sperage: they are temperate in quality, opening, theyprovoke urine, and cleanse the reins and bladder, being boiled in white wine, and thewine drank.Asphodeli, Hastœ Reigœ fœm. Of Kings Spear, or Female Asphodel. I know nophysical use of the roots, probably there is, for I do not believe God created any thingof no use.Asphodeli, Albuci, muris. Of male Asphodel. Hot and dry in the second degree,inwardly taken, they provoke vomit, urine, and the menses: outwardly used inointments, they cause hair to grow, cleanse ulcers, and take away morphew andfreckles from the face.Bardanœ, &c. Of Bur, Clot-bur, or Burdock, temperately hot and dry. Helps such asspit blood and matter; bruised and mixed with salt and applied to the place, helps thebitings of mad dogs. It expels wind, eases pains of the teeth, strengthens the back,helps the running of the reins, and the whites, being taken inwardly. Dioscorides,Apuleius.Behen.alb.rub. Of Valerian, white and red. Mesue, Serapio, and other Arabians, saythey are hot and moist in the latter end of the first, or beginning of the second degree,and comfort the heart, stir up lust. The Grecians held them to be dry in the seconddegree, that they stop fluxes, and provoke urine.Bellidis. Of Dasies. See the Leaves.Betœ, nigrœ, albœ, rubrœ. Of Beets, black, white, and red; as for black Beets I havenothing to say, I doubt they are as rare as black swans. The red Beet root boiled andpreserved in vinegar, makes a fine, cool, pleasing, cleansing, digesting sauce. See theleaves.Bistortœ, &c. Of Bistort, or snakeweed, cold and dry in the third degree, binding:half a dram at a time taken inwardly, resists pestilence and poison, helps ruptures andbruises, stays fluxes, vomiting, and immoderate flowing of the menses, helpsinflammations and soreness of the mouth, and fastens loose teeth, being bruised andboiled in white wine, and the mouth washed with it.Borraginis. Of Borrage, hot and moist in the first degree, cheers the heart, helpsdrooping spirits. Dioscorides.Broniœ, &c. Of Briony both white and black: they are both hot and dry, some say inthe third degree, and some say but in the first; they purge flegm and watery humours,but they trouble the stomach much, they are very good for dropsies, the white is mostin use, and is good for the fits of the mother: both of them externally used, take awayfreckles, sunburning, and morphew from the face, and cleanse filthy ulcers. It is but achurlish purge, but being let alone, can do no harm.Buglossi. Of Bugloss. Its virtues are the same with Borrage, and the roots of eitherseldom used.Bulbus Vomitorius. A Vomiting Root: I never read of it elsewhere by this generalname.Calami Aromatici. Of Aromatical Reed, or sweet garden flag: it provokes urine,strengthens the lungs, helps bruises, resists poison, &c. being taken inwardly in

powder, the quantity of half a dram at a time. You may mix it with syrup of violets, ifyour body be feverish.Capparum. Capper Roots. Are hot and dry in the second degree, cutting andcleansing: they provoke menses, help malignant ulcers, ease the toothache, assuageswelling, and help the rickets. See Oil of Cappers.Cariophillatœ, &c. Of Avens, or Herb Bennet. The roots are dry, and somethinghot, of a cleansing quality, they keep garments from being moth-eaten. See the leaves.Caulium. Of Colewort. I know nothing the roots are good for, but only to bear theherbs and flowers.Centrurii majoris. Of Centaury the Greater. The roots help such as are bursten,such as spit blood, shrinking of sinews, shortness of wind, coughs, convulsions,cramps: half a dram in powder being taken inwardly, either in muskadel, or in adecoction of the same roots. They are either not at all, or very scarce in England, ourcentaury is the small centaury.Cepœ. Of Onions. Are hot and dry (according to Galen) in the fourth degree: theycause dryness, and are extremely hurtful for choleric people, they breed but littlenourishment, and that little is naught: they are bad meat, yet good physic forphlegmatic people, they are opening, and provoke urine and the menses, if cold be thecause obstructing: bruised and outwardly applied, they cure the bitings of mad dogs,roasted and applied, they help boils, and aposthumes: raw, they take the fire out ofburnings, but ordinarily eaten, they cause headache, spoil the sight, dull the senses,and fill the body full of wind.Chameleontis albi nigri, &c. Of Chameleon, white and black. Tragus calls thecarline thistle by the name of white chameleon, the root whereof is hot in the seconddegree, and dry in the third, it provokes sweat, kills worms, resists pestilence andpoison; it is given with success in pestilential fevers, helps the toothache by beingchewed in the mouth, opens the stoppings of the liver and spleen, provokes urine, andthe menses: give but little of it at a time, by reason of its heat. As for the blackchameleon, all physicians hold it to have a kind of venomous quality, and unfit to beused inwardly, Galen, Clusius, Nicander, Dioscorides, and ‏.‏ginetaئ Outwardly inointments, it is profitable for scabs, morphew, tetters, &c. and all things that needcleansing.Chelidonij majoris, minoris. Of celandine, the greater and lesser. The greater is thatwhich we usually call Celandine: the root is hot and dry, cleansing and scouring,proper for such as have the yellow jaundice, it opens obstructions of the liver, beingboiled in white wine, and the decoctions drank; and if chewed in the mouth it helpsthe tooth-ache. Celandine the lesser is that which usually we call Pilewort, which withus is hot in the first degree; the juice of the root mixed with honey and snuffed up inthe nose, purges the head, helps the hemorrhoids or piles being bathed with it, as alsodoth the root only carried about one: being made into an ointment, it helps the king'sevil or Scrophula.China, wonderfully extenuates and dries, provokes sweat, resists putrefaction; itstrengthens the liver, helps the dropsy and malignant ulcers, leprosy, itch, andvenereal, and is profitable in diseases coming of fasting. It is commonly used in dietdrinks for the premises.Cichorii. Of Succory; cool and dry in the second degree, strengthens the liver andveins, it opens obstructions, stoppings in the liver and spleen, being boiled in whitewine and the decoction drank.Colchici. Of Meadow Saffron. The roots are held to be hurtful to the stomach,therefore I let them alone.

Consolidœ, majoris, minoris. Consolida Major, is that which we ordinarily callComfry, it is of a cold quality, yet pretty temperate, so glutinous, that, according toDioscorides, they will join meat together that is cut in sunder, if they be boiled withit; it is excellent for all wounds, both internal and external, for spitting of blood,ruptures or burstness, pains in the back, it strengthens the reins, it stops the mensesand helps hemorrhoids. The way to use them is to boil them in water and drink thedecoction. Consolida minor, is that we call Self-heal, and the latins Prunella. See theherb.Costi utriusque. Of Costus both sorts, being roots coming from beyond sea, hot anddry, break wind, being boiled in oil, it is held to help the gout by anointing the grievedplace with it.Cucumeris a grestis. Of wild Cucumber roots; they purge flegm, and that with suchviolence, that I would advise the country man that knows not how to correct them, tolet them alone.Cinarœ, &c. Of Artichokes. The roots purge by urine, whereby the rank savour ofthe body is much amended.Cynoglossœ, &c. Of Hounds-tongue, Cold and dry: being roasted and laid to thefundament, helps the hemorrhoids, is also good for burnings and scaldings.Curcumœ. Of Turmerick, hot in the third degree, opens obstructions, is profitableagainst the yellow jaundice, and cold distemper of the liver and spleen, half a drambeing taken at night going to bed in the pulp of a roasted apple, and if you add a littlesaffron to it, it will be the better by far.Cyperi utriusque, longi, rotundi. Of Cyprus Grass, or English Galanga, both sorts,long and round: is of a warm nature, provokes urine, breaks the stone, provokes themenses; the ashes of them (being burnt) are used for ulcers in the mouth, cankers, &c.Dauci. Of Carrots. Are moderately hot and moist, breed but little nourishment, andare windy.Dentaria majoris, &c. Of Toothwort, toothed violets, or corralwort: they aredrying, binding, and strengthening; are good to ease pains in the sides and bowels;also being boiled, the decoction is said to be good to wash green wounds and ulcerswith.Dictiamni. Of Dittany: is hot and dry in the third degree, hastens travail in women,provokes the menses. (See the leaves.)Doronici. Of Doronicum, a supposed kind of Wolf's bane. It is hot and dry in thethird degree, strengthens the heart, is a sovereign cordial, and preservative against thepestilence: it helps the vertigo or swimming of the head, is admirable against thebitings of venomous beasts, and such as have taken too much opium, as also forlethargies, the juice helps hot rheums in the eyes; a scruple of the root in powder isenough to take at one time.Dracontii, Dracunculi. Divers authors attribute divers herbs to this name. It is mostprobable that they mean dragons, the roots of which cleanse mightily, and take awayproud, or dead flesh, the very smell of them is hurtful for pregnant women; outwardlyin ointments, they take away scurf, morphew, and sun-burning; I would not wish any,unless very well read in physic, to take them inwardly. Matthiolus, Dioscorides.Ebuli. Of Dwarf Elder, Walwort, or Danewort; hot and dry in the third degree, theroots are as excellent a purge for the dropsyas any under the sun. You may take a dram or two drams (if the patient be strong)in white wine at a time.

Echij. Of Viper's Bugloss, or wild Bugloss. This root is cold and dry, good for suchas are bitten by venemous beasts, either being boiled in wine and drank, or bruisedand applied to the place: being boiled in wine and drank, it encreaseth milk in nurses.Ellebori, Veratri, albi nigri. Of Hellebore white and black. The root of whiteHellebore, or sneezewort, being grated and snuffed up the nose, causeth sneezing;kills rats and mice being mixed with their meat.Black Hellebore, Bears-foot or Christmas flower: both this and the former are hotand dry in the third degree. This is neither so violent nor dangerous as the former.وEnul وCampan Helenij. Of Elecampane. It is hot and dry in the third degree,wholesome for the stomach, resists poison, helps old coughs, and shortness of breath,helps ruptures, and provokes lust; in ointments, it is good against scabs and itch.‏,وEndiv &c. Of Endive, Garden Endive, which is the root here specified, is held tobe somewhat colder, though not so dry and cleansing as that which is wild; it coolshot stomachs, hot livers, amends the blood corrupted by heat, and therefore is good infevers, it cools the reins, and therefore prevents the stone, it opens obstructions, andprovokes urine: you may bruise the root, and boil it in white wine, 'tis very harmless.Eringij. Of Eringo or Sea-holly: the roots are moderately hot, something dryingand cleansing, bruised and applied to the place; they help the Scrophula, or diseasein the throat called the King's Evil, they break the stone, encrease seed, stir up lust,provoke the terms, &c.‏,وEsul majoris, minoris. Of Spurge the greater and lesser, they are both (takeninwardly) too violent for common use; outwardly in ointments they cleanse the skin,take away sunburning.Filicis, &c. Fearn, of which are two grand distinctions, viz. male and female. Bothare hot and dry, and good for the rickets in children, and diseases of the spleen, butdangerous for pregnant women.‏.وFilipendul Of Dropwort. The roots are hot and dry in the third degree, opening,cleansing, yet somewhat binding; they provoke urine, ease pains in the bladder, andare a good preservative against the falling-sickness.Fœniculi. Of Fennel. The root is hot and dry, some say in the third degree, opening;it provokes urine, and menses, strengthens the liver, and is good against the dropsy.Fraxini. Of Ash-tree. I know no great virtues in physic of the roots.‏,وGalang majoris, minoris. Galanga, commonly called Galingal, the greater andlesser. They are hot and dry in the third degree, and the lesser are accounted thehotter, it strengthens the stomach exceedingly, and takes away the pains thereofcoming of cold or wind; the smell of itstrengthens the brain, it relieves faint hearts, takes away windiness of the womb,heats the reins, and provokes amorous diseases. You may take half a dram at a time.Matthiolus.Gentiana. Of Gentian; some call it Felwort, and Baldmoney. It is hot, cleansing,and scouring, a notable counterpoison, it opens obstructions, helps the biting ofvenemous beasts, and mad dogs, helps digestion, and cleanseth the body of rawhumours; the root is profitable for ruptures, or such as are bursten.‏.وGlycyrrhiz Of Liquorice; the best that is grows in England: it is hot and moist intemperature, helps the roughness of the windpipe, hoarsness, diseases in the kidneysand bladder, and ulcers in the bladder, it concocts raw humours in the stomach, helpsdifficulty of breathing, is profitable for all salt humours, the root dried and beateninto powder, and the powder put into the eye, is a special remedy for a pin and web.Gramminis. Of Grass, such as in London they call couch grass, and Squitch-grass;in Sussex Dog-grass. It gallantly provokes urine, and easeth the kidneys oppressed

with gravel, gripings of the belly, and difficulty of urine. Let such as are troubled withthese diseases, drink a draught of white wine, wherein these roots (being bruised)have been boiled, for their morning's draught, bruised and applied to the place, theyspeedily help green wounds. Galen, Dioscorides.Hermodactyli. Of Hermodactils. They are hot and dry, purge flegm, especially fromthe joints, therefore are good for gouts, and other diseases in the joints. Their vicesare corrected with long pepper, ginger, cinnamon, or mastich. I would not haveunskilful people too busy with purges.Hyacinthi. Of Jacinths. The roots are dry in the first degree, and cold in the second,they stop looseness, bind the belly.Iridis, vulgaris, and Florentine, &c. Orris, or Flower-de-luce, both that which growswith us, and that which comes from Florence. They are hot and dry in the thirddegree, resist poison, help shortness of the breath, provoke the menses; the Root beinggreen and bruised, takes away blackness and blueness of a stroke, being appliedthereto.Imperitoriœ, &c. Of Master-wort. The root is hot and dry in the third degree;mitigates the rigour of agues, helps dropsies, provokes sweat, breaks carbuncles, andplague-sores, being applied to them; it is very profitable being given inwardly inbruises.Isotidis, Glasti. Of Woad. I know no great physical virtue in the root. See the Herb.Labri Veneris, Dipsaci. Fullers- Thistle, Teazle. The root being boiled in wine till itbe thick (quoth Dioscorides) helps by unction the clefts of the fundament, as alsotakes away warts and wens. Galen saith, they are dry in the second degree: and I takeit allAuthors hold them to be cold and dry. Unslacked lime beaten into powder, andmixed with black soap, takes away a wen being anointed with it.Lactucœ. Of Lettice. I know no physical virtue residing in the roots.Lauri. Of the Bay-tree. The Bark of the root drunk with wine, provokes urine,breaks the stone, opens obstructions of the liver and spleen. But according toDioscorides is naught for pregnant women. Galen.Lapathi acuti, Oxylapathi. Sorrel, according to Galen; but Sharp-pointed Dock,according to Dioscorides. The roots of Sorrel are held to be profitable against thejaundice. Of Sharp-pointed Dock; cleanse, and help scabs and itch.Levistici. Of Lovage. They are hot and dry, and good for any diseases coming ofwind.Lillij albi. Of white Lillies. The root is something hot and dry, helps burnings,softens the womb, provokes the menses, if boiled in wine, is given with good successin rotten Fevers, Pestilences, and all diseases that require suppuration: outwardlyapplied, it helps ulcers in the head, and amends the ill colour of the face.Malvœ. Of Mallows. They are cool, and digesting, resist poison, and helpcorrosions, or gnawing of the bowels, or any other part; as also ulcers in the bladder.See Marsh-mallows.Mandragorœ. Of Mandrakes. A root dangerous for its coldness, being cold in thefourth degree: the root is dangerous.Mechoachanœ. Of Mechoacah. It is corrected with Cinnamon, is temperate yetdrying, purges flegm chiefly from the head and joints, it is good for old diseases in thehead, and may safely be given even to feverish bodies, because of its temperature: it isalso profitable against coughs and pains in the reins; as also against venerealcomplaints; the strong may take a dram at a time.

Mei, &c. Spignel. The roots are hot and dry in the second or third degree, and sendup unwholesome vapours to the head.Mezerei, &c. Of Spurge, Olive, or Widow-wail. See the Herb, if you think it worththe seeing.Merorum Celci. Of Mulberry Tree. The bark of the root is bitter, hot and dry, opensstoppings of the liver and spleen, purges the belly, and kills worms, boiled in vinegar,helps the tooth-ache.Morsus Diaboli, Succisœ, &c. Devil's-bit. See the herb.Norpi Spicœ, Indicœ, Celticœ, &c. Of Spikenard, Indian, and Cheltic. Cheltic Nardwonderfully provokes urine. They are both hot and dry. The Indian, also provokesurine, and stops fluxes, helps windiness of the stomach, resists the pestilence, helpsgnawing pains of the stomach, and dries up rheums that molest the head.The Celtic Spikenard performs the same offices, though in a weaker measure.Nenupharis, Nymphœ. Of Water-lilies. They are cold and dry, and stop lust: I neverdived so deep to find what virtue the roots have.Ononidis, Arrestœ Bovis, &c. Of Cammock, or Rest-harrow, so called because itmakes oxen stand still when they are ploughing. The roots are hot and dry in the thirddegree; it breaks the stone (viz. the bark of it). The root itself, according to Pliny,helps the falling-sickness; according to Matthiolus, helps ruptures: you may take halfa dram at a time.Ostrutij. Masterwort, given once before under the name of Imperitoria. But I havesomething else to do than to write one thing twice as they did.Pastinatœ, Sativœ, and silvestris. Garden and Wild Parsnips. They are of atemperate quality, inclining something to heat. The Garden Parsnips provoke lust, andnourish as much and more too, than any root ordinarily eaten: the wild are morephysical, being cutting, cleansing, and opening: they resist the bitings of venomousbeasts, ease pains and stitches in the sides, and are a sovereign remedy against thewind cholic.Pentafylli. Of Cinqfyl, commonly called Five-leaved, or Five-finger'd grass: theroot is very drying, but moderately hot. It is admirable against all fluxes, and stopsblood flowing from any part of the body: it helps infirmities of the liver and lungs,helps putrified ulcers of the mouth, the root boiled in vinegar is good against theshingles, and appeases the rage of any fretting sores. You may safely take half a dramat a time in any convenient liquor.Petacitœ. Of Butter-bur. The roots are hot and dry in the second degree, they areexceeding good in violent and pestilential fevers, they provoke the menses, expelpoison, and kill worms.Peucedani, Fœniculi porcini. Of Sulphurwort, Hogs-fennel, or Hore-strange. It isvery good applied to the navels of children that stick out, and ruptures: held in themouth, it is a present remedy for the fits of the mother: being taken inwardly, it givesspeedy deliverance to women in travail, and brings away the placenta.Pœoniœ, maris, ‏.وfœmell Of Peony male and female. They are meanly hot, but moredrying. The root helps women not sufficiently purged after travail, it provokes themenses, and helps pains in the belly, as also in the reins and bladder, falling sickness,and convulsions in children, being either taken inwardly, or hung about their necks.You may take half a dram at a time, and less for children.Phu, ‏,وValerin majoris, minoris. Valerian, or Setwal, greater and lesser. They aretemperately hot, the greater provokes urine and the menses, helps the stranguary,stays rheums in the head, and takes away

the pricking pains thereof. The lesser resist poison, assuages the swelling of thetesticles, coming either through wind or cold, helps cold taken after sweating orlabour, wind cholic: outwardly it draws out thorns, and cures both wounds andulcers.‏,وPimpinell &c. Of Burnet. It doth this good, to bring forth a gallant physical herb.Plantaginis. Of Plantane. The root is something dryer than the leaf, but not so cold,it opens stoppages of the liver, helps the jaundice, and ulcers of the reins and bladder.A little bit of the root being eaten, instantly stays pains in the head, even toadmiration.Polypodij. Of Polypodium, or Fern of the Oak. It is a gallant though gentle purgerof melancholy. Also in the opinion of Mesue (as famous a physician as ever I read fora Galenist), it dries up superfluous humours, takes away swellings from the hands,feet, knees, and joints, stitches and pains in the sides, infirmities of the spleen, rickets;correct it with a few Annis seeds, or Fennel seeds, or a little ginger, and then thestomach will not loath it. Your best way of taking it, is to bruise it well, and boil it inwhite wine till half be consumed, you may put in much, or little, according to thestrength of the diseased, it works very safely.Poligonati, sigilli Solomonis, &c. Of Solomon's Seal. Stamped and boiled in wine itspeedily helps (being drank) all broken bones, and is of incredible virtue that way; asalso being stamped and applied to the place, it soon heals all wounds, and quicklytakes away the black and blue marks of blows, being bruised and applied to the place,and for these, I am persuaded there is not a better medicine under the sun.Porri. Of Leeks. They say they are hot and dry in the fourth degree; they breed illfavourednourishment at the best, they spoil the eyes, heat the body, causetroublesome sleep, and are noisome to the stomach: yet are they good for somethingelse, for the juice of them dropped into the ears takes away the noise of them, mixedwith a little vinegar and snuffed up the nose, it stays the bleeding of it, they are betterof the two boiled than raw, but both ways exceedingly hurtful for ulcers in thebladder: and so are onions and garlic.Prunellorum Silvestrium. Of Sloe-bush, or Sloe-tree. I think the college set thisamongst the roots only for fashion sake, and I did it because they did.Pyrethri Salivaris, &c. Pelitory of Spain. It is hot and dry in the fourth degree,chewed in the mouth, it draws away rheum in the tooth-ache; bruised and boiled inoil, it provokes sweat by unction; inwardly taken, they say it helps palsies and othercold effects in the brain and nerves.Rhapontici. Rhupontick, or Rhubarb of Pontus. It takes away windiness andweakness of the stomach, sighings, sobbings, spittings of blood, diseases of the liverand spleen, rickets, &c. if you take a dram at a time it will purge a little but bindmuch, and therefore fit for foul bodies that have fluxes.Rhabarbari. Of Rhubarb. It gently purges choler from the stomach and liver, opensstoppings, withstands the dropsy, Hypocondriac Melancholly; a little boiling takesaway the virtue of it, and therefore it is best given by infusion only; If your body beany thing strong, you may take two drams of it at a time being sliced thin and steepedall night in white wine, in the morning strain it out and drink the white wine; it purgesbut gently, it leaves a binding quality behind it, therefore dried a little by the fire andbeaten into powder, it is usually given in fluxes.Rhaphani, Domesticœ and Sylvestris. Of Raddishes, garden and wild. GardenRaddishes provoke urine, break the stone, and purge by urine exceedingly, yet breedvery bad blood, are offensive to the stomach, and hard of digestion, hot and dry in

quality. Wild, or Horse Raddishes, such as grow in ditches, are hotter and drier thanthe former, and more effectual.Rhodie Rad. Rose Root. Stamped and applied to the head it mitigates the painsthereof, being somewhat cool in quality.Rhabarbari Monachorum. Monks Rhubarb, or Bastard-Rhubarb, it also purges, andcleanses the blood, and opens obstructions of the liver.وRubi tinctorum. Of Madder. It is both drying and binding, yet not without someopening quality, for it helps the yellow jaundice, and therefore opens obstructions ofthe liver and gall; it is given with good success, to such as have had bruises by falls,stops looseness, the hemorrhoids, and the menses.Rusci. Of Knee-holly or Butchers-broom, or Bruscus. They are meanly hot and dry,provoke urine, break the stone, and help such as cannot evacuate urine freely. Usethem like grass roots.Sambuci. Of Elder. I know no wonders the root will do.Sarsœ-Parigliœ. Of Sarsa-Parilla, or Bind-weed; somewhat hot and dry, helpfulagainst pains in the head, and joints; they provoke sweat, and are used familiarly indrying diet drinks.Satyrij utriusque. Of Satyrion, each sort. They are hot and moist in temper, provokevenery, and increase seed; each branch bears two roots, both spongy, yet the one moresolid than the other, which is of most virtue, and indeed only to be used, for some saythe most spongy root is quite contrary in operation to the other, as the one increaseth,the other decreaseth.Saxifragiœ albœ. Of white Saxifrage, in Sussex we call themLady-smocks. The roots powerfully break the stone, expel wind, provoke urine, andcleanse the reins.Sanguisorbœ. A kind of Burnet.Scabiosa. Of Scabious. The roots either boiled, or beaten into powder, and so taken,help such as are extremely troubled with scabs and itch, are medicinal in the frenchdisease, hard swellings, inward wounds, being of a drying, cleansing, and healingfaculty.Scordij. Of Scordium, or Water-Germander. See the herb.Scillœ. Of Squills. See vinegar, and wine of Squills, in the compound.Scropulariœ, &c. Of Figwort. The roots being of the same virtue with the herb, Irefer you thither.Scorzonerœ. Of Vipers grass. The root cheers the heart, and strengthens the vitalspirits, resists poison, helps passions and tremblings of the heart, faintness, sadness,and melancholy, opens stoppings of the liver and spleen, provokes the menses, easewomen of the fits of the mother, and helps swimmings in the head.Seseleos. Of Seseli, or Hartwort. The roots provoke urine, and help the fallingsickness.Sisari, secacul. Of Scirrets. They are hot and moist, of good nourishment,something windy, as all roots are; by reason of which, they provoke venery, they stirup appetite, and provoke urine.Sconchi. Of Sow-thistles. See the herb.Spinœ albœ, Bedeguar. The Arabians called our Ladies-thistles by that name; theroots of which are drying and binding, stop fluxes, bleeding, take away coldswellings, and ease the pains of the teeth.Spatulœ fœtidœ. Stinking Gladon, a kind of Flower-de-luce, called so for itsunsavory smell. It is hot and dry in the third degree; outwardly they help the king's

evil, soften hard swellings, draw out broken bones: inwardly taken, they helpconvulsions, ruptures, bruises, infirmities of the lungs.Tamarisci. Of Tamaris. See the herbs, and barks.Tanaceti. Of Tansie. The root eaten, is a singular remedy for the gout: the rich maybestow the cost to preserve it.Thapsi, &c. A venomous foreign root: therefore no more of it.Tormentillœ. Of Tormentil. A kind of Sinqfoil; dry in the third degree, butmoderately hot; good in pestilences, provokes sweat, stays vomiting, cheers the heart,expels poison.Trifolij. Of Trefoil. See the herb.Tribuli Aquatici. Of Water Caltrops. The roots lie too far under water for me toreach to.Trachellij. Of Throat-wort: by some called Canterbury Bells: by some CoventryBells. They help diseases and ulcers in the throat.Trinitatis herbœ. Hearts-ease, or Pansies, I know no great virtue they have.Tunicis. I shall tell you the virtue when I know what it is.Tripolij. The root purges flegm, expels poison.Turbith. The root purges flegm, (being hot in the third degree) chiefly from theexterior parts of the body: it is corrected with ginger, or Mastich. Let not the vulgar betoo busy with it.Tuburnum. Or Toad-stools. Whether these be roots or no, it matters not much; formy part I know but little need of them, either in food or physic.Victorialis. A foreign kind of Garlick. They say, being hung about the neck ofcattle that are blind suddenly, it helps them; and defends those that bear it, from evilspirits.Swallow-wort, and teazles were handled before.Ulmariœ, Reginœ, prati, &c. Mead-sweet. Cold and dry, binding, stops fluxes, andthe immoderate flowing of the menses: you may take a dram at a time.Urticœ. Of Nettles. See the leaves.Zedoariœ. Of Zedoary, or Setwall. This and Zurumbet, according to Rhasis, andMesue, and all one; Avicenna thinks them different: I hold with Mesue; indeed theydiffer in form, for the one is long, the other round; they are both hot and dry in thesecond degree, expel wind, resist poison, stop fluxes, and the menses, stay vomiting,help the cholic, and kill worms; you may take half a dram at a time.Zingiberis. Of Ginger. Helps digestion, warms the stomach, clears the sight, and isprofitable for old men: heats the joints, and therefore is profitable against the gout,expels wind; it is hot and dry in the second degree.BARKSA Pil Rad. Of the roots of Smallage. Take notice here, that the Barks both of thisroot, as also of Parsley, Fennel, &c. is all of the root which is in use, neither can itproperly be called bark, for it is all the root, the hard pith in the middle excepted,which is always thrown away, when the roots are used. It is something hotter anddrier than Parsley, and more medicinal; it opens stoppings, provokes urine, helpsdigestion, expels wind, and warms a cold stomach: use them like grass roots.Avellanarum. Of Hazel. The rind of the tree provokes urine, breaks the stone; thehusks and shells of the nuts, dried and given in powder, stay the immoderate flux ofthe menses.

Aurantiorum. Of Oranges. Both these, and also Lemons and Citrons, are ofdifferent qualities: the outward bark, viz. what looksred, is hot and dry, the white is cold and moist, the juice colder than it, the seeds hotand dry; the outward bark is that which here I am to speak to, it is somewhat hotterthan either that of Lemons or Citrons, therefore it warms a cold stomach more, andexpels wind better, but strengthens not the heart so much.Berber, &c. Barberries. The Rind of the tree according to Clœsius, being steeped inwine, and the wine drank, purges choler, and is a singular remedy for the yellowjaundice. Boil it in white wine and drink it. See the directions at the beginning.Cassia Lignea, &c. It is something more oily than Cinnamon, yet the virtues beingnot much different, I refer you thither.Capparis Rad. Of Caper roots. See the roots.Castanearum. Of Chesnuts. The bark of the Chesnut tree is dry and binding, andstops fluxes.Cinnamonum. Cinnamon, and Cassia Lignea, are hot and dry in the second degree,strengthens the stomach, help digestion, cause a sweet breath, resist poison, provokeurine, and the menses, cause speedy delivery to women in travail, help coughs anddefluxions of humours upon the lungs, dropsy, and difficulty of urine. In ointments ittakes away red pimples, and the like deformities from the face. There is scarce abetter remedy for women in labour, than a dram of Cinnamon newly beaten intopowder, and taken in white wine.Citrij. Of Pome Citrons. The outward pill, which I suppose is that which is meanthere: It strengthens the heart, resists poison, amends a stinking breath, helps digestion,comforts a cold stomach.Ebuli Rad. Of the roots of Dwarf-Elder, or Walwort. See the herbs.Enulœ. Of Elecampane. See the roots.Esulœ Rad. See the roots.Fabarum. Of Beans. Bean Cods (or Pods, as we in Sussex call them) being bruised,the ashes are a sovereign remedy for aches in the joints, old bruises, gouts, andsciaticas. Fœniculi Rad. Of Fennel roots. See the roots, and remember the observation givenin Smallage at the beginning of the barks.Fraxini Rad. Of the bark of Ash-tree roots. The bark of the tree, helps the rickets, ismoderately hot and dry, stays vomiting; being burnt, the ashes made into an ointment,helps leprosy and other deformity of the skin, eases pains of the spleen. You may laythe bark to steep in white wine for the rickets, and when it hath stood so for two orthree days, let the diseased child drink now and then a spoonful of it.Granatorum. Of Pomegranates. The rind cools, and forcibly binds, stays fluxes,and the menses, helps digestion, strengthens weak stomachs, fastens the teeth, and aregood for such whose gums waste. You may take a dram of it at a time inwardly.Pomegranate flowers are of the same virtue.Gatrujaci. See the wood.Juglandium Virid. Of green Walnuts. As for the outward green bark of Walnuts, Isuppose the best time to take them is before the Walnuts be shelled at all, and thenyou may take nuts and all (if they may properly be called nuts at such a time) youshall find them exceeding comfortable to the stomach, they resist poison, and are amost excellent preservative against the plague, inferior to none: they are admirable forsuch as are troubled with consumptions of the lungs.Lauri. Of the Bay-tree. See the root.

Limonum. Of Lemons. The outward peel is of the nature of Citron, but helps not soeffectually; however, let the poor country man that cannot get the other, use this.Mandragora Rad. Be pleased to look back to the root.Myrobalanorum. Of Myrobalans. See the fruits.Macis. Of Mace. It is hot in the third degree, strengthens the stomach and heartexceedingly, and helps concoction.Maceris, &c. It is held to be the inner bark of Nutmeg-tree, helps fluxes andspitting of blood.Petroselini Rad. Of Parsley root: opens obstructions, provokes urine and themenses, warms a cold stomach, expels wind, and breaks the stone. Use them as grassroots, and take out the inner pith as you were taught in smallage roots.Prunelli Silvestris. Of Sloe-tree. I know no use of it.Pinearum putaminae. Pine shucks, or husks. I suppose they mean of the cones thathold the seeds; both those and also the bark of the tree, stop fluxes, and help the lungs.Querci. Of Oak-tree. Both the bark of the oak, and Acorn Cups are drying and cold,binding, stop fluxes and the menses, as also the running of the reins; have a care howyou use them before due purging.Rhaphani. Of Radishes. I could never see any bark they had.Suberis. Of Cork. It is good for something else besides to stop bottles: being dryand binding, stanches blood, helps fluxes, especially the ashes of it being burnt.Paulus.Sambuci, &c. Of Elder roots and branches; purges water, helps the dropsy.Cort. Medius Tamaricis. The middle Bark of Tameris, eases the spleen, helps therickets. Use them as Ash-tree bark.‏.وTilli Of Line-tree. Boiled, the water helps burnings.Thuris. Of Frankinsenses. I must plead Ignoramus.Ulmi. Of Elm. Moderately hot and cleansing good for wounds, burns, and brokenbones, viz. boiled in water and the grieved place bathed with it.WOODS AND THEIR CHIPS, OR RASPINGSA Gallochus, Lignum Aloes. Wood of Aloes; is moderately hot and dry: a goodcordial: a rich perfume, a great strengthener to the stomach.Aspalathus. Rose-wood. It is moderately hot and dry, stops looseness, provokesurine, and is excellent to cleanse filthy ulcers.Bresilium. Brasil. All the use I know of it is, to die cloth, and leather, and make redink.Buxus. Box. Many Physicians have written of it, but no physical virtue of it.Cypressus. Cypress. The Wood laid amongst cloaths, secures them from moths. Seethe leaves.Ebenum. Ebony. It is held to clear the sight, being either boiled in wine, or burnt toashes.Guajacum, Lignum ‏.وvit Dries, attenuates, causes sweat, resists putrefaction, isgood for the French disease, as also for ulcers, scabs, and leprosy: it is used in dietdrinks.Juniperus. Juniper. The smoak of the wood, drives away serpents; the ashes of itmade into lie, cures itch, and scabs.Nephriticum. It is a light wood and comes from Hispaniola; being steeped in water,will soon turn it blue, it is hot and dry in the first degree, and so used as before, is anadmirable remedy for the stone, and for obstructions of the liver and spleen.

Rhodium. Encreases milk in nurses.Santalum, album, Rubrum, citrinum. White, red, and yellow Sanders. They are allcold and dry in the second or third degree: the red stops defluxions from any part, andhelps inflammations: the white and yellow (of which the yellow is best) cool the heatof fevers, strengthen the heart, and cause cheerfulness.Sassafras. Is hot and dry in the second degree, it opens obstructions or stoppings, itstrengthens the breast exceedingly; if it be weakened through cold, it breaks the stone,stays vomiting, provokes urine, and is very profitable in the venereal, used in dietdrinks.Tamaris. Is profitable for the rickets, and burnings.Xylobalsamum. Wood of the Balsam tree, it is hot and dry in the second degree,according to Galen. I never read any great virtues of it.HERBS AND THEIR LEAVESA Brotanum, mas, fœmina. Southernwood, male and female. It is hot and dry in thethird degree, resists poison, kills worms; outwardly in plaisters, it dissolves coldswellings, and helps the bitings of venomous beasts, makes hair grow: take not abovehalf a dram at a time in powder.Absinthium, &c. Wormwood. Its several sorts, are all hot and dry in the second orthird degrees, the common Wormwood is thought to be hottest, they all help weaknessof the stomach, cleanse choler, kill worms, open stoppings, help surfeits, clear thesight, resist poison, cleanse the blood, and secure cloaths from moths.Abugilissa, &c. Alkanet. The leaves are something drying and binding, but inferiorin virtue to the roots, to which I refer you.Acetosa. Sorrel. Is moderately cold, dry and binding, cuts tough humours, cools thebrain, liver and stomach, cools the blood in fevers, and provokes appetite.Acanthus. Bears-breech, or Branks ursine, is temperate, something moist. See theroot.Adiantum, Album, nigrum. Maiden hair, white and black. They are temperate, yetdrying. White Maiden hair is that we usually call Wall-rue; they both openobstructions, cleanse the breast and lungs of gross slimy humours, provoke urine, helpruptures and shortness of wind.Adiantum Aurcum Politrycum. Golden Maiden-hair. Its temperature and virtues arethe same with the former; helps the spleen; burned, and lye made with the ashes,keeps the hair from falling off the head.Agrimonia. Agrimony. Galen's Eupatorium. It is hot and dry in the first degree,binding, it amends the infirmities of the liver, helps such as evacuate blood instead ofwater, helps inward wounds, opens obstructions. Outwardly applied it helps old sores,ulcers, &c. Inwardly, it helps the jaundice and the spleen. Take a dram of this or thatfollowing, inwardly in white wine, or boil the herb in white wine, and drink thedecoction. Galen, Pliny, Dioscorides, Serapio.Ageretum. Hot and dry in the second degree, provokes urine and the menses, driesthe brain, opens stoppings, helps the green sickness, and profits such as have a cold,weak liver; outwardly applied, it takes away the hardness of the matrix, and fillshollow ulcers with flesh.Agnus Castus, &c. Chast-tree. The leaves are hot and dry in the third degree; expelwind, consume the seed, cause chastity being only borne about one; it dissolvesswellings of the testicles, being applied to them, head-ache, and lethargy.

Allajula, Lujula, &c. Wood Sorrel. It is of the temperature of other Sorrel, and heldto be more cordial, cools the blood, helps ulcers in the mouth; hot defluxions upon thelungs, wounds, ulcers, &c.Alcea. Vervain Mallow. The root helps fluxes and burstness. ‏,‏tiusئ Dioscorides.Allium. Garlick. Hot and dry in the fourth degree, troublesome to the stomach: itdulls the sight, spoils a clear skin, resists poison, eases the pains of the teeth, helps thebitings of mad dogs, and venomous beasts, helps ulcers, leprosies, provokes urine, isexceedingly opening, and profitable for dropsies.Althوa, &c. Marsh-Mallows. Are moderately hot and drier than other Mallows;they help digestion, and mitigate pain, ease the pains of the stone, and in the sides.Use them as you were taught in the roots, whose virtues they have, and both togetherwill do better.Alsine. Chickweed. Is cold and moist without any binding, assuages swelling, andcomforts the sinews much; therefore it is good for such as are shrunk up; it dissolvesaposthumes, hard swellings, and helps mange in the hands and legs, outwardlyapplied in a pultis. Galen.Alchymilla. Ladies-Mantle. Is hot and dry, some say in the second degree, some sayin the third: outwardly it helps wounds, reduces women's breasts that hang down:inwardly, helps bruises, and ruptures, stays vomiting, and the Fluor Albus, and is veryprofitable for such women as are subject to miscarry through cold and moisture.Alkanna. Privet hath a binding quality, helps ulcers in the mouth, is good againstburnings and scaldings, cherishes the nerves and sinews; boil it in white wine to washthe mouth, and in hog's grease for burnings and scaldings.Amaracus, Majorana. Marjoram. Some say 'tis hot and dry in the second degree,some advance it to the third. Sweet Marjoram, is an excellent remedy for colddiseases in the brain, being only smelled to helps such as are given to much sighing,easeth pains in the belly, provokes urine, being taken inwardly: you may take a dramof it at a time in powder. Outwardly in oils or salves, it helps sinews that are shrunk;limbs out of joint, all aches and swellings coming of a cold cause.Angelica. Is hot and dry in the third degree; opens, digests, makes thin, strengthensthe heart, helps fluxes, and loathsomeness of meat. It is an enemy to poison andpestilence, provokes menses, and brings away the placanta. You may take a dram of itat a time in powder.Anagallis, mas, femina. Pimpernel, male and female. They are something hot anddry, and of such a drying quality that they draw thorns and splinters out of the flesh,amend the sight, cleanse ulcers, help infirmities of the liver and reins. Galen.Anethum. Dill. Is hot and dry in the second degree. It stays vomiting, easeshiccoughs, assuages swellings, provokes urine, helps such as are troubled with fits ofthe mother, and digests raw humours.Apium. Smallage. So it is commonly used; but indeed all Parsley is called by thename of Apium, of which this is one kind. It is something hotter and dryer thanParsley, and more efficacious; it opens stoppings of the liver, and spleen, cleanses theblood, provokes the menses, helps a cold stomach to digest its meat, and is goodagainst the yellow jaundice. Both Smallage and Clevers, may be well used in pottagein the morning instead of herbs.Aparine. Goose-grass, or Clevers. They are meanly hot and dry, cleansing, help thebitings of venomous beasts, keep men's bodies from growing too fat, help the yellowjaundice, stay bleeding, fluxes, and help green wounds. Dioscorides, Pliny, Galen,Tragus.

Aspergula odorata. Wood-roof. Cheers the heart, makes men merry, helpsmelancholy, and opens the stoppings of the liver.Aquilegia. Columbines: help sore throats, are of a drying, binding quality.Argentina. Silver-weed, or Wild Tansy, cold and dry almost in the third degree;stops lasks, fluxes, and the menses, good against ulcers, the stone, and inwardwounds: easeth gripings in the belly, fastens loose teeth: outwardly it takes awayfreckles, morphew, and sunburning, it takes away inflammations, and bound to thewrists stops the violence of the fits of the ague.Artanita. Sow-bread: hot and dry in the third degree, it is a dangerous purge:outwardly in ointments it takes away freckles, sunburning, and the marks which thesmall pox leaves behind them: dangerous for pregnant women.Aristolochia, longa, rotunda. Birth-wort long and round. See the roots.Artemisia. Mugwort: is hot and dry in the second degree: binding: an herbappropriated to the female sex; it brings down the menses, brings away both birth andplacenta, eases pains in the matrix. You may take a dram at a time.Asparagus. See the roots.Asarum, &c. Asarabacca: hot and dry; provokes vomiting and urine, and are goodfor dropsies. They are corrected with mace or cinnamon.Atriplex, &c. Orach, or Arrach. It is cold in the first degree, and moist in thesecond, saith Galen, and makes the belly soluble. It is an admirable remedy for the fitsof the mother, and other infirmities of the matrix, and therefore the Latins called itVulvaria.Aricula muris, major. Mouse-ear: hot and dry, of a binding quality, it is admirableto heal wounds, inward or outward, as also ruptures or burstness. Edge-toolsquenched in the juice of it, will cut iron without turning the edge, as easy as they willlead. And, lastly, it helps the swelling of the spleen, coughs and consumptions, of thelungs.Attractivis hirsuta. Wild Bastard-saffron, Distaff-thistle, or Spindle-thistle. Is dryand moderately digesting, helps the biting of venomous beasts. Mesue saith, It is hotin the first degree, and dry in the second, and cleanseth the breast and lungs of toughflegm.Balsamita, &c. Costmary, Alecost. See Maudlin.Barbajovis, sedum majus. Houseleek or Sengreen: cold in the third degree,profitable against the Shingles, and other hot creeping ulcers, inflammations, St.Anthony's fire, frenzies; it cools and takes away corns from the toes, being bathedwith the juice of it, and a skin of the leaf laid over the place; stops fluxes, helpsscalding and burning.Bardana. Clot-bur, or Bur-dock: temperately dry and wasting, something cooling;it is held to be good against the shrinking of the sinews; eases pains in the bladder,and provokes urine. Also Mizaldus saith, That a leaf applied to the top of the head of awoman draws the matrix upwards, but applied to the soles of the feet draws itdownwards, and is therefore an admirable remedy for suffocations, precipitations, anddislocations of the matrix, if a wise man have but the using of it.Beta, alba, nigra, rubra. Beets, white, black, and red; black Beets I have noknowledge of. The white are something colder and moister than the red, both of themloosen the belly, but have little or no nourishment. The white provoke to stool, and aremore cleansing, open stoppings of the liver and spleen, help the vertigo or swimmingin the head. The red stay fluxes, help the immoderate flowing of the menses, and aregood in the yellow jaundice.

Benedicta Cariphyllara. Avens: hot and dry, help the cholic and rawness of thestomach, stitches in the sides, and take away clotted blood in any part of the body.Betonica vulgaris. Common Wood Betony: hot and dry in the second degree, helpsthe falling sickness and all head-aches coming of cold, cleanses the breast and lungs,opens stoppings of the liver and spleen, as the rickets, &c. procures appetite, helpssour belchings, provokes urine, breaks the stone, mitigates the pains of thereins and bladder, helps cramps, and convulsions, resists poison, helps the gout,such as evacuate blood, madness and head-ache, kills worms, helps bruises, andcleanseth women after labour. You may take a dram of it at a time in white wine, orany other convenient liquor proper against the disease you are afflicted with.Betonica Pauli, &c. Paul's Betony, or Male Lluellin, to which add Elative, orFemale Lluellin, which comes afterwards; they are pretty temperate, stop defluxionsof humours that fall from the head into the eyes, are profitable in wounds, help filthyfoul eating cankers.Betonica Coronaria, &c. Is Clove Gilliflowers. See the flowers.Bellis. Dasies: are cold and moist in the second degree, they ease all pains andswellings coming of heat, in clysters they loose the belly, are profitable in fevers andinflammations of the testicles, they take away bruises, and blackness and blueness;they are admirable in wounds and inflammations of the lungs or blood.Blitum. Blites. Some say they are cold and moist, others cold and dry: nonemention any great virtues of them.Borrago. Borrage: hot and moist, comforts the heart, cheers the spirits, drives awaysadness and melancholy, they are rather laxative than binding; help swooning andheart-qualms, breed good blood, help consumptions, madness, and such as are muchweakened by sickness.Bonus Henricus. Good Henry, or all good; hot and dry, cleansing and scouring,inwardly taken it loosens the belly; outwardly it cleanseth old sores and ulcers.Botrys. Oak of Jerusalem: hot and dry in the second degree, helps such as are shortwinded,cuts and wastes gross and tough flegm, laid among cloaths they preservethem from moths, and give them a sweet smell.Branca ursina. Bears-breech.Brionia, &c. Briony, white and black; both are hot and dry in the third degree,purge violently, yet are held to be wholesome physic for such as have dropsies,vertigo, or swimming in the head, falling-sickness, &c. Certainly it is a strong,troublesome purge, therefore not to be tampered with by the unskilful, outwardly inointments it takes away freckles, wrinkles, morphew, scars, spots, &c. from the face.Bursa pastoris. Shepherd's Purse, is manifestly cold and dry, though Lobel andPena thought the contrary; it is binding and stops blood, the menses; and coolsinflammations.Buglossom. Buglosse. Its virtues are the same with Borrage.Bugula. Bugle, or Middle Comfrey; is temperate for heat, but very drying, excellentfor falls or inward bruises, for it dissolves congealed blood, profitable for inwardwounds, helps the rickets and other stoppings of the liver; outwardly it is of wonderfulforce in curing wounds and ulcers, though festered, as also gangreens and fistulas, ithelps broken bones, and dislocations. Inwardly you may take it in powder a dram at atime, or drink the decoction of it in white-wine: being made into an ointment withhog's grease, you shall find it admirable in green wounds.Buphthalmum, &c. Ox eye. Matthiolus saith they are commonly used for blackHellebore, to the virtues of which I refer.

Buxus. Boxtree: the leaves are hot, dry, and binding, they are profitable against thebiting of mad dogs; both taken inwardly boiled and applied to the place: besides theyare good to cure horses of the bots.Calamintha, Montana, Palustris. Mountain and Water Calamint. For the WaterCalamint see mints, than which it is accounted stronger. Mountain Calamint is hot anddry in the third degree, provokes urine and the menses, hastens the birth in women,brings away the placenta, helps cramps, convulsions, difficulty of breathing, killsworms, helps the dropsy: outwardly used, it helps such as hold their necks on oneside: half a dram is enough at one time. Galen, Dioscorides, Apuleius.Calendula, &c. Marigolds. The leaves are hot in the second degree, and somethingmoist, loosen the belly: the juice held in the mouth, helps the toothache, and takesaway any inflammation or hot swelling being bathed with it, mixed with a littlevinegar.Callitricum. Maiden-hair. See Adianthum.Caprisolium. Honey-suckles. The leaves are hot, and therefore naught forinflammations of the mouth and throat, for which the ignorant people oftentime givethem: and Galen was true in this, let modern writers write their pleasure. If you chewbut a leaf of it in your mouth, experience will tell you that it is likelier to cause, thanto cure a sore throat, they provoke urine, and purge by urine, bring speedy delivery towomen in travail, yet procure barrenness and hinder conception, outwardly they dryup foul ulcers, and cleanse the face from morphew, sun-burning and freckles.Carduncellus, &c. Groundsell. Cold and moist according to Tragus, helps thecholic, and gripings in the belly, helps such as cannot make water, cleanses the reins,purges choler and sharp humours: the usual way of taking it is to boil it in water withcurrants, and so eat it. I hold it to be a wholesome and harmless purge. Outwardly iteaseth women's breasts that are swollen and inflamed; as also inflammations of thejoints, nerves, or sinews. ‏.‏ginetaئCarduus B. ‏.وMari Our Ladies Thistles. They are far more temperate than CarduusBenedictus, open obstructions of the liver, help the jaundice and dropsy, provokeurine, break the stone.Carduus Benedictus. Blessed Thistle, but better known by the Latin name: it is hotand dry in the second degree, cleansing and opening, helps swimming and giddinessin the head, deafness, strengthens the memory, helps griping pains in the belly, killsworms, provokes sweat, expels poison, helps inflammation of the liver, is very goodin pestilence and venereal: outwardly applied, it ripens plague-sores, and helps hotswellings, the bitings of mad dogs and venomous beasts, and foul filthy ulcers. Everyone that can but make a Carduus posset, knows how to use it. Camerarius, Arnuldusvel anovanus.Chalina. See the roots, under the name of white Chameleon.Corallina. A kind of Sea Moss: cold, binding, drying, good for hot gouts,inflammations: also they say it kills worms, and therefore by some is called Mawwormseed.Cussutha, cascuta, potagralini. Dodder. See Epithimum.Caryophyllata. Avens, or Herb Bennet, hot and dry: they help the cholic, rawnessof the stomach, stitches in the sides, stoppings of the liver, and bruises.Cataputia minor. A kind of Spurge. See Tythymalus.Cattaria, Nepeta. Nep, or Catmints. The virtues are the same with Calaminth.Cauda Equina. Horse-tail; is of a binding drying quality, cures wounds, and is anadmirable remedy for sinews that are shrunk: it is a sure remedy for bleeding at the

nose, or by wound, stops the menses, fluxes, ulcers in the reins and bladder, coughs,ulcers in the lungs, difficulty of breathing.Caulis, Brassica hortensis, silvestris. Colewort, or Cabbages, garden and wild.They are drying and binding, help dimness of the sight: help the spleen, preserve fromdrunkenness, and help the evil effects of it; provoke the menses.Centaurium, majus, minus. Centaury the greater and less. They say the greater willdo wonders in curing wounds: see the root. The less is a present remedy for theyellow jaundice, opens stoppings of the liver, gall, and spleen: purges choler, helpsgout, clears the sight, purgeth the stomach, helps the dropsy and green sickness. It isonly the tops and flowers which are useful, of which you may take a dram inwardly inpowder, or half a handful boiled in posset-drink at a time.Centinodium, &c. Knotgrass: cold in the second degree, helps spitting and otherevacuations of blood, stops the menses and all other fluxes of blood, vomiting ofblood, gonorrhوa, or running of the reins, weakness of the back and joints,inflammations of the privities, and such as make water by drops, and it is an excellentremedy for hogs that will not eat their meat. Your only way is to boil it, it is in itsprime about the latter end of July or beginning of August: at which time beinggathered it may be kept dry all the year. Brassavolus, Camerarius.Caryfolium vulgare et Myrrhis. Common and great chervil. Take them bothtogether, and they are temperately hot and dry, provoke urine, stir up venery, comfortthe heart, and are good for old people; help pleurises and pricking in the sides.Cوpea, Anagallis aquatica. Brooklime, hot and dry, but not so hot and dry asWater cresses; they help mangy horses; see Water cresses.Ceterach, &c. Spleenwort: moderately hot, waste and consumes the spleen,insomuch that Vitruvius affirms he hath known hogs that have fed upon it, that havehad (when they were killed) no spleens at all. It is excellently good for melancholypeople, helps the stranguary, provokes urine, and breaks the stone in the bladder, boilit and drink the decoction; but because a little boiling will carry away the strength of itin vapours, let it boil but very little, and let it stand close stopped till it be cold beforeyou strain it out; this is the general rule for all simples of this nature.Chamapitys. Ground-pine; hot in the second degree, and dry in the third, helps thejaundice, sciatica, stopping of the liver, and spleen, provokes the menses, cleanses theentrails, dissolves congealed blood, resists poison, cures wounds and ulcers. Strongbodies may take a dram, and weak bodies half a dram of it in powder at a time.Chamوmelum, sativum, sylvestre. Garden and Wild Chamomel. GardenChamomel, is hot and dry in the first degree, and as gallant a medicine against thestone in the bladder as grows upon the earth, you may take it inwardly, I mean thedecoction of it, being boiled in white wine, or inject the juice of it into the bladderwith a syringe. It expels wind, helps belchings, and potently provokes the menses:used in baths, it helps pains in the sides, gripings and gnawings in the belly.Chamوdris, &c. Germander: hot and dry in the third degree; cuts and brings awaytough humours, opens stoppings of the liver and spleen, helps coughs and shortness ofbreath, stranguary and stopping of urine, and provokes the menses; half a dram isenough to take at a time.Chelidonium utrumque. Celandine both sorts. Small Celandine is usually calledPilewort; it is something hotter and dryer than the former, it helps the hemorrhoids orpiles, bruised and applied to the grief. Celandine the greater is hot and dry (they say inthe third degree) any way used; either the juice or made into an oil or ointment, it is agreat preserver of the sight, and an excellent help for the eyes.Cinara, &c. Artichokes. They provoke venery, and purge by urine.

Cichorium. Succory, to which add Endive which comes after. They are cold anddry in the second degree, cleansing and opening; they cool the heats of the liver, andare profitable in the yellow jaundice, and burning fevers; help excoriations in theprivities, hot stomachs; and outwardly applied, help hot rheums in the eyes.Cicuta. Hemlock: cold in the fourth degree, poisonous: outwardly applied, it helpsPriapismus, the shingles, St. Anthony's fire, or any eating ulcers.Clematis Daphnoides, Vinca provinca. Periwinkle. Hot in the second degree,something dry and binding; stops lasks, spitting of blood, and the menses.Consolida major. Comfrey, I do not conceive the leaves to be so virtuous as theroots.Consolida media. Bugles, of which before.Consolida minima. Dasies.Consolida rubra. Golden Rod: hot and dry in the second degree, cleanses the reins,provokes urine, brings away the gravel; an admirable herb for wounded people to takeinwardly, stops blood, &c.Consolida Regalis, Delphinium. Lark heels: resist poison, help the bitings ofvenomous beasts.Saracenica Solidago. Saracens Confound. Helps inward wounds, sore mouths, sorethroats, wasting of the lungs, and liver.Coronepus. Buchorn Plantane, or Sea-plantain; cold and dry, helps the bitings ofvenomous beasts, either taken inwardly or applied to the wound: helps the cholic,breaks the stone. ‏.‏ginetaئCoronaria. Hath got many English names. Cottonweed, Cudweed, Chaffweed, andPetty Cotton. Of a drying and binding nature; boiled in lye, it keeps the head from nitsand lice; being laid among clothes, it keeps them safe from moths, kills worms, helpsthe bitings of venomous beasts; taken in a tobacco-pipe, it helps coughs of the lungs,and vehement headaches.Cruciata. Crosswort: (there is a kind of Gentian called also by this name, which Ipass by) is drying and binding, exceeding good for inward or outward wounds, eitherinwardly taken, or outwardly applied: and an excellent remedy for such as are bursten.Crassula. Orpine. Very good: outwardly used with vinegar, it clears the skin;inwardly taken, it helps gnawings of the stomach and bowels, ulcers in the lungs,bloody-flux, and quinsy in the throat, for which last disease it is inferior to none, takenot too much of it at a time, because of its coolness.Crithamus, &c. Sampire. Hot and dry, helps difficulty of urine, the yellowjaundice, provokes the menses, helps digestion, opens stoppings of the liver andspleen. Galen.Cucumis Asininus. Wild Cucumbers. See Elaterium.Cyanus major, minor. Blue bottle, great and small, a fine cooling herb, helpsbruises, wounds, broken veins; the juice dropped into the eye, helps the inflammationsthereof.Cygnoglossam. Hound's-Tongue, cold and dry: applied to the fundament helps thehemorrhoids, heals wounds and ulcers, and is a present remedy against the bitings ofdogs, burnings and scaldings.Cypressus, Chamœ Cyparissus. Cypress-tree. The leaves are hot and binding, helpruptures, and Polypus or flesh growing on the nose.وCham cyparissus. Is Lavender Cotton. Resists poison, and kills worms.Disetamnus Cretensis. Dictamny, or Dittany of Creet, hot and dry, brings awaydead children, hastens delivery, brings away the placenta, the very smell of it drivesaway venomous beasts, so deadly an enemy it is to poison; it is an admirable remedy

against wounds and gunshot, wounds made with poisoned weapons, it draws outsplinters, broken bones, &c. The dose from half a dram to a dram.Dipsacus, sativ. sylv. Teazles, garden and wild, the leaves bruised and applied tothe temples, allay the heat in fevers, qualify the rage in frenzies; the juice droppedinto the ears, kills worms in them, dropped into the eyes, clears the sight, helpsredness and pimples in the face, being anointed with it.Ebulus. Dwarf Elder, or Walwort. Hot and dry in the third degree; waste hardswellings, being applied in form of a poultice; the hair of the head anointed with thejuice of it turns it black; the leaves being applied to the place, help inflammations,burnings, scaldings, the bitings of mad dogs; mingled with bulls suet is a presentremedy for the gout; inwardly taken, is a singular purge for the dropsy and gout.Echium. Viper's-bugloss, Viper's-herb, Snake bugloss, Walbugloss, Wild-bugloss,several counties give it these several names. It is a singular remedy being eaten, forthe biting of venomous beasts: continually eating of it makes the body invincibleagainst the poison of serpents, toads, spiders, &c. however it be administered; itcomforts the heart, expels sadness and melancholy. The rich may make the flowersinto a conserve, and the herb into a syrup, the poor may keep it dry, both may keep itas a jewel.Empetron, Calcifragra, Herniaria, &c. Rupture-wort, or Burst-wort. The Englishname tells you it is good against ruptures, and so such as are bursten shall find it, ifthey please to make trial of it,either inwardly taken, or outwardly applied to the place, or both. Also the Latinnames hold it forth to be good against the stone, which whoso tries shall find true.Enula Campana. Elicampane. Provokes urine. See the root.Epithimum. Dodder of Time, to which add common Dodder, which is usually thatwhich grows upon flax: indeed every Dodder retains a virtue of that herb or plant itgrows upon, as Dodder that grows upon Broom, provokes urine forcibly, and loosensthe belly, and is moister than that which grows upon flax; that which grows upontime, is hotter and dryer than that which grows upon flax, even in the third degree,opens obstructions, helps infirmities of the spleen, purgeth melancholy, relievesdrooping spirits, helps the rickets. That which grows on flax, is excellent for agues inyoung children, strengthens weak stomachs, purgeth choler, provokes urine, opensstoppings in the reins and bladder. That which grows upon nettles, provokes urineexceedingly. The way of using it is to boil it in white wine, or other convenientdecoction, and boil it very little. &Aelig;tias, Mesue, Actuarius, Serapio, Avicenna.Eruch. Rocket, hot and dry in the third degree, being eaten alone, causeth headache,by its heat procures urine. Galen.Eupatorium. See Ageratum.Euphragia. Eyebright is something hot and dry, the very sight of it refresheth theeyes; inwardly taken, it restores the sight, and makes old men's eyes young, a dram ofit taken in the morning is worth a pair of spectacles, it comforts and strengthens thememory, outwardly applied to the place, it helps the eyes.Filix fœmina.Filicula, polypidium. See the roots.Filipendula.Malahathram. Indian leaf, hot and dry in the second degree, comforts the stomachexceedingly, helps digestion, provokes urine, helps inflammations of the eyes, securescloaths from moths.

Fوniculum. Fennel, encreaseth milk in nurses, provokes urine, breaks the stone,easeth pains in the reins, opens stoppings, breaks wind, provokes the menses; youmay boil it in white wine.Fragaria. Strawberry leaves, are cold, dry, and binding, a singular remedy forinflammations and wounds, hot diseases in the throat; they stop fluxes and the terms,cool the heat of the stomach, and the inflammations of the liver. The best way is toboil them in barley water.Fraxinus, &c. Ash-trees, the leaves are moderately hot and dry, cure the bitings ofAdders, and Serpents; they stop looseness, and stay vomiting, help the rickets, openstoppages of the liver and spleen.Fumaria. Fumitory: cold and dry, it opens and cleanses by urine, helps such as areitchy, and scabbed, clears the skin, opens stoppings of the liver and spleen, helpsrickets, hypochondriac melancholy, madness, frenzies, quartan agues, loosens thebelly, gently purgeth melancholy, and addust choler: boil it in white wine, and takethis one general rule. All things of a cleansing or opening nature may be mostcommodiously boiled in white wine. Remember but this, and then I need not repeat it.Galega. Goat's-rue. Temperate in quality, resists poison, kills worms, helps thefalling-sickness, resists the pestilence. You may take a dram of it at a time in powder.Galion. Ladies-bed straw: dry and binding, stanches blood, boiled in oil, the oil isgood to anoint a weary traveller; inwardly it provokes venery.Gentiana. See the root.Genista. Brooms: hot and dry in the second degree, cleanse and open the stomach,break the stone in the reins and bladder, help the green sickness. Let such as aretroubled with heart-qualms or faintings, forbear it, for it weakens the heart and spiritvital. See the flowers.Geranium. Cranebill, the divers sorts of it, one of which is that which is calledMuscata; it is thought to be cool and dry, helps hot swellings, and by its smell amendsa hot brain.Geranium Columbinum. Doves-foot; helps the wind cholic, pains in the belly, stonein the reins and bladder, and is good in ruptures, and inward wounds. I suppose theseare the general virtues of them all.Gramen. Grass. See the root.Gratiola. Hedge-Hyssop, purges water and flegm, but works very churlishly.Gesner commends it in dropsies.Asphodelus fœm. See the root.Hepatica, Lichen. Liverwort, cold and dry, good for inflammations of the liver, orany other inflammations, yellow jaundice.Hedera Arborea, Terrostris. Tree and Ground-Ivy. Tree-Ivy helps ulcers, burnings,scaldings, the bad effects of the spleen; the juice snuffed up the nose, purges the head,it is admirable for surfeits or headache, or any other ill effects coming of drunkenness.Ground-Ivy is that which usually is called Alehoof, hot and dry, the juice helps noisein the ears, fistulas, gouts, stoppings of the liver, it strengthens the reins and stops themenses, helps the yellow jaundice, and other diseases coming of stoppings of theliver, and is excellent for wounded people.Herba Camphorata. Stinking Groundpine, is of a drying quality, and thereforestops defluxions either in the eyes or upon the lungs, the gout, cramps, palsies, aches:strengthens the nerves.Herba Paralysis, Primula veris. Primroses, or Cowslips, which you will. Theleaves help pains in the head and joints; see the flowers which are most in use.

Herba Paris. Herb True-love, or One-berry. It is good for wounds, falls, bruises,aposthumes, inflammations, ulcers in the privities. Herb True-love, is very cold intemperature. You may take half a dram of it at a time in powder.Herba Roberti. A kind of Cranebill.Herba venti, Anemone. Wind-flower. The juice snuffed up in the nose purgeth thehead, it cleanses filthy ulcers, encreases milk in nurses, and outwardly by ointment,helps leprosies.Herniaria. The same with Empetron.Helxine. Pellitory of the wall. Cold, moist, cleansing, helps the stone and gravel inthe kidnies, difficulty of urine, sore throats, pains in the ears, the juice being droppedin them; outwardly it helps the shingles and St. Anthony's fire.Hyppoglossum. Horse-tongue, Tongue-blade or Double-Tongue. The roots help thestranguary, provoke urine, ease the hard labour of women, provoke the menses, theherb helps ruptures and the fits of the mother: it is hot in the second degree, dry in thefirst: boil it in white wine.Hyppolapathum. Patience, or Monk's Rhubarb. See the Root.Hypposclinum. Alexanders, or Alisanders: provoke urine, expel the placenta, helpthe stranguary, expel wind.Sage either taken inwardly or beaten and applied plaister-wise to the matrix, drawsforth both menses and placenta.Horminum. Clary: hot and dry in the third degree; helps the weakness in the back,stops the running of the reins, and the Fluor Albus, provokes the menses, and helpswomen that are barren through coldness or moisture, or both: causes fruitfulness, butis hurtful for the memory. The usual way of taking it is to fry it with butter, or make atansy with it.Hydropiper. Arsmart. Hot and dry, consumes all cold swellings and bloodcongealed by bruises, and stripes; applied to the place, it helps that aposthume in thejoints, commonly called a felon: strewed in a chamber, kills all the fleas there: this ishottest Arsmart, and is unfit to be given inwardly: there is a milder sort, calledPersicaria, which is of a cooler and milder quality, drying, excellently good forputrified ulcers, kills worms. I had almost forgot that the former is an admirableremedy for the gout, being roasted between two tiles and applied to the grieved place,and yet I had it from Dr. Butler too.Hysopus. Hysop. Helps coughs, shortness of breath, wheezing, distillations uponthe lungs: it is of a cleansing quality: kills worms in the body, amends the wholecolour of the body, helps the dropsy and spleen, sore throats, and noise in the ears.See Syrup of Hysop.Hyosciamus, &c. Henbane. The white Henbane is held to be cold in the thirddegree, the black or common Henbane and the yellow, in the fourth. They stupify thesenses, and therefore not to be taken inwardly, outwardly applied, they helpinflammations, hot gouts: applied to the temples they provoke sleep.Hypericon. St. John's Wort. It is as gallant a wound-herb as any is, either giveninwardly, or outwardly applied to the wound: it is hot and dry, opens stoppings, helpsspitting and vomiting of blood, it cleanses the reins, provokes the menses, helpscongealed blood in the stomach and meseraic veins, the falling-sickness, palsy,cramps and aches in the joints; you may give it in powder or any convenientdecoction.Hypoglottis, Laurus, Alexandrina. Laurel of Alexandria, provokes urine and themenses, and is held to be a singular help to women in travail.

Hypoglossum, the same with Hypoglossum before, only different names given bydifferent authors, the one deriving his name from the tongue of a horse, of which formthe leaf is; the other the form of the little leaf, because small leaves like small tonguesgrow upon the greater.Iberis Cardamantice. Sciatica-cresses. I suppose so called because they help theSciatica, or Huckle-bone Gout.Ingunialis, Asther. Setwort or Shartwort: being bruised and applied, they helpswellings, botches, and venerous swellings in the groin, whence they took their name,as also inflammation and falling out of the fundament.Iris. See the roots.Isatis, Glastum. Woad. Drying and binding; the side being bathed with it, it easethpains in the spleen, cleanseth filthy corroding gnawing ulcers.Iva Arthritica. The same with Camوpytis.Iuncus oderatus. The same with Schœnanthus.Labrum veneris. The same with Dipsacus.Lactuca. Lettice. Cold and moist, cools the inflammation of the stomach,commonly called heart-burning: provokes sleep, resists drunkenness, and takes awaythe ill effects of it; cools the blood, quenches thirst, breeds milk, and is good forcholeric bodies, and such as have a frenzy, or are frantic. It is more wholesome eatenboiled than raw.Logabus, Herba Leporina. A kind of Trefoil growing in France and Spain. Letthem that live there look after the virtues of it.Lavendula. Lavender. Hot and dry in the third degree: the temples and foreheadbathed with the juice of it; as also the smell of the herb helps swoonings, catalepsis,falling-sickness, provided it be not accompanied with a fever. See the flowers.Laureola. Laurel. The leaves purge upward and downward: they are good forrheumatic people to chew in their mouths, for they draw forth much water.Laurus. Bay-tree. The leaves are hot and dry, resist drunkenness, they gently bindand help diseases in the bladder, help the stinging of bees and wasps, mitigate the painof the stomach, dry and heal, open obstructions of the liver and spleen, resist thepestilence.Lappa Minor. The lesser Burdock.Lentiscus. Mastich-tree. Both the leaves and bark of it stop fluxes (being hot anddry in the second degree) spitting and evacuations of blood, and the falling out of thefundament.Lens palustris. Duckmeat. Cold and moist in the second degree, helpsinflammations, hot swellings, and the falling out of the fundament, being warmed andapplied to the place.Lepidium Piperites. Dittander, Pepperwort, or Scar-wort. A hot fiery sharp herb,admirable for the gout being applied to the place: being only held in the hand, it helpsthe tooth-ache, and withall leaves a wan colour in the hand that holds it.Livisticum. Lovage. Clears the sight, takes away redness and freckles from the face.Libanotis Coronaria. See Rosemary.Linaria. Toad-flax, or Wild-flax: hot and dry, cleanses the reins and bladder,provokes urine, opens the stoppings of the liver and spleen, and helps diseases comingthereof: outwardly it takes away yellowness and deformity of the skin.Lillium convallium. Lilly of the Valley. See the flowers.Lingua Cervina. Hart's-tongue: drying and binding, stops blood, the menses andfluxes, opens stoppings of the liver and spleen, and diseases thence arising. The likequantity of Hart's-tongue, Knotgrass and Comfrey Roots, being boiled in water, and a

draught of the decoction drunk every morning, and the materials which have boiledapplied to the place, is a notable remedy for such as are bursten.Limonium. Sea-bugloss, or Marsh-bugloss, or Sea-Lavender; the seeds being verydrying and binding, stop fluxes and the menses, help the cholic and stranguary.Lotus urbana. Authors make some flutter about this herb. I conceive the best take itto be Trisolium Odoratum, Sweet Trefoyl, which is of a temperate nature, cleanses theeyes gently of such things as hinder the sight, cures green wounds, ruptures, orburstness, helps such as urine blood or are bruised, and secures garments from moths.Lupulus. Hops. Opening, cleansing, provoke urine, the young sprouts openstoppings of the liver and spleen, cleanse the blood, clear the skin, help scabs and itch,help agues, purge choler: they are usually boiled and taken as they eat asparagus, butif you would keep them, for they are excellent for these diseases, you may make theminto a conserve, or into a syrup.Lychnitis Coronaria: or as others write it, Lychnis. Rose Campion. I know no greatphysical virtue it hath.Macis. See the barks.Magistrantia, &c. Masterwort. Hot and dry in the third degree: it is good againstpoison, pestilence, corrupt and unwholesome air, helps windiness in the stomach,causeth an appetite to one's victuals, very profitable in falls and bruises, congealedand clotted blood, the bitings of mad-dogs; the leaves chewed in the mouth, cleansethe brain of superfluous humours, thereby preventing lethargies, and apoplexes.Malva. Mallows. The best of Authors account wild Mallows to be best, and holdthem to be cold and moist in the first degree, they are profitable in the bitings ofvenomous beasts, the stinging of bees and wasps, &c. Inwardly they resist poison,provoke to stool; outwardly they assuage hard swellings of the privities or otherplaces; in clysters they help roughness and fretting of the entrails, bladder, orfundament; and so they do being boiled in water, and the decoction drank, as I haveproved in the bloody flux.Majorana. See Amaraeus.Mandragora. Mandrakes. Fit for no vulgar use, but only to be used in coolingointments.Marrubium, album, nigrum, fœtidum.Marrubium album, is common Horehound. Hot in the second degree, and dry in thethird, opens the liver and spleen, cleanses the breast and lungs, helps old coughs,pains in the sides ptisicks, or ulceration of the lungs, it provokes the menses, easeshard labour in child-bearing, brings away the placenta. See the syrups.Marrubium, nigrum, et fœtidum. Black and stinking Horehound, I take to be all one.Hot and dry in the third degree; cures the bitings of mad dogs, wastes and consumeshard knots in the fundament and matrix, cleanses filthy ulcers.Marum. Herb Mastich. Hot and dry in the third degree, good against cramps andconvulsions.Matricaria. Feverfew. Hot in the third degree, dry in the second; opens, purges; asingular remedy for diseases incident to the matrix, and other diseases incident towomen, eases their travail, and infirmities coming after it; it helps the vertigo ordissiness of the head, melancholy sad thoughts: you may boil it either alone, or withother herbs fit for the same purpose, with which this treatise will furnish you: appliedto the wrists, it helps the ague.Matrisylva. The same with Caprifolium.Meliotus. Melilot. Inwardly taken, provokes urine, breaks the Stone, cleanses thereins and bladder, cutteth and cleanses the lungs of tough flegm, the juice dropped

into the eyes, clears the sight, into the ears, mitigates pain and noise there; the headbathed with the juice mixed with vinegar, takes away the pains thereof: outwardly inpultisses, it assuages swellings in the privities and elsewhere.Mellissa. Balm. Hot and dry: outwardly mixed with salt and applied to the neck,helps the King's-evil, bitings of mad dogs, venomous beasts, and such as cannot holdtheir neck as they should do; inwardly it is an excellent remedy for a cold and moiststomach, cheers the heart, refreshes the mind, takes away griefs, sorrow, and care,instead of which it produces joy and mirth. See the syrup. Galen, Avicenna.Mentha sativa. Garden Mints, Spear Mints. Are hot and dry in the third degree,provoke hunger, are wholesome for the stomach, stay vomiting, stop the menses, helpsore heads in children, strengthen the stomach, cause digestion; outwardly applied,they help the bitings of mad-dogs. Yet they hinder conception.Mentha aquatica. Water Mints. Ease pains of the belly, headache, and vomiting,gravel in the kidnies and stone.Methastrum. Horse-mint. I know no difference between them and water mints.Mercurialis, mas, fœmina. Mercury male and female, they are both hot and dry inthe second degree, cleansing, digesting, they purge watery humours, and furtherconception.Mezereon. Spurge-Olive, or Widdow-wail. A dangerous purge, better let alone thanmeddled with.Millefolium. Yarrow. Meanly cold and binding, an healing herb for wounds,stanches bleeding; and some say the juice snuffed up the nose, causeth it to bleed,whence it was called, Nose-bleed; it stops lasks, and the menses, helps the running ofthe reins, helps inflammations and excoriations of the priapus, as also inflammationsof wounds. Galen.Muscus. Mosse. Is something cold and binding, yet usually retains a smatch of theproperty of the tree it grows on; therefore that which grows upon oaks is very dry andbinding. Serapio saiththat it being infused in wine, and the wine drank, it stays vomiting and fluxes, asalso the Fluor Albus.Myrtus. Myrtle-tree. The leaves are of a cold earthly quality, drying and binding,good for fluxes, spitting and vomiting of blood; stop the Fluor Albus and menses.Nardus. See the root.Nasturtium, Aquaticum, Hortense. Water-cresses, and Garden-cresses. Gardencressesare hot and dry in the fourth degree, good for the scurvy, sciatica, hardswellings; yet do they trouble the belly, ease pains of the spleen, provoke lust.Dioscorides. Water-cresses are hot and dry, cleanse the blood, help the scurvy,provoke urine and the menses, break the stone, help the green-sickness, cause a freshlively colour.Nasturtium Alhum, Thlaspie. Treacle-mustard. Hot and dry in the third degree,purges violently, dangerous for pregnant women. Outwardly it is applied with profitto the gout.Nicorimi. Tobacco. It is hot and dry in the second degree, and of a cleansing nature:the leaves warmed and applied to the head, are excellently good in inveterate headachesand megrims, if the diseases come through cold or wind, change them often tillthe diseases be gone, help such whose necks be stiff: it eases the faults of the breast:Asthmas or head-flegm in the lappets of the lungs: eases the pains of the stomach andwindiness thereof: being heated by the fire, and applied hot to the side, they loosenthe belly, and kill worms being applied unto it in like manner: they break the stonebeing applied in like manner to the region of the bladder: help the rickets, being

applied to the belly and sides: applied to the navel, they give present ease to the fits ofthe mother: they take away cold aches in the joints applied to them: boiled, the liquorabsolutely and speedily cures scabs and itch: neither is there any better salve in theworld for wounds than may be made of it: for it cleanses, fetches out the filth thoughit lie in the bones, brings up the flesh from the bottom, and all this it doth speedily: itcures wounds made with poisoned weapons, and for this Clusius brings manyexperiences too tedious here to relate. It is an admirable thing for carbuncles andplague-sores, inferior to none: green wounds 'twill cure in a trice: ulcers andgangreens very speedily, not only in men, but also in beasts, therefore the Indiansdedicated it to their god. Taken in a pipe, it hath almost as many virtues; it easethweariness, takes away the sense of hunger and thirst, provokes to stool: he saith, theIndians will travel four days without either meat or drink, by only chewing a little ofthis in their mouths. It eases the body of superfluous humours, opens stoppings. Seethe ointment of Tobacco.Nummularia. Money-wort, or Herb Two-pence; cold, dry, binding, helps fluxes,stops the menses, helps ulcers in the lungs; outwardly it is a special herb for wounds.Nymphea. See the flowers.Ocynum. Basil, hot and moist. The best use that I know of it, is, it gives speedydeliverance to women in travail. Let them not take above half a dram of it at a time inpowder, and be sure also the birth be ripe, else it causes abortion.وOle folia. Olive leaves: they are hard to come by here.Ononis. Restharrow. See the roots.Ophioglossum. Adder's-tongue. The leaves are very drying: being boiled in oil theymake a dainty green balsam for green wounds: taken inwardly, they help inwardwounds.Origanum. Origany: a kind of wild Marjoram; hot and dry in the third degree, helpsthe bitings of venomous beasts, such as have taken Opium, Hemlock, or Poppy;provokes urine, brings down the menses, helps old coughs; in an ointment it helpsscabs and itch.Oxylapathum. Sorrel. See Acetosa.Papaver, &c. Poppies, white, black, or erratick. I refer you to the syrups of each.Parietaria. Given once before under the name of Helxine.Pastinوa. Parsnips. See the roots.Persicaria. See Hydropiper. This is the milder sort of Arsmart I described there. Ifever you find it amongst the compounds, take it under that notion.Pentaphyllium. Cinquefoil: very drying, yet but meanly hot, if at all; helps ulcers inthe mouth, roughness of the wind-pipe (whence comes hoarseness and coughs, &c.),helps fluxes, creeping ulcers, and the yellow jaundice; they say one leaf cures aquotidian ague, three a tertain, and four a quartan. I know it will cure agues withoutthis curiosity, if a wise man have the handling of it; otherwise a cart load will not doit.Petroselinum. Parsley. See Smallage.Per Columbinus. See Geranium.Persicarium folia. Peach Leaves: they are a gentle, yet a complete purger of choler,and disease coming from thence; fit for children because of their gentleness. You mayboil them in white wine: a handfull is enough at a time.Pilosella. Mouse-ear: once before and this is often enough.Pithyusa. A new name for Spurge of the last Edition.Plantago. Plantain. Cold and dry; an herb, though common, yet let none despise it,for the decoction of it prevails mightily against tormenting pains and excoriations of

the entrails, bloody fluxes, it stops the menses, and spitting of blood, phthisicks, orconsumptions of the lungs, the running of the reins, and the Fluor Albus, pains in thehead, and frenzies: outwardly it clears the sight, takes away inflammations, cabs, itch,the shingles, and all spreading sores, and is as wholesome an herb as can grow aboutany an house. Tragus, Dioscorides.Poliam, &c. Polley, or Pellamountain. All the sorts are hot in the second degree,and dry in the third: helps dropsies, the yellow jaundice, infirmities of the spleen, andprovokes urine. Dioscorides.Polygonum. Knotgrass.Polytricum. Maidenhair.Portulaca. Purslain. Cold and moist in the second or third degree: cools hotstomachs, and it is admirable for one that hath his teeth on edge by eating sour apples,it cools the blood, liver, and is good for hot diseases, or inflammations in any of theseplaces, stops fluxes, and the menses, and helps all inward inflammations whatsoever.Porrum. Leeks. See the roots.Primula Veris. See Cowslips, or the Flowers, which you will.Prunella. Self-heal, Carpenter's-herb, and Sicklewort. Moderately hot and dry,binding. See Bugle, the virtues being the same.Pulegium. Pennyroyal; hot and dry in the third degree; provokes urine, breaks thestone in the reins, strengthens women's backs, provokes the menses, easeth theirlabour in child-bed, brings away the placenta, stays vomiting, strengthens the brain,breaks wind, and helps the vertigo.Pulmonaria, arborea, et Symphytum maculosum. Lung-wort. It helps infirmities ofthe lungs, as hoarseness, coughs, wheezing, shortness of breath, &c. You may boil itin Hyssop-water, or any other water that strengthens the lungs.Pulicaria. Fleabane; hot and dry in the third degree, helps the biting of venomousbeasts, wounds and swellings, the yellow jaundice, the falling sickness, and such ascannot make water; being burnt, the smoak of it kills all the gnats and fleas in thechamber; it is dangerous for pregnant women.Pyrus sylvestris. Wild Pear-tree. I know no virtue in the leaves.Pyrola. Winter-green. Cold and dry, and very binding, stops fluxes, and themenses, and is admirably good in green wounds.Quercus folia. Oak Leaves. Are much of the nature of the former, stay the FluorAlbus. See the bark.Ranunculus. Hath got a sort of English Names: Crowfoot, King-kob, Gold-cups,Gold-knobs, Butter-flowers, &c. they are of a notable hot quality, unfit to be takeninwardly. If you bruise the roots and apply them to a plague-sore, they are notablethings to draw the venom to them.Raparum folia. If they do mean Turnip leaves, when they are young and tender,they are held to provoke urine.Rosmarirum. Rosemary, hot and dry in the second degree, binding, stops fluxes,helps stuffings in the head, the yellow jaundice, helps the memory, expels wind. Seethe flowers. Serapio, Dioscorides.Rosa solis. See the water.Rosa alba, rubra, Damascena. White, Red, and Damask Roses.Rumex. Dock. All the ordinary sort of Docks are of a cool and drying substance,and therefore stop fluxes; and the leaves are seldom used in physic.Rubus Idوus. Raspis, Raspberries, or Hind-berries. I know no great virtues in theleaves.

Ruta. Rue, or Herb of Grace; hot and dry in the third degree, consumes the seed,and is an enemy to generation, helps difficulty of breathing, and inflammations of thelungs, pains in the sides, inflammations of the priapus and matrix, naught for pregnantwomen: no herb resists poison more. It strengthens the heart exceedingly, and no herbbetter than this in pestilential times, take it what manner you will or can.Ruta Muraria. See Adianthum.Sabina. Savin: hot and dry in the third degree, potently provokes the menses,expels both birth and afterbirth, they (boiled in oil and used in ointments) staycreeping ulcers, scour away spots, freckles and sunburning from the face; the bellyanointed with it kills worms in children.Salvia. Sage: hot and dry in the second or third degree, binding, it stays abortion insuch women as are subject to come before their times, it causes fruitfulness, it issingularly good for the brain, strengthens the senses and memory, helps spitting andvomiting of blood: outwardly, heat hot with a little vinegar and applied to the side,helps stitches and pains in the sides.Salix. Willow leaves, are cold, dry, and binding, stop spitting of blood, and fluxes;the boughs stuck about a chamber, wonderfully cool the air, and refresh such as havefevers; the leaves applied to the head, help hot diseases there, and frenzies.Sampsucum. Marjoram.Sunicula. Sanicle; hot and dry in the second degree, cleanses wounds and ulcers.Saponaria. Sope-wort, or Bruise-wort, vulgarly used in bruises and cut fingers, andis of notable use in the veneral disease.Satureia. Savory. Summer savory is hot and dry in the third degree, Winter savoryis not so hot, both of them expel wind.Sazifragia alba. White Saxifrage, breaks wind, helps the cholic and stone.Scabiosa. Scabious: hot and dry in the second degree, cleanses the breast and lungs,helps old rotten coughs, and difficulty of breathing, provokes urine, and cleanses thebladder of filthy stuff, breaks aposthumes, and cures scabs and itch. Boil it in whitewine.Scariola. An Italian name for Succory.Schœnanthus. Schœnanth, Squinanth, or Chamel's hay; hot and binding. It digestsand opens the passages of the veins: surely it is as great an expeller of wind as any is.Scordium. Water-Germander, hot and dry, cleanses ulcers in the inward parts, itprovokes urine and the menses, opens stopping of the liver, spleen, reins, bladder, andmatrix, it is a great counter poison, and eases the breast oppressed with flegm. SeeDiascordium.Scrophularia. Figwort, so called of Scrophula, the King's Evil, which it cures theysay, by being only hung about the neck. If not, bruise it, and apply it to the place, ithelps the piles or hemorrhoids.Sedum. And all his sorts. See Barba Jovis.Senna. It heats in the second degree and dries in the first, cleanses, purges anddigests; it carries downward both choler, flegm, and melancholy, it cleanses the brain,heart, liver, spleen; it cheers the senses, opens obstructions, takes away dullness ofsight, helps deafness, helps melancholy and madness, resists resolution of the nerves,pains of the head, scabs, itch, falling-sickness, the windiness of it is corrected with alittle ginger. You may boil half an ounce of it at a time, in water or white wine, butboil it not too much; half an ounce is a moderate dose to be boiled for any reasonablebody.Serpillum. Mother-of-Time, with Time; it is hot and dry in the third degree, itprovokes the menses, and helps the stranguary or stoppage of urine, gripings in the

elly, ruptures, convulsions, inflammation of the liver, lethargy, and infirmities of thespleen, boil it in white wine. ‏,‏tiusئ Galen.Sigillum Solomonis. Solomon's seal. See the root.Smyrnium. Alexander of Crete.Solanum. Night-shade: very cold and dry, binding; it is somewhat dangerous giveninwardly, unless by a skilful hand; outwardly it helps the Shingles, St. Anthony's fire,and other hot inflammations.Soldanella. Bindweed, hot and dry in the second degree, it opens obstructions ofthe liver, and purges watery humours, and is therefore very profitable in dropsies, it isvery hurtful to the stomach, and therefore if taken inwardly it had need be wellcorrected with cinnamon, ginger, or annis-seed, &c.Sonchus levis Asper. Sow-thistles smooth and rough, they are ofa cold, watery, yet binding quality, good for frenzies, they increase milk in nurses,and cause the children which they nurse to have a good colour, help gnawings of thestomach coming of a hot cause; outwardly they help inflammations, and hotswellings, cool the heat of the fundament and privities.Sophi Chirurgorum. Fluxweed: drying without any manifest heat or coldness; it isusually found about old ruinous buildings; it is so called because of its virtue instopping fluxes.Shinachia. Spinage. I never read any physical virtues of it.Spina Alba. See the root.Spica. See Nardus.Stوbe. Silver Knapweed. The virtues be the same with Scabious, and some thinkthe herbs too; though I am of another opinion.Stœchas. French Lavender. Cassidony, is a great counterpoison, opens obstructionsof the liver and spleen, cleanses the matrix and bladder, brings out corrupt humours,provokes urine.Succisa, Marsus Diaboli. Devil's-bit. Hot and dry in the second degree: inwardlytaken, it eases the fits of the mother, and breaks wind, takes away swellings in themouth, and slimy flegm that stick to the jaws, neither is there a more present remedyin the world for those cold swellings in the neck which the vulgar call the almonds ofthe ears, than this herb bruised and applied to them.Suchaha. An Egyptian Thorn. Very hard, if not impossible to come by here.Tanacetum. Tansy: hot in the second degree and dry in the third; the very smell ofit stays abortion, or miscarriages in women; so it doth being bruised and applied totheir navels, provokes urine, and is a special help against the gout.Taraxacon. Dandelion, or to write better French, Dent-de-lion, for in plain English,it is called lyon's tooth; it is a kind of Succory, and thither I refer you.Tamariscus. Tamiris. It hath a dry cleansing quality, and hath a notable virtueagainst the rickets, and infirmities of the spleen, provokes the menses. Galen,Dioscorides.Telephium. A kind of Opine.Thlaspi. See Nasturtium.Thymbra. A wild Savory.Thymum. Thyme. Hot and dry in the third degree; helps coughs and shortness ofbreath, provokes the menses, brings away dead children and the after birth; purgesflegm, cleanses the breast and lungs, reins and matrix; helps the sciatica, pains in thebreast, expels wind in any part of the body, resists fearfulness and melancholy,continual pains in the head, and is profitable for such as have the falling-sickness tosmell to.

Thymوlea. The Greek name for Spurge-Olive: Mezereon being the Arabick name.Tithymallus, Esula, &c. Spurge. Hot and dry in the fourth degree: a dogged purge,better let alone than taken inwardly: hair anointed with the juice of it will fall off: itkills fish, being mixed with any thing that they will eat: outwardly it cleanses ulcers,takes away freckles, sunburning and morphew from the face.Tormentilla. See the root.Trinitatis herba. Pansies, or Heart's-ease. They are cold and moist, both herbs andflowers, excellent against inflammations of the breast or lungs, convulsions or fallingsickness,also they are held to be good for venereal complaints.Trifolium. Trefoil: dry in the third degree, and cold. The ordinary Meadow Trefoil,cleanses the bowels of slimy humours that stick to them, being used either in drinks orclysters; outwardly they take away inflammations.Tussilago. Colt's-foot: something cold and dry, and therefore good forinflammations, they are admirably good for coughs, and consumptions of the lungs,shortness of breath, &c. It is often used and with good success taken in a tobaccopipe,being cut and mixed with a little oil of annis seeds. See the Syrup of Colt's-foot.Valeriana. Valerian, or Setwall. See the roots.Verbascum, Thapsus Barbatus. Mullin, or Higtaper. It is something dry, and of adigesting, cleansing quality, stops fluxes and the hemorrhoids, it cures hoarseness, thecough, and such as are broken winded.Verbena. Vervain: hot and dry, a great opener, cleanser, healer, it helps the yellowjaundice, defects in the reins and bladder, pains in the head; if it be but bruised andhung about the neck, all diseases in the privities; made into an ointment it is asovereign remedy for old head-aches, as also frenzies, it clears the skin, and causes alovely colour.Voronica. See Betonica Pauli.Violaria. Violet Leaves: they are cool, ease pains in the head proceeding of heatand frenzies, either inwardly taken or outwardly applied; heat of the stomach, orinflammation of the lungs.Vitis Viniseria. The manured Vine: the leaves are binding and cool withal; the burntashes of the sticks of a vine, scour the teeth and make them as white as snow; theleaves stop bleeding, fluxes, heart-burnings, vomitings; as also the longings ofpregnant women. The coals of a burnt Vine, in powder, mixed with honey, doth makethe teeth as white as ivory, which are rubbed with it.Vincitoxicum. Swallow-wort. A pultis made with the leaves helps sore breasts, andalso soreness of the matrix.Virga Pastoris. A third name for Teazles. See Dipsatus.Virga Aurea. See Consolida.Ulmaria. See the root. Meadsweet.Umbilicus Veneris. Navil-wort. Cold, dry, and binding, therefore helps allinflammations; they are very good for kibed heels, being bathed with it and a leaf laidover the sore.Urtica. Nettles: an herb so well known, that you may find them by the feeling in thedarkest night: they are something hot, not very hot; the juice stops bleeding; theyprovoke lust, help difficulty of breathing, pleurisies, inflammations of the lung; thattroublesome cough that women call the Chincough; they exceedingly break the stone,provoke urine, and help such as cannot hold their necks upright. Boil them in whitewine.Usnea. Moss; once before.

FLOWERSBorage, and Bugloss flowers strengthen the brain, and are profitable in fevers.Chamomel flowers, heat and assuage swellings, inflammation of the bowels,dissolve wind, are profitably given in clysters or drink, to such as are troubled withthe cholic, or stone.Stوchea, opens stoppings in the bowels, and strengthens the whole body.Saffron powerfully concocts, and sends out whatever humour offends the body,drives back inflammations; applied outwardly, encreases venery, and provokes urine.Clove-Gilliflowers, resist the pestilence, strengthen the heart, liver, and stomach,and provoke venery.Schœnanth (which I touched slightly amongst the herbs) provokes urine potently,provokes the menses, breaks wind, helps such as spit or vomit blood, eases pains ofthe stomach, reins, and spleen, helps dropsies, convulsions, and inflammations of thewomb.Lavender-flowers, resist all cold afflictions of the brain, convulsions, fallingsickness,they strengthen cold stomachs, and open obstructions of the liver, theyprovoke urine and the menses, bring forth the birth and placenta.Hops, open stoppings of the bowels, and for that cause beer is better than ale.Balm-flowers, cheer the heart and vital spirits, strengthen the stomach.Rosemary-flowers, strengthen the brain exceedingly, and resist madness; clear thesight.Winter-Gilliflowers, or Wall-flowers, help inflammation of the womb, provoke themenses, and help ulcers in the mouth.Honey-suckles, provoke urine, ease the pains of the spleen, and such as can hardlyfetch their breath.Mallows, help coughs.Red Roses, cool, bind, strengthen both vital and animal virtue, restore such as are inconsumptions, strengthen. There are so many compositions of them which makes memore brief in the simples.Violets, (to wit, the blue ones,) cool and moisten, provoke sleep, loosen the belly,resist fevers, help inflammations, correct the heat of choler, ease the pains in the head,help the roughness of the wind-pipe, diseases in the throat, inflammations in thebreast and sides, plurisies, open stoppings of the liver, and help the yellow jaundice.Chicory, (or Succory as the vulgar call it) cools and strengthens the liver, so dothEndive.Water lilies ease pains of the head coming of choler and heat, provoke sleep, coolinflammations, and the heat in fevers.Pomegranate-flowers, dry and bind, stop fluxes, and the menses.Cowslips, strengthen the brain, senses, and memory, exceedingly, resist all diseasesthere, as convulsions, falling-sickness, palsies, &c.Centaury, purges choler and gross humours, helps the yellow jaundice, opensobstructions of the liver, helps pains of the spleen, provokes the menses, brings awaybirth and afterbirth.Elder flowers, help dropsies, cleanse the blood, clear the skin, open stoppings of theliver and spleen, and diseases arising therefrom.Bean-flowers, clear the skin, stop humours flowing into the eyes.Peach-tree flowers, purge choler gently.Broom-flowers, purge water, and are good in dropsies.The temperature of all these differ either very little or not at all from the herbs.

The way of using the flowers I did forbear, because most of them may, and areusually made into conserves, of which you may take the quantity of a nutmeg in themorning; all of them may be kept dry a year, and boiled with other herbs conducing tothe cures they do.FRUITS AND THEIR BUDSGreen Figs, are held to be of ill juice, but the best is, we are not much troubled withthem in England; dry figs help coughs, cleanse the breast, and help infirmities of thelungs, shortness of wind, they loose the belly, purge the reins, help inflammations ofthe liver and spleen; outwardly they dissolve swellings.Pine-nuts, restore such as are in consumptions, amend the failings of the lungs,concoct flegm, and yet are naught for such as are troubled with the head-ache.Dates, are binding, stop eating ulcers being applied to them; they are very good forweak stomachs, for they soon digest, and breed good nourishment, they helpinfirmities of the reins, bladder, and womb.Sebestens, cool choler, violent heat of the stomach, help roughness of the tongueand wind-pipe, cool the reins and bladder.Raisins of the Sun, help infirmities of the breast and liver, restore consumptions,gently cleanse and move to stool.Walnuts, kill worms, resist the pestilence, (I mean the green ones, not the dry).Capers eaten before meals, provoke hunger.Nutmegs, strengthen the brain, stomach, and liver, provoke urine, ease the pains ofthe spleen, stop looseness, ease pains of the head, and pains in the joints, strengthenthe body, take away weakness coming of cold, and cause a sweet breath.Cloves, help digestion, stop looseness, provoke lust, and quicken the sight.Pepper, binds, expels wind, helps the cholic, quickens digestion oppressed withcold, heats the stomach.Quinces. See the Compositions.Pears are grateful to the stomach, drying, and therefore help fluxes.All plums that are sharp or sour, are binding, the sweet are loosening.Cucumbers, cool the stomach, and are good against ulcers in the bladder.Galls, are exceeding binding, help ulcers in the mouth, wasting of the gums, easethe pains of the teeth, help the falling out of the womb and fundament, make the hairblack.Pompions are a cold and moist fruit, of small nourishment, they provoke urine,outwardly applied; the flesh of them helps inflammations and burnings; applied to theforehead they help inflammations of the eyes.Melons, have few other virtues.Apricots, are very grateful to the stomach, and dry up the humours thereof. Peachesare held to do the like.Cubebs, are hot and dry in the third degree, they expel wind, and cleanse thestomach of tough and viscous humours, they ease thepains of the spleen, and help cold diseases of the womb, they cleanse the head offlegm and strengthen the brain, they heat the stomach and provoke venery.Bitter Almonds, are hot in the first degree and dry in the second, they cleanse andcut thick humours, cleanse the lungs, and eaten every morning, they are held topreserve from drunkenness.Bay-berries, heat, expel wind, mitigate pain; are excellent for cold infirmities of thewomb, and dropsies.

Cherries are of different qualities according to their different taste, the sweet arequickest of digestion, but the sour are more pleasing to a hot stomach, and procureappetite to one's meat.Medlars, are strengthening to the stomach, binding, and the green are more bindingthan the rotten, and the dry than the green.Olives, cool and bind.English-currants, cool the stomach, and are profitable in acute fevers, they quenchthirst, resist vomiting, cool the heat of choler, provoke appetite, and are good for hotcomplexions.Services, or Chockers are of the nature of Medlars, but something weaker inoperation.Barberries, quench thirst, cool the heat of choler, resist the pestilence, stayvomiting and fluxes, stop the menses, kill worms, help spitting of blood, fasten theteeth, and strengthen the gums.Strawberries, cool the stomach, liver, and blood, but are very hurtful for such ashave agues.Winter-Cherries, potently provoke urine, and break the stone.Cassia-fistula, is temperate in quality, gently purgeth choler and flegm, clarifies theblood, resists fevers, cleanses the breast and lungs, it cools the reins, and therebyresists the breeding of the stone, it provokes urine, and therefore is exceeding good forthe running of the reins in men, and the Fluor Albus in women.All the sorts or Myrobalans, purge the stomach; the Indian Myrobalans, are held topurge melancholy most especially, the other flegm; yet take heed you use them not instoppings of the bowels: they are cold and dry, they all strengthen the heart, brain, andsinews, strengthen the stomach, relieve the senses, take away tremblings and heartqualms.They are seldom used alone.Prunes, are cooling and loosening.Tamarinds, are cold and dry in the second degree, they purge choler, cool theblood, stay vomiting, help the yellow jaundice, quench thirst, cool hot stomachs, andhot livers.I omit the use of these also as resting confident a child of three years old, if youshould give it Raisins of the sun or Cherries, would not ask how it should take them.SEEDS OR GRAINSCoriander seed, hot and dry, expels wind, but is hurtful to the head; sends upunwholesome vapours to the brain, dangerous for mad people.Fenugreek seeds, are of a softening, discussing nature, they cease inflammations,be they internal or external: bruised and mixed with vinegar they ease the pains of thespleen: being applied to the sides, help hardness and swellings of the matrix, beingboiled, the decoction helps scabby heads.Lin-seed hath the same virtues with Fenugreek.Gromwell seed, provokes urine, helps the cholic, breaks the stone, and expels wind.Boil them in white wine; but bruise them first.Lupines, ease the pains of the spleen, kill worms and cast them out: outwardly, theycleanse filthy ulcers, and gangrenes, help scabs, itch, and inflammations.Dill seed, encreases milk in nurses, expels wind, stays vomitings, provokes urine;yet it dulls the sight, and is an enemy to generation.

Smallage seed, provokes urine and the menses, expels wind, resists poison, andeases inward pains, it opens stoppings in any part of the body, yet it is hurtful for suchas have the falling-sickness, and for pregnant women.Rocket seed, provokes urine, stirs up lust, encreases seed, kills worms, eases painsof the spleen. Use all these in like manner.Basil seed. If we may believe Dioscorides and Crescentius, cheers the heart, andstrengthens a moist stomach, drives away melancholy, and provokes urine.Nettle seed, provokes venery, opens stoppages of the womb, helps inflammations ofthe sides and lungs; purgeth the breast: boil them (being bruised) in white wine also.The seeds of Ammi, or Bishop's-weed, heat and dry, help difficulty of urine, and thepains of the cholic, the bitings of venomous beasts; they provoke the menses, andpurge the womb.Annis seeds, heat and dry, ease pain, expel wind, cause a sweet breath, help thedropsy, resist poison, breed milk, and stop the Fluor Albus in women, provokevenery, and ease the head-ache.Cardamoms, heat, kill worms, cleanse the reins, and provoke urine.Fennel seed, breaks wind, provokes urine and the menses, encreases milk in nurses.Cummin seed, heat, bind, and dry, stop blood, expel wind, ease pain, help thebitings of venomous beasts: outwardly applied (viz. in Plaisters) they are of adiscussing nature.Carrot seeds, are windy, provoke lust exceedingly, and encrease seed, provokeurine and the menses, cause speedy delivery to women in travail, and bring away theplacenta. All these also may be boiled in white wine.Nigella seeds, boiled in oil, and the forehead anointed with it, ease pains in thehead, take away leprosy, itch, scurf, and help scaly heads. Inwardly taken they expelworms, they provoke urine, and the menses, help difficulty of breathing.Stavesacre, kills lice in the head. I hold it not fitting to be given inwardly.Olibanum mixed with as much Barrow's Grease (beat the Olibanum first inpowder) and boiled together, make an ointment which will kill the lice in children'sheads, and such as are subject to breed them, will never breed them. A Medicinecheap, safe, and sure, which breeds no annoyance to the brain.The seeds of Water-cresses, heat, yet trouble the stomach and belly; ease the painsof the spleen, are very dangerous for pregnant women, yet they provoke lust;outwardly applied, they help leprosies, scaly heads, and the falling off of hair, as alsocarbuncles, and cold ulcers in the joints.Mustard seed, heats, extenuates, and draws moisture from the brain: the head beingshaved and anointed with Mustard, is a good remedy for the lethargy, it helps filthyulcers, and hard swellings in the mouth, it helps old aches coming of cold.French Barley, is cooling, nourishing, and breeds milk.Sorrel seeds, potently resist poison, help fluxes, and such stomachs as loath theirmeat.Succory seed, cools the heat of the blood, extinguishes lust, opens stoppings of theliver and bowels, it allays the heat of the body, and produces a good colour, itstrengthens the stomach, liver, and reins.Poppy seeds, ease pain, provoke sleep. Your best way is to make an emulsion ofthem with barley water.Mallow seeds, ease pains in the bladder.Chich-pease, are windy, provoke lust, encrease milk in nurses, provoke the menses,outwardly, they help scabs, itch, and inflammations of the testicles, ulcers, &c.

White Saxifrage seeds, provoke urine, expel wind, and break the stone. Boil them inwhite wine.Rue seeds, helps such as cannot hold their water.Lettice seed, cools the blood, restrains venery.Also Gourds, Citruls, Cucumbers, Melons, Purslain, and Endive seeds, cool theblood, as also the stomach, spleen, and reins, and allay the heat of fevers. Use them asyou were taught to do poppy-seeds.Wormseed, expels wind, kills worms.Ash-tree Keys, ease pains in the sides, help the dropsy, relieve men weary withlabour, provoke venery, and make the body lean.Piony seeds, help the Ephialtes, or the disease the vulgar call the Mare, as also thefits of the mother, and other such like infirmities of the womb, stop the menses, andhelp convulsions.Broom seed, potently provoke urine, break the stone.Citron seeds, strengthen the heart, cheer the vital spirit, resist pestilence and poison.TEARS, LIQUORS, AND ROZINSLaudanum, is of a heating, mollifying nature, it opens the mouth of the veins, staysthe hair from falling off, helps pains in the ears, and hardness of the womb. It is usedonly outwardly in plaisters.Assafœtida. Is commonly used to allay the fits of the mother by smelling to it; theysay, inwardly taken, it provokes lust, and expels wind.Benzoin, or Benjamin, makes a good perfume.Sanguis Draconis, cools and binds exceedingly.Aloes, purges choler and flegm, and with such deliberation that it is often given towithstand the violence of other purges; it preserves the senses and betters theapprehension, it strengthens the liver, and helps the yellow-jaundice. Yet is naught forsuch as are troubled with the hemorrhoids, or have agues. I do not like it taken raw.See Aloe Rosata, which is nothing but it washed with the juice of roses.Manna, is temperately hot, of a mighty dilative quality, windy, cleanses cholergently, also it cleanses the throat and stomach. A child may take an ounce of it at atime melted in milk, and the dross strained out, it is good for them when they arescabby.Scamony, or Diagridium, call it by which name you please, is a desperate purge,hurtful to the body by reason of its heat, windiness, corroding, or gnawing, andviolence of working. I would advise my countrymen to let it alone; it will gnaw theirbodies as fast as doctors gnaw their purses.Opopanax, is of a heating, molifying, digesting quality.Gum Elemi, is exceeding good for fractures of the skull, as also in wounds, andtherefore is put in plaisters for that end. See Arceus his Liniment.Tragacanthum, commonly called Gum Traganth, and Gum Dragon, helps coughs,hoarseness, and distillations on the lungs.Bdellium, heats and softens, helps hard swellings, ruptures, pains in the sides,hardness of the sinews.Galbanum. Hot and dry, discussing; applied to the womb, it hastens both birth andafter-birth, applied to the navel it stays the strangling of the womb, commonly calledthe fits of the mother, helps pains in the sides, and difficulty of breathing, beingapplied to it, and the smell of it helps the vertigo or diziness in the head.

Myrh, heats and dries, opens and softens the womb, provokes the birth and afterbirth;inwardly taken, it helps old coughs and hoarseness, pains in the sides, killsworms, and helps a stinking breath, helps the wasting of the gums, fastens the teeth:outwardly it helps wounds, and fills up ulcers with flesh. You may take half a dram ata time.Mastich, strengthens the stomach exceedingly, helps such as vomit or spit blood, itfastens the teeth and strengthens the gums, being chewed in the mouth.Frankinsense, and Olibanum, heat and bind, fill up old ulcers with flesh, stopbleeding, but is extremely bad for mad people.Turpentine, purges, cleanses the reins, helps the running of them.Styrax Calamitis, helps coughs, and distillations upon the lungs, hoarseness, wantof voice, hardness of the womb, but it is bad for head-aches.Ammoniacum, applied to the side, helps the hardness and pains of the spleen.Camphire, eases pains of the head coming of heat, takes away inflammations, andcools any place to which it is applied.JUICESThat all juices have the same virtues with the herbs or fruits whereof they are made,I suppose few or none will deny, therefore I shall only name a few of them, and thatbriefly.Sugar is held to be hot in the first degree, strengthens the lungs, takes away theroughness of the throat, succours the reins and bladder.The juice of Citrons cools the blood, strengthens the heart, mitigates the violentheat of fevers.The juice of Lemons works the same effect, but not so powerfully.Juice of Liquorice, strengthens the lungs, helps coughs and colds.THINGS BRED FROM PLANTSThese have been treated of before, only two excepted. The first of which is:Agaricus. Agarick: It purges flegm, choler, and melancholy, from the brain, nerves,muscles, marrow (or more properly brain) of the back, it cleanses the breast, lungs,liver, stomach, spleen, reins, womb, joints; it provokes urine, and the menses, killsworms, helps pains in the joints, and causes a good colour: it is very seldom or nevertaken alone. See Syrup of Roses with Agarick.Lastly, Vicus Quircinus, or Misleto of the Oak, helps the falling-sickness beingeither taken inwardly, or hung about one's neck.LIVING CREATURESMillepedes (so called from the multitude of their feet, though it cannot be supposedthey have a thousand) sows, hog-lice, wood-lice, being bruised and mixed with wine,they provoke urine, help the yellow jaundice; outwardly being boiled in oil, help painsin the ears, a drop being put into them.The flesh of vipers being eaten, clear the sight, help the vices of the nerves, resistpoison exceedingly, neither is there any better remedy under the sun for their bitingsthan the head of the viper that bit you, bruised and applied to the place, and the flesheaten, you need not eat above a dram at a time, and make it up as you shall be taughtin troches of vipers. Neither any comparable to the stinging of bees and wasps, &c.than the same that sting you, bruised and applied to the place.

Land Scorpions cure their own stingings by the same means; the ashes of them(being burnt) potently provokes urine, and breaks the stone.Earth-worms, are an admirable remedy for cut nerves being applied to the place;they provoke urine; see the oil of them, only let me not forget one notable thingquoted by Mizaldus, which is, That the powder of them put into an hollow tooth,makes it drop out.To draw a tooth without pain, fill an earthen crucible full of Emmets, Ants, orPismires, eggs and all, and when you have burned them, keep the ashes, with which ifyou touch a tooth it will fall out.Eels, being put into wine or beer, and suffered to die in it, he that drinks it willnever endure that sort of liquor again.Oysters applied alive to a pestilential swelling, draw the venom to them.Crab-fish, burnt to ashes, and a dram of it taken every morning helps the bitings ofmad dogs, and all other venomous beasts.Swallows, being eaten, clear the sight, the ashes of them (being burnt) eaten,preserves from drunkenness, helps sore throats being applied to them, andinflammations.Grass-hoppers, being eaten, ease the cholic, and pains in the bladder.Hedge Sparrows, being kept in salt, or dried and eaten raw, are an admirableremedy for the stone.Young Pigeons being eaten, help pains in the reins, and the disease calledTenesmus.PARTS OF LIVING CREATURES,AND EXCREMENTSThe brain of Sparrows being eaten, provokes lust exceedingly.The brain of an Hare being roasted, helps trembling, it makes children breed teetheasily, their gums being rubbed with it, it also helps scald heads, and falling off ofhair, the head being anointed with it.The head of a young Kite, being burnt to ashes and the quantity of a drachm of ittaken every morning in a little water, is an admirable remedy against the gout.Crab-eyes break the stone, and open stoppings of the bowels.The lungs of a Fox, well dried (but not burned) is an admirable strengthener to thelungs. See the Lohoch of Fox lungs.The liver of a Duck, stops fluxes, and strengthens the liver exceedingly.The liver of a Frog, being dried and eaten, helps the quartan agues, or as the vulgarcall them, third-day agues.Castoreum resists poison, the bitings of venomous beasts; it provokes the menses,and brings forth birth and after-birth; it expels wind, eases pains and aches,convulsions, sighings, lethargies; the smell of it allays the fits of the mother; inwardlygiven, it helps tremblings, falling-sickness, and other such ill effects of the brain andnerves. A scruple is enough to take at a time, and indeed spirit of Castorium is betterthan Castorium, raw, to which I refer you.A Sheep's or Goat's bladder being burnt, and the ashes given inwardly, helps theDiabetes.A flayed Mouse dried and beaten into powder, and given at a time, helps such ascannot hold their water, or have a Diabetes, if you do the like three days together.Ivory, or Elephant's tooth, binds, stops the Whites, it strengthens the heart andstomach, helps the yellow jaundice, and makes women fruitful.

Those small bones which are found in the fore-feet of an Hare, being beaten intopowder and drank in wine, powerfully provoke urine.Goose grease, and Capons grease, are both softening, help gnawing sores, stiffnessof the womb, and mitigate pain.I am of opinion that the suet of a Goat mixed with a little saffron, is as excellent anointment for the gout, especially the gout in the knees, as any is.Bears grease stays the falling off of the hair.Fox grease helps pains in the ears.Elk's claws or hoofs are a sovereign remedy for the falling sickness, though it bebut worn in a ring, much more being taken inwardly; but saith Mizaldus, it must bethe hoof of the right foot behind.Milk is an extreme windy meat; therefore I am of the opinion of Dioscorides, viz.that it is not profitable in head-aches; yet this is for certain, that it is an admirableremedy for inward ulcers in any part of the body, or any corrosions, or excoriations,pains in the reins and bladder; but it is very bad in diseases of the liver, spleen, thefalling-sickness, vertigo, or dissiness in the head, fevers and head-aches. Goat's milkis held to be better than Cow's for Hectic fevers, phthisick, and consumptions, and sois Ass's also.Whey, attenuates and cleanses both choler and melancholy: wonderfully helpsmelancholy and madness coming of it; opens stoppings of the bowels; helps such ashave the dropsy and are troubled with the stoppings of the spleen, rickets andhypochondriac melancholy: for such diseases you may make up your physic withwhey. Outwardly it cleanses the skin of such deformities as come through choler ormelancholy, as scabs, itch, morphew, leprosies, &c.Honey is of a gallant cleansing quality, exceeding profitable in all inward ulcers inwhat part of the body soever; it opens the veins, cleanses the reins and bladder. Iknow no vices belonging to it, but only it is soon converted into choler.Wax, softens, heats, and meanly fills sores with flesh, it suffers not the milk tocurdle in women's breasts; inwardly it is given (ten grains at a time) against bloodyfluxes.Raw-silk, heats and dries, cheers the heart, drives away sadness, comforts all thespirits, both natural, vital and animal.BELONGING TO THE SEASperma Cœti, is well applied outwardly to eating ulcers, the marks which the smallpox leaves behind them; it clears the sight, provokes sweat: inwardly it troubles thestomach and belly, helps bruises, and stretching of the nerves, and therefore is goodfor women newly delivered.Amber-grease, heats and dries, strengthens the brain and nerves exceedingly, if theinfirmity of them come of cold, resists pestilence.Sea-sand, a man that hath the dropsy, being set up to the middle in it, it draws outall the water.Red Coral, is cold, dry and binding, stops the immoderate flowing of the menses,bloody-fluxes, the running of the reins, and the Fluor Albus, helps such as spit blood;it is an approved remedy for the falling sickness. Also if ten grains of red Coral begiven to a child in a little breast-milk so soon as it is born, before it take any otherfood, it will never have the falling-sickness, nor convulsions. The common dose isfrom ten grains to thirty.

Pearls, are a wonderful strengthener to the heart, encrease milk in nurses, andamend it being naught, they restore such as are in consumptions; both they and the redCoral preserve the body in health, and resist fevers. The dose is ten grains or fewer;more, I suppose, because it is dear, than because it would do harm.Amber, (viz. yellow Amber) heats and dries, therefore prevails against moistdiseases of the head; it helps violent coughs, helps consumption of the lungs, spittingof blood, the Fluor Albus; it stops bleeding at the nose, helps difficulty of urine. Youmay take ten or twenty grains at a time.The Froth of the Sea, it is hot and dry, helps scabs, itch, and leprosy, scald heads,&c. it cleanses the skin, helps difficulty of urine, makes the teeth white, being rubbedwith it, the head being washed with it, it helps baldness, and trimly decks the headwith hair.METALS, MINERALS, AND STONESGold is temperate in quality, it wonderfully strengthens the heart and vital spirits,which one perceiving, very wittily inserted these verses:For Gold is cordial; and that's the reason,Your raking Misers live so long a season.However, this is certain, in cordials, it resists melancholy, faintings, swoonings,fevers, falling-sickness, and all such like infirmities, incident either to the vital oranimal spirit.Alum. Heats, binds, and purges; scours filthy ulcers, and fastens loose teeth.Brimstone, or flower of brimstone, which is brimstone refined, and the better forphysical uses; helps coughs and rotten flegm; outwardly in ointments it takes awayleprosies, scabs, and itch; inwardly it helps yellow jaundice, as also worms in thebelly, especially being mixed with a little Saltpetre: it helps lethargies being snuffedup in the nose.Litharge, both of gold and silver; binds and dries much, fills up ulcers with flesh,and heals them.Lead is of a cold dry earthly quality, of an healing nature; applied to the place ithelps any inflammation, and dries up humours.Pompholix, cools, dries and binds.Jacynth, strengthens the heart being either beaten into powder, and taken inwardly,or only worn in a ring.Sapphire, quickens the senses, helps such as are bitten by venomous beasts, ulcersin the bowels.Emerald, called a chaste stone because it resists lust: being worn in a ring, it helps,or at least mitigates the falling sickness and vertigo; it strengthens the memory, andstops the unruly passions of men.Ruby (or carbuncle, if there be such a stone) restrains lust; resists pestilence; takesaway idle and foolish thoughts, makes men cheerful. Cardanus.Granite. Strengthens the heart, but hurts the brain, causes anger, takes away sleep.Diamond, is reported to make him that bears it unfortunate.Amethist, being worn, makes men sober and steady, keeps men from drunkennessand too much sleep, it quickens the wit, is profitable in huntings and fightings, andrepels vapours from the head.Bezoar, is a notable restorer of nature, a great cordial, no way hurtful nordangerous, is admirably good in fevers, pestilences, and consumptions, viz. taken

inwardly; for this stone is not used to be worn as a jewel; the powder of it put uponwounds made by venomous beasts, draws out the poison.Topaz (if Epiphanius spake truth) if you put it into boiling water, it doth so cool itthat you may presently put your hands into it without harm; if so, then it coolsinflammations of the body by touching them.Toadstone, being applied to the place helps the bitings of venomous beasts, andquickly draws all the poison to it; it is known to be a true one by this; hold it near toany toad, and she will make proffer to take it away from you if it be right; else not.Lemnius.Nephritichus lapis, helps pains in the stomach, and is of great force in breaking andbringing away the stone and gravel.Jasper, being worn, stops bleeding, eases the labour in women, stops lust, resistsfevers and dropsies. Mathiolus.Atites, or the stone with child, because being hollow in the middle, it containsanother little stone within it, is found in an Eagle's nest, and in many other places; thisstone being bound to the left arm of women with child, stays their miscarriage orabortion, but when the time of their labour comes, remove it from their arm, and bindit to the inside of their thigh, and it brings forth the child, and that (almost) withoutany pain at all. Dioscorides, Pliny.Lapis Lazuli, purges melancholy being taken inwardly; outwardly worn as a jewel,it makes men cheerful, fortunate and rich.And thus I end the stones, the virtues of which if any think incredible, I answer, 1. Iquoted the authors where I had them. 2. I know nothing to the contrary but why it maybe as possible as the sound of a trumpet is to incite a man to valour; or a fiddle todancing: and if I have added a few simples which the Colledge left out, I hope myfault is not much, or at a leastwise, venial.A Catalogue of Simples in theNew DispensatoryROOTSCollege : Sorrel, Calamus Aromaticus, Water-flag, Privet, Garlick, Marshmallows,Alcanet, Angelica, Anthora, Smallage, Aron, Birthwort long and round,Sowbread, Reeds, Asarabacca, Virginian Snakeweed, Swallwort, Asparagus,Asphodel, male and female. Burdocks great and small, Behen, or Bazil, Valerian,white and red. Daisies, Beets, white, red, and black. Marsh-mallows, Bistort,Borrage, Briony, white and black, Bugloss, garden and wild. Calamus Aromaticus,Our Lady's thistles, Avens, Coleworts, Centaury the less. Onions, Chameleon, whiteand black. Celandine, Pilewort, China, Succory, Artichokes. Virginian Snakeroot,Comfry greater and lesser, Contra yerva, Costus, sweet and bitter. Turmerick, wildCucumbers, Sowbread, Hound's-tongue, Cypres, long and round. Toothwort, whiteDittany, Doronicum, Dragons, Woody Nightshade, Vipers Bugloss, Smallage,Hellebore, white and black, Endive, Elicampane, Eringo, Colt's-foot, Fearn, male andfemale, Filipendula or Drop-wort, Fennel, white Dittany, Galanga, great and small,Gentian, Liquorice, Dog-grass, Hermodactils. Swallow wort, Jacinth, Henbane,Jallap, Master-wort, Orris or Flower-de-luce, both English and Florentine, sharppointed Dock, Burdock greater and lesser, Lovage, Privet, white Lilies, Liquorice,Mallows, Mechoacan, Jallap, Spignel, Mercury, Devil's bit, sweet Navew, Spikenard,Celtic and Indian, Water lilies, Rest-harrow, sharp pointed Dock, Peony, male and

female, Parsnips, garden and wild, Cinquefoil, Butter-Bur, Parsley, Hog's Fennel,Valerian, greater and lesser, Burnet, Land and Water Plantain, Polypodium of theOak, Solomon's Seal, Leeks, Pellitory of Spain, Cinquefoil, Turnips, Raddishes,garden and wild, Rhapontick, common Rhubarb, Monk's Rhubarb, Rose Root,Madder Bruscus. Sopewort, Sarsaparilla, Satyrion, male and female, White Saxifrage,Squills, Figwort, Scorzonera, English and Spanish, Virginian Snake weed, Solomon'sSeal, Cicers, stinking Gladon, Devil's bit, Dandelion, Thapsus, Tormentil, Turbith,Colt's-foot, Valerian, greater and lesser, Vervain, Swallow-wort, Nettles, Zedoarylong and round, Ginger.Culpeper : These be the roots the college hath named, and but only named, and inthis order I have set them down. It seems the college holds a strange opinion, viz. thatit would do an Englishman a mischief to know what the herbs in his garden are goodfor.But my opinion is, that those herbs, roots, plants, &c. which grow near a man, arefar better and more congruous to his nature than any outlandish rubbish whatsoever,and this I am able to give a reason of to any that shall demand it of me, therefore I amso copious in handling of them, you shall observe them ranked in this order:1. The temperature of the roots, herbs, flowers, &c. viz. hot, cold, dry, moist,together with the degree of each quality.2. What part of the body each root, herb, flower, is appropriated to, viz. head,throat, breast, heart, stomach, liver, spleen, bowels, reins, bladder, womb, joints, andin those which heat those places, and which cool them.3. The property of each simple, as they bind, open, mollify, harden, extenuate,discuss, draw out, suppure, cleanse, glutinate, break wind, breed seed, provoke or stopthe menses, resist poison, abate swellings, ease pain.This I intend shall be my general method throughout the simples, which, havingfinished I shall give you a paraphrase explaining these terms, which rightlyconsidered, will be the key of Galen's way of administering physic.Temperature of the RootsRoots hot in the first degree. Marsh-mallows, Bazil, Valerian, Spattling, Poppy,Burdocks, Borrage, Bugloss, Calamus Aromaticus, Avens, Pilewort, China, Self-heal,Liquorice, Dog-grass, white Lilies, Peony, male and female, wild Parsnips, Parsley,Valerian, great and small, Knee-holly, Satyrion, Scorzonera, Skirrets.Hot in the second degree. Water-flag, Reeds, Swallow-wort, Asphodel, male,Carline Thistle, Cypress, long and round, Fennel, Lovage, Spignel, Mercury, Devil'sbit, Butter Bur, Hog's Fennel, Sarsaparilla, Squils, Zedoary.Hot in the third degree. Angelica, Aron, Birthwort long and round, Sowbread,Asarabacca, Briony, white and black, Sallendine, Virginian snakeroot, Hemeric,White Dittany, Doronicum, Hellebore, white and black, Elicampane, Fillipendula,Galanga greater and lesser, Masterwort, Orris English and Florentine, Restharrow,stinking Gladen, Turbith, Ginger.Hot in the fourth degree. Garlick, Onions, Leeks, Pellitory of Spain.Roots temperate in respect of heat, are Bear's breech, Sparagus, our Lady's Thistle,Eringo, Jallap, Mallows, Mechoacan, garden Parsnips, Cinquefoil, Tormentil.Roots cold in the first degree. Sorrel, Beets, white and red, Comfrey the greater,Plantain, Rose Root, Madder.Cold in the second degree. Alcanet, Daisies, Succory, Hound's tongue, Endive,Jacinth.Cold in the third degree. Bistort and Mandrakes are cold in the third degree, andHenbane in the fourth.

Roots dry in the first degree. Bears-breech, Burdocks, Redbeets, CalamusAromaticus, Pilewort, Self-heal, Endive, Eringo, Jacinth, Madder, Kneeholly.Dry in the second degree. Waterflag, Marshmallows, Alkanet, Smallage, Reeds,Sorrel, Swallow-wort, Asphodel male, Bazil, Valerian and Spatling Poppy, accordingto the opinion of the Greeks. Our Lady's Thistles, Avens, Succory, Hound's tongue,Cypress long and round, Fennel, Lovage, Spignel, Mercury, Devil's bit, Butter-bur,Parsley, Plantain, Zedoary.Dry in the third degree. Angelica, Aron, Birthwort, long and round, Sowbread,Bistort, Asarabacca, Briony, white and black, Carline Thistle, China, Sallendine,Virginian Snake-root, white Dittany, Doronicum, Hellebore white and black,Elicampane, Fillipendula, Galanga greater and lesser, Masterwort, Orris, English andFlorentine, Restharrow, Peony male and female, Cinquefoil, Hog's Fennel,Sarsaparilla, stinking Gladen, Tormentil, Ginger.Dry in the fourth degree. Garlick, Onions, Costus, Leeks, Pellitory of Spain.Roots moist are, Bazil, Valerian, and Spatling-poppy, according to the ArabianPhysicians, Daisies, white Beets, Borrage, Bugloss, Liquorice, Dog grass, Mallows,Satyrion, Scorzonera, Parsnips, Skirrets.Roots appropriated to several parts of the bodyHeat the head. Doronicum, Fennel, Jallap, Mechoacan, Spikenard, Celtic andIndian. Peony male and female.Neck and throat. Pilewort, Devil's bit.Breast and lungs. Birthwort long and round, Elicampane, Liquorice, Orris Englishand Florentine, Calamus Aromaticus, Cinquefoil, Squills.Heart. Angelica, Borrage, Bugloss, Carline Thistle, Doronicum, Butter bur,Scorzonera, Tormentil, Zedoary, Bazil, Valerian white and red.Stomach. Elicampane, Galanga greater and lesser, Spikenard, Celtic and Indian,Ginger, Fennel, Avens, Raddishes.Bowels. Valerian great and small, Zedoary, Ginger.Liver. Smallage, Carline Thistle, Sullendine, China, Turmerick,Fennel, Gentian, Dog-grass, Cinquefoil, Parsley, Smallage, Asparagus, Rhubarb,Rhapontic, Kneeholly.Spleen. Smallage, Carline Thistle, Fern male and female, Parsley, Water-flag,Asparagus, round Birthwort, Fennel, Capers, Ash, Gentian.Reins and Bladder. Marshmallows, Smallage, Asparagus, Burdock, Bazil, Valerian,Spatling Poppy, Carline Thistle, China, Cyprus long and round, Fillipendula, Doggrass, Spikenard, Celtic and Indian, Parsly, Knee-holly, white Saxifrage.Womb. Birthwort long and round, Galanga greater and lesser, Peony male andfemale, Hog's Fennel.Fundament. Pilewort.Joints. Bear's-breech, Hermodactils, Jallap, Mecoacan, Ginger, Costus.Roots cool the head. Rose root.Stomach. Sow Thistles, Endive, Succory, Bistort.Liver. Madder, Endive, Chicory.Properties of the RootsAlthough I confess the properties of the simples may be found out by the ensuingexplanation of the terms, and I suppose by that means they were found out at first; andalthough I hate a lazy student from my heart, yet to encourage young students in theart, I shall quote the chief of them. I desire all lovers of physic to compare them withthe explanation of these rules, so shall they see how they agree, so may they beenabled to find out the properties of all simples to their own benefit in physic.

Roots, bind. Cypress, Bistort, Tormentil, Cinquefoil, Bear's breech, Water-flag,Alkanet, Toothwort, &c.Discuss. Birthwort, Asphodel, Briony, Capers, &c.Cleanse. Birthwort, Aron, Sparagus, Grass, Asphodel, Celandine, &c.Open. Asarabacca, Garlic, Leeks, Onions, Rhapontick, Turmerick, Carline Thistle,Succory, Endive, Fillipendula, Fennel, Parsly, Bruscus, Sparagus, Smallage, Gentian,&c.Extenuate. Orris English and Florentine, Capers, &c.Burn. Garlick, Onions, Pellitory of Spain, &c.Mollify. Mallows, Marshmallows, &c.Suppur. Marshmallows, Briony, white Lillies, &c.Glutinate. Comfrey, Solomon's Seal, Gentian, Birthwort, Daisies, &c.Expel Wind. Smallage, Parsly, Fennel, Water-flag, Garlick,Costus, Galanga, Hog's Fennel, Zedoary, Spikenard Indian, and Celtic, &c.Breed Seed. Waterflag, Eringo, Satyrian, Galanga, &c.Provoke the menses. Birthwort, Asarabacca, Aron, Waterflag, white Dittany,Asphodel, Garlick, Centaury the less, Cyperus long and round, Costus, Capers,Calamus Aromaticus, Dittany of Crete, Carrots, Eringo, Fennel, Parsly, Smallage,Grass, Elicampane, Peony, Valerian, Kneeholly, &c.Stop the menses. Comfrey, Tormentil, Bistort, &c.Provoke Sweat. Carolina Thistle, China, Sarsaparilla, &c.Resist poison. Angelica, Garlick, long Birthwort, Smallage, Doronicum, Costus,Zedoary, Cyprus, Gentian, Carolina Thistle, Bistort, Tormentil, Swallow-wort, Viper'sBugloss, Elicampane, &c.Help burnings. Asphodel, Jacinth, white Lilies, &c.Ease pains. Waterflag, Eringo, Orris, Restharrow, &c.Purge choler. Asarabacca, Rhubarb, Rhapontick, Fern, &c.Relieve melancholy. Hellebore, white and black, Polipodium.Purge flegm and watery humours. Squills, Turbith, Hermodactils, Jallap,Mecoacan, wild Cucumbers, Sowbread, male Asphodel, Briony white and black,Elder, Spurge great and small.I quoted some of these properties to teach you the way how to find the rest, whichthe explanation of these terms will give you ample instructions in. I quoted not allbecause I would fain have you studious: be diligent gentle reader.How to use your bodies in, and after taking purges, you shall be taught by and by.Barks mentioned by the College are theseCollege : Hazel Nuts, Oranges, Barberries, Birch-tree, Caper roots, Cassia Lignea,Chestnuts, Cinnamon, Citron Pills, Dwarf-Elder, Spurge roots, Alder, Ash,Pomegranates, Guajacum, Walnut tree, green Walnuts, Laurel, Bay, Lemon, Mace,Pomegranates, Mandrake roots, Mezereon, Mulberry tree roots, Sloe tree roots,Pinenuts, Fisticknuts, Poplar tree, Oak, Elder, Sassafras, Cork, Tamerisk, Lime tree,Frankincense, Elm, Capt. Winter's Cinnamon.Culpeper : Of these, Captain Winter's Cinnamon, being taken as ordinary spice, orhalf a dram taken in the morning in any convenient liquor, is an excellent remedy forthe scurvy; the powder of it being snuffed up in the nose, cleanses the head of rheumgallantly.The bark of the black Alder tree purges choler and flegm if you make a decoctionwith it. Agrimony, Wormwood, Dodder, Hops,Endive and Succory roots: Parsly and Smallage roots, or you may bruise a handfulof each of them, and put them in a gallon of ale, and let them work together: put the

simples into a boulter-bag, and a draught, half a pint, more or less, according to theage of him that drinks it) being drunk every morning, helps the dropsy, jaundice, evildisposition of the body; also helps the rickets, strengthens the liver and spleen; makesthe digestion good, troubles not the stomach at all, causes appetite, and helps such asare scabby and itchy.The rest of the barks that are worth the noting, and the virtues of them, are to befound in the former part of the book.Barks are hot in the first degree. Guajacum, Tamarisk, Oranges, Lemons, Citrons.In the second. Cinnamon, Cassia, Lignea, Captain Winter's Cinnamon,Frankincense, Capers.In the third. Mace.Cold in the first. Oak, Pomegranates.In the third. Mandrakes.Appropriated to parts of the bodyHeat the head. Captain Winter's Cinnamon.The heart. Cinnamon, Cassia, Lignea, Citron Pills, Walnuts, Lemon pills, Mace.The stomach. Orange pills, Cassia Lignea, Cinnamon, Citron pills, Lemon pills,Mace, Sassafras.The lungs. Cassia Lignea, Cinnamon, Walnuts.The liver. Barberry-tree, Bay-tree, Captain Winter's Cinnamon.The spleen. Caper bark, Ash tree bark, Bay tree.The reins and bladder. Bay-tree, Sassafras.The womb. Cassia Lignea, Cinnamon.Cool the stomach. Pomegranate pills.Purge choler. The bark of Barberry tree.Purge flegm and water. Elder, Dwarf-Elder, Spurge, Laurel.WOODSCollege : Firr, Wood of Aloes, Rhodium, Brazil, Box, Willow, Cypress, Ebony,Guajacum, Juniper, Lentisk, Nephriticum, Rhodium, Rosemary, Sanders, white,yellow, and red, Sassafras, Tamarisk.Of these some are hot. Wood of Aloes, Rhodium, Box, Ebony, Guajacum,Nephriticum, Rosemary, Sassafras, Tamarisk.Some cold. As Cypress, Willow, Sanders white, red, and yellow.Rosemary is appropriated to the head, wood of Aloes to the heart and stomach,Rhodium to the bowels and bladder, Nephriticum to the liver, spleen, reins andbladder, Sassafras to the breast, stomach and bladder, Tamarisk to the spleen, Sanderscools the heart and spirits in fevers.For the particular virtues of each, see that part of the book preceding.HERBSCollege : Southernwood male and female. Wormwood, common, Roman, and suchas bear Wormseed, Sorrel, wood Sorrel, Maiden-hair common, white or wall Rue,black and golden Maudlin, Agremony, Vervain, Mallow, Ladies Mantle, Chickweed,Marshmallows, and Pimpernel both male and female, Water Pimpernel, Dill,Angelica, Smallage, Goose-grass, or Cleavers, Columbine, wild Tansie, or SilverWeed, Mugwort, Asarabacca, Woodroofe, Arach, Distaff Thistle, Mousear, Costmary,or Alcost, Burdock greater and lesser, Brooklime, or water Pimpernel, Beets white,

ed, and black, Betony of the wood and water. Daisies greater and lesser, Blite,Mercury, Borrage, Oak of Jerusalem, Cabbages, Sodonella, Briony white and black,Bugloss, Buglesse, Shepherd's Purse, Ox-eye, Box leaves, Calaminth of the Mountainsand Fens, Ground Pine, Wood-bine, or Honey-suckles, Lady-smocks, Marygolds, OurLady's Thistle, Carduus Benedictus, Avens, small Spurge, Horse-tail, Coleworts,Centaury the less, Knotgrass, Cervil, Germander, Camomile, Chamepytis femaleSouthernwood, Chelene, Pilewort, Chicory, Hemlock, garden and sea Scurvy-grass,Fleawort, Comfry great, middle, or bugle, least or Daisies, Sarasens, Confound,Buck-horn, Plantain, May weed, (or Margweed, as we in Sussex call it) Orpine,Sampeer, Crosewort, Dodder, Blue Bottle great and small, Artichokes, Houndstone,Cypress leaves, Dandelion, Dittany of Treet, Box leaves, Teazles garden and wild,Dwarff Elder, Viper's Bugloss, Lluellin, Smallage, Endive, Elecampane, Horsetail,Epithimum, Groundsel, Hedge-mustard, Spurge, Agrimony, Maudlin, Eye-bright,Orpine, Fennel, Sampeer, Fillipendula, Indian leaf, Strawberry leaves, Ash treeleaves, Fumitory, Goat's Rue, Lady's Bedstraw, Broom, Muscatu, Herb Robert, DovesFoot, Cottonweed, Hedge Hyssop, Tree Ivy, Ground Ivy, or Alehoof, Elecampane,Pellitory of the wall, Liverwort, Cowslips, Rupture-wort, Hawkweed, Monk'sRhubarb, Alexanders, Clary garden and wild, Henbane, St. John's-wort, Horsetongue,or double tongue, Hysop, Sciatica cresses, small Sengreen, Sharewort, Woods, Reeds,Schوnanth, Chamepitys, Glasswort, Lettice, Lagobus, Arch-angel, Burdock great andsmall, Lavender, Laurel, Bay leaves, English and Alexandrian, Duckweed, Dittander,or Pepper-wort, Lovage, Privet, Sea bugloss, Toad flax, Harts-tongue, sweet Trefoil,Wood-sorrel, Hops, Willow-herb, Marjoram, common and tree Mallows, Mandrake,Horehound white and black, Herb Mastich, Featherfew, Woodbine, Melilot, Bawmgarden and water, Mints, Horse-mints, Mercury, Mezereon, Yarrow, Devil's-bit,Moss, sweet Chivil, Mirtle leaves, Garden and water Cresses, Nep, Tobacco, Moneywort,Water Lilies, Bazil, Olive Leaves, Rest-harrow, Adder's Tongue, Origanum,sharp-pointed Dock, Poppy, white, black, and red, or Erratick, Pellitory of the Wall,Cinquefoil, Ars-smart spotted and not spotted, Peach Leaves, Thoroughwax, Parsley,Hart's Tongue, Valerian, Mouse-ear, Burnet, small Spurge, Plantain common andnarrow leaved, Mountain and Cretick Poley, Knotgrass, Golden Maidenhair, Poplarleaves and buds, Leeks, Purslain, Silverweed, or wild Tansy, Horehound white andblack, Primroses, Self-heal, Field Pellitory, or Sneezewort, Penny-royal, Fleabane,Lungwort, Winter-green, Oak leaves and buds, Docks, common Rue, Wall Rue orwhite Maidenhair, wild Rue, Savin, Osier Leaves, Garden Sage the greater andlesser, Wild Sage, Elder leaves and buds, Marjorum, Burnet, Sanicle, Sopewort,Savory, White Saxifrage, Scabious, Chicory, Schœnanth, Clary, Scordium, Figwort,House-leek, or Sengreen the greater and lesser, Groundsel, Senna leaves and pods,Mother of Time, Solomon's Seal, Alexanders, Nightshade, Soldanela, Sow-thistles,smooth and rough, Flixweed, common Spike, Spinach, Hawthorn, Devil's-bit, Comfry,Tamarisk leaves, Tansy, Dandelyon, Mullen or Higcaper, Time, Lime tree leaves,Spurge, Tormentil, common and golden Trefoil, Wood-sorrel, sweet Trefoil, Colt'sfoot,Valerian, Mullen, Vervain, Paul's Bettony, Lluellin, Violets, Tansy, Perewinkles,Swallow-wort, golden Rod, Vine leaves, Mead-sweet, Elm leaves, Navel-wort, Nettles,common and Roman, Archangel, or dead Nettles, white and red.Culpeper : These be the herbs as the college set down to look upon we will see ifwe can translate them in another form to the benefit of the body of man.Herbs temperate in respect of heat, are common Maiden-hair, Wall-rue, black andgolden Maiden-hair, Woodroof, Bugle, Goat's Rue, Hart's-tongue, sweet Trefoil,Flixweed, Cinquefoil, Trefoil, Paul's Bettony, Lluellin.

Intemperate and hot in the first degree, are Agrimony, Marsh-mallows, Goosegrassor Cleavers, Distaff Thistle, Borrage, Bugloss, or Lady's Thistles, Avens,Cetrach, Chervil, Chamomel, Eye-bright, Cowslips, Melilot, Bazil, Self-heal.In the second. Common and Roman Wormwood, Maudlin, Lady's Mantle,Pimpernel male and female, Dill, Smallage, Mugwort, Costmary, Betony, Oak ofJerusalem, Marigold, Cuckoo-flowers, Carduus Benedictus, Centaury the less,Chamepitys, Scurvy-grass, Indian Leaf, Broom, Alehoof, Alexanders, Double-tongue,or Tongue-blade, Archangel, or dead Nettles, Bay Leaves, Marjoram, Horehound,Bawm, Mercury, Devil's-bit, Tobacco, Parsley, Poley mountain, Rosemary, Sage,Sanicle, Scabious, Senna, Soldanella, Tansy, Vervain, Perewinkle.In the third degree. Southernwood male and female, Brooklime, Angelica, Brionywhite and black, Calaminth, Germander, Sullendine, Pilewort, Fleabane, Dwarf Elder,Epithimun, Bank-cresses, Clary, Glasswort, Lavender, Lovage, Herb Mastich,Featherfew, Mints, Water-cresses, Origanum, biting Arsmart, called in LatinHydropiper (the college confounds this with Persicaria, or mild Arsmart, which iscold), Sneezewort, Pennyroyal, Rue, Savin, summer and winter Savory, Mother ofTime, Lavender, Spike, Time, Nettles.In the fourth degree. Sciatica-cresses, Stone-crop, Dittany, or Pepper-wort, gardencresses,Leeks, Crowfoot, Rosa Solis, Spurge.Herbs cold in the first degree. Sorrel, Wood-sorrel, Arach, Burdock, Shepherd'spurse,Pellitory of the wall, Hawk-weed, Mallows, Yarrow, mild Arsmart, calledPersicaria, Burnet, Coltsfoot, Violets.Cold in the second degree. Chickweed, wild Tansy, or Silverweed, Daisies,Knotgrass, Succory, Buck-horn, Plantain, Dandelyon, Endive, Fumitory, Strawberryleaves, Lettice, Duck-meat, Plantain, Purslain, Willow leaves.In the third degree. Sengreen, or Houseleek, Nightshade.In the fourth degree. Hemlock, Henbane, Mandrakes, Poppies.Herbs dry in the first degree. Agrimony, Marsh-mallows, Cleavers, Burdocks,Shepherds-purse, our Lady's Thistle, Chervil, Chamomel, Eye-bright, Cowslips,Hawkweed, Tongue-blade, or double tongue, Melilot, mild Arsmart, Self-heal, Senna,Flixweed, Colts-foot, Perewinkle.Dry in the second degree. Common and Roman Wormwood, Sorrel, Wood-sorrel,Maudlin, Lady's mantle, Pimpernel male and female, Dill, Smallage, wild Tansy, orSilverweed, Mugwort, Distaff Thistle, Costmary, Betony, Bugle, Cuckooflowers,Carduus Benedictus, Avens, Centaury the less, Chicory, commonly called Succory,Scurvy-grass, Buckhorn, Plantain, Dandelyon, Endive, Indian Leaf, Strawberryleaves, Fumitory, Broom, Alehoof, Alexanders, Archangel, or Dead Nettles, whiteand red, Bay Leaves, Marjoram, Featherfew, Bawm, Mercury, Devil's-bit, Tobacco,Parsley, Burnet, Plantain, Rosemary, Willow Leaves, Sage, Santicle, Scabious,Soldanella, Vervain.Dry in the third degree. Southernwood, male and female, Brooklime, Angelica,Briony, white and black, Calamint, Germander, Chamepitys, Selandine, Pilewort,Fleabane, Epithinum, Dwarf-Elder, Bank cresses, Clary, Glasswort, Lavender,Lovage, Horehound, Herb Mastic, Mints, Watercresses, Origanum, Cinquefoil, hotArsmart, Poley mountain, Sneezewort, Penny-royal, Rue, or herb of Grace, Savinwinter and summer Savory, Mother of Time, Lavender, Silk, Tansy, Time, Trefoil.In the fourth degree. Garden-cresses, wild Rue, Leeks, Onions, Crowfoot, RosaSolis, Garlic, Spurge.Herbs moist in the first degree. Borrage, Bugloss, Marigolds, Pellitory of the wall,Mallows, Bazil.

In the fourth degree. Chickweed, Arach, Daisies, Lettice, Duck-meat, Purslain,Sow Thistles, Violets, Water-lilies.Herbs appropriated to certain parts of the body of manHeat the head. Maudlin, Costmary, Betony, Carduus Benedictus, Sullendine,Scurvy-grass, Eye-bright, Goat's Rue, Cowslips, Lavender, Laurel, Lovage, herbMastich, Feather-few, Melilot, Sneezewort, Penny-royal, Senna, Mother of Time,Vervain, Rosemary.Heat the throat. Archangel white and red, otherwise called dead Nettles, Devil'sbit.Heat the breast. Maiden-hair, white, black, common and golden, Distaff Thistle,Time, Betony, Calaminth, Chamomel, Fennel, Indian-leaf, Bay leaves, Hyssop,Bawm, Horehound, Oak of Jerusalem, Germander, Melilot, Origanum, Rue, Scabious,Periwinkles, Nettles.Heat the heart. Southernwood male and female, Angelica, Wood-roof, Bugloss,Carduus Benedictus, Borrage, Goat's Rue, Senna, Bazil, Rosemary, Elecampane.Heat the stomach. Wormwood common and Roman, Smallage, Avens, Indian leaf,Broom, Schenanth, Bay leaves, Bawm, Mints, Parsley, Fennel, Time, Mother ofTime, Sage.Heat the liver. Agrimony, Maudlin, Pimpernel, male and female, Smallage,Costmary, or Ale cost, our Lady's Thistles, Centaury the less, Germander,Chamepytis, Selandine, Sampier, Fox Gloves, Ash-tree leaves, Bay leaves, Toad-flax,Hops, Horehound, Water-cresses, Parsley, Poley Mountain, Sage, Scordium, Senna,Mother of Time, Soldanella, Asarabacca, Fennel, Hyssop, Spikenard.Heat the bowels. Chamomel, Alehoofe, Alexanders.Heat the spleen. All the four sorts of Maiden-hair, Agrimony, Smallage, Centaurythe less, Cetrach, Germander, Chamepitys, Samphire, Fox-glove, Epithimum, Ashtree,Bay leaves, Toad-flax,Hops, Horehound, Parsley, Poley, Mountain Sage,Scordium, Senna, Mother of Time, Tamarisk, Wormwood, Water-cresses, Hart'stongue.Heat the reins and bladder. Agrimony, Maudlin, Marsh-mallows, Pimpernel maleand female, Brooklime, Costmary, Bettony, Chervil, Germander, Chamomel,Samphire, Broom, Rupture-wort, Clary, Schenanth, Bay-leaves, Toad-flax, Hops,Melilot, Water-cresses, Origanum, Pennyroyal, Scordium, Vervain, Mother of Time,Rocket, Spikenard, Saxifrage, Nettles.Heat the womb. Maudlin, Angelica, Mugwort, Costmary, Calaminth, Flea-bane,May-weed, Ormarg-weed, Dittany of Crete, Schenanth, Arch-angel or Dead Nettles,Melilot, Feather-few, Mints, Devil's-bit, Origanum, Bazil, Pennyroyal, Savin, Sage,Scordium, Tansy, Time, Vervain, Periwinkles, Nettles.Heat the joints. Cowslips, Sciatica-cresses, hot Arsmart, Garden-cresses, Costmary,Agrimony, Chamomel, Saint John's-wort, Melilot, Water-cresses, Rosemary, Rue,Sage Stechas.Herbs cooling the head. Wood-sorrel, Teazles, Lettice, Plantain, Willow-leaves,Sengreen or Houseleek, Strawberry-leaves, Violet-leaves, Fumitory, Water Lilies.Cool the throat. Orpine, Strawberry leaves, Privet, Bramble leaves.Breast. Mulberry leaves, Bramble leaves, Violet leaves, Strawberry leaves, Sorrel,Wood-sorrel, Poppies, Orpine, Moneywort, Plantain, Colt's-foot.Heart. Sorrel, Wood sorrel, Viper's Bugloss, Lettice, Burnet, Violet leaves,Strawberry leaves, and Water-Lilies.Stomach. Sorrel, Wood sorrel, Succory, Orpine, Dandelyon, Endive, Strawberryleaves, Hawkweed, Lettice, Purslain, Sow Thistles, Violet leaves.

Liver. Sorrel, Woodsorrel, Dandelyon, Endive, Succory, Strawberry leaves,Fumitory, Liverwort, Lettice, Purslain, Nightshade, Water Lilies.Bowels. Fumitory, Mallows, Buckthorn, Plantain, Orpine, Plantain, Burnet.Spleen. Fumitory, Endive, Succory, Lettice.Reins and bladder. Knotgrass, Mallows, Yarrow, Moneywort, Plantain, Endive,Succory, Lettice, Purslain, Water Lilies, House-leek or Sengreen.The womb. Wild Tansy, Arrach, Burdocks, Willow herb, Mirtle leaves,Moneywort, Purslain, Sow Thistles, Endive, Succory, Lettice, Water Lilies, Sengreen.The joints. Willow leaves, Vine leaves, Lettice, Henbane, Nightshade, Sengreen orHouseleek.Herbs altering according to property, in operation, some bind, asAmomus, Agnus Castus, Shepherd's purse, Cypress, Horsetail, Ivy, Bay leaves,Melilot, Bawm, Mirtles, Sorrel, Plantain, Knotgrass, Comfry, Cinquefoil, Fleawort,Purslain, Oak leaves, Willow leaves, Sengreen or Houseleek, &c.Open, as, Garlick, Onions, Wormwood, Mallows, Marsh-mallows, Pellitory of theWall, Endive, Succory, &c.Soften. Mallows, Marsh-mallows, Beets, Pellitory of the Wall, Violet leaves,Strawberry leaves, Arrach, Cypress leaves, Bay leaves, Fleawort, &c.Harden. Purslain, Nightshade, Houseleek or Sengreen, Duckmeat, and most otherherbs that are very cold.Extenuate. Mugwort, Chamomel, Hysop, Pennyroyal, Stœchas, Time, Mother ofTime, Juniper, &c.Discuss. Southernwood male and female, all the four sorts of Maidenhair,Marshmallows, Dill, Mallows, Arrach, Beets, Chamomel, Mints, Melilot, Pelitory ofthe Wall, Chickweed, Rue, Stœchas, Marjoram.Draw. Pimpernel, Birthwort, Dittany, Leeks, Onions, Garlick, and also take thisgeneral rule, as all cold things bind and harden, so all things very hot are drying.Suppure. Mallows, Marsh-mallows, White Lily leaves, &c.Cleanse. Pimpernel, Southernwood, Sparagus, Cetrach, Arrach, Wormwood, Beet,Pellitory of the Wall, Chamepitis, Dodder, Liverwort, Horehound, Willow leaves, &c.Glutinate. Marsh-mallows, Pimpernel, Centaury, Chamepitis, Mallows,Germander, Horsetail, Agrimony, Maudlin, Strawberry leaves, Woad-chervil,Plantain, Cinquefoil, Comfry, Bugle, Selfheal, Woundwort, Tormentil, Rupture-wort,Knot-grass, Tobacco.Expel wind. Wormwood, Garlick, Dill, Smallage, Chamomel, Epithimum, Fennel,Juniper, Marjoram, Origanum, Savory both winter and summer. Tansy is good tocleanse the stomach and bowels of rough viscous flegm, and humours that stick tothem, which the flegmatic constitution of the winter usually infects the body of manwith, and occasions gouts and other diseases of like nature and lasting long. This wasthe original of that custom to eat Tansys in the spring: the herb may be made into aconserve with sugar, or boil it in wine and drink the decoction, or make the juice intoa syrup with sugar, which you will.Herbs breed seed. Clary, Rocket, and most herbs that are hot and moist, and breedwind.Provoke the terms. Southernwood, Garlick, all the sorts of Maiden hair, Mugwort,Wormwood, Bishops-weed, Cabbages, Bettony, Centaury, Chamomel, Calaminth,Germander, Dodder, Dittany, Fennel, St. John's Wort, Marjoram, Horehound, Bawm,Water-cresses, Origanum, Bazil, Pennyroyal, Poley mountain, Parsley, Smallage,Rue, Rosemary, Sage, Savin, Hartwort, Time, Mother of Time, Scordium, Nettles.

Stop the terms. Shepherd's purse, Strawberries, Mirtles, Water Lilies, Plantain,Houseleek or Sengreen, Comfry, Knotgrass.Resist poison. Southernwood, Wormwood, Garlick, all sorts of Maiden hair,Smallage, Bettony, Carduus Benedictus, Germander, Calaminth, Alexanders, CarlineThistle, Agrimony, Fennel, Juniper, Horehound, Origanum, Pennyroyal,Poleymountain, Rue, Scordium, Plantain.Discuss swellings. Maiden-hair, Cleavers, or Goosegrass, Mallows, Marshmallows,Docks, Bawm, Water-cresses, Cinquefoil, Scordium, &c.Ease pain. Dil, Wormwood, Arach, Chamomel, Calaminth, Chamepitis, Henbane,Hops, Hog's Fennel, Parsley, Rosemary, Rue, Marjoram, Mother of Time.Herbs purgingCholer. Groundsel, Hops, Peach leaves, Wormwood, Centaury, Mallows, Senna.Melancholy. Ox-eye, Epithimum, Fumitory, Senna, Dodder.Flegm and water. Briony, white and black, Spurge, both work most violently andare not fit for a vulgar use, Dwarf Elder, Hedge Hyssop, Laurel leaves, Mercury,Mezereon also purges violently, and so doth Sneezewort, Elder leaves, Senna.For the particular operations of these, as also how to order the body after purges,the quantity to be taken at a time, you have been in part instructed already, and shallbe more fully hereafter.FLOWERSCollege : Wormwood, Agnus Castus, Amaranthus, Dill, Rosemary, Columbines,Orrenges, Balaustins, or Pomegranate Flowers, Bettony, Borrage, Bugloss,Marigolds, Woodbine or Honey-suckles, Clove Gilliflowers, Centaury the less,Chamomel, Winter Gilliflowers, Succory, Comfry the greater, Saffron, Bluebottlegreat and small, (Synosbatus, Tragus, and Dedonوus hold our white thorn to be it,Cordus and Marcelus think it to be Bryars, Lugdunensis takes it for the sweet Bryar,but what our College takes it for, I know not) Cytinus, (Dioscorides calls the flowersof the Manured Pomegranates, Cytinus, but Pliny calls the flowers of the wild kind bythat name,) Fox-glove, Viper's Bugloss, Rocket, Eyebright, Beans, Fumitory, Broom,Cowslips, St. John's Wort, Hysop, Jessamine or Shrub, Trefoil, Archangel, or DeadNettles white and red, Lavender, Wall-flowers, or Winter-Gilliflowers, Privet, Lilieswhite, and of the valley, Hops, Common and tree Mallows, Feather-few, Woodbine,or Honey-suckles, Melilot, Bawm, Walnuts, Water-Lilies white and yellow, Origanum,Poppies white and red, or Erraticks, Poppies, or corn Roses, so called because theygrow amongst Corn, Peony, Honey-suckles, or Woodbine, Peach-flowers, Primroses,Self-heal, Sloebush, Rosemary flowers, Roses, white, damask and red, Sage, Elder,white Saxifrage, Scabious, Siligo, (I think they mean wheat by it, Authors are notagreed about it) Steches, Tamarisk, Tansy, Mullen or Higtaper, Limetree, CloveGilliflowers, Colt's-foot, Violets, Agnus Castus, Dead Nettles white and red.Culpeper : That these may be a little explained for the public good: be pleased totake notice.Some are hot in the first degree, as Borrage, Bugloss, Bettony, Oxeye, Melilot,Chamomel, Stœchas.Hot in the second degree. Amomus, Saffron, Clove-gilliflowers, Rocket, Bawm,Spikenard, Hops, Schenanth, Lavender, Jasmine, Rosemary.In the third degree. Agnus Castus, Epithimum, Winter-gilliflowers, or Wallflowers,Woodbine, or Honey-suckles.Cold in the first degree. Mallows, Roses, red, white, and damask, Violets.

In the second. Anemone, or Wind-flower, Endive, Succory, Water-lilies, both whiteand yellow.In the third. Balaustins, or Pomegranate flowers.In the fourth. Henbane, and all the sorts of Poppies, only whereas authors say, fieldPoppies, which some call red, others erratick, and corn Roses, are the coldest of allthe others: yet my opinion is, that they are not cold in the fourth degree.Moist in the first degree. Borrage, Bugloss, Mallows, Succory, Endive.In the second. Water-lilies, Violets.Dry in the first degree. Ox-eye, Saffron, Chamomel, Melilot, Roses.In the second. Wind-flower, Amomus, Clove-gilliflowers, Rocket, Lavender, Hops,Peony, Rosemary, Spikenard.In the third. Woodbine, or Honeysuckles, Balaustines, Epithimum, Germander,Chamepitis.The temperature of any other flowers not here mentioned are of the sametemperature with the herbs, you may gain skill by searching there for them, you canloose none.For the parts of the body, they are appropriated to, some heatThe head; as, Rosemary flowers, Self-heal, Chamomel, Bettony, Cowslips,Lavender, Melilot, Peony, Sage, Stœchas.The breast. Bettony, Bawm, Scabious, Schœnanth.The heart. Bawm, Rosemary flowers, Borrage, Bugloss, Saffron, Spikenard.The stomach. Rosemary-flowers, Spikenard, Schœnanth.The liver. Centaury, Schœnanth, Elder, Bettony, Chamomel, Spikenard.The spleen. Bettony, Wall-flowers.The reins and bladder. Bettony, Marsh-mallows, Melilot, Schœnanth, Spikenard.The womb. Bettony, Squinanth or Schœnanth, Sage, Orris or Flower-de-luce.The joints. Rosemary-flowers, Cowslips, Chamomel, Melilot.Flowers, as they are cooling, so they coolThe head. Violets, Roses, the three sorts of Poppies, and Water-lilies.The breast and heart. Violets, Red Roses, Water-lilies.The stomach. Red Roses, Violets.The liver and spleen. Endive, and Succory.Violets, Borrage, and Bugloss, moisten the heart, Rosemary-flowers, Bawm andBettony, dry it.According to property, so they bindBalaustins, Saffron, Succory, Endive, red-roses, Melilot, Bawm, Clove-gilliflowers,Agnus Castus.Discuss. Dill, Chamomel, Marsh-mallows, Mallows, Melilot, Stœchas, &c.Cleanse. Damask-roses, Elder flowers, Bean flowers, &c.Extenuate. Orris, or Flower-de-luce, Chamomel, Melilot, Stœchas, &c.Mollify. Saffron, white Lilies, Mallows, Marsh-mallows, &c.Suppure. Saffron, white Lilies, &c.Glutinate. Balaustines, Centaury, &c.Provoke the terms. Bettony, Centaury, Chamomel, Schœnanth, Wall-flowers,Bawm, Peony, Rosemary, Sage.Stop the terms. Balaustines, or Pomegranate flowers, Water Lilies.Expel wind. Dill, Chamomel, Schœnanth, Spikenard.Help burnings. White Lilies, Mallows, Marsh-mallows.Resist poison. Bettony, Centaury.Ease pain. Dill, Chamomel, Centaury, Melilot, Rosemary.

Flowers purge choler. Peach flowers, Damask Roses, Violets.Flegm. Broom flowers, Elder flowers.If you compare but the quality of the flowers with the herbs, and with theexplanation of these terms at the latter end, you may easily find the temperature andproperty of the rest.The flowers of Ox-eye being boiled into a poultice with a little barley meal, takeaway swellings and hardness of the flesh, being applied warm to the place.Chamomel flowers heat, discuss, loosen and rarify, boiled in Clysters, they areexcellent in the wind cholic, boiled in wine, and the decoction drunk, purges the reins,break the stone, opens the pores, cast out choleric humours, succours the heart, andeases pains and aches, or stiffness coming by travelling.The flowers of Rocket used outwardly, discuss swellings, and dissolve hardtumours, you may boil them into a poultice, but inwardly taken they send butunwholesome vapours up to the head.Hops open obstructions of the bowels, liver, and spleen, they cleanse the body ofcholer and flegm, provoke urine.Jasmine flowers boiled in oil, and the grieved place bathed with it, takes awaycramps and stitches in the sides.The flowers of Woodbine, or Honeysuckles, being dryed and beaten into powder,and a dram taken in white wine in the morning, helps the rickets, difficulty ofbreathing; provoke urine, and help the stranguary.The flowers of Mallows being bruised and boiled in honey (two ounces of theflowers is sufficient for a pound of honey; and having first clarified the honey beforeyou put them in) then strained out; this honey taken with a liquorice stick, is anexcellent remedy for Coughs, Asthmas, and consumptions of the lungs.FRUITSCollege : Winter-cherries, Love Apples, Almonds sweet and bitter, Anacardia,Oranges, Hazel Nuts, the oily Nut Ben, Barberries, Capers, Guinny Pepper, Figs,Carpobalsamum, Cloves, Cassia Fistula, Chestnuts, Cherries, black and red, Cicers,white, black and red, Pome Citrons, Coculus Indi, Colocynthis, Currants, Cornels, orCornelianCherries, Cubebs, Cucumbers garden and wild, Gourds, Cynosbatus, Cypress,Cones, Quinces, Dates, Dwarf-Elder, Green Figs, Strawberries, common and TurkeyGalls, Acorns, Acorn Cups, Pomegranates, Gooseberries, Ivy, Herb True-Love,Walnuts, Jujubes, Juniper berries, Bayberries, Lemons, Oranges, Citrons, Quinces,Pomegranates, Lemons, Mandrakes, Peaches, Stramonium, Apples, garden and wild,or Crabs and Apples, Musk Melons, Medlars, Mulberries, Myrobalans, Bellericks,Chebs, Emblicks, Citron and Indian, Mirtle, Berries, water Nuts, Hazel Nuts,Chestnuts, Cypress Nuts, Walnuts, Nutmegs, Fistick Nuts, Vomiting Nuts, Olivespickled in brine, Heads of white and black Poppies, Pompions, Peaches, French orKidney Beans, Pine Cones, white black and long Pepper, Fistick Nuts, Apples andCrabs, Prunes, French and Damask, Sloes, Pears, English Currants, Berries ofPurging Thorn, black Berries, Raspberries, Elder berries, Sebastens, Services, orCheckers, Hawthorn berries, Pine Nuts, Water Nuts, Grapes, Gooseberries, Raisins,Currants.Culpeper : That you may reap benefit by these, be pleased to consider, that they aresome of them.

Temperate in respect of heat. Raisins of the sun, Currants, Figs, Pine Nuts, Dates,Sebastens.Hot in the first degree. Sweet Almonds, Jujubes, Cypress Nuts, green Hazel Nuts,green Walnuts.Hot in the second degree. The Nut Ben, Capers, Nutmegs, dry Walnuts, dry HazelNuts, Fistick Nuts.In the third degree. Juniper Berries, Cloves Carpobalsamum, Cubebs, Anacardium,bitter Almonds.In the fourth degree. Pepper, white, black and long, Guinny Pepper.Cold in the first degree. The flesh of Citrons, Quinces, Pears, Prunes, &c.In the second. Gourds, Cucumbers, Melons, Pompions, Oranges, Lemons, Citrons,Pomegranates, viz. the juice of them, Peaches, Prunes, Galls, Apples.In the third. Mandrakes.In the fourth. Stramonium.Moist in the first degree. The flesh of Citrons, Lemons, Oranges, viz. the innerrhind which is white, the outer rhind is hot.In the second. Gourds, Melons, Peaches, Prunes, &c.Dry in the first degree. Juniper Berries.In the second. The Nut Ben, Capers, Pears, Fistick Nuts, Pine Nuts, Quinces,Nutmegs, Bay berries.In the third. Cloves, Galls, &c.In the fourth. All sorts of Pepper.As appropriated to the body of Man, so they heat the head: asAnacardia, Cubebs, Nutmegs.The breast. Bitter Almonds, Dates, Cubebs, Hazel Nuts, Pine Nuts, Figs, Raisins ofthe sun, Jujubes.The heart. Walnuts, Nutmegs, Juniper berries.The stomach. Sweet Almonds, Cloves, Ben, Juniper berries, Nutmegs, Pine Nuts,Olives.The spleen. Capers.The reins and bladder. Bitter Almonds, Juniper Berries, Cubebs, Pine Nuts, Raisinsof the sun.The womb. Walnuts, Nutmegs, Bay-berries, Juniper berries.Cool the breast. Sebastens, Prunes, Oranges, Lemons.The heart. Oranges, Lemons, Citrons, Pomegranates, Quinces, Pears.The stomach. Quinces, Citruls, Cucumbers, Gourds, Musk Melons, Pompions,Cherries, Gooseberries, Cornelian Cherries, Lemons, Apples, Medlars, Oranges,Pears, English Currants, Cervices or Checkers.The liver. Those that cool the stomach and Barberries.The reins and womb. Those that cool the stomach, and Strawberries.By their several operations, someBind. As the berries of Mirtles, Barberries, Chestnuts, Cornels, or CornelianCherries, Quinces, Galls, Acorns, Acorn-cups, Medlars, Checkers or Cervices,Pomegranates, Nutmegs, Olives, Pears, Peaches.Discuss. Capers, all the sorts of Pepper.Extenuate. Sweet and bitter Almonds, Bayberries, Juniper berries.Glutinate. Acorns, Acorn Cups, Dates, Raisins of the sun, Currants.Expel Wind. Bay berries, Juniper berries, Nutmegs, all the sorts of Pepper.Breed Seed. Raisins of the sun, sweet Almonds, Pine Nuts, Figs, &c.

Provoke urine. Winter Cherries.Provoke the terms. Ivy berries, Capers, &c.Stop the terms. Barberries, &c.Resist poison. Bay berries, Juniper berries, Walnuts, Citrons, commonly calledPome Citrons, all the sorts of Pepper.Ease pain. Bay berries, Juniper berries, Ivy berries, Figs, Walnuts, Raisins,Currants, all the sorts of Pepper.Fruits purgingCholer. Cassia Fistula, Citron Myrobalans, Prunes, Tamarinds, Raisins.Melancholy. Indian Myrobalans.Flegm. Colocynthis and wild Cucumbers purge violently, and therefore not rashlyto be meddled withal. I desire my book should be beneficial, not hurtful to the vulgar,but Myrobalans of all sorts, especially Chebs, Bellericks and Emblicks, purge flegmvery gently, and without danger.Of all these give me leave to commend only one to you as of special concernment,which is Juniper berries.SEEDSCollege : Sorrel, Agnus Castus, Marsh-mallows, Bishop's weed true and common,Amomus, Dill, Angellica, Annis, Rose-seed, Smallage, Columbines, Sparagus, Arach,Oats, Oranges, Burdocks, Bazil, Barberries, Cotton, Bruscus or Knee-holly, Hemp,Cardamoms greater and lesser, Carduus Benedictus, our Lady's Thistles, Bastard,Saffron, Caraway, Spurge greater and lesser, Coleworts, Onions, the Kernels ofCherry stones, Chervil, Succory, Hemlock, Citrons, Citruls, Garden Scurvy-grass,Colocynthis, Coriander, Samphire, Cucumbers, garden and wild, Gourds, Quinces,Cummin, Cynosbatus, Date-stones, Carrots, English, and cretish, Dwarf-Elder,Endive, Rocket, Hedge Mustard, Orobus, Beans, Fennel, Fenugreek, Ash-tree keys,Fumitory, Brooms, Grains of Paradise, Pomegranates, wild Rue, Alexanders, Barley,white Henbane, St. John's Wort, Hyssop, Lettice, Sharp-pointed-Dock, Spurge,Laurel, Lentils, Lovage, Lemons, Ash-tree-keys, Linseed, or Flaxweed, Gromwell,Darnel, Sweet Trefoil, Lupines, Masterwort, Marjoram, Mallows, Mandrakes,Melons, Medlars, Mezereon, Gromwell, sweet Navew, Nigella, the kernels ofCherries, Apricots, and Peaches, Bazil, Orobus, Rice Panick, Poppies white andblack, Parsnips garden and wild. Thorough Wax, Parsley, English and Macedonian,Burnet, Pease, Plantain, Peony, Leeks, Purslain, Fleawort, Turnips, Radishes,Sumach, Spurge, Roses, Rue, garden and wild, Wormseed, Saxifrage, Succory,Sesami, Hartwort, common and cretish, Mustardseed, Alexanders, Nightshade, StevesAger, Sumach, Treacle Mustard, sweet Trefoil, Wheat, both the fine flour and thebran, and that which starch is made of, Vetches or Tares, Violets, Nettles, commonand Roman, the stones of Grapes, Greek Wheat, or Spelt Wheat.Culpeper : That you may receive a little more benefit by these, than the barereading of them, which doth at the most but tell you what they are; the followingmethod may instruct you what they are good for.Seeds are hot in the first degreeLinseed, Fenugreek, Coriander, Rice, Gromwell, Lupines.In the second. Dill, Smallage, Orobus, Rocket, Bazil, Nettles.In the third. Bishop's Weed, Annis, Amomus, Carraway, Fennel, (and so I believeSmallage too, let authors say what they will, for if the herb of Smallage be somewhat

hotter than Parsley; I know little reason why the seed should not be so hot)Cardamoms, Parsley, Cummin, Carrots, Nigella, Navew, Hartwort, Staves Ager.In the fourth. Water-cresses, Mustard-seed.Cold in the first degree. Barley, &c.In the second. Endive, Lettice, Purslain, Succory, Gourds, Cucumbers, Melons,Citruls, Pompions, Sorrel, Nightshade.In the third. Henbane, Hemlock, Poppies white and black.Moist in the first degree. Mallows, &c.Dry in the first degree. Beans, Fennel, Fenugreek, Barley, Wheat, &c.In the second. Orobus, Lentils, Rice, Poppies, Nightshade, and the like.In the third. Dill, Smallages, Bishop's Weed, Annis, Caraway, Cummin, Coriander,Nigella, Gromwell, Parsley.Appropriated to the body of man, and so theyHeat the head. Fennel, Marjoram, Peony, &c.The breast. Nettles.The heart. Bazil, Rue, &c. Mustard seed, &c.The stomach. Annis, Bishop's weed, Amomus, Smallage, Cummin, Cardamoms,Cubebs, Grains of Paradise.The liver. Annis, Fennel, Bishop's weed, Amomus, Smallage, Sparagus, Cummin,Caraway, Carrots.The spleen. Annis, Caraway, Watercresses.The reins and bladder. Cicers, Rocket, Saxifrage, Nettles, Gromwell.The womb. Peony, Rue.The joints. Water-cresses, Rue, Mustard-seed.Cool the head. Lettice, Purslain, white Poppies.The breast. White Poppies, Violets.The heart. Orange, Lemon, Citron and Sorrel seeds.Lastly, the four greater and four lesser cold seeds, which you may find in thebeginning of the compositions, as also the seed of white and black Poppies cool theliver and spleen, reins and bladder, womb and joints.According to operation some seedsBind, as Rose-seeds, Barberries, Shepherd's purse, Purslain, &c.Discuss. Dill, Carrots, Linseeds, Fenugreek, Nigella, &c.Cleanse. Beans, Orobus, Barley, Lupines, Nettles, &c.Mollify. Linseed, or Flax seed, Fenugreek seed, Mallows, Nigella.Harden. Purslain seed, &c.Suppure. Linseed, Fenugreek seed, Darnel, Barley husked, commonly calledFrench Barley.Glutinate. Orobus, Lupines, Darnel, &c.Expel wind. Annis, Dill, Smallage, Caraway, Cummin, Carrots, Fennel, Nigella,Parsley, Hartwort, Wormseed.Breed Seed. Rocket, Beans, Cicers, Ash-tree keys.Provoke the menses. Amomus, Sparagus, Annis, Fennel, Bishop's weed, Cicers,Carrots, Smallage, Parsley, Lovage, Hartwort.Break the stone. Mallows, Marsh-mallows, Gromwell, &c.Stop the terms. Rose seeds, Cummin, Burdock, &c.Resist poison. Bishop's weed, Annis, Smallage, Cardamoms, Oranges, Lemons,Citrons, Fennel, &c.Ease pain. Dill, Amomus, Cardamoms, Cummin, Carrots, Orobus, Fenugreek,Linseed, Gromwell, Parsley, Panick.

Assuage swellings. Linseed, Fenugreek seeds, Marsh-mallows, Mallows,Coriander, Barley, Lupines, Darnel, &c.* * *The College tells you a tale that there are such things in Rerum Natura, as these,Gums, Rozins, Balsams, and Juices made thick, viz.College : Juices of Wormwood and Maudlin, Acacia, Aloes, Lees of Oil, Assafœtida,Balsam of Peru and India; Bdellium, Benzoin, Camphire, Caranna,Colophonia, Juice of Maudlin, Euphorbium, Lees of Wine, Less of Oil, Gums ofGalbanum, Amoniacum, Anime, Arabick, Cherry Trees, Copal, Elemy, Juniper, Ivy,Plumb Trees, Cambuge, Hypocystis, Labdanum, Lacca, Liquid Amber, Manna,Mastich, Myrrh, Olibanum, Opium, Opopanax, Pice-bitumen, Pitch of the Cedar ofGreece, Liquid and dry Rozins of Fir-tree, Larch-tree, Pine tree, Pinefruit, Mastich,Venice and Cyprus Turpentine. Sugar, white, red, and Christaline, or Sugar Candywhite and red, Sagapen, Juniper, Gum, Sanguis Draconis, Sarcocolla, Scamony,Styrax, Liquid and Calamitis, Tacha, Mahacca, Tartar, Frankincense, Olibanum,Tragaganth, Birdlime.Culpeper : That my country may receive more benefit than ever the college ofPhysicians intended them from these, I shall treat of them severally.1. Of the Juices. 2. Of the Gums and Rosins.Concrete Juices, or Juices made thick, are eitherTemperate, as, Juice of Liquorice, white starch.Hot in the first degree. Sugar.In the second. Labdanum.In the third. Benzoin, Assafœtida.Cold in the third degree. Sanguis Draconis, Acacia.In the third. Hypocistis.In the fourth. Opium, and yet some authors think Opium is hot because of its bittertaste.Aloes and Manna purge choler gently, and Scamony doth purge choler violently,that it is no ways fit for a vulgar man's use, for it corrodes the Bowels. Opopoanaxpurges flegm very gently.White starch gently levigates or makes smooth such parts as are rough, syrup ofViolets being made thick with it and so taken on the point of a knife, helps coughs,roughness of the throat, wheezing, excoriations of the bowels, the bloody-flux.Juice of Liquorice helps roughness of the Trachea Arteria, which is in plainEnglish called the windpipe, the roughness of which causes coughs and hoarseness,difficulty of breathing, &c. It allays the heat of the stomach and liver, eases pains,soreness and roughness of the reins and bladder, it quencheth thirst, and strengthensthe stomach exceedingly. It may easily be carried about in one's pocket, and eat a littlenow and then.Sugar cleanses and digests, takes away roughness of the tongue, it strengthens thereins and bladder, being weakened: being beaten into fine powder, and put into theeyes, it takes away films that grow over the sight.Labdanum is in operation, thickening, heating and mollifying, it opens the passageof the veins, and keeps the hair from falling off; the use of it is usually external; beingmixed with wine, myrrh, and oil of mirtles, and applied like a plaister, it takes awayfilthy scars, and the deformity the small pox leaves behind them; being mixed with oilof Roses, and dropped into the ears, it helps pains there; being used as a pessary, itprovokes the menses, and helps hardness or stiffness of the womb. It is sometimes

used inwardly in such medicines as ease pains and help the cough: if you mix a littleof it with old white wine and drink it, it both provokes urine and stops looseness orfluxes.Dragons blood, cools, binds, and repels.Acasia, and Hyposistis, do the like.The juice of Maudlin, or, for want of it Costmary, which is the same in effect, andbetter known to the vulgar, the juice is made thick for the better keeping of it; firstclarify the juice before you boil it to its due thickness, which is something thicker thanhoney.It is appropriated to the liver, and the quantity of a dram taken every morning, helpsthe Cachexia, or evil disposition of the body proceeding from coldness of the liver: ithelps the rickets and worms in children, provokes urine, and gently (without purging)disburdens the body of choler and flegm; it succours the lungs, opens obstructions,and resists putrefaction of blood.Gums are either temperate, as, Lacca, Elemi, Tragacanth, &c.Intemperate, and so are hot in the first degree, as Bdellium, Gum of Ivy.In the second, Galbanum, Myrrh, Mastich, Frankincense, Olibanum, Pitch, Rozin,Styrax.In the third. Amoniacum.In the fourth. Euphorbium.Gum Arabick is cold.Colophonia and Styrax soften.Gum Arabick and Tragacanth, Sandarack or Juniper Gum, and Sarcocolla bind.Gum of Cherry trees, breaks the stone.Styrax provokes the menses.Opopanax gently purges flegm.From the prickly Cedar when it is burned comes forth that which, with us, isusually known by the name of Tar, and is excellently good for unction either forscabs, itch, or manginess, either in men or beasts, as also against the leprosy, tetters,ringworms, and scald heads.All sorts of Rozins fill up hollow ulcers, and relieve the body sore pressed with coldgriefs.The Rozin of Pitch-tree, is that which is commonly called Burgundy pitch, and issomething hotter and sharper than the former, being spread upon a cloth is excellentlygood for old aches coming of former bruises or dislocations.Pitch mollifies hard swellings, and brings boils and sores to suppuration, it breakscarbuncles, disperses aposthumes, cleanses ulcers of corruption and fills them withflesh.Bdellium heats and mollifies, and that very temperately, being mixed with anyconvenient ointment or plaister, it helps kernels in the neck and throat, Scrophula, orthat disease which was called the King's Evil. Inwardly taken in any convenientmedicine, it provokes the menses, and breaks the stone, it helps coughs and bitings ofvenomous beasts: it helps windiness of the spleen, and pains in the sides thencecoming. Both outwardly applied to the place and inwardly taken, it helps ruptures orsuch as are burst, it softens the hardness of the womb, dries up the moisture thereofand expels the dead child.Bitumen Jadaicum is a certain dry pitch which the dead sea, or lake of Sodom inIndia casts forth at certain times, the inhabitants thereabouts pitch their ships with it.It is of excellent use to mollify the hardness of swellings and discuss them, as alsoagainst inflammations; the smoke of it burnt is excellently good for the fits of the

mother, and the falling-sickness. Inwardly taken in wine it provokes the menses, helpsthe bitings of venomous beasts, and dissolves congealed blood in the body.Ambergreese is hot and dry in the second degree, I will not dispute whether it be aGum or not. It strengthens nature much which way soever it be taken, there are butfew grains usually given of it at a time: mixed with a little ointment of Orangeflowers, and the temples and forehead anointed with it, it eases the pains of the headand strengthens the brain exceedingly; the same applied to the privities helps the fitsof the mother; inwardly taken it strengthens the brain and memory, the heart and vitalspirit, warms cold stomachs, and is an exceeding strengthener of nature to old people,adding vigour to decayed and worn-out spirits: it provokes venery, and makes barrenwomen fruitful, if coldness and moisture or weakness be the cause impediting.Assafœtida being smelled to, is vulgarly known to repress the fits of the mother; alittle bit put into an aching tooth, presently eases the pain, ten grains of it taken beforedinner, walking half an hour after it, provokes appetite, helps digestion, strengthensthe stomach, and takes away loathing of meat, it provokes lust exceedingly and expelswind as much.Borax, besides the virtues it has to solder Gold, Silver, Copper, &c. inwardly givenin small quantities, it stops fluxes, and the running of the reins; being in fine powder,and put into green wounds, it cures them at once dressing.Gambuge, which the College calls Gutta Gamba. I know no good of it.Caranna outwardly applied, is excellent for aches and swellings in the nerves andjoints. If you lay it behind the ears, it draws back humours from the eyes; applied tothe temples as they usually do Mastich, it helps the tooth-ache.Gum Elimi, authors appropriate to fractures in the skull and head. See Arceus'liniment.Gum Lacca being well purified, and the quantity of half a dram taken in anyconvenient liquor, strengthens the stomach and liver, opens obstructions, helps theyellow jaundice and dropsy; provokes urine, breaks the stone in the reins and bladder.Liquid Amber is not much unlike liquid Styrax: by unction it warms and comforts acold and moist brain, it eases all griefscoming of a cold cause, it mightily comforts and strengthens a weak stomach, beinganointed with it, and helps digestion exceedingly, it dissolves swellings. It is hot inthe third degree, and moist in the first.I think it would do the commonwealth no harm if I should speak a word or two ofManna here, although it be no Gum. I confess authors make some flutter about it,what it is, some holding it to be the juice of a tree; I am confident it is the very samecondensated that our honey-dews here are, only the countries whence it comes beingfar hotter, it falls in great abundance. Let him that desires reason for it, be pleased toread Butler's book of Bees, a most excellent experimental work, there he shall findreason enough to satisfy any reasonable man. Choose the driest and whitest; it is avery gentle purger of choler, quenches thirst, provokes appetite, eases the roughnessof the throat, helps bitterness in the throat, and often proneness to vomit, it is verygood for such as are subject to be costive to put it into their drink instead of sugar, ithath no obnoxious quality at all in it, but may be taken by a pregnant woman withoutany danger; a child of a year old may take an ounce of it at a time dissolved in milk, itwill melt like sugar, neither will it be known from it by the taste.Myrrh is hot and dry in the second degree, dangerous for pregnant women, it isbitter and yet held to be good for the roughness of the throat and wind-pipe; half adram of it taken at a time helps rheumatic distillations upon the lungs, pains in thesides; it stops fluxes, provokes the menses, brings away both birth and after-birth,

softens the hardness of the womb; being taken two hours before the fit comes, it helpsagues. Mathiolus saith he seldom used any other medicine for the quartan ague than adram of myrrh given in Muskadel an hour before the fit usually came; if you make itup into pills with treacle, and take one of them every morning fasting, it is a sovereignpreservative against the pestilence, against the poison of serpents, and othervenomous beasts; a singular remedy for a stinking breath if it arise from putrefactionof the stomach, it fastens loose teeth, and stays the shedding off of the hair, outwardlyused it breeds flesh in deep wounds, and covers the naked bones with flesh.Olibanum is hot in the second degree, and dry in the first, you may take a dram of itat a time, it stops looseness and the running of the reins; it strengthens the memoryexceedingly, comforts the heart, expels sadness and melancholy, strengthens the heart,helps coughs, rheums and pleurises; your best way (in my opinion), to take it is to mixit with conserve of roses, and take it in the morning fasting.Tachamacha is seldom taken inwardly, outwardly spread upon leather, and appliedto the navel; it stays the fits of the mother, applied to the side, it mitigates speedily,and in little time quite takes away the pain and windiness of the spleen; the truth is,whatsoever ache or swelling proceeds of wind or cold raw humours, I know no betterplaister coming from beyond sea than this gum. It strengthens the brain and memoryexceedingly, and stops all such defluctions thence as trouble the eyes, ears, or teeth, ithelps the gout and sciatica.Gum Coopal, and Gum Anime, are very like one another both in body andoperation, the former is hard to come by, the last not very easy. It stops defluctionsfrom the head, if you perfume your cap with the smoke of it, it helps the headache andmegrim, strengthens the brain, and therefore the sinews.Gum Tragaganth, which the vulgar call Gum Dragon, being mixed with pectoralSyrups, (which you shall find noted in their proper places) it helps coughs andhoarseness, salt and sharp distillations upon the lungs, being taken with a liquoricestick, being dissolved in sweet wine, it helps (being drank) gnawing in the bowels,sharpness and freetings of the urine, which causes excoriations either in the reins orbladder, being dissolved in milk and the eyes washed with it, it takes away weals andscabs that grow on the eyelids, it is excellently good to be put in poultice to fodderwounds, especially if the nerves or sinews be hurt.Sagapen, dissolved in juice of rue and taken, wonderfully breaks the stone in thebladder, expels the dead child and afterbirth, clears the sight; dissolved in wine anddrank, it helps the cough, and distillation upon the lungs, and the fits of the mother;outwardly in oils or ointments, it helps such members as are out of joint or overstretched.Galbanum is of the same operation, and also taken from the same plant, viz. Fennel,Giant.Gum Arabic, thickens and cools, and corrects choleric sharp humours in the body,being dissolved in the white of an egg, well beaten, it helps burnings, and keeps theplace from blistering.Mastich stays fluxes, being taken inwardly any way. Three or four small grains ofMastich, swallowed at night going to bed, is a remedy for pains in the stomach; beingbeaten into powder, and mixed with conserve of Roses, it strengthens the stomach,stops distillations upon the lungs, stays vomiting, and causes a sweet breath; beingmixed with white wine and the mouth washed with it, it cleanses the gums ofcorruption, and fastens loose teeth.Frankincense being used outwardly in the way of a plaister, heats and binds; beingapplied to the temples, stops the rheums that

flow to the eyes, helps green wounds, and fills hollow ulcers with flesh, stops thebleeding of wounds, though the arteries be cut; being made into an ointment withVinegar and Hog's-grease, helps the itch, pains in the ears, inflammations in women'sbreasts commonly called agues in the breast; beware of taking it inwardly, lest itcause madness.Turpentine is hot in the second degree, it heals, softens, it discusses and purges,cleanses the reins, provokes urine.Styrax Calamitis is hot and dry in the second degree, it heals, mollifies, andconcocts; being taken inwardly helps the cough, and distillations of the lungs,hoarseness and loss of voice, helps the hardness of the womb, and provokes themenses.Ammoniacum, hot and dry in the third degree, softens, draws, and heats; beingdissolved in vinegar, strained and applied plaister-wise, it takes away carbuncles andhardness in the flesh, it is one of the best remedies that I know for infirmities of thespleen, being applied to the left side; being made into an ointment with oil, it is goodto anoint the limbs of such as are weary: a scruple of it being taken in the form of apill loosens the belly, gives speedy delivery to women in travail, helps diseases of thespleen, the sciatica and all pains in the joints, and have any humour afflicting theirbreast.Camphire, it is held by all authority to be cold and dry in the third degree, it is ofvery thin subtile parts, insomuch that being beaten into very fine powder it willvanquish away into the air, being beaten into powder and mixed with oil, and thetemples anointed therewith, eases headaches proceeding of heat, all inflammationswhatsoever, the back being anointed with the same, cools the reins, and seminalvessels, stops the running of the reins and Fluor Albus, the moderate use of Venery,the like it doth if it be drank inwardly with Bettony-water, take but a small quantity ofit at a time inwardly, it resists poison and bitings by venomous beasts; outwardly,applied as before, and the eyes anointed with it, stops hot rheums that flow thither.Opopanax purges thick flegm from the most remote parts of the body, viz. thebrain, joints, hands, and feet, the nerves and breast, and strengthens all those partswhen they are weak, if the weakness proceed of cold, as usually it doth; it helpsweakness of the sight, old rotten coughs, and gouts of all sorts, dropsies, andswellings of the spleen, it helps the stranguary and difficulty of making urine,provokes the menses, and helps all cold afflictions of the womb; have a care you giveit not to any pregnant women. The dose is one dram at most, corrected with a littleMastich, dissolved in Vinegar and outwardly applied helps the passions of the spleen.* * *In the next place the College tells you a tale concerning Liquid, Juices, and Tears,which are to be kept for present use, viz.College : Vinegar, Juice of Citrons, Juice of sour Grapes, Oranges, Barberries,Tears of a Birch-tree, Juice of Chermes, Quinces, Pomegranates, Lemons, Woodsorrel,Oil of unripe Olives, and ripe Olives, both new and cold, Juice of red andDamask Roses, Wine Tears of a Vine.Culpeper : The virtues of the most of these may be found in the Syrups, and arefew of them used alone.Then the College tells you there are things bred of PLANTS.College : Agarick, Jew's-ears, the berries of Chermes, the Spungy substance of theBriar, Moss, Viscus Quercinus, Oak, Apples.

Culpeper : As the College would have you know this, so would I know what thechief of them are good for.Few's-ears boiled in milk and drank, helps sore throats.Moss is cold, dry, and binding, therefore good for fluxes of all sorts.Misleto of the Oak, it helps the falling sickness and the convulsions, beingdiscreetly gathered and used.Oak Apples are dry and binding; being boiled in milk and drank, they stop fluxesand the menses, and being boiled in vinegar, and the body anointed with the vinegar,cures the itch.* * *Then the College acquaints you, That there are certain living Creatures called:College : Bees, Woodlice, Silkworms, Toads, Crabs of the River, little Puppy Dogs,Grass-hoppers, Cantharides, Cothanel, Hedgehogs, Emmets or Ants, Larks,Swallows, and their young ones, Horse-leeches, Snails, Earthworms, Dishwashers orWagtails, House Sparrows and Hedge Sparrows, Frogs, Scineus, Land Scorpions,Moles, or Monts, Tortoise of the Woods, Tenches, Vipers and Foxes.Culpeper : That part of this crew of Cattle and some others which they have notbeen pleased to learn, may be made beneficial to your sick bodies, be pleased tounderstand, thatBees being burnt to ashes, and a lye made with the ashes, trimly decks a bald headbeing washed with it.Snails with shells on their backs, being first washed from the dirt, then the shellsbroken, and they boiled in spring water, but not scummed at all, for the scum will sinkof itself, and the water drank for ordinary drink is a most admirable remedy forconsumption; being bruised and applied to the place they help the gout, draw thornsout of the flesh, and held to the nose help the bleeding thereof.* * *Therefore consider that the College gave the Apothecaries a catalogue of whatParts of Living creatures and Excrements they must keep in their shops.College : The fat, grease, or suet, of a Duck, Goose, Eel, Boar, Herron,Thymallows (if you know where to get it) Dog, Capon, Beaver, wild Cat, Stork,Coney, Horse, Hedge-hog, Hen, Man, Lion, Hare, Pike, or Jack, (if they have any fat,I am persuaded 'tis worth twelve-pence a grain) Wolf, Mouse of the mountains, (if youcan catch them) Pardal, Hog, Serpent, Badger, Grey or brock Fox, Vulture, (if youcan catch them) Album Grوcum, Anglice, Dog's dung, the hucklebone of a Hare anda Hog, East and West Bezoar, Butter not salted and salted, stone taken out of a man'sbladder, Vipers flesh, fresh Cheese, Castorium, white, yellow, and Virgin's Wax, thebrain of Hares and Sparrows, Crabs' Claws, the Rennet of a Lamb, a Kid, a Hare, aCalf, and a Horse, the heart of a Bullock, a Stag, Hog, and a Wether, the horn of anElk, a Hart, a Rhinoceros, an Unicorn, the skull of a man killed by a violent death, aCockscomb, the tooth of a Bore, an Elephant, and a Sea-horse, Ivory, or Elephant'sTooth, the skin a Snake hath cast off, the gall of a Hawk, Bullock, a she Goat, a Hare,a Kite, a Hog, a Bull, a Bear, the cases of Silk-worms, the liver of a Wolf, an Otter, aFrog, Isinglass, the guts of a Wolf and a Fox, the milk of a she Ass, a she Goat, aWoman, an Ewe, a Heifer, East and West Bezoar, the stone in the head of a Crab, anda Perch, if there be any stone in an Ox Gall, stone in the bladder of a Man, the Jaw ofa Pike or Jack, Pearls, the marrow of the Leg of a Sheep, Ox, Goat, Stag, Calf,common and virgin Honey, Musk, Mummy, a Swallow's nest, Crabs Eyes, the

Omentum or call of a Lamb, Ram, Whether, Calf, the whites, yolks, and shells ofHen's Eggs, Emmet's Eggs, bone of a Stag's heart, an Ox leg, Ossepiœ, the inner skinof a Hen's Gizzard, the wool of Hares, the feathers of Partridges, that which Beesmake at the entrance of the hive, the pizzle of a Stag, of a Bull, Fox Lungs, fastingspittle, the blood of a Pigeon, of a Cat, of a he Goat, of a Hare, of a Partridge, of aSow, of a Bull, of a Badger, of a Snail, Silk, Whey, the suet of a Bullock, of a Stag, ofa he Goat, of a Sheep, of a Heifer, Spermaceti, a Bullock's spleen, the skin a Snakehath cast off, the excrements of a Goose, of a Dog, of a Goat, of Pigeons, of a stoneHorse, of a Hen, of Swallows, of a Hog, of a Heifer, the ancle of a Hare, of a Sow,Cobwebs, Water thells, as Blatta Bazantia, ‏,وBuccin Crabs, Cockles, Dentalis,Entalis, Mother of Pearl, Mytuli ‏,وPurpur Os ‏,وspei Umbilious Marinus, the testiclesof a Horse, a Cock, the hoof of an Elk, of an Ass, a Bullock, of a Horse, of a Lyon, theurine of a Boar, of a she Goat.Culpeper : The liver of an Hedge-hog being dried and beaten into powder anddrank in wine, strengthens the reins exceedingly, and helps the dropsy, convulsions,and the falling sickness, together with all fluxes of the bowels.The liver being in like manner brought into powder, strengthens the liverexceedingly, and helps the dropsy.* * *Then the College tells you these things may be taken from the sea, as College :‏,وCarlin Amber-grease, Sea-water, Sea-sand, Bitumen, Amber white and yellow, Fet,Coral, white and red, Foam of the Sea, Spunge, Stone Pumice, Sea salt, Spunges,Amber.METALS, STONES, SALTS, ANDOTHER MINERALSVer-de-grease, Scales of Brass, ‏,‏titisئ Alana Terra, Alabaster, Alectorions, AlumSeisile and Roach Amethist, Amianth, Amphelites, Antimony, leaves and filings ofSilver, Quick Silver, Lapis, Armenius, native Arsenic, both white and red, artificialArsenic, white and realgar, Argilla, Asteria, leaves and filings of Gold, Belemites,Berril, Bolearmenick, Borrax, Toad-stone, Lapis Calaminatis, Cadmia, Lime quickand quenched, Vitriol, white, blue, and green, Steel, Borrax, Chrisolite, Chrisopus,Cynabris, native and artificial, Whetstones, Chalk, white and green, Crystal,Diphriges, the rust, dust, scales, and flakes of Iron, Granite, Mortar, such as wallsare daubed with, Hematitis, Heliotropium, Jacinth, Hyber, Nicius, Jasper, LapisJudacious, Tiles, Lapis Lazuly, Lapis Lincis, Lithanthrax, Litharge of Silver and Gold,Loadstone, Marchasite, or fire stone Marble, Red Lead, native and artificial, Miss,Naptha, Lapis Nephriticus, Nitre, Oaker yellow and red, Onyx, Opalus, Ophytes,Ostcocolla Lead white and black, Plumbago, Pompholix, Marchasite, Realgar, Ruby,red Oaker, Sal Armoniach, Sal Gem, and salt Nitre, Saphyr and Sardine, Selenitis,Flints, Emerald, Smiris, Sori, Spodium, Pewter, Brimstone, quick and common, Talth,Earth of Cimolia, Sames, Lemnos, Sylesia, Topas, Alana, Terra, Tutty, Vitriol, white,blue, and green.Precious stones alter by a way manifest or hiddenBy a way manifest, they are hot, in the first degree. Hemetitis, Pyritis, Lopis Asius,Thyitis, Smyres, Lapis Schistus.Precious stones cold, are in the first degree. Jacinth, Saphyr, Emerald, Cristal,Lapis Samius, Lapis Phrigius.In the second degree. Ruby, Carbuncle, Granite, Sardony.

In the fourth degree. Diamond.In respect of property, they bind, as Lapis Asius, Nectius, Geodes, Pumice-stone.Emolient, as Alabaster, Jet, Lapis Thrasius.Stupify, as Memphitis, Jasper, Ophites.Clease, as Lapis Arabicus.Glutinate, as Galactitis, Melites.Scarify, as Morochtus.Break the stone, as Lapis Lyncis, Lapis Judaicus, Lapis Sponge.Retain the fruit in the womb, as ‏,‏titisئ Jasper.Provoke the menses. Ostracites.Stones altering by a hidden property (as they call it,) areBezoar, Topaz, Lapis Colubrinus, Toad-stone, Emerald, Alectorius, Calcidonius,Amethist, Saphyr, Jasper, Lapis Nephriticus, Lapis Tibernum, Lapis Spongites, thestone found in the maw of a Swallow, Load-stone, Lapis Vulturis, Merucius, Coral,Lynturius, Jet, ‏,‏titesئ the stones of Crabs, Amber, Crystal, &c.The Load-stone purges gross humours.Lapis Armenius and Lapis Lazuli, purge melancholy.Pyrites heat and cleanse, take away dimness of sight. Dioscorides. Lapis Asiusbinds and moderately corrodes and cleanses filthy ulcers, and fills them up with flesh;being mixed with honey, and applied to the place, is an admirable remedy for thegout.Chrystal being beaten into very fine powder, and a dram of it taken at a time helpsthe bloody-flux, stops the Fluor Albus, and increases milk in Nurses. Mathiolus.Lapis Samius is cooling and binding, it is very comfortable to the stomach, but itdulls the senses, helps fluxes of the eyes and ulcers.Geodetes binds and drys, being beaten into powder and mixed with water, andapplied to the place, takes away inflammations of the Testicles.Pumice-stone being beaten into powder and the teeth rubbed with it, cleanses them.Dioscorides.Jet, it is of a softening and discussing nature, it resists the fits of the mother.Lapis Arabicus being beaten into powder, and made into an ointment helps thehemorrhoids.Ostracites, a dram of it taken in powder provokes the menses; being taken after thatpurgation, causes conception, also being made into an ointment, helps inflammationsof the breast.Myexis being borne about one takes away pains in the reins, and hinders thebreeding of the stone.Lapis Armenius purges melancholy, and also causes vomiting, I hold it not verysafe for our English bodies, and therefore I will speak no more of it.Explanation of certain VacuationsThe five opening Roots.Smallage, Sparagus, Fennel, Parsley, Knee-holly.The two opening Roots.Fennel, Parsley.The five emolient Herbs.Marsh-mallows, Mallows, Beets, Mercury, Pellitory of the Wall, Violet Leaves.The five Capillary Herbs.Maidenhair, Wall Rue, Cetrach, Hart's-tongue, Politricum.The four cordial Flowers.Borrage, Bugloss, Roses, Violets.

The four greater hot Seeds, Carminative, or breaking wind.Annis, Carraway, Cummin, Fennel.The four lesser hot seeds.Bishop's weed, Amomus, Smallage, Carrots.The four greater cold seeds.Citrul, Cucumber, Gourds, Melon.The four lesser cold seeds.Succory, Endive, Lettice, Purslain.Five fragments of precious stones.Granite, Jacinth, Sapphire, Sardine, Emerald.The right worshipful, the College of Physicians of London in their NewDispensatory give you free leave to distil these common waters that follow, but theynever intend you should know what they are good for.SIMPLE DISTILLED WATERSOf fresh Roots ofBriony, Onions, Elecampane, Orris, or Flower-de-luce, Turnips.Of flowers and buds ofSouthernwood, both sorts of Wormwood, Wood Sorrel, Lady's-Mantle, Marshmallows,Angelica, Pimpernel with purple flowers, Smallage, Columbines, Sparagus,Mouse-ear, Borrage, Shepherd's Purse, Calaminth, Woodbine or Honey-suckles,Carduus Benedictus, our Lady's Thistles, Knotgrass, Succory, Dragons, Colt's-foot,Fennel, Goat's Rue, Grass, Hyssop, Lettice, Lovage, Toad-flax, Hops, Marjoram,Mallows, Horehound, Featherfew, Bawm, Mints, Horse-mints, Water Cresses,English Tobacco, white Poppies, Pellatory of the Wall, Parsley, Plantain, Purslain,Self-heal, Pennyroyal, Oak leaves, Sage, Scabious, Figwort or Throatwort,Houseleek, or Sengreen, the greater and lesser Mother of Time, Nightshade, Tansy,Tormentil, Valerian.Of Flowers ofOranges, (if you can get them) Blue-bottle the greater, Beans, Water-Lilies,Lavender, Nut-tree, Cowslips, Sloes, Rosemary, Roses white, damask, and red,Satyrien, Lime-tree, Clove-gilliflowers, Violets.Of Fruits ofOranges, Black Cherries, Pome Citrons, Quinces, Cucumbers, Strawberries,Winter Cherries, Lemons, Rasberries, unripe Walnuts, Apples.Of parts of living Creatures and their excrementsLobsters, Cockles, or Snails, Hartshorn, Bullocks dung made in May, Swallows,Earthworms, Magpies, Spawn of Frogs.SIMPLE WATERS DISTILLEDbeing digested before-handOf the fresh Roots of NettlesOf the leaves of Agrimony, wild Tansy, or Silverweed, Mugwort, Bettony,Marigolds, Chamomel, Chamepitys, Celandine, Pilewort, Scurvy-grass, Comfry thegreater, Dandelyon, Ash-tree leaves, Eyebright, Fumitory, Alehoof, or ground Ivy,Horsetail, St. John's Wort, Yarrow, Moneywort, Restharrow, Solomon's Seal, Ressolis, Rue, Savin, Saxifrage, Hart's tongue, Scordium, Tamarisk, Mullin, Vervain,Paul's Bettony, Mead-sweet, Nettles.

Of the Flowers of Mayweed, Broom, Cowslips, Butter-bur, Peony, Elder.Of the berries of Broom, Elder.Culpeper : Then the College gives you an admonition concerning these, whichbeing converted into your native language, is as follows.We give you warning that these common waters be better prepared for time tocome, either in common stills, putting good store of ashes underneath, the roots andherbs being dryer, &c. or if they be full of Juice, by distilling the juice in a convenientbath, that so burning may be avoided, which hitherto hath seldom been. But let theother Herbs, Flowers, or Roots, be bruised, and by adding Tartar, common salt, orleven be digested, then putting spring water to them, distil them in an Alembick withits refrigeratory, or Worm, till the change of the taste shew the virtue to be drawn off;then let the oil (if any) be separated from the water according to art.Into the number of these waters may be ascribed.The Tears of Vines, the liquor of the Birch-tree, May dew.Culpeper : That my country may receive the benefit of these waters, I shall firstshew the temperatures, secondly, the virtues of the most usual and most easy to comeby. If any should take exceptions that I mention not all, I answer first, I mentionenough.Secondly, who ever makes this objection, they shew extreme ingratitude, for had Imentioned but only one, I had revealed more to them than ever the College intendedthey should know, or give me thanks for doing.The qualities and appropriation of the simple Distilled WatersSimple distilled waters either cool or heat: such as cool, either cool the blood orcholer.Waters cooling the blood. Lettice, Purslain, Water Lilies, Violets, Sorrel Endive,Succory, Fumitory.Waters cooling and repressing choleric humours, or vapours in the headNightshade, Lettice, Water Lilies, Plantain, Poppies, viz. The flowers both of whiteblack and red Poppies, black Cherries.The breast and lungs. Violets, Poppies all three sorts, Colt's-foot.In the heart. Sorrel, Quinces, Water Lilies, Roses, Violets, green or unripe Walnuts.In the stomach. Quinces, Roses, Violets, Nightshade, Houseleeks, or Sengreen,Lettice, Purslain.In the liver. Endive, Succory, Night-shade, Purslain, Water Lilies.In the reins and bladder. Endive, Succory, Winter Cherries, Plantain, Water Lilies,Strawberries, Houseleek or Sengreen, black Cherries.In the womb. Endive, Succory, Lettice, Water Lilies, Purslain, Roses. Simplewaters which are hot, concoct either flegm or melancholy.Waters concocting flegm in the head,areBettony, Sage, Marjoram, Chamomel, Fennel, Calaminth, Rosemary-flowers,Primroses, Eye-bright.In the breast and lungs. Maiden-hair, Bettony, Hysop, Horehound, CarduusBenedictus, Scabious, Orris, or Flower-de-luces, Bawm, Self-heal, &c.In the heart. Bawm, Rosemary.In the stomach. Wormwood, Mints, Fennel, Chervil, Time, Mother of Time,Marigolds.In the liver. Wormwood, Centaury, Origanum, Marjoram, Maudlin, Costmary,Agrimony, Fennel.In the spleen. Water-cresses, Wormwood, Calaminth.

In the reins and bladder. Rocket, Nettles, Saxifrage, Pellitory of the Wall,Alicampane, Burnet.In the womb. Mugwort, Calaminth, Penny-royal, Savin, Mother of Time, Lovage.Waters concocting Melancholy in the head, areHops, Fumitory.The breast. Bawm, Carduus Benedictus.The heart. Borrage, Bugloss, Bawm, Rosemary.The liver. Endive, Chicory, Hops.The spleen. Dodder, Hart's-tongue, Tamarisk, Time.Having thus ended the appropriation, I shall speak briefly of the virtues of distilledwaters.Lettice water cools the blood when it is over-heated, for when it is not, it needs nocooling: it cools the head and liver, stays hot vapours ascending to the head, andhinders sleep; it quenches immoderate thirst, and breeds milk in nurses, distil it inMay.Purslain water cools the blood and liver, quenches thirst, helps such as spit blood,have hot coughs, or pestilences.The distilled water of water Lily-flower, cools the blood and the bowels, and allinternal parts of the body; helps such as have the yellow jaundice, hot coughs andpleurisies, the head-ache, coming of heat, fevers pestilential and not pestilential, asalso hectic fevers.The water of Violet flowers, cools the blood, the heart, liver and lungs, over-heated,and quenches an insatiable desire of drinking, they are in their prime about the latterend of March, or beginning of April, according as the year falls out.The water of Sorrel cools the blood, heart, liver, and spleen. If Venice Treacle begiven with it, it is profitable in pestilential fevers, distil it in May.Endive and Succory water are excellent against heat in the stomach; if you take anounce of either (for their operation is the same) morning and evening, four days oneafter another, they cool the liver, and cleanse the blood: they are in their prime inMay.Fumitory water is usual with the city dames to wash their faces with, to take awaymorphew, freckles, and sun-burning; inwardly taken, it helps the yellow jaundice anditch, cleanses the blood, provokes sweat, strengthens the stomach, and cleanses thebody of adust humours: it is in its prime in May and June.The water of Nightshade helps pains in the head coming of heat. Take heed youdistil not the deadly Nightshade instead of the common, if you do, you may make madwork. Let such as have not wit enough to know them asunder, have wit enough to letthem both alone till they do.The water of white Poppies extinguishes all heat against nature, helps head-achescoming of heat, and too long standing in the sun. Distil them in June or July.Colt's-foot water is excellent for burns to wash the place with it; inwardly taken ithelps Phthisicks and other diseases incident to the lungs, distil them in May or June.The water of Distilled Quinces strengthens the heart and stomach exceedingly,stays vomiting and fluxes, and strengthens the retentive faculty in man.Damask Rose water cools, comforts, and strengthens the heart, so doth Red Rosewater,only with this difference, the one is binding, the other loosening; if your bodybe costive, use Damask Rose water, because it is loosening: if loose, use red, becauseit is binding.White Rose water is generally known to be excellent against hot rheums, andinflammations in the eyes, and for this it is better than the former.

The water of Red Poppy flowers, called by many Corn-roses, because they grow sofrequently amongst corn, cools the blood and spirits over-heated by drinking orlabour, and is therefore excellent in surfets.Green Walnuts gathered about the latter end of June or July, and bruised, and sostilled, strengthen the heart, and resist the pestilence.Plantain water helps the headache; being dropped into the ear it helps the toothache,helps the phthisicks, dropsy and fluxes, and is an admirable remedy for ulcers inthe reins and bladder, to be used as common drink: the herb is in its prime in May.Strawberry water cools, quenches thirst, clarifies the blood, breaks the stone, helpsall inward inflammations, especially those in the reins, bladder and passages of theurine; it strengthens the liver and helps the yellow jaundice.The distilled water of Dog grass, or Couch grass, as some call it, cleanses the reinsgallantly, and provokes urine, opens obstructions of the liver and spleen, and killsworms.Black Cherry water provokes urine, helps the dropsy. It is usually given in diseasesof the brain, as convulsions, falling-sickness, palsy and apoplexy.Betony is in its prime in May, the distilled water thereof is very good for such as arepained in their heads, it prevails against the dropsy and all sorts of fevers, it succoursthe liver and spleen, and helps want of digestion and evil disposition of the bodythence arising; it hastens travail in women with child, and is excellent against thebitings of venomous beasts.Distil Sage whilst the flowers be on it, the water strengthens the brain, provokes themenses, helps nature much in all its actions.Marjoram is in its prime in June, distilled water is excellent for such whose brainsare too cold, it provokes urine, heats the womb, provokes the menses, strengthens thememory and helps the judgment, causes an able brain.Distil Camomel water about the beginning of June. It eases the cholick and pains inthe belly; it breaks the stone in the reins and bladder, provokes the menses, expels thedead child, and takes away pains in the head.Fennel water strengthens the heart and brain; dilates the breast, the cough, provokesthe menses, encreases milk in nurses, and if you wash your eyes with it, it clears thesight.The Hooves of the fore feet of a Cow dried and taken any away, encrease milk innurses, the smoke of them drives away mice. Mizaldus.Calaminth water heats and cleanses the womb, provokes the menses, and eases thepains of the head, distil it in May.The distilled water of Rosemary flowers, helps such as are troubled with the yellowJaundice, Asthmas, it cleanses the blood, helps concoction, strengthens the brain andbody exceedingly.Water of the flowers of Lilies of the valley, strengthens the brain and all the senses.The water of Cowslip flowers helps the palsey; takes away pains in the head, thevertigo and megrim, and is exceedingly good for pregnant women.The eyes being washed every morning with Eyebright water, most strangely clearsand strengthens the sight.Maidenhair distilled in May, the water cleanses both liver and lungs, clarifies theblood, and breaks the stone.Hyssop water cleanses the lungs of flegm, helps coughs and Asthmas, distil it inAugust.The water of Hore-hound, helps the cough and straitness of the breast; itstrengthens the breast, lungs and stomach, and liver, distil it in June.

Carduus water succours the head, strengthens the memory, helps such as aretroubled with vertigoes and quartan agues, it provokes sweat, strengthens the heart,and all other fevers of choler. It is in its prime in May and June.Scabious water helps pleurises and pains, and pricking in the sides; Aposthumes,coughs, pestilences, and straitness of the breast.Water of Flower-de-luce is very profitable in dropsies, an ounce being drankcontinually every morning and evening; as also pains and torments in the bowels.Bawm water distilled in May, restores memory, it quickens all the senses,strengthens the brain, heart, and stomach, causes a merry mind and a sweet breath.The water of Comfrey solders broken bones, being drank, helps ruptures, outwardlyit stops the bleeding of wounds, they being washed with it.Wormwood water distilled cold, about the end of May, heats and strengthens thestomach, helps concoction, stays vomiting, kills worms in the stomach and bowels, itmitigates the pains in the teeth, and is profitably given in fevers of choler.Mint water strengthens the stomach, helps concoction and stays vomiting, distil itin the latter end of May, or beginning of June, as the year is in forwardness orbackwardness, observe that in all the rest.Chervil water distilled about the end of May, helps ruptures, breaks the stone,dissolves congealed blood, strengthens the heart and stomach.The water of Mother of Time strengthens the brain and stomach, gets a man a goodstomach to his victuals, provoke urine and the menses, heats the womb. It is in itsprime about the end of June.The water of Marigold flowers is appropriated to most cold diseases of the head,eyes, and stomach: they are in their vigour when the Sun is in the Lion.The distilled water of Centaury comforts a cold stomach, helps in fever of choler, itkills worms, and provokes appetite.Maudlin and Costmary water distilled in May or June, strengthens the liver, helpsthe yellow jaundice, opens obstructions, and helps the dropsy.Water-cresses distilled in March, the water cleanses the blood, and provokes urineexceedingly, kills worms, outwardly mixed with honey, it clears the skin of morphewand sunburning.Distil Nettles when they are in flower, the water helps coughs and pains in thebowels, provokes urine, and breaks the stone.Saxifrage water provokes urine, expels wind, breaks the stone, cleanses the reinsand bladder of gravel, distil them when they are in flower.The water of Pellitory of the Wall, opens obstructions of the liver and spleen, bydrinking an ounce of it every morning; it cleanses the reins and bladder, and eases thegripings of the bowels coming of wind. Distil it in the end of May, or beginning ofJune.Cinquefoil water breaks the stone, cleanses the reins, and is of excellent use inputrified fevers. Distil it in May.The water of Radishes breaks the stone, cleanses the reins and bladder, provokesthe menses, and helps the yellow jaundice.Elicampane water strengthens the stomach and lungs, provokes urine, and cleansesthe passages of it from gravel.Distil Burnet in May or June, the water breaks the stone, cleanses the passages ofurine, and is exceeding profitable in pestilential times.Mugwort water distilled in May, is excellent in coughs and diseases proceedingfrom stoppage of the menses, it warms the stomach, and helps the dropsy.

Distil Penny-royal when the flowers are upon it: the water heats the wombgallantly, provokes the menses, expels the afterbirth; cuts, and casts out thick andgross humours in the breast, eases pains in the bowels, and consumes flegm.The water of Lovage distilled in May, eases pains in the head, and cures ulcers inthe womb being washed with it; inwardly taken it expels wind, and breaks the stone.The tops of Hops when they are young, being distilled, the water cleanses the bloodof melancholy humours, and therefore helps scabs, itch, and leprosy, and such likediseases thence proceeding; it opens obstructions of the spleen, helps the rickets, andhypochondriac melancholy.The water of Borrage and Bugloss distilled when their flowers are upon them,strengthens the heart and brain exceedingly, cleanses the blood, and takes awaysadness, griefs and melancholy.Dodder water cleanses the liver and spleen, helps the yellow jaundice.Tamarisk water opens obstructions, and helps the hardness of the spleen, andstrengthens it.English Tobacco distilled, the water is excellently good for such as have dropsy, todrink an ounce or two every morning; it helps ulcers in the mouth, strengthens thelungs, and helps such as have asthmas.The water of Dwarf Elder, hath the same effects.Thus you have the virtues of enough of cold waters, the use of which is formixtures of other medicines, whose operation is the same, for they are very seldomgiven alone. If you delight most in liquid medicines, having regard to the disease, andpart of the body afflicted by it, these will furnish you with where withal to make themso as will please your pallate best.COMPOUNDS, SPIRIT AND COMPOUND DISTILLED WATERSCulpeper : Before I begin these, I thought good to premise a few words. They areall hot in operation, and therefore not to be meddled with by people of hotconstitutions when they are in health, for fear of fevers and adustion of blood, but forpeople of cold constitutions, as melancholy and flegmatic people. If they drink ofthem moderately now and then for recreation, due consideration being had to the partof the body which is weakest, they may do them good: yet in diseases of melancholy,neither strong waters nor sack is to be drank, for they make the humour thin, and thenup to the head it flies, where it fills the brain with foolish and fearful imaginations.2. Let all young people forbear them whilst they are in health, for their blood isusually hot enough without them.3. Have regard to the season of the year, so shall you find them more beneficial inSummer than in Winter, because in summer the body is always coldest within, anddigestion weakest, and that is the reason why men and women eat less in Summerthan in Winter.Thus much for people in health, which drink strong waters for recreation.As for the medicinal use of them, it shall be shewed at the latter end of everyreceipt, only in general they are (due respect had to the humours afflicting, and part ofthe body afflicted) medicinal for diseases of cold and flegm, chilliness of the spirits,&c.But that my countrymen may not be mistaken in this, I shall give them somesymptoms of each complexion how a man may know when it exceeds its due limits.Signs of choler abounding

Leanness of body, costiveness, hollow eyes, anger without a cause, a testydisposition, yellowness of the skin, bitterness in the throat, pricking pains in the head,the pulse swifter and stronger than ordinary, the urine higher coloured, thinner andbrighter,troublesome sleeps, much dreaming of fire, lightning, anger, and fighting.Signs of blood aboundingThe veins are bigger (or at least they seem so) and fuller than ordinary; the skin isred, and as it were swollen; pricking pains in the sides, and about the temples,shortness of breath, head-ache, the pulse great and full, urine high coloured and thick,dreams of blood, &c.Signs of melancholy aboundingFearfulness without a cause, fearful and foolish imaginations, the skin rough andswarthy, leanness, want of sleep, frightful dreams, sourness in the throat, the pulsevery weak, solitariness, thin clear urine, often sighing, &c.Signs of flegm aboundingSleepiness, dulness, slowness, heaviness, cowardliness, forgetfulness, muchspitting, much superfluities at the nose, little appetite to meat and as bad digestion, theskin whiter, colder and smoother than it was want to be; the pulse slow and deep: theurine thick and low coloured: dreams of rain, floods, and water, &c.These things thus premised, I come to the matter. The first the College presentsyou with isSpiritus et Aqua Absinthis minus CompositaOr, Spirit and water of Wormwood, the lesser compositionCollege : Take of the leaves of dryed Wormwood two pounds, Annis seeds, half apound: steep them in six gallons of small wine twenty four hours, then distil them inan Alembick, adding to every pound of the distilled water two ounces of the bestSugar.Let the two first pound you draw out be called Spirit of Wormwood, those whichfollow, Wormwood water the lesser composition.Culpeper : I like this distinction of the College very well, because what is firststilled out, is far stronger than the rest, and therefore very fitting to be kept by itself:you may take which you please, according as the temperature of your body, either toheat or cold, and the season of year requires.It hath the same virtues Wormwood hath, only fitter to be used by such whosebodies are chilled by age, and whose natural heat abates. You may search the herbsfor the virtues, it heats the stomach, and helps digestion.College : After the same manner (only omitting the Annis seeds) is distilled spiritand water of Angelica, both Herb and Root, Bawm, Mints, Sage, &c. the Flowers ofRosemary, Clary, Clove-gilliflowers, &c. the seeds of Caraway, &c. Juniper-berries,Orange Pills, Lemons, Citrons, &c. Cinnamon, Nutmegs, &c.Spiritus et Aqua Absynthii magis compositaOr spirit and water of Wormwood, the greater compositionCollege : Take of common and Roman Wormwood, of each a pound; Sage, Mints,Bawm, of each two handfuls; the Roots of Galanga, Ginger, Calamus, Aromaticus,Elecampane, of each three drachms; Liquorice, an ounce, Raisins of the Sun stoned,three ounces, Annis seeds, and sweet Fennel seeds, of each three drachms; Cinnamon,Cloves, Nutmegs, of each two drachms; Cardamoms, Cubebs, of each one drachm: letthe things be cut that are to be cut, and the things be bruised that are to be bruised, allof them infused in twenty four pints of Spanish wine, for twenty four hours, then,distilled in an Alembick, adding two ounces of white sugar to every pint of distilledwater.

Let the first pint be called Spirit of Wormwood the greater composition.Culpeper : The opinion of Authors is, That it heats the stomach, and strengthens itand the lungs, expels wind, and helps digestion in ancient people.Spiritus et Aqua Angelica magis compositaOr Spirit and water of Angelica, the greater compositionCollege : Take of the leaves of Angelica eight ounces, of Carduus Benedictus sixounces, of Bawm and Sage, of each four ounces, Angelica seeds six ounces; sweetFennel seeds nine ounces. Let the herbs, being dryed, and the seeds be grosslybruised, to which add of the species called Aromaticum Rosarum, and of the speciescalled Diamoschu Dulce, of each an ounce and a half, infuse them two days in thirtytwo pints of Spanish Wine, then distil them with a gentle fire, and with every poundmix two ounces of sugar dissolved in Rose-water.Let the three first pounds be called by the name of Spirit, the rest by the name ofwater.Culpeper : The chief end of composing this medicine, was to strengthen the heartand resist infection, and therefore is very wholesome in pestilential times, and forsuch as walk in stinking air.I shall now quote you their former receipt in their former dispensatory.Angelica water the greater compositionCollege : Take of Angelica two pounds, Annis seed half a pound, Coriander andCaraway seeds, of each four ounces, Zedoary bruised, three ounces: steep themtwenty four hours in six gallons of small wine, then draw out the spirit, and sweeten itwith sugar.Culpeper : It comforts the heart, cherishes the vital spirits, resists the pestilence,and all corrupt airs, which indeed are the natural causes of epidemical diseases, thesick may take a spoonful of it in any convenient cordial, and such as are in health, andhave bodies either cold by nature, or cooled by age, may take as much either in themorning fasting, or a little before meat.وMatthi Spiritus Lavendula compositusOr compound spirit of Lavender. MatthiasCollege : Take of Lavender flowers one gallon, to which pour three gallons of thebest spirits of wine, let them stand together in the sun six days, then distil them withan Alembick with this refrigeratory.Take of the flowers of Sage, Rosemary, and Bettony, of each one handful; theflowers of Borrage, Bugloss, Lilies of the Valley, Cowslips, of each two handfuls: letthe flowers be newly and seasonably gathered, being infused in one gallon of the bestspirits of wine, and mingled with the foregoing spirit of Lavender flowers, adding theleaves of Bawm, Feather-few, and Orange tree, fresh gathered; the flowers of Stœchasand Orange tree, May berries, of each one ounce. After convenient digestion distil itagain, after which add Citron pills the outward bark, Peony seed husked, of each sixdrams, cinnamon, Mace, Nutmegs, Cardamoms, Cubebs, yellow Sanders, of each halfan ounce, Wood of Aloes one dram, the best Jujubes, the stones being taken out, halfa pound, digest them six weeks, then strain it and filter it, and add to it prepared Pearlstwo drams, Emeralds prepared a scruple, Ambergrease, Musk, Saffron, of each half ascruple, red Roses dryed, red Sanders, of each half an ounce, yellow Sanders, CitronPills, dryed, of each one dram. Let the species being tyed up in a rag, be hung into theaforementioned spirit.Culpeper : I could wish the Apothecaries would desire to be certified by theCollege.

1. Whether the gallon of Lavender flowers must be filled by heap, or by strike. 2.Next, whether the flowers must be pressed down in the measure or not. 3. Howmuch must be drawn off in the first distillation. 4. Where they should get Orangeleaves and flowers fresh gathered. 5. What they mean by convenient digestion. 6.Where you shall find Borrage, Bugloss, and Cowslips, flowering together, that so youmay have them all fresh according to their prescript, the one flowering in the latterend of April, and beginning of May, the other in the end of June, and beginning ofJuly. 7. If they can make a shift to make it, how, or which way the virtues of it willcountervail the one half of the charge and cost, to leave the pains and trouble out.Spiritus CastoriiOr Spirit of CastoreumCollege : Take of fresh Castoreum four ounces, Lavender flower an ounce, the topsof Sage and Rosemary, of each half an ounce, Cinnamon six drams, Mace, Cloves, ofeach two drachms, spirits of Wine rectified, six pounds, digest them in a phial filledonly to the third part, close stopped with cork and bladder in warm ashes for two days,then distilled in Balneo ‏,وMari and the distilled water kept close stopped.Culpeper : By reason of its heat it is no ways fit to be taken alone, but mixed withother convenient medicines appropriated to the diseases you would give it for, itresists poison, and helps such as are bitten by venomous beasts: it causes speedydelivery to women in travail, and casteth out the Placenta: it helps the fits of themother, lethargies and convulsions, being mixed with white wine, and dropped intothe ears, it helps deafness; if stopping be the cause of it, the dose to be given inwardlyis between one dram, and half a dram, according to the strength and age of the patient.Aqua Petasitidis compositaOr compound water of Butter-burCollege : Take of the fresh roots of Butter-bur bruised, one pound and a half, theroots of Angelica and Masterwort, of each half a pound, steep them in ten pints ofstrong Ale, then distil them till the change of the taste gives a testimony that thestrength is drawn out.Culpeper : This water is very effectual being mixed with other convenient cordials,for such as have pestilential fevers: also a spoonful taken in the morning, may prove agood preservative in pestilential times: it helps the fits of the mother, and such as areshort winded, and being taken inwardly, dries up the moisture of such sores as arehard to be cured.Aqua Raphani CompositaOr Compound water of RadishesCollege : Take of the leaves of both sorts of Scurvy-grass, of each six pound,having bruised them, press the juice out of them, with which mix of the juice ofbrook-lime, and Water-cresses, of each one pound and a half, of the best white wine,eight pounds, twelve whole Lemons, pills and all, fresh Briony roots four pound, theroots of wild Radishes two pound, Captain Winter's Cinnamon half a pound, Nutmegsfour ounces, steep them altogether, and then distil them.Culpeper : I fancy it not, and so I leave it; I suppose they intended it for purgationof women in child-bed.Aqua وPeoni CompositaOr Compound water of PeonyCollege : Take of the flowers of Lilies of the Valley, one pound: infuse them infour gallons of Spanish wine so long till the following flowers may be had fresh.Take of the fore-named flowers half a pound, Peony flowers four ounces: steepthem together fourteen days, then distil them in Balneo وMari till they be dry: in the

distilled liquor infuse again male Peony roots gathered in due time, two ounces and ahalf, white Dittany, long Birthwort, of each half an ounce, the leaves of Misselto ofthe Oak, and Rue, of each two handfuls, Peony seeds husked, ten drams, Rue seedsthree drams and a half, Castoreum two scruples, Cubebs, Mace, of each two drachms,Cinnamon an ounce and a half, Squills prepared, three drachms, Rosemary flowers sixpugils, Arabian Stوchas, Lavender, of each four pugils, the flowers of Betony, Clovegilliflowers,and Cowslips, of each eight pugils, then adding four pound of the juice ofblack Cherries, distil it in a glass till it be dry.Aqua BezoarticaOr Bezoar WaterCollege : Take of the leaves of Celandine, roots and all, three handfuls and a half,Rue two handfuls, Scordium four handfuls, Dittany of Crete, Carduus, of each onehandful and a half, Zedoary and Angelica roots, of each three drams, Citrons andLemon pills, of each six drams, Clove-gilliflowers one ounce and a half, Red Rose,Centaury the less, of each two drams, Cinnamon, Cloves, of each three drams, VeniceTreacle three ounces, Mithridates one ounce and a half, Camphire two scruples,Troches of Vipers two ounces, Mace two drams, Wood of Aloes half an ounce,Yellow Sanders one dram and a half, Carduus seeds one ounce, Citron seeds sixdrams, let them be cut and infused in spirits of Wine, and Malaga Wine, of each threepound and a half, Vinegar of Clove-gilliflowers, Juice of Lemons, of each one pound,and distilled in a glass still in Balneo ‏,وMari after it is half distilled off, the residuemay be strained through a linen cloath, and be reduced to the thickness of Honey, andcalled the Bezoartic extract.Culpeper : Extracts have the same virtues with the waters they are made from,only the different form is to please the palates of such whose fancy loathes any oneparticular form.This Bezoar water strengthens the heart, arteries, and vital spirits. It provokessweat, and is exceeding good in pestilential fevers, in health it withstands melancholyand consumptions, and makes a merry, blithe, chearful creature. Of the extract youmay take ten grains at a time, or somewhat more, if your body be not feverish, half aspoonful of water is sufficient at a time, and that mixed with other cordials ormedicines appropriated to the disease that troubles you.Aqua et Spiritus Lambricorum, magistralisOr Water and Spirit of EarthwormsCollege : Take of Earthworms well cleansed, three pound, Snails, with shells ontheir backs cleansed, two gallons, beat them in a mortar, and put them into aconvenient vessel, adding stinging Nettles, roots and all, six handfuls, wild Angelica,four handfuls, brank Ursine, seven handfuls, Agrimony, Bettony, of each threehandfuls, Rue one handful, common Wormwood two handfuls, Rosemary flowers sixounces, Dock roots ten ounces, the roots of Sorrel five ounces, Turmerick, the innerbark of Barberries, of each four ounces, Fenugreek seeds two ounces, Cloves threeounces, Hart's-horn, Ivory in gross powder, of each four ounces, Saffron three drams,small spirits of wine four gallons and a half, after twenty-four hours infusion, distilthem in an alembick. Let the four first pounds be reserved for spirit, the rest for water.Culpeper : 'Tis a mess altogether, it may be they intended it for a universalmedicine.وcomposit وGentian AquaOr Gentian Water compound

College : Take of Gentain roots sliced, one pound and a half, the leaves and flowersof Centaury the less, of each four ounces, steep them eight days in twelve pounds ofwhite Wine, then distil them in an alembick.Culpeper : It conduces to preservation from ill air, and pestilential fevers: it opensobstructions of the liver, and helps such as they say are liver-grown; it eases pains inthe stomach, helps digestion, and eases such as have pains in their bones by illlodging abroad in the cold, it provokes appetite, and is exceeding good for the yellowjaundice, as also for prickings or stitches in the sides: it provokes the menses, andexpels both birth and placenta: it is naught for pregnant women. If there be no fever,you may take a spoonful by itself; if there be, you may, if you please, mix it withsome cooler medicine appropriated to the same use you would give it for.Aqua GilbertiiOr Gilbert's WaterCollege : Take of Scabious, Burnet, Dragons, Bawm, Angelica, Pimpernel, withpurple flowers, Tormentil, roots and all, of each two handfuls, let all of them, beingrightly gathered and prepared, be steeped in four gallons of Canary Wine, still offthree gallons in an alembick, to which add three ounces of each of the cordial flowers,Clove-gilliflowers six ounces, Saffron half an ounce, Turmerick two ounces, Galanga,Bazil seeds, of each one dram, Citron pills one ounce, the seed of Citrons andCarduus, Cloves of each five ounces, Hart's-horn four ounces, steep them twenty fourhours and then distil them in Balneo ‏:وMari to the distilled water add Pearlsprepared, an ounce and a half, red Coral, Crabs eyes, white Amber, of each twodrams, Crabs claws, six drams, Bezoar, Amber-grease, of each two scruples, steepthem six weeks in the sun, in a vessel well stopped, often shaking it, then filter it, (youmay keep the powders for Spicord. temp.) by mixing twelve ounces of Sugar candy,with six ounces of red Rose-water, and four ounces of spirit of Cinnamon with it.Culpeper : I suppose this was invented for a cordial to strengthen the heart, torelieve languishing nature. It is exceeding dear. I forbear the dose, they that havemoney enough to make it themselves, cannot want time to study both the virtues anddose. I would have gentlemen to be studious.وSaxeni Aqua cordialis frigidaCollege : Take of the juice of Borrage, Bugloss, Bawm, Bistort, Tormentil,Scordium, Vervain, sharp-pointed Dock, Sorrel, Goat's Rue, Mirrhis, Blue Bottlegreat and small, Roses, Marigolds, Lemon, Citrons, of each three ounces, white WineVinegar one pound, Purslain seeds two ounces, Citron and Carduus seeds, of each halfan ounce, Water Lily flowers two ounces, the flowers of Borrage, Bugloss, Violets,Clove-gilliflowers, of each one ounce, Diatrion Sentalon six drams: let all of them,being rightly prepared, be infused three days, then distilled in a glass still: to thedistilled Liquor add earth of Lemnos, Siletia, and Samos, of each one ounce and anhalf, Pearls prepared with the juice of Citrons, three drams, mix them, and keep themtogether.Culpeper : It mightily cools the blood, and therefore profitable in fevers, and alldiseases proceeding of heat of blood; it provokes sleep. You may take half an ounce ata time, or two drams if the party be weak.Aqua TheriacalisOr Treacle WaterCollege : Take of the juice of green Walnuts, four pounds, the juice of Rue threepounds, juice of Carduus, Marigolds, and Bawm, of each two pounds, green Petasitisroots one pound and a half, the roots of Burs one pound, Angelica and Master-wort, ofeach half a pound, the leaves of Scordium four handfuls, old Venice Treacle,

Mithridates, of each eight ounces, Canary Wine twelve pounds, Vinegar six pounds,juice of Lemons two pounds, digest them two days, either in Horse-dung, or in a bath,the vessel being close shut, then distil them in sand; in the distillation you may make aTheriacal extraction.Culpeper : This water is exceeding good in all fevers, especially pestilential; itexpels venomous humours by sweat; it strengthens the heart and vitals; it is anadmirable counter-poison, special good for such as have the plague, or are poisoned,or bitten by venomous beasts, and expels virulent humours from such as have thevenereal disease. If you desire to know more virtues of it, see the virtues of VeniceTreacle. The dose is from a spoonful to an ounce.Aqua وBrioni compositaOr Briony Water compoundCollege : Take of the juice of Briony roots, four pounds, the leaves of Rue andMugwort, of each two pounds, dryed Savin three handfuls, Featherfew, Nep,Pennyroyal, of each two handfuls, Bazil, Dittany, of Crete, of each one handful and ahalf, Orange pills four ounces, Myrrh two ounces, Castoreum one ounce, CanaryWine twelve pounds, digest them four days in a convenient vessel, then still them inBalneo ‏.وMari About the middle of the distillation strain it out, and make anHysterical extraction of the residue.Culpeper : A spoonful of it taken, eases the fits of the mother in women that havethem; it potently expels the afterbirth, and clears the body of what a midwife byheedlessness or accident hath left behind; it cleanses the womb exceedingly, and forthat I fancy it much, take not above a tasterful at a time, and then in the morningfasting, for it is of a purging quality, and let pregnant women forbear it.Aqua ImperialisOr Imperial WaterCollege : Take of dried Citron, and Orange pills, Nutmegs, Cloves, Cinnamon, ofeach two ounces, the roots of Cypress, Orris, Florentine, Calamus Aromaticus, ofeach one ounce, Zedoary Galanga, Ginger, of each half an ounce, the tops ofLavender and Rosemary, of each two handfuls, the leaves of Bay, Marjoram, Bawm,Mints, Sage, Thyme, of each one handful, the flowers of white and Damask Rosesfresh, of each half a handful, Rosewater four pounds, white Wine eight pounds, let allof them be bruised and infused twenty four hours, then distil them according to art.Culpeper : You must distil it in a bath, and not in sand. It comforts and strengthensthe heart against faintings and swoonings, and is held to be a preservative againstconsumptions and apoplexies. You may take half a spoonful at a time.Aqua MirabilisCollege : Take of Cloves, Galanga, Cubebs, Mace, Cardamoms, Nutmegs, Ginger,of each one dram, Juice of Celandine half a pound, spirits of Wine one pound, whiteWine three pounds, infuse them twenty-four hours, and draw off two pounds with analembick.Culpeper : The simples also of this, regard the stomach, and therefore the waterheats cold stomachs, besides authors say it preserves from apoplexies, and restoreslost speech.Aqua ProtheriacalisCollege : Take of Scordium, Scabius, Carduus, Goat's Rue, of each two handfuls,Citron and Orange pills, of each two ounces, the seeds of Citrons, Carduus, Hartwort,Treacle Mustard, of each one ounce, the flowers of Marigolds and Rosemary, of eachone handful, cut them, and bruise them grossly, then infuse them in four pounds ofwhite Wine, and two pounds of Carduus water, in a glass, close stopped, and set it in

the sun or bath for a fortnight, often shaking it, then distil it in Balneo ‏.وMari Let thetwo first pounds be kept by themselves for use, and the remainder of the distillationby itself. Lastly, mix one ounce of Julep of Alexandria, and a spoonful of Cinnamonwater with each pound.Culpeper : Aqua Protheriacalis, signifies a water for Treacle, so then if you putDiascoridum to it, it is a water for Diascoridum; well then, we will take it for ageneral water for all physick.Aqua CaponisOr Capon WaterCollege : Take a Capon the guts being pulled out, cut in pieces, the fat being takenaway, boiled in a sufficient quantity of spring-water in a close vessel, take of thisbroth three pounds. Borrage and Violet-water, of each a pound and a half, white Wineone pound, red rose leaves two drams and an half, the flowers of Borrage, Violets andBugloss, of each one dram, pieces of bread, hot out of the oven, half a pound,Cinnamon bruised, half an ounce, distil it in a glass still according to art.Culpeper : The simples are most of them appropriated to the heart, and in truth thecomposition greatly nourishes and strengthens such as are in consumptions, andrestores lost strength, either by fevers or other sickness. It is a sovereign remedy forhectic fevers, and Marasmos, which is nothing else but a consumption coming fromthem. Let such as are subject to these diseases, hold it for a jewel.Aqua Limacum Magistr.Or Water of SnailsCollege : Take of the juice of Ground Ivy, Colt's-foot, Scabious, Lungwort, of eachone pound and a half, the juice of Purslain, Plantain, Ambrosia, Paul's Bettony, ofeach a pound, Hog's blood, white Wine, of each four pounds, Garden Snails, twopounds, dried Tobacco leaves eight, powder of Liquorice two ounces, of Elecampanehalf an ounce, of Orris an ounce, Cotton seeds an ounce and a half, the greater coldseeds, Annis seeds of each six drams, Saffron one dram, the flowers of red Roses, sixpugils, of Violets and Borrage, of each four pugils, steep them three days warm, andthen distil them in a glass still, in sand.Culpeper : It purges the lungs of flegm and helps consumptions there. If you shouldhappen to live where no better nor readier medicine can be gotten, you may use this.Aqua Scordii compositaOr Compound Water of ScordiumCollege : Take of the juice of Goat's Rue, Sorrel, Scordium, Citrons, of each onepound, London Treacle, half a pound, steep it three days, and distil it in sand.Culpeper : A tasterful taken in the morning, preserves from ill airs.Aqua MariœCollege : Take of Sugar Candy a pound, Canary Wine six ounces, Rose Water fourounces; boil it well into a Syrup, and add to it Imperial water two pounds,Ambergreese, Musk, of each eighteen grains, Saffron fifteen grains, yellow Sandersinfused in Imperial water, two drams; make a clear water of it.Aqua Papaveries compositaOr Poppy Water compoundCollege : Take of red Poppies four pounds, sprinkle them with white Wine twopounds, then distil them in a common still, let the distilled water be poured upon freshflowers and repeated three times; to which distilled water add two Nutmegs sliced, redPoppy flowers a pugil, Sugar two ounces, set it in the sun to give it a pleasingsharpness; if the sharpness be more than you would have it, put some of the samewater to it which was not set in the sun.

Aqua Juglandium compositaOr Walnut Water compoundCollege : Take of green Walnuts a pound and an half, Radish roots one pound,green Asarabacca six ounces, Radish seeds, six ounces. Let all of them, being bruised,be steeped in three pounds of white Wine for three days, then distilled in a leaden stilltill they be dry.TINCTURESTinctura CrociOr Tincture of SaffronCollege : Take two drams of Saffron, eight ounces of Treacle water, digest them sixdays, then strain it.Culpeper : See the virtues of Treacle water, and then know that this strengthens theheart something more, and keeps melancholy vapours thence by drinking a spoonfulof it every morning.Tinctura CastoriiOr Tincture of CastoreumCollege : Take of Castoreum in powder half an ounce, spirit of Castoreum half apound, digest them ten days cold, strain it, and keep the Liquor for Tincture.Culpeper : A learned invention! 'Tis something more prevalent than the spirit.Tinctura FragroramOr Tincture of StrawberriesCollege : Take of ripe Wood-strawberries two pounds, put them in a phial, and putso much small spirits of Wine to them, that it may overtop them the thickness of fourfingers, stop the vessel close, and set it in the sun two days, then strain it, and press itbut gently; pour this spirit to as many fresh Strawberries, repeat this six times, at lastkeep the clear liquor for your use.Culpeper : A fine thing for Gentlemen that have nothing else to do with theirmoney, and it will have a lovely look to please their eyes.Tinctura ScordiiOr Tincture of ScordiumCollege : Take of the leaves of Scordium gathered in a dry time, half a pound,digest them in six pounds of small spirits of Wine, in a vessel well stopped, for threedays, press them out gently, and repeat the infusion three times, and keep the clarifiedliquor for use.So is made Tincture of Celandine, Restharrow, and Rosa-solis.Culpeper : See the herbs for the virtues, and then take notice that these are betterfor cold stomachs, old bodies.Tinctura Theriacalis vulgo Aqua Theriacalis Ludg. per infus.Or Tincture of TreacleCollege : Take of Canary Wine often times distilled, Vinegar in which half anounce of Rue seeds have been boiled, two pounds choice treacle, the best Mithridate,of each half a pound; mix them and set them in the sun, or heat of a bath, digest them,and keep the water for use.Tinctura Cinnamoni, vulgo, Aqua Clareta Cinnam.Or Tincture of CinnamonCollege : Take of bruised Cinnamon two ounces, rectified spirits of Wine twopounds, infuse them four days in a large glass stopped with cork and bladder, shake ittwice a day, then dissolve half a pound of Sugar Candy by itself in two pounds of

Rose Water, mix both liquors, into which hang a nodule containing, Ambergris half ascruple, Musk four grains.Tinctura ViridisOr a green TinctureCollege : Take of Verdigris, half an ounce, Auripigmentum six drams, Alum threedrams, boil them in a pound of white Wine till half be consumed, adding, after it iscold, the water of red Roses, and Nightshade, of each six ounces.Culpeper : This was made to cleanse ulcers, but I fancy it not.Aqua Aluminosa MagistralisCollege : Take of Plantain and red Rose water, of each a pound, roch Alum andSublimatum, of each two drams; let the Alum and Sublimatum, being in powder, boilin the waters, in a vessel with a narrow mouth till half be consumed, when it has stoodfive days, strain it.PHYSICAL WINESVinum AbsynthitisOr Wormwood WineCollege : Take a handful of dried Wormwood, for every gallon of Wine, stop it in avessel close, and so let it remain in steep: so is prepared wine of Rosemary flowers,and Eye-bright.Culpeper : It helps cold stomachs, breaks wind, helps the wind cholic, strengthensthe stomach, kills worms, and helps the green sickness.Rosemary-flower Wine, is made after the same manner. It is good against all colddiseases of the head, consumes flegm, strengthens the gums and teeth.Eye-bright Wine is made after the same manner. It wonderfullyclears the sight being drank, and revives the sight of elderly men. A cup of it in themorning is worth a pair of spectacles.All other Wines are prepared in the same manner.The best way of taking any of these Wines is, to drink a draught of them everymorning. You may, if you find your body old or cold, make Wine of any other herb,the virtues of which you desire; and make it and take it in the same manner.Vinum Cerassorum Nigrorum Or Wine of Black CherriesCollege : Take a gallon of Black Cherries; keep it in a vessel close stopped till itbegin to work, then filter it, and an ounce of Sugar being added to every pound, let itpass through Hippocrates' sleeve, and keep in a vessel close stopped for use.Vinum Helleboratum Or Helleborated WineCollege : Take of white Hellebore cut small, four ounces, Spanish Wine twopounds, steep it in the sun in a phial close stopped, in the dog days, or other hotweather.Vinum RubellumCollege : Take of Stibium, in powder, one ounce, Cloves sliced two drams, ClaretWine two pounds, keep it in a phial close shut.Vinum BenedictumCollege : Take of Crocus Metallorum, in powder, one ounce, Mace one dram,Spanish Wine one pound and an half, steep it.Vinum AntimonialeOr Antimonial Wine

College : Take of Regulus of Antimony, in powder, four ounces, steep it in threepounds of white Wine in a glass well stopped, after the first shaking let the Regulussettle.Culpeper : These last mentioned are vomits, and vomits are fitting medicines forbut a few, the mouth being ordained to take in nourishment, not to cast outexcrements, and to regulate a man's body in vomiting; and doses of vomits require adeeper study in physic, than I doubt the generality of people yet have; I omit ittherefore at this time, not because I grudge it my country, but because I would notwillingly have them do themselves a mischief. I shall shortly teach them in whatdiseases vomits may be used, and then, and not till then, the use of vomits.Vinum ScilliticumOr Wine of SquillsCollege : Take of a white Squill of the mountains, gathered about the rising of thedog star, cut it in thin pieces, and dried for a month, one pound, put it in a glass bottle,and pour to it eight pounds of French Wine, and when it hath stood so four days, takeout the Squill.The virtues of this are the same with Vinegar of Squills, only it is hotter.PHYSICAL VINEGARSAcetum distillatumOr distilled VinegarCollege : Fill a glass or stone alembick with the best Vinegar to the third part,separate the flegm with a gentle fire, then increase the fire by degrees, and performthe work.Acetum RosarumOr Rose VinegarCollege : Take of red Rose buds, gathered in a dry time, the whites cut off, dried inthe shade three or four days, one pound, Vinegar eight sextaries, set them in the sunforty days, then strain out the Roses, and repeat the infusion with fresh ones.After the same manner is made Vinegar of Elder flowers, Rosemary flowers, andClove-gilliflowers.Culpeper : For the virtues of all Vinegars, take this one only observation, Theycarry the same virtues with the flowers whereof they are made, only as we said ofWines, that they were better for cold bodies then the bare simples whereof they aremade; so are Vinegars for hot bodies. Besides, Vinegars are often, nay, mostcommonly used externally, viz. to bathe the place, then look amongst the simples, andsee what place of the body the simple is appropriated to, and you cannot but knowboth what Vinegar to use, and to what place to apply it.Acetum ScilliticumOr Vinegar of SquilsCollege : Take of that part of the Squill which is between the outward bark and thebottom, cut in thin slices, and placed thirty or forty days in the sun or some remissheat, then a pound of them (being cut small with a knife made of ivory or some whitewood) being put in a vessel, and six pounds of Vinegar put to them; set the vessel,being close stopped, in the sun thirty or forty days, afterwards strain it, and keep it foruse.Culpeper : A little of this medicine being taken in the morning fasting, and walkinghalf an hour after, preserves the body in health, to extreme old age, (as Sanius tried,who using no other medicine but this, lived in perfect health till one hundred and

seventeen years of age) it makes the digestion good, a long wind, a clear voice, anacute sight, a good colour, it suffers no offensive thing to remain in the body, neitherwind, flegm, choler, melancholy, dung, nor urine, but brings them forth; it bringsforth filth though it lie in the bones, it takes away salt and sour belchings, though aman be never so licentious in diet, he shall feel no harm. It hath cured such as havethe phthisic, that have been given over by all Physicians. It cures such as have thefalling sickness, gouts, and diseases and swellings of the joints. It takes away thehardness of the liver and spleen. We should never have done if we should reckon upthe particular benefits of this medicine. Therefore we commend it as a wholesomemedicine for soundness of body, preservation of health, and vigour of mind. ThusGalen.Acetum Theriacale, NorimbergOr Treacle VinegarCollege : Take of the roots of Celandine the greater, one ounce and a half: the rootsof Angelica, Masterwort, Gentian, Bistort, Valerian, Burnet, white Dittany,Elecampane, Zedoary, of each one dram, of Plantain the greater one dram and a half,the leaves of Mousear, Sage, Scabious, Scordium, Dittany of Crete, Carduus, of eachhalf an handful, barks and seeds of Citrons, of each half a dram, Bole Amoniac onedram, Saffron three drams, of these let the Saffron, Hart's-horn, Dittany, and Bole, betied up in a rag, and steeped with the things before mentioned, in five pints ofVinegar, for certain days by a temperate heat in a glass well stopped, strain it, and addsix drams of the best Treacle to it, shake it together, and keep it for your use.Acetum TheriacaleOr Treacle VinegarCollege : Add to the description of Treacle water, Clove-gilliflowers two ounces,Lavender flowers an ounce and a half, Rose, and Elder flower Vinegar, of each fourpounds, digest it without boiling, three days, then strain it through Hippocrates'sleeve.Culpeper : See Treacle Water for the virtues, only this is more cool, a little morefantastical.DECOCTIONSDecoctum commune pro clystereOr a common Decoction for a Clyster.College : Take of Mallows, Violets, Pellitory, Beets, and Mercury, Chamomelflowers, of each one handful, sweet Fennel seeds half an ounce, Linseeds two drams,boil them in a sufficient quantity of common water to a pound.Culpeper : This is the common decoction for all clysters, according to the qualityof the humour abounding, so you may add what Simples, or Syrups, or Electuariesyou please; only half a score Linseeds, and a handful of Chamomel flowers are added.Decoctum EpythimiOr a Decoction of EpithimumCollege : Take of Myrobalans, Chebs, and Inds, of each half an ounce, Stœchas,Raisins of the sun stoned, Epithimum, Senna, of each one ounce, Fumitory half anounce, Maudlin five drams, Polipodium, six drams, Turbith half an ounce, Wheymade with Goat's milk, or Heifer's milk four pounds, let them all boil to two pounds,the Epithimum excepted, which boil but a second or two, then take it from the fire,and add black Hellebore one dram and an half, Agerick half a dram, Sal. Gem. onedram and an half, steep them ten hours, then press it strongly out.

Culpeper : It purges melancholy, as also choler, it resists madness, and all diseasescoming of melancholy, and therefore let melancholy people esteem it as a jewel.Decoctum Sennœ GereonisOr a Decoction of SennaCollege : Take of Senna two ounces, Pollipodium half an ounce, Ginger one dram,Raisins of the sun stoned two ounces, Sebestens,Prunes, of each twelve, the flowers ofBorrage, Violets, Roses, and Rosemary, of each two drams, boil them in four poundsof water till half be consumed.Culpeper : It is a common Decoction for any purge, by adding other simples orcompounds to it, according to the quality of the humour you would have purged, yet,in itself, it chiefly purges melancholy.Decoctum PectoraleOr a Pectoral DecoctionCollege : Take of Raisins of the sun stoned, an ounce, Sebestens, Jujubes, of eachfifteen, Dates six, Figs four, French Barley one ounce, Liquorice half an ounce,Maiden-hair, Hyssop, Scabious, Colt's-foot, of each one handful, boil them in threepounds of water till two remain.Culpeper : The medicine is chiefly appropriated to the lungs, and therefore causes aclear voice, a long wind, resists coughs, hoarseness, asthmas, &c. You may drink aquarter of a pint of it every morning, without keeping to any diet, for it purges not.I shall quote some Syrups fitting to be mixed with it, when I come to the Syrups.Decoctum TrumaticumCollege : Take of Agrimony, Mugwort, wild Angelica, St. John's Wort, Mousear,of each two handfuls, Wormwood half a handful, Southernwood, Bettony, Bugloss,Comfrey the greater and lesser, roots and all, Avens, both sorts of Plantain, Sanicle,Tormentil with the roots, the buds of Barberries and Oak, of each a handful, all thesebeing gathered in May and June and diligently dried, let them be cut and put up inskins or papers against the time of use, then take of the forenamed herbs threehandfuls, boil them in four pounds of conduit water and two pounds of white Winegently till half be consumed, strain it, and a pound of Honey being added to it, let it bescummed and kept for use.Culpeper : If sight of a medicine will do you good, this is as like to do it as any Iknow.SYRUPSALTERING SYRUPSCulpeper : Reader, before we being with the particular Syrups, I think good toadvertise thee of these few things, which concern the nature, making, and use ofSyrups in general. 1. A Syrup is a medicine of a liquid body, compounded ofDecoction, Infusion, or Juice, with Sugar or Honey, and brought by the heat of thefire, into the thickness of Honey. 2. Because all Honey is not of a thickness,understand new Honey, which of all other is thinnest. 3. The reason why Decoctions,Infusions, Juices, are thus used, is, Because thereby, First, They will keep the longer.Secondly, They will taste the better. 4. In boiling Syrups have a great care of their justconsistence, for if you boil them too much they will candy, if too little, they will sour.All simple Syrups have the virtues of the simples they are made of, and are farmore convenient for weak people, and delicate stomachs.Syrupus de Absinthio simplexOr Syrup of Wormwood simple

College : Take of the clarified Juice of common Wormwood, clarified Sugar, ofeach four pounds, make it into a Syrup according to art. After the same manner, areprepared simple Syrups of Betony, Borrage, Bugloss, Carduus, Chamomel, Succory,Endive, Hedge-mustard, Strawberries, Fumitory, Ground Ivy, St. John's Wort, Hops,Mercury, Mousear, Plantain, Apples, Purslain, Rasberries, Sage, Scabious, Scordium,Houseleek, Colt's-foot, Paul's Bettony, and other Juices not sour.Culpeper : See the simples, and then you may easily know both their virtues, andalso that they are pleasanter and fitter for delicate stomachs when they are made intoSyrups.Syrupus de Absinthio CompositusOr Syrup of Wormwood compoundCollege : Take of common Wormwood meanly dry, half a pound, red Roses twoounces, Indian Spikenard three drams, old white Wine, juice of Quinces, of each twopounds and an half, steep them a whole day in an earthen vessel, then boil themgently, and strain it, and by adding two pounds of sugar, boil it into a Syrup accordingto art.Culpeper : Mesue is followed verbatim in this; and the receipt is appropriated tocold and flegmatic stomachs, and it is an admirable remedy for it, for it strengthensboth stomach and liver, as also the instruments of concoction, a spoonful taken in themorning, is admirable for such as have a weak digestion, it provokes an appetite toone's victuals, it prevails against the yellow jaundice, breaks wind, purges humours byurine.Syrupus de Acetosus simplexOr Syrup of Vinegar simpleCollege : Take of clear Water four pounds, white Sugar five pounds, boil them in aglazed vessel over a gentle fire, scumming it till half the water be consumed, then byputting in two pounds of white Wine Vinegar by degrees, perfect the Syrup.Culpeper : That is, only melt the Sugar with the Vinegar over the fire, scum it, butboil it not.Syrupus Acetosus simpliciorOr Syrup of Vinegar more simpleCollege : Take of white Sugar five pounds, white Wine Vinegar two pounds, bymelting it in a bath, make it into a Syrup.Culpeper : Of these two Syrups let every one use which he finds by experience tobe best; the difference is but little. They both of them cut flegm, as also tough, hardviscous humours in the stomach; they cool the body, quench thirst, provoke urine, andprepare the stomach before the taking of a vomit. If you take it as a preparative for anemetic, take half an ounce of it when you go to bed the night before you intend it tooperate, it will work the easier, but if for any of the foregoing occasions, take it with aliquorice stick.Syrupus Acetosus compositusOr Syrup of Vinegar compoundCollege : Take of the roots of Smallage, Fennel, Endive, of each three ounces, theseeds of Annis, Smallage, Fennel, of each one ounce, of Endive half an ounce, clearWater six pounds, boil it gently in an earthen vessel till half the water be consumed,then strain and clarify it, and with three pounds of Sugar, and a pound and a half ofwhite Wine Vinegar, boil it into a Syrup.Culpeper : This in my opinion is a gallant Syrup for such whose bodies are stuffedeither with flegm, or tough humours, for it opens obstructions or stoppings both of the

stomach, liver, spleen, and reins; it cuts and brings away tough flegm and choler, andis therefore a special remedy for such as have a stuffing at their stomach.Syrupus de Agno CastoOr Syrup of Agnus CastusCollege : Take of the seeds of Rue and Hemp, of each half a dram, of Endive,Lettice, Purslain, Gourds, Melons, of each two drams, of Fleawort half an ounce, ofAgnus Castus four ounces, the flowers of Water Lilies, the leaves of Mints, of eachhalf a handful, decoction of seeds of Lentils, and Coriander seeds, of each half anounce, three pounds of the decoction, boil them all over a gentle fire till two poundsbe consumed, and to the residue, being strained, two ounces of juice of Lemons, apound and a half of white sugar, make it into a Syrup according to art.Culpeper : A pretty Syrup, and good for little.Syrupus de AlthوaOr Syrup of Marsh-mallowsCollege : Take of roots of Marsh-mallows, two ounces, the roots of GrassAsparagus, Liquorice, Raisins of the Sun stoned, of each half an ounce, the tops ofMallows, Marsh-mallows, Pellitory of the Wall, Burnet, Plantain, Maiden-hair whiteand black, of each a handful, red Cicers an ounce, of the four greater and four lessercold seeds, of each three drams, boil them in six pounds of clear Water till fourremain, which being strained, boil into a syrup with four pounds of white sugar.Culpeper : It is a fine cooling, opening, slipery Syrup, and chiefly commendablefor the cholic, stone, or gravel, in the kidneys or bladder.Syrupus de AmmoniacaOr Syrup of AmmoniacumCollege : Take of Maudlin and Cetrach, of each four handfuls, commonWormwood an ounce, the roots of Succory, Sparagus, bark of Caper roots, of eachtwo ounces, after due preparation steep them twenty-four hours in three ounces ofwhite Wine, Radish and Fumitory water, of each two pounds, then boil it away to onepound eight ounces, let it settle, in four ounces of which, whilst it is warm, dissolveby itself Gum Ammoniacum, first dissolved in white Wine Vinegar, two ounces, boilthe rest with a pound and an half of white sugar into a Syrup, adding the mixtures ofthe Gum at the end.Culpeper : It cools the liver, and opens obstructions both of it and the spleen, helpsold surfeits, and such like diseases, as scabs, itch, leprosy, and what else proceed fromthe liver over heated. You may take an ounce at a time.Syrupus de ArtemisiaOr Syrup of MugwortCollege : Take of Mugwort two handfuls, Pennyroyal, Calaminth, Origanum,Bawm, Arsmart, Dittany of Crete, Savin, Marjoram,Germander, St. John's Wort,Camepitis, Featherfew with the flowers, Centaury the less, Rue, Bettony, Bugloss, ofeach a handful, the roots of Fennel, Smallage, Parsley, Sparagus, Bruscus, Saxifrage,Elecampane, Cypress, Madder, Orris, Peony, of each an ounce, Juniper Berries, theseeds of Lovage, Parsley, Smallage, Annis, Nigella, Carpobalsamum or Cubebs,Costus, Cassia Lignea, Cardamoms, Calamus Aromaticus, the roots of Asarabacca,Pellitory of Spain, Valerian, of each half an ounce, being cleansed, cut, and bruised,let them be infused twenty-four hours in fourteen pounds of clear water, and boiledtill half be consumed, being taken off from the fire, and rubbed between your handswhilst it is warm, strain it, and with honey and sugar, of each two pounds, sharpVinegar four ounces, boil it to a Syrup, and perfume it with Cinnamon and Spikenard,of each three drams.

Culpeper : It helps the passion of the matrix, and retains it in its place, it dissolvesthe coldness, wind, and pains thereof, it strengthens the nerves, opens the pores,corrects the blood, it corrects and provokes the menses. You may take a spoonful of itat a time.Syrupus de Betonica compositusOr Syrup of Bettony compoundCollege : Take of Bettony three handfuls, Marjoram four handfuls and a half,Thyme, red Roses, of each a handful, Violets, Stœchas, Sage, of each half a handful,the seeds of Fennel, Annis, and Ammi, of each half an ounce, the roots of Peons,Polypodium, and Fennel, of each five drams, boil them in six pounds of river water, tothree pounds, strain it, and add juice of Bettony two pounds, sugar three pounds and ahalf, make it into a Syrup.Culpeper : It helps diseases coming of cold, both in the head and stomach, as alsosuch as come of wind, vertigos, madness; it concocts melancholy, it provokes themenses, and so doth the simple Syrup more than the compound.Syrupus Byzantinus, simpleCollege : Take of the Juice of the leaves of Endive and Smallage, of each twopounds, of Hops and Bugloss, of each one pound, boil them together and scum them,and to the clarified liquor, add four pounds of white sugar, to as much of the juices,and with a gentle fire boil it to a Syrup.Syrupus Byzantinus, compoundCollege : Take of the Juices so ordered as in the former, four pounds, in which boilred Roses, two ounces, Liquorice half an ounce, the seeds of Annis, Fennel, andSmallage, of each three drams, Spikenard two drams, strain it, and to the three poundsremaining, add two pounds of Vinegar, four pounds of Sugar, make it into a syrupaccording to art.Culpeper : They both of them (viz. both Simple and Compound) open stoppings ofthe stomach, liver, and spleen, help the rickets in children, cut and bring away toughflegm, and help the yellow jaundice. You may take them with a Liquorice stick, ortake a spoonful in the morning fasting.Syrupus BotryosOr Syrup of Oak of JerusalemCollege : Take of Oak of Jerusalem, Hedge-mustard, Nettles, of each two handfuls,Colt's-foot, one handful and a half, boil them in a sufficient quantity of clear water tillhalf be consumed; to two pounds of the Decoction, add two pounds of the Juice ofTurnips baked in an oven in a close pot, and with three pounds of white sugar, boil itinto a Syrup.Culpeper : This Syrup was composed against coughs, shortness of breath, and otherthe like infirmities of the breast proceeding of cold, for which (if you can get it) youmay take it with a Liquorice stick.Syrupus Capillorum VenerisOr Syrup of Maiden-hairCollege : Take of Liquorice two ounces, Maiden-hair five ounces, steep them anatural day in four pounds of warm water, then after gentle boiling, and strongstraining, with a pound and a half of fine sugar make it into a Syrup.Culpeper : It opens stoppings of the stomach, strengthens the lungs, and helps theinfirmities of them. This may be taken also either with a Liquorice stick, or mixedwith the Pectoral Decoction like Syrup of Coltsfoot.Syrupus Cardiacus, vel Julepum CardiacumOr a Cordial Syrup

College : Take of Rhenish Wine two pounds, Rose Water two ounces and a half,Cloves two scruples, Cinnamon half a dram,Ginger, two scruples, Sugar three ouncesand a half, boil it to the consistence of a Julep, adding Ambergris three grains, Muskone grain.Culpeper : If you would have this Julep keep long, you may put in more sugar, andyet if close stopped, it will not easily corrupt because it is made up only of Wine,indeed the wisest way is to order the quantity of sugar according to the palate of himthat takes it. It restores such as are in consumptions, comforts the heart, cherishes thedrooping spirits, and is of an opening quality, thereby carrying away those vapourswhich might otherwise annoy the brain and heart. You may take an ounce at a time, ortwo if you please.Syrupus infusionis florum CariophillorumOr Syrup of Clove-gilliflowersCollege : Take a pound of Clove-gilliflowers, the whites being cut off, infuse thema whole night in two pounds of water, then with four pounds of sugar melted in it,make it into a Syrup without boiling.Culpeper : This Syrup is a fine temperate Syrup: it strengthens the heart, liver, andstomach; it refreshes the vital spirits, and is a good cordial in fevers; and usuallymixed with other cordials, you can hardly err in taking it, it is so harmless a Syrup.Syrupus de CinnamomoOr Syrup of CinnamonCollege : Take of Cinnamon grossly bruised, four ounces, steep it in white Wine,and small Cinnamon Water, of each half a pound, three days, in a glass, by a gentleheat; strain it, and with a pound and a half of sugar, boil it gently to a Syrup.Culpeper : It refreshes the vital spirits exceedingly, and cheers both heart andstomach languishing through cold, it helps digestion exceedingly, and strengthens thewhole body. You may take a spoonful at a time in a cordial.College : Thus also you may conveniently prepare Syrups (but only with whiteWine,) of Annis seeds, sweet Fennel seeds, Cloves, Nutmegs, Ginger, &c.Syrupus Acetositatis CitriorumOr Syrup of Juice of CitronsCollege : Take of the Juice of Citrons, strained without expression, and cleansed, apound, Sugar two pounds, make it into a Syrup like Syrup of Clove-gilliflowers.Culpeper : It prevails against all diseases proceeding from choler, or heat of blood,fevers, both pestilential, and not pestilential: it resists poison, cools the blood,quenches thirst, cures the vertigo, or dizziness in the head.College : After the same manner is made Syrups of Grapes, Oranges, Barberries,Cherries, Quinces, Lemons, Wood-sorrel, Mulberries, Sorrel, English Currants, andother sour Juices.Culpeper : If you look the simples you may see the virtues of them: they all cooland comfort the heart, and strengthen the stomach, Syrup of Quinces stays vomiting,so doth all Syrup of Grapes.Syrupus Corticum CitriorumOr Syrup of Citron PillsCollege : Take of fresh yellow Citron Pills five ounces, the berries of Chermes, orthe juice of them brought over to us two drams, Spring Water four pounds, steep themall night; boil them till half be consumed, taking off the scum, strain it, and with twopounds and a half of sugar boil it into a Syrup: let half of it be without Musk, butperfume the other half with three grains of Musk tied up in a rag.

Culpeper : It strengthens the stomach, resists poison, strengthens the heart, andresists the passions thereof, palpitation, faintings, swoonings; it strengthens the vitalspirits, restores such as are in consumptions, and hectic fevers, and strengthens naturemuch. You may take a spoonful at a time.Syrupus e Coralliis simplexOr Syrup of Coral simpleCollege : Take of red Coral in very fine powder four ounces, dissolve it in clarifiedjuice of Barberries in the heat of a bath, a pound, in a glass well stopped with wax andcork, a digestion being made three or four days, pour off what is dissolved, put infresh clarified juice, and proceed as before, repeat this so often till all the coral bedissolved; lastly, to one pound of this juice add a pound and a half of sugar, and boil itto a Syrup gently.Syrupus e Coralliis compositusOr Syrup of Coral compoundCollege : Take of red Coral six ounces, in very fine powder, and levigated upon amarble, add of clarified juice of Lemons, the flegm being drawn off in a bath, sixteenounces, clarified juice of Barberries, eight ounces, sharp white Wine Vinegar, andjuice of Wood-sorrel, of each six ounces, mix them together, and put them in a glassstopped with cork and bladder, shaking it every day till it have digested eight days ina bath, or horse dung, then filter it, of which take a pound and a half, juice of Quinceshalf a pound, sugar of Roses twelve ounces, make them into a Syrup in a bath, addingSyrup of Clove-gilliflowers sixteen ounces, keep it for use, omitting the half dram ofAmbergris, and four grains of Musk till the physician command it.Culpeper : Syrup of Coral both simple and compound, restore such as are inconsumptions, are of a gallant cooling nature, especially the last, and very cordial,good for hectic fevers, it stops fluxes, the running of the reins, and the Fluor Albus,helps such as spit blood, and such as have the falling-sickness, it stays the menses.Half a spoonful in the morning is enough.Syrupus CydoniorumOr Syrup of QuincesCollege : Take of the Juice of Quinces clarified six pounds, boil it over a gentle firetill half of it be consumed, scumming it, adding red Wine three pounds, white sugarfour pounds, boil it into a Syrup, to be perfumed with a dram and a half of Cinnamon,Cloves and Ginger, of each two scruples.Culpeper : It strengthens the heart and stomach, stays looseness and vomiting,relieves languishing nature: for looseness, take a spoonful of it before meat, forvomiting after meat, for both, as also for the rest, in the morning.Syrupus de ErysimoOr Syrup of Hedge-mustardCollege : Take of Hedge-mustard, fresh, six handfuls, the roots of Elecampane,Colt's-foot, Liquorice, of each two ounces, Borrage, Succory, Maiden-hair, of each ahandful and a half, the cordial flowers, Rosemary and Bettony, of each half a handful,Annis seeds half an ounce, Raisins of the sun stoned, two ounces, let all of them,being prepared according to art, be boiled in a sufficient quantity of Barley Water andHydromel, with six ounces of juice of Hedge-mustard to two pounds and a half, thewhich, with three pounds of sugar, boil it into a Syrup according to art.Culpeper : It was invented against cold afflictions of the breast and lungs, asasthmas, hoarseness, &c. You may take it either with a Liquorice stick, or which isbetter, mix an ounce of it with three or four ounces of Pectoral Decoction, and drink itoff warm in the morning.

Syrupus de FumariaOr Syrup of FumitoryCollege : Take of Endive, common Wormwood, Hops, Dodder, Hart's-tongue, ofeach a handful, Epithimum an ounce and a half, boil them in four pounds of water tillhalf be consumed, strain it, and add the juice of Fumitory a pound and a half, ofBorrage and Bugloss, of each half a pound, white sugar four pounds, make them intoa Syrup according to art.Culpeper : The receipt is a pretty concoctor of melancholy, and therefore a rationalhelp for diseases arising thence, both internal and external; it helps diseases of theskin, as Leprosies, Cancers, Warts, Corns, Itch, Tetters, Ringworms, Scabs, &c. and itis the better to be liked, because of its gentleness. It helps surfeits exceedingly,cleanses, cools, and strengthens the liver, and causes it to make good blood, and goodblood cannot make bad flesh. I commend this receipt to those whose bodies aresubject to scabs and itch. If you please you may take two ounces by itself everymorning.Syrupus de GlycyrrhizaOr Syrup of LiquoriceCollege : Take of green Liquorice, scraped and bruised, two ounces, white Maidenhairan ounce, dryed Hyssop half an ounce, steep these in four pounds of hot water,after twenty-four hours, boil it till half be consumed, strain it, and clarify it, and withHoney, Penids, and Sugar, of each eight ounces, make it into a Syrup, adding, beforeit be perfectly boiled, red Rose Water six ounces.Culpeper : It cleanses the breast and lungs, and helps continual coughs andpleurisies. You may take it with a Liquorice stick, or add an ounce of it or more to thePectoral Decoction.Syrupus Granatorum cum Aceto; vulgo, Oxysaccharum simplexOr Syrup of Pomegranates with VinegarCollege : Take of white sugar a pound and a half, juice of Pomegranates eightounces, white Wine Vinegar four ounces, boil it gently into a Syrup.Culpeper : Look the virtues of Pomegranates among the simples.Syrupus de HyssopoOr Syrup of HyssopCollege : Take eight pounds of Spring Water, half an ounce of Barley, boil it abouthalf an hour, then add the Roots of Smallage, Parsley, Fennel, Liquorice, of each tendrams, Jujubes, Sebestens, of each fifteen, Raisins of the sun stoned, an ounce and ahalf, Figs, Dates, of each ten, the seeds of Mallows and Quinces, Gum Tragacanthtied up in a rag, of each three drams, Hyssop meanly dryed, ten drams, Maiden-hairsix drams, boil them together, yet so, that the roots may precede the fruits, the fruitsthe seeds, and the seeds the herbs, about a quarter of an hour; at last, five pounds ofwater being consumed, boil the other three (being first strained and clarified) into aSyrup with two pounds and a half of sugar.Culpeper : It mightily strengthens the breast and lungs, causes long wind, clears thevoice, is a good remedy against coughs. Use it like the Syrup of Liquorice.Syrupus وIv ‏,وarthritic sive ChamوpityosOr Syrup of ChamepitysCollege : Take of Chamepitys, two handfuls, Sage, Rosemary, Poley Mountain,Origanum, Calaminth, wild Mints, Pennyroyal, Hyssop, Thyme, Rue, garden andwild, Bettony, Mother of Thyme, of each a handful, the roots of Acorns, Birthwortlong and round, Briony, Dittany, Gentian, Hog's Fennel, Valerian, of each half anounce, the roots of Smallage, Asparagus, Fennel, Parsley, Bruscus, of each an ounce,

Pellitory of Spain, an ounce and a half, Stœchas, the seeds of Annis, Ammi, Caraway,Fennel, Lovage, Hartwort, of each three drams, Raisins of the sun two ounces, boilthem in ten pounds of water to four, to which add honey and sugar, of each twopounds, make it into a Syrup to be perfumed with Sugar, Nutmegs, and Cubebs, ofeach three drams.Syrupus JujubinusOr Syrup of JujubesCollege : Take of Jujubes, Violets, five drams, Maiden-hair, Liquorice, FrenchBarley, of each an ounce, the seeds of Mallows five drams, the seeds of whitePoppies, Melons, Lettice, (seeds of Quinces and Gum Tragacanth tied up in a rag) ofeach three drams, boil them in six pounds of rain or spring water till half beconsumed, strain it, and with two pounds of sugar make it into a Syrup.Culpeper : It is a fine cooling Syrup, very available in coughs, hoarseness, andpleurisies, ulcers of the lungs and bladder, as also in all inflammations whatsoever.You may take a spoonful of it once in three or four hours, or if you please take it witha Liquorice stick.Syrupus de Meconio, sive DiacodiumOr Syrup of Meconium, or DiacodiumCollege : Take of white Poppy heads with their seeds, gathered a little after theflowers are fallen off, and kept three days, eight ounces, black Poppy heads (soordered) six ounces, rain Water eight pounds, steep them twenty-four hours, then boiland press them gently, boil it to three pounds, and with twenty-four ounces of sugarboil it into a Syrup according to art.Syrupus de Meconio compositusOr Syrup of Meconium compoundCollege : Take of white and black Poppy heads with their seeds, fifty drams,Maiden-hair fifteen drams, Jujubes thirty, the seeds of Lettice, forty drams, ofMallows and Quinces tied up in a rag, a dram and a half, Liquorice five drams, watereight pounds, boil it according to art, strain it, and to three pounds of Decoction addSugar and Penids, of each one pound, make it into a Syrup.Culpeper : Meconium is nothing else but the juice of English Poppies boiled till itbe thick. It prevails against dry coughs, phthisicks, hot and sharp gnawing rheums,and provokes sleep. It is an usual fashion for nurses when they have heated their milkby exercise or strong liquor (no marvel then if their children be froward) then run forSyrup of Poppies, to make their young ones sleep. I would fain have that fashion left,therefore I forbear the dose; let nurses keep their own bodies temperate, and theirchildren will sleep well enough, never fear.Syrupus MelissophylliOr Syrup of BawmCollege : Take of the Bark of Bugloss roots, an ounce, the roots of white Dittany,Cinquefoil, Scorzonera, of each half an ounce, the leaves of Bawm, Scabious, Devil'sbit,the flowers of both sorts of Bugloss, and Rosemary, of each a handful, the seedsof Sorrel, Citrons, Fennel, Carduus, Bazil, of each three drams, boil them in fourpounds of water till half be consumed, strain it, and add three pounds of white sugar,juice of Bawm and Rose Water, of each half a pound, boil them to a Syrup, the whichperfume with Cinnamon and yellow Sanders, of each half an ounce.Culpeper : It is an excellent cordial, and strengthens the heart, breast, and stomach,it resists melancholy, revives the spirits, is given with good success in fevers, itstrengthens the memory, and relieves languishing nature. You may take a spoonfull ofit at a time.

Syrupus de MenthaOr Syrup of MintsCollege : Take of the juices of Quinces sweet and between sweet and sour, the juiceof Pomegranates sweet, between sweet and sour, and sour, of each a pound and a half,dried Mints half a pound, red Roses two ounces, let them lie in steep one day, thenboil it half away, and with four pounds of sugar boil it into a Syrup according to art,perfume it not unless the Physicians command.Culpeper : The Syrup is in quality binding, yet it comforts the stomach much, helpsdigestion, stays vomiting, and is as excellent a remedy against sour or offensivebelchings, as any is in the Dispensatory. Take a spoonful of it after meat.Syrupus de MucilaginibusOr Syrup of MussilagesCollege : Take of the seeds of Marsh-mallows, Mallows, Quinces, of each anounce, Gum Tragacanth three drams, let these infuse six hours in warm Decoction ofMallows, white Poppy seeds, and Winter Cherries, then press out the Mussilage to anounce and an half, with which, and three ounces of the aforesaid Decoction, and twoounces of sugar, make a Syrup according to art.Culpeper : A spoonful taken by itself, or in any convenient liquor, is excellent forany sharp corroding humours be they in what part of the body soever, phthisicks,bloody-flux, stone in the reins or bladder, or ulcers there: it is excellent good for suchas have taken purges that are too strong for their bodies, for by its slippery nature ithelps corrosions, and by its cooling helps inflammations.Syrupus MyrtinusOr Syrup of MyrtlesCollege : Take of Myrtle Berries two ounces and an half, Sanders white and red,Sumach, Balaustines, Barberry stones, red Roses, of each an ounce and a half,Medlars half a pound, bruise them in eight pounds of water to four, strain it, and addjuice of Quinces and sour Pomegranates, of each six ounces, then with three poundsof sugar, boil it into a Syrup.Culpeper : The Syrup is of a very binding, yet comforting nature, it helps such asspit blood, all fluxes of the belly, or corrosions of the internal parts, it strengthens theretentive faculty, and stops immoderate flux of menses. A spoonful at a time is thedose.Syrupus Florum وNymph simplexOr Syrup of Water-Lily flowers, simpleCollege : Take of the whitest of white Water-Lily flowers, a pound, steep them inthree pounds of warm water six or seven hours, let them boil a little, and strain themout, put in the same weight of flowers again the second and third time, when you havestrained it the last time, add its weight of sugar to it, and boil it to a Syrup.Syrupus Florum وNymph compositusOr Syrup of Water-Lily flowers compoundCollege : Take of white Water-Lily flowers half a pound, Violets two ounces,Lettice two handfuls, the seeds of Lettice, Purslain, and Gourds, of each half anounce, boil them in four pounds of clear water till one be consumed, strain it, and addhalf a pound of red Rose water, white sugar four pounds, boil it into a Syrupaccording to art. Culpeper : They are both fine cooling Syrups, allay the heat ofcholer, and provoke sleep, they cool the body, both head, heart, liver, reins, andmatrix, and therefore are profitable for hot diseases in either, you may take an ounceof it at a time when your stomach is empty.

Syrupus de Papavere Erratico, sive RubroOr Syrup of Erratic PoppiesCollege : Take of the fresh flowers of red Poppies two pounds, steep them in fourpounds of warm spring water, the next day strain it, and boil it into a Syrup with itsequal weight in sugar.Culpeper : The Syrup cools the blood, helps surfeits, and may safely be given infrenzies, fevers, and hot agues.Syrupus de PilosellaOr Syrup of MousearCollege : Take of Mousear three handfuls, the roots of Lady's-mantle an ounce andan half, the roots of Comfrey the greater,Madder, white Dittany, Tormentil, Bistort, ofeach an ounce, the leaves of Wintergreen, Horsetail, Ground Ivy, Plantain, Adder'sTongue, Strawberries, St. John's Wort with the flowers, Golden Rod, Agrimony,Bettony, Burnet, Avens, Cinquefoil the greater, red Coleworts, Balaustines, redRoses, of each a handful, boil them gently in six pounds of Plantain Water to three,then strain it strongly, and when it is settled, add Gum Tragacanth, the seeds ofFleawort, Marsh-mallows and Quinces, made into a Mussilage by themselves inStrawberry and Bettony Water, of each three ounces, white sugar two pounds, boil itto the thickness of honey.Culpeper : It is drying and healing, and therefore good for ruptures.وoniوP Syrupus infusionis florumOr Syrup of the infusion of Peony flowersCollege : It is prepared in the same manner as Syrup of Clove-gilliflowers.Syrupus de Pوonia compositusOr Syrup of Peony compoundCollege : Take of the Roots of both sorts of Peony taken up at the full Moon, cut inslices, and steeped in white Wine a whole day, of each an ounce and an half, ContraYerva half an ounce, Siler Mountain six drams, Elk's Claws an ounce,. Rosemary withthe flowers on, one handful, Bettony, Hyssop, Origanum, Chamepitys, Rue, of eachthree drams, Wood of Aloes, Cloves, Cardamoms the less, of each two drams, Ginger,Spikenard, of each a dram, Stœchas, Nutmegs, of each two drams and an half, boilthem after one day's warm digestion, in a sufficient quantity of distilled water ofPeony roots, to four pounds, in which (being strained through Hippocrates' sleeve)put four pounds and an half of white sugar, and boil it to a Syrup.Culpeper : It helps the falling-sickness, and convulsions.Syrupus de Pomis aiteransOr Syrup of ApplesCollege : Take four pounds of the juice of sweet scented Apples, the juice ofBugloss, garden and wild, of Violet leaves, Rose Water, of each a pound, boil themtogether, and clarify them, and with six pounds of pure sugar, boil it into a Syrupaccording to art.Culpeper : It is a fine cooling Syrup for such whose stomachs are overpressed withheat, and may safely be given in fevers, for it rather loosens than binds: it breeds goodblood, and is profitable in hectic fevers, and for such as are troubled with palpitationof the heart, it quenches thirst admirably in fevers, and stays hiccoughs. You may takean ounce of it at a time in the morning, or when you need.Syrupus de PrasioOr Syrup of HorehoundCollege : Take of white Horehound fresh, two ounces, Liquorice, Polipodium ofthe Oak, Fennel, and Smallage roots, of each half an ounce, white Maiden-hair,

Origanum, Hyssop, Calaminth, Thyme, Savory, Scabious, Colt's-foot, of each sixdrams, the seeds of Annis and Cotton, of each three drams, Raisins of the sun stonedtwo ounces, fat Figs ten, boil them in eight pounds of Hydromel till half be consumed,boil the Decoction into a Syrup with honey and sugar, of each two pounds, andperfume it with an ounce of the roots of Orris Florentine.Culpeper : It is appropriated to the breast and lungs, and is a fine cleanser to purgethem from thick and putrified flegm, it helps phthisicks and coughs, and diseasessubject to old men, and cold natures. Take it with a Liquorice stick.Syrupus de quinq. RadicibusOr Syrup of the five opening RootsCollege : Take of the roots of Smallage, Fennel, Parsley, Bruscus, Sparagus of eachtwo ounces, spring Water, six pounds, boil away the third part, and make a Syrup withthe rest according to art, with three pounds of sugar, adding eight ounces of whiteWine Vinegar, towards the latter end.Culpeper : It cleanses and opens very well, is profitable against obstructions,provokes urine, cleanses the body of flegm, and is safely and profitably given in thebeginning of fevers. An ounce at a time upon an empty stomach is a good dose.Syrupus RaphaniOr Syrup of RadishesCollege : Take of garden and wild Radish roots, of each an ounce, the roots ofwhite Saxifrage, Lovage, Bruscus, Eringo, Rest-harrow, Parsley, Fennel, of each halfan ounce, the leaves of Bettony, Burnet, Pennyroyal, Nettles, Water-cresses,Samphire, Maiden-hair, of each one handful, Winter Cherries, Jujubes, of each ten,the seeds of Bazil, Bur, Parsley of Macedonia, Hartwort, Carraway, Carrots,Gromwell, the bark of the root of Bay-tree, of each two drams, Raisins of the sunstoned, Liquorice, of each six drams, boil them in twelve pounds of water to eight,strain it, and with four pounds of sugar, and two pounds of honey, make it into aSyrup, and perfume it with an ounce of Cinnamon, and half an ounce of Nutmegs.Culpeper : A tedious long medicine for the stone.Syrupus Regius, alias Julapium AlexandrinumOr Julep of AlexandriaCollege : Boil four pounds of Rose-water, and one pound of white Sugar into aJulep. Julep of Roses is made with Damask Rose water, in the very same manner.Culpeper : Two fine cooling drinks in the heat of summer.Syrupus de Rosis siccisOr Syrup of dried RosesCollege : Make four pounds of spring water hot, in which infuse a pound of driedRoses, by some at a time, press them out and with two pounds of sugar, boil it into aSyrup according to art.Culpeper : Syrup of dried Roses, strengthens the heart, comforts the spirits, bindsthe body, helps fluxes, and corrosions, or gnawings of the bowels, it strengthens thestomach, and stays vomiting. You may take an ounce at a time, before meat, if forfluxes; after meat if for vomiting.وScabios SyrupusOr Syrup of ScabiousCollege : Take of the roots of Elecampane, and Polypodium of the Oak, of eachtwo ounces, Raisins of the sun stoned an ounce, Sebestens twenty, Colt's-foot,Lungwort, Savory, Calaminth, of each a handful and an half, Liquorice, SpanishTobacco, of each half an ounce, the seeds of Nettles and Cotton, of each three drams,boil them all (the roots being infused in white Wine the day before) in a sufficient

quantity of Wine and Water to eight ounces, strain it, and adding four ounces of theJuice of Scabious, and ten ounces of sugar, boil it to a Syrup, adding to it twentydrops of oil of sulphur.Culpeper : It is a cleansing Syrup appropriated to the breast and lungs, when youperceive them oppressed by flegm, crudites, or stoppings, your remedy is to take nowand then a spoonful of this Syrup, it is taken also with good success by such as areitchy, or scabby.Syrupus de ScolopendrioOr Syrup of Hart's-tongueCollege : Take of Hart's-tongue three handfuls, Polypodium of the Oak, the roots ofboth sorts of Bugloss, bark of the roots of Capers and Tamerisk, of each two ounces,Hops, Dodder, Maiden-hair, Bawm, of each two handfuls, boil them in nine pounds ofSpring water to five, and strain it, and with four pounds of white sugar, make it into aSyrup according to art.Culpeper : It helps the stoppings of melancholy, opens obstructions of the liver andspleen, and is profitable against splenetic evils, and therefore is a choice remedy forthe disease which the vulgar call the rickets, or liver-grown. A spoonful in a morningis a precious remedy for children troubled with that disease. Men that are troubledwith the spleen, which is known by pain and hardness in their left side, may take threeor four spoonfuls, they shall find this one receipt worth the price of the whole book.Syrupus de StœchadeOr Syrup of StœchasCollege : Take of Stœchas flowers four ounces, Rosemary flowers half an ounce,Thyme, Calaminth, Origanum, of each an ounce and an half, Sage, Bettony, of eachhalf an ounce, the seeds of Rue, Peony, and Fennel, of each three drams, spring waterten pounds, boil it till half be consumed, and with honey and sugar, of each twopounds, boil it into a Syrup, which perfume with Cinnamon, Ginger, and CalmusAromaticus, of each two drams tied up in a rag.Syrupus de SymphytoOr Syrup of ComfreyCollege : Take of roots and tops of Comfrey, the greater and lesser, of each threehandfuls, red Roses, Bettony, Plantain, Burnet, Knot grass, Scabious, Colt's foot, ofeach two handfuls, press the juice out of them all, being green and bruised, boil it,scum it, and strain it, add its weight of sugar to it that it may be made into a Syrup,according to art.Culpeper : The Syrup is excellent for all inward wounds and bruises, excoriations,vomitings, spittings, or evacuation of blood, it unites broken bones, helps ruptures,and stops the menses. You cannot err in taking of it.Syrupus ViolarumOr Syrup of VioletsCollege : Take of Violet flowers fresh and picked, a pound, clear water madeboiling hot, two pounds, shut them up close together into a new glazed pot, a wholeday, then press them hard out, and in two pounds of the liquor dissolve four poundsand three ounces of white sugar, take away the scum, and so make it into a Syrupwithout boiling. Syrup of the juice of Violets, is made with its double weight of sugar,like the former.Culpeper : This syrup cools and moistens, and that very gently, it corrects thesharpness of choler, and gives ease in hot vices of the breast, it quenches thirst inacute fevers, and resist the heat of the disease; it comforts hot stomachs exceedingly,cools the liver and heart, and resists putrefaction, pestilence, and poison.

College : Julep of Violets is made of the water of Violet flowers and sugar, likeJulep of Roses.Culpeper : It is cooling and pleasant.PURGING SYRUPSSyrupus de Cichorio cum RhubarbaroOr Syrup of Succory with RhubarbCollege : Take of whole Barley, the roots of Smallage, Fennel, and Sparagus, ofeach two ounces, Succory, Dandelyon, Endive, smooth Sow-thistles, of each twohandfuls, Lettuce, Liverwort, Fumitory, tops of Hops, of each one handful, Maidenhair,white and black, Cetrachs, Liquorice, winter Cherries, Dodder, of each sixdrams, to boil these take sixteen pounds of spring water, strain the liquor, and boil init six pounds of white sugar, adding towards the end six ounces of Rhubarb, six dramsof Spikenard, bound up in a thin slack rag the which crush often in boiling, and somake it into a Syrup according to art.Culpeper : It cleanses the body of venemous humours, as boils, carbuncles, and thelike; it prevails against pestilential fevers, it strengthens the heart and nutritive virtue,purges by stool and urine, it makes a man have a good stomach to his meat, andprovokes sleep. But by my author's leave, I never accounted purges to be properphysic in pestilential fevers; this I believe, the Syrup cleanses the liver well, and isexceeding good for such as are troubled with hypocondriac melancholy. The strongmay take two ounces at a time, the weak, one, or you may mix an ounce of it with theDecoction of Senna.Syrupus de EpithymoOr Syrup of EpithimumCollege : Take of Epithimum twenty drams, Mirobalans, Citron, and Indian of eachfifteen drams, Emblicks, Belloricks, Polypodium, Liquorice, Agrick, Thyme,Calaminth, Bugloss, Stœchas of each six drams, Dodder, Fumitory, of each ten drams,red Roses, Annis-seeds and sweet Fennel seeds of each two drams and an half, sweetPrunes ten, Raisins of the sun stoned four ounces, Tamarinds two ounces and an half,after twenty-four hours infusion in ten pints of spring water, boil it away to six, thentake it from the fire and strain it, and with five pounds of fine sugar boil it into Syrupaccording to art.Culpeper : It is best to put in the Dodder, Stœchas and Agarick, towards the latterend of the Decoction. It purges melancholy, and other humours, it strengthens thestomach and liver, cleanses the body of addust choler and addust blood, as also of salthumours, and helps diseases proceeding from these, as scabs itch, tetters, ringworms,leprosy, &c. A man may take two ounces at a time, or add one ounce to the Decoctionof Epithimum.Syrupus e Floribus PersicorumOr Syrup of Peach-flowersCollege : Take of fresh Peach-flowers a pound, steep them a whole day in threepounds of warm water, then boil a little and strain it out, repeat this infusion fivetimes in the same liquor, in three pounds of which dissolve two pounds and an half ofsugar and boil it into a Syrup.Culpeper : It is a gentle purger of choler, and may be given even in fevers to drawaway the sharp choleric humours.Syrupus de Pomis purgansOr Syrup of Apples purging

College : Take of the juice of sweet smelling Apples two pounds, the juice ofBorrage and Bugloss of each one pound and an half, Senna two ounces, Annis seedshalf an ounce, Saffron one dram; let the Senna be steeped in the juices twenty-fourhours, and after a boil or two strain it, and with two pounds of white sugar boil it to aSyrup according to art, the saffron being tied up in a rag, and often crushed in theboiling.Culpeper : The Syrup is a cooling purge, and tends to rectify the distempers of theblood, it purges choler and melancholy, and therefore must needs be effectual both inyellow and black jaundice, madness, scurf, leprosy, and scabs, it is very gentle. Thedose is from one ounce to three, according as the body is in age and strength. Anounce of it in the morning is excellent for such children as break out in scabs.Syrupus de Pomis magistralisOr Syrup of Apples magisterialCollege : Take of the Juice and Water of Apples of each a pound and an half, theJuice and Water of Borrage and Bugloss of each nine ounces, Senna half a pound,Annis seeds, and sweet Fennel seeds, of each three drams, Epithimum of Crete, twoounces, Agarick, Rhubarb, of each half an ounce, Ginger, Mace, of each four scruples,Cinnamon two scruples, Saffron half a dram, infuse the Rhubarb and Cinnamon apartby itself, in white Wine and Juice of Apples, of each two ounces, let all the rest, theSaffron excepted, be steeped in the Waters above mentioned, and the next day put inthe juices, which being boiled, scummed, and strained, then with four ounces of whitesugar boil it into a Syrup, crushing the saffron in it being tied up in a linen rag, theinfusion of the Rhubarb being added at the latter end.Culpeper : Out of doubt this is a gallant Syrup to purge choler and melancholy, andto resist madness.Syrupus de RhubarbaroOr Syrup of RhubarbCollege : Take of the best Rhubarb and Senna of each two ounces and an half,Violet flowers a handful, Cinnamon one dram and an half, Ginger half a dram,Bettony, Succory and Bugloss Water of each one pound and an half, let them bemixed together warm all night, and in the morning strained and boiled into a Syrup,with two pounds of white sugar, adding towards the end four ounces of Syrup ofRoses.Culpeper : It cleanses choler and melancholy very gently, and is therefore fit forchildren, old people, and weak bodies. You may add an ounce of it to the Decoctionof Epithimum or to the Decoction of Senna.Syrupus Rosaceus solutivusOr Syrup of Roses solutiveCollege : Take of Spring Water boiling hot four pounds, Damask Rose leaves fresh,as many as the water will contain; let them remain twelve hours in infusion, closestopped; then press them out and put in fresh Rose leaves; do so nine times in thesame liquor, encreasing the quantity of the Roses as the liquor encreases, which willbe almost by the third part every time: Take six parts of this liquor, and with fourparts of white sugar, boil it to a Syrup according to art.Culpeper : It loosens the belly, and gently brings out choler and flegm, but leaves abinding quality behind it.Syrupus e succo RosarumOr Syrup of the Juice of RosesCollege : It is prepared without steeping, only with the juice of Damask Rosespressed out, and clarified, and an equal proportion of sugar added to it.

Culpeper : This is like the other.Syrupus Rosaceus solutivus cum AgaricoOr Syrup of Roses solutive with AgarickCollege : Take of Agarick cut thin an ounce, Ginger two drams, Sal. Gem. onedram, Polipodium bruised two ounces, sprinkle them with white Wine and steep themtwo days over warm ashes, in a pound and an half of the infusion of Damask Rosesprescribed before, and with one pound of sugar boil it into a Syrup according to art.Culpeper : It purges flegm from the head, relieves the senses oppressed by it,provokes the menses, purges the stomach and liver, and provokes urine.Syrupus Rosaceus solutivus cum HelleboroOr Syrup of Roses solutive with HelleboreCollege : Take of the bark of all the Myrobalans, of each four ounces, bruise themgrossly, and steep them twenty-four hours in twelve pounds of the infusion of Rosesbefore spoken, Senna, Epithimum, Polypodium of the Oak, of each four ounces,Cloves an ounce, Citron seeds, Liquorice, of each four ounces, the bark of blackHellebore roots six drams, let the fourth part of the liquor gently exhale, strain it, andwith five pounds of sugar, and sixteen drams of Rhubarb tied up in a linen rag, makeit into a Syrup according to art.Culpeper : The Syrup, rightly used, purges melancholy, resists madness.Syrupus Rosaceus solutivus cum SennaOr Syrup of Roses solutive with SennaCollege : Take of Senna six ounces, Caraway, and sweet Fennel seeds, of eachthree drams, sprinkle them with white Wine, and infuse them two days in threepounds of the infusion of Roses aforesaid, then strain it, and with two pounds of sugarboil it into a Syrup.Culpeper : It purges the body of choler and melancholy, and expels the relics adisease hath left behind it; the dose is from one ounce to two, you may take it in aDecoction of Senna, it leaves a binding quality behind it.Syrupus de Spina CervinaOr Syrup of Purging ThornCollege : Take of the berries of Purging Thorn, gathered in September, as many asyou will, bruise them in a stone mortar, and press out the juice, let the fourth part of itevaporate away in a bath, then to two pounds of it add sixteen ounces of white sugar,boil it into a Syrup, which perfume with Mastich, Cinnamon, Nutmegs, Anniseeds infine powder, of each three drams.SYRUPS MADE WITH VINEGAR AND HONEYMel AnthosatumOr Honey of Rosemary FlowersCollege : Take of fresh Rosemary flowers a pound, clarified Honey three pounds,mix them in a glass with a narrow mouth, set them in the sun, keep them for use.Culpeper : It hath the same virtues with Rosemary flowers, to which I refer you,only by reason of the Honey it may be somewhat cleansing.Mel HelleboratumOr Honey HelleboratedCollege : Take of white Hellebore roots bruised a pound, clear Water fourteenpounds, after three days infusions, boil it till half be consumed, then strain itdiligently, and with three pounds of Honey, boil it to the thickness of Honey.

Mel MercurialeOr Honey of MercuryCollege : Boil three pounds of the juice of Mercury, with two pounds of Honey tothe thickness of Honey.Culpeper : It is used as an emollient in clysters.Mel Mororum, vel DiamoronOr Honey of MulberriesCollege : Take of the juice of Mulberries and Blackberries, before they be ripe,gathered before the sun be up, of each a pound and a half, Honey two pounds, boilthem to their due thickness.Culpeper : It is vulgarly known to be good for sore mouths, as also to coolinflammations there.Mel Nuceum, alias Diacarion et DianucumOr Honey of NutsCollege : Take of the juice of the outward bark of green Walnuts, gathered in thedog days two pounds, boil it gently till it be thick, and with one pound of Honey, boilit to the thickness of Honey.Culpeper : It is a good preservative in pestilential times, a spoonful being taken assoon as you are up.Mel PassalatumOr Honey of RaisinsCollege : Take of Raisins of the sun cleansed from the stones two pounds, steepthem in six pounds of warm water, the next day boil it half away, and press itstrongly, and with two pounds of Honey, let the expressed liquor boil to its thickness.Culpeper : It is a pretty pleasing medicine for such as are in consumptions, and arebound in body.Mel Rosatum commune, sive FoliatumOr common Honey of RosesCollege : Take of red Roses not quite open two pounds, Honey six pounds, setthem in the sun according to art.Mel Rosatum ColatumOr Honey of Roses strainedCollege : Take of the best clarified Honey ten pounds, juice of fresh red Roses onepound, set it handsomely over the fire, and when it begins to boil, put in four poundsof fresh red Roses, the whites being cut off; the juice being consumed by boiling andstirring, strain it and keep it for use.Culpeper : They are both used for diseases in the mouth.Mel Rosatum solutivumOr Honey of Roses solutiveCollege : Take of the often infusion of Damask Roses five pounds, Honey rightlyclarified four pounds, boil it to the thickness of Honey.Culpeper : It is used as a laxative in clysters, and some use it to cleanse wounds.College : After the same manner is prepared Honey of the infusion of red Roses.Mel scilliticumOr Honey of SquilsCollege : Take one Squil full of juice, cut in bits, and put it in a glass vessel, themouth close stopped, and covered with a skin, set in the sun forty days, to wit, twentybefore and after the rising of the dog star, then open the vessel, and take the juicewhich lies at the bottom, and preserve it with the best Honey.College : Honey of Violets is prepared like as Honey of Roses.

Oxymel, simpleCollege : Take of the best Honey four pounds, clear Water and white WineVinegar, of each two pounds, boil them in an earthen vessel, taking the scum off witha wooden scummer, till it be come to the consistence of a Syrup.Culpeper : It cuts flegm, and it is a good preparative against a vomit.Oxymel compoundCollege : Take of the Bark of the Root of Fennel, Smallage, Parsley, Bruscus,Asparagus, of each two ounces, the seeds of Fennel, Smallage, Parsley, Annis, of eachone ounce, steep them all (the roots being first cleansed and the seeds bruised) in sixpounds of clear Water and a pound and a half of Wine Vinegar, the next day boil it tothe consumption of the third part, boil the rest being strained, with three pounds ofHoney into a liquid Syrup according to art.Culpeper : First having bruised the roots and seeds, boil them in the water till halfbe consumed, then strain it and add the Honey, and when it is almost boiled enough,add the Vinegar.Oxymel HelleboratumOr Oxymel HelleboratedCollege : Take of Rue, Thyme, Dittany of Crete, Hyssop, Pennyroyal, Horehound,Carduus, the roots of Celtick, Spikenard without leaves, the inner bark of Elders, ofeach a handful, Mountain Calaminth two pugils, the seeds of Annis, Fennel, Bazil,Roman Nettles, Dill, of each two drams, the roots of Angelica, Marsh-mallows, Aron,Squills prepared, Birthwort, long, round, and climbing, Turbith, English Orris,Costus, Polypodium, Lemon pills, of each an ounce, the strings of black Hellebore,Spurge, Agerick, added at the end of the Decoction, of each two drams, the bark ofwhite Hellebore half an ounce, let all of them being dried and bruised, be digested in aglass, or glazed vessel close stopped, in the heat of the sun, or of a furnace, Posca,made of equal parts of Water and Vinegar, eight pounds, Sapa two ounces, three daysbeing expired, boil it little more than half away, strain it, pressing it gently, and add tothe liquor a pound and a half of Honey Roses, wherein two ounces of Citron pillshave been infused, boil it to the thickness of Honey, and perfume it with Cloves,Saffron, Ginger, Galanga, Mace, of each a dram.Oxymel JulianizansCollege : Take of the Bark of Caper roots, the roots of Orris, Fennel, Parsley,Bruscus, Chicory, Sparagus, Cypress, of each half an ounce, the leaves of Hartstongue,Schوnanth, Tamarisk, of each half a handful, sweet Fennel seed half an ounce,infuse them in three pounds of Posca, which is something sour, afterwards boil it tillhalf be consumed, strain it, and with Honey and sugar clarified, of each half a pound,boil it to the thickness of Honey.Culpeper : This medicine is very opening, very good against Hypocondriacmelancholy, and as fit a medicine as can be for that disease in children called theRickets.College : Oxymel of Squills simple, is made of three pounds of clarified Honey;Vinegar of Squills two pounds, boil them according to art.Culpeper : It cuts and divides humours that are tough and viscous, and thereforehelps the stomach and bowels afflicted by such humours, and sour belchings. If youtake but a spoonful in the morning, an able body will think enough.Oxymel Scilliticum compositusOr Oxymel of Squills compoundCollege : Take of Origanum, dried Hyssop, Thyme, Lovage, Cardamoms the less,Stœchas, of each five drams, boil them in three pounds of Water to one, strain it and

with two pounds of Honey, Honey of Raisins half a pound, juice of Briony fiveounces, Vinegar of Squills a pound and a half, boil it, and scum it according to art.Culpeper : This is good against the falling-sickness, Megrim, Head-ache, Vertigo,or swimming in the head, and if these be occasioned by the stomach as many timesthey are, it helps the lungs obstructed by humour, and is good for women not wellcleansed after labour, it opens the passage of the womb.Syrup of Purslain. MesueCollege : Take of the seeds of Purslain grossly bruised, half a pound, of the juice ofEndive, boiled and clarified, two pounds, Sugar two pounds, Vinegar nine ounces,infuse the seeds in the juice of Endive twenty-four hours, afterwards boil it half awaywith a gentle fire, then strain it, and boil it with the sugar to the consistence of aSyrup, adding the Vinegar towards the latter end of the decoction.Culpeper : It is a pretty cooling Syrup, fit for any hot disease incident to thestomach, reins, bladder, matrix, or liver; it thickens flegm, cools the blood, andprovokes sleep. You may take an ounce of it at a time when you have occasion.Compound Syrup of Colt's-foot. RenodCollege : Take six handfuls of green Colt's-foot, two handfuls of Maiden-hair, onehandful of Hyssop and two ounces of Liquorice, boil them in four pints, either of rainor spring water till the fourth part be consumed, then strain it, and clarify it, to whichadd three pounds of white sugar, boil it to the perfect consistence of a Syrup.Culpeper : The composition is appropriated to the lungs, and therefore helps theinfirmities, weaknesses, or failings thereof, as want of voice, difficulty of breathing,coughs, hoarseness, catarrhs,&c. The way of taking it is with a Liquorice-stick, or ifyou please, you may add an ounce of it to the Pectoral Decoction before mentioned.Syrup of Poppies, the lesser compositionCollege : Take of the heads of white Poppies and black, when both of them aregreen, of each six ounces, the seeds of Lettice, the flowers of Violets, of each oneounce, boil them in eight pints of water till the virtue is out of the heads; then strainthem, and with four pounds of sugar boil the liquor to a Syrup.Syrup of Poppies, the greater compositionCollege : Take of the heads of both white and black Poppies, seeds and all, of eachfifty drams, Maiden-hair, fifteen drams, Liquorice, five drams, Jujubes, thirty bynumber, Lettice seeds, forty drams, of the seeds of Mallows and Quinces, (tied up in athin linen cloth) of each one dram and an half, boil these in eight pints of water tillfive pints be consumed, when you have strained out the three pints remaining, add tothem, Penids and white sugar, of each a pound, boil them into a Syrup according toart.Culpeper : All these former Syrups of Poppies provoke sleep, but in that, I desirethey may be used with a great deal of caution and wariness: such as these are not fit tobe given in the beginning of fevers, nor to such whose bodies are costive, yet to suchas are troubled with hot, sharp rheums, you may safely give them. The last isappropriated to the lungs. It prevails against dry coughs, phthisicks, hot and sharpgnawing rheums, and provokes sleep. It is an usual fashion for nurses when they haveheated their milk by exercise or strong liquor then run for Syrup of Poppies to maketheir young ones sleep. I would fain have that fashion left off, therefore I forbear thedose. Let nurses keep their own bodies temperate, and their children will sleep wellenough.Syrup of Eupatorium (or Maudlin). MesueCollege : Take of the Roots of Smallage, Fennel, and Succory, of each two ounces,Liquorice, Schوnanth, Dodder, Wormwood, Roses, of each six drams, Maiden-hair,

Bedeguar, or instead thereof, the roots of Carduus ‏,وMari Suchaha or instead thereofthe roots of Avens, the flowers or roots of Bugloss, Annis seeds, sweet Fennel seeds,Ageratum, or Maudlin, of each five drams, Rhubarb, Mastich, of each three drams,Spikenard, Indian leaf, or instead of it put Roman spike, of each two drams, boil themin eight pints of Water till the third part be consumed, then strain the Decoction, andwith four pounds of sugar, clarified juice of Smallage and Endive, of each half apound, boil it into a Syrup.Culpeper : It amends infirmities of the liver coming of cold, opens obstructions,helps the dropsy, and evil state of the body; it extenuates gross humours, strengthensthe liver, provokes urine, and is a present succour for hypocondriac melancholy. Youmay take an ounce at a time in the morning, it opens but purges not.Honey of Emblicks. AugustanusCollege : Take fifty Emblick Myrobalans, bruise them and boil them in three pintsof water till two be consumed, strain it, and with the like weight of Honey, boil it intoa Syrup.Culpeper : It is a fine gentle purger both of flegm and melancholy: it strengthensthe brain and nerves, and senses both internal and external, helps tremblings of theheart, stays vomiting, provokes appetite. You may take a spoonful at a time.ROB, OR SAPA: AND JUICESCulpeper : 1. Rob, or Sapa, is the juice of a fruit, made thick by the heat either ofthe sun, or the fire, that it is capable of being kept safe from putrefaction. 2. Its usewas first invented for diseases in the mouth. 3. It is usually made, in respect of body,somewhat thicker than new Honey. 4. It may be kept about a year, little more or less.Rob sive Sapa, simplexOr Simple Rob, or SapaCollege : Take of Wine newly pressed from white and ripe Grapes, boil it over agentle fire to the thickness of Honey.Culpeper : Whenever you read the word Rob, or Sapa throughout the Dispensatory,simply quoted in any medicine without any relation of what it should be made, this isthat you ought to use.Rob de BarberisOr Rob of BarberriesCollege : Take of the juice of Barberries strained as much as you will, boil it byitself (or else by adding half a pound of sugar to each pound of juice) to the thicknessof Honey.Culpeper : It quenches thirst, closes the mouth of the stomach, thereby stayingvomiting, and belching, it strengthens stomachs weakened by heat, and procuresappetite. Of any of these Robs you may take a little on the point of a knife when youneed.Rob de CerasisOr Rob of CherriesCollege : Take of the juice of red Cherries somewhat sowerish, as much as youwill, and with half their weight in sugar boil them like the former.Culpeper : See the virtue of Cherries, and there you have a method to keep them allthe year.Rob de CornisOr Rob of Cornels

College : Take of the juice of Cornels two pounds, sugar a pound and an half; boilit according to art.Culpeper : Of these Cornel trees are two sorts, male and female, the fruit of themale Cornel, or Cornelian Cherry is here to be used. The fruit of male Cornel, bindsexceedingly, and therefore good in fluxes, and the immoderate flowing of the menses.Rob CydoniorumOr Rob of QuincesCollege : Take of the clarified juice of Quinces, boil it till two parts be consumedand with its equal weight in sugar boil it into a Rob.Miva vel Gelatina EorundemOr Jelly of QuincesCollege : Take of the juice of Quinces clarified twelve pounds, boil it half away,and add to the remainder, old white Wine five pounds, consume the third part over agentle fire, taking away the scum (all you ought) let the rest settle, and strain it, andwith three pounds of sugar boil it according to art.Culpeper : Both are good for weak and indisposed stomachs.College : Rob of sour Plums is made as Rob of Quinces, the use of sugar isindifferent in them both. Rob of English Currants is made in the same manner, let thejuice be clarified.Culpeper : The virtues are the same with Rob of Barberries.Rob Baccarum SambuciOr Rob of Elder BerriesCollege : Take of the juice of Elder Berries, and make it thick with the help of agentle fire, either by itself, or a quarter of its weight in sugar being added.Culpeper : Both Rob of Elder Berries, and Dwarf-Elder, are excellent for suchwhose bodies are inclining to dropsies, neither let them neglect nor despise it. Theymay take the quantity of a nutmeg each morning, it will gently purge the wateryhumour.College : In the same manner is made Rob of Dwarf-Elder, Junipers, and Paul'sBetony, only in the last, the sugar and juice must be equal in weight.Succus وGlycyrrhiz simplexOr Juice of Liquorice simpleCollege : Infuse Liquorice Roots cleansed and gently bruised, three days in SpringWater, so much that it may over-top the roots the breadth of three fingers, then boil ita little, and press it hard out, and boil the liquor with a gentle fire to its due thickness.Culpeper : It is vulgarly known to be good against coughs, colds, &c. and astrengthener of the lungs.Succus وGlycyrrhiz compositusOr Juice of Liquorice compoundCollege : Take of the water of tender Oak leaves, of Scabious, of each four pounds,English Liquorice scraped and bruised two pounds, boil them by degrees till they besoft, then press out the liquor strongly in a press, to which add three pounds of juiceof Hyssop, and dry it away in the sun in a broad earthen vessel.Culpeper : The virtues are the same with the former.Succus Pronorum SylvestrumOr Juice of Sloes, called AcaciaCollege : Take of Sloes hardly ripe, press out the juice, and make it thick in a bath.Culpeper : It stops fluxes, and procures appetite.

College : So are the Juices of Wormwood, Maudlin, and Fumitory made thick, towit, the herbs bruised while they be tender, and the juice pressed out and after it beclarified, boil over the fire to its just thickness.LOHOCH, OR ECLEGMATACulpeper : Because this word also is understood but by few, we will first explainwhat it is. 1. The word Lohoch is an Arabick word, called in Greek Eclegma, in LatinLinctus, and signifies a thing to be licked up. 2. It is in respect of body, somethingthicker than a Syrup, and not so thick as an electuary. 3. Its use was against theroughness of the windpipe, diseases, and inflammations of the lungs, difficulty ofbreathing, colds, coughs, &c. 4. Its manner of reception is with a Liquorice stick,bruised at the end, to take up some and retain it in the mouth, till it melt of its ownaccord.Lohoch de FarfaraOr Lohoch of ColtsfootCollege : Take of Colts-foot roots cleansed eight ounces, Marshmallow roots fourounces cleansed, boil them in a sufficient quantity of water, and press the pulp outthrough a sieve, dissolve this again in the Decoction, and let it boil once or twice, thentake it from the fire, and add two pounds of white sugar, Honey of Raisins fourteenounces, juice of Liquorice two drams and an half, stir them stoutly with a woodenpestle, mean season sprinkle in Saffron and Cloves, of each a scruple, Cinnamon andMace, of each two scruples, make them into a Lohoch according to art.Culpeper : It was invented for the cough.Lohoch de PapavereOr Lohoch of PoppiesCollege : Take white Poppy seeds twenty four drams, sweet Almonds blanched inRose Water, Pine-nuts cleansed, Gum Arabick and Tragacanth, of each ten drams,juice of Liquorice an ounce, Starch three drams, the seeds of Lettuce, Purslain,Quinces, of each half an ounce, Saffron a dram, Penids four ounces, Syrup ofMeconium three pounds, make it into a Lohoch according to art.Culpeper : It helps salt, sharp and thin distillations upon the lungs, it allays the furyof such sharp humours, which occasion both roughness of the throat, want of sleep,and fevers; it is excellent for such as are troubled with pleurises to take now and thena little of it.Lohoch e PassulisOr Lohoch of RaisinsCollege : Take of male Peony roots, Liquorice, of each half an ounce, Hyssop,Bawm, Hart's-tongue, or Cetrach, of each half a handful, boil them in Spring Water,and press them strongly, and by adding a pound of Raisins bruised, boil it again,pressing it through a linen cloth, then with a pound of white sugar, make it into aLohoch according to art.Culpeper : It is very good against coughs, consumptions of the lungs, and othervices of the breast, and is usually given to children for such diseases, as also forconvulsions, and falling-sickness.Lohoch e PinoOr Lohoch of PinenutsCollege : Take of Pine-nuts, fifteen drams, sweet Almonds, Hazel Nuts gentlyroasted, Gum Arabick and Tragacanth, powder and juice of Liquorice, white Starch,Maiden-hair, Orris roots, of each two drams, the pulp of Dates seventeen drams, bitter

Almonds one dram and an half, Honey of Raisins, white Sugar-candy, fresh Butter, ofeach two ounces, Honey one pound and an half, dissolve the Gums in so muchDecoction of Maiden-hair as is sufficient; let the rest be mixed over a gentle fire, andstirred, that so it may be made into a Lohoch.Culpeper : The medicine is excellent for continual coughs, and difficulty ofbreathing, it succours such as are asthmatic, for it cuts and atenuates tough humours inthe breast.Lohoch de PortulacaOr Lohoch of PurslainCollege : Take of the strained Juice of Purslain two pounds, Troches of TerraLemnia two drams, Troches of Amber, Gum Arabic, Dragon's-blood of each onedram, Lapis Hematilis, the wool of a Hare toasted, of each two scruples, white Sugarone pound, mix them together, that so you may make a Lohoch of them.Culpeper : The medicine is so binding that it is better let alone than taken, unless ininward bruises when men spit blood, then you may safely take a little of it.Lohoch e Pulmone VulpisOr Lohoch of Fox LungsCollege : Take of Fox Lungs rightly prepared, juice of Liquorice, Maiden-hair,Annis-seeds, sweet Fennel seeds, of each equal parts, Sugar dissolved in Colt's-foot,and Scabious Water, and boiled into a Syrup, three times their weight; the rest beingin fine powder, let them be put to it and strongly stirred together, that it may be madeinto a Lohoch according to art.Culpeper : It cleanses and unites ulcers in the lungs and breast, and is a presentremedy in phthisicks.Lohoch sanum et ExpertumOr a sound and well experienced LohochCollege : Take of dried Hyssop and Calaminth, of each half an ounce, Jujubes,Sebestens, the stones being taken out, fifteen Raisins of the Sun stoned, fat Figs,Dates, of each two ounces, Linseed, Fenugreek seed, of each five drams, Maiden-hairone handful, Annis-seeds, sweet Fennel seeds, Orris Roots cut, Liquorice, Cinnamon,of each an ounce, boil them according to art in four pounds of clear water till half beconsumed, and with two pounds of Penids boil it into a Syrup, afterwards cut andbruise very small Pine-nuts five drams, sweet Almonds blanched, Liquorice, GumTragacanth and Arabick, white Starch of each three drams, let these be put into theSyrup when it is off the fire, and stir it about swiftly with a wooden pestle till it lookwhite.Culpeper : It succors the breast, lungs, throat, oppressed by cold, it restores thevoice lost by reason of cold, and attenuates thick and gross humours in the breast andthroat.Lohoch ScilliticumOr Lohoch of SquilsCollege : Take three drams of a Squil baked in paste, Orris Roots two drams,Hyssop, Hore-hound, of each one dram, Saffron, Myrrh, of each half a dram, Honeytwo ounces and an half, bruise the Squil, after it is baked, in a stone mortar, and afterit hath boiled a walm or two with the Honey, put in the rest of the things in powder,diligently stirring it, and make it into a Lohoch according to art.Eclegma of Squils. MesueCollege : Take of the juice of Squils and Honey, both of them clarified, of each twopounds, boil them together according to art to the consistence of Honey.

Culpeper : For the virtues of it see Vinegar of Squils, and Oximel of Squils, onlythis is more mild, and not so harsh to the throat, because it hath no Vinegar in it, andtherefore is far more fitting for Asthmaes, and such as are troubled with difficulty ofbreathing, it cuts and carries away humours from the breast, be they thick or thin, andwonderfully helps indigestion of victuals, and eases pains in the breast, and for this, Iquote the authority of Galen.Lohoch of Coleworts. GordoniusCollege : Take one pound of the juice of Coleworts, clarified Saffron three drams,clarified Honey, and Sugar, of each half a pound, make of them a Lohoch accordingto art.Culpeper : It helps hoarseness, and loss of voice, eases surfeits and head-achecoming of drunkenness, and opens obstructions of the liver and spleen, and thereforeis good for that disease in children called the rickets.PRESERVED ROOTS, STALKS, BARKS, FLOWERS, FRUITSCollege : Take of Eringo Roots as many as you will, cleanse them without andwithin, the pith being taken out, steep them two days in clear water, shifting the watersometimes, then dry them with a cloth, then take their equal weight in white Sugar,and as much Rose-water as will make it into a Syrup, which being almost boiled, putin the roots, and let them boil until the moisture be consumed, and let it be brought tothe due body of a Syrup. Not much unlike to this are preserved the roots of Acorus,Angelica, Borrage, Bugloss, Succory, Elecampane, Burnet, Satyrion, Sicers, Comfreythe greater, Ginger, Zedoary. Take of the stalks of Artichokes, not too ripe, as manyas you will, and (contrary to the roots) take only the pith of these, and preserve themwith their equal weight in sugar, like the former. So is prepared the stalks of Angelica,Burs, Lettuce, &c. before they be too ripe. Take of fresh Orange pills as many as youwill, take away the exterior yellowness, and steep them in spring water three days atthe least, often renewing the water, then preserve them like the former. In like mannerare Lemon and Citron pills preserved. Preserve the flowers of Citrons, Oranges,Borrage, Primroses, with Sugar, according to art. Take of Apricots as many as youwill, take away the outer skin and the stones, and mix them with their like weight insugar, after four hours take them out, and boil the Sugar without any other Liquor,then put them in again, and boil them a little. Other Fruits may be preserved in thesame manner, or at least not much unlike to it, as whole Barberries, Cherries, Cornels,Citrons, Quinces, Peaches, common Apples, the five sorts of Myrobalans, Hazel Nuts,Walnuts, Nutmegs, Raisins of the Sun, Pepper brought green from India, Plums,garden and wild Pears, Grapes. Pulps are also preserved, as Barberries, Cassia Fistula,Citrons, Cinosbatus, Quinces, and Sloes, &c. Take of Barberries as many as you will,boil them in spring water till they are tender, then having pulped them through asieve, that they are free from the stones, boil it again in an earthen vessel over a gentlefire, often stirring them for fear of burning, till the watery humour be consumed, thenmix ten pounds of sugar with six pounds of this pulp, boil it to its due thickness.Broom buds are also preserved, but with brine and vinegar, and so are Olives andCapers. Lastly, Amongst the Barks, Cinnamon, amongst the flowers, Roses, andMarigolds, amongst the fruits, Almonds, Cloves, Pine-nuts, and Fistick-nuts, are saidto be preserved but with this difference, they are encrusted with dry sugar, and aremore called confects than preserves.CONSERVES AND SUGARS

College : Conserves of the herbs of Wormwood, Sorrel, Wood-sorrel, the flowersof Oranges, Borrage, Bugloss, Bettony, Marigolds, the Tops of Carduus, the Flowersof Centaury the less, Clove-gilliflowers, Germander, Succory, the Leaves ofScurvygrass, the flowers of Comfrey the greater, ‏,وCitrati Cinosbati, the roots ofSpurge, herbs and flowers of Eye-bright, the tops of Fumitory, Goat's-rue, the flowersof Broom not quite open, Hyssop, Lavender, white Lilies, Lilies of the Valley,Marjoram, Mallows, the tops of Bawm, the leaves of Mints, the flowers of WaterLilies, red Poppies, Peony, Peaches, Primroses, Roses, the leaves of Rue, the flowersof Sage, Elder, Scabious, the leaves of Scordium, the flowers of Limetree, Coltsfoot,Violets, with all these are conserves made with their treble proportion of white sugar;yet note, that all of them must not be mixed alike, some of them must be cut, beaten,and gently boiled, some neither cut, beaten nor boiled, and some admit but one ofthem, which every artist in his trade may find out by this premonition and avoid error.SUGARSDiacodium Solidum, sive TabulatumCollege : Take of white Poppy heads, meanly ripe, and newly gathered, twenty,steep them in three pounds of warm spring water, and the next day boil them until thevirtue is out, then strain out the liquor, and with a sufficient quantity of good sugar,boil it according to art, that you may make it up into Lozenges.Culpeper : The virtues are the same with the common Diacodium, viz. to provokesleep, and help thin rheums in the head, coughs, and roughness of the throat, and mayeasily be carried about in one's pocket.Saccharum tabulatum simplex, et perlatumOr Lozenges of Sugar both simple and pearledCollege : The first is made by pouring the sugar upon a marble, after a sufficientboiling in half its weight in Damask Rose Water: And the latter by adding to everypound of the former towards the latter end of the decoction, Pearls, prepared andbruised, half an ounce, with eight or ten leaves of gold.Culpeper : It is naturally cooling, appropriated to the heart, it restores lost strength,takes away burning fevers, and false imaginations, (I mean that with Pearls, for thatwithout Pearls is ridiculous) it hath the same virtues Pearls have.Saccharum Tabulatum compositumOr Lozenges of Sugar compoundCollege : Take of choice Rhubarb four scruples, Agarick Trochiscated, Corallins,burnt Hart's-horn, Dittany of Crete, Wormseed and Sorrel seed, of each a scruple,Cinnamon, Zedoary, Cloves, Saffron, of each half a scruple, white Sugar a pound,dissolved in four ounces of Wormwood Water, Wormwood Wine, an ounce,Cinnamon Water a spoonful, with the forenamed powders make it into Lozengesaccording to art.Culpeper : The title shews you the virtues of it.Saccharum PenidiumOr Sugar PenidsCollege : Are prepared of sugar dissolved in spring water by a gentle fire, and thewhites of Eggs diligently beaten, and clarified once, and again whilst it is boiling,then strain it and boil it gently again, till it rise up in great bubbles, and being chewedit stick not to your teeth, then pour it upon a marble, anointed with oil of Almonds,(let the bubbles first sink, after it is removed from the fire) bring back the outsides ofit to the middle till it look like Larch rosin, then, your hands being rubbed with white

starch, you may draw it into threads either short or long, thick or thin, and let it coolin what form you please.Culpeper : I remember country people were wont to take them for coughs, and theyare sometimes used in other compositions.Confectio de ThureOr Confection of FrankincenseCollege : Take Coriander seeds prepared half an ounce, Nutmegs, whiteFrankincense, of each three drams, Liquorice, Mastich, of each two drams, Cubebs,Hart's-horn prepared, of each one dram, conserve of Red roses an ounce, white Sugaras much as is sufficient to make it into mean bits.Culpeper : I cannot boast much of the rarity nor virtues of this receipt.Saccharum RosatumOr Sugar of RosesCollege : Take of red Rose leaves, the whites being cut off, and speedily dried inthe sun an ounce, white Sugar a pound, melt the Sugar in Rose-water and juice ofRoses of each two ounces which being consumed by degrees, put in the Rose leavesin powder, mix them, put it upon a marble, and make it into Lozenges according toart.Culpeper : As for the virtues of this, it strengthens weak stomachs, weak hearts,and weak brains, restores such as are in consumptions, restores lost strength, staysfluxes, eases pains in the head, ears and eyes, helps spitting, vomiting, and urining ofblood; it is a fine commodity for a man in a consumption to carry about with him, andeat now and then a bit.SPECIES, OR POWDERSAromaticum CaryophyllatumCollege : Take of Cloves seven drams, Mace, Zedoary, Galanga the less, yellowSanders, Troches, Diarrhodon, Cinnamon, wood of Aloes, Indian Spikenard, longPepper, Cardamoms the less, of each a dram, Red Roses four ounces, GalliaMoschata, Liquorice, of each two drams, of Indian leaf, Cubebs of each two scruples,beat them all diligently into powder.Culpeper : This powder strengthens the heart and stomach, helps digestion, expelswind, stays vomiting, and cleanses the stomach of putrified humors.Aromaticum RosatumCollege : Take of Red Roses exungulated fifteen drams, Liquorice seven drams,wood of Aloes, yellow Sanders, of each three drams, Cinnamon five drams, Cloves,Mace, of each two drams and an half, Gum Arabic and Tragacanth, of each eightscruples, Nutmegs, Cardamoms the less, Galanga of each one dram, Indian Spikenardtwo scruples, make it into a powder to be kept in a glass for use.Culpeper : It strengthens the brain, heart and stomach, and all such internalmembers as help towards decoction, it helps digestion, consumes the wateryexcrements of the bowels, strengthens such as are pined away by reason of theviolence of a disease, and restores such as are in consumption.Pulvus ex chelus Cancrorum compositusOr Powder of Crab's claws compoundCollege : Take of Pearls prepared, Crab's eyes, red Coral, white Amber Hart's-horn,oriential Bezoar, of each half an ounce, powder of the black tops of Crab's claws, theweight of them all, beat them into powder, which may be made into balls with jelly,and the skins which our vipers have cast off, warily dried and kept for use.

Culpeper : This is that powder they ordinarily call Gascoigns powder, there aredivers receipts of it, of which this is none of the worst, four, or five, or six grains isexcellently good in a fever to be taken in any cordial, for it cheers the heart and vitalspirits exceedingly, and makes them impregnable.وTemperat Species CordialesCollege : Take of wood of Aloes, Spodium of each a dram, Cinnamon, Cloves,bone of a Stag's-heart, the roots of Angelica, Avens, and Tormentil, of each a dramand an half, Pearls prepared six drams, raw Silk toasted, both sorts of Coral of eachtwo drams, Jacinth, Emerald, Samphire, of each half a dram, Saffron a scruple, theleaves of gold and silver, of each ten, make them into powder according to art.Culpeper : It is a great cordial, a great strengthener of the heart, and brain.Diacalaminthe SimpleCollege : Take of Mountain Calaminth, Pennyroyal, Origanum, the seeds ofMacedonian Parsley, common Parsley, and Hartwort, of each two drams, the seeds ofSmallage, the tops of Thyme of each half an ounce, the seeds of Lovage, blackPepper, of each an ounce, make them into powder according to art.Culpeper : It heats and comforts cold bodies, cuts thick and gross flegm, provokesurine and the menses. I confess this differs something from Galen, but is better for ourbodies in my opinion than his. It expels wind exceedingly, you may take half a dramof the powder at a time. There is nothing surer than that all their powders will keepbetter in Electuaries than they will in powders, and into such a body, you may make itwith two pound and an half of white sugar dissolved in rose water.Diacalamintha compoundCollege : Take of Diacalamintha simple, half an ounce, the leaves of Horehound,Marjoram, Bawm, Mugwort, Savin dried, of each a dram, Cypress roots, the seeds ofMaddir and Rue, Mace, Cinnamon, of each two scruples, beat them and mix themdiligently into a powder according to art.Culpeper : This seems to be more appropriated to the feminine gender than theformer, viz. to bring down the terms, to bring away the birth, and after-birth, to purgethem after labour, yet it is dangerous for pregnant women.DianisumCollege : Take of Annis seeds two ounces and an half, Liquorice, Mastich, of eachan ounce, the seeds of Caraway, Fennel, Galanga, Mace, Ginger, Cinnamon, of eachfive drams, the three sorts of Pepper, Cassia Lignea, mountain Calaminth, Pellitory ofSpain, of each two drams, Cardamoms the greater, Cloves, Cubebs, Indian Spikenard,Saffron, of each a dram and an half, make them into powder.Culpeper : It is chiefly appropriated to the stomach, and helps the cold infirmitiesthereof, raw, flegm, wind, continual coughs, and other such diseases coming of cold.You may safely take a dram of the electuary at a time. You may make an electuary ofit with its treble weight of clarified Honey.Pulvis Radicum Ari compositusOr Powder of Aron Roots compoundCollege : Take of Aron Roots two ounces, of common Water Flag, and Burnet, ofeach one ounce, Crab's eyes, half an ounce, Cinnamon three drams, salt ofWormwood, and Juniper, of each one dram, make them into powder.Culpeper : And when you have done tell me what it is good for.Diaireos simpleCollege : Take of Orris roots half an ounce, Sugar-candy, Diatragacanthumfrigidum, of each two drams, make them into powder.

Culpeper : I do not mean the Diatragacanthum frigidum, for that is in powderbefore. It comforts the breast, is good in colds, coughs, and hoarseness. You may mixit with any pectoral Syrups which are appropriated to the same diseases, and so take itwith a Liquorice stick.DialaccaCollege : Take of Gum-lacca, prepared Rhubarb, Schوnanth, of each three drams,Indian Spikenard, Mastich, the juice of Wormwood and Agrimony, made thick, theseeds of Smallage, Annis, Fennel, Ammi, Savin, bitter Almonds, Myrrh, Costus, orZedoary, the roots of Maddir, Asarabacca, Birthwort long and round, Gentian,Saffron, Cinnamon, dried Hyssop, Cassia Lignea, Bdellium, of each a dram and anhalf, black Pepper, Ginger, of each a dram, make them into powder according to art.Culpeper : It strengthens the stomach and liver, opens obstructions, helps dropsies,yellow jaundice, provokes urine, breaks the stone in the reins and bladder. Half adram is a moderate dose, if the patient be strong they may take a dram in white Wine.Let pregnant woman forbear it.Pulvis Cardiacus MagistralisCollege : Take of East Bezoar, bone of a Stag's-heart, of each a dram and an half,Magisterium, of white and red Coral, white Amber, Magisterium of Pearl, Hart'shorn,Ivory, Bole-amoniac, Earth of Germany, Samos and Lemnos, Elk's-claw,Tormentil roots, of each a dram, Wood of Aloes, Citron peels, the roots of Angelicaand Zedoary, of each two scruples, leaves of Gold twenty, Ambergris one scruple,Musk six grains, mix them and make them into powder.Culpeper : It is too dear for a vulgar purse, yet a mighty cordial and greatstrengthener of the heart and vitals in fevers.Diamargariton frigidumCollege : Take of the four greater cold seeds, the seeds of Purslain, white Poppies,Endive, Sorrel, Citrons, the three Sanders, Wood of Aloes, Ginger, red Rosesexungulated, the flowers of Water-lilies, Bugloss, Violets, the berries of Mirtles, bonein a Stag's heart, Ivory, Contra yerva, Cinnamon of each one dram, both sorts ofCoral, of each half a dram, Pearls three drams, Camphire six grains, make them intopowder according to art. Observe that the four greater cold seeds, and the Poppyseeds, are not to be added before the powder be required by physician for use. Do soby the other powder in the composition of which these powders are used.Culpeper : Authors hold it to be restorative in consumptions, to help such as are inhectic fevers, to restore strength lost, to help coughs, asthmaes, and consumptions ofthe lungs, and restore such as have laboured long under languishing or piningdiseases.Diamoschu DulceTake of Saffron, Galanga, Zedoary, Wood of Aloes, Mace, of each two drams,Pearls, raw Silk toasted, white Amber, red Coral prepared, Gallia Moschata, Bazil, ofeach two drams and an half, Ginger, Cubebs, Long Pepper, of each a dram and anhalf, Nutmegs, Indian leaf or Cinnamon, Cloves, of each one dram, Musk twoscruples, make them into powder according to art.Culpeper : It wonderfully helps cold afflictions of the brain, that come without afever, melancholy and its attendants, viz. sadness without a cause, vertigo or dizinessin the head, falling-sickness, palsies, resolution of the nerves, convulsions, heartqualms,afflictions of the lungs, and difficulty of breathing. The dose of the powder ishalf a dram, or two scruples, or less; according to the age or strength of him or herthat takes it. Mesue appoints it to be made into an electuary with clarified honey, and

of the electuary, two drams is the dose. The time of taking it is, in the morningfasting.Diamoschu AmarumCollege : Is prepared by adding to the forenamed Wormwood, dried Roses, of eachthree drams, Aloes half an ounce, Cinnamon two drams and an half, Castorium andLovage, of each one dram, make them into powder.Culpeper : Besides the virtues of the former, it purges the stomach of putrifiedhumours.Specia DianthusCollege : Take of Rosemary flowers an ounce, red Roses, Violets, Liquorice, ofeach six drams, Cloves, Indian Spikenard, Nutmegs, Galanga, Cinnamon, Ginger,Zedoary, Mace, Wood of Aloes, Cardamoms the less, the seeds of Dill and Anis, ofeach four scruples, make them into powder according to art.Culpeper : It strengthens the heart and helps the passions thereof, it causes a joyfuland cheerful mind, and strengthens such as have been weakened by long sickness, itstrengthens cold stomachs, and helps digestion notably. The dose is half a dram, youmay make it into an electuary with honey, and take two drams of that at a time.DiapendionCollege : Take of Penides two ounces, Pine-nuts, sweet Almonds blanched, whitePoppy seeds, of each three drams and a scruple, (Cinnamon, Cloves, Ginger, whichthree being omitted, it is a Diapendion without spices) juice of Liquorice, GumTragacanth and Arabic, white Starch, the four greater cold seeds husked, of each adram and an half, Camphire seven grains, make them into powder.Culpeper : It helps the vices of the breast, coughs, colds, hoarseness, andconsumptions of the lungs, as also such as spit matter. You may mix it with anypectoral syrup, and take it with a Liquorice stick if you fancy the powder best, but ifthe electuary, you may take a dram of it upon a knife's point at any time when thecough comes.Diarrhodon AbbatisCollege : Take of Sanders white and red, of each two drams and an half, GumTragacanth, Arabic, Ivory of each two scruples, Asarabacca roots, Mastich, IndianSpikenard, Cardamoms, Liquorice, Saffron, Wood of Aloes, Cloves, Gallia Moschata,Annis and sweet Fennel seeds, Cinnamon, Rhubarb, Bazil seeds, Barberry seeds, theseeds of Succory, Purslain, the four greater cold seeds cleansed, white Poppy seeds, ofeach a scruple, Pearls, bone of a Stag's-heart of each half a scruple, red Rosesexungulated, one ounce and three drams, Camphire seven grains, make them intopowder according to art.Culpeper : It cools the violent heat of the heart and stomach, as also of the liver,lungs, and spleen, eases pains in the body, and most infirmities coming to the body byreason of heat. The dose of the powder is half a dram, and two ounces of theelectuary, into which with sugar dissolved in Rose-water you may make it.DiospoliticumCollege : Take of Cummin seeds steeped in vinegar and dried, long Pepper, Rueleaves, of each an ounce, Nitre half an ounce, make them into powder.Culpeper : It is an admirable remedy for such whose meat is putrified in theirstomachs, it helps cold stomachs, cold belchings and windy. You may take half adram after meat, either in a spoonful of Muskadel, or in a Syrup of Mirtles orQuinces, or any Cordial Water whose effects is the same.Species Diatragacanthi frigidi

College : Take of Gum Tragacanth two ounces, Gum Arabic an ounce and twodrams, white Starch half an ounce, Liquorice, the seeds of Melons and white Poppies,of each three drams, the seeds of Citruls, Cucumbers and Gourds, of each two drams,Penids three ounces, Camphire half a scruple, make of them a powder according toart. Also you may make an electuary of them with a sufficient quantity of Syrup ofViolets, but have a care of what was told you before of the seeds.Culpeper : Make up into an electuary. It helps the faults of the breast and lungscoming of heat and dryness, it helps consumptions, leanness, inflammations of thesides, pleurises, &c. hot and dry coughs, roughness of the tongue and jaws.Diatrion PiperionCollege : Take of the three sorts of Peppers, of each six drams and fifteen grains,Annis seeds, Thyme, Ginger, of each one dram, beat them into gross powder.Culpeper : It heats the stomach and expels wind. Half a dram in powder, or twodrams in electuary (for so Galen who was author of it, appoints it to be made withclarified honey, a sufficient quantity) if age and strength permit, if not, half so much,is a sufficient dose, to be taken before meat, if to heat the stomach and help digestion;after meat, if to expel wind.Diatrion SantalonCollege : Take of all the sorts of Sanders, red Roses, of each three drams, Rhubarb,Ivory, Juice of Liquorice, Purslain seeds, of each two drams and fifteen grains, whiteStarch, Gum Arabic, Tragacanth, the seeds of Melons, Cucumbers, Citruls, Gourds,Endive, of each a dram and an half, Camphire a scruple, make them into powderaccording to art.Culpeper : It is very profitable against the heat of the stomach and liver, besides, itwonderfully helps such as have the yellow jaundice, and consumptions of the lungs.You may safely take a dram of the powder, or two drams of the electuary in themorning fasting, for most of these powders will keep better by half in electuaries.Pulvis HalyCollege : Take of white Poppy seeds ten drams, white Starch, Gum Arabic andTragacanth, of each three drams, the seeds of Purslain, Marsh-mallows, Mallows, ofeach five drams, Cucumbers, Melons, Gourds, Citruls, Quinces of each seven drams,Ivory, Liquorice, of each three drams, Penids the weight of them all, make them intopowder according to art.Culpeper : It is a gallant cool powder, fit for all hot imperfections of the breast andlungs, as consumptions, pleurisies, &c. Your best way is to make it into a softelectuary with Syrups of Violets, and take it as Diatragacanthum frigidum.LوtificansCollege : Take the flowers of Clove-bazil, or the seeds thereof, Saffron, Zedoary,Wood of Aloes, Cloves, Citron pills, Galanga, Mace, Nutmegs, Styrax Calamitis, ofeach two drams and an half, Ivory, Annis seeds, Thyme, Epithimum, of each onedram, bone of a Stag's heart, Pearls, Camphire, of each half a dram, leaves of Goldand Silver, of each half a scruple, make it into powder according to art.Culpeper : It causes a merry heart, a good colour, helps digestion, and keeps backold age. You may mix half a dram of it to take at one time, or less if you please, inany cordial Syrup, or cordial electuary appropriated to the same uses.Pulvis SaxonicusCollege : Take of the roots of both sorts of Angelica, Swallowwort, gardenValerian, Polipodium of the Oak, Marsh-mallows, Nettles, of each half an ounce, thebark of German Mezereon, two drams, twenty grains of herb True-love, the leaves of

the same, roots and all, thirty six, the roots being steeped in vinegar and dried, beat itall into powder.Culpeper : It seems to be as great an expeller of poison, and as great a preservativeagainst it, and the pestilence, as one shall usually read of.Rosate NovelleCollege : Take of red Roses, Liquorice, of each one ounce, one dram, two scruples,and an half, Cinnamon two drams, two scruples, and two grains, Cloves, IndianSpikenard, Ginger, Galanga, Nutmegs, Zedoary, Styrax, Calamitis, Cardamoms,Parsley seeds, of each one scruple eight grains, beat them into powder.Culpeper : It quenches thirst, and stays vomiting, and the author saith it helps hotand dry stomachs, as also heat and dryness of the heart, liver, and lungs, (yet is thepowder itself hot,) it strengthens the vital spirits, takes away heart-qualms, it provokessweat, and strengthens such as have laboured under long chronical diseases. You maytake a dram of the electuary every morning, if with clarified Honey you please tomake it into such a body.Pulvus ThuraloesCollege : Take of Frankincense one dram, Aloes half a dram, beat them intopowder.Culpeper : And when you have occasion to use it, mix so much of it with the whiteof an egg, (beat the white of the egg well first) as will make it of the thickness ofHoney, then dip the wool of a Hare in it, and apply it to the sore or part that bleeds,binding it on.Pulvis Hermidactylorum compositusOr Powder of Hermodactils compoundCollege : Take of men's bones burnt, Scammony, Hermodactils, Turbith, Sena,Sugar, of each equal parts, beat them into powder.Pulvis وSen compositus majorOr Powder of Sena the greater compositionCollege : Take of the seeds of Annis, Carraway, Fennel, Cummin, Spikenard,Cinnamon, Galanga, of each half an ounce, Liquorice, Gromwell, of each an ounce,Sena, the weight of them all, beat it into powder.Culpeper : That this receipt is gallantly composed none can deny, and is anexcellent purge for such whose bodies as are troubled with the wind cholic, orstoppage either of guts or kidneys, two drams taken in white Wine will worksufficiently with any ordinary body. Let weak men and children take less, keepingwithin doors, and warm.Pulvis وSen compositus minorOr Powder of Sena, the lesser compositionCollege : Take of Sena two ounces, Cremor Tartar half an ounce, Mace twoscruples and an half, Ginger, Cinnamon, of each a dram and an half, Salgem onedram, beat it into powder according to art.Culpeper : This powder purges melancholy, and cleanses the head.وDiasenCollege : Take of Sena, Cremor Tartar, of each two ounces, Cloves, Cinnamon,Galanga, Ammi, of each two drams, Diacridium half an ounce, beat it into powderaccording to art.Diaturbith with RhubarbCollege : Take of Turbith, Hermodactils, of each an ounce, Rhubarb ten drams,Diacrydium half an ounce, Sanders red and white, Violets, Ginger, of each a dram and

an half, Mastich, Annis seeds, Cinnamon, Saffron, of each half a dram, make it intopowder.Culpeper : This also purges flegm and choler. Once more let me desire such as areunskilful in the rules of physic, not to meddle with purges of this nature (unlessprescribed by a skilful Physician) lest they do themselves more mischief in half anhour, than they can remove in half a year.The lesser cordial Powder. FerneliusCollege : Take of Hart's-horn, Unicorn's horn, Pearls, Ivory, of each six grains beatthem into fine powder. If you mean to keep it, you may encrease the quantityanalogically.The greater cordial Powder. FernCollege : Take of the roots of Tormentil, Dittany, Clove-gilliflowers, Scabious, theseed of Sorrel, Coriander prepared, Citron, Carduus Benedictus, Endive, Rue, of eachone dram, of the three sorts of Sanders, (white, red, and yellow,) Been, white and red(or if you cannot get them, take the roots of Avens and Tormentil, in their stead)Roman Doronicum, (a kind of wolf-bane) Cinnamon, Cardamoms, Saffron, theflowers of both sorts of Bugloss, (viz. Borrage and Bugloss,) red Roses, and Water-Lilies, Wood of Aloes, Mace, of each two scruples, Ivory, Spodium, bone of a Stag'sheart,red Coral, Pearls, Emerald, Jacinth, Granite of each one scruple, raw Silktorrified, (dried or roasted by the fire,) Boleamoniac, Earth of Lemnos, of each half adram, Camphire, Ambergris, Musk, of each six grains, beat them into powderaccording to art, and with eight times their weight in white sugar, dissolved in Rosewater,you may make them into Lozenges, if you please.Culpeper : Both this and the former powder, are appropriated to the heart, (as thetitle shew) therefore they do strengthen that, and the vital spirit, and relievelanguishing nature. All these are cordial Powders, and seldom above half a dram ofthem given at a time.A Powder for such as are bruised by ل fallThe Augustan PhysiciansCollege : Take of Terra sigillata, Sanguis Draconis, Mummy of each two drams,Spermaceti one dram, beat them into powder according to art.Culpeper : You must beat the rest into powder, and then add the Spermaceti tothem afterwards, for if you put the Spermaceti and the rest all together and go to beatthem in that fashion, you may as soon beat the mortar into powder, as the simples;indeed your best way is to beat them severally, and then mix them altogether, whichbeing done, makes you a gallant medicine for the infirmities specified in the title, adram of it taken in Muskadel and sweating after it.Species Electuarii Dyacymini. NicholausCollege : Take of Cummin seeds infused a natural day in Vinegar, one ounce andone scruple, Cinnamon, Cloves, of each two drams and an half, Galanga, Savory,Calaminth, of each one dram and two scruples, Ginger, black Pepper, of each twodrams and five grains, the seeds of Lovage, and Ammi, (Bishop's-weed,) of each onedram and eighteen grains, long Pepper one dram, Spikenard, Nutmegs, Cardamoms,of each two scruples and an half, beat them and keep them diligently in powder foryour use.Culpeper : It heats the stomach and bowels, expels wind exceedingly, helps thewind cholic, helps digestion hindered by cold or wind, is an admirable remedy forwind in the bowels, and helps quartan agues. The powder is very hot, half a dram isenough to take at one time, and too much if the patient be feverish, you may take it inwhite Wine. It is in my opinion a fine composed powder.

Species Electuarii ‏.وDiagalang MesueCollege : Take of Galanga, wood of Aloes, of each six drams, Cloves, Mace, seedsof Lovage of each two drams, Ginger, long and white Pepper, Cinnamon, CalamusAromaticus of each a dram and an half, Calaminth, and Mints dried, Cardamoms thegreater, Indian Spikenard, the seeds of Smallage, Annis, Fennel, Caraway, of each onedram, beat them into powder according to art. Also it may be made into an electuarywith white sugar dissolved in Malaga wine, or twelve times the weight of it ofclarified Honey.Culpeper : Mesue quotes it only as an electuary, which he saith prevails againstwind, sour belchings, and indigestion, gross humours and cold afflictions of thestomach and liver. You may take half a dram of the powder at a time, or two of theelectuary in the morning fasting, or an hour before meat. It helps digestionexceedingly, expels wind, and heats a cold stomach.Species Electuarii Diamargariton Calidi. AvicennaCollege : Take of Pearls and Pellitory of the Wall, of each one dram, Ginger,Mastich, of each half an ounce, Doronicum, Zedoary, Smallage seeds, both sorts ofCardamoms, Nutmegs, Mace, of each two drams, Been of both sorts, (if they cannotbe procured take the roots of Avens and Tormentil) black and long Pepper of eachthree drams, beat them into powder and keep them for your use.Culpeper : This (quoth Avicenna) is appropriated to women, and in them todiseases incident to their matrix; but his reasons I know not. It is cordial and heats thestomach.Lithontribon Nicholaus, according to FerneliusCollege : Take of Spikenard, Ginger, Cinnamon, black Pepper, Cardamoms,Cloves, Mace, of each half a dram, Costus, Liquorice, Cypress, Tragacanth,Germander, of each two scruples, the seeds of Bishop's-weed, (Ammi), Smallage,Sparagus, Bazil, Nettles, Citrons, Saxifrage, Burnet, Caraway, Carrots, Fennel,Bruscus, Parsley of Macedonia, Burs, Seseli, (or Hartwort), Asarabacca, of each onedram, Lapis ‏,وSpongi Lyncis, Cancri, Judaici, of each one dram and an half, Goat'sblood prepared an ounce and half, beat them all into powder according to art.Culpeper : It heats the stomach, and helps want of digestion coming through cold,it eases pains in the belly and loins, the Illiac passion, powerfully breaks the stone inthe reins and bladder, it speedily helps the cholic, stranguary, and disury. The dose isfrom a dram to half a dram, take it either in white Wine, or decoction of herbs tendingto the same purposes.Pleres Arconticon. NicholausCollege : Take of Cinnamon, Cloves, Galanga, Wood of Aloes, Indian Spikenard,Nutmegs, Ginger, Spodium, Schœnanthus, Cypress, Roses, Violets of each one dram,Indian Leaf or Mace, Liquorice, Mastich, Styrax Calamitis, Marjoram, Costmary, orWater-mints, Bazil, Cardamoms, long and white Pepper, Myrtle berries, and Citronpills, of each half a dram and six grains, Pearls, Been white and red, (or, if they bewanting, take the roots of Avens and Tormentil in their stead) red Coral, torrified Silk,of each eighteen grains, Musk six grains, Camphire four grains, beat them intopowder according to art, and with ten times their weight in sugar dissolved in Bawmwater, you may make them into an electuary.Culpeper : It is exceedingly good for sad, melancholy, lumpish, pensive, grieving,vexing, pining, sighing, sobbing, fearful, careful spirits, it strengthens weak stomachsexceedingly, and help such as are prone to faintings and swoonings, it strengthenssuch as are weakened by violence of sickness, it helps bad memories, quickens all thesenses, strengthens the brain and animal spirits, helps the falling-sickness, and

succours such as are troubled with asthmas, or other cold afflictions of the lungs. Itwill keep best in an electuary, of which you may take a dram in the morning, or more,as age and strength requires.A Preservative Powder against the Pestilence. MontagnamCollege : Take of all the Sanders, (white, red, and yellow,) the seeds of Bazil, ofeach an ounce and an half, Bole Amoniac, Cinnamon, of each an ounce, the roots ofDittany, Gentian, and Tormentil, of each two drams and an half, the seeds of Citronand Sorrel, of each two drams, Pearls Saphire, bone of a Stag's heart, of each onedram, beat them into powder according to art.Culpeper : The title tells you the virtue of it, besides, it cheers the vital spirits, andstrengthens the heart. You may take half a dram every morning either by itself, ormixed with any other convenient composition, whether Syrup or Electuary.Diaturbith the greater, without RhubarbCollege : Take of the best Turbith an ounce, Diagridium, Ginger, of each half anounce, Cinnamon, Cloves, of each two drams, Galanga, long Pepper, Mace, of eachone dram, beat them into powder, and with eight ounces and five drams of whitesugar dissolved in Succory Water, it may be made into an electuary.Culpeper : It purges flegm, being rightly administered by a skilful hand. I fancy itnot.A Powder for the WormsCollege : Take of Wormseed, four ounces, Sena, one ounce, Coriander seedsprepared, Hart's-horn, of each half a dram, Rhubarb half an ounce, dried Rue, twodrams, beat them into powder.Culpeper : I like this powder very well; the quantity (or to write morescholastically, the dose) must be regulated according to the age of the patient, evenfrom ten grains to a dram, and the manner of taking it by their palate. It is somethingpurging.ELECTUARIESAntidotus AnalepticaCollege : Take of red Roses, Liquorice of each two drams and five grains, GumArabic and Tragacanth, of each two drams and two scruples, Sanders white and red,each four scruples, juice of Liquorice, white Starch, the seeds of white Poppies,Purslain, Lettuce, and Endive, of each three drams, the four greater cold seeds husked,of Quinces, Mallows, Cotton, Violets, Pine-nuts, fistic Nuts, sweet Almonds, pulp ofSebestens, of each two drams, Cloves, Spodium, Cinnamon, of each one dram,Saffron five grains, Penids half an ounce, being beaten, make them all into a softelectuary with three times their weight in Syrup of Violets.Culpeper : It restores consumptions, and hectic fevers, lost strength, it nourishesmuch, and restores radical moisture, opens the pores, resists choler, takes awaycoughs, quenches thirst, and resists fevers. You may take an ounce in a day, by a dramat a time, if you please.Confectio AlkermesCollege : Take of the juice of Apples, Damask Rose-water, of each a pound and anhalf, in which infuse for twenty-four hours, raw Silk four ounces, strain it strongly,and add Syrup of the berries of Cherms brought over to us, two pounds, Sugar onepound, boil it to the thickness of Honey; then removing it from the fire whilst it iswarm, add Ambergris cut small, half an ounce, which being well mingled, put in these

things following in powder, Cinnamon, Wood of Aloes, of each six drams, Pearlsprepared, two drams, Leaf-Gold a dram, Musk a scruple, make it up according to art.Culpeper : Questionless this is a great cordial, and a mighty strengthener of theheart, and vital spirits, a restorer of such as are in consumptions, a resister ofpestilences and poison, a relief to languishing nature, it is given with good success infevers, but give not too much of it at a time, lest it prove too hot for the body, and tooheavy for the purse. You may mix ten grains of it with other convenient cordials tochildren, twenty or thirty to men.Electuarium e SassaphrasCollege : Take of Sassafras two ounces, common Water three pounds, boil it to theconsumption of the third part, adding, towards the end, Cinnamon bruised half anounce, strain it, and with two pounds of white sugar, boil it to the thickness of aSyrup, putting in, in powder, Cinnamon, a dram, Nutmegs, half a scruple, Musk threegrains, Ambergris, two and thirty grains, ten leaves of Gold, Spirit of Vitriol fourdrops, and so make it into an electuary according to art.Culpeper : It opens obstruction of the liver and spleen, helps cold rheums ordefluxions from the head to the lungs, or teeth, or eyes, it is excellent in coughs, andother cold afflictions of the lungs and breast, it helps digestion, expels wind and thegravel of the kidneys, it provokes the menses, warms and dries up the moisture of thewomb, which is many times the cause of barrenness, and is generally a helper of alldiseases coming of cold, raw thin humours, you may take half a dram at a time in themorning.Electuarium de Baccis LauriOr Electuary of Bay-berriesCollege : Take of the leaves of dried Rue ten drams, the seeds of Ammi, Cummin,Lovage, Origanum, Nigella, Caraway, Carrots, Parsley, bitter Almonds, Pepper blackand long, wild Mints, Calamus Aromaticus, Bay-berries, Castorium of each twodrams, Sagapenum half an ounce, Opopanax three drams, clarified Honey a poundand an half, the things to be beaten; being beaten, and the Gums dissolved in Wine,make it into an electuary according to art.Culpeper : It is exceeding good either in the cholic or Iliac passion, or any otherdisease of the bowels coming of cold or wind, it generally eases pains in the bowels.You may give a dram in the morning fasting, or half an ounce in a clyster, accordingas the disease is.DiacapparitCollege : Take of Capers four ounces, Agrimony Roots, Nigella seeds, Squils,Asarabacca, Centaury, black Pepper, Smallage, Thyme of each an ounce, Honey threetimes their weight, make it into an electuary according to art.Culpeper : They say it helps infirmities of the spleen, and indeed the name seems topromise so much, it may be good for cold bodies, if they have strength of nature inthem.DiacinnamomumCollege : Take of Cinnamon fifteen drams, Cassia Lignea, Elecampane roots, ofeach half an ounce, Galanga, seven drams, Cloves, long Pepper, both sorts ofCardamoms, Ginger, Mace, Nutmegs, Wood of Aloes, of each three drams, Saffron,one dram, Sugar five drams, Musk two scruples, adding according to the prescript ofthe Physician, and by adding three pounds eight ounces of clarified Honey, boil it andmake it into an electuary according to art.Culpeper : Diacinnamomum, or in plain English, A composition of Cinnamon,heats the stomach, causes digestion, provokes the menses, strengthens the stomach

and other parts that distribute the nourishment of the body, a dram of it taken in themorning fasting, is good for ancient people and cold bodies, such as are subject todropsies and diseases of flegm, or wind, for it comforts and strengthens nature much.If you take it to help digestion, take it an hour before meat, do so in all things of likequality.DiacorallionCollege : Take of Coral white and red, Bole-amoniac, Dragon's-blood, of each onedram, Pearls half a dram, Wood of Aloes, red Roses, Gum Tragacanth, Cinnamon, ofeach two scruples, Sanders white and red, of each one scruple, with four times itsweight in sugar dissolved in small Cinnamon Water, make it into an electuary,according to art.Culpeper : It comforts and strengthens the heart exceedingly, and restores such asare in consumptions, it is cooling, therefore good in hectic fevers, very binding, andtherefore stops fluxes, neither do I know a better medicine in all the dispensatory forsuch as have a consumption accompanied with looseness. It stops the menses andFluor Albus. Take but a dram at a time every morning, because of its binding quality,except you have a looseness, for then you may take so much two or three times a day.DiacorumCollege : Take of the roots of Cicers, Acorus, or Calamus Aromaticus, Pine-nuts,of each a pound and a half, let the Cicers roots, being cleansed, cut, boiled, andpulped, be added to ten pounds of clarified honey, and boiled, (stirring it) to its justthickness, then being removed from the fire, add the Acorus roots beaten, the Pinenutscut, and these following in powder. Take of black Pepper an ounce, long Pepper,Cloves, Ginger, Mace, of each half an ounce, Nutmegs, Galanga, Cardamons, of eachthree drams, mix them with the roots and Honey into an electuary according to art.Culpeper : The electuary provokes lust, heats the brain, strengthens the nerves,quickens the senses, causes an acute wit, eases pains in the head, helps the fallingsicknessand convulsions, coughs, catarrhs, and all diseases proceeding from coldnessof the brain. Half a dram is enough to take at one time, because of its heat.Peony is an herb of the sun, the roots of it cure the falling-sickness.Diacydonium simpleCollege : Take of the flesh of Quinces cut and boiled in fair water to a thickness,eight pounds, white sugar six pounds, boil it to its just thickness.Diacydonium with SpeciesCollege : Take of the juice of Quinces, Sugar, of each two pounds, white WineVinegar half a pound, added at the end of the decoction, it being gently boiled, andthe scum taken away, add Ginger two ounces, white Pepper ten drams and twoscruples, bruise them grossly, and boil it again to the thickness of Honey.Diacydonium compound, MagisterialCollege : Take of white Sugar six pounds, Spring Water four pounds, clarify themwell with the white of an egg, scumming them, then take of ripe Quinces cleansedfrom the rind and seeds, and cut in four quarters, eight pounds, boil them in theforegoing Syrup till they be tender, then strain the Syrup through a linen cloth, vocataAnglice, Boulter; boil them again to a jelly, adding four ounces of white wine Vinegartowards the end; remove it from the fire, and whilst it is warm put in these followingspecies in powder, Ginger an ounce, white Pepper, Cinnamon, Nutmegs, of each twodrams, keep it for use.Culpeper : The virtues of all these three are, they comfort the stomach, helpdigestion, stays vomiting, belchings, &c. stop fluxes and the menses. They are all

harmless, you may take the quantity of a nutmeg of them at a time, before meat tohelp digestion and fluxes, after meat to stay vomiting, in the morning for the rest.Confectio de HyacinthoCollege : Take of Jacinth, red Coral, Bole-amoniac, Earth of Lemnos, of each halfan ounce, the berries of Chermes, the Roots of Tormentil and Dittany, the seeds ofCitrons, Sorrel, and Purslain, Saffron, Myrrh, red Roses exungulated, all the sorts ofSanders, bone of a Stag's heart, Hart's-horn, Ivory prepared, of each four scruples,Samphire, Emerald, Topaz, Pearls, raw Silk, leaves of Gold and Silver, of each twoscruples, Camphire, Musk, Ambergris, of each five grains, with Syrup of Lemonsmake it into a confection according to art.Culpeper : It is a great cordial and cool, exceeding good in acute fevers andpestilences, it mightily strengthens and cherishes the heart. Never above half a dram isgiven at a time.Antidotum HوmagogumCollege : Take of Lupines husked two drams, black Pepper five scruples and sixgrains, Liquorice four scruples, long Birthwort, Mugwort, Cassia Lignea, MacedonianParsley seed, Pellitory of Spain, Rue seed, Spikenard, Myrrh, Pennyroyal, of each twoscruples and fourteen grains, the seeds of Smallage, Savin, of each two scruples andthirteen grains, Centaury the greater, Cretish Carrots, Nigella, Caraway, Annis,Cloves, Alum, of each two scruples, Bay leaves one scruple, one half scruple, andthree grains, Schوnanth one scruple and thirteen grains, Asarabacca, CalamusAromaticus, Amomum, Centaury the less, the seed of Orrach, Peony, Fennel, of eachone scruple and six grains, wood of Aloes, a scruple and fourteen grains, Cypress,Elecampane, Ginger, Cappar roots, Cummin, Orobus, of each one scruple, all of thembeing beaten into very fine powder, let them be made into an electuary according toart, with four times their weight in sugar, let it stand one month before you use it.Culpeper : It provokes the menses, brings away both birth and after-birth, the deadchild, purges such as are not sufficiently purged after travail, it provokes urine, breaksthe stone in the bladder, helps the stranguary, disury, iskury, &c. helps indigestion,the cholic, opens any stoppings in the body, it heats the stomach, purges the liver andspleen, consumes wind, stays vomiting, but let it not be taken by pregnant women,nor such people as have the hemorrhoids. The dose is from one dram to two drams.DiasatyrionCollege : Take of Satyrion roots three ounces, Dates, bitter Almonds, Indian Nuts,Pine nuts, Festick nuts, green Ginger, Eringo roots preserved, of each one ounce,Ginger, Cloves, Galanga, Pepper long and black, of each three drams, Ambergris onescruple, Musk two scruples, Penins four ounces, Cinnamon, Saffron, of each half anounce, Malaga Wine three ounces, Nutmegs, Mace, Grains of Paradise, of each twodrams, Ash-tree keys, the belly and loins of Scinks, Borax, Benjamin, of each threedrams, wood of Aloes, Cardamoms, of each two drams, the seeds of Nettles andOnions, the roots of Avens, of each a dram and a half, with two pounds and an half ofSyrup of green Ginger, make them into an electuary according to art.Electuarium DiaspermatonCollege : Take of the four greater and lesser cold seeds, the seeds of Asparagus,Burnet, Bazil, Parsley, Winter Cherries, of each two drams, Gromwell, Juice ofLiquorice, of each three drams, Cinnamon, Mace, of each one dram, with eight timestheir weight in white Sugar dissolved in Marsh-mallows water, make it into anelectuary according to art.

Culpeper : It breaks the stone, and provokes urine. Men may take half an ounce at atime, and children half so much, in water of any herb or roots, &c. (or decoction ofthem) that break the stone.MicletaCollege : Take of the barks of all the Myrobalans torrified, of each two drams andan half, the seeds of Water-cresses, Cummin, Annis, Fennel, Ammi, Caraway, of eacha dram and an half, bruise the seeds and sprinkle them with sharp white wine Vinegar,then beat them into powder, and add the Mirobalans, and these things that follow,Spodium, Balaustines, Sumach, Mastich, Gum Arabic, of each one dram and fifteengrains, mix them together, and with ten ounces of Syrup of Myrtles, make them intoan electuary according to art.Culpeper : It gently eases the bowels of the wind cholic, wringing of the bowels,infirmities of the spleen, it stops fluxes, the hemorrhoids, as also the menses.Electuarium PectoraleOr a Pectoral ElectuaryCollege : Take of the juice of Liquorice, sweet Almonds, Hazel-Nuts, of each halfan ounce, Pine-nuts an ounce, Hysop, Maiden-hair, Orris, Nettle seeds, roundBirthwort, of each a dram and an half, black Pepper, the seeds of Water-cresses, theroots of Elecampane, of each half a dram, Honey fourteen ounces, make them into anelectuary according to art.Culpeper : It strengthens the stomach and lungs, and helps the vices thereof. Take itwith a Liquorice stick.Theriaca DiatessaronCollege : Take of Gentain, Bay-berries, Myrrh, round Birth-wort, of each twoounces, Honey two pounds, make them into an electuary according to art.Culpeper : This is a gallant electuary. It wonderfully helps cold infirmities of thebrain, as convulsions, falling-sickness, dead palsies, shaking palsies, &c. As also thestomach, as pains there, wind, want of digestion, as also stoppings of the liver,dropsies, it resists the pestilence and poison, and helps the bitings of venomousbeasts. The dose is from half a dram to two drams, according to the age and strengthof the patient, as also the strength of the diseases: you may take it either in themorning, or when urgent occasion calls for it.DiascordiumCollege : Take of Cinnamon, Cassia Lignea, of each half an ounce, Scordium, anounce, Dittany of Crete, Tormentil, Bistort, Galbanum, Gum Arabic, of each half anounce, Opium one dram and an half, Sorrel seeds one dram and a half, Gentain half anounce, Bole-amoniac an ounce and an half, Earth of Lemnos half an ounce, longPepper, Ginger, of each two drams, clarified Honey two pounds and an half, Sugar ofRoses one pound, Canary Wine ten ounces, make them into an electuary according toart.Culpeper : It is a well composed electuary, something appropriated to the nature ofwomen, for it provokes the menses, hastens labour, helps their usual sickness at thetime of their lying in; I know nothing better, it stops fluxes, mightily strengthens theheart and stomach, neither is so hot but it may safely be given to weak people, andbesides provokes sleep. It may safely be given to young children ten grains at a time,ancient people may take a dram or more. It is given as an excellent cordial in suchfevers as are accompanied with want of sleep.MithridateCollege : Take of Myrrh, Saffron, Agarick, Ginger, Cinnamon, Spikenard,Frankincense, Treacle, Mustard seeds, of each ten drams, the seeds of Hartwort,

Opobalsamum, or oil of Nutmegs by expression, Schenanth, Stœchas, Costus,Galbanum, Turpentine, long Pepper, Castorium, juice of Hypocistis, Styrax,Calamitis, Opopanax, Indian leaf, or for want of it Mace, of each an ounce, CassiaLignea, Poley Mountain, white Pepper, Scordium, the seeds of Carrots of Crete,Carpobalsamum or Cubebs, Troch, Cypheos, Bdelium, of each seven drams, CelticSpikenard, Gum Arabic, Macedonian Parsley seeds, Opium, Cardamoms the less,Fennel seed, Gentian, red Rose leaves, Dittany of Crete, of each five drams, Annisseeds, Asarabacca, Orris Acorus, the greater Valerian, Sagapen, of each three drams,Meum Acacia, the bellies of Scinks, the tops of St. John's Wort, of each two dramsand an half, Malaga Wine, so much as is sufficient to dissolve the juices and gums,clarified Honey the treble weight of all, the wine excepted, make them into anelectuary according to art.Culpeper : It is good against poison and such as have done themselves wrong bytaking filthy medicines, it provokes sweat, it helps continual waterings of thestomach, ulcers in the body, consumptions, weakness of the limbs, rids the body ofcold humours, and diseases coming of cold, it remedies cold infirmities of the brain,and stopping of the passage of the senses, (viz. hearing, seeing, smelling, &c.) bycold, it expels wind, helps the cholic, provokes appetite to one's victuals, it helpsulcers in the bladder, if Galen say true, as also difficulty of urine, it casts out the deadchild, and helps such women as cannot conceive by reason of cold, it is an admirableremedy for melancholy, and all diseases of the body coming through cold, it wouldfill a whole sheet of paper to reckon them all up particularly. You may take a scrupleor half a dram in the morning, and follow your business, two drams will make yousweat, yea one dram if your body be weak, for then two drams may be dangerousbecause of its heat.Phylonium PersicumCollege : Take of white Pepper, the seeds of white Henbane, of each two drams,Opium, Earth of Lemnos, of each ten drams, Lap, Hematitus, Saffron, of each fivedrams, Castorium, Indian Spikenard, Euphorbium prepared, Pellitory of Spain, Pearls,Amber, Zedoary, Elecampane, Troch, Ramach, of each a dram, Camphire a scruple,with their treble weight in Honey of Roses, make it into an electuary according to art.Culpeper : It stops blood flowing from any part of the body, the immoderateflowing of the menses, the hemorrhoids in men, spitting of blood, bloody fluxes, andis profitable for such women as are subject to miscarry. See the next receipt.Phylonium RomanumCollege : Take of white Pepper, white Henbane seeds, of each five drams, Opiumtwo drams and an half, Cassia Lignea a dram and an half, the seeds of Smallage adram, Parsley of Macedonia, Fennel, Carrots of Crete, of each two scruples and fivegrains, Saffron a scruple and an half, Indian Spikenard, Pellitory of Spain, Zedoaryfifteen grains, Cinnamon a dram and an half, Euphorbium prepared, MyrtleCastorium, of each a dram with their treble weight in clarified Honey, make it into anelectuary.Electuarium de OvoOr electuary of EggsCollege : Take a Hen's Egg new laid, and the white being taken out by a small hole,fill up the void place with Saffron, leaving the yolk in, then the hole being stopped,roast it in ashes till the shell begin to look black, take diligent heed the Saffron burnnot, for then is the whole medicine spoiled, then the matter being taken out dry, if sothat it may be beaten into powder and add to it as much powder of white Mustard seedas it weighs. Then take the roots of white Dittany and Tormentil, of each two drams,

Myrrh, Hart's-horn, Petasitis roots, of each one dram, the roots of Angelica andBurnet, Juniper Berries, Zedoary, Camphire of each half an ounce, mix them alltogether in a mortar, then add Venice Treacle the weight of them all, stir them aboutwith a pestle three hours together, putting in so much Syrup of Lemons, as is enoughto make it into an electuary according to art.Culpeper : A dram of it given at a time, is as great a help in a pestilential fever as aman shall usually read of in a Galenist. It provokes sweat, and then you shall betaught how to use yourself. If years do not permit, give not so much.Theriaca AndromachiOr Venice TreacleCollege : Take of Troches of Squils forty-eight drams, Troches of Vipers, longPepper, Opium of Thebes, Magma, Hedycroi dried, of each twenty-four drams, redRoses exungulated, Orris, Illirick, juice of Liquorice, the seeds of sweet Navew,Scordium, Opobalsamum, Cinnamon, Agerick, of each twelve drams, Myrrh, Costus,or Zedoary, Saffron, Cassia Lignea, Indian Spikenard, Schenanth, Pepper white andblack, Olibanum, Dittany of Crete, Rhapontic, Stœchas, Horehound, MacedonianParsley seed, Calaminth, Cypress, Turpentine, the roots of Cinquefoyl and Ginger, ofeach six drams, Poley Mountain, Chamepitis, Celtic Spikenard, Amomus, StyraxCalamitis, the roots of Meum, the tops of Germander, the roots of Rhapontic Earth ofLemnos, Indian Leaf, Chalcitis burnt, or instead thereof Roman Vitriol burnt, Gentianroots, Gum Arabic, the juice of Hypositis, Carpobalsamum or Nutmegs, or Cubebs,the seeds of Annis, Cardamoms, Fennel, Hartwort, Acacia, or instead thereof the juiceof Sloes made thick, the seeds of Treacle Mustard, and Ammi, the tops of St. John'sWort, Sagapen, of each four drams, Castorium, the roots of long Birthwort, Bitumen,Judaicum, Carrot seed, Opopanax, Centaury the less, Galbanum, of each two drams,Canary Wine enough to dissolve what is to be dissolved, Honey the treble weight ofthe dry species, make them into an Electuary according to art.Culpeper : It resists poison, and the bitings of venomous beasts, inveterateheadaches, vertigo, deafness, the falling-sickness, astonishment, apoplexies, dulnessof sight, want of voice, asthmaes, old and new coughs, such as spit or vomit blood,such as can hardly spit or breathe, coldness of the stomach, wind, the cholic, and illiacpassion, the yellow jaundice, hardness of the spleen, stone in the reins and bladder,difficulty of urine, ulcers in the bladder, fevers, dropsies, leprosies, it provokes themenses, brings forth birth and after-birth, helps pains in the joints, it helps not onlythe body, but also the mind, as vain fears, melancholy, &c. and is a good remedy inpestilential fevers. You may take half a dram and go about your business, and it willdo you good if you have occasion to go in ill airs, or in pestilent times, if you shallsweat under it, as your best way is, if your body be not in health, then take one dram,or between one and two, or less than one, according as age and strength is, if youcannot take this or any other sweating medicine by itself, mix it with a little Carduusor Dragon's water, or Angelica water, which in my opinion is the best of the three.Theriacca LondinensisOr London TreacleCollege : Take of Hart's-horn two ounces, the seeds of Citrons, Sorrel, Peony,Bazil, of each one ounce, Scordium, Coralliana, of each six drams, the roots ofAngelica, Tormentil, Peony, the leaves of Dittany, Bay-berries, Juniper-berries, ofeach half an ounce, the flowers of Rosemary, Marigolds, Clove Gilliflowers, the topsof Saint John's Wort, Nutmegs, Saffron, of each three drams, the Roots of Gentian,Zedoary, Ginger, Mace, Myrrh, the leaves of Scabious, Devil's-bit, Carduus, of each

two drams, Cloves, Opium, of each a dram, Malaga Wine as much as is sufficient,with their treble weight in Honey, mix them according to art.Culpeper : The receipt is a pretty cordial, resists the pestilence, and is a goodantidote in pestilential times, it resists poison, strengthens cold stomachs, helpsdigestion, crudities of the stomach. A man may safely take two drams of it in amorning, and let him fear no harm.DiacrocumaCollege : Take of Saffron, Asarabacca roots, the seeds of Parsley, Carrots, Annis,Smallage, of each half an ounce, Rhubarb, the roots of Meum, Indian Spikenard, ofeach six drams, Cassia Lignea, Costus, Myrrh, Schenanth, Cubebs, Madder roots, thejuices of Maudlin, and Wormwood made thick, Opobalsamum, or oil of Nutmegs, ofeach two drams, Cinnamon, Calamus Aromaticus, of each a dram and an half,Scordium, Cetrach, juice of Liquorice, of each two drams and an half, Tragacanth adram, with eight times their weight in white sugar, dissolved in Endive water, andclarified, make it into an electuary, according to art.Culpeper : It is exceeding good against cold diseases of the stomach, liver, orspleen, corruption of humours and putrefaction of meat in the stomach, ill favouredcolour of the body, dropsies, cold faults in the reins and bladder, provokes urine. Takea dram in the morning.PURGING ELECTUARIESBenedicta LaxativaCollege : Take of choice Turbith ten drams, Diacridium, bark of Spurge Rootsprepared, Hermodactils, Red Roses, of each five drams, Cloves, Spikenard, Ginger,Saffron, long Pepper, Amomus, or for want of it Calamus Aromaticus, Cardamomsthe less, the seeds of Smallage, Parsley, Fennel, Asparagus, Bruscus, Saxifrage,Gromwell, Caraway, sal. gem. Galanga, Mace, of each a dram, with their trebleweight of clarified Honey: make them into an electuary according to art. Also youmay keep the species itself in your shops.Culpeper : It purges flegm, chiefly from the joints, also it purges the reins andbladder.CaryocostinumCollege : Take of Cloves, Costus, or Zedoary, Ginger, Cummin, of each two drams,Hermodactils, Diacridium, of each half an ounce: with their double weight of Honeyclarified in white wine, make them into an electuary according to art.Culpeper : Authors say it purges hot rheums, and takes away inflammations inwounds. I assure you the electuary works violently, and may safely be given inclysters, and so you may give two or three drams at a time, if the patient be strong.For taken otherwise it would kill a horse cum privilegio.Cassia Extracta pro ClysteribusOr Cassia extracted for ClystersCollege : Take of the leaves of Violets, Mallows, Beets, Mercury, Pellitory of theWall, Violet flowers, of each a handful, boil them in a sufficient quantity of water, thebenefit of which let the Cassia be extracted, and the canes washed; then take of thisCassia so drawn, and boil it to its consistence, a pound, Sugar a pound and a half, boilthem to the form of an electuary according to art.Culpeper : You may take it in white Wine; it is good for gentle bodies, for if yourbody be hard to work upon, perhaps it will not work at all; it purges the reins

gallantly, and cools them, thereby preventing the stone, and other diseases caused bytheir heat.Electuarium Amarum Magistrale majusOr the greater bitter ElectuaryCollege : Take of Agarick, Turbith, Species Hiera Simplex, Rhubarb, of each onedram, choice Aloes unwashed two drams, Ginger, Crystal of Tartar, of each twoscruples, Orris, Florentine, sweet Fennel seeds, of each a scruple, Syrup of Rosessolutive as much as is sufficient to make it into an electuary according to art.Electuarium Amarum minusOr the lesser bitter ElectuaryCollege : Take of Epithimum half an ounce, the roots of Angelica three drams, ofGentian, Zedoary, Acorus, of each two drams, Cinnamon one dram and an half,Cloves, Mace, Nutmegs, Saffron, of each one dram, Aloes six ounces, with Syrup ofFumitory, Scabious and Sugar so much as is sufficient to make it into a soft electuary.Culpeper : Both these purge choler, the former flegm, and this melancholy, theformer works strongest, and this strengthens most, and is good for such whose brainsare annoyed. You may take half an ounce of the former, if your body be any thingstrong, in white Wine, if very strong an ounce, a reasonable body may take an ounceof the latter, the weak less. I would not have the unskilful too busy about purgeswithout advice of a physician.Diacassia with MannaCollege : Take of Damask Prunes two ounces, Violet flowers a handful and an half,Spring Water a pound and an half, boil it according to art till half be consumed, strainit, and dissolve in the decoction six ounces of Cassia newly drawn, sugar of Violets,Syrup of Violets, of each four ounces, Pulp of Tamarinds an ounce, Sugar Candy anounce and an half, Manna two ounces, mix them, and make them into an electuaryaccording to art.Culpeper : It is a fine cool purge for such as are bound in the body, for it worksgently, and without trouble, it purges choler, and may safely be given in feverscoming of choler: but in such cases, if the body be much bound, the best way is firstto administer a clyster, and then the next morning an ounce of this will cool the body,and keep it in due temper.وSen Cassia extracta sine soliisOr Cassia extracted without the leaves of SenaCollege : Take twelve Prunes, Violet flowers a handful, French Barley, the seed ofAnnis, and bastard Saffron, Polypodium of the Oak, of each five drams, Maiden-hair,Thyme, Epithimum, of each half a handful, Raisins of the Sun stoned half an ounce,sweet Fennel seeds two drams, the seeds of Purslain, and Mallows, of each threedrams, Liquorice half an ounce, boil them in a sufficient quantity of water, strain themand dissolve in the decoction, pulp of Cassia two pounds, of Tamarinds an ounce,Cinnamon three drams, Sugar a pound, boil it into the form of an electuary.وSen Cassia extracta cum soliisOr Cassia extracted with the leaves of SenaCollege : Take of the former receipt two pounds, Sena in powder two ounces, mixthem according to art.Culpeper : This is also a fine cool gentle purge, cleansing the bowels of choler andmelancholy without any griping, very fit for feverish bodies, and yet the former isgentler than this. They both cleanse and cool the reins; a reasonable body may take anounce and an half of the former, and an ounce of the latter in white Wine, if they keep

the house, or their bodies be oppressed with melancholy, let them take half thequantity in four ounces of decoction of Epithimum.DiacarthamumCollege : Take of Diatragacanthum frigidum, half an ounce, pulp of preservedQuinces an ounce, the inside of the seeds of Bastard Saffron half an ounce, Gingertwo drams, Diacrydium beaten by itself three drams, Turbith, six drams, Manna twoounces, Honey of Roses solutive, Sugar Candy, of each an ounce, Hermodactils halfan ounce, Sugar ten ounces and an half, make of them a liquid electuary according toart.DiaphœniconCollege : Take of the pulp of Dates boiled in Hydromel, Penids, of each half apound, sweet Almonds blanched, three ounces and an half, to all of them beingbruised and mixed, add clarified Honey two pounds, boil them a little, and then strewin Ginger, long Pepper, Mace, Cinnamon, Rue leaves, the seeds of Fennel andCarrots, of each two drams, Turbith four ounces, Diacridium an ounce and an half,make of them an electuary according to art.Culpeper : I cannot believe this is so profitable in fevers taken downwards asauthors say, for it is a very violent purge.Diaprunum LenitiveCollege : Take one hundred Damask Prunes, boil them in water till they be soft,then pulp them, and in the liquor they were boiled in, boil gently one of Violetflowers, strain it, and with two pounds of sugar boil it to a Syrup, then add half apound of the aforesaid pulp, the pulp of Cassia, and Tamarinds, of each one ounce,then mix with it these powders following: Sanders white and red, Spodium, Rhubarb,of each three drams, red Roses, Violets, the seeds of Purslain, Succory, Barberries,Gum Tragacanth, Liquorice, Cinnamon, of each two drams, the four greater coldseeds, of each one dram, make it into an electuary according to art.Culpeper : It may safely, and is with good success, given in acute, burning, and allother fevers, for it cools much, and loosens the body gently: it is good in agues, hecticfevers, and Mirasmos. You may take an ounce of it at a time, at night when you go tobed, three hours after a light supper, neither need you keep your chamber next day,unless the weather be very cold, or your body very tender.Diaprunum solutiveCollege : Take of Diaprunum Lenitive whilst it is warm, four pounds, Scammonyprepared two ounce and five drams, mix them into an electuary according to art.Seeing the dose of Scammony is increased according to the author in this medicine,you may use a less weight of Scammony if you please.CatholiconCollege : Take of the pulp of Cassia and Tamarinds, the leaves of Sena, of each twoounces, Polypodium, Violets, Rhubarb, of each one ounce, Annis seeds, Penids, SugarCandy, Liquorice, the seeds of Gourds, Citruls, Cucumbers, Melons, of each twodrams, the things to be bruised being bruised, take of fresh Polypodium three ounces,sweet Fennel seeds six drams, boil them in four pounds of water till the third part beconsumed, strain it, and with two pounds of sugar, boil the decoction to the thicknessof a Syrup; then with the pulps and powder make it into an electuary according to art.Culpeper : It is a fine cooling purge for any part of the body, and very gentle, itmay be given (an ounce, or half an ounce at a time, according to the strength of thepatient) in acute, or peracute diseases, for it gently loosens the belly, and addsstrength, it helps infirmities of the liver and spleen, gouts of all sorts, quotidian,tertian, and quartan agues, as also head-aches. It is usually given in clysters. If you

like to take it inwardly, you may take an ounce at night going to bed; in the morningdrink a draught of hot posset drink and go about your business.Electuarium de Citro SolutivumOr Electuary of Citrons, solutiveCollege : Take of Citron pills preserved, conserves of the flowers of Violets andBugloss, Diatragacanthum frigidum, Diacrydium, of each half an ounce, Turbith fivedrams, Ginger half a dram, Sena six drams, sweet Fennel seeds one dram, white sugardissolved in Rose-water, and boiled according to art, ten ounces, make a solidelectuary according to art.Culpeper : Here are some things very cordial, others purge violently, both puttogether, make a composition no way pleasing to me; therefore I account it a prettyreceipt, good for nothing.Electuarium ElescophCollege : Take of Diacrydium, Turbith, of each six drams, Cloves, Cinnamon,Ginger, Myrobalans, Emblicks, Nutmegs, Polypodium, of each two drams and anhalf, Sugar six ounces, clarified Honey ten ounces, make it into an electuaryaccording to art.Culpeper : It purges choler and flegm, and wind from all parts of the body, helpspains of the joints and sides, the cholic, it cleanses the reins and bladder, yet I adviseyou not to take too much of it at a time, for it works pretty violently, let half an ouncebe the most, for such whose bodies are strong, always remembering that you hadbetter ten times take too little, than once too much; you may take it in white wine, andkeep yourself warm. If you would have my opinion of it, I do not like it.Confectio HamechCollege : Take of the bark of Citron, Myrobalans two ounces, Myrobalans, Chebsand blacks, Violets, Colocynthis, Polypodium of the Oak, of each one ounce and anhalf, Wormwood, Thyme, of each half an ounce, the seeds of Annis, and Fennel, theflowers of red Roses of each three drams, let all of them being bruised, be infused oneday in six pounds of Whey, then boiled till half be consumed, rubbed with your handsand pressed out: to the decoction add juice of Fumitory, pulp of Prunes, and Raisinsof the Sun, of each half a pound, white Sugar, clarified Honey, of each one pound,boil it to the thickness of Honey, strewing in towards the end. Agarick trochiscated,Sena of each two ounces, Rhubarb one ounce and an half, Epithimum one ounce,Diacrydium six drams, Cinnamon half an ounce, Ginger two drams, the seeds ofFumitory and Annis, Spikenard, of each one dram, make it into an electuary accordingto art.Culpeper : The receipt is chiefly appropriated as a purge for melancholy and saltflegm, and diseases thence arising, as scabs, itch, leprosies, cancers, infirmities of theskin, it purges adust humours, and is good against madness, melancholy,forgetfulness, vertigo. It purges very violently, and is not safe given alone. I wouldadvise the unskilful not to meddle with it inwardly. You may give half an ounce of itin clysters, in melancholy diseases, which commonly have astringency a constantcompanion with them.Electuarium LenitivumOr Lenitive ElectuaryCollege : Take of Raisins of the Sun stoned, Polypodium of the Oak, Sena, of eachtwo ounces, Mercury one handful and an half, Jujubes, Sebestens, of each twenty,Maidenhair, Violets, French Barley, of each one handful, Damask Prunes stoned,Tamarinds of each six drams, Liquorice half an ounce, boil them in ten pounds ofwater till two parts of the three be consumed; strain it, and dissolve in the decoction,

pulp of Cassia, Tamarinds, and fresh Prunes, Sugar of Violets, of each six ounces,Sugar two pounds, at last add powder of Sena leaves, one ounce and an half, Annisseeds in powder, two drams to each pound of electuary, and so bring it into the formof an electuary according to art.Culpeper : It gently opens and molifies the bowels, brings forth choler, flegm, andmelancholy, and that without trouble, it is cooling, and therefore is profitable inpleurisies, and for wounded people. A man of reasonable strength may take an ounceof it going to bed, which will work next morning.Electuarium PassulatumCollege : Take of fresh Polypodium roots three ounces, fresh Marsh-mallow roots,Sena, of each two ounces, Annis seeds two drams, steep them in a glazed vessel, in asufficient quantity of spring water, boil them according to art; strain it and with pulpof Raisins of the Sun half a pound, white Sugar, Manna, of each four ounces, boil it tothe thickness of a Cydoniate, and renew it four times a year.Culpeper : It gently purges both choler and melancholy, cleanses the reins andbladder, and therefore is good for the stone and gravel in the kidneys.Electuarium e succo RosarumOr Electuary of the Juice of RosesCollege : Take of Sugar, the juice of red Roses clarified, of each a pound and fourounces, the three sorts of Sanders of each six drams, Spodium three drams,Diacydonium twelve drams, Camphire a scruple, let the juice be boiled with the sugarto its just thickness, then add the rest in powder, and so make it into an electuaryaccording to art.Culpeper : It purges choler, and is good in tertian agues, and diseases of the joints,it purges violently, therefore let it be warily given.Hiera Picra simpleCollege : Take of Cinnamon, Xylobalsamum, or wood of Aloes, the roots ofAsarabacca, Spikenard, Mastich, Saffron, of each six drams, Aloes not washed twelveounces and an half, clarified Honey four pounds and three ounces, mix them into anelectuary according to art. Also you may keep the species by itself in your shops.Culpeper : It is an excellent remedy for vicious juices which lie furring the tunicleof the stomach, and such idle fancies and symptoms which the brain suffers thereby,whereby some think they see, others that they hear strange things, especially whenthey are in bed, and between sleeping and waking; besides this, it very gently purgesthe belly, and helps such women as are not sufficiently purged after their travail.Hiera with AgarickCollege : Take of species Hiera, simple without Aloes, Agarick trochiscated, ofeach half an ounce, Aloes not washed one ounce, clarified Honey six ounces, mix it,and make it into an electuary according to art.Culpeper : Look but to the virtues of Agarick and add them to the virtues of theformer receipt, so is the business done without any further trouble.Hiera LogadiiCollege : Take of Coloquintida, Polypodium, of each two drams, Euphorbium,Poley mountain, the seeds of Spurge, of each one dram and an half, and six grains,Wormwood, Myrrh, of each one dram and twelve grains, Centaury the less, Agarick,Gum Ammoniacum, Indian leaf or Mace, Spikenard, Squills prepared, Diacrydium ofeach one dram, Aloes, Thyme Hermander, Cassia Lignea, Bdellum, Horehound, ofeach one scruple and fourteen grains, Cinnamon, Oppopanax, Castorium, longBirthwort, the three sorts of Pepper, Sagapen, Saffron, Parsley of each two drams,Hellebore black and white, of each six grains, clarified Honey a pound and a half, mix

them, and make of them an electuary according to art. Let the species be kept dry inyour shops.Culpeper : It takes away by the roots daily evils coming of melancholy, fallingsickness,vertigo, convulsions, megrim, leprosies, and many other infirmities; for mypart I should be loth to take it inwardly unless upon desperate occasions, or inclysters. It may well take away diseases by the roots, if it takes away life and all.Hiera DiacolocynthidosCollege : Take of Colocynthis, Agarick, Germander, white Horehound, Stœchas, ofeach ten drams, Opopanax, Sagapen, Parsley seeds, round Birthwort roots, whitePepper of each five drams, Spikenard, Cinnamon, Myrrh, Indian leaf or Mace,Saffron, of each four drams, bruise the Gums in a mortar, sift the rest, and with threepounds of clarified honey, three ounces, and five drams, make it into an electuaryaccording to art.Culpeper : It helps the falling-sickness, madness, and the pain in the head calledKephalalgia, pains in the breast and stomach whether they come by sickness orbruises, pains in the loins or back-bone, hardness of womens breasts, putrefaction ofmeat in the stomach, and sour belchings. It is but used seldom and therefore hard to begotten.Triphera the greaterCollege : Take of Myrobalans, Chebs, Bellericks, Inds and Emblicks, Nutmegs, ofeach five drams, Water-cress seeds, Asarabacca roots, Persian Origanum, or elseDittany of Crete, black Pepper, Olibanum, Ammi, Ginger, Tamarisk, Indian Nard,Squinanth, Cypress roots of each half an ounce, filings of steel prepared with Vinegartwenty drams, let the Myrobalans be roasted with fresh butter, let the rest, beingpowdered, be sprinkled with oil of sweet Almonds, then add Musk one dram, andwith their treble weight in Honey, make it into an electuary according to art.Culpeper : It helps the immoderate flowing of the menses in women, and thehوmorrhoids in men, it helps weakness of the stomach, and restores colour lost, itfrees the body from crude humours, and strengthens the bladder, helps melancholy,and rectifies the distempers of the spleen. You may take a dram in the morning, ortwo if your body be any thing strong.Triphera solutiveCollege : Take of Diacrydium, ten drams, Turbith, an ounce and an half,Cardamoms the less, Cloves, Cinnamon, Honey, of each three drams, yellow Sanders,Liquorice, sweet Fennel seeds, of each half an ounce, Acorns, Schœnanth, of each adram, red Roses, Citron pills preserved, of each three drams, Violets two drams,Penids four ounces, white Sugar half a pound, Honey clarified in juice of Apples onepound, make an electuary according to art.Culpeper : The Diacrydium and Turbith, are a couple of untoward purges, the restare all cordials.Athanasia Mithridatis. GalenCollege : Take of Cinnamon, Cassia, Schœnanth, of each an ounce and an half,Saffron, Myrrh, of each one ounce, Costus, Spignel, (Meum,) Acorus, (Water-flagperhaps they mean. See the root in the Catalogue of Simples,) Agarick, Scordium,Carrots, Parsley, of each half an ounce, white Pepper eleven grains, Honey so much asis sufficient to make it into an electuary according to art.Culpeper : It prevails against poison, and the bitings of venomous beasts, and helpssuch whose meat putrifies in their stomach, stays vomiting of blood, helps old coughs,and cold diseases in the liver, spleen, bladder, and matrix. The dose is half a dram.Electuarium scoriaferri. Rhasis

College : Take of the flakes of Iron infused in Vinegar seven days and dried, threedrams, Indian Spikenard, Schœnanth, Cypress, Ginger, Pepper, Bishop's weed,Frankincense, of each half an ounce, Myrobalans, Indian Bellericks, and Emblicks,Honey boiled with the decoction of Emblicks, sixteen ounces, mix them together, andmake of them an electuary.Culpeper : The medicine heats the spleen gently, purges melancholy, eases pains inthe stomach and spleen, and strengthens digestion. People that are strong may takehalf an ounce in the morning fasting, and weak people three drams. It is a goodremedy for pains and hardness of the spleen.Confectio Humain. MesuaCollege : Take of Eyebright two ounces, Fennel seeds five drams, Cloves,Cinnamon, Cubebs, long Pepper, Mace, of each one dram, beat them all into powder,and with clarified Honey one pound, in which boil juice of Fennel one ounce, juice ofCelandine and Rue, of each half an ounce, and with the powders make it up into anelectuary.Culpeper : It is chiefly appropriated to the brain and heart, quickens the senses,especially the sight, and resists the pestilence. You may take half a dram if your bodybe hot, a dram if cold, in the morning fasting.Diaireos Solomonis. Nich.College : Take of Orris roots one ounce, Pennyroyal, Hyssop, Liquorice, of eachsix drams, Tragacanth, white Starch, bitter Almonds, Pine-nuts, Cinnamon, Ginger,Pepper, of each three drams, fat Figs, the pulp of Raisins of the Sun, and Dates, ofeach three drams and an half, Styrax, Calamitis two drams and an half, Sugardissolved in Hyssop water, and clarified Honey, of each twice the weight of all therest, make them into an electuary according to art.Culpeper : The electuary is chiefly appropriated to the lungs, and helps coldinfirmities of them, as asthmaes, coughs, difficulty of breathing, &c. You may take itwith a Liquorice stick, or on the point of a knife, a little of it at a time, and often.Diasaiyrion. Nich.College : Take of the roots of Satyrion fresh and sound, garden Parsnips, Eringo,Pine-nuts, Indian Nuts, or, if Indian Nuts be wanting, take the double quantity ofPine-nuts, Fistic-nuts, of each one ounce and an half, Cloves, Ginger, the seeds ofAnnis, Rocket, Ash Keys, of each five drams, Cinnamon, the tails and loins ofScincus, the seeds of Bulbus Nettles, of each two drams and an half, Musk sevengrains, of the best sugar dissolved in Malaga Wine, three pounds, make it into anelectuary according to art. Culpeper : It helps weakness of the reins and bladder,and such as make water with difficulty, it provokes lust exceedingly, and speedilyhelps such as are impotent in the acts of Venus. You may take two drams or more at atime.Matthiolus's great antidote against Poison and PestilenceCollege : Take of Rhubarb, Rhapontic, Valerian roots, the roots of Acorus, orCalamus Aromaticus, Cypress, Cinquefoyl, Tormentil, round Birthwort, male Peony,Elecampane, Costus, Illirick, Orris, white Chamelion, or Avens, of each three drams,the Roots of Galanga, Masterwort, white Dictamni, Angelica, Yarrow, Fillipendula orDropwort, Zedoary, Ginger, of each two drams, Rosemary, Gentian, Devil's-bit, ofeach two drams and an half, the seeds of Citrons, and Agnus Castus, the berries ofKermes, the seeds of Ash-tree, Sorrel, wild Parsnips, Navew, Nigella, Peony the male,Bazil, Hedge Mustard, (Irio) Treacle Mustard, Fennel, Bishop's-weed, of each twodrams, the berries of Bay, Juniper, and Ivy, Sarsaparilla, (or for want of it the doubleweight of Cubebs,) Cubebs, of each one dram and an half, the leaves of Scordium,

Germander, Chamepitys, Centaury the less, Stœchas, Celtic Spikenard, Calaminth,Rue, Mints, Betony, Vervain, Scabious, Carduus Benedictus, Bawm, of each onedram and an half, Dittany of Crete three drams, Marjoram, St. John's Wort,Schœnanth, Horehound, Goats Rue, Savin, Burnet, of each two drams, Figs, Walnuts,Fistic-nuts, of each three ounces, Emblicks, Myrobalans half an ounce, the flowers ofViolets, Borrage, Bugloss, Roses, Lavender, Sage, Rosemary, of each four scruples,Saffron three drams, Cassia Lignea, ten drams, Cloves, Nutmegs, Mace, of each twodrams and an half, black Pepper, long Pepper, all the three sorts of Sanders, wood ofAloes, of each one dram and an half, Hart's-horn half an ounce, Unicorn's-horn, or inits stead, Bezoar stone, one dram, bone in a Stag's heart, Ivory, Stag's pizzle,Castoreum, of each four scruples, Earth of Lemnos three drams, Opium one dram andan half, Orient Pearls, Emeralds, Jacinth, red Coral, of each one dram and an half,Camphire two drams, Gum Arabic, Mastich, Frankincense, Styrax, Turpentine,Sagapenum, Opopanax, Laserpitium, or Myrrh, of each two drams and an half, Musk,‏,وtemperat Ambergris, of each one dram, oil of Vitriol half an ounce, species cordialesDiamargariton, Diamoscu, Diambra, Electuarij de Gemmis, Troches of Camphire, ofSquills, of each two drams and an half, Troches of Vipers two ounces, the juice ofSorrel, Sow Thistles, Scordium, Vipers Bugloss, Borrage, Bawm, of each half apound, Hypocistis two drams, of the best Treacle and Mithridate, of each six ounces,old Wine three pounds, of the best Sugar, or choice Honey eight pounds six ounces.These being all chosen and prepared with diligence and art, let them be made into anelectuary just as Treacle or Mithridate is.Culpeper : The title shews you the scope of the author in compiling it. I believe it isexcellent for those uses. The dose of this is from a scruple to four scruples, or a dramand an half. It provokes sweating abundantly, and in this or any other sweatingmedicine, order your body thus: Take it in bed, and cover yourself warm, in yoursweating, drink posset-drink as hot as you can, if it be for a fever, boil Sorrel and redSage in posset-drink, sweat an hour or two if your strength will bear it, then thechamber being kept very warm, shift yourself all but your head, about which (yourcap which you sweat in being kept on) wrap a hot napkin, which will be a means torepel the vapours back. This I hold the best method for sweating in fevers andpestilences, in which this electuary is very good. I am very loth to leave out thismedicine, which if it were stretched out, and cut in thongs, would reach round theworld.Requies. NicholausCollege : Take of red Rose leaves, the whites being cut off, blue Violets, of eachthree drams, Opium of Thebes, dissolved in Wine, the seeds of white Henbane,Poppies white and black, the roots of Mandrakes, the seeds of Endive, Purslain,garden Lettuce, Psyllium, Spodium, Gum Tragacanth, of each two scruples and fivegrains, Nutmegs, Cinnamon, Ginger, of each a dram and an half, Sanders, yellow,white, and red, of each a dram and an half, Sugar three times their weight, dissolvedin Rose-water: mix them together, and make of them an electuary according to art.Culpeper : I like not the receipt taken inwardly.Electuarium وRegin ColoniensCollege : Take of the seeds of Saxifrage and Gromwell, juice of Liquorice, of eachhalf an ounce, the seeds of Caraway, Annis, Smallage, Fennel, Parsley of Macedonia,Broom, Carrots, Bruscus, Asparagus, Lovage, Cummin, Juniper, Rue, Siler Mountain,the seeds of Acorus, Pennyroyal, Cinquefoyl, Bayberries, of each two drams, IndianSpikenard, Schœnanth, Amber, Valerian, Hog's Fennel, Lapis Lincis, of each a dramand an half, Galanga, Ginger, Turbith, of each two drams, Sena an ounce, Goat's

lood prepared half an ounce, mix them together: first beat them into powder, thenmake them into an electuary according to art, with three times their weight in Sugardissolved in white Wine.Culpeper : It is an excellent remedy for the stone and wind cholic, a dram of ittaken every morning. I assure such as are troubled with such diseases, I commend it tothem as a jewel.PILLSCulpeper : Pills in Greek are called, Katopotia, in Latin, ‏:وPilul which signifieslittle balls, because they are made up in such a form, that they may be the betterswallowed down, by reason of the offensiveness of their taste.وPilul de AgaricoOr Pills of AgarickCollege : Take of Agarick three drams, our own blue Orris roots, Mastich,Horehound, of each one dram, Turbith five drams, Species Hiera Picra half an ounce,Colocynthis, Sarcocol, of each two drams, Myrrh one dram, Sapa as much as issufficient to make it into a mass according to art.Culpeper : It was invented to cleanse the breast and lungs of flegm, it works prettystrongly. Half a dram at a time (keeping yourself warm,) cannot well do you harm,unless your body be very weak.وAggregativ وPilulCollege : Take of Citron, Myrobalans, Rhubarb, of each half an ounce, juice ofAgrimony and Wormwood made thick, of each two drams, Diagridium five drams,Agarick, Colocynthis, Polypodium of each two drams, Turbith, Aloes, of each sixdrams, Mastich, red Roses, Sal. Gem. Epithymum, Annis, Ginger, of each a dram,with Syrup of Damask Roses, make it into a mass according to art.Culpeper : It purges the head of choler, flegm and melancholy, and that stoutly: itis good against quotidian agues, and faults in the stomach and liver, yet because it iswell corrected if you take but half a dram at a time, and keep yourself warm, Isuppose you may take it without danger.وphanginوAl وPilulCollege : Take of Cinnamon, Cloves, Cardamoms the less, Nutmegs, Mace,Calamus Aromaticus, Carpobalsamum, or Juniper berries, Squinanth, Wood of Aloes,yellow Sanders, red Roses dried, Wormwood, of each half an ounce, let the tincturebe taken out of these, being grossly bruised in spirit of Wine, the vessel being closestopped; in three pounds of this tincture, being strained, dissolve Aloes one pound,which being dissolved, add Mastich, Myrrh, of each half an ounce, Saffron twodrams, Balsam of Peru one dram, the superfluous liquor being consumed, either overhot ashes, or a bath, bring it into a mass of pills.Culpeper : It cleanses both stomach and brain of gross and putrified humours, andsets the senses free when they are thereby troubled, it cleanses the brain offended byill humours, wind, &c. helps vertigo and head-aches, and strengthens the brainexceedingly, helps concoction, and strengthens the stomach, one dram taken at nightgoing to bed, will work gently next day: if the party be weak, you may give less, ifstrong more. If you take but half a dram, you may go abroad the next day: but if youtake a dram, you may keep the house; there can be no harm in that.وPilul de Aloe LotaOr Pills of washed Aloes

College : Take of Aloes washed with juice of red Roses, one ounce, Agarick threedrams, Mastich two drams, Diamoscu Dulce half a dram, Syrup of Damask-roses, somuch as is sufficient to make it into a mass according to art.Culpeper : It purges both brain, stomach, bowels, and eyes of putrified humours,and also strengthens them. Use these as the succeeding.Aloe RosataCollege : Take of Aloes in powder four ounces, juice of Damask Roses clarifiedone pound, mix them and digest them in the sun, or in a bath, till the superfluousliquor be drawn off, digest it, and evaporate it four times over, and keep the mass.Culpeper : It is a gallant gentle purger of choler, frees the stomach fromsuperfluous humours, opens stoppings, and other infirmities of the body proceedingfrom choler and flegm, as yellow jaundice, &c. and strengthens the body exceedingly.Take a scruple, or half a dram at night going to bed, you may walk abroad, for it willhardly work till next day in the afternoon.وAure وPilulCollege : Take of Aloes, Diacrydium, of each five drams, red Roses, Smallageseeds, of each two drams and an half, the seeds of Annis and Fennel, of each onedram and an half, Mastich, Saffron, Troch, Alhandal, of each one dram, with asufficient quantity of Honey Roses, make it into a mass according to art.Culpeper : They are held to purge the head, to quicken the senses, especially thesight, and to expel wind from the bowels, but works something harshly. Half a dramis the utmost does, keep the fire, take them in the morning, and sleep after them, theywill work before noon.وPilul ‏,وCochi the greaterCollege : Take of Species, Hiera Picra, ten drams, Troch, Alhandal, three dramsand an half, Diacrydium two drams and an half, Turbith, Stœchas, of each five drams,with a sufficient quantity of Syrup of Stœchas, make it into a mass, according to art.Culpeper : It is held to purge the head, but it is but a dogged purge at best, andmust be given only to strong bodies, and but half a dram at a time, and yet with greatcare.وPilul ‏,وCochi the lessCollege : Take of Aloes, Scammony, Colocynthis, of each one ounce, with equalparts of Syrup of Wormwood, and of purging thorn, make it into a mass according toart.وPilul de CynoglossoOr Pills of Hound's-tongueCollege : Take of the Roots of Hound's-tongue dried, white Henbane seed, Opiumprepared, of each half an ounce, Myrrh six drams, Olibanum five drams, Saffron,Castoreum, Styrax, Calamitis, of each one dram and an half, with Syrup of Stœchas,make it into a mass.Culpeper : It stays hot rheums that fall down upon the lungs, therefore is good inphthisics, also it mitigates pain, a scruple is enough to take at a time going to bed, andtoo much if your body be weak: have a care of opiates for fear they make you sleepyour last.وPilul ex DuobusOr Pills of two thingsCollege : Take of Colocynthis, and Scamony, of each one ounce, oil of Cloves asmuch as is sufficient to malax them well, then with a little Syrup of purging Thorn,make it into a mass.

وPilul de EupatorioOr Pills of EupatoriumCollege : Take of the juice of Maudlin, and Wormwood made thick, Citron,Myrobalans, of each three drams, Rhubarb three drams and an half, Mastich onedram, Aloes five drams, Saffron half a dram, Syrup of the juice of Endive, as much asis sufficient to make it into a mass.Culpeper : It is a gallant gentle purge, and strengthening, fitted for such bodies asare much weakened by disease or choler. The author appropriates it to such as havetertian agues, the yellow jaundice, obstructions or stoppings of the liver; half a dramtaken at night going to bed, will work with an ordinary body, the next day by noon.وtidوF وPilulOr Stinking PillsCollege : Take of Aloes, Colocynthis, Ammoniacum, Sagapen, Myrrh, Rue-seeds,Epithymum, of each five drams, Scamony three drams, the roots of Turbith half anounce, the roots of Spurge the less prepared, Hermodactils of each two drams, Gingerone dram and an half, Spikenard, Cinnamon, Saffron, Castoreum, of each one dram,Euphorbium prepared two scruples, dissolve the Gums in juice of Leeks, and withSyrup made with the juice of Leeks and Sugar, make it into a mass.Culpeper : They purge gross and raw flegm, and diseases thereof arising; gouts ofall sorts, pains in the back-bone, and other joints: it is good against leprosies, andother such like infirmities of the skin. I fancy not the receipt much.وPilul de HermodactilisOr Pills of HermodactilsCollege : Take of Sagapen six drams, Opopanax three drams, melt them in warmjuice of Coleworts, so much as is sufficient, then strain it through a convenient rag,afterwards boil it to a mean thickness, then take of Hermodactils, Aloes, Citron,Myrobalans, Turbith, Coloquintida, soft Bdellium, of each six drams, Euphorbiumprepared, the seeds of Rue and Smallage, Castoreum, Sarcocol of each three drams,Saffron one dram and an half, with the Syrup of the juice of Coleworts made withhoney, make it into a mass according to art.Culpeper : They are good against the gout, and other cold afflictions of the joints.These are more moderate by half than وPilul ‏,وFœtid and appropriated to the samediseases.وPilul de Hiera cum AgaricoOr Pills of Hiera with AgarickCollege : Take of Species Hiera Picra, Agarick, of each half an ounce, Aloes oneounce, Honey Roses so much as is sufficient to make it into a mass according to art.وPilul ImperialesOr Imperial PillsCollege : Take of Aloes two ounces, Rhubarb one ounce and an half, Agarick,Sena, of each one ounce, Cinnamon three drams, Ginger two drams, Nutmegs,Cloves, Spikenard, Mastich, of each one dram, with Syrup of Violets, make it into amass according to art.Culpeper : It cleanses the body of mixt humours, and strengthens the stomachexceedingly, as also the bowels, liver, and natural spirits: it is good for cold natures,and cheers the spirits. The dose is a scruple or half a dram, taken at night.وPilul de Lapide LazuliOr Pills of Lapis LazuliCollege : Take of Lapis Lazuli in powder and well washed, five drams,Epithymum, Polypodium, Agarick, of each an ounce, Scamony, black Hellebore

oots, Sal. Gem. of each two drams and an half, Cloves, Annis seeds, of each half anounce, Species Hiera simple fifteen drams, with Syrup of the juice of Fumitory, makeit into a mass according to art.Culpeper : It purges melancholy very violently.وPilul MacriCollege : Take of Aloes two ounces, Mastich half an ounce, dried Marjoram twodrams, Salt of Wormwood one dram, make them all, being in powder, into a massaccording to art with juice of Coleworts and Sugar, so much as is sufficient.Culpeper : It strengthens both stomach and brain, especially the nerves andmuscles, and eases them of such humours as afflict them, and hinder the motion of thebody, they open obstructions of the liver and spleen, and takes away diseases thencecoming.وMastichin وPilulOr Mastich PillsCollege : Take of Mastich two ounces, Aloes four ounces, Agarick, Species Hierasimple, of each one ounce and an half, with Syrup of Wormwood, make it into a massaccording to art.Culpeper : They purge very gently, but strengthen much, both head, brain, eyes,belly, and reins.وMechoacan وPilulOr Pills of MechoacanCollege : Take of Mechoacan roots half an ounce, Turbith three drams, the leavesof Spurge steeped in Vinegar and dried, the seeds of Walwort, Agarick trochiscated,of each two drams, Spurge roots prepared, Mastich, of each one dram and an half,Mace, Cinnamon, Sal. Gem. of each two scruples, beat them into powder, and withwhite Wine, bring them into a mass. When it is dry, beat it into powder, and withSyrup made with the juice of Orris roots and sugar, make it the second time into amass for pills.Culpeper : They purge flegm very violently.وPilul de OpopanaceOr Pills of OpopanaxCollege : Take of Opopanax, Sagapen, Bdellium, Ammoniacum, Hermodactils,Coloquintida, of each five drams, Saffron, Castoreum, Myrrh, Ginger, white Pepper,Cassia Lignea, Citron, Myrobalans, of each one dram, Scamony two drams, Turbithhalf an ounce, Aloes an ounce and an half, the Gums being dissolved in clarified juiceof Coleworts, with Syrup of the juice of Coleworts, make them into a mass accordingto art.Culpeper : It helps tremblings, palsies, gouts of all sorts, cleanses the joints, and ishelpful for such as are troubled with cold afflictions of the nerves. It works violently.وPilul RudiiCollege : Take of Coloquintida six drams, Agarick, Scamony, the roots of blackHellebore, and Turbith, of each half an ounce, Aloes one ounce, Diarrhodon Abbatishalf an ounce, let all of them (the Diarrh. Abbatis excepted) be grossly bruised, andinfused eight days in the best spirits of Wine in a vessel close stopped, in the sun, sothat the liquor may swim at top the breadth of six fingers: afterwards infuse theDiarrhodon Abbatis in the same manner four days in Aqua ‏,وvit then having strainedand pressed them hard, mix them both together, casting the dross away, and draw offthe moisture in a glass Alembick, and let the thick matter remain in a mass.Culpeper : It cleanses both head and body of choler, flegm, and melancholy: it

must not be taken in any great quantity, half a dram is sufficient for the strongestbody.وPilul RussiCollege : Take of Aloes two ounces, Myrrh one ounce, Saffron half an ounce, withSyrup of the juice of Lemons, make it into a mass according to art.Culpeper : A scruple taken at night going to bed, is an excellent preservative inpestilential times; also they cleanse the body of such humours as are gotten bysurfeits, they strengthen the heart, and weak stomachs, and work so easily that youneed not fear following your business the next day.وPilul sine QuibusOr Pills without which--College : Take of washed Aloes fourteen drams, Scammony prepared six drams,Agarick, Rhubarb, Sena, of each half an ounce, Wormwood, red Roses exungulated,Violet flowers, Dodder, Mastich, of each one dram, salt of Wormwood, of each half adram, with Syrup of the juice of Fennel made with Honey, make it into a massaccording to art.Culpeper : It purges flegm, choler, and melancholy from the head, makes the sightand hearing good, and gives ease to a burdened brain.وStomachi وPilulOr Stomach PillsCollege : Take of Aloes six drams, Mastich, red Roses, of each two drams, withSyrup of Wormwood, make it into a mass according to art.Culpeper : They cleanse and strengthen the stomach, they cleanse but gently,strengthen much, help digestion.وPilul Stomachiœ cum Gummi Or Stomach Pills with GumsCollege : Take of Aloes an ounce, Sena five drams, Gum Amoniacum dissolved inElder-flower Vinegar half an ounce, Mastich, Myrrh, of each a dram and an half,Saffron, salt of Wormwood, of each half a dram, with Syrup of purging Thorn, makeit into a mass according to art.Culpeper : They work more strongly than the former.وPilul e StyraceOr Pills of StyraxCollege : Take of Styrax Calamitis, Olibanum, Myrrh, juice of Liquorice, Opium,of each half an ounce, with Syrup of white Poppies, make it into a mass according toart.Culpeper : They help such as are troubled with defluxion of rheum, coughs, andprovoke sleep to such as cannot sleep for coughing.وPilul de SuccinoOr Pills of AmberCollege : Take of white Amber, Mastich, of each two drams, Aloes five drams,Agaric a dram and an half, long Birthwort half a dram, with Syrup of Wormwoodmake it into a mass.Culpeper : It amends the evil state of a woman's body, strengthens conception, andtakes away what hinders it; it gently purges choler and flegm, and leaves a binding,strengthening quality behind it.وPilul ex TribusOr Pills of three thingsCollege : Take of Mastich two ounces, Aloes four ounces, Agarick, Hiera simple,of each an ounce and an half, Rhubarb two ounces, Cinnamon two drams, with Syrupof Succory, make it into a mass according to art.

Culpeper : They gently purge choler, and help diseases thence arising, as itch,scabs, wheals, &c. They strengthen the stomach and liver, and open obstructions, asalso help the yellow jaundice.وAure Turpeti وPilulCollege : Take of Turbith two ounces, Aloes an ounce and an half, CitronMyrobalans ten drams, red Roses, Mastich, of each six drams, Saffron three drams,beat them all into powder, and with Syrup of Wormwood bring them into a mass.Culpeper : They purge choler and flegm, and that with as much gentleness as canbe desired; also they strengthen the stomach and liver, and help digestion.LaudanumCollege : Take of Thebane Opium extracted in spirit of Wine, one ounce, Saffronalike extracted, a dram and an half, Castorium one dram: let them be taken in tinctureof half an ounce of species وDiambr newly made in spirit of Wine, add to themAmbergris, Musk, of each six grains, oil of Nutmegs ten drops, evaporate themoisture away in a bath, and leave the mass.Culpeper : It was invented (and a gallant invention it is) to mitigate violent pains,stop the fumes that trouble the brain in fevers, (but beware of Opiates in the beginningof fevers) to provoke sleep, take not above two grains of it at a time, going to bed; ifthat provoke not sleep, the next night you may make bold with three. Have a care howyou be too busy with such medicines, lest you make a man sleep to doom's-day.Nepenthes OpiatumCollege : Take of tincture of Opium made first with distilled Vinegar, then withspirit of Wine, Saffron extracted in spirit of Wine, of each an ounce, salt of Pearl andCoral, of each half an ounce, tincture of species وDiambr seven drams, Ambergris onedram: bring them into the form of Pills by the gentle heat of a bath.Culpeper : The operation is like the former.وPilul Assaireth. AvicennaCollege : Take of Species Hiera Picra Galeni one ounce, Mastich, Citron,Myrobalans, of each half an ounce, Aloes two ounces, the Syrup of Stœchas as muchas is sufficient, make of them a mass according to art.Culpeper : It purges choler and flegm, and strengthens the whole body exceedingly,being very precious for such whose bodies are weakened by surfeits, or ill diet, to takehalf a dram or a scruple at night going to bed.Pills of Bdellium. MesueCollege : Take of Bdellium ten drams, Myrobalans, Bellericks, Emblicks, andBlacks, of each five drams, flakes of Iron, Leek seeds, of each three drams, ChonculaVeneris burnt, Coral burnt, Amber, of each a dram and an half, Pearls half an ounce,dissolve the Bdellium in juice of Leeks and with so much Syrup of juice of Leeks asis sufficient, make it into a mass according to art.Culpeper : Both this and the former are seldom used, and therefore are hardly to behad.Pills of Rhubarb. MesueCollege : Take of choice Rhubarb three drams, Citron Myrobalans, TrochisciDiarrhodon, of each three drams and an half, juice of Liquorice, and juice ofWormwood, Mastich, of each one dram, the seeds of Smallage and Fennel, of eachhalf a dram, Species Hiera Picra simp. Galeni, ten drams, with juice of Fennel notclarified, and Honey so much as is sufficient, make it into a mass.Culpeper : It purges choler, opens obstructions of the liver, helps the yellowjaundice, and dropsies in the beginning, strengthens the stomach and lungs.وPilul Arabica. Nicholaus

College : Take of the best Aloes four ounces, Briony roots, Myrobalans, Citrons,Chebs, Indian Bellerick, and Emblick, Mastich, Diagrydium, Asarabacca, Roses, ofeach an ounce, Castorium three drams, Saffron one dram, with Syrup of Wormwood,make it into a mass according to art.Culpeper : It helps such women as are not sufficiently purged in their labour, helpsto bring away what a careless midwife hath left behind, purges the head, helpsheadache, megrim, vertigo, and purges the stomach of vicious humours.وPilul ‏.وArthritic NicholausCollege : Take of Hermodactils, Turbith, Agarick, of each half an ounce, CassiaLignea, Indian Spikenard, Cloves, Xylobalsamum, or Wood of Aloes,Carpobalsamum or Cubebs, Mace, Galanga, Ginger, Mastich, Assafœtida, the seeds ofAnnis, Fennel, Saxifrage, Sparagus, Bruscus, Roses, Gromwell, Sal. Gem. of eachtwo drams, Scammony one ounce, of the best Aloes, the weight of them all, juice ofChamepitys made thick with sugar, so much as is sufficient: or Syrup of the juice ofthe same, so much as is sufficient to make it into a mass.Culpeper : It helps the gout, and other pains in the joints, comforts and strengthensboth brain and stomach, and consumes diseases whose original comes of flegm.وPilul وCochi with HeleboreCollege : Take of the powder of the Pills before prescribed, the powder of the barkof the roots of black Hellebore, one ounce: make it into a mass with Syrup of Stœchasaccording to art.Pills of Fumitory. AvicennaCollege : Take of Myrobalans, Citrons, Chebs, and Indian Diagrydium, of each fivedrams, Aloes seven drams; let all of them being bruised, be thrice moistened withjuice of Fumitory, and thrice suffered to dry, then brought into a mass with Syrup ofFumitory.Culpeper : It purges melancholy. Be not too busy with it I beseech you.وPilul ‏.وInd Mesue out of HalyCollege : Take of Indian Myrobalans, black Hellebore, Polypodium of the Oak, ofeach five drams, Epithymum, Stœchas, of each six drams, Agarick, Lapis Lazuli oftenwashed troches Alhandal, Sal Indi, of each half an ounce, juice of Maudlin madethick, Indian Spikenard, of each two drams, Cloves one dram, Species Hiera Picrasimplex Galeni, twelve drams, with juice of Smallage make it into a mass accordingto art.Culpeper : It wonderfully prevails against afflictions coming of melancholy,cancers which are not ulcerated, leprosy, evils of the mind coming of melancholy, assadness, fear, & c. quartan agues, jaundice, pains and infirmities of the spleen.وPilul Lucis Majores. MesueCollege : Take of Roses, Violets, Wormwood, Colocynthis, Turbith, Cubebs,Calamus Aromaticus, Nutmegs, Indian Spikenard, Epithimum, Carpobalsamum, orinstead thereof, Cardamoms, Xylabalsamum, or Wood of Aloes, the seeds of Seseli orHartwort, Rue, Annis, Fennel and Smallage, Schوnanthus, Mastich, Asarabacca roots,Cloves, Cinnamon, Cassia Lignea, Saffron, Mace, of each two drams, Myrobalans,Citrons, Chebuls, Indian Bellerick, and Emblick, Rhubarb, of each half an ounce,Agarick, Sena, of each five drams, Aloes Succotrina, the weight of them all: withSyrup of the juice of Fennel make it into a mass according to art.Culpeper : It purges mixt humours from the head, and clears it of such excrementsas hinder the sight.Pills of Spurge. Fernelius

College : Take of the bark of the roots of Spurge the less, steeped twenty-fourhours in Vinegar and juice of Purslain, two drams, grains of Palma Christi torrified,by number, forty, Citron Myrobalans one dram and an half, Germander, Chamepitys,Spikenard, Cinnamon, of each two scruples, being beaten into fine powder with anounce of Gum Tragacanth dissolved in Rose Water, and Syrup of Roses so much as issufficient, let it be made into a mass.Pills of Euphorbium. MesueCollege : Take of Euphorbium, Colocynthis, Agarick, Bdellium, Sagapenum, ofeach two drams, Aloes five drams, with Syrup made of the juice of Leeks, make itinto a mass.Culpeper : The Pills are exceeding good for dropsies, pains in the loins, and goutscoming of a moist cause. Take not above half a dram at a time and keep the house.وPilul ScriboniiCollege : Take of Sagapen, and Myrrh, of each two drams, Opium, Cardamoms,Castorium, of each one dram, white Pepper half a dram, Sapa so much as is sufficientto make it into a mass according to art.Culpeper : It is appropriated to such as have phthisicks, and such as spit blood, butought to be newly made, a scruple is sufficient taken going to bed.TROCHESTrochisci de AbsinthioOr Troches of WormwoodCollege : Take of red Roses, Wormwood leaves, Annis seeds, of each two drams,juice of Maudlin made thick, the roots of Asarabacca, Rhubarb, Spikenard, Smallageseeds, bitter Almonds, Mastich, Mace, of each one dram, juice of Succory so much asis sufficient to make it into troches according to art.Culpeper : They strengthen the stomach exceedingly, open obstructions, orstoppings of the belly and bowels: strengthen digestion, open the passages of the liver,help the yellow jaundice, and consume watery superfluities of the body. They aresomewhat bitter, and seldom taken alone; if your pallate affect bitter things, you maytake a dram of them in the morning. They cleanse the body of choler, but purge not, ornot to any purpose.Agaricus TrochiscatusOr Agarick TrochiscatedCollege : Take of Agarick sifted and powdered, three ounces, steep it in a sufficientquantity of white Wine, in which two drams of ginger have been infused, and make itinto troches.Trochisci Albi. RhasisOr white TrochesCollege : Take of Ceruss washed in Rosewater ten drams, Sarcocol three drams,white Starch two drams, Gum Arabic and Tragacanth, of each one dram, Camphirehalf a dram, either with Rosewater, or women's milk, or make it into trochesaccording to art.Trochisci AlexiteriiCollege : Take of Zedoary roots, powder of Crab's Claws, of each one dram, and anhalf, the outward Citron preserved and dried, Angelica seeds, Pills, of each one dram,Bole-amoniac half a dram, with their treble weight in sugar make them into powder,

and with a sufficient quantity of Mussilage of Gum Tragacanth, made into treaclewater distilled, make it into paste, of which make troches.Culpeper : This preserves the body from ill airs, and epidemical diseases, as thepestilence, small pox, & c. and strengthens the heart exceedingly, eating now and thena little: you may safely keep any troches in your pocket, for the drier you keep them,the better they are.Trochisci AlhandalCollege : Take of Coloquintida freed from the seeds and cut small, and rubbed withan ounce of oil of Roses, then beaten into fine powder, ten ounces, Gum Arabic,Tragacanth, Bdellium, of each six drams. Steep the Gums three or four days in asufficient quantity of Rose-water till they be melted, then with the aforesaid pulp, andpart of the said mussilage, let them be dried in the shadow, then beaten again, andwith the rest of the mussilage, make it up again, dry them and keep them for use.Culpeper : They are too violent for a vulgar use.وMoschat وAlipt TrochisciCollege : Take of Labdanum bruised three ounces, Styrax Calamitis one ounce andan half, Benjamin one ounce, Wood of Aloes two drams, Ambergris one dram,Camphire half a dram, Musk half a scruple, with a sufficient quantity of Rose-water,make it into troches according to art.Culpeper : It is singularly good for such as are asthmatic, and can hardly fetch theirbreath; as also for young children, whose throat is so narrow that they can hardlyswallow down their milk.Trochisci AlkekengiOr Troches of Winter-cherriesCollege : Take of Winter Cherries three drams, Gum Arabic, Tragacanth,Olibanum, Dragon's-blood, Pine-nuts, bitter Almonds, white Styrax, juice ofLiquorice, Bole ammoniac, white Poppy seeds, of each six drams, the seeds ofMelons, Cucumbers, Citruls, Gourds, of each three drams and an half, the seeds ofSmallage and white Henbane, Amber, Earth of Lemnos, Opium, of each two drams,with juice of fresh Winter-Cherries, make them into troches according to art.Culpeper : They potently provoke urine, and break the stone. Mix them with othermedicine of that nature, half a dram at a time, or a dram if age permit.Trochisci Bechici aloi, vel, وRotul pectoralesOr, Pectoral RollsCollege : Take of white Sugar one pound, white Sugar Candy, Penids, of each fourounces, Orris Florentine one ounce, Liquorice six drams, white Starch one ounce andan half, with a sufficient quantity of mussilage of Gum Tragacanth made in RoseWater, make them into small troches. You may add four grains of Ambergris, andthree grains of Musk to them, if occasion serve.Trochisci Bechici nigriCollege : Take of juice of Liquorice, white Sugar, of each one dram, GumTragacanth, sweet Almonds blanched, of each six drams, with a sufficient quantity ofmussilage of Quince seeds, made thick with Rose Water. Make them into trochesaccording to art.Culpeper : Both this and the former will melt in ones mouth, and in that manner tobe used by such as are troubled with coughs, cold, hoarseness, or want of voice. Theformer is most in use, but in my opinion, the latter is most effectual.Trochisci de BarberisOr, Troches of Barberries

College : Take of juice of Barberries, and Liquorice made thick, Spodium, Purslainseeds, of each three drams, red Roses, six drams, Indian Spikenard, Saffron, whiteStarch, Gum Tragacanth, of each a dram, Citrul seeds cleansed three drams and anhalf, Camphire half a dram; with Manna dissolved in juice of Barberries, make theminto troches according to art.Culpeper : They wonderfully cool the heat of the liver, reins, and bladder, breast,and stomach, and stop looseness, cools the heat of fevers.Trochisci de CamphoraOr, Troches of CamphireCollege : Take of Camphire half a dram, Saffron two drams, white Starch threedrams, red Roses, Gum Arabic, and Tragacanth, Ivory, of each half an ounce, theseeds of Cucumbers husked, of Purslain, Liquorice, of each an ounce, with mussilageof the seeds of Fleawort, drawn in Rose-water, make them into troches.Culpeper : It is exceeding good in burning fevers, heat of blood and choler,together with hot distempers of the stomach and liver, and extreme thirst comingthereby, also it is good against the yellow jaundice phthisics, and hectic fevers.Trochisci de CapparibusOr, Troches of CapersCollege : Take of the bark of Caper roots, the seeds of Agnus Castus, of each sixdrams, Ammoniacum half an ounce, the seeds of Water Cresses and Nigella, theleaves of Calaminth and Rue, the roots of Acorus and long Birthwort, the juice ofMaudlin made thick, bitter Almonds, of each two drams, Hart's-tongue, the roots ofround Cypress, Madder, Gum Lac. of each one dram: being bruised let them be madeinto troches according to art, with Ammoniacum dissolved in Vinegar, and boiled tothe thickness of Honey.Culpeper : They open stoppings of the liver and spleen, and help diseases thereofcoming; as rickets, hypochondriac melancholy, & c. Men may take a dram, children ascruple in the morning.Trochisci de CarabeOr, Troches of AmberCollege : Take of Amber an ounce, Hart's-horn burnt, Gum Arabic burnt, red Coralburnt, Tragacanth, Acacia, Hypocistis, Balaustines, Mastich, Gum Lacca washed,black Poppy seeds roasted, of each two drams and two scruples, Frankincense,Saffron, Opium, of each two drams, with a sufficient quantity of mussilage of theseeds of Fleawort drawn in Plantain Water, make them into troches according to art.Culpeper : They were invented to stop fluxes of blood in any part of the body, themenses, the hوmorrhoids or piles; they also help ulcers in the breast and lungs. Thedose is from ten grains to a scruple.Trochisci Cypheos, for MithridateCollege : Take of pulp of Raisins of the Sun, Cypress, Turpentine, of each threeounces, Myrrh, Squinanth, of each an ounce and an half, Cinnamon half an ounce,Calamus Aromaticus nine drams, the roots of round Cypress, and Indian Spikenard,Cassia Lignea, Juniper berries, Bdellium, Aspalthus or Wood of Aloes, two dramsand an half, Saffron one dram, clarified Honey as much as is sufficient, Canary Winea little: let the Myrrh and Bdellium be ground in a mortar with the wine, to thethickness of liquid Honey, then add the Turpentine, then the pulp of Raisins, then thepowders: at last with the Honey, let them all be made into troches.Culpeper : It is excellently good against inward ulcers in what part of the bodysoever they be. It is chiefly used in compositions, as Treacle and Mithridate.

Trochisci de EupatorioOr Troches of MaudlinCollege : Take of the juice of Maudlin made thick, Manna, of each an ounce, redRoses half an ounce, Spodium three drams and an half, Spikenard three drams,Rhubarb, Asarabacca roots, Annis seeds, of each two drams. Let the Nard, Annisseeds, and Roses be beaten together, the Spodium, Asarabacca, and Rhubarb bythemselves, then mix the Manna and juice of Maudlin in a mortar, add the powders,and with new juice make it into troches.Culpeper : Obstructions, or stoppings, and swelling above nature, both of the liverand spleen, are cured by the inward taking of these troches, and diseases thereofcoming, as yellow and black jaundice, the beginning of dropsies, & c.Troches of Gallia MoschataCollege : Take of Wood of Aloes five drams, Ambergris three drams, Musk onedram, with mussilage of Gum Tragacanth made in Rose Water, make it into trochesaccording to art.Culpeper : They strengthen the brain and heart, and by consequence both vital andanimal spirits, and cause a sweet breath. They are of an extreme price, therefore I passby the dose.Trochisci GordoniiCollege : Take of the four greater cold seeds husked, the seeds of white Poppies,Mallows, Cotton, Purslain, Quinces, Mirtles, Gum Tragacanth, and Arabic, Fisticnuts,Pine-nuts, Sugar-candy, Penids, Liquorice, French-barley, mussilage of Fleawortseeds, sweet Almonds blanched, of each two drams, Bole-ammoniac, Dragon's-blood,Spodium, red Roses, Myrrh, of each half an ounce, with a sufficient quantity ofHydromel, make it into troches according to art.Culpeper : They are held to be very good in ulcers of the bladder, and all otherinward ulcers whatsoever, and ease fevers coming thereby, being of a fine cooling,slippery heating nature.Trochisci Hedichroi (Galen) for TreacleCollege : Take of Aspalthus, or yellow Sanders, the leaves of Mastich, the roots ofAsarabacca, of each two drams, Rhupontic, Castus, Calamus Aromaticus, Wood ofAloes, Cinnamon, Squinanth, Opobalsamum or oil of Nutmegs by expression, of eachthree drams, Cassia Lignea, Indian Leaf or Mace, Indian Spikenard, Myrrh, Saffron,of each six drams, Amomus, or Cardamoms the less, an ounce and an half, Mastich adram, Canary Wine as much as is sufficient. Let the Myrrh be dissolved in the wine,then add the Mastich and Saffron well beaten, then the Opobalsamum, then the rest inpowder, and with the wine, make them up into troches, and dry them gently.Culpeper : They are very seldom or never used but in other compositions, yetnaturally they heat cold stomachs, help digestion, strengthen the heart and brain.Trochisci HystericiCollege : Take of Asafœtida, Galbanum, of each two drams and an half, Myrrh twodrams, Castoreum a dram and an half, the roots of Asarabacca and long Birthwort, theleaves of Savin, Featherfew, Nep, of each one dram, Dittany half a dram, with eitherthe juice or decoction of Rue, make it into troches according to art.Culpeper : These are applied to the fœminine gender, help fits of the mother, expelboth birth and after-birth, cleanse women after labour, and expel the relics of acareless midwife.Trochisci de Ligno AloesOr Troches of Wood of Aloes

College : Take of Wood of Aloes, red Roses, of each two drams, Mastich,Cinnamon, Cloves, Indian Spikenard, Nutmegs, Parsnip seed, Cardamoms the greaterand lesser, Cubebs, Gallia Moschata, Citron Pills, Mace, of each one dram and anhalf, Ambergris, Musk, of each half a scruple, with Honey of Raisins make it intotroches.Culpeper : It strengthens the heart, stomach, and liver, takes away heart-qualms,faintings, and stinking breath, and resists the dropsy.Trochisci e MirrhaOr Troches of MyrrhCollege : Take of Myrrh three drams, the Meal of Lupines five drams, Madderroots, the leaves of Rue, wild Mints, Dittany of Crete, Cummin seeds, Asafœtida,Sagapen, Opopanax, of each two drams, dissolve the Gums in Wine whereinMugwort hath been boiled, or else Juniper-berries, then add the rest, and with juice ofMugwort, make it into troches according to art.Culpeper : They provoke the menses, and that with great ease to such as have themcome down with pain. Take a dram of them beaten into powder, in a spoonful or twoof Syrup of Mugwort, or any other composition tending to the same purpose.Sief de PlumboOr Sief of LeadCollege : Take of Lead burnt and washed, Brass burnt, Antimony, Tutty washed,Gum Arabic and Tragacanth of each an ounce, Opium half a dram, with Rose-water,make them, being beaten and sifted, into troches.Trochisci Polyidœ AndromCollege : Take of Pomegranate flowers twelve drams, Roach Album three drams,Frankincense, Myrrh, of each half an ounce, Chalcanthum two drams, Bull's gall sixdrams, Aloes an ounce, with austere Wine, or juice of Nightshade or Plantain, makethem into troches according to art.Culpeper : They are very good they say, being outwardly applied, both in greenwounds and ulcers. I fancy them not.Trochisci de RhubarbaroOr Troches of RhubarbCollege : Take of Rhubarb ten drams, juice of Maudlin made thick, bitter Almonds,of each half an ounce, red Roses three drams, the roots of Asarabacca, Madder, IndianSpikenard, the leaves of Wormwood, the seeds of Annis and Smallage, of each onedram, with Wine in which Wormwood hath been boiled, make them into trochesaccording to art.Culpeper : They gently cleanse the liver, help the yellow jaundice, and otherdiseases coming of choler and stoppage of the liver.Trochisci de SantalisOr Troches of SandersCollege : Take of the three Sanders, of each one ounce, the seeds of Cucumbers,Gourds, Citruls, Purslain, Spodium, of each half an ounce, red Roses seven drams,juice of Barberries six drams, Bole-ammoniac half an ounce, Camphire one dram,with Purslain Water make it into troches.Culpeper : The virtues are the same with troches of Spodium, both of themharmless.Trochisci da Scilla ad TheriacamOr Troches of Squils, for TreacleCollege : Take a Squil gathered about the beginning of July, of a middle bigness,and the hard part to which the small roots stick, wrap it up in paste, and bake it in an

oven, till the paste be dry, and the Squil tender, which you may know by piercing itwith a wooden skewer, or a bodkin, then take it out and bruise it in a mortar, adding toevery pound of the Squil, eight ounces of white Orobus, or red Cicers in powder, thenmake it into troches, of the weight of two drams a piece, (your hands being anointedwith Oil of Roses) dry them on the top of the house, opening towards the South, in theshadow, often turning them till they be well dry, then keep them in a pewter or glassvessel.Troches of SpodiumCollege : Take of red Roses twelve drams, Spodium ten drams, Sorrel seed sixdrams, the seeds of Purslain and Coriander, steeped in Vinegar and dried, pulp ofSumach, of each two drams and an half, white Starch roasted, Balaustines, Barberries,of each two drams, Gum Arabic, roasted one dram and an half, with juice of unripeGrapes, make it into troches.Culpeper : They are of a fine cooling binding nature, excellent in fevers coming ofcholer, especially if they be accompanied with a looseness, they also quench thirst.Trochisci de terra LemniaOr Troches of Earth of LemnosCollege : Take of Earth of Lemnos, Bole-ammoniac, Acacia, Hypocystis, GumArabic toasted, Dragon's blood, white Starch, red Roses, Rose seeds, Lap. Hematitis,red Coral, Amber, Balaustines, Spodium, Purslain seeds a little toasted, Olibanum,Hart's-horn burnt, Cypress Nuts, Saffron of each two drams, black Poppy seeds,Tragacanth, Pearls, of each one dram and an half, Opium prepared one dram, withjuice of Plantain, make it into troches.Sief de ThureOr Sief of FrankincenseCollege : Take of Frankincense, Lap. Calaminaris, Pompholix, of each ten drams,Cyrus forty drams, Gum Arabic, Opium, of each six drams, with fair water make itinto balls: dry them and keep them for use.Trochisci e Violis solutiviOr Troches of Violets solutiveCollege : Take of Violet flowers meanly dry, six drams, Turbith one ounce and anhalf, juice of Liquorice, Scammony, Manna, of each two drams, with Syrup ofViolets, make it into troches.Culpeper : They are not worth talking of, much less worth cost, the cost and labourof making.Trochisci de Vipera ad TheriacumOr Troches of Vipers, for TreacleCollege : Take of the flesh of Vipers, the skin, entrails, head, fat, and tail beingtaken away, boiled in water with Dill, and a little salt, eight ounces, white bread twicebaked, grated and sifted, two ounces, make it into troches, your hands being anointedwith Opobalsamum, or Oil of Nutmegs by expression, dry them upon a sieve turnedthe bottom upwards in an open place, often turning them till they are well dried, thenput them in a glass or stone pot glazed, stopped close, they will keep a year, yet is itfar better to make Treacle, not long after you have made them.Culpeper : They expel poison, and are excellently good, by a certain sympatheticalvirtue, for such as are bitten by an adder.Trochisci de Agno CastoOr Troches of Agnus CastusCollege : Take of the seeds of Agnus Castus, Lettuce, red Rose flowers, Balaustins,of each a dram, Ivory, white Amber, Boleammoniac washed in Knotgrass Water two

drams, Plantain seeds four scruples, Sassafras two scruples, with mussilage of Quinceseeds, extracted in water of Water-lily flowers, let them be made into troches.Culpeper : Very pretty troches and good for little.Trochisci Alexiterii. RenodوusCollege : Take of the roots of Gentian, Tormentil, Orris Florentine, Zedoary, ofeach two drams, Cinnamon, Cloves, Mace, of each half a dram, Angelica roots threedrams, Coriander seeds prepared, Roses, of each one dram, dried Citron pills twodrams, beat them all into powder, and with juice of Liquorice softened in Hippocras,six ounces, make them into soft paste, which you may form into either troches orsmall rolls, which you please.Culpeper : It preserves and strengthens the heart exceedingly, helps faintings andfailings of the vital spirits, resists poison and the pestilence, and is an excellentmedicine for such to carry about them whose occasions are to travel in pestilentialplaces and corrupt air, only taking a very small quantity now and then.Troches of Annis seed. MesueCollege : Take of Annis seeds, the juice of Maudlin made thick, of each two drams,the seeds of Dill, Spikenard, Mastich, Indian leaf or Mace, the leaves of Wormwood,Asarabacca, Smallage, bitter Almonds, of each half a dram, Aloes two drams, juice ofWormwood so much as is sufficient to make it into troches according to art.Culpeper : They open obstructions of the liver, and that very gently, and thereforediseases coming thereof, help quartan agues. You can scarce do amiss in taking themif they please but your palate.Trochisci Diarhodon. MesueCollege : Take of the flowers of red Roses six drams, Spikenard, Wood of Aloes, ofeach two drams, Liquorice three drams, Spodium one dram, Saffron half a dram,Mastich two drams, make them up into troches with white Wine according to art.Culpeper : They wonderfully ease fevers coming of flegm, as quotidian fevers,agues, epiatos, &c. pains in the belly.Trochisci de Lacca. MesueCollege : Take of Gum Lacca cleansed, the juice of Liquorice, Maudlin,Wormwood, and Barberries, all made thick, Rhubarb, long Birthwort, Costus,Asarabacca, bitter Almonds, Madder, Annis, Smallage, Schوnanth, of each one dram,with the decoction of Birthwort, Schوnanth, or the juice of Maudlin, or Wormwood,make them into troches according to art.Culpeper : It helps stoppings of the liver and spleen, and fevers thence coming, itexpels wind, purges by urine, and resists dropsies.Pastilli Adronis. GalenCollege : Take of Pomegranate flowers ten drams, Copperas twelve drams, unripeGalls, Birthwort, Frankincense, of each an ounce, Alum, Myrrh, of each half anounce, Misy two drams, with eighteen ounces of austere Wine, make it into trochesaccording to art.Culpeper : This also is appropriated to wounds, ulcers, and fistulas, it clears theears, and represses all excressences of flesh, cleanses the filth of the bones.Trochisci ‏.وMus GalenCollege : Take of Alum, Aloes, Copperas, Myrrh, of each six drams, Crocomagma,Saffron, of each three drams, Pomegranate flowers half an ounce, Wine and Honey, ofeach so much as is sufficient to make it up into troches according to art.Culpeper : Their use is the same with the former.Crocomagma of Damocrates. Galen

College : Take of Saffron an hundred drams, red Roses, Myrrh, of each fifty drams,white Starch, Gum, of each thirty drams, Wine, so much as is sufficient to make itinto troches.Culpeper : It is very expulsive, heats and strengthens the heart and stomach.Trochisci Ramich. MesueCollege : Take of the juice of Sorrel sixteen ounces, red Rose Leaves, an ounce,Myrtle Berries two ounces, boil them a little together, and strain them, add to thedecoction, Galls well beaten, three ounces, boil them again a little, then put in thesefollowing things, in fine powder: take of red Roses an ounce, yellow Sanders, tendrams, Gum Arabic an ounce and an half, Sumach, Spodium, of each an ounce,Myrtle berries four ounces, Wood of Aloes, Cloves, Mace, Nutmegs, of each half anounce, sour Grapes seven drams, mix them all together, and let them dry upon a stone,and grind them again into powder, and make them into small troches with one dram ofCamphire, and so much Rose Water as is sufficient, and perfume them with fifteengrams of Musk.Culpeper. They strengthen the stomach, heart, and liver, as also the bowels, theyhelp the cholic, and fluxes of blood, as also bleeding at the nose if you snuff up thepowder of them, disburden the body of salt, fretting, choleric humours. You maycarry them about you, and take them at your pleasure.Troches of Roses. MesueCollege : Take of red Roses half an ounce, Wood of Aloes two drams, Mastich, adram and an half, Roman Wormwood, Cinnamon, Indian Spikenard, Cassia Lignea,Schœnanth, of each one dram, old Wine, and decoction of the five opening roots, somuch as is sufficient to make it into troches according to art.Culpeper : They help pains in the stomach, and indigestion, the illiac passion,hectic fevers, and dropsies, in the beginning, and cause a good colour.Trochisci Diacorallion. GalenCollege : Take of Bole-ammoniac, red Coral, of each an ounce, Balaustines, TerraLemnia, white Starch, of each half an ounce, Hypocistis, the seeds of Henbane,Opium, of each two drams, juice of Plantain so much as is sufficient to make theminto troches according to art.Culpeper : These also stop blood, help the bloody flux, stop the menses, and are agreat help to such whose stomachs loath their victuals. I fancy them not.Trochisci Diaspermaton. GalenCollege : Take of the seeds of Smallage, and Bishop's weed, of each an ounce,Annis and Fennel seeds, of each half an ounce, Opium, Cassia Lignea, of each twodrams, with rain water, make it into troches according to art.Culpeper : These also bind, ease pain, help the pleurisy.Hوmoptoici Pastilli. GalenCollege : Take of white Starch, Balaustines, Earth of Samos, juice of Hypocystis,Gum, Saffron, Opium, of each two drams, with juice of Plantain, make them intotroches according to art.Culpeper : The operation of this is like the former.Troches of AgarickCollege : Take of choice Agarick three ounces, Sal. Gem. six drams, Ginger twodrams, with Oxymel simplex, so much as is sufficient, make it into troches accordingto art.OILS

SIMPLE OILS BY EXPRESSIONOil of Sweet AlmondsCollege : Take of Sweet Almonds not corrupted, as many as you will, cast theshells away, and blanch them, beat them in a stone mortar, beat them in a doublevessel, and press out the oil without heat.Culpeper : It helps roughness and soreness of the throat and stomach, helpspleurisies, encreases seed, eases coughs and hectic fevers, by injection it helps suchwhose water scalds them; ulcers in the bladder, reins, and matrix. You may either takehalf an ounce of it by itself, or mix it with half an ounce of Syrup of Violets, and sotake a spoonful at a time, still shaking them together when you take them: only takenotice of this, if you take it inwardly, let it be new drawn, for it will be sour in three orfour days.Oil of bitter AlmondsCollege : It is made like Oil of sweet Almonds, but that you need not blanch them,nor have such a care of heat in pressing out the oil.Culpeper : It opens stoppings, helps such as are deaf, being dropped into their ears,it helps the hardness of the nerves, and takes away spots in the face. It is seldom ornever taken inwardly.Oil of Hazel NutsCollege : It is made of the Kernels, cleansed, bruised, and beat, and pressed like Oilof sweet Almonds.Culpeper. : You must put them in a vessel (viz. a glass, or some such thing) andstop them close that the water come not to them when you put them into the bath. Theoil is good for cold afflictions of the nerves, the gout in the joints, &c.College : So is Oil of Been, Oil of Nutmegs, and Oil of Mace drawn.Oleum CaryinumCollege : Is prepared of Walnut Kernels, in like manner, save only that in themaking of this sometimes is required dried, old, and rank Nuts.Oleum ChrysomelinumCollege : Is prepared in the same manner of Apricots, so is also Oils of the Kernelsof Cherry stones, Peaches, Pine-nuts, Fistic Nuts, Prunes, the seeds of Oranges,Hemp, Bastard Saffron, Citrons, Cucumbers, Gourds, Citruls, Dwarf Elder, Henbane,Lettuce, Flax, Melons, Poppy, Parsley, Radishes, Rape, Ricinum, Sesani, Mustardseed, and Grape stones.Culpeper : Because most of these Oils are out of use, I took not the pains to quotethe virtues of them; if any wish to make them, let them look to the simples, and therethey have them; if the simples be not to be found in this book, there are other plentifulmedicines conducing to the cure of all usual diseases; which are--Oil of BaysCollege : Take of Bay-berries, fresh and ripe, so many as you please, bruise themsufficiently, then boil them in a sufficient quantity of water till the Oil swim at top,which separate from the water, and keep for your use.Culpeper : It helps the cholic, and is a sovereign remedy for any diseases in anypart of the body coming either of wind or cold.College : Common Oil of Olives, is pressed out of ripe olives, not out of the stones.Oil of Olives omphacine, is pressed out of unripe olives.Oil of Yolks of EggsCollege : Boil the yolks till they be hard, and bruise them with your hand or with apestle and mortar; beat them in an earthen vessel glazed until they begin to froth,

stirring them diligently that they burn not, begin hot, put them in a linen bag, andsprinkle them with Aromatic Wine, and press out the oil according to art.Culpeper : It is profitable in fistulas, and malignant ulcers, it causes the hair togrow, it clears the skin, and takes away deformities thereof, viz. tetters, ringworms,morphew, scabs.SIMPLE OILS BY INFUSION AND DECOCTIONOil of Roses omphacineCollege : Take of red Roses before they be ripe, bruised in a stone mortar, fourounces, oil Omphacine one pound, set them in a hot sun, in a glass close stopped, awhole week, shaking them every day, then boil them gently in a bath, press them out,and put in others, use them in like manner, do so a third time: then keep the Oil upona pound of juice of Roses.Oil of Roses completeIs made in the same manner, with sweet and ripe oil, often washed, and red Rosesfully open, bruised, set in the sun, and boiled gently in a double vessel, only let thethird infusion stand in the sun forty days, then keep the roses and oil together.In the same manner is made Oil of Wormwood, of the tops of common Wormwoodthrice repeated, four ounces, and three pounds of ripe oil; only, the last time put infour ounces of the juice of Wormwood, which evaporate away by gentle boiling.Oil of Dill. Of the flowers and leaves of Dill four ounces, complete oil, one pound,thrice repeated.Oil of Castoreum. Of one ounce of Castoreum oil one pound, Wine four ounces,which must be consumed with the heat of a bath.Oil of Chamomel (which more than one call Holy) of complete oil, and freshChamomel flowers, the little white leaves taken away, cut, bruised, and the vesselcovered with a thin linen cloth, set in the sun, pressed out, and three times repeated.Oil of Wall-flowers, as oil of Dill.Oil of Quinces. Of six parts of oil Omphacine, the meat and juice of Quinces onepart, set them in the sun fifteen days in a glass, and afterwards boil them four hours ina double vessel, press them out, and renew them three times.Oil of Elecampane. Of ripe oil, and the roots of Elecampane bruised, and theirjuice, of each one part, and of generous Wine half a part, which is to be evaporatedaway.Oil of Euphorbium. Of six drams of Euphorbium, Oil of Wallflowers, and sweetWine, of each five ounces, boiling it in a double vessel till the Wine be consumed.Oil of Ants. Of winged Ants infused in four times their weight of sweet oil, set inthe sun in a glass forty days, and then strain it out.Oil, or Balsam of St. John's Wort simple, is made of the oil of seeds beaten andpressed, and the flowers being added, and rightly set in the sun.Oil of Jesmine, is made of the flowers of Jesmine, put in clear oil, and set in the sunand afterwards pressed out.Oil of Orris, made of the roots of Orris Florentine one pound, purple Orris flowershalf a pound: boil them in a double vessel in a sufficient quantity of decoction of OrrisFlorentine, and six pounds of sweet oil, putting fresh roots and flowers again andagain; the former being cast away as in oil of Roses.Oil of Earthworms, is made of half a pound of Earthworms washed in white Wine,ripe Oil two pounds, boiled in a double vessel with eight ounces of good white Winetill the Wine be consumed.

Oil of Marjoram is made with four ounces of the herb a little bruised, white Winesix ounces, ripe oil a pound, mixed together, let them be set in the sun repeated threetimes; at last boiled to the consumption of the Wine.Oil of Mastich, is made of oil of Roses omphacine one pound, Mastich threeounces, Wine four ounces: boil them in a double vessel to the consumption of theWine.Oil of Melilot is made with the tops of the herb like oil of Chamomel.Oil of Mints is made of the herb and oil omphacine, as oil of Roses.Oil of Mirtles, is made of Mirtle berries bruised and sprinkled with sharp Wine onepart, oil omphacine three parts; set it in the sun twenty-four days, and in the interimthrice renewed, boiled, and the berries pressed out.Oil of Daffodils is made as oil of Roses.Nard Oil is made of three ounces of Spikenard, sweet oil one pound and an half,sweet white Wine and clear water, of each two ounces and an half, boiled to theconsumption of the moisture.Oil of Water-lilies, is made of fresh white Water-lily flowers, one part, oilomphacine three parts, repeating the flowers as in oil of Roses.Oil of Tobacco is made of the juice of Tobacco, and common oil, of each equalparts boiled in a bath.Oil of Poppies, is made of the flowers, heads, and leaves of garden Poppies, and oilomphacine, as oil of Dill.Oil of Poplars, is made of the buds of the Poplar tree three parts, rich white Winefour parts, sweet oil seven parts; first let the buds be bruised, then infused in the Wineand oil seven days, then boiled, then pressed out.Oil of Rue, is made of the herb bruised, and ripe oil, like oil of Roses.Oil of Savin is made in the same manner.So also is Oil of Elder flowers made.Oil of Scorpions, is made of thirty live Scorpions, caught when the sun is in thelion; oil of bitter Almonds two pounds, let them be set in the sun, and after forty daysstrained.Oleum Cicyonium, is made of wild Cucumber roots, and their juice, of each equalparts; with twice as much ripe oil, boil it to the consumption of the juice.Oil of Nightshade, is made of the berries of Nightshade ripe, and one part boiled inripe oil, or oil of Roses three parts.Oil of Styrax, is made of Styrax and sweet white Wine, of each one part, ripe oilfour parts gently boiled till the Wine be consumed.Oil of Violets, is made of oil omphacine, and Violet flowers, as oil of Roses.Oil of Vervain, is made of the herb and oil, as oil of Mints.Culpeper : That most of these oils, if not all of them, are used only externally, iscertain; and as certain that they retain the virtues of the simples whereof they aremade, therefore the ingenious might help themselves.COMPOUND OILS BY INFUSION AND DECOCTIONOleum BenedictumOr Blessed OilCollege : Take of the roots of Carduus and Valerian, of each one ounce, the flowersof St. John's Wort two ounces, Wheat one ounce and an half, old Oil four ounces,Cypress Turpentine eight ounces, Frankincense in powder two ounces, infuse theroots and flowers, being bruised, in so much white Wine as is sufficient to cover

them, after two days' infusion put in the Oil with the Wheat, bruised, boil themtogether till the Wine be consumed; then press it out, and add the Frankincense andTurpentine, then boil them a little, and keep it.Culpeper : It is appropriated to cleanse and consolidate wounds, especially in thehead.Oleum de CapparibusOr, Oil of CapersCollege : Take of the bark of Caper roots an ounce, bark of Tamarisk, the leaves ofthe same, the seeds of Agnus Castus, Cetrach, or Spleenwort, Cypress roots, of eachtwo drams, Rue one dram, oil of ripe Olives one pound, white Wine Vinegar, andwhite Wine, of each two ounces, cut them and steep them, and boil them (two daysbeing elapsed) gently in a bath, then the Wine and Vinegar being consumed, strain it,and keep it.Culpeper : The oil is opening, and heating, absolutely appropriated to the spleen,hardness and pains thereof, and diseases coming of stoppings there, as hypocondriacmelancholy, the rickets, &c.Oil of Castoreum compoundCollege : Take of Castoreum, Styrax Calamitis, Galbanum, Euphorbium,Opopanax, Cassia Lignea, Saffron, Carpobalsamum or Cubebs, Spikenard, Costus, ofeach two drams, Cypress, Squinanth, Pepper long and black, Savin, Pellitory of Spain,of each two drams and an half, ripe Oil four pounds, Spanish Wine two pounds, thefive first excepted, let the rest be prepared as they ought to be, and gently boiled in theOil and Wine, until the Wine be consumed, mean time the Galbanum, Opopanax, andEuphorbium beaten in fine powder, being dissolved in part of the Wine, and strained,let them be exquisitely mixed with it (while the oil is warm) by often stirring; theboiling being finished, put in the Styrax and Castoreum.Culpeper : The virtues are the same with the simple.Oleum CastinumCollege : Take of the roots of bitter Castus two ounces, Cassia Lignea one ounce,the tops of Marjoram eight ounces, being bruised, steep them two days in twelveounces of sweet white Wine; then with three pounds of sallad oil washed in whiteWine, boil it in Balneo وMari till the Wine be consumed.Culpeper : It heats, opens obstructions, strengthens the nerves, and all nervousparts, as muscles, tendons, ligaments, the ventricle; besides these, it strengthens theliver, it keeps the hairs from turning grey, and gives a good colour to the body. I prayyou take notice that this and the following oils, (till I give you warning to thecontrary) are not made to eat.Oleum CrocinumOr, Oil of SaffronCollege : Take of Saffron, Calamus Aromaticus, of each one ounce, Myrrh, half anounce, Cardamoms nine drams, steep them six days, (the Cardomoms excepted,which are not to be put in till the last day,) in nine ounces of Vinegar, the day after putin a pound and an half of washed oil, boil it gently according to art, till the Vinegar beconsumed, then strain it.Culpeper : It helps pains in the nerves, and strengthens them, mollifies theirhardness, helps pains in the matrix, and causes a good colour.Oil of EuphorbiumCollege : Take of Stavesacre, Sopewort, of each half an ounce, Pellitory of Spainsix drams, dried Mountain Calamint one ounce and an half, Castus two drams,Castoreum five drams, being bruised, let them be three days steeped in three pounds

and an half of Wine, boil them with a pound and an half of Oil of Wallflowers, addinghalf an ounce of Euphorbium, before the Wine be quite consumed, and so boil itaccording to art.Culpeper : It hath the same virtue, only something more effectual than the simple.Oleum ExcestrenseOr, Oil of ExeterCollege : Take of the leaves of Wormwood, Centaury the less, Eupatorium, Fennel,Hyssop, Bays, Marjoram, Bawm, Nep, Pennyroyal, Savin, Sage, Thyme, of each fourounces, Southernwood, Betony, Chamepitys, Lavender, of each six ounces, Rosemaryone pound, the flowers of Chamomel, Broom, white Lilies, Elders, the seeds ofCummin, and Fenugreek, the roots of Hellebore black and white, the bark of Ash andLemons, of each four ounces, Euphorbium, Mustard, Castoreum, Pellitory of Spain,of each an ounce, Oil sixteen pounds, Wine three pounds, the herbs, flowers, seeds,and Euphorbium being bruised, the roots, barks, and Castoreum cut, all of theminfused twelve hours in the Wine and Oil, in a warm bath, then boiled with a gentlefire, to the consumption of the Wine and moisture, strain the Oil and keep it.Culpeper : Many people by catching bruises when they are young, come to feel itwhen they are old: others by catching cold, catch a lameness in their limbs, to bothwhich I commend this sovereign oil to bathe their grieved members with.Oleum HirundinumOr, Oil of SwallowsCollege : Take of whole Swallows sixteen, Chamomel, Rue, Plantain the greaterand lesser, Bay leaves, Pennyroyal, Dill, Hyssop, Rosemary, Sage, Saint John's Wort,Costmary, of each one handful, common Oil four pounds, Spanish Wine one pound,make it up according to art.Culpeper : Both this and the former are appropriated to old bruises and painsthereof coming, as also to sprains.Oleum Hyperici compositumOr, Oil of St. John's Wort compoundCollege : Take of the tops of St. John's Wort four ounces, steep them three wholedays in a pound of old Sallad Oil, in the heat either of a bath, or of the sun, then pressthem out, repeat the infusion the second or third time, then boil them till the wine bealmost consumed, press them out, and by adding three ounces of Turpentine, and onescruple of Saffron, boil it a little and keep it.Culpeper : See the simple oil of St. John's Wort, than which this is stronger.Oleum Hyperici magis compositumOr, Oil of St. John's Wort more compoundCollege : Take of white Wine three pounds, tops of St. John's Wort ripe and gentlybruised, four handfuls, steep them two days in a glass, close stopped, boil them in abath, and strain them strongly, repeat the infusion three times, having strained it thethird time, add to every pound of decoction, old Oil four pounds, Turpentine sixounces, oil of Wormwood three ounces, Dittany, Gentian, Carduus, Tormentil,Carline, or Cordus Maria, Calamus Aromaticus, all of them bruised, of each twodrams, Earth-worms often washed in white Wine two ounces, set it in the sun five orsix weeks, then keep it close stopped.Culpeper : Besides the virtue of the simple oil of St. John's Wort, which thisperforms more effectually, it is an excellent remedy for old bruises, aches, andsprains.Oleum IrinumOr, Oil of Orris

College : Take of the roots of Orris Florentine, three pounds four ounces, theflowers of purple Orris fifteen ounces, Cypress roots six ounces, of Elecampane threeounces, of Alkanet two ounces, Cinnamon, Spikenard, Benjamin, of each one ounce;let all of them, being bruised as they ought to be, be steeped in the sun, or other hotplace, in fifteen pounds of old oil, and four pounds and an half of clear water, after thefourth day, boil them in Balneo ‏,وMari the water being consumed, when it is cold,strain it and keep it.Culpeper : The effects are the same with the simple, only 'tis stronger.وMarjoran OleumOr, Oil of MarjoramCollege : Take of Marjoram four handfuls, Mother of Thyme two handfuls, theleaves and berries of Myrtles one handful, Southernwood, Water Mints, of each halfan handful, being cut, bruised, and put in a glass, three pounds of Oil Omphacinebeing put to it, let it stand eight days in the Sun, or in a bath, close stopped, then strainit out, in the oil put in fresh simples, do so the third time, the oil may be perfectedaccording to art.Culpeper : It helps weariness and diseases of the brain and nerves, coming of cold;it helps the dead palsy, the back (viz. the region along the back bone) being anointedwith it; being snuffed up in the nose, it helps Spasmus cynicus, which is a wrying themouth aside; it helps noise in the ears being dropped into them, it provokes themenses, and helps the biting of venomous beasts; it is a most gallant oil to strengthenthe body, the back being anointed with it; strengthens the muscles, they being chafedwith it; helps head-ache, the forehead being rubbed with it.MoscholوumOr, Oil of MuskCollege : Take two Nutmegs, Musk one dram, Indian leaf or Mace, Spikenard,Costus, Mastich, of each six drams, Styrax Calamitis, Cassia Lignea, Myrrh, Saffron,Cinnamon, Cloves, Carpobalsamum or Cubebs, Bdellium, of each two drams, pureOil three pounds, Wine three ounces, bruise them as you ought to do, mix them, andlet them boil easily, till the Wine be consumed, the Musk being mixed according toart after it is strained.Culpeper : It is exceeding good against all diseases of cold, especially those of thestomach, it helps diseases of the sides, they being anointed with it, the stranguary,cholic, and vices of the nerves, and afflictions of the reins.Oleum NardinumOr, Oil of NardCollege : Take of Spikenard three ounces, Marjoram two ounces, Wood of Aloes,Calamus Aromaticus, Elecampane, Cypress, Bay leaves, Indian leaf or Mace,Squinanth, Cardamoms, of each one ounce and a half, bruise them all grossly, andsteep them in water and wine, of each fourteen ounces, Oil of Sesamin, or oil ofOlives, four pounds and an half, for one day: then perfect the oil by boiling it gentlyin a double vessel.Oleum Populeum. NicholausCollege : Take of fresh Poplar buds three pounds, Wine four pounds, common Oilseven pounds two ounces, beat the Poplar buds very well, then steep them seven daysin the oil and wine, then boil them in a double vessel till the wine be consumed, (ifyou infuse fresh buds once or twice before you boil it, the medicine will be thestronger,) then press out the oil and keep it.Culpeper : It is a fine cool oil, but the ointment called by that name which followshereafter is far better.

OINTMENTS MORE SIMPLEUnguentum albumOr, white OintmentCollege : Take of Oil of Roses nine ounces, Ceruss washed in Rose-water anddiligently sifted, three ounces, white Wax two ounces, after the wax is melted in theoil, put in the Ceruss, and make it into an ointment according to art, add two drams ofCamphire, made into powder with a few drops of oil of sweet Almonds, so will it becamphorated.Culpeper : It is a fine cooling, drying ointment, eases pains, and itching in woundsand ulcers, and is an hundred times better with Camphire than without it.Unguentum EgyptiacumCollege : Take of Verdigris finely powdered, five parts, Honey fourteen parts,sharp Vinegar seven parts, boil them to a just thickness, and a reddish colour.Culpeper : It cleanses filthy ulcers and fistulas forcibly, and not without pain, ittakes away dead and proud flesh, and dries.Unguentum AnodynumOr, an Ointment to ease painCollege : Take of Oil of white Lilies, six ounces, Oil of Dill, and Chamomel, ofeach two ounces, Oil of sweet Almonds one ounce, Duck's grease, and Hen's grease,of each two ounces, white Wax three ounces, mix them according to art.Culpeper : Its use is to assuage pains in any part of the body, especially such ascome by inflammations, whether in wounds or tumours, and for that it is admirable.Unguentum ex ApioOr, Ointment of SmallageCollege : Take of the juice of Smallage one pound, Honey nine ounces, Wheatflower three ounces, boil them to a just thickness.Culpeper : It is a very fine, and very gentle cleanser of wounds and ulcers.Liniment of Gum ElemiCollege : Take of Gum Elemi, Turpentine of the Fir-tree, of each one ounce and anhalf, old Sheep's Suet cleansed two ounces, old Hog's grease cleansed one ounce: mixthem, and make them into an ointment according to art.Culpeper : It gently cleanses and fills up an ulcer with flesh, it being of a mildnature, and friendly to the body.Unguentum AureumCollege : Take of yellow Wax half a pound, common Oil two pounds, Turpentinetwo ounces, Pine Rozin, Colophonia, of each one ounce and an half, Frankincense,Mastich, of each one ounce, Saffron one dram, first melt the wax in the oil, then theTurpentine being added, let them boil together; having done boiling, put in the rest infine powder, (let the Saffron be the last) and by diligent stirring, make them into anointment according to art.Basilicon, the greaterCollege : Take of white Wax, Pine Rozin, Heifer's Suet, Greek Pitch, Turpentine,Olibanum, Myrrh, of each one ounce, Oil five ounces, powder the Olibanum andMyrrh, and the rest being melted, make it into an ointment according to art.Basilicon, the lessCollege : Take of yellow Wax, fat Rozin, Greek Pitch, of each half a pound, Oilnine ounces: mix them together, by melting them according to art.

Culpeper : Both this and the former, heat, moisten, and digest, procure matter inwounds, I mean brings the filth or corrupted blood from green wounds: they cleanseand ease pain.Ointment of BdelliumCollege : Take of Bdellium six drams, Euphorbium, Sagapen, of each four drams,Castoreum three drams, Wax fifteen drams, Oil of Elder or Wall-flowers, ten drams,the Bdellium, and Sagapen being dissolved in water of wild Rue, let the rest be unitedby the heat of a bath.Unguentum de CalceOr, Ointment of ChalkCollege : Take of Chalk washed, seven times at least, half a pound, Wax threeounces, Oil of Roses one pound, stir them all together diligently in a leaden mortar,the wax being first melted by a gentle fire in a sufficient quantity of the prescribed oil.Culpeper : It is exceeding good in burnings and scaldings.وDialth UnguentumOr, Ointment of Marsh-mallowsCollege : Take of common Oil four pounds, mussilage of Marsh-mallow roots,Linseed, and Fenugreek seed two pounds: boil them together till the watry part of themussilage be consumed, then add Wax half a pound, Rozin three ounces, Turpentinean ounce, boil them to the consistence of an ointment, but let the mussilage beprepared of a pound of fresh roots bruised, and half a pound of each of the seedssteeped, and boiled in eight pounds of spring water, and then pressed out. See thecompound.Unguentum DiapompholygosCollege : Take of Oil of Nightshade sixteen ounces, white Wax, washed, Ceruss, ofeach four drams, Lead burnt and washed, Pompholix prepared, of each two ounces,pure Frankincense one ounce: bring them into the form of an ointment according toart.Culpeper : This much differing from the former, you shall have that inserted atlatter end, and then you may use which you please.Unguentum EnulatumOr, Ointment of ElecampaneCollege : Take of Elecampane roots boiled in Vinegar, bruised and pulped, onepound, Turpentine washed in their decoction, new Wax, of each two ounces, oldHog's grease salted ten ounces, old oil four ounces, common salt one ounce, add theTurpentine to the grease, wax, and oil, being melted, as also the pulp and salt beingfinely powdered, and so make it into an ointment according to art.Unguentum Enulatum cum MercurioOr, Ointment of Elecampane with QuicksilverCollege : Is made of the former ointment, by adding two ounces of Quick-silver,killed by continual stirring, not only with spittle, or juice of Lemons, but with all theTurpentine kept for that intent, and part of the grease, in a stone mortar.Culpeper : My opinion of this ointment, is (briefly) this: It was invented for theitch, without quick-silver it will do no good, with quick-silver it may do harm.Unguentum Laurinum communeOr, Ointment of Bays commonCollege : Take of Bay leaves bruised one pound, Bay berries bruised half a pound,Cabbage leaves four ounces, Neat's-foot Oil five pounds, Bullock's suet, two pounds,boil them together, and strain them, that so it may be made into an ointment accordingto art.

Unguentum de minie sive rubrum CamphoraOr, Ointment of red LeadCollege : Take of Oil of Roses one pound and an half, red Lead three ounces,Litharge two ounces, Ceruss one ounce and an half, Tutty three drams, Camphire twodrams, Wax one ounce and an half, make it into an ointment according to art, in apestle and mortar made of Lead.Culpeper : This ointment is as drying as a man shall usually read of one, and withalcooling, therefore good for sores, and such as are troubled with defluctions.Unguentum e Nicotiona, seu PetoOr, Ointment of TobaccoCollege : Take of Tobacco leaves bruised, two pounds, steep them a whole night inred Wine, in the morning boil it in fresh Hog's grease, diligently washed, one pound,till the Wine be consumed, strain it, and add half a pound of juice of Tobacco, Rozinfour ounces, boil it to the consumption of the juice, adding towards the end, roundBirthwort roots in powder, two ounces, new Wax as much as is sufficient to make itinto an ointment according to art.Culpeper : It would take a whole summer's day to write the particular virtues of thisointment, and my poor Genius is too weak to give it the hundredth part of its duepraise. It cures tumours, imposthumes, wounds, ulcers, gun-shot, stinging with nettles,bees, wasps, hornets, venomous beasts, wounds made with poisoned arrows, &c.Unguentum Nutritum, seu TrifarmacumCollege : Take of Litharge of Gold finely powdered, half a pound, Vinegar onepound, Oil of Roses two pounds, grind the Litharge in a mortar, pouring to itsometimes Oil, sometimes Vinegar, till by continual stirring, the Vinegar do no moreappear, and it come to a whitish ointment.Culpeper : It is of a cooling, drying nature, good for itching of wounds, and suchlike deformities of the skin.Unguentum OphthalmicumOr, An Ointment for the EyesCollege : Take of Bole-ammoniac washed in Rose water, one ounce, LapisCalaminaris washed in Eyebright Water, Tutty prepared, of each two drams, Pearls invery fine powder half a dram, Camphire half a scruple, Opium five grains, freshButter washed in Plantain Water, as much as is sufficient to make it into an ointmentaccording to art.Culpeper : It is exceeding good to stop hot rheums that fall down into the eyes, theeyelids being but anointed with it.Unguentum ex OxylapathoOr, Ointment of sharp-pointed DockCollege : Take of the roots of sharp-pointed Dock boiled in Vinegar until they besoft, and then pulped, Brimstone washed in juice of Lemons, of each one ounce andan half, Hog's grease often washed in juice of Scabious, half a pound, UnguentumPopuleon washed in juice of Elecampane, half an ounce: make them into an ointmentin a mortar.Culpeper : It is a wholesome, though troublesome medicine for scabs and itch.Unguentum e PlumboOr, Ointment of LeadCollege : Take of Lead burnt according to art, Litharge, of each two ounces,Ceruss, Antimony, of each one ounce, Oil of Roses as much as is sufficient: make itinto an ointment according to art.

Culpeper : Take it one time with another, it will go neer to do more harm thangood.Unguentum PomatumCollege : Take of fresh Hog's grease three pounds, fresh Sheep's suet nine ounces,Pomewater pared and cut, one pound and nine ounces, Damask Rose-water sixounces, the roots of Orris Florentine grossly bruised six drams, boil them in BalneoوMari till the Apples be soft, then strain it, but press it not and keep it for use; thenwarm it a little again and wash it with fresh Rose-water, adding to each pound twelvedrops of oil of Lignum Rhodium.Culpeper : Its general use is, to soften and supple the roughness of the skin, andtake away the chops of the lips, hands, face, or other parts.Unguentum PotabileCollege : Take of Butter without salt, a pound and an half, Spermaceti, Madder,Tormentil roots, Castoreum, of each half an ounce: boil them as you ought in asufficient quantity of Wine, till the Wine be consumed, and become an ointment.Culpeper : I know not what to make of it.Unguentum ResinumCollege : Take of Pine Rozin, or Rozin of the Pine-tree, of the purest Turpentine,yellow Wax washed, pure Oil, of each equal parts: melt them into an ointmentaccording to art.Culpeper : It is as pretty a Cerecloth for a new sprain as most is, and cheap.Unguentum RosatumOr, Ointment of RosesCollege : Take of fresh Hog's grease cleansed a pound, fresh red Roses half apound, juice of the same three ounces, make it into an ointment according to art.Culpeper : It is of a fine cooling nature, exceeding useful in all gallings of the skin,and frettings, accompanied with choleric humours, angry pushes, tetters, ringworms,it mitigates diseases in the head coming of heat, as also the intemperate heat of thestomach and liver.Desiccativum RubrumOr, a drying Red OintmentCollege : Take of the oil of Roses omphacine a pound, white Wax five ounces,which being melted and put in a leaden mortar, put in the Earth of Lemnos or Boleammoniac,Lapis Calaminaris, of each four ounces, Litharge of Gold, Ceruss, of eachthree ounces, Camphire one dram, make it into an ointment according to art.Culpeper : It binds and restrains fluxes of humours.Unguentum e SolanoOr, Ointment of NightshadeCollege : Take of juice of Nightshade, Litharge washed, of each five ounces,Ceruss washed eight ounces, white Wax seven ounces, Frankincense in powder tendrams, oil of Roses often washed in water two pounds, make it into an ointmentaccording to art.Culpeper : It was invented to take away inflammations from wounds, and to keeppeople from scratching of them when they are almost well.Or, Ointment of TuttyCollege : Take of Tutty prepared two ounces, Lapis Calaminaris often burnt andquenched in Plantain Water an ounce, make them, being finely powdered, into anointment, with a pound and an half of ointment of Roses.Culpeper : It is a cooling, drying ointment, appropriated to the eyes, to dry up hotand salt humours that flow down thither, the eyelids being anointed with it.

وScabios ValentiaCollege : Take of the juice of green Scabious, pressed out with a screw, andstrained through a cloth, Hog's grease, of each as much as you will, heat the Hog'sgrease in a stone mortar, not grind it, putting in the juice by degrees for the morecommodious mixture and tincture, afterwards set it in the sun in a convenient vessel,so as the juice may overtop the grease, nine days being passed, pour off thediscoloured juice, and beat it again as before, putting in fresh juice, set it in the sunagain five days, which being elapsed, beat it again, put in more juice, after fifteendays more, do so again, do so five times, after which, keep it in a glass, or glazedvessel.TapsivalentiaCollege : Take of the juice of Mullen, Hog's grease, of each as much as you will,let the grease be cleansed and cut in pieces, and beat it with the juice, pressed andstrained as you did the former ointment, then keep it in a convenient vessel nine or tendays, then beat it twice, once with fresh juice, until it be green, and the second timewithout juice beaten well, pouring off what is discoloured, and keep it for use.TapsimelCollege : Take of the juice of Celandine and Mullen, of each one part, clarifiedHoney, two parts, boil them by degrees till the juice be consumed, adding (thephysician prescribing) Vitriol, burnt Alum, burnt Ink, and boil it again to an ointmentaccording to art.OINTMENTS MORE COMPOUNDUnguentum AgrippaCollege : Take of Briony roots two pounds, the roots of wild Cucumbers onepound, Squills half a pound, fresh English Orris roots, three ounces, the roots of maleFern, dwarf Elder, water Caltrops, or Aaron, of each two ounces, bruise them all,being fresh, and steep them six or seven days in four pounds of old oil, the whitest,not rank, then boil them and press them out, and in the oil melt fifteen ounces of whiteWax, and make it into an ointment according to art.Culpeper : It purges exceedingly, and is good to anoint the bellies of such as havedropsies, and if there be any humour or flegm in any part of the body that you knownot how to remove (provided the part be not too tender) you may anoint it with this;but yet be not too busy with it, for I tell you plainly it is not very safe.Unguentum AmarumOr, A bitter OintmentCollege : Take of Oil of Rue, Savin, Mints, Wormwood, bitter Almonds, of eachone ounce and an half, juice of Peach flowers and leaves, and Wormwood, of eachhalf an ounce, powder of Rue, Mints, Centaury the less, Gentian, Tormentil, of eachone dram, the seeds of Coleworts, the pulp of Colocynthis, of each two drams, AloesHepatic, three drams, meal of Lupines half an ounce, Myrrh washed in Grass water adram and an half, Bull's Gall an ounce and an half, with a sufficient quantity of juiceof Lemons, and an ounce and an half of Wax, make it into an ointment according toart.Unguentum ApostolorumOr, Ointment of the ApostlesCollege : Take of Turpentine, yellow Wax, Ammoniacum, of each fourteen drams,long Birthwort roots, Olibanum, Bdellium, of each six drams, Myrrh, Gilbanum, ofeach half an ounce, Opopanax, Verdigris, of each two drams, Litharge nine drams, Oil

two pounds, Vinegar enough to dissolve the Gums, make it into an ointmentaccording to art.Culpeper : It consumes corrupt and dead flesh, and makes flesh soft which is hard,it cleanses wounds, ulcers, and fistulas, and restores flesh where it is wanting.Unguentum CatapsorasCollege : Take of Ceruss washed in Purslain water, then in Vinegar wherein wildRhadish roots have been steeped and pressed out, Lapis Calaminaris, Chalcitis, ofeach six drams, burnt Lead, Goat's blood, of each half an ounce, Quick-silversublimated an ounce, the juice of Houseleek, Nightshade, Plantain, of each twoounces, Hog's grease cleansed three pounds, Oil of Violets, Poppies, Mandrakes, ofeach an ounce: first let the sublimate and exungia, then the oils, juices, and powders,be mixed, and so made into an ointment according to art.Unguentum CitrinumOr, A Citron OintmentCollege : Take of Borax an ounce, Camphire a dram, white Coral half an ounce,Alum Plume an ounce, Umbilicus Marinus, Tragacanth, white Starch, of each threedrams, Crystal, Dentalis Utalis, Olibanum, Niter, white Marble, of each two drams,Gersa Serpentaria an ounce, Ceruss six ounces, Hog's grease not salted, a pound andan half, Goat's suet prepared, an ounce and an half, Hen's fat two ounces and an half.Powder the things as you ought to do both together, and by themselves, melt the fatsbeing cleansed in a stone vessel, and steep in them two Citrons of a mean bigness cutin bits, in a warm bath, after a whole week strain it, and put in the powders bydegrees, amongst which let the Camphire and Borax be the last, stir them, and bringthem into the form of an ointment.Unguentum MartiatumCollege : Take of fresh Bay leaves three pounds, Garden Rue two pounds and anhalf, Marjoram two pounds, Mints a pound, Sage, Wormwood, Costmary, Bazil, ofeach half a pound, Sallad Oil twenty pounds, yellow Wax four pounds, Malaga Winetwo pounds, of all of them being bruised, boiled, and pressed out as they ought, makean ointment according to art.Culpeper : It is a great strengthener of the head, it being anointed with it; as also ofall the parts of the body, especially the nerves, muscles, and arteries.Unguentum MastichinumOr, An Ointment of MastichCollege : Take of the Oil of Mastich, Wormwood, and Nard, of each an ounce,Mastich, Mints, red Roses, red Coral, Cloves, Cinnamon, Wood of Aloes, Squinanth,of each a dram, wax as much as is sufficient to make it into an ointment according toart.Culpeper : This is like the former, and not a whit inferior to it; it strengthens thestomach being anointed with it, restores appetite and digestion. Before it was called astomach ointment.Unguentum NeapolitanumCollege : Take of Hog's grease washed in juice of Sage a pound, Quick-silverstrained through leather, four ounces, oil of Bays, Chamomel, and Earthworms, ofeach two ounces, Spirit of Wine an ounce, yellow Wax two ounces, Turpentinewashed in juice of Elecampane three ounces, powder of Chamepitys and Sage, ofeach two drams, make them into an ointment according to art.Culpeper : A learned art to spoil people: hundreds are bound to curse suchointments, and those that appoint them.Unguentum Nervinum

College : Take of Cowslips with the flowers, Sage, Chamepitys, Rosemary,Lavender, Bay with the berries, Chamomel, Rue, Smallage, Melilot with the flowers,Wormwood, of each a handful, Mints, Betony, Pennyroyal, Parsley, Centaury the less,St. John's Wort, of each a handful, oil of Sheep's or Bullock's feet, five pounds, oil ofSpike half an ounce, Sheep's or Bullock's Suet, or the Marrow of either, two pounds:the herbs being bruised and boiled with the oil and suet, make it into an ointmentaccording to art.Culpeper : It is appropriated to the nerves, and helps their infirmities coming ofcold, as also old bruised, make use of it in dead palsies, chilliness or coldness ofparticular members, such as the arteries perform not their office to as they ought; forwind anoint your belly with it; for want of digestion, your stomach; for the cholic,your belly; for whatever disease in any part of the body comes of cold, esteem this asa jewel.Unguentum PectoraleOr, A Pectoral OintmentCollege : Take of fresh Butter washed in Violet Water six ounces, oil of SweetAlmonds four ounces, oil of Chamomel and Violets, white Wax, of each three ounces,Hen's and Duck's greese, of each two ounces, Orris roots two drams, Saffron half adram. The two last being finely powdered, the rest melted and often washed in Barleyor Hyssop water, make an ointment of them according to art.Culpeper : It strengthens the breast and stomach, eases the pains thereof, helpspleurises and consumptions of the lungs, the breast being anointed with it.Unguentum ResumptivumCollege : Take of Hog's grease three ounces, the grease of Hens, Geese, and Ducks,of each two ounces, Oesipus half an ounce, oil of Violets, Chamomel, and Dill, freshButter a pound, white Wax six ounces, mussilage of Gum Tragacanth, Arabic, Quinceseeds, Lin-seeds, Marsh-mallow roots, of each half an ounce. Let the mussilages bemade in Rose water, and adding the rest, make it into an ointment according to art.Culpeper : It mightily molifies without any manifest heat, and is therefore a fitointment for such as have agues, asthmas, hectic fevers, or consumptions. It is a goodointment to ease pains coming by inflammations of wounds or aposthumes, especiallysuch as dryness accompanies, an infirmity wounded people are many times troubledwith. In inward aposthumes, as pleurises, one of them to anoint the external region ofthe part, is very beneficial.Unguentum SplanchnicumCollege : Take of Oil of Capers an ounce, oil of white Lillies, Chamomel, freshButter, juice of Briony and Sowbread, of each half an ounce, boil it to theconsumption of the juice, add Ammoniacum dissolved in Vinegar, two drams and anhalf, Hen's grease, Oesypus, Marrow of a Calf's Leg, of each half an ounce, powder ofthe bark of the roots of Tamaris and Capers, Fern roots, Cetrach, of each a dram, theseeds of Agnus Castuus, and Broom, of each a scruple, with a sufficient quantity ofWax, make it into an ointment according to art.Unguentum Splanchnicum MagistraleCollege : Take of the bark of Caper roots six drams, Briony roots, Orris Florentine,powder of sweet Fennel seeds, Ammoniacum dissolved in Vinegar, of each half anounce, tops of Wormwood, Chamomel flowers, of each a dram, ointment of the juiceand of flowers of Oranges, of each six drams, oil of Orris and Capers, of each anounce and an half: the things which ought being powdered and sifted, the restdiligently mixed in a hot mortar, make it into an ointment according to art.

Culpeper : Both these ointments are appropriated to the spleen, and eases the painsthereof, the sides being anointed with them. I fancy not the former.Unguentum e SuccisOr, Ointment of JuicesCollege : Take of the juice of Dwarf-Elder eight ounces, of Smallage and Parsley,of each four ounces, Wormwood and Orris, of each five ounces, common Oil half apound, oil of white Lilies ten ounces, of Wormwood and Chamomel, of each sixounces, the fat of Ducks and Hens, of each two ounces, boil them together with agentle fire till the juice be consumed, then strain it, and with seven ounces of whiteWax, and a little white Wine Vinegar, make it into an ointment according to art. SeeUnguentum ex Succis Aperitivis.Unguentum SumachCollege : Take of Sumach, unripe Galls, Myrtle berries, Balaustines, PomegranatePills, Acorn Cups, Cypress Nuts, Acacia, Mastich, of each ten drams, white Wax fiveounces, oil of Roses often washed in Alum water, a pound and ten ounces, make afine powder of the things you can, and steep them four whole days in juice of Medlarsand Services, of each a sufficient quantity, then dry them by a gentle fire, and with theoil and wax boil it into an ointment.Culpeper : It is a gallant drying and binding ointment. Besides, the stomachanointed with it, stays vomiting, and the belly anointed with it stays looseness, if thefundament fall out, when you have put it up again anoint it with this ointment, and itwill fall out no more. Do the like by the womb if that fall out.Ointment of Marsh-mallows, compound. NicholausCollege : Take of Marsh-mallow roots two pounds, the seeds of Flax andFœnugreek, of each one pound, pulp of Squills half a pound, Oil four pounds, Waxone pound, Turpentine, Gum of Ivy, Galbanum, of each two ounces, Colophonia,Rozin, of each half a pound. Let the roots be well washed and bruised, as also theLinseed, Fœnugreek seed, and Squills, then steep them three days in eight pints ofwater, the fourth day boil them a little upon the fire, and draw out the mussilage, ofwhich take two pounds, and boil it with the oil to the consumption of the juice,afterwards add the Wax, Rozin, and Colophonia, when they are melted, add theTurpentine, afterwards the Galbanum and Gum of Ivy, dissolved in Vinegar, boilthem a little, and having removed them from the fire, stir them till they are cold, thatso they may be well incorporated.Culpeper : It heats and moistens, helps pains of the breast coming of cold andpleurises, old aches, and stitches, and softens hard swellings.Unguentum Diapompholigos nihili. NicholausCollege : Take of Oil of Roses sixteen ounces, juice of Nightshade six ounces, letthem boil to the consumption of the juice, then add white Wax five ounces, Cerusswashed two ounces, Lead burnt and washed, Pompholix prepared, pure Frankincense,of each an ounce, let them be brought into the form of an ointment according to art.Culpeper : It cools and binds, drys, and stays fluxes, either of blood or humours inwounds, and fills hollow ulcers with flesh.Unguentum Refrigerans. GalenusIt is also called a CerecloathCollege : Take of white Wax four ounces, Oil of Roses omphacine one pound, meltit in a double vessel, then pour it out into another, by degrees putting in cold water,and often pouring it out of one vessel into another, stirring it till it be white, last of allwash it in Rose water, adding a little Rose Water, and Rose Vinegar.Culpeper : It is a fine cooling thing, to cure inflammations in wounds or tumours.

Unguentum e Succis Aperitivis primum. FœsiusCollege : Take of the juice of Smallage, Endive, Mints, Wormwood, commonParsley, Valerian, of each three ounces, oil of Wormwood and Mints, of each half apound, yellow Wax three ounces, mix them together over the fire, and make of theman ointment.Culpeper : It opens stoppages of the stomach and spleen, cases the rickets, thebreast and sides being anointed with it.An Ointment for the Worms. FœsiusCollege : Take of oil of Rue, Savin, Mints, Wormwood, and bitter Almonds, ofeach an ounce and an half, juice of the flowers or leaves of Peaches, and Wormwood,of each half an ounce, powder of Rue, Mints, Gentian, Centaury the less, Tormentil,of each one dram, the seeds of Coleworts, the pulp of Colocynthis, of each two drams,Aloes Hepatic, three drams, the meal of Lupines half an ounce, Myrrh washed ingrass water a dram and an half, Bull's Galls an ounce and an half, with juice ofLemons, so much as is sufficient, and an ounce and an half of Wax, make it into anointment according to art.Culpeper : The belly being anointed with it kills the worms.CERECLOATHSCeratum de GalbanoOr, Cerecloath of GalbanumCollege : Take of Galbanum prepared, an ounce and an half, Assafœtida half anounce, Bdellium a dram, Myrrh two drams, Wax two ounces, Carrot seeds a scruple,Featherfew, Mugwort, of each half a dram, dissolve the Gums in Vinegar, and make ita cerecloath according to art.Culpeper : Being applied to the belly of a woman after labour, it cleanses her ofany relicts accidently left behind, helps the fits of the mother, and other accidentsincident to women in that case.Ceratum OesypatumCollege : Take of Oesypus ten ounces, Oil of Chamomel, and Orris, of each half apound, yellow Wax two pounds, Rozin a pound, Mastich, Ammoniacum, Turpentine,of each an ounce, Spikenard two drams and an half, Saffron a dram and an half,Styrax Calamitis half an ounce, make them into a cerecloath according to art.Culpeper : It molifies and digests hard swellings of the liver, spleen, womb, nerves,joints, and other parts of the body, and is a great easer of pain.Ceratum SantalinumCollege : Take of red Sanders, ten drams, white and yellow Sanders, of each sixdrams, red Roses twelve drams, Bole-ammoniac seven drams, Spodium four drams,Camphire two drams, white Wax washed thirty drams, Oil of Roses omphacine sixounces: make it into a cerecloath according to art.Culpeper : It wonderfully helps hot infirmities of the stomach, liver, and otherparts, being but applied to them.PLAISTERSEmplastrum ex AmmoniacoOr, A Plaister of AmmoniacumCollege : Take of Ammoniacum, Bran well sifted, of each an ounce, Ointment ofMarsh-mallows, Melilot plaister compound, roots of Briony, and Orris in powder, of

each half an ounce, the fat of Ducks, Geese, and Hens, of each three drams, Bdellium,Galbanum, of each one dram and an half, Per-Rozin, Wax, of each five ounces, oil ofOrris, Turpentine, of each half an ounce, boil the fats and oils with mussilage of Linseed,and Fenugreek seed, of each three ounces, to the consumption of the mussilage,strain it, and add the Wax, Rozin, and Turpentine, the ointment of Marshmallows withthe plaister of Melilot; when it begins to be cold, put in the Ammoniacum, dissolvedin Vinegar, then the Bdellium in powder, with the rest of the powders, and make itinto a plaister according to art.Culpeper : It softens and assuages hard swellings, and scatters the humoursoffending, applied to the side it softens the hardness of the spleen, assuages painsthence arising.Emplastrum e Baccus LauriOr, A Plaister of Bay-berriesCollege : Take of Bay-berries husked, Turpentine, of each two ounces,Frankincense, Mastich, Myrrh, of each an ounce, Cypress, Costus, of each half anounce, Honey warmed and not scummed, four ounces: make it into a plaisteraccording to art.Culpeper : It is an excellent plaister to ease any pains coming of cold or wind, inany part of the body, whether stomach, liver, belly, reins, or bladder. It is an excellentremedy for the cholic and wind in the bowels.Emplastrum Barbarum MagnumCollege : Take of dry Pitch eight pounds, yellow Wax six pounds and eight ounces,Per-Rozin five pounds and four ounces, Bitumen, Judaicum, or Mummy, four pounds,Oil one pound and an half, Verdigris, Litharge, Ceruss, of each three ounces,Frankincense half a pound, Roach Alum not burnt, an ounce and an half, burnt, fourounces, Opopanax, scales of Brass, Galbanum, of each twelve drams, Aloes, Opium,Myrrh, of each half an ounce, Turpentine two pounds, juice of Mandrakes, or elsedried bark of the root, six drams, Vinegar five pounds. Let the Litharge, Ceruss, andOil, boil to the thickness of Honey, then incorporate with them the Pitch, being meltedwith Bitumen in powder; then add the rest, and boil them according to art, till thevinegar be consumed, and it stick not to your hands.Culpeper : It helps the bitings of men and beasts, eases inflammations of wounds,and helps infirmities of the joints, and gouts in the beginning.Emplastrum de BetonicaOr, A Plaister of BetonyCollege : Take of Betony, Burnet, Agrimony, Sage, Pennyroyal, Yarrow, Comfreythe greater, Clary, of each six ounces, Frankincense, Mastich, of each three drams,Orris, round Birthwort, of each six drams, white Wax, Turpentine, of each eightounces, PerRozin six ounces, Gum Elemi, Oil of Fir, of each two ounces, white Winethree pounds: bruise the herbs, boil them in the Wine, then strain them, and add therest, and make them into a plaister according to art.Culpeper : It is a good plaister to unite the skull when it is cracked, to draw outpieces of broken bones, and cover the bones with flesh. It draws filth from the bottomof deep ulcers, restores flesh lost, cleanses, digests, and drys.Emplastrum CوsarusCollege : Take of red Roses one ounce and an half, Bistort roots, Cypress Nuts, allthe Sanders, Mints, Coriander seeds, of each three drams, Mastich half an ounce,Hypocistis, Acacia, Dragon's blood, Earth of Lemnos, Bole-ammoniac, red Coral, ofeach two drams, Turpentine washed in Plantain water four ounces, Oil of Roses threeounces, white Wax twelve ounces, Per-Rozin ten ounces, Pitch six ounces, the juice

of Plantain, Houseleek, and Orpine, of each an ounce, the Wax, Rozin, and Pitchbeing melted together, add the Turpentine and Oil, then the Hypocistis and Acaciadissolved in the juices, at last the powders, and make it into a plaister according to art.Culpeper : It is of a fine, cool, binding, strengthening nature, excellently good torepel hot rheums or vapours that ascend up to the head, the hair being shaved off, andit applied to the crown.Emplastrum Catagmaticum the firstCollege : Take of juice of Marsh-mallow roots six ounces, bark of Ashtree roots,and their leaves, the roots of Comfrey the greater and smaller with their leaves, ofeach two ounces, Myrtle Berries an ounce and an half, the leaves of Willow, the topsof St. John's Wort, of each an handful and an half, having bruised them, boil themtogether in red Wine, and Smith's Water, of each two pound, till half be consumed,strain it, and add Oil of Myrtles, and Roses omphacine, of each one pound and anhalf, Goat's suet eight ounces, boil it again to the consumption of the decoction, strainit again, and add Litharge of Gold and Silver, red Lead, of each four ounces, yellowWax one pound, Colophonia half a pound, boil it to the consistance of a plaister, thenadd Turpentine two ounces, Myrrh, Frankincense, Mastich, of each half an ounce,Bole-ammoniac, Earth of Lemnos, of each one ounce, stir them about well till they beboiled, and made into an emplaister according to art.Catagmaticum the secondCollege : Take of the roots of Comfrey the greater, Marshmallows, Misselto of theOak, of each two ounces, Plantain, Chamepitys, St. John's Wort, of each a handful,boil them in equal parts of black Wine, and Smith's Water till half be consumed, strainit, and add mussilage of Quince seeds made in Tripe water, Oil of Mastich and Roses,of each four ounces, boil it to the consumption of the humidity, and having strained it,add Litharge of Gold four ounces, boil it to the consistence of an emplaister, then addyellow Wax four ounces, Turpentine three ounces, Colophonia six drams, Ship Pitchten ounces, powders of Balaustines, Roses, Myrtles, Acacia, of each half an ounce,Mummy, Androsamum, Mastich, Amber, of each six drams, Bole-ammoniac fineflowers, Frankincense, of each twelve drams, Dragon's blood two ounces: make it intoa plaister according to art.Culpeper : Both this and the former are binding and drying, the former rules willinstruct you in the use.Emplastrum CephalicumOr, A Cephalic PlaisterCollege : Take of Rozin two ounces, black Pitch one ounce, Labdanum,Turpentine, flower of Beans, and Orobus, Dove's dung, of each half an ounce, Myrrh,Mastich, of each one dram and an half, Gum of Juniper, Nutmegs, of each two drams,dissolve the Myrrh and Labdanum in a hot mortar, and adding the rest, make it into aplaister according to art. If you will have it stronger, add the powders, Euphorbium,Pellitory of Spain, and black Pepper, of each two scruples.Culpeper : It is proper to strengthen the brain, and repel such vapours as annoy it,and those powders being added, it dries up the superfluous moisture thereof, and easesthe eyes of hot scalding vapours that annoy them.Emplastrum de CerussaOr, A Plaister of CerussCollege : Take of Ceruss in fine powder, white Wax, Sallad Oil, of each threeounces, add the Oil by degrees to the Ceruss, and boil it by continual stirring over agentle fire, till it begin to swell, then add the Wax cut small by degrees, and boil it toits just consistence.

Culpeper : It helps burns, dry scabs, and hot ulcers, and in general whatever soresabound with moisture.Emplastrum ex Cicuta cum AmmoniacoOr, A Plaister of Hemlock with AmmoniacumCollege : Take of the juice of Hemlock four ounces, Vinegar, of Squills, andAmmoniacum, of each eight ounces, dissolve the Gum in the juice and Vinegar, aftera due infusion, then strain it into its just consistence according to art.Culpeper : I suppose it was invented to mitigate the extreme pains, and allay theinflammations of wounds, for which it is very good: let it not be applied to anyprincipal part.Emplastrum e crusta PanisOr, A Plaister of a crust of BreadCollege : Take of Mastich, Mints, Spodium, red Coral, all the Sanders, of each onedram, Oil of Mastich and Quinces, of each one dram and an half, a crust of Breadtoasted, and three times steeped in red Rose Vinegar, and as often dried, Labdanum,of each two ounces, Rozin four ounces, Styrax Calamitis half an ounce, Barley mealfive drams: make them into a plaister according to art.Culpeper : I shall commend this for a good plaister to strengthen the brain as any isin the Dispensatory, the hair being shaved off, and it applied to the crown; also beingapplied to the stomach, it strengthens it, helps digestion, stays vomiting andputrefaction of the meat there.Emplastrum e CyminoOr, A Plaister of CumminCollege : Take of Cummin-seed, Bay-berries, yellow Wax, of each one pound, Per-Rozin two pounds, common Rozin three pounds, Oil of Dill half a pound, mix them,and make them into a plaister.Culpeper : It assuages swellings, takes away old aches coming of bruises, andapplied to the belly, is an excellent remedy for the wind cholic. This I have oftenproved, and always with good success.Emplastrum DiacalciteosCollege : Take of Hog's grease fresh and purged from the skins two pounds, oil ofOlives omphacine, Litharge of Gold beaten and sifted, of each three pounds, whiteVitriol burnt and purged four ounces: let the Litharge, grease, and oil boil togetherwith a gentle fire, with a little Plantain water, always stirring it, to the consistence of aplaister, into which (being removed from the fire) put in the Vitriol and make it into aplaister according to art.Culpeper : It is a very drying, binding plaister, profitable in green wounds to hinderputrefaction, as also in pestilential sores after they are broken, and ruptures, and alsoin burnings and scaldings.Diachylon simpleCollege : Take of mussilage of Linseed, Fenugreek seed, Marsh-mallow roots, ofeach one pound, old Oil three pounds: boil it to the consumption of the mussilage,strain it, and add Litharge of Gold in fine powder, one pound and an half: boil themwith a little water over a gentle fire always stirring them to a just thickness.Culpeper : It is an exceeding good remedy for all swellings without pain, it softenshardness of the liver and spleen, it is very gentle.Diachylon IreatumCollege : Add one ounce of Orris in powder to every pound of Diachylon simple.Diachylon Magnum

College : Take of mussilage of Raisins, fat Figs, Mastich, Mallow-roots, Linseeds,and Fenugreek-seeds, Bird-lime, the juice of Orris and Squills, of each twelve dramsand an half, œsypus or oil of Sheep's feet an ounce and an half, Oil of Orris,Chamomel, Dill, of each eight ounces, litharge of Gold in fine powder one pound,Turpentine three ounces, Per-Rozin, yellow Wax, of each two ounces, boil the oilwith the mussilages and juices to the consumption of the humidity, strain the oil fromthe faces, and by adding the Litharge boil it to its consistence; then add the Rozin andWax; lastly, it being removed from the fire, add the Turpentine, œsypus and Birdlime,make of them a plaister by melting them according to art.Culpeper : It dissolves hardness and inflammations.Diachylon magnum cum GummiCollege : Take of Bdellium, Sagapenum, Amoniacum, of each two ounces,dissolved in Wine, and added to the mass of Diachylon magnum: first boil the gumsbeing dissolved, to the thickness of Honey.Culpeper : This is the best to dissolve hard swellings of all the three.Diachylon compositum, sive Emplaistrum e MussilaginibusOr, A Plaister of MussilagesCollege : Take of mussilages of the middle bark of Elm, Marsh-mallow roots,Linseed, and Fenugreek seed, of each four ounces and an half, oil of Chamomel,Lilies, and Dill, of each an ounce and an half, Ammoniacum, Galbanum, Sagapen,Opopanax, of each half an ounce, new Wax twenty ounces, Turpentine two ounces,Saffron two drams, dissolve the Gums in Wine, and make it into a plaister accordingto art.Culpeper : It ripens swellings, and breaks them, and cleanses them when they arebroken. It is of a most excellent ripening nature.Emplaistrum Diaphœnicon hotCollege : Take of yellow Wax two ounces, Per-Rozin, Pitch, of each four ounces,Oil of Roses and Nard, of each one ounce, melt them together, and add pulp of Datesmade in Wine four ounces, flesh of Quinces boiled in red Wine an ounce, then thepowders following: take of Bread twice baked, steeped in Wine and dried, twoounces, Mastich an ounce, Frankincense Wormwood, red Roses, Spikenard, of eachtwo drams and an half, Wood of Aloes, Mace, Myrrh, washed Aloes, Acacia, Trochesof Gallia Moschata, and Earth of Lemnos, Calamus Aromaticus, of each one dram,Labdanum three ounces, mix them and make them into a plaister according to art.Culpeper : It strengthens the stomach and liver exceedingly, helps fluxes, apply itto the places grieved.Diaphœnicon coldCollege : Take of Wax four ounces, Ship Pitch five ounces, Labdanum threeounces and an half, Turpentine an ounce and an half, Oil of Roses one ounce, meltthese, and add pulp of Dates almost ripe, boiled in austere Wine four ounces, flesh ofQuinces in like manner boiled, Bread twice baked often steeped in red Wine anddried, of each an ounce, Styrax Calamitis, Acacia, unripe Grapes, Balaustines, yellowSanders, troches of Terra Lemnia, Myrrh, Wood of Aloes, of each half an ounce,Mastich, red Roses, of each an ounce and an half, austere Wine as much as issufficient to dissolve the juices, make it into a plaister according to art.Culpeper : It strengthens the belly and liver, helps concoction in those parts, anddistribution of humours, stays vomiting and fluxes.Emplastrum DivinumOr, A Divine Plaster

College : Take of Loadstone four ounces, Ammoniacum three ounces and threedrams, Bdellium two ounces, Galbanum, Myrrh, of each ten drams, Olibanum ninedrams, Opopanax, Mastich, long Birthwort, Verdigris, of each an ounce, Litharge,common Oil, of each a pound and an half, new Wax eight ounces: let the Litharge infine powder be boiled with the oil to a thickness, then add the Wax, which beingmelted, take it from the fire, add the Gums dissolved in Wine and Vinegar, strain it,then add the Myrrh, Mastich, Frankincense, Birthwort, and Loadstone in powder, lastof all the Verdigris in powder, and make it into a plaster according to art.Culpeper : It is of a cleansing nature, exceeding good against malignant ulcers, itconsumes corruption, engenders new flesh, and brings them to a scar.Emplastrum EpispasticumCollege : Take of Mustard seed, Euphorbium, long Pepper, of each one dram andan half, Stavesacre, Pellitory of Spain of each two drams, Ammoniacum, Galbanum,Phellium, Sagapen, of each three drams, whole Cantharides five drams, Ship Pitch,Rozin, yellow Wax, of each six drams, Turpentine as much as is sufficient to make itinto a plaster.Culpeper : Many people use to draw blisters in their necks for the tooth ache, or forrheums in their eyes; if they please to lay a plaster of this there, it will do it.Emplastrum a nostratibus, Flos Unguentorum DictumOr, Flower of OintmentsCollege : Take of Rozin, Per Rozin, yellow Wax, Sheep's Suet, of each half apound, Olibanum four ounces, Turpentine two ounces and an half, Myrrh, Mastich, ofeach an ounce, Camphire two drams, white Wine half a pound, boil them into aplaster.Culpeper : I found this receipt in an old manuscript written in the year 1513, thequantity of the ingredients very little altered.A Plaster of Gum ElemiCollege : Take of Gum Elemi three ounces, Per Rozin, Wax, Ammoniacum, ofeach two ounces, Turpentine three ounces and an half, Mallaga Wine so much as issufficient: boil it to the consumption of the Wine, then add the Ammoniacumdissolved in Vinegar.Culpeper : The operation is the same with Arceus Liniment.A Plaister of Lapis CalaminarisCollege : Take of Lapis Calaminaris prepared an ounce, Litharge two ounces,Ceruss half an ounce, Tutty a dram, Turpentine six drams, white Wax an ounce and anhalf, Stag's Suet two ounces, Frankincense five drams, Mastich three drams, Myrrhtwo drams, Camphire a dram and an half, make it up according to art.Emplastrum ad HerniamCollege : Take of Galls, Cypress Nuts, Pomegranate Pills, Balaustines, Acacia, theseeds of Plantain, Fleawort, Watercresses, Acorn Cups, Beans torrified, Birthwortlong and round, Myrtles of each half an ounce. Let these be powdered, and steeped inRose Vinegar four days, then torrified and dried, then take of Comfrey the greater andlesser, Horsetail, Woad, Cetrach, the roots of Osmond Royal, Fearn, of each an ounce,Frankincense, Myrrh, Aloes, Mastich, Mummy, of each two ounces, Bole-ammoniacwashed in Vinegar, Lap, Calaminaris prepared, Litharge of Gold, Dragon's blood, ofeach three ounces, Ship Pitch two pounds, Turpentine six ounces, or as much as issufficient to make it into a plaster according to art.Culpeper : The plaster is very binding and knitting, appropriated to ruptures orburstens, as the title of it specifies, it strengthens the reins and womb, stays abortion,it consolidates wounds, and helps all diseases coming of cold and moisture.

Emplastrum HystericumCollege : Take of Bistort roots one pound, Wood of Aloes, yellow Sanders,Nutmegs, Barberry Kernels, Rose seeds, of each one ounce, Cinnamon, Cloves,Squinanth, Chamomel flowers, of each half an ounce, Frankincense, Mastich, AliptaMoschata, Gallia Moschata, Styrax Calamitis, of each one dram, Mosch half a dram,yellow Wax one pound and an half, Turpentine half a pound, Moschوleum fourounces, Labdanum four pounds, Ship Pitch three pounds: let the Labdanum andTurpentine be added to the Pitch and Wax, being melted, then the Styrax, lastly therest in powder, and sifted, that they may be made into a plaster according to art.Culpeper : The plaster being applied to the navel, is a means to withstand the fits ofthe mother in such women as are subject to them, by retaining the womb in its place.Emplastrum de MastichOr, A Plaster of MastichCollege : Take of Mastich three ounces, Bole-ammoniac washed in black Wine, anounce and an half, red Roses six drams, Ivory, Myrtle Berries, red Coral, of each halfan ounce, Turpentine, Colophonia, Tachamahacca, Labdanum, of each two ounces,yellow Wax half a pound, Oil of Myrtles four ounces: make it into a plaster accordingto art.Culpeper : It is a binding plaster, strengthens the stomach being applied to it, andhelps such as loath their victuals, or cannot digest it, or retain it till it be digested.Emplastrum de Meliloto SimplexOr, A Plaster of Melilot simpleCollege : Take of Rozin eight pounds, yellow Wax four pounds, Sheep's Suet twopounds: these being melted; add green Melilot cut small, five pounds: make it into aplaster according to art.Emplastrum de Meliloto compositumOr, A Plaster of Melilot compoundCollege : Take of Melilot flowers six drams, Chamomel flowers, the seeds ofFenugreek, Bay berries husked, Marsh-mallow roots, the tops of Wormwood andMarjoram, of each three drams, the seeds of Smallage, Ammi, Cardamoms, the rootsof Orris, Cypress, Spikenard, Cassia Lignea, of each one dram and an half, Bdelliumfive drams: beat them all into fine powder, the pulp of twelve Figs, and incorporatethem with a pound and an half of Melilot plaster simple, Turpentine an ounce and anhalf, Ammoniacum dissolved in Hemlock Vinegar, three ounces, Styrax five drams,oil of Marjoram, and Nard, of each half an ounce, or a sufficient quantity, make it intoa plaster with a hot mortar and pestle, without boiling.Culpeper : It mollifies the hardness of the stomach, liver, spleen, bowels, and otherparts of the body: it wonderfully assuages pain, and eases hypochondriac melancholy,and the rickets.Emplastrum de minio compositumOr, A Plaster of red Lead compoundCollege : Take of Oil of Roses omphacine twenty ounces, oil of Mastich twoounces, Suet of a Sheep and a Calf, of each half a pound, Litharge of Gold and Silver,red Lead, of each two ounces, a taster full of Wine: boil them by a gentle firecontinually stirring it till it grow black, let the fire be hottest towards the latter end,then add Turpentine half a pound, Mastich two ounces, Gum Elemi one ounce, whiteWax as much as is sufficient: boil them a little, and make them into a plasteraccording to art.Culpeper : It potently cures wounds, old maglignant ulcers, and is very drying.

Emplastrum de minio SimpliciusOr, A Plaster of red Lead simpleCollege : Take of red Lead nine ounces, Oil of red Roses one pound and an half,white Wine Vinegar six ounces, boil it into the perfect body of a plaster. It is preparedwithout Vinegar, thus: take of red Lead one pound, Oil of Roses one pound and anhalf, Wax half a pound, make it into a plaster according to art.Culpeper : It is a fine cooling healing plaster, and very drying.Emplastrum MetroproptoticonCollege : Take of Mastich one ounce and an half, Galbanum dissolved in red Wineand strained, six drams, Cypress Turpentine two drams, Cypress Nuts, Galls, of eachone dram and an half, oil of Nutmegs by expression one dram, Musk two grains andan half, Pitch scraped off from old ships two drams and an half; beat the Galbanum,Pitch, Turpentine, and Mastich gently in a hot mortar and pestle, towards the end,adding the Oil of Nutmegs, then the rest in powder, last of all the Musk mixed with alittle Oil of Mastich upon a marble, and by exact mixture make them into a plaster.Emplastrum NervinumCollege : Take of Oil of Chamomel and Roses, of each two ounces, of Mastich,Turpentine, and Linseeds, of each an ounce and an half, Turpentine boiled fourounces, Rosemary, Bettony, Horsetail, Centaury the less, of each a handful, Earthwormswashed and cleansed in Wine three ounces, tops of St. John's Wort a handful,Mastich, Gum Elemi, Madder roots, of each ten drams, Ship-pitch, Rozin of each anounce and an half, Litharge of Gold and Silver, of each two ounces and an half, redLead two ounces, Galbanum, Sagapen, Ammoniacum, of each three drams; boil theroots, herbs, and worms, in a pound and an half of Wine till half be consumed, thenpress them out, and boil the decoction again with the Oils, Suets, Litharge, and redLead, to the consumption of the Wine: then add the Gums dissolved in Wine,afterwards the Turpentine, Rozin, Pitch, and Mastich, in powders and make them intoa plaster according to art.Culpeper : It strengthens the brain and nerves, and then being applied to the back,down along the bone, it must needs add strength to the body.Emplastrum OxycroceumCollege : Take of Saffron, Ship-pitch, Colophonia, yellow Wax, of each fourounces, Turpentine, Galbanum, Ammoniacum, Myrrh, Olibanum, Mastich, of eachone ounce and three drams. Let the Pitch and Colophonia be melted together, then addthe Wax, then (it being removed from the fire) the Turpentine, afterwards the Gumsdissolved in Vinegar, lastly the Saffron in powder, well mixed with Vinegar, and somake it into a plaster according to art.Culpeper : It is of a notable softening and discussing quality, helps broken bones,and any part molested with cold, old aches, stiffness of the limbs by reason ofwounds, ulcers, fractures, or dislocations, and dissipates cold swellings.Emplastrum StephaniaionCollege : Take of Labdanum half an ounce, Styrax, Juniper Gum, of each twodrams, Amber, Cypress, Turpentine, of each one dram, red Coral, Mastich, of eachhalf a dram, the flowers of Sage, red Roses, the roots of Orris Florentine, of each onescruple, Rozin washed in Rose-water half an ounce, the Rozin, Labdanum, JuniperGum, and Turpentine, being gently beaten in a hot mortar, with a hot pestle,sprinkling in a few drops of red Wine till they are in a body; then put in the powders,and by diligent stirring make them into an exact plaster.Emplastrum Sticiticum

College : Take of Oil of Olives six ounces, yellow Wax an ounce and an half,Litharge in powder four ounces and an half, Ammoniacum, Bdellium, of each half anounce, Galbanum, Opopanax Oil of Bays, Lapis Calaminaris, both sorts of Birthwort,Myrrh, Frankincense, of each two drams, pure Turpentine an ounce. Let the Oil, Wax,and Litharge be boiled together till it stick not to your fingers, then the mass beingremoved from the fire and cooled a little, and the Gums dissolved in white WineVinegar, which evaporate away by boiling, strain it strongly, then add the powders,Turpentine, and Oil of Bays, that it may be made into a plaster according to art.Culpeper : It strengthens the nerves, draws out corruption, takes away pains andaches, and restores strength to members that have lost it: the last is most effectual.Emplastrum Stomachicum MagistraleOr, A Stomach PlasterCollege : Take of Mints, Wormwood, Stœchas, Bay leaves, of each a dram,Marjoram, red Roses, yellow Sanders, of each two drams, Calamus Aromaticus,Wood of Aloes, Lavender flowers, Nutmegs, Cubebs, Galanga, long Pepper, Mace, ofeach a dram, Mastich three drams, Cloves two drams and an half, Oil of Mints anounce and an half, Oil of Nard an ounce, Oil of Spike a dram, Rozin, Wax, of eachfour ounces, Labdanum three ounces, Styrax half an ounce: make it into a plaster.Culpeper : Both this and the other of that name which you shall have by and by,strengthen the stomach exceedingly, help digestion and stay vomiting.Emplastrum Ceroma, or, Ceroneum. Nich. Alex.College : Take of Pitch scraped from a Ship that hath been a long time at Sea,yellow Wax, of each seven drams, Sagapenum six drams, Ammoniacum, Turpentine,Colophonia, Saffron, of each four drams, Aloes, Olibanum, Myrrh, of each threedrams, Styrax Calamitis, Mastich, Opopanax, Galbanum, Alum, the seeds ofFenugreek, of each two drams, the settlings or faces of liquid Styrax, Bdellium, ofeach one dram, Litharge half a dram.Culpeper : It is of a gentle emolient nature, prevails against stoppings of thestomach, coming of cold, hardness of the spleen, coldness of the liver and matrix.Emplastrum Gratia Dei. Nich.Or the Grace of GodCollege : Take of Turpentine half a pound, Rozin one pound, white Wax fourounces, Mastich an ounce, fresh Betony, Vervain, and Burnet, of each one handful.Let the herbs, being bruised, be sufficiently boiled in white Wine, the liquor pressedout, in which let the Wax and Rozin be boiled to the consumption of the liquor: beingtaken from the fire, let the Turpentine be mixed with it; lastly the Mastich in powder,and so make of them a plaster according to art.Culpeper : It is excellent good in wounds and green ulcers, for it keeps backinflammations, cleanses and joins wounds, fills up ulcers with flesh.Emplastrum de Janua, or of Betony. NicholausCollege : Take of the juice of Betony, Plantain, and Smallage, of each one pound,Wax, Pitch, Rozin, Turpentine, of each half a pound, boil the Wax and Rozin in thejuices with a gentle fire, continually stirring them till the juice be consumed; then addthe Turpentine and Pitch, continually stirring it till it be brought into the consistenceof a plaster according to art.Emplastrum Isis Epigoni. GalenCollege : Take of yellow Wax an hundred drams, Turpentine two hundred drams,scales of Copper, Verdigris, round Birthwort, Frankincense, Sal-ammoniac,Ammoniacum, burnt brass of each eight drams, burnt Alum six drams, Aloes, Myrrh,Galbanum, of each an ounce and a half, old Oil one pound, sharp Vinegar so much as

is sufficient. Let the metals be dissolved in the sun with the Vinegar, then put in thosethings that may be melted, last of all the powders, and make them all into anemplaster.Culpeper : Galen appropriates it to the head, and ulcers there. I know no reason butwhy it may as well serve for other parts of the body.A Plaster of Mastich. Nich. Alex.College : Take of Mastich, Ship Pitch, Sagapenum, Wax, of each six drams,Ammoniacum, Turpentine, Colophonia, Saffron, Aloes, Frankincense, Myrrh, of eachthree drams, Opopanax, Galbanum, Styrax, Calamitis, Alum, (Rondeletius appoints,and we for him) Bitumen, Fenugreek, of each two drams, the feces of Liquid Styrax,Bdellium, Litharge, of each half a dram. Let the Litharge, being beaten into powder,be boiled in a sufficient quantity of water; then add the pitch, which being melted, addthe Wax and Ammoniacum, afterwards let the Sagapenum, Opopanax, and Galbanumbe put in; then the Styrax and Feces being mixed with the Turpentine, last of all theColophonia, Mastich, Frankincense, Bdellium, Alum, Myrrh, and Fenugreek inpowder: let them be made into a plaster.Culpeper : It strengthens the stomach, and helps digestion.Emplastrum Nigrum. August.Called in High Dutch StichstasterCollege : Take of Colophonia, Rozin, Ship Pitch, white Wax, roman Vitriol,Ceruss, Olibanum, Myrrh, of each eight ounces, Oil of roses seven ounces, Oil ofJuniper Berries three ounces, Oil of Eggs two ounces, Oil of Spick one ounce, whiteVitriol, red Coral, Mummy, of each two ounces, Earth of Lemnos, Mastich, Dragon'sblood, of each one ounce, the fat of an Heron one ounce, the fat of Pimullus threeounces, Load stone prepared, two ounces, Earthworms prepared, Camphire, of eachone ounce; make them into a plaster according to art.Culpeper : It is very good in green wounds and shootings.A Key toGalen's Method of PhysicThe general use of physicI SHALL desire thee, whoever thou art, that intendest the noble (though too muchabused) study of physic, to mind heedfully these following rules; which being wellunderstood, shew thee the Key of Galen and Hippocrates their method of physic: hethat useth their method, and is not heedful of these rules, may soon cure one disease,and cause another more desperate.That thou mayest understand what I intend, it is to discover in a general way of themanifest virtues of medicines.I say of the manifest virtues, and qualities, viz. such as are obvious to the senses,especially to the taste and smell: for it hath been the practice of most Physicians, inthese latter ages as well as ours, to say, when they cannot give, nor are minded tostudy a reason, why an herb, plant, &c. hath such an operation, or produces such aneffect in the body of man: It doth it by an hidden quality, for they not minding thewhole creation, as one united body, not knowing what belongs to astral influence, notregarding that excellent harmony the only wise God hath made in a composition ofcontraries (in the knowledge of which consists the whole ground and foundation ofphysic) are totally led astray by Tradition.

It is the manifest qualities of medicines that here I am to speak to, and you may bepleased to behold it in this order.SECTION 1. Of the Temperature of MedicinesSECTION 2. Of the appropriation of MedicinesSECTION 3. Of the Properties of MedicinesSECTION IOf the Temperature of MedicinesHERBS, plants, and other medicines manifestly operate, either by heat, coldness,dryness, or moisture, for the world being composed of so many qualities, they andonly they can be found in the world, and the mixtures of them one with another.But that they may appear as clear as the sun when he is upon the meridian, I shalltreat of them severally, and in this order:1. Of Medicines temperate.2. Of Medicines hot.3. Of Medicines cold.4. Of Medicines moist.5. Of Medicines dry.Of Medicines TemperateIf the world be composed of extremes, then it acts by extremes, for as the man is, sois his work: therefore it is impossible that any medicine can be temperate, but may bereduced to heat, cold, dryness, or moisture, and must operate, (I mean such as operateby manifest quality) by one of these, because there is no other to operate by, and thatthere should be such a temperate mixture, so exquisitely of these qualities in anymedicine, that one of them should not manifestly excel the other, I doubt it is a systemtoo rare to find.Thus then I conclude the matter to be, those Medicines are called temperate (notbecause they have excess of temperature at all in them) which can neither be said, toheat nor cool so much as will amount to the first degree of excess, for dailyexperience witnesses that they being added to medicines, change not their qualities,they make them neither hotter nor colder.Their use. They are used in such diseases where there is no manifest distemper ofthe first qualities, viz. heat and cold, for example: In obstruction of the bowels, wherecold medicines might make the obstruction greater, and hot medicines cause a fever.In fevers of flegm, where the cause is cold and moist, and the effect hot and dry; insuch, use temperate medicines which may neither encrease the fever by their heat, norcondensate the flegm by their coldness.Besides, because contraries are taken away by their contraries, and every likemaintained by its like, they are of great use, to preserve the constitution of the bodytemperate, and the body itself in strength and vigour, and may be used withoutdanger, or fear of danger, by considering which part of the body is weak, and usingsuch temperate medicines as are appropriated to that part.Of Medicines hotThe care of the ancient Physicians was such that they did not labour to hide from,but impart to posterity, not only the temperature of medicines in general, but also theirdegrees in temperature, that so the distempered part may be brought to itstemperature, and no further; for all things which are of a contrary temperature,conduce not to cure, but the strength of the contrariety must be observed, that so themedicine may be neither weaker nor stronger, than just to take away the distemper;for if the distemper be but meanly hot, and you apply a medicine cold in the fourth

degree, it is true, you may soon remove that distemper of heat, and bring another ofcold twice as bad. Galen, de simp. med. facul. lib. 3. cap. 12.Then, secondly, not only the distemper itself, but also the part of the bodydistempered must be heeded; for if the head be distempered by heat, and you givesuch medicines as cool the heart or liver, you will bring another disease, and not curethe former.The degrees then of temperature are to be diligently heeded, which antientphysicians have concluded to be four in the qualities, viz. heat and cold, of each weshall speak a word or two severally.Of Medicines hot in the first degreeThose are said to be hot in the first degree, which induce a moderate and naturalheat to the body, and to the parts thereof, either cold by nature, or cooled by accident,by which natural heat is cherished when weak, or restored when wanting.Effect 1. The first effect then of medicines hot in the first degree, is, by their sweatand temperate heat to reduce the body to its natural heat, as the fire doth the externalparts in cold weather, unless the affliction of cold be so great that such mild medicineswill not serve the turn.Effect 2. The second effect is, the mitigation of pain arising from such a distemper,and indeed this effect hath other medicines, some that are cold, and some that arehotter than the first degree, they being rationally applied to the distemper. Thesemedicines the Greeks call Anodyna, and shall be spoken of in their proper places. Inthis place let it suffice that medicines hot in the first degree, make the offendinghumours thin, and expel them by sweat, or insensible transpiration, and these of allothers are most congruous or agreeable to the body of man, for there is no such equaltemperature of heat and cold in a sound man, but heat exceeds, for we live by heat andmoisture, and not by cold.Medicines then which are hot in the first degree, are such as just correspond to thenatural heat of our bodies; such as are hotter or colder, are more subject to domischief, being administered by an unskilful hand, than these are, because of theircontrariety to nature; whereas these are grateful to the body by their moderate heat.Effect 3. Thirdly, these take away weariness, and help fevers, being outwardlyapplied, because they open the pores of the skin, and by their gentle heat prepare thehumours, and take away those fuliginous vapours that are caused by fevers.Discommodities : Yet may discommodities arise by heedless giving even of these,which I would have young students in physic to be very careful in, lest they do moremischief than they are aware of, viz. it is possible by too much use of them, toconsume not only what is inimical in the body, but also the substance itself, and thestrength of the spirits, whence comes faintings, and sometimes death: besides, byapplying them to the parts of the body they are not appropriated to, or by not heedingwell the complexion of the patient, or the natural temper of the part of the bodyafflicted, for the heart is hot, but the brain temperate.Effect 4. Lastly, medicines hot in the first degree, cherish heat in the internal parts,help concoction, breed good blood, and keep it good in temper, being bred.Of Medicines hot in the second degreeThese are something hotter than the natural temper of a man.Use. Their use for such whose stomachs are filled with moisture, because theirfaculty is too hot and dry; they take away obstructions or stoppings, open the pores ofthe skin, but not in the same manner that such do as are hot in the first degree, for theydo it without force, by a gentle heat, concocting, and expelling the humours, by

strengthening and helping nature in the work; but these cut tough humours, and scatterthem by their own force and power when nature cannot.Of Medicines hot in the third degreeThose which attain the third degree of heat, have the same faculties with thosebefore mentioned; but as they are hotter, so are they more powerful in theiroperations, for they are so powerful in heating and cutting, that if unadvisedly giventhey cause fevers.Use. Their use is to cut tough and compacted humours, to provoke sweatabundantly; hence it comes to pass they all of them resist poison.Of Medicines hot in the fourth degreeThose medicines obtain the highest degree of heat, which are so hot that they burnthe body of a man, being outwardly applied to it, and cause inflammations, or raiseblisters, as Crowfoot, Mustardseed, Onions, & c. Of these more hereafter.Of cooling MedicinesPhysicians have also observed four degrees of coldness in medicines, which I shallbriefly treat of in order.Of Medicines cold in the first degreeThose medicines which are least cold of all, obtain the first degree of coldness; andI beseech you take notice of this, that seeing our bodies are nourished by heat, and welive by heat, therefore no cold medicines are friendly to the body, but what good theydo our bodies, they do it by removing an unnatural heat, or the body heated above itsnatural temper.The giving then of cold medicines to a man in his natural temper, the season of theyear also being but moderately hot, extinguishes natural heat in the body of man.Yet have these a necessary use in them too, though not so frequent as hot medicineshave; and that may be the reason why an all wise God hath furnished us with far morehot herbs and plants, &c. than cold.Use 1. Their use is first, in nourishment, that so the heat of food may be qualified,and made for a weak stomach to digest.Use 2. Secondly, to restrain and assuage the heat of the bowels, and to cool theblood in fevers.Therefore if the distemper of heat be but gentle, medicines cold in the first degreewill suffice; also children, and such people whose stomachs are weak, are easily hurtby cold medicines.Of Medicines cold in the second and third degreeUse 1. Such whose stomachs are strong, and livers hot, may easily bear suchmedicines as are cold in the second degree, and in cases of extremity find much helpby them: as also by such as are cold in the third degree, the extremity of the diseaseconsidered, for by both these the unbridled heat of choler is assuaged.Use 2. Also they are outwardly applied to hot swellings, due consideration beinghad, that if the inflammation be not great, usethose that are less; if the inflammation be vehement, make use of medicines cold inthe second or third degree, always let the remedy correspond to the just proportion ofthe affliction.Use 3. Thirdly, sometimes the spirits are moved inordinately through heat, thencefollows immoderate watchings, if not deprivation of the senses, this also must beremedied with cold medicines, for cold stops the pores of the skin, makes the humoursthick, represses sweat, and keeps up the spirits from fainting.Of Medicines cold in the fourth degree

Lastly, The use of medicines cold in the fourth degree, is, to mitigate desperate andvehement pains, stupifying the senses, when no other course can be taken to save life;of the use of which more hereafter.Of moistening MedicinesThere can be no such difference found amongst moistening medicines, that theyshould surpass the second degree. For seeing all medicines are either hot or cold,neither heat nor cold, seeing they are extremes, can consist with moisture, for the onedries it up, the other condensates it.Use. Phylosophers therefore call moisture and dryness, passive qualities, yet havethey their operation likewise; for moist medicines lenify and make slippery, ease thecough, and help the roughness of the throat. These operations are proper to medicinesmoist in the first degree.Those which are moister, take away naturally strength, help the sharpness ofhumours, make both blood and spirits thicker, looses the belly, and fits it forpurgation.The immoderate or indiscreet use of them dulls the body, and makes it unfit foraction.Of drying MedicinesDrying medicines have contrary faculties to these, viz. to consume moisture, stopfluxes, and make such parts dry as are slippery, they make the body and membersfirm, when they are weakened by too much moisture, that so they may perform theirproper functions.Yet although the members be strengthened by drying medicines, they havenotwithstanding their own proper moisture in them, which ought to be conserved, andnot destroyed, for without it they cannot consist. If then this moisture be consumed byusing, or rather over use of drying medicines, the members can neither be nourished,nor yet perform their proper actions.Such medicines as are dry in the third degree, being unadvisedly given, hinder theparts of the body they are appropriated to, of their nourishment, and by that meansbrings them into consumption.Besides, There is a certain moisture in the body of man, which is called radicalmoisture, which being taken away, the parts must needs die, seeing natural heat andlife also consists in it, and this may be done by too frequent use of medicines dry inthe fourth degree. And it may be this was the reason of Galen's writing, that thingsdry in the fourth degree, must of necessity burn; which is an effect of heat, and not ofdryness, unless by burning, Galen means consuming the radical moisture.The use then of drying medicines, is only to such bodies, and parts of the body, asabound with moisture, in which observe these rules.1. If the moisture be not extreme, let not the medicine be extremely drying.2. Let it be proper to the part of the body afflicted, for if the liver be afflicted bymoisture, and you go about to dry the brain or heart, you may sooner kill than cure.Thus have we briefly spoken of the first qualities of medicines, and in the generalonly, and but briefly, because we shall always touch upon them in the exposition ofthe other qualities, in which you must always have an eye to these.SECTION IIOf the appropriation of Medicines to the several parts of the body

That the qualities and use of these medicines may be found out, and understood byevery one, and so my country reap the benefit of my labour, they shall find thempresented to their view in this order.Medicines appropriated:1. To the head.2. To the breast and lungs.3. To the heart.4. To the stomach.5. To the liver.6. To the spleen.7. To the reins and bladder.8. To the womb.9. To the jointsCHAPTER IOf Medicines appropriated to the headBy [head] is usually understood all that part of the body which is between the topof the crown, and the uppermost joint of the neck, yet are those medicines properlycalled Cephalical, which are appropriated to the brain, not to the eyes, ears, nor teeth;neither are those medicines which are proper to the ears, proper also to the eyes,therefore (my intent being to write as plain as I can) I shall subdivide this chapter intothese parts.Medicines appropriated:1. To the brain.2. To the eyes.3. To the mouth, and nostrils.4. To the ears.5. To the teeth.For what medicines are appropriated to an unruly tongue, is not in my power atpresent to determine.Of Medicines appropriated to the brainBefore we treat of medicines appropriated to the brain, it is requisite that wedescribe what the nature and affection of the brain is.The brain, which is the seat of apprehension, judgment, and memory, the originalof sense and motion, is by nature temperate, and if so, then you will grant me that itmay easily be afflicted both by heat and cold, and it is indeed more subject toaffliction by either of them, than any other part of the body, for if it be afflicted byheat, sense and reason, it is immoderately moved, if by cold, they languish, and aredulled, to pass by other symptoms which invade the head, if the brain be altered fromits proper temper.Also this is peculiar to the brain, that it is delighted or offended by smells, sights,and sounds, but I shall meddle no further with these here, because they are notmedicines.Cephalical Medicines may be found out from the affections of the brain itself. Thebrain is usually oppressed with moisture in such afflictions; therefore give suchmedicines as very gently warm,cleanse, cut, and dry: but withal, let them be such asare appropriated to the head, such as physicians say (by an hidden quality) strengthenthe brain.Again, if you consider the situation of the brain, you shall find it placed in thehighest part of the body, therefore it is easily afflicted with hot vapours: this punishes

a man with watching and headache, as the former did with sottishness and sleepiness,in such cases use such Cephalecs as gently cool the brain.To make Cephalecs of Narcoticks, or stupifying medicines, is not my intent, for Iam confident they are inimical both to brain and senses. Of these, and such medicinesas also purge the brain, I shall speak by and by. To return to my purpose.Some Cephalics purge the brain, some heat it, some cool it, some strengthen it; buthow they perform this office peculiarly to the brain, most physicians confess theycould neither comprehend by reason, nor describe by precepts, only thus, they do it byan hidden quality, either by strengthening the brain, thereby descending it fromdiseases, or by a certain antipathy between them and the diseases incident to the brain.Lastly, for the use of Cephalics, observe, if the brain be much afflicted, you cannotwell strengthen it before you have purged it, neither can you well purge the brainbefore you have cleansed the rest of the body, it is so subject to receive the vapours upto it; give cooling Cephalics when the brain is too hot, and hot Cephalics when it istoo cold.Beware of using cooling medicines to the brain when the crisis of a disease is near:how that time may be known, I shall (God assisting me) instruct you hereafter; let itsuffice now, that according as the disease afflicting your head is, so let your remedybe.Of Medicines appropriated to the eyesTake such medicines as are appropriated to the eyes under the name of (OcularMedicines). I do it partly to avoid multiplicity of words, and partly to instruct mycountrymen in the terms of art belonging to physic, (I would have called them[Ophthalmics] had not the word been troublesome to the reading, much more to theunderstanding of a countryman) as I even now called such medicines [Cephalics] aswere appropriated to the brain.Ocular medicines are two-fold, viz. such as are referred to the visive virtues, andsuch as are referred to the eyes themselves.Such as strengthen the visive virtue or the optick nerves which convey it to the eyes(say Doctors) do it by an hidden virtue, into the reason which no man can dive, unlessthey should fetch it fromthe similitude of the substance. And yet they say a Goat's liver conduces much tomake one see in the night, and they give this reason, because Goats see as well in thenight as in the day. Yet is there no affinity in temperature nor substance between theliver and the eyes. However, Astrologers know well enough that all herbs, plants, &c.that are under the dominion of either sun or moon, and appropriated to the head, bethey hot or cold they strengthen the visive virtue, as Eyebright, which is hot Lunaria,or Moonwort which is cold.As for what appertains to the constitution of the eyes themselves, seeing they areexact in sense, they will not endure the least inconvenience, therefore such medicinesas are outwardly applied to them (for such medicines as strengthen the visive virtuesare always given inwardly) let them neither hurt by their hardness nor gnawingquality, nor be so tough that they should stick to them. Therefore let ocular medicinesbe neither in powders nor ointments, because oil itself is offensive to the eyes, andhow pleasing powders are to them, you may perceive yourself by just going into thedust.Medicines appropriated to the mouth and noseApply no stinking medicine to a disease in the nose, for such offend not only thenose, but also the brain; neither administer medicines of any ill taste to a disease inthe mouth, for that subverts the stomach, because the tunicle of the mouth and of the

stomach is the same: and because both mouth and nostrils are ways by which thebrain is cleansed, therefore are they infected with such vices as need almost continualcleansing, and let the medicines you apply to them be either pleasant, or at least, notingrateful.Medicines appropriated to the earsThe ears are easily afflicted by cold, because they are always open, therefore theyrequire hot medicines. And because they are of themselves very dry, therefore theyrequire medicines which dry much.Medicines appropriated to the teethVehement heat, and vehement cold, are inimical to the teeth, but they are most ofall offended by sharp and sour things, and the reason is, because they have neitherskin nor flesh to cover them, they delight in such medicines as are cleansing andbinding, because they are troubled with defluxions and rheums upon every lightoccasion; and that's the reason the common use of fat and sweet things, soon rotsthe teeth.CHAPTER IIOf Medicines appropriated to the breast and lungsThe medicines appropriated to the breast and lungs, you shall find called all alongby the name of [pectorals] that's the term Physicians give them, when you hear themtalk of pectoral Syrups, pectoral robs, or pectoral Ointments.They are divers, some of which regard the part afflicted, others the matterafflicting.But although sometimes in ulcers of the lungs, we are forced to use bindingmedicines, to join the ulcer, yet are not these called pectorals, because bindingmedicines are extreme hurtful to the breast and lungs, both because they hinder one'sfetching his breath, and also because they hinder the avoiding that flegm by which thebreast is oppressed.Such medicines are called pectorals, which are of a lenifying nature.Besides, those which make thin matter thicker are of two sorts, viz. some are mildand gentle, which may safely be administered, be the matter hot or cold whichoffendeth; others are very cold, which are used only when the matter offending issharp.But because such medicines as conduce to the cure of the phthisics (which is anulceration of the lungs, and the disease usually called, the consumption of the lungs,)are also reckoned in amongst pectorals, it is not amiss to speak a word or two of them.In the cure of this disease are three things to be regarded.1. To cut and bring away the concreted blood.2. To cherish and strengthen the lungs.3. To conglutinate the ulcer.And indeed some particular simples will perform all these, and physicians confessit; which shews the wonderful mystery the allwise God hath made in the creation, thatone and the same simple should perform two contrary operations on the same part ofthe body; for the more a medicine cleanses, the more it conglutinates.To conclude then, Pectoral Medicines are such as either cut and cleanse out thecompacted humours from the arteries of the lungs, or make thin defluxions thick, ortemper those that are sharp, help the roughness of the wind-pipe, or are generallylenitive and softening, being outwardly applied to the breast.CHAPTER IIIOf Medicines appropriated to the heart

These are they which are generally given under the notion of Cordials; take themunder that name here.The heart is the seat of the vital spirit, the fountain of life, the original of infusedheat, and of the natural affections of man.So then these two things are proper to the heart.1. By its heat to cherish life throughout the body.2. To add vigour to the affections.And if these be proper to the heart, you will easily grant me, that it is the propertyof cordials to administer to the heart in these particulars.Of Cordials, some cheer the mind, some strengthen the heart, and refresh the spiritsthereof, being decayed.Those which cheer the mind, are not one and the same; for as the heart is variouslydisturbed, either by anger, love, fear, hatred, sadness, &c., so such things as flatterlovers or appease the angry, or comfort the fearful, or please the hateful, may well becalled cordials; for the heart, seeing it is placed in the middle between the brain andthe liver, is wrought upon by reason, as well as by digestion, yet these, because theyare not medicines, are beside my present scope.And although it is true, that mirth, love, &c. are actions, or motions of the mind,not of the body; yet many have been induced to think such affections may be wroughtin the body by medicines.The heart is chiefly afflicted by too much heat, by poison, and by stinking vapours,and these are remedied by the second sort of cordials, and indeed chiefly belong toour present scope.According to these three afflictions, viz.1. Excessive heat.2. Poison.3. Melancholy vapours.are three kinds of remedies which succour the afflicted heart.Such as1. By their cooling nature mitigate the heat of fevers.2. Resist poison.3. Cherish the vital spirits when they languish.All these are called Cordials.1. Such as cool the heart in fevers, yet is not every thing that cooleth cordial, forlead is colder than gold, yet is not lead cordial as gold is, some hold it cordial by ahidden quality, others by reason.2. Such as resist poison; there is a two-fold resisting of poison.1. By an antipathy between the medicine and poison.2. By a sympathy between the medicine and the heart.Of the first we shall speak anon, in a chapter by itself. The latter belongs to thischapter, and they are such medicines, whose nature is to strengthen the heart, andfortify it against the poison, as Rue, Angelica, &c. For as the operation of the formeris upon the poison, which afflicteth the heart, so the operation of the latter is upon theheart afflicted by the poison.To this class may be referred all such medicines as strengthen the heart either byastral influence, or by likeness of substance, if there be such a likeness in medicines,for a Bullock's heart is of like substance to man's, yet I question whether it be cordialor not.3. And lastly, such as refresh the spirits, and make them lively and active, bothbecause they are appropriated to the office, and also because they drive stinking and

melancholy vapours from the heart, for as the animal spirit be refreshed by fragrantsmells, and the natural spirits by spices, so are the vital spirits refreshed by all suchmedicines as keep back melancholy vapours from the heart, as Borrage, Bugloss,Rosemary, Citron Pills, the compositions of them, and many others, which thistreatise will amply furnish you with.CHAPTER IVOf Medicines appropriated to the stomachBy stomach, I mean that ventricle which contains the food till it be concocted intochyle.Medicines appropriated to the stomach are usually called stomachicals.The infirmities usually incident to the stomach are three:1. Appetite lost.2. Digestion weakened.3. The retentive faculty corrupted.When the appetite is lost, the man feels no hunger when his body needsnourishment.When digestion is weakened it is not able to concoct the meat received into thestomach, but it putrifies there.When the retentive faculty is spoiled the stomach is not able to retain the food till itbe digested, but either vomits it up again, or causes fluxes.Such medicines then as remedy all these, are called stomachicals. And of them inorder.1. Such as provoke appetite are usually of a sharp or sourish taste, and yet withal ofa grateful taste to the palate, for although loss of appetite may proceed from diverscauses, as from choler in the stomach, or putrefied humours or the like, yet suchthings as purge this choler or humours, are properly called Orecticks, notstomachicals; the former strengthen appetite after these are expelled.2. Such medicines help digestion as strengthen the stomach, either by convenientheat, or aromatic (viz. spicy) faculty, by hidden property, or congruity of nature.3. The retentive faculty of the stomach is corrected by binding medicines, yet notby all binding medicines neither, for some of them are adverse to the stomach, but bysuch binding medicines as are appropriated to the stomach.For the use of these.Use 1. Use not such medicines as provoke appetite before you have cleansed thestomach of what hinders it.Use 2. Such medicines as help digestion, give them a good time before meat that sothey may pass to the bottom of the stomach, (for the digestive faculty lies there,)before the food come into it.Use 3. Such as strengthen the retentive faculty, give them a little before meat, if tostay fluxes, a little after meat, if to stay vomiting.CHAPTER VOf Medicines appropriated to the liverBe pleased to take these under the name of Hepatics, for that is the usual namephysicians give them, and these also are of three sorts.1. Some the liver is delighted in.2. Others strengthen it.3. Others help its vices.

The palate is the seat of taste, and its office is to judge what food is agreeable to thestomach, and what not, by that is both the quality and quantity of food for the stomachdiscerned: the very same office the meseraik veins perform to the liver.Sometimes such food pleases the palate which the liver likes not (but not often) andtherefore the meseraik veins refuse it, and that is the reason some few men fancy suchfood as makes them sick after the eating thereof.1. The liver is delighted exceedingly with sweet things, draws them greedily, anddigests them as swiftly, and that is the reason honey is so soon turned into choler.2. Such medicines strengthen the liver, as (being appropriated to it) very gentlybind, for seeing the office of the liver is to concoct, it needs some adstriction, that soboth the heat and the humour to be concocted may be stayed, that so the one slip notaway, nor the other be scattered.Yet do not hepatical medicines require so great a binding faculty as stomachicalsdo, because the passages of the stomach are more open than those of the liver bywhich it either takes in chyle, or sends out blood to the rest of the body, thereforemedicines that are very binding are hurtful to the liver, and either cause obstructions,or hinder the distribution of the blood, or both.And thus much for the liver, the office of which is to concoct chyle, (which is awhite substance the stomach digests the food into) into blood, and distributes it, bythe veins, to every part of the body, whereby the body is nourished, and decayingflesh restored.CHAPTER VIOf Medicines appropriated to the spleenIn the breeding of blood, are three excrements most conspicuous, viz. urine, choler,and melancholy.The proper seat of choler is in the gall.The urine passeth down to the reins or kidneys, which is all one.The spleen takes the thickest or melancholy blood to itself.This excrement of blood is twofold: for either by excessive heat, it is addust, andthis is that the Latins call Atra Bilis: or else it is thick and earthly of itself, and thisproperly is called melancholy humour.Hence then is the nature of splenical medicines to be found out, and by these two isthe spleen usually afflicted for Atra bilis, (I know not what distinct English name togive it) many times causes madness, and pure melancholy causeth obstructions of thebowels, and tumours, whereby the concoction of the blood is vitiated, and dropsiesmany times follow.Medicines then peculiar to the spleen must needs be twofold also, someappropriated to Atra bilis, others to pure melancholy; but of purging either of them, Ishall omit till I come to treat of purging in a chapter by itself.1. Such medicines are splenical, which by cooling and moistening temper Atrabilis: let not these medicines be too cold neither, for there is no such heat in Atra bilisas there is in choler, and therefore it needs no such excessive cooling; amongst thenumber of theseare such as we mentioned amongst the cordials to repel melancholy vapours fromthe heart, such temper and assuage the malice of Atra bilis.2. Those medicines are also splenical, by which melancholy humours are correctedand so prepared, that they may the more easily be evacuated: such medicines arecutting and opening, and they differ from hepaticals in this that they are no ways

inding; for the spleen being no ways addicted to concoction, binding medicines do itharm, and not good.3. Sometimes the spleen is not only obstructed, but also hardened by melancholyhumours, and in such cases emolient medicines may be well called splenicals, notsuch as are taken inwardly, for they operate upon the stomach and bowels, but such asare outwardly applied to the region of the spleen.And although sometimes medicines, are outwardly applied to hardness of the liver,yet they differ from splenicals, because they are binding, so are not splenicals.CHAPTER VIIOf Medicines appropriated to the reins and bladderThe office of the reins is, to make a separation between the blood and the urine; toreceive this urine thus separated from the blood, is the bladder ordained, which is of asufficient bigness to contain it.Both these parts of the body officiating about the urine, they are both usuallyafflicted by the vices of the urine.1. By stones.2. By inflammation.3. By thick humours.Medicines appropriated to the reins and bladder are usually called Nephriticals, andare threefold; some cool, others cut gross humours, and a third sort breaks the stone.In the use of all these, take notice, that the constitution of the reins and bladder issuch, that they abhor all binding medicines because they cause stoppage of urine.Take notice, that the reins and bladder being subject to inflammations endure notvery hot medicines.Because the bladder is further remote from the centre of the body than the kidniesare, therefore it requires stronger medicines than the kidnies do, lest the strength ofthe medicine be spent before it be come to the part afflicted.CHAPTER VIIIOf Medicines appropriated to the wombThese, physicians call Hystericals, and to avoid multiplicity of words, take them inthis discourse under that notion.Take notice that such medicines as provoke the menses, or stop them when theyflow immoderately, are properly hystericals, but shall be spoken to by and by in achapter by themselves.As for the nature of the womb, it seems to be much like the nature of the brain andstomach, for experience teacheth that it is delighted with sweet and aromaticalmedicines, and flies from their contraries.For example: a woman being troubled with the fits of the mother, which is drawingof the womb upward, apply sweet things, as Civet, or the like, to the place ofconception, it draws it down again; but apply stinking things to the nose, asAssafœtida, or the like, it expels it from it, and sends it down to its proper place.CHAPTER IXOf Medicines appropriated to the jointsThe joints are usually troubled with cephalic diseases, and then are to be cured bycephalic medicines.Medicines appropriated to the joints, are called by the name Arthritical medicines.The joints, seeing they are very nervous, require medicines which are of a heatingand drying nature, with a gentle binding, and withal, such as by peculiar virtue are

appropriated to them, and add strength to them. It is true, most cephalics do so, yetbecause the joints are more remote from the centre, they require stronger medicines.For removing pains in the joints this is the method of proceeding.Pain is either taken away or eased, for the true cure is to take away the cause of thepain, sometimes the vehemency of the pain is so great that you must be forced to useAnodines (for so physicians call such medicines as ease pain) before you can meddlewith the cause, and this is usually when the part pained is inflamed, for thosemedicines which take away the cause of pain being very hot, if there be anyinflammation in the part pained, you must abstain from them till the inflammation betaken away.SECTION IIIOf the propriety or operation of MedicinesCHAPTER IOf Emolient MedicinesThe various mixtures of heat, cold, dryness, and moisture in simples, must ofnecessity produce variety of faculties, and operations in them, which now we come totreat of, beginning first at emolients.What is hard, and what is soft, most men know, but few are able to express.Phylosophers define that to be hard which yields not to touching, and soft to be thecontrary. An emolient, or softening medicine is one which reduceth a hard substanceto its proper temperature.But to leave phylosophy, and keep to what the physicians describe hardness to betwo-fold.1. A distention or stretching of a part by too much fulness.2. Thick humours which are destitute of heat, growing hard in that part of the bodyinto which they flow.So many properties then ought emolient medicines to have, viz. to moisten what isdry, to discuss what is stretched, to warm what is congealed by cold; yet properly, thatonly is said to mollify which reduceth a hard substance to its proper temperature.Dryness and thickness of humours being the cause of hardness, emolient medicinesmust of necessity be hot and moist; and although you may peradventure find some ofthem dry in the second or third degrees, yet must this dryness be tempered andqualified with heat and moisture, for reason will tell you that dry medicines makehard parts harder.Mollifying medicines are known, (1) by their taste, (2) by their feeling.1. In taste, they are near unto sweat, but fat and oily; they are neither sharp, noraustere, nor sour, nor salt, neither do they manifest either binding, or vehement heat,or cold to be in them.2. In feeling you can perceive no roughness, neither do they stick to your fingerslike Birdlime, for they ought to penetrate the parts to be mollified, and therefore manytimes if occasion be, are cutting medicines mixed with them.CHAPTER IIOf hardening MedicinesGalen in Lib. 5 de Simple, Med. Facult., Cap. 10 determines hardening medicinesto be cold and moist, and he brings some arguments to prove it, against which otherphysicians contest.

I shall not here stand to quote the dispute, only take notice, that if softeningmedicines be hot and moist (as we shewed even now) then hardening medicines mustneeds be cold and dry, because they are contrary to them.The universal course of nature will prove it, for dryness and moisture are passivequalities, neither can extremeties consist in moisture as you may know, if you do butconsider that dryness is not attributed to the air, nor water, but to the fire, and earth.2. The thing to be congealed must needs be moist, therefore the medicinecongealing must of necessity be dry, for if cold be joined with dryness, it contracts thepores, that so the humours cannot be scattered.Yet you must observe a difference between medicines drying, making thick,hardening, and congealing, of which differences, a few words will not do amiss.1. Such medicines are said to dry, which draw out, or drink up the moisture, as aspunge drinks up water.2. Such medicines are said to make thick, as do not consume the moisture, but adddryness to it, as you make syrups into a thick electuary by adding powders to them.3. Such as congeal, neither draw out the moisture, nor make it thick by addingdryness to it, but contract it by vehement cold, as water is frozen into ice.4. Hardness differs from all these, for the parts of the body swell, and are filledwith flegmatic humours, or melancholy blood, which at last grows hard.That you may clearly understand this, observe but these two things.1.What it is which worketh.2.What it worketh upon.That which worketh is outwardly cold. That which is wrought upon, is a certainthickness and dryness, of humours, for if the humour were fluid as water is, it mightproperly be said to be congealed by cold, but not so properly hardened. Thus you seecold and dryness to be the cause of hardening. This hardening being so far from beinguseful, that it is obnoxious to the body of man. I pass it without more words. Isuppose when Galen wrote of hardening medicines, he intended such as make thick,and therefore amongst them he reckons up Fleawort, Purslain, Houseleek, and thelike, which assuage the heat of the humours in swellings, and stops subtil and sharpdefluxions upon the lungs; but of these more anon.CHAPTER IIIOf Loosening MedicinesBy loosening here, I do not mean purging, nor that which is opposite toastringency; but that which is opposite to stretching. I knew not suddenly what fitterEnglish name to give it, than loosening or laxation, which latter is scarce English.The members are distended or stretched divers ways, and ought to be loosened byas many, for they are stretched sometimes by dryness, sometimes by cold, sometimesby repletion or fullness, sometimes by swellings, and sometimes by some of thesejoined together. I avoid terms of art as much as I can, because it would profit mycountry but little, to give them the rules of physic in such English as they understandnot.I confess the opinion of ancient physicians hath been various about these looseningmedicines. Galen's opinion was, that they might be referred either to moistening, orheating, or mollifying, or evacuating medicines, and therefore ought not to be referredto a chapter by themselves.It is likely they may, and so may all other medicines be referred to heat, orcoldness, or dryness, or moisture: but we speak not here of the particular properties ofmedicines, but of their joined properties, as they heat and moisten.

Others, they question how they can be distinguished from such as mollify, seeingsuch as are loosening, and such as are emolient, are both of them hot and moist.To that, thus: stretching and loosening are ascribed to the moveable parts of thebody, as to the muscles and their tendons, to the ligaments and ‏;وMembran butsoftness and hardness to such parts of the body as may be felt with the hand: I shallmake clear by a similitude, Wax is softened, being hard, but Fiddle-strings areloosened being stretched. And if you say that the difference lying only in the parts ofthe body is no true difference, then take notice,that such medicines which loosen, are less hot, and more moistening, than such assoften, for they operate most by heat, these by moisture.The truth is, I am of opinion the difference is not much, nay, scarce sensible,between emolient and loosening medicines; only I quoted this in a chapter by itself,not so much because some authors do, as because it conduceth to the increase ofknowledge in physic, for want of which, this poor nation is almost spoiled.The chief use of loosening medicines is in convulsions and cramps, and such likeinfirmities which cause distention or stretching.They are known by the very same marks and tokens that emolient medicines are.CHAPTER IVOf drawing MedicinesThe opinion of physicians is, concerning these, as it is concerning other medicines,viz. some draw by a manifest quality, some by a hidden, and so (quoth they) theydraw to themselves both humours and thorns, or splinters that are gotten into theflesh; however this is certain, they are all of them hot, and of thin parts; hot becausethe nature of heat is to draw off thin parts that so they may penetrate to the humoursthat are to be drawn out.Their use is various, viz.:Use 1. That the bowels may be disburdened of corrupt humours.2. Outwardly used, by them the offending humour (I should have said the peccanthumour, had I written only to scholars,) is called from the internal parts of the body tothe superfices.3. By them the crisis of a disease is much helped forward.4. They are exceedingly profitable to draw forth poison out of the body.5. Parts of the body over cooled are cured by these medicines, viz. by applyingthem outwardly to the place, not only because they heat, but also because they drawthe spirits by which life and heat are cherished, to the part of the body which isdestitute of them: you cannot but know that many times parts of the body fall away inflesh, and their strength decays, as in some persons arms or legs, or the like, the usualreason is, because the vital spirit decays in those parts, to which use such plaisters orointments as are attractive (which is the physical term for drawing medicines) for theydo not only cherish the parts by their own proper heat, but draw the vitaland natural spirits thither, whereby they are both quickened and nourished.They are known almost by the same tokens that attenuating medicines are, seeingheat; and thinness of parts is in them both, they differ only in respect of quantity,thinness of parts being most proper to attenuating medicines, but attractive medicinesare hotter.CHAPTER VOf discussive MedicinesThe nature of discussing (or sweating) medicines is almost the same with attractive,for there are no discussive medicines but are attractive, nor scarce any attractive

medicine but is in some measure or other discussing. The difference then is only this;that discussive medicines are hotter than attractive, and therefore nothing else need bewritten of their nature.Use. Their use may be known even from their very name; for diseases that come byrepletion or fulness, are cured by evacuation or emptying; yet neither blood nor grosshumours are to be expelled by sweating, or insensible transpiration (as they call it) butthe one requires blood-letting, the other purgation, but scrosus or thin humours andfilthy vapours, and such like superfluities, are to be expelled by sweat, and be wary inthis too, for many of them work violently, and violent medicines are not rashly to begiven.Caution 2. Besides, swellings are sometimes made so hard by sweating medicines,that afterwards they can never be cured; for what is thin being by such medicinestaken away, nothing but what is perfectly hard remains: If you fear such a thing, mixemolients with them.Caution 3. Again, sometimes by using discussives, the humours offending (whichphysicians usually call the peccant humours) is driven to some more noble part of thebody, or else it draws more than it discusseth; in such cases, concoct and attenuate thematter offending before you go about to discuss it.From hence may easily be gathered at what time of the disease discussivemedicines are to be used, viz. about the declining of the disease, although in diseasesarising from heat of blood, we sometimes use them in the encrease and state of them.They are known by the same marks and tokens attenuating medicines are, viz. bytheir burning and biting quality, they being very hot, and of thin parts, void of anybiting quality, therefore they contract not the tongue in tasting of them.CHAPTER VIOf repelling MedicinesRepelling medicines are of contrary operation to these three last mentioned, viz.attenuating, drawing, and discussive medicines. It is true, there is but little differencebetween these three, some hold none at all; and if you will be so nice, you mayoppose them thus. And so medicines making thick, correspond to attenuatingmedicines, or such as make thin, repelling medicines are opposed to such as draw, andsuch as retain the humours and make them tough, are opposite to such as discuss,some hold this niceness needless.2. The sentence of authors about repulsive medicines is various.For seeing an influxion may be caused many ways, a repulsive hath got as manydefinitions.For such things as cool, bind, stop, and make thick, stay influxions, and thereforerepulsives are by authors opposed, not only to attractives, but also to attenuating, anddiscussing medicines.But properly such things are called repulsives, which do not only stay influxions,(for so do such medicines which stop and make thick) but such as drive the humoursflowing to, or inherit in the place, to some other place.The truth is, binding is inherent to repulsives, so is not coldness nor making thick:Yet such as are binding, cold and thin in operation, are most effectual.Your taste will find repulsives to be, tart, or sharp, or austere, with a certain bindingwhich contracts the tongue.Use 1. Their use is manifold, as in hot tumours, head-aches, or the like.Use 2. By these in fevers are the vapours driven from the head, Vinegar of Roses isnotable.

Time of giving. They are most commodious in the beginning and encrease of adisease, for then influxions most prevail.But seeing that in the cure of tumours there are two scopes, 1. That that whichflows to it may be repelled. 2. That that which is already in it may be discussed;repulsives are most commodiously used in the beginning, discussives in the latter end.In the middle you may mix them, with this proviso, that repulsives exceed in thebeginning, discussives in the latter end.Caution 1. If the matter offending be of a venomous quality, either abstain fromrepulsives altogether, or use purging first, lestthe matter fly to the bowels and prove dangerous, especially if the bowels be weak.2. Also forbear repulsives, if the pain be great.3. Lastly, have a care lest by repulsives you contract the pores so much, that thematter cannot be removed by discussives.CHAPTER VIIOf cleansing MedicinesCleansing medicines can neither be defined by heat, nor coldness, because some ofboth sorts cleanse.A cleansing medicine, then, is of a terrene quality, which takes away the filth withit, and carries it out.Definition : Here, to avoid confusion, a difference must be made between washingand cleansing.A thing which washeth, carries away by fluxion, as a man washeth the dirt off froma thing.A cleansing medicine by a certain roughness or nitrous quality, carries away thecompacted filth with it.This also is the difference between cleansing and discussing medicines, the onemakes thick humours thin, and so scatters them, but a cleansing medicine takes themost tenacious humour along with it, without any alteration.Besides, of cleansing medicines, some are of a gentler nature, some are morevehement.These are not known one and the same way; for some are sweet, some salt, andsome bitter.The use of cleansing is external, as the use of purges are internal.They are used to cleanse the sanies and other filth of ulcers, yea, and to consumeand eat away the flesh itself, as burnt Alum, precipitate, &c.When these must be used, not only the effects of the ulcers, but also thetemperature of the body will tell you.For if you see either a disease of fulness, which our physicians call [Plethora : orcorrupted humours which they call [Cacochyma : you must empty the body of these,viz. fulness by bleeding, and corrupt humours, or evil state of the body, by purgingbefore you use cleansing medicines to the ulcer, else your cure will never proceedprosperously.CHAPTER VIIIOf EmplastersBy Emplasters, here, I do mean things glutinative, and they are quite contrary tothings cleansing.They are of a far more glutinous and tenacious substance.They differ from things stopping because they do not stop the pores so much, asstick to them like Birdlime.

They have a certain glutinous heat, tempered both with coldness and moisture.From these plasters take their names.Their taste is either none at all, or not discernable whether hot or cold, but fat,insipid, or without taste, or sweet, and viscous in feeling.Their use is to stop flowing of blood, and other fluxes, to cause suppuration, tocontinue the heat, that so tumours may be ripened.Also they are mixed with other medicines, that they may the better be brought intothe form of an emplaster, and may stick the better to the members.CHAPTER IXOf suppuring MedicinesThese have a great affinity with emolients, like to them in temperature, onlyemolients are somewhat hotter.Yet is there a difference as apparent as the sun when he is upon the meridian, andthe use is manifest. For,Emolients are to make hard things soft, but what suppures, rather makes ageneration than an alteration of the humour.Natural heat is the efficient cause of suppuration, neither can it be done by anyexternal means.Therefore such things are said to suppure, which by a gentle heat cherish the inbredheat of man.This is done by such medicines which are not only temperate in heat, but also by agentle viscosity, fill up or stop the pores, that so the heat of the part affected be notscattered.For although such things as bind hinder the dissipation of the spirits, and internalheat, yet they retain not the moisture as suppuring medicines properly and especiallydo.The heat then of suppuring medicines is like the internal heat of our bodies.As things then very hot, are ingrateful either by biting, as Pepper, or bitterness: insuppuring medicines, no biting, no binding, no nitrous quality is perceived by thetaste, (I shall give you better satisfaction both in this and others, by and by.)For reason will tell a man, that such things hinder rather than help the work ofnature in maturation.Yet it follows not from hence, that all suppuring medicines are grateful to the taste,for many things grateful to the taste provokes vomiting, therefore why may not thecontrary be?The most frequent use of suppuration is, to ripen وPhlegmon a general termphysicians give to all swellings proceeding of blood, because nature is very apt tohelp such cures, and physic is an art to help, not to hinder nature.The time of use is usually in the height of the disease, when the flux is stayed, asalso to ripen matter that it may be the easier purged away.CHAPTER XOf Medicines provoking urineThe causes by which urine is suppressed are many.1. By too much drying, or sweating, it may be consumed.2. By heat or inflammation of the reins or passages whereby it passes from thereins, it may be stopped by compression.Urine is the thinnest part of blood, separated from the thickest part in the reins.If then the blood be more thick and viscous than ordinary, it cannot easily beseparated without cutting and cleansing medicines.

This is for certain, that blood can neither be separated nor distributed without heat.Yet amongst diureticks are some cold things, as the four greater cold seeds, Wintercherries,and the like. Although this seem a wonder, yet it may be, and doth standwith truth. For cool diureticks, though they further not the separation of the bloodone jot, yet they cleanse and purge the passages of the urine. Diureticks then are oftwo sorts: 1. Such as conduce to the separation of the blood. 2. Such as open theurinal passages. The former are biting (and are known by their taste) very hot andcutting, whence they penetrate to the reins, and cut the gross humours there. Bitterthings, although they be very hot, and cut gross humours, yet are they of a more dryand terrene substance than is convenient to provoke urine. Hence then we maysafely gather, that bitter things are not so moist nor penetrating, as such as bite likePepper.CHAPTER XIOf Medicines breeding fleshThere are many things diligently to be observed in the cures of wounds and ulcers,which incur and hinder that the cure cannot be speedily done, nor the separated partsreduced to their natural state.Viz. fluxes of blood, inflammation, hardness, pain, and other things besides ourpresent scope.Our present scope is, to shew how the cavity of ulcers may be filled with flesh.Such medicines are called Sarcoticks.This, though it be the work of nature, yet it is helped forward with medicines, thatthe blood may be prepared, that it may the easier be turned into flesh.These are not medicines which breed good blood, nor which correct theintemperature of the place afflicted, but which defend the blood, and the ulcer itselffrom corruption in breeding flesh.For nature in breeding flesh produceth two sorts of excrements, viz. scrosushumours, and purulent dross.Those medicines then which cleanse and consume, these by drying are said to breedflesh, because by their helps nature performs that office.Also take notice that these medicines are not so drying that they should consumethe blood also as well as the sanies, nor so cleansing that they should consume theflesh with the dross.Let them not then exceed the first degree unless the ulcer be very moist.Their difference are various, according to the part wounded, which ought to berestored with the same flesh.The softer then, and tenderer the place is, the gentler let the medicines be.CHAPTER XIIOf glutinative MedicinesThat is the true cure of an ulcer which joins the mouth of it together.That is a glutinative medicine, which couples together by drying and binding, thesides of an ulcer before brought together.These require a greater drying faculty than the former, not only to consume whatflows out, but what remains liquid in the flesh, for liquid flesh is more subject to flowabroad than stick to together.The time of using them, any body may know without teaching, viz. when the ulceris cleansed and filled with flesh, and such symptoms as hinder are taken away.For many times ulcers must be kept open that the sanies, or fords that lie in themmay be purged out, whereas of themselves they would heal before.

Only beware, lest by too much binding you cause pain in tender parts.CHAPTER XIIIOf Medicines resisting poisonSuch medicines are called Alexiteria, and Alexipharmaca, which resist poison.Some of these resist poison by astral influence, and some physicians (though butfew) can give a reason for it.These they have sorted into three ranks:1. Such as strengthen nature, that so it may tame the poison the easier.2. Such as oppose the poison by a contrary quality.3. Such as violently thrust it out of doors.Such as strengthen nature against poison, either do it to the body universally, orelse strengthen some particular part thereof.For many times one particular part of the body is most afflicted by the poison,suppose the stomach, liver, brain, or any other part: such as cherish and strengthenthose parts, being weakened, may be said to resist poison.Such as strengthen the spirits, strengthen all the body.Sometimes poisons kill by their quality, and then are they to be corrected by theircontraries.They which kill by cooling are to be remedied by heating, and the contrary; theywhich kill by corroding, are to be cured by lenitives, such as temper their acrimony.Those which kill by induration, or coagulation, require cutting medicines.Also because all poisons are in motion, neither stay they in one till they have seizedand oppressed the fountain of life, therefore they have invented another faculty to staytheir motion, viz. terrene and emplastic.For they judge, if the poison light upon these medicines, they embrace them roundwith a viscous quality.Also they say the ways and passages are stopped by such means, to hinder theirproceeding; take Terra Lemnia for one.Truly if these reasons be good, which I leave to future time to determine, it may bedone for little cost.Some are of opinion that the safest way is to expel the poison out of the body, sosoon as may be, and that is done by vomit, or purge, or sweat.You need not question the time, but do it as soon as may be; for there is no parlyingwith poison.Let vomiting be the first, purging the next, and sweating the last. This is general.But, if thou dost but observe the nature and motion of the venom, that will be thy bestinstructor.In the stomach it requires vomiting, in the blood and spirits, sweating, if the bodybe plethoric, bleeding, if full of evil humours, purging.Lastly, The cure being ended, strengthen the parts afflicted.CHAPTER XIVOf purging MedicinesMuch jarring hath been amongst physicians about purging medicines, namely,whether they draw the humours to them by a hidden quality, which in plain English is,they know not how; or whether they perform their office by manifest quality, viz. byheat, dryness, coldness, or moisture. It is not my present scope to enter the lists of adispute about the business, neither seem it such an hidden thing to me that every likeshould draw its like, only to make thematter as plain as I can, I subdivide this chapter into these following parts.

1. Cautions concerning purging.2. Of the choice of purging medicines.3. Of the time of taking them.4. Of the correcting of them.5. Of the manner of purging.Cautions concerning purgingIn this, first consider diligently, and be exceeding cautious in it too, what the matteroffending is, what part of the body is afflicted by it, and which is the best way to bringit out.Only here, by the way, first, have a care of giving vomits, for they usually workmore violently, and afflict the body more than purges do, therefore are not fit forweak bodies; be sure the matter offending lie in the tunicle of the stomach, else is avomit given in vain.Vomits are more dangerous for women than men, especially such as are either withchild, or subject to the fits of the mother.What medicine is appropriated to the purging of such a humour, for seeing theoffending matter is not alike in all, the purging medicine ought not to be the same toall. I shall speak more of this anon. As also of the divers ways whereby medicinesdraw out or cast out humours, viz. by lenifying, cleansing, provoking nature toexpulsion, and (which is stranger than the doctor's hidden quality) some purge bybinding, but indeed, and in truth, such as are properly called purging medicines,which, besides these faculties, have gotten another, by which they draw or call out thehumours from the most remote parts of the body, whether these do it by heat or by anhidden quality, physicians are scarce able to determine, it being very well known tomodern physicians, though the ancients denied it, that many cold medicines purge.There is this faculty in all the purges of Galen's model, (because he gives the wholesimple which must needs consist of divers qualities, because the creation is made upof and consists by an harmony of contraries) there is (I say) this faculty in all purgesof that nature, that they contain in them a substance which is inimical both to thestomach and bowels, and some are of opinion this doth good, namely, provokes naturethe more to expulsion; the reason might be good if the foundation of it were so, for bythis reason nature herself should purge, not the medicine, and a physician should helpnature in her business and not hinder her. But to forbear being critical, this substancewhich I told you was inimical to the stomach, must be corrected in every purge.Culpeper's Last LegaciesSELECT MEDICINAL APHORISMS AND RECEIPTSFOR MANY DISEASES OUR FRAIL NATURES AREINCIDENT TO1.A general CautionLet such as love their heads or brains, either forbear such things as are obnoxious tothe brain, as Garlick, Leeks, Onions, beware of surfeiting and drunkenness.2.To purge the HeadThe head is purged by Gargarisms, of which Mustard, in my opinion, is excellent,and therefore a spoonful of Mustard put into the mouth, is excellent for one that istroubled with the lethargy: also the head is purged by sneezing; but be sure if youwould keep your brain clear, keep your stomach clean.3. For a rheum in the Head, and the Palsy

Take a red Onion, and bruise it well, and boil it in a little Verjuice and put thereto alittle clarified honey, and a great spoonful of good Mustard, when it is well boiled,raise the sick upright, and let him receive the smell up his nose twice a day, whilst it isvery hot.4. For a rheum in the HeadBoil Pimpernel well in Wine, and drink a draught of the Wine in the evening, hot,but in the morning cold.5. AnotherStew Onions in a close pot, and bathe the head and mouth, and nose therewith.6. For the falling off of the HairBeat Linseeds very well, and mix them with Sallad-oil; and when you have wellmixed them, anoint the head therewith, and in three or four times using it will helpyou.7. To purge the HeadChew the root of Pellitory of Spain, and chew it on both sides of thy mouth, and asthe rheum falls down into thy mouth, spit it out, but retain the root there still, till youthink the head is purged enough for that time.FOR THE EYES, AND THEIR IMPEDIMENTS8. For Eyes that are blastedOnly wear a piece of black Sarcenet before thy eyes, and meddle with no medicine;only forbear wine and strong drink.9. An excellent water to clear the SightTake of Fennel, Eyebright, Roses, white, Celandine, Vervain and Rue, of each ahandful, the liver of a Goat chopt small, infuse them well in Eyebright-water, thendistil them in an alembic, and you shall have a water will clear the sight beyondcomparison.10. For a hurt in the Eye with a strokeTake Agrimony, and bruise it very well, and temper it with white Wine, and thewhite of an egg: spread it pretty thick upon a cloth, like a plaster, and apply it to theoutside of the eye-lid, and, although it be almost out, it will cure it.11. To draw rheum back from the EyesTake an egg and roast it hard, then pull off the shell, and slit it in two, and apply ithot to the nape of the neck, and thou shalt find ease presently.12. For the web in the EyeTake the gall of a hare, and clarified honey, of each equal proportions: mix themtogether, and lay it to the web.FOR THE EARS, AND THEIR IMPEDIMENTS13.For Pain in the EarsDrop a little oil of sweet Almonds into the ear, and it easeth the pain instantly; (andyet oil of bitter Almonds is our doctor's common remedy.)14.For an Imposthume in the EarBoil some milk, and put it into a stone pot with a narrow mouth, and hold the soreear over the pot whilst the milk is very hot, that the vapour of the milk may ascendinto the ear: this is an often approved remedy to take away the pain, and break theimposthume.FOR THE NOSE, AND ITS INFIRMITIES15. For Polypus; or a fleshy substance growing in the NoseTake the juice of Ivy, and make a tent with a little cotton, the which dip in the juiceand put it up in the nostril.16. To cleanse the Nose

Snuff up the juice of red Beet-root; it will cleanse not only the nose, but also thehead; this is a singular remedy for such as are troubled with hard congealed stuff intheir nostrils.17. For bleeding at the NoseBind the arms and legs as hard as you can with a piece of taperibboning; that,perhaps, may call back the blood.18.For a Canker in the NoseBoil strong ale till it be thick, if the Canker be in the outside of the nose, spread itas a plaster, and apply it; if in the inside, make a tent of a linen rag, and put it up thenostril.19. Another for the PolypusThe water of Adder's-tongue snuffed up the nose, is very good: but it were better, inmy opinion, to keep a rag continually moistened with it in the nose.20. For bleeding at the NoseTake Amber and bruise into gross powder, put it upon a chafingdish of coals, andreceive the smoke up into the nose with a funnel.21. AnotherWhen no other means will stop the bleeding at the nose, it has been known that ithath been stopped by opening a vein in the ear.OF THE MOUTH, AND ITS DISEASES22.A CautionWhosoever would keep their mouth, or tongue, or nose, or eyes, or ears, or teeth,from pain or infirmities, let them often use sneezing, and such gargarisms as theywere instructed in a preceding chapter; for, indeed, most of the infirmities, if not all,which infest those parts, proceed from rheum.23.For extreme heat of the MouthTake Rib-wort, and boil it in red Wine, and hold the decoction as warm in yourmouth as you can endure it.24. For a Canker in the MouthWash the mouth often with Verjuice.OF THE TEETH, AND THEIR MEDICINES25.A CautionIf you will keep your teeth from rotting, or aching, wash your mouth continuallyevery morning with juice of Lemons, and afterwards rub your teeth either with aSage-leaf, or else with a little Nutmeg in powder; also wash your mouth with a littlefair water after meats; for the only way to keep teeth sound, and free from pain, is tokeep them clean.26. To keep Teeth whiteDip a little piece of white cloth in Vinegar of Quinces, and rub your gums with it,for it is of a gallant binding quality, and not only makes the teeth white, but alsostrengthens the gums, fastens the teeth, and also causeth a sweet breath.27.To fasten the TeethSeethe the roots of Vervain in old Wine, and wash your teeth often with them, andit will fasten them.28. For the Tooth-acheTake the inner rind of an Elder-tree, and bruise it, and put thereto a little Pepper,and make it into balls, and hold them between the teeth that ache.OF THE GUMS, AND THEIR INFIRMITIES29. For a Scurvy in the gums

Take Cloves, and boil them in Rose-water, then dry them, and beat them to powder,and rub the gums with the powder, and drink the decoction in the morning fasting anhour after it. Use red Rose-water, for that is the best.30.For rotting and consuming of the gumsTake Sage-water, and wash your mouth with it every morning, and afterwards rubyour mouth with a Sage-leaf.OF THE FACE, AND ITS INFIRMITIES31. The CauseIt is palpable, that the cause of redness and breaking out of the face, is a venomousmatter, or filthy vapours ascending from the stomach towards the head; wheremeeting with a rheum or flegm thence descending, mix with it, and break out in theface. Therefore let the first intention of cure be to cleanse the stomach.32. Caution negativeLet such as are troubled with red faces, abstain from salt meats, salt fish andherrings, drinking of strong beer, strong waters or Wine, Garlick, Onions, andMustard.33. For a face full of red pimplesDissolve Camphire in Vinegar, and mix it, and the Vinegar with Celandine-water,and wash the face with it: this cured a maid in twenty days, that had been troubledwith the infirmity half so many years.34. To take away the marks of the small poxTake the juice of Fennel, heat it luke-warm, and when the small Pox are wellscabbed, anoint the face with it divers times in a day, three or four days together.OF THE THROAT, AND ITS INFIRMITIES35. A cautionDiseases in the throat, most commonly proceed of rheum descending from the headupon the trachea arteria, or wind-pipe; in such cases there is many times no othercure than first to purge the body of flegm, and then the head of rheum, as you weretaught in the first chapter.36.For hoarsenessTake of sugar so much as will fill a common taster, then put so much rectified spiritof Wine to it as will just wet it, eat this up at night going to bed; use this three or fourtimes together.37.AnotherIf the body be feverish, use the former medicine as before, only use Oil of sweetAlmonds, or for want of it, the best Sallad-oil instead of spirit of Wine.38.AnotherTake Penny-royal, and seethe it in running water, and drink a good draught of thedecoction at night going to bed, with a little sugar in it.39. For the QuinseyTake notice that bleeding is good in all inflammations, therefore in this. It werevery convenient that a syrup, and an ointment of Orpine were always ready in thehouse for such occasions; for I know no better remedy for the Quinsey, than to drinkthe one, and anoint the throat with the other.OF WOMEN'S BREASTS, THEIR INFIRMITIES AND CURES40.For sore breastsTake a handful of Figs, and stamp them well till the kernels are broken, then temperthem with a little fresh grease, and apply them to the breast as hot as the patient canendure; it will presently take away the anguish, and if the breast will break, it willbreak it, else it will cure it without breaking.41.An inward medicine for a sore Breast

Let her drink either the juice or decoction of Vervain: it were fit that syrup weremade of it to keep all the year.OF THE STOMACH, AND ITS INFIRMITIES42.A cautionInfirmities of the stomach usually proceed from surfeiting.43. AnotherLet such as have weak stomachs, avoid all sweet things, as honey, sugar, and thelike; milk, cheese and all fat meats: let him not eat till he is hungry, nor drink beforehe is dry; let him avoid anger, sadness, much travel, and all fryed meats: let him notvomit by any means, nor eat when he is hot.44. For moisture of the StomachTake a drachm of Galanga, in powder, every morning in a draught of that Wine youlike best.45. For heat of the StomachSwallow four or five grains of Mastich every night going to bed.OF THE LIVER, AND ITS INFIRMITIES46. A cautionIf the liver be too hot, it usually proceeds from too much blood, and is known byredness of urine, the pulse is swift, the veins great and full, the spittle, mouth, andtongue, seem sweeter than they used to be: the cure is letting blood in the right arm.47.To cause the Liver well to digestTake Oil of Wormwood, and so much Mastich in powder as will make it into apoultice, lay it warm to your right side.48.A cautionIf the liver be stopped, the face will swell, and you shall be as sure to have a pain inyour right side, as though you had it there already.49.For stoppage of the LiverUse Garden-thyme in all your drinks and broaths, it will prevent stoppages beforethey come, and cure them after they are come.50. For the liverThe liver of a Hare dryed, and beaten into powder, cures all the diseases of the liverof man.FINISAssignmentQuiz/Essay1. What does Culpepper say is the characteristic of leaves and flowers?2. What is the character of barks according to Culpepper?3. Name ten different kinds of preparations that Culpepper made.4. How did Culpepper make a syrup?5. List Thirty herbs and their hot or cold characters according to Culpepper in achart.

HHC 204 Chapter 3: AlchemyExcerpts from Alchemy: Ancient and ModernBy Redgrove, Herbert Stanley, 1887-1943The Treasure of Treasures for Alchemists by ParacelsusA Short Catechism Of AlchemyTract on the Tincture and Oil of Antimony by Roger BaconOptional ReadingFor the purposes of this course you have a good basis in understanding and awarenessof alchemy from the brief readings above. However, if you have become fascinatedwith alchemy and you would like to read a complete text on this subject you can linkand download this text online:Redgrove, Herbert Stanley, 1887-1943 . Alchemy: Ancient and ModernYou can download the entire book at:http://etext.lib.virginia.edu/etcbin/toccernew?id=RedAlch&images=images/modeng/R&data=/texts/english/modeng/parsed&tag=public&part=2&division=divYou are required only to read the first five chapters of his book (below):Excerpts from Alchemy: Ancient and ModernBy Redgrove, Herbert Stanley, 1887-1943The Aim of Alchemy.Alchemy is generally understood to have been that art whose end was thetransmutation of the so-called base metals into gold by means of an ill-definedsomething called the Philosopher's Stone; but even from a purely physical standpoint,this is a somewhat superficial view. Alchemy was both a philosophy and anexperimental science, and the transmutation of the metals was its end only in that thiswould give the final proof of the alchemistic hypotheses; in other words, Alchemy,considered from the physical standpoint, was the attempt to demonstrateexperimentally on the material plane the validity of a certain philosophical view of theCosmos. We see the genuine scientific spirit in the saying of one of the alchemists:"Would to God . . . all men might become adepts in our Art -- for then gold, the greatidol of mankind, would lose its value, and we should prize it only for its scientificteaching." 1 Unfortunately, however, not many alchemists came up to this ideal; and forthe majority of them, Alchemy did mean merely the possibility of making goldcheaply and gaining untold wealth.The Transcendental Theory of Alchemy.

By some mystics, however, the opinion has been expressed that Alchemy was not aphysical art or science at all, that in no sense was its object the manufacture ofmaterial gold, and that its processes were not carried of Alchemy out on the physicalplane. According to this transcendental theory, Alchemy was concerned with man'ssoul, its object was the perfection, not of material substances, but of man in a spiritualsense. Those who hold this view identify Alchemy with, or at least regard it as abranch of, Mysticism, from which it is supposed to differ merely by the employmentof a special language; and they hold that the writings of the alchemists must not beunderstood literally as dealing with chemical operations, with furnaces, retorts,alembics, pelicans and the like, with salt, sulphur, mercury, gold and other materialsubstances, but must be understood as grand allegories dealing with spiritual truths.According to this view, the figure of the transmutation of the "base" metals into goldsymbolised the salvation of man -- the transmutation of his soul into spiritual gold --which was to be obtained by the elimination of evil and the development of good bythe grace of God; and the realisation of which salvation or spiritual transmutation maybe described as the New Birth, or that condition of being known as union with theDivine. It would follow, of course, if this theory were true that the genuine alchemistswere pure mystics, and hence, that the development of chemical science was not dueto their labours, but to pseudo-alchemists who so far misunderstood their writings asto have interpreted them in a literal sense.Failure of the Transcendental Theory.This theory, however, has been effectively disposed of by Mr. Arthur EdwardWaite, who points to the lives of the alchemists themselves in refutation of it. Fortheir lives indisputably prove that the alchemists were occupied with chemicaloperations on the physical plane, and that for whatever motive they toiled to discovera method for transmuting the commoner metals into actual, material gold. AsParacelsus himself says of the true "spagyric physicians," who were the alchemists ofhis period. "These do not give themselves up to ease and idleness . . . But they devotethemselves diligently to their labours; sweating whole nights over fiery furnaces.These do not kill the time with empty talk, but find their delight in their laboratory." 2The writings of the alchemists contain (mixed, however, with much that from thephysical standpoint appears merely fantastic) accurate accounts of many chemicalprocesses and discoveries, which cannot be explained away by any method oftranscendental interpretation. There is not the slightest doubt that chemistry owes itsorigin to the direct labours of the alchemists themselves, and not to any who misreadtheir writings.The Qualifications of the Adept.At the same time, it is quite evident that there is a considerable element ofMysticism in the alchemistic doctrines; this has always been recognised; but, as ageneral rule, those who have approached the subject from the scientific point of viewhave considered this mystical element as of little or no importance. However, thereare certain curious facts which are not satisfactorily explained by a purely physicaltheory of Alchemy, and, in our opinion, the recognition of the importance of thismystical element and of the true relation which existed between Alchemy andMysticism is essential for the right understanding of the subject. We may notice, inthe first place, that the alchemists always speak of their Art as a Divine Gift, thehighest secrets of which are not to be learnt from any books on the subject; and theyinvariably teach that the right mental attitude with regard to God is the first step

necessary for the achievement of the magnum opus. As says one alchemist: "In thefirst place, let every devout and God-fearing chemist and student of this Art considerthat this arcanum should be regarded, not only as a truly great, but as a most holy Art(seeing that it typifies and shadows out the highest heavenly good). Therefore, if anyman desire to reach this great and unspeakable Mystery, he must remember that it isobtained not by the might of man, but by the grace of God, and that not our will ordesire, but only the mercy of the Most High, can bestow it upon us.For this reason you must first of all cleanse your heart, lift it up to Him alone, andask of Him this gift in true, earnest, and undoubting prayer. He alone can give andbestow it." 3 And "Basil Valentine": "First, there should be the invocation of God,flowing from the depth of a pure and sincere heart, and a conscience which should befree from all ambition, hypocrisy, and vice, as also from all cognate faults, such asarrogance, boldness, pride, luxury, worldly vanity, oppression of the poor, and similariniquities, which should all be rooted up out of the heart -- that when a man appearsbefore the Throne of Grace, to regain the health of his body, he may come with aconscience weeded of all tares, and be changed into a pure temple of God cleansed ofall that defiles." 4Alchemists of a Mystical Type.We must also notice that, although there cannot be the slightest doubt that the greatmajority of alchemists were engaged in problems and experiments of a physicalnature, yet there were a few men included within the alchemistic ranks who wereentirely, or almost entirely, concerned with problems of a spiritual nature; ThomasVaughan, for example, and Jacob Boehme, who boldly employed the language ofAlchemy in the elaboration of his system of mystical philosophy. And particularlymust we notice, as Mr. A. E. Waite has also indicated, the significant fact that theWestern alchemists make unanimous appeal to Hermes Trismegistos as the greatestauthority on the art of Alchemy, whose alleged writings are of an undoubtedlymystical character (see § 29). It is clear, that in spite of its apparently physical nature,Alchemy must have been in some way closely connected with Mysticism.The Meaning of Alchemy.If we are ever to understand the meaning of Alchemy aright we must look at thesubject from the alchemistic point of view. In modern times there has come about adivorce between Religion and Science in men's minds (though more recently aunifying tendency has set in); but it was otherwise with the alchemists, their religionand their science were closely united. We have said that "Alchemy was the attempt todemonstrate experimentally on the material plane the validity of a certainphilosophical view of the Cosmos"; now, this "philosophical view of the Cosmos"was Mysticism. Alchemy had its origin in the attempt to apply, in a certainmanner, the principles of Mysticism to the things of the physical plane, and was,therefore, of a dual nature, on the one hand spiritual and religious, on the other,physical and material. As the anonymous author of Lives of AlchemysticalPhilosophers (1815) remarks, "The universal chemistry, by which the science ofalchemy opens the knowledge of all nature, being founded on first principles formsanalogy with whatever knowledge is founded on the same first principles.... SaintJohn describes the redemption, or the new creation of the fallen soul, on the same firstprinciples, until the consummation of the work, in which the Divine tincturetransmutes the base metal of the soul into a perfection, that will pass the fire ofeternity;" 6 that is to say, Alchemy and the mystical regeneration of man (in this

writer's opinion) are analogous processes on different planes of being, because theyare founded on the same first principles.Opinions of other Writers.We shall here quote the opinions of two modern writers, as to the significance ofAlchemy; one a mystic, the other a man of science. Says Mr. A. E. Waite, "If theauthors of the `Suggestive Inquiry' and of `Remarks on Alchemy and the Alchemists'[two books putting forward the transcendental theory] had considered the lives of thesymbolists, as well as the nature of the symbols, their views would have been verymuch modified; they would have found that the true method of Hermeticinterpretation lies in a middle course; but the errors which originated with merelytypographical investigations were intensified by a consideration of the greatalchemical theorem, which, par excellence, is one of universal development, whichacknowledges that every substance contains undeveloped resources and potentialities,and can be brought outward and forward into perfection. They [the generality ofalchemists] applied their theory only to the development of metallic substances from alower to a higher order, but we see by their writings that the grand hierophants ofOriental and Western alchemy alike were continually haunted by brief and imperfectglimpses of glorious possibilities for man, if the evolution of his nature wereaccomplished along the lines of their theory." 7 Mr. M. M. Pattison Muir, M.A., says:". . . alchemy aimed at giving experimental proof of a certain theory of the wholesystem of nature, including humanity. The practical culmination of the alchemicalquest presented a threefold aspect; the alchemists sought the stone of wisdom, for bygaining that they gained the control of wealth; they sought the universal panacea, forthat would give them the power of enjoying wealth and life; they sought the soul ofthe world, for thereby they could hold communion with spiritual existences, and enjoythe fruition of spiritual life. The object of their search was to satisfy their materialneeds, their intellectual capacities, and their spiritual yearnings. The alchemists of thenobler sort always made the first of these objects subsidiary to the other two...." 8The Basic Idea of Alchemy.The famous axiom beloved by every alchemist -- "What is above is as that which isbelow, and what is below is as that which is above" -- although of quesable{sic}origin, tersely expresses the basic idea of Alchemy. The alchemists postulated andbelieved in a very real sense in the essential unity of the Cosmos. Hence, they heldthat there is a correspondence or analogy existing between things spiritual and thingsphysical, the same laws operating in each realm. As writes Sendivogius ". . . the Sageshave been taught of God that this natural world is only an image and material copy ofa heavenly and spiritual pattern; that the very existence of this world is based upon thereality of its celestial archetype; and that God has created it in imitation of thespiritual and invisible universe, in order that men might be the better enabled tocomprehend His heavenly teaching, and the wonders of His absolute and ineffablepower and wisdom. Thus the Sage sees heaven reflected in Nature as in a mirror; andhe pursues this Art, not for the sake of gold or silver, but for the love of theknowledge which it reveals; he jealously conceals it from the sinner and the scornful,lest the mysteries of heaven should be laid bare to the vulgar gaze." 9The alchemists held that the metals are one in essence, and spring from the sameseed in the womb of nature, but are not all equally matured and perfect, gold being thehighest product of Nature's powers. In gold, the alchemist saw a picture of theregenerate man, resplendent with spiritual beauty, overcoming all temptations and

proof against evil; whilst he regarded lead -- the basest of the metals -- as typical ofthe sinful and unregenerate man, stamped with the hideousness of sin and easilyovercome by temptation and evil; for whilst gold withstood the action of fire and allknown corrosive liquids (save aqua regia alone), lead was most easily acted upon.We are told that the Philosopher's Stone, which would bring about the desired grandtransmutation, is of a species with gold itself and purer than the purest; understood inthe mystical sense this means that the regeneration of man can be effected only byGoodness itself -- in terms of Christian theology, by the Power of the Spirit of Christ.The Philosopher's Stone was regarded as symbolical of Christ Jesus, and in this sensewe can understand the otherwise incredible powers attributed to it.The Law of Analogy.With the theories of physical Alchemy we shall deal at length in the followingchapter, but enough has been said to indicate the analogy existing, according to thealchemistic view, between the problem of the perfection of the metals, i.e., thetransmutation of the "base" metals into gold, and the perfection or transfiguration ofspiritual man; and it might also be added, between these problems and that of theperfection of man considered physiologically. To the alchemistic philosopher thesethree problems were one: the same problem on different planes of being; and thesolution was likewise one. He who held the key to one problem held the key to allthree, provided he understood the analogy between matter and spirit. The point is not,be it noted, whether these problems are in reality one and the same; the main doctrineof analogy, which is, indeed, an essential element in all true mystical philosophy, will,we suppose, meet with general consent; but it will be contended (and rightly, wethink) that the analogies drawn by the alchemists are fantastic and by no meansalways correct, though possibly there may be more truth in them than appears at firstsight. The point is not that these analogies are correct, but that they were regarded assuch by all true alchemists. Says the author of The Sophic Hydrolith: ". . . the practiceof this Art enables us to understand, not merely the marvels of Nature, but the natureof God Himself, in all its unspeakable glory. It shadows forth, in a wonderful manner. . . all the articles of the Christian faith, and the reason why man must pass throughmuch tribulation and anguish, and fallThe Dual Nature of Alchemy.For the most part, the alchemists were chiefly engaged with the carrying out of thealchemistic theory on the physical plane, i.e., with the attempt to transmute the "base"metals into the "noble" ones; some for the love of knowledge, but alas! the vastmajority for the love of mere wealth. But all who were worthy of the title of"alchemist" realised at times, more or less dimly, the possibility of the application ofthe same methods to man and the glorious result of the transmutation of man's soulinto spiritual gold. There were a few who had a clearer vision of this ideal, those whodevoted their activities entirely, or almost so, to the attainment of this highest goal ofalchemistic philosophy, and concerned themselves little if at all with the analogousproblem on the physical plane. The theory that Alchemy originated in the attempt todemonstrate the applicability of the principles of Mysticism to the things of thephysical realm brings into harmony the physical and transcendental theories ofAlchemy and the various conflicting facts advanced in favour of each. It explains theexistence of the above-mentioned, two very different types of alchemists. It explainsthe appeal to the works attributed to Hermes, and the presence in the writings of thealchemists of much that is clearly mystical. And finally, it is in agreement with such

statements as we have quoted above from The Sophic Hydrolith and elsewhere, andthe general religious tone of the alchemistic writings."Body, Soul and Spirit".In accordance with our primary object as stated in the preface, we shall confine ourattention mainly to the physical aspect of Alchemy; but in order to understand itstheories, it appears to us to be essential to realise the fact that Alchemy was anattempted application of the principles of Mysticism to the things of the physicalworld. The supposed analogy between man and the metals sheds light on whatotherwise would be very difficult to understand. It helps to make plain why thealchemists attributed moral qualities to the metals -- some are called "imperfect,""base"; others are said to be "perfect," "noble." And especially does it help to explainthe alchemistic notions regarding the nature of the metals. The alchemists believedthat the metals were constructed after the manner of man, into whose constitutionthree factors were regarded as entering: body, soul, and spirit. As regards man,mystical philosophers generally use these terms as follows: "body" is the outwardmanifestation and form; "soul" is the inward individual spirit 13 ; and "spirit" is theuniversal Soul in all men. And likewise, according to the alchemists, in the metals,there is the "body" or outward form and properties, "metalline soul" or spirit, 14 andfinally, the all-pervading essence of all metals. As writes the author of theexceedingly curious tract entitled The Book of Lambspring. "Be warned andunderstand truly that two fishes are swimming in our sea," illustrating his remark byethe symbolical picture reproduced in plate 2, and adding in elucidation thereof, "TheSea is the Body, the two Fishes are Soul and Spirit." 15 The alchemists, however, werenot always consistent in their use of the term "spirit." Sometimes (indeed frequently)they employed it to denote merely the more volatile portions of a chemical substance;at other times it had a more interior significance.Alchemy, Mysticism and Modern Science.We notice the great difference between the alchemistic theory and the views regardingthe constitution of matter which have dominated Chemistry since the time of Dalton.But at the present time Dalton's theory of the chemical elements is undergoing aprofound modification. We do not imply that Modern Science is going back to anysuch fantastic ideas as were held by the alchemists, but we are struck with theremarkable similarity between this alchemistic theory of a soul of all metals, a oneprimal element, and modern views regarding the ether of space. In its attempt todemonstrate the applicability of the fundamental principles of Mysticism to the thingsof the physical realm Alchemy apparently failed and ended its days in fraud. Itappears, however, that this true aim of alchemistic art -- particularly thedemonstration of the validity of the theory that all the various forms of matter areproduced by an evolutionary process from some one primal element or quintessence --is being realised by recent researches in the domain of physical and chemical science.1. "EIRENÆUS PHILALETHES": An Open Entrance to the Closed Palace of theKing (see The Hermetic Museum, Restored and Enlarged, edited by A. E. Waite,1893, vol. ii. p. 178).2. PARACELSUS: "Concerning the Nature of Things" (see The Hermetic andAlchemical Writings of Paracelsus, edited by A. E Waite, 1894, vol. i. p. 167).

3. The Sophic Hydrolith; or, Water Stone of the Wise (see The Hermetic Museum, vol.i. p. 74).4. The Triumphal Chariot of Antimony (Mr. A. E. Waite's translation, p. 13). See § 41.5. ARTHUR EDWARD WAITE: The Occult Sciences (1891), p. 91.6. F. B.: Lives of Alchemystical Philosophers (1815), Preface, p. 3.7. ARTHUR EDWARD WAITE: Lives of Alchemystical Philosophers (1888), pp. 30,31. As says another writer of the mystical school of thought: "If we look upon thesubject [of Alchymy] from the point which affords the widest view, it may be saidthat Alchymy has two aspects: the simply material, and the religious. The dogma thatAlchymy was only a form of chemistry is untenable by any one who has read theworks of its chief professors. The doctrine that Alchymy was religion only, and thatits chemical references were all blinds, is equally untenable in the face of history,which shows that many of its most noted professors were men who had madeimportant discoveries in the domain of common chemistry, and were in no waynotable as teachers either of ethics or religion" ("Sapere Aude," The Science ofAlchymy, Spiritual and Material (1893), pp. 3 and 4).8. M. M. PATTISON MUIR, M.A.: The Story of Alchemy and the Beginnings ofChemistry (1902), pp. 105 and 106.9. MICHAEL SENDIVOGIUS: The New Chemical light, Pt. II., Concerning Sulphur(The Hermetic Museum, vol. ii. p. 138).10. The Sophic Hydrolith; or, Water Stone of the Wise (see The Hermetic Museum,vol. i. p. 88).11. Ibid. p. 114.12. PETER BONUS: The New Pearl of Great Price (Mr. A. E. Waite's translation, p.275).13. Which, in virtue of man's self-consciousness, is, by the grace of God, immortal.14. See the work Of Natural and Supernatural Things, attributed to "Basil Valentine,"for a description of the "spirits" of the metals in particular.15. The Book of Lambspring, translated by Nicholas Barnaud Delphinas (see theHermetic Museum, vol. i. p. 277). This work contains many other fantasticalchemistic symbolical pictures, amongst the most curious series in alchemisticliterature.

The Treasure of Treasures forAlchemists by ParacelsusThe Treasure of Treasures for Alchemists.By Philippus Theophrastus Bombast, Paracelsus the GreatNATURE begets a mineral in the bowels of the earth. There are two kinds of it, whichare found in many districts of Europe. The best which has been offered to me, whichalso has been found genuine in experimentation, is externally in the figure of thegreater world, and is in the eastern part of the sphere of the Sun. The other, in theSouthern Star, is now in its first efflorescence. The bowels of the earth thrust thisforth through its surface. It is found red in its first coagulation, and in it lie hid all theflowers and colours of the minerals. Much has been written about it by thephilosophers, for it is of a cold and moist nature, and agrees with the element ofwater.So far as relates to the knowledge of it and experiment with it, all the philosophersbefore me, though they have aimed at it with their missiles, have gone very wide ofthe mark. They believed that Mercury and Sulphur were the mother of all metals,never even dreaming of making mention meanwhile of a third; and yet when the wateris separated from it by Spagyric Art the truth is plainly revealed, though it wasunknown to Galen or to Avicenna. But if, for the sake of our excellent physicians, wehad to describe only the name, the composition; the dissolution, and coagulation, as inthe beginning of the world Nature proceeds with all growing things, a whole yearwould scarcely suffice me, and, in order to explain these things, not even the skins ofnumerous cows would be adequate.Now, I assert that in this mineral are found three principles, which are Mercury,Sulphur, and the Mineral Water which has served to naturally coagulate it. Spagyricscience is able to extract this last from its proper juice when it is not altogethermatured, in the middle of the autumn, just like a pear from a tree. The tree potentiallycontains the pear. If the Celestial Stars and Nature agree , the tree first of all puts forthshoots in the month of March; then it thrusts out buds, and when these open theflower appears, and so on in due order until in autumn the pear grows ripe. So is itwith the minerals. These are born, in like manner, in the bowels of the earth. Let theAlchemists who are seeking the Treasure of Treasures carefully note this. I will shewthem the way, its beginning, its middle, and its end. In the following treatise I willdescribe the proper Water, the proper Sulphur, and the proper Balm thereof. By meansof these three the resolution and composition are coagulated into one.CONCERNING THE SULPHUR OF CINNABAR.Take mineral Cinnabar and prepare it in the following manner. Cook it with rainwater in a stone vessel for three hours. Then purify it carefully, and dissolve it inAqua Regis, which is composed of equal parts of vitriol, nitre, and sal ammoniac.Another formula is vitriol, saltpetre, alum, and common salt.

Distil this in an alembic. Pour it on again, and separate carefully the pure from theimpure thus. Let it putrefy for a month in horse-dung; then separate the elements inthe following manner. If it puts forth its sign1, commence the distillation by means ofan alembic with a fire of the first degree. The water and the air will ascend; the fireand the earth will remain at the bottom. Afterwards join them again, and graduallytreat with the ashes. So the water and the air will again ascend first, and afterwards theelement of fire, which expert artists recognise. The earth will remain in the bottom ofthe vessel. This collect there. It is what many seek after and few find.This dead earth in the reverberatory you will prepare according to the rules of Art, andafterwards add fire of the first degree for five days and nights. When these haveelapsed you must apply the second degree for the same number of days and nights,and proceed according to Art with the material enclosed. At length you will find avolatile salt, like a thin alkali, containing in itself the Astrum of fire and earth2. Mixthis with the two elements that have been preserved, the water and the earth. Againplace it on the ashes for eight days and eight nights, and you will find that which hasbeen neglected by many Artists. Separate this according to your experience, andaccording to the rules of the Spagyric Art, and you will have a white earth, fromwhich its colour has been extracted. Join the element of fire and salt to the alkalisedearth. Digest in a pelican to extract the essence. Then a new earth will be deposited,which put aside.CONCERNING THE RED LION.Afterwards take the lion in the pelican which also is found [at] first, when you see itstincture, that is to say, the element of fire which stands above the water, the air, andthe earth. Separate it from its deposit by trituration. Thus you will have the true aurumpotabile3. Sweeten this with the alcohol of wine poured over it, and then distil in analembic until you perceive no acidity to remain in the Aqua Regia.This Oil of the Sun, enclosed in a retort hermetically sealed, you must place forelevation that it may be exalted and doubled in its degree. Then put the vessel, stillclosely shut, in a cool place. Thus it will not be dissolved, but coagulated. Place itagain for elevation and coagulation, and repeat this three times. Thus will be producedthe Tincture of the Sun, perfect in its degree. Keep this in its own place.CONCERNING THE GREEN LION.Take the vitriol of Venus4, carefully prepared according to the rules of Spagyric Art;and add thereto the elements of water and air which you have reserved. Resolve, andset to putrefy for a month according to instructions. When the putrefaction is finished,you will behold the sign of the elements. Separate, and you will soon see two colours,namely, white and red. The red is above the white. The red tincture of the vitriol is sopowerful that it reddens all white bodies, and whitens all red ones, which iswonderful.Work upon this tincture by means of a retort, and you will perceive a blackness issueforth. Treat it again by means of the retort, repeating the operation until it comes outwhitish. Go on, and do not despair of the work. Rectify until you find the true, clearGreen Lion, which you will recognise by its great weight. You will see that it is heavyand large. This is the Tincture, transparent gold. You will see marvellous signs of thisGreen Lion, such as could be bought by no treasures of the Roman Leo. Happy hewho has learnt how to find it and use it for a tincture!This is the true and genuine Balsam5, the Balsam of the Heavenly Stars, suffering nobodies to decay, nor allowing leprosy, gout, or dropsy to take root. It is given in adose of one grain, if it has been fermented with Sulphur of Gold.

Ah, Charles the German, where is your treasure? Where are your philosophers?Where your doctors? Where are your decocters of woods, who at least purge andrelax? Is your heaven reversed? Have your stars wandered out of their course, and arethey straying in another orbit, away from the line of limitation, since your eyes aresmitten with blindness, as by a carbuncle, and other things making a show ofornament, beauty, and pomp? If your artists only knew that their prince Galen - theycall none like him - was sticking in hell, from whence he has sent letters to me, theywould make the sign of the cross upon themselves with a fox's tail. In the same wayyour Avicenna sits in the vestibule of the infernal portal; and I have disputed with himabout his aurum potabile, his Tincture of the Philosophers, his Quintessence, andPhilosophers' Stone, his Mithridatic, his Theriac, and all the rest. O, you hypocrites,who despise the truths taught you by a true physician, who is himself instructed byNature, and is a son of God himself! Come, then, and listen, impostors who prevailonly by the authority of your high positions! After my death, my disciples will burstforth and drag you to the light, and shall expose your dirty drugs, wherewith up to thistime you have compassed the death of princes, and the most invincible magnates ofthe Christian world. Woe for your necks in the day of judgment! I know that themonarchy will be mine. Mine, too, will be the honour and glory. Not that I praisemyself: Nature praises me. Of her I am born; her I follow. She knows me, and I knowher. The light which is in her I have beheld in her; outside, too, I have proved thesame in the figure of the microcosm, and found it in that universe.But I must proceed with my design in order to satisfy my disciples to the full extent oftheir wish. I willingly do this for them, if only skilled in the light of Nature andthoroughly practised in astral matters, they finally become adepts in philosophy,which enables them to know the nature of every kind of water.Take, then, of this liquid of the minerals which I have described, four parts by weight;of the Earth of red Sol two parts; of Sulphur of Sol one part. Put these together into apelican, congelate, and dissolve them three times. Thus you will have the Tincture ofthe Alchemists. We have not here described its weight: but this is given in the bookon Transmutations6.So, now, he who has one to a thousand ounces of the Astrum Solis shall also tinge hisown body of Sol.If you have the Astrum of Mercury, in the same manner, you will tinge the wholebody of common Mercury. If you have the Astrum of Venus you will, in like manner,tinge the whole body of Venus, and change it into the best metal. These facts have allbeen proved. The same must also be understood as to the Astra of the other planets, asSaturn, Jupiter, Mars, Luna, and the rest. For tinctures are also prepared from these:concerning which we now make no mention in this place, because we have alreadydwelt at sufficient length upon them in the book on the Nature of Things and in theArchidoxies. So, too, the first entity of metals and terrestrial minerals have beenmade, sufficiently clear for Alchemists to enable them to get the Alchemists' Tincture.This work, the Tincture of the Alchemists, need not be one of nine months; butquickly, and without any delay, you may go on by the Spaygric Art of the Alchemists,and, in the space of forty days, you can fix this alchemical substance, exalt it, putrefyit, ferment it, coagulate it into a stone, and produce the Alchemical Phoenix7. But itshould be noted well that the Sulphur of Cinnabar becomes the Flying Eagle, whosewings fly away without wind, and carry the body of the phoenix to the nest of theparent, where it is nourished by the element of fire, and the young ones dig out itseyes: from whence there emerges a whiteness, divided in its sphere, into a sphere and

life out of its own heart, by the balsam of its inward parts, according to the property ofthe cabalists.HERE ENDS THE TREASURE OF THE ALCHEMISTS.NOTES1 The Sign is nothing else than the mark left by an operation. The house constructed by the architect isthe sign of his handicraft whereby his skill and art are determined. Thus the sign is the achievementitself. - De Colica.2 The earth also has its Astrum, its course, its order, just as much as the Firmament, but peculiar to theelement. So also there is an Astrum in the water, even as in the earth, and in like manner with air andfire. Consequently, the upper Astrum has the Astra of the elements for its medium and operates throughthem by an irresistible attraction. Through this operation of the superior and inferior Astra, all thingsare fecundated, and led on to their end. - Explicatio Totius Astronomiae. Without the Astra theelements cannot flourish. ... In the Astrum of the earth all the celestial operations thrive. The Astrumitself is hidden, the bodies are manifest. ... The motion of the earth is brought about by the Astrum ofthe earth. ... There are four Astra in man (corresponding to those of the four elements), for he is thelesser world. - De Caducis, Par. II.3 Aurum Potabile, that is, Potable Gold, Oil of Gold, and Quintessence of Gold, are distinguished thus.Aurum Potabile is gold rendered potable by intermixture with other substances, and with liquids. Oil ofGold is an oil extracted from the precious metal without the addition of anything. The Quintessence ofGold is the redness of gold extracted therefrom and separated from the body of the metal. - DeMembris Contractis, Tract II., c. 2.4 If copper be pounded and resolved without a corrosive, you have Vitriol. From this may be preparedthe quintessence, oil, and liquor thereof. - De Morbis Tartareis. Cuprine Vitriol is Vitriol cooked withCopper. - De Morbis Vermium, Par. 6. Chalcanthum is present in Venus, and Venus can by separationbe reduced into Chalcanthum. - Chirurgia Magna. Pars. III., Lib. IV.5 There is, indeed, diffused through all things a Balsam created by God, without which putrefactionwould immediately supervene. Thus in corpses which are anointed with Balsam we see that corruptionis arrested and thus in the physical body we infer that there is a certain natural and congenital Balsam,in the absence of which the living and complete man would not be safe from putrefaction. Nothingremoves the Balsam but death. But this kind differs from what is more commonly called Balsam, inthat the one is conservative of the living, and the other of the dead. - Chirurgia Magna, Pt. II., Tract II.,c 3. The confection of Balsam requires special knowledge of chemistry, and it was first discovered bythe Alchemists. - Ibid., Pt. I., Tract II., c. 4.6 It is difficult to identify the treatise to which reference is made here. It does not seem to be theseventh book concerning The Nature of Things, nor the ensuing tract on Cements. The general questionof natural and artificial weight is discussed in the Aurora of the Philosophers. No detached work onTransmutations has come down to us.7 Know that the Phoenix is the soul of the Iliaster (that is, the first chaos of the matter of all things). ...It is also the Iliastic soul in man. - Liber Azoth, S. V., Practica Lineae Vitae.A Short Catechism Of AlchemyQ. What is the chief study of a Philosopher?A. It is the investigation of the operations of Nature.Q. What is the end of Nature?A. God, Who is also its beginning.Q. Whence are all things derived?A. From one and indivisible Nature.Q. Into how many regions is Nature separated?A. Into four palmary regions.Q. Which are they?A. The dry, the moist, the warm, and the cold, which are the four elementary qualities,whence all things originate.Q. How is Nature differentiated?A. Into male and female.

Q. To what may we compare Nature?A. To Mercury.Q. Give a concise definition of Nature.A. It is not visible, though it operates visibly; for it is simply a volatile spirit, fulfillingits office in bodies, and animated by the universal spirit-the divine breath, the centraland universal fire, which vivifies all things that exist.Q. What should be the qualities possessed by the examiners of Nature?A. They should be like unto Nature herself. That is to say, they should be truthful,simple, patient, and persevering.Q. What matters should subsequently engross their attention?A. The philosophers should most carefully ascertain whether their designs are inharmony with Nature, and of a possible and attainable kind; if they would accomplishby their own power anything that is usually performed by the power of Nature, theymust imitate her in every detail.Q. What method must be followed in order to produce something which shall bedeveloped to a superior degree than Nature herself develops it.A. The manner of its improvement must be studied, and this is invariably operated bymeans of a like nature. For example, if it be desired to develop the intrinsic virtue of agiven metal beyond its natural condition, the chemist must avail himself of themetallic nature itself, and must be able to discriminate between its male and femaledifferentiations.Q. Where does the metallic nature store her seeds?A. In the four elements.Q. With what materials can the philosopher alone accomplish anything?A. With the germ of the given matter; this is its elixir or quintessence, more preciousby far, and more useful, to the artist, than is Nature herself. Before the philosopherhas extracted the seed, or germ, Nature, in his behalf, will be ready to perform herduty.Q. What is the germ, or seed, of any substance?A. It is the most subtle and perfect decoction and digestion of the substance itself; or,rather, it is the Balm of Sulphur, which is identical with the Radical Moisture ofMetals.Q. By what is this seed, or germ, engendered?A. By the four elements, subject to the will of the Supreme Being, and through thedirect intervention of the imagination of Nature.Q. After what manner do the four elements operate?A. By means of an incessant and uniform motion, each one, according to its quality,depositing its seed in the centre of the earth, where it is subjected to action anddigested, and is subsequently expelled in an outward direction by the laws ofmovement.Q. What do the philosophers understand by the centre of the earth?A. A certain void place where nothing may repose, and the existence of which isassumed.Q. Where, then, do the four elements expel and deposit their seeds?A. In the ex-centre, or in the margin and circumference of the centre, which, after ithas appropriated a portion, casts out the surplus into the region of excrement, scoriae,fire, and formless chaos.Q. Illustrate this teaching by an example.A. Take any level table, and set in its centre a vase filled with water; surround thevase with several things of various colours, especially salt, taking care that a proper

distance intervenes between them all. Then pour out the water from the vase, and itwill flow in streams here and there; one will encounter a substance of a red colour,and will assume a tinge of red; another will pass over the salt, and will contract asaline flavour; for it is certain that water does not modify the places which it traverses,but the diverse characteristics of places change the nature of water. In the same waythe seed which is deposited by the four elements at the centre of the earth is subject toa variety of modifications in the places through which it passes, so that every existingsubstance is produced in the likeness of its channel, and when a seed on its arrival at acertain point encounters pure earth and pure water, a pure substance results, but thecontrary in an opposite case.Q. After what manner do the elements procreate this seed?A. In order to the complete elucidation of this point, it must be observed that there aretwo gross and heavy elements and two that are volatile in character. Two, in likemanner, are dry and two humid, one out of the four being actually excessively dry,and the other excessively moist. They are also masculine and feminine. Now, each ofthem has a marked tendency to reproduce its own species within its own sphere.Moreover, they are never in repose, but are perpetually interacting, and each of themseparates, of and by itself, the most subtle portion thereof. Their general place ofmeeting is in the centre, even the centre of the Archeus, that servant of Nature, wherecoming to mix their several seeds, they agitate and finally expel them to the exterior.Q. What is the true and the first matter of all metals?A. The first matter, properly so called, is dual in its essence, or is in itself of a twofoldnature; one, nevertheless, cannot create a metal without the concurrence of the other.The first and the palmary essence is an aerial humidity, blended with a warm air, inthe form of a fatty water, which adheres to all substances indiscriminately, whetherthey are pure or impure.Q. How has this humidity been named by Philosophers?A. Mercury.Q. By what is it governed?A. By the rays of the Sun and Moon.Q. What is the second matter?A. The warmth of the earth -otherwise, that dry heat which is termed Sulphur by thePhilosophers.Q. Can the entire material body be converted into seed?A. Its eight-hundredth part only-that, namely, which is secreted in the centre of thebody in question, and may, for example, be seen in a grain of wheat.Q. Of what use is the bulk of the matter as regards its seed?A. It is useful as a safeguard against excessive heat, cold, moisture, or aridity, and, ingeneral, all hurtful inclemency, against which it acts as an envelope.Q. Would those artists who pretend to reduce the whole matter of any body into seedderive any advantage from the process, supposing it were possible to perform it?A. None; on the contrary, their labour would be wholly unproductive, because nothingthat is good can be accomplished by a deviation from natural methods.Q. What, therefore, should be done?A. The matter must be effectively separated from its impurities, for there is no metal,how pure soever, which is entirely free from imperfections, though their extent varies.Now all superfluities, cortices, and scoriae must be peeled off and purged out from thematter in order to discover its seed.Q. What should receive the most careful attention of the Philosopher?A. Assuredly, the end of Nature, and this is by no means to be looked for in the vulgar

metals, because, these having issued already from the hands of the fashioner, it is nolonger to be found therein.Q. For what precise reason?A. Because the vulgar metals, and chiefly gold, are absolutely dead, while ours, on thecontrary, are absolutely living, and possess a soul.Q. What is the life of metals?A. It is no other substance than fire, when they are as yet imbedded in the mines.Q. What is their death?A. Their life and death are in reality one principle, for they die, as they live, by fire,but their death is from a fire of fusion.Q. After what manner are metals conceived in the womb of the earth?A. When the four elements have developed their power or virtue in the centre of theearth, and have deposited their seed, the Archeus of Nature, in the course of adistillatory process, sublimes them superficially by the warmth and energy of theperpetual movement.Q. Into what does the wind resolve itself when it is distilled through the pores of theearth?A. It resolves itself into water, whence all things spring; in this state it is merely ahumid vapour, out of which there is subsequently evolved the principiated principle ofall substances, which also serves as the first matter of the Philosophers.Q. What then is this principiated principle, which is made use of as the first matter bythe Children of Knowledge in the philosophic achievement?A. It is this identical matter, which, the moment it is conceived, receives a permanentand unchangeable form.Q. Are Saturn, Jupiter, Mars, Venus, the Sun, the Moon, etc., separately endowedwith individual seed?A. One is common to them all; their differences are to be accounted for by the:locality from which they are derived, not to speak of the fact that Nature completesher work with far greater rapidity in the procreation of silver than in that of gold, andso of the other metals, each in its own proportion.Q. How is gold formed in the bowels of the earth?A. When this vapour, of which we have spoken, is sublimed in the centre of the earth,and when it has passed through warm and pure places, where a certain sulphureousgrease adheres to the channels, then this vapour, which the Philosophers havedenominated their Mercury, becomes adapted and joined to this grease, which itsublimes with itself; from such amalgamation there is produced a certainunctuousness, which, abandoning the vaporous form, assumes that of grease, and issublimised in other places, which have been cleansed by this preceding vapour, andthe earth whereof has consequently been rendered more subtle, pure, and humid; itfills the pores of this earth, is joined thereto, and gold is produced as a result.Q. How is Saturn engendered?A. It occurs when the said unctuosity, or grease, passes through places which aretotally impure and cold.Q. How is Venus brought forth?A. She is produced in localities where the earth itself is pure, but is mingled withimpure sulphur.Q. What power does the vapour, which we have recently mentioned, possess in thecentre of the earth?A. By its continual progress it has the power of perpetually rarefying whatsoever iscrude and impure, and of successively attracting to itself all that is pure around it.

Q. What is the seed of the first matter of all things?A. The first matter of things, that is to say, the matter of principiating principles isbegotten by Nature, without the assistance of any other seed; in other words, Naturereceives the matter from the elements, whence it subsequently brings forth the seed.Q. What, absolutely speaking, is therefore the seed of things?A. The seed in a body is no other thing than a congealed air, or a humid vapour,which is useless except it be dissolved by a warm vapour.Q. How is the generation of seed comprised in the metallic kingdom?A. By the artifice of Archeus the four elements, in the first generation of Nature, distila ponderous vapour of water into the centre of the earth ; this is the seed of metals,and it is called Mercury, not on account of its essence, but because of its fluidity, andthe facility with which it will adhere to each and every thing.Q. Why is this vapour compared to sulphur?A. Because of its internal heat.Q. From what species of Mercury are we to conclude that the metals are composed?A. The reference is exclusively to the Mercury of the Philosophers, and in no sense tothe common or vulgar substance, which cannot become a seed, seeing that, like othermetals, it already contains its own seed.Q. What, therefore, must actually be accepted as the subject of our matter?A. The seed alone, otherwise the fixed grain, and not the whole body, which isdifferentiated into Sulphur, or living male, and into Mercury, or living female.Q. What operation must be afterwards performedA. They must be joined together, so that they may form a germ, after which they willproceed to the procreation of a fruit which is conformed to their nature.Q. What is the part of the artist in this operation?A. The artist must do nothing but separate that which is subtle from that which isgross.Q. To what, therefore, is the whole philosophic combination reduced?A. The development of one into two, and the reduction of two into one, and nothingfurther.Q. Whither must we turn for the seed and life of meals and minerals?A. The seed of minerals is properly the water which exists in the centreAnd the heart of the minerals.Q. How does Nature operate by the help of Art?A. Every seed, whatsoever its kind, is useless, unless by Nature or Art it is placed in asuitable matrix, where it receives its life by the coction of the germ! and by thecongelation of the pure particle, or fixed grain.Q. How is the seed subsequently nourished and preserved?A. By the warmth of its body.Q. What is therefore performed by the artist in the mineral kingdom?A. He finishes what cannot be finished by Nature on account of the crudity of the air,which has permeated the pores of all bodies by its violence, but on the surface and notin the bowels of the earth.Q. What correspondence have the metals among themselves?A. It is necessary for a proper comprehension of the nature of this correspondence toconsider the position of the planets, and to pay attention to Saturn, which is thehighest of all, and then is succeeded by Jupiter, next by Mars, the Sun, Venus,Mercury, and, lastly, by the Moon. It must be observed that the influential virtues ofthe planets do not ascend but descend, and experience teaches us that Mars can beeasily converted into Venus, not Venus into Mars, which is of a lower sphere. So,

also, Jupiter can be easily transmuted into Mercury, because Jupiter is superior toMercury, the one being second after the firmament, the other second above the earth,and Saturn is highest of all, while the Moon is lowest. The Sun enters into all, but it isnever ameliorated by its inferiors. It is clear that there is a large correspondencebetween Saturn and the Moon, in the middle of which is the Sun; but to all thesechanges the Philosopher should strive to administer the Sun.Q. When the Philosophers speak of gold and silver, from which they extract theirmatter, are we to suppose that they refer to the vulgar gold and silver?A. By no means; vulgar silver and gold are dead, while those of the Philosophers arefull of life.Q. What is the object of research among the Philosophers?A. Proficiency in the art of perfecting what Nature has left imperfect in the mineralkingdom, and the attainment of the treasure of the Philosophical Stone.Q. What is this Stone?A. The Stone is nothing else than the radical humidity of the elements, perfectlypurified and educed into a sovereign fixation, which causes it to perform such greatthings for health, life being resident exclusively in the humid radical.Q. In what does the secret of accomplishing this admirable work consist?A. It consists in knowing how to educe from potentiality into activity the innatewarmth, or the fire of Nature, which is enclosed in the centre of the radical humidity.Q. What are the precautions which must be made use of to guard against failure in thework?A. Great pains must be taken to eliminate excrements from the matter, and toconserve nothing but the kernel, which contains all the virtue of the compound.Q. Why does this medicine heal every species of disease?A. It is not on account of tile variety of its qualities, but simply because it powerfullyfortifies the natural warmth, which it gently stimulates, while other physics irritate itby too violent an action.Q How can you demonstrate to me the truth of the art in the matter of the tincture?A. Firstly, its truth is founded on the fact that the physical powder, being composed ofthe same substance as the metals, namely, quicksilver, has the faculty of combiningwith these in fusion, one nature easily embracing another which is like itself.Secondly, seeing that the imperfection of the base metals is owing to the crudeness oftheir quicksilver, and to that alone, the physical powder, which is a ripe and decoctedquicksilver, and, in itself a pure fire, can easily communicate to them its ownmaturity, and can transmute them into its nature, after it has attracted their crudehumidity, that is to say, their quicksilver, which is the sole substance that transmutesthem, the rest being nothing but scoriae and excrements, which are rejected inprojection.Q. What road should the Philosopher follow that he may attain to the knowledge andexecution of the physical work?A. That precisely which was followed by the Great Architect of the Universe in thecreation of the world, by observing how the chaos was evolved.Q. What was the matter of the chaos?A. It could be nothing else than a humid vapour, because water alone enters into allcreated substances, which all finish in a strange term, this term being a proper subjectfor the impression of all forms.Q. Give me an example to illustrate what you have just stated.A. An example may be found in the special productions of composite substances, theseeds of which invariably begin by resolving themselves into a certain humour, which

is the chaos of the particular matter, whence issues, by a kind of irradiation, thecomplete form of the plant. Moreover, it should be observed that Holy Scripturemakes no mention of anything except water as the material subject whereupon theSpirit of God brooded, nor of anything except light as the universal form of things.Q. What profit may the Philosopher derive from these considerations, and whatshould he especially remark in the method of creation which was pursued by theSupreme Being?A. In the first place he should observe the matter out of which the world was made; hewill see that out of this confused mass, the Sovereign Artist began by extracting light,that this light in the same moment dissolved the darkness which covered the face ofthe earth, and that it served as the universal form of the matter. He will then easilyperceive that in the generation of all composite substances, a species of irradiationtakes place, and a separation of light and darkness, wherein Nature is an undeviatingcopyist of her Creator. The Philosopher will equally understand after what manner, bythe action of this light, the empyrean, or firmament which divides the superior andinferior waters, was subsequently produced; how the sky was studded with luminousbodies; and how the necessity for the moon arose, which was owing to the spaceintervening between the things above and the things below; for the moon is anintermediate torch between the superior and the inferior worlds, receiving the celestialinfluences and communicating them to the earth. Finally he will understand how theCreator, in the gathering of the waters, produced dry land.Q. How many heavens can you enumerate?A. Properly there is one only, which is the firmament that divides the waters from thewaters. Nevertheless, three are admitted, of which the first is the space that is abovethe clouds. In this heaven the waters are rarefied, and fall upon the fixed stars, and itis also in this space that the planets and wandering stars perform their revolutions.The second heaven is the firmament of the fixed stars, while the third is the abode ofthe supercelestial waters.Q. Why is the rarefaction of the waters confined to the first heaven?A. Because it is in the nature of rarefied substances to ascend, and because God, inHis eternal laws, has assigned its proper sphere to everything.Q. Why does each celestial body invariably revolve about an axis?A. It is by reason of the primeval impetus which it received, and by virtue of the samelaw which will cause any heavy substance suspended from a thread to turn with thesame velocity, if the power which impels its motion be always equal.Q. Why do the superior waters never descend?A. Because of their extreme rarefaction. It is for this reason that a skilled chemist canderive more profit from the study of rarefaction than from any other sciencewhatsoever.Q. What is the matter of the firmament?A. It is properly air, which is more suitable than water as a medium of light.Q. After the separation of the waters from the dry earth, what was performed by theCreator to originate generation?A. He created a certain light which was destined for this office; He placed it in thecentral fire, and moderated this fire by the humidity of water and by the coldness ofearth, so as to keep a check upon its energy and adapt it to His design.Q. What is the action of this central fire?A. It continually operates upon the nearest humid matter, which it exalts into vapour;now this vapour is the mercury of Nature and the first matter of the three kingdoms.

Q. How is the sulphur of Nature subsequently formed?A. By the interaction of the central fire and the mercurial vapour.Q. How is the salt of the sea produced?A. By the action of the same fire upon aqueous humidity, when the aerial humidity,which is contained therein, has been exhaled.Q. What should be done by a truly wise Philosopher when he has once mastered thefoundation and the order in the procedure of the Great Architect of the Universe in theconstruction of all that exists in Nature?A. He should, as far as may be possible, become a faithful copyist of his Creator. Inthe physical chaos he should make his chaos such as the original actually was; heshould separate the light from the darkness : he should form his firmament for theseparation of the waters which are above from the waters which are below, and shouldsuccessively accomplish, point by point, the entire sequence of the creative act.Q. With what is this grand and sublime operation performed?A. With one single corpuscle, or minute body, which, so to speak, contains nothingbut faeces, filth, and abominations, but whence a certain tenebrous and mercurialhumidity is extracted, which contains in itself all that is required by the Philosopher,because, as a fact, he is in search of nothing hut the true Mercury.Q. What kind of mercury, therefore, must he make use of in performing the work? A.Of a mercury which, as such, is not found on the earth, but is extracted from bodies,yet not from vulgar mercury, as it has been falsely said.Q. Why is the latter unfitted to the needs of our work?A. Because the wise artist must take notice that vulgar mercury has an insufficientquantity of sulphur, and he should consequently operate upon a body created byNature, in which Nature herself has united the sulphur and mercury that it is the workof the artist to separate.Q. What must he subsequently do?A. He must purify them and join them anew together.Q. How do you denominate the body of which we have been speaking?A. The RUDE STONE, Or Chaos, or Iliaste, or Hyle--that confused mass which isknown but universally despised.Q. As you have told me that Mercury is the one thing which the Philosopher mustabsolutely understand, will you give me a circumstantial description of it, so as toavoid misconception?A. In respect of its nature, our Mercury is dual--fixed and volatile; in regard to itsmotion, it is also dual, for it has a motion of ascent and of descent; by that of descent,it is the influence of plants, by which it stimulates the drooping fire of Nature, and thisis its first office previous to congelation. By its ascensional movement, it rises,seeking to be purified, and as this is after congelation, it is considered to be the radicalmoisture of substances, which, beneath its vile scoriae, still preserves the nobility ofits first origin.Q. How many species of moisture do you suppose to be in each composite thing?A. There are three--the Elementary, which is properly the vase of the other elements;the Radical, which, accurately speaking, is the oil, or balm, in which the entire virtueof the subject is resident--lastly, the Alimentary, the true natural dissolvent, whichdraws up the drooping internal fire, causing corruption and blackness by its humidity,and fostering and sustaining the subject.Q. How many species of Mercury are there known to the Philosophers?A. The Mercury of the Philosophers may be regarded under four aspects; the first isentitled the Mercury of bodies, which is actually their concealed seed; the second is

the Mercury of Nature, which is the Bath or Vase of the Philosophers, otherwise thehumid radical; to the third has been applied the designation, Mercury of thePhilosophers, because it is found in their laboratory and in their minera. It is thesphere of Saturn; it is the Diana of the Wise; it is the true salt of metals, after theacquisition of which the true philosophic work may be truly said to have begun. In itsfourth aspect, it is called Common Mercury, which yet is not that of the Vulgar, butrather is properly the true air of the Philosophers, the true middle substance of water,the true secret and concealed fire, called also common fire, because it is common toall minerae, for it is the substance of metals, and thence do they derive their quantityand quality.Q. How many operations art comprised in our work?A. There is one only, which may be resolved into sublimation, and sublimation,according to Geber, is nothing other than the elevation of the dry matter by themediation of fire, with adherence to its own vase.Q. What precaution should be taken in reading the Hermetic Philosophers ?A. Great care, above all, must be observed upon this point, lest what they say upon thesubject should be interpreted literally and in accordance with the mere sound of thewords: For the letter killeth, but the spirit giveth life.Q. What books should be read in order to have an acquaintance with our science?A. Among the ancients, all the works of Hermes should especially be studied; in thenext place, a certain book, entitled The Passage of the Red Sea, and another, TheEntrance into the Promised Land. Paracelsus also should be read before all amongelder writers, and, among other treatises, his Chemical Pathway, or the Manual ofParacelsus, which contains all the mysteries of demonstrative physics and the mostarcane Kabbalah. This rare and unique manuscript work exists only in the VaticanLibrary, but Sendivogius had the good fortune to take a copy of it, which has helpedin the illumination of the sages of our order. Secondly, Raymond Lully must be read,and his Vade Mecum above all, his dialogue called the Tree of Life, his testament,and his codicil. There must, however, be a certain precaution exercised in respect tothe two last, because, like those of Geber, and also of Arnold de Villanova, theyabound in false recipes and futile fictions, which seem to have been inserted with theobject of more effectually disguising the truth from the ignorant. In the third place, theTurba Philosophorum which is a collection of ancient authors, contains much that ismaterially good, though there is much also which is valueless. Among mediaevalwriters Zachary, Trevisan, Roger Bacon, and a certain anonymous author, whosebook is entitled The Philosophers, should be held especially high in the estimation ofthe student. Among moderns the most worthy to be prized are John Fabricius,Francois de Nation, and Jean D'Espagnet, who wrote Physics Restored, though, to saythe truth, he has imported some false precepts and fallacious opinions into his treatise.Q. When may the Philosopher venture to undertake the work?A. When he is, theoretically, able to extract, by means of a crude spirit, a digestedspirit out of a body in dissolution, which digested spirit he must again rejoin to thevital oil.Q. Explain me this theory in a clearer manner.A. It may be demonstrated more completely in the actual process; the greatexperiment may be undertaken when the Philosopher, by the medium of a vegetablemenstruurn, united to a mineral menstruum, is qualified to dissolve a third essentialmenstruum, with which menstruums united he must wash the earth, and then exalt itinto a celestial quintessence, to compose the sulphureous thunderbolt, whichinstantaneously penetrates substances and destroys their excrements.

Q. Have those persons a proper acquaintance with Nature who pretend to make use ofvulgar gold for seed, and of vulgar mercury for the dissolvent, or the earth in which itshould be sown?A. Assuredly not, because neither the one nor the other possesses the external agent--gold, because it has been deprived of it by decoction, and mercury because it hasnever had it.Q. In seeking this auriferous seed elsewhere than in gold itself, is there no danger ofproducing a species of monster, since one appears to be departing from Nature?A. It is undoubtedly true that in gold is contained the auriferous seed, and that in amore perfect condition than it is found in any other body; but this does not force us tomake use of vulgar gold, for such a seed is equally found in each of the other metals,and is nothing else but that fixed grain which Nature has infused in the firstcongelation of mercury, all metals having one origin and a common substance, as willbe ultimately unveiled to those who become worthy of receiving it by application andassiduous study.Q. What follows from this doctrine?A. It follows that, although the seed is more perfect in gold, it may be extracted muchmore easily from another body than from gold itself, other bodies being more open,that is to say, less digested, and less restricted in their humidity.Q. Give me an example taken from Nature.A. Vulgar gold may be likened to a fruit which, having come to a perfect maturity,has been cut off from its tree, and though it contains a most perfect and well-digestedseed, notwithstanding, should anyone set it in the ground, with a view to itsmultiplication, much time, trouble, and attention will be consumed in the developmentof its vegetative capabilities. On the other hand, if a cutting, or a root, be taken fromthe same tree, and similarly planted, in a short time, and with no trouble, it will springup and produce much fruit.Q. Is it necessary that an amateur of this science should understand the formation ofmetals in the bowels of the earth if he wishes to complete his work ?A. So indispensable is such a knowledge that should anyone fail, before all otherstudies, to apply himself to its attainment, and to imitate Nature point by point therein,he will never succeed in accomplishing anything but what is worthless.Q. How, then, does Nature deposit metals in the bowels of the earth, and of what doesshe compose them ?A. Nature manufactures them all out of sulphur and mercury, and forms them by theirdouble vapour.Q. What do you mean by this double vapour, and how can metals be formed thereby?A. In order to a complete understanding of this question, it must first be stated thatmercurial vapour is united to sulphureous vapour in a cavernous place which containsa saline water, which serves as their matrix. Thus is formed, firstly, the Vitriol ofNature; secondly, by the commotion of the elements, there is developed out of thisVitriol of Nature a new vapour, which is neither mercurial nor sulphureous, yet isallied to both these natures, and this, passing through places to which the grease ofsulphur adheres, is joined therewith, and out of their union a glutinous substance isproduced, otherwise, a formless mass, which is permeated by the vapour that fillsthese cavernous places. By this vapour, acting through the sulphur it contains, areproduced the perfect metals, provided that the vapour and the locality are pure. If thelocality and the vapour are impure, imperfect metals result. The terms perfection andimperfection have reference to various degrees of concoction.

Q. What is contained in this vapour?A. A spirit of light and a spirit of fire, of the nature of the celestial bodies, whichproperly should be considered as the form of the universe.Q. What does this vapour represent?A. This vapour, thus impregnated by the universal spirit, represents, in a fairlycomplete way, the original Chaos, which contained all that was required for theoriginal creation, that is, universal matter and universal form.Q. And one cannot, notwithstanding, make use of vulgar mercury in the process?A. No, because vulgar mercury, as already made plain, is devoid of external agent.Q. Whence comes it that common mercury is without its external agent?A. Because in the exaltation of the double vapour, the commotion has been so greatand searching, that the spirit, or agent, has evaporated, as occurs, with very closesimilarity, in the fusion of metals. The result is that the unique mercurial part isdeprived of its masculine or sulphureous agent, and consequently can never betransmuted into gold by Nature.Q. How many species of gold are distinguished by the Philosophers?A. Three sorts :--Astral Gold, Elementary Gold, and Vulgar Gold.Q. What is astral gold?A. Astral Gold has its centre in the sun, which communicates it by its rays to allinferior beings. It is an igneous substance, which receives a continual emanation ofsolar corpuscles that penetrate all things sentient, vegetable, and mineral.Q. What do you refer to under the term Elementary Gold ?A. This is the most pure and fixed portion of the elements, and of all that is composedof them. All sublunary beings included in the three kingdoms contain in their inmostcentre a precious grain of this elementary gold.Q. Give me some description of Vulgar Gold ?A. It is the most beautiful metal of our acquaintance, the best that Nature can produce,as perfect as it is unalterable in itself.Q. Of what species of gold is the Stone of the Philosophers ?A. It is of the second species, as being the most pure portion of all the metallicelements after its purification, when it is termed living philosophical gold. A perfectequilibrium and equality of the four elements enter into the Physical Stone, and fourthings are indispensable for the accomplishment of the work, namely, composition,allocation, mixture, and union, which, once performed according to the rules of art,will beget the lawful Son of the Sun, and the Phoenix which eternally rises out of itsown ashes.Q. What is actually the living gold of the Philosophers?A. It is exclusively the fire of Mercury, or that igneous virtue, contained in the radicalmoisture, to which it has already communicated the fixity and the nature of thesulphur, whence it has emanated, the mercurial character of the whole substance ofphilosophical sulphur permitting it to be alternatively termed mercury.Q. What other name is also given by the Philosophers to their living gold ?A. They also term it their living sulphur, and their true fire; they recognize itsexistence in all bodies, and there is nothing that can subsist without it.Q. Where must we look for our living gold, our living sulphur, and our true fire ?A. In the house of Mercury.Q. By what is this fire nourished?A. By the air.Q. Give me a comparative illustration of the power of this fire ?A. To exemplify the attraction of this interior fire, there is no better comparison than

that which is derived from the thunderbolt, which originally is simply a dry, terrestrialexhalation, united to a humid vapour. By exaltation, and by assuming the igneousnature, it acts on the humidity which is inherent to it; this it attracts to itself,transmutes it into its own nature, and then rapidly precipitates itself to the earth,where it is attracted by a fixed nature which is like unto its own.Q. What should be done by the Philosopher after he has extracted his Mercury ?A. He should develop it from potentiality into activity.Q. Cannot Nature perform this of herself?A. No; because she stops short after the first sublimation, and out of the matter whichis thus disposed do the metals engender.Q. What do the Philosophers understand by their gold and silver?A. The Philosophers apply to their Sulphur the name of Gold, and to their Mercurythe name of Silver.Q. Whence are they derived?A. I have already stated that they are derived from a homogeneous body wherein theyare found in great abundance, whence also Philosophers know how to extract both byan admirable, and entirely philosophical, process.Q. When this operation has been duly performed, to what other point of the practicemust they next apply themselves?A. To the confection of the philosophical amalgam, which must be done with greatcare, but can only be accomplished after the preparation and sublimation of theMercury.Q. When should your matter be combined with the living gold?A. During the period of amalgamation only, that is to say, Sulphur is introduced intoit by means of the amalgamation, and thenceforth there is one substance; the processis shortened by the addition of Sulphur, while the tincture at the same time isaugmented.Q. What is contained in the centre of the radical moisture ?A. It contains and conceals Sulphur, which is covered with a hard rind.Q. What must be done to apply it to the Great Work?A. It must be drawn, out of its bonds with consummate skill, and by the method ofputrefaction.Q. Does Nature, in her work in the mines, possess a menstruum which is adapted tothe dissolution and liberation of this sulphur?A. No; because there is no local movement. Could Nature, unassisted, dissolve,putrefy, and purify the metallic body, she would herself provide us with !he PhysicalStone, which is Sulphur exalted and increased in virtue.Q. Can you elucidate this doctrine by an example?A. By an enlargement of the previous comparison of a fruit, or a seed, which, in thefirst place, is put into the earth for its solution, and afterwards for its multiplication.Now, the Philosopher, who is in a position to discern what is good seed, extracts itfrom its centre, consigns it to its proper earth, when it has been well cured andprepared, and therein he rarefies it in such a manner that its prolific virtue is increasedand indefinitely multiplied.Q. In what does the whole secret of the seed consist ?A. In the true knowledge of its proper earth.Q. What do you understand by the seed in the work Of the Philosophers ?A. I understand the interior heat, or the specific spirit, which is enclosed in the humidradical, which, in other words, is the middle substance of living silver, the propersperm of metals, which contains its own seed.

Q. How do you set free the sulphur from its bonds?A. By putrefaction.Q. What is the earth of minerals ?A. It is their proper menstruum.Q. What pains must be taken by the Philosopher to extract that part which herequires?A. He must take great pains to eliminate the fetid vapours and impure sulphurs, afterwhich the seed must be injected.Q. By what indication may the Artist be assured that he is in the right road at thebeginning of his work?A. When he finds that the dissolvent and the thing dissolved are converted into oneform and one matter at the period of dissolution.Q. How many solutions do you count in the Philosophic Work?A. There are three. The first solution is that which reduces the crude and metallicbody into its elements of sulphur and of living silver; the second is that of the physicalbody, and the third is the solution of the mineral earth.Q. How is the metallic body reduced by the first solution into mercury, and then intosulphur?A. By the secret artificial fire, which is the Burning Star.Q. How is this operation performed?A. By extracting from the subject, in the first place, the mercury or vapour of theelements, and, after purification, by using it to liberate the sulphur from its bonds, bycorruption, of which blackness is the indication.Q. How is the second solution performed ?A. When the physical body is resolved into the two substances previously mentioned,and has acquired the celestial nature.Q. What is the name which is applied by Philosophers to the Matter during thisperiod?A, It is called their Physical Chaos, and it is, in fact, the true First Matter, a namewhich can hardly be applied before the conjunction of the male--which is sulphur--with the female--which is silver.Q. To what does the third solution refer?A. It is the humectation of the mineral earth and it is closely bound up withmultiplication.Q. What fire must be made use of in our work ?A. That fire which is used by Nature.Q. What is the potency of this fire?A. It dissolves everything that is in the world, because it is the principle of alldissolution and corruption.Q. Why is it also termed Mercury ?A. Because it is in its nature aerial, and a most subtle vapour, which partakes at thesame time of sulphur, whence it has contracted some contamination.Q. Where is this fire concealed ?A. It is concealed in the subject of art.Q. Who is it that is familiar with, and can produce, this fire?A. It is known to the wise, who can both produce it and purify it.Q. What is the essential potency and characteristic of this fire ?A. It is excessively dry, and is continually in motion; it seeks only to disintegrate andto educe things from potentiality into actuality; it is that, in a word, which coming

upon solid places in mines, circulates in a vaporous form upon the matter, anddissolves it.Q. How may this fire be most easily distinguished?A. By the sulphureous excrements in which it is enveloped, and by the salineenvironment with which it is clothed.Q. What must be added to this fire so as to accentuate its capacity for incineration inthe feminine species?A. On account of its extreme dryness it requires to be moistened.Q. How many philosophical fires do you enumerate ?A. There are in all three--the natural, the unnatural, and the contra-natural.Q. Explain to me these three species of fires.A. The natural fire is the masculine fire, or the chief agent; the unnatural is thefeminine, which is the dissolvent of Nature, nourishing a white smoke, and assumingthat form. This smoke is quickly dissipated, unless much care be exercised, and it isalmost incombustible, though by philosophical sublimation it becomes corporeal andresplendent. The contra-natural fire is that which disintegrates compounds and has thepower to unbind what has' been bound very closely by Nature.Q. Where is our matter to be found?A. It is to be found everywhere, but it must specially be sought in metallic nature,where it is more easily available than elsewhere.Q. What kind must be preferred before all others ?A. The most mature, the most appropriate, and the easiest; but care, before all things,must be taken that the metallic essence shall be present, not only potentially but inactuality, and that there is, moreover, a metallic splendour.Q. Is everything contained in this subject?A. Yes; but Nature, at the same time, must be assisted, so that the work may beperfected and hastened, and this by the means which are familiar to the higher gradesof experiment.Q. Is this subject exceedingly precious ?A. It is vile, and originally is without native elegance; should anyone say that it issaleable, it is the species to which they refer, but, fundamentally, it is not saleable,because it is useful in our work alone.Q. What does our Matter contain?A. It contains Salt, Sulphur, and Mercury.Q. What operation is it most important to be able to perform?A. The successive extraction of the Salt, Sulphur, and Mercury.Q. How is that done ?A. By sole and perfect sublimation.Q. What is in the first place extracted ?A. Mercury in the form of a white smoke.Q. What follows?A. Igneous water, or Sulphur.Q. What then?A. Dissolution with purified salt, in the first place volatilising that which is fixed, andafterwards fixing that which is volatile into a precious earth, which is the Vase of thePhilosophers, and is wholly perfect.Q. When must the Philosopher begin his enterprise ?A. At the moment of daybreak, for his energy must never be relaxed.Q. When may he take his rest?A. When the work has come to its perfection.

Q. At what hour is the end of the work ?A. High noon, that is to say, the moment when the Sun is in its fullest power, and theSon of the Day-Star in its most brilliant splendour.Q. What is the pass-word of Magnesia?A. You know whether I can or should answer:--I reserve my speech.Q. Give me the greeting of the Philosophers.A. Begin ; I will reply to you.Q. Are you an apprentice Philosopher?A. My friends, and the wise, know me.Q. What is the age of a Philosopher ?A. From the moment of his researches to that of his discoveries, the Philosopher doesnot age.Tract on the Tincture and Oil ofAntimony by Roger BaconPrefaceDear reader, at the end of his Tract on Vitriol, Roger Bacon mentions that because ofthe multiplication of the Tincture that is made from Vitriol, the lover of Art shouldacquaint himself with the Tract De Oleo Stibii. Therefore I considered that it wouldbe good and useful that the Tract De Oleo Stibii follows next. And if one thoroughlyponders and compares these tinctures with one another, then I have no doubt that onewill not finish without exceptional profit. Yet, every lover of Art, should mind alwaysto keep one eye on Nature and the other on Art and manual labour. For, when thesetwo do not stand together, then it is a lame work, as when someone thinks he can walka long path on one leg only, which is easily seen to be impossible,Vale.Joachim TanckivsDe Oleo Antimonii Tractatus.ROGERII BACONIS ANGLISummi Philosophi & Chemici.Stibium, as the Philosophers say, is composed from the noble mineral Sulphur, andthey have praised it as the black lead of the Wise. The Arabs in their language, havecalled it Asinat vel Azinat, the alchemists retain the name Antimonium. It willhowever lead to the consideration of high Secrets, if we seek and recognize the naturein which the Sun is exalted, as the Magi found that this mineral was attributed by Godto the Constellation Aries, which is the first heavenly sign in which the Sun takes itsexaltation or elevation to itself. Although such things are thrown to the winds bycommon people, intelligent people ought to know and pay more attention to the factthat exactly at this point the infinitude of secrets may be partly contemplated withgreat profit and in part also explored. Many, but these are ignorant and unintelligent,are of the opinion that if they only had Stibium, they would get to it by Calcination,others by Sublimation, several by Reverberation and Extraction, and obtain its greatSecret, Oil, and Perfectum Medicinam. But I tell you, that here in this place nothingwill help, whether Calcination, Sublimation, Reverberation nor Extraction, so thatsubsequently a perfect Extraction of metallic virtue that translates the inferior into the

superior, may profitably come to pass or be accomplished. For such shall beimpossible for you. Do not let yourselves be confused by several of the philosopherswho have written of such things, i.e., Geber, Albertus Magnus, Rhasis, Rupecilla,Aristoteles and many more of that kind. And this you should note. Yes, many say, thatwhen one prepares Stibium to a glass, then the evil volatile Sulphur will be gone, andthe Oil, which may be prepared from the glass, would be a very fixed oil, and wouldthen truly give an ingress and Medicine of imperfect metals to perfection. Thesewords and opinions are perhaps good and right, but that it should be thus in fact andprove itself, this will not be. For I say to you truly, without any hidden speech; if youwere to lose some of the above mentioned Sulphur by the preparation and the burning,as a small fire may easily damage it, so that you have lost the right penetrating spirit,which should make our whole Antimonii corpus into a perfect red oil, so that it alsocan ascend over the helm with a sweet smell and very beautiful colors and the wholebody of this mineral with all its members, without loss of any weight, except for thefoecum, shall be an oil and go over the helm. And note also this: How would it bepossible for the body to go into an oil, or give off its sweet oil, if it is put into the lastessence and degree? For glass is in all things the outermost and least essence. For youshall know that all creatures at the end of the world, or on the last and comingjudgement of the last day, shall become glass or a lovely amethyst and this accordingto the families of the twelve Patriarchs, as in the families of jewels which Hermes theGreat describes in his book: As we have elaborately reported and taught in our bookde Cabala.You shall also know that you shall receive the perfect noble red oil, which serves forthe translation of metals in vain, if you pour acetum correctum over the Antimoniumand extract the redness. Yes not even by Reverberation, and even if its manifoldBeautiful colors show themselves, this will not make any difference and is not theright way. You may indeed obtain and make an oil out of it, but it has no perfect forceand virtue for transmutation or translation of the imperfect metals into perfectionitself. This you must certainly know.AND NOW WE PROCEED TO THE MANUAL LABOUR, AND THUS THEPRACTICA FOLLOWS.Take in the Name of God and the Holy Trinity, fine and well cleansed Antimonii ore,which looks nice, white, pure and internally full of yellow rivulets or veins. It mayalso be full of red and blue colors and veins, which will be the best. Pound and grindto a fine powder and dissolve in a water or Aqua Regis, which will be describedbelow, finely so that the water may conquer it. And note that you should take it outquite soon after the solution so that the water may conquer it. And note that youshould take it out quite soon after the solution so that the water will have no time todamage it, since it quickly dissolves the Antimonii Tincture. For in its nature ourwater is like the ostrich, which by its heat digests and consumes all iron; for giventime, the water would consume it and burn it to naught, so that it would only remainas an idle yellow earth, and then it would be quite spoilt.Consider by comparison Luna, beautiful clean and pure, dissolved in this our water.And let it remain therein for no more than a single night when the water is still strongand full of Spirit,And I tell you, that your good Luna has then been fundamentally consumed anddestroyed and brought to nought in this our water.And if you want to reduce it to a pure corpus again, then you will not succeed, but itwill remain for you as a pale yellow earth, and occasionally it may run together in theshape of a horn or white horseshoe, which may not be brought to a corpus by any art.

Therefore you must remember to take the Antimonium out as soon as possible afterthe Solution, and precipitate it and wash it after the custom of the alchemists, so thatthe matter with its perfect oil is not corroded and consumed by the water.THE WATER; WHEREIN WE DISSOLVE THE ANTIMONIUM, IS MADETHUS:Take Vitriol one and a half (alii 2. lb.) Sal armoniac one pound, Arinat (alii Alun) onehalf pound / Sal niter one and a half pound, Sal gemmae (alii Sal commune) onepound, Alumen crudum (alii Entali) one half pound. These are the species that belongto and should be taken for the Water to dissolve the Antimonium.Take these Species and mix them well among each other, and distill from this a water,at first rather slowly. For the Spiritus go with great force,, more than in other strongwaters. And beware of its spirits, for they are subtle and harmful in their penetration.When you now have the dissolved Antimony, clean and well sweetened, and its sharpwaters washed out, so that you do not notice any sharpness any more, then put into aclean vial and overpour it with a good distilled vinegar. Then put the vial in FimumEquinum, or Balneum Mariae, to putrefy forty (al.i four) days and nights, and it willdissolve and be extracted red as blood. Then take it out and examine how muchremains to be dissolved, and decant the clear and pure, which will have a red colour,very cautiously into a glass flask. Then pour fresh vinegar onto it, and put it intoDigestion as before, so that that which may have remained with the faecibus, it shouldthus have ample time to become dissolved. Then the faeces may be discarded, for theyare no longer useful, except for being scattered over the earth and thrown away.Afterwards pour all the solutions together into a glass retort, put into BalneumMariae, and distill the sharp vinegar rather a fresh one, since the former would be tooweak, and the matter will very quickly become dissolved by the vinegar. Distill it offagain, so that the matter remains quite dry. Then take common distilled water andwash away all sharpness, which has remained with the matter from the vinegar, andthen dry the matter in the sun, or otherwise by a gentle fire, so that it becomes welldried. It will then be fair to behold, and have a bright red color. The Philosophers,when they have thus prepared our Antimonium in secret, have remarked how itsoutermost nature and power has collapsed into its interior, and its interior thrown outand has now become an oil that lies hidden in its innermost and depth, well preparedand ready. And henceforth it cannot, unto the last judgement, be brought back to itsfirst essence. And this is true, for it has become so subtle and volatile, that as soon asit senses the power of fire, it flies away as a smoke with all its parts because of itsvolatility.Several poor and common Laborers, when they have prepared the Antimonium thus,have taken one part out, to take care of their expenses, so that they may more easilydo the rest of the work and complete it, They then mixed it with one part Salmiac, onepart Vitro (alii. Nitro, alii. Titro), one part Rebohat, to cleanse the Corpera, and thenproceeded to project this mixture onto a pure Lunam. And if the Luna was one Mark,they found two and a half Loth good gold after separation; sometimes even more. Andtherewith they had accomplished a work providing for their expenses, so that theymight even better expect to attain to the Great Work. And the foolish called this abringing into the Lunam, but they are mistaken. For such gold is not brought in by theSpiritibus (alii. Speciebus), but any Luna contains two Mark gold to the Loth, someeven more. But this gold is united to the Lunar nature to such a degree that it may notbe separated from it, neither by Aquafort, nor by common Antimonium, as thegoldsmiths know. When however the just mentioned mixture is thrown onto theLunam in flux, then such a separation takes place that the Luna quite readily gives

away her implanted gold either in Aquafort or in Regal, and lets herself separate fromit, strikes it to the ground and precipitates it, which would or might otherwise nothappen. Therefore it is not a bringing into the Lunam, but a bringing out of the Luna.But we are coming back to our Proposito and purpose of our work, for we wish tohave the Oil, which has only been known and been acquainted with this magistry, andnot by the foolish.When you then have the Antimonium well rubified according to the above giventeaching, then you shall take a well rectified Spiritum vini, and pour it over the redpowder of Antimony, put it in a gentle Balneum Mariae to dissolve for four days andnights, so that everything becomes well dissolved. If however something shouldremain behind, you overpour the same with fresh Spiritu vini, and put it into theBalneum Mariae again, as said before, and everything should become well dissolved.And in case there are some more faeces there, but there should be very little, do themaway, for they are not useful for anything. The Solutiones put into a glass retort, luteon a helm and connect it to a receiver, also well luted, to receive the Spiritus. Put itinto Balneum Mariae. Thereafter you begin, in the Name of God, to distill veryleisurely at a gentle heat, until all the Spiritus Vini has come over. You then pour thesame Spiritum that you have drawn off, back onto the dry matter, and distill it overagain as before. And this pouring on and distilling off again, you continue so oftenuntil you see the Spiritum vini ascend and go over the helm in all kinds of colours.Then it is time to follow up with a strong fire, and a noble blood red Oleum willascend, go through the tube of the helm and drip into the recipient. Truly, this is themost secret way of the Wise to distill the very highly praised oil of Antimonii, and itis a noble, powerful, fragrant oil of great virtue, as you will hear below in thefollowing. But here I wish to teach and instruct you who are poor and without meansto expect the Great Work in another manner; not the way the ancients did it byseparating the gold from the Luna. Therefore take this oil, one lot, [ancient weight unitused for the weighing of gold and silver coins - about 1/30 pound] eight lot of Saturn calcinedaccording to art, and carefully imbibe the oil, drop by drop, while continuouslystirring the calx Saturni. Then put it ten days and nights in the heat, in the furnace ofsecrets, and let the fire that this furnace contains, increase every other day by onedegree. The first two days you give it the first degree of fire, the second two days yougive it the second degree, and after four days and nights you put it into the thirddegree of fire and let it remain there for three days and nights. After these three daysyou open the window of the fourth degree, for which likewise three days and nightsshould be sufficient. Then take it out, and the top of the Saturnus becomes verybeautiful and of a reddish yellow colour. This should be melted with Venetian Boreas.When this has been done, you will find that the power of our oil has changed it togood gold. Thus you will again have subsistence, so that you may better expect theGreat Work. We now come back to our purpose where we left it earlier. Above youhave heard, and have been told to distill the Spiritum vini with the Oleum Antimoniiover the helm into the recipient as well as the work of changing the Saturnum intogold. But now we wish to make haste and report about the second tinctural work.Here it will be necessary to separate the Spiritum vini from the oil again, and youshall know that it is done thus:Take the mixture of oil and wine spirit put it into a retort, put on a helm, connect areceiver and place it all together into the Balneum Mariae. Then distill all theSpiritum vini from the oil, at a very gentle heat, until you are certain that no moreSpiritus vini is to be found within this very precious oil. And this will be easy tocheck; for when you see several drops of Spiritu vini ascend over the helm and fall

into the recipient, this is the sign that the Spiritus vini has become separated from theoil. Then remove the fire from the Balneo, though it was very small, so that it maycool all the sooner. Now remove the recipient containing the Spiritu vini, and keep itin a safe place, for it is full of Spiritus which it has extracted from the oil and retained.It also contains admirable virtues, as you will hear hereafter.But in the Balneo you will find the blessed bloodred Oleum Antimonii in the retort,which should be taken out very carefully. The helm must be very slowly removed,taking care to soften and wash off the Lute, so that no dirt falls down into thebeautiful red oil and makes it turbid. This oil you must store with all possibleprecaution so that it receives no damage. For you now have a Heavenly Oil that shineson a dark night and emits light as from a glowing coal. And the reason for this is thatits innermost power and soul has become thrown out unto the outermost, and thehidden soul is now revealed and shines through the pure body as a light through alantern: Just as on Judgement Day our present invisible and internal souls willmanifest through our clarified bodies, that in this life are impure and dark, but the soulwill then be revealed and seen unto the outermost of the body, and will shine as thebright sun. Thus you now have two separate things: Both the Spirit of Wine full offorce and wonder in the arts of the human body: And then the blessed red, noble,heavenly Oleum Antimonii, to translate all diseases of the imperfect metals to thePerfection of gold. And the power of the Spiritual Wine reaches very far and to greatheights. For when it is rightly used according to the Art of Medicine: I tell you, youhave a heavenly medicine to prevent and to cure all kinds of diseases and ailments ofthe human body. And its uses are thus, as follows:AGAINST PODAGRA or GOUTIn the case of gout one should let three drops of this Spiritu vini, that has received thepower of the Antimony, fall into a small glass of wine. This has to be taken by thepatient on an empty stomach at the very moment in time when he sense the beginningor arrival of his trouble, bodily ailment and pain. On the next day and afterwards onthe third day it should also be taken and used in the same way. On the first day it takesaway all pain, however great it may be, and prevents swelling. On the second day itcauses a sweat that is very inconstant, viscous and thick, that smells and tastes quitesour and offensive, and occurs mostly where the joints and limbs are attached. On thethird day, regardless of whether any medicine has been taken, a purging takes place ofthe veins into the bowels, without any inconvenience, pain or grief. And thisdemonstrates a great power of Nature.AGAINST LEPROSYTo begin with the patient is given six drops on an empty stomach. And arrange it sothat the unclean person is alone without the company of any healthy people, in aseparate and convenient place. For his whole body will soon begin to smoke andsteam with a stinking mist or vapor. And on the second day his skin will start to flakeand much uncleanliness will detach itself from his body. He should then have threemore drops of the medicine ready, which he should take and use in solitude on thefourth day. Then on the eighth or ninth day, by means of this medicine and throughthe bestowal of Divine mercy and blessing, he will be completely cleansed and hishealth restored.AGAINST APOPLEXIA OR STROKEIn the case of stroke, let a drop of the unadmixed tincture fall onto the tongue of theperson in need. At once it will raise itself and distribute itself like a mist or smoke,and rectify and dissolve the struck part. But if the stroke has hit the body or other

members, he should be given three drops at the same time in a glass of good wine, aspreviously taught in the case of Podagra.AGAINST HYDROPE OR DROPSYIn the case of dropsy give one drop each day for six days in a row, in Aqua Melissaeor Valerianae. On the seventh day give three drops in good wine. Then it is enough.AGAINST EPILEPSIA, CATALEPSIA, & ANALEPSIA.In case of the falling sickness, give him two drops at the beginning of the Paroxismiin Aqua Salviae, and after three hours again two drops. This will suffice. But if furthersymptoms should occur, then give him two more drops as above.AGAINST HECTICIn case of consumption and dehydration, give him two drops in Aqua Violarum thefirst day. On the second day, give him two more drops in good wine.AGAINST FEVERIn cases of all kinds of hot fevers, give him three drops in a well distilled St.Johnswort water or Cichorii at the beginning of the Paroxismi. Early in the morningon the following day, again give him three drops in good wine on an empty stomach.AGAINST PESTIn the case of pestilence give the patient seven drops in a good wine, and see to it thatthe infected person is all by himself, and caused to sweat. Then this poison will, withDivine assistance, do him no harm.FOR THE PROLONGATION AND MAINTENANCE OF A HEALTHY LIFE.Take and give at the beginning and entry of spring, when the sun has entered the signof Aries, two drops; and at the beginning with God's help, be safe and protectedagainst bad health and poisoned air, unless the incurred disease was predestined andfatally imposed upon man by the Almighty God.But we now wish to proceed to the Oleum Antimonii and its Power, and show howthis oil may also help the diseased and imperfect metallic bodies. Take in the Name ofGod, very pure refined gold, as much as you want and think will suffice. Dissolve it ina rectified Wine, prepared the way one usually makes Aquam Vitae. And after thegold has become dissolved, let it digest for a month. Then put it into a Balneum, anddistill off the spiritum vini very slowly and gently. Repeat this several times, as longand as often until you see that your gold remains behind in fundo as a sap. And suchis the manner and opinion of several of the ancients on how this oil may also help thediseased and imperfect metallic bodies.Take, in the Name of God, very pure refined gold, as much as you want and think willsuffice. Dissolve it in a rectified Wine, prepared the way one usually makes AquamVitae. And after the gold has become dissolved, let it digest for a month. Then put itinto a Balneum, and distill off the spiritum vini very slowly and gently. Repeat thisseveral times, as long and as often until you see that your gold remains behind infundo as a sap. And such is the manner and opinion of several of the ancients on howto prepare the gold. But I will show and teach you a much shorter, better and moreuseful way. Viz. that you instead of such prepared gold take one part Mercurii Solis,the preparation of which I have already taught in another place by its proper process.Draw off its airy water so that it becomes a subtle dust and calx. Then take two partsof our blessed oil, and pour the oil very slowly, drop by drop onto the dust of theMercurii Solis, until everything has become absorbed. Put it in a vial, well sealed, intoa heat of the first degree of the oven of secrets, and let it remain there for ten days andnights. You will then see your powder and oil quite dry, such that it has become asingle piece of dust of a blackish grey colour. After ten days give it the second degreeof heat, and the grey and black colour will slowly change into a whiteness so that it

ecomes more or less white. And at the end of these ten days, the matter will take on abeautiful rose white. But this may be ignored. For this colour is only due to theMercurio Solis, that has swallowed up our blessed oil, and now covers it with theinnermost part of its body. But by the power of the fire, our oil will again subdue suchMercurium Solis, and throw it into its innermost. And the oil with its very bright redcolour will rule over it and remain on the outside. Therefore it is time, when twentyyears (sic) have passed, that you open the window of the third degree [The alchemicalovens had small openings at different heights, by means of which the heat was regulated.] Theexternal white colour and force will then completely recede inwardly, and the internalred colour will, by the force of the fire, become external. Keep also this degree of firefor ten days, without increase or decrease. You will then see your powder, that waspreviously white, now become very red. But for the time being this redness may beignored (is of no consequence), for it is still unfixed and volatile; and at the end ofthese ten days, when the thirtieth day has passed, you should open the last window ofthe fourth degree of fire, Let it stay in this degree for another ten days, and this verybright red powder will begin to melt. Let it stay in flux for these ten days. And whenyou take it out you will find on the bottom a very bright red and transparent stone,ruby colored, melted into the shape of the vial. This stone may be used for Projection,as has been taught in the tract on Vitriol. Praise God in Eternity for this His highrevelation, and thank Him in Eternity. Amen.ON THE MULTIPLICATION LAPIDIS STIBII.The ancient sages, after they had discovered this stone and prepared it to perfectpower and translation of the imperfect metals to gold, long sought to discover a wayto increase the power and efficiency of this stone. And they found two ways tomultiply it: One is a multiplication of its power, such that the stone may be broughtmuch further in its power of Transmutation. And this multiplication is very subtle, thedescription of which may be found in the Tract on Gold. The second multiplication isan Augmentum quantitatis of the stone with its former power, in such a way that itneither loses any of its power, nor gains any, but in such a manner that its weightincreases and keeps on increasing ever more, so that a single ounce grows andincreases to many ounces. To achieve this increase or Multiplication one has toproceed in the following manner: Take in the Name of God, your stone, and grind it toa subtle powder, and add as much Mercurii Solis as was taught before. Put thesetogether into a round vial, seal with sigillo Hermetis, and put it into the former ovenexactly as taught, except that the time has to be shorter and less now. For where youpreviously used ten (alii thirty) days, you may now not use more than four (alii ten)days. In other respects the work is exactly the same as before. Praise and thank Godthe Almighty for His high revelation, and diligently continue your prayers fir HisAlmighty Mercy and Divine blessings of this Work and Art as well as His grantingyou a good health and fortuitous welfare. And moreover, take care always to help andcounsel the poor.LAVS DEO OMNIPOTENTINOTA.He who wishes to know more about Antiomonio may consult Fr. Basilii Valentini,Triumphal Chariot of Antimonii with comments by Theodor Kerckring,The Mirror of Alchemy

The Mirror of Alchemy, composed by the famous Friar, Roger Bacon, sometimefellow of Martin College and Brasen-nase College in Oxenforde.CHAPTER I.Of the Definitions of Alchemy.In many ancient Books there are found many definitions of this Art, the intentionswhereof we must consider in this Chapter. For Hermes said of this Science: Alchemyis a Corporal Science simply composed of one and by one, naturally conjoining thingsmore precious, by knowledge and effect, and converting them by a naturalcommixtion into a better kind. A certain other said: Alchemy is a Science, teachinghow to transform any kind of metal into another: and that by a proper medicine, as itappeared by many Philosophers' Books. Alchemy therefore is a science teaching howto make and compound a certain medicine, which is called Elixir, the which when it iscast upon metals or imperfect bodies, does fully perfect them in the very projection.CHAPTER II.Of the natural principles, and procreation of Minerals.Secondly, I will perfectly declare the natural principles and procreations of Minerals:where first it is to be noted, that the natural principles in the mines, are Argent-vive,and Sulphur. All metals and minerals, whereof there be sundry and diverse kinds, arebegotten of these two: but: I must tell you, that nature always intends and strives tothe perfection of Gold: but many accidents coming between, change the metals, as itis evidently to be seen in diverse of the Philosophers books. For according to thepurity and impurity of the two aforesaid principles, Argent-vive, and Sulphur, pure,and impure metals are engendered: to wit, Gold, Silver, Steel, Lead, Copper, and Iron:of whose nature, that is to say, purity, and impurity, or unclean superfluity and defect,give ear to that which follows.Of the nature of Gold.Gold is a perfect body, engendered of Argent-vive pure, fixed, clear, red, and ofSulphur clean, fixed, red, not burning, and it wants nothing.Of the nature of silver.Silver is a body, clean, pure, and almost perfect, begotten of Argent-vive, pure, almostfixed, clear, and white, and of such a like Sulphur: It wants nothing, save a littlefixation, color, and weight.Of the nature of Steel.Steel is a body clean, imperfect, engendered of Argent-vive pure, fixed & not fixedclear, white outwardly, but red inwardly, and of the like Sulphur. It wants onlydecoction or digestion,Of the nature of Lead.Lead is an unclean and imperfect body, engendered of Argent-vive impure, not fixed,earthy, dressy, somewhat white outwardly, and red inwardly, and of such a Sulphur inpart burning, It wants purity, fixation, color, and firing.

Of the nature of Copper.Copper is an unclean and imperfect body, engendered of Argent-vive, impure, notfixed, earthy, burning, red not clear, and of the like Sulphur. It wants purity, fixation,and weight: and has too much of an impure color, and earthiness not burning.Of the nature Iron.Iron is an unclean and imperfect body, engendered of Argent-vive impure, too muchfixed, earthy, burning, white and red not clear, and of the like Sulphur: It wantsfusion, purity, and weight: It has too much fixed unclean Sulphur, and burningearthiness. That which has been spoken, every Alchemist must diligently observe.CHAPTER III.Out of what things the matter of Elixir must be more nearly extracted.The generation of metals, as well perfect, as imperfect, is sufficiently declared by thatwhich has been already spoken, Now let us return to the imperfect matter that must bechosen and made perfect. Seeing that by the former Chapters we have been taught,that all metals are engendered of Argent-vive and Sulphur, and how that theirimpurity and uncleanness does corrupt, and that nothing may be mingled with metalswhich have not been made or sprung from them, it: remains clean enough, that nostrange thing which has not his original from these two, is able to perfect them, or tomake a Change and new transmutation of them: so that it is to be wondered at, thatany wise man should set his mind upon living creatures, or vegetables which are faroff, when there be minerals to be found near enough: neither may we in any waythink, that any of the Philosophers placed the Art in the said remote things, except itwere by way of comparison: but of the aforesaid two, all metals are made, neitherdoes any thing cleave unto them or is joined with them, not yet changes them, but thatwhich is of them, and so of right we must take Argent-vive and Sulphur for the matterof our stone: Neither does Argent-vive by itself alone, nor Sulphur by itself alone,beget any metal, but of the commixtion of them both, diverse metals and minerals arediversely brought forth. Our matter therefore must be chosen of the commixtion ofthem both: but our final secret is most excellent, and most hidden, to wit, of whatmineral thing that is more near than others, it should be made: and in making choicehereof, we must be very wary. I put the case then, if our matter were first of all drawnout of vegetables, (of which sort are herbs, trees, and whatsoever springs out of theearth) here we must first make Argent-vive & Sulphur, by a long decoction, fromwhich things, and their operation we are excused: for nature herself offers unto usArgent-vive and Sulphur. And if we should draw it from living creatures (of whichsort is man's blood, hair, urine, excrements, hens' eggs, and what else proceed fromliving creatures) we must likewise out of them extract Argent-vive and Sulphur bydecoction, from which we are freed, as we were before. Or if we should choose it outof middle minerals (of which sort are all kinds of Magnesia, Marchasites, of Tutia,Coppers, Allums, Baurach, Salts, and many other) we should likewise, as afore,extract Argent-vive and Sulphur by decoction: from which as from the former, we arealso excused. And if we should take one of the seven spirits by itself, as Argent-vive,or Sulphur alone, or Argent-vive and one of the two Sulphurs, or Sulphur-vive, orAuripigment, or Citrine Arsenicum, or red alone, or the like: we should never effect it,because since nature does never perfect anything without equal commixtion of both,neither can we: from these therefore, as from the foresaid Argent-vive and Sulphur in

their nature we are excused. Finally, if we should choose them, we should mixeverything as it is, according to a due proportion, which no man knows, and afterwarddecoct it to coagulation, into a solid lump: and therefore we are excused fromreceiving both of them in their proper nature: to wit, Argent-vive and Sulphur, seeingwe know not their proportion, and that we may meet with bodies, wherein we shallfind the said things proportioned, coagulated and gathered together, after a duemanner. Keep this secret more secretly. Gold is a perfect masculine body, without anysuperfluity or diminution: and if it: should perfect imperfect bodies mingled with it bymelting only, it should be Elixir to red. Silver is also a body almost perfect, andfeminine, which if it should almost perfect imperfect bodies by his common meltingonly, it should be Elixir to white which it is not, nor cannot be, because they only areperfect. And if this perfection might be mixed with the imperfect, the imperfectshould not be perfected with the perfect, but rather their perfection’s should bediminished by the imperfect, and become imperfect. But if they were more thanperfect, either in a two-fold, four-fold, hundred-fold, or larger proportion, they mightthen well perfect the imperfect. And forasmuch as nature does always work simply,the perfection which is in them is simple, inseparable, and incommiscible, neithermay they by art be put in the stone, for ferment to shorten the work, and so brought totheir former state, because the most volatile does overcome the most fixed. And forthat gold is a perfect body, consisting of Argent-vive, red and clear, and of such aSulphur, therefore we choose it not for the matter of our stone to the red Elixir,because it is so simply perfect, without artificial mundification, and so stronglydigested and fed with a natural heat, that with our artificial fire, we are scarcely ableto work on gold or silver, And though nature does perfect anything, yet she cannotthoroughly mundify, or perfect and purify it, because she simply works on that whichshe has. If therefore we should choose gold or silver for the matter of the stone, weshould hard and scantly find fire working in them. And although we are not ignorantof the fire, yet could we not come to the thorough mundification and perfection of it,by reason of his most firm knitting together, and natural composition: we are thereforeexcused for taking the first too red, or the second too white, seeing we may find out athing or some body of as clean, or rather more clean Sulphur and Argent-vive, onwhich nature has wrought little or nothing at all, which with our artificial fire, andexperience of our art, we are able to bring unto his due concoction, mundification,color and fixation, continuing our ingenious labor upon it. There must therefore besuch a matter chosen, where in there is Argent-vive, clean, pure, clear, white and red,not fully complete, but equally and proportionably commixt after a due manner withthe like Sulphur, and congealed into a solid mass, that by our wisdom and discretion,and by our artificial fire, we may attain unto the uttermost cleanness of it, and thepurity of the same, and bring it to that pass, that after the work ended, it might be athousand thousand times more strong and perfect, then the simple bodies themselves,decoct by their natural heat. Be therefore wise: for if you shall be subtle and witty inmy Chapters (wherein by manifest prose I have laid open the matter of the stone easyto be known) you shall taste of that delightful thing, wherein the whole intention ofthe Philosophers is placed.CHAPTER IIII.Of the manner of working, and of moderating, and continuing the fire.I hope ere this time you have already found out by the words already spoken (if you

are not most dull, ignorant, and foolish) the certain matter of the learned Philosophersblessed stone, whereon Alchemy works, while we endeavor to perfect the imperfect,and that with things more then perfect. And for that nature has delivered us theimperfect only with the perfect, it is our part to make the matter (in the formerChapters declared unto us) more then perfect by our artificial labor. And if we knownot the manner of working, what is the cause that we do not see how nature (which oflong time has perfected metals) does continually work! Do we not see, that in theMines through the continual heat that is in the mountains thereof, the grossness ofwater is so decocted and thickened, that in continuance of time it becomes Argentvive?And that of the fatness of the earth through the same heat and decoction,Sulphur is engendered! And that through the same heat without intermissioncontinued in them, all metals are engendered of them according to their purity andimpurity? and that nature does by decoction alone perfect or make all metals, as wellperfect as imperfect? 0 extreme madness! what, I pray you, constrains you to seek toperfect the foresaid things by strange melancholical and fantastical regiments! as onesays: Woe to you that will overcome nature, and make metals more then perfect by anew regiment, or work sprung from your own senseless brains. God has given tonature a straight way, to wit, continual concoction, and you like fools despise it, orelse know it not. Again, fire and Azot, are sufficient for you. And in another place,Heat perfects all things. And elsewhere, see, see, see, and be not weary. And inanother place, let your fire be gentle, and easy, which being always equal, maycontinue burning: and let it not increase, for if it does, you shall suffer great loss. Andin another place, Know you that in one thing, to wit, the stone, by one way, to wit,decoction, and in one vessel the whole mastery is performed. And in another place,patiently, and continually, and in another place, grind it seven times. And in anotherplace, It is ground with fire, And in another place, this work is very like to thecreation of man: for as the Infant in the beginning is nourished with light meats, butthe bones being strengthened with stronger: so this mastery also, first it must have aneasy fire, whereby we must always work in every essence of decoction. And thoughwe always speak of a gentle fire, yet in truth, we think that in governing the work, thefire must always by little and little be increased and augmented unto the end.CHAPTER V.Of the quality of the Vessel and Furnace.The means and manner of working, we have already determined: now we are to speakof the Vessel and Furnace, in what sort, and of what things they must be made.Whereas nature by a natural fire decocts the metals in the Mines, she denies the likedecoction to be made without a vessel fit for it. And if we propose to imitate nature inconcocting, wherefore do we reject her vessel! Let us first of all therefore, see in whatplace the generation of metals is made. It does evidently appear in the places ofMinerals, that in the bottom of the mountain there is heat continually alike, the naturewhereof is always to ascend, and in the ascension it always dries up, and coagulatesthe thicker or grosser water hidden in the belly, or veins of the earth, or mountain, intoArgent-vive. And if the mineral fatness of the same place arising out of the earth, begathered warm together in the veins of the earth, it runs through the mountain, andbecomes Sulphur. And as a man may see in the foresaid veins of that place, thatSulphur engendered of the fatness of the earth (as is before touched) meets with theArgent-vive (as it is also written) in the veins of the earth, and begets the thickness of

the mineral water. There, through the continual equal heat in the mountain, in longprocess of time diverse metals are engendered, according to the diversity of the place.And in these Mineral places, you shall find a continual heat. For this cause we are ofright to note, that the external mineral mountain is everywhere shut up within itself,and stony: for if the heat might issue out, there should never be engendered any metal.If therefore we intend to immitate nature, we must needs have such a furnace like untothe Mountains, not in greatness, but in continual heat, so that the fire put in, when itascends, may find no vent: but that the heat may beat upon the vessel being close shut,containing in it the matter of the stone: which vessel must be round, with a smallneck, made of glass or some earth, representing the nature or close knitting together ofglass: the mouth whereof must be signed or sealed with a covering of the same matter,or with lute. And as in the mines, the heat does not immediately touch the matter ofSulphur and Argent-vive, because the earth of the mountain comes everywherebetween: So this fire must not immediately touch the vessel, containing the matter ofthe aforesaid things in it, but it must be put into another vessel, shut closed in the likemanner, that so the temperate heat may touch the matter above and beneath, andwhere ever it be, more aptly and fitly: whereupon Aristotle says, in the light of lights,that Mercury is to be concocted in a three-fold vessel, and that the vessel must be ofmost hard Glass, or (which is better) of Earth possessing the nature of Glass.CHAPTER VI.Of the accidental and essential colours appearing in the work.The matter of the stone thus ended, you shall know the certain manner of working, bywhat manner and regiment, the stone is often changed in decoction into diversecolors. Whereupon one says, So many colors, so many names. According to thediverse colors appearing in the work, the names likewise were varied by thePhilosophers: whereon, in the first operation of our stone, it is called putrifaction, andour stone is made black: whereof one says, When you find it black, know that in thatblackness whiteness is hidden, and you must extract the same from his most subtleblackness. But after putrifaction it waxes red, not with a true redness, of which onesays: It is often red, and often of a citrine color, it often melts, and is often coagulated,before true whiteness. And it dissolves itself, it coagulates itself, it putrifies itself, itcolors itself, it mortifies itself, it quickens itself it makes itself black, it makes itselfwhite, it makes itself red. It is also green: whereon another says, Concoct it, till itappears green unto you, and that is the soul. And another, Know, that in that: greenhis soul bears dominion. There appears also before whiteness the peacocks color,whereon one says thus, Know you that all the colors in the world, or that may beimagined, appear before whiteness, and afterward true whiteness follows. Whereofone says: When it has been decocted pure and clean, that it shines like the eyes offishes, then are we to expect his utility, and by that time the stone is congealed round,And another says: When you shall find whiteness atop in the glass, be assured that inthat whiteness, redness is hidden: and this you must extract: but concoct it while itbecomes all red: for between true whiteness and true redness, there is a certain ashcolor:of which it is said, After whiteness, you cannot err, for increasing the fire, youshall come to an ash-color: of which another says: Do not set light by the ashes, forGod shall give it to you molten: and then at the last the King is invested with a redcrown the by will of God.

CHAPTER VII.How to make projection of the medicine upon any imperfect body.I have largely accomplished my promise of that great mastery, for making the mostexcellent Elixir, red and white. For conclusion, we are to treat of the manner ofprojection, which is the accomplishment of the work, the desired and expected joy.The red Elixir turns into a citrine color infinitely, and changes all metals into puregold. And the white Elixir does infinitely whiten, and brings every metal to perfectwhiteness. But we know that one metal is farther off from perfection then another, andone more near then another. And although every metal may by Elixir be reduced toperfection, nevertheless the nearest are more easily, speedily, and perfectly reduced,then those which are far distant, And when we meet with a metal that is near toperfection, we are thereby excused from many that are far off. And as for the metalswhich of them be near, and which far off, which of them I say be nearest toperfection, if you are wise and discrete, you shall find to be plainly and truly set out inmy Chapters. And without doubt, he that is so quick sighted in this my Mirror, that byhis own industry he can find out the true matter, he does full well know upon whatbody the medicine is to be projected to bring it to perfection. For the forerunners ofthis Art, who have found it out by their philosophy, do point out with their finger thedirect and plain way, when they say: Nature, contains nature: Nature overcomesnature: and Nature meeting with her nature, exceedingly rejoices, and is changed intoother natures, And in another place, Every like rejoices in his like: for likeness is saidto be the cause of friendship, whereof many Philosophers have left a notable secret,Know you that the sour does quickly enter into his body, which may by no means bejoined to another body, And in another place, The soul does quickly enter into hisown body, which if you go about to join with another body, you shall loose yourlabor: for the nearness itself is more clear. And because corporeal things in thisregiment are made incorporeal, and contrariwise things incorporeal corporeal, and inthe shutting up of the work, the whole body is made a spiritual fixed thing: andbecause also that spiritual Elixir evidently, whether white or red, is so greatlyprepared and decocted beyond his nature, it is no marvel that it cannot be mixed witha body, on which it is projected, being only melted. It is also a hard matter to Projectit on a thousand thousand and more, and incontinently to penetrate and transmutethem. I will therefore now deliver unto you a great and hidden secret. one part is to bemixed with a thousand of the next body, and let: all this be surely put into a fit vessel,and set it in a furnace of fixation, first with a lent fire, and afterwards increasing thefire for three days, till they be inseparably joined together, and this is a work of threedays: then again and finally every part hereof by itself, must be projected uponanother thousand parts of any near body: and this is a work of one day, Or one hour,or a moment, for which our wonderful God is eternally to be praised.Here ends the Mirror of Alchemy, composed by the most learned Philosopher, RogerBacon.Part 1:Technical Arts Related To Alchemy in Old Egypt

One of the oldest civilizations all over the world was that of ancient Egypt, whichemerges from pre-history into the period of more or less precise chronological recordat a date perhaps not far removed from 3400 B.C. This highly developed civilizationendured for over 3,000 years, during which it spread its influence far and wide; somearchaeologists, indeed, claim to see in all other civilizations the signs of an Egyptianorigin. However this may be, it is universally agreed that in technical arts Egyptianworkers pointed the way to the rest of the world, and it is to them that we must turnfor the first discovery of those facts that make chemistry possible.Of course, our knowledge of the very earliest developments of chemical arts isdependent upon the discovery of products as far as some 3000 years B.C. tin bronzeswere made.Primitive arts that provide data of a chemical nature are those of the metallurgist, theglass-maker, the dyer and the like, many of which reached an astonishingly high levelof perfection in ancient Egypt.MetallurgyMetallurgy in particular was carried on with an elaborate technique and a businessorganization not unworthy of the modern world, while the systematic exploitation ofmines was an important industry employing many thousands of workers. Even asearly as 3400 B.C., at the beginning of the historical period, the Egyptians had anintimate knowledge of copper ores and of processes of extracting the metal. Duringthe fourth and subsequent dynasties (i.e. from about 2900 B.C. onwards), metals seemto have been entirely monopolies of the Court, the management of the mines andquarries being entrusted to the highest officials and sometimes even to the sons of thePharaoh. Whether these exalted personages were themselves professionalmetallurgists we do not know, but we may at least surmise that the details ofmetallurgical practice, being of extreme importance to the Crown, were carefullyguarded from the vulgar. And when we remember the close association between theEgyptian royal family and the priestly class we appreciate the probable truth of thetradition that chemistry first saw the light in the laboratories of Egyptian priests.Copper and Iron Extraction.In addition to copper, which was mined in the eastern desert between the Nile and theRed Sea, iron was known in Egypt from a very early period and came into general useabout 800 B.C. According to Lucas, iron appears to have been an Asiatic discovery. Itwas certainly known in Asia Minor about I300 B.C., for one of the Kings of theHittites sent Rameses II, the celebrated Pharaoh of the Nineteenth Dynasty, an ironsword and a promise of a shipment of the same metal . The Egyptians called iron 'themetal of heaven' or ba-en-pet, which indicates that the first specimens employed wereof meteoric origin, the Babylonian name has the same meaning. It was no doubt onaccount of its rarity that iron was prized so highly by the early Egyptians, while itscelestial source would have its fascination. Strange to say, it was not used fordecorative, religious or symbolical purposes, which - coupled with the fact that it rustsso readily - may explain why comparatively few iron objects of early dynastic agehave been discovered. One which fortunately has survived presents several points ofinterest: it is an iron tool from the masonry of the great Pyramid of Khufu at Giza, andthus presumably dates from the time when the Pyramid was being built, i.e. about2900 B.C. This tool was subjected to chemical analysis and was found to containcombined carbon, which suggests that it may have been composed of steel. By 666B.C. the process of case-hardening was in use for the edges of iron tools, but the storythat the Egyptians had some secret means of hardening copper and bronze that hassince I been lost is probably without foundation. Desch has shown that a hammered

onze, containing 10.34 per cent. of tin, is considerably harder than copper and keepsa cutting edge much better.Of the other non-precious metals, tin was used in the manufacture of bronze, andcobalt has been detected as a coloring agent in certain specimens of glass and glaze.Neither metal occurs naturally in Egypt, and it seems probable that supplies of orewere imported from Persia. Lead, though it never found extensive application, wasamong the earliest metals known, specimens having been found in graves of predynastictimes.Galena (PbS) was mined in Egypt at Gebel Rasas ('Mountain of Lead'), a few milesfrom the Red Sea coast; and the supply must have been fairly good, for when thedistrict was re-worked from 19I2 to 1915 it produced more than I8,000 tons of ore.The vast quantities of gold amassed by the Pharaohs were the envy of contemporaryand later sovereigns. Though much was imported, received by way of tribute, orcaptured in warfare, the Egyptian mines themselves were reasonably productive.Over one hundred ancient gold workings have been discovered in Egypt and theSudan, though within the limits of Egypt proper there appear to have been gold minesonly in the desert valleys to the east of the Nile near Ikoptos, Ombos andApollinopolis Magna. Of one of these mines - possibly near Apollinopolis - a plan hasbeen found in a papyrus of the fourteenth century B.C., and the remains of no fewerthan 1,300 houses for gold-miners are still to be seen in the Wadi Fawakhir, half-waybetween Koptos and the Red Sea. In one of the treasure chambers of the temple ofRameses III, at Medinet-Habu, are represented eight large bags, seven of whichcontained gold.The Egyptian word for gold is nub, which survives in the name Nubia, a country thatprovided a great deal of the precious metal in ancient days. French ScientistChampollion regarded it as a kind of crucible, while Rossellini and Lepsius preferredto see in it a bag or cloth, with hanging ends, in which the grains of gold were washed- the radiating lines representing the streams of water that ran through. Crivelli hasmore recently advanced the theory that the gold symbol is the conventional sign for aportable furnace used for the fusion of gold, and that the rays represent the flames,which, 'as can be observed in the use of this type of furnace, are unable to ascendbecause the wind inclines them horizontally'. In the later dynasties, the Egyptiansthemselves forgot the original signification of the sign and drew it as a necklace withpendent beads, though Elliot Smith says that this was the primitive form and becamethe determinative of Hathor, the Egyptian Aphro dite, who was the guardian of theEastern valleys where gold was found.The gold mines in Nubia and other parts of the Egyptian empire seem to have beenvery efficiently designed and controlled, though with a callous disregard for thehuman element employed.Alluvial auriferous sand was also treated, a distinction being made between the goldobtained in this way and that extracted from the mines. The latter was called nub-enset,i.e. 'gold of the mountain', while alluvial gold was named nub-en-mu, i.e. 'gold ofthe river'. Auriferous sand was placed in a bag made of a fleece with the woolly sideinwards; water was then added and the bag vigorously shaken by two men. When thewater was poured off, the earthy particles were carried away, leaving the heavierparticles of gold adhering to the fleece. There is a picture of this operation on one ofthe buildings at Thebes.MercuryMercury (Greek-hydrargyros, liquid silver; latin-argentum vivum, live or quick silver)is stated to have been found in Egyptian tombs of from 1500-1600 B.C.

Metal and Mysticism.In the early centuries of our era, however, there gradually developed a mysticismamong chemical writers due to Egyptian and Chaldean religious magical ideas, andthere developed a fanciful relation of the metals as such to the sun and the planets,and as a consequence there arose the believe that it was necessary to confine thenumber of metals to seven.Thus Olympidorous-in the 6th century of our era gives the following relation:Gold.....................the SunSilver...................the MoonElectrum.................JupiterIron.....................MarsCopper...................VenusTin......................MercuryLead.....................SaturnMetallurgy was by no means the only art practiced with conspicuous success by theancient Egyptian craftsmen. Glass was almost certainly the invention, not of thePhoenicians, but of the Egyptians, and was produced on a large scale from a veryearly date.Art of Glass MakingThis art is of very ancient origin with the Egyptians, as is evident from the glass jars,figures and ornaments discovered in the tombs. The paintings on the tombs have beeninterpreted as descriptive of the process of glass blowing. These illustrationsrepresenting smiths blowing their fires by means of reeds tipped with clay. So canconclude that glass-blowing is apparently of Egyptian origin, at the beginning of ourera.The remains of glass furnaces discovered by Flinders-Petrie at Tel-El-Amarna (1400B.C.) illustrate the manufacture of rods, beads, and jars or other figures, formedapparently by covering clay cores with glass and later removing the cores.Egyptian glass articles were of colored glass, often beautifully patterned.From analyses of ancient Egyptian glass articles, it show that generally the glass wasa soda-lime glass with rather soda content as compared with modern soda-lime glass.The given analyses do not differ from those of some soda-lime glasses of moderntimes. Lead was used in glasses from very ancient times. French scientist analyzed avase of the Fourth dynasty in Egypt which contained about one quarter lead.Artificial pearls, made of glass, were manufactured in such numbers that they formedan important article of export trade, and the old legends of enormous emeralds andother precious stones are most reasonably explained on the assumption that thepreparation of paste jewelry was widely undertaken.The earliest glass-works of which the remains have been found date from theeighteenth dynasty, and the oldest dated glass object is a large ball bead bearing thecartouche of Amen-Hotep I, now in the Ashmolean Museum at Oxford. The inventionof glass-blowing, as opposed to the older method of glass-molding, is comparativelyrecent, dating back only to about the beginning of the Christian Era. Sir FlindersPetrie has shown that the relieves at Beni-Hassan, which were formerly supposed torepresent glass-blowers are more probably to be interpreted as metal-workers blowinga fire.Textile and Dyeing Materials.The begining of the art of weaving and the art of dyeing are lost in antiquity. Mummycloths of varying degrees of fitness, still evidencing the dyer's skill, are preserved inmany museums.

The invention of royal purple was perhaps as early as 1600 B.C. From the paintedwalls of tombs, temples and other structures which have been protected fromexposure to weather, and from the decorated surfaces of pottery, chemical analysisoften is able to give us knowledge of the materials used for such purposes.Thus, the pigments from the tomb of Perneb (at estimated 2650 B.C.) which waspresented to Metropolitan Museum of New York City in 1913, were examined byMaximilian Toch. He found that the red pigment proved to be iron oxide, haematite; ayellow consisted of clay containing iron or yellow ochre; a blue color was a finelypowdered glass; and a pale blue was a copper carbonate, probably azurite; green weremalachite; black was charcoal or boneblack; gray, a limestone mixed with charcoal;and a quantity of pigment remaining in a paint pot used in the decoration, contained amixture of haematite with limestone and clay. So many analyses results made byknown scientists all serve to illustrate the character of the evidence furnished bychemical analysis of surviving samples of the products of early chemical industries.Part 2:Earliest Chemical Manuscripts of the Chemical Arts In EgyptIn spite of Egypt is generally recognized as the mother of the chemical and alchemicalarts, but unfortunately her monuments and literature have left little of the earlyrecords which explain these arts.Some of these ideas have been transmitted to us through Greek and Roman sourcesbut the character of these sources do not enable us to discriminate between the matterderived from Egypt and the confused interpretation or additions of the early Greekalchemists.The stories told us that about 290 A.D. the Emperor Diocletian passed a decreecompelling the destruction of the works upon alchemical arts and on gold and silverthroughout the empire, so that it should not be the makers of gold and silver to amassriches which might enable them to organize revolts against the empire. This decreeresulted in the disappearance of a mass of literature which doubtless would havefurnished us with much of interest in the early history of chemical arts and ideas.Discovery of earliest chemical manuscriptsLeyden PapyrusHowever, fortunately there have been saved to our times two important Egyptianworks on chemical processes; the earliest original sources on such subjects discoveredat Thebes (South Egypt), and both formed part of a collection of Egyptian papyrusmanuscripts written in Greek and collected in the early years of the nineteenth byJohann d'Anastasy, vice consul of Sweden at Alexandria.The main part of this collection was sold in 1828 by the collector to the Netherlandsgovernment and was deposited in the University of Leyden. In 1885, C. Leemanscompleted the publication of a critical edition of the texts with Latin translation of anumber of these manuscripts, and among these was one of the two works abovementioned.It is known as the Papyrus X of Leyden.The French chemist Marcelin Berthelot who was interested in the history of earlychemistry, subjected this Papyrus to critical analysis and published a translation of hisresults into French with extensive notes and commentariesOn the basis of philological and paleography evidence, he concluded its date is aboutthe end of the third century A. D. It is, however, manifestly a copy of a work

previously written, as slight errors evidently due to a copyist, are found. That theoriginal is later than the first century A. D. is certain, as there are included in itextracts from the Materia Medica of Dioscorides. The work is a collection ofchemical recipes and directions for :1. Making metallic alloys,2. Imitations of gold, silver or electrum,3. Dyeing and other related arts.In 1913 at Upsala, Otto Lagercrantz published the Greek text with criticalcommentary and with translation into German of a similar Egyptian papyrus, the "Papyrus Graecus Holmiensis." This work like the Leyden manuscript is a collection ofrecipes for alloys, metal working, dyeing, imitations of precious stones and similararts. Investigation developed that this manuscript also came from the Swedish viceconsul at Alexandria, d'Anastasy, presented by him to the Swedish Academy ofAntiquities of Stockholm. Here it slumbered apparently unnoticed until 1906 when itwas transferred to the Victoria Museum at Upsala.Examination and comparison with the Leyden Papyrus made it evident that the newpapyrus was not only identical, but in all probability was in part at least written by thesame hand.Both papyri were in remarkably well preserved condition. Both gave internal evidenceof having been copied from other originals. Berthelot has suggested that the PapyrusX had been preserved in the mummy-case of an Egyptian chemist, and Lagercrantzagreed in the opinion and is convinced that the two works were the property of thesame person, and that these copies were probably made as deluxe copies for thepurpose of being entombed with their former owner in accordance with a commoncustom of placing in the tomb articles formerly owned or used by the deceased.The two manuscripts were taken together from an interesting collection of laboratoryrecipes of the kinds which Diocletian ordered destroyed and which apparently werevery generally destroyed. The date ascribed to them is about the time of the decree ofDiocletian, and it may be presumed that, in the mummy case, they escaped theexecution of that decree.The laboratory manuals from which these copies were made, were written not forpublic information but for the guidance of the workers. The recipes themselves areoften very detailed directions, but often also were mere hints or suggestions,sometimes elliptical to such an extent as to give no clear idea of the process as carriedout.The Leyden papyrus comprises about seventy-five recipes pertaining to the making ofalloys, for soldering metals, for coloring the surfaces of metals, for testing the qualityof or purity of metals, or for imitating the precious metals.There are fifteen recipes for writing in gold or silver or in imitation of gold and silverwriting. There are eleven recipes for dyeing stuffs in purple or other colors. The lasteleven paragraphs are extracts from the Materia Medica of Dioscorides, relating tothe minerals or materials used in the processes involved.Berthelot notes that the artisan who used these notes while a practical worker inmetals, especially the metals used by the jewelers, seemed to be a stranger to the artsof enamels and of artificial gems. It is, therefore, of great interest to discover that theStockholm papyrus supplements the Leyden recipes in this direction. The Stockholmmanuscript contains in all about a hundred and fifty recipes. Of these, only nine dealwith metals and alloys, while over sixty relate to dyeing and about seventy to theproduction of artificial gems. Some ten others deal with the whitening of off-colorpearls or the making of artificial pearls.

It has been noticed that there is practically only a duplication of recipes contained ineach of the manuscripts, and very similar recipes occur in both. The recipes in bothare empirical with no evidences of any occult theories, nor any of that obscurity oflanguage which is so characteristic of the later alchemists.The parts dealing with the metals are largely concerned with transmutation of gold,silver or electrum from cheaper materials, or with giving an external or superficialcolor of gold or silver to cheaper metal. There seems to be no self-deception in thosematters. On the contrary, there are often claims that the product will answer the usualtests for genuine products, or that they will deceive even the artisans. The vocabularyof materials used is practically that of Dioscorides, with few changes in the meaningof such terms as are used by him, although at times the Latin equivalents of Vitruviusand Pliny have been employed.There is little to be found in these manuscripts which suggests that there has been anyadvance in the practical arts as known in the times of Dioscorides and Pliny andwhich had been less specifically described by them, but the papyri in the moredefinite and detailed directions they give, throw a very interesting light upon thesomewhat limited fields of industrial chemistry, of which they treat.Examples will best serve to illustrate the character of the recipes and of theknowledge of practical chemistry which underlies them.The following are some selections of the Papyrus of Leyden, as found in thepreviously mentioned translation of Berthelot:Manufacture of asem (eleetrum)Tin, 12 drachmas; quicksilver, 4 drachmas; earth of Chios, 2 drachmas. To the meltedtin add the powdered earth, then add the mereury, stir with an iron, and put it into use.[This, then, is a tin amalgam intended to give the appearance of asem or silver. Theearth of Chios as described by Pliny appears to have been a white clay. Pliny says itwas used by women as a cosmetic.]The doubling (diplosis) of asemTake refined copper (chalchos) 40 drachmas, asem 8 drachmas, button tin 40drachmas. The copper is first melted and after two heatings the tin and finally theasem is added. When all is softened, remelt several times and cool by means of thepreceding composition. Clean with coupholith (tale or selenite according toBerthelot). The tripling (triplosis) is effected by the same process, the weights beingproportioned in conformity with what has been directed above.[This recipe would yield a pale yellow bronze containing mercury if, as seemsprobable.]Purification of tinLiquid pitch and bitumen, one part of each. Throw it on and melt and stir. Of dry pitch20 drachmas, bitumen 12 drachmas.[This is manifestly a process of obtaining an unoxidized clean tin for further use.]Manufacture of asemTake soft tin in small pieces, four times purified. Take of it four parts and three partsof pure white Copper (or bronze, "chalchos"), and one part of asem. Melt and aftercasting, clean several times and make what you will with it. This will be asem of thefirst quality which will deceive even the artisans.[Copper was whitened by the ancients sometimes by alloying with arsenic. A recipe inthis papyrus gives directions for this whitening of copper.]Augmentation of goldTo augment gold, take Thracian cadmia, make the mixture with the cadmia in crusts;or cadmia of Gaul misy and sinopian red, equal parts to that of gold. When the gold

has been put into the furnace and has become of good color, throw in these twoingredients and removing [the gold] let it cool and the gold will be doubled.[Cadmia, it will be remembered, is the impure zinc oxide, containing sometimes leadand copper oxides, from the furnaces in which brass was smelted. Misy was the partlyoxidized iron or copper pyrites, essentially basic sulphates of iron and copper.Synopian red was haematite. This mixture, assuming the reducing action of the fuel inthe furnace, or of any other reducing agent not specified in the recipe would yield analloy of gold and zinc, with some copper and perhaps some lead.]To make asemCarefully purify lead with pitch and bitumen, or tin as well; mix cadmia and lithargein equal parts with the lead. Stir till the mixture becomes solid. It can be used likenatural asem.[Reduction in the furnace must here also be assumed. The soft white alloy so obtainedmust have been a cheap and poor substitute for electrum or silver.]Preparation of chrysocolla (solder for gold)The solder for gold is prepared thus: Copper of Cyprus 4 parts, asem 2 parts, gold 1part. The copper is melted first, then the asem and finally the gold.[It will be recalled that the term "chrysocolla" was applied also to malachite, verdigrisand copper acetate, all of these being used for soldering gold.]To determine the purity of tinHaving melted it, place paper (papyrus) underneath it and pour it out.[If the paper is scorched the tin contains lead.]To make asem black as obsidianAsem, 2 parts, lead, 4 parts. Place in an earthen vessel, throw on it a triple weight ofnative sulphur, and having put into the furnace, melt. After withdrawing from thefurnace, beat and make what you will. If you wish to make figured objects of beatenor cast metal, polish and cut it. It does not rust.[This process yields a metallic mass blackened with sulphides of lead and silver,similar to the black silver bronze as described by Pliny.]To give objects of copper the appearance of gold, so that neither the feel, nor rubbingon the touchstone can detect it, to serve especially for a ring of fine appearance.Gold and lead are reduced to a fine powder like flour, 2 parts lead to 1 of gold. Whenmixed, they are mixed with gum and the ring covered with this mixture and heated.The operation is repeated several times till the article has taken the color. It is difficultto detect because rubbing gives the mark (or "scratch") of a genuine article, and theheat consumes the lead but not the gold.[This is an interesting process of gold plating by using lead instead of mercury, thelead being oxidized and volatilized in the heating.]Test for purity of goldRemelt and heat it. If pure, it keeps its color after heating, and remains like a coin. If itbecomes whiter, it contains silver, if it becomes rough and hard, it contains copperand tin, if it softens and blackens it contains lead.To gild silver in a durable wayTake quicksilver and gold leaf, making to the consistency of wax. Clean the vase withalum, and taking a little of the waxy material spread it on the vase with the polisherand let it stand to fix. Do this five times. Take the vase with a linen cloth so that it benot soiled, and removing it from the coals, prepare ashes, smooth with the polisherand use it as a gold vase. It will stand the test for real gold.[The recipes for writing with letters of gold vary much according to the material uponwhich the were to be applied, as also with respect to their relative durability.]

To write in letters of goldTake quicksilver, pour it into a suitable vase and add gold leaf. When the gold appearsdissolved in the quicksilver, shake well, add a little gum, one grain for example, andletting it stand, write in letters of gold.Cheaper imitations of gold writing were also used as illustrated in the following:Orpiment of gold color, 20 drachmas; powdered glass, 4 staters; or white of egg, 2staters; white gum, 20 staters; safran.....After writing, let it dry and polish with a tooth.[An animal's tooth used by jewelers for polishing up till now. In other recipes, theyellow or gold color is obtained by sulphur mixed with gum; the "bile of the tortoise,"or of the calf, "very bitter," serves also for the color. These may be secret trade namesfor some substances of different character.]Part 3:Earliest Chemical Manuscripts of the Chemical Arts In EgyptDyeing Processes in Leyden and Stockholm PapyriThe processes of dyeing are treated much more fully in the Swedish papyrus than inthe Leyden one, and can better be discussed in connection with that work. Here youwill find a comparison of dyeing processes in both papyri***:Leyden papyrusPreparation of purple: Break in small pieces Phrygian Stone; bring to a boil andhaving immersed the wool, leave it till becomes cool, then throwing into the vesselone mina of algae, boil and throw in the wool and letting cool, wash it in sea-water topurple coloration. The Phyrygian stone is roasted before breaking.Stockholm papyrusPurple - Roast and boil Phrygian stone. Let the wool stay in till cold. Then take it out;put into another vessel orseille (sea-wood or algae) and amranth, one mina of each,boil and let the wool cool in it.***It is a pretty evidence (as Berthelot said) that the two recipes are practically thesame, the one helps us to understand the other.Phrygian Stone-It is considered by Berthelot probably to have been an alunite, or basic sulphate ofaluminium and potassium.-While Pliny describes it as a porous stone resembling pumice which is saturated withwine and then calcined at red heat and quenched in sweet wine-the operation is threetimes repeated.-Its only use is in dyeing cloths.-The algae used are manifestly the source of the dyestuff were probably lichens suchas were formerly much used and which yield the dyestuff called archil or orseille.The notes on dyeing form an important part of the Stockholm papyrus, and furnishmore specific information as to methods and materials employed than any othersource of information as to the dyeing processes in use in Egypt in ancient times.The recipes are almost exclusively devoted to the dyeing of wool. The colours rangefrom purple and reds to rose, yellow, green and blue, though the greater number ofrecipes have to do with purple. That term with the ancients, included deep red andeven red brown as well as purples proper.Hints for testing the quality of dyestuffs-Woad should be heavy and dark blue if good, if light and whitish, it is not good. -

Syrian Kermes—crush those which are best colored and lightest, those which areblack or spotted with white are bad. Rub up with soda and dissolve the fine colored.-Rub up the best colored madder and so make the test.Purple colored and fast orseilleis purple snail-colored, but the white spotted and the black is not good.-When you rub up very fine colored orseille, take and hold it in your hand. (A roughcolor test on the palm of the hand?)-Alum must be moist and very white, but that which contains saltness is not fit.-Of "flowers of copper" that fit for use should be either dark blue, a very green leekcoloror in general possess a very fine color (Flowers of copper, the flos aeris of Pliny,seems generally to be used for the copper oxide)Methods For Whitening PearlsMethod 1:If the pearls have a brownish tint as if smoked, it is directed to make a solution ofhoney in water, to add fig roots pounded fine, and to boil down the mixture. Spread iton the pearls as and let it harden, then remove it and wipe off with a linen cloth. If thepearls are not yet white, repeat the process.Method 2:Mordant or roughen the pearls by letting them stand in the "urine of a young boy"then covering them with "alum" and let what remains of the mordant dry. They arethen put into an earthen vessel with "quicksilver" and "fresh bitch's milk". Everythingwas then heated together, the process being regulated. It was cautioned to apply thefuel externally and to maintain a gentle fire.Notice: Lippmann suggested that "quicksilver" above mentioned cannot be mercury,but was probably some finely divided substance of pearly or silvery character,calculated to give the pearly luster.** A curious method given for whitening a pearl is that of causing it to be swallowedby a cock, afterwards killing the cock and recovering the pearl, "when it will be foundto be white."Method of making Artificial Pearls:One recipe of the Swedish papyrus that gives us the earliest account of methods ofmaking artificial pearls is as follows: Mordant or roughen crystal in the urine of ayoung boy and powdered alum, then dip it in "quicksilver" and woman's milk.The word "crystal" often meant with the ancients quartz crystal, but it is very evidentthat with the authors of these notes the term was used in a more comprehensive senseto include other transparent or translucent stones. This use is very evident in the manyrecipes for imitation of precious stones, where the processes involve a degree ofporosity or absorbent power towards colored solutions not possessed either by quartzcrystal or by glass, while certain agates, micas, alabasters or other stones possess thisproperty. In case of the above recipe, it is doubtful whether any such mordantingwould in a reasonable time roughen the surface of real quartz crystal adequately. The"quicksilver" here mentioned is evidently the same substance of pearly lusterpreviously referred to.A more elaborate process for making artificial pearls is the following, suggesting themodern "Roman pearls.": "Take a stone easily pulverized, as glimmer, and pulverizeit. Take gum tragacanth and soften it for ten days in cow's milk. When it is softened,dissolve it till it becomes thick like glue. Melt Tyrrhenian wax. Take also the white ofan egg and "quicksilver."There must be two parts of "quicksilver" and three parts of stone, but of all othermaterials one part each. Mix (the stone and wax), and knead the mixture with the"quicksilver. " Soften the paste in the solution of gum and the contents of the egg.

Mix in this way the whole liquid with the paste. Then make the pearls which you wishaccording to pattern. The paste will soon be like stone. Make deep round impressionsand bore them while moist. Let the pearls solidify and polish them well. Treated asthey should be, they will excel the natural. "Trade Names of Materials used in the RecipesThe use of the trade names for the purpose of concealing the character of thesubstance used where secrecy seemed desirable was not unknown at that period.There is a passage in Leyden papyrus concerning this and says that: "Interpretationdrawn from the sacred names, which the sacred writers employ for the purpose ofputting at fault the curiosity of the vulgar. The plants and other things which theymake use of for the images of the gods have been designated by them in such a waythat for lack of understanding they perform a vain labor in following a false path. Butwe have drawn the interpretation of much of the description and hidden meanings."The secret names in this manuscript which are placed with the real names are thirtysevenin number. They are such names as the later alchemists used extensively:"blood of the serpent," "blood of Hephaistos," "blood of Vesta,""seed of the lion,""seed of Hercules," "bone of the phyasimian," etc.It is very probable that the term "quicksilver" in the preceding recipe takes its namefrom a similarity in appearance rather than from the deliberate attempt to mystify, forthese recipes are for the artisan himself, not for the public, but it is also possible thatsome special constituents of these recipes were intentionally so named as to avoidadvertising unnecessarily the more valuable secrets of their business.The "blood of the dragon" for the red resin of the pterocarpusdraco is doubtless asurviving remnant of the fanciful names used for mystification. The Swedish papyrushas a few other names of the same character, though in general its vocabulary is plainand direct. Thus the Greek word for garlic is used to designate human feces,sometimes used in mordanting wool. The manuscript itself gives this translation.The term "blood of the dove" used in the papyrus, Von Lippmann has identified fromother sources as meaning red lead or sometimes cinnabar.Part4Alexandria-Egypt and Early AlchemistsIntroduction1-When Alexander the Great conquered Egypt in 33 B.C. and his general PtolemybecameKing of Egypt, the Greek city of Alexandria was founded, and soon became not onlythemost important city of Egypt, but through the foundation of schools and theaccumulation of libraries became the acknowledged center of the intellectual world.2-The collection of manuscripts is estimated at from 400,00 to 500,000 works.Scholarsfrom all parts of the then civilized world thronged there to take advantage of itsbooks and its teachers. The culture which developed was a blending of Greek,Egyptian,Chaldean, Hebrew and Persian influences. Greek philosophy, Egyptian arts, ChaldeanandPersian mysticism met and gave rise to strange combinations not always conducive toimprovement upon the relative clarity of the Greek foundation.3-As the power of Rome grew, Greek and Egyptian power declined. Egypt became a

3-As the power of Rome grew, Greek and Egyptian power declined. Egypt became aRomanprovince in 80 B. C. A fire, started, it is recorded, from ships burning in theharbor during Caesar's conquest of Alexandria, burned an important part of thecollection of manuscripts of the Alexandria libraries.4-Under the Roman Empire, Alexandria, however, still exerted great influence and inthereign of Augustus was a metropolis second only to Rome itself, but in the succeedingcenturies when Rome was suffering from internal disintegration and the RomanEmpire wascrumbling from successful barbarian invasions; Alexandrian culture also yielded to thegeneral demoralization.5-In the third century, the conditions throughout the Empire were such as to justifythe statement of competent critic—"In the tempest of anarchy during the third centuryA.D. the civilization of the ancient world suffered final collapse. The supremacy ofmind and of scientific knowledge won by the Greeks in the third centur B.C. yielded tothe reign of ignorance and superstition in these social disasters of the third centuryA.D."Alexandrian Alchemical MysticsIn the light of present knowledge, it was in the period of the first to the thirdcenturies that the mystical cult which cultivated the fantastic ideas of that kind ofchemical philosophy which later came to be called alchemy, first developed. Thebeginning seems to have been the development of a secret cult of Alexandrian mysticsbound by oath never to reveal to the uninitiated the mysterious knowledge which theyclaimed to have. That the members of the cult were originally of the Egyptianpriesthood or foreign scholars initiated by them, seems probable, for Egyptian deitiesor mythological personages are prominent as authorities in their writings. That thecult was of comparatively late development is evidenced by the prominence of Persian,and Hebrew authorities which were also frequently cited in their early writings. Allthis points to the cosmopolitan influence of the Alexandrian schools the melting potsof Greek, Egyptian, Hebrew, Persian and Chaldean philosophies, sciences, religionsandsuperstitions. The universal sway of the Roman power and the pax Romana had alsotheeffect of spreading the various cultures and national religions, but at the same timeof weakening their authority.In the early centuries of our era, Rome and Athens contained temples of Egyptian Isis,and shrines to Mithra, the Persian sun god, were frequent in Greek and Roman cities,symptoms of a decline in the power of the ancient religions in the centers ofcivilization under the Empire.Fate of Alexandria UniversityThere was rising the new and at first persecuted sect of Christians destined soon tosupplant the old faiths. Reconized and protected early in the fourth century under theEmperor Constantine, the new sect as it gained influnce waged war upon the schools ofancient pagan philosophies.In 389 A.D. the Serapion of Alexandria was destrosyed, and its library destroyed or

In 389 A.D. the Serapion of Alexandria was destrosyed, and its library destroyed orscattered under an edict of Theodosius calling for the destruction of all paean templeswithin the Empire, an order executed with much severity and cruelty. In the same year,Zeno, Emperor of the East, closed the important school at Edessa and its Nestorianteachers were banished, findingg refuse in Asia. The Museum of Alexandria, a realuniversity, still maintained a precarious existence until 415 when in riots incited bythe Christians, the last remnants of Alexandrian schools of philosophy and sciencewereswept away and the last notable teacher and philosopher of that school, Hypatia(370 -415) fell a victim to the violence of the mob.Hypatia (http://www.astr.ua.edu/4000WS/HYPATIA.html)Alexandria In Times Of MuslimsWhen the Muslim State ruled Asia Minor, the Syrian scholars were patronized by theCaliphs, were employed in influential positions as physicians, as tronomers,mathematicians, engineers, etc., and the Syrian manuscripts of Greek and Alexandrianauthors were translated into Arabian. The early Muslim culture was more hospitable tothese ancient sciences and philosophies than the early Christian, and thus Arabiansbecame in medieval times the best trained scholars in mathematics astronomy,medicineand chemistry. As the wave of Muslim culture in the seventh and eighth centuriesswept over Egypt and Morocco to Spain, Spain became the seat of a high degree ofMuslimculture which endured until the final expulsion of the Moors in 1492 put an end to theMuslim rule in Western Europe. From Spain, however, the classical culture preservedbySyrian scholars and by them transmitted to Arab scholars, found its way to Europe, andArabian mathematicians, physicians, alchemists, were held in high esteem as scientificexperts. Arabian translations, elaborations and commentaries from ancient Greek andGreek-Egyptian authors received from Syrian versions and finally translated into Latinin the twelfth and thirteenth centuries, became the great authorities in naturalscience. So completely had the original Greek writings disappeared from sight in themiddle ages of Europe that later centuries quite generally assumed that the Arabianswere originators of very much that they had acquired and transmitted from originalGreek and Alexandrian writers through Syrian and Arabic translations. Particularlywasthat true in the field of chemical knowledge, though modern research has made itclearer that the additions in that domain to the knowledge possessed by Alexandrianwriters of the third and fourth centuries is of very subordinate significance. In thehistory of chemical science in Europe, Arabian influence is of importance because itwas through this channel that interest in the science was again introduced to LatinizedEurope.The Earliest Alchemical Writers In AlexandriaAt about the beginning of our era, it was in Alexandria, so far as we can ascertain, thatthat phase of chemical activity and speculation which we call alchemy originated.The earliest alchemical writers whose writings have been in part at least preserved tous were manifestly Alexandrian Greek-Egyptians. They wrote in Greek and theirwritings

writingscontain allusions and traditions connecting with the ancient Greek philosophy ofnature, with Plato and Aristotle, but also allusions and ideas related to Persian andEgyptian culture. In so far as these writings contain references to the devices andmethods of experimental chemistry, these earl alchemists allude to just such practicaloperations as we have seen in the Egyptian papyri from Thebes (see Part 2 Lyeden andStokohlom Manuscripts in this site), although they are rarely so definite and clear asthe latter descriptions and directions, and are mingled with a confused mass of obscureallegorical narratives and descriptions. These find their analogies in the fantasticnotions of the later Alexandrian neoplatonic philosophers and related mystical cultsbelonging to the transition period of the fall of the Egyptian and Greek culture andthe rise of the Christian philosophy with its mixture of traditions and ideas from manydifferent ancient cults and religions.Internal and external evidence are to the effect that the phase of chemical activityand interest which so long held the stage not only in Europe but in Arabia and Asia,spreading even to India and China, had its origin in the practices of the metal workersof Egypt (see Part 1 of this section) and in the theories of matter and its possiblechanges as developed in the neoplatonic school of natural philosophy.In so far as the neoplatonic philosophy as applied to alchemy possessed a basis inancient Greek philosophy, it was based mainly upon Plato's conceptions as formulatedinhis work entitled "Timaeus."This metaphysical physical science of Plato, imaginative and fantastic in itself,became even less logical and more fantastic by the elaborations and interpretations ofthe later neoplatonists who "based their philosophy on revelations of Deity and theyfound those in the religious traditions and rites of all nations."As the Timaeus of Plato appears to have furnished the more fundamental conceptswhichdominated the ideas of matter and its changes to the early and later alchemists, itwill be of help in understanding some of these ideas if this work is explained in somedetail.In the form of dialogue, though substantially a monologue, Timaeus is represented asexplaining to Socrates his formulation of the generation and development of thephysical universe.INTRODUCTIONOn 8 June, A.D. 632, the Prophet Mohammed (Peace and Prayers be upon Him) died,having accomplished the marvelous task of uniting the tribes of Arabia into ahomogeneous and powerful nation.In the interval, Persia, Asia Minor, Syria, Palestine, Egypt, the whole North Africa,Gibraltar and Spain had been submitted to the Islamic State, and a new civilizationhad been established.The Arabs quickly assimilated the culture and knowledge of the peoples they ruled,while the latter in turn-Persians, Syrians, Copts, Berbers, and others-adopted theArabic language. The nationality of the Muslim thus became submerged, and the termArab acquired a linguistic sense rather than a strictly ethnological one.As soon as Islamic State had been established, the Arabs began to encourage learningof all kinds. schools, colleges, libraries, observatories and hospitals were builtthroughout the whole Islamic State, and were adequately staffed and endowed.In the same time, scholars were invited to Damascus and Baghdad without distinction

of nationality or creed. Greek manuscripts were acquired in large numbers and werestudied, translated and provided with scholarly and illuminating commentaries.The old learning was thus infused with a new vigor, and the intellectual freedom ofmen of the desert stimulated the search for knowledge and science.In early days at least, the Muslims were eager seekers for knowledge, and Baghdadwas the intellectual center of the world. Historians have justly remarked that theschool of Baghdad was characterized by a new scientific spirit.Proceeding from the known to the unknown; taking precise account of phenomena;accepting nothing as true which was not confirmed by experience, or established byexperiment, such were fundamental principles taught and acclaimed by the thenmasters of the sciences.Cultural BackgroundThree of the 'Abbasid Caliphs distinguished themselves greatly in this respect: thesecond, al-Mansur (754-775), who founded Baghdad, and, even more so, the fifth,Harun-al-Rashid whose fame has been immortalized by many legends and theseventh, Al-Ma'mun (813-833). All of them encouraged the work of the translatorswho were busily unlocking the treasures of Greek knowledge.First of all the word 'alchemy', as the article al- indicates, is Arabic (al-klmya'). Theorigin of the word kimya', pre-Arabic, is arguable. Several more or less plausible orlegendary hypotheses have been advanced. For some the word came from theEgyptian kemi (black), whence the Greek kemia which might indicate two things:Egypt, 'the black land' according to Plutarch - alchemy would be preeminently thescience of Egypt; 'the Black', the original matter of transmutation, i.e. the art oftreating 'black metal' to produce precious metals.For others, the word 'chemy' could have come from the Greek khymeia, 'fusion', i.e.the art of melting gold and silver. A Byzantine text states that Diocletian ordered thedestruction of Egyptian books relating to khymeia, to the 'fusion' of gold and silver.Islamic Alchemy In Western WritingsFollowing the work of French chemist Marcellin Berthelot on alchemy, manyresearchers on the basis of original texts discovered and published, became interestedin the study of alchemy with the Arabs: Lippmann, Wiedemann, Ganzenmuller,Stapleton, Holmyard, Plessner and especially Paul Kraus whose work about Jabir ibnHayyan is still a classic in this subject. More recently Henry Corbin in his research onShi'ism has tried to give an esoteric interpretation of the great alchemy texts. His ideascreated a school of thought and some contemporary authors, Roger Deladriere andPierre Lory for instance, did not escape his influence. Arabic alchemy is no longer the'terra incognita' which, a century ago, challenged the insight of historians of science.The large quantity of accumulated facts suggested a synthetic presentation to FuatSezgin and Manfred Ullmann. The former produced his in the frame of his seriesGeschichte des arabischen Schrifttums; the fourth volume, appearing in 1971,dedicated several pages to alchemy. In his turn, Ullmann, in his book Die Natur- undGeheimwissenschaften in Islam, appearing in 1972, presented in about a hundredpages the whole of Arabic alchemic literature studying successively the translationsand pseudoepigraphs from Greek authors, Egyptian, Indian, Persian, Jewish andChristian sources, then alchemy theories, the research of the elixir, laboratoryexperiments and the material employed, and the whole is copiously documented.THE SOURCES OF ALCHEMY AMONG MUSLIMSPythagoras (Fithaghurus)

Pythagoras is often mentioned in Arabic philosophy and in gnomic literature. Jaldakicalls him al-mu'allim al-awwal because he acquired the science from hermetic texts.Jabir refers to him as an alchemic author and speaks of Ta'ifat Fthaghurus, the schoolof Pythagoras, and of his book Kitab almu'sahhahat (Book of Adjustments). Otherquotations refer to Pythagoras's theory of numbers. Tughra'i mentions him severaltimes and refers to his treatise about 'natural numbers'. The fragments of texts whichare attributed to him could have come either from Turba philosophorum, where he isamong the participants, or from other texts.ArchelaosArchelaos is mentioned in the Fihrist (p. 352, 25) and by al-Kindi in his Fada'il Misr(p. 191, 11). He is considered as the disciple of Anaxagoras and the teacher ofSocrates. He should not be confused with his Byzantine namesake, author of analchemic poem of 336 verses. The Arabs consider him as the author of Turbaphilosophorum (Mu.shafal aljama'a) and attribute to him the Risalat madd al-ba hrdhat al-ru'ya, a text which had been revealed in a vision about the tide and which wastranslated into Latin with the title Visio Arislei. This text is introduced as thecontinuation of Turba philosophorum.SocratesSocrates is considered not only as a wise man but also as an alchemist. Jabir calls him'the father and mother of all philosophers' and considers him as the prototype of thereal chemist. From Socrates to Jabir, there is a continuous tradition which attributesentire treatises to him. Jabir affirms that Socrates was opposed to the writing down ofalchemic knowledge to avoid its exposition to the ignorance of the masses. Mostreferences to Socrates refer to his arithmetical speculations (theory of the balance) andalso to artificial generation.Plato (Aflatun)Olympiodorus already (at the end of the sixth century) considered Plato as analchemist and Ibn al-Nadlm mentions him in the list of alchemists. Butrus al-Ilmlmlmentions an alchemic device called ,hammam Aflatun (Plato's bath).Among the books attributed to him by the Arabs we can mention the Summa Platonisof which we only have the Latin version. There is a commentary to this book - theKitab al-Rawabi' - whose Arabic text was edited by Badawi and whose Latintranslation is known by the name Liber quartorum. The contents of this work aremainly alchemic but it contains also information on geometry, physiology andastrology. The ancient authors cited are Plato, Aristotle, Ptolemy, Hipparchus,Proclus, the Sophists, Ostanes, Hermes, Asclepius and Hippocrates.We note also that Plato takes up the story in the forty-fifth discourse in Turbaphilosophorum; this speech ends with the phrase al-tabi'a tulzimu-ltabi'ata wa-ltabi'atutaqharu-i-tabSata wa-i-tabi'ata tafra hu li-l-tabl'ati (nature necessarilyaccompanies nature, nature overcomes nature, nature rejoices in nature), an aphorismoften mentioned in Arabic alchemic literature under the name of Plato oranonymously. It comes from the Physika kai Mystika of Democritus.Aristotle (Aristu)Aristotle is considered as an alchemist author not so much because of his fourth bookMeteorologica but because of his reputation as an all-round scholar. He wrote a bookon alchemy for his disciple Alexander. In 618, by order of Heraclius, the book wastranslated into Syriac by the monk Jean, and the Bishop of Nisibis, Eliyya barShinaya, made sure of its orthodoxy. Finally Abdishu' bar Brika, Bishop of Sinjar, andlater of Nisibis, made a commentary on it in Syriac of which there still exists anArabic translation. The text contains an introduction in which Abdlshu reports the

legendary history of the text followed by a Ietter from Alexander to Aristotle wherethe former poses questions to which the latter responds. This dialogue is called sahifatkanz Allah al-akbar (Epistle of the Great Treasure of God). it includes three chapters:(1) About the great principles of alchemy; (2) Alchemic operations; (3) The elixir.Pythagoras, Democritus, Asclepiades, Hermes, Plato, Ostanes and Balmas arementioned in the text.We also have a dialogue between Aristotle and the Indian Yuhin sent by the Indianking as messenger to Alexander. Ibn al-Nadim reports this dialogue to Ostanes.Finally in the Jabirian corpus there is a Kitab Musahhaha Aristutalis.Porphyry (d. c. 303)Porphyry is often mentioned, especially by Jabir who attributes artificial generation tohim. The later alchemists such as Tughra'i and Jaldakl also mention him.Galen (Jahnus) (d. c. 199 AD)According to a note in Kitab al-hajar 'ala ra'y Balinas, Galen was interested inalchemy before dedicating himself to philosophy. In fact, he is sometimes mentionedas an authority on alchemy' and fragments of alchemy texts attributed to Galen can befound in the National Library of Cairo.Bolos the Democritean of MendesBolos the Democritean lived in the second century before Christ. The work of thisscholar is varied: alchemy, astrology, medicine. He is probably at the origin of thealchemic tradition transmitted by the work of pseudo-Democritus: Physika kaiMystika. He expounds there the four traditional branches of alchemy: gold, silver,precious stones, dyes. One can find the famous formula which aims to synthesize thequintessence of the alchemic art: 'one nature is charmed by another nature, one natureovercomes another nature, one nature dominates another nature'.How can this axiom be explained in practical terms? Zosimus, commentator of thefourth century, explains: 'we can proceed with the transmutation of common metalinto noble metal by working alloys or by purifying the metals, basing ourselves on theaffinity between metals, knowing their "sympathies and antipathies". Raw material,sympathy, transmutation by qualitative change (of the colours), we have thus theprinciples that constitute alchemy.' Thus the school of Bolos brings to the Egyptiantechnique a philosophical reasoning which will open the way to the science of theGreat Work. 'Once again', says Festugiere, 'we see the union of the Greek spirit andthe Oriental art.' The art exists, from ancient times; the goldsmiths of Egypt workmetals, stones and purple. But although they have innumerable recipes transmittedfrom father to son and kept in temple archives, they lack a reasoning method. No-onehas yet joined these practices with the principles which explain and justify them.There is practice but not theory. This is what the Greek spirit provides. The merit ofBolos of Mendes was to join theory and experiment and thus found a pseudosciencewhich would cross the ages up to modern chemistry.About the same time alchemy was practiced in most Egyptian towns. This firstalchemy is a mixture of hermetic or Gnostic elements and old Greek philosophy:Heraclitus, Empedocles and their speculations about the four elements, Parmenideswith his theory on the unity of the whole, the Platonic cosmogony of Timaeus.ZosimusThe most famous character of this time is Zosimus of Panopolis (Akhmim, in UpperEgypt). He probably lived at the end of the third and beginning of the fourth century;he wrote an encyclopedia with twenty-eight books on alchemy which he dedicated tohis sister Theosebeia. Some sections are original but most of it reproduces old textslost to the present time. His name in Arabic, because of the ambiguity of the writing,

is often transcribed under different forms: Risimus, Rusim, Rusam. Al-Qifli affirmsthat he lived before Islam.Some of his aphorisms and anecdotes are reported by Arab authors such as Jahiz, IbnDurayd, al-Tawhidi,. Ibn Arfa' Ra's calls him 'the universal wise man and the brilliantflame' (al-hakim aljami' wa-i-shihab al-lami'). Ibn al-Nadlm mentions four booksfrom Zosimus: Kitab al-mafatih f-l-santa; Kitab al-sab'tuna risala; Kitab al-'anasir;Kitab ila jamb alhukama' fi-lsan'a.The epistle from Zosimus to Theosebeia has the title Mushaf al-suwar (The Book ofImages). The name of Theosebeia is often rendered as Atusabiya, Amtuthasiya,Uthasiya, etc. Zosimus can be placed at the end of an evolution in alchemy. WithBolos, it became philosophical; with Zosimus it becomes a mystical religion wherethe idea of salvation is predominant. In fact, the period which separates Bolos theDemocritean from Zosimus saw intense alchemic activity. Vastly different elements -Egyptian magic, Greek philosophy, neo-Platonism, Babylonian astrology, Christiantheology, pagan mythology - can be found in Zosimus' texts. He is full of gnostic andhermetic books, he knows the Jewish speculations about the Old Testament. He givesto alchemy a religious character which will remain forever, at least in its traditionalcourse, since with the Arab alchemists it will retain its concrete technical characterbefore meeting the Ismaeli gnostic speculations.Zosimus and his contemporaries who collected their predecessors' traditions insist ontheir connection with the Egypt of the Pharaohs or with the Persia of Zoroastra andOstanes. We can find texts under the name of Agathodaimon compared with Hermes.Some written pieces even say that alchemic texts were engraved in hieroglyphs onsteles but it was absolutely forbidden to divulge them.This Greek-Egyptian alchemy survived in Alexandria for several centuries. From hereit will go to Constantinople, where several recensions of the 'collection of Greekalchemists' were compiled, and to the Arabs when they conquered Egypt in theseventh century.Hermes and Hermetic literatureAccording to Ibn al-Nadlm (351, 19) Arab alchemists considered the BabylonianHermes as the first one to have mentioned the art of alchemy. Exiled by hiscountrymen, he came to Egypt where he became king. He wrote a certain number ofbooks on alchemy and was equally interested in the study of the hidden forces ofnature.The Fihrist gives a list of thirteen books of Hermes about alchemy but in fact some ofthem are about magic. Other texts have been traced: Alfalakiyya al-kubra (The GreatEpistle of the Celestial Spheres) by Hermes of Denderah; Risalat al-sirr; KitabHirmis ila Tat f-l-santa; Risalat harb al-kawakEb al-barbawiyya; Tadblr Hirmis al-Haramisa; sahlfat Hirmis al'ugma, commentated by Jaldaki; Risalat Qabas al-qabis fitadbir Hirmis al-Haramisa.Sirr al-Khaliqa of BallnasThe Kitab Sirr al-khaliqa wa santat al-tabia also has the title Kitab al-'ilal (The Bookof Causes); it was sometimes called simply li-lashya'. In the introduction a certainSajiyus is introduced, a priest from Nablus who commented on the story of Bal.Muslim AlchemistsThe Arabs appeared in history in the seventh century. Alchemy had by then gonethrough a long path. The first contacts took place in Egypt, in Alexandria, where thetraditions went back several centuries before Christianity.Muslim alchemy was derived from the Greek. The frequency with which Greek

authors are quoted, the numerous theories that are common to both Greek and Arabicalchemy, and the large number of Arab technical terms clearly taken over fromHellenic treatises (e.g. hayuli, atisyus, athalia, iksir, qambar,S) prove beyond doubtthe affiliation of Muslim and Greek alchemy. The transmission was made partlythrough direct contact in Egypt, partly through the medium of Syrian Christiantranslators, and partly by way of Persia. There are unmistakable traces of Persianinfluence, manifested distinctly by linguistic affinities in technical names and usageand in names of minerals. These traces are sufficiently well marked to render itprobable that Persia was, indeed, one of the main channels through which alchemycame to Islam; and it is not without interest to note that many of the principal Muslimalchemists were Persians.It has already been observed that Chinese alchemy has so much in common withGreek and Arabic alchemy as to afford support to the hypothesis that all three had acommon origin; and there is some reason to believe that the Chinese practiced a kindof alchemy long before the days of Islam. The remote origins of Arabic alchemy aretherefore still to some extent uncertain, but there is very little to recommend thesuggestion that the Arabs received any direct introduction to alchemy from theChinese. Whatever may be the cause of the similarity between Chinese, Greek andMuslim alchemical ideas.JABIR IBN HAIYAN (721-815)The greatest chemist of Islam has long been familiar to western readers under thename of Geber, which is the medieval rendering of the Arabic Jabir. Since the work ofPaul Kraus we are on more solid ground with Jabir ibn Haiyan.He is Abu Musa Jabir ibn Haiyan al-Azdl (al-Tusl, al-~artusl, al-Harram meaning thathe was a Sabian?; al-Sufi). Flourished mostly in kufa. The most famous Arabic'alchemist; the alchemist Geberu of the Middle Ages. He may be the author of a bookon the astrolabe, but his fame rests on his alchemical writings preserved in Arabic: the'Book of the Kingdom', the 'Little Book of the Balances', the 'Book of Mercury', the'Book of Concentration', the 'Book of Eastern Mercury', and others. According to thetreatises already translated (by Berthelot), his alchemical doctrines were veryanthropomorphic and animistic. But other treatises (not yet available in translation)show him in a better light. We find in them remarkably sound views on methods ofchemical research; a theory on the geologic formation of metals; the so-calledsulphur-mercury theory of metals (the six metals differ essentially because ofdifferent proportions of sulphur and mercury in them); preparation of varioussubstances (e.g., basic lead carbonate; arsenic and antimony from their sulphides).Jabir deals also with various applications, e.g., refinement of metals, preparation ofsteel, dyeing of cloth and leather, varnishes to water-proof cloth and protect iron, useof manganese dioxide in glass making, use of iron pyrites for writing in gold,distillation of vinegar to concentrate acetic acid. He observed the imponderability ofmagnetic force.It is possible that some of the facts mentioned in the Latin works, ascribed to Geberand dating from the twelfth century and later, must also be placed to Jabir's credit. Itis impossible to reach definite conclusions until all the Arabic writings ascribed toJabir have been properly edited and discussed. It is only then that we shall be able tomeasure the full extent of his contributions, but even on the slender basis of ourpresent knowledge, Jabir appears already as a very great personality, one of thegreatest in mediaeval science. Jabir admits the Aristotelian theory about thecomposition of matter-earth, water, air, fire-but he develops it along a different path.First, there are four elementary qualities, or natures: heat, cold, dryness, humidity.

When they get together with a substance they form compounds of the first degree, i.e.hot, cold, dry, wet. The union of two of these qualities giveshot + dry + substance -------------- firehot + wet + substance -------------- aircold + wet + substance ------------- watercold + dry + substance ------------- earthOne of his chief contributions to the theory of chemistry lies in his views upon theconstitution of metals. To understand his conceptions properly, we must hark back toAristotle, whose philosophy of nature was universally accepted in its main principlesby the scientists of Islam. According to Aristotle, it still be remembered, allsubstances are composed of the four elements, fire, air, water, and earth, which arethemselves interconvertible. The immediate constituents of minerals and metals aretwo exhalations, one an 'earthy smoke' and the other a watery vapour'; the formerconsists of small particles of earth on the way to becoming fire, while the latterconsists of small particles of water on the way to becoming air. Neither exhalation isever entirely free from some admixture of the other. Stones and other minerals areformed when the two exhalations become imprisoned in the earth, the dry or smokyexhalation predominating; metals are formed under similar circumstances if thewatery exhalation predominates.Jabir accepted this theory of the constitution of metals, but appears to have regarded itas too indefinite to explain observed facts or to afford a guide to practical methods oftransmutation. He therefore modified it in such a fashion as to make it less vague, andthe theory he suggested survived, with some alterations and additions, until thebeginning of modern chemistry in the eighteenth century. The two exhalations, hebelieved, when imprisoned in the bowels of the earth, are not immediately changedinto minerals or metals, but undergo an intermediate conversion. The dry or smokyexhalation is converted into sulphur and the watery one into mercury, and it is only bythe subsequent combination of sulphur and mercury that metals are formed. Thereason of the existence of different varieties of metals is that the sulphur and mercuryare not always pure, and that they do not always combine in the same proportion. Ifthey are perfectly pure and if, also, they combine in the most complete naturalequilibrium, then the product is the most perfect of metals, namely gold. Defects inpurity or proportion, or both, result in the formation of silver, lead, tin, iron or copper,but since these metals are essentially composed of the same constituents as gold, theaccidents of combination may be removed by suitable treatment. Such treatment is theobject of alchemy.The idea that the transmutation of the metals was possible had the excellent merit ofprovoking incessant experiment, but unfortunately the alchemists were always proneto theorize to an inordinate extent. Moreover, at Alexandria, the mystical beliefs ofthe Gnostics and the Neo-Platonists - however admirable and attractive in themselves- had a very detrimental effect upon experimental science. Alchemy thus became lessand less a matter for experimental research and more and more the subject of ineffablespeculation and superstitious practice, not to say fraudulent deception.The practical applications of chemistry were not neglected. Jabir describes processesfor the preparation of steel and the refinement of other metals, for dyeing cloth andleather, for making varnishes to waterproof cloth and to protect iron, for thepreparation of hair-dyes and so on. He gives a recipe for making an illuminating inkfor manuscripts from 'golden' marcasite, to replace the much more expensive onemade from gold itself, and he mentions the use of manganese dioxide in glass-

making. He knew how to concentrate acetic acid by the distillation of vinegar, andwas also acquainted with citric acid and other organic substances.Abu Bakr Muhammad ibn Zakariyya al-Razi (866-925)After the death of Jabir, nearly a century elapsed before Islam produced a worthysuccessor. History records a few alchemists in the interval, but it is only with thePersian chemist and physician Abu Bakr Muhammad ibn Zakariyya al-Razi (knownto the West as Rhazes) that Jabir's great example is successfully followed.According to one of his biographers, Razi was born in A.D. 866 at Ray, an ancienttown on the southern slopes of the Elburz Range that skirts the south of the CaspianSea. In his early youth he devoted himself to the study of music, literature,philosophy, manichaeism, magic and alchemy.After his first visit to Baghdad, when he was at least 30 years of age, that he seriouslytook up the study of medicine under the well-known doctor Ali ibn Sahl (a Jewishconvert to Islam, belonging to the famous medical school of Tabaristan or Hyrcania).Razi showed such skill in the subject that he quickly surpassed his master, and wroteno fewer than a hundred medical books. He also composed 33 treatises on naturalscience (exclusive of alchemy), on mathematics and astronomy, and more than 45 onphilosophy, logic and theology. On alchemy, in addition to his Compendium ofTweltne Treatises and Book of Secrets, he wrote about a dozen other books, two ofwhich were refutations of works by other authors in which the possibility of alchemyhad been attacked.As to the man himself, one of the inhabitants of Ray who recollected Razi describedhim as a man with a large square head. He used to take his seat in the lecture room,with his own pupils next him, and the pupils of these men behind them, and, behindthese again, other pupils. Whenever any one came with a question, he used first to askthe back row. If they could answer, he went away; but, if not, he used to pass on to theothers, and they, in their turn, if they could give a correct answer, tried to satisfy him;otherwise Razi would speak on the subject himself. He was a liberal and generousman, and so compassionate to the poor and sick that he used to distribute alms to themfreely and even nurse them himself. He was always reading or copying, and "I nevervisited him" (said the narrator) "without finding him at work on either a rough or afair copy". His eyes were always watering 'on account of his excessive consumptionof beans', and he became blind towards the end of his life. He died in his native townon 26 October, A.D, 925, at the age of 60 years and 2 months.Razi is of exceptional importance in the history of chemistry, since in his books wefind for the first time a systematic classification of carefully observed and verifiedfacts regarding chemical substances, reactions and apparatus, described in languagealmost entirely free from mysticism and ambiguity.Razi's scheme of classification of the substances used in chemistry shows such asound, it is the first time that we find such a systematic classification. The list of theseproducts as mentioned in Sirr al-asrar book is as follows:A. The earthly substances (al-'aqaqtr al-turabiyya) Mineral substances1. The SPIRITS (al-arwah)Mercury, sat ammoniac, arsenic sulphate (orpiment and realgar), sulphur2. The BODIES (al-ajsad)Gold, silver, copper, iron, lead, tin, Kharsind3. The STONES (al-ahjar)Pyrites (marqashita), iron oxide (daws), Zinc oxide (tutiya), azurite, malachite,turquoise, haematite, arsenic oxide, lead sulphate (kohl), mica and asbestos, gypsum,glass

4. The VITRIOLS (al-zajat)Black, alums (al-shubub), white (qalqadzs), green (qalqand), yellow (qulqutar), red5. BORAX (al-bawariq)6. The SALTS (al-amlah)B. Vegetable substancesRarely used, they are mainly employed by physicians.C. Animal substancesHair, scalp, brain, bile, blood, milk, urine, eggs, horn, shellTo these 'natural substances' we need to add a certain number of artificially obtainedsubstances; al-Razl mentions litharge, lead oxide, verdigris, copper oxide, zinc oxide,cinnabar, caustic soda, a solution of polysulphur of calcium and other alloys.The insistence of al-Razl in promoting research work in the laboratory brought itsfruits in pharmacy.Razi gives also a list of the apparatus used in chemistry. This consists of two classes:(i) instruments used for melting metals, and (ii) those used for the manipulation ofsubstances generally. In the first class were included the following:Blacksmith's hearthBellowsCrucibleDescensoryLadleTongsShearsHammer or PestleFileSemi-cylindrical iron mouldThe second class included:CrucibleFlasksAlembicPhialsReceiving flaskCarsAludelCauldronBeakersSand-bathGlass cupsWater-bathShallow iron panLarge ovenSieveHair-clothHeating-lampsFilter of linenCylindrical stovePotter's KilnChafing-dishMortarFlat stone mortarStone rollerRound moldGlass funnelIt will be observed that the list was comprehensive, but Razi completes the subject bygiving details of making composite pieces of apparatus, and in general provides thesame kind of information as is to be found nowadays in manuals of laboratory arts.Like Jabir, Razi was a firm believer in the possibility of transmutation, and Stapletondescribes his scheme of procedure approximately as follows:The first stage: consisted in the cleansing and purification of the substancesemployed, by means of distillation, calcination, amalgamation, sublimation and otherprocesses. Having freed the crude materials from their impurities, The next stage:was to reduce them to an easily fusible condition. This was done by an operationknown as aeration, that resulted in a product which readily melted, without any

evolution of fumes, when dropped upon a heated metal plate.The third stage: was to bring the 'berated' products to a further state of disintegrationby the process of solution. The solutions of different substances, suitably chosen inproportion to the amount of 'bodies', 'spirits', &c., they were supposed to possess,were brought together by the process of combination.Finally: the combined solutions underwent the process of coagulation orsolidification, the product which it was hoped would result, being the Elixir. This, aspreviously explained, was a substance of which a small quantity, when projected upona larger quantity of baser metal, would convert the latter into silver or gold.From a general study of his chemical works, Stapleton says that hence forward Razimust be accepted as one of the most remarkable seekers after knowledge that theworld has ever seen - not only 'unique in his age and unequaled in his time', butwithout a peer until modern science began to dawn in Europe with Galileo and RobertBoyle. The evidence of his passion for objective truth that is furnished by hischemical writings, as well as the genius shown by the wide range of books he wroteon other subjects, force us to the conclusion that - with the possible exception of hisacknowledged master, Jabir - Razi was the most noteworthy intellectual follower ofthe Greek philosophers of the seventh to fourth centuries B.C. that mankind producedfor 1900 years after the death of Aristotle. His supreme merit lay in his rejection ofmagical and astrological practices, and adherence to nothing that could not be proved,by experiment and test, to be actual fact.Later Arab AlchemistsNo account of chemistry in Islam would be even approximately complete whichomitted to mention four of Arab Alchemists: Abu'l-Qasim of Iraq, Aidamir al-Jildaki,Al-Tughra‘i and Al-Majriti.The first of these men lived in the thirteenth century, probably at Cairo, and has left usseveral books which, apart from their intrinsic interest, serve to indicate the trend ofalchemical thought and practice in Islam after the process of transmission to Europehad been in action for some considerable time. It is very obvious that in Abu'l-Qasim'stime the reaction of European scientific thought upon Islam had not yet begun, andthe contrast between the two intellectual worlds could not be better exemplified thanin the persons of Abu'l-Qasim and his contemporary Roger Bacon. The driving forceof Islam was beginning to grow weak, while the new stimulus that Arabic learninghad given to Europe had resulted in a scientific renaissance which was to reach its fulldevelopment not long afterwards. Abu'l-Qasim's outlook is that of his predecessors ofthree or four centuries earlier, and although there was unquestionably some advancein empirical practical chemistry, the theoretical views expressed are supported byquotations not merely from Jabir but from the still earlier alchemists of theAlexandrian school. Abu'l-Qasim himself seems to have been a good experimentalistand a comparatively logical thinker, but his general views often represent a retrogrademovement upon those of Jabir.Aidamir al-Jildaki (?-1342)Who also lived for part of his life at Cairo, is of importance chiefly on account of hisextensive and deep knowledge of Muslim chemical literature. He apparently spent themajor portion of his existence in collecting and explaining all the books upon alchemythat he could discover, and labours are now beginning to receive their reward; forwritings form an indispensable source of a great deal of our knowledge of chemistryand chemists in Islam. In a few instances it is possible to observe that he must havecarried out experimental work himself, but for the most part his books arecommentaries upon the works of earlier writers. Thus his great End of the Search is a

commentary upon Abu'l-Qasim's book Knowledge acquired concerning theCultivation of Gold, and although his explanations are not seldom more obscure thanthe passages they are designed to illuminate, he had the admirable habit of makinginnumerable and lengthy quotations from Khalid, Jabir, Razi and many other authors,and his books are thus a rich storehouse of information upon Muslim chemistry. It istherefore necessary to inquire into the question whether his quotations and historicalfacts are authentic, and whether his reliability is to be accepted or doubted.Fortunately, it often happens that a book from which he quotes is extant, and hisquotations in such cases can of course be checked. A test conducted on these lines hasshown that Jildaki was conscientious and although he does not always come throughunscathed, his general trustworthiness can be safely assumed. He thus deserves thewarmest thanks of all who are interested in the history of chemistry.Al-Tughra'i (1063-1120)This alchemist, who was a civil servant under the Seljuks Malik-shah andMuhammad, has great importance as a poet and a writer. His Lamiyyat al'ajam is veryfamous. He was executed in 1121.In his Nihaya, Jaldakl tries to appraise the scientific value of al-Tughra'l: he was themost important alchemist since Jabir; his style has become perfect but his books canonly be read by those who are already advanced in the great art. In his Kitab al-Masabt,h wa-l-maf tech (The Lamps and the Keys), he reports the teaching of theAncients; he is more theoretical than practical. He declares in his poem that he hasinherited his alchemy knowledge from Hermes. According to Jaldakl, his mostimportant book on alchemy is MafAti,h al-rahma wa masabl,h al-,hikma.Al-Majriti ( -1007)In Andalusia, under the Caliphat of al-Hakam II (961-76) flourished scholars in all thedomains, including alchemy. One of these was Maslama b. Ahmad, from Cordoba,better known under the name al-Majriti because he lived for a long time in Madrid.He assimilated Muslim sciences in the Arab Orient where he seems to have had closecontacts with the originators of the famous Epistles of Ikhwan al-Safa'. He brought toSpain a new edition of this encyclopaedia. He is known in particular for hisastronomical work: a revision of the Persian astronomical tables in Arabicchronology, a commentary on the Planispherium of Ptolemy and a treatise on theastrolabe. The last two were translated quite early into Latin and were very successful.An important alchemy work, Rutbat' al-Hakzm wa mudkhal al-tathm (Rank of theWise Man and Isagoge oh! Teaching), is attributed to him, and an astrological workcalled Chayat al-Haklm. The last was translated into Spanish in 1256 by order ofAlfonso the Wise, King of Castile and Leon (from 1252 to 1284), and later it becamepopular in Latin under the name of Picatrix. Rabelais in Pantagruel mentions it whenhe speaks of the "Reverend Father of Devil Picatrix, rector of the diabolic faculty inToledo". The attribution of the book to al-Majriti was considered false as the internalcritique shows that this work could only have been written after 1009, while al-Majritidied in 1007.Holmyard redeveloped an interest in Rutbat al-Haklm. The author first expresses hisviews on the way an aspiring alchemist should be educated: by study mathematics,books from Euclid and Ptolemy, natural sciences with Aristotle or Apollonius ofTyana; then he needs to acquire a manual ability and practice precise observation,reasoning about chemical substances and their reactions; in his research he needs tofollow the laws of nature, like a physician: a physician diagnoses the disease andadministers the medicine, but it is Nature who acts.

General Review of Muslim ChemistryUntil the time of Jabir, chemistry was 'without form and void'. The solid technicalknowledge of the craftsmen was lost in the vapourings of occultists, and if there wereany men with a more reasonable view of chemical science, its aims, its objects and itsmethods, we find no record of them. By the efforts of Jabir and Razi, the two Muslimchemical geniuses, much of the vast accretion of unbridled speculation was clearedaway, and chemistry first began to take shape as a true science. Experimental fact wasat last informed with the beginnings of reasonable theory, while on the practical side aworkmanlike scheme of classification was evolved and a divide range of substanceswas carefully investigated and systematically characterized. The common laboratorymethods of distillation, sublimation, calcination, reduction, solution andcrystallization were improved and their general purposes well understood. Therefinement of metals, by cupellation and in other ways, was brought to a high degreeof perfection, and the careful assay of gold and silver was accompanied byextraordinary accuracy in methods of weighing and in the determination of specificgravity.On the theoretical side, the idea that 'base' metals could be transmuted into gold orsilver overshadowed every other. The generally accepted belief was that elixirs couldbe prepared which, by an action we should now describe as catalytic, would convertpractically unlimited amounts of lead, mercury, tin, copper, or even iron into silverfirst and then into gold. There were alternative theories as to the means wherebytransmutation could be effected, but as we may more conveniently study these in theirlater developments a mere reference to them in passing may be sufficient at themoment. The philosophical justification for the almost universal credence in thepossibility of transmutation is to be found ultimately in the Aristotelian conception ofthe Four Elements and proximately in Jabir's theory that all metals are composed ofsulphur and mercury. Its practical justification lay in the elegant manner in which itexplained numerous phenomena and stimulated unceasing research.Chemistry, in the work of the great chemists from Jabir to the time of Avicenna, wasconcerned chiefly not so much with alchemy but with concrete technical matters suchas the development of apparatus, the preparations of, and the study of their reactions.The development of chemistry in the period, although almost entirely empirical, wasof great importance in that a new high level was attained in the accumulation ofchemical data. The previous period of such great growth had taken place long before3000-500 B.C., in Mesopotamia. In many ways, Muslim chemistry grew in the samemanner as it did in Mesopotamia with the difference that the Arabs were more carefulin their larger number of experiments, made careful notations of their laboratoryresults, and developed their laboratory apparatus to a high point of perfection. Thiswas the real beginning of scientific method in the science of chemistry. Not only didthe Muslims organize their scientific knowledge as did ancient Mesopotamians beforethem, but they used experiments to gain scientific data. Because of this accent onexperiment in later times, there is much more practical discussion of the categories ofmatter in the Muslim literature than may be found in the Mesopotamian literaturewhere appearances were of prime consideration.Alongside experiment, logical speculation took its place in chemical science as animportant adjunct. Although Muslim theorizing was grossly inadequate, it was,however, carried out by important chemists in an effort to explain results of laboratorywork and not necessarily to add to the so-called 'natures'. This was a distinct Muslimadvancement over their Greek, Egyptian, and Mesopotamian predecessors.References:

1. G. Sarton, "Introduction to the history of science," Williams and Wilkins,Baltimore, 19272. E.J. Holmyard, "Makers of Chemistry," Oxford, at The Clarendon Press, 19393. E.Farber ,"Great Chemists ", Interscience Publishers,19614. E.Von-Meyer, History of Chemistry, 1906 5. J. M. Stillman, Story of Alchemy AndEarly Chemistry6. J. R. Partington, A Short History of Chemistry, 1939.Alchemy in Ibn Khaldun'sMuqaddimahEdited and prepared by Prof. Hamed A. Ead, Cairo University, Giza(During the DAAD fellowship hosted by Heidelberg University, July-October 1998)(1332-1395 C.E.)Abd al-Rahman Ibn Mohammad Ibn Khaldun was born in Tunis in 732 A.H.(1332 C.E.) to an upper class family that had migrated from Seville in Muslim Spain.His ancestors were Yemenite Arabs who settled in Spain in the very beginning ofMuslim rule in the eighth century, but after the fall of Seville, had migrated toTunisia.He received his early education and where, still in his teens, he entered the service ofthe Egyptian ruler Sultan Barquq. His thirst for advanced knowledge and a betteracademic setting soon made him leave this service and migrate to Fez. During hisformative years, Ibn Khaldun experienced his family's active participation in theintellectual life of the city, and to a lesser degree, its political life. This was followedby a long period of unrest marked by contemporary political rivalries affecting hiscareer.The uncertainty of his career still continued, with Egypt becoming his final abodewhere he spent his last 24 years. Here he lived a life of fame and respect, marked byhis appointment as the Chief Malakite Judge and lecturing at the AL-AzharUniversity, but envy caused his removal from his high judicial office as many as fivetimes.Ibn Khaldun led a very active political life before he finally settled down to write hiswell known masterpiece on history. He worked for rulers in Tunis and Fez (inMorocco), Granada (in Muslim Spain) and Biaja (in North Africa). In 1375, IbnKhaldun crossed over to Muslim Spain (Granada) as a tired and embittered mansolely for the reasons of escaping the turmoil in North Africa. Unfortunately, becauseof his political past, the ruler of Granada expelled him.Ibn Khaldun's chief contribution lies in philosophy of history and sociology. Hesought to write a world history preambled by a first volume aimed at an analysis ofhistorical events. This volume, commonly known as Muqaddimah or 'Prolegomena',was based on Ibn Khaldun's unique approach and original contribution and became amasterpiece in literature on philosophy of history and sociology. The chief concern of

this monumental work was to identify psychological, economic, environmental andsocial facts that contribute to the advancement of human civilization and the currentsof history. In this context, he analyzed the dynamics of group relationships andshowed how group feelings, al-'Asabiyya, give rise to the ascent of a new civilizationand political power and how, later on, its diffusion into a more general civilizationinvites the advent of a still new 'Asabiyya in its pristine form. He identified an almostrhythmic repetition of rise and fall in human civilization, and analysed factorscontributing to it.His contribution to history is marked by the fact that, unlike most earlier writersinterpreting history largely in a political context, he emphasized environmental,sociological, psychological and economic factors governing the apparent events. Thisrevolutionized the science of history and also laid the foundation of Umraniyat(Sociology).Apart from the Muqaddimah that became an important independent book even duringthe lifetime of the author, the other volumes of his world history Kitab al-I'bar dealwith the history of Arabs, contemporary Muslim rulers, contemporary Europeanrulers, ancient history of Arabs, Jews, Greeks, Romans, Persians, etc., IslamicHistory, Egyptian history and North-African history, especially that of Berbers andtribes living in the adjoining areas. The last volume deals largely with the events ofhis own life and is known as Al-Tasrif. This was also written in a scientific mannerand initiated a new analytical tradition in the art of writing autobiography A book onmathematics written by him is not extant.Ibn Khaldun's influence on the subject of history, philosophy of history, sociology,political science and education has remained paramount ever since his life. His bookshave been translated into many languages, both in the East and the West, and haveinspired subsequent development of these sciences.Alchemy in Ibn Khaldun's MuqaddimahDefinition: Ibn Khalddun defines alchemy as "the science that studies the substancethrough which the generation of gold and silver may be artificially accomplished, andcomments on the operation leading to it". The alchemists acquire knowledge of thetempers and powers of all created things, and they hope that they may come upon thesubstance that is prepared to produce gold and silver. They even investigate the wastematter of animals, such as bones, feathers, hair, eggs, and excrement, not to mentionminerals.Alchemy in Ibn Khalddun's opinion, comments on the operations through which sucha substance may transformed from potentiality into actuality, as for example, by thedissolution of bodies (substances) into their natural components through sublimationand distillation, by the solidification of meltable substances through calcification, bythe pulverization of solid materials with the help of pestles and mullers and similarthings, the alchemists assume that all techniques lead to the production of a naturalsubstance which they call "the elixir", and when some mineral substance, such aslead, tin or copper is heated in fire and some quantity of the elixir is added to it, thesubstance turns into pure gold. The alchemists used special terms for the purpose ofmystification - they give the cover name of 'spirit' to the elixir and that of 'body' to thesubstance to which the elixir is added.The science that comments on this technical terminology and on the form of thetechnical operation by which proposed substances are turned into the form of gold andsilver, is the science of alchemy.

The chief systematic writer on alchemy, according to alchemists, is Jabir ibn Hayyan.Alchemists even consider Jabir's alchemy a special preserve and call it "the science ofJabir". He wrote seventy treatises on alchemy, all of them read like puzzles. It isthought that only those who know all that is in Jabir Ibn Hayyan's treatises can unlockthe secrets of alchemy.Al-Tughrai, a recent Eastern philosopher, wrote systematic works on alchemy anddisputations with alchemists and philosophers.Maslamah al-Majriti, a spanish philosopher, wrote on alchemy in the Rutbat al-Hakim. He wrote the Rutbah as a counterpart to his work on sorcery and talismasentitled Ghayat al-Hakim. He thought that the two arts (alchemy and sorcery) wereboth the results and fruits of philosophy and science, and that those who were notacquainted with them would miss the fruit of scholarship and philosophy altogether.Maslamah's discussion in the Rutbah and the discussions of all (alchemists) in theirrespective works employ puzzling means of expression which are difficult tounderstand for those who have not familiarized themselves with the technicalterminology of alchemists.Works on alchemy are attributed to al-Ghazzili, but this attribution is not correct,because al-Ghazzali's lofty perceptions would not have permitted him to study, or,eventually, to adopt the errors of alchemical theories.Some alchemical theories and opinions are occasionally attributed to Khalid b. Yazidb. Mu'iwiyah, a stepson of Marwan ibn al-Hakam.Ibm Khaldun passes on here an epistle on alchemy written by Bakr b. Bishrun to Ibnas-Samh. Both were pupils of Maslamah. The discussion of (Ibn Bishrun) will showIbn Khaldun's attitude toward alchemy.Ibn Bishrun's Treatise - [Extracts]Ibn Bishrun said that: "The premises of this noble craft were mentioned by theancients. All of them were reported by the philosophers. Such premises are knowledgeof the generation of minerals, of the creation of rocks and precious stones, and of thedifferent natures of regions and localities."Ibn Bishron explains what one needs to know of this craft?"It has been said: The students of this science must first know three things: (1)whether exists, (2) what brings it into being, and (3) how it comes into being. If thestudent of alchemy knows these three things well, he achieves his object and knows asmuch as can be known about this science."As to the problem of the existence of alchemy and the proofs for the (forces) thatbring alchemy into existence, the elixir that we have sent to you is a satisfying answer."The question of what brings alchemy into being implies, according to alchemists,search for the stone that makes the (alchemical) operation possible."Potentially, the operation may be performed with any (conceivable) thing, becausethe (potentiality to perform the operation) comes from the four natures (elements). Itoriginated from their composition at the beginning and will revert to them at the end.However, there are things that might be used for the operation (only) potentially, notactually. This comes about as follows: There are some things that can bedecomposed. There are others that cannot be decomposed. Those that can bedecomposed can be processed and treated. They are the things that can betransformed from potentiality into actuality.On the other hand, the things that cannot be decomposed cannot be processed andtreated, because they have nothing but potentiality in them. They cannot bedecomposed, in order to give some of the elements they contain an advantage over the

others and to have the power of the bigger (elements) predominate over the lesserones.You - may God give you success - must therefore know the most suitable of thedecomposable stones that can be used for the operation. You must know its genus,power, action, and which kind of dissolution or solidification, purification,calcification, absorption, or transformation it may be able to effect. People who donot know these basic principles of alchemy will never be successful or achieve anygood results.You must know whether (the stone) can be aided by something else or is sufficient byitself, and whether it is one (thing by itself) at the beginning or is associated withsomething else and becomes one (thing by itself) during the treatment, and istherefore called 'stone'. You must also know how it works; how much its componentsmust weigh and what times need for it; how the spirit is inserted and the soul made toenter into it; whether fire can separate (the soul) from (the stone) after it has beeninserted; if not, why (not), and what makes it necessary that it be that way.It should be realized that all philosophers have praised the soul and thought that it isthe soul that governs, sustains, and defends the body and is active in it. For, when thesoul leaves the body, the body dies and gets cold. It cannot move or defend itself,because there is no life in it and no light. I have mentioned the body and the soul onlybecause this alchemy almost is similar to the body which is built up by regular foodsand which persists and is perfected by the living, luminous soul, which enables thebody to do the great and mutual things that only the living power of the soul can do.Man suffers from the differences of his component elements. If these elements were incomplete harmony, it will not affected by accidents and contradictions, so the soulwould not be able to leave his body, as a result man would then live endless. Praisedbe He who governs all things, He is exalted.It should be realized that the natures (elements) producing the (alchemical) operationconstitute a quality that pushes forward at the beginning, and must reach end. Whenthey have reached this limit, they cannot be transformed (back) into the (state) that(formed the starting point of) their composition, as we stated at the out-set withregard to man.The natures of the substance had been separate, but now they adhere to each otherand have become one thing, similar to the soul in power and activity, become one andsimilar to the body in having composition and pulse.An early alchemists has said that: "Decomposition and division mean life andduration, as far as the alchemical operation is concerned, while composition meansdeath and non being." This statement has a subtle meaning. The philosopher meant by'life and duration' its transformation from nonexistence into existence. As long as itremains in (the state of) its first composition, it is, no doubt, non being. But when thesecond composition takes place, non being no longer exists.Now, the second composition comes about only after decomposition and division.Thus, decomposition and division are peculiar to the (alchemical) operation. If it isapplied to the soluble body (substance), it spreads in it, because it has no form, sinceit has come to take in the body the place of the soul which has no form. This isbecause it has no weight as far as (the substance) is concerned.You must know that mixing a fine thing with another fine thing is easier than mixing acoarse thing with another coarse thing. This similarity in form among spirits (on theone hand) and bodies (substances, on the other hand),because things related to theirforms.. I mention this to you, so that you may know that the alchemical operations ismore easier and simpler if it is undertaken with fine spiritual elements than if it is

undertaken with coarse substances. It is logical that stones are stronger in theirresistance to fire than spirits. Likewise, gold, iron, and copper are observed to offermore resistance to fire than sulphur, mercury, and other spirits.Therefore, I say: The substances were spirits at the beginning. When the heat of thenatural process affects them, they are transformed by it into coarse, coherentsubstances and fire is not able to consume them, because they are exceedingly coarseand coherent. When an exceedingly great amount of fire is applied to them, it turnsthem again into spirits, as they had been when they were first created. If fire (thenagain) affects the fine spirits, they flee and are not able to endure it. Thus, you mustknow what brought the substances to their particular condition and (what) broughtthe spirits to theirs. That is the most important knowledge you can have.I say: The spirits are burned, because of their combustibility and fineness. Theybecame combustible because of their great share of humidity. When fire noticeshumidity, it attaches itself to it, because humidity is airy and similar to fire, whichdoes not stop eating it until is consumed. The same applies to the substances when,they approach of fire, they flee, because they have little coherence and are coarse.But they are not combustible, because they are composed of earth and water whichoffers resistance to fire, in that the fine components of water unite with its coarsecomponents through a long cooking which softens and mixes things."We are now going to speak about the stone that makes the alchemical operationpossible, as mentioned by the philosophers. They have held different opinions aboutit. Some have thought that it is found in animals; some have thought, in plants; somehave thought, in minerals; and, according to some, in everything. We do not have toexamine these claims and enter into a dispute concerning them with the people whomake them, because that would be a very long discussion.I have already stated that the alchemical operation might potentially be performedwith anything, because the elements exist in every thing. This is so. "We want to knowwhat produces the (alchemical) operation (both) potentially and actually. Therefore,we turn to the statement of al-Harrini that all dyeing "' consists of two types. One mayuse a substance such as saffron, which is used to dye a white garment. The (saffron)eventually changes in it, vanishing and being decomposed. While the second dyeing istransformation of the substance of one thing into the substance and color ofsomething else. Thus trees, for instance, transform the soil into themselves, andanimals the plants, so that eventually the soil becomes plants, and the plants animals.This can come about only with the help of the living spirit and the active nature(kiyan) which has the ability to generate substances and change essences.Ibn Khaldun continues........Here ends the discussion by Ibn Bishrun, one of the great pupils of Maslamah al-Maj'riti, the Spanish authority on alchemy, letter magic, and sorcery, for the third[ninth] century and later (times). One can see how all the expressions used by(alchemists) tend to be secret hints and puzzles,difficult to explained or understood.This is a proof of the fact that alchemy is not a natural craft.The truth with regard to alchemy, which is to be believed and which is supported byactual fact, is that alchemy is one of the ways in which the spiritual souls exercise aninfluence and are active in the world of nature. (It may) belong among the(miraculous) acts of divine grace, if the souls are good. Or it may be a kind of sorcery,if the souls are bad and wicked.It is obvious that (alchemy may materialize) as a (miraculous) act of divine grace. Itmay be sorcery, because the sorcerer, as has been established in the proper place, maychange the identity of matter by means of his magic power. People think that a

(sorcerer) must use some substance (in order) for his magical activity to take place.Thus, certain animals may be created from the substance of earth, of hair, or of plants,or, in general, from substances other than their own. That, for example, happened tothe sorcerers of Pharaoh with their ropes and sticks. It also is reported, for instance, ofthe Negro and Indian sorcerers in the far south and of the Turks in the far north, thatby sorcery they force the air to produce rain, and other things.Now, since alchemy is the creation of gold in a substance other than that of (gold), itis a kind of sorcery. The famous sages who discussed the subject, men such as Jabir,Maslamah, and other non Muslim predecessors, followed this line.Therefore, theyused puzzling expressions. They wanted to protect alchemy from the disapproval thatreligious laws express for the various kinds of sorcery. It was not because they werereluctant to communicate it (to others), as was thought by people who did notinvestigate the matter thoroughly. One may compare the fact that Maslamah called hisbook on alchemy Rutbat al-hakim, while he called his book on sorcery and talismansGhayat al-hakim. He wanted to intimate that the subject of the Ghayah is a generalone, whereas the subject of the Rutbah is a restricted one, for final goal is a higher(stage in research) than rutbah degree, rank. The problems of the Rutbah are in a waypart of the problems of the Ghayah, or deal with the same subjects. (Maslamah's)discussion of the two disciplines clarifies what we have said. Later on, we shallexplain that those who assume that the achievements of alchemy are the result of anatural craft are wrong.(Based on the English translation of the "Muqaddimah" by F. Rosenthal)The Stone of the PhilosophersEdward KellyThough I have already twice suffered chains and imprisonment in Bohemia, anindignity which has been offered to me in no other part of the world, yet my mind,remaining unbound, has all this time exercised itself in the study of that philosophywhich is despised only by the wicked and foolish, but is praised and admired by thewise. Nay, the saying that none but fools and lawyers hate and despise Alchemy haspassed into a proverb. Furthermore, as during the preceding three years I have usedgreat labour, expense, and care in order to discover for your Majesty that which mightafford you much profit and pleasure, so during my imprisonment - a calamity whichhas befallen me through the action of your Majesty - I am utterly incapable ofremaining idle. Hence I have written a treatise, by means of which your imperial mindmay be guided into all the truth of the more ancient philosophy, whence, as from alofty eminence, it may contemplate and distinguish the fertile tracts from the barrenand stony wilderness. But if my teaching displease you, know that you are stillaltogether wandering astray from the true scope and aim of this matter, and are utterlywasting your money, time, labour, and hope. A familiar acquaintance with thedifferent branches of knowledge has taught me this one thing, that nothing is moreancient, excellent, or more desirable than truth, and whoever neglects it must pass hiswhole life in the shade. Nevertheless, it always was, and always will be, the way ofmankind to release Barabbas and to crucify Christ. This I have - for my good, nodoubt - experienced in my own case. I venture to hope, however, that my life andcharacter will so become known to posterity that I may be counted among those whohave suffered much for the sake of truth. The full certainty of the present treatise timeis powerless to abrogate. If your Majesty will deign to peruse it at your leisure, youwill easily perceive that my mind is profoundly versed in this study.

(1) All genuine and judicious philosophers have traced back things to their firstprinciples, that is to say, those comprehended in the threefold division of Nature. Thegeneration of animals they have attributed to a mingling of the male and female insexual union; that of vegetables to their own proper seed; while as the principle ofminerals they have assigned earth and viscous water.(2) All specific and individual things which fall under a certain class, obey the generallaws and are referable to the first principles of the class to which they belong.(3) Thus, every animal is the product of sexual union; every plant, of its proper seed;every mineral, of the mixture of its generic earth and water.(4) Hence, an unchangeable law of Nature regulates the generation og everythingwithin the limits of its own particular genus.(5) It follows that, with reference to their origin, animals are generically distinct fromvegetables and minerals; the same difference exists respectively between vegetablesand minerals and the two other natural kingdoms.(6) The common and universal matter of these three principles is called Chaos.(7) Chaos contains within itself the four elements of all that is, viz., fire, air, water,and earth, by the mixture and motion of which the forms of all earthly things areimpressed upon their subjects.(8) These elements have four qualities: heat, coldness, humidity, dryness. The firstinheres in fire, the second in water, the third in air, the fourth in earth.(9) By means of these qualities, the elements act upon each other, and motion takesplace.(10) Elements either act upon each other, or are acted on, and are called either activeor passive.(11) Active elements are those which, in a compound, impress upon the passive acertain specific character, according to the strength and extent of their motion. Theseare water and fire.(12) The passive elements - earth and air - are those which by their inactive qualitiesreadily receive the impressions of the aforesaid active elements.(13) The four elements are distinguished, not only by their activity and passivity, butalso by the priority and posteriority of their motions.(14) Priority and posteriority are here predicated either with references to the positionof the whole sphere, or the importance of the result or aim of the motion.(15) In space, heavy objects tend downwards, and light objects upwards; those whichare neither light nor heavy hold an intermediate position.

(16) In this way, even among the passive elements, earth holds a higher place than air,because it delights more in rest; for the less motion, the more passivity.(17) The excellence of result has reference to perfection and imperfection, the maturebeing more perfect than the immature. Now, maturity is altogether due to the heat offire. Hence fire holds the highest place among active elements.(18) Among the passive elements, the first place belongs to that which is mostpassive, i.e., which is most quickly and easily influenced. In a compound, earth is firstpassively affected, then air.(19) Similarly, in every compound, the perfecting element acts last; for perfection is atransition from immaturity to maturity.(20) Maturity being caused by heat, cold is the cause of immaturity.(21) It is clear, then, that the elements, or remote first principles of animals,vegetables, and minerals, in Chaos, are susceptible of active movements in fire andwater, and of passive movements in earth and air. Water acts on earth, and transmutesit into its own nature; fire heats air, and also changes it into its own likeness.(22) The active elements may be called male, while the passive elements represent thefemale principle.(23) Any compound belonging to any of these three kingdoms - animal, vegetable,mineral - is female in so far as it is earth and air, and male in so far as it is fire andwater.(24) Only that which has consistency is sensuously perceptible. Elementary fire andair, being naturally subtle, cannot be seen.(25) Only two elements, water and earth, are visible, and earth is called the hidingplaceof fire, water the abode of air.(26) In these two elements we have the broad law of limitation which divides the malefrom the female.(27) The first matter of vegetables is the water and earth hidden in its seed, thesebeing more water than earth.(28) The first matter of animals is the mixture of the male and female sperm, whichembodies more moisture than dryness.(29) The first matter of minerals is a kind of viscous water, mingled with pure andimpure earth.(30) Impure earth is combustible sulphur, which hinders all fusion, and superficiallymatures the water joined to it, as we see in the minor minerals, marcasite, magnesia,antimony, etc.

(31) Pure earth is that which so unites the smallest parts of its aforesaid water thatthey cannot be separated by the fiercest fire, so that either both remain fixed or arevolatilized.(32) Of this viscous water and fusible earth, or sulphur, is composed that which iscalled quicksilver, the first matter of the metals.(33) Metals are nothing but Mercury digested by different degrees of heat.(34) Different modifications of heat cause, in the metallic compound, either maturityor immaturity.(35) The mature is that which has exactly attained all the activities and properties offire. Such is gold.(36) The immature is that which is dominated by the element of water, and is neveracted on by fire. Such are lead, tin, copper, iron, and silver.(37) Only one metal, viz., gold, is absolutely perfect and mature. Hence it is called theperfect male body.(38) The rest are immature and, therefore, imperfect.(39) The limit of immaturity is the beginning of maturity; for the end of the first is thebeginning of the last.(40) Silver is less bounded bu aqueous immaturity than the rest of the metals, thoughit may indeed be regarded as to a certain extent impure, still its water is alreadycovered with the congealing vesture of its earth, and it thus tends to perfection.(41) This condition is the reason why silver is everywhere called by the Sages theperfect female body.(42) All other metals differ only in the degree of their imperfection, according as theyare more or less bounded by the said immaturity; nevertheless, all have a certaintendency towards perfection, though they lack the aforesaid congealing vesture oftheir earth.(43) This congealing force is the effect of earthy coldness, balancing its own properhumidity, and causing fixation in the fluid matter.(44) The lesser metals are fusible in a fierce fire, and therefore lack this perfectcongealing force. If they become solid when cool, this is due to the arrangement oftheir aforesaid earthy particles.(45) According to the different ways in which this viscous water and pure earth arejoined together, so as to produce quicksilver by coagulation, with the mediation ofnatural heat, we have different metals, some of which are called perfect, like gold andsilver, while the rest are regarded as imperfect.

(46) Whoever would imitate Nature in any particular operation must first be sure thathe has the same matter, and, secondly, that this substance is acted on in a way similarto that of Nature. For Nature rejoices in natural method, and like purifies like.(47) Hence they are mistaken who strive to elicit the medicine for the tinging ofmetals from animals or vegetables. The tincture and the metal tinged must belong tothe same root or genus; and as it is the imperfect metals upon which the Philosopher'sStone is to be projected, it follows that the powder of the Stone must be essentiallyMercury. The Stone is the metallic matter which changes the forms of imperfectmetals into gold, as we may learn from the first chapter of "The Code of Truth": "ThePhilosophical Stone is the metallic matter converting the substances and forms ofimperfect metals"; and all Sages agree that it can have this effect only by being likethem.(48) That Mercury is the first matter of metals, I will attempt to prove by the saying ofsome Sages.In the Turba Philosophorum, chapter i., we find the following words: "In theestimation of all Sages, Mercury is the first principle of all metals."And a little further on: "As flesh is generated from coagulated blood, so gold isgenerated out of coagulated Mercury."Again, towards the end of the chapter: "All pure and impure metallic bodies areMercury, because they are generated from the same."Arnold writes thus to the King of Aragon: "Know that the matter and sperm of allmetals are Mercury, digested and thickened in the womb of the earth; they aredigested by sulphureous heat, and according to the quality and quantity of the sulphurdifferent metals are generated. Their matter is essentially the same, though there maybe some accidental differences, such as a greater or less degree of digestion, etc. Allthings are made of that into which they may be resolved, e.g., ice or snow, which maybe resolved into water; and so all metals may be resolved into quicksilver; hence theyare made out of quicksilver."The same view is set forth by Bernard of Trevisa, in his book on the "Transmutationof Metals": "Similarly, quicksilver is the substance of all metals; it is as a water byreason of the homogeneity which it possesses with vegetables and animals, and itreceives the virtues of those things which adhere to it in decoction." A little further onthe same Trevisan affirms that "Gold is nothing but quicksilver congealed by itssulphur."And, in another place, he writes as follows: "The solvent differs from the soluble onlyin proportion and degree of digestion, but not in matter, since Nature has formed theone out of the other without any addition, even as by a process equally simple andwonderful she evolves gold out of quicksilver."Again: "The Sages have it that gold is nothing but quicksilver perfectly digested in thebowels of the earth, and they have signified that this is brought about by sulphur,which coagulates the Mercury, and digests it by its own heat. Hence the Sages havesaid that gold is nothing but mature quicksilver."Such also is the concensus of other authorities. "The Sounding of the Trumpet" givesforth no uncertain note: "Extract quicksilver from the bodies, and you have above theground quicksilver and sulphur of the same substance of which gold and silver aremade in the earth."The "Way of Ways" leads to the same conclusion: "Reverend Father, incline theyvenerable ears, and understand that quicksilver is the sperm of all metals, perfect and

imperfect, digested in the bowels of the earth by the heat of sulphur, the variety ofmetals being due to the diversity of their sulphur."We find in the same tract a similar canon: "All metals in the earth are generated inMercury, and thus Mercury is the first matter of metals."To these words Avicenna signifies his assent in chapter iii.: "As ice, which by heat isdissolved into water, is clearly generated out of water, so all metals may be resolvedinto Mercury, whence it is clear that they are generated out of it."This reasoning is confirmed by "The Sounding of the Trumpet": "Every passive bodyis reduced to its first matter by operations contrary to its nature; the first matter isquicksilver, being itself the oil of all liquid and ductile things."So also the third chapter of the "Correction of Fools": "The nature of all fusible thingsis that of Mercury coagulated out of a vapour, or the heat of red or whiteincumbustible sulphur."In chapter i. of the "Art of Alchemy" we read: "All Sages agree that the metals aregenerated from the vapour of sulphur and quicksilver."Again, a passage in the Turba Philosophorum runs thus: "It is certain that everysubject derives from that into which it can be resolved. All metals may be resolvedinto quicksilver, hence they were once quicksilver."If it were worth while, I might adduce hundreds of otherpassages from the writings of the Sages, but as they would serve no good purpose, Iwill let these suffice.Those persons make a great mistake who suppose that the thick water of Antimony, orthat viscous substance which is extracted from sublimed Mercury, or from Mercuryand Jupiter dissolved together in a damp spot, can in any case be the first substance ofmetals.Antimony can never assume metallic qualities, because its water and moisture are nottempered with dry, subtle, earth, and want, moreover, that unctuosity which ischaracteristic of malleable metals. But, as Chambar well says in the "Code of Truth":"It is only through jealousy that Sages have called the Stone Antimony."In the same way, those who destroy the natural composition of Mercury, in order toresolve it into a thick or limpid water, which they call the first matter of metals, fightagainst Nature in the dark, like blinded gladiators.As soon as Mercury loses its specific form, it becomes something else, which cannotthenceforth mingle with metals in their smallest parts, and is made void for the workof the Philosophers. Whoever is taken up with such childish experiments, shouldlisten to the Sage of Trevisa in his "Transmutation of Metals":"Who can find truth that destroys the humid nature of Mercury? Some foolish personschange its specific metallic arrangement, corrupt its natural humidity by dissolution,and disproportionate quicksilver from its original mineral quality, which wantednothing but purification and simple digestion. By means of salts, vitriol, and alum,they destroy the seed which Nature has been at pains to develop. For seed in humanand sensitive things is formed by Nature and not by art, but by art it is united andmixed. Seed needs no addition, and brooks no diminution. If it is to produce a newthing of the same genus, it must remain the very same thing that was formed byNature. All teaching that changes Mercury is false and vain, for this is the originalsperm of metals, and its moisture must not be dried up, for otherwise it will notdissolve. Too much fire will cause a morbid heat, like that of a fever, and change thepassive into active elements, thus the balance of forces is destroyed, and the wholework marred. Yet these fools extract from the lesser minerals corrosive waters, intowhich they project the different species of metals, and thus corrode them.

"The only natural solution is that by which out of the solvent and the soluble, or maleand female, there results a new species. No water can naturally dissolve metals exceptthat which abides with them in substance and form, which also the dissolved metalscan again congeal; this is not the case with aqua fortis, seeing that it only destroys thespecific arrangement. Only that water can rightly dissolve metals which is inseparablefrom them in fixation, and such a water is Mercury, but not aqua fortis, or any thingelse which those fools are pleased to call Mercurial Water." Thus far Trevisan.Persons who have fallen into this fatal error may also derive benefit from the teachingof Avicenna on this point: "Quicksilver is cold and humid, and of it, or with it, Godhad created all metals. It is aerial, and becomes volatile by the action of fire, but whenit has withstood the fire a little time, it accomplishes geat marvels, and is itself only aliving spirit of unexampled potency. It enters and penetrates all bodies, passes throughthem, and is their ferment. It is then the White and the Red Elixir and is an everlastingwater, the water of life, the Virgin's milk, the spring, and that Alum of whichwhosoever drinks cannot die, etc. It is the wanton serpent that conceives of its ownseed, and brings forth on the same day. With its poison it destroys all things. It isvolatile, but the wise make it to abide the fire, and then it transmutes as it has beentransmuted, and tinges as it has been tinged, and coagulates as it has been coagulated.Therefore is the generation of quicksilver to be preferred before all minerals; it isfound in all ores, and has its sign with all. Quicksilver is that which saves metals fromcombustion, and renders them fusible. It is the Red Tincture which enters into themost intimate union with metals, because it is of their own nature, mingles with themindissolubly in all their smallest parts, and, being homogeneous, naturally adheres tothem. Mercury receives all homogeneous substances, but rejects all that isheterogeneous, because it delights in its own nature, but recoils from whatsoever isstrange. How foolish, then, to spoil and destroy that which Nature made the seed of allmetallic virtue by elaborate chemical operations!"The "Rosary" bids us be particularly careful, lest in purifying the quicksilver wedissipate its virtue, and impair its active force. A grain of wheat, or any other seed,will not grow if its generative virtue be destroyed by excessive external heat.Therefore, purify your quicksilver by distillation over a gentle fire.Says the Sage of Trevisa: "If the quicksilver be robbed of its due metallic proportion,how can other substances of the same metallic genus be generated from it? It is amistake to suppose that you can work miracles with a clear limpid water extractedfrom quicksilver. Even if we could get such a water, it would not be of use, either asto form or proportion, nor could it restore or build up a perfect metallic species. For assoon as the quicksilver is changed from its first nature, it is rendered unfit for ouroperation, since it loses its spermatic and metallic quality. I do, indeed, approve ofimpure and gross Mercury being sublimed and purified once or twice with simple salt,according to the proper method of the Sages, so long as the fluxibility or radicalhumour of such Mercury remains unimpaired, that is to say, so long as its specificmercurial nature is not destroyed, and so long as its outward appearance does notbecome that of a dry powder."In the "Ladder of the Sages" we are told to beware of vitrification in the solution ofbodies, with the odour and taste of imperfect substances, and also of the generativevirtue of their form being in any way scorched and destroyed by corrosive waters.If you have been trying to do any of these things, you may see how grievous yourmistake has been. For the water of the Sages adheres to nothing except homogeneoussubstances. It does not wet your hands if you touch it, but scorches your skin, andfrets and corrodes every substance with which it comes in contact, except gold and

silver (it would not affect these until they have been dissipated and dissolved byspirits and strong waters), and with these it combines most intimately. But the othermixture is most childish, it is condemned by the concert of the Sages, and by my ownexperience.I now propose to shew that quicksilver is the water with which, and in which, thesolution of the Sages takes place, by putting before the reader the opinions of manyPhilosophers living in different countries and ages.Says Menalates in the Turba: "Whoever joins quicksilver to the body of magnesia,and the woman to the man, extracts the hidden nature by which bodies are coloured.Know that quicksilver is a consuming fire which mortifies bodies by its contact."Another Sage, in the Turba, says: "Divide the elements by fire, unite them through themediation of Mercury, which is the greatest arcanum, and so the magistery iscomplete, the whole difficulty consisting in the solution and conjunction. Thesolution, or separation, takes places through the mediation of Mercury, which firstdissolves the bodies, and these are again united by ferment and Mercury."Rosinus makes Gold address Mercury as follows: "Dost thou dispute with me,Mercury? I am the Lord, the Stone which abides the fire." Says Mercury: "Thousayest true; but I have begotten thee, and one part of me quickens many of thee, sincethou art grudging in comparison with me. Whoever will join me to my brother orsister shall live and rejoice, and make me sufficient for thee."In the 5th chapter of the "Book of Three Words," we read: "I tell thee that in Mercuryare the works of the planets, and all their imaginations in its pages."Aristotle says that the first mode of preparation is that the Stone shall becomeMercury; he calls Mercury the first body, which acts on gross substances and changesthem into its own likeness. "If Mercury did nothing else than render bodies subtle andlike itself, it would suffice us."Senior: "Our Stone, then, is congealed water, that is to say, Mercury congealed ingold and silver, and, when fixed, resistent to the fire.""The Sounding of the Trumpet": "Mercury contains all that the Sages seek, anddestroys all flaky gold. It dissolves, softens, and extracts the soul from the body.""The Book on the Art of Alchemy": "The Sages were first put upon attempting toclothe inferior bodies in the glory and splendour of the perfect body when theydiscovered that metals differ only according to the greater or smaller degree of theirdigestion, and are all generated from Mercury, with which they extracted gold andreduced it to its first nature."The "Correction of Fools": "Observe that crude Mercury dissolves bodies and reducesthem to their first matter or nature. Being made of clear water, it always strives tocorrode the crude, and especially that which is nearest to its own nature, viz., gold andsilver." The same book observes: "You can make use of crude Mercury as follows - toseal up and open natures, since similar things are helpful one to another." Once more:"Quicksilver is the root in the Art of Alchemy, for the Sages say that all metals are ofit, and through it, and in it - it follows that the metals must first be reduced toMercury, the matter and sperm of all metals."Again: "The reason why all metals must be reduced to the nature of vapour is becausewe see that all are generated of quicksilver, though the mediation of which they cameinto being."Gratianus: "Purify Laton, i.e., copper(ore), with Mercury, for Laton is of gold andsilver, a compound, yellow, imperfect body.""The Sounding of the Trumpet": "Common Mercury is called a spirit. If you do notresolve the body into Mercury, with Mercury, you cannot obtain its hidden

virtue.""Art of Alchemy," chapter vi.: "The second part of the Stone we call livingMercury, which, being living and crude, is said to dissolve bodies, because it adheresto them in their innermost being. This is the Stone without which Nature doesnothing.""Rosary": "Mercury never dies, except with its brother and sister. When Mercurymortifies the matter of the Sun and Moon, there remains a matter like ashes."The Sage of Trevisa: "Add nothing above ground for digesting and thickeningMercury into the nature of gold or of metals." Again: "This solution is possible andnatural, that is to say, by Art as handmaid to Nature, and is unique and necessary inthe work; but it is brought about only by quicksilver, in such proportions as commendthemselves to a good workman who knows the inmost properties of Nature.""Art of Alchemy": "Who can sufficiently extol Mercury, for Mercury alone has powerto reduce gold to its first nature?"From these quotations it is clear what the Sages meant by their water, and what theythought of this wonderful liquid, viz., Mercury, to which they ascribed all power inthe Magistery, for nothing can be perfected outside its own genus. Men digestvegetables, not in the blood of animals, but in water which is their first principle, norare minerals affected by the vegetable liquid. In the words of the "Sounding of theTrumpet": "The whole Magistery consists in dividing the elements from the metals,and purifying them, and in separating the sulphur of Nature from the metals."Furthermore, as Hermes says, only homogeneous substances cohere, and only theycan produce offspring after their own kind, i.e., if you want a medicine which is togenerate metals, its origin must be metallic, since "species are tinged by their genus,"as the philosopher testifies.In short, our Magistery consists in the union of the male and female, or active andpassive, elements through the mediation of our metallic water and a proper degree ofheat. Now, the male and female are two metallic bodies, and this I will again prove byirrefragable quotations from the Sages:Dantius bids us prepare the bodies and dissolve them.Rhasis: "Change the bodies into water, and the water into earth: then all is done."Galienus: "Prepare the bodies, and purify them of the blackness in which iscorruption, till the white becomes white and red, then dissolve both, etc."Calid (chapter i.): "If you do not make the bodies subtle, so that they may beimpalpable to touch, you will not gain your end. If they have not been ground, repeatyour operation, and see that they are ground and subtilized. If you do this, you will bedirected to your desired goal."Aristotle: "Bodies cannot be changes except by reduction into their first matter."Calid (chapter v.): "Similarly, the Sages have commanded us to dissolve the bodies sothat heat adheres to their inmost parts; then we proceed to coagulation after a seconddissolution with a substance which most nearly approaches them."Menabadus: "Make bodies not bodies, and incorporeal things bodies, for this is thewhole process by which the hidden virtue of Nature is extracted."Ascanius: "The conjunction of the two is like the union of husband and wife, fromwhose embrace results golden water.""Anthology of Secrets": "Wed the red man to the white woman, and you have thewhole Magistery.""The Sounding of the Trumpet": "There is another quicksilver and permanent tincturewhich is extracted from perfect bodies by dissolution, distillation, sublimation, andsubtilization."Hermes: "Join the male to the female in their own proper humidity, because there is

no birth without union of male and female."Plato: "Nature follows a kindred nature, contains it, and teaches it to resist the fire.Wed the man to the woman, and you have the whole Magistery."Avicenna: "Purify husband and wife separately, in order that they may unite moreintimately; for if you do not purify them, they cannot love each other. By conjunctionof the two natures you get a clear and lucid nature, which, when it ascends, becomesbright and serviceable.""Art of Alchemy": "Two bodies provide us with everything in our water."Trevisanus: "Only that water which is of the same species, and can be thickened bybodies, can dissolve bodies."Hermes: "Let the stones of mixture be taken in the beginning of the first work, and letthem be equally mixed into earth.""Mirror": "Our Stone must be extracted from the nature of two bodies, before it canbecome a perfect Elixir."Democritus: "You should first dissolve the bodies over white hot ashes, and not grindthem except only with water.""Rosary" of Arnold: "Extract the Medicine from the most homogeneous bodies inNature."I have thus proved the number of the bodies from which the Elixir is obtained. I willnow shew by quotations what these bodies are."Exposition of the Letter of King Alexander": "In this art you must wed the Sun andthe Moon.""The Sounding of the Trumpet": "The Sun only heats the earth and imparts to it hisvirtue through the mediation of the Moon, which, of all stars, most readily receiveshis light and heat.""The Correction of Fools": "Sow gold and silver, and they will yield to your labour athousandfold, through the mediation of that thing which alone has what you seek. TheTincture of gold and silver exhibits the same metallic proportions as the imperfectmetals, because they have a common first matter in Mercury."Again: "Tinge with gold and silver, because gold gives the golden and silver the silvercolour and nature. Reject all things that have not naturally or virtually the power oftinging, as in them is no fruit, but only waste of money and gnashing of teeth."Senior: "I, the Sun, am hot and dry, and thou, the Moon, art cold and moist; when weare wedded together in a closed chamber, I will gently steal away thy soul."Rosinus to Saratant: "From the living water we obtain earth, a homogeneous deadbody, composed of two natures, that of the Sun and that of the Moon."Again: "When the Sun, my brother, for the love of me (silver) pours his sperm (i.e. hissolar fatness) into the chamber (i.e. my Lunar body), namely, when we become one ina strong and complete complexion and union, the child of our wedded love will beborn."Hermes: "Its humidity is of the empire of the Moon, and its fatness of the empire ofthe Sun, and these two are its coagulum and pure seed."Astratus says: "Whoever would attain the truth, let him take the humour of the Sunand the Spirit of the Moon."Turba Philosophorum: "Both bodies in their perfection should be taken for thecomposition of the Elixir, whether orange or white, for neither becomes liquid withoutthe other."Again, Gold says: "No one kills me but my sister."Aristotle: "If I did not see gold and silver, I should certainly say that Alchemy was nottrue."

The Sage: "The foundation of our Art is gold and its shadow.""Art of Alchemy": "We have already said that gold and silver must be united.""Rosary": "There is an addition of orange colour by which the Medicine is perfectedfrom the substance of fixed sulphur, i.e., both medicines are obtained from gold andsilver."The Sage: "Whoever knows how to tinge sulphur and quicksilver has reached thegreat arcanum. Gold and silver must be in the Tincture, and also the ferment of thespirit.""Rosary": "The ferment of the Sun is the sperm of the man, the ferment of the Moon,the sperm of the woman. Of both we get a chaste union and a true generation.""The Sounding of the Trumpet": "You want silver to subtilize your gold, and make itvolatile by removing its impurity, since the silver has a greater need of the light ofgold. Therefore Hermes, as also Aristotle in his treatise on Plants, says that gold is itsfather, and silver its mother; nothing else is needed for our Stone. Silver is the field inwhich the seed of gold is sown." And a little further on: "In my sister, the Moon,grows your wisdom, and not in any other of my servants, saith the Lord Sun. I am likeseed sown in good and pure soil, which sprouts and grows and multiplies and yieldsgreat gain to the sower. I, the Sun, give to thee, the Moon, my beauty, the light of theSun, when we are united in our smallest parts." And the Moon says to the Sun: "Thouhast need of me, as the cock has need of the hen, and I need thy operation, who artperfect in morals, the father of lights, a great and mighty lord, hot and dry, and I amthe waxing Moon, cold and moist, but I receive thy nature by our union."Avicenna: "In order to obtain the red and the white Elixir, the two bodies must beunited. For though gold is the most fixed and perfect of the metals, yet if it bedissolved into its smallest parts, it becomes spiritual and volatile, like quicksilver, andthat because of its heat. This tincture, which is without number, is called the hot maleseed. But if silver be dissolved in warm water, it remains fixed as before, and has littleor no tincture, yet it readily receives the tincture in a temperament of hot and cold,and is called the cold, dry, female seed. Gold or silver by themselves are not easilyfusible, but a mixture of the two melts readily, as is well known to goldsmiths. Henceif our Stone did not contain both gold and silver, it would not be liquid, and wouldyield no medicine through any magistery, nor tincture, for if it yielded tincture itwould still have no tinging power."And a little further on: "Take heed, then, and operate only on gold, silver, andquicksilver, since all the profit of our Art is derived from these three."I may add that crude Mercury is the water which the Sages have used for the purposeof solution. I have proved that two bodies must be dissolved, and that they are noother than gold and silver. Now I will describe the conjunction of these two bodies bymeans of the crude Mercury of the Sages."The Light of Lights": "Know that it is gold, silver, and Mercury that whiten andredden within and without. The Dragon does not die, unless he be killed with hisbrother and sister, and it must be not by one, but by both together.""The Ladder of the Sages": "Others say that a true body must be added to these two,to strengthen and shorten the operation.""Treasury of the Sages": "Our Stone has body, soul, and spirit, the imperfect body isthe body, the ferment the soul, and the water the spirit.""The Way of Ways": "The water is called the spirit, because it gives life to theimperfect and mortified body, and imparts to it a better form; the ferment is the soul,because it gives life to the body, and changes it into its own nature."Again: "The whole Magistery is accomplished with our water, and of it. For it

dissolves the bodies, calcines and reduces them to earth, transforms them into ashes,whitens and purifies them, as Morienus says: "Azoth and fire purify Laton, that is tosay, wash it and thoroughly remove its obscurity; Laton is the impure body, Azoth isquicksilver.""The Sounding of the Trumpet": "As without the ferment there is no perfect tincture,as the Sages say, so without leaven there is no good bread. In our Stone the ferment islike the soul, which gives life to the dead body through the mediation of the spirit, orMercury.""The Rosary" and Peter of Zalentum say: "If the ferment, which is the medium ofconjunction, be placed in the beginning, or in the middle, the work is more quicklyperfected.""The Sounding of the Trumpet": "The Elixir of the Sages is composed of three things,viz., the Lunar, the Solar, and the Mercurial Stone. In the Lunar Stone is whitesulphur, in the Solar Stone red sulphur, and the Mercurial Stone embraces both, whichis the strength of the whole Magistery."Eximenus: "The water, with its adjuncts, being placed in the vessel, preserves themfrom combustion. The substances being ground with water, there follows theascension of the Ethelia and the imbibition of water is sufficient by itself to completethe work."Plato: "Take fixed bodies, join them together, wash the body in the bodily substance,and let it be strengthened with the incorporeal body, till you change it into a realbody."Pandulphus: "The fixed water is pure water of life, and no tinging poison is generatedwithout gold and its shadow. Whoever tinges the poison of the Sages with the Sunand its shadow, has attained the highest wisdom."Again: "Separate the elements with fire, unite them by means of Mercury, and theMagistery is complete."Exercit, 14: "The spirit guards the body and preserves it from fire, the clarified bodykeeps the spirit from evaporating over the fire, the body being fixed and the spiritincombustible. Hence the body cannot be burnt, because the body and spirit are onethrough the soul. The soul prevents them from being separated by the fire. Hence thethree together can defy the fire and anything else in the world."Rhasis("Book of Lights"): "Our Stone is named after the creation of the world, beingthree and yet one. Nowhere is our Mercury found purer than in gold, silver andcommon Mercury."When bodies and spirits are dissolved, they are resolved into the four elements, whichbecome a firm and fixed substance. But when they are not both dissolved, there is aparticular mixture which the fire can still separate."Rosinus: "In our Magistery are a spirit and bodies, whence it is said: It rejoices beingsown in the three associated substances."Calid: "Prepare the strone bodies with the dissolves humidity, till either shall bereduced to its subtle form. If you do not subtilize and grind the bodies till theybecome impalpable, you will not find what you seek."Rosinus: "The Stone consists of body, soul, and spirit, or water, as the Philosopherssay, and is digested in one vessel. Our whole Magistery is of, and by, our water,which dissolves the bodies, not into water, but by a true philosophical solution intothe water whence metals are extracted, and is calcined and reduced to earth. It makesyellow as wax those bodies into whose nature it is transformed; it substantialises,whitens, and purifies the Laton, according to the word of Morienus."Aristotle: "Take your beloved son, and wed him to his sister, his white sister, in equal

marriage, and give them the cup of love, for it is a food which prompts them to union.All pure things must be united to pure things, or they will have sons unlikethemselves. Therefore, first of all, even as Avicenna advises, sublime the Mercury,and purify in it impure bodies. Then pound and dissolve. Repeat this operation againand again."Ascanius: "Stir up war between copper and Mercury till they destroy each other anddevour each other. Then the copper coagulates the quicksilver, the quicksilvercongeals the copper, and both bodies become a powder by means of diligentimbibition and digestion. Join together the red man and the white woman till theybecome Ethelia, that is, quicksilver. Whoever changes them into a spirit by means ofquicksilver, and then makes them red, can tinge every body."As to the nature of this copper, Gratianus instructs us in the following words: "MakeLaton white, i.e., whiten copper with Mercury, because Laton is an orange imperfectbody, composed of gold and silver."I advise all and sundry to follow my teaching, as to the correctness of which myquotations from the ancients can leave no doubt, which also has received furtherconfirmation from my own experiments. Any deviation from this course leads todeception, except only the work of Saturn, which must be performed by thesubtilization of principles. The Sages say that homogeneous things only combine witheach other, make each other white and red, and permit of common generation. Theimportant point is that Mercury should act upon our earth. This is the union of maleand female, of which the Sages say so much. After the water, or quicksilver, has onceappeared, it grows and increases, because the earth becomes white, and this is calledthe impregnation. Then the ferment is coagulated, i.e., joined to the imperfectprepared body, till they become one in colour and appearance: this is termed the birthof our Stone, which the Sages call the King. Of this substance it is said in the "Art ofAlchemy" that if any one scorches this flower, and separates the elements, thegenerative germ is destroyed.I conclude with the words of Avicenna: "The true principle of our work is thedissolution of the Stone, because solved bodies have assumed the nature of spirits,i.e., because their quality is drier. For the solution of the body is attended with thecoagulation of the spirit. Be patient, therefore, digest, pound, make yellow as wax,and never be weary of repeating these processes till they are quite perfect. For thingssaturated with water are thereby softened. The more you pound the substance, themore you soften it, and subtilize its gross parts, till they are thoroughly penetratedwith the spirit and thus dissolved. For by pounding, roasting, and fire, the tough andviscous parts of bodies are separated."Finally, I do you to wit, sons of knowledge, that in the work of the Sages there arethree solutions.The first is that of the crude body.The second is that of the earth of the Sages.The third is that which takes place during the augmentation of the substance. If youdiligently consider all that I have said, this Magistery will become known to you. Asfor me, how much I have endured on account of this Art, history will reveal to futureages.THE AURORA OF THE PHILOSOPHERSBY THEOPHRASTUS PARACELSUS.WHICH HE OTHERWISE CALLS HIS MONARCHIA.

CHAPTER I.CONCERNING THE ORIGIN OF THE PHILOSOPHERS’ STONE.ADAM was the first inventor of arts, because he had knowledge of all things as wellafter the Fall as before 2 . Thence he predicted the world’s destruction by water. Fromthis cause, too, it came about that his successors erected two tables of stone, on whichthey engraved all natural arts in hieroglyphical characters, in order that their posteritymight also become acquainted with this prediction, that so it might be heeded, andprovision made in the time of danger. Subsequently, Noah found one of these tablesunder Mount Araroth, after the Deluge. In this table were described the courses of theupper firmament and of the lower globe, and also of the planets. At length thisuniversal knowledge was divided into several parts, and lessened in its vigour andpower. By means of this separation, one man became an astronomer, another amagician, another a cabalist, and a fourth an alchemist. Abraham, that VulcanicTubalcain, a consummate astrologer and arithmetician, carried the Art out of the landof Canaan into Egypt, whereupon the Egyptians rose to so great a height and dignitythat this wisdom was derived from them by other nations. The patriarch Jacobpainted, as it were, the sheep with various colours; and this was done by magic: for inthe theology of the Chaldeans, Hebrews, Persians, and Egyptians, they held these artsto be the highest philosophy, to be learnt by their chief nobles and priests. So it was inthe time of Moses, when both thc priests and also thc physicians were chosen fromamong the Magi – the priests for the judgment of what related to health, especially inthe knowledge of leprosy. Moses, likewise, was instructed in the Egyptian schools, atthe cost and care of Pharaoh’s daughter, so that he excelled in all the wisdom andlearning of that people. Thus, too, was it with Daniel, who in his youthful daysimbibed the learning of the Chaldeans, so that he became a cabalist. Witness hisdivine predictions and his exposition of those words, "Mene, Mene, Tecelphares".These words can be understood by the prophetic and cabalistic Art. This cabalistic Artwas perfectly familiar to, and in constant use by, Moses and the Prophets. TheProphet Elias foretold many things by his cabalistic numbers. So did the Wise Men ofold, by this natural and mystical Art, learn to know God rightly. They abode in Hislaws, and walked in His statutes with great firmness. It is also evident in the Book ofSamuel, that the Berelists did not follow the devil’s part, but became, by Divinepermission, partakers of visions and veritable apparitions, whereof we shall treat moreat large in the Book of Supercelestial Things 3 . This gift is granted by the Lord God tothose priests who walk in the Divine precepts. It was a custom among the Persiansnever to admit any one as king unless he were a Wise Man, pre-eminent in reality aswell as in name. This is clear from the customary name of their kings; for they werecalled Wise Men. Such were those Wise Men and Persian Magi who came from theEast to seek out thc Lord Jesus, and are called natural priests. The Egyptians, also,having obtained this magic and philosophy from the Chaldeans and Persians, desiredthat their priests should learn the same wisdom; and they became so fruitful andsuccessful therein that all the neighbouring countries admired them. For this reasonHermes was so truly named Trismegistus, because he was a king, a priest, a prophet, amagician, and a sophist of natural things. Such another was Zoroaster.CHAPTER II.WHEREIN IS DECLARED THAT THE GREEKS DREW A LARGE PARTOF THEIR LEARNING FROM THE EGYPTIANS; AND HOWIT CAME FROM THEM TO US.

When a son of Noah possessed the third part of the world after the Flood, this Artbroke into Chaldaea and Persia, and thence spread into Egypt. The Art having beenfound out by the superstitious and idolatrous Greeks, some of them who were wiserthan the rest betook themselves to the Chaldeans and Egyptians, so that they mightdraw the same wisdom from their schools. Since, however, the theological study ofthe law of Moses did not satisfy them, they trusted to their own peculiar genius, andfell away from the right foundation of those natural secrets and arts. This is evidentfrom their fabulous conceptions, and from their errors respecting the doctrine ofMoses. It was the custom of the Egyptians to put forward the traditions of thatsurpassing wisdom only in enigmatical figures and abstruse histories and terms. Thiswas afterwards followed by Homer with marvellous poetical skill; and Pythagoraswas also acquainted with it, seeing that he comprised in his writings many things outof the law of Moses and the Old Testament. In like manner, Hippocrates, Thales ofMiletus, Anaxagoras, Democritus, and others, did not scruple to fix their minds on thesame subject. And yet none of them were practised in the true Astrology, Geometry,Arithmetic, or Medicine, because their pride prevented this, since they would notadmit disciples belonging to other nations than their own. Even when they had gotsome insight from the Chaldeans and Egyptians, they became more arrogant still thanthey were before by Nature, and without any diffidence propounded the subjectsubstantially indeed, but mixed with subtle fictions or falsehoods; and then theyattempted to elaborate a certain kind of philosophy which descended from them to theLatins. These in their turn, being educated herewith, adorned it with their owndoctrines, and by these the philosophy was spread over Europe. Many academies werefounded for the propagation of their dogmas and rules, so that the young might beinstructed; and this system flourishes with the Germans, and other nations, right downto the present day.CHAPTER III.WHAT WAS TAUGHT IN THE SCHOOLS OF THE EGYPTIANS.The Chaldeans, Persians, and Egyptians had all of them the same knowledge of thesecrets of Nature, and also the same religion. It was only the names that differed. TheChaldeans and Persians called their doctrine Sophia and Magic 4 ; and the Egyptians,because of the sacrifice, called their wisdom priestcraft. The magic of the Persians,and the theology of the Egyptians, were both of them taught in the schools of old.Though there were many schools and learned men in Arabia, Africa, and Greece, suchas Albumazar, Abenzagel, Geber, Rhasis, and Avicenna among the Arabians; andamong the Greeks, Machaon, Podalirius, Pythagoras, Anaxagoras, Democritus, Plato,Aristotle, and Rhodianus; still there were different opinions amongst them as to thewisdom of the Egyptian on points wherein they themselves differed, and whereuponthey disagreed with it. For this reason Pythagoras could not be called a wise man,because the Egyptian priestcraft and wisdom were not perpectly taught, although hereceived therefrom many mysteries and arcana; and that Anaxagoras had received agreat many as well, is clear from his discussions on the subject of Sol and its Stone,which he left behind him after his death. Yet he differed in many respects from theEgyptians. Even they would not be called wise men or Magi; but, followingPythagoras, they assumed the name of philosophy: yet they gathered no more than afew gleams like shadows from the magic of the Persians and the Egyptians. ButMoses, Abraham, Solomon, Adam, and the wise men that came from the East toChrist, were true Magi, divine sophists and cabalists. Of this art and wisdom theGreeks knew very little or nothing at all; and therefore we shall leave this

philosophical wisdom of the Greeks as being a mere speculation, utterly distinct andseparate from other true arts and sciences.CHAPTER IV.WHAT MAGI THE CHALDEANS, PERSIANS, AND EGYPTIANS WERE.Many persons have endeavoured to investigate and make use of the secret magic ofthese wise men; but it has not yet been accomplished. Many even of our own ageexalt Trithemius, others Bacon and Agrippa, for magic and the cabala 5 – two thingsapparently quite distinct – not knowing why they do so. Magic, indeed, is an art andfaculty whereby the elementary bodies, their fruits, properties, virtues, and hiddenoperations are comprehended. But the cabala, by a subtle understanding of theScriptures, seems to trace out the way to God for men, to shew them how they mayact with Him, and prophesy from Him; for the cabala is full of divine mysteries, evenas Magic is full of natural secrets. It teaches of and foretells from the nature of thingsto come as well as of things present, since its operation consists in knowing the innerconstitution of all creatures, of celestial as well as terrestrial bodies: what is latentwithin them; what are their occult virtues; for what they were originally designed, andwith what properties they are endowed. These and the like subjects are the bondswherewith things celestial are bound up with things of the earth, as may sometimes beseen in their operation even with the bodily eyes. Such a conjunction of celestialinfluences, whereby the heavenly virtues acted upon inferior bodies, was formerlycalled by the Magi a Gamahea 6 , or the marriage of the celestial powers and propertieswith elementary bodies. Hence ensued the excellent commixtures of all bodies,celestial and terrestrial, namely, of the sun and planets, likewise vegetables, minerals,and animals.The devil attempted with his whole force and endeavour to darken this light; nor washe wholly frustrated in his hopes, for he deprived all Greece of it, and, in placethereof, introduced among that people human speculations and simple blasphemiesagainst God and against His Son. Magic, it is true, had its origin in the Divine Ternaryand arose from the Trinity of God. For God marked all His creatures with this Ternaryand engraved its hieroglyph on them with His own finger. Nothing in the nature ofthings can be assigned or produced that lacks this magistery of the Divine Ternary, orthat does not even ocularly prove it. The creature teaches us to understand and see theCreator Himself, as St. Paul testifies to the Romans. This covenant of the DivineTernary, diffused throughout the whole substance of things, is indissoluble. By this,also, we have the secrets of all Nature from the four elements. For the Ternary, withthe magical Quaternary, produces a perfect Septenary, endowed with many arcanaand demonstrated by things which are known. When the Quaternary rests in theTernary, then arises the Light of the World on the horizon of eternity, and by theassistance of God gives us the whole bond. Here also it refers to the virtues andoperations of all creatures, and to their use, since they are stamped and marked withtheir arcana, signs, characters, and figures, so that there is left in them scarcely thesmallest occult point which is not made clear on examination. Then when theQuaternary and the Ternary mount to the Denary is accomplished their retrogressionor reduction to unity. Herein is comprised all the occult wisdom of things which Godhas made plainly manifest to men, both by His word and by the creatures of Hishands, so that they may have a true knowledge of them. This shall be made more clearin another place.CHAPTER V.

CONCERNING THE CHIEF AND SUPREME ESSENCE OF THINGS.The Magi in their wisdom asserted that all creatures might be brought to one unifiedsubstance, which substance they affirm may, by purifications and purgations, attain toso high a degree of subtlety, such divine nature and occult property, as to workwonderful results. For they considered that by returning to the earth, and by a suprememagical separation, a certain perfect substance would come forth, which is at length,by many industrious and prolonged preparations, exalted and raised up above therange of vegetable substances into mineral, above mineral into metallic, and aboveperfect metallic substances into a perpetual and divine Quintessence 7 , including initself the essence of all celestial and terrestrial creatures. The Arabs and Greeks, bythe occult characters and hieroglyphic descriptions of the Persians and the Egyptians,attained to secret and abstruse mysteries. When these were obtained and partiallyunderstood they saw with their own eyes, in the course of experimenting, manywonderful and strange effects. But since the supercelestial operations lay more deeplyhidden than their capacity could penetrate, they did not call this a supercelestialarcanum according to the institution of the Magi, but the arcanum of the Philosophers’Stone according to the counsel and judgment of Pythagoras. Whoever obtained thisStone overshadowed it with various enigmatical figures, deceptive resemblances,comparisons, and fictitious titles, so that its matter might remain occult. Very little orno knowledge of it therefore can be had from them.CHAPTER VI.CONCERNING THE DIFFERENT ERRORS AS TO ITS DISCOVERY ANDKNOWLEDGE.The philosophers have prefixed most occult names to this matter of the Stone,grounded on mere similitudes. Arnold, observing this, says in his "Rosary" that thegreatest difficulty is to find out the material of this Stone; for they have called itvegetable, animal, and mineral, but not according to the literal sense, which is wellknown to such wise men as have had experience of divine secrets and the miracles ofthis same Stone. For example, Raymond Lully’s "Lunaria" may be cited. This givesflowers of admirable virtues familiar to the philosophers themselves; but it was notthe intention of those philosophers that you should think they meant thereby anyprojection upon metals, or that any such preparations should be made; but the abstrusemind of the philosophers had another intention. In like manner, they called theirmatter by the name of Martagon, to which they applied an occult alchemicaloperation; when, notwithstanding that name, it denotes nothing more than a hiddensimilitude. Moreover, no small error has arisen in the liquid of vegetables, with whicha good many have sought to coagulate Mercury 8 , and afterwards to convert it withfixatory waters into Luna, since they supposed that he who in this way couldcoagulate it without the aid of metals would succeed in becoming the chief master.Now, although the liquids of some vegetables do effect this, yet the result is duemerely to the resin, fat, and earthy sulphur with which they abound. This attracts toitself the moisture of the Mercury which rises with the substance in the process ofcoagulation, but without any advantage resulting. I am well assured that no thick andexternal Sulphur in vegetables is adapted for a perfect projection in Alchemy, as somehave found out to their cost. Certain persons have, it is true, coagulated Mercury withthe white and milky juice of tittinal, on account of the intense heat which existstherein; and they have called that liquid "Lac Virginis"; yet this is a false basis. Thesame may be asserted concerning the juice of celandine, although it colours just asthough it were endowed with gold. Hence people conceived a vain idea. At a certain

fixed time they rooted up this vegetable, from which they sought for a soul orquintessence, wherefrom they might make a coagulating and transmuting tincture. Buthence arose nothing save a foolish error.CHAPTER VII.CONCERNING THE ERRORS OF THOSE WHO SEEK THE STONE INVEGETABLES.Some alchemists have pressed a juice out of celandine, boiled it to thickness, and putit in the sun, so that it might coagulate into a hard mass, which, being afterwardspounded into a fine black powder, should turn Mercury by projection into Sol. Thisthey also found to be in vain. Others mixed Sal Ammoniac with this powder; othersthe Colcothar of Vitriol, supposing that they would thus arrive at their desired result.They brought it by their solutions into a yellow water, so that the Sal Ammoniacallowed an entrance of the tincture into the substance of the Mercury. Yet againnothing was accomplished. There are some again who, instead of the abovementionedsubstances, take the juices of persicaria, bufonaria, dracunculus, the leaves of willow,tithymal, cataputia, flammula, and the like, and shut them up in a glass vessel withMercury for some days, keeping them in ashes. Thus it comes about that the Mercuryis turned into ashes, but deceptively and without any result. These people were misledby the vain rumours of the vulgar, who give it out that he who is able to coagulateMercury without metals has the entire Magistery, as we have said before. Many, too,have extracted salts, oils, and sulphurs artificially out of vegetables, but quite in vain.Out of such salts, oils, and sulphurs no coagulation of Mercury, or perfect projection,or tincture, can be made. But when the philosophers compare their matter to a certaingolden tree of seven boughs, they mean that such matter includes all the seven metalsin its sperm, and that in it these lie hidden. On this account they called their mattervegetable, because, as in the case of natural trees, they also in their time producevarious flowers. So, too, the matter of the Stone shews most beautiful colours in theproduction of its flowers. The comparison, also, is apt, because a certain matter risesout of the philosophical earth, as if it were a thicket of branches and sprouts: like asponge growing on the earth. They say, therefore, that the fruit of their tree tendstowards heaven. So, then, they put forth that the whole thing hinged upon naturalvegetables, though not as to its matter, because their stone contains within itself abody, soul, and spirit, as vegetables do.CHAPTER VIII.CONCERNING THOSE WHO HAVE SOUGHT THE STONE IN ANIMALS.They have also, by a name based only on resemblances, called this matter LacVirginis, and the Blessed Blood of Rosy Colour, which, nevertheless, suits only theprophets and sons of God. Hence the sophists 9 gathered that this philosophical matterwas in the blood of animals or of man. Sometimes, too, because they are nourished byvegetables, others have sought it in hairs, in salt of urine, in rebis; others in hens’eggs, in milk, and in the calx of egg shells, with all of which they thought they wouldbe able to fix Mercury. Some have extracted salt out of foetid urine, supposing that tobe the matter of the Stone. Some persons, again, have considered the little stonesfound in rebis to be the matter. Others have macerated the membranes of eggs in asharp lixivium, with which they also mixed calcined egg shells as white as snow. Tothese they have attributed the arcanum of fixation for the transmutation of Mercury.Others, comparing the white of the egg to silver and the yolk to gold, have chosen itfor their matter, mixing with it common salt, sal ammoniac, and burnt tartar. These

they shut up in a glass vessel, and puri6ed in a Balneum Maris until the white matterbecame as red as blood. This, again, they distilled into a most offensive liquid, utterlyuseless for the purpose they had in view. Others have purified the white and yolk ofeggs; from which has been generated a basilisk. This they burnt to a deep red powder,and sought to tinge with it, as they learnt from the treatise of Cardinal Gilbert. Many,again, have macerated the galls of oxen, mixed with common salt, and distilled thisinto a liquid, with which they moistened the cementary powders, supposing that, bymeans of this Magistery, they would tinge their metals. This they called by the nameof "a part with a part", and thence came – just nothing. Others have attempted totransmute tutia by the addition of dragon’s blood and other substances, and also tochange copper and electrum into gold. Others, according to the Venetian Art, as theycall it, take twenty lizard-like animals, more or less, shut them up in a vessel, andmake them mad with hunger, so that they may devour one another until only one ofthem survives. This one is then fed with filings of copper or of electrum. Theysuppose that this animal, simply by the digestion of his stomach, will bring about thedesired transmutation. Finally, they burn this animal into a red powder, which theythought must be gold; but they were deceived. Others, again, having burned the fishescalled truitas (? trouts), have sometimes, upon melting them, found some gold inthem; but there is no other reason for it than this: Those fish sometimes in rivers andstreams meet with certain small scales and sparks of gold, which they eat. It isseldom, however, that such deceivers are found, and then chiefly in the courts ofprinces. The matter of the philosophers is not to be sought in animals: this I announceto all. Still, it is evident that the philosophers called their Stone animal, because intheir final operations the virtue of this most excellent fiery mystery caused an obscureliquid to exude drop by drop from the matter in their vessels. Hence they predictedthat, in the last times, there should come a most pure man upon the earth, by whomthe redemption of the world should be brought about; and that this man should sendforth bloody drops of a red colour, by means of which he should redeem the worldfrom sin. In the same way, after its own kind, the blood of their Stone freed theleprous metals from their infirmities and contagion. On these grounds, therefore, theysupposed they were justified in saying that their Stone was animal. Concerning thismystery Mercurius speaks as follows to King Calid: –"This mystery it is permitted only to the prophets of God to know. Hence it comes topass that this Stone is called animal, because in its blood a soul lies hid. It is likewisecomposed of body, spirit, and soul. For the same reason they called it theirmicrocosm, because it has the likeness of all things in the world, and thence theytermed it animal, as Plato named the great world an animal".CHAPTER IX.CONCERNING THOSE WHO HAVE SOUGHT THE STONE IN MINERALS.Hereto are added the many ignorant men who suppose the stone to be three-fold, andto be hidden in a triple genus, namely, vegetable, animal, and mineral. Hence it is thatthey have sought for it in minerals. Now, this is far from the opinion of thephilosophers. They affirm that their stone is uniformly vegetable, animal, and mineral.Now, here note that Nature has distributed its mineral sperm into various kinds, as, forinstance, into sulphurs, salts, boraxes, nitres, ammoniacs, alums, arsenics, atraments,vitriols, tutias, haematites, orpiments, realgars, magnesias, cinnabar, antimony, talc,cachymia, marcasites, etc. In all these Nature has not yet attained to our matter;although in some of the species named it displays itself in a wonderful aspect for thetransmutation of imperfect metals that are to be brought to perfection. Truly, long

experience and practice with fire shew many and various permutations in the matterof minerals, not only from one colour to another, but from one essence to another, andfrom imperfection to perfection. And, although Nature has, by means of preparedminerals, reached some perfection, yet philosophers will not have it that the matter ofthe philosophic stone proceeds out of any of the minerals, although they say that theirstone is universal. Hence, then, the sophists take occasion to persecute Mercuryhimself with various torments, as with sublimations, coagulations, mercurial waters,aquafortis, and the like. All these erroneous ways should be avoided, together withother sophistical preparations of minerals, and the purgations and fixations of spiritsand metals. Wherefore all the preparations of the stone, as of Geber, AlbertusMagnus, and the rest, are sophistical. Their purgations, cementations, sublimations,distillations, rectifications, circulations, putrefactions, conjunctions, solutions,ascensions, coagulations, calcinations, and incinerations are utterly profitless, both inthe tripod, in the athanor, in the reverberatory furnace, in the melting furnace, theaccidioneum, in dung, ashes, sand, or what not; and also in the cucurbite, the pelican,retort, phial, fixatory, and the rest. The same opinion must be passed on thesublimation of Mercury by mineral spirits, for the white and the red, as by vitriol,saltpetre, alum, crocuses, etc., concerning all which subjects that sophist, John deRupescissa, romances in his treatise on the White and Red Philosophic Stone. Takenaltogether, these are merely deceitful dreams. Avoid also the particular sophistry ofGeber; for example, his sevenfold sublimations or mortifications, and also therevivifications of Mercury, with his preparations of salts of urine, or salts made by asepulchre, all which things are untrustworthy. Some others have endeavoured to fixMercury with: the sulphurs of minerals and metals, but have been greatly deceived. Itis true I have seen Mercury by this Art, and by such fixations, brought into a metallicbody resembling and counterfeiting good silver in all respects; but when brought tothe test it has shewn itself to be false.CHAPTER X.CONCERNING THOSE WHO HAVE SOUGHT THE STONE AND ALSOPARTICULARS IN MINERALS.Some sophists have tried to squeeze out a fixed oil from Mercury seven timessublimed and as often dissolved by means of aquafortis. In this way they attempt tobring imperfect metals to perfection: but they have been obliged to relinquish theirvain endeavour. Some have purged vitriol seven times by calcination, solution, andcoagulation, with the addition of two parts of sal ammoniac, and by sublimation, sothat it might be resolved into a white water, to which they have added a third part ofquicksilver, that it might be coagulated by water. Then afterwards they havesublimated the Mercury several times from the vitriol and sal ammoniac, so that itbecame a stone. This stone they affirmed, being conceived of the vitriol, to be the RedSulphur of the philosophers, with which they have, by means of solutions andcoagulations, made some progress in attaining the stone; but in projection it has allcome to nothing. Others have coagulated Mercury by water of alum into a hard masslike alum itself; and this they have fruitlessly fixed with fixatory waters. The sophistspropose to themselves very many ways of fixing Mercury, but to no purpose, fortherein nothing perfect or constant can be had. It is therefore in vain to add mineralsthereto by sophistical processes, since by all of them he is stirred up to greater malice,is rendered more lively, and rather brought to greater impurity than to any kind ofperfection. So, then, the philosophers’ matter is not to be sought from thence.Mercury is somewhat imperfect; and to bring it to perfection will be very difficult,

nay, impossible for any sophist. There is nothing therein that can be stirred up orcompelled to perfection. Some have taken arsenic several times sublimated, andfrequently dissolved with oil of tartar and coagulated. This they have pretended to fix,and by it to turn copper into silver. This, however, is merely a sophistical whitening,for arsenic cannot be fixed 10 unless the operator be an Artist, and knows well itstingeing spirit. Truly in this respect all the philosophers have slept, vainly attemptingto accomplish anything thereby. Whoever, therefore, is ignorant as to this spirit,cannot have any hopes of fixing it, or of giving it that power which would make itcapable of the virtue of transmutation. So, then, I give notice to all that the whiteningof which I have just now spoken is grounded on a false basis, and that by it the copperis deceitfully whitened, but not changed.Now the sophists have mixed this counterfeit Venus with twice its weight of Luna,and sold it to the goldsmiths and mint-masters, until at last they have transmutedthemselves into false coiners – not only those who sold, but those who bought it.Some sophists instead of white arsenic take red, and this has turned out false art;because, however it is prepared, it proves to be nothing but whiteness.Some, again, have gone further and dealt with common sulphur, which, being soyellow, they have boiled in vinegar, lixivium, or sharpest wines, for a day and a night,until it became white. Then afterwards they sublimated it from common salt and thecalx of eggs, repeating the process several times; yet, still, though white, it has beenalways combustible. Nevertheless, with this they have endeavoured to fix Mercuryand to turn it into gold; but in vain. From this, however, comes the most excellent andbeautiful cinnabar that I have ever seen. This they propose to fix with the oil ofsulphur by cementation and fixation. It does, indeed, give something of anappearance, but still falls short of the desired object. Others have reduced commonsulphur to the form of a hepar, boiling it in vinegar with the addition of linseed oil, orlaterine oil, or olive oil. They then pour it into a marble mortar, and make it into theform of a hepar, which they have first distilled into a citrine oil with a gentle fire. Butthey have found to their loss that they could not do anything in the way oftransmuting Luna to Sol as they supposed they would be able. As there is an infinitenumber of metals, so also there is much variety in the preparation of them: I shall notmake further mention of these in this place, because each a mould require a specialtreatise. Beware also of sophisticated oils of vitriol and antimony. Likewise be onyour guard against the oils of the metals, perfect or imperfect, as Sol or Luna; becausealthough the operation of these is most potent in the nature of things, yet the trueprocess is known, even at this day, to very few persons. Abstain also from thesophistical preparations of common mercury, arsenic, sulphur, and the like, bysublimation, descension, fixation by vinegar, saltpetre, tartar, vitriol, sal ammoniac,according to the formulas prescribed in the books of the sophists. Likewise avoid thesophisticated tinctures taken from marcasites and crocus of Mars, and also of thatsophistication called by the name of "a part with a part", and of fixed Luna andsimilar trifles. Although they have some superficial appearance of truth, as thefixation of Luna by little labour and industry, still the progress of the preparation isworthless and weak. Being therefore moved with compassion towards the wellmeaning operators in this art, I have determined to lay open the whole foundation ofphilosophy in three separate arcana, namely, in one explained by arsenic, in a secondby vitriol, and in a third by antimony; by means of which I will teach the trueprojection upon Mercury and upon the imperfect metals.CHAPTER XI.

CONCERNING THE TRUE AND PERFECT SPECIAL ARCANUM OF ARSENICFOR THE WHITE TINCTURE.Some persons have written that arsenic is compounded of Mercury and, Sulphur,others of earth and water; but most writers say that it is of the nature of Sulphur. But,however that may be, its nature is such that it transmutes red copper into white. It mayalso be brought to such a perfect state of preparation as to be able to tinge. But this isnot done in the way pointed out by such evil sophists as Geber in "The Sum ofPerfection", Albertus Magnus, Aristotle the chemist in "The Book of the PerfectMagistery", Rhasis and Polydorus; for those writers, however many they be, are eitherthemselves in error, or else they write falsely out of sheer envy, and put forth receiptswhilst not ignorant of the truth. Arsenic contains within itself three natural spirits. Thefirst is volatile, combustible, corrosive, and penetrating all metals. This spirit whitensVenus and after some days renders it spongy. But this artifice relates only to thosewho practise the caustic art. The second spirit is crystalline and sweet. The third is atingeing spirit separated from the others before mentioned. True philosophers seek forthese three natural properties in arsenic with a view to the perfect projection of thewise men 11 . But those barbers who practise surgery seek after that sweet andcrystalline nature separated from the tingeing spirit for use in the cure of wounds,buboes, carbuncles, anthrax, and other similar ulcers which are not curable save bygentle means. As for that tingeing spirit, however, unless the pure be separated fromthe impure in it, the fixed from the volatile, and the secret tincture from thecombustible, it will not in any way succeed according to your wish for projection onMercury, Venus, or any other imperfect metal. All philosophers have hidden thisarcanum as a most excellent mystery. This tingeing spirit, separated from the othertwo as above, you must join to the spirit of Luna, and digest them together for thespace of thirty-two days, or until they have assumed a new body. After it has, on thefortieth natural day, been kindled into flame by the heat of the sun, the spirit appearsin a bright whiteness, and is endued with a perfect tingeing arcanum. Then it is atlength fit for projection, namely, one part of it upon sixteen parts of an imperfectbody, according to the sharpness of the preparation. From thence appears shining andmost excellent Luna, as though it had been dug from the bowels of the earth.CHAPTER XII.GENERAL INSTRUCTION CONCERNING THE ARCANUM OF VITRIOL ANDTHE RED TINCTURE TO BE EXTRACTED FROM IT. 12Vitriol is a very noble mineral among the rest, and was held always in highestestimation by philosophers, because the Most High God has adorned it withwonderful gifts. They have veiled its arcanum in enigmatical figures like thefollowing: "Thou shalt go to the inner parts of the earth, and by rectification thou shaltfind the occult stone, a true medicine". By the earth they understood the Vitriol itself;and by the inner parts of the earth its sweetness and redness, because in the occult partof the Vitriol lies hid a subtle, noble, and most fragrant juice, and a pure oil. Themethod of its production is not to be approached by calcination or by distillation. Forit must not be deprived on any account of its green colour. If it were, it would at thesame time lose its arcanum and its power. Indeed, it should be observed at this pointthat minerals, and also vegetables and other like things which shew greennesswithout, contain within themselves an oil red like blood, which is their arcanum.Hence it is clear that the distillations of the druggists are useless, vain, foolish, and ofno value, because these people do not know how to extract the bloodlike redness fromvegetables. Nature herself is wise, and turns all the waters of vegetables to a lemon

colour, and after that into an oil which is very red like blood. The reason why this isso slowly accomplished arises from the too great haste of the ignorant operators whodistil it, which causes the greenness to be consumed. They have not learnt tostrengthen Nature with their own powers, which is the mode whereby that noble greencolour ought to be rectified into redness of itself. An example of this is white winedigesting itself into a lemon colour; and in process of time the green colour of thegrape is of itself turned into the red which underlies the coerulean. The greennesstherefore of the vegetables and minerals being lost by the incapacity of the operators,the essence also and spirit of the oil and of the balsam, which is noblest amongarcana, will also perish.CHAPTER XIII.SPECIAL INSTRUCTION CONCERNING THE PROCESS OF VITRIOL FORTHE RED TINCTURE.Vitriol contains within itself many muddy and viscous imperfections. Therefore itsgreenness 13 must be often extracted with water, and rectified until it puts off all theimpurities of earth. When all these rectifications are finished, take care above all thatthe matter shall not be exposed to the sun, for this turns its greenness pale, and at thesame time absorbs the arcanum. Let it be kept covered up in a warm stove so that nodust may defile it. Afterwards let it be digested in a closed glass vessel for the spaceof several months, or until different colours and deep redness shew themselves. Stillyou must not suppose that by this process the redness is sufficiently fixed. It must, inaddition, be cleansed from the interior and accidental defilements of the earth, in thefollowing manner: – It must be rectified with acetum until the earthy defilement isaltogether removed, and the dregs are taken away. This is now the true and bestrectification of its tincture, from which the blessed oil is to be extracted. From thistincture, which is carefully enclosed in a glass vessel, an alembic afterwards placed onit and luted so that no spirit may escape, the spirit of this oil must be extracted bydistillation over a mild and slow fire. This oil is much pleasanter and sweeter than anyaromatic balsam of the drugsellers, being entirely free from all acridity 14 . There willsubside in tha bottom of the cucurbite some very white earth, shining and glitteringlike snow. This keep, and protect from all dust. This same earth is altogetherseparated from its redness.Thereupon follows the greatest arcanum, that is to say, the Supercelestial Marriage ofthe Soul, consummately prepared and washed by the blood of the lamb, with its ownsplendid, shining, and purified body. This is the true supercelestial marriage by whichlife is prolonged to the last and predestined day. In this way, then, the soul and spiritof the Vitriol, which are its blood, are joined with its purified body, that they may befor eternity inseparable. Take, therefore, this our foliated earth in a glass phial. Into itpour gradually its own oil. The body will receive and embrace its soul; since the bodyis affected with extreme desire for the soul, and the soul is most perfectly delightedwith the embrace of the body. Place this conjunction in a furnace of arcana, and keepit there for forty days. When these have expired you will have a most absolute oil ofwondrous perfection, in which Mercury and any other of the imperfect metals areturned into gold.Now let us turn our attention to its multiplication. Take the corporal Mercury, in theproportion of two parts; pour it over three parts, equal in weight, of the aforesaid oil,and let them remain together for forty days. By this proportion of weight and thisorder the multiplication becomes infinite.

CHAPTER XIV.CONCERNING THE SECRETS AND ARCANA OF ANTIMONY, FOR THE REDTINCTURE, WITH A VIEW TO TRANSMUTATION.Antimony is the true bath of gold. Philosophers call it the examiner and the stilanx.Poets say that in this bath Vulcan washed Phoebus, and purified him from all dirt andimperfection. It is produced from the purest and noblest Mercury and Sulphur, underthe genus of vitriol, in metallic form and brightness. Some philosophers call it theWhite Lead of the Wise Men, or simply the Lead. Take, therefore, of Antimony, thevery best of its kind, as much as you will. Dissolve this in its own aquafortis, andthrow it into cold water, adding a little of the crocus of Mars, so that it may sink to thebottom of the vessel as a sediment, for otherwise it does not throw off its dregs. Afterit has been dissolved in this way it will have acquired supreme beauty. Let it beplaced in a glass vessel, closely fastened on all sides with a very thick lute, or else in astone bocia, and mix with it some calcined tutia, sublimated to the perfect degree offire. It must be carefully guarded from liquefying, because with too great heat itbreaks the glass. From one pound of this Antimony a sublimation is made, perfectedfor a space of two days. Place this sublimated substance in a phial that it may touchthe water with its third part, in a luted vessel, so that the spirit may not escape. Let itbe suspended over the tripod of arcana, and let the work be urged on at first with aslow fire equal to the sun’s heat at midsummer. Then at length on the tenth day let itbe gradually increased. For with too great heat the glass vessels are broken, andsometimes even the furnace goes to pieces. While the vapour is ascending differentcolours appear. Let the fire be moderated until a red matter is seen. Afterwardsdissolve in very sharp Acetum, and throw away the dregs. Let the Acetum beabstracted and let it be again dissolved in common distilled water. This again must beabstracted, and the sediment distilled with a very strong fire in a glass vessel closelyshut. The whole body of the Antimony will ascend as a very red oil, like the colour ofa ruby, and will flow into the receiver, drop by drop, with a most fragrant smell and avery sweet taste 15 . This is the supreme arcanum of the philosophers in Antimony,which they account most highly among the arcana of oils. Then, lastly, let the oil ofSol be made in the following way: – Take of the purest Sol as much as you will, anddissolve it in rectified spirit of wine. Let the spirit be abstracted several times, and anequal number of times let it be dissolved again. Let the last solution be kept with thespirit of wine, and circulated for a month. Afterwards let the volatile gold and thespirit of wine be distilled three or four times by means of an alembic, so that it mayflow down into the receiver and be brought to its supreme essence. To half an ounceof this dissolved gold let one ounce of the Oil of Antimony be added. This oilembraces it in the heat of the bath, so that it does not easily let it go, even if the spiritof wine be extracted. In this way you will have the supreme mystery and arcanum ofNature, to which scarcely any equal can be assigned in the nature of things. Let thesetwo oils in combination be shut up together in a phial after the manner described,hung on a tripod for a philosophical month, and warmed with a very gentle fire;although, if the fire be regulated in dire proportion this operation is concluded inthirty-one days, and brought to perfection. By this, Mercury and any other imperfectmetals acquire the perfection of gold.CHAPTER XV.CONCERNING THE PROJECTION TO BE MADE BY THE MYSTERY ANDARCANUM OF ANTIMONY.

No precise weight can be assigned in this work of projection, though the tincture itselfmay be extracted from a certain subject, in a defined proportion, and with fittingappliances. For instance, that Medicine tinges sometimes thirty, forty, occasionallyeven sixty, eighty, or a hundred parts of the imperfect metal. So, then, the wholebusiness hinges chiefly on the purification of the Medicine and the industry of theoperator, and, next, on the greater; or lesser cleanliness and purity of the imperfectbody taken in hand. For instance, one Venus is more pure than another; and hence ithappens that no one fixed weight can be specified in projection. This alone is worthnoting, that if the operator happens to have taken too much of the tincture, he cancorrect this mistake by adding more of the imperfect metal. But if there be too muchof the subject, so that the powers of the tincture are weakened, this error is easilyremedied by a cineritium, or by cementations, or by ablutions in crude Antimony.There is nothing at this stage which need delay the operator; only let him put beforehimself a fact which has been passed over by the philosophers, and by somestudiously veiled, namely, that in projections there must be a revivification, that is tosay, an animation of imperfect bodies – nay, so to speak, a spiritualisation; concerningwhich some have said that their metals are no common ones, since they live and havea soul.ANIMATION IS PRODUCED IN THE FOLLOWING WAY.Take of Venus, wrought into small plates, as much as you will, ten, twenty, or fortypounds. Let these be incrusted with a pulse made of arsenic and calcined tartar, andcalcined in their own vessel for twenty-four hours. Then at length let the Venus bepulverised, washed, and thoroughly purified. Let the calcination with ablution berepeated three or four times. In this way it is purged and purified from its thickgreenness and from its own impure sulphur. You will have to be on your guardagainst calcinations made with common sulphur. For whatever is good in the metal isspoilt thereby, and what is bad becomes worse. To ten marks of this purged Venusadd one of pure Luna. But in order that the work of the Medicine may be acceleratedby projection, and may more easily penetrate the imperfect body, and drive out allportions which are opposed to the nature of Luna, this is accomplished by means of aperfect ferment. For the work is defiled by means of an impure Sulphur, so that acloud is stretched out over the surface of the transmuted substance, or the metal ismixed with the loppings of the Sulphur and may be cast away therewith. But if aprojection of a red stone is to be made, with a view to a red transmutation, it must firstfall on gold, afterwards on silver, or on some other metal thoroughly purified, as wehave directed above. From thence arises the most perfect gold.CHAPTER XVI.CONCERNING THE UNIVERSAL MATTER OF THE PHILOSOPHERS’ STONE.After the mortification of vegetables, they are transmuted, by the concurrence of twominerals, such as Sulphur and Salt, into a mineral nature, so that at length theythemselves become perfect minerals. So it is that in the mineral burrows and caves ofthe earth, vegetables are found which, in the long succession of time, and by thecontinuous heat of sulphur, put off the vegetable nature and assume that of themineral. This happens, for the most part, where the appropriate nutriment is takenaway from vegetables of this kind, so that they are afterwards compelled to derivetheir nourishment from the sulphur and salts of the earth, until what was beforevegetable passes over into a perfect mineral. From this mineral state, too, sometimes aperfect metallic essence arises, and this happens by the progress of one degree intoanother.

But let us return to the Philosophers’ Stone. The matter of this, as certain writers havementioned, is above all else difficult to discover and abstruse to understand. Themethod and most certain rule for finding out this, as well as other subjects – what theyembrace or are able to effect – is a careful examination of the root and seed by whichthey come to our knowledge. For this, before all things else, a consideration ofprinciples is absolutely necessary; and also of the manner in which Nature proceedsfrom imperfection to the end of perfection. Now, for this consideration it is well tohave it thoroughly understood from the first that all things created by Nature consistof three primal elements, namely, natural Mercury, Sulphur, and Salt in combination,so that in some substances they are volatile, in others fixed. Wherever corporal Salt ismixed with spiritual Mercury and animated Sulphur into one body, then Nature beginsto work, in those subterranean places which serve for her vessels, by means of aseparating fire. By this the thick and impure Sulphur is separated from the pure, theearth is segregated from the Salt, and the clouds from the Mercury, while those purerparts are preserved, which Nature again welds together into a pure geogamic body.This operation is esteemed by the Magi as a mixture and conjunction by the uniting ofthree constituents, body, soul, and spirit. When this union is completed there resultsfrom it a pure Mercury. Now if this, when flowing down through its subterraneanpassages and veins, meets with a chaotic Sulphur, the Mercury is coagulated by itaccording to the condition of the Sulphur. It is, however, still volatile, so that scarcelyin a hundred years is it transformed into a metal. Hence arose the vulgar idea thatMercury and Sulphur are the matter of the metals, as is certainly reported by miners.It is not, however, common Mercury and common Sulphur which are the matter of themetals, but the Mercury and the Sulphur of the philosophers are incorporated andinborn in perfect metals, and in the forms of them, so that they never fly from the fire,nor are they depraved by the force of the corruption caused by the elements. It is truethat by the dissolution of this natural mixture our Mercury is subdued, as all thephilosophers say. Under this form of words our Mercury comes to be drawn fromperfect bodies and from the forces of the earthly planets. This is what Hermes assertsin the following terms: "The Sun and the Moon are the roots of this Art". The Son ofHamuel says that the Stone of the philosophers is water coagulated, namely, in Soland Luna. From this it is clearer than the sun that the material of the Stone is nothingelse but Sol and Luna. This is confirmed by the fact that like produces like. We knowthat there are only two Stones, the white and the red. There are also two matters of theStone, Sol and Luna, formed together in a proper marriage, both natural and artificial.Now, as we see that the man or the woman, without the seed of both, cannot generate,in the same way our man, Sol, and his wife, Luna, cannot conceive or do an thing inthe way of generation, without the seed and sperm of both. Hence the philosophersgathered that a third thing was necessary, namely, the animated seed of both, the manand the woman, without which they judged that the whole of their work was fruitlessand in vain. Such a sperm is Mercury, which, by the natural conjunction of bothbodies Sol and Luna, receives their nature into itself in union. Then at length, and notbefore, the work is fit for congress, ingress, and generation; by the masculine andfeminine power and virtue. Hence the philosophers have said that this same Mercuryis composed of body, spirit, and soul, and that it has assumed the nature and propertyof all elements. Therefore, with their most powerful genius and intellect, they assertedtheir Stone to be animal. They even called it their Adam, who carries his owninvisible Eve hidden in his body, from that moment in which they were united by thepower of the Supreme God, the Maker of all creatures. For this reason it may be saidthat the Mercury of the Philosophers is none other than their most abstruse,

compounded Mercury, and not the common Mercury. So then they have wisely saidto the sages that there is in Mercury whatever wise men seek. Almadir, thephilosopher, says: "We extract our Mercury from one perfect body and two perfectnatural conditions incorporated together, which indeed puts forth externally itsperfection, whereby it is able to resist the fire, so that its internal imperfection may beprotected by the external perfections". By this passage of the sagacious philosopher isunderstood the Adamic matter, the limbus of the microcosm 16 , and the homogeneous,unique matter of the philosophers. The sayings of these men, which we have beforementioned, are simply golden, and ever to be held in the highest esteem, because theycontain nothing superfluous or without force. Summarily, then, the matter of thePhilosophers’ Stone is none other than a fiery and perfect Mercury extracted byNature and Art; that is, the artificially prepared and true hermaphrodite Adam, and themicrocosm: That wisest of the philosophers, Mercurius, making the same statement,called the Stone an orphan. Our Mercury, therefore, is the same which contains initself all the perfections, force, and virtues of the Sun, which also runs through all thestreets and houses of all the planets, and in its own rebirth has acquired the force ofthings above and things below; to the marriage of which it is to be compared, as isclear from the whiteness and the redness combined in it.CHAPTER XVII.CONCERNlNG THE PREPARATION OF THE MATTER FOR THEPHILOSOPHIC STONE.What Nature principally requires is that its own philosophic man should be broughtinto a mercurial substance, so that it may be born into the philosophic Stone.Moreover, it should be remarked that those common preparations of Geber, AlbertusMagnus, Thomas Aquinas, Rupescissa, Polydorus, and such men, are nothing morethan some particular solutions, sublimations, and calcinations, having no reference toour universal substance, which needs only the most secret fire of the philosophers. Letthe fire and Azoth therefore suffice for you. From the fact that the philosophers makemention of certain preparations, such as putrefaction, distillation, sublimation,calcination, coagulation, dealbation, rubification, ceration, fixation, and the like, youshould understand that in their universal substance, Nature herself fulfils all theoperations in the matter spoken of, and not the operator, only in a philosophicalvessel, and with a similar fire, but not common fire. The white and the red springfrom one root without any intermediary. It is dissolved by itself, it copulates by itself,grows white, grows red, is made crocus-coloured and black by itself, marries itselfand conceives in itself. It is therefore to be decocted, to be baked, to be fused; itascends, and it descends. All these operations are a single operation and produced bythe fire alone. Still, some philosophers, nevertheless, have, by a highly graduatedessence of wine, dissolved the body of Sol, and rendered it volatile, so that it shouldascend through an alembic, thinking that this is the true volatile matter of thephilosophers, though it is not so. And although it be no contemptible arcanum toreduce this perfect metallic body into a volatile, spiritual substance, yet they arewrong in their separation of the elements. This process of the monks, such as Lully,Richard of England, Rupescissa, and the rest, is erroneous. By this process theythought that they were going to separate gold after this fashion into a subtle, spiritual,and elementary power, each by itself, and afterwards by circulation and rectificationto combine them again in one – but in vain. For although one element may, in acertain sense, be separated from another, yet, nevertheless, every element separated inthis way can again be separated into another element, but these elements cannot

afterwards by circulation in a pelican, or by distillation, be again brought back intoone; but they always remain a certain volatile matter, and aurum potabile, as theythemselves call it. The reason why they could not compass their intention is thatNature refuses to be in this way dragged asunder and separated by man’s disjunctions,as by earthly glasses and instruments. She alone knows her own operations and theweights of the elements, the separations, rectifications, and copulations of which shebrings about without the aid of any operator or manual artifice, provided only thematter be contained in the secret fire and in its proper occult vessel. The separation ofthe elements, therefore, is impossible by man. It may appear to take place, but it is nottrue, whatever may be said by Raymond Lully, and of that famous English goldenwork which he is falsely supposed to have accomplished. Nature herself has withinherself the proper separator, who again joins together what he has put asunder,without the aid of man. She knows best the proportion of every element, which mandoes not know, however miseading writers romance in their frivolous and falserecipes about this volatile gold.This is the opinion of the philosophers, that when they have put their matter into themore secret fire, and when with a moderated philosophical heat it is cherished onevery side, beginning to pass into corruption, it grows black. This operation they termputrefaction, and they call the blackness by the name of the Crow’s Head. The ascentand descent thereof they term distillation, ascension, and descension. The exsiccationthey call coagulation; and the dealbation they call calcination; while because itbecomes fluid and soft in the heat they make mention of ceration. When it ceases toascend and remains liquid at the bottom, they say fixation is present.In this manner it is the terms of philosophical operations are to bc understood, and nototherwise.CHAPTER XVIII.CONCERNING INSTRUMENTS AND THE PHILOSOPHIC VESSEL.Sham philosophers have misunderstood the occult and secret philosophic vessel, andworse is that which is said by Aristoteles the Alchemist (not the famous GreekAcademic Philosopher), giving it out that the matter is to be decocted in a triplevessel. Worst of all is that which is said by another, namely, that the matter in its firstseparation and first degree requires a metallic vessel; in its second degree ofcoagulation and dealbation of its earth a glass vessel; and in the third degree, forfixation, an earthen vessel. Nevertheless, hereby the philosophers understand onevessel alone in all the operations up to the perfection of the red stone. Since, then, ourmatter is our root for the white and the red, necessarily our vessel must be sofashioned that the matter in it may be governed by the heavenly bodies. For invisiblecelestial influences and the impressions of the stars are in the very first degreenecessary for the work: Otherwise it would be impossible for the Oriental, Chaldean,and Egyptian stone to be realised. By this Anaxagoras knew the powers of the wholefirmament, and foretold that a great stone would descend from heaven to earth, whichactually happened after his death. To the Cabalists our vessel is perfectly well known,because it must be made according to a truly geometrical proportion and measure, andfrom a definite quadrature of the circle, so that the spirit and the soul of our matter,separated from their body, may be able to raise this vessel with themselves inproportion to the altitude of heaven. If the vessel be wider, narrower, higher, or lowerthan is fitting, and than the dominating operating spirit and soul desire, the heat of oursecret philosophic fire (which is, indeed, very severe), will violently excite the matterand urge it on to excessive operation, so that the vessel is shivered into a thousand

pieces, with imminent danger to the body and even the life of the operator. On theother hand, if it be of greater capacity than is required in due proportion for the heat tohave effect on the matter, the work will be wasted and thrown away. So, then, ourphilosophic vessel must be made with the greatest care. What the material of thevessel should be is understood only by those who, in the first solution of our fixed andperfected matter have brought that matter to its own primal quintessence. Enough hasbeen said on this point.The operator must also very accurately note what, in its first solution, the matter sendsforth and rejects from itself.The method of describing the form of the vessel is difficult. It should be such asNature requires, and it must be sought out and investigated from every possiblesource, so that, from the height of the philosophic heaven, elevated above thephilosophic earth, it may be able to operate on the fruit of its own earthly body. Itshould have this form, too, in order that the separation and purification of theelements, when the fire drives one from the other, may be able to be accomplished,and that each may have power to occupy the place to which it adheres; and also thatthe sun and the other planets may exercise their operations around the elemental earth,while their course in their circuit is neither hindered nor agitated with too swift amotion. In all these particulars which have been mentioned it must have a properproportion of rotundity and of height.The instruments for the first purification of mineral bodies are fusing-vessels,bellows, tongs, capels, cupels, tests, cementatory vessels, cineritiums, cucurbites,bocias for aquafortis and aqua regia; and also the appliances which are required forprojection at the climax of the work.CHAPTER XIX.CONCERNING THE SECRET FIRE OF THE PHILOSOPHERS.This is a well-known sententious saying of the philosophers, "Let fire and Azocsuffice thee". Fire alone is the whole work and the entire art. Moreover, they whobuild their fire and keep their vessel in that heat are in error. In vain some haveattempted it with the heat of horse dung. By the coal fire, without a medium, theyhave sublimated their matter, but they have not dissolved it. Others have got their heatfrom lamps, asserting that this is the secret fire of the philosophers for making theirStone. Some have placed it in a bath, first of all in heaps of ants’ eggs; others injuniper ashes. Some have sought the fire in quicklime, in tartar, vitriol, nitre, etc.Others, again, have sought it in boiling water. Thomas Aquinas speaks falsely of thisfire, saying that God and the angels cannot do without this fire, but use it daily. Whatblasphemy is this! Is it not a manifest lie that God is not able to do without theelemental heat of boiling water? All the heats excited by those means which havebeen mentioned are utterly useless for our work Take care not to be misled by Arnoldde Villa Nova, who has written on the subject of the coal fire, for in this matter he willdeceive you.Almadir says that the invisible rays of our fire of themselves suffice. Another cites, asan illustration, that the heavenly heat by its reflections tends to the coagulation andperfection of Mercury, just as by its continual motion it tends to the generation ofmetals. Again, says this same authority, "Make a fire, vaporous, digesting, as forcooking, continuous, but not volatile or boiling, enclosed, shut off from the air, notburning, but altering and penetrating. Now, in truth, I have mentioned every mode offire and of exciting heat. If you are a true philosopher you will understand". This iswhat he says.

Salmanazar remarks: "Ours is a corrosive fire, which brings over our vessel an air likea cloud, in which cloud the rays of this fire are hidden. If this dew of chaos and thismoisture of the cloud fail, a mistake has been committed". Again, Almadir says, thatunless the fire has warmed our sun with its moisture, by the excrement of themountain, with a moderate ascent, we shall not be partakers either of the Red or theWhite Stone.All these matters shew quite openly to us the occult fire of the wise men. Finally, thisis the matter of our fire, namely, that it be kindled by the quiet spirit of sensible fire,which drives upwards, as it were, the heated chaos from the opposite quarter, andabove our philosophic matter. This heat, glowing above our vessel, must urge it to themotion of a perfect generation, temperately but continuously, without intermission.CHAPTER XX.CONCERNING THE FERMENT OF THE PHILOSOPHERS, AND THE WEIGHT.Philosophers have laboured greatly in the art of ferments and of fermentations, whichseems important above all others. With reference thereto some have made a vow toGod and to the philosophers that they would never divulge its arcanum by similitudesor by parables.Nevertheless, Hermes, the father of all philosophers, in the "Book of the SevenTreatises", most clearly discloses the secret of ferments, saying that they consist onlyof their own paste; and more at length he says that the ferment whitens the confection,hinders combustion, altogether retards the flux of the tincture, consoles bodies, andamplifies unions. He says, also, that this is the key and the end of the work,concluding that the ferment is nothing but paste, as that of the sun is nothing but sun,and that of the moon nothing but moon. Others affirm that the ferment is the soul, andif this be not rightly prepared from the magistery, it effects nothing. Some zealots ofthis Art seek the Art in common sulphur, arsenic, tutia, auripigment, vitriol, etc., butin vain; since the substance which is sought is the same as that from which it has to bedrawn forth. It should be remarked, therefore, that fermentations of this kind do notsucceed according to the wishes of the zealots in the way they desire, but, as is clearfrom what has been said above, simply in the way of natural successes.But, to come at length to the weight; this must be noted in two ways. The first isnatural, the second artificial. The natural attains its result in the earth by Nature andconcordance. Of this, Arnold says: If more or less earth than Nature requires beadded, the soul is suffocated, and no result is perceived, nor any fixation. It is thesame with the water. If more or less of this bc taken it will bring a corresponding loss.A superfluity renders the matter unduly moist, and a deficiency makes it too dry andtoo hard. If there be over much air present, it is too strongly impressed on the tincture;if there be too little, the body will turn out pallid. In the same way, if the fire be toostrong, the matter is burnt up; if it be too slack, it has not the power of drying, nor ofdissolving or heating the other elements. In these things elemental heat consists.Artificial weight is quite occult. It is comprised in the magical art of ponderations.Between the spirit, soul, and body, say the philosophers, weight consists of Sulphur asthe director of the work; for the soul strongly desires Sulphur, and necessarilyobserves it by reason of its weight.You can understand it thus: Our matter is united to a red fixed Sulphur, to which athird part of the regimen has been entrusted, even to the ultimate degree, so that itmay perfect to infinity the operation of the Stone, may remain therewith together withits fire, and may consist of a weight equal to the matter itself, in and through all,without variation of any degree. Therefore, after the matter has been adapted and

mixed in its proportionate weight, it should be closely shut up with its seal in thevessel of the philosophers, and committed to the secret fire. In this the PhilosophicSun will rise and surge up, and will illuminate all things that have been looking for hislight, expecting it with highest hope.In these few words we will conclude the arcanum of the Stone, an arcanum which isin no way maimed or defective, for which we give God undying thanks. Now have weopened to you our treasure, which is not to be paid for by the riches of the wholeworld.HERE ENDS THE AURORA OF THE PHILOSOPHERS.NOTES1The work under this title is cited occasionally in other writings of Paracelsus, but is not included inthe great folio published at Geneva in 1688. It was first issued at Basle in1575, and was accompaniedwith copious annotations in Latin by the editor, Gerard Dorne. This personage was a very perseveringcollector of the literary remains of Paracelsus, but is not altogether free from the suspicion of havingelaborated his original. The Aurora is by some regarded as an instance in point; though no doubt in themain it is a genuine work of the Sage of Hohenheim, yet in some respects it does seem to approximatesomewhat closely to previous schools of Alchemy, which can scarcely he regarded as representing theactual standpoint of Paracelsus.2 He who created man the same also created science. What has man in any place without labour? Whenthe mandate went forth: Thou shalt live by the sweat of thy brow, there was, as it were, a new creation.When God uttered His fiat the world was made. Art, however, was not then made, nor was the light ofNature. But when Adam was expelled from Paradise, God created for him the light of Nature when Hebade him live by the work of his hands. In like manner, He created for Eve her special light when Hesaid to her: In sorrow shalt thou bring forth children. Thus, and there, were these beings made humanand earthy that were before like angelicals. ... Thus, by the word were creatures made, and by this sameword was also made the light which was necessary to man. ... Hence the interior man followed from thesecond creation, after the expulsion from Paradise. ... Before the Fall, that cognition which wasrequisite to man had not begun to develop in him. He received it from the angel when he was cast outof Paradise. ... Man was made complete in the order of the body, but not in the order of the arts. – DeCaducis, Par. III.3No work precisely corresponding co this title is extant among the writings of Paracelsus. The subjectsto which reference is made are discussed in the Philosophia Sagax.4Before all things it is necessary to have a right understanding of the nature of Celestial Magic. Itoriginates from divine virtue. There is that magic which Moses practised, and there is the maleficentmagic of the sorcerers. There are, then, different kinds of Magi. So also there is what is called theMagic of Nature; there is the Celestial Magus; there is the Magus of Faith, that is, one whose faithmakes him whole. There is, lastly, the Magus of Perdition. – Philosophia Sagax, Lib. II., c. 6.5 Learn, therefore, Astronomic Magic, which otherwise I call cabalistic. – De Pestilitate, Tract I. Thisart, formerly called cabalistic, was in the beginning named caballa, and afterwards caballia. It is aspecies of magic. It was also, but falsely, called Gabanala, by one whose knowledge of the subject wasprofound. It was of an unknown Ethnic origin, and it passed subsequently to the Chaldaeans andHebrews, by both of whom it was corrupted. – Philosophia Sagax, Lib. I., s. v. Probatio in ScientiamNectromantricam.6 The object which received the influence and exhibited the sign thereof appears to have been termedGamaheu, Gamahey etc. But the name was chiefly given to certain stones on which various andwonderful images and figures of men and animals have been found naturally depicted, being no workof man, but the result of the providence and counsel of God. – De Imaginibus, c. 7 and c. 13. It ispossible, magically, for a man to project his infiuence into these stones and some other substances. –Ibid., c. 13. But they also have their own inherent virtue, which is indicated by the shape and thespecial nature of the impression. – Ibid., c. 7. There was also an artificial Gamaheus invented andprepared by the Magi, and this seems to have been more powerful. – De Carduo Angelico.7Man was regarded by Paracelsus as himself in a special manner the true Quintessence. After God hadcreated all the elements, stars, and every other created thing, and had disposed them according to Hiswill, He proceeded, lastly, to the forming of man. He extracted the essence out of the four elements intoone mass; He extracted also the essence of wisdom, art, and reason out of the stars, and this twofoldessence He congested into one mass: which mass Scripture calls the slime of the earth. From that masstwo bodies were made – the sidereal and the elementary. These, according to the light of Nature, are

called the quintum esse. The mass was extracted, and therein the firmament and the elements werecondensed. What was extracted from the four after this manner constituted a fifth. The Quintessence isthe nucleus and the place of the essences and properties of all things in the universal world. All naturecame into the hand of God – all potency, all property, all essence of the superior and inferior globe. Allthese had God joined in His hand, and from these He formed man according to His image. –Philosophia Sagax, Lib. I., c. 2.8 All created things proceed from the coagulated, and after coagulation must go on to resolution. Fromresolution proceed all procreated things. – De Tartaro (fragment). All bodies of minerals arecoagulated by salt. – De Natraralibus Aquis, Lib. III., Tract 2.9So acute is the potency of calcined blood, that if it be poured slowly on iron it produces in the firstplace a whiteness thereon, and then generates rust. – Scholia in Libros de Tartaro. In Lib. II., Tract II.10One recipe for the fixation of arsenic is as follows: – Take equal parts of arsenic and nitre. Placethese in a tigillum, set upon coals so that they may begin to boil and to evaporate. Continue tillebullition and evaporation cease, and the substances shall have settled to the bottom of the vessel likefat melting in a frying-pan; then, for the space of an hour and a half (the longer the better), set it apartto settle. Subsequently pour the compound upon marble, and it will acquire a gold colour. In a dampplace it will assume the consistency of a fatty fluid. – De Naturalibus Rebus, c. 9. Again: The fixationof arsenic is performed by salt of urine, after which it is converted by itself into an oil. – ChirurgiaMinor, Lib. II.11Concerning the kinds of arsenic, it is to be noted that there are those which flow forth from theirproper mineral or metal, and are called native arsenics. Next there are arsenics out of metals after theirkind. Then there are those made by Art through transmutation. White or crystalline arsenic is the bestfor medicine Yellow and red arsenic are utilised by chemists for investigating the transmutation ofmetals, in which arsenic has a special efficacy. – De Naturalibus Rebus, c. 9.12The arcanum of vitriol is the oil of vitriol. Thus: after the aquosity has been removed in coction fromvitriol, the spirit is elicited by the application of greater heat. The vitriol then comes over pure in theform of water. This water is combined with the caput mortuum left by the process, and on againseparating in a balneum maris, the phlegmatic part passes off, and the oil, or the arcanum of vitriol,remains at the bottom of the vessel. – Ibid.13So long as the viridity or greenness of vitriol subsists therein, it is of a soft quality and substance. Butif it be excocted so that it is deprived of its moisture, it is thereby changed into a hard stone from whicheven fire can be struck. When the moisture is evaporated from vitriol, the sulphur which it containspredominates over the salt, and the vitriol turns red. – De Pestilitate, Tract I.14 The diagnosis of vitriol is concerned with it both in Medicine and Alchemy. In Medicine it is aparamount remedy. In Alchemy it has many additional purposes. The Art of Medicine and Alchemyconsists in the preparation of vitriol, for it is worthless in its crude state. It is like unto wood, out ofwhich it is possible to carve anything. Three kinds of oil are extracted from vitriol – a red oil, bydistillation in a retort after an alchemistic method, and this is the most acid of all substances, and hasalso a corrosive quality – also a green and a white oil, distilled from crude vitriol by descension. – DeVitriolo. Nor let it be regarded as absurd that we assign such great virtues to vitriol, for therein resides,secret and hidden, a certain peculiar golden force, not corporeal but spiritual, which excellent andadmirable virtue exists in greater potency and certainty therein than it does in gold. When this goldenspirit of vitriol is volatilized and separated from its impurities, so that the essence alone remains, it islike unto potable gold. – De Morbis Amentium, Methodus II., c. 1.15 Antimony can be made into a pap with the water of vitriol, and then purified by sal ammoniac, and inthis manner there may be obtained from it a thick purple or reddish liquor. This is oil of antimony, andit has many virtues. – Chirurgia Magna, Lib. V. Take three pounds of antimony and as much of salgemmae. Distil them together in a retort for three natural days, and so you will have a red oil, whichhas incredible healing power in cases of otherwise incurable wounds. – Chirurgia Minor, Tract II., c.11.16Man himself was created from that which is termed limbus. This limbus contained the potency andnature of all creatures. Hence man himself is called the microcosmus, or world in miniature. – DeGeneratione Stultorum. Man was fashioned out of the limbus, and this limbus is the universal world. –Paramirum Aliud, Lib. II., c. 2. The limbus was the first matter of man. ... Whosoever knows thelimbus knows also what mam is. Whatsoever the limbus is, that also is man. – Paramirum Aliud, Lib.IV. There is a dual limbus, man, the lesser limbus, and that Great Limbus from which he was produced.– De Podagra, s. v. de Limbo. The limbus is the seed out of which all creatures are produced and grow,as the tree comes forth from its own special seed. The limbus has its ground in the word of God. – Ibid.The limbus of Adam was haven and earth, water and air. Therefore, man also remains in the limbus,

and contains in himself heaven and earth, air and water, and these things he also himself is. –Paragranum Alterum, Tract II.Assignment – EssayIn your own words write three paragraphs about the development of alchemy. Answer the followingquestions in your essay:What was alchemy THEN and what is it NOW?Are there different kinds of alchemy?How were alchemy and chemistry related?What is/was alchemy?What can we learn something from alchemy?

Culpepper’s Complete Herbal: The Herbs: Part TwoAMARA DULCISCONSIDERING divers shires in this nation give divers names to one and the same herb,and that the common name which it bears in one county, is not known in another; Ishall take the pains to set down all the names that I know of each herb: pardon me forsetting that name first, which is most common to myself. Besides Amara Dulcis, somecall it Mortal, others Bitter-sweet; some Woody Night-shade, and others Felon-wort.Descript : It grows up with woody stalks even to a man's height, and sometimeshigher. The leaves fall off at the approach of winter, and spring out of the same stalkat spring-time: the branch is compassed about with a whitish bark, and has a pith inthe middle of it: the main branch branches itself into many small ones with claspers,laying hold on what is next to them, as vines do: it bears many leaves, they grow in noorder at all, at least in no regular order; the leaves are longish, though somewhatbroad, and pointed at the ends: many of them have two little leaves growing at the endof their foot-stalk; some have but one, and some none. The leaves are of a pale greencolour; the flowers are of a purple colour, or of a perfect blue, like to violets, and theystand many of them together in knots: the berries are green at first, but when they areripe they are very red; if you taste them, you shall find them just as the crabs whichwe in Sussex call Bitter-sweet, viz. sweet at first and bitter afterwards.Place : They grow commonly almost throughout England, especially in moist andshady places.Time : The leaves shoot out about the latter end of March, if the temperature of theair be ordinary; it flowers in July, and the seeds are ripe soon after, usually in the nextmonth.Government and virtues : It is under the planet Mercury, and a notable herb of hisalso, if it be rightly gathered under his influence. It is excellently good to removewitchcraft both in men and beasts, as also all sudden diseases whatsoever. Being tiedround about the neck, is one of the most admirable remedies for the vertigo ordizziness in the head; and that is the reason (as Tragus saith) the people in Germanycommonly hang it about their cattle's necks, when they fear any such evil hath betidedthem. Country people commonly take the berries of it, and having bruised them, applythem to felons, and thereby soon rid their fingers of such troublesome guests.We have now showed you the external use of the herb; we shall speak a word ortwo of the internal, and so conclude. Take notice, it is a Mercurial herb, and thereforeof very subtile parts, as indeed all Mercurial plants are; therefore take a pound of thewood and leaves together, bruise the wood (which you may easily do, for it is not sohard as oak) then put it in a pot, and put to it three pints of white wine, put on the potlidand shut it close; and let it infuse hot over a gentle fire twelve hours, then strain itout, so have you a most excellent drink to open obstructions of the liver and spleen, tohelp difficulty of breath, bruises and falls, and congealed blood in any part of thebody, it helps the yellow jaundice, the dropsy, and black jaundice, and to cleansewomen newly brought to bed. You may drink a quarter of a pint of the infusion everymorning. It purges the body very gently, and not churlishly as some hold. And whenyou find good by this, remember me.They that think the use of these medicines is too brief, it is only for the cheapnessof the book; let them read those books of mine, of the last edition, viz. Reverius,Veslingus, Riolanus, Johnson, Sennertus, and Physic for the Poor.

ALL-HEALIt is called All-heal, Hercules's All-heal, and Hercules's Woundwort, because it issupposed that Hercules learned the herb and its virtues from Chiron, when he learnedphysic of him. Some call it Panay, and others Opopane-wort.Descript : Its root is long, thick, and exceeding full of juice, of a hot and bitingtaste, the leaves are great and large, and winged almost like ash-tree leaves, but thatthey are something hairy, each leaf consisting of five or six pair of such wings set oneagainst the other upon foot-stalks, broad below, but narrow towards the end; one ofthe leaves is a little deeper at the bottom than the other, of a fair yellowish fresh greencolour: they are of a bitterish taste, being chewed in the mouth; from among theserises up a stalk, green in colour, round in form, great and strong in magnitude, five orsix feet in altitude, with many joints, and some leaves thereat; towards the top comeforth umbels of small yellow flowers, after which are passed away, you may findwhitish, yellow, short, flat seeds, bitter also in taste.Place : Having given you a description of the herb from bottom to top, give meleave to tell you, that there are other herbs called by this name; but because they arestrangers in England, I give only the description of this, which is easily to be had inthe gardens of divers places.Time : Although Gerrard saith, that they flower from the beginning of May to theend of December, experience teaches them that keep it in their gardens, that it flowersnot till the latter end of the summer, and sheds its seeds presently after.Government and virtues : It is under the dominion of Mars, hot, biting, andcholeric; and remedies what evils Mars inflicts the body of man with, by sympathy, asvipers' flesh attracts poison, and the loadstone iron. It kills the worms, helps the gout,cramp, and convulsions, provokes urine, and helps all joint-aches. It helps all coldgriefs of the head, the vertigo, falling-sickness, the lethargy, the wing cholic,obstructions of the liver and spleen, stone in the kidneys and bladder. It provokes theterms, expels the dead birth: it is excellent good for the griefs of the sinews, itch,stone, and toothache, the biting of mad dogs and venomous beasts, and purges cholervery gently.ALKANETBesides the common name, it is called Orchanet, and Spanish Bugloss, and byapothecaries, Enchusa.Descript : Of the many sorts of this herb, there is but one known to growcommonly in this nation; of which one take this description. It hath a great and thickroot, of a reddish colour, long, narrow, hairy leaves, green like the leaves of Bugloss,which lie very thick upon the ground; the stalks rise up compassed round about, thickwith leaves, which are less and narrower than the former; they are tender, and slender,the flowers are hollow, small, and of a reddish colour.Place : It grows in Kent near Rochester, and in many places in the West Country,both in Devonshire and Cornwall.Time : They flower in July and the beginning of August, and the seed is ripe soonafter, but the root is in its prime, as carrots and parsnips are, before the herb runs up tostalk.Government and virtues : It is an herb under the dominion of Venus, and indeedone of her darlings, though somewhat hard to come by. It helps old ulcers, hotinflammations, burnings by common fire, and St. Anthony's fire, by antipathy toMars; for these uses, your best way is to make it into an ointment; also, if you make a

vinegar of it, as you make vinegar of roses, it helps the morphew and leprosy; if youapply the herb to the privities, it draws forth the dead child. It helps the yellowjaundice, spleen, and gravel in the kidneys. Dioscorides saith it helps such as arebitten by a venomous beast, whether it be taken inwardly, or applied to the wound;nay, he saith further, if any one that hath newly eaten it, do but spit into the mouth ofa serpent, the serpent instantly dies. It stays the flux of the belly, kills worms, helpsthe fits of the mother. Its decoction made in wine, and drank, strengthens the back,and eases the pains thereof. It helps bruises and falls, and is as gallant a remedy todrive out the small pox and measles as any is; an ointment made of it, is excellent forgreen wounds, pricks or thrusts.ADDER'S TONGUE OR SERPENT'S TONGUEDescript : This herb has but one leaf, which grows with the stalk a finger's lengthabove the ground, being flat and of a fresh green colour; broad like Water Plantain,but less, without any rib in it; from the bottom of which leaf, on the inside, rises up(ordinarily) one, sometimes two or three slender stalks, the upper half whereof issomewhat bigger, and dented with small dents of a yellowish green colour, like thetongue of an adder serpent (only this is as useful as they are formidable). The rootscontinue all the year.Place : It grows in moist meadows, and such like places.Time : It is to be found in May or April, for it quickly perishes with a little heat.Government and virtues : It is an herb under the dominion of the Moon and Cancer,and therefore if the weakness of the retentive faculty be caused by an evil influence ofSaturn in any part of the body governed by the Moon, or under the dominion ofCancer, this herb cures it by sympathy. It cures these diseases after specified, in anypart of the body under the influence of Saturn, by antipathy.It is temperate in respect of heat, but dry in the second degree. The juice of theleaves, drank with the distilled water of Horse-tail, is a singular remedy for all mannerof wounds in the breast, bowels, or other parts of the body, and is given with goodsuccess to those that are troubled with casting, vomiting, or bleeding at the mouth ornose, or otherwise downwards. The said juice given in the distilled water of Oakenbuds,is very good for women who have their usual courses, or the whites flowingdown too abundantly. It helps sore eyes. Of the leaves infused or boiled in oil,omphacine or unripe olives, set in the sun four certain days, or the green leavessufficiently boiled in the said oil, is made an excellent green balsam, not only forgreen and fresh wounds, but also for old and inveterate ulcers, especially if a little fineclear turpentine be dissolved therein. It also stays and refreshes all inflammations thatarise upon pains by hurts and wounds.What parts of the body are under each planet and sign, and also what disease maybe found in my astrological judgment of diseases; and for the internal work of naturein the body of man; as vital, animal, natural and procreative spirits of man; theapprehension, judgment, memory; the external senses, viz. seeing, hearing, smelling,tasting and feeling; the virtuous, attractive, retentive, digestive, expulsive, &c. underthe dominion of what planets they are, may be found in my Ephemeris for the year1651. In both which you shall find the chaff of authors blown away by the fame of Dr.Reason, and nothing but rational truths left for the ingenious to feed upon.Lastly. To avoid blotting paper with one thing many times, and also to ease yourpurses in the price of the book, and withal to make you studious in physic; you have

at the latter end of the book, the way of preserving all herbs either in juice, conserve,oil, ointment or plaister, electuary, pills, or troches.AGRIMONYDescript : This has divers long leaves (some greater, some smaller) set upon astalk, all of them dented about the edges, green above, and greyish underneath, and alittle hairy withal. Among which arises up usually but one strong, round, hairy, brownstalk, two or three feet high, with smaller leaves set here and there upon it. At the topthereof grow many small yellow flowers, one above another, in long spikes; afterwhich come rough heads of seed, hanging downwards, which will cleave to and stickupon garments, or any thing that shall rub against them. The knot is black, long, andsomewhat woody, abiding many years, and shooting afresh every Spring; which root,though small, hath a reasonable good scent.Place : It grows upon banks, near the sides of hedges.Time : It flowers in July and August, the seed being ripe shortly after.Government and virtues : It is an herb under Jupiter, and the sign Cancer; andstrengthens those parts under the planet and sign, and removes diseases in them bysympathy, and those under Saturn, Mars and Mercury by antipathy, if they happen inany part of the body governed by Jupiter, or under the signs Cancer, Sagitarius orPisces, and therefore must needs be good for the gout, either used outwardly in oil orointment, or inwardly in an electuary, or syrup, or concerted juice: for which see thelatter end of this book.It is of a cleansing and cutting faculty, without any manifest heat, moderatelydrying and binding. It opens and cleanses the liver, helps the jaundice, and is verybeneficial to the bowels, healing all inward wounds, bruises, hurts, and otherdistempers. The decoction of the herb made with wine, and drank, is good against thebiting and stinging of serpents, and helps them that make foul, troubled or bloodywater.This herb also helps the cholic, cleanses the breast, and rids away the cough. Adraught of the decoction taken warm before the fit, first removes, and in time ridsaway the tertian or quartan agues. The leaves and seeds taken in wine, stays thebloody flux; outwardly applied, being stamped with old swine's grease, it helps oldsores, cancers, and inveterate ulcers, and draws forth thorns and splinters of wood,nails, or any other such things gotten in the flesh. It helps to strengthen the membersthat be out of joint: and being bruised and applied, or the juice dropped in it, helpsfoul and imposthumed ears.The distilled water of the herb is good to all the said purposes, either inward oroutward, but a great deal weaker.It is a most admirable remedy for such whose livers are annoyed either by heat orcold. The liver is the former of blood, and blood the nourisher of the body, andAgrimony a strengthener of the liver.I cannot stand to give you a reason in every herb why it cures such diseases; but ifyou please to pursue my judgment in the herb Wormwood, you shall find them there,and it will be well worth your while to consider it in every herb, you shall find themtrue throughout the book.WATER AGRIMONY

It is called in some countries, Water Hemp, Bastard Hemp, and Bastard Agrimony,Eupatorium, and Hepatorium, because it strengthens the liver.Descript : The root continues a long time, having many long slender strings. Thestalk grows up about two feet high, sometimes higher. They are of a dark purplecolour. The branches are many, growing at distances the one from the other, the onefrom the one side of the stalk, the other from the opposite point. The leaves arefringed, and much indented at the edges. The flowers grow at the top of the branches,of a brown yellow colour, spotted with black spots, having a substance within themidst of them like that of a Daisy. If you rub them between your fingers, they smelllike rosin or cedar when it is burnt. The seeds are long, and easily stick to any woollenthing they touch.Place : They delight not in heat, and therefore they are not so frequently found inthe Southern parts of England as in the northern, where they grow frequently. Youmay look for them in cold grounds, by ponds and ditches' sides, and also by runningwaters; sometimes you shall find them grow in the midst of waters.Time : They all flower in July or August, and the seed is ripe presently after.Government and virtues : It is a plant of Jupiter, as well as the other Agrimony,only this belongs to the celestial sign Cancer. It heals and dries, cuts and cleansesthick and tough humours of the breast, and for this I hold it inferior to but few herbsthat grow. It helps the cachexia or evil disposition of the body, the dropsy and yellowjaundice.It opens obstructions of the liver, mollifies the hardness of the spleen, beingapplied outwardly. It breaks imposthumes away inwardly. It is an excellent remedyfor the third day ague. It provokes urine and the terms; it kills worms, and cleanses thebody of sharp humours, which are the cause of itch and scabs; the herb being burnt,the smoke thereof drives away flies, wasps, &c. It strengthens the lungs exceedingly.Country people give it to their cattle when they are troubled with the cough, orbrokenwinded.ALEHOOF, OR GROUND-IVYSeveral counties give it different names, so that there is scarcely any herb growingof that bigness that has got so many. It is called Cat's-foot, Ground-ivy, Gill-go-byground,and Gill-creep-by-ground, Turnhoof, Haymaids, and Alehoof.Descript : This well known herb lies, spreads and creeps upon the ground, shootsforth roots, at the corners of tender jointed stalks, set with two round leaves at everyjoint somewhat hairy, crumpled and unevenly dented about the edges with rounddents; at the joints likewise, with the leaves towards the end of the branches, comeforth hollow, long flowers of a blueish purple colour, with small white spots upon thelips that hang down. The root is small with strings.Place : It is commonly found under hedges, and on the sides of ditches, underhouses, or in shadowed lanes, and other waste grounds, in almost every part of thisland.Time : They flower somewhat early, and abide a great while; the leaves continuegreen until Winter, and sometimes abide, except the Winter be very sharp and cold.Government and virtues : It is an herb of Venus, and therefore cures the diseasesshe causes by sympathy, and those of Mars by antipathy; you may usually find it allthe year long except the year be extremely frosty; it is quick, sharp, and bitter in taste,and is thereby found to be hot and dry; a singular herb for all inward wounds,exulcerated lungs, or other parts, either by itself, or boiled with other the like herbs;and being drank, in a short time it eases all griping pains, windy and choleric humours

in the stomach, spleen or belly; helps the yellow jaundice, by opening the stoppings ofthe gall and liver, and melancholy, by opening the stoppings of the spleen; expelsvenom or poison, and also the plague; it provokes urine and women's courses; thedecoction of it in wine drank for some time together, procures ease to them that aretroubled with the sciatica, or hip-gout: as also the gout in hands, knees or feet; if youput to the decoction some honey and a little burnt alum, it is excellently good togargle any sore mouth or throat, and to wash the sores and ulcers in the privy parts ofman or woman; it speedily helps green wounds, being bruised and bound thereto. Thejuice of it boiled with a little honey and verdigrease, doth wonderfully cleansefistulas, ulcers, and stays the spreading or eating of cancers and ulcers; it helps theitch, scabs, wheals, and other breakings out in any part of the body. The juice ofCelandine, Field-daisies, and Ground-ivy clarified, and a little fine sugar dissolvedtherein, and dropped into the eyes, is a sovereign remedy for all pains, redness, andwatering of them; as also for the pin and web, skins and films growing over the sight,it helps beasts as well as men. The juice dropped into the ears, wonderfully helps thenoise and singing of them, and helps the hearing which is decayed. It is good to tun upwith new drink, for it will clarify it in a night, that it will be the fitter to be drank thenext morning; or if any drink be thick with removing, or any other accident, it will dothe like in a few hours.ALEXANDERIt is called Alisander, Horse-parsley, and Wild-parsley, and the Black Pot-herb; theseed of it is that which is usually sold in apothecaries' shops for Macedonian Parsleyseed.Descript : It is usually sown in all the gardens in Europe, and so well known, that itneeds no farther description.Time : It flowers in June and July; the seed is ripe in August.Government and virtues : It is an herb of Jupiter, and therefore friendly to nature,for it warms a cold stomach, and opens a stoppage of the liver and spleen; it is good tomove women's courses, to expel the afterbirth, to break wind, to provoke urine, andhelps the stranguary; and these things the seeds will do likewise. If either of them beboiled in wine, or being bruised and taken in wine, is also effectual against the bitingof serpents. And you know what Alexander pottage is good for, that you may nolonger eat it out of ignorance but out of knowledge.THE BLACK ALDER-TREEDescript : This tree seldom grows to any great bigness but for the most part abidethlike a hedge-bush, or a tree spreading its branches, the woods of the body being white,and a dark red colet or heart; the outward bark is of a blackish colour, with manywhitish spots therein; but the inner bark next the wood is yellow, which beingchewed, will turn the spittle into a saffron colour. The leaves are somewhat like thoseof an ordinary Alder-tree, or the Female Cornet, or Dogberry-tree, called in SussexDog-wood, but blacker, and not so long. The flowers are white, coming forth with theleaves at the joints, which turn into small round berries, first green, afterwards red, butblackish when they are thorough ripe, divided, as it were, into two parts, wherein iscontained two small round and flat seeds. The root runneth not deep into the ground,but spreads rather under the upper crust of the earth.

Place : This tree or shrub may be found plentifully in St. John's Wood by Hornsey,and the woods upon Hampstead Heath; as also a wood called the Old Park, inBarcomb, in Essex, near the brook's sides.Time : It flowers in May, and the berries are ripe in September.Government and virtues : It is a tree of Venus, and perhaps under the celestial signCancer. The inner yellow bark hereof purges downwards both choler and phlegm, andthe watery humours of such that have the dropsy, and strengthens the inward partsagain by binding. If the bark hereof be boiled with Agrimony, Wormwood, Dodder,Hops, and some Fennel, with Smallage, Endive, and Succory-roots, and a reasonabledraught taken every morning for some time together, it is very effectual against thejaundice, dropsy, and the evil disposition of the body, especially if some suitablepurging medicines have been taken before, to void the grosser excrements. It purgesand strengthens the liver and spleen, cleansing them from such evil humours andhardness as they are afflicted with. It is to be understood that these things areperformed by the dried bark; for the fresh green bark taken inwardly provokes strongvomitings, pains in the stomach, and gripings in the belly; yet if the decoction maystand and settle two or three days, until the yellow colour be changed black, it will notwork so strongly as before, but will strengthen the stomach, and procure an appetite tomeat. The outward bark contrariwise doth bind the body, and is helpful for all lasksand fluxes thereof, but this also must be dried first, whereby it will work the better.The inner bark thereof boiled in vinegar is an approved remedy to kill lice, to cure theitch, and take away scabs, by drying them up in a short time. It is singularly good towash the teeth, to take away the pains, to fasten those that are loose, to cleanse them,and to keep them sound. The leaves are good fodder for kine, to make them give moremilk.If in the Spring-time you use the herbs before mentioned, and will take but ahandful of each of them, and to them add an handful of Elder buds, and havingbruised them all, boil them in a gallon of ordinary beer, when it is new; and havingboiled them half an hour, add to this three gallons more, and let them work together,and drink a draught of it every morning, half a pint or thereabouts; it is an excellentpurge for the Spring, to consume the phlegmatic quality the Winter hath left behind it,and withal to keep your body in health, and consume those evil humours which theheat of Summer will readily stir up. Esteem it as a jewel.THE COMMON ALDER-TREEDescript : This grows to a reasonable height, and spreads much if it like the place.It is so generally known to country people, that I conceive it needless to tell thatwhich is no news.Place and Time : It delights to grow in moist woods, and watery places; floweringin April or May, and yielding ripe seed in September.Government and virtues : It is a tree under the dominion of Venus, and of somewatery sign or others, I suppose Pisces; and therefore the decoction, or distilled waterof the leaves, is excellent against burnings and inflammations, either with wounds orwithout, to bathe the place grieved with, and especially for that inflammation in thebreast, which the vulgar call an ague.If you cannot get the leaves (as in Winter it is impossible) make use of the bark inthe same manner.The leaves and bark of the Alder-tree are cooling, drying, and binding. The freshleaves, laid upon swellings, dissolve them, and stay the inflammation. The leaves put

under the bare feet galled with travelling, are a great refreshing to them. The saidleaves, gathered while the morning dew is on them, and brought into a chambertroubled with fleas, will gather them thereunto, which being suddenly cast out, will ridthe chamber of those troublesome bedfellows.ANGELICATo write a description of that which is so well known to be growing almost in everygarden, I suppose is altogether needless; yet for its virtue it is of admirableIn time of Heathenism, when men had found out any excellent herb, they dedicatedit to their gods; as the bay-tree to Apollo, the Oak to Jupiter, the Vine to Bacchus, thePoplar to Hercules. These the idolators following as the Patriarchs they dedicate totheir Saints; as our Lady's Thistle to the Blessed Virgin, St. John's Wort to St. Johnand another Wort to St. Peter, &c. Our physicians must imitate like apes (though theycannot come off half so cleverly) for they blasphemously call Phansies or Heartsease,an herb of the Trinity, because it is of three colours; and a certain ointment, anointment of the Apostles, because it consists of twelve ingredients. Alas I am sorry fortheir folly, and grieved at their blasphemy. God send them wisdom the rest of theirage, for they have their share of ignorance already. Oh! Why must ours beblasphemous, because the Heathens and infidels were idolatrous? Certainly they haveread so much in old rusty authors, that they have lost all their divinity; for unless itwere amongst the Ranters, I never read or heard of such blasphemy. The Heathensand infidels were bad, and ours worse; the idolators give idolatrous names to herbs fortheir virtues sake, not for their fair looks; and therefore some called this an herb of theHoly Ghost; others, more moderate, called it Angelica, because of its angelicalvirtues, and that name it retains still, and all nations follow it so near as their dialectwill permit.Government and virtues : It is an herb of the Sun in Leo; let it be gathered when heis there, the Moon applying to his good aspect; let it be gathered either in his hour, orin the hour of Jupiter, let Sol be angular; observe the like in gathering the herbs, ofother planets, and you may happen to do wonders. In all epidemical diseases causedby Saturn, that is as good a preservative as grows: It resists poison, by defending andcomforting the heart, blood, and spirits; it doth the like against the plague and allepidemical diseases, if the root be taken in powder to the weight of half a dram at atime, with some good treacle in Carduus water, and the party thereupon laid to sweatin his bed; if treacle be not to be had take it alone in Carduus or Angelica-water. Thestalks or roots candied and eaten fasting, are good preservatives in time of infection;and at other times to warm and comfort a cold stomach. The root also steeped invinegar, and a little of that vinegar taken sometimes fasting, and the root smelledunto, is good for the same purpose. A water distilled from the root simply, as steepedin wine, and distilled in a glass, is much more effectual than the water of the leaves;and this water, drank two or three spoonfuls at a time, easeth all pains and tormentscoming of cold and wind, so that the body be not bound; and taken with some of theroot in powder at the beginning, helpeth the pleurisy, as also all other diseases of thelungs and breast, as coughs, phthysic, and shortness of breath; and a syrup of thestalks do the like. It helps pains of the cholic, the stranguary and stoppage of theurine, procureth womens' courses, and expelleth the afterbirth, openeth the stoppingsof the liver and spleen, and briefly easeth and discusseth all windiness and inwardswellings. The decoction drank before the fit of an ague, that they may sweat (ifpossible) before the fit comes, will, in two or three times taking, rid it quite away; it

helps digestion and is a remedy for a surfeit. The juice or the water, being droppedinto the eyes or ears, helps dimness of sight and deafness; the juice put into the hollowteeth, easeth their pains. The root in powder, made up into a plaster with a little pitch,and laid on the biting of mad dogs, or any other venomous creature, doth wonderfullyhelp. The juice or the waters dropped, or tent wet therein, and put into filthy deadulcers, or the powder of the root (in want of either) doth cleanse and cause them toheal quickly, by covering the naked bones with flesh; the distilled water applied toplaces pained with the gout, or sciatica, doth give a great deal of ease.The wild Angelica is not so effectual as the garden; although it may be safely usedto all the purposes aforesaid.AMARANTHUSBESIDES its common name, by which it is best known by the florists of our days, itis called Flower Gentle, Flower Velure Floramor, and Velvet Flower.Descript : It being a garden flower, and well known to every one that keeps it, Imight forbear the description; yet, notwithstanding, because some desire it, I shallgive it. It runs up with a stalk a cubit high, streaked, and somewhat reddish towardsthe root, but very smooth, divided towards the top with small branches, among whichstand long broad leaves of a reddish green colour, slippery; the flowers are notproperly flowers, but tuffs, very beautiful to behold, but of no smell, of reddishcolour; if you bruise them, they yield juice of the same colour, being gathered, theykeep their beauty a long time; the seed is of a shining black colour.Time : They continue in flower from August till the time the frost nips them.Government and virtues : It is under the dominion of Saturn, and is an excellentqualifier of the unruly actions and passions of Venus, though Mars also should joinwith her. The flowers, dried and beaten into powder, stop the terms in women, and sodo almost all other red things. And by the icon, or image of every herb, the ancients atfirst found out their virtues. Modern writers laugh at them for it; but I wonder in myheart, how the virtues of herbs came at first to be known, if not by their signatures; themoderns have them from the writings of the ancients; the ancients had no writings tohave them from: but to proceed. The flowers stop all fluxes of blood; whether in manor woman, bleeding either at the nose or wound. There is also a sort of Amaranthusthat bears a white flower, which stops the whites in women, and the running of thereins in men, and is a most gallant antivenereal, and a singular remedy for the Frenchpox.ANEMONECALLED also Wind flower, because they say the flowers never open but when thewind blows. Pliny is my author; if it be not so, blame him. The seed also (if it bearsany at all) flies away with the wind.Place and Time : They are sown usually in the gardens of the curious, and flower inthe Spring-time. As for description I shall pass it, being well known to all those thatsow them.Government and virtues : It is under the dominion of Mars, being supposed to be akind of Crow-foot. The leaves provoke the terms mightily, being boiled, and thedecoction drank. The body being bathed with the decoction of them, cures the leprosy.The leaves being stamped and the juice snuffed up in the nose, purges the headmightily; so does the root, being chewed in the mouth, for it procures much spitting,

and brings away many watery and phlegmatic humours, and is therefore excellent forthe lethargy. And when all is done, let physicians prate what they please, all the pillsin the dispensatory purge not the head like to hot things held in the mouth. Beingmade into an ointment, and the eye-lids anointed with it, it helps inflammations of theeyes, whereby it is palpable, that every stronger draws its weaker like. The sameointment is excellently good to cleanse malignant and corroding ulcers.GARDEN ARRACHCALLED also Orach, and Arage; it is cultivated for domestic uses.Descript : It is so commonly known to every housewife, it were labour lost todescribe it.Time : It flowers and seeds from June to the end of August.Government and virtues : It is under the government of the Moon; in quality coldand moist like unto her. It softens and loosens the body of man being eaten, andfortifies the expulsive faculty in him. The herb, whether it be bruised and applied tothe throat, or boiled, and in like manner applied, it matters not much, it is excellentlygood for swellings in the throat: the best way, I suppose, is to boil it, apply the herboutwardly: the decoction of it, besides, is an excellent remedy for the yellow jaundice.ARRACH, WILD AND STINKINGCALLED also Vulvaria, from that part of the body upon which the operation ismost; also Dog's Arrach, Goat's Arrach, and Stinking Motherwort.Descript : This has small and almost round leaves, yet a little pointed and withoutdent or cut, of a dusky mealy colour, growing on the slender stalks and branches thatspread on the ground, with small flowers set with the leaves, and small seedssucceeding like the rest, perishing yearly, and rising again with its own sowing. Itsmells like rotten fish, or something worse.Place : It grows usually upon dunghills.Time : They flower in June and July, and their seed is ripe quickly after.Government and virtues : Stinking Arrach is used as a remedy to women pained,and almost strangled with the mother, by smelling to it; but inwardly taken there is nobetter remedy under the moon for that disease. I would be large in commendation ofthis herb, were I but eloquent. It is an herb under the dominion of Venus, and underthe sign Scorpio; it is common almost upon every dunghill. The works of God arefreely given to man, his medicines are common and cheap, and easily to be found. Icommend it for an universal medicine for the womb, and such a medicine as willeasily, safely, and speedily cure any disease thereof, as the fits of the mother,dislocation, or falling out thereof; cools the womb being over-heated. And let me tellyou this, and I will tell you the truth, heat of the womb is one of the greatest causes ofhard labour in child-birth. It makes barren women fruitful. It cleanseth the womb if itbe foul, and strengthens it exceedingly; it provokes the terms if they be stopped, andstops them if they flow immoderately; you can desire no good to your womb, but thisherb will affect it; therefore if you love children, if you love health, if you love ease,keep a syrup always by you, made of the juice of this herb, and sugar (or honey, if itbe to cleanse the womb), and let such as be rich keep it for their poor neighbours; andbestow it as freely as I bestow my studies upon them, or else let them look to answerit another day, when the Lord shall come to make inquisition for blood.

ARCHANGELTo put a gloss upon their practice, the physicians call a herb (which country peoplevulgarly know by the name of Dead Nettle) Archangel; whether they favour more ofsuperstition or folly, I leave to the judicious reader. There is more curiosity thancourtesy to my countrymen used by others in the explanation as well of the names, asdescription of this so well known herb; which that I may not also be guilty of, takethis short description: first, of the Red Archangel. This is likewise called Bee Nettle.Descript : This has divers square stalks, somewhat hairy, at the joints whereof growtwo sad green leaves dented about the edges, opposite to one another to thelowermost, upon long foot stalks, but without any toward the tops, which aresomewhat round, yet pointed, and a little crumpled and hairy; round about the upperjoints, where the leaves grow thick, are sundry gaping flowers of a pale reddishcolour; after which come the seeds three or four in a husk. The root is small andthready, perishing every year; the whole plant hath a strong smell but not stinking.White Archangel hath divers square stalks, none standing straight upward, butbending downward, whereon stand two leaves at a joint, larger and more pointed thanthe other, dented about the edges, and greener also, more like unto Nettle leaves, butnot stinking, yet hairy. At the joints, with the leaves, stand larger and more opengaping white flowers, husks round about the stalks, but not with such a bush of leavesas flowers set in the top, as is on the other, wherein stand small roundish black seeds;the root is white, with many strings at it, not growing downward but lying under theupper crust of the earth, and abides many years increasing; this has not so strong ascent as the former.Yellow Archangel is like the White in the stalks and leaves; but that the stalks aremore straight and upright, and the joints with leaves are farther asunder, having longerleaves than the former, and the flowers a little larger and more gaping, of a fair yellowcolour in most, in some paler. The roots are like the white, only they creep not somuch under the ground.Place : They grow almost everywhere (unless it be in the middle of the street), theyellow most usually in the wet grounds of woods, and sometimes in the dryer, indivers counties of this nation.Time : They flower from the beginning of the Spring all the Summer long.Government and virtues : The Archangels are somewhat hot and drier than thestinging Nettles, and used with better success for the stopping and hardness of thespleen, than they, by using the decoction of the herb in wine, and afterwards applyingthe herb hot into the region of the spleen as a plaister, or the decoction with spunges.Flowers of the White Archangel are preserved or conserved to be used to stay thewhites, and the flowers of the red to stay the reds in women. It makes the head merry,drives away melancholy, quickens the spirits, is good against quartan agues, stanchethbleeding at mouth and nose, if it be stamped and applied to the nape of the neck; theherb also bruised, and with some salt and vinegar and hog's-grease, laid upon a hardtumour or swelling, or that vulgarly called the king's evil, do help to dissolve ordiscuss them; and being in like manner applied, doth much allay the pains, and giveease to the gout, sciatica, and other pains of the joints and sinews. It is also veryeffectual to heal green wounds, and old ulcers; also to stay their fretting, gnawing, andspreading. It draws forth splinters, and such like things gotten into the flesh, and isvery good against bruises and burnings. But the Yellow Archangel is mostcommended for old, filthy, corrupt sores and ulcers, yea although they grow to behollow, and to dissolve tumours. The chief use of them is for women, it being a herbof Venus.

ARSSMARTTHE hot Arssmart is called also Waterpepper, or Culrage. The mild Arssmart iscalled dead Arssmart Persicaria, or Peachwort, because the leaves are so like theleaves of a peach-tree; it is also called Plumbago.Description of the mild : This has broad leaves set at the great red joint of thestalks; with semicircular blackish marks on them, usually either bluish or whitish,with such like seed following. The root is long, with many strings thereat, perishingyearly; this has no sharp taste (as another sort has, which is quick and biting) butrather sour like sorrel, or else a little drying, or without taste.Place : It grows in watery places, ditches, and the like, which for the most part aredry in summer.Time : It flowers in June, and the seed is ripe in August.Government and virtues : As the virtue of both these is various, so is also theirgovernment; for that which is hot and biting, is under the dominion of Mars, butSaturn, challenges the other, as appears by that leaden coloured spot he hath placedupon the leaf.It is of a cooling and drying quality, and very effectual for putrefied ulcers in manor beast, to kill worms, and cleanse the putrefied places. The juice thereof dropped in,or otherwise applied, consumes all colds, swellings, and dissolveth the congealedblood of bruises by strokes, falls, &c. A piece of the root, or some of the seedsbruised, and held to an aching tooth, takes away the pain. The leaves bruised and laidto the joint that has a felon thereon, takes it away. The juice destroys worms in theears, being dropped into them; if the hot Arssmart be strewed in a chamber, it willsoon kill all the fleas; and the herb or juice of the cold Arssmart, put to a horse orother cattle's sores, will drive away the fly in the hottest time of Summer; a goodhandful of the hot biting Arssmart put under a horse's saddle, will make him travel thebetter, although he were half tired before. The mild Arssmart is good against allimposthumes and inflammations at the beginning, and to heal green wounds.All authors chop the virtues of both sorts of Arssmart together, as men chop herbsfor the pot, when both of them are of contrary qualities. The hot Arssmart grows notso high or tall as the mild doth, but has many leaves of the colour of peach leaves,very seldom or never spotted; in other particulars it is like the former, but may easilybe known from it, if you will but be pleased to break a leaf of it cross your tongue, forthe hot will make your tongue to smart, but the cold will not. If you see them bothtogether, you may easily distinguish them, because the mild hath far broader leaves.ASARABACCADescript : Asarabacca appears like an evergreen, keeping its leaves all the Winter,but putting forth new ones in the time of Spring. It has many heads rising from theroots, from whence come many smooth leaves, every one upon his foot stalks, whichare rounder and bigger than Violet leaves, thicker also, and of a dark green shiningcolour on the upper side, and of a pale yellow green underneath, little or nothingdented about the edges, from among which rise small, round, hollow, brown greenhusks, upon short stalks, about an inch long, divided at the brims into five divisions,very like the cups or heads of the Henbane seed, but that they are smaller; and thesebe all the flower it carries, which are somewhat sweet, being smelled to, and wherein,when they are ripe, is contained small cornered rough seeds, very like the kernels or

stones of grapes, or raisins. The roots are small and whitish, spreading divers ways inthe ground, increasing into divers heads; but not running or creeping under the groundas some other creeping herbs do. They are somewhat sweet in smell, resemblingNardus, but more when they are dry than green; and of a sharp and not unpleasanttaste.Place : It grows frequently in gardens.Time : They keep their leaves green all Winter; but shoot forth new in the Spring,and with them come forth those heads or flowers which give ripe seed about Midsummer,or somewhat after.Government and virtues : It is a plant under the dominion of Mars, and thereforeinimical to nature. This herb being drank, not only provokes vomiting, but purgesdownwards, and by urine also, purges both choler and phlegm: If you add to it somespikenard, with the whey of goat's milk, or honeyed water, it is made more strong, butit purges phlegm more manifestly than choler, and therefore does much help pains inthe hips, and other parts; being boiled in whey, it wonderfully helps the obstructionsof the liver and spleen, and therefore profitable for the dropsy and jaundice; beingsteeped in wine and drank, it helps those continual agues that come by the plenty ofstubborn humours; an oil made thereof by setting in the sun, with some laudanumadded to it, provokes sweating (the ridge of the back being anointed therewith), andthereby drives away the shaking fits of the ague. It will not abide any long boiling, forit loseth its chief strength thereby; nor much beating, for the finer powder provokesvomits and urine, and the coarser purgeth downwards.The common use hereof is, to take the juice of five or seven leaves in a little drinkto cause vomiting; the roots have also the same virtue, though they do not operate soforcibly; they are very effectual against the biting of serpents, and therefore are put asan ingredient both into Mithridite and Venice treacle. The leaves and roots beingboiled in lye, and the head often washed therewith while it is warm, comforts the headand brain that is ill affected by taking cold, and helps the memory.I shall desire ignorant people to forbear the use of the leaves; the roots purge moregently, and may prove beneficial to such as have cancers, or old putrefied ulcers, orfistulas upon their bodies, to take a dram of them in powder in a quarter of a pint ofwhite wine in the morning. The truth is, I fancy purging and vomiting medicines aslittle as any man breathing doth, for they weaken nature, nor shall ever advise them tobe used, unless upon urgent necessity. If a physician be nature's servant, it is his dutyto strengthen his mistress as much as he can, and weaken her as little as may be.ASPARAGUS, SPARAGUS, OR SPERAGEDescript : It rises up at first with divers white and green scaly heads, very brittle oreasy to break while they are young, which afterwards rise up in very long and slendergreen stalks of the bigness of an ordinary riding wand, at the bottom of most, orbigger, or lesser, as the roots are of growth; on which are set divers branches of greenleaves shorter and smaller than fennel to the top; at the joints whereof come forthsmall yellowish flowers, which turn into round berries, green at first and of anexcellent red colour when they are ripe, showing like bead or coral, wherein arecontained exceeding hard black seeds; the roots are dispersed from a spongeous headinto many long, thick, and round strings, wherein is sucked much nourishment out ofthe ground, and increaseth plentifully thereby.PRICKLY ASPARAGUS, OR SPERAGE

Descript : This grows usually in gardens, and some of it grows wild in Appletonmeadows in Gloucestershire, where the poor people gather the buds of young shoots,and sell them cheaper than our garden Asparagus is sold in London.Time : For the most part they flower, and bear their berries late in the year, or not atall, although they are housed in Winter.Government and virtues : They are both under the dominion of Jupiter. The youngbuds or branches boiled in ordinary broth, make the belly soluble and open, andboiled in white wine, provoke urine, being stopped, and is good against the stranguaryor difficulty of making water; it expelleth the gravel and stone out of the kidneys, andhelpeth pains in the reins. And boiled in white wine or vinegar, it is prevalent for themthat have their arteries loosened, or are troubled with the hip-gout or sciatica. Thedecoction of the roots boiled in wine and taken, is good to clear the sight, and beingheld in the mouth easeth the toothache. The garden asparagus nourisheth more thanthe wild, yet hath it the same effects in all the aforementioned diseases. The decoctionof the root in white wine, and the back and belly bathed therewith, or kneeling orlying down in the same, or sitting therein as a bath, has been found effectual againstpains of the reins and bladder, pains of the mother and cholic, and generally againstall pains that happen to the lower parts of the body, and no less effectual against stiffand benumbed sinews, or those that are shrunk by cramp and convulsions, and helpsthe sciatica.ASH TREETHIS is so well known, that time would be misspent in writing a description of it;therefore I shall only insist upon the virtues of it.Government and virtues : It is governed by the Sun: and the young tender tops,with the leaves, taken inwardly, and some of them outwardly applied, are singularlygood against the bitings of viper, adder, or any other venomous beast; and the waterdistilled therefrom being taken, a small quantity every morning fasting, is a singularmedicine for those that are subject to dropsy, or to abate the greatness of those that aretoo gross or fat. The decoction of the leaves in white wine helps to break the stone,and expel it, and cures the jaundice. The ashes of the bark of the Ash made into lye,and those heads bathed therewith which are leprous, scabby, or scald, they are therebycured. The kernels within the husks, commonly called Ashen Keys, prevail againststitches and pains in the sides, proceeding of wind, and voideth away the stone byprovoking urine.I can justly except against none of all this, save only the first, viz. That Ash-treetops and leaves are good against the bitings of serpents and vipers. I suppose this hadits rise from Gerrard or Pliny, both which hold that there is such an antipathy betweenan adder and an Ash-tree, that if an adder be encompassed round with Ash-tree leaves,she will sooner run through the fire than through the leaves. The contrary to which isthe truth, as both my eyes are witnesses. The rest are virtues something likely, only ifit be in Winter when you cannot get the leaves, you may safely use the bark instead ofthem. The keys you may easily keep all the year, gathering them when they are ripe.AVENS, CALLED ALSO COLEWORT, AND HERB BONETDescript : The ordinary Avens hath many long, rough, dark green, winged leaves,rising from the root, every one made of many leaves set on each side of the middlerib, the largest three whereof grow at the end, and are snipped or dented round about

the edges; the other being small pieces, sometimes two and sometimes four, standingon each side of the middle rib underneath them. Among which do rise up divers roughor hairy stalks about two feet high, branching forth with leaves at every joint not solong as those below, but almost as much cut in on the edges, some into three parts,some into more. On the tops of the branches stand small, pale, yellow flowersconsisting of five leaves, like the flowers of Cinquefoil, but large, in the middlewhereof stand a small green herb, which when the flower is fallen, grows to be round,being made of many long greenish purple seeds, (like grains) which will stick uponyour clothes. The root consists of many brownish strings or fibres, smelling somewhatlike unto cloves, especially those which grow in the higher, hotter, and drier grounds,and in free and clear air.Place : They grow wild in many places under hedge's sides, and by the pathways infields; yet they rather delight to grow in shadowy than sunny places.Time : They flower in May or June for the most part, and their seed is ripe in July atthe farthest.Government and virtues : It is governed by Jupiter, and that gives hopes of awholesome healthful herb. It is good for the diseases of the chest or breast, for pains,and stiches in the side, and to expel crude and raw humours from the belly andstomach, by the sweet savour and warming quality. It dissolves the inward congealedblood happening by falls or bruises, and the spitting of blood, if the roots, either greenor dry, be boiled in wine and drank; as also all manner of inward wounds or outward,if washed or bathed therewith. The decoction also being drank, comforts the heart,and strengthens the stomach and a cold brain, and therefore is good in the spring timeto open obstructions of the liver, and helps the wind cholic; it also helps those thathave fluxes, or are bursten, or have a rupture; it takes away spots or marks in the face,being washed therewith. The juice of the fresh root, or powder of the dried root, hasthe same effect with the decoction. The root in the Spring-time steeped in wine, givesit a delicate savour and taste, and being drank fasting every morning, comforts theheart, and is a good preservative against the plague, or any other poison. It helpsindigestion, and warms a cold stomach, and opens obstructions of the liver and spleen.It is very safe: you need have no dose prescribed; and is very fit to be kept in everybody's house.BALMTHIS herb is so well known to be an inhabitant almost in every garden, that I shallnot need to write any discription thereof, although its virtues, which are many, maynot be omitted.Government and virtues : It is an herb of Jupiter, and under Cancer, and strengthensnature much in all its actions. Let a syrup made with the juice of it and sugar (as youshall be taught at the latter end of this book) be kept in every gentlewoman's house torelieve the weak stomachs and sick bodies of their poor sickly neighbours; as also theherb kept dry in the house, that so with other convenient simples, you may make itinto an electuary with honey, according as the disease is you shall be taught at thelatter end of my book. The Arabian physicians have extolled the virtues thereof to theskies; although the Greeks thought it not worth mentioning. Seraphio says, it causesthe mind and heart to become merry, and revives the heart, faintings and swoonings,especially of such who are overtaken in sleep, and drives away all troublesome caresand thoughts out of the mind, arising from melancholy or black choler; which Avicenalso confirms. It is very good to help digestion, and open obstructions of the brain,

and hath so much purging quality in it (saith Avicen) as to expel those melancholyvapours from the spirits and blood which are in the heart and arteries, although itcannot do so in other parts of the body. Dioscorides says, that the leaves steeped inwine, and the wine drank, and the leaves externally applied, is a remedy against thestings of a scorpion, and the bitings of mad dogs; and commends the decoctionthereof for women to bathe or sit in to procure their courses; it is good to wash achingteeth therewith, and profitable for those that have the bloody flux. The leaves also,with a little nitre taken in drink, are good against the surfeit of mushrooms, helps thegriping pains of belly; and being made into an electuary, it is good for them thatcannot fetch their breath. Used with salt, it takes away wens, kernels, or hard swellingin the flesh or throat; it cleanses foul sores, and eases pains of the gout. It is good forthe liver and spleen. A tansy or caudle made with eggs, and juice thereof while it isyoung, putting to it some sugar and rosewater, is good for a woman in child-birth,when the after-birth is not thoroughly voided, and for their faintings upon or in theirsore travail. The herb bruised and boiled in a little wine and oil, and laid warm on aboil, will ripen it, and break it.BARBERRYTHE shrub is so well known by every boy or girl that has but attained to the age ofseven years, that it needs no description.Government and virtues : Mars owns the shrub, and presents it to the use of mycountrymen to purge their bodies of choler. The inner rind of the Barberry-tree boiledin white wine, and a quarter of a pint drank each morning, is an excellent remedy tocleanse the body of choleric humours, and free it from such diseases as choler causes,such as scabs, itch, tetters, ringworms, yellow jaundice, boils, &c. It is excellent forhot agues, burnings, scaldings, heat of the blood, heat of the liver, bloody-flux; for theberries are as good as the bark, and more pleasing; they get a man a good stomach tohis victuals, by strengthening the attractive faculty which is under Mars. The hairwashed with the lye made of the tree and water, will make it turn yellow, viz. of Mars'own colour. The fruit and rind of the shrub, the flowers of broom and of heath, orfurz, cleanse the body of choler by sympathy, as the flowers, leaves, and bark of thepeach tree do by antipathy, because these are under Mars, that under Venus.BARLEYTHE continual usefulness hereof hath made all in general so acquainted herewiththat it is altogether needless to describe it, several kinds hereof plentifully growing,being yearly sown in this land. The virtues thereof take as follow.Government and virtues : It is a notable plant of Saturn: if you view diligently itseffects by sympathy and antipathy, you may easily perceive a reason of them, as alsowhy barley bread is so unwholesome for melancholy people. Barley in all the partsand compositions thereof (except malt) is more cooling than wheat, and a littlecleansing. And all the preparations thereof, as barley-water and other things madethereof, give great nourishment to persons troubled with fevers, agues, and heats inthe stomach. A poultice made of barley meal or flour boiled in vinegar and honey, anda few dry figs put into them, dissolves all imposthumes, and assuages inflammations,being thereto applied. And being boiled with melilot and camomile-flowers, and somelinseed, fenugreek, and rue in powder, and applied warm, it eases pains in side andstomach, and windiness of the spleen. The meal of barley and fleawort boiled in

water, and made a poultice with honey and oil of lilies applied warm, cures swellingsunder the ears, throat, neck, and such like; and a plaister made thereof with tar, withsharp vinegar into a poultice, and laid on hot, helps the leprosy; being boiled in redwine with pomegranate rinds and myrtles, stays the lask or other flux of the belly;boiled with vinegar and quince, it eases the pains of the gout; barley-flour, white salt,honey, and vinegar mingled together, takes away the itch speedily and certainly. Thewater distilled from the green barley in the end of May, is very good for those thathave defluctions of humours fallen into their eyes, and eases the pain, being droppedinto them; or white bread steeped therein, and bound on the eyes, does the same.GARDEN BAZIL, OR SWEET BAZILDescript : The greater of Ordinary Bazil rises up usually with one upright stalk,diversive branching forth on all sides, with two leaves at every joint, which aresomewhat broad and round, yet pointed, of a pale green colour, but fresh; a littlesnipped about the edges, and of a strong healthy scent. The flowers are small andwhite, and standing at the tops of the branches, with two small leaves at the joints, insome places green, in others brown, after which come black seed. The root perishes atthe approach of Winter, and therefore must be new sown every year.Place : It grows in gardens.Time : It must be sowed late, and flowers in the heart of Summer, being a verytender plant.Government and virtues : This is the herb which all authors are together by the earsabout, and rail at one another (like lawyers). Galen and Dioscorides hold it not fit tobe taken inwardly; and Chrysippus rails at it with downright Billingsgate rhetoric;Pliny, and the Arabian physicians defend it.For my own part, I presently found that speech true:Non nostrium inter nos tantas componere litesAnd away to Dr. Reason went I, who told me it was an herb of Mars, and under theScorpion, and perhaps therefore called Basilicon; and it is no marvel if it carry a kindof virulent quality with it. Being applied to the place bitten by venomous beasts, orstung by a wasp or hornet, it speedily draws the poison to it, Every like draws his like.Mizaldus affirms, that, being laid to rot in horse-dung, it will breed venomous beasts.Hilarius, a French physician, affirms upon his own knowledge, that an acquaintanceof his, by common smelling to it, had a scorpion bred in his brain. Something is thematter; this herb and rue will not grow together, no, nor near one another: and weknow rue is as great an enemy to poison as any that grows.To conclude; It expels both birth and after-birth; and as it helps the deficiency ofVenus in one kind, so it spoils all her actions in another. I dare write no more of it.THE BAY TREETHIS is so well known that it needs no description: I shall therefore only write thevirtues thereof, which are many.Government and virtues : I shall but only add a word or two to what my friend haswritten, viz., that it is a tree of the sun, and under the celestial sign Leo, and resistswitchcraft very potently, as also all the evils old Saturn can do to the body of man,and they are not a few; for it is the speech of one, and I am mistaken if it were notMizaldus, that neither witch nor devil, thunder nor lightning, will hurt a man in theplace where a Bay-tree is. Galen said, that the leaves or bark do dry and heal very

much, and the berries more than the leaves; the bark of the root is less sharp and hot,but more bitter, and hath some astriction withal whereby it is effectual to break thestone, and good to open obstructions of the liver, spleen, and other inward parts,which bring the jaundice, dropsy, &c. The berries are very effectual against all poisonof venomous creatures, and the sting of wasps and bees; as also against the pestilence,or other infectious diseases, and therefore put into sundry treacles for that purpose;they likwise procure women's courses, and seven of them given to women in soretravail of child-birth, do cause a speedy delivery, and expel the after-birth, andtherefore not to be taken by such as have not gone out their time, lest they procureabortion, or cause labour too soon. They wonderfully help all cold and rheumaticdistillations from the brain to the eyes, lungs or other parts; and being made into anelectuary with honey, do help the consumption, old coughs, shortness of breath, andthin rheums; as also the megrim. They mightily expel the wind, and provoke urine;helps the mother, and kill the worms. The leaves also work the like effect. A bath ofthe decoction of leaves and berries, is singularly good for women to sit in, that aretroubled with the mother, or the diseases thereof, or the stoppings of their courses, orfor the diseases of the bladder, pains in the bowels by wind and stoppage of the urine.A decoction likewise of equal parts of Bay-berries, cummin seed, hyssop, origanum,and euphorbium, with some honey, and the head bathed therewith, wonderfully helpsdistillations and rheums, and settles the pallate of the mouth into its place. The oilmade of the berries is very comfortable in all cold griefs of the joints, nerves, arteries,stomach, belly, or womb, and helps palsies, convulsions, cramp, aches, tremblings,and numbness in any part, weariness also, and pains that come by sore travelling. Allgriefs and pains proceeding from wind, either in the head, stomach, back, belly, orwomb, by anointing the parts affected therewith. And pains in the ears are also curedby dropping in some of the oil, or by receiving into the ears the fume of the decoctionof the berries through a funnel. The oil takes away the marks of the skin and flesh bybruises, falls, &c. and dissolves the congealed blood in them. It helps also the itch,scabs, and weals in the skin.BEANSBOTH the garden and field beans are so well known, that it saves me the labour ofwriting any description of them. The virtues follow.Government and virtues : They are plants of Venus, and the distilled water of theflower of garden beans is good to clean the face and skin from spots and wrinkles, andthe meal or flour of them, or the small beans doth the same. The water distilled fromthe green husk, is held to be very effectual against the stone, and to provoke urine.Bean flour is used in poultices to assuage inflammations arising from wounds, and theswelling of women's breasts caused by the curdling of their milk, and represses theirmilk. Flour of beans and Fenugreek mixed with honey, and applied to felons, boils,bruises, or blue marks by blows, or the imposthumes in the kernels of the ears, helpsthem all, and with Rose leaves, Frankincense and the white of an egg, being applied tothe eyes, helps them that are swollen or do water, or have received any blow uponthem, if used with wine. If a bean be parted in two, the skin being taken away, andlaid on the place where the leech hath been set that bleeds too much, stays thebleeding. Bean flour boiled to a poultice with wine and vinegar, and some oil putthereto, eases both pains and swelling of the privities. The husk boiled in water to theconsumption of a third part thereof, stays a lask; and the ashes of the husks, made upwith old hog's grease, helps the old pains, contusions, and wounds of the sinews, the

sciatica and gout. The field beans have all the aforementioned virtues as the gardenbeans.Beans eaten are extremely windy meat; but if after the Dutch fashion, when theyare half boiled you husk them and then stew them (I cannot tell you how, for I neverwas a cook in all my life), they are wholesome food.FRENCH BEANSDescript : This French or kidney Bean arises at first but with one stalk, whichafterwards divides itself into many arms or branches, but all so weak that if they benot sustained with sticks or poles, they will be fruitless upon the ground. At severalplaces of these branches grow foot stalks, each with three broad round and pointedgreen leaves at the end of them; towards the top comes forth divers flowers made liketo pease blossoms, of the same colour for the most part that the fruit will be of, that isto say, white, yellow, red, blackish, or of a deep purple, but white is the most usual;after which come long and slender flat pods, some crooked, some straight, with astring running down the back thereof, wherein is flattish round fruit made like akidney; the root long, spreads with many strings annexed to it, and perishes everyyear.There is another sort of French bean commonly growing with us in this land, whichis called the Scarlet flower Bean.This rises with sundry branches as the other, but runs higher, to the length of hoppoles,about which they grow twining, but turning contrary to the sun, havingfootstalks with three leaves on each, as on the others; the flowers also are like theother, and of a most orient scarlet colour. The Beans are larger than the ordinary kind,of a dead purple colour turning black when ripe and dry; the root perishes in Winter.Government and virtues : These also belong to Dame Venus, and being dried andbeat to powder, are as great strengtheners of the kidneys as any are; neither is there abetter remedy than it; a dram at a time taken in white wine to prevent the stone, or tocleanse the kidneys of gravel or stoppage. The ordinary French Beans are of an easydigestion; they move the belly, provoke urine, enlarge the breast that is straightenedwith shortness of breath, engender sperm, and incite to venery. And the scarletcoloured Beans, in regard of the glorious beauty of their colour, being set near aquick-set hedge, will much adorn the same, by climbing up thereon, so that they maybe discerned a great way, not without admiration of the beholders at a distance. Butthey will go near to kill the quicksets by cloathing them in scarlet.LADIES BED-STRAWBESIDES the common name above written, it is called Cheese-Rennet, because itperforms the same office, as also Gailion, Pettimugget, and Maiden-hair; and by someWild Rosemary.Descript : This rises up with divers small brown, and square upright stalks, a yardhigh or more; sometimes branches forth into divers parts, full of joints and with diversvery fine small leaves at every one of them, little or nothing rough at all; at the tops ofthe branches grow many long tufts or branches of yellow flowers very thick settogether, from the several joints which consist of four leaves apiece, which smellsomewhat strong, but not unpleasant. The seed is small and black like poppy seed,two for the most part joined together. The root is reddish, with many small threadsfastened to it, which take strong hold of the ground, and creep a little: and the

anches leaning a little down to the ground, take root at the joints thereof, whereby itis easily increased.There is another sort of Ladies Bedstraw growing frequently in England, whichbears white flowers as the other doth yellow; but the branches of this are so weak, thatunless it be sustained by the hedges, or other things near which it grows, it will liedown on the ground; the leaves a little bigger than the former, and the flowers not soplentiful as these; and the root hereof is also thready and abiding.Place : They grow in meadow and pastures both wet and dry, and by the hedges.Time : They flower in May for the most part, and the seed is ripe in July andAugust.Government and virtues : They are both herbs of Venus, and thereforestrengthening the parts both internal and external, which she rules. The decoction ofthe former of those being drank, is good to fret and break the stone, provoke the urine,stays inward bleeding and heals inward wounds. The herb or flower bruised and putinto the nostrils, stays their bleeding likewise. The flowers and herbs being made intoan oil, by being set in the sun, and changed after it has stood ten or twelve days; orinto an ointment being boiled in Axunga, or sallad oil, with some wax melted therein,after it is strained; either the oil made thereof, or the ointment, do help burnings withfire, or scalding with water. The same also, or the decoction of the herb and flower, isgood to bathe the feet of travellers and lacquies, whose long running causes wearinessand stiffness in the sinews and joints. If the decoction be used warm, and the jointsafterwards anointed with ointment, it helps the dry scab, and the itch in children; andthe herb with the white flower is also very good for the sinews, arteries, and joints, tocomfort and strengthen them after travel, cold, and pains.BEETSOF Beets there are two sorts, which are best known generally, and whereof I shallprincipally treat at this time, viz. the white and red Beets and their virtues.Descript : The common white beet has many great leaves next the ground,somewhat large and of a whitish green colour. The stalk is great, strong, and ribbed,bearing great store of leaves upon it, almost to the very top of it. The flowers grow invery long tufts, small at the end, and turning down their heads, which are small, palegreenish-yellow buds, giving cornered prickly seed. The root is great, long, and hard,and when it has given seed is of no use at all.The common red Beet differs not from the white, but only it is less, and the leavesand the roots are somewhat red; the leaves are differently red, some only with redstalks or veins; some of a fresh red, and others of a dark red. The root thereof is red,spungy, and not used to be eaten.Government and virtues : The government of these two sorts of Beets are fardifferent; the red Beet being under Saturn and the white under Jupiter; therefore takethe virtues of them apart, each by itself. The white Beet much loosens the belly, and isof a cleansing, digesting quality, and provokes urine. The justice of it opensobstructions both of the liver and spleen, and is good for the headache and swimmingstherein, and turnings of the brain; and is effectual also against all venomous creatures;and applied to the temples, stays inflammations of the eyes; it helps burnings, beingused with oil, and with a little alum put to it, is good for St. Anthony's fire. It is goodfor all wheals, pushes, blisters, and blains in the skin: the herb boiled, and laid uponchilblains or kibes, helps them. The decoction thereof in water and some vinegar,heals the itch, if bathed therewith; and cleanses the head of dandruff, scurf and dry

scabs, and does much good for fretting and running sores, ulcers, and cankers in thehead, legs, or other parts, and is much commended against baldness and shedding thehair.The red Beet is good to stay the bloody-flux, women's courses, and the whites, andto help the yellow jaundice; the juice of the root put into the nostrils, purges the head,helps the noise in the ears, and the tooth-ache; the juice snuffed up the nose, helps astinking breath, if the cause lie in the nose, as many times it does, if any bruise hasbeen there: as also want of smell coming that way.WATER BETONYCALLED also Brown-wort, and in Yorkshire, Bishop's-leaves.Descript : First, of the Water Betony, which rises up with square, hard, greenishstalks, sometimes brown, set with broad dark green leaves dented about the edgeswith notches somewhat resembling the leaves of the Wood Betony, but much largertoo, for the most part set at a joint. The flowers are many, set at the tops of the stalksand branches, being round bellied and open at the brims, and divided into two parts,the uppermost being like a hood, and the lower-most like a hip hanging down, of adark red colour, which passing, there comes in their places small round heads withsmall points at the ends, wherein lie small and brownish seeds; the root is a thick bushof strings and shreds, growing from the head.Place : It grows by the ditch side, brooks and other watercourses, generally throughthis land, and is seldom found far from the water-side.Time : It flowers about July, and the seed is ripe in August.Government and virtues : Water Betony is an herb of Jupiter in Cancer, and isappropriated more to wounds and hurts in the breast than Wood Betony, whichfollows. It is an excellent remedy for sick hogs. It is of a cleansing quality. The leavesbruised and applied are effectual for all old and filthy ulcers; and especially if thejuice of the leaves be boiled with a little honey, and dipped therein, and the soresdressed therewith; as also for bruises and hurts, whether inward or outward. Thedistilled water of the leaves is used for the same purpose; as also to bathe the face andhands spotted or blemished, or discoloured by sun burning.I confess I do not much fancy distilled waters, I mean such waters as are distilledcold; some virtues of the herb they may haply have (it were a strange thing else;) butthis I am confident of, that being distilled in a pewter still, as the vulgar and apishfashion is, both chemical oil and salt is left behind unless you burn them, and then allis spoiled, water and all, which was good for as little as can be, by such a distillation.WOOD BETONYDescript : Common or Wood Betony has many leaves rising from the root, whichare somewhat broad and round at the end, roundly dented about the edges, standingupon long foot stalks, from among which rise up small, square, slender but uprighthairy stalks, with some leaves thereon to a piece at the joints, smaller than the lower,whereon are set several spiked heads of flowers like Lavender, but thicker and shorterfor the most part, and of a reddish or purple colour, spotted with white spots both inthe upper and lower part. The seeds being contained within the husks that hold theflowers, are blackish, somewhat long and uneven. The roots are many white threadystrings: the stalk perishes, but the roots with some leaves thereon, abide all theWinter. The whole plant is somewhat small.

Place : It grows frequently in woods, and delights in shady places.Time : And it flowers in July; after which the seed is quickly ripe, yet in its primein May.Government and virtues : The herb is appropriated to the planet Jupiter, and thesign Aries. Antonius Musa, physician to the Emperor Augustus Cوsar, wrote apeculiar book of the virtues of this herb; and among other virtues saith of it, that itpreserves the liver and bodies of men from the danger of epidemical diseases, andfrom witchcraft also; it helps those that loath and cannot digest their meat, those thathave weak stomachs and sour belchings, or continual rising in their stomachs, using itfamiliarly either green or dry; either the herb, or root, or the flowers, in broth, drink,or meat, or made into conserve, syrup, water, electuary, or powder, as every one maybest frame themselves unto, or as the time and season requires; taken any of theaforesaid ways, it helps the jaundice, falling sickness, the palsy, convulsions, orshrinking of the sinews, the gout and those that are inclined to dropsy, those that havecontinual pains in their heads, although it turn to phrensy. The powder mixed withpure honey is no less available for all sorts of coughs or colds, wheesing, or shortnessof breath, distillations of thin rheum upon the lungs, which causes consumptions. Thedecoction made with Mead, and a little Pennyroyal, is good for those that are troubledwith putrid agues, whether quotidian, tertian, or quartan, and to draw down andevacuate the blood and humours, that by falling into the eyes, do hinder the sight; thedecoction thereof made in wine and taken, kills the worms in the belly, opensobstructions both of the spleen and liver; cures stitches, and pains in the back andsides, the torments and griping pains in the bowels, and the wind cholic; and mixedwith honey purges the belly, helps to bring down women's courses, and is of specialuse for those that are troubled with the falling down of the mother, and pains thereof,and causes an easy and speedy delivery of women in child-birth. It helps also to breakand expel the stone, either in the bladder or kidneys. The decoction with wine gargledin the mouth, eases the tooth-ache. It is commended against the stinging and biting ofvenomous serpents, or mad dogs, being used inwardly and applied outwardly to theplace. A dram of the powder of Betony taken with a little honey in some vinegar, doeswonderfully refresh those that are over wearied by travelling. It stays bleeding at themouth or nose, and helps those that void or spit blood, and those that are bursten orhave a rupture, and is good for such as are bruised by any fall or otherwise. The greenherb bruised, or the juice applied to any inward hurt, or outward green wound in thehead or body, will quickly heal and close it up; as also any vein or sinews that are cut,and will draw forth any broken bone or splinter, thorn or other things got into theflesh. It is no less profitable for old sores or filthy ulcers, yea, tho' they be fistulousand hollow. But some do advise to put a little salt for this purpose, being applied witha little hog's lard, it helps a plague sore, and other boils and pushes. The fumes of thedecoction while it is warm, received by a funnel into the ears, eases the pains of them,destroys the worms and cures the running sores in them. The juice dropped into themdoes the same. The root of Betony is displeasing both to the taste and stomach,whereas the leaves and flowers, by their sweet and spicy taste, are comfortable both tomeat and medicine.These are some of the many virtues Anthony Muse, an expert physician (for it wasnot the practice of Octavius Cesar to keep fools about him), appropriates to Betony; itis a very precious herb, that is certain, and most fitting to be kept in a man's house,both in syrup, conserve, oil, ointment and plaister. The flowers are usually conserved.THE BEECH TREE

IN treating of this tree, you must understand, that I mean the green mast Beech,which is by way of distinction from that other small rough sort, called in Sussex thesmaller Beech, but in Essex Horn-beam.I suppose it is needless to describe it, being already too well known to mycountrymen.Place : It grows in woods amongst oaks and other trees, and in parks, forests, andchases, to feed deer; and in other places to fatten swine.Time : It blooms in the end of April, or beginning of May, for the most part, and thefruit is ripe in September.Government and virtues : It is a plant of Saturn, and therefore performs hisqualities and proportion in these operations. The leaves of the Beech tree are coolingand binding, and therefore good to be applied to hot swellings to discuss them; thenuts do much nourish such beasts as feed thereon. The water that is found in thehollow places of decaying Beeches will cure both man and beast of any scurf, orrunning tetters, if they be washed therewith; you may boil the leaves into a poultice,or make an ointment of them when time of year serves.BILBERRIES, CALLED BY SOME WHORTS, ANDWHORTLE-BERRIESDescript : Of these I shall only speak of two sorts which are common in England,viz. the black and red berries. And first of the black.The small bush creeps along upon the ground, scarcely rising half a yard high, withdivers small green leaves set in the green branches, not always one against the other,and a little dented about the edges. At the foot of the leaves come forth small, hollow,pale, bluish coloured flowers, the brims ending at five points, with a reddish thread inthe middle, which pass into small round berries of the bigness and colour of juniperberries, but of a purple, sweetish sharp taste; the juice of them gives a purplish colourin their hands and lips that eat and handle them, especially if they break them. Theroot grows aslope under ground, shooting forth in sundry places as it creeps. Thisloses its leaves in Winter.The Red Bilberry, or Whortle-Bush, rises up like the former, having sundry hardleaves, like the Box-tree leaves, green and round pointed, standing on the severalbranches, at the top whereof only, and not from the sides, as in the former, come forthdivers round, reddish, sappy berries, when they are ripe, of a sharp taste. The root runsin the ground, as in the former, but the leaves of this abide all Winter.Place : The first grows in forests, on the heaths, and such like barren places: the redgrows in the north parts of this land, as Lancashire, Yorkshire, &c.Time : They flower in March and April, and the fruit of the black is ripe in July andAugust.Government and virtues : They are under the dominion of Jupiter. It is a pity theyare used no more in physic than they are.The black Bilberries are good in hot agues and to cool the heat of the liver andstomach; they do somewhat bind the belly, and stay vomiting and loathings; the juiceof the berries made in a syrup, or the pulp made into a conserve with sugar, is goodfor the purposes aforesaid, as also for an old cough, or an ulcer in the lungs, or otherdiseases therein. The Red Worts are more binding, and stops women's courses,spitting of blood, or any other flux of blood or humours, being used as well outwardlyas inwardly.

BIFOIL OR TWOBLADEDescript : This small herb, from a root somewhat sweet, shooting downwardsmany long strings, rises up a round green stalk, bare or naked next the ground for aninch, two or three to the middle thereof as it is in age or growth; as also from themiddle upwards to the flowers, having only two broad Plaintain-like leaves (butwhiter) set at the middle of the stalk one against another, compassing it round at thebottom of them.Place : It is an usual inhabitant in woods, copses, and in many places in this land.There is another sort, grows in wet grounds and marshes, which is somewhatdifferent from the former. It is a smaller plant, and greener, having sometimes threeleaves; the spike of the flowers is less than the former, and the roots of this do run orcreep in the ground.They are often used by many to good purpose for wounds, both green and old, toconsolidate or knit ruptures; and well it may, being a plant of Saturn.THE BIRCH TREEDescript : This grows a goodly tall straight tree, fraught with many boughs, andslender branches bending downward: the old being covered with discoloured chappedbark, and the younger being browner by much. The leaves at the first breaking out arecrumpled, and afterwards like the beech leaves, but smaller and greener, and dentedabout the edges. It bears short catkins, somewhat like those of the hazelnut-tree,which abide on the branches a long time, until growing ripe, they fall on the groundand their seed with them.Place : It usually grows in woods.Government and virtues : It is a tree of Venus; the juice of the leaves, while theyare young, or the distilled water of them, or the water that comes from the tree beingbored with an auger, and distilled afterwards; any of these being drank for some daystogether, is available to break the stone in the kidneys and bladder, and is good also towash sore mouths.BIRD'S FOOTTHIS small herb grows not above a span high with many branches spread upon theground, set with many wings of small leaves. The flowers grow upon the branches,many small ones of a pale yellow colour being set a-head together, which afterwardsturn into small jointed pods, well resembling the claw of small birds, whence it tookits name.There is another sort of Bird's Foot in all things like the former, but a little larger;the flowers of a pale whitish and red colour, and the pods distinct by joints like theother, but little more crooked; and the roots do carry many small white knots orkernels amongst the strings.Place : These grow on heaths, and many open untilled places of this land.Time : They flower and seed in the end of Summer.Government and virtues : They belong to Saturn and are of a drying, bindingquality, and thereby very good to be used in wound drinks, as also to apply outwardlyfor the same purpose. But the latter Bird's Foot is found by experience to break thestone in the back or kidneys, and drives them forth, if the decoction thereof be taken;and it wonderfully helps the ruptures, being taken inwardly, and outwardly applied tothe place.

All sorts have best operations upon the stone, as ointments and plaisters have uponwounds: and therefore you may make a salt of this for the stone; the way how to do somay be found in my translation of the London Dispensatory; and it may be I may giveyou it again in plainer terms at the latter end of this book.BISHOP'S-WEEDBESIDES the common name Bishop's-weed, it is usually known by the Greek nameAmmi and Ammois; some call it Aethiopian Cummin-seed, and others Cummin-royal,as also Herb William, and Bull-wort.Descript : Common Bishop's-weed rises up with a round straight stalk, sometimesas high as a man, but usually three or four feet, high, beset with divers small, long andsomewhat broad leaves, cut in some places, and dented about the edges, growing oneagainst another, of a dark green colour, having sundry branches on them, and at thetop small umbels of white flowers, which turn into small round seeds little bigger thanParsley seeds, of a quick hot scent and taste; the root is white and stringy; perishingyearly, and usually rises again on its own sowing.Place : It grows wild in many places in England and Wales, as between Greenhitheand Gravesend.Government and virtues : It is hot and dry in the third degree, of a bitter taste, andsomewhat sharp withal; it provokes lust to purpose; I suppose Venus owns it. Itdigests humours, provokes unine and women's courses, dissolves wind, and beingtaken in wine it eases pains and griping in the bowels, and is good against the bitingof serpents; it is used to good effect in those medicines which are given to hinder thepoisonous operation of Cantharides, upon the passage of the urine: being mixed withhoney and applied to black and blue marks, coming of blows or bruises, it takes themaway; and being drank or outwardly applied, it abates a high colour, and makes itpale; and the fumes thereof taken with rosin or raisins, cleanses the mother.BISTORT, OR SNAKEWEEDIT is called Snakeweed, English Serpentary, Dragon-wort, Osterick, and Passions.Descript : This has a thick short knobbed root, blackish without, and somewhatreddish within, a little crooked or turned together, of a hard astringent taste, withdivers black threads hanging there-from, whence springs up every year divers leaves,standing upon long footstalks, being somewhat broad and long like a dock leaf, and alittle pointed at the ends, but that it is of a bluish green colour on the upper side, andof an ash-colour grey, and a little purplish underneath, with divers veins therein, fromamong which rise up divers small and slender stalks, two feet high, and almost nakedand without leaves, or with a very few, and narrow, bearing a spiky bush of palecolouredflowers; which being past, there abides small seed, like unto Sorrel seed, butgreater.There are other sorts of Bistort growing in this land, but smaller, both in height,root, and stalks, and especially in the leaves. The root blackish without, and somewhatwhitish within; of an austere binding taste, as the former.Place : They grow in shadowy moist woods, and at the foot of hills, but are chieflynourished up in gardens. The narrow leafed Bistort grows in the north, in Lancashire,Yorkshire, and Cumberland.Time : They flower about the end of May, and the seed is ripe about the beginningof July.

Government and virtues : It belongs to Saturn, and is in operation cold and dry;both the leaves and roots have a powerful faculty to resist all poison. The root, inpowder, taken in drink expels the venom of the plague, the small-pox, measels,purples, or any other infectious disease, driving it out by sweating. The root inpowder, the decoction thereof in wine being drank, stays all manner of inwardbleeding, or spitting of blood, and any fluxes in the body of either man or woman, orvomiting. It is also very available against ruptures, or burstings, or all bruises fromfalls, dissolving the congealed blood, and easing the pains that happen thereupon; italso helps the jaundice.The water, distilled from both leaves and roots, is a singular remedy to wash anyplace bitten or stung by any venomous creature; as also for any of the purposes beforespoken of, and is very good to wash any running sores or ulcers. The decoction of theroot in wine being drank, hinders abortion or miscarriage in child-bearing. The leavesalso kill the worms in children, and is a great help to them that cannot keep theirwater; if the juice of Plaintain be added thereto, and outwardly applied, much helpsthe ghonorrhea, or running of the reins. A dram of the powder of the root, taken inwater thereof, wherein some red hot iron or steel hath been quenched, is also anadmirable help thereto, so as the body be first prepared and purged from the offensivehumours. The leaves, seed or roots, are all very good in decoction, drinks, or lotions,for inward or outward wounds, or other sores. And the powder, strewed upon any cutor wound in a vein, stays the immoderate bleeding thereof. The decoction of the rootin water, where unto some pomegranate peels and flowers are added, injected into thematrix, stays the immoderate flux of the courses. The root thereof, with pelitory ofSpain and burnt alum, of each a little quantity, beaten small and into paste with somehoney, and a little piece thereof put into a hollow tooth, or held between the teeth, ifthere be no hollowness in them, stays the defluction of rheum upon them whichcauses pains, and helps to cleanse the head, and void much offensive water. Thedistilled water is very effectual to wash sores or cankers in the nose, or any other part;if the powder of the root be applied thereunto afterwards. It is good also to fasten thegums, and to take away the heat and inflammations that happen in the jaws, almondsof the throat, or mouth, if the decoction of the leaves, roots, or seeds bruised, or thejuice of them, be applied; but the roots are most effectual to the purposes aforesaid.ONE-BLADEDescript : This small plant never bears more than one leaf, but only when it risesup with its stalk, which thereon bears another, and seldom more, which are of a bluishgreen colour, broad at the bottom, and pointed with many ribs or veins like Plaintain;at the top of the stalk grows many small flowers star-fashion, smelling somewhatsweet; after which comes small reddish berries when they are ripe. The root small, ofthe bigness of a rush, lying and creeping under the upper crust of the earth, shootingforth in divers places.Place : It grows in moist, shadowy grassy places of woods, in many places of thisrealm.Time : It flowers about May, and the berries are ripe in June, and then quicklyperishes, until the next year it springs from the same again.Government and virtues : It is a herb of the Sun, and therefore cordial; half a dram,or a dram at most, of the root hereof in powder taken in wine and vinegar, of each alittle quantity, and the party presently laid to sweat, is held to be a sovereign remedyfor those that are infected with the plague, and have a sore upon them, by expelling

the poison, and defending the heart and spirit from danger. It is also accounted asingular good wound herb, and therefore used with other herbs in making such balmsas are necessary for curing of wounds, either green or old, and especially if the nervesbe hurt.The rest of the herbs from this book can be viewed or downloaded from the followingsite:http://www.bootlegbooks.com/NonFiction/Culpeper/Herbal/chap042.html

1HHC 204: Chapter 5: Living Closer to Nature and Its MakerThe Twelve Principals of HealthCopyright 1999 Kristie Karima Burns, MH, NDDr. E. S. Rogers, in his text, Human Ecology and Health says , “One has littledifficulty in distinguishing between life and death, but the distinction between illness andhealth is not as easy.” 1 How can it be easy? In the supermarket one is bombarded withsugar-laden, processed & packaged foods marked “wholesome” while numerous studiesshow that these products are far from wholesome. Simultaneously we are flooded withmagazine advertisements that promise us good health in a bottle of supplements and yetour health care provider tells us that taking a supplement cannot solve all of ourproblems. We are also fed a media overdose of “medical information” that claims eggsand various other foods are unhealthy, only to retract their statements ten years later.Through the media we are taught that illness is something bad we must crush with pillsand health is something only awarded to those who buy expensive exercise equipmentand specially packaged herbal supplements. With all the conflicting information, how cana person find their way in today’s world?The answer is a more straightforward than it seems. Hundreds of organizations arelooking for cures for diseases, thousands of companies are marketing supplements andmillions of varieties of “healthy” foods go in and out of fashion. However, the one sourceyou can consult to help you rise above all the clutter is your religion which will adviseyou to live closer to nature and its maker. Although the concept of living closer to natureand its maker sounds simple, applying it to everyday life is not as clear. It takes faith,dedication and most of all knowledge to be able to apply the principals of healthy livingthrough a natural and spiritual lifestyle. Once you understand the basic principals you canapply them to all aspects of your life, realize their interrelations and enjoy a healthyphysical and spiritual life.There are twelve main categories or principals of health The cornerstone of thetwelve basic principals of health is faith. The ten building blocks of health are optimismand a happy outlook on life, whole foods, real foods, raw foods, appropriate foods,exercise, pure water, pure air, using natural therapies and substances to heal, and selfawareness.The “glue” that holds all these together, and the final, twelfth principal isknowledge.Defining faith as the cornerstone of health is difficult. For just as Dr. Rogerspointed out in his statement, “the distinction between health and illness is not as clear asthe distinction between life and death”, we can also say the same of our relationship withGod in these catagories. Most people agree that we have a Maker that gave us life, and1 Cheraskin, E., MD, DMD, Ringsdorf, W.M. Jr., DMD, and Clark, J.W., DDS, Diet and Disease. KeatsPublishing, 1968. Page 48.

2those same people (even if it is on their deathbed) hope to pass from death to an afterlifein heaven. But their relationship to God in the interim leads them down endless pathways.However, in all world religions from the Hindu to Navaho there is a distinct link betweenone’s religious duties and one’s health. Yet, rather than try to cover all religions, in thisdissertation, I have chosen to focus on three major world religions as defined by theWorld Book Encyclopedia 1999 Edition - Christianity, Islam and Judaism. Thisdissertation in no way condones or negates any religion mentioned but merely comparestheir views on health. This is not a religious argument or dissertation, it is a guideline forhealth using examples from various scriptures. In the past ten years there have been anincreasing number of Christian books that focus on the subject of herbs and religion orvegetarianism and religion. This dissertation aims to illustrate that not only areChristian’s linked to God by healthy living, but that this bond is universal and people ofall religions feel that same bond. So how does healthy living relate to faith?As a matter of fact, they are interrelated. The well-respected homeopath, Dr.Rocine believed that sensory, intellectual and spiritual experiences are as necessary tofeed the mind, soul and spirit as food is necessary for the health of the body. He believedthat poor food habits that result in nutrient deficiencies in the brain could lead to mentaldisease and mild to bizarre misbehavior. So could long-term exposure to an environmentstripped of beauty, meaning and hope. 2 He demonstrated and observed in his many yearsas a homeopath that this lack of faith (which he defined as beauty, meaning and hope)could cause disease just as easily as a lack of nutrients in the body. The reverse is alsotrue. Not only can a lack of faith cause disease, but disease can also effect one’s faith. Dr.Bernard Jensen stated in his book The Chemistry of Man that, “Whole foods inspirewholeness and wellness in a person” 3 . Jacqueline Krohn, in her book, The Whole Way toAllergy Relief and Prevention states that, “There is a crucial relationship between goodhealth and your emotional, mental and spiritual condition” 4 . So not only does faith havesomething to do with health, but the two are interdependent and inseparable.Our sense of duty to God also plays a big role in our view on health. In all three ofthe primary world religions respect for the body is mentioned in all the holy books ofthose religions. Various quotes are included in the text of this dissertationWe can use this cornerstone of faith to help us build the ten building blocks ofhealth by using our religious instructions as a guide & map to our health instead of thefickle media of ads, TV and “medical reports”. The former is eternal wisdom from Godand will serve us well in our quest for health, while the later is fabricated from everchanging ideas created largely around the goal of achieving earthly pleasures and gainingwealth or fame.The Second Building Block of Health: Mental Calm and a Positive OutlookExamples of the virtues of a positive mental attitude,2 Jensen, Bernard, Ph.D.., The Chemistry of Man. Bernard Jensen, 1983. Page 4773 Jensen, Bernard, Ph.D.., The Chemistry of Man. Bernard Jensen, 1983.4 Krohn, Jacqueline, MD, The Whole Way to Allergy Relief and Prevention. Hartley and Marks, 1991. Page8.

3perseverance and optimism in regard to adversity:A cheerful heart is a good medicine, but a downcast spirit dries up thebones. (Proverbs 19:22: Bible)Pleasant words are like a honeycomb, sweetness to the soul and health tothe body.(Proverbs. 16:24 :Bible)Give Glad tidings to those who exercise patience when struck withadversity and say, ’indeed we belong to God and to him is our return’such ones receive blessings and Mercy of their lord, and such are theguided ones” (Koran 2:155)At one of the most critical junctures of Jewish history, with Assyrian KingSennacherib's vast army closing in on Jerusalem, Hezekiah King of Judahsuddenly fell mortally ill. His entire body was covered with horrible sores.The prophet Isaiah came to him and said, "Thus says the Lord: Set yourhouse in order, for you will die and not live" (Isaiah 38:1; Kings II, 20:1).With God's prophet telling him to make his will and prepare to die, alesser man might have given up the fight. Not Hezekiah. He had atradition from his ancestor, King David: "Even if a sharp sword ispressing on your neck, don't despair of pleading for God's mercy"(Berakhot 10a). Hezekiah turned his face to the wall and prayed:"Remember now, O God, I beseech You, how I've walked before You intruth and with a whole heart: I did what is good in Your eyes." Hezekiahwept bitterly. (Jewish) 5The LORD is my shepherd; I shall not want. He maketh me to lie downin green pastures: he leadeth me beside the still waters. He restoreth mysoul: he leadeth me in the paths of righteousness for his name's sake.Yea, though I walk through the valley of the shadow of death, I will fearno evil: for thou art with me; thy rod and thy staff they comfort me.Thou preparest a table before me in the presence of mine enemies: thouanointest my head with oil; my cup runneth over. Surely goodness andmercy shall follow me all the days of my life: and I will dwell in thehouse of the LORD for ever. (Bible: Psalms 23)King Solomon said, "On a good day, enjoy! And on a bad day, you mustlook" (Ecclesiastes 7:14).The second building block of health is to be positive and not negative about life.To be thankful for what we have, to be relaxed, calm and optimistic. Bernard Jensen, inhis book, The Science and Practice of Iridology says, “ The doctor of the new day willrecognize that a man’s most important workshop is not the physical body but the mindthat controls it”. 6 Dr. Ted M. Morter, in his book Your Health...Your Choice confirmsthis when he says that “negative thoughts are the number one acid producer in thebody...because your body reacts to negative mental and emotional stress brought about by5 http://www.azamra.org/heal/hezekiah.html6 Jensen, Bernard, DC, Ph.D.., The Science and Practice of Iridology Volume I. Bernard JensenInternational, 1995. Page 187

4thought the same way it reacts to ‘real’ threats of physical harm.” 7 In fact, of all thepatients who consult outpatient clinical facilities in the United States, an astoundingseventy percent are found to have no organic basis for their complaint. 8Seventy percent is an overwhelming figure. However, although statistically thereis no obvious organic source of many patients’ complaints, there is actually a physicalbasis for this phenomenon. Ever since Freud popularized the idea of psychoanalysis,people have been looking to the mental realm to solve their problems, forgetting all thewhile that you cannot separate the menatal realm (the mind) from the physical realm (thebody). For the mind is in the brain and the brain is an organ, like all other organs, and itfeeds on the same nutrient pool the other organs feed on and is susceptible to all of thesame problems (inflammation, tumors, pain, etc...). Ultimately, the brain is just a part ofour body like the rest of us. The brain is, in fact, completely dependent on the body. Itrequires sugar and cannot even develop energy from potassium and fats as other tissuescan. Because of this the brain is the first organ to suffer from lack of blood sugar andreacts most severely. 9 Freud himself even said that psychoanalysis was not suitable forsuch diseases as schizophrenia and postulated that the cause eventually would be found tobe biochemical. 10So if we keep in mind that the brain is an organ and that it works in harmony withthe other organs and feeds from the same bloodstream as the other organs we canunderstand how various mental events could effect us physically. For example, simplyusing our brain to think can burn up nutrients in our system, particularly phosphorus. Asthe brain uses a lot of phosphorus to function, using the brain heavily can burn up excessphosphorus and cause us to have symptoms of a phosphorus deficiency. 11 To emphasizethis relationship you can also find that the reverse is true. People who have highintellectual capacity such as psychic perceptions, idealistic tendencies andhumanitarianism usually have high levels of phosphorus in their system. 12But phosphorus is not the only nutrient that can be depleted by mental stress. Theemotions, which are mostly handled by the thyroid gland can cause a deficiency of iodineif strong emotions cause the thyroid to work overtime. 13 Even hypoglycemia can becaused by excitement. When a person sees something exciting it stimulates the adrenalcortex through the lens of the eye and causes an increase in blood sugar. This in turnstimulates the pancreas to secrete insulin into the blood and the person becomes tired orweak with the lowered blood sugar levels. 14 Stress itself, from a high tension job, moveor divorce can cause a loss of potassium and sodium in the body because stress effects the7 Morter, Dr. Ted M. Jr., MA, Your Health...Your Choice. Lifetime Books Inc., 1995. Page 29.8 Oyle, Dr. Irving, The Healing Mind. NA. Page 9.9 Hoffer, Abram, MD, Ph.D.., and Walker, Morton, DPM, Putting it all Together: The New OrthomolecularNutrition. Keats Publishing, 1978. Page 49.10 Hoffer, Abram, MD, Ph.D.., and Walker, Morton, DPM, Putting it all Together: The NewOrthomolecular Nutrition. Keats Publishing, 1978. Page 32.11 Jensen, Bernard, Ph.D.., The Chemistry of Man. Bernard Jensen, 1983. Page 474.12 Jensen, Bernard, Ph.D.., The Chemistry of Man. Bernard Jensen, 1983. Page 276.13 Jensen, Bernard, Ph.D.., The Chemistry of Man. Bernard Jensen, 1983. Page 19114 Lepore, Donald, ND, The Ultimate Healing System. Lepore, 1985. Page 294.

5adrenal glands which create more of a need for these minerals.The best way to keep one’s mind from controlling one’s matter, though, is simplyto be aware of what mental capacities one is using and be aware of what it may be doingto the body. For instance, if a person is up late studying every night, they may want toconcentrate on eating phosphorus rich foods and foods that help maintain their intake ofphosphorus. If a person is moving or traveling they may want to make sure they increasetheir intake of foods high in potassium and sodium, as well as vitamin B complex. On theother hand, if humanity completely ignores that fact that the mind can control the healthof the body, then they are missing an important detail in the picture of personal health.The relationship is so strong, in fact, that Anne Frohm, in her book The Cancer BattlePlan noticed that “ Those who tend towards passive acceptance of what they’ve been toldis their inevitable fate (and play the role of the victim)...usually die right on schedule” 15 .To make matters even more complicated some therapists advise that you should not eveneat at all while you are upset, as it impairs the digestive process altogether. 16Not surprisingly, this relationship goes both ways. Not only does the mind controlthe health of the body, but the health of the body also can control the mind. In the wake ofmany recent publicly violent crimes, a number of health care professionals have come outand blamed the highly processed and nutrient deficient American diet as one of thevillains. This is not a new idea at all. One study of juvenile delinquents showed that whenthe boys at the juvenile home were given a diet of whole grains and healthy food theirbehavior disorders literally vanished. When they returned to their white bread regime, theproblems started up again. 17 This problem has become so obvious in some cases thatlawyers are worried that these new findings may create a rash of people blaming theirfood for their behavior. They are calling this new “food-controlling-behavior” excuse “theTwinkie Defense”. Boston Red Socks shortstop Stan Paus was sent to a mental hospital,drugged, given electric shock and driven to the edge of suicide because the doctors couldnot recognize the symptoms of low blood sugar - hypoglycemia. After beginning a strictdiet he was back to normal in two months. 18Yet, this is not just a matter of listing a few isolated cases. The relationship is sostrong between the nutrients in the body and the mind that when animals lack magnesium,they refuse to nurse their young. 19 One wonders if perhaps this also has anything to dowith the present nutrient-deficient society and its preference of bottle feeding overbreastfeeding. Bernard Jensen even theorizes that “we are going to find that divorces are,to a great extent, influenced by the foods we eat. Lifeless foods produce lifeless marriageswhere magnetic current fails to flow between partners.” 20Taking the mind and body interrelationship one step farther is the therapy ofbiofeedback, which bases its system on the proof that the conscious mind can command15 Frahm, Anne E. and David J., A Cancer Battle Plan. Tarcher & Putnam Press, 1992. Page 11316 Jensen, Bernard, DC, Ph.D.., The Science and Practice of Iridology Volume I. Bernard JensenInternational, 1995. Page 151.17 Jensen, Bernard, Ph.D.., The Chemistry of Man. Bernard Jensen, 1983. Page 32.18 Jensen, Bernard, Ph.D.., The Chemistry of Man. Bernard Jensen, 1983. Page 150.19 Jensen, Bernard, Ph.D.., The Chemistry of Man. Bernard Jensen, 1983. Page 70.20 Jensen, Bernard, Ph.D.., The Chemistry of Man. Bernard Jensen, 1983. Page 23.

6the unconscious to restore bodily functions to normal. 21 . Dr. Irving Oyle, in his book, TheHealing Mind, found that the two factors of trust and will were two of the greatest factorsin whether a patient would be healed or not, no matter which kind of therapy they used. Inall cases the patient simply needed to have complete faith in the method and person hewas using and also to have a will to live. Dr. Oyle witnessed more than one case of apatient who died simply because they wanted to or did not get well because they had nofaith in the person helping them. 22The Third Building Block of Health: Eat Whole FoodsExamples in Scriptures of the Virtues of Whole Foods:“Ye People, eat of what is on earth, lawful and wholesome” (Koran2:168)“ If the patient can be treated through diet alone he should not be treatedwith medicines. If it is impossible to control the illness withoutmedications, the first choice should be medicines that are nourishing andfoods that have medicinal properties.” Rambam (Rabbi Moshe BenMaimon, Maimonides, 1135-1204)(2:21-22) (Jewish)He causeth the grass to grow for the cattle, and herb for the service ofman: that he may bring forth food out of the earth .(Bible:Psalms104:14)Much food is in the tillage of the poor (the whole food): but there is that isdestroyed for want of judgment. (Bible:Proverbs 13:23)The third rule of health is to eat whole foods. Many people have a hard timeunderstanding what a “whole” food is. In 1940 about 80% of the nation consumed wholefoods. Today only 25% do. 23 Obviously, we all need a refresher course in whole foods. Awhole food is merely a food that retains its original constituents. An apple is a whole foodand applesauce made from fresh apples at home in a grinder is a whole food butapplesauce ground and cooked by machines and separated to create a better texture andthen supplemented with sugar and color is not a whole food. Wheat Berries are a wholefood. Flour made from pure ground wheat berries is a whole food , but flour made byseparating the bran and germ and then bleaching the final product (white flour) is not awhole food. Even some popular “health food” items fall in the category of processedpartial foods (and not whole). This list includes rice cakes, granola bars, pretzels, turkeyand tofu hot dogs, whole grain cereals and frozen juices. These so called “health foods”are only a tiny fraction more nutritious and less dangerous than their mainstreamprocessed counterparts. So why is it so important to eat the whole food? Why isn’t justpart of the food good enough?Because grains, vegetables and fruits, the way we find them in nature, contain allthe nutrients we need to thrive as human beings, and the more we change them from their21 Oyle, Dr. Irving, The Healing Mind. NA. Page 48.22 Oyle, Dr. Irving, The Healing Mind. NA. Pages 1,2 &8.23 Hoffer, Abram, MD, Ph.D.., and Walker, Morton, DPM, Putting it all Together: The NewOrthomolecular Nutrition. Keats Publishing, 1978. Page 18.

7original state, the less gain we get from them. More than one hundred years ago whenvitamin research began, man started to think that they could change food into a moredesirable substance (white flour) and then simply “enrich” back in the vitamins andminerals they took out. Abram Hoffer, MD, says, “This is the same as being held up atgunpoint on a dark street and ordered to strip naked. The thief takes your clothes andvaluables, notices your shivering embarrassment and then returns your underwear and$1.50 to take the bus home. Do you then feel enriched?” 24 With new vitamins andminerals being discovered every year, it is becoming increasingly obvious that mothernature is way ahead of us and we are not even close to knowing all of the secrets of whatmakes food good for us, let alone being able to duplicate that process in a laboratory. AsBernard Jensen says, “Natural foods contain all the vitamins that have been and will bediscovered” 25 This apparent fact should also make it obvious to people that the only wayto guarantee you are getting all your nutrients is to get them from whole foods. To useany other method to build your health, is merely an educated guess.It does not make sense to eat devitalized foods for our entire life and then spendtime and money buying vitamins, taking supplements and following various healthprograms. Why don’t we just eat the whole food from the very beginning? However, justeating whole grains and fresh produce is not enough. We are so accustomed to throwingout parts of our foods or buying our foods with missing parts, some of us do not evenknow what a whole food looks like. For instance, watermelon is a whole food, but not ifyou spit out the seeds. The seeds have been shown to aid in such conditions ashypertension, nephritis and kidney disturbances. Nuts are also a whole food, but not ifyou buy them shelled. Once the nut leaves the shell, the oils (high in manganese) havebeen disintegrated or oxidized. 26 Another example is Pumpkins. Many people are in thehabit of scooping out the seeds in their squash or pumpkin and then cooking and eatingthe nutritious pumpkin. However, the seeds also have benefits, especially to the prostategland and heart, and are meant to be eaten as well.We have already established that whole foods are superior to processed foods, butsome people may still argue that that is not a good enough reason for them to stop eatingprocessed foods. Others say, “So what? Processed foods are not as good, but they won’tkill me.” Certainly they will not kill a person as fast as processed foods with chemicals,sugars and colorings added, but they will eventually chip away at their health. Forprocessed foods are not just lacking in nutrients, they also take nutrients from the system.First of all, processed foods do not have enough vitamins and minerals to help intheir own assimilation. An analysis of the ascorbic acid content of potatoes revealed a91.4% loss from the raw potato after harvest to the reconstituted flakes. 27 Pasta, forinstance, does not have sufficient numbers of vitamins, enzymes or even fiber to aid inthe digestive process. The food you eat should provide at least some of the ingredients24 Hoffer, Abram, MD, Ph.D.., and Walker, Morton, DPM, Putting it all Together: The NewOrthomolecular Nutrition. Keats Publishing, 1978. Page 5.25 Jensen, Bernard, Ph.D.., The Chemistry of Man. Bernard Jensen, 1983. Page 381.26 Jensen, Bernard, Ph.D.., The Chemistry of Man. Bernard Jensen, 1983. Page 235.27 Cheraskin, E., MD, DMD, Ringsdorf, W.M. Jr., DMD, and Clark, J.W., DDS, Diet and Disease. KeatsPublishing, 1968. Page 18.

8needed to help in its digestion, otherwise you may not even be gaining the benefits from itat all, no matter how many nutrients they contain. This is true of any processed food evenif the processing is only cooking; the more a food is processed, the fewer enzymes it has.Enzymes are an important part of the digestive and nutrient assimilation process. 28Secondly, whole foods provide balance in the body that processed or partial foodscannot provide. For example, eggs became the great evil about fifteen years ago whenthey were discovered to “raise cholesterol levels”, so people started avoiding them.However, eggs also contain lecithin that balance cholesterol intake in the body. 29 So as awhole food, eggs are healthy, but as a incomplete food (yolks used alone in custards),they are not.Processed foods are also very inefficient to eat. You must eat more of them tosatisfy the body so you may gain weight by eating too much food. Our bodies are satisfiednutritionally 30 - not by volume - and every organ is dependent on its nutriment from theintestinal tract so this is very important. 31 Foods like wheatgrass contain super-highamounts of nutrients. One pound of wheat grass is equal in nutrient value to nearlytwenty-five pounds of the choicest vegetables. A single serving of sprouts on a saladsupplies half the RDA of vitamin C for an adult. 32 There are no processed foods that canmake these claims honestly. This fact is made clear just by looking at the nutrient valueson a package of rice cakes or granola bars. Manufacturers try to claim their productscontain high nutrient value, but they can only claim that by adding synthetic vitamins andminerals to their products which are not useful to the human body. The elements oforganic minerals are loosely held together so that when they enter the body they can beeasily assimilated. However, the constituent parts of inorganic minerals are held togetherby bonds so tight that the body cannot easily break them and rarely benefits from theconsumption of them, 33The Fourth Building Block of Health: Don’t Eat Fake FoodExamples in Scriptures of the Virtues of Real Foods:“Eat of the Good foods we have provided you” (Koran 7:160)They ask thee what is lawful to them (as food). Say: Lawful unto you are(all) things good and pure. (Koran 5:4)The mothers shall give suck to their offspring for two whole years. (Koran2:223)28 Morter, Dr. Ted M. Jr., MA, Your Health...Your Choice. Lifetime Books Inc., 1995. Page 142.29 Hoffer, Abram, MD, Ph.D.., and Walker, Morton, DPM, Putting it all Together: The NewOrthomolecular Nutrition. Keats Publishing, 1978. Page 84.30 Morter, Dr. Ted M. Jr., MA, Your Health...Your Choice. Lifetime Books Inc., 1995. Page 217.31 Jensen, Bernard, DC, Ph.D.., The Science and Practice of Iridology Volume I. Bernard JensenInternational, 1995. Page 103.32 Jensen, Bernard, Ph.D.., The Chemistry of Man. Bernard Jensen, 1983. Page 50.33 Morter, Dr. Ted M. Jr., MA, Your Health...Your Choice. Lifetime Books Inc., 1995. Page 58.

9You are to distinguish between the holy and the common, and betweenthe unclean and the clean. (Leviticus 10:10: Old Testament 34 )For the ear tests words as the palate tastes food. (Job 34:3: Bible)Do not desire his delicacies, for they are deceptive food. (Proverbs23:3:Bible)For the mountains yield food for him where all the wild beasts play. (Job40:20:Bible)Man ate of the bread of the angels; he sent them food in abundance.(Psalms 78:25:)Thou dost cause the grass to grow for the cattle, and plants for man tocultivate, that he may bring forth food from the earth. (Psalms 104:14:Bible)34 Note that Old Testament quotes apply to Jewish and Christian faith

10The fourth block of health is to eat real foods and not “fake” foods. Fake foods arefoods that have been tampered with on such a large scale that some of them are not evenfood anymore, although we often believe they are. Margarine, for example, is one of thesefoods. Chemically it is “one step away from being plastic”. 35 Other fake foods includeirradiated foods, hybrid seed produce, foods grown with pesticides, and foods with addedchemicals and colors.Foods with added chemicals and colors are the worst danger we face in our diettoday. Artificial sweeteners alone can account for many of the health problems weencounter on a daily basis. These artificial sweeteners, no matter how healthy they claimto be, actually increase appetite in general and increase preference for fat intake. Theyalso interfere with the body’s ability to select foods containing the nutrients it needs.Chemicals are even worse. The list of chemicals that are added to food and what they dois thousands of pages long and growing. One example is the methyl xanthine contained incoffee, colas, teas and chocolate. It causes a common sensitivity response in some womenknown as fibrostic breast disease. 36 Some foods, are so “fake”, in fact that our bodiesreject them altogether. Numerous studies on sodium chloride show that our body excretesnearly as much as it takes in all day 37 showing that common table salt is not being used byour bodies at all.However, not all toxic things are excreted from our body so easily. And evenwhen they are, they may have already done some damage. Preservatives, for instance, canbe classified with poisonous drugs because they have the same ill effect on the tissues inwhich they settle. 38 And when toxins settle in the body from food, they don’t just effectthe alimentary tract. All the organs depend on the blood which flows through the colonfor nutrients so they absorb all the toxins present there. A person definitely needs todevelop a label-reading skill when they shop. However, even then there is no guarantee -not all the chemicals in the package have to be listed on the label. Only if a processorsubstitutes or adds a non-standard chemical must they report it. Ice cream, for instancehas up to thirty additives that do not have to appeal on the label. 39Even more horrifying is that the American Medical Association’s approval offood (which is the final step before it is allowed to market) simply indicates that theproduct is disease and bacteria free. They have no standard for what nutrient values thefood must contain or even that it must even resemble at all its original source! 40Surprisingly enough some of the supplements intended to “enrich” our wholefoods and “make them whole again” are some of the worst fake foods you can find. In35 Frahm, Anne E. and David J., A Cancer Battle Plan. Tarcher & Putnam Press, 1992. Page 82.36 Krohn, Jacqueline, MD, The Whole Way to Allergy Relief and Prevention. Hartley and Marks, 1991. Page62.37 Morter, Dr. Ted M. Jr., MA, Your Health...Your Choice. Lifetime Books Inc., 1995. Page 74.38 Jensen, Bernard, DC, Ph.D.., The Science and Practice of Iridology Volume I. Bernard JensenInternational, 1995. Page 168.39 Krohn, Jacqueline, MD, The Whole Way to Allergy Relief and Prevention. Hartley and Marks, 1991. Page10740 Jensen, Bernard, DC, Ph.D.., The Science and Practice of Iridology Volume I. Bernard JensenInternational, 1995.

11fact, when we take supplements, even good ones, we are getting isolated elements that weshould be getting from whole foods. Dr. Ted Morter, in his book Your Health...YourChoice says, “Its much like taking a statement out of context, you might get the fullbenefit of it but more likely what you get is distorted”. Supplements may also cause youto feel better for some time, as they add stimulation and nutrients you need to parts ofyour body, but over time you will find you need more and more supplements to feel asgood, and that you are becoming dependent on supplements. This is because supplementsare able to add stimulation to the body in the short term, but they cannot correct the causeof your problem. 41 Supplements, for this reason should never be taken in isolation over along period of time, but should only be used to correct chronic health problems in theshort term. The long term solution for your health must come from real and whole foods.The only acceptable long-term supplements are those made from whole foods such asdried barley, wheatgrass, vegetables, fruits or greens. However, even these can cause animbalance in the body over time if they are taken daily as they do not provide the widespectrum or variety of nutrients the body needs over a long period of time.Another interesting fact about fake foods is that they often cause allergic reactionsin people when the “real” version of the food does not. In fact, produce contaminated byantibiotics, bacteria and hormones cause problems for people who, when eating the sameorganic produce, are fine. 42 Furthermore, organic produce has a higher nutrient contentthan produce grown with all these pesticides. 43 An average of two hundred pounds ofchemical fertilizer is used per acre every year on non-organic crops. 44Perhaps our mass consumption of all these fake foods is what prompted AbramHoffer, MD, Ph.D. and Walter Morton, DPM, to say, “The American junk diet is theWestern form of malnutrition.” 45The Fifth Building Block of Health: Eat Raw FoodsExamples in Scriptures of the Virtues of Raw Foods:And God said, "Behold, I have given you every plant yielding seedwhich is upon the face of all the earth, and every tree with seed in itsfruit; you shall have them for food (Genesis 1:29: Bible)Then to eat of all the produce of the earth and find with skill thespacious Paths of the Lord; there issues from within their bodies adrink of varying colors wherein is healing for men. (16:69: Koran)The fifth building block of health is to eat raw foods. In fact, humans are the onlyspecies on earth that try to exist on cooked enzymeless meals without the proper balance41 Morter, Dr. Ted M. Jr., MA, Your Health...Your Choice. Lifetime Books Inc., 1995. Page 211.42 Krohn, Jacqueline, MD, The Whole Way to Allergy Relief and Prevention. Hartley and Marks, 1991. Page7.43 . Morter, Dr. Ted M. Jr., MA, Your Health...Your Choice. Lifetime Books Inc., 1995. Page 181.44 Jensen, Bernard, Ph.D.., The Chemistry of Man. Bernard Jensen, 1983. Page 9.45 Hoffer, Abram, MD, Ph.D.., and Walker, Morton, DPM, Putting it all Together: The NewOrthomolecular Nutrition. Keats Publishing, 1978. Page 18.

12of raw and living foods! 46 Enzymes are the catalyst that help substances to either combineor break down in our body. They are important in every bodily function and cooked foodsdo not have them. The body does produce a limited amount of its own enzymes and alsostores enzymes. Despite this fact, we need these enzymes for use in repairing andrebuilding our body in times of illness or stress. 47 If we use all of our body’s storedenzymes up just to help us digest our food (which we eat too much of anyway!) then wewon’t have them when we are sick and really need them.When raw plants are eaten the enzymes contained in the plants assist our digestivesystem to process the food we just ate. Without enzymes the food we eat is “dead” so rawfood is sometimes referred to as “living” food. That does not mean we should be eatinglive cows, however, to get our meat. Cooking changes the nature of the bonds that holdfood together and makes them stronger and less digestible but cooking also has somebenefits and recent research has shown that cooking, although it also destroys somenutrients, also enhances or reveals others. 48 So most natural health advocates recommendstarting out by eating at least 30% raw foods and then moving up to 75% raw if you canmanage. 49 But how raw does raw food have to be? Even low to moderate heat (118degrees ) destroys most enzymes. 50 In fact, most of what we do to food destroys enzymesand nutrients in our food .Peeling, boiling, cooking, roasting, baking and poaching alldestroy minerals in our food. 51So should we eat meat raw? Most people cannot handle raw meat. However milkis an animal product one should try to obtain raw. Milk appears to be a raw food (it justcomes straight out of the cow doesn’t it?) but it is not. Once milk is pasteurized the bondsthat hold the minerals together are altered and the calcium may not be as usable. Evencalves die on pasteurized milk. 52The Sixth Building Block of Health: Eat Foods AppropriatelyExamples in Scriptures of the Virtues of Appropriate Eating:These all look to thee, to give them their food in due season. (Psalms104:27:Bible)“Eat of the good things We have provided for your sustenance butcommit no excess therein” (Koran 20:81)If you will diligently hearken to the voice of the Lord your God, and do thatwhich is right in His eyes, and give heed to His commandments and keepall His statutes, I will put none of the diseases upon you which I put uponthe Egyptians; for I am the Lord, your healer. (Exodus15:26: Bible)"Take care of yourself, and guard your soul diligently" (Deuteronomy46 Romano, Rita, Dining in the Raw. Kensington Books, 1992. Page 15.47 Romano, Rita, Dining in the Raw. Kensington Books, 1992. Page 15.48 48Hours Special Report 7/14/9949 Morter, Dr. Ted M. Jr., MA, Your Health...Your Choice. Lifetime Books Inc., 1995. Page 37.50 Balch, James F., MD and Phyllis A., CNC, Prescription for Nutritional Healing Second Edition. AveryPress, 1997. Page 47.51 Jensen, Bernard, Ph.D.., The Chemistry of Man. Bernard Jensen, 1983. Page 178.52 Morter, Dr. Ted M. Jr., MA, Your Health...Your Choice. Lifetime Books Inc., 1995. Page 166.

134:9: Old Testament)The sixth building block of health is to eat foods appropriately. Eating foodsappropriately means that foods should be eaten by who they were meant to be eaten by,how they were meant to be eaten, when they were meant to be eaten, and in combinationsthat are suitable. As a nation we are eating any food we want at any time and combining itin any way we want without any thought to the benefit or harm we are doing to ourbodies. Even worse, with the emergence of international trading and the ease of shoppingin mega grocery stores we are able to get foods from all corners of the earth even if wehave lived in the same town our entire lives.Eating the food you were meant to be eating refers to eating foods that belong inyour type or category. Abram Hoffer, MD, in his book, Putting it all Together: The NewOrtomolecular Nutrition, says, “The range of variation between individuals is enormous.Some people become violently ill from ingesting foods that are nutritious for others. Thistruth explodes the myth of the RDAs. “ 53All systems of natural medicine have some sort of category of types to use as aguideline. There is not any evidence that one system is better than another, but there isevidence that using A system is better than using NO system. The Chinese system ofhealing divides people into dry, damp, hot, cold, deficient and excess. 54 The Ayurvedicsystem divides people into vata, pitta & kapha (air water and fire) 55 . In the Ayurvedicsystem the Vata (air) predominant type is prone to neurological disorders, coldness, anddryness. Foods that have cool energy, dry and rough qualities with bitter or astringenttastes aggravate Vata. Vata should instead have warm, moist, nourishing, sweet and saltyand sour foods. 56 Bernard Jensen’s system based on Rocine’s system of types dividespeople into categories corresponding to the various minerals such as calcium, magnesiumand sulphur. 57 In his guidelines he mentions that people who are mentally high strungshould eat more calcium foods since it is one of the greatest elements used to “ground”people. People who use their brains a great deal use up phosphorus and need to increasetheir intake of that mineral. 58 Many years of experimentation and observation led Rocineto the understanding that different people, due to inherent temperament metabolicdisposition, mental activity and predominant faculties use the basic chemical elements atdifferent rates, producing chemicals in the body which then correspond to distinct types.He identified 20 types of people. 59 One bestseller in 1997, called Eat Right for your Typedivides people into four blood groups.Eating right for a condition or type takes a lot of planning. One needs to be awareof what foods are not suitable for them, which foods are suitable and what various foodswill do in general. Many people may have figured this out for themselves by the time they53 Hoffer, Abram, MD, Ph.D.., and Walker, Morton, DPM, Putting it all Together: The NewOrthomolecular Nutrition. Keats Publishing, 1978. Page 9.54 Tierra, Michael, CA, ND. Planetary Herbology. Lotus Press, 1988. Page 80.55 Tierra, Michael, CA, ND. Planetary Herbology. Lotus Press, 1988. Page 77.56 Tierra, Michael, CA, ND. Planetary Herbology. Lotus Press, 1988. Page 74.57 Jensen, Bernard, Ph.D.., The Chemistry of Man. Bernard Jensen, 1983.58 Jensen, Bernard, Ph.D.., The Chemistry of Man. Bernard Jensen, 1983. Page 40.59 Jensen, Bernard, Ph.D.., The Chemistry of Man. Bernard Jensen, 1983. Page 384.

14learned new system of eating. If a person is not able to follow an exact system of eatingfor their type they should at least be aware of what various foods do to different peopleand what foods they are allergic or sensitive to. This awareness will enable them to “eatfor their type” at least on a moderate level.For instance, contractive foods like meat and salt cause the body to draw in orcontract it resources inward (to help in the digestion of these complex foods). The bodymust devote a lot of resources to processing contractive foods. This energy willeventually rebound out in the form of a temper tantrum or some other outburst. Expansivefoods like fruits, on the other hand, cause the body to expand outwards and keep energylevels on the surface. So when a person eats a lot of fruit their energy tends to stay on thesurface and is expressed intensely. They may seem “up in the clouds” a lot. Obviouslysomeone with a temper should avoid eating a lot of meat and someone with a problemconcentrating should avoid eating too much fruit. 60 Bernard Jensen emphasizes this whensays, “We need to be very cautious of the vibratory rate of meat which is very stimulatingto the ego centers of the brain which can be very destructive.” Although he also statesthat, “Nearly all of the oldest people I encountered in my travels around the world weremeat eaters.” 61 so apparently meat is not a forbidden factor in health and longevity either.Eating foods one is allergic to, should also be avoided. In fact, being allergic tofoods could be an indicator of what food type a person is. By avoiding foods one has asensitivity or aversion to they may be naturally eating for their type. This is one reasonchildren should not be forced to eat things they dislike. As long as they are offered avariety of healthy, whole, and raw foods at each meal, the child should be able to chosewhich he or she likes from this selection. Take note that being allergic to a food does notmean that one will break out in hives or have an asthma attack. A person may notice moresubtle reactions such as headaches, itching in the throat, indigestion, or perhaps even justan unexplainable aversion to the food. Sometimes a person may even experience theopposite - an extreme obsession with the food. However small or large the reaction is,though, do not brush it aside. Jacqueline Krohn, in her book The Whole Way to AllergyRelief and Prevention warns, “If you continue to eat foods to which you’re allergic,without rotation or extracts you will experience reactions with every meal and snack.Continued reactions over a long period of time will weaken your immune system.” 62Eating right for a type may also include taking into account age, weight, sex ornationality. Women, for instance, lose calcium through menstruation and need to beaware of that fact once a month in their diet plan. 63 The elderly need to be more carefulabout food combining in general because their systems are weaker and less able totolerate excesses in diet. In children the thyroid does not begin to function until they aretwo to five years old so they should be supplied with extra iodine rich foods to protectthem from toxins. 64Nonetheless, and despite all the rules and regulations of these systems, the wisest,60 Morter, Dr. Ted M. Jr., MA, Your Health...Your Choice. Lifetime Books Inc., 1995. Page 207.61 . Jensen, Bernard, Ph.D.., The Chemistry of Man. Bernard Jensen, 1983. Page 17.62 Morter, Dr. Ted M. Jr., MA, Your Health...Your Choice. Lifetime Books Inc., 1995. Page 119.63 . Jensen, Bernard, Ph.D.., The Chemistry of Man. Bernard Jensen, 1983. Page 34.64 . Jensen, Bernard, Ph.D.., The Chemistry of Man. Bernard Jensen, 1983. Page 197.

15easiest and most natural way to “eat right for a type” is to simply eat what is around andwhat is in season. Donald Lepore, an expert on Kinesiology and allergy preventionbelieves, “God did not permit foods that are antagonistic to man’s existence to be grownin the area of consumption”. 65 I agree with him. We can often avoid most of our problemsby simply eating foods that are grown nearby and in season, and perhaps adding orsubtracting from this selection according to our age, stage (pregnant, nursing, man orwoman), and tastes (we should still avoid items we are allergic to). This is perhaps oneof the best arguments for shopping at the farmer’s market instead of the grocery store. Atthe farmer’s market consumers can buy what is fresh, grows around them and is inseason. At the grocery store shoppers will find fruits and vegetables from all over theworld, and usually picked before they are ripe so as to lengthen their shelf life. Immaturefruits and vegetables are deficient in sodium content among other things. 66 We also needto be aware of the season for non-produce items when we are shopping. Barley heats theblood and thus makes a wonderful Winter soup but is not very advisable in the hotSummer months. 67The order and combination of foods is also very important in how they effect thehealth. Deciding which foods to combine in which order may seem difficult, but there areactually only a few basic rules to follow. The first rule is that fresh fruit must not be eatenwith any other food, even dried fruit. Fruit is classified as a pre-digested food whichmoves straight through the stomach and into the intestines. When it combines with anyother food in the stomach it will ferment itself and anything else in the stomach. 68 This isperhaps the easiest rule to remember because traditionally fresh fruit is always eaten aloneas a snack or desert item (Without whip cream or cobbler crust). However, the easiestway to remember proper food combination is to know why certain combinations work andwhy others do not work. When a person understands why some combinations don’t work,then they will not have trouble remembering the rules.The second rule of food combining is to start each meal off with something raw. 69The reason is because raw foods contain the enzymes that help us to digest our food.Furthermore, just like the first rule, this is also a traditional practice in most cultures.Traditionally and formally the salads and hors devours (that often contain other rawitems) are eaten before a meal. So the answer to, “Why do we eat salads first and desertslast?” lies in the laws of proper food order and combining.The third rule of food combining is to not mix protein and starches. One may eatstarches with vegetables and vegetables with meat, but should try to avoid combiningstarches and proteins. 70 The reason is that proteins and starches require completelydifferent environments for digestion. If a person combines them, neither will end uphaving the ideal environment. This will not make a person sick, but will simply mean that65 Lepore, Donald, ND, The Ultimate Healing System. Lepore, 1985. Page 10.66 Jensen, Bernard, DC, Ph.D.., The Science and Practice of Iridology Volume I. Bernard JensenInternational, 1995. Page 336.67 . Jensen, Bernard, Ph.D.., The Chemistry of Man. Bernard Jensen, 1983. Page 40.68 Frahm, Anne E. and David J., A Cancer Battle Plan. Tarcher & Putnam Press, 1992. Page 79.69 Morter, Dr. Ted M. Jr., MA, Your Health...Your Choice. Lifetime Books Inc., 1995. Page 225.70 Morter, Dr. Ted M. Jr., MA, Your Health...Your Choice. Lifetime Books Inc., 1995. Page 225.

16what they are eating is not being digested and utilized to the most of its ability whichmeans they are not getting the benefit from the food they are eating which means theywill need to eat more food and to have more nutrients as well. Proteins need a more acidicenvironment for digestion while carbohydrates and starches can be prepared for digestionat a much quicker rate. 71 Furthermore, a protein meal takes up to five hours to be digestedso it should be the last meal of the day since your body needs to concentrate on digestingit.“How much” is also a factor when considering what to eat. Moderation is alwaysa good choice. If all the foods you choose are whole and natural it would be hard to findsomething wrong with eating them. But anything in excess can be detrimental to yourhealth and this is clearly illustrated in our consumption of two substances: proteins andsugar. Abram Hoffer, MD, author of Putting it all Together: The New OrthomolecularNutrition states that, “The only difference between sugar addiction and heroin addiction isthat sugar does not need an injection.” 72 and Dr. Ted Morter, author of YourHealth...Your Choice states that “Too much protein leads to toxicity” 73Excess protein consumption leads to an over acid environment in the body. Thisenvironment does not allow the normal cellular functions of the body to perform correctlyand causes leaching of minerals from the organs. In fact, as little as forty seven grams ofprotein a day can cause your body to lose more calcium than you take in with your food. 74It is difficult to see protein as a culprit, though, since a plump fried chicken can taste sogood and keep one full for so long. It seems that something that tastes good and gives usso much energy cannot be “bad”. However, the fact that we are full for so long is notnecessarily good news for our digestive system. It may be annoying to feel hungry everytwo or three hours, but it is even more annoying to the body to have the heavy proteinload of meat sitting in the intestines for five hours or more. The more a food sits in thebody, the more chance the body has of soaking up toxins from that substance and if oneeats non-organic meats, their body is soaking up even more than toxins. It is soaking uphormones and antibiotics as well. In fact, the higher people eat up the food chain, fromgrains to fruits to leafy vegetables and all the way up to milk, eggs and animal meats, thehigher the concentration of pesticides and other chemical pollutants are in the food. Dairyproducts alone have a 250% increase in toxins over leafy vegetables and a 1500%increase over root vegetables.Another deceptive thing about protein is that it gives us so much energy. Weusually eat food to give us energy so this seems like a good thing. However, protein doesnot increase energy - it stimulates nervous energy. In fact protein is second only to drugsas a major stimulant. Even coffee, cola drinks and tea are weak stimulants compared toprotein. 75Sugar is another deceptive food. Sugar tastes good and enhances the taste of many71 Morter, Dr. Ted M. Jr., MA, Your Health...Your Choice. Lifetime Books Inc., 1995. Page 221.72 Hoffer, Abram, MD, Ph.D.., and Walker, Morton, DPM, Putting it all Together: The NewOrthomolecular Nutrition. Keats Publishing, 1978. Page 89.73 Morter, Dr. Ted M. Jr., MA, Your Health...Your Choice. Lifetime Books Inc., 1995. Page 27.74 Morter, Dr. Ted M. Jr., MA, Your Health...Your Choice. Lifetime Books Inc., 1995. Page 119.75 Morter, Dr. Ted M. Jr., MA, Your Health...Your Choice. Lifetime Books Inc., 1995. Page 119.

17other substances. However, sugar increases appetite, interferes with digestion of foods,and leaches vitamins and minerals out of the system (especially calcium and sodium).Basically, sugar harms us by stimulating the physiological activity of the body into action,but then not providing any enzymes, vitamins or minerals to process it. So it then musttake the nutrients it needs from the body to process itself in the body. This leaves us witha shortage of nutrients which causes us to feel hungrier and in the long run may causevisible nutrient deficiencies. 76 Many people, believing that only white sugar is bad, usehoney or other sweeteners as a substitute, but all sugars and sweeteners (even honey)ultimately have similar effects on the body even if some substances show these effectsstronger than others.Nancy Appleton, MD, who wrote Lick the Sugar Habit lists the following thingsthat sugar can do to our body: Suppress the immune system (three soft drinks will wipeout the immune system for the day); upset the minerals in the body; cause hyperactivity,anxiety, and difficulty concentrating; produce a significant rise in triglycerides, causereduction in defense against bacterial infection, cause kidney damage, reduce high densitylipoproteins, lead to chromium deficiency, lead to breast, ovarian or prostate cancer;increase fasting levels of glucose and insulin, cause copper deficiency, interfere withabsorption of calcium and magnesium, weaken eyesight, raise the levels ofneurotransmitters called seratonin, cause hypoglycemia, produce acidic stomach, causeaging, arthritis, asthma, candida, gallstones, appendicitis, heart disease, varicose veins,and periodontal disease; increase cholesterol and migraine headaches; interfere with theabsorption of protein, cause toxemia during pregnancy, impair the structure of DNA,cause cataracts; and cause hunger pangs and overeating.Artificial sweeteners are even more dangerous. Aspartame, long considered a“safe” sugar substitute and the one people turn to to try to avoid all the sugar problemslisted above actually may cause more problems than the sugar people are trying to avoid.This is not surprising considering that Aspartame breaks all the rules of a healthy food. Itis not raw, it is not whole, and it is a fake food. Aspartame is made of phenylalanine,aspartic acid (two amino acids) and methanol (commonly known as methyl alcohol orwood alcohol). Consumption of Aspartame can cause a flooding of amino acids in thebloodstream, blindness, brain swelling, and inflammation of the pancreas and heart.Aspartame has also been reported to cause headaches, mood swings, changes in vision,nausea and diarrhea, sleep disorders, memory loss and confusion and convulsions. It isespecially unsafe for children. 77The Seventh Building Block of Health: ExerciseExamples in Scriptures of the Virtues of Exercise:When My servants ask thee concerning Me, I am indeed close (tothem): I respond to the prayer of every suppliant when he calleth onMe: Let them also, with a will, Listen to My call, and believe in Me:76 Morter, Dr. Ted M. Jr., MA, Your Health...Your Choice. Lifetime Books Inc., 1995. Page 83.77 Balch, James F., MD and Phyllis A., CNC, Prescription for Nutritional Healing Second Edition. AveryPress, 1997. Page 9.

18That they may walk in the right way. (Koran 2:186) 78The physical bending , prostating act of prayer, performed five timesa day by all Muslims is said by some to have physical benefits of thosesimilar to exercise. 79Arise, walk through the length and the breadth of the land, for I willgive it to you." (Genesis 13:17: Old Testament)After this he appeared in another form to two of them, as they werewalking into the country. (Mark 16:12:Bible)And they were on the road, going up to Jerusalem, and Jesus waswalking ahead of them; and they were amazed, and those who followedwere afraid. And taking the twelve again, he began to tell them what wasto happen to him. (Mark 10:32: Bible)The seventh building block of health is exercise. Exercise is the motion that causes thebody to circulate the good nutrients we (hopefully) put into it. Bernard Jensen says that“A body can become anemic with the best blood stream in the world if the blood does notcirculate fast enough.” 80 Exercise is what gets the blood moving and keeps it moving. Ahealthy flow of blood means better assimilation, less time for toxins to settle and quickerelimination. A good indication for how important exercise is to bodily function is thatafter surgery, when a person must be confined to bed, it is found that muscles, nerves, andmany body functions begin to suffer from just a few days of inactivity. 81Exercise does not have to be formal or vigorous for it to be beneficial. Walking inthe grass before breakfast helps stimulate blood to circulate in the extremities andbarefoot walking (not jogging) is the best method of developing the small muscles whichhelp return blood to the heart. 82 In fact, a brisk walk can so efficiently get the bloodflowing and body clearing itself that a walk can even clear allergic reactions. 83Exercise is an extremely important part of any health maintenance program. AsTed Morter says in his book, Your Health...Your Choice, “ Health is served at the mealtable, muscles and stamina are built by exercise.” 84 However, Morter calls exercise “thecherry on top” meaning that exercise is an addition to good eating and not a substitute forit. You can not get healthy by exercising or having a personal trainer at the gym. Youmust first eat healthy so when you exercise your body has the right fuel to pump throughit. In fact, too much exercise combined with the wrong eating habits can even be deadly.For instance, if a person has a large meal with an acidifying effect on the body (as most of78 Note that in all passages the reference is to “walk with God” and not “sit with God”.79 Akili, Imam Muhammad, Medicine of the Prophet, Pearl Publishing House 1994. Page 191.80 . Jensen, Bernard, DC, Ph.D.., The Science and Practice of Iridology Volume I. Bernard JensenInternational, 1995. Page 84.81 Krohn, Jacqueline, MD, The Whole Way to Allergy Relief and Prevention. Hartley and Marks, 1991. Page275.82 . Jensen, Bernard, DC, Ph.D.., The Science and Practice of Iridology Volume I. Bernard JensenInternational, 1995. Page 171.83 Krohn, Jacqueline, MD, The Whole Way to Allergy Relief and Prevention. Hartley and Marks, 1991. Page263.84 Morter, Dr. Ted M. Jr., MA, Your Health...Your Choice. Lifetime Books Inc., 1995. Page 235.

19our American meals are) and the goes out to exercise, this person can die from the overacidity in their body. Exercise itself causes the acidity level in the blood to rise and acidon top of acid in the body can be fatal. 85 Perhaps this is part of the wisdom behind theoften-disputed rule, “Don’t go swimming on a full stomach.”Exercise is even more important in cases of recovery. Anne Frahm, in her book ACancer Battle Plan, lists three reasons that exercise is beneficial for recovery: to provideemotional nourishment, to alleviate family fears, to relieve fears and tension, and tostrengthen the recovering body as it stimulates the immune system. She says that exerciseis emotionally nourishing because when patients realize they can be active and do normalactivities like go to the gym, they become less fearful. The families themselves alsobecome less fearful for the patient, and tend to see them more as a “person recovering”than a “person with cancer”. 86The Eighth Building Block of Health: Use Pure Water & Breathe Fresh AirExamples in Scriptures of the Virtues of Pure Air and Water: 87And when he had said this, he breathed on them, and said to them,"Receive the Holy Spirit. (John 20:22: Bible)But man dies, and is laid low; man breathes his last, and where is he?(Job 14:10)Let everything that breathes praise the LORD! Praise the LORD!(Psalms 105:6: Bible)And they said, An Egyptian delivered us out of the hand of theshepherds, and also drew [water] abundantly for us, and watered theflock. (Exodus 2:19: Old Testament)When they came to Marah, they could not drink the water of Marahbecause it was bitter; therefore it was named Marah. (Exodus 15:23:Old Testament)And he cried to the LORD; and the LORD showed him a tree, and hethrew it into the water, and the water became sweet. There the LORDmade for them a statute and an ordinance and there he proved them.(Exodus 15:25: Bible)Then they came to Elim, where there were twelve springs of water andseventy palm trees; and they encamped there by the water. (Exodus15:27: Old Testament)And remember Moses prayed for water for his people; We said:"Strike the rock with thy staff." Then gushed forth therefrom twelvesprings. Each group knew its own place for water. So eat and drink ofthe sustenance provided by Allah, and do no evil nor mischief on the85 Morter, Dr. Ted M. Jr., MA, Your Health...Your Choice. Lifetime Books Inc., 1995. Page 63.86 Frahm, Anne E. and David J., A Cancer Battle Plan. Tarcher & Putnam Press, 1992. Page 85.87 Take note in the following passages that purity is associated with water in general and that the wordbreathe is used synonymously with the word life.

20(face of the) earth. (Koran 2:60)In front of such a one is Hell, and he is given, for drink, boiling fetidwater. (Koran 14:16) The righteous (will be) amid Gardens andfountains (of clear-flowing water). (Koran 15:45)Narrated Abu Huraira: Allah's Apostle said, "If a fly falls in thevessel of any of you, let him dip all of it (into the vessel) and thenthrow it away, for in one of its wings there is a disease and in theother there is healing (antidote for it) i e. the treatment for thatdisease." (Muslim Sahih Buhkari: Volume 7, Book 71, Number 673)“We made water essential for every life” (Koran 21:30)“The human being has never filled a container worse than hisstomach. Hense it would be sufficient for the son of Adam to satisfyhis hunger with a few bites to strengthen his backbone. If he must eathis fill then he should allow for one third food, one third water andone third air.” (Hadith of the Prophet Muhammad: Masnad)You shall serve the Lord your God, and I will bless your bread andyour water; and I will take sickness away from the midst of you. Noneshall cast her young or be barren in your land; I will fulfill the numberof your days. (Exodus 23:25,26 Old Testament)The eighth principal of health is to drink pure water and breathe fresh air. As anation we are obsessed with what we eat and what supplements we can take, but we oftenoverlook the two most obvious sources of our health problems - water and air. The humanbody is two thirds water and this water is involved in every bodily process includingdigestion, absorption, circulation and excretion. 88 We take in from 300-400 gallons of airper day to keep us alive 89 and the one thing we cannot last without for even a few minutesis air. We can go without water for a few days and food for perhaps a month. but withoutair we die very quickly. It is amazing, then, with the importance of these two substancesthat we worry much about our food at all!The six ways we can absorb toxins from our water is to drink it, cook with it, buycanned products canned with it, swim in it, bathe in it, or shower in it. If a person isdrinking, cooking with and showering with water from the tap and swimming in the localpool they are absorbing toxins. All water that comes into public systems has its source incontamination. In the original water source there may be parasites, virus, herbicides,pesticides, cyanides, asbestos, and industrial chemicals. Even residues from pesticidesused decades ago may still be present in the water system today. 90 This polluted water isthen treated with chlorine, fluoride, carbon, lime, phosphates, soda, ash, and aluminumsulfate to “purify” it, then sent through zinc and cadmium pipe joints and copper pipes toour home. It is ironic that we use chemicals to combat the chemicals and pollutants that88 Balch, James F., MD and Phyllis A., CNC, Prescription for Nutritional Healing Second Edition. AveryPress, 1997. Pages 3 & 30.89 Shook, Edward E., ND, DC, Advance Treatise in Herbology. Wendell Whitman Company. Page 318.90 Balch, James F., MD and Phyllis A., CNC, Prescription for Nutritional Healing Second Edition. AveryPress, 1997. Page 30.

21are already in the water. It is like adding insult to injury. To be precise, forty seven“insults” in all are added to our water to disinfect, fluoridate, soften, coagulate,chlorinate, oxidate, condition, neutralize, and control odor and color. 91 Among thesechemicals are chlorine and fluoride. Chlorine can cause allergic reactions and can eitherbe absorbed or ingested and leaches potassium and sodium from the body, causing anelectrolyte depletion. 92 The salts used to fluoridate our nation’s water supply, sodiumfluoride and florosamicic acid are industrial byproducts that are never found in nature.They are so toxic they are used in rat poisons as well. 93 We can get all the natural fluorinewe need from fish, bones, quince and raw goats milk. 94Unfortunately, the only way to remove fluorine from your water is to use reverseosmosis, distillation or activated aluminum filtration. All of these systems are veryexpensive and they all have drawbacks as well, the main drawback being that the water isbeing processed to such a great extent that in the end you are drinking just H20 and notjust plain pure natural water anymore. Distilled water can even be detrimental to thehealth if used over the long term as it leaches minerals from the body when we drink it.Many people think the worst thing about distilled water is that its nutrient value has beeneliminated, but do not realize that it also leaches minerals from the body. Long term useeffects the mineral storage facilities in the body. 95 Nevertheless, experts agree that a waterlacking in its original nutrients is still superior to water laden with chemicals and toxins,so to use the best water you can, you need to filter it in some way. All filters remove dirt,rust and sediment, although some do a better job than others. Most department storefilters will take out 98% of chlorine, and up to 95% of heavy metals such as lead,aluminum, mercury and copper, significantly reducing zinc, cadmium, and sulfates. Moresophisticated filters like the Katadyn will take out 100% of parasites, cysts and bacteria.In between there are many choices. You can get a countertop distiller, a six-stepultraviolet sterilization unit, and reverse osmosis units with varying degrees ofadvancement. In the end you need to choose the system that suits you. A system thatclaims 100% removal of bacteria would be overkill for someone who has water comingfrom a city system that has already killed all the bacteria with the chlorine. A personliving in a farming district would want to make sure they have a unit that filterspesticides, and a person in the suburbs or city may want to get their water tested beforethey make a final decision on what they will use. A person can also buy water in bottlesbut they need to be careful as, much of the “bottled water” today is just as good as whatcomes out of the tap without a filter.Air is the other major substance we need to purify around our homes. Air is sovaluable, in fact, that people in polluted areas such as Los Angeles have only onethousandth as much air to breathe as they would under normal conditions. 96 A professor91 Jensen, Bernard, Ph.D.., The Chemistry of Man. Bernard Jensen, 1983. Page 70.92 Lepore, Donald, ND, The Ultimate Healing System. Lepore, 1985. Page 57.93 Balch, James F., MD and Phyllis A., CNC, Prescription for Nutritional Healing Second Edition. AveryPress, 1997. Page 32.94 Jensen, Bernard, Ph.D.., The Chemistry of Man. Bernard Jensen, 1983. Page 165.95 Lepore, Donald, ND, The Ultimate Healing System. Lepore, 1985. Page 340.96 Jensen, Bernard, Ph.D.., The Chemistry of Man. Bernard Jensen, 1983. Page 258.

22or Entomology and Agricultural science has reported that 65% of the pesticides used inthe USA are applied by aircraft and that about 50-75% of this ends up in the environmentwhile only 25% hits the intended target. 97 Cleaning and personal care products are otherbig air pollution offenders. Formaldehyde, found in air fresheners, glue and moth ballscan cause breathing problems in many people. 98 Many more people are allergic orsensitive to synthetic scents and other chemicals found in cleaners, air fresheners, aromacandles, deodorants, dish soap, laundry soap, perfumes, deodorant sprays, shampoos andmore. By not using natural products in our bathrooms and cleaning buckets we are justadding more pollution to our air. Some pollutants can be removed with sophisticated airfilters and some houseplants such as the spider plant, are very good air filters. However,the best way to avoid air pollution is to try to live in a place far from traffic, factories orother industrial pollutants, to use natural cleaning products and to use natural personalcare products.The Ninth Building Block of Health: HygieneExamples in Scriptures of the Virtues of Hygiene:...and He loves those who keep themselves pure and clean. (Koran2:222)Or if any one touches an unclean thing, whether the carcass of anunclean beast or a carcass of unclean cattle or a carcass of uncleanswarming things, and it is hidden from him, and he has become unclean,he shall be guilty. (Leviticus 5:2: OT)"And when he who has a discharge is cleansed of his discharge, thenhe shall count for himself seven days for his cleansing, and wash hisclothes; and he shall bathe his body in running water, and shall beclean. (Leviticus 5:13: Old Testament)Jesus said to him, "He who has bathed does not need to wash, except forhis feet, but he is clean all over; and you are clean, but not every one ofyou." (John 13:10: New Testament)Approach not prayers with mind befogged...and until after washingyour whole body...(4:43: Koran)The ninth principal of health is to keep good hygiene. The skin is the largest organon the body and performs much of the elimination job of toxins from the body. When thisorgan is clogged with dirt or sweat that has not been washed off, it cannot perform its jobproperly. Water, mild soap and perhaps a luffa sponge are sufficient for this purposealthough some people consider a luffa essential as it buffs the old skin cells from the skin,allowing the new ones to flourish, and the old ones to avoid clogging. Brushing of theteeth is also very important. New evidence has linked everything from cancer to heartdisease back to periodontal disease. The theory is that germs and bacteria can enter theblood stream through unhealthy pockets in the teeth and cause disease. Prevention is97 Jensen, Bernard, Ph.D.., The Chemistry of Man. Bernard Jensen, 1983. Page 10.98 Krohn, Jacqueline, MD, The Whole Way to Allergy Relief and Prevention. Hartley and Marks, 1991. Page130.

23emphasized in this category.The Tenth Building Block of Health: Use Nature to HealExamples in Scriptures of the Using Nature to Heal:“God never inflicts a disease unless he makes a cure for it...”(Hadith of the Prophet Muhammad related by Abu Hurairah)“ And when I sicken, God heals me” (26:80 Koran)The prophet of Islam, Muhammad, was known for his skill as anatural and spiritual healer, using various natural therapies,herbs, foods and even recitations of the Koran to heal people. Hisknowledge and guidance have been written down in at least 30volumes of his life practices, as well as hundreds of books onProphetic Medicine, a handful of which have been translated intoEnglish .Through the middle of the street of the city; also, on either side ofthe river, the tree of life with its twelve kinds of fruit, yielding itsfruit each month; and the leaves of the tree were for the healing ofthe nations. (Revalations: Bible)Go up to Gilead, and take balm, O virgin daughter of Egypt! Invain you have used many medicines; there is no healing for you.(Jeremiah 46:11: Bible)And on the banks, on both sides of the river, there will grow all kindsof trees for food. Their leaves will not wither nor their fruit fail, butthey will bear fresh fruit every month, because the water for themflows from the sanctuary. Their fruit will be for food, and theirleaves for healing." (Ezekial 47:12: Old Testament)Narrated Abu Said Al-Khudri: A man came to the Prophet andsaid, "My brother has some abdominal trouble." The Prophet saidto him "Let him drink honey." The man came for the second timeand the Prophet said to him, 'Let him drink honey." He came forthe third time and the Prophet said, "Let him drink honey." Hereturned again and said, "I have done that ' The Prophet thensaid, "Allah has said the truth, but your brother's abdomen hastold a lie. Let him drink honey." So he made him drink honey andhe was cured. (Volume 7, Book 71, Number 588: Sahih Bukhari:Muslim)Narrated Um Qais bint Mihsan: I heard the Prophet saying, "Treatwith the Indian incense, for it has healing for seven diseases; it is tobe sniffed by one having throat trouble, and to be put into one side ofthe mouth of one suffering from pleurisy." Once I went to Allah'sApostle with a son of mine who would not eat any food, and the boypassed urine on him whereupon he asked for some water andsprinkled it over the place of urine. (Volume 7, Book 71, Number596: Sahih Bukhari: Muslim)Narrated 'Aisha: The Prophet used to treat some of his wives by

24passing his right hand over the place of ailment and used to say,"O Allah, the Lord of the people! Remove the trouble and heal thepatient, for You are the Healer. No healing is of any avail butYours; healing that will leave behind no ailment." (Volume 7,Book 71, Number 639: Sahih Bukhari: Muslim)Narrated Said bin Zaid: I heard the Prophet saying, "Truffles arelike Manna (i.e. they grow naturally without man's care) and theirwater heals eye diseases." (Volume 7, Book 71, Number 609: SahihBukhari: Muslim)The tenth principal of health is to use natural therapies and substances to heal. Dr.Cheyene, MD, says, “Medical medicines are so destructive to human bodies that malicecould not invent anything more deadly beyond gunpowder itself.” 99 Prescriptionmedicines mask symptoms, cause damage to our bodies, contain harmful chemicals, areoften fatal in certain combinations, and are often prescribed without proper knowledge ortesting. Finally, after all that trouble, they do not even cure.Yet, even though there are numerous studies to prove that prescription medicinesare dangerous and natural medicines are safe, people still hold onto the idea that herbscan’t heal them as well as the chemicals can. Why is this? Perhaps because of the massmarketing that drug companies do lately, people are being brainwashed into believing thepower of prescription medicines. It is certainly not hard to be brainwashed. In oneevening of television the audience will see a full scale model of how the stomach’s acid isdisintegrated by a leading antacid, and another person’s heartwarming tale of how aleading headache medicine gave them their life back. The pictures are so amazing, theclaims so promising and the people so convincing viewers forget they are looking atactors getting paid by people who have a lot of money because they are selling thisproduct. When the public see these pictures night after night and then read the ads againin their favorite magazine and see posters on the wall of the doctor’s office, what can theydo?Yet, if pharmaceuticals are so extraordinary then why do the royal family of GreatBritain steer clear of them and use only homeopathy? And why have they been using itsince 1755 and enjoying a history of fantastic family health that is envied world wide? 100And if pharmaceuticals are so wonderful then why did Rome banish theirs after seeing thewonders of healing accomplished by Hippocrates with only a few herbs? Rome had reliedon her physicians for six centuries, much longer than we have relied on ours, yet theywere wise enough to see the miracle in herbal healing and were able to recover as anation. 101 Perhaps it is time for us to “recover as a nation as well”. In 1900 a healthsurvey was taken of 110 nations and in this survey the United States ranked 13th from thetop for good health. Recently another survey was taken of 79 nations and the UnitedStates ranked 79th. 102 Perhaps that is because over seventy-five percent of the world’s99 Shook, Edward E., ND, DC, Advance Treatise in Herbology. Wendell Whitman Company. Page 42.100 Jensen, Bernard, Ph.D.., The Chemistry of Man. Bernard Jensen, 1983. Page 364.101 Shook, Edward E., ND, DC, Advance Treatise in Herbology. Wendell Whitman Company. Page 102.102 Schumacher, Teresa, Cleansing the Body and the Colon for a Happier and Healthier You. 1997. Pg. 4.

25population already use natural medicines/herbs to heal. 103 Obviously, even with all of ourmodern tools and medicines something is wrong.Pharmaceuticals are not only not effective in the long run, but harm patients aswell. Pharmaceuticals are designed to give relief to symptoms and that they do well, evenif temporarily. However, they are not designed to, nor will they cure. Have you ever seenor heard an advertisement claim that their product could cure you? Of course not. Anddon’t we all want to be cured, not just pacified? Drugs are to adults what a pacifier is to ababy - not a solution to the problem. 104 The respected herbalist Edward E. Shook said,“Disease is not cured by adding poisons to the body but by eliminating them andobserving the laws of nature and aiding and assisting her in every waypossible.” 105 Chemical products will never cure and in the process of helping the they willjust mask the symptoms meant to be a road map to the cure. When that road map is goneit is hard to tell if a patient is still sick or not, and even harder to cure them when there areno symptoms. Many people become dependent on their drugs only to die years later ofsuppressed symptoms of a disease they could have cured through a natural lifestyle.Two popular over-the-counter medications are also two of the most harmfulsubstances we put in our body: diuretics and antacids. Diuretics not only take fluid out ofthe body, but also the sodium, potassium, and other minerals that might be in the solution,therefore starving the body of essential nutrients. 106 Antacids ignore the fact that mostpeople’s problem is not too much acid in the stomach but not enough acid in the stomach.Health care professional Ted Morter, MA, says, “My clinical experience shows that adeficiency of gastric acid is the cause of acid indigestion” and Maesimund B. Panos, MD,author of Homeopathic Medicine at Home says, “acid is not the villain, it is necessary fordigestion...” 107 When a person takes an antacid on a stomach with deficient hydrochloricacid, the are dissolving the little they do have. This might relieve gas pain, but the personwill not assimilate any nourishment from the food they just ate. 108 Yet, this is not the leastof what damage drugs can do to our bodies. They can shut down functioning organs aswell. The pancreas, for example, when given insulin artificially over time will graduallylose its ability to produce the secretion of pancereatin which is absolutely necessary forthe metabolism of starches. 109Even more horrifying is what is actually in our pharmaceuticals. Experimentsshow that coal tar products produce cancer in rats and guinea pigs (but who cares aboutthe study, who would want to eat coal tar anyway?) yet about 90% of cough syrups andmost of the cold remedies on the market are made from this substance. 110103 Shook, Edward E., ND, DC, Advance Treatise in Herbology. Wendell Whitman Company. Page 31.104 Kristie Burns105 Shook, Edward E., ND, DC, Advance Treatise in Herbology. Wendell Whitman Company. Page 21.106 Lepore, Donald, ND, The Ultimate Healing System. Lepore, 1985. Page 78.107 Panos, Maesimund B., MD, and Heimlich, Jane, Homeopathic Medicine at Home. Tarcher & Putnam,1980. Page 132.108 Lepore, Donald, ND, The Ultimate Healing System. Lepore, 1985. Page 130.109 Shook, Edward E., ND, DC, Advance Treatise in Herbology. Wendell Whitman Company. Page 81.110 Jensen, Bernard, DC, Ph.D.., The Science and Practice of Iridology Volume I. Bernard JensenInternational, 1995/ Page 13.

26However, what is in our medicines is not the least of our worries. Even if themedicines themselves don’t eventually kill us, certain combinations may. To date,hundreds of books are written with hundreds of pages each listing common and deadlydrug-drug and drug-food combinations. Often times patients are not given thisinformation or the doctor is not even aware of it himself. In Deadly Drug Interactions:The People’s Pharmacy Guide, instead of giving case studies and statistics to proveadverse reactions the authors list under each “deadly” heading a number of actual cases.The sad fact is that most deadly reactions have been discovered by the patientsthemselves, and not in the lab before the drugs go to market. 111 This is probably why theworld health organization concluded recently that one in every four people who die inhospitals is killed by prescription drugs. 112Even more shocking is that most of these drugs are prescribed incorrectly, eitherbecause the initial diagnosis was incorrect or because of lack of knowledge on the part ofthe doctor. Senator Edward Kennedy claimed, “physicians are inadequately educatedabout drugs in medical school, then become confused about the use of the 20,000 brandnames for the 700 drug entities, and being too busy tend to rely excessively onmanufacturers for drug information.” 113 In fact 70% of the drugs now in use today werenot even being prescribed when half of today’s doctors were in medical school! 114Misdiagnosis, however, is the biggest problem of all. Dr. Cabot stated that 50% ofdiagnosis made at Massachusetts General Hospital were wrong as shown by post mortemexamination. Professor Drummond, president of the British Medical association foundthat diagnosis was incorrect in 80% of cases shown by post mortem exam. 115 Four otherhospitals in this study showed similar findings. 116 If this study is any indication of theaccuracy of medical diagnostics then it is easy to see how someone could get aprescription that may worsen their condition and potentially kill them.So if all this is true then why do we persist? Why don’t we frown and turn up ournoses in disgust at the entire pharmaceutical industry? Perhaps because our great greatgreat great grandmothers & grandfathers took their families to doctors that usedearthworms, human excrement, hogs’ lice, toads, hen skins, dried human flesh, sheepexcrement to heal. Putting their trust in the medical profession of the time (instead oflistening to that little voice in their head that screamed “YUUUUUCK!”) they consumedthe “drugs” they were given happily and without argument. 117 I believe that in the futureour great great great grandchildren will look back on our medicines with the same disgustwe feel now thinking about digesting sheep excrement and hogs’ lice.111 Graedon, Teresa and Joe, Deadly Drug Interactions: The People’s Pharmacy Guide. St. Martin’s Press1997.112 Oyle, Dr. Irving, The Healing Mind. NA. Page 11.113 Oyle, Dr. Irving, The Healing Mind. NA. Page 10.114 Oyle, Dr. Irving, The Healing Mind. NA. Page 11.115 . Jensen, Bernard, DC, Ph.D.., The Science and Practice of Iridology Volume I. Bernard JensenInternational, 1995. Page 23.116 . Jensen, Bernard, DC, Ph.D.., The Science and Practice of Iridology Volume I. Bernard JensenInternational, 1995. Page 23.117 Shook, Edward E., ND, DC, Advance Treatise in Herbology. Wendell Whitman Company. Page 182.

27So how are herbs better? Herbs do not have any of the “side effects” listed above.They do not mask symptoms, cause damage to our bodies, or contain harmful chemicals.They are rarely fatal when used wisely, and never fatal when combined with foods likedrugs can be, and even if they are prescribed without proper knowledge or testing they donot cause the swift damage prescription drugs do. Finally, they do have the ability to cureyou.Herbs do not mask symptoms, they work with the body to heal rather than againstit. If a person has a fever, a homeopathic or herbal remedy will bring the fever downbelow the danger level but it will not eliminate the fever altogether as the fever is aneeded part of the cure.Herbs also do not do damage to our bodies or contain harmful chemicals. Evenherbs with strong chemical components have other components that help balance thestronger ones. Herbalists contend that nature provides the ingredients in herbs to balancethe more powerful ingredients and that the pharmaceutical industry that was originallybased on isolating ingredients in herbs, does not maintain this balance. 118Herbs will also rarely harm people when taken wisely. As long as humans avoidthe toxic herbs the rest of the herbs are rarely fatal or even harmful when takenincorrectly or in large doses. In fact, nature has a built in alarm system for most herbs. Ifyou ingest too much of an herb a person will most likely get sick before they get gravelyill or die. Nature gives us a warning that something is wrong. Most pharmaceuticals don’tring any alarm bells before they kill. Even more amazing is that some herbs appear towork only when needed. Ginseng, for instance, appears to have little effect in the absenceof stress, but when stress occurs, it encourages a faster response of the stress hormones. 119Some herbal cures are even foods themselves and completely harmless.Blackberry vinegar, an exotic food item, is good for fevers. Ginger, a common spicewarms the body in the winter. Thyme, a popular pizza spice, eliminates phlegm. 120 Garlicsyrup is good for asthma attacks and garlic itself has been shown to lower blood pressurethrough actions of one of its components , methyl allyl trisulfide which dilates bloodvessel walls. 121 The list of other herbs, that are usually not used as foods, and their curesis endless. Mullein is a pain killer and can induce sleep and 122 bilberry is said to improveone’s night vision in a single dose. 123 Plantain, a common weed outside most doorsteps,can perform miracles in its humble state. Edward E. Shook, a reputed Herbalist tells thefollowing story, “A lady who’s arm was previously amputated due to abscessing (from abee sting) came to see me...outside my door there was some plantain growing. I pickedsome of the leaves and gave them to the woman telling her to wash and crush them, makea poultice and apply it to the part where she had been stung. The next day this lady118 Balch, James F., MD and Phyllis A., CNC, Prescription for Nutritional Healing Second Edition. AveryPress, 1997. Page 62-3.119 Pederson, Mark, Nutritional Herbology. Wendell Whitman Company, 1987. Page 129.120 Buchman, Dian Dincin, Herbal Medicine. Wings Books, 1996.121 Balch, James F., MD and Phyllis A., CNC, Prescription for Nutritional Healing Second Edition. AveryPress, 1997. Page 54.122 Lepore, Donald, ND, The Ultimate Healing System. Lepore, 1985. Page 186.123 Pederson, Mark, Nutritional Herbology. Wendell Whitman Company, 1987. Page 46.

28returned to thank me...the hand was entirely well.” 124Furthermore, herbs do not just heal, help the body, and soothe, they can actuallyhelp to cure. Bernard Jensen reminds us in his book The Chemistry of Man that “wemust realize that when we apply the mental, physical, mechanical and chemical therapiesin the healing art, it will be to no avail if the nutritional foundation has not been properlylaid.” Herbs can be part of that foundation. Donald Lepore, ND, in his book The UltimateHealing System, states that every vitamin, mineral and amino acid is available to onefrom an herbal source if we know where to look for it. 125 Honey, a common naturalremedy, contains 35% protein and contains half of all the amino acids in a highlyconcentrated source as well as many essential nutrients. 126 Herbs nourish us while theyheal us.Natural therapies are the obvious complement to natural remedies. One reason themedical profession has such a low rate of accurate diagnosis of illness is because they arelimited by their view of illness itself. The medical profession views illness as a problemthat must be given a name so that then the name can be given a drug to make it go away.Natural therapists, on the other hand, see illness as a sign that the body is under stress andthey look to the whole person for and answer to the “problem”. They will evaluate theperson’s symptoms from their diet to their actual complaints and then recommend forthem lifestyle changes as well as complementary herbs or homeopathic remedies to helptheir body recover more quickly. In the first case doctors are assuming they know morethan our bodies and are giving our illness a name and then prescribing for that namedillness. Natural therapists, on the other hand realize that, “It is more important what kindof person has the illness than what kind of illness the person has”. 127 so rather thanprescribing for a specific illness, they monitor the individual, giving them herbs tostrengthen, nourish and help their body cure itself. With this method, knowing the nameof the disease is not really important and in fact, irrelevant, as the body itself knows andwhen given the right herbs and nourishment can cure itself without us even having toknow the name of the exact illness we had. In fact so many illnesses are so interrelatedand similar, that it is becoming increasingly difficult to put a name on them anyway.Natural therapies, besides looking at the whole person instead of just the chartsand blood tests, also has many valuable tools for diagnosis that the medical profession donot use. Iridology, for example, has many advantages over any other form of diagnosis.The iridologist can determine inherent structure and working capacity of and organ, candetect environmental strain, can determine the nerve force, the responsive healing powerof the tissue. Iridologists can see the condition of the colon in great detail, can spotpotential tumors or problems in organs and can do all this and more simply by lookinginto the iris of the eye.Most natural therapies also work with the individual’s body rather than againsttheir bodies. Massage, Reiki, Therapeutic Touch, Reflexology, Accupressure,124 Shook, Edward E., ND, DC, Advance Treatise in Herbology. Wendell Whitman Company. Page 40.125 Lepore, Donald, ND, The Ultimate Healing System. Lepore, 1985. Page 135.126 Balch, James F., MD and Phyllis A., CNC, Prescription for Nutritional Healing Second Edition. AveryPress, 1997. Page 55.127 .Jensen, Bernard, Ph.D.., The Chemistry of Man. Bernard Jensen, 1983. Page 28.

29Acupuncture and others focus their healing on giving positive energy to the body andstimulating the body’s own healing points and capacity. Surgery, radiation andchemotherapy, on the other hand, although considered standard procedures for modernday cancer treatment - do nothing to restore the body’s own protective organs andfunctions. 128 The Eleventh Building Block of Health: Develop Self AwarenessDavid Frohm, quoted in the book, A Cancer Battle Plan, written by hiswife, Anne Frohm, describes this relationship beautifully when he tellsher, “Your body is like a garden God has given you to take careof...Now it is full of weeds (Her Cancer). Your job, until he reclaimsthe garden, is to do your best at getting rid of the weeds and growingthe good stuff. Failure is not found in giving the garden back (dying),but in doing less than your best with it while it is yours.” 129“Eat and drink but waste not by excess for God loves not theprodigals” (7:31 Koran)The eleventh principal of health is to develop self-awareness. Wine is soforbidden in the Islam that the prophet said “Whosoever uses wine to treat his illness mayGod not give him recovery” (Hadith of the Prophet Muhammad) In the Koran chapterfive, verse three, it says, Forbidden to you (for food) are: dead meat, blood, the flesh ofswine, and that on which hath been invoked the name of other than Allah; that which hathbeen killed by strangling, or by a violent blow, or by a headlong fall, or by being gored todeath; that which hath been (partly) eaten by a wild animal; unless ye are able to slaughterit (in due form); that which is sacrificed on stone (altars); (forbidden) also is the division(of meat) by raffling with arrows: that is impiety... But if any is forced by hunger, with noinclination to transgression, Allah is indeed Oft-forgiving, Most Merciful.” However, inChristianity this is not the same rule. In Mark chapter seven, verse nineteen it says, “sinceit enters, not his heart but his stomach, and so passes on?" (Thus he declared all foodsclean.) “In Judaism there are strict laws of which foods are allowable and not allowable.In the Old Testament it says (Leviticus 11:47) to make a distinction between the uncleanand the clean and between the living creature that may be eaten and the living creaturethat may not be eaten. These foods are called Kosher Foods. It is important to be aware ofthe guidelines God has laid out for you as well as to be aware of the other ways you areunique and differ from others. Our constitution, climates and available food sources areas varied as our beliefs. We cannot say that an Eskimo in Alaska should eat the same as aJapanese in Tokyo. We cannot say that there is just one right way of eating for everyone.The Twelfth Building Block of Health: KnowledgeWisdom of the Scriptures & Examples in Scriptures of the Virtues of Knowledge:“ Fast the month of Ramadan so that to heal your bodies fromdisease” (Hadith)I will fetch my knowledge from afar, and ascribe righteousness to128 Frahm, Anne E. and David J., A Cancer Battle Plan. Tarcher & Putnam Press, 1992. Page 40.129 Frahm, Anne E. and David J., A Cancer Battle Plan. Tarcher & Putnam Press, 1992. Page 112.

30my Maker. (Job 36:3: Bible)Teach me good judgment and knowledge, for I believe in thycommandments. (Psalms 116:36: Bible)“Oh my Lord, advance me in knowledge” (20:114: Koran)For every Malady Allah created he also created its cure. Whoacquires such knowledge shall benefit from it and one who ignores itwill forgo such benefit. (Sahih Bukhari: Muslim)The twelfth principal of health and the “glue” that holds it all together isknowledge. Knowledge is our only armor in the battle of the advertisers. We’resurrounded by companies telling us that their products are “nutritious” or “wholesome”.We are bombarded with ads telling us the miracle of pharmaceuticals and we are buriedin “information” the newspapers carry about the dangers of herbs or the quackery ofhomeopathy. Today even the natural health industry is flooded with companies sellingsubstandard herbs which sometimes do not contain the correct forms of the herbs theyclaim to be selling, while other companies work hard to sell us their “super juice pills” or“super green drinks”. Everyone is so convincing, and there are not any exact lawsdefining the words wholesome, natural and herbal, so the only way we can protectourselves is to gain knowledge of how our bodies work and how they heal.Not so long ago our scientists believed water to be an element and oxygen thecause of acidity, that Columbus discovered America 130 , and the atom was the ultimateparticle and the fly produced diseases. Recently eggs were thought to be bad for you,aspartame was popular, and high-protein diets were the rage for their rapid weight lossresults. Of course all of these things have since gone out of style and been disproved.However, we are in the midst of more propaganda today. Vaccines, vitamins, milk chugs,and low fat foods are just a few of the fads that will soon pass (we hope!).The evidence against vaccines is overwhelming and it is only a matter of time beforepublic protest will put a stop to them. In 1979, by a record count of inhabitants of thePhilippines, out of 107,981 persons vaccinated, 59,000 died after vaccination. 131 The listof deaths, illnesses and other complications created by vaccines fills a number of booksthat are available on the market today and a growing number of parents are deciding notto vaccinate their children. One theory I have about vaccines is that they do not preventillnesses, but simply suppress them so that instead of getting measles or mumps orchicken pox as a child we get asthma, cancer, AIDS and lupus (among others) as adults.Vitamins are another fad that is slowly waning. People are beginning to realize that wehave never and still are not aware of all the minerals and vitamins that exist. We are alsorealizing how complex the interrelationship between these vitamins and minerals is andthe more we know the more difficult it becomes to properly combine vitamins. Onlytwenty years ago multi- vitamins made out of synthetic chemicals and containing standarddoses of various vitamins were popular. Today, we are realizing that the organic humanbody cannot benefit from non-organic vitamins. We are also realizing that vitamins andminerals work together like a symphony in the body and that to take away and add one130 Petit, Charles W., Rediscovering America. US News & World Report, October 12, 1998.131 Jensen, Bernard, DC, Ph.D.., The Science and Practice of Iridology Volume I. Bernard JensenInternational, 1995. Page 117.

31here and there without regard to the entire symphony would ruin the piece. We try toimprove our orchestra by adding five violins only to find that they drown out the violasand may eliminate the flutes altogether. So we then add more flutes and violas only tohave them drown out the violins and soon become bankrupt trying to repair the orchestra.Consumers are realizing that even natural vitamins are not a long-term solution (althoughshort term therapeutic use has been proven effective in cases such as using vitamin C tocombat colds and flus and speed healing or using vitamin B in times of stress), and thatfor long-term supplementation they either need to rely on their own good healthy eatinghabits or superfoods and supplements made from them such as KyoGreen (BarleyGreen),FruitPlus Caps, and others.In the past three years the “low fat” diet has been slowly losing ground as well. It has nowbeen proven through the highly popularized Zone Diet that it is the carbohydrates that areour biggest villain in the weight loss game and that fat, in moderation is not only fine, butneeded by the body as an efficient source of energy that carries the fat-soluble vitamins tothe cells. 132Consumers need to gain knowledge about many things to protect themselves againsttoday’s and tomorrow’s propaganda. They need to gain knowledge about herbs andnatural therapies and especially about nutrition. Only seven out of sixty medical schoolsin the nation offer nutrition courses for their medical students so we can’t rely on ourdoctors to help us eat right. 133 We need to know that white sugar leeches calcium fromthe body and causes a B-vitamin deficiency. 134 We need to know that yellow vegetablesare laxatives, green vegetables are blood builders and red vegetable are arterialstimulants. We should know that drinking coffee an hour before a meal cuts ironabsorption by 22%. 135 Perspiration can cause a loss of three times more potassium thansodium and cause a person to become allergic to everything. We should be aware that theblood is only as clean as the bowel and that the RDAs in general were charts created tokeep the average young male away from nutrient related illnesses such as scurvy. 136We also need to educate ourselves about herbs. We read the labels and books and thinkwe know everything but herbal secret are complex and only a professional would knowthe subtleties of the art and draw the line between safe herbs and unsafe self-prescribing.For instance, unripe capsules of the poppy contain many poisonous ions, while the seed ofthe same plant, when ripe contains a nutrient oil, but no poison. 137 If you combine herbsand foods such as iron and tannic acid this could result in death. Aloe, in large doses arepoisonous, providing irritation of the intestinal wall, pain, vomiting, purging, cold sweats.prostration, convulsions and collapse. 138 Parsley can dry up mother’s milk and senna tea132 Jensen, Bernard, Ph.D.., The Chemistry of Man. Bernard Jensen, 1983. Page 29.133 Jensen, Bernard, Ph.D.., The Chemistry of Man. Bernard Jensen, 1983. Page 371.134 Jensen, Bernard, Ph.D.., The Chemistry of Man. Bernard Jensen, 1983. Page 30.135 Jensen, Bernard, Ph.D.., The Chemistry of Man. Bernard Jensen, 1983. Page 95.136 Hoffer, Abram, MD, Ph.D.., and Walker, Morton, DPM, Putting it all Together: The NewOrthomolecular Nutrition. Keats Publishing, 1978. Page 10.137 Shook, Edward E., ND, DC, Advance Treatise in Herbology. Wendell Whitman Company. Page 137.138 Shook, Edward E., ND, DC, Advance Treatise in Herbology. Wendell Whitman Company. Page 219.

32should be drunk cold to prevent gripping. 139 These are just a few examples of herbalwisdom that are usually known only by experienced herbalists.However, the mostimportant knowledge we need to gain is that disease is an elimination activity of thebody. 140 We are constantly fighting our bodies when we are ill and even when we are notill. We need to learn to work with our bodies to produce health. In fact, all things that wetry to squelch with over-the-counter medications actually have reasons. Pain is a warningthat something is wrong. Fever inactivates many viruses and is our strongest weaponagainst bacteria, Mucus is produces in the respiratory tract to surround and carry offirritating material. 141 We need to work with our bodies and not against them to remainhealthy and cure ourselves. We need to strengthen our relationship with God andourselves, we need to eat whole raw and real foods, we need to be aware of how foodsshould be prepared, we need to drink pure water and breathe fresh air, we need to exerciseand keep good hygiene and we need to turn to natural remedies and natural therapies. Alldiseases are curable, just not every patient 142 and instead of following the latest healthfads, ads and media hype, we should remember what Marcel Proust said, “The realvoyage of discovery consists not of seeking new lands but in seeing with new eyes.”139 . Lepore, Donald, ND, The Ultimate Healing System. Lepore, 1985. Page 199.140 Jensen, Bernard, DC, Ph.D.., The Science and Practice of Iridology Volume I. Bernard JensenInternational, 1995. Page 35.141 Panos, Maesimund B., MD, and Heimlich, Jane, Homeopathic Medicine at Home. Tarcher & Putnam,1980. Page 14.142 Jensen, Bernard, DC, Ph.D.., The Science and Practice of Iridology Volume I. Bernard JensenInternational, 1995. Page 43.

HHC 204: Chapter 6: History of Medicine BookThe quiz for this section is found at the end of the reading. Please submit the quiz tome via e-mail at: herbnhome@yahoo.com when you complete it. You will be givencredit for your work after I correct the quiz.• THE EVOLUTION OFMODERN MEDICINEA SERIES OF LECTURES DELIVERED ATYALE UNIVERSITY ON THE SILLIMANFOUNDATION IN APRIL, 1913BySir WILLIAM OSLER, Bart., M.D., F.R.S.NEW HAVENYALE UNIVERSITY PRESS LONDON . HUMPHREY MILFORD . OXFORDUNIVERSITY PRESSCOPYRIGHT, 1921, BYYALE UNIVERSITY PRESSPRINTED IN THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICATHE SILLIMAN FOUNDATIONIN the year 1883 a legacy of eighty thousand dollars was left to the President andFellows of Yale College in the city of New Haven, to be held in trust, as a gift fromher children, in memory of their beloved and honored mother, Mrs. Hepsa ElySilliman.On this foundation Yale College was requested and directed to establish an annualcourse of lectures designed to illustrate the presence and providence, the wisdom andgoodness of God, as manifested in the natural and moral world. These were to bedesignated as the Mrs. Hepsa Ely Silliman Memorial Lectures. It was the belief of thetestator that any orderly presentation of the facts of nature or history contributed to theend of this foundation more effectively than any attempt to emphasize the elements ofdoctrine or of creed; and he therefore provided that lectures on dogmatic or polemicaltheology should be excluded from the scope of this foundation, and that the subjectsshould be selected rather from the domains of natural science and history, givingspecial prominence to astronomy, chemistry, geology and anatomy.It was further directed that each annual course should be made the basis of avolume to form part of a series constituting a memorial to Mrs. Silliman. Thememorial fund came into the possession of the Corporation of Yale University in theyear 1901; and the present volume constitutes the tenth of the series of memoriallectures.CONTENTS

• Chapter I. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1• Chapter II. Greek Medicine. . . . . . . . . . . . . 35• Chapter III. Mediæval Medicine . . . . . . . . . 84• Chapter IV. The Renaissance and the Rise of Anatomy and Physiology . . . . . . .126• Chapter V. The Rise and Development of Modern Medicine . . . . . . . . . . . 183• Chapter VI. The Rise of Preventive Medicine . . . . 218PREFACETHE manuscript of Sir William Osler's lectures on the "Evolution of ModernMedicine," delivered at Yale University in April, 1913, on the Silliman Foundation,was immediately turned in to the Yale University Press for publication. Duly set intype, proofs in galley form had been submitted to him and despite countlessinterruptions he had already corrected and revised a number of the galleys when thegreat war came. But with the war on, he threw himself with energy and devotion intothe military and public duties which devolved upon him and so never completed hisproof-reading and intended alterations. The careful corrections which Sir Williammade in the earlier galleys show that the lectures were dictated, in the first instance, asloose memoranda for oral delivery rather than as finished compositions for the eye,while maintaining throughout the logical continuity and the engaging con moto whichwere so characteristic of his literary style. In revising the lectures for publication,therefore, the editors have merely endeavored to carry out, with care and befittingreverence, the indications supplied in the earlier galleys by Sir William himself. Insupplying dates and references which were lacking, his preferences as to editions andreadings have been borne in mind. The slight alterations made, the adaptation of thetext to the eye, detract nothing from the original freshness of the work.In a letter to one of the editors, Osler described these lectures as "an aeroplaneflight over the progress of medicine through the ages." They are, in effect, a sweepingpanoramic survey of the whole vast field, covering wide areas at a rapid pace, yetwith an extraordinary variety of detail. The slow, painful character of the evolution ofmedicine from the fearsome, superstitious mental complex of primitive man, with hisamulets, healing gods and disease demons, to the ideal of a clear-eyed rationalism istraced with faith and a serene sense of continuity.-xiv-The author saw clearly and felt deeply that the men who have made an idea ordiscovery viable and valuable to humanity are the deserving men; he has made thegreat names shine out, without any depreciation of the important work of lesser menand without cluttering up his narrative with the tedious prehistory of great discoveriesor with shrill claims to priority. Of his skill in differentiating the sundry "strains" ofmedicine, there is specific witness in each section. Osler's wide culture and control ofthe best available literature of his subject permitted him to range the ampler æther ofGreek medicine or the earth-fettered schools of today with equal mastery; there is noquickset of pedantry between the author and the reader. The illustrations (which hehad doubtless planned as fully for the last as for the earlier chapters) are as he leftthem; save that, lacking legends, these have been supplied and a few which could notbe identified have with regret been omitted. The original galley proofs have been

evised and corrected from different viewpoints by Fielding H. Garrison, HarveyCushing, Edward C. Streeter and latterly by Leonard L. Mackall (Savannah, Ga.),whose zeal and persistence in the painstaking verification of citations and referencescannot be too highly commended.In the present revision, a number of important corrections, most of them basedupon the original MS., have been made by Dr. W. W. Francis (Oxford), Dr. CharlesSinger (London), Dr. E. C. Streeter, Mr. L. L. Mackall and others.This work, composed originally for a lay audience and for popular consumption,will be to the aspiring medical student and the hardworking practitioner a lift into theblue, an inspiring vista or "Pisgah-sight" of the evolution of medicine, a realization ofwhat devotion, perseverance, valor and ability on the part of physicians havecontributed to this progress, and of the creditable part which our profession has playedin the general development of science.The editors have no hesitation in presenting these lectures to the profession and tothe reading public as one of the most characteristic productions of the best-balanced,best-equipped, most sagacious and most lovable of all modern physicians.BUT on that account, I say, we ought not to reject the ancient Art, as if it were not,and had not been properly founded, because it did not attain accuracy in all things,but rather, since it is capable of reaching to the greatest exactitude by reasoning, toreceive it and admire its discoveries, made from a state of great ignorance, and ashaving been well and properly made, and not from chance. (Hippocrates, On AncientMedicine, Adams edition, Vol. 1, 1849, p.168.)THE true and lawful goal of the sciences is none other than this: that human life beendowed with new discoveries and powers. (Francis Bacon, Novum Organum,Aphorisms, LXXXI, Spedding's translation.)A GOLDEN thread has run throughout the history of the world, consecutive andcontinuous, the work of the best men in successive ages. From point to point it stillruns, and when near you feel it as the clear and bright and searchingly irresistiblelight which Truth throws forth when great minds conceive it. (Walter Moxon,Pilocereus Senilis and Other Papers, 1887, p. 4.)FOR the mind depends so much on the temperament and disposition of the bodilyorgans that, if it is possible to find a means of rendering men wiser and cleverer thanthey have hitherto been, I believe that it is in medicine that it must be sought. It istrue that the medicine which is now in vogue contains little of which the utility isremarkable; but, without having any intention of decrying it, I am sure that there isno one, even among those who make its study a profession, who does not confessthat all that men know is almost nothing in comparison with what remains to beknown; and that we could be free of an infinitude of maladies both of body and mind,and even also possibly of the infirmities of age, if we had sufficient knowledge oftheir causes, and of all the remedies with which nature has provided us. (Descartes:Discourse on the Method, Philosophical Works. Translated by E. S. Haldane and G.R. T. Ross. Vol. I, Cam. Univ. Press, 1911, p. 120.)CHAPTER IINTRODUCTIONSAIL to the Pacific with some Ancient Mariner, and traverse day by day that silentsea until you reach a region never before furrowed by keel where a tiny island, a mere

speck on the vast ocean, has just risen from the depths, a little coral reef capped withgreen, an atoll, a mimic earth, fringed with life, built up through countless ages by lifeon the remains of life that has passed away. And now, with wings of fancy, joinIanthe in the magic car of Shelley, pass the eternal gates of the flaming ramparts ofthe world and see his vision:Below lay stretched the boundless Universe!There, far as the remotest lineThat limits swift imagination's flight,Unending orbs mingled in mazy motion,Immutably fulfillingEternal Nature's law.Above, below, around,The circling systems formedA wilderness of harmony.(Dæmon of the World, Pt. I.)And somewhere, "as fast and far the chariot flew," amid the mighty globes wouldbe seen a tiny speck, "earth's distant orb," one of "the smallest lights that twinkle inthe heavens." Alighting, Ianthe would find something she had probably not seenelsewhere in her magic flight -- life, everywhere encircling the sphere. And as thelittle coral reef out of a vast depth had been built up by generations of polyzoa, so shewould see that on the earth, through illimitable ages, successive generations ofanimals and plants had left in stone their imperishable records: and at the top of theseries she would meet the thinking, breathing creature known as man. Infinitely littleas is-2-the architect of the atoll in proportion to the earth on which it rests, the polyzoön, Idoubt not, is much larger relatively than is man in proportion to the vast systems ofthe Universe, in which he represents an ultra-microscopic atom less ten thousandtimes than the tiniest of the "gay motes that people the sunbeams." Yet, with colossalaudacity, this thinking atom regards himself as the anthropocentric pivot aroundwhich revolve the eternal purposes of the Universe. Knowing not whence he came,why he is here, or whither he is going, man feels himself of supreme importance, andcertainly is of interest -- to himself. Let us hope that he has indeed a potency andimportance out of all proportion to his somatic insignificance. We know of toxins ofsuch strength that an amount too infinitesimal to be gauged may kill; and we knowthat "the unit adopted in certain scientific work is the amount of emanation producedby one million-millionth of a grain of radium, a quantity which itself has a volume ofless than a million-millionth of a cubic millimetre and weighs a million million timesless than an exceptionally delicate chemical balance will turn to" (Soddy, 1912). Maynot man be the radium of the Universe? At any rate let us not worry about his size.For us he is a very potent creature, full of interest, whose mundane story we are onlybeginning to unravel.Civilization is but a filmy fringe on the history of man. Go back as far as hisrecords carry us and the story written on stone is of yesterday in comparison with thevast epochs of time which modern studies demand for his life on the earth. For two

millions (some hold even three millions) of years man lived and moved and had hisbeing in a world very different from that upon which we look out. There appear,indeed, to have been various types of man, some as different from us as we are fromthe anthropoid apes. What upstarts of yesterday are the Pharaohs in comparison withthe men who survived the tragedy of the glacial period! The ancient history of man --only now beginning to be studied -- dates from the Pliocene or Miocene period; themodern history, as we know it, embraces that brief space of time that has elapsedsince the earliest Egyptian and Babylonian records were made. This has to be borne inmind in connection with the present mental status of man, particularly in his outlookupon nature. In his thoughts and in his attributes, mankind at large is controlled byinherited beliefs and impulses, which countless thousands-3-of years have ingrained like instinct. Over vast regions of the earth today, magic,amulets, charms, incantations are the chief weapons of defense against a malignantnature; and in disease, the practice of Asa* is comparatively novel and unusual; indays of illness many millions more still seek their gods rather than the physicians. Inan upward path man has had to work out for himself a relationship with his fellowsand with nature. He sought in the supernatural an explanation of the pressingphenomena of life, peopling the world with spiritual beings, deifying objects ofnature, and assigning to them benign or malign influences, which might be invoked orpropitiated. Primitive priest, physician and philosopher were one, and struggled, onthe one hand, for the recognition of certain practices forced on him by experience, andon the other, for the recognition of mystical agencies which control the dark,"uncharted region" about him -- to use Prof. Gilbert Murray's phrase -- and wereresponsible for everything he could not understand, and particularly for the mysteriesof disease. Pliny remarks that physic "was early fathered upon the gods"; and to theordinary non-medical mind, there is still something mysterious about sickness,something outside the ordinary standard.Modern anthropologists claim that both religion and medicine took origin inmagic, "that spiritual protoplasm," as Miss Jane Harrison calls it. To primitive man,magic was the setting in motion of a spiritual power to help or to hurt the individual,and early forms may still be studied in the native races. This power, or "mana," as it iscalled, while possessed in a certain degree by all, may be increased by practice.Certain individuals come to possess it very strongly: among native Australians todayit is still deliberately cultivated. Magic in healing seeks to control the demons, orforces; causing disease; and in a way it may be thus regarded as a "lineal ancestor ofmodern science" (Whetham), which, too, seeks to control certain forces, no longer,however, regarded as supernatural.Primitive man recognized many of these superhuman agencies relating to disease,such as the spirits of the dead, either human or animal, independent disease demons,or individuals who might act by controlling the spirits or agencies of disease. We seethis today among the negroes of the Southern States. A Hoodoo put upon a negromay, if he knows of it, work upon him so powerfully through-4-

the imagination that he becomes very ill indeed, and only through a more powerfulmagic exercised by someone else can the Hoodoo be taken off.To primitive man life seemed "full of sacred presences" (Walter Pater) connectedwith objects in nature, or with incidents and epochs in life, which he began early todeify, so that, until a quite recent period, his story is largely associated with apantheon of greater and lesser gods, which he has manufactured wholesale.Xenophanes was the earliest philosopher to recognize man's practice of making godsin his own image and endowing them with human faculties and attributes; theThracians, he said, made their gods blue-eyed and red-haired, the Ethiopians, snubnosedand black, while, if oxen and lions and horses had hands and could draw, theywould represent their gods as oxen and lions and horses. In relation to nature and todisease, all through early history we find a pantheon full to repletion, bearingtestimony no less to the fertility of man's imagination than to the hopes and fearswhich led him, in his exodus from barbarism, to regard his gods as "pillars of fire bynight, and pillars of cloud by day."Even so late a religion as that of Numa was full of little gods to be invoked onspecial occasions -- Vatican, who causes the infant to utter his first cry, Fabulinus,who prompts his first word, Cuba, who keeps him quiet in his cot, Domiduca, whowatches over one's safe home-coming (Walter Pater); and Numa believed that alldiseases came from the gods and were to be averted by prayer and sacrifice. Besidesthe major gods, representatives of Apollo, Æsculapius and Minerva, there were scoresof lesser ones who could be invoked for special diseases. It is said that the youngRoman mother might appeal to no less than fourteen goddesses, from Juno Lucina toProsa and Portvorta (Withington). Temples were erected to the Goddess of Fever, andshe was much invoked. There is extant a touching tablet erected by a mourningmother and inscribed:Febri divæ, FebriSancte, Febri magnæCamillo amato proFilio meld effecto. Posuit.-5-It is marvellous what a long line of superhuman powers, major and minor, man hasinvoked against sickness. In Swinburne's words:God by God flits past in thunder till his glories turn to shades,God by God bears wondering witness how his Gospel flames and fades;More was each of these, while yet they were, than man their servant seemed;Dead are all of these, and man survives who made them while he dreamed.Most of them have been benign and helpful gods. Into the dark chapters relating todemonical possession and to witchcraft we cannot here enter. They make one cry outwith Lucretius (Bk. V):

O genus infelix humanum, talia divisCum tribuit facta atque iras adjunxit acerbas!Quantos tum gemitus ipsi sibi, quantaque nobisVulnera, quas lacrimas peperere minoribu' nostris.In every age, and in every religion there has been justification for his bitter words,"tantum religio potuit suadere malorum" -- "Such wrongs Religion in her train dothbring" -- yet, one outcome of "a belief in spiritual beings" -- as Tylor defines religion-- has been that man has built an altar of righteousness in his heart. The comparativemethod applied to the study of his religious growth has shown how man's thoughtshave widened in the unceasing purpose which runs through his spiritual no less thanhis physical evolution. Out of the spiritual protoplasm of magic have evolvedphilosopher and physician, as well as priest. Magic and religion control the unchartedsphere -- the supernatural, the superhuman: science seeks to know the world, andthrough knowing, to control it. Ray Lankester remarks that Man is Nature's rebel, andgoes on to say: "The mental qualities which have developed in Man, though traceablein a vague and rudimentary condition in some of his animal associates, are of such anunprecedented power and so far dominate everything else in his activities as a livingorganism, that they have to a very large extent, if not entirely, cut him off from thegeneral operation of that process of Natural Selection and survival of the fittest whichup to their appearance had been the law of the living world. They justify the view thatMan forms a new departure in the gradual unfolding of Nature's predestined scheme.Knowledge, reason, self-consciousness, will, are the attributes of Man." 1 It has been aslow and gradual-6-growth, and not until within the past century has science organized knowledge -- sosearched out the secrets of Nature, as to control her powers, limit her scope andtransform her energies. The victory is so recent that the mental attitude of the race isnot yet adapted to the change. A large proportion of our fellow creatures still regardnature as a playground for demons and spirits to be exorcised or invoked.Side by side, as substance and shadow -- "in the dark backward and abysm oftime," in the dawn of the great civilizations of Egypt and Babylon, in the brightmorning of Greece, and in the full noontide of modern life, together have grown upthese two diametrically opposite views of man's relation to nature, and moreparticularly of his personal relation to the agencies of disease.The purpose of this course of lectures is to sketch the main features of the growthof these two dominant ideas, to show how they have influenced man at the differentperiods of his evolution, how the lamp of reason, so early lighted in his soul, burningnow bright, now dim, has never, even in his darkest period, been wholly extinguished,but retrimmed and refurnished by his indomitable energies, now shines more andmore towards the perfect day. It is a glorious chapter in history, in which those whohave eyes to see may read the fulfilment of the promise of Eden, that one day manshould not only possess the earth, but that he should have dominion over it! I proposeto take an aeroplane flight through the centuries, touching only on the tall peaks fromwhich may be had a panoramic view of the epochs through which we pass.ORIGIN OF MEDICINE

MEDICINE arose out of the primal sympathy of man with man; out of the desireto help those in sorrow, need and sickness.In the primal sympathyWhich having been must ever be;In the soothing thoughts that springOut of human suffering.The instinct of self-preservation, the longing to relieve a loved one, and above all,the maternal passion -- for such it is -- gradually softened-7-the hard race of man -- tum genus humanum primum mollescere coepit. In hismarvellous sketch of the evolution of man, nothing illustrates more forcibly theprescience of Lucretius than the picture of the growth of sympathy: "When with criesand gestures they taught with broken words that 'tis right for all men to have pity onthe weak." I heard the well-known medical historian, the late Dr. Payne, remark that"the basis of medicine is sympathy and the desire to help others, and whatever is donewith this end must be called medicine."The first lessons came to primitive man by injuries, accidents, bites of beasts andserpents, perhaps for long ages not appreciated by his childlike mind, but, little bylittle, such experiences crystallized into useful knowledge. The experiments of naturemade clear to him the relation of cause and effect, but it is not likely, as Plinysuggests, that he picked up his earliest knowledge from the observation of certainpractices in animals, as the natural phlebotomy of the plethoric hippopotamus, or theuse of emetics from the dog, or the use of enemata from the ibis. On the other hand,Celsus is probably right in his account of the origin of rational medicine. "Some of thesick on account of their eagerness took food on the first day, some on account ofloathing abstained; and the disease in those who refrained was more relieved. Someate during a fever, some a little before it, others after it had subsided, and those whohad waited to the end did best. For the same reason some at the beginning of an illnessused a full diet, others a spare, and the former were made worse. Occurring daily,such things impressed careful men, who noted what had best helped the sick, thenbegan to prescribe them. In this way medicine had its rise from the experience of therecovery of some, of the death of others, distinguishing the hurtful from the salutarythings" (Book I). The association of ideas was suggestive -- the plant eye-bright wasused for centuries in diseases of the eye because a black speck in the flower suggestedthe pupil of the eye. The old herbals are full of similar illustrations upon which,indeed, the so-called doctrine of signatures depends. Observation came, and with it anever widening experience. No society so primitive without some evidence of theexistence of a healing art, which grew with its growth, and became part of the fabricof its organization.With primitive medicine, as such, I cannot deal, but I must refer to-8-

The oldest existing evidence of a very extraordinary practice, that of trephining.Neolithic skulls with disks of bone removed have been found in nearly all parts of theworld. Many careful studies have been made of this procedure, particularly by thegreat anatomist and surgeon, Paul Broca, and M. Lucas-Championnière has coveredthe subject in a monograph. Broca suggests that the trephining was done by scratchingor scraping, but, as Lucas-Championnière holds, it was also done by a series ofperforations made in a circle with flint instruments, and a round piece of skull in thisway removed; traces of these drill-holes have been found. The operation was done forepilepsy, infantile convulsions, headache, and various cerebral diseases believed to becaused by confined demons, to whom the hole gave a ready method of escape.The practice is still extant. Lucas-Championnière saw a Kabyle thoubib who toldhim that it was quite common among his tribe; he was the son of a family oftrephiners, and had undergone the operation-9-four times, his father twelve times; he had three brothers also experts; he did notconsider it a dangerous operation. He did it most frequently for pain in the head, andoccasionally for fracture.The operation was sometimes performed upon animals. Shepherds trephined sheepfor the staggers. We may say that the modern decompression operation, so much invogue, is the oldest known surgical procedure.EGYPTIAN MEDICINEOUT of the ocean of oblivion, man emerges in history in a highly civilized state onthe banks of the Nile, some sixty centuries ago. After millenniums of a gradualupward progress, which can be traced in the records of the stone age, civilizationsprings forth Minerva-like, complete, and highly developed, in the Nile Valley. In thissheltered, fertile spot, neolithic man first raised himself above his kindred races of theMediterranean basin, and it is suggested that by the accidental discovery of copperEgypt "forged the instruments-10-that raised civilization out of the slough of the Stone Age" (Elliot Smith). Ofspecial interest to us is the fact that one of the best-known names of this earliestperiod is that of a physician -- guide, philosopher and friend of the king -- a man in aposition of wide trust and importance. On leaving Cairo, to go up the Nile, one seeson the right in the desert behind Memphis a terraced pyramid 190 feet in height, "thefirst large structure of stone known in history." It is the royal tomb of Zoser, the firstof a long series with which the Egyptian monarchy sought "to adorn the coming bulkof death." The design of this is attributed to Imhotep, the first figure of a physician tostand out clearly from the mists of antiquity. "In priestly wisdom, in magic, in the

formulation of wise proverbs, in medicine and architecture, this remarkable figure ofZoser's reign left so notable a reputation that his name was never forgotten, and 2500years after his death he had become a God of Medicine, in whom the Greeks, whocalled him Imouthes, recognized their own Æsculapius." He became a popular god,not only healing men when alive, but taking good care of them in the journeys afterdeath. The facts about this medicinæhttp://etext.lib.virginia.edu/images/modeng/O/public/OslEvo10.jpgprimus inventor, as he has been called, may be gathered from Kurt Sethe's study.He seems to have corresponded very much to the Greek Asklepios. As a god he is metwith comparatively late, between 700 and 332 B. C. Numerous bronze figures of himremain. The oldest memorial mentioning him is a statue of one of his priests, Amasis(No. 14765 in the British Museum). Ptolemy V dedicated to him a temple on theisland of Philæ. His cult increased much in later days, and a special temple wasdedicated to him near Memphis Sethe suggests that the cult of Imhotep gave theinspiration to the Hermetic literature. The association of Imhotep with the famoustemple at Edfu is of special interest.-11-Egypt became a centre from which civilization spread to the other peoples of theMediterranean. For long centuries, to be learned in all the wisdom of the Egyptiansmeant the possession of all knowledge. We must come to the land of the Nile for theorigin of many of man's most distinctive and highly cherished beliefs. Not only isthere a magnificent material civilization, but in records so marvellously preserved instone we may see, as in a glass, here clearly, there darkly, the picture of man's searchafter righteousness, the earliest impressions of his moral awakening, the beginnings ofthe strife in which he has always been engaged for social justice and for therecognition of the rights of the individual. But above all, earlier and more stronglythan in any other people, was developed the faith that looked through death, to which,to this day, the noblest of their monuments bear an enduring testimony. With all this,it is not surprising to find a growth in the knowledge of practical medicine; butEgyptian civilization illustrates how crude and primitive may remain a knowledge ofdisease when conditioned by erroneous views of its nature. At first, the priest andphysician were identified, and medicine never became fully dissociated from religion.Only in the later periods did a special group of physicians arise who were notmembers of priestly colleges. Maspero states that the Egyptians believed that diseaseand death were not natural and inevitable, but caused by some malign influence whichcould use any agency, natural or invisible, and very often belonged to the invisibleworld. "Often, though, it belongs to the invisible world, and only reveals itself by themalignity of its attacks: it is a god, a spirit, the soul of a dead man, that has cunninglyentered a living person, or that throws itself upon him with irresistible violence. Oncein possession of the body, the evil influence breaks the bones, sucks out the marrow,drinks the blood, gnaws the intestines and the heart and devours the flesh. The invalidperishes according to the progress of this destructive work; and death speedily ensues,unless the evil genius can be driven out of it before it has committed irreparabledamage. Whoever treats a sick person has therefore two equally important duties toperform. He must first discover the nature of the spirit in possession, and, if

necessary, its name, and then attack it, drive it out, or even destroy it. He can onlysucceed by powerful magic, so he must be an expert in reciting incantations, andskilful in making amulets. He must then-12-use medicine [drugs and diet] to contend with the disorders which the presence of thestrange being has produced in the body."In this way it came about that diseases were believed to be due to hostile spirits, orcaused by the anger of a god, so that medicines, no matter how powerful, could onlybe expected to assuage the pain; but magic alone, incantations, spells and prayers,could remove the disease. Experience brought much of the wisdom we call empirical,and the records, extending for thousands of years, show that the Egyptians employedemetics, purgatives, enemata, diuretics, diaphoretics and even bleeding. They had arich pharmacopoeia derived from the animal, vegetable and mineral kingdoms. In thelater periods, specialism reached a remarkable development, and Herodotus remarksthat the country was full of physicians; -- "One treats only the diseases of the eye,another those of the head, the teeth, the abdomen, or the internal organs."Our knowledge of Egyptian medicine is derived largely from the remarkablepapyri dealing specially with this subject. Of these, six or seven are of the firstimportance. The most famous is that discovered by Ebers, dating from about 1500 B.C. A superb document, one of the great treasures of the Leipzig Library, it is 20.23metres long and 30 centimetres high and in a state of wonderful preservation. Othersare the Kahun, Berlin, Hearst and British Museum papyri. All these have now beenpublished -- the last three quite recently, edited by Wreszinski. I show here areproduction from which an idea may be had of these remarkable documents. Theyare motley collections, filled with incantations, charms,-13-magical formulæ, symbols, prayers and prescriptions for all sorts of ailments. One isimpressed by the richness of the pharmacopoeia, and the high development which theart of pharmacy must have attained. There were gargles, salves, snuffs, inhalations,suppositories, fumigations, enemata, poultices and plasters; and they knew the use ofopium, hemlock, the copper salts, squills and castor oil. Surgery was not very highlydeveloped, but the knife and actual cautery were freely used. Ophthalmic surgery waspracticed by specialists, and there are many prescriptions in the papyri for ophthalmia.One department of Egyptian medicine reached a high stage of development, vis.,hygiene. Cleanliness of the dwellings, of the cities and of the person was regulated bylaw, and the priests set a splendid example in their frequent ablutions, shaving of theentire body, and the spotless cleanliness of their clothing. As Diodorus remarks, soevenly ordered was their whole manner of life that it was as if arranged by a learnedphysician rather than by a lawgiver.Two world-wide modes of practice found their earliest illustration in ancientEgypt. Magic, the first of these, represented the attitude of primitive man to nature,and really was his religion. He had no idea of immutable laws, but regarded the worldabout him as changeable and fickle like himself, and "to make life go as he wished, hemust be able to please and propitiate or to coerce these forces outside himself."

The point of interest to us is that in the Pyramid Texts -- "the oldest chapter inhuman thinking preserved to us, the remotest reach in the intellectual history of manwhich we are now able to discern"-- one of their six-fold contents relates to thepractice of magic. A deep belief existed as to its efficacy, particularly in guiding thedead, who were said to be glorious by reason of mouths equipped with the charms,prayers and ritual of the Pyramid Texts, armed with which alone could the soul escapethe innumerable dangers and ordeals of the passage through another world. Man hasnever lost his belief in the efficacy of magic, in the widest sense of the term. Only avery few of the most intellectual nations have escaped from its shackles. Nobody elsehas so clearly expressed the origins and relations of magic-14-as Pliny in his "Natural History." "Now, if a man consider the thing well, no marvaileit is that it hath continued thus in so great request and authoritie; for it is the onelyScience which seemeth to comprise in itselfe three possessions besides, which havethe command and rule of mans mind above any other whatsoever. For to beginwithall, no man doubteth but that Magicke tooke root first, and proceeded fromPhysicke, under the presence of maintaining health, curing, and preventing diseases:things plausible to the world, crept and insinuated farther into the heart of man, with adeepe conceit of some high and divine matter therein more than ordinarie, and incomparison whereof, all other Physicke was but basely accounted. And having thusmade way and entrance, the better to fortifie it selfe, and to give a goodly colour andlustre to those fair and flattering promises of things, which our nature is most given tohearken after, on goeth the habite also and cloake of religion: a point, I may tell you,that even in these daies holdeth captivate the spirit of man, and draweth away with it agreater part of the world, and nothing so much. But not content with this successe andgood proceeding, to gather more strength and win a greater name, shee entermingledwith medicinable receipts and religious ceremonies, the skill of Astrologie and artsMathematicall; presuming upon this, That all men by nature are very curious anddesirous to know their future fortunes, and what shall betide them hereafter,persuading themselves, that all such foreknowledge dependeth upon the course andinfluence of the starres, which give the truest and most certain light of things to come.Being thus wholly possessed of men, and having their senses and understanding bythis meanes fast ynough bound with three sure chains, no marvell if this art grew inprocesse of time to such an head, that it was and is at this day reputed by most nationsof the earth for the paragon and cheefe of all sciences: insomuch as the mightie kingsand monarchs of the Levant are altogether ruled and governed thereby."The second world-wide practice which finds its earliest record among theEgyptians is the use secretions and parts of the animal body as medicine. The practicewas one of great antiquity with primitive man, but the papyri already mentionedcontain the-15-earliest known records. Saliva, urine, bile, fæces, various parts of the body, dried andpowdered, worms, insects, snakes were important ingredients in the pharmacopoeia.The practice became very widespread throughout the ancient world. Its extent and

importance may be best gathered from chapters VII and VIII in the 28th book ofPliny's "Natural History." Several remedies are mentioned as derived from man;others from the elephant, lion, camel, crocodile, and some seventy-nine are preparedfrom the hyæna. The practice was widely prevalent throughout the Middle Ages, andthe pharmacopoeia of the seventeenth and even of the eighteenth century containsmany extraordinary ingredients. "The Royal Pharmacopoeia" of Moses Charras(London ed., 1678), the most scientific work of the day, is full of organotherapy anddirections for the preparation of medicines from the most loathsome excretions. Acurious thing is that with the discoveries of the mummies a belief arose as to the greatefficacy of powdered mummy in various maladies. As Sir Thomas Browne remarks inhis "Urn Burial": "Mummy has become merchandize. Mizraim cures wounds, andPharaoh is sold for balsams."One formula in everyday use has come to us in a curious way from the Egyptians.In the Osiris myth, the youthful Horus loses an eye in his battle with Set. This eye, thesymbol of sacrifice, became, next to the sacred beetle, the most common talisman ofthe country, and all museums are rich in models of the Horus eye in glass or stone."When alchemy or chemistry, which had its cradle in Egypt, and derived its namefrom Khami, an old title for this country, passed to the hands of the Greeks, and laterof the Arabs, this sign passed with it. It was also adopted to some extent by theGnostics of the early Christian church in Egypt. In a cursive form it is found inmediæval translations of the works of Ptolemy the astrologer, as the sign of the planetJupiter. As such it was placed upon horoscopes and upon formula containing drugsmade for administration to the body, so that the harmful properties of these drugsmight be removed under the influence of the lucky planet. At present, in a slightlymodified form, it still figures at the top of prescriptions written daily in Great Britain(&rx;)."For centuries Egyptian physicians had a great reputation, and in-16-the Odyssey (Bk. IV), Polydamna, the wife of Thonis, gives medicinal plants to Helenin Egypt -- "a country producing an infinite number of drugs . . . where each physicianpossesses knowledge above all other men." Jeremiah (xlvi, 11) refers to the virgindaughter of Egypt, who should in vain use many medicines. Herodotus tells thatDarius had at his court certain Egyptians, whomhe reckoned the best skilled physicians in all the world, and he makes theinteresting statement that: "Medicine is practiced among them on a plan of separation;each physician treats a single disorder, and no more: thus the country swarms withmedical practitioners, some under taking to cure diseases of the eye, others of thehead, others again of the teeth, others of the intestines, and some those which are notlocal."A remarkable statement is made by Pliny, in the discussion upon the use ofradishes, which are said to cure a "Phthisicke," or ulcer of the lungs -- "proofewhereof was found and seen in Ægypt by occasion that the KK. there, caused deadbodies to be cut up, and anatomies to be made, for to search out the maladies whereofmen died."The study of the anatomy of mummies has thrown a very interesting light upon thediseases of the ancient Egyptians, one of the most prevalent of which appears to have

een osteo-arthritis. This has been studied by Elliot Smith, Wood Jones, Ruffer andRietti. The majority-17-of the lesions appear to have been the common osteo-arthritis, which involved notonly the men, but many of the pet animals kept in the temples. In a much higherproportion apparently than in modern days, the spinal column was involved. It isinteresting to note that the "determinative" of old age in hieroglyphic writing is thepicture of a man afflicted with arthritis deformans. Evidences of tuberculosis, ricketsand syphilis, according to these authors, have not been found.A study of the internal organs has been made by Ruffer, who has shown thatarterio-sclerosis with calcification was a common disease 8500 years ago; and heholds that it could not have been associated with hard work or alcohol, for the ancientEgyptians did not drink spirits, and they had practically the same hours of work asmodern Egyptians, with every seventh day free.ASSYRIAN AND BABYLONIAN MEDICINEOF equally great importance in the evolution of medicine was the practicallycontemporary civilization in Mesopotamia. Science here reached a much higher stagethen in the valley of the Nile. An elaborate scheme of the universe was devised, asystem growing out of the Divine Will, and a recognition for the first time of a lawguiding and controlling heaven and earth alike. Here, too, we find medicine ancillaryto religion. Disease was due to evil spirits or demons. "These `demons' -- invisible tothe naked eye were the precursors of the modern `germs' and `microbes,' while theincantations recited by the priests are the early equivalents of the physician'sprescriptions. There were different incantations for different diseases; and they wereas mysterious to the masses as are the mystic formulas of the modern physician to thebewildered, yet trusting, patient. Indeed, their mysterious character added to thepower supposed to reside in the incantations for driving the demons away. Medicinalremedies-18-accompanied the recital of the incantations, but despite the considerable progressmade by such nations of hoary antiquity as the Egyptians and Babylonians in thediagnosis and treatment of common diseases, leading in time to the development of anextensive pharmacology, so long as the cure of disease rested with the priests, therecital of sacred formulas, together with rites that may be conveniently grouped underthe head of sympathetic magic, was regarded as equally essential with the taking ofthe prescribed remedies.”Three points of interest may be referred to in connection with Babylonianmedicine. Our first recorded observations on anatomy are in connection with the art ofdivination -- the study of the future by the interpretation of certain signs. The studentrecognized two divisions of divination -- the involuntary, dealing with theinterpretation of signs forced upon our attention, such as the phenomena of the

heavens, dreams, etc., and voluntary divination, the seeking of signs, moreparticularly through the inspection of sacrificial animals. This method reached anextraordinary development among the Babylonians, and the cult spread to theEtruscans, Hebrews, and later to the Greeks and Romans.Of all the organs inspected in a sacrificial animal the liver, from its size, positionand richness in blood, impressed the early observers as the most important of thebody. Probably on account of the richness in blood it came to be regarded as the seatof life -- indeed, the seat of the soul. From this important position the liver was notdislodged for many centuries, and in the Galenic physiology it shared with the heartand the brain in the triple control of the natural, animal and vital spirits. Manyexpressions in literature indicate how persistent was this belief. Among theBabylonians, the word "liver" was used in hymns and other compositions precisely aswe use the word "heart," and Jastrow gives a number of illustrations from Hebrew,Greek and Latin sources illustrating this usage.The belief arose that through the inspection of this important organ in thesacrificial animal the course of future events could be predicted. "The life or soul, asthe seat of life, in the sacrificial animal is, therefore, the divine element in the animal,and the god in accepting the-19-animal, which is involved in the act of bringing it as an offering to a god, identifieshimself with the animal -- becomes, as it were, one with it. The life in the animal is areflection of his own life, and since the fate of men rests with the gods, if one cansucceed in entering into the mind of a god, and thus ascertain what he purposes to do,the key for the solution of the problem as to what the future has in store will havebeen found. The liver being the centre of vitality -- the seat of the mind, therefore, aswell as of the emotions -- it becomes in the case of the sacrificial animal, eitherdirectly identical with the mind of the god who accepts the animal, or, at all events, amirror in which the god's mind is reflected; or, to use another figure, a watchregulated to be in sympathetic and perfect accord with a second watch. If, therefore,one can read the liver of the sacrificial animal, one enters, as it were, into theworkshop of the divine will."Hepatoscopy thus became, among the Babylonians, of extraordinary complexity,and the organ of the sheep was studied and figured as early as 3000 B. C. In thedivination rites, the lobes, the gall-bladder, the appendages of the upper lobe and themarkings were all inspected with unusual care. The earliest known anatomical model,which is here shown, is the clay model of a sheep's liver with the divination textdating from about 2000 B. C., from which Jastrow has worked out the modernanatomical equivalents of the Babylonian terms. To reach a decision on any point, thephenomena of the inspection of the liver were carefully recorded, and theinterpretations rested on a more or less natural and original association of ideas. Thus,if the gall-bladder were swollen on the right side, it pointed to an increase in thestrength of the King's army, and was favorable; if on the left side, it indicated rathersuccess of the enemy, and was unfavorable. If the bile duct was long, it pointed to along life. Gallstones are not infrequently mentioned in the divination texts and mightbe favorable, or unfavorable. Various interpretations were gathered by the scribes inthe reference note-books which serve as guides for the interpretation of the omens andfor text-books of instructions in the temple schools (Jastrow).

The art of divination spread widely among the neighboring nations. There aremany references in the Bible to the practice. The-20-elders of Moab and Midian came to Balaam "with the rewards of divination in theirhand" (Numbers xxii, 7). Joseph's cup of divination was found in Benjamin's sack(Genesis xliv, 5, 12); and in Ezekiel (xxi, 21) the King of Babylon stood at the partingof the way and looked in the liver. Hepatoscopy was also practiced by the Etruscans,and from them it passed to the Greeks and the Romans, among whom it degeneratedinto a more or less meaningless form. But Jastrow states that in Babylonia andAssyria, where for several thousand years the liver was consistently employed as thesole organ of divination, there are no traces of the rite having fallen into decay, orhaving been abused by the priests.In Roman times, Philostratus gives an account of the trial of Apollonius of Tyana,accused of human hepatoscopy by sacrificing a boy in the practice of magic artsagainst the Emperor. "The liver, which the experts say is the very tripod of their art,does not consist of pure blood; for the heart retains all the uncontaminated blood, andirrigates the whole body with it by the conduits of the arteries; whereas the gall, whichis situated next the liver, is stimulated by anger and depressed by fear into the hollowsof the liver."We have seen how early and how widespread was the belief in amulets and charmsagainst the occult powers of darkness. One that has persisted with extraordinarytenacity is the belief in the Evil Eye the power of certain individuals to injure with alook. Of general belief in the older civilizations, and referred to in several places inthe Bible, it passed to Greece and Rome, and today is still held fervently in manyparts of Europe. The sign of "le corna," -- the first and fourth fingers extended, theothers turned down and the thumb closed over them, -- still used against the Evil Eyein Italy, was a mystic sign used by the Romans in the festival of Lemuralia. And wemeet with the belief also in this country. A child with hemiplegia, at the Infirmary forDiseases of the Nervous System, Philadelphia, from the central part of Pennsylvania,was believed by its parents to have had the Evil Eye cast upon it.The second contribution of Babylonia and Assyria to medicine -- one that affectedmankind profoundly -- relates to the supposed influence of the heavenly bodies uponman's welfare. A belief that the stars in their courses fought for or against him aroseearly in their civilizations, and directly out of their studies on astrology andmathematics. The Macrocosm, the heavens that "declare the glory of God," reflect, asin a mirror, the Microcosm, the daily life of man on earth. The first step was theidentification of the sun, moon and stars with the gods of the pantheon. Assyrianastronomical observations show an extraordinary development of practicalknowledge. The movements of the sun and moon and of the planets were studied;-23-the Assyrians knew the precession of the equinoxes and many of the fundamentallaws of astronomy, and the modern nomenclature dates from their findings. In theirdays the signs of the zodiac corresponded practically with the twelve constellationswhose names they still bear, each division being represented by the symbol of some

god, as the Scorpion, the Ram, the Twins, etc. "Changes in the heavens . . . portendedchanges on earth. The Biblical expression `hosts of heaven' for the starry universeadmirably reflects the conception held by the Babylonian astrologers. Moon, planetsand stars constituted an army in constant activity, executing military manoeuvreswhich were the result of deliberation and which had in view a fixed purpose. It wasthe function of the priest -- the bârqû, or `inspector,' as the astrologer as well as the`inspector' of the liver was called -- to discover this purpose. In order to do so, asystem of interpretation was evolved, less logical and less elaborate than the system ofhepatoscopy, which was analyzed in the preceding chapter, but nevertheless meritingattention both as an example of the pathetic yearning of men to peer into the minds ofthe gods, and of the influence that Babylonian-Assyrian astrology exerted throughoutthe ancient world" (Jastrow).With the rationalizing influence of the Persians the hold of astrology weakened,and according to Jastrow it was this, in combination with Hebrew and Greek modes ofthought, that led the priests in the three centuries following the Persian occupation, toexchange their profession of diviners for that of astronomers; and this, he says, marksthe beginning of the conflict between religion and science. At first an expression ofprimitive "science," astrology became a superstition, from which the human mind hasnot yet escaped. In contrast to divination, astrology does not seem to have made muchimpression on the Hebrews and definite references in the Bible are scanty. FromBabylonia it passed to Greece (without, however, exerting any particular influenceupon Greek medicine). Our own language is rich in words of astral significancederived from the Greek, e.g., disaster.The introduction of astrology into Europe has a passing interest. Apparently theGreeks had made important advances in astronomy before coming in contact with theBabylonians, -- who, in all probability,-24-received from the former a scientific conception of the universe. "In Babylonia andAssyria we have astrology first and astronomy afterwards, in Greece we have thesequence reversed -- astronomy first and astrology afterwards" (Jastrow).It is surprising to learn that, previous to their contact with the Greeks, astrology asrelating to the individual -- that is to say, the reading of the stars to determine theconditions under which the individual was born -- had no place in the cult of theBabylonians and Assyrians. The individualistic spirit led the Greek to make his godstake note of every action in his life, and his preordained fate might be read in thestars. -- "A connecting link between the individual and the movements in the heavenswas found in an element which they shared in common. Both man and stars moved inobedience to forces from which there was no escape. An inexorable law controllingthe planets corresponded to an equally inexorable fate ordained for every individualfrom his birth. Man was a part of nature and subject to its laws. The thought couldtherefore arise that, if the conditions in the heavens were studied under which a manwas born, that man's future could be determined in accord with the beliefs associatedwith the position of the planets rising or visible at the time of birth or, according toother views, at the time of conception. These views take us back directly to the systemof astrology developed by Babylonian bârû priests. The basis on which the modifiedGreek system rests is likewise the same that we have observed in Babylonia -- acorrespondence between heaven and earth, but with this important difference, that

instead of the caprice of the gods we have the unalterable fate controlling the entireuniverse -- the movements of the heavens and the life of the individual alike"(Jastrow).From this time on until the Renaissance, like a shadow, astrology followsastronomy. Regarded as two aspects of the same subject, the one, natural astrology,the equivalent of astronomy, was concerned with the study of the heavens, the other,judicial astrology, was concerned with the casting of horoscopes, and reading in thestars the fate of the individual.As I mentioned, Greek science in its palmy days seems to have been very freefrom the bad features of astrology. Gilbert Murray-25-remarks that "astrology fell upon the Hellenistic mind as a new disease falls uponsome remote island people." But in the Greek conquest of the Roman mind, astrologytook a prominent rôle. It came to Rome as part of the great Hellenizing movement,and the strength of its growth may be gauged from the edicts issued againstastrologers as early as the middle of the second century B. C. In his introduction to hisrecent edition of Book II of the Astronomicon of Manilius, Garrod traces the growthof the cult, which under the Empire had an extraordinary vogue. "Though these[heavenly] signs be far removed from us, yet does he [the god] so make theirinfluences felt, that they give to nations their life and their fate and to each man hisown character." Oracles were sought on all occasions, from the planting of a tree tothe mating of a horse, and the doctrine of the stars influenced deeply all phases ofpopular thought and religion. The professional astrologers, as Plinysays, wereChaldeans, Egyptians and Greeks. The Etruscans, too, the professional diviners ofRome, cultivated the science. Many of these "Isiaci conjectores" and "astrologi decirco" were worthless charlatans, but on the whole the science seems to have attractedthe attention of thoughtful men of the period. Garrod quotes the following remarkablepassage from Tacitus: "My judgment wavers," he says, "I dare not say whether it befate and necessity immutable which governs the changing course of human affairs --or just chance. Among the wisest of the ancients, as well as among their apes, youwill find a conflict of opinion. Many hold fixedly the idea that our beginning and ourend -- that man himself -- is nothing to the Gods at all. The wicked are in prosperityand the good meet tribulation. Others believe that Fate and the facts of this worldwork together. But this connection they trace not to planetary influences but to aconcatenation of natural causes. We choose our life that is free: but the choice oncemade, what awaits us is fixed and ordered. Good and evil are different from the vulgaropinion of them. Often those who seem to battle with adversity are to be accountedblessed; but the many, even in their prosperity, are miserable. It needs only to bearmisfortune bravely, while the fool perishes in his wealth. Outside these rival schoolsstands the man in the street. No one will take from him his conviction that at our birthare fixed for-27-

us the things that shall be. If some things fall out differently from what wasforetold, that is due to the deceit of men that speak what they know not: calling intocontempt a science to which past and present alike bear a glorious testimony" (Ann.vi, 22).Cato waged war on the Greek physicians and forbade "his uilicus all resort toharuspicem, augurem, hariolum Chaldæum," but in vain; so widespread became thebelief that the great philosopher, Panætius (who died about 111 B. C.), and two of hisfriends alone among the stoics, rejected the claims of astrology as a science (Garrod).So closely related was the subject of mathematics that it, too, fell into disfavor, and inthe Theodosian code sentence of death was passed upon mathematicians. Long intothe Middle Ages, the same unholy alliance with astrology and divination causedmathematics to be regarded with suspicion, and even Abelard calls it a nefariousstudy.The third important feature in Babylonian medicine is the evidence afforded by thefamous Hammurabi Code (circa 2000 B. C ). -- a body of laws, civil and religious,many of which relate to the medical profession. This extraordinary document (Fig. 9)is a black diorite block 8 feet high, once containing 21 columns on the obverse, 16and 28 columns on the reverse, with 2540 lines of writing of which now 1114 remain,and surmounted by the figure of the king receiving the law from the Sun-god. Copiesof this were set up in Babylon "that anyone oppressed or injured, who had a tale ofwoe to tell, might come and stand before his image, that of a king of righteousness,and there read the priceless orders of the King, and from the written monument solvehis problem" (Jastrow). From the enactments of the code we gather that the medicalprofession must have been in a highly organized state, for not only was practiceregulated in detail, but a scale of fees was laid down, and penalties exacted formalpraxis. Operations were performed, and the veterinary art was recognized. Aninteresting feature, from which it is lucky that we have in these days escaped, is theapplication of the "lex talionis" -- an eye for an eye, bone for a bone, and tooth for atooth, which is a striking feature of the code.Some of the laws of the code may be quoted:Paragraph 215. If a doctor has treated a gentleman for a severe wound with abronze lances and has cured the man, or has opened an abscess of the eye-28-for a gentleman with the bronze lances and has cured the eye of the gentleman, heshall take ten shekels of silver.218. If the doctor has treated a gentleman for a severe wound with a lances ofbronze and has caused the gentleman to die, or has opened an abscess of the eye for agentleman and has caused the loss of the gentleman's eye, one shall cut off his hands.219. If a doctor has treated the severe wound of a slave of a poor man with abronze lances and has caused his death, he shall render slave for slave.220. If he has opened his abscess with a bronze lances and has made him lose hiseye, he shall pay money, half his price.221. If a doctor has cured the shattered limb of a gentleman, or has cured thediseased bowel, the patient shall give five shekels of silver to the doctor.224. If a cow doctor or a sheep doctor has treated a cow or a sheep for a severewound and cured it, the owner of the cow or sheep shall give one-sixth of a shekel ofsilver to the doctor as his fee.

HEBREW MEDICINETHE medicine of the Old Testament betrays both Egyptian and Babylonianinfluences; the social hygiene is a reflex of regulations the origin of which may betraced in the Pyramid Texts and in the papyri. The regulations in the Pentateuch codesrevert in part to primitive times, in part represent advanced views of hygiene. Thereare doubts if the Pentateuch code really goes back to the days of Moses, but certainlysomeone "learned in the wisdom of the Egyptians" drew it up. As Neuburger brieflysummarizes:"The commands concern prophylaxis and suppression of epidemics, suppression ofvenereal disease and prostitution, care of the skin, baths, food, housing and clothing,regulation of labour, sexual life, discipline of the people, etc. Many of thesecommands, such as Sabbath rest, circumcision, laws concerning food (interdiction ofblood and pork), measures concerning menstruating and lying-in women and thosesuffering from gonorrhoea, isolation of lepers, and hygiene of the camp, are, in viewof the conditions of the climate, surprisingly rational."Divination, not very widely practiced, was borrowed, no doubt, from Babylonia.Joseph's cup was used for the purpose, and in-29-Numbers, the elders of Balak went to Balaam with the rewards of divination in theirhands. The belief in enchantments and witchcraft was universal, and the strongenactments against witches in the Old Testament made a belief in them almostimperative until more rational beliefs came into vogue in the eighteenth andnineteenth centuries.Whatever view we may take of it, the medicine of the New Testament is full ofinterest. Divination is only referred to once in the Acts (xvi, 16), where a damsel issaid to be possessed of a spirit of divination "which brought her masters much gain bysoothsaying." There is only one mention of astrology (Acts vii, 43); there are nowitches, neither are there charms or incantations. The diseases mentioned arenumerous: demoniac possession, convulsions, paralysis, skin diseases, -- as leprosy, --dropsy, hæmorrhages, fever, fluxes, blindness and deafness. And the cure is simpleusually a fiat of the Lord, rarely with a prayer, or with the use of means such asspittle. They are all miraculous, and the same power was granted to the apostles --"power against unclean spirits, to cast them out, to heal all manner of sickness and allmanner of disease." And more than this, not only the blind received their sight, thelame walked, the lepers were cleansed, the deaf heard, but even the dead were raisedup. No question of the mandate. He who went about doing good was a physician ofthe body as well as of the soul, and could the rich promises of the Gospel have beenfulfilled, there would have been no need of a new dispensation of science. It may bebecause the children of this world have never been able to accept its hard sayings --the insistence upon poverty, upon humility, upon peace that Christianity has losttouch no less with the practice than with the principles of its Founder. Yet, all throughthe centuries, the Church has never wholly abandoned the claim to apostolic healing;nor is there any reason why she should. To the miraculous there should be no timelimit -- only conditions have changed and nowadays to have a mountain-moving faithis not easy. Still, the possession is cherished, and it adds enormously to the spice andvariety of life to know that men of great intelligence, for example, my good friend,Dr. James J. Walsh of New York, believe in the miracles of Lourdes.Only a few

weeks ago, the Bishop of London followed with great success, it is said, the practiceof St. James. It-30-does not really concern us much -- as Oriental views of disease and its cure have hadvery little influence on the evolution of scientific medicine -- except in illustration ofthe persistence of an attitude towards disease always widely prevalent, and, indeed,increasing. Nor can we say that the medicine of our great colleague, St. Luke, theBeloved Physician, whose praise is in the Gospels, differs so fundamentally from thatof the other writings of the New Testament that we can claim for it a scientificquality. The stories of the miracles have technical terms and are in a language adornedby medical phraseology, but the mental attitude towards disease is certainly not that ofa follower of Hippocrates, nor even of a scientifically trained contemporary ofDioscorides.CHINESE AND JAPANESE MEDICINECHINESE medicine illustrates the condition at which a highly intellectual peoplemay arrive, among whom thought and speculation were restricted by religiousprohibitions. Perhaps the chief interest in its study lies in the fact that we may seetoday the persistence of views about disease similar to those which prevailed inancient Egypt and Babylonia. The Chinese believe in a universal animism, all partsbeing animated by gods and spectres, and devils swarm everywhere in numbersincalculable. The universe was spontaneously created by the operation of its Tao,"composed of two souls, the Yang and the Yin; the Yang represents light, warmth,production, and life, as also the celestial sphere from which all those blessingsemanate; the Yin is darkness, cold, death, and the earth, which, unless animated bythe Yang or heaven, is dark, cold, dead. The Yang and the Yin are divided into aninfinite number of spirits respectively good and bad, called shen and kwei; every manand every living being contains a shen and a kwei, infused at birth, and departing atdeath, to return to the Yang and the Yin. Thus man with his dualistic soul is amicrocosmos, born from the Macrocosmos spontaneously. Even every object isanimated, as well as the Universe of which it is a part."In the animistic religion of China, the Wu represented a group of-31-persons of both sexes, who wielded, with respect to the world of spirits, capacities andpowers not possessed by the rest of men. Many practitioners of Wu were physicianswho, in addition to charms and enchantments, used death-banishing medicinal herbs.Of great antiquity, Wu-ism has changed in some ways its outward aspect, but has notaltered its fundamental characters. The Wu, as exorcising physicians and practitionersof the medical art, may be traced in classical literature to the time of Confucius. Inaddition to charms and spells, there were certain famous poems which were repeated,one of which, by Han Yü, of the T'ang epoch, had an extraordinary vogue. De Grootsays that the "Ling," or magical power of this poem must have been enormous, seeingthat its author was a powerful mandarin, and also one of the loftiest intellects China

has produced. This poetic febrifuge is translated in full by de Groot (VI, 1054-1055),and the demon of fever, potent chiefly in the autumn, is admonished to begone to theclear and limpid waters of the deep river.In the High Medical College at Court, in the T'ang Dynasty, there were fourclasses of Masters, attached to its two High Medical Chiefs: Masters of Medicine, ofAcupuncture, of Manipulation, and two Masters for Frustration by means of Spells.Soothsaying and exorcism may be traced far back to the fifth and sixth centuries B.C.In times of epidemic the specialists of Wu-ism, who act as seers, soothsayers andexorcists, engage in processions, stripped to the waist, dancing in a frantic, deliriousstate, covering themselves with blood by means of prick-balls, or with needles thrustthrough their tongues, or sitting or stretching themselves on nail points or rows ofsword edges. In this way they frighten the spectres of disease. They are nearly allyoung, and are spoken of as "divining youths," and they use an exorcising magicbased on the principle that legions of spectres prone to evil live in the machine of theworld. (De Groot, VI, 983-985.)The Chinese believe that it is the Tao, or "Order of the Universe," which affordsimmunity from evil, and according to whether or no the birth occurred in a beneficentyear, dominated by four double cyclical characters, the horoscope is "heavy" or"light." Those with light horoscopes are specially prone to incurable complaints, butmuch harm can be averted if such an individual be surrounded with exorcisingobjects, if he be given proper amulets to wear and proper-32-medicines to swallow, and by selecting for him auspicious days and hours.Two or three special points may be referred to. The doctrine of the pulse reachedsuch extraordinary development that the whole practice of the art centred round itsdifferent characters. There were scores of varieties, which in complication and detailput to confusion the complicated system of some of the old Græco-Roman writers.The basic idea seems to have been that each part and organ had its own proper pulse,and just as in a stringed instrument each chord has its own tone, so in the humanbody, if the pulses were in-33-harmony, it meant health; if there was discord, it meant disease. These Chinese viewsreached Europe in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, and there is a veryelaborate description of them in Floyer's well-known book. And the idea of harmonyin the pulse is met with into the eighteenth century.Organotherapy was as extensively practiced in China as in Egypt. Parts of organs,various secretions and excretions are very commonly used. One useful method ofpractice reached a remarkable development, viz., the art of acupuncture -- thethrusting of fine needles more or less deeply into the affected part. There are some388 spots on the body in which acupuncture could be performed (Figs. 10 and 11),and so well had long experience taught them as to the points of danger, that the courseof the arteries may be traced by the tracts that are avoided. The Chinese practicedinoculation for smallpox as early as the eleventh century.

Even the briefest sketch of the condition of Chinese medicine leaves theimpression of the appalling stagnation and sterility that may afflict a really intelligentpeople for thousands of years. It is doubtful if they are today in a very much moreadvanced condition than were the Egyptians at the time when the Ebers Papyrus waswritten. From one point of view it is an interesting experiment, as illustrating the statein which a people may remain who have no knowledge of anatomy, physiology orpathology.Early Japanese medicine has not much to distinguish it from the Chinese. At firstpurely theurgic, the practice was later characterized by acupuncture and a refinedstudy of the pulse. It has an extensive literature, largely based upon the Chinese, andextending as far back as the beginning of the Christian era. European medicine wasintroduced by the Portuguese and the Dutch, whose "factory" or "company"physicians were not without influence upon practice. An extraordinary stimulus wasgiven to the belief in European medicine by a dissection made by Mayeno in 1771demonstrating the position of the organs as shown in the European anatomical tables,and proving the Chinese figures to be incorrect. The next day a translation intoJapanese of the anatomical work of Kulmus was begun, and from its appearance in1773 may be dated the commencement of reforms in medicine. In 1793, the work ofde Gorter on internal medicine was-34-translated, and it is interesting to know that before the so-called "opening of Japan"many European works on medicine had been published. In 1857, a Dutch medicalschool was started in Yedo. Since the political upheaval in 1868, Japan has maderapid progress in scientific medicine, and its institutions and teachers are now amongthe best known in the world.-35-CHAPTER IIGREEK MEDICINEOGRAIÆ gentis decus! let us sing with Lucretius, one of the great interpreters ofGreek thought. How grand and how true is his pæan!Out of the night, out of the blinding nightThy beacon flashes; -- hail, beloved lightOf Greece and Grecian; hail, for in the mirkThou cost reveal each valley and each height.Thou art my leader, and the footprints shine,Wherein I plant my own....* * * * *

The world was shine to read, and having read,Before thy children's eyes thou didst outspreadThe fruitful page of knowledge, all the wealthOf wisdom, all her plenty for their bread.[Bk. III. -- Translated by D. A. Slater.]Let us come out of the murky night of the East, heavy with phantoms, into thebright daylight of the West, into the company of men whose thoughts made ourthoughts, and whose ways made our ways -- the men who first dared to look on naturewith the clear eyes of the mind. Browning's famous poem, "Childe Roland to the DarkTower Came," is an allegory of the pilgrimage of man through the dark places of theearth, on a dismal path beset with demons, and strewn with the wreckage ofgenerations of failures. In his ear tolled the knell of all the lost adventurers, his peers,all lost, lost within sight of the dark Tower itself --The round squat turret, blind as the fool's heart,Built of brown stone, without a counterpartIn the whole world.-36-lost in despair at an all-encircling mystery. Not so the Greek Childe Roland whoset the slug-horn to his lips and blew a challenge. Neither Shakespeare nor Browningtells us what happened, and the old legend, Childe Roland, is the incarnation of theGreek spirit, the young, light-hearted master of the modern world, at whose trumpetblast the dark towers of ignorance, superstition and deceit have vanished into thin air,as the baseless fabric of a dream. Not that the jeering phantoms have flown! They stillbeset, in varied form, the path of each generation; but the Achaian Childe Rolandgave to man self-confidence, and taught him the lesson that nature's mysteries, to besolved, must be challenged. On a portal of one of the temples of Isis in Egypt wascarved: "I am whatever hath been, is, or ever will be, and my veil no man has yetlifted."The veil of nature the Greek lifted and herein lies his value to us. What of thisGenius? How did it arise among the peoples of the Ægean Sea? Those who wish toknow the rock whence science was hewn may read the story told in vivid language byProfessor Gomperz in his "Greek Thinkers," the fourth volume of which has recentlybeen published (Murray, 1912; Scribner, 1912). In 1912, there was published a bookby one of the younger Oxford teachers, "The Greek Genius and Its Meaning to Us,"from which those who shrink from the serious study of Gomperz' four volumes maylearn something of the spirit of Greece. Let me quote a few lines from hisintroduction:"Europe has nearly four million square miles; Lancashire has 1,700; Attica has700. Yet this tiny country has given us an art which we, with it and all that the worldhas done since it for our models, have equalled perhaps, but not surpassed. It hasgiven us the staple of our vocabulary in every domain of thought and knowledge.Politics, tyranny, democracy, anarchism, philosophy, physiology, geology, history --these are all Greek words. It has seized and up to the present day kept hold of ourhigher education. It has exercised an unfailing fascination, even on minds alien orhostile. Rome took her culture thence. Young Romans completed their education in

the Greek schools.... And so it was with natures less akin to Greece than the Roman.St. Paul, a Hebrew of the Hebrews, who called the wisdom of the Greeks foolishness,was drawn to their Areopagus, and found himself accommodating his gospel to the-37-style, and quoting verses from the poets of this alien race. After him, the Church,which was born to protest against Hellenism, translated its dogmas into the languageof Greek thought and finally crystallized them in the philosophy of Aristotle."Whether a plaything of the gods or a cog in the wheels of the universe this was theproblem which life offered to the thinking Greek; and in undertaking its solution, heset in motion the forces that have made our modern civilization. That the problemremains unsolved is nothing in comparison with the supreme fact that in wrestlingwith it, and in studying the laws of the machine, man is learning to control the smallsection of it with which he is specially concerned. The veil of thaumaturgy whichshrouded the Orient, while not removed, was rent in twain, and for the first time inhistory, man had a clear vision of the world about him -- "had gazed on Nature'snaked loveliness" ("Adonais") unabashed and unaffrighted by the supernatural powersabout him. Not that the Greek got rid of his gods -- far from it! -- but he made them solike himself, and lived on terms of such familiarity with them that they inspired noterror.Livingstone discusses the Greek Genius as displayed to us in certain "notes" -- theNote of Beauty -- the Desire for Freedom -- the Note of Directness -- the Note ofHumanism -- the Note of Sanity and of Many-sidedness. Upon some of thesecharacteristics we shall have occasion to dwell in the brief sketch of the rise ofscientific medicine among this wonderful people.We have seen that the primitive man and in the great civilizations of Egypt andBabylonia, the physician evolved from the priest -- in Greece he had a dual origin,philosophy and religion. Let us first trace the origins in the philosophers, particularlyin the group known as the Ionian Physiologists, whether at home or as colonists in thesouth of Italy, in whose work the beginnings of scientific medicine may be found. Letme quote a statement from Gomperz:-38-"We can trace the springs of Greek success achieved and maintained by the greatmen of Hellas on the field of scientific inquiry to a remarkable conjunction of naturalgifts and conditions. There was the teeming wealth of constructive imagination unitedwith the sleepless critical spirit which shrank from no test of audacity; there was themost powerful impulse to generalization coupled with the sharpest faculty fordescrying and distinguishing the finest shades of phenomenal peculiarity; there wasthe religion of Hellas, which afforded complete satisfaction to the requirements ofsentiment, and yet left the intelligence free to perform its destructive work; there werethe political conditions of a number of rival centres of intellect, of a friction of forces,excluding the possibility of stagnation, and, finally, of an order of state and societystrict enough to curb the excesses of `children crying for the moon,' and elasticenough not to hamper the soaring flight of superior minds.... We have already madeacquaintance with two of the sources from which the spirit of criticism derived its

nourishment -- the metaphysical and dialectical discussions practiced by the Eleaticphilosophers, and the semi-historical method which was applied to the myths byHecatæus and Herodotus. A third source is to be traced to the schools of thephysicians. These aimed at eliminating the arbitrary element from the view andknowledge of nature, the beginnings of which were bound up with it in a greater orless degree, though practically without exception and by the force of an innernecessity. A knowledge of medicine was destined to correct that defect, and we shallmark the growth of its most precious fruits in the increased power of observation andthe counterpoise it offered to hasty generalizations, as well as in the confidence whichlearnt to reject untenable fictions, whether produced by luxuriant imagination or by àpriori speculations, on the similar ground of self-reliant sense-perception."The nature philosophers of the Ionian days did not contribute much to medicineproper, but their spirit and their outlook upon nature influenced its studentsprofoundly. Their bold generalizations on the nature of matter and of the elements arestill the wonder of chemists. We may trace to one of them, Anaximenes, whoregarded air as the primary principle, the doctrine of the "pneuma," or the breath oflife -- the psychic force which animates the body and leaves-39-it at death -- "Our soul being air, holds us together." Of another, the famousHeraclitus, possibly a physician, the existing fragments do not relate specially tomedicine; but to the philosopher of fire may be traced the doctrine of heat andmoisture, and their antitheses, which influenced practice for many centuries. There isevidence in the Hippocratic treatise of an attempt to apply this doctrine to the humanbody. The famous expression, panta rhei, -- "all things are flowing," -- expresses theincessant flux in which he believed and in which we know all matter exists. No onehas said a ruder thing of the profession, for an extant fragment reads: ". . . physicians,who cut, burn, stab, and rack the sick, then complain that they do not get any adequaterecompense for it."The South Italian nature philosophers contributed much more to the science ofmedicine, and in certain of the colonial towns there were medical schools as early asthe fifth century B. C. The most famous of these physician philosophers wasPythagoras, whose life and work had an extraordinary influence upon medicine,particularly in connection with his theory of numbers, and the importance of criticaldays. His discovery of the dependence of the pitch of sound on the length of thevibrating chord is one of the most fundamental in acoustics. Among the members ofthe school which he founded at Crotona were many physicians. who carried his viewsfar and wide throughout Magna Græcia. Nothing in his teaching dominated medicineso much as the doctrine of numbers, the sacredness of which seems to have had anenduring fascination for the medical mind. Many of the common diseases, such asmalaria, or typhus, terminating abruptly on special days, favored this belief. Howdominant it became and how persistent you may judge from the literature uponcritical days, which is rich to the middle of the eighteenth century.One member of the Crotonian school, Alcmæon, achieved great distinction in bothanatomy and physiology. He first recognized the brain as the organ of the mind, andmade careful dissections of the nerves, which he traced to the brain. He described theoptic nerves and the Eustachian tubes, made correct observations upon vision, andrefuted the common view that the sperma came from the spinal cord. He suggested

the definition of health as the maintenance of equilibrium, or an "isonomy" in thematerial qualities of the body.-40-Of all the South Italian physicians of this period, the personality of none stands outin stronger outlines than that of Empedocles of Agrigentum -- physician, physiologist,religious teacher, politician and poet. A wonder-worker, also, and magician, he wasacclaimed in the cities as an immortal god by countless thousands desiring oracles orbegging the word of healing. That he was a keen student of nature is witnessed bymany recorded observations in anatomy and physiology; he reasoned that sensationstravel by definite paths to the brain. But our attention must be confined to hisintroduction of the theory of the four elements -- fire, air, earth and water -- of which,in varying quantities, all bodies were made up. Health depended upon the dueequilibrium of these primitive substances; disease was their disturbance.Corresponding to those were the four essential qualities of heat and cold, moisture anddryness, and upon this four-fold division was engrafted by the later physicians thedoctrine of the humors which,-41-from the days of Hippocrates almost to our own, dominated medicine. All sorts ofmagical powers were attributed to Empedocles. The story of Pantheia whom he calledback to life after a thirty days' trance has long clung in the imagination. Youremember how Matthew Arnold describes him in the well-known poem, "Empedocleson Etna" --But his powerSwells with the swelling evil of this time,And holds men mute to see where it will rise. He could stay swift diseases in old days,Chain madmen by the music of his lyre,Cleanse to sweet airs the breath of poisonous streams,And in the mountain-chinks inter the winds.This he could do of old --a quotation which will give you an idea of some of the powers attributed to thiswonder-working physician.But of no one of the men of this remarkable circle have we such definiteinformation as of the Crotonian physician Democedes, whose story is given at lengthby Herodotus; and his story has also the great importance of showing that, even at thisearly period, a well-devised scheme of public medical service existed in the Greekcities. It dates from the second half of the sixth century B. C. -- fully two generationsbefore Hippocrates. A Crotonian, Democedes by name, was found among the slavesof Oroetes. Of his fame as a physician someone had heard and he was called in totreat the dislocated ankle of King Darius. The wily Greek, longing for his home,feared that if he confessed to a knowledge of medicine there would be no chance ofescape, but under threat of torture he undertook a treatment which proved successful.Then Herodotus tells his story -- how, ill treated at home in Crotona, Democedes went

to Ægina, where he set up as a physician and in the second year the State of Æginahired his services at the price of a talent. In the third year, the Athenians engaged himat 100 minæ; and in the fourth, Polycrates of Samos at two talents. Democedes sharedthe misfortunes of Polycrates and was taken prisoner by Oroetes. Then Herodotustells how he cured Atossa, the daughter of Cyrus and wife of Darius, of a severeabscess of the-42-breast, but on condition that she help him to escape, and she induced her husband tosend an expedition of exploration to Greece under the guidance of Democedes, butwith the instructions at all costs to bring back the much prized physician. FromTarentum, Democedes escaped to his native city, but the Persians followed him, and itwas with the greatest difficulty that he escaped from their hands. Deprived of theirguide, the Persians gave up the expedition and sailed for Asia. In palliation of hisflight, Democedes sent a message to Darius that he was engaged to the daughter ofMilo, the wrestler, who was in high repute with the King.Plato has several references to these state physicians, who were evidently electedby a public assembly: "When the assembly meets to elect a physician," and the officewas yearly, for in "The Statesman" we find the following: "When the year of officehas expired, the pilot, or physician has to come before a court of review" to answerany charges. The physician must have been in practice for some time and attainedeminence, before he was deemed worthy of the post of state physician."If you and I were physicians, and were advising one another that we werecompetent to practice as state-physicians, should I not ask about you, and would younot ask about me, Well, but how about Socrates himself, has he good health? and wasanyone else ever known to be cured by him whether slave or freeman?"-43-All that is known of these state physicians has been collected by Pohl, who hastraced their evolution into Roman times. That they were secular, independent of theÆsculapian temples, that they were well paid, that there was keen competition to getthe most distinguished men, that they were paid by a special tax and that they weremuch esteemed -- are facts to be gleaned from Herodotus and from the inscriptions.The lapidary records, extending over 1000 years, collected by Professor Oehler ofReina, throw an important light on the state of medicine in Greece and Rome. Greekvases give representations of these state doctors at work. Dr. E. Pottier has publishedone showing the treatment of a patient in the clinic.That dissections were practiced by this group of nature philosophers is shown notonly by the studies of Alcmæon, but we have evidence that one of the latest of them,Diogenes of Apollonia, must have made elaborate dissections. In the "HistoriaAnimalium" of Aristotle occurs his account of the blood vessels, which is by far themost elaborate met with in the literature until the writings of Galen. It has, too, thegreat merit of accuracy (if we bear in mind the fact that it was not until after Aristotlethat arteries and veins were differentiated), and indications are given as to the vesselsfrom which blood may be drawn.

NOSTALGYAtossa, child of Cyrus king of kings,healed by Greek science of a morbid breast,gave lord Dareios neither love nor resttill he fulfilled her vain imaginings."Sir, show our Persian folk your sceptre's wings!Enlarge my sire's and brother's large bequest.This learned Greek shall guide your galleys west,and Dorian slave-girls grace our banquetings."So said she, taught of that o'er-artful man,the Italiote captive, Kroton's Demokede,who recked not what of maladies began,nor who in Asia and in Greece might bleed,if he -- so writes the guileless Thurian --regained his home, and freedom of the Mede.ASKLEPIOSNo god made with hands, to use the scriptural phrase, had a more successful "run"than Asklepios -- for more than a thousand years the consoler and healer of the sonsof men. Shorn of his divine attributes he remains our patron saint, our emblematicGod of Healing, whose figure with the serpents appears in our seals and charters. Hewas originally a Thessalian chieftain, whose sons, Machaon and Podalirius, becamefamous physicians and fought in the Trojan War. Nestor, you may remember, carriedoff the former, declaring, in the oft-quoted phrase, that a doctor was better worthsaving than many warriors unskilled in the treatment of wounds. Later genealogiestrace his origin to Apollo, 41 as whose son he is usually regarded. "In the wake ofnorthern tribes this god Aesculapius -- a more majestic figure than the blameless leechof Homer's song -- came by land to Epidaurus and was carried by sea to the east-wardisland of Cos.... Aesculapius grew in importance with the growth of Greece, but maynot have attained his greatest power until Greece and Rome were one."A word on the idea of the serpent as an emblem of the healing art which goes farback into antiquity. The mystical character of the snake, and the natural dread andawe inspired by it, early made it a symbol of supernatural power. There is a libationvase of Gudea, c. 2350 B. C., found at Telloh, now in the Louvre (probably theearliest representation of the symbol), with two serpents entwined round a staff(Jastrow, Pl. 4). From the earliest times the snake has been associated with mystic andmagic power, and even today, among native races, it plays a part in the initiation ofmedicine men.In Greece, the serpent became a symbol of Apollo, and prophetic serpents werekept and fed at his shrine, as well as at that of his son, Asklepios. There was an idea,too, that snakes had a knowledge of herbs, which is referred to in the famous poem ofNikander on Theriaka. You may remember that when Alexander, the famous quackand oracle monger, depicted by Lucian, started out "for revenue," the first thing he didwas to provide himself with two of the large, harmless, yellow snakes of Asia Minor.

The exact date of the introduction of the cult into Greece is not known, but its greatcentres were at Epidaurus, Cos, Pergamos and Tricca. It throve with wonderfulrapidity. Asklepios became one of the most popular of the gods. By the time ofAlexander it is estimated that there were between three and four hundred templesdedicated to him.His worship was introduced into Rome at the time of the Great Plague at thebeginning of the third century B. C. (as told by Livy in Book XI), and the temple onthe island of Tiber became a famous resort. If you can transfer in imagination the HotSprings of Virginia to the neighborhood of Washington, and put there a group ofbuildings such as are represented in these outlines of Caton's (p. 52), add asumptuous theatre with seating capacity for 20,000, a stadium 600 feet long with aseating capacity of 12,000, and all possible accessories of art and science, you willhave an idea of what the temple at Epidaurus, a few miles from Athens, was. "Thecult flourished mostly in places which, through climatic or hygienic advantages, werenatural health resorts. Those favoured spots on hill or mountain, in the shelter offorests, by rivers or springs of pure flowing water, were conducive to health. Thevivifying air, the well cultivated gardens surrounding the shrine, the magnificentview, all tended to cheer the heart with new hope of cure. Many of these templesowed their fame to mineral or merely hot springs. To the homely altars, erectedoriginally by sacred fountains in the neighbourhood of health-giving-50-mineral springs, were later added magnificent temples, pleasure-grounds forfestivals, gymnasia in which bodily ailments were treated by physical exercises, bathsand inunctions, also, as is proved by excavations, living rooms for the patients.Access to the shrine was forbidden to the unclean and the impure, pregnant womenand the mortally afflicted were kept away; no dead body could find a resting-placewithin the holy precincts, the shelter and the cure of the sick being undertaken by thekeepers of inns and boarding-houses in the neighbourhood. The suppliants for aid hadto submit to careful purification, to bathe in sea, river or spring, to fast for aprescribed time, to abjure wine and certain articles of diet, and they were onlypermitted to enter the temple when they were adequately prepared by cleansing,inunction and fumigation. This lengthy and exhausting preparation, partly dietetic,partly suggestive, was accompanied by a solemn service of prayer and sacrifice,whose symbolism tended highly to excite the imagination."The temples were in charge of members of the guild or fraternity, the head ofwhich was often, though not necessarily, a physician. The Chief was appointedannually. From Caton's excellent sketch you can get a good idea of the ritual, but stillbetter is the delightful description given in the "Plutus" of Aristophanes. Afteroffering honey-cakes and baked meats on the altar, the suppliants arranged themselveson the pallets.-53-

Soon the Temple servitorPut out the lights and bade us fall asleep,Nor stir, nor speak, whatever noise we heard.So down we lay in orderly repose.And I could catch no slumber, not one wink,Struck by a nice tureen of broth which stoodA little distance from an old wife's head,Whereto I marvellously longed to creep.Then, glancing upwards, I beheld the priestWhipping the cheese-cakes and figs from offThe holy table; thence he coasted roundTo every altar spying what was left.And everything he found he consecratedInto a sort of sack --a procedure which reminds one of the story of "Bel and the Dragon." Then the godcame, in the person of the priest, and scanned each patient. He did not neglectphysical measures, as he brayed in a mortar cloves, Tenian garlic, verjuice, squills andSphettian vinegar, with which he made application to the eyes of the patient.Then the God clucked,And out there issued from the holy shrineTwo great, enormous serpents....And underneath the scarlet cloth they crept,And licked his eyelids, as it seemed to me;And, mistress dear, before you could have drunkOf wine ten goblets, Wealth arose and saw.The incubation sleep, in which indications of cure were divinely sent, formed animportant part of the ritual.The Asklepieion, or Health Temple of Cos, recently excavated, is of specialinterest, as being at the birthplace of Hippocrates, who was himself an Asklepiad. It isknown that Cos was a great medical school. The investigations of Professor RudolfHertzog have shown that this temple was very nearly the counterpart of the temple atEpidaurus.The Æsculapian temples may have furnished a rare field for empirical-54-enquiry. As with our modern hospitals, the larger temple had rich libraries, full ofvaluable manuscripts and records of cases. That there may have been secularAsklepiads connected with the temple, who were freed entirely from its superstitiouspractices and theurgic rites, is regarded as doubtful; yet is perhaps not so doubtful asone might think. How often have we physicians to bow ourselves in the house ofRimmon! It is very much the same today at Lourdes, where lay physicians have tolook after scores of patients whose faith is too weak or whose maladies are too strongto be relieved by Our Lady of this famous shrine. Even inthe Christian era, there is evidence of the association of distinguished physicianswith Æsculapian temples. I notice that in one of his anatomical treatises, Galenspeaks with affection of a citizen of Pergamos who has been a great benefactor of the

Æsculapian temple of that city. In "Marius, the Epicurean," Pater gives a delightfulsketch of one of those temple health resorts, and brings in Galen, stating that he hadhimself undergone the temple sleep; but to this I can find no reference in the generalindex of Galen's works.From the votive tablets found at Epidaurus, we get a very good idea of the natureof the cases and of the cures. A large number of them have now been deciphered.There are evidences of various forms of diseases of the joints, affections of women,wounds, baldness, gout; but we are again in the world of miracles, as you may judgefrom the following: "Heraicus of Mytilene is bald and entreats the God to make hishair grow. An ointment is applied over night and the next morning he has a thick cropof hair."There are indications that operations were performed and abscesses opened. Fromone we gather that dropsy was treated in a novel way: Asklepios cuts off the patient'shead, holds him up by the heels, lets the water run out, claps on the patient's headagain. Here is one of the invocations:-55-"Oh, blessed Asklepios, God of Healing, it is thanks to thy skill that Diophanteshopes to be relieved from his incurable and horrible gout, no longer to move like acrab, no longer to walk upon thorns, but to have sound feet as thou hast decreed."The priests did not neglect the natural means of healing. The inscriptions show thatgreat attention was paid to diet, exercise, massage and bathing, and that whennecessary, drugs were used. Birth and death were believed to defile the sacredprecincts, and it was not until the time of the Antonines that provision was made atEpidaurus for these contingencies.One practice of the temple was of special interest, viz., the incubation sleep, inwhich dreams were suggested to the patients. In the religion of Babylonia, animportant part was played by the mystery of sleep, and the interpretation of dreams;and no doubt from the East the Greeks took over the practice of divination in sleep,for in the Æsculapian cult also, the incubation sleep played a most important rôle.That it continued in later times is well indicated in the orations of Aristides, the archneurasthenicof ancient history, who was a great dreamer of dreams. The oracle ofAmphiaraüs in Attica sent dreams into the hearts of his consultants. "The priests takethe inquirer, and keep him fasting from food for one day, and from wine for threedays, to give him perfect spiritual lucidity to absorb the divine communication"(Phillimore's "Apollonius of Tyana," Bk. II,-58-Ch. XXXVII). How incubation sleep was carried into the Christian Church, itsassociation with St. Cosmas and St. Damian and other saints, its practice throughoutthe Middle Ages, and its continuation to our own time may be read in the carefulstudy of the subject made by Miss Hamilton (now Mrs. Dickens). There are still inparts of Greece and in Asia Minor shrines at which incubation is practiced regularly,and if one may judge from the reports, with as great success as in Epidaurus. At oneplace in Britain, Christchurch in Monmouthshire, incubation was carried on till theearly part of the nineteenth century. Now the profession has come back to the study ofdreams, and there are professors as ready to give suggestive interpretations to them, as

in the days of Aristides. As usual, Aristotle seems to have said the last word on thesubject: "Even scientific physicians tell us that one should pay diligent attention todreams, and to hold this view is reasonable also for those who are not practitioners butspeculative philosophers," but it is asking too much to think that the Deity wouldtrouble to send dreams to very simple people and to animals, if they were designed inany way to reveal the future.In its struggle with Christianity, Paganism made its last stand in the temples ofAsklepios. The miraculous healing of the saints superseded the cures of the heathengod, and it was wise to adopt the useful practice of his temple.HIPPOCRATES AND THE HIPPOCRATIC WRITINGSDESERVEDLY the foundation of Greek Medicine is associated with the name ofHippocrates, a native of the island of Cos; and yet he is a shadowy personality, aboutwhom we have little accurate first-hand information. This is in strong contrast to someof his distinguished contemporaries and successors, for example, Plato and Aristotle,about whom we have such full and accurate knowledge. You will, perhaps, besurprised to hear that the only contemporary mention of Hippocrates is made by Plato.In the "Protagoras," the young Hippocrates, son of Apollodorus has come toProtagoras, "that mighty wise man," to learn the science and knowledge of humanlife.-60-Socrates asked him: "If . . . you had thought of going to Hippocrates of Cos, theAsclepiad, and were about to give him your money, and some one had said to you,`You are paying money to your namesake Hippocrates, O Hippocrates; tell me, whatis he that you give him money?' how would you have answered?" "I should say," hereplied, "that I gave money to him as a physician." "And what will he make of you?""A physician," he said. And in the Phædrus, in reply to a question of Socrates whetherthe nature of the soul could be known intelligently without knowing the nature of thewhole, Phædrus replies: "Hippocrates, the Asclepiad, says that the nature, even of thebody, can only be understood as a whole." (Plato, I, 311; III, 270 -- Jowett, I, 131,479.)Several lives of Hippocrates have been written. The one most frequently quoted isthat of Soranus of Ephesus (not the famous physician of the time of Trajan), and thestatements which he gives are usually accepted, viz., that he was born in the island ofCos in the year 460 B. C.; that he belonged to an Asklepiad family of distinction, thathe travelled extensively, visiting Thrace, Thessaly, and various other parts of Greece;that he returned to Cos, where he became the most renowned physician of his period,and died about 375 B. C. Aristotle mentions him but once, calling him "the greatHippocrates." Busts of him are common; one of the earliest of which, and I am toldthe best, dating from Roman days and now in the British Museum, is hererepresented.

Of the numerous writings attributed to Hippocrates it cannot easily be determinedwhich are really the work of the Father of Medicine himself. They were collected atthe time of the Alexandrian School, and it became customary to write commentariesupon them; much of the most important information we have about them, we derivefrom Galen. The earliest manuscript is the "Codex Laurentianus" of Florence, datingfrom the ninth century, a specimen page of which (thanks to Commendatore Biagi) isannexed. Those of you who are interested, and wish to have full references to thevarious works attributed to Hippocrates, will find them in "Die Handschriften derantiken Aerzte" of the Prussian Academy, edited by Diels (Berlin, 1905). ThePrussian Academy has undertaken the editorship of the "Corpus MedicorumGræcorum." There is no complete edition of them in English. In 1849 the Deesidephysician, Adams, published (for the-61-Old Sydenham Society) a translation of the most important works, a valuable editionand easily obtained. Littré's ten-volume edition OEuvres complètes d'Hippocrate,"Paris, 1839-1861) is the most important for reference. Those of you who want a briefbut very satisfactory account of the Hippocratic writings, with numerous extracts, willfind the volume of Theodor Beck (Jena, 1907) very useful.I can only indicate, in a very brief way, the special features of the-62-Hippocratic writings that have influenced the evolution of the science and art ofmedicine.The first is undoubtedly the note of humanity. In his introduction to, "The Rise ofthe Greek Epic,"Gilbert Murray emphasizes the idea of service to the community asmore deeply rooted in the Greeks than in us. The question they asked about eachwriter was, "Does he help to make better men?" or "Does he make life a better thing?"Their aim was to be useful, to be helpful, to make better men in the cities, to correctlife, "to make gentle the life of the world." In this brief phrase were summed up theaspirations of the Athenians, likewise illuminated in that remarkable saying ofProdicus (fifth century B. C.), "That which benefits human life is God." The Greekview of man was the very antithesis of that which St. Paul enforced upon the Christianworld. One idea pervades thought from Homer to Lucian like an aroma -- pride in thebody as a whole. In the strong conviction that "our soul in its rose mesh" is quite asmuch helped by flesh as flesh by the soul the Greek sang his song -- "For pleasant isthis flesh." Just so far as we appreciate the value of the fair mind in the fair body, sofar do we apprehend ideals expressed by the Greek in every department of life. Thebeautiful soul harmonizing with the beautiful body was as much the glorious ideal ofPlato as it was the end of the education of Aristotle. What a splendid picture in BookIII of the "Republic," of the day when ". . . our youth will dwell in a land of health,amid fair sights and sounds and receive the good in everything; and beauty, theeffluence of fair works, shall flow into the eye and ear like a health-giving breezefrom a purer region, and insensibly draw the soul from earliest years into likeness andsympathy with the beauty of reason." The glory of this zeal for the enrichment of thispresent life was revealed to the Greeks as to no other people, but in respect to care for

the body of the common man, we have only seen its fulfilment in our own day, as adirect result of the methods of research initiated by them. Everywhere throughout theHippocratic writings we find this attitude towards life, which has never been betterexpressed than in the fine phrase, "Where there is love of humanity there will be loveof the profession." This is well brought out in the qualifications laid down byHippocrates for the study of medicine. "Whoever is to acquire a competent knowledgeof medicine ought to-63-be possessed of the following advantages: a natural disposition; instruction; afavourable position for the study; early tuition; love of labour; leisure. First of all, anatural talent is required, for when nature opposes, everything else is vain; but whennature leads the way to what is most excellent, instruction in the art takes place, whichthe student must try to appropriate to himself by reflection, becoming an early pupil ina place well adapted for instruction. He must also bring to the task a love of labourand perseverance, so that the instruction taking root may bring forth proper andabundant fruits." And the directions given for the conduct of life and for the relationwhich the physician should have with the public are those of our code of ethics today.Consultations in doubtful cases are advised, touting for fees is discouraged. "If two ormore ways of medical treatment were possible, the physician was recommended tochoose the least imposing or sensational; it was an act of `deceit' to dazzle thepatient's eye by brilliant exhibitions of skill which might very well be dispensed with.The practice of holding public lectures in order to increase his reputation wasdiscouraged in the physician, and he was especially warned against lectures trickedout with quotations from the poets. Physicians who pretended to infallibility indetecting even the minutest departure from their prescriptions were laughed at; andfinally, there were precise bye-laws to regulate the personal behaviour of thephysician. He was enjoined to observe the most scrupulous cleanliness, and wasadvised to cultivate an elegance removed from all signs of luxury, even down to thedetail that he might use perfumes, but not in an immoderate degree." But the highwatermark of professional morality is reached in the famous Hippocratic oath, whichGomperz calls "a monument of the highest rank in the history of civilization." It is ofsmall matter whether this is of Hippocratic date or not, or whether it has in it Egyptianor Indian elements: its importance lies in the accuracy with which it represents theGreek spirit. For twenty-five centuries it has been the "credo" of the profession, and inmany universities it is still the formula with which men are admitted to the doctorate.I swear by Apollo the physician and Æsculapius and Health (Hygieia) and All-Heal(Panacea) and all the gods and goddesses, that, according to my ability and judgment,I will keep this oath and this stipulation -- to reckon-64-him who taught me this art equally dear to me as my parents, to sharemy substance with him, and relieve his necessities if required; to look

upon his offspring in the same footing as my own brothers, and toteach them this art, if they shall wish to learn it, without fee orstipulation; and that by precept, lecture, and every other mode ofinstruction, I will impart a knowledge of my art to my own sons, andthose of my teachers, and to disciples bound by a stipulation and oathaccording to the law of medicine, but to none others. I will follow thatsystem of regimen which, according to my ability and judgement, Iconsider for the benefit of my patients, and abstain from whatever isdeleterious and mischievous.I will give no deadly medicine to anyone if asked, nor suggest any such counsel; andin like manner I will not give to a woman a pessary to produce abortion.With purity and with holiness I will pass my life and practice my art.[I will not cut persons labouring under the stone, but will leave this to be done bymen who are practitioners of this work.]Into whatsoever houses I enter, I will go into them for the benefit of the sick, and willabstain from every voluntary act of mischief and corruption, and, further, from theabduction of females or males, of freemen and slaves. What-ever, in connection withmy professional practice, or not in connection with it, I see or hear, in the life of men,which ought not to be spoken of abroad, I will not divulge, as reckoning that all suchshould be kept secret.While I continue to keep this Oath unviolated, may it be granted to me to enjoy lifeand the practice of the art, respected by all men, in all times! But should I trespassand violate this Oath, may the reverse be my lot! (Adams, II, 779, cf. Littré, IV,628.)In his ideal republic, Plato put the physician low enough, in the last stratum,indeed, but he has never been more honorably placed than in the picture of Atheniansociety given by this author in the "Symposium." Here the physician is shown as acultivated gentleman, mixing in the best, if not always the most sober, society.Eryximachus, the son of Acumenus, himself a physician, plays in this famous scene atypical Greek part-- a strong advocate of temperance in mind and body, deprecating,as a physician, excess in drink, he urged that conversation should be the order of theday and he had the honor of naming the subject -- "Praise of the God of Love."Incidentally Eryximachus gives his view of the nature of disease, and shows howdeeply he was influenced by the views of Empedocles:-65-". . . so too in the body the good and healthy elements are to be indulged, and the badelements and the elements of disease are not to be indulged, but discouraged. And thisis what the physician has to do, and in this the art of medicine consists: for medicinemay be regarded generally as the knowledge of the loves and desires of the body andhow to satisfy them or not; and the best physician is he who is able to separate fairlove from foul, or to convert one into the other; and he who knows how to eradicate

and how to implant love, whichever is required, and can reconcile the most hostileelements in the constitution and make them loving friends, is a skilful practitioner."The second great note in Greek medicine illustrates the directness with which theywent to the very heart of the matter. Out of mysticism, superstition and religious ritualthe Greek went directly to nature and was the first to grasp the conception of medicineas an art based on accurate observation, and an integral part of the science of man.What could be more striking than the phrase in "The Law," "There are, in effect, twothings, to know and to believe one knows; to know is science; to believe one knows isignorance"? But no single phrase in the writings can compare for directness with thefamous aphorism which has gone into the literature of all lands: "Life is short and Artis long; the Occasion fleeting, Experience fallacious, and Judgment difficult."Everywhere one finds a strong, clear common sense, which refuses to be entangledeither in theological or philosophical speculations. What Socrates did for philosophyHippocrates may be said to have done for medicine. As Socrates devoted himself toethics, and the application of right thinking to good conduct, so Hippocrates insistedupon the practical nature of the art, and in placing its highest good in the benefit of thepatient. Empiricism, experience, the collection of facts, the evidence of the senses, theavoidance of philosophical speculations, were the distinguishing features ofHippocratic medicine. One of the most striking contributions of Hippocrates is therecognition that diseases are only part of the processes of nature, that there is nothingdivine or sacred about them. With reference to epilepsy, which was regarded as asacred disease, he says, "It appears to me to be no wise more divine nor more sacredthan other diseases, but has a natural cause from which it originates like otheraffections; men-66-regard its nature and cause as divine from ignorance." And in another place heremarks that each disease has its own nature, and that no one arises without a naturalcause. He seems to have been the first to grasp the conception of the great healingpowers of nature. In his long experience with the cures in the temples, he must haveseen scores of instances in which the god had worked the miracle through the vismedicatrix naturæ; and to the shrewd wisdom of his practical suggestions intreatment may be attributed in large part the extraordinary vogue which the greatCoan has enjoyed for twenty-five centuries. One may appreciate the veneration withwhich the Father of Medicine was regarded by the attribute "divine" which wasusually attached to his name. Listen to this for directness and honesty of speech takenfrom the work on the joints characterized by Littré as "the great surgical monument ofantiquity": "I have written this down deliberately, believing it is valuable to learn ofunsuccessful experiments, and to know the causes of their non-success."The note of freedom is not less remarkable throughout the Hippocratic writings,and it is not easy to understand how a man brought up and practicing within theprecincts of a famous Æsculapian temple could have divorced himself so wholly fromthe superstitions and vagaries of the cult. There are probably grounds for Pliny'ssuggestion that he benefited by the receipts written in the temple, registered by thesick cured of any disease. "Afterwards," Pliny goes on to remark in his characteristicway, "hee professed that course of Physicke which is called Clinice Wherbyphysicians found such sweetnesse that afterwards there was no measure nor end offees" ("Natural History," XXIX, 1). There is no reference in the Hippocratic writings

to divination; incubation sleep is not often mentioned, and charms, incantations or thepractice of astrology but rarely. Here and there we do find practices which jar uponmodern feeling, but on the whole we feel in reading the Hippocratic writings nearer totheir spirit than to that of the Arabians or of the many writers of the fifteenth andsixteenth centuries A. D. And it is not only against the thaumaturgic powers that theHippocratic writings protested, but they express an equally active reaction against theexcesses and defects of the new philosophy, a point brought out very clearly byGomperz. He regards it as an undying glory of the school of Cos that after years-67-of vague, restless speculation it introduces steady sedentary habits into the intellectuallife of mankind. " `Fiction to the right! Reality to the left!' was the battle-cry of thisschool in the war they were the first to wage against the excesses and defects of thenature-philosophy." Though the protest was effective in certain directions, we shallsee that the authors of the Hippocratic writings could not entirely escape from thehypotheses of the older philosophers.I can do no more than indicate in the briefest possible way some of the moreimportant views ascribed to Hippocrates. We cannot touch upon the disputes betweenthe Coan and Cnidian schools. You must bear in mind that the Greeks at this time hadno human anatomy. Dissections were impossible; their physiology was of the crudestcharacter, strongly dominated by the philosophies. Empedocles regarded the fourelements, fire, air, earth and water, as "the roots of all things," and this became thecorner stone in the humoral pathology of Hippocrates. As in the Macrocosm -- theworld at large there were four elements, fire, air, earth, and water, so in theMicrocosm -- the world of man's body -- there were four humors (elements), viz.,blood, phlegm, yellow bile (or choler) and black bile (or melancholy), and theycorresponded to the four qualities of matter, heat, cold, dryness and moisture. Formore than two thousand years these views prevailed. In his "Regiment of Life" (1546)Thomas Phaer says: ". . . which humours are called ye sones of the Elements becausethey be complexioned like the foure Elements, for like as the Ayre is hot and moyst:so is the blooud, hote and moyste. And as Fyer is hote and dry: so is Cholere hote anddry. And as water is colde and moyst: so is fleume colde and moyste. And as theEarth is colde and dry: so Melancholy is colde and dry."As the famous Regimen Sanitatis of Salernum, the popular family hand-book ofthe Middle Ages, says:Foure Humours raigne within our bodies wholly,And these compared to foure elements. 59According to Littré, there is nowhere so strong a statement of these views in thegenuine works of Hippocrates, but they are found at-68-large in the Hippocratic writings, and nothing can be clearer than the followingstatement from the work "The Nature of Man": "The body of man contains in itselfblood and phlegm and yellow bile and black bile, which things are in the naturalconstitution of his body, and the cause of sickness and of health. He is healthy whenthey are in proper proportion between one another as regards mixture and force and

quantity, and when they are well mingled together; he becomes sick when one ofthese is diminished or increased in amount, or is separated in the body from its propermixture, and not properly mingled with all the others." No words could more clearlyexpress the views of disease which, as I mentioned, prevailed until quite recent years.The black bile, melancholy, has given us a great word in the language, and that wehave not yet escaped from the humoral pathology of Hippocrates is witnessed by thecommon expression of biliousness -- "too much bile" -- or "he has a touch of theliver." The humors, imperfectly mingled, prove irritant in the body. They are kept indue proportion by the innate heat which, by a sort of internal coction graduallychanges the humors to their proper proportion. Whatever may be the primary cause ofthe change in the humors manifesting itself in disease, the innate heat, or asHippocrates terms it, the nature of the body itself, tends to restore conditions to thenorm; and this change occurring suddenly, or abruptly, he calls the "crisis," which isaccomplished on some special day of the disease, and is often accompanied by acritical discharge, or by a drop in the body temperature. The evil, or superabundant,humors were discharged and this view of a special materies morbi, to be got rid of bya natural process or a crisis, dominated pathology until quite recently. Hippocrateshad a great belief in the power of nature, the vis medicatrix naturæ, to restore thenormal state. A keen observer and an active practitioner, his views of disease, thushastily sketched, dominated the profession for twenty-five centuries; indeed, echoesof his theories are still heard in the schools, and his very words are daily on our lips. Ifasked what was the great contribution to medicine of Hippocrates and his school wecould answer -- the art of careful observation.In the Hippocratic writings is summed up the experience of Greece to the GoldenAge of Pericles. Out of philosophy, out of abstract speculation, had come a way oflooking at nature for which the physicians were mainly responsible, and which haschanged forever men's-69-views on disease. Medicine broke its leading strings to religion and philosophy -- atottering, though lusty, child whose fortunes we are to follow in these lectures. I havea feeling that, could we know more of the medical history of the older races of whichI spoke in the first lecture, we might find that this was not the first-born of Asklepios,that there had been many premature births, many still-born offspring, even live-births-- the products of the fertilization of nature by the human mind; but the record is dark,and the infant was cast out like Israel in the chapter of Isaiah. But the high-water markof mental achievement had not been reached by the great generation in whichHippocrates had labored. Socrates had been dead sixteen years, and Plato was a manof forty-five, when far away in the north in the little town of Stagira, on the peninsulaof Mount Athos in Macedonia was, in 384 B. C., born a "man of men," the one aboveall others to whom the phrase of Milton may be applied. The child of an Asklepiad,Nicomachus, physician to the father of Philip, there must have been a rare conjunctionof the planets at the birth of the great Stagirite. In the first circle of the "Inferno,"Virgil leads Dante into a wonderful company, "star-seated" on the verdure (he says) --the philosophic family looking with reverence on "the Master of those who know" --il maestro di color che sanno. And with justice has Aristotle been so regarded forthese twenty-three centuries. No man has ever swayed such an intellectual empire --in logic, metaphysics, rhetoric, psychology, ethics, poetry, politics and natural history,

in all a creator, and in all still a master. The history of the human mind -- offers noparallel to his career. As the creator of the sciences of comparative anatomy,systematic zoölogy, embryology, teratology, botany and physiology, his writings havean eternal interest. They present an extraordinary accumulation of facts relating to thestructure and functions of various parts of the body. It is an unceasing wonder howone man, even with a school of devoted students, could have done so much.Dissection -- already practiced by Alcmæon, Democritus, Diogenes and others --was conducted on a large scale, but the human body was still taboo. Aristotleconfesses that the "inward parts of man are known least of all," and he had never seenthe human kidneys or-70-uterus. In his physiology, I can refer to but one point -- the pivotal question of theheart and blood vessels. To Aristotle the heart was the central organ controlling thecirculation, the seat of vitality, the source of the blood, the place in which it receivedits final elaboration and impregnation with animal heat. The blood was contained inthe heart and vessels as in a vase -- hence the use of the term "vessel." "From the heartthe blood-vessels extend throughout the body as in the anatomical diagrams which arerepresented on the walls, for the parts lie round these because they are formed out ofthem." The nutriment oozes through the blood vessels and the passages in each of theparts "like water in unbaked pottery." He did not recognize any distinction betweenarteries and veins, calling both (Littré); the vena cave is the great vessel, and the aortathe smaller; but both contain blood. He did not use the word "arteria for either ofthem. There was no movement from the heart to the vessels but the blood wasincessantly drawn upon by the substance of the body and as unceasingly renewed byabsorption of the products of digestion, the mesenteric vessels taking up nutrimentvery much as the plants take theirs by the roots from the soil. From the lungs wasabsorbed the pneuma, or spiritus, which was conveyed to the heart by the pulmonaryvessels -- one to the right, and one to the left side. These vessels in the lungs, "throughmutual contact" with the branches of the trachea, took in the pneuma. A point ofinterest is that the windpipe, or trachea, is called "arteria," both by Aristotle and byHippocrates ("Anatomy," Littré, VIII, 539). It was the air-tube, disseminating thebreath through the lungs. We shall see in a few minutes how the term came to beapplied to the arteries, as we know them. The pulsation of the heart and arteries wasregarded by Aristotle as a sort of ebullition in which the liquids were inflated by thevital or innate heat, the fires of which were cooled by the pneuma taken in by thelungs and carried to the heart by the pulmonary vessels.In Vol. IV of Gomperz' "Greek Thinkers," you will find an admirable discussionon Aristotle as an investigator of nature, and those of you who wish to study hisnatural history works more closely may do so easily -- in the new translation which isin process of publication by the Clarendon Press, Oxford. At the end of the chapter"De Respiratione" in the "Parva Naturalia" (Oxford edition, 1908), we have-71-Aristotle's attitude towards medicine expressed in a way worthy of a son of theprofession:

"But health and disease also claim the attention of the scientist, and not merely ofthe physician, in so far as an account of their causes is concerned. The extent to whichthese two differ and investigate diverse provinces must not escape us, since factsshow that their inquiries are, at least to a certain extent, conterminous. For physiciansof culture and refinement make some mention of natural science, and claim to derivetheir principles from it, while the most accomplished investigators into naturegenerally push their studies so far as to conclude with an account of medicalprinciples." (Works, III, 480 b.)Theophrastus, a student of Aristotle and his successor, created the science ofbotany and made possible the pharmacologists of a few centuries later. Some of youdoubtless know him in another guise -- as the author of the golden booklet on"Characters," in which "the most eminent botanist of antiquity observes the doings ofmen with the keen and unerring vision of a natural historian" (Gomperz). In theHippocratic writings, there are mentioned 236 plants; in the botany of Theophrastus,455. To one trait of master and pupil I must refer -- the human feeling, not alone ofman for man, but a sympathy that even claims kinship with the animal world. "Thespirit with which he (Theophrastus) regarded the animal world found no secondexpression till the present age" (Gomperz). Halliday, however, makes the statementthat Porphyry goes as far as any modern humanitarian in preaching our duty towardsanimals.ALEXANDRIAN SCHOOLFROM the death of Hippocrates about the year 375 B. C. till the founding of theAlexandrian School, the physicians were engrossed largely in speculative views, andnot much real progress was made, except in the matter of elaborating the humoralpathology. Only three or four men of the first rank stand out in this period: Dioclesthe Carystian, "both in time and reputation next and second to Hippocrates" (Pliny), akeen anatomist and an encyclopædic writer; but only scanty fragments of his workremain. In some ways the most important member of this group was Praxagoras, anative of Cos,-72-about 340 B. C. Aristotle, you remember, made no essential distinction betweenarteries and veins, both of which he held to contain blood: Praxagoras recognized thatthe pulsation was only in the arteries, and maintained that only the veins containedblood, and the arteries air. As a rule the arteries are empty after death, and Praxagorasbelieved that they were filled with an aëriform fluid, a sort of pneuma, which wasresponsible for their pulsation. The word arteria, which had already been applied tothe trachea, as an air-containing tube, was then attached to the arteries; on account ofthe rough and uneven character of its walls the trachea was then called the arteriatracheia, or the rough air-tube. We call it simply the trachea, but in French the wordtrachée-artère is still used.Praxagoras was one of the first to make an exhaustive study of the pulse, and hemust have been a man of considerable clinical acumen, as well as boldness, torecommend in obstruction of the bowels the opening of the abdomen, removal of theobstructed portion and uniting the ends of the intestine by sutures.

After the death of Alexander, Egypt fell into the hands of his famous general,Ptolemy, under whose care the city became one of the most important on theMediterranean. He founded and maintained a museum, an establishment thatcorresponded very much to a modern university, for the study of literature, scienceand the arts. Under his successors, particularly the third Ptolemy, the museumdeveloped, more especially the library, which contained more than half a millionvolumes. The teachers were drawn from all centres, and the names of the greatAlexandrians are among the most famous in the history of human knowledge,including such men as Archimedes, Euclid, Strabo and Ptolemy.In mechanics and physics, astronomy, mathematics and optics, the work of theAlexandrians constitutes the basis of a large part of our modern knowledge. Theschool-boy of today -- or at any rate of my day -- studies the identical problems thatwere set by Euclid 300 B. C., and the student of physics still turns to Archimedes andHeron, and the astronomer to Eratosthenes and Hipparchus. To those of you who wishto get a brief review of the state of science in the Alexandrian School I wouldrecommend the chapter in Vol. I of Dannemann's history.-73-Of special interest to us in Alexandria is the growth of the first great medicalschool of antiquity. Could we have visited the famous museum about 300 B. C., weshould have found a medical school in full operation, with extensive laboratories,libraries and clinics. Here for the first time the study of the structure of the humanbody reached its full development, till then barred everywhere by religious prejudice;but full permission was given by the Ptolemies to perform human dissection and, ifwe may credit some authors, even vivisection. The original writings of the chief menof this school have not been preserved, but there is a possibility that any day apapyrus may be found which will supplement the scrappy and imperfect knowledgeafforded us by Pliny, Celsus and Galen. The two most distinguished names areHerophilus -- who, Pliny says, has the honor of being the first physician "whosearched into the causes of disease" -- and Erasistratus.Herophilus, ille anatomicorum coryphæus, as Vesalius calls him, was a pupil ofPraxagoras, and his name is still in everyday use by medical students, attached to thetorcular Herophili. Anatomy practically dates from these Alexandrines, whodescribed the valves of the heart, the duodenum, and many of the important parts ofthe brain; they recognized the true significance of the nerves (which before their dayhad been confounded with the tendons), distinguished between motor and sensorynerves, and regarded the brain as the seat of the perceptive faculties and voluntaryaction. Herophilus counted the pulse, using the water-clock for the purpose, and mademany subtle analyses of its rate and rhythm; and, influenced by the musical theoriesof the period, he built up a rhythmical pulse lore which continued in medicine untilrecent times. He was a skilful practitioner and to him is ascribed the statement thatdrugs are the hands of the gods. There is a very modern flavor to his oft-quotedexpression that the best physician was the man who was able to distinguish betweenthe possible and the impossible.Erasistratus elaborated the view of the pneuma, one form of which he believedcame from the inspired air, and passed to the left side of the heart and to the arteriesof the body. It was the cause of the heart-beat and the source of the innate heat of the

ody, and it maintained the processes of digestion and nutrition. This was the vitalspirit; the animal spirit was elaborated in the brain, chiefly in the-74-ventricles, and sent by the nerves to all parts of the body, endowing the individualwith life and perception and motion. In this way a great division was made betweenthe two functions of the body, and two sets of organs: in the vascular system, the heartand arteries and abdominal organs, life was controlled by the vital spirits; on the otherhand, in the nervous system were elaborated the animal spirits, controlling motion,sensation and the various special senses. These views on the vital and animal spiritsheld unquestioned sway until well into the eighteenth century, and we still, in ameasure, express the views of the great Alexandrian when we speak of "high" or"low" spirits.GALENPERGAMON has become little more than a name associated in our memory withthe fulminations of St. John against the seven churches of Asia; and on hearing thechapter read, we wondered what was "Satan's seat" and who were the "Nicolaitanes"whose doctrine he so hated. Renewed interest has been aroused in the story of itsgrowth and of its intellectual rivalry with Alexandria since the wonderful discoveriesby German archæologists which have enabled us actually to see this great Ioniancapital, and even the "seat of Satan." The illustration here shown (Fig. 29) is of thefamous city, in which you can see the Temple of Athena Polis on the rock, and theamphitheatre. Its interest for us is connected with the greatest name, afterHippocrates, in Greek medicine, that of Galen, born at Pergamon A. D. 130, in whomwas united as never before -- and indeed one may say, never since -- the treblecombination of observer, experimenter and philosopher. His father, Nikon, aprosperous architect, was urged in a dream to devote his son to the profession ofmedicine, upon which study the lad entered in his seventeenth year under Satyrus. Inhis writings, Galen gives many details of his life, mentioning the names of histeachers, and many incidents in his Wanderjahre, during which he studied at the bestmedical schools, including Alexandria. Returning to his native city he was put incharge of the gladiators, whose wounds he said he treated with wine. In the year 162,he paid his first visit to Rome, the scene of his greatest labors. Here he gave publiclectures on anatomy, and became "the fashion." He mentions many of his successes;one of them is the well-worn story told also of-75-Erasistratus and Stratonice, but Galen's story is worth telling, and it is figured as aminiature in the manuscripts of his works. Called to see a lady he found her sufferingfrom general malaise without any fever or increased action of the pulse. He saw atonce that her trouble was mental and, like a wise physician, engaged her in generalconversation. Quite possibly he knew her story, for the name of a certain actor,

Pylades, was mentioned, and he noticed that her pulse at once increased in rapidityand became irregular. On the next-77-day he arranged that the name of another actor, Morphus, should be mentioned, andon the third day the experiment was repeated but without effect. Then on the fourthevening it was again mentioned that Pylades was dancing, and the pulse quickenedand became irregular, so he concluded that she was in love with Pylades. He tells howhe was first called to treat the Emperor Marcus Aurelius, who had a stomach-acheafter eating too much cheese. He treated the case so successfully that the Emperorremarked, "I have but one physician, and he is a gentleman." He seems to have hadgood fees, as he received 400 aurei (about $2000) for a fortnight's attendance upon thewife of Boethus.He left Rome for a time in 168 A. D. and returned to Pergamon, but was recalledto Rome by the Emperor, whom he accompanied on an expedition to Germany. Thereare records in his writings of many journeys, and busy with his practice in dissectionsand experiments he passed a long and energetic life, dying, according to mostauthorities, in the year 200 A. D.A sketch of the state of medicine in Rome is given by Celsus in the first of hiseight books, and he mentions the names of many of the leading practitioners,particularly Asclepiades, the Bithynian, a man of great ability, and a follower of theAlexandrians, who regarded all disease as due to a disturbed movement of the atoms.Diet, exercise, massage and bathing were his great remedies, and his motto -- tuto,cito et jucunde -- has been the emulation of all physicians. How important a rôle heand his successors played until the time of Galen may be gathered from the learnedlectures of Sir Clifford Allbutt on "Greek Medicine in Rome" and from Meyer-Steineg's "Theodorus Priscianus und die römische Medizin." From certain lay writerswe learn that it was the custom for popular physicians to be followed on their roundsby crowds of students. Martial's epigram (V, ix) is often referred to:Languebam: sed tu comitatus protinus ad meVenisti centum, Symmache, discipulis.Centum me tegigere manus Aquilone gelatæNon habui febrem, Symmache, nunc habeo.-78-And in the "Apollonius of Tyana" by Philostratus, when Apollonius wishes toprove an alibi, he calls to witness the physicians of his sick friend, Seleucus andStraloctes, who were accompanied by their clinical class to the number of about thirtystudents. But for a first-hand sketch of the condition of the profession we must go toPliny, whose account in the twenty-ninth book of the "Natural History" is one of themost interesting and amusing chapters in that delightful work. He quotes Cato's tiradeagainst Greek physicians, -- corrupters of the race, whom he would have banishedfrom the city, -- then he sketches the career of some of the more famous of thephysicians under the Empire, some of whom must have had incomes never

approached at any other period in the history of medicine. The chapter gives a goodpicture of the stage on which Galen (practically a contemporary of Pliny) was to playso important a rôle. Pliny seems himself to have been rather disgusted with thedevious paths of the doctors of his day, and there is no one who has touched withstronger language upon the weak points of the art of physic. In one place he says thatit alone has this peculiar art and privilege, "That whosoever professeth himself aphysician, is straightwaies beleeved, say what he will: and yet to speake a truth, thereare no lies dearer sold or more daungerous than those which proceed out of aPhysician's mouth. Howbeit, we never once regard or look to that, so blind we are inour deepe persuasion of them, and feed our selves each one in a sweet hope andplausible conceit of our health by them. Moreover, this mischief there is besides, Thatthere is no law or statute to punish the ignorance of blind Physicians, though a manlost his life by them: neither was there ever any man knowne, who had revenge ofrecompence for the evill intreating or misusage under their hands. They learne theirskill by endaungering our lives: and to make proofe and experiments of theirmedicines, they care not to kill us." He says it is hard that, while the judges arecarefully chosen and selected, physicians are practically their own judges, and that ofthe men who may give us a quick despatch and send us to Heaven or Hell, no enquiryor examination is made of their quality and worthiness. It is interesting to read soearly a bitter criticism of the famous "Theriaca," a great compound-79-medicine invented by Antiochus III, which had a vogue for fifteen hundred years.But we must return to Galen and his works, which comprise the most voluminousbody of writings left by any of the ancients. The great edition is that in twenty-twovolumes by Kühn (1821-1833). The most useful editions are the "Juntines" of Venice,which were issued in thirteen editions. In the fourth and subsequent editions a veryuseful index by Brassavola is included. A critical study of the writings is at presentbeing made by German scholars for the Prussian Academy, which will issue adefinitive edition of his works.Galen had an eclectic mind and could not identify himself with any of theprevailing schools, but regarded himself as a disciple of Hippocrates. For our purpose,both his philosophy and his practice are of minor interest in comparison with his greatlabors in anatomy and physiology.In anatomy, he was a pupil of the Alexandrians to whom he constantly refers.Times must have changed since the days of Herophilus, as Galen does not seem everto have had an opportunity of dissecting the human body, and he laments theprejudice which prevents it. In the study of osteology, he urges the student to be onthe lookout for an occasional human bone exposed in a graveyard, and on oneoccasion he tells of finding the carcass of a robber with the bones picked bare by birdsand beasts. Failing this source, he advises the student to go to Alexandria, where therewere still two skeletons. He himself dissected chiefly apes and pigs. His osteologywas admirable, and his little tractate "De Ossibus" could, with very few changes, beused today by a hygiene class as a manual. His description of the muscles and of theorgans is very full, covering, of course, many sins of omission and of commission, butit was the culmination of the study of the subject by Greek physicians.His work as a physiologist was even more important, for, so far as we know, hewas the first to carry out experiments on a large scale. In the first place, he was within

an ace of discovering the circulation of the blood. You may remember that throughthe errors of Praxagoras and Erasistratus, the arteries were believed to contain air andgot their name on that account: Galen showed by experiment that the arteries containblood and not air. He studied particularly the movements of the heart, the action of thevalves, and the pulsatile forces in the-80-arteries. Of the two kinds of blood, the one, contained in the venous system, was darkand thick and rich in grosser elements, and served for the general nutrition of thebody. This system took its origin, as is clearly shown in the figure, in the liver, thecentral organ of nutrition and of sanguification. From the portal system wereabsorbed, through the stomach and intestines, the products of digestion. From theliver extend the venæ cavæ, one to supply the head and arms, the other the lowerextremities: extending from the right heart was a branch, corresponding to thepulmonary artery, the arterial vein which distributed blood to the lungs. This was theclosed venous system. The arterial system, shown, as you see, quite separate in Figure31, was full of a thinner, brighter, warmer blood, characterized by the presence of anabundance of the vital spirits. Warmed in the ventricle, it distributed vital heat to allparts of the body. The two systems were closed and communicated with each otheronly through certain pores or perforations in the septum separating the ventricles. Atthe periphery, however, Galen recognized (as had been done already by theAlexandrians) that the arteries anastomose with the veins, ". . . and they mutuallyreceive from each other blood and spirits through certain invisible and extremelysmall vessels."It is difficult to understand how Galen missed the circulation of the blood. Heknew that the valves of the heart determined the direction of the blood that enteredand left the organ, but he did not appreciate that it was a pump for distributing theblood, regarding it rather as a fireplace from which the innate heat of the body wasderived. He knew that the pulsatile force was resident in the walls of the heart and inthe arteries, and he knew that the expansion, or diastole, drew blood into its cavities,and that the systole forced blood out. Apparently his view was that there was a sort ofebb and flow in both systems -- and yet, he uses language just such as we would,speaking of the venous system as ". . . a conduit full of blood with a multitude ofcanals large and small running out from it and distributing blood to all parts of thebody." He compares the mode of nutrition to irrigating canals and gardens, with awonderful dispensation by nature that they should "neither lack a sufficient quantityof blood for absorption nor be overloaded at any time with excessive supply." Thefunction of respiration was the introduction of the pneuma, the spirits which passedfrom the lungs to the heart through the pulmonary vessels.-81-Galen went a good deal beyond the idea of Aristotle, reaching our modern conceptionthat the function is to maintain the animal heat, and that the smoky matters derivedfrom combustion of the blood are discharged by expiration.I have dwelt on these points in Galen's physiology, as they are fundamental in thehistory of the circulation; and they are sufficient to illustrate his position. Among hisother brilliant experiments were the demonstration of the function of the laryngeal

nerves, of the motor and sensory functions of the spinal nerve roots, of the effect oftransverse incision of the spinal cord, and of the effect of hemisection. Altogetherthere is no ancient physician in whose writings are contained so many indications ofmodern methods of research.Galen's views of disease in general are those of Hippocrates, but he introducesmany refinements and subdivisions according to the predominance of the fourhumors, the harmonious combination of which means health, or eucrasia, while theirperversion or improper combination leads to dyscrasia, or ill health. In treatment hehad not the simplicity of Hippocrates: he had great faith in drugs and collected plantsfrom all parts of the known world, for the sale of which he is said to have had a shopin the neighborhood of the Forum. As I mentioned, he was an eclectic, held himselfaloof from the various schools of the day, calling no man master save Hippocrates. Hemight be called a rational empiricist. He made war on the theoretical practitioners ofthe day, particularly the Methodists, who, like some of their modern followers, heldthat their business was with the disease and not with the conditions out of which itarose.No other physician has ever occupied the commanding position of "Clarissimus"Galenus. For fifteen centuries he dominated medical thought as powerfully as didAristotle in the schools. Not until the Renaissance did daring spirits begin to questionthe infallibility of this medical pope. But here we must part with the last and, in manyways, the greatest of the Greeks -- a man very much of our own type, who, could hevisit this country today, might teach us many lessons. He would smile in scorn at thewater supply of many of our cities, thinking of the magnificent aqueducts of Romeand of many of the colonial towns -- some still in use -- which in lightness of structureand in durability testify to the astonishing skill of their engineers. There are-83-country districts in which he would find imperfect drainage and could tell of thewonderful system by which Rome was kept sweet and clean. Nothing would delighthim more than a visit to Panama to see what the organization of knowledge has beenable to accomplish. Everywhere he could tour the country as a sanitary expert,preaching the gospel of good water supply and good drainage, two of the greatelements in civilization, in which in many places we have not yet reached the Romanstandard.-84-CHAPTER IIIMEDI VAL MEDICINETHERE are waste places of the earth which fill one with terror -- not simplybecause they are waste; one has not such feelings in the desert nor in the vast solitude

of the ocean. Very different is it where the desolation has overtaken a brilliant andflourishing product of man's head and hand. To know that. . . the Lion and the Lizard keepThe Courts where Jamshýd gloried and drank deepsends a chill to the heart, and one trembles with a sense of human instability. Withthis feeling we enter the Middle Ages. Following the glory that was Greece and thegrandeur that was Rome, a desolation came upon the civilized world, in which thelight of learning burned low, flickering almost to extinction. How came it possiblethat the gifts of Athens and of Alexandria were deliberately thrown away? For threecauses. The barbarians shattered the Roman Empire to its foundations. When Alaricentered Rome in 410 A. D., ghastly was the impression made on the contemporaries;the Roman world shuddered in a titanic spasm (Lindner). The land was a garden ofEden before them, behind a howling wilderness, as is so graphically told in Gibbon'sgreat history. Many of the most important centres of learning were destroyed, and forcenturies Minerva and Apollo forsook the haunts of men. The other equally importantcause was the change wrought by Christianity. The brotherhood of man, the care ofthe body, the gospel of practical virtues formed the essence of the teaching of theFounder -- in these the Kingdom of Heaven was to be sought; in these lay salvation.But the world was very evil, all thought that the times were waxing late, and intomen's minds entered as never before a conviction of the importance of the-85-four last things -- death, judgment, heaven and hell. One obstacle alone stood betweenman and his redemption, the vile body, "this muddy vesture of decay," that so grosslywrapped his soul. To find methods of bringing it into subjection was the task of theChristian Church for centuries. In the Vatican Gallery of Inscriptions is a stone slabwith the single word "Stercoriæ," and below, the Christian symbol. It might serve as amotto for the Middle Ages, during which, to quote St. Paul, all things were "counteddung but to win Christ." In this attitude of mind the wisdom of the Greeks was notsimply foolishness, but a stumblingblock in the path. Knowledge other than thatwhich made a man "wise unto salvation" was useless. All that was necessary wascontained in the Bible or taught by the Church. This simple creed brought consolationto thousands and illumined the lives of some of the noblest of men. But, "in seeking aheavenly home man lost his bearings upon earth." Let me commend for your readingTaylor's "Mediæval Mind." I cannot judge of its scholarship, which I am told byscholars is ripe and good, but I can judge of its usefulness for anyone who wishes toknow the story of the mind of man in Europe at this period. Into the content ofmediæval thought only a mystic can enter with full sympathy. It was a needful changein the evolution of the race. Christianity brought new ideals and new motives into thelives of men. The world's desire was changed, a desire for the Kingdom of Heaven, inthe search for which the lust of the flesh, the lust of the eye and the pride of life wereas dross. A master-motive swayed the minds of sinful men and a zeal to save othersouls occupied the moments not devoted to the perfection of their own. The newdispensation made any other superfluous. As Tertullian said: Investigation since theGospel is no longer necessary. (Dannemann, Die Naturw., I, p. 214.) The attitude ofthe early Fathers toward the body is well expressed by Jerome. "Does your skin

oughen without baths? Who is once washed in the blood of Christ needs not washagain." In this unfavorable medium for its growth, science was simply disregarded,not in any hostile spirit, but as unnecessary.-86-And a third contributing factor was the plague of the sixth century, which desolatedthe whole Roman world. On the top of the grand mausoleum of Hadrian, visitors atRome see the figure of a gilded angel with a drawn sword, from which the presentname of the Castle of St. Angelo takes its origin. On the twenty-fifth of April, 590,there set out from the Church of SS. Cosmas and Damian, already the Roman patronsaints of medicine, a vast procession, led by St. Gregory the Great, chanting a sevenfoldlitany of intercession against the plague. The legend relates that Gregory saw onthe top of Hadrian's tomb an angel with a drawn sword, which he sheathed as theplague abated.Galen died about 200 A. D.; the high-water mark of the Renaissance, so far asmedicine is concerned, was reached in the year 1542. In order to traverse this longinterval intelligently, I will sketch certain great movements, tracing the currents ofGreek thought, setting forth in their works the lives of certain great leaders, until wegreet the dawn of our own day.After flowing for more than a thousand years through the broad plain of Greekcivilization, the stream of scientific medicine which we have been following isapparently lost in the morass of the Middle Ages; but, checked and blocked like theWhite Nile in the Soudan, three channels may be followed through the weeds oftheological and philosophical speculation.SOUTH ITALIAN SCHOOLA WIDE stream is in Italy, where the "antique education never stopped, antiquereminiscence and tradition never passed away, and the literary matter of the paganpast never faded from the consciousness of the more educated among the laity andclergy." Greek was the language of South Italy and was spoken in some of its easterntowns until the thirteenth century. The cathedral and monastic-87-schools served to keep alive the ancient learning. Monte Casino stands pre-eminent asa great hive of students, and to the famous Regula of St. Benedict we are indebted forthe preservation of many precious manuscripts.The Norman Kingdom of South Italy and Sicily was a meeting ground of Saracens,Greeks and Lombards. Greek, Arabic and Latin were in constant use among thepeople of the capital, and Sicilian scholars of the twelfth century translated directlyfrom the Greek. The famous "Almagest" of Ptolemy, the most important work ofancient astronomy, was translated from a Greek manuscript, as early as 1160, by amedical student of Salerno.About thirty miles southeast of Naples lay Salernum, which for centuries keptalight the lamp of the old learning, and became the centre of medical studies in theMiddle Ages; well deserving its name of "Civitas Hippocratica." The date offoundation is uncertain, but

-88-Salernitan physicians are mentioned as early as the middle of the ninth century, andfrom this date until the rise of the universities it was not only a great medical school,but a popular resort for the sick and wounded. As the scholar says in Longfellow's"Golden Legend":Then at every season of the yearThere are crowds of guests and travellers here;Pilgrims and mendicant friars and tradersFrom the Levant, with figs and wine,And bands of wounded and sick Crusaders,Coming back from Palestine.There were medical and surgical clinics, foundling hospitals, Sisters of Charity,men and women professors -- among the latter the famous Trotula -- and apothecaries.Dissections were carried out, chiefly upon animals, and human subjects wereoccasionally used. In the eleventh and twelfth centuries, the school reached its height,and that remarkable genius, Frederick II, laid down regulations for a preliminarystudy extending over three years, and a course in medicine for five years, includingsurgery. Fee tables and strict regulations as to practice were made; and it isspecifically stated that the masters were to teach in the schools, theoretically andpractically, under the authority of Hippocrates and Galen. The literature from theschool had a far-reaching influence. One book on the anatomy of the pig illustratesthe popular subject for dissection at that time. The writings, which are numerous, havebeen collected by De Renzi.The "Antidotarium" of Nicolaus Salernitanus, about 1100, became the popularpharmacopoeia of the Middle Ages, and many modern preparations may be traced toit.The most prominent man of the school is Constantinus Africanus, a native ofCarthage, who, after numerous journeys, reached Salernum about the middle of theeleventh century. He was familiar with the works both of the Greeks and of the Arabs,and it was largely through his translations that the works of Rhazes and Avicennabecame known in the West.One work above all others spread the fame of the school -- the-89-Regimen Sanitatis, or Flos Medicinæ as it is sometimes called, a poem on popularmedicine. It is dedicated to Robert of Normandy, who had been treated at Salernum,and the lines begin: "Anglorum regi scripsit schola tota Salerni . . . " It is a hand-bookof diet and house- hold medicine, with many shrewd and taking sayings which havepassed into popular use, such as "Joy, temperance and repose Slam the door on thedoctor's nose." A full account of the work and the various editions of it is given by SirAlexander Croke, 76 and the Finlayson lecture (Glasgow Medical Journal, 1908) byDr. Norman Moore gives an account of its introduction into the British Isles.-90-

BYZANTINE MEDICINETHE second great stream which carried Greek medicine to modern days runsthrough the Eastern Empire. Between the third century and the fall of Constantinoplethere was a continuous series of Byzantinephysicians whose inspiration was largely derived from the old Greek sources. Themost distinguished of these was Oribasius, a voluminous compiler, a native ofPergamon and so close a follower of his great townsman that he has been called"Galen's ape." He left many works, an edition of which was edited by Bussemakerand Daremberg. Many facts relating to the older writers are recorded in his writings.He was a contemporary, friend as well as the physician,-91-of the Emperor Julian, for whom he prepared an encyclopædia of the medicalsciences.Other important Byzantine writers were Aëtius and Alexander of Tralles, both ofwhom were strongly under the influence of Galen and Hippocrates. Their materiamedica was based largely upon Dioscorides.From Byzantium we have the earliest known complete medical manuscript, datingfrom the fifth century -- a work of Dioscorides -- one of the most beautiful inexistence. It was prepared for Anicia Juliana, daughter of the Emperor of the East, andis now one of the great treasures of the Imperial Library at Vienna. From those earlycenturies till the fall of Constantinople there is very little of interest medically. A fewnames stand out prominently, but it is mainly a blank period in our records. Perhapsone man may be mentioned, as he had a great influence on later ages -- Actuarius,who lived about 1300, and whose book on the urine laid the foundation of much ofthe popular uroscopy and water-casting that had such a vogue in the sixteenth andseventeenth centuries. His work on the subject passed through a dozen Latin editions,but is best studied in Ideler's "Physici et medici Græci minores" (Berlin, 1841).The Byzantine stream of Greek medicine had dwindled to a very tiny rill when thefall of Constantinople (1453) dispersed to the West many Greek scholars and manyprecious manuscripts.ARABIAN MEDICINETHE third and by far the strongest branch of the Greek river reached the West aftera remarkable and meandering course. The map before you shows the distribution ofthe Græco-Roman Christian world at the beginning of the seventh century. You willnotice that Christianity had extended far eastwards, almost to China. Most of thoseeastern Christians were Nestorians and one of their important centres was Edessa,whose school of learning became so celebrated. Here in the fifth century was built oneof the most celebrated hospitals of antiquity.-94-

about a century later. No such phenomenal change ever was made within so shortspace of time as that which thus altered the map of Asia and Europe at this period.Within a century, the Crescent had swept from Arabia through the Eastern Empire,over Egypt, North Africa and over Spain in the West, and the fate of Western Europehung in the balance before the gates of Tours in 732. This time the barbaric horde thatlaid waste a large part of Christendom were a people that became deeply appreciativeof all that was best in Græco-Roman civilization and of nothing more than of itssciences. The cultivation of medicine was encouraged by the Arabs in a very specialway. Anyone wishing to follow the history of the medical profession among thisremarkable people will find it admirably presented in Lucien Leclerc's "Histoire de lamédecine arabe" (Paris, 1876). An excellent account is also given in Freind's wellknown"History of Medicine" (London, 1725-1726). Here I can only indicate verybriefly the course of the stream and its freightage.With the rise of Christianity, Alexandria became a centre of bitter theological andpolitical factions, the story of which haunts the memory of anyone who was sofortunate as to read in his youth Kingsley's "Hypatia." These centuries, with theirpotent influence of neoplatonism on Christianity, appear to have been sterile enoughin medicine. I have already referred to the late Greeks, Aëtius and Alexander ofTralles. The last of the Alexandrians was a remarkable man, Paul of Ægina, a greatname in medicine and in surgery, who lived in the early part of the seventh century.He also, like Oribasius, was a great compiler. In the year 640, the Arabs tookAlexandria, and for the third time a great library was destroyed in the "first city of theWest." Shortly after the conquest of Egypt, Greek works were translated into Arabic,often through the medium of Syriac, particularly certain of Galen's books onmedicine, and chemical writings, which appear to have laid the foundation of Arabianknowledge on this subject.Through Alexandria then was one source: but the special development of theGreek science and of medicine took place in the ninth century under the EasternCaliphates. Let me quote here a couple of sentences from Leclerc (Tome I, pp. 91-92):"The world has but once witnessed so marvellous a spectacle as that presented bythe Arabs in the ninth century. This pastoral people,-95-whose fanaticism had suddenly made them masters of half of the world, having oncefounded their empire, immediately set themselves to acquire that knowledge of thesciences which alone was lacking to their greatness. Of all the invaders who competedfor the last remains of the Roman Empire they alone pursued such studies; while theGermanic hordes, glorying in their brutality and ignorance, took a thousand years tore-unite the broken chain of tradition, the Arabs accomplished this in less than acentury. They provoked the competition of the conquered Christians -- a healthycompetition which secured the harmony of the races."At the end of the eighth century, their whole scientific possessions consisted of atranslation of one medical treatise and some books on alchemy. Before the ninthcentury had run to its close, the Arabs were in possession of all the science of theGreeks; they had produced from their own ranks students of the first order, and had

aised among their initiators men who, without them, would have been groping in thedark; and they showed from this time an aptitude for the exact sciences, which waslacking in their instructors, whom they henceforward surpassed."It was chiefly through the Nestorians that the Arabs became acquainted with Greekmedicine, and there were two famous families of translators, the Bakhtishuas and theMesuës, both Syrians, and probably not very thoroughly versed in either Greek orArabic. But the prince of translators, one of the finest figures of the century, wasHonein, a Christian Arab, born in 809, whose name was Latinized as Joannitius. "Themarvellous extent of his works, their excellence, their importance, the trials he borenobly at the beginning of his career, everything about him arouses our interest andsympathy. If he did not actually create the Oriental renaissance movement, certainlyno one played in it a more active, decided and fruitful part." His industry wascolossal. He translated most of the works of Hippocrates and Galen, Aristotle andmany others. His famous "Introduction" or "Isagoge," a very popular book in theMiddle Ages, is a translation of the "Microtegni" of Galen, a small hand-book, ofwhich a translation is appended to Cholmeley's "John of Gaddesden." The first printededition of it appeared in 1475 [see page 127] at Padua.-96-The Mesuës also did great work, and translations of their compilations, particularlythose of the younger Mesuë, were widely distributed in manuscript and were earlyprinted (Venice, 1471) and frequently reprinted, even as late as the seventeenthcentury.Leclerc gives the names of more than one hundred known translators who not onlydealt with the physicians but with the Greek philosophers, mathematicians andastronomers. The writings of the physicians of India and of Persia were also translatedinto Arabic.But close upon the crowd of translators who introduced the learning of Greece tothe Arabians came original observers of the first rank, to a few only of whom timewill allow me to refer. Rhazes, so called from the name of the town (Rai) in which hewas born, was educated at the great hospital at Bagdad in the second half of the ninthcentury. With a true Hippocratic spirit he made many careful observations on disease,and to him we owe the first accurate account of smallpox, which he differentiatedfrom measles. This work was translated for the old Sydenham Society by W. A.Greenhill (1848), and the description given of the disease is well worth reading. Hewas a man of strong powers of observation, good sense and excellent judgment. Hisworks were very popular, particularly the gigantic "Continens," one of the bulkiest ofincunabula. The Brescia edition, 1486, a magnificent volume, extends over 588 pagesand it must weigh more than seventeen pounds. It is an encyclopædia filled withextracts from the Greek and other writers, interspersed with memoranda of his ownexperiences. His "Almansor" was a very popular text-book, and one of the first to beprinted. Book IX of "Almansor" (the name of the prince to whom it was addressed)with the title "De ægritudinibus a capite usque ad pedes," was a very favoritemediæval text-book. On account of his zeal for study Rhazes was known as the"Experimentator."The first of the Arabians, known throughout the Middle Ages as the Prince, therival, indeed, of Galen, was the Persian Ibn Sina, better known as Avicenna, one ofthe greatest names in the history of medicine. Born about 980 A. D. in the province of

Khorasan, near Bokhara, he has left a brief autobiography from which we learnsomething of his early years. He could repeat the Koran by heart when ten years old,and at twelve he had disputed in law and in logic. So that he found medicine was aneasy subject, not hard and thorny like mathematics and metaphysics! He worked nightand day, and could solve problems in his dreams. "When I found a difficulty," hesays, "I referred to my notes and prayed to the Creator. At night, when weak orsleepy, I strengthened myself with a glass of wine." He was a voluminous writer towhom scores of books are attributed, and he is the author of the most famous medicaltext-book ever written. It is safe to say that the "Canon" was a medical bible for alonger period than any other work. It "stands for the epitome of all precedentdevelopment, the final codification of all Græco-Arabic medicine. It is a hierarchy oflaws liberally illustrated by facts which so ingeniously rule and are subject to oneanother, stay and uphold one another, that admiration is compelled for the sagacity ofthe great organiser who, with unparalleled power of systematisation, collecting hismaterial from all sources, constructed so imposing an edifice of fallacy. Avicenna,according to his lights, imparted to contemporary medical science the appearance ofalmost mathematical accuracy, whilst the art of therapeutics, although empiricism didnot wholly lack recognition, was deduced as a logical sequence from theoretical(Galenic and Aristotelian) premises. Is it, therefore, matter for surprise that themajority of investigators and practitioners should have fallen under the spell of thisconsummation of formalism and should have regarded the `Canon' as an infallibleoracle, the more so in that the logical construction was impeccable and the premises,in the light of contemporary conceptions, passed for incontrovertible axioms?"Innumerable manuscripts of it exist: of one of the most beautiful, a Hebrew version(Bologna Library), I give an illustration (Fig. 39).-99-A Latin version was printed in 1472 and there are many later editions, the last in1663. Avicenna was not only a successful writer, but the prototype of the successfulphysician who was at the same time statesman, teacher, philosopher and literary man.Rumor has it that he became dissipated, and a contemporary saying was that all hisphilosophy could not make him moral, nor all his physic teach him to preserve hishealth. He enjoyed a great reputation as a poet. I reproduce (Fig. 40) a page of amanuscript of one of his poems, which we have in the Bodleian Library. Prof. A. V.W. Jackson says that some of his verse is peculiarly Khayyamesque,though he antedated Omar by a century. That "large Infidel" might well have writtensuch a stanza asFrom Earth's dark centre unto Saturn's GateI've solved all problems of this world's Estate,From every snare of Plot and Guile set free,Each bond resolved, saving alone Death's Fate.His hymn to the Deity might have been written by Plato and rivals the famous oneof Cleanthes. A casual reader gets a very favorable impression of Avicenna. The storyof his dominion over the schools in the Middle Ages is one of the most striking in ourhistory. Perhaps we feel that Leclerc exaggerates when he says: "Avicenna is anintellectual phenomenon. Never perhaps has an example been seen of so precocious,quick and wide an intellect extending and asserting itself with so strange and

indefatigable an activity." The touch of the man never reached me until I read some ofhis mystical and philosophical-101-writings translated by Mehren. It is Plato over again. The beautiful allegory in whichmen are likened to birds snared and caged until set free by the Angel of Death mightbe met with anywhere in the immortal Dialogues. The tractate on Love is acommentary on the Symposium; and the essay on Destiny is Greek in spirit without atrace of Oriental fatalism, as you may judge from the concluding sentence, which Ileave you as his special message: "Take heed to the limits of your capacity and youwill arrive at a knowledge of the truth! How true is the saying: -- Work ever and toeach will come that measure of success for which Nature has designed him."Avicenna died in his fifty-eighth year. When he saw that physic was of no avail,resigning himself to the inevitable, he sold his goods, distributed the money to thepoor, read the Koran through once every three days, and died in the holy month ofRamadan. His tomb at Hamadan, the ancient Ecbatana, still exists, a simple brickworkbuilding, rectangular in shape, and surrounded by an unpretentious court. It wasrestored in 1877, but is again in need of repair. The illustration here shown (Fig. 41) isfrom a photograph sent by Dr. Neligan of Teheran. Though dead, the great Persianhas still a large practice, as his tomb is much visited by pilgrims, among whom curesare said to be not uncommon.The Western Caliphate produced physicians and philosophers almost as brilliant asthose of the East. Remarkable schools of medicine were founded at Seville, Toledoand Cordova. The most famous of the professors were Averroës, Albucasis andAvenzoar. Albucasis was "the Arabian restorer of surgery." Averroës, called in theMiddle Ages "the Soul of Aristotle" or "the Commentator," is better known todayamong philosophers than physicians. On the revival of Moslem orthodoxy he fellupon evil days, was persecuted as a free-thinker, and the saying is attributed to him --"Sit anima mea cum philosophic."-102-Arabian medicine had certain very definite characteristics: the basis was Greek,derived from translations of the works of Hippocrates and Galen. No contributionswere made to anatomy, as dissections were prohibited, nor to physiology, and thepathology was practically that of Galen. Certain new and important diseases weredescribed; a number of new and active remedies were introduced, chiefly from thevegetable kingdom. The Arabian hospitals were well organized and were deservedlyfamous. No such hospital exists today in Cairo as that which was built by al-MansurGilafun in 1283. The description of it by Makrizi, quoted by Neuburger, reads likethat of a twentieth century institution with hospital units.It was in the domain of chemistry that the Arabs made the greatest advances. Youmay remember that, in Egypt, chemistry had already made considerable strides, and Ialluded to Prof. Elliot Smith's view that one of the great leaps in civilization was thediscovery in the Nile Valley of the metallurgy of copper. In the brilliant period of thePtolemies, both chemistry and pharmacology were studied, and it seems not

improbable that, when the Arabs took Alexandria in the year 640, there were stillmany workers in these subjects.The most famous of those early Arabic writers is the somewhat mythical Geber,who lived in the first half of the eighth century, and whose writings had anextraordinary influence throughout the Middle Ages. The whole story of Geber isdiscussed by Berthelot in his "La chimie au moyen âge" (Paris, 1896).-103-The transmission of Arabian science to the Occident began with the Crusades,though earlier a filtering of important knowledge in mathematics and astronomy hadreached Southern and Middle Europe through Spain. Among the translators severalnames stand out prominently. Gerbert, who became later Pope Sylvester II, is said tohave given us our present Arabic figures. You may read the story of his remarkablelife in Taylor, who says he was "the first mind of his time, its greatest teacher, itsmost eager learner, and most universal scholar." But he does not seem to have donemuch directly for medicine.The Græco-Arabic learning passed into Europe through two sources. As I havealready mentioned, Constantinus Africanus, a North African Christian monk, widelytravelled and learned in languages, came to Salernum and translated many works fromArabic into Latin, particularly those of Hippocrates and Galen. The "Pantegni" of thelatter became one of the most popular text-books of the Middle Ages. A long list ofother works which he translated is given by Steinschneider. It is not unlikely thatArabic medicine had already found its way to Salernum before the time ofConstantine, but the influence of his translations upon the later Middle Ages was verygreat.The second was a more important source through the Latin translators in Spain,particularly in Toledo, where, from the middle of the twelfth till the middle of thethirteenth century, an extraordinary number of Arabic works in philosophy,mathematics and astronomy were translated. Among the translators, Gerard ofCremona is prominent, and has been called the "Father of Translators." He was one ofthe brightest intelligences of the Middle Ages, and did a work of the first importanceto science, through the extraordinary variety of material he put in circulation.Translations, not only of the medical writers, but of an indiscriminate crowd ofauthors in philosophy and general literature, came from his pen. He furnished one ofthe first translations of the famous "Almagest" of Ptolemy, which opened the eyes ofhis contemporaries to the value of the Alexandrian astronomy. Leclerc gives a list ofseventy-one works from his hand.-104-Many of the translators of the period were Jews, and many of the works weretranslated from Hebrew into Latin. For years Arabic had been the learned language ofthe Jews, and in a large measure it was through them that the Arabic knowledge andthe translations passed into South and Central Europe.The Arab writer whose influence on mediæval thought was the most profound wasAverroës, the great commentator on Aristotle.THE RISE OF THE UNIVERSITIES

THE most striking intellectual phenomenon of the thirteenth century is the rise ofthe universities. The story of their foundation is fully stated in Rashdall's great work(Universities of Europe in the Middle Ages, Oxford, 1895). Monastic and collegiateschools, seats of learning like Salernum, student guilds as at Bologna, had tried tomeet the educational needs of the age. The word "university" literally means anassociation, and was not at first restricted to learned bodies. The origin appears tohave been in certain guilds of students formed for mutual protection associated atsome place specially favorable for study -- the attraction generally being a famousteacher. The University of Bologna grew up about guilds formed by students of law,and at Paris, early in the twelfth century, there were communities of teachers, chieflyin philosophy and theology. In this way arose two different types of mediævaluniversity. The universities of Northern Italy were largely controlled by students, whowere grouped in different "nations." They arranged the lectures and had control of theappointment of teachers. On the other hand, in the universities founded on the Parismodel the masters had control of the studies, though the students, also in nations,managed their own affairs.Two universities have a special interest at this period in connection with thedevelopment of medical studies, Bologna and Montpellier. At the former the study ofanatomy was revived. In the knowledge of the structure of the human body noadvance had been made for more than a thousand years -- since Galen's day. In theprocess of translation from Greek to Syriac, from Syriac to Arabic, from Arabic toHebrew, and from Hebrew or Arabic to Latin, both the form and thought of the oldGreek writers were not infrequently confused and often even perverted, and Galen'sanatomy had suffered severely in-105-the transmission. Our earliest knowledge of the teaching of medicine at Bologna isconnected with a contemporary of Dante, Taddeo Alderotti, who combined Arabianerudition with the Greek spirit. He occupied a position of extraordinary prominence,was regarded as thefirst citizen of Bologna and a public benefactor exempt from the payment of taxes.That he should have acquired wealth is not surprising if his usual fees were at the rateat which he charged Pope Honorius IV, i.e., two hundred florins a day, besides a"gratification" of six thousand florins.The man who most powerfully influenced the study of medicine in-106-Bologna was Mundinus, the first modern student of anatomy. We have seen that at theschool of Salernum it was decreed that the human body should be dissected at leastonce every five years, but it was with the greatest difficulty that permission wasobtained for this purpose. It seems probable that under the strong influence of Taddeothere was an occasional dissection at Bologna, but it was not until Mundinus(professor from 1306 to 1326) took the chair that the study of anatomy becamepopular. The bodies were usually those of condemned criminals, but in the year 1319there is a record of a legal procedure against four medical students for body-snatching-- the first record, as far as I know, of this gruesome practice. In 1316, Mundinus

issued his work on anatomy, which served as a text-book for more than two hundredyears. He quotes from Galen the amusing reasons why a man should write a book:"Firstly, to satisfy his own friends; secondly, to exercise his best mental powers; andthirdly, to be saved from the oblivion incident to old age." Scores of manuscripts ofhis work must have existed, but they are now excessively rare in Italy. The book wasfirst printed at Pavia in 1478, in a small folio without figures. It was very oftenreprinted in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries. The quaint illustration (Fig. 42)shows us the mediæval method of teaching anatomy: the lecturer sitting on a chairreading from Galen, while a barber surgeon, or an "Ostensor," opens the cavities ofthe body.I have already referred to the study of medicine by women at Salernum. Theirnames are also early met with in the school of Bologna. Mundinus is said to have hada valuable assistant, a young girl, Alessandra Giliani, an enthusiastic dissector, whowas the first to practice the injection of the blood vessels with colored liquids. Shedied, consumed by her labors, at the early age of nineteen, and her monument is stillto be seen.Bologna honored its distinguished professors with magnificent tombs, sixteen orseventeen of which, in a wonderful state of preservation, may still be seen in the CivicMuseum. That of Mundinus also exists -- a sepulchral bas-relief on the wall of theChurch of San Vitale at Bologna.The other early mediæval university of special interest in medicine-107-is that of Montpellier. With it are connected three teachers who have left great namesin our story -- Arnold of Villanova, Henri de Mondeville and Guy de Chauliac. Thecity was very favorably situated not far from the Spanish border, and the receding tideof the Arab invasion in the eighth century had left a strong Arabic influence in thatprovince. The date of the origin of the university is uncertain, but there were teachersof medicine there in the twelfth century, though it was not until 1289 that it wasformally founded by a papal bull.Arnold of Villanova was one of the most prolific writers of the Middle Ages. Hehad travelled much, was deeply read in Arabic medicine and was also a student of lawand of philosophy. He was an early editor of the Regimen Sanitatis, and a strongadvocate of diet and hygiene. His views on disease were largely those of the Arabianphysicians, and we cannot see that he himself made any very important contributionto our knowledge; but he was a man of strong individuality and left an enduring markon mediæval medicine, as one may judge from the fact that among the first hundredmedical books printed there were many associated with his name. He was constantlyin trouble with the Church, though befriended by the Popes on account of his medicalknowledge. There is a Bull of Clement V asking the bishops to search for a medicalbook by Arnold dedicated to himself, but not many years later his writings werecondemned as heretical.In Henri de Mondeville we have the typical mediæval surgeon, and we know hiswork now very thoroughly from the editions of his-108-

"Anatomy" and "Surgery" edited by Pagel (Berlin, 1889-1892), and the fine Frenchedition by Nicaise (Paris, 1893). The dominant Arabic influence is seen in that hequotes so large a proportion of these authors, but he was an independent observer anda practical surgeon of the first rank. He had a sharp wit and employed a bitter tongueagainst the medical abuses of his day. How the Hippocratic humors dominatedpractice at this time you may see at a glance from the table prepared by Nicaise fromthe works of de Mondeville. (Fig. 44.) We have here the whole pathology of theperiod.-109-A still greater name in the history of this school is Guy de Chauliac, whose workshave also been edited by Nicaise (Paris, 1890). His "Surgery" was one of the mostimportant text-books of the late Middle Ages. There are many manuscripts of it, somefourteen editions in the fifteenth century and thirty-eight in the sixteenth, and itcontinued to be reprinted far into the seventeenth century. He too was dominated bythe surgery of the Arabs, and on nearly every page one reads of the sages Avicenna,Albucasis or Rhazes. He lays down four conditions necessary for the making of asurgeon -- the first is that he must be learned, the second, expert, the third that heshould be clever, and the fourth that he should be well disciplined.You will find a very discerning sketch of the relation of these two men to thehistory of surgery in the address given at the St. Louis-110-Congress in 1904 by Sir Clifford Allbutt. They were strong men with practical mindsand good hands, whose experience taught them wisdom. In both there was the blunthonesty that so often characterizes a good surgeon, and I commend to modernsurgeons de Mondeville's saying: "If you have operated conscientiously on the richfor a proper fee, and on the poor for charity, you need not play the monk, nor makepilgrimages for your soul."One other great mediæval physician may be mentioned, Peter of Abano (a smalltown near Padua, famous for its baths). He is the first in a long line of distinguishedphysicians connected with the great school of Padua. Known as "the Conciliator,"from his attempt to reconcile the diverse views on philosophy and medicine, he hadan extraordinary reputation as a practitioner and author, the persistence of which iswell illustrated by the fact that eight of the one hundred and eighty-two medical booksprinted before 1481 were from his pen. He seems to have taught medicine in Paris,Bologna and Padua. He was a devoted astrologer, had a reputation among the peopleas a magician and, like his contemporary, Arnold of Villanova, came into conflictwith the Church and appears to have been several times before the Inquisition; indeedit is said that he escaped the stake only by a timely death. He was a prolificcommentator on Aristotle, and his exposition of the "problems" had a great vogue.The early editions of his texts are among the most superb works ever printed. Heoutlived his reputation as a magician, and more than a century after his deathFrederick, Duke of Urbino, caused his effigies to be set up over the gate of the palaceat Padua with this inscription:

PETRUS APONUS PATAVINUS PHILOSOPHIÆ MEDICINÆQUESCIENTISSIMUS, OB IDQUE, CONCILIATORIS NOMEN ADEPTUS,ASTROLOGIÆ VERO ADEO PERITUS, UT IN MAGIÆ SUSPICIONEMINCIDERIT, FALSOQUE DE HÆRESI POSTULATUS, ABSOLUTUS FUERIT.It is said that Abano caused to be painted the astronomical figures in the great hallof the palace at Padua. One characteristic of mediæval medicine is its union withtheology,-111-which is not remarkable, as the learning of the time was chiefly in the hands of theclergy. One of the most popular works, the "Thesaurus Pauperum," was written byPetrus Hispanus, afterwards Pope John XXI. We may judge of the pontifical practicefrom the page here reproduced (Fig. 46), which probably includes, under the term"iliac passion," all varieties of appendicitis.For our purpose two beacons illuminate the spirit of the thirteenth century in itsoutlook on man and nature. Better than Abelard or St. Thomas Aquinas, and muchbetter than any physicians, Albertus Magnus and Roger Bacon represent the men whowere awake to greet the rising of the sun of science. What a contrast in their lives andin their works! The great Dominican's long life was an uninterrupted triumph offruitful accomplishment -- the titanic task he set himself was not only completed butwas appreciated to the full by his own generation -- a life not only of study andteaching, but of practical piety. As head of the order in Germany and Bishop ofRegensburg, he had wide ecclesiastical influence; and in death he left a memoryequalled only by one or two of his century, and excelled only by his great pupil,Thomas Aquinas. There are many Alberts in history -- the Good, the Just, the Faithful-- but there is only one we call "Magnus" and he richly deserved the name. What ishis record? Why do we hold his name in reverence today?Albertus Magnus was an encyclopædic student and author, who took allknowledge for his province. His great work and his great ambition was to interpretAristotle to his generation. Before his day, the Stagirite was known only in part, buthe put within the reach of his contemporaries the whole science of Aristotle, andimbibed no small part of his spirit. He recognized the importance of the study ofnature, even of testing it by way of experiment, and in the long years that had elapsedsince Theophrastus no one else, except Dioscorides, had made so thorough a study ofbotany. His paraphrases of the natural history books of Aristotle were immenselypopular, and served as a basis for all subsequent studies. Some of his medical workshad an extraordinary vogue, particularly the "De Secretis Mulierum" and the "DeVirtutibus Herbarum," but there is some doubt as to the authorship of the first named,although Jammy and Borgnet include it in the collected editions of his works. Sofabulous was his learning that he was suspected of magic and comes in Naudé's list of-112-the wise men who have unjustly been reputed magicians. Ferguson tells that "there isin actual circulation at the present time a chapbook . . . containing charms, receipts,sympathetical and magical cures for man and animals, . . . which passes under thename of Albertus." But perhaps the greatest claim of Albertus to immortality is that hewas the teacher and inspirer of Thomas Aquinas, the man who undertook the colossal

task of fusing Aristotelian philosophy with Christian theology, and with such successthat the "angelic doctor" remains today the supreme human authority of the RomanCatholic Church.A man of much greater interest to us from the medical point of view is RogerBacon and for two reasons. More than any other mediæval mind he saw the need ofthe study of nature by a new method. The man who could write such a sentence asthis: "Experimental science has three great prerogatives over other sciences; it verifiesconclusions by direct experiment; it discovers truth which they never otherwise wouldreach; it investigates the course of nature and opens to us a knowledge of the past andof the future," is mentally of our day and generation. Bacon was born out of due time,and his contemporaries had little sympathy with his philosophy, and still less with hismechanical schemes and inventions. From the days of the Greeks, no one had had sokeen an appreciation of what experiment meant in the development of humanknowledge, and he was obsessed with the idea, so commonplace to us, that knowledgeshould have its utility and its practical bearing. "His chief merit is that he was one ofthe first to point the way to original research -- as opposed to the acceptance of anauthority -- though he himself still lacked the means of pursuing this pathconsistently. His inability to satisfy this impulse led to a sort of longing, which isexpressed in the numerous passages in his works where he anticipates man's greatermastery over nature."Bacon wrote a number of medical treatises, most of which remain in manuscript.His treatise on the "Cure of Old Age and the Preservation of Youth" was printed inEnglish in 1683. His authorities were largely Arabian. One of his manuscripts is "Onthe Bad Practices of Physicians." On June 10, 1914, the eve of his birth, theseptencentenary of Roger Bacon will be celebrated by Oxford, the university of whichhe is the most distinguished ornament. His unpublished MSS. in the Bodleian will beissued by the Clarendon Press [1915-1920], and it is hoped that his unpublishedmedical writings will be included.What would have been its fate if the mind of Europe had been ready for RogerBacon's ferment, and if men had turned to the profitable studies of physics, astronomyand chemistry instead of wasting centuries over the scholastic philosophy and thesubtleties of Duns Scotus, Abelard and Thomas Aquinas? Who can say? Make nomistake about the quality of these men -- giants in intellect, who have had their placein the evolution of the race; but from the standpoint of man struggling for the masteryof this world they are like the members of Swift's famous college "busy distillingsunshine from cucumbers." I speak, of course, from the position of the natural man,who sees for his fellows more hope from the experiments of Roger Bacon than fromthe disputations of philosophy on the "Instants, Familiarities, Quiddities andRelations," which so roused the scorn of Erasmus.MEDI VAL MEDICAL STUDIESIT will be of interest to know what studies were followed at a mediæval university.At Oxford, as at most of the continental universities, there were three degrees, thoseof Bachelor, Licentiate and Doctor. The books read were the "Tegni" of Galen, the"Aphorisms" of Hippocrates, the "De Febribus" of Isaac and the "Antidotarium" ofNicolaus Salernitanus: if a graduate in arts, six years' study in all was required, inother faculties, eight. One gets very full information on such matters from a mostinteresting book, "Une Chaire de Médecine au XV e . Siècle," by Dr. Ferrari (Paris,1899). The University of Pavia was founded in 1361, and like most of those in Italywas largely frequented by foreigners, who were arranged, as usual, according to their

nationalities; but the students do not appear to have controlled the university quite somuch as at Bologna. The documents of the-116-Ferrari family, on which the work is based, tell the story of one of its members, whowas professor at Pavia from 1432 to 1472. One is surprised at the range of studies incertain directions, and still more at the absence of other subjects. A list is given of theteachers in medicine for the year 1433, twenty in all, and there were special lecturesfor the morning, afternoon and evening. The subjects are medicine, practicalmedicine, physics, metaphysics, logic, astrology, surgery and rhetoric: very striking isthe omission of anatomy, which does not appear in the list even in 1467. The salariespaid were not large, so that most of the teachers must have been in practice: fourhundred and five hundred florins was the maximum.-117-The dominance of the Arabians is striking. In 1467, special lectures were given onthe "Almansor" of Rhazes, and in the catalogue of the Ferrari's library more than onehalf of the books are Arabian commentaries on Greek medicine. Still more strikingevidence of their influence is found in the text-book of Ferrari, which was printed in1471 and had been circulated earlier in MS. In it Avicenna is quoted more than 3000times, Rhazes and Galen 1000, Hippocrates only 140 times. Professor Ferrari was aman who played an important rôle in the university, and had a large consultationpractice. You will be interested to know what sort of advice he gave in special cases. Ihave the record of an elaborate consultation written in his own hand, from which onemay gather what a formidable thing it was to fall into the hands of a mediævalphysician. Signor John de Calabria had a digestive weakness of the stomach, andrheumatic cerebral disease, combined with superfluous heat and dryness of the liverand multiplication of choler. There is first an elaborate discussion on diet and generalmode of life; then he proceeds to draw up certain light medicines as a supplement, butit must have taken an extensive apothecary's shop to turn out the twenty-twoprescriptions designed to meet every possible contingency.One of the difficulties in the early days of the universities was to procure goodMSS. In the Paris Faculty, the records of which are the most complete in Europe,there is an inventory for the year 1395 which gives a list of twelve volumes, nearly allby Arabian authors. Franklin gives an interesting incident illustrating the rarity ofmedical MSS. at this period. Louis XI, always worried about his health, was anxiousto have in his library the works of Rhazes. The only copy available was in the libraryof the medical school. The manuscript was lent, but on excellent security, and it isnice to know that it was returned.It is said that one of the special advantages that Montpellier had over Paris was itspossession of so many important MSS., particularly those of the Arabian writers.Many "Compendia" were written containing extracts from various writers, and nodoubt these were extensively copied and lent or sold to students. At Bologna andPadua, there were regulations as to the price of these MSS. The university controlledthe production of them, and stationers were

-118-liable to fines for inaccurate copies. The trade must have been extensive in those earlydays, as Rashdall mentions that in 1323 there were twenty-eight sworn booksellers inParis, besides keepers of bookstalls in the open air.MEDI VAL PRACTICETHE Greek doctrine of the four humors colored all the conceptions of disease;upon their harmony alone it was thought that health depended. The fourtemperaments, sanguine, phlegmatic, bilious and melancholic, corresponded with theprevalence of these humors. The body was composed of certain so-called "naturals,"seven in number -- the elements, the temperaments, the humors, the members or parts,the virtues or faculties, the operations or functions and the spirits. Certain "nonnaturals,"nine in number, preserved the health of the body, viz.) air, food and drink,movement and repose, sleeping and waking, excretion and retention, and the passions.Disease was due usually to alterations in the composition of the humors, and theindications for treatment were in accordance with these doctrines. They were to beevacuated, tenuated, cooled, heated, purged or strengthened. This humoral doctrineprevailed throughout the Middle Ages, and reached far into modern times -- indeed,echoes of it are still to be heard in popular conversations on the nature of disease.The Arabians were famous for their vigor and resource in matters of treatment.Bleeding was the first resort in a large majority of all diseases. In the "Practice" ofFerrari there is scarcely a malady for which it is not recommended. All remedies weredirected to the regulation of the six non-naturals, and they either preserved health,cured the disease or did the opposite. The most popular medicines were derived fromthe vegetable kingdom, and as they were chiefly those recommended by Galen, theywere, and still are, called by his name. Many important mineral medicines wereintroduced by the Arabians, particularly mercury, antimony, iron, etc. There were inaddition scores of substances, the parts or products of animals, some harmless, otherssalutary, others again useless and disgusting. Minor surgery was in the hands of thebarbers, who performed all the minor operations, such as bleeding; the moreimportant operations, few in number, were performed by surgeons.-119-ASTROLOGY AND DIVINATIONAT this period astrology, which included astronomy, was everywhere taught. Inthe "Gouernaunce of Prynces, or Pryvete of Pryveties," translated by James Yonge,1422, there occurs the statement: "As Galian the lull wies leche Saith and Isoder theGode clerk, hit witnessith that a man may not perfitely can the sciens and craft ofMedissin but yef he be an astronomoure."We have seen how the practice of astrology spread from Babylonia and Greecethroughout the Roman Empire. It was carried on into the Middle Ages as an activeand aggressive cult, looked upon askance at times by the Church, but countenanced

y the courts, encouraged at the universities, and always by the public. In thecurriculum of the mediæval university, astronomy made up with music, arithmeticand geometry the Quadrivium. In the early faculties, astronomy and astrology werenot separate, and at Bologna, in the early fourteenth century, we meet with aprofessorship of astrology. One of the duties of this salaried professor, was to supply"judgements" gratis for the benefit of enquiring students, a treacherous and delicateassignment, as that most distinguished occupant of the chair at Bologna, Ceccod'Ascoli, found when he was burned at the stake in 1357, a victim of the FlorentineInquisition.Roger Bacon himself was a warm believer in judicial astrology and in theinfluence of the planets, stars and comets on generation, disease and death.Many of the stronger minds of the Renaissance broke away from the follies of thesubject. Thus Cornelius Agrippa in reply to the request of a friar to consult the starson his behalf says: “ Judicial astrology is nothing more than the fallacious guess ofsuperstitious men, who have founded a science on uncertain things and are deceivedby it: so think nearly all the wise; as such it is ridiculed by some most noblephilosophers; Christian theologians reject it, and it is condemned by sacred councilsof the Church. Yet you, whose office it is-120-to dissuade others from these vanities, oppressed, or rather blinded by I know notwhat distress of mind, flee to this as to a sacred augur, and as if there were no God inIsrael, that you send to inquire of the god of Ekron."In spite of the opposition of the Church astrology held its own; many of theuniversities at the end of the fifteenth century published almanacs, usually known as"Prognosticons," and the practice was continued far into the sixteenth century. I showyou here an illustration. (Fig. 50.) Rabelais, you may remember, when physician tothe Hôtel Dieu in Lyons, published almanacs for the years 1533, 1535, 1541, 1546. Inthe title-page he called himself "Doctor of Medicine and Professor of Astrology," andthey continued to be printed under his name until 1556. In the preparation of these he-121-must have had his tongue in his cheek, as in his famous "PantagruelinePrognostication," in which, to satisfy the curiosity of all good companions, he hadturned over all the archives of the heavens, calculated the quadratures of the moon,hooked out all that has ever been thought by all the Astrophils, Hypernephilists,Anemophylakes, Uranopets and Ombrophori, and felt on every point withEmpedocles.Even physicians of the most distinguished reputation practised judicialastrology. Cardan was not above earning money by casting horoscopes, and on thissubject he wrote one of his most popular books (De Supplemento Almanach, etc.,1543), in which astronomy and astrology are mixed in the truly mediæval fashion. Hegives in it some sixty-seven nativities, remarkable for the events they foretell, withan exposition. One of the accusations brought against him was that he had "attemptedto subject to the stars the Lord of the stars and cast our Saviour's horoscope." Cardanprofessed to have abandoned a practice looked upon with disfavor both by the Church

and by the universities, but he returned to it again and again. I show here his ownhoroscope (Fig. 51). That remarkable character, Michael Servetus, the discoverer ofthe lesser circulation, when a fellow student with Vesalius at Paris, gave lectures uponjudicial astrology, which brought him into conflict with the faculty; and the rarest ofthe Servetus works, rarer even than the "Christianismi Restitutio," is the "Apologeticadisceptatio pro astrologia," one copy of which is in the Bibliothèque Nationale. Norcould the new astronomy and the acceptance of the heliocentric views dislocate thepopular belief. The literature of the seventeenth century is rich in astrological treatisesdealing with medicine.-122-No one has ever poured such satire upon the mantic arts as did Rabelais in chaptertwenty-five of the third book of "Pantagruel." Panurge goes to consult Her Trippa --the famous Cornelius Agrippa, whose opinion of astrology has already been quoted,but who nevertheless, as court astrologer to Louise of Savoy, had a greatcontemporary reputation. After looking Panurge in the face and making conclusionsby metoposcopy and physiognomy, he casts his horoscope secundum artem, then,taking a branch of tamarisk, a favorite tree from which to get the divining rod, henames some twenty-nine or thirty mantic arts, from pyromancy to necromancy, bywhich he offers to predict his future. While full of rare humor, this chapter throws aninteresting light on the extraordinary number of modes of divination that have beenemployed. Small wonder that Panurge repented of his visit! I show here the title-pageof a popular book by one of the most famous of the English astrological physicians,Nicholas Culpeper. (Fig. 52.)Never was the opinion of sensible men on this subject better expressed than by SirThomas Browne: "Nor do we hereby reject or condemn a sober and regulatedAstrology; we hold there is more truth therein than in Astrologers; in some more thanmany allow, yet in none so much as some pretend. We deny not the influence of theStarres, but often suspect the due application thereof; for though we should affirm thatall things were in all things; that Heaven were but Earth Celestified, and earth butHeaven terrestrified, or that each part above had an influence upon its divided affinitybelow; yet how to single out these relations, and duly to apply their actions, is a workofttimes to be effected by some revelation, and Cabala from above, rather than anyPhilosophy, or speculation here below."As late as 1699, a thesis was discussed at the Paris Faculty, "Whether comets wereharbingers of disease," and in 1707 the Faculty negatived the question propounded ina thesis, "Whether the moon had any sway on the human body."The eighteenth and nineteenth centuries saw, among intelligent men, a progressiveweakening of the belief in the subject; but not even the satire of Swift, with hispractical joke in predicting and announcing the death of the famous almanac maker,nor contemptuous neglect of the subject of late years sufficed to dispel the belief fromthe minds of the public. Garth in the Dispensary (1699) satirizes the astro- logicalpractitioners of his day:The Sage in Velvet Chair, here lolls at EaseTo promise future Health for present Fees

Then as from Tripod solemn Sham revealsAnd what the Stars know nothing of foretell. (Canto ii.)The almanacs of Moore and Zadkiel continue to be published, and remain popular.In London, sandwich men are to be met with carrying-124-advertisements of Chaldeans and Egyptians who offer to tell your fortune by the stars.Even in this country, astrology is still practiced to a surprising extent if one may judgefrom advertisements in certain papers, and from publications which must have aconsiderable sale. Many years ago, I had as a patient an estimable astrologer, whoselucrative income was derived from giving people astral information as to the rise andfall of stocks. It is a chapter in the vagaries of the human mind that is worth carefulstudy. Let me commend to your reading the sympathetic story called "A Doctor ofMedicine" in the "Rewards and Fairies" of Kipling. The hero is Nicholas Culpeper,Gent., whose picture is here given. One stanza of the poem at the end of the story,"Our Fathers of Old," may be quoted:Wonderful tales had our fathers of old --Wonderful tales of the herbs and the stars --The Sun was Lord of the Marigold,Basil and Rocket belonged to Mars.Pat as a sum in division it goes --(Every plant had a star bespoke) --Who but Venus should govern the Rose?Who but Jupiter own the Oak?Simply and gravely the facts are toldIn the wonderful books of our fathers of old.James J. Walsh of New York has written a book of extraordinary interest called"The Thirteenth, Greatest of Centuries." I have not the necessary knowledge to saywhether he has made out his case or not for art and for literature. There was certainlya great awakening and, inspired by high ideals, men turned with a true instinct to thebelief that there was more in life than could be got out of barren scholastic studies.With many of the strong men of the period one feels the keenest mental sympathy.Grosseteste, the great Clerk of Lincoln, as a scholar, a teacher and a reformer,represents a type of mind that could grow only in fruitful soil. Roger Bacon may becalled the first of the moderns -- certainly the first to appreciate the-125-extraordinary possibilities which lay in a free and untrammelled study of nature. Acentury which could produce men capable of building the Gothic cathedrals may wellbe called one of the great epochs in history, and the age that produced Dante is agolden one in literature. Humanity has been the richer for St. Francis; and Abelard,Albertus and Aquinas form a trio not easy to match, in their special departments,either before or after. But in science, and particularly in medicine, and in the advanceof an outlook upon nature, the thirteenth century did not help man very much. Roger

Bacon was "a voice crying in the wilderness," and not one of the men I have pickedout as specially typical of the period instituted any new departure either in practice orin science. They were servile followers, when not of the Greeks, of the Arabians. Thisis attested by the barrenness of the century and a half that followed. One would havethought that the stimulus given by Mundinus to the study of anatomy would haveborne fruit, but little was done in science during the two and a half centuries thatfollowed the delivery of his lectures and still less in the art. While William ofWykeham was building Winchester Cathedral and Chaucer was writing theCanterbury Tales, John of Gaddesden in practice was blindly following blind leaderswhose authority no one dared question.The truth is, from the modern standpoint the thirteenth was not the true dawnbrightening more and more unto the perfect day, but a glorious aurora which flickereddown again into the arctic night of mediævalism.To sum up -- in medicine the Middle Ages represent a restatement from century tocentury of the facts and theories of the Greeks modified here and there by Arabianpractice. There was, in Francis Bacon's phrase, much iteration, small addition. Theschools bowed in humble, slavish submission to Galen and Hippocrates, takingeverything from them but their spirit and there was no advance in our knowledge ofthe structure or function of the body. The Arabians lit a brilliant torch from Grecianlamps and from the eighth to the eleventh centuries the profession reached amongthem a position of dignity and importance to which it is hard to find a parallel inhistory.CHAPTER IVTHE RENAISSANCE AND THE RISE OF ANATOMY ANDPHYSIOLOGYTHE "reconquest of the classic world of thought was by far the most importantachievement of the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries. It absorbed nearly the wholemental energy of the Italians.... The revelation of what men were and what theywrought under the influence of other faiths and other impulses, in distant ages with adifferent ideal for their aim, not only widened the narrow horizon of the Middle Ages,but it also restored self-confidence to the reason of humanity."Everywhere throughout the Middle Ages learning was the handmaid of theology.Even Roger Bacon with his strong appeal for a new method accepted the dominantmediæval conviction -- that all the sciences did but minister to their queen, Theology.A new spirit entered man's heart as he came to look upon learning as a guide to theconduct of life. A revolution was slowly effected in the intellectual world. It is amistake to think of the Renaissance as a brief period of sudden fruitfulness in theNorth Italian cities. So far as science is concerned, the thirteenth century was anaurora followed by a long period of darkness, but the fifteenth was a true dawn thatbrightened more and more unto the perfect day. Always a reflex of its period,medicine joined heartily though slowly in the revolt against mediævalism. Howslowly I did not appreciate until recently. Studying the earliest printed medical worksto catch the point of view of the men who were in the thick of the movement up to1480 -- which may be taken to include the first quarter of a century of printing -- onegets a startling record. The mediæval mind still dominates: of the sixty-seven authorsof one hundred and eighty-two editions of early medical books, twenty-three weremen of the thirteenth and fourteenth

-127-centuries, thirty men of the fifteenth century, eight wrote in Arabic, several were ofthe School of Salernum, and only six were of classical antiquity, viz., Pliny (first1469), Hippocrates (1473) [Hain 7247], Galen (1475) [Hain 7237], Aristotle (1476),Celsus (1478), and Dioscorides (1478).The medical profession gradually caught the new spirit. It has been well said thatGreece arose from the dead with the New Testament in the one hand and Aristotle inthe other. There was awakened a perfect passion for the old Greek writers, and with ita study of the original sources, which had now become available in manymanuscripts. Gradually Hippocrates and Galen came to their own again. Almost everyprofessor of medicine became a student of the MSS. of Aristotle and of the Greekphysicians, and before 1530 the presses had poured out a stream of editions. A waveof enthusiasm swept over the profession, and the best energies of its best minds weredevoted to a study of the Fathers. Galen became the idol of the schools. A strongrevulsion of feeling arose against the Arabians, and Avicenna, the Prince, who hadbeen clothed with an authority only a little less than divine, became anathema. Underthe leadership of the Montpellier School, the Arabians made a strong fight, but it wasa losing battle all along the line. This group of medical humanists -- men who weredevoted to the study of the old humanities, as Latin and Greek were called -- has had agreat and beneficial influence upon the profession. They were for the most partcultivated gentlemen with a triple interest -- literature, medicine and natural history.How important is the part they played may be gathered from a glance at the "Lives"given by Bayle in his "Biographic Médicale" (Paris, 1855) between the years 1500and 1575. More than one half of them had translated or edited works of Hippocratesor Galen; many of them had made important contributions to general literature, and alarge proportion of them were naturalists: Leonicenus, Linacre, Champier, Fernel,Fracastorius, Gonthier, Caius, J. Sylvius, Brasavola, Fuchsius, Matthiolus, ConradGesner, to mention only those I-128-know best, form a great group. Linacre edited Greek works for Aldus, translatedworks of Galen, taught Greek at Oxford, wrote Latin grammars and founded theRoyal College of Physicians. Caius was a keen Greek scholar, an ardent student ofnatural history, and his name is enshrined as co-founder of one of the most importantof the Cambridge colleges. Gonthier, Fernel, Fuchs and Mattioli were great scholarsand greater physicians. Champier, one of the most remarkable of the group, was thefounder of the Hôtel Dieu at Lyons, and author of books of a characteristicRenaissance type and of singular-129-bibliographical interest. In many ways greatest of all was Conrad Gesner, whose morsinopinata at forty-nine, bravely fighting the plague, is so touchingly and tenderlymourned by his friend Caius. Physician, botanist, mineralogist, geologist, chemist, thefirst great modern bibliographer, he is the very embodiment of the spirit of the age.

On the flyleaf of my copy of the "Bibliotheca Universalis" (1545), is written a finetribute to his memory. I do not know by whom it is, but I do know from my readingthat it is true:"Conrad Gesner, who kept open house there for all learned men who came into hisneighborhood. Gesner was not only the best naturalist among the scholars of his day,but of all men of that century he was the pattern man of letters. He was faultless inprivate life, assiduous in study, diligent in maintaining correspondence and good-willwith learned men in all countries, hospitable -- though his means were small -- toevery scholar that came into Zürich. Prompt to serve all, he was an editor of othermen's volumes, a writer of prefaces for friends, a suggestor to young writers of bookson which they might engage themselves, and a great helper to them in the progress oftheir work. But still, while finding time for services to other men, he could produce asmuch out of his own study as though he had no part in the life beyond its walls."A large majority of these early naturalists and botanists were physicians. TheGreek art of observation was revived in a study of the scientific writings of Aristotle,Theophrastus and Dioscorides and in medicine, of Hippocrates and of Galen, all in theGreek originals. That progress was at first slow was due in part to the fact that theleaders were too busy scraping the Arabian tarnish from the pure gold of Greekmedicine and correcting the anatomical mistakes of Galen to bother much about hisphysiology or pathology. Here and there among the great anatomists of the period weread of an experiment, but it was the art of observation, the art of Hippocrates, not thescience of Galen, not the carefully devised experiment to determine function, thatcharacterized their work. There was indeed every reason why men should have beencontent with the physiology and pathology of that day, as, from a theoreticalstandpoint, it was excellent.-132-The doctrine of the four humors and of the natural, animal and vital spirits afforded aready explanation for the symptoms of all diseases, and the practice of the day wasadmirably adapted to the theories. There was no thought of, no desire for, change. Butthe revival of learning awakened in men at first a suspicion and at last a convictionthat the ancients had left something which could be reached by independent research,and gradually the paralytic-like torpor passed away.The sixteenth and seventeenth centuries did three things in medicine -- shatteredauthority, laid the foundation of an accurate knowledge of the structure of the humanbody and demonstrated how its functions should be studied intelligently -- with whichadvances, as illustrating this period, may be associated the names of Paracelsus,Vesalius and Harvey.PARACELSUSPARACELSUS is "der Geist der stets verneint." He roused men against thedogmatism of the schools, and he stimulated enormously the practical study ofchemistry. These are his great merits, against which must be placed a flood ofhermetical and transcendental medicine, some his own, some foisted in his name, theinfluence of which is still with us."With what judgment ye judge it shall be judged to you again" is the verdict ofthree centuries on Paracelsus. In return for unmeasured abuse of his predecessors andcontemporaries he has been held up to obloquy as the arch-charlatan of history. We

have taken a cheap estimate of him from Fuller and Bacon, and from a host ofscurrilous scribblers who debased or perverted his writings. Fuller picked him out asexemplifying the drunken quack, whose body was a sea wherein the tide ofdrunkenness was ever ebbing and flowing -- "He boasted that shortly he would orderLuther and the Pope, as well as he had done Galen and Hippocrates. He was neverseen to pray, and seldome came to Church. He was not onely skilled in naturallMagick (the utmost bounds whereof border on the suburbs of hell) but is charged toconverse constantly with familiars. Guilty he was of all vices but wantonnesse: . . . "-133-Francis Bacon, too, says many hard things of him.To the mystics, on the other hand, he is Paracelsus the Great, the divine, the mostsupreme of the Christian magi, whose writings are too precious for science, themonarch of secrets, who has discovered the Universal Medicine. This is illustrated inBrowning's well-known poem "Paracelsus," published when he was only twenty-one;than which there is no more pleasant picture in literature of the man and of hisaspirations. His was a "searching and impetuous soul" that sought to win from naturesome startling secret -- ". . . a tincture of force to flush old age with youth, or breedgold, or imprison moonbeams till they change to opal shafts!" At the same time withthat capacity for self-deception which characterizes the true mystic he sought to castLight on a darkling race; save for that doubt,I stood at first where all aspire at lastTo stand: the secret of the world was mine.I knew, I felt (perception unexpressed,Uncomprehended by our narrow thought,But somehow felt and known in every shiftAnd change in the spirit, -- nay, in every poreOf the body, even) -- what God is, what we are,What life is -- . . .Much has been done of late to clear up his story and his character. ProfessorSudhoff, of Leipzig, has made an exhaustive bibliographical study of his writings,there have been recent monographs by Julius Hartmann, and Professors Franz andKarl Strunz, and a sympathetic summary of his life and writings has been publishedby the late Miss Stoddart. Indeed there is at present a cult of Paracelsus. The hermeticand alchemical writings are available in English in the edition of A. E. Waite,London, 1894. The main facts of his life you can find in all the biographies. Suffice ithere to say that he-135-was born at Einsiedeln, near Zürich, in 1493, the son of a physician, from whom heappears to have had his early training both in medicine and in chemistry. Under thefamous abbot and alchemist, Trithemius of Würzburg, he studied chemistry andoccultism. After working in the mines at Schwatz he began his wanderings, duringwhich he professes to have visited nearly all the countries in Europe and to havereached India and China. Returning to Germany he began a triumphal tour of practice

through the German cities, always in opposition to the medical faculty, and constantlyin trouble. He undoubtedly performed many important cures, and was thought to havefound the supreme secret of alchemistry. In the pommel of his sword he was believedto carry a familiar spirit. So dominant was his reputation that in 1527 he was called tothe chair of physic in the University of Basel. Embroiled in quarrels after his first yearhe was forced to leave secretly, and again began his wanderings through Germancities, working, quarrelling, curing, and dying prematurely at Saltzburg in 1541 -- oneof the most tragic figures in the history of medicine.Paracelsus is the Luther of medicine, the very incarnation of the spirit of revolt. Ata period when authority was paramount, and men blindly followed old leaders, whento stray from the beaten track in any field of knowledge was a damnable heresy, hestood out boldly for independent study and the right of private judgment. Afterelection to the chair at Basel he at once introduced a startling novelty by lecturing inGerman. He had caught the new spirit and was ready to burst all bonds both inmedicine and in theology. He must have startled the old teachers and practitioners byhis novel methods. "On June 5, 1527, he attached a programme of his lectures to theblack-board of the University inviting all to come to them. It began by greeting allstudents of the art of healing. He proclaimed its lofty and serious nature, a gift of Godto man, and the need of developing it to new importance and to new renown. This heundertook to do, not retrogressing to the teaching of the ancients, but progressingwhither nature pointed, through research into nature, where he himself had discoveredand had verified by prolonged experiment and experience. He was ready to opposeobedience to old lights as if they were oracles from which one did not dare to differ.Illustrious doctors might be graduated from books, but books made not a singlephysician.-136-Neither graduation, nor fluency, nor the knowledge of old languages, nor the readingof many books made a physician, but the knowledge of things themselves and theirproperties. The business of a doctor was to know the different kinds of sicknesses,their causes, their symptoms and their right remedies. This he would teach, for he hadwon this knowledge through experience, the greatest teacher, and with much toil. Hewould teach it as he had learned it, and his lectures would be founded on works whichhe had composed concerning inward and external treatment, physic and surgery."Shortly afterwards,at the Feast of St. John, the students had a bonfire in front of the university.Paracelsus came out holding in his hands the "Bible of medicine," Avicenna's"Canon," which he flung into the flames saying: "Into St. John's fire so that allmisfortune may go into the air with the smoke." It was, as he explained afterwards, asymbolic act: "What has perished must go to the fire; it is no longer fit for use: what istrue and living, that the fire cannot burn." With abundant confidence in his owncapacity he proclaimed himself the legitimate monarch, the very Christ of medicine."You shall follow me," cried he, "you, Avicenna, Galen, Rhasis, Montagnana,Mesues; you, Gentlemen of Paris, Montpellier, Germany, Cologne, Vienna, andwhomsoever the Rhine and Danube nourish; you who inhabit the isles of the sea; you,likewise, Dalmatians, Athenians; thou, Arab; thou, Greek; thou, Jew; all shall followme, and the monarchy shall be mine."

This first great revolt against the slavish authority of the schools had littleimmediate effect, largely on account of the personal vagaries of the reformer -- but itmade men think. Paracelsus stirred the pool as had not been done for fifteen centuries.Much more important is the relation of Paracelsus to the new chemical studies, andtheir relation to practical medicine. Alchemy, he held, "is to make neither gold norsilver: its use is to make the supreme sciences and to direct them against disease." Herecognized three basic substances, sulphur, mercury and salt, which were thenecessary ingredients of all bodies organic or inorganic. They were the basis of thethree principles out of which the Archaeus, the spirit of nature, formed all bodies. Hemade important discoveries in chemistry; zinc, the various compounds of mercury,calomel, flowers of sulphur, among others, and he was a strong advocate of the use ofpreparations of iron and antimony. In practical pharmacy he has perhaps had a greaterreputation for the introduction of a tincture of opium -- labdanum or laudanum -- withwhich he effected miraculous cures, and the use of which he had probably learned inthe East.Through Paracelsus a great stimulus was given to the study of chemistry andpharmacy, and he is the first of the modern iatro-chemists. In contradistinction toGalenic medicines, which were largely derived from the vegetable kingdom, from thistime on we find-138-in the literature references to spagyric medicines and a "spagyrist" was a Paracelsianwho regarded chemistry as the basis of all medical knowledge.One cannot speak very warmly of the practical medical writings of Paracelsus.Gout, which may be taken as the disease upon which he had the greatest reputation, isvery badly described, and yet he has one or two fruitful ideas singularly mixed withmediæval astrology; but he has here and there very happy insights, as where heremarks "nec præter synoviam locqum alium ullum podagra occupat." In the tract onphlebotomy I see nothing modern, and here again he is everywhere dominated byastrological ideas -- "Sapiens dominatur astris."As a protagonist of occult philosophy, Paracelsus has had a more enduringreputation than as a physician. In estimating his position there is the great difficultyreferred to by Sudhoff in determining which of the extant treatises are genuine. In thetwo volumes issued in English by Waite in 1894, there is much that is difficult to readand to appreciate from our modern standpoint. In the book "Concerning Long Life" heconfesses that his method and practice will not be intelligible to common persons andthat he writes only for those whose intelligence is above the average. To those fond oftranscendental studies they appeal and are perhaps intelligible. Everywhere one comesacross shrewd remarks which prove that Paracelsus had a keen belief in the allcontrollingpowers of nature and of man's capacity to make those powers operate forhis own good: "the wise man rules Nature, not Nature the wise man." "The differencebetween the Saint and the Magus is that the one operates by means of God, and theother by means of Nature." He had great faith in nature and the light of nature,holding that man obtains from nature according as he believes. His theory of the threeprinciples appears to have controlled his conception of everything relating to man,spiritually, mentally and bodily; and his threefold genera of disease corresponded insome mysterious way with the three primary substances, salt, sulphur and mercury.

How far he was a believer in astrology, charms and divination it is not easy to say.From many of the writings in his collected works one would gather, as I have alreadyquoted, that he was a strong-139-believer. On the other hand, in the "Paramirum," he says: "Stars control nothing in us,suggest nothing, incline to nothing, own nothing; they are free from us and we arefree from them" (Stoddart, p. 185).http://etext.lib.virginia.edu/images/modeng/O/public/OslEv139.jpgThe Archæus, not the stars, controls man's destiny. "Good fortune comes fromability, and ability comes from the spirit" (Archæus).-140-No one has held more firmly the dualistic conception of the healing art. There aretwo kinds of doctors; those who heal miraculously and those who heal throughmedicine. Only he who believes can work miracles. The physician has to accomplishthat which God would have done miraculously, had there been faith enough in thesick man (Stoddart, p. 194). He had the Hippocratic conception of the " vis medicatrixnaturæ" -- no one keener since the days of the Greeks. Man is his own doctor andfinds proper healing herbs in his own garden: the physician is in ourselves, in our ownnature are all things that we need: and speaking of wounds, with singular presciencehe says that the treatment should be defensive so that no contingency from withoutcould hinder Nature in her work (Stoddart, p. 213).Paracelsus expresses the healing powers of nature by the word "mumia," which heregarded as a sort of magnetic influence or force, and he believed that anyonepossessing this could arrest or heal disease in others. As the lily breaks forth ininvisible perfume, so healing influences may pass from an invisible body. Upon theseviews of Paracelsus was based the theory of the sympathetic cure of disease whichhad an extraordinary vogue in the late sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, and whichis not without its modern counterpart.In the next century, in Van Helmont we meet with the Archæus everywherepresiding, controlling and regulating the animate and inanimate bodies, working thistime through agents, local ferments. The Rosicrucians had their direct inspirationfrom his writings, and such mystics as the English Rosicrucian Fludd were strongParacelsians.The doctrine of contraries drawn from the old Greek philosophy, upon which agood deal of the treatment of Hippocrates and Galen was based -- dryness expelled bymoisture, cold by heat, etc. -- was opposed by Paracelsus in favor of a theory ofsimilars, upon which the practice of homeopathy is based. This really arose from theprimitive beliefs, to which I have already referred as leading to the use of eyebright indiseases of the eye, and cyclamen in diseases of the ear because of its resemblance tothat part; and the Egyptian organo-therapy had the same basis, -- spleen would curespleen, heart, heart, etc. In the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries these doctrines of-141-

sympathies and antipathies were much in vogue. A Scotchman, Sylvester Rattray,edited in the "Theatrum Sympatheticum" all the writings upon the sympathies andantipathies of man with animal, vegetable and mineral substances, and the whole artof physics was based on this principle.Upon this theory of "mumia," or magnetic force, the sympathetic cure of diseasewas based. The weapon salve, the sympathetic ointment, and the famous powder ofsympathy were the instruments through which it acted. The magnetic cure of woundsbecame the vogue. Van Helmont adopted these views in his famous treatise "DeMagnetica Vulnerum Curatione," in which he asserted that cures were wroughtthrough magnetic influence. How close they came to modern views of woundinfection may be judged from the following: "Upon the solution of Unity in any partthe ambient air . . . repleted with various evaporations or aporrhoeas of mixt bodies,especially such as are then suffering the act of putrefaction, violently invadeth the partand thereupon impresseth an exotic miasm or noxious diathesis, which disposeth theblood successively arriving at the wound, to putrefaction, by the intervention offermentation." With his magnetic sympathy, Van Helmont expressed clearly thedoctrine of immunity and the cure of disease by immune sera: "For he who has oncerecovered from that disease hath not only obtained a pure balsaamical blood, wherebyfor the future he is rendered free from any recidivation of the same evil, but alsoinfallibly cures the same affection in his neighbour . . . and by the mysterious powerof Magnetism transplants that balsaam and conserving quality into the blood ofanother." He was rash enough to go further and say that the cures effected by therelics of the saints were also due to the same cause -- a statement which led to a greatdiscussion with the theologians and to Van Helmont's arrest for heresy, and smallwonder, when he makes such bold statements as "Let the Divine enquire onlyconcerning God, the Naturalist concerning Nature," and "God in the production ofmiracles does for the most part walk hand in hand with Nature."That wandering genius, Sir Kenelm Digby, did much to popularize this method oftreatment by his lecture on the "Powder of Sympathy."-142-His powder was composed of copperas alone or mixed with gum tragacanth. Heregarded the cure as effected through the subtle influence of the sympathetic spirits or,as Highmore says, by "atomicall energy wrought at a distance," and the remedy couldbe applied to the wound itself, or to a cloth soaked in the blood or secretions, or to theweapon that caused the wound. One factor leading to success may have been that inthe directions which Digby gave for treating the wound (in the celebrated case ofJames Howell, for instance), it was to be let alone and kept clean. The practice isalluded to very frequently by the poets. In the "Lay of the Last Minstrel" we find thefollowing:But she has ta'en the broken lance,And wash'd it from the clotted gore,And salved the splinter o'er and o'er.William of Deloraine, in trance,

Whene'er she turn'd it round and round,Twisted, as if she gall'd his wound, Then to her maidens she did say,That he should be whole man and sound,(Canto iii, xxiii.)and in Dryden's "Tempest" (V, 1) Ariel says:Anoint the Sword which pierc'd him with the Weapon-Salve,And wrap it close from Air till I have timeTo visit him again.From Van Helmont comes the famous story of the new nose that dropped off insympathy with the dead arm from which it was taken, and the source of the famouslines of Hudibras. As I have not seen the original story quoted of late years it may beworth while to give it: "A certain inhabitant of Bruxels, in a combat had his nosemowed off, addressed himself to Tagliacozzus, a famous Chirurgein, living atBononia, that he might procure a new one; and when he feared the incision of his ownarm, he hired a Porter to admit it, out of whose arm,-143-having first given the reward agreed upon, at length he dig'd a new nose. Aboutthirteen moneths after his return to his own Countrey, on a sudden the ingrafted nosegrew cold, putrified, and within few days drops off. To those of his friends that werecurious in the exploration of the cause of this unexpected misfortune, it wasdiscovered, that the Porter expired, neer about the same punctilio of time, whereinthe nose grew frigid and cadaverous. There are at Bruxels yet surviving, some ofgood repute, that were eye-witnesses of these occurrences."Equally in the history of science and of medicine, 1542 is a starred year, marked by arevolution in our knowledge alike of Macrocosm and Microcosm. In Frauenburg, thetown physician and a canon, now-145-nearing the Psalmist limit and his end, had sent to the press the studies of a lifetime --"De revolutionibus orbium coelestium." It was no new thought, no new demonstrationthat Copernicus thus gave to his generation. Centuries before, men of the keenestscientific minds from Pythagoras on had worked out a heliocentric theory, fullypromulgated by Aristarchus, and very generally accepted by the brilliant investigatorsof the Alexandrian school; but in the long interval, lapped in Oriental lethargy, manhad been content to acknowledge that the heavens declare the glory of God and thatthe firmament sheweth his handiwork. There had been great astronomers beforeCopernicus. In the fifteenth century Nicholas of Cusa and Regiomontanus had hintedat the heliocentric theory; but 1512 marks an epoch in the history of science, since forall time Copernicus put the problem in a way that compelled acquiescence.Nor did Copernicus announce a truth perfect and complete, not to be modified, butthere were many contradictions and lacunæ which the work of subsequent observershad to reconcile and fill up. For long years Copernicus had brooded over the greatthoughts which his careful observation had compelled. We can imagine the touching

scene in the little town when his friend Osiander brought the first copy of the preciousvolume hot from the press, a well enough printed book. Already on his deathbed,stricken with a long illness, the old man must have had doubts how his work would bereceived, though years before Pope Clement VII had sent him encouraging words.Fortunately death saved him from the "rending" which is the portion of so manyinnovators and discoverers. His great contemporary reformer, Luther, expressed theview of the day when he said the fool will turn topsy-turvy the whole art ofastronomy; but the Bible says that Joshua commanded the Sun to stand still, not theEarth. The scholarly Melanchthon, himself an astronomer, thought the book sogodless that he recommended its suppression (Dannemann, Grundriss). The churchwas too much involved in the Ptolemaic system to accept any change and it was notuntil 1822 that the works of Copernicus were removed from the Index.VESALIUSTHE same year, 1542, saw a very different picture in the far-famed city of Padua,"nursery of the arts." The central figure was a man not yet in the prime of life, andjustly full of its pride, as you may see from his portrait. (Fig. 61.) Like Aristotle andHippocrates cradled and nurtured in an Æsculapian family, Vesalius was from hischildhood a student of nature, and was now a wandering scholar, far from his Belgianhome. But in Italy he had found what neither Louvain nor Paris could give, freedomin his studies and golden opportunities for research in anatomy. What an impressionhe must have made on the student body at Padua may be judged from the fact thatshortly after his graduation in December, 1537, at the age of twenty-four, he waselected to the chair of anatomy and surgery. Two things favored him -- an insatiatedesire to see and handle for himself the parts of the human frame, and an opportunity,such as had never before been offered to the teacher, to obtain material for the studyof human anatomy. Learned with all the learning of the Grecians and of the Arabians,Vesalius grasped, as no modern before him had done, the cardinal fact that to knowthe human machine and its working, it is necessary first to know its parts -- its fabric.To appreciate the work of this great man we must go back in a brief review of thegrowth of the study of anatomy.Among the Greeks only the Alexandrians knew human anatomy. What theirknowledge was we know at second hand, but the evidence is plain that they knew agreat deal. Galen's anatomy was first-class and was based on the Alexandrians and onhis studies of the ape and the pig. We have already noted how much superior was hisosteology to that of Mundinus. Between the Alexandrians and the early days of theSchool of Salernum we have no record of systematic dissections of the human body.It is even doubtful if these were permitted at Salernum. Neuburger states that theinstructions of Frederick II as to dissections were merely nominal.How atrocious was the anatomy of the early Middle Ages may be gathered fromthe cuts in the works of Henri de Mondeville. In the Bodleian Library is a remarkableLatin anatomical treatise of the-147--148-

late thirteenth century, of English provenance, one illustration from which willsuffice to show the ignorance of the author. (Fig. 62.) Mundinus of Bologna, one ofthe first men in the Middle Ages to study anatomy from the subject, was under thestrong domination of the Arabians, from whom he appears to have received a veryimperfect Galenic anatomy. From this date we meet with occasional dissections atvarious schools, but we have seen that in the elaborate curriculum of the University ofPadua in the middle of the fifteenth century there was no provision for the study of thesubject. Even well into the sixteenth century dissections were not common, and theold practice was followed of holding a professorial discourse, while the butcher, orbarber surgeon, opened the cavities of the body. A member of a famous Basel familyof physicians, Felix Plater, has left us in his autobiography details of the dissectionshe witnessed at Montpellier between November 14, 1552, and January 10, 1557, onlyeleven in number. How difficult it was at that time to get subjects is shown by therisks they ran in "body-snatching" expeditions, of which he records three.And now came the real maker of modern anatomy. Andreas Vesalius had a goodstart in life. Of a family long associated with the profession, his father occupied theposition of apothecary to Charles V, whom he accompanied on his journeys andcampaigns. Trained at Louvain, he had, from his earliest youth, an ardent desire todissect, and cut up mice and rats, and even cats and dogs. To Paris, the strong schoolof the period, he went in 1533, and studied under two men of great renown, JacobSylvius and Guinterius. Both were strong Galenists and regarded the Master as aninfallible authority. He had as a fellow prosector, under the latter, the unfortunateServetus. The story of his troubles and trials in getting bones and subjects you mayread in Roth's "Life." Many interesting biographical details are also to be found in hisown writings. He returned for a time to Louvain, and here he published his first book,a commentary on the "Almansor" of Rhazes, in 1537.Finding it difficult, either in Paris or Louvain, to pursue his anatomical studies,he decided to go to Italy where, at Venice and Padua, the opportunities were greater.At Venice, he attended the practice of a hospital (now a barracks) which was incharge of the Theatiner Order. I show you a photograph of the building taken lastyear. (Fig. 63.) And here a strange destiny brought two men together. In 1537, anotherpilgrim was working in Venice waiting to be joined by his six disciples. After longyears of probation, Ignatius Loyola was ready to start on the conquest of a verydifferent world. Devoted to the sick and to the poor, he attached himself to theTheatiner Order, and in the wards of the hospital and the quadrangle, the fiery, darkeyed,little Basque must frequently have come into contact with the sturdy youngBelgian, busy with his clinical studies and his-151-anatomy. Both were to achieve phenomenal success -- the one in a few years torevolutionize anatomy, the other within twenty years to be the controller ofuniversities, the counsellor of kings, and the founder of the most famous order in theRoman Catholic Church. It was in this hospital that Vesalius made observations onthe China-root, on which he published a monograph in 1546. The Paduan School wasclose to Venice and associated with it, so that the young student had probably manyopportunities of going to and fro. On the sixth of December, 1537, before he hadreached his twenty-fourth year and shortly after taking his degree, he was elected tothe chair of surgery and anatomy at Padua.

The task Vesalius set himself to accomplish was to give an accurate description ofall the parts of the human body, with proper illustrations. He must have had abundantmaterial, more, probably, than any teacher before him had ever had at his disposal.We do not know where he conducted his dissections, as the old amphitheatre hasdisappeared, but it must have been very different from the tiny one put up by hissuccessor, Fabricius, in 1594. Possibly it was only a temporary building, for he saysin the second edition of the "Fabrica" that he had a splendid lecture theatre whichaccommodated more than five hundred spectators (p. 681).With Vesalius disappeared the old didactic method of teaching anatomy. He didhis own dissections, made his own preparations, and, when human subjects werescarce, employed dogs, pigs or cats, and occasionally a monkey. For five years hetaught and worked at Padua. He is known to have given public demonstrations inBologna and elsewhere. In the "China-root" he remarks that he once taught in threeuniversities in one year. The first fruit of his work is of great importance inconnection with the evolution of his knowledge. In 1538, he published six anatomicaltables issued apparently in single leaves. Of the famous "Tabulæ Anatomicæ" onlytwo copies are known, one in the San Marco Library, Venice, and the other in thepossession of Sir John Stirling-Maxwell, whose father had it reproduced in facsimile(thirty copies only) in 1874. Some of the figures were drawn by Vesalius himself, andsome are from the pencil of his friend and countryman, Stephan van Calcar. Thoseplates were-152-extensively pirated. About this time he also edited for the Giunti some of theanatomical works of Galen.We know very little of his private life at Padua. His most important colleague inthe faculty was the famous Montanus, professor of medicine. Among his students andassociates was the Englishman Caius, who lived in the same house with him. Whenthe output is considered, he cannot have had much spare time at Padua.He did not create human anatomy -- that had been done by the Alexandrians -- buthe studied it in so orderly and thorough a manner that for the first time in history itcould be presented in a way that explained the entire structure of the human body.Early in 1542 the MS. was ready; the drawings had been made with infinite care, theblocks for the figures had been cut, and in September, he wrote to Oporinus urgingthat the greatest pains should be taken with the book, that the paper should be strongand of equal thickness, the workmen chosen for their skill, and that every detail of thepictures must be distinctly visible. He writes with the confidence of a man whorealized the significance of the work he had done. It is difficult to speak in terms ofmoderation of the "Fabrica." To appreciate its relative value one must compare it withthe other anatomical works of the period, and for this purpose I put before you (Fig.64) two figures from a text-book on the subject that was available for students duringthe first half of the sixteenth century. In the figures and text of the "Fabrica" we haveanatomy as we know it; and let us be honest and say, too, largely as Galen knew it.Time will not allow me to go into the question of the relations of these two greatanatomists, but we must remember that at this period Galen ruled supreme, and wasregarded in the schools as infallible. And now, after five years of incessant labor,Vesalius was prepared to leave his much loved Padua and his devoted students. Hehad accomplished an extraordinary work. He knew, I feel sure, what he had done. He

knew that the MSS. contained something that the world had not seen since the greatPergamenian sent the rolls of his "Manual of Anatomy" among his friends. Tooprecious to entrust to any printer but the best -- and the best in the middle of thesixteenth centry{sic} was Transalpine -- he was preparing-154-to go north with the precious burden. We can picture the youthful teacher -- he wasbut twenty-eight -- among students in a university which they themselves controlled --some of them perhaps the very men who five years before had elected him -- at thelast meeting with his class, perhaps giving a final demonstration of the woodcuts,which were of an accuracy and beauty never seen before by students' eyes, andreading his introduction. There would be sad hearts at the parting, for never hadanyone taught anatomy as he had taught it -- no one had ever known anatomy as heknew it. But the strong, confident look was on his face and with the courage of youthand sure of the future, he would picture a happy return to attack new and untriedproblems. Little did he dream that his happy days as student and teacher werefinished, that his work as an anatomist was over, that the most brilliant and epochmakingpart of his career as a professor was a thing of the past. A year or more wasspent at Basel with his friend Oporinus supervising the printing of the great work,which appeared in 1543 with the title "De Humani Corporis Fabrica." The worth of abook, as of a man, must be judged by results, and, so judged, the "Fabrica" is one ofthe great books of the world, and would come in any century of volumes whichembraced the richest harvest of the human mind. In medicine, it represents the fullflower of the Renaissance. As a book it is a sumptuous tome a worthy setting of hisjewel -- paper, type and illustration to match, as you may see for yourselves in thisfolio -- the chef d'oeuvre of any medical library.In every section, Vesalius enlarged and corrected the work of Galen. Into thedetails we need not enter: they are all given in Roth's monograph, and it is a chapterof ancient history not specially illuminating. Never did a great piece of literary workhave a better setting. Vesalius must have had a keen appreciation of the artistic side ofthe art of printing, and he must also have realized the fact that the masters of the arthad by this time moved north of the Alps.While superintending the printing of the precious work in the winter of 1542-1543in Basel, Vesalius prepared for the medical school a skeleton from the body of anexecuted man, which is probably the earliest preparation of the kind in Europe. Howlittle anatomy had been studied at the period may be judged from that fact that therehad-155-been no dissection at Basel since 1531. The specimen is now in the Vesalianum,Basel, of which I show you a picture taken by Dr. Harvey Cushing. (Fig. 65.) Fromthe typographical standpoint no more superb volume on anatomy has been issuedfrom any press, except indeed the second edition, issued in 1555. The paper is, asVesalius directed, strong and good, but it is not, as he asked, always of equalthickness; as a rule it is thick and heavy, but there are copies on a good paper of amuch lighter quality. The illustrations drawn by his friend and fellow countryman,

van Calcar, are very much in advance of anything previously seen, except those ofLeonardo. The title-page (Fig. 66), one of the most celebrated pictures in the historyof medicine, shows Vesalius in a large amphitheatre (an imaginary one of the artist, Iam afraid) dissecting a female subject. He is demonstrating the abdomen to a group ofstudents about the table, but standing in the auditorium are elderly citizens and evenwomen. One student is reading from an open book. There is a monkey on one side ofthe picture and a dog on the other. Above the picture on a shield are the three weasels,the arms of Vesal. The reproduction which I show you here (Fig,. 66) is from the"Epitome" -- a smaller work issued before [?] the "Fabrica," with rather larger plates,two of which represent nude human bodies and are not reproduced in the great work.The freshest and most beautiful copy is the one on vellum which formerly belonged toDr. Mead, now in the British Museum, and from it this picture was taken. One of themost interesting features of the book are the full-page illustrations of the anatomy ofthe arteries, veins and nerves. They had not in those days the art of making corrosionpreparations, but they could in some way dissect to their finest ramifications thearteries, veins and nerves, which were then spread on boards and dried. Several suchpreparations are now at the College of Physicians in London, brought from Padua byHarvey. The plates of the muscles are remarkably good, more correct, though notbetter perhaps, on the whole, than some of Leonardo's.Vesalius had no idea of a general circulation. Though he had escaped from thedomination of the great Pergamenian in anatomy, he was still his follower inphysiology. The two figures annexed (Figs. 67 and 68), taken from one of the twoexisting copies of the "Tabulæ Anatomica," are unique in anatomical illustration, andare of special value as illustrating the notion of the vascular system that prevaileduntil Harvey's day. I have already called your attention to Galen's view of the twoseparate systems, one containing the coarse, venous blood for the general nutrition ofthe body, the other the arterial, full of a thinner, warmer blood with which weredistributed the vital spirits and the vital heat. The veins had their origin in the liver;the superior vena cava communicated with the right heart, and, as Galen taught, someblood was distributed to the lungs; but the two systems were closed, though Galenbelieved there was a communication at the periphery between the arteries and veins.Vesalius accepted Galen's view that there is some communication between the venousand arterial systems through pores in the septum of the ventricles, though he had hisdoubts, and in the second edition of his book (1555) says that in spite of the authorityof the Prince of Physicians he cannot see how the smallest quantity of blood could betransmitted through so dense a muscular septum. Two years before this (1553),[*] hisold fellow student, Michael Servetus, had in his "Christianismi Restitutio" announced-158-the lesser circulation. Evidently they had not kept in anatomical touch with oneanother! [*] See the Servetus Notes in the Osler Anniversary Volumes, New York,1919, Vol. II. -- Ed.The publication of the "Fabrica" shook the medical world to its foundations. Galenruled supreme in the schools: to doubt him in the least particular roused the same kindof feeling as did doubts on the verbal inspiration of the Scriptures fifty years ago! Hisold teachers in Paris were up in arms: Sylvius, nostræ ætatis medicorum decus, asVesalius calls him, wrote furious letters, and later spoke of him as a madman(væsanus). The younger men were with him and he had many friends, but he had

aroused a roaring tide of detraction against which he protested a few years later in hiswork on the "China-root," which is full of details about the "Fabrica." In a fit oftemper he threw his notes on Galen and other MSS. in the fire. No sadder page existsin medical writings than the one in which Vesalius tells of the burning of his booksand MSS. It is here reproduced and translated. His life for a couple of years is noteasy to follow, but we know that in 1546 he took service with Charles V as his bodyphysician, and the greatest anatomist of his age was lost in the wanderings of courtand campaigns.-160-He became an active practitioner, a distinguished surgeon, much consulted by hiscolleagues, and there are references to many of his cases, the most important of whichare to internal aneurysms, which he was one of the first to recognize. In 1555 hebrought out the second edition of the "Fabrica," an even more sumptuous volume thanthe first.There is no such pathetic tragedy in the history of our profession. Before the age ofthirty Vesalius had effected a revolution in anatomy; he became the valued physicianof the greatest court of Europe; but call no man happy till he is dead! A mysterysurrounds his last days. The story is that he had obtained permission to perform apost-mortem examination on the body of a young Spanish nobleman, whom he hadattended. When the body was opened, the spectators to their horror saw the heartbeating, and there were signs of life! Accused, so it is said, by the Inquisition ofmurder and also of general impiety he only escaped through the intervention of theKing, with the condition that he make a pilgrimage to the Holy Land. In carrying thisout in 1564 he was wrecked on the island of Zante, where he died of a fever or ofexhaustion, in the fiftieth year of his age.To the North American Review, November, 1902, Edith Wharton contributed apoem on "Vesalius in Zante," in which she pictures his life, so full ofaccomplishment, so full of regrets -- regrets accentuated by the receipt of ananatomical treatise by Fallopius, the successor to the chair in Padua! She makes himsay:There are two ways of spreading light; to beThe candle or the mirror that reflects it.I let my wick burn out -- there yet remainsTo spread an answering surface to the flameThat others kindle.-161-But between Mundinus and Vesalius, anatomy had been studied by a group of mento whom I must, in passing, pay a tribute. The great artists Raphael, Michael Angeloand Albrecht Dürer were keen students of the human form. There is an anatomicalsketch by Michael Angelo in the Ashmolean Museum, Oxford, which I herereproduce. Dürer's famous work on "Human Proportion," published in 1528, contains

excellent figures, but no sketches of dissections. But greater than any of these, andantedating them, is Leonardo da Vinci, the one universal genius in whom the newspirit was incarnate -- the Moses who alone among his contemporaries saw thepromised land. How far Leonardo was indebted to his friend and fellow student, dellaTorre, at Pavia we do not know, nor does it matter in face of the indubitable fact thatin the many anatomical sketches from his hand we have the first accuraterepresentation of the structure of the body. Glance at the three figures of the spinewhich I have had photographed side by side, one from Leonardo, one from Vesaliusand the other from-163-Vandyke Carter, who did the drawings in Gray's "Anatomy" (1st ed., 1856). Theyare all of the same type, scientific, anatomical drawings, and that of Leonardo wasdone fifty years before Vesalius! Compare, too, this figure of the bones of the footwith a similar one from Vesalius. Insatiate in experiment, intellectually as greedy asAristotle, painter, poet, sculptor, engineer, architect, mathematician, chemist, botanist,aeronaut, musician and withal a dreamer and mystic, full accomplishment in any onedepartment was not for him! A passionate desire for a mastery of nature's secretsmade him a fierce thing, replete with too much rage! But for us a record remains --Leonardo was the first of modern anatomists, and fifty years later, into the breach hemade, Vesalius entered.HARVEYLET us return to Padua about the year 1600. Vesalius, who made the school themost famous anatomical centre in Europe, was succeeded by Fallopius, one of thebest-known names in anatomy, at whose death an unsuccessful attempt was made toget Vesalius back. He was succeeded in 1565 by a remarkable man, Fabricius (whousually bears the added name of Aquapendente, from the town of his birth), a worthyfollower of Vesalius. In 1594, in the thirtieth year of his professoriate, he built at hisown expense a new anatomical amphitheatre, which still exists in the universitybuildings. It is a small, high-pitched room with six standing-rows for auditors risingabruptly one above the other. The arena is not much more than large enough for thedissecting table which, by a lift, could be brought up from a preparing room below.The study of anatomy at Padua must have declined since the days of Vesalius if thistiny amphitheatre held all its students; none the less, it is probably the oldest existinganatomical lecture room, and for us it has a very special significance.Early in his anatomical studies Fabricius had demonstrated the valves in the veins.I show you here two figures (Figs. 72 and 73), the first, as far as I know, in whichthese structures are depicted. It does not concern us who first discovered them; theyhad doubtless been seen before, but Fabricius first recognized them as generalstructures in the venous system, and he called them little doors -- "ostiola."The quadrangle of the university building at Padua is surrounded by beautifularcades, the walls and ceilings of which are everywhere covered with the stemmata,or shields, of former students, many of them brilliantly painted. Standing in the arcadeon the side of the "quad" opposite the entrance, if one looks on the ceiling

immediately above the capital of the second column to the left there is seen thestemma which appears as tailpiece to this chapter, put up by a young Englishman,William Harvey, who had been a student at Padua for four years. He belonged to the"Natio Anglica," of which he was Conciliarius, and took his degree in 1602.Doubtless he had repeatedly seen Fabricius demonstrate the valves of the veins, andhe may indeed, as a senior student, have helped in making the very dissections fromwhich the drawings were taken for Fabricius' work, "De Venarum Osteolis," 1603. Ifone may judge from the character of the teacher's work the sort of instruction thestudent receives, Harvey must have had splendid training in anatomy. While he was atPadua, the great work of Fabricius, "De Visione, Voce et Auditu" (1600) waspublished, then the "Tractatus de Oculo Visusque Organo" (1601), and in the last yearof his residence Fabricius must have been busy with his studies on the valves of theveins and with his embryology, which appeared in 1604. Late in life, Harvey toldBoyle that it was the position of the valves of the veins that induced him to think of acirculation.Harvey returned to England trained by the best anatomist of his day. In London, hebecame attached to the College of Physicans, and taking his degree at Cambridge, hebegan the practice of medicine. He was elected a fellow of the college in 1607 andphysician to St. Bartholomew's Hospital in 1609. In 1615 he was appointed Lumleianlecturer to the College of Physicians, and his duties were to hold certain "publicanatomies," as they were called, or lectures. We know little or nothing of what Harveyhad been doing other than his routine work in the care of the patients at St.Bartholomew's. It was not until April, 1616, that his lectures began. Chance haspreserved to us the notes of this first course; the MS. is now in the British Museumand was published in facsimile by the college in 1886.-166-The second day lecture, April 17, was concerned with a description of the organsof the thorax, and after a discussion on the structure and action of the heart come thelines:W. H. constat per fabricam cordis sanguinemper pulmones in Aortam perpetuotransferri, as by two clacks of awater bellows to rayse waterconstat per ligaturam transitum sanguinisab arteriis ad venasunde perpetuum sanguinis motumin circulo fieri pulsu cordis.The illustration (Fig. 74) will give one an idea of the extraordinarily crabbed handin which the notes are written, but it is worth while to see the original, for here is thefirst occasion upon which is laid down in clear and unequivocal words that the bloodcirculates. The lecture gave evidence of a skilled anatomist, well versed in theliterature from Aristotle to Fabricius. In the MS. of the thorax, or, as he calls it, the"parlour" lecture, there are about a hundred references to some twenty authors. Theremarkable thing is that although those lectures were repeated year by year, we haveno evidence that they made any impression upon Harvey's contemporaries, so far, at

least, as to excite discussions that led to publication. It was not until twelve yearslater, 1628, that Harvey published in Frankfurt a small quarto volume of seventy-fourpages, "De Motu Cordis." In comparison with the sumptuous "Fabrica" of Vesaliusthis is a trifling booklet; but if not its equal in bulk or typographical beauty (it is infact very poorly printed), it is its counterpart in physiology, and did for that sciencewhat Vesalius had done for anatomy, though not in the same way. The experimentalspirit was abroad in the land, and as a student at Padua, Harvey must have had manyopportunities of learning the technique of vivisection; but no one before his day hadattempted an elaborate piece of experimental work deliberately planned to solve aproblem relating to the most important single function of the body. Herein lies thespecial merit of his work, from every page of which there breathes the modern spirit.To him, as to Vesalius before him, the current views of the movements of the blood-167-http://etext.lib.virginia.edu/images/modeng/O/public/OslEv167.jpg-169-were unsatisfactory, more particularly the movements of the heart and arteries,which were regarded as an active expansion by which they were filled with blood,like bellows with air. The question of the transmission of blood through the thickseptum and the transference of air and blood from the lungs to the heart were secretswhich he was desirous of searching out by means of experiment.One or two special points in the work may be referred to as illustrating his method.He undertook first the movements of the heart, a task so truly arduous and so full ofdifficulties that he was almost tempted to think with Fracastorius that "the movementof the heart was only to be comprehended by God." But after many difficulties hemade the following statements: first, that the heart is erected and raises itself up intoan apex, and at this time strikes against the breast and the pulse is felt externally;secondly, that it is contracted everyway, but more so at the sides; and thirdly, thatgrasped in the hand it was felt to become harder at the time of its motion; from all ofwhich actions Harvey drew the very natural conclusion that the activity of the heartconsisted in a contraction of its fibres by which it expelled the blood from theventricles. These were the first four fundamental facts which really opened the wayfor the discovery of the circulation, as it did away with the belief that the heart in itsmotion attracts blood into the ventricles, stating on the contrary that by its contractionit expelled the blood and only received it during its period of repose or relaxation.Then he proceeded to study the action of the arteries and showed that their period ofdiastole, or expansion, corresponded with the systole, or contraction, of the heart, andthat the arterial pulse follows the force, frequency and rhythm of the ventricle and is,in fact, dependent upon it. Here was another new fact: that the pulsation in the arterieswas nothing else than the impulse of the blood within them. Chapter IV, in which hedescribes the movements of the auricles and ventricles, is a model of accuratedescription, to which little has since been added. It is interesting to note that hementions what is probably auricular fibrillation. He says: "After the heart had ceasedpulsating an undulation or palpitation remained in the blood itself which was

contained in the right auricle, this being observed so long as it was imbued with heatand spirit." He recognized too the importance of the auricles as the first to move andthe last to die. The accuracy and vividness of Harvey's description of the motion ofthe heart have been-170-appreciated by generations of physiologists. Having grasped this first essential fact,that the heart was an organ for the propulsion of blood, he takes up in Chapters VI andVII the question of the conveyance of the blood from the right side of the heart to theleft. Galen had already insisted that some blood passed from the right ventricle to thelungs -- enough for their nutrition; but Harvey points out, with Colombo, that fromthe arrangement of the valves there could be no other view than that with eachimpulse of the heart blood passes from the right ventricle to the lungs and so to theleft side of the heart. How it passed through the lungs was a problem: probably by acontinuous transudation. In Chapters VIII and IX he deals with the amount of bloodpassing through the heart from the veins to the arteries. Let me quote here what hesays, as it is of cardinal import:"But what remains to be said upon the quantity and source of the blood which thuspasses, is of a character so novel and unheard of that I not only fear injury to myselffrom the envy of a few, but I tremble lest I have mankind at large for my enemies, somuch doth wont and custom become a second nature. Doctrine once sown strikesdeeply its root, and respect for antiquity influences all men. Still the die is cast, andmy trust is in my love of truth, and the candour of cultivated minds." Then he goes onto say:I began to think whether there might not be A MOVEMENT, AS IT WERE, IN ACIRCLE. Now this I afterwards found to be true; and I finally saw that the blood,forced by the action of the left ventricle into the arteries, was distributed to the bodyat large, and its several parts, in the same manner as it is sent through the lungs,impelled by the right ventricle into the pulmonary artery, and that it then passedthrough the veins and along the vena cava, and so round to the left ventricle in themanner already indicated."The experiments dealing with the transmission of blood in the veins are veryaccurate, and he uses the old experiment that Fabricius had employed to show thevalves, to demonstrate that the blood in the veins flows towards the heart. For the firsttime a proper explanation of the action of the valves is given. Harvey had noappreciation of how the arteries and veins communicated with each other. Galen, you-171-may remember, recognized that there were anastomoses, but Harvey preferred theidea of filtration.The "De Motu Cordis" constitutes a unique piece of work in the history ofmedicine. Nothing of the same type had appeared before. It is a thoroughly sensible,scientific study of a definite problem, the solution of which was arrived at through thecombination of accurate observation and ingenious experiment. Muchmisunderstanding has arisen in connection with Harvey's discovery of the circulationof the blood. He did not discover that the blood moved, -- that was known to Aristotle

and to Galen, from both of whom I have given quotations which indicate clearly thatthey knew of its movement, -- but at the time of Harvey not a single anatomist hadescaped from the domination of Galen's views. Both Servetus and Colombo knew ofthe pulmonary circulation, which was described by the former in very accurate terms.Cesalpinus, a great name in anatomy and botany, for whom is claimed the discoveryof the circulation, only expressed the accepted doctrines in the following oft-quotedphrase:"We will now consider how the attraction of aliment and the process of nutritiontakes place in plants; for in animals we see the aliment brought through the veins tothe heart, as to a laboratory of innate heat, and, after receiving there its finalperfection, distributed through-172-the arteries to the body at large, by the agency of the spirits produced from this samealiment in the heart." There is nothing in this but Galen's view, and Cesalpinusbelieved, as did all his contemporaries, that the blood was distributed through thebody by the vena cava and its branches for the nourishment of all its parts. To thosewho have any doubts as to Harvey's position in this matter I would recommend thereading of the "De Motu Cordis" itself, then the various passages relating to thecirculation from Aristotle to Vesalius. Many of these can be found in the admirableworks of Dalton, Flourens, Richet and Curtis. In my Harveian Oration for 1906I havedealt specially with the reception of the new views, and have shown how long it wasbefore the reverence for Galen allowed of their acceptance. The University of Parisopposed the circulation of the blood for more than half a century after the appearanceof the "De Motu Cordis."To summarize -- until the seventeenth century there were believed to be two closedsystems in the circulation, (1) the natural, containing venous blood, had its origin inthe liver from which, as from a fountain, the blood continually ebbed and flowed forthe nourishment of the body; (2) the vital, containing another blood and the spirits,ebbed and flowed from the heart, distributing heat and life to all parts. Like a bellowsthe lungs fanned and cooled this vital blood. Here and there we find glimmeringconceptions of a communication between these systems, but practically all teachersbelieved that the only one of importance was through small pores in the wallseparating the two sides of the heart. Observation -- merely looking at and thinkingabout things -- had done all that was possible, and further progress had to await theintroduction of a new method, viz., experiment. Galen, it is true, had used this meansto show that the arteries of the body contained blood and not air. The day had comewhen men were no longer content with accurate description and with finely spuntheories and dreams. It was reserved for the immortal Harvey to put into practice theexperimental method by which he demonstrated conclusively that-173-the blood moved in a circle. The "De Motu Cordis" marks the final break of themodern spirit with the old traditions. It took long for men to realize the value of this"inventum mirabile" used so effectively by the Alexandrians -- by Galen -- indeed, itsfull value has only been appreciated within the past century. Let me quote a paragraph

from my Harveian Oration. "To the age of the hearer, in which men had heard andheard only, had succeeded the age of the eye in which men had seen and had beencontent only to see. But at last came the age of the hand -- the thinking, devising,planning hand, the hand as an instrument of the mind, now re-introduced into theworld in a modest little monograph from which we may date the beginning ofexperimental medicine."Harvey caught the experimental spirit in Italy, with brain, eye and hand as his onlyaids, but now an era opened in which medicine was to derive an enormous impetusfrom the discovery of instruments of precision. "The new period in the developmentof the natural sciences, which reached its height in the work of such men as Galileo,Gilbert and Kepler, is chiefly characterized by the invention of very importantinstruments for aiding and intensifying the perceptions of the senses, by means ofwhich was gained a much deeper insight into the phenomena than had hitherto beenpossible. Such instruments as the earlier ages possessed were little more thanprimitive hand-made tools. Now we find a considerable number of scientifically madeinstruments deliberately planned for purposes of special research, and as it were, onthe threshold of the period stand two of the most important, the compound microscopeand the telescope. The former was invented about 1590 and the latter about 1608." Itwas a fellow professor of the great genius Galileo who attempted to put into practicethe experimental science of his friend. With Sanctorius began the studies oftemperature, respiration and the physics of the circulation. The memory of this greatinvestigator has not been helped by the English edition of his "De Statica Medicina,"not his best work, with a frontispiece showing the author in his dietetic balance. (Fig.77.) Full justice has been done to him by Dr. Weir Mitchell in an address as presidentof the Congress of Physicians and Surgeons, 1891.-174-Sanctorius worked with a pulsilogue devised for him by Galileo, with which he madeobservations on the pulse. He is said to have been the first to put in use the clinicalthermometer. His experiments on insensible perspiration mark him as one of the firstmodern physiologists.But neither Sanctorius nor Harvey had the immediate influence upon theircontemporaries which the novel and stimulating character of their work justified.Harvey's great contemporary, Bacon, although he lost his life in making a cold storageexperiment, did not really appreciate the enormous importance of experimentalscience. He looked very coldly upon Harvey's work. It was a philosopher of anotherkidney, René Descartes, who did more than anyone else to help men to realize thevalue of the better way which Harvey had pointed out. That the beginning of wisdomwas in doubt, not in authority, was a novel doctrine in the world, but Descartes was noarmchair philosopher, and his strong advocacy and practice of experimentation had aprofound influence in directing men to "la nouvelle méthode." He brought the humanbody, the earthly machine, as he calls it, into the sphere of mechanics and physics,and he wrote the first text-book of physiology, "De l'Homme." Locke, too, became thespokesman of the new questioning spirit, and before the close of the seventeenthcentury, experimental research became all the mode. Richard Lower, Hooke andHales were probably more influenced by Descartes than by Harvey, and they madenotable contributions to experimental physiology in England. Borelli, author of thefamous work on "The Motion of Animals" (Rome, 1680-1681), brought to the study

of the action of muscles a profound knowledge of physics and mathematics and reallyfounded the mechanical, or iatromechanical school. The literature and the language ofmedicine became that of physics and mechanics: wheels and pulleys, wedges, levers,screws, cords, canals.-175--176-cisterns, sieves and strainers, with angles, cylinders, celerity, percussion andresistance, were among the words that now came into use in medical literature.Withington quotes a good example in a description by Pitcairne, the Scot who wasprofessor of medicine at Leyden at the end of the seventeenth century. "Life is thecirculation of the blood. Health is its free and painless circulation. Disease is anabnormal motion of the blood, either general or local. Like the English schoolgenerally, he is far more exclusively mechanical than are the Italians, and will hearnothing of ferments or acids, even in digestion. This, he declares, is a purelymechanical process due to heat and pressure, the wonderful effects of which may beseen in Papin's recently invented `digester.' That the stomach is fully able tocomminute the food may be proved by the following calculation. Borelli estimates thepower of the flexors of the thumb at 3720 pounds, their average weight being 122grains. Now, the average weight of the stomach is eight ounces, therefore it candevelop a force of 117,088 pounds, and this may be further assisted by the diaphragmand abdominal muscles the power of which, estimated in the same way, equals461,219 pounds! Well may Pitcairne add that this force is not inferior to that of anymillstone." Paracelsus gave an extraordinary stimulus to the study of chemistry andmore than anyone else he put the old alchemy on modern lines. I have already quotedhis sane remark that its chief service is in seeking remedies. But there is another sideto this question. If, as seems fairly certain, the Basil Valentine whose writings weresupposed to have inspired Paracelsus was a hoax and his works were made up in greatpart from the writings of Paracelsus, then to our medical Luther, and not to themythical Benedictine monk, must be attributed a great revival in the search for thePhilosopher's Stone, for the Elixir of Life, for a universal medicine, for the perpetuummobile and for an aurum potabile. I reproduce, almost at random, a page from thefifth and last part of the last will and testament of Basil Valentine (London, 1657),from which you may judge the chemical spirit of the time. (Fig. 79.)Out of the mystic doctrines of Paracelsus arose the famous-177-"Brothers of the Rosy Cross." "The brotherhood was possessed of the deepestknowledge and science, the transmutation of metals, the perpetuum mobile and theuniversal medicine were among their secrets; they were free from sickness andsuffering during their lifetime, though subject finally to death." A school of a more

ational kind followed directly upon the work of Paracelsus, in which the first man ofany importance was Van Helmont. The Paracelsian Archeus was the presiding spiritin living creatures, and worked through special local ferments, by which the functionsof the organs are controlled. Disease of any part represents a strike on the part of thelocal Archeus, who refuses to work. Though full of fanciful ideas, Van Helmont hadthe experimental spirit and was the first chemist to discover the diversity of gases.Like his teacher, he was in revolt against the faculty, and he has bitter things to say ofphysicians. He got into trouble with the Church about the magnetic cure of wounds, asno fewer than twenty-seven propositions incompatible with the Catholic faith werefound in his pamphlet (Ferguson). The Philosophus per ignem, Toparcha in Merode,Royenborch, as he is styled in certain of his writings, is not an easy man to tackle. Ishow (Fig. 81) the title-page of the "Ortus Medicinæ," the collection of his works byhis son. As with the pages of Paracelsus, there are many gems to be dug out. Thecounterblast against bleeding was a useful protest, and to deny in toto its utility infever required courage -- a quality never lacking in the Father of Modern Chemistry,as he has been called.A man of a very different type, a learned academic, a professor of Europeanrenown, was Daniel Sennert of Wittenberg, the first to introduce the systematicteaching of chemistry into the curriculum, and who tried to harmonize the Galenistsand Paracelsians. Franciscus Sylvius, a disciple of Van Helmont, established the firstchemical laboratory in Europe at Leyden, and to him is due the introduction ofmodern clinical teaching. In 1664 he writes: "I have led my pupils by the hand tomedical practice, using a method unknown at Leyden, or perhaps elsewhere, i.e.,taking them daily to visit the sick at the public hospital. There I have put thesymptoms of disease before their eyes; have let them hear the complaints of thepatients, and have asked them their opinions as to the causes and rational treatment ofeach case, and the reasons for those opinions. Then I have given my own judgment onevery point. Together with me they have seen the happy results of treatment whenGod has granted to our cares a restoration of health; or they have assisted inexamining the body when the patient has paid the inevitable tribute to death."Glauber, Willis, Mayow, Lémery, Agricola and Stahl led up to Robert Boyle, withwhom modern chemistry may be said to begin. Even as late as 1716, Lady MaryWortley Montagu in Vienna found that all had transferred their superstitions fromreligion to chemistry; "scarcely a man of opulence or fashion that has not an alchemistin his service." To one scientific man of the period I must refer as the author of thefirst scientific book published in England. Dryden sings:Gilbert shall live till load-stones cease to drawOr British fleets the boundless ocean awe.And the verse is true, for by the publication in 1600 of the "De Magnete" the scienceof electricity was founded. William Gilbert was a fine type of the sixteenth-centuryphysician, a Colchester man, educated at St. John's College, Cambridge. SilvanusThompson says: "He is beyond question rightfully regarded as the Father of ElectricScience. He founded the entire subject of Terrestrial Magnetism. He also madenotable contributions to Astronomy, being the earliest English expounder ofCopernicus. In an age given over to metaphysical obscurities and dogmatic sophistry,he cultivated the method of experiment and of reasoning from observation, with aninsight and success which entitles him to be regarded as the father of the inductive

method. That method, so often accredited to Bacon, Gilbert was practicing yearsbefore him."CHAPTER VTHE RISE AND DEVELOPMENT OF MODERN MEDICINETHE middle of the seventeenth century saw the profession thus far on its way --certain objective features of disease were known, the art of careful observation hadbeen cultivated, many empirical remedies had been discovered, the coarser structureof man's body had been well worked out, and a good beginning had been made in theknowledge of how the machinery worked -- nothing more. What disease really was,where it was, how it was caused, had not even begun to be discussed intelligently.An empirical discovery of the first importance marks the middle of the century.The story of cinchona is of special interest, as it was the first great specific in diseaseto be discovered. In 1638, the wife of the Viceroy of Peru, the Countess of Chinchon,lay sick of an intermittent fever in the Palace of Lima. A friend of her husband's, whohad become acquainted with the virtues, in fever, of the bark of a certain tree, sent aparcel of it to the Viceroy, and the remedy administered by her physician, Don Juandel Vego, rapidly effected a cure. In 1640, the Countess returned to Spain, bringingwith her a supply of quina bark, which thus became known in Europe as "theCountess's Powder" (pulvis Comitissæ). A little later, her doctor followed, bringingadditional quantities. Later in the century, the Jesuit Fathers sent parcels of the bark toRome, whence it was distributed to the priests of the community and used for the cureof ague; hence the name of "Jesuits' bark." Its value was early recognized bySydenham and by Locke. At first there was a great deal of opposition, and theProtestants did not like it because of its introduction by the Jesuits. The famousquack, Robert Talbor, sold the secret of preparing quinquina to Louis XIV in 1679 fortwo thousand louis d'or, a-184-pension and a title. That the profession was divided in opinion on the subject wasprobably due to sophistication, or to the importation of other and inert barks. It waswell into the eighteenth century before its virtues were universally acknowledged. Thetree itself was not described until 1738, and Linnæus established the genus"Chinchona" in honor of the Countess.A step in advance followed the objective study of the changes wrought in the bodyby disease. To a few of these the anatomists had already called attention. Vesalius,always keen in his description of aberrations from the normal, was one of the first todescribe internal aneurysm. The truth is, even the best of men had little or noappreciation of the importance of the study of these changes. Sydenham scoffs at thevalue of post-mortems.Again we have to go back to Italy for the beginning of these studies, this time toFlorence, in the glorious days of Lorenzo the Magnificent. The pioneer now is not aprofessor but a general practitioner, Antonio Benivieni, of whom we know very littlesave that he was a friend of Marsilio Ficino and of Angelo Poliziano, and that he

practiced in Florence during the last third of the fifteenth century, dying in 1502.Through associations with the scholars of the day. he had become a student of Greekmedicine and he was not only a shrewd and accurate observer of nature but a bold andsuccessful practitioner. He had formed the good habit of making brief notes of hismore important cases, and after his death these were found by his brother Jerome andpublished in 1507. This book has a rare value as the record of the experience of anunusually intelligent practitioner of the period. There are in all 111 observations, mostof them commendably brief.-185-The only one of any length deals with the new "Morbus Gallicus," of which, in theshort period between its appearance and Benivieni's death, he had seen enough toleave a very accurate description; and it is interesting to note that even in those earlydays mercury was employed for its cure. The surgical cases are of exceptionalinterest, and No. 38 refers to a case of angina for which he performed a successfuloperation. This is supposed to have been a tracheotomy, and if so, it is the first in thefourteen centuries that had elapsed since the days of Antyllus. There are otherimportant cases which show that he was a dexterous and fearless surgeon. But thespecial interest of the work for us is that, for the first time in modern literature, wehave reports of post-mortem examinations made specifically with a view to findingout the exact cause of death. Among the 111 cases, there are post-mortem records ofcases of gallstones, abscess of the mesentery, thrombosis of the mesenteric veins,several cases of heart disease, senile gangrene and one of cor villosum. From no otherbook do we get so good an idea of a practitioner's experience at this period; the notesare plain and straightforward, and singularly free from all theoretical and therapeuticvagaries. He gives several remarkable instances of faith healing.To know accurately the anatomical changes that take place in disease is ofimportance both for diagnosis and for treatment. The man who created the science,who taught us to think anatomically of disease, was Morgagni, whose "De sedibus etcausis morborum per anatomen indagatis" is one of the great books in our literature.During the seventeenth century, the practice of making post-mortem examinationshad extended greatly, and in the "Sepulchretum anatomicum" of Bonetus (1679),these scattered fragments are collected. But the work of Morgagni is of a differenttype, for in it are the clinical and anatomical observations of an able physician duringa long and active life. The work had an interesting origin. A young friend interested inscience and in medicine was fond of discoursing with Morgagni about his preceptors,particularly Valsalva and Albertini, and sometimes the young man inquired aboutMorgagni's own observations-186-and thoughts. Yielding to a strong wish, Morgagni consented to write his young friendfamiliar letters describing his experiences. I am sorry that Morgagni does not mentionthe name of the man to whom we are so much indebted, and who, he states, was sopleased with the letters that he continually solicited him to send more and more "tillhe drew me on so far as the seventieth; . . . when I begged them of him in order to

evise their contents; he did not return them, till he had made me solemnly promise,that I would not abridge any part thereof" (Preface).Born in 1682, Morgagni studied at Bologna under Valsalva and-188-Albertini. In 1711, he was elected professor of medicine at Padua. He publishednumerous anatomical observations and several smaller works of less importance. Thegreat work which has made his name immortal in the profession, appeared in hiseightieth year, and represents the accumulated experience of a long life. Thoughwritten in the form of letters, the work is arranged systematically and has an index ofexceptional value. From no section does one get a better idea of the character andscope of the work than from that relating to the heart and arteries -- affections of thepericardium, diseases of the valves, ulceration, rupture, dilation and hypertrophy andaffections of the aorta are very fully described. The section on aneurysm of the aortaremains one of the best ever written. It is not the anatomical observations alone thatmake the work of unusual value, but the combination of clinical with anatomicalrecords. What could be more correct than this account of angina pectoris -- probablythe first in the literature? "A lady forty-two years of age, who for a long time, hadbeen a valetudinarian, and within the same period, on using pretty quick exercise ofbody, she was subject to attacks of violent anguish in the upper part of the chest onthe left side, accompanied with a difficulty of breathing, and numbness of the leftarm; but these paroxysms soon subsided when she ceased from exertion. In thesecircumstances, but with cheerfulness of mind, she undertook a journey from Venice,purposing to travel along the continent, when she was seized with a paroxysm, anddied on the spot. I examined the body on the following day.... The aorta wasconsiderably dilated at its curvature; and, in places, through its whole tract, the innersurface was unequal and ossified. These appearances were propagated into the arteriainnominata. The aortic valves were indurated...." He remarks, "The delay of blood inthe aorta, in the heart, in the pulmonary vessels, and in the vena cave, would occasionthe symptoms of which the woman complained during life; namely, the violentuneasiness, the difficulty of breathing, and the numbness of the arm."Morgagni's life had as much influence as his work. In close corre-spondence withthe leading men of the day, with the young and rising-189-teachers and workers, his methods must have been a great inspiration; and he camejust at the right time. The profession was literally ravaged by theories, schools andsystems -- iatromechanics, iatrochemistry, humoralism, the animism of Stahl, thevitalistic doctrines of Van Helmont and his followers -- and into this metaphysicalconfusion Morgagni came like an old Greek with his clear observation, sensiblethinking and ripe scholarship. Sprengel well remarks that "it is hard to say whetherone should admire most his rare dexterity and quickness in dissection, hisunimpeachable love of truth and justice in his estimation of the work of others, his

extensive scholarship and rich classical style or his downright common sense andmanly speech."Upon this solid foundation the morbid anatomy of modern clinical medicine wasbuilt. Many of Morgagni's contemporaries did not fully appreciate the change that wasin progress, and the value of the new method of correlating the clinical symptoms andthe morbid appearances. After all, it was only the extension of the Hippocratic-190-method of careful observation -- the study of facts from which reasonable conclusionscould be drawn. In every generation there had been men of this type -- I dare saymany more than we realize -- men of the Benivieni character, thoroughly practical,clear-headed physicians. A model of this sort arose in England in the middle of theseventeenth century, Thomas Sydenham (1624-1689), who took men back toHippocrates, just as Harvey had led them back to Galen. Sydenham broke withauthority and went to nature. It is extraordinary how he could have been soemancipated from dogmas and theories of all sorts. He laid down the fundamentalproposition, and acted upon it, that "all disease could be described as natural history."To do him justice we must remember, as Dr. John Brown says, "in the midst of what amass of errors and prejudices, of theories actively mischievous, he was placed, at atime when the mania of hypothesis was at its height, and when the practical part of hisart was overrun and stultified by vile and silly nostrums" ("Horæ Subsecivæ," Vol. I,4th ed., Edinburgh, 1882, p. 40).Listen to what he says upon the method of the study of medicine: "In writingtherefore, such a natural history of diseases, every merely philosophical hypothesisshould be set aside, and the manifest and natural phenomena, however minute, shouldbe noted with the utmost exactness. The usefulness of this procedure cannot be easilyoverrated, as compared with the subtle inquiries and trifling notions of modernwriters, for can there be a shorter, or indeed any other way of coming at the morbificcauses, or discovering the curative indications than by a certain perception of thepeculiar symptoms? By these steps and helps it was that the father of physic, the greatHippocrates, came to excel, his theory being no more than an exact description orview of nature. He found that nature alone often terminates diseases, and works a curewith a few simple medicines, and often enough with no medicines at all."Towards the end of the century many great clinical teachers arose, of whomperhaps the most famous was Boerhaave, often spoken of as the Dutch Hippocrates,who inspired a group of distinguished students. I have already referred to the fact thatFranciscus Sylvius at Leyden was the first among the moderns to organize systematicclinical teaching. Under Boerhaave, this was so developed that to this Dutchuniversity students flocked from all parts of Europe. After-191-teaching botany and chemistry, Boerhaave succeeded to the chair of physic in 1714.With an unusually wide general training, a profound knowledge of the chemistry ofthe day and an accurate acquaintance with all aspects of the history of the profession,he had a strongly objective attitude of mind towards disease, following closely the

methods of Hippocrates and Sydenham. He adopted no special system, but studieddisease as one of the phenomena of nature. His-193-clinical lectures, held bi-weekly, became exceedingly popular and were madeattractive not less by the accuracy and care with which the cases were studied than bythe freedom from fanciful doctrines and the frank honesty of the man. He was muchgreater than his published work would indicate, and, as is the case with many teachersof the first rank, his greatest contributions were his pupils. No other teacher of moderntimes has had such a following. Among his favorite pupils may be mentioned Haller,the physiologist, and van Swieten and de Haen, the founders of the Vienna school.In Italy, too, there were men who caught the new spirit, and appreciated the valueof combining morbid anatomy with clinical medicine. Lancisi, one of the earlystudents of disease of the heart, left an excellent monograph on the subject, and wasthe first to call special attention to the association of syphilis with cardio-vasculardisease. A younger contemporary of his at Rome, Baglivi, was unceasing in-194-his call to the profession to return to Hippocratic methods, to stop readingphilosophical theories and to give up what he calls the "fatal itch" to make systems.The Leyden methods of instruction were carried far and wideWilliam Cullen.throughout Europe; into Edinburgh by John Rutherford, who began to teach at theRoyal Infirmary in 1747, and was followed by Whytt and by Cullen; into England byWilliam Saunders of Guy's Hospital. Unfortunately the great majority of clinicianscould not get away from the theoretical conceptions of disease, and Cullen's theory of-195-spasm and atony exercised a profound influence on practice, particularly in thiscountry, where it had the warm advocacy of Benjamin Rush. Even more widespreadbecame the theories of a pupil of Cullen's, John Brown, who regarded excitability asthe fundamental property of all living creatures: too much of this excitabilityproduced what were known as sthenic maladies, too little, asthenic; on whichprinciples practice was plain enough. Few systems of medicine have ever stirred suchbitter controversy, particularly on the Continent, and in Charles Creighton's accountof Brown we read that as late-196-as 1802 the University of Göttingen was so convulsed by controversies as to themerits of the Brunonian system that contending factions of students in enormous

numbers, not unaided by the professors, met in combat in the streets on twoconsecutive days and had to be dispersed by a troop of Hanoverian horse.But the man who combined the qualities of Vesalius, Harvey and Morgagni in anextraordinary personality was John Hunter. He was, in the first place, a naturalist towhom pathological processes were only a small part of a stupendous whole, governedby law, which,-197-however, could never be understood until the facts had been accumulated, tabulatedand systematized. By his example, by his prodigious industry, and by his suggestiveexperiments he led men again into the old paths of Aristotle, Galen and Harvey. Hemade all thinking physicians naturalists, and he lent a dignity to the study of organiclife, and re-established a close union between medicine and the natural sciences. Bothin Britain and Greater Britain, he laid the foundation of the great collections andmuseums, particularly those connected with the medical schools. The Wistar-Hornerand the Warren Museums in this country originated with men greatly influenced-198-by Hunter. He was, moreover, the intellectual father of that interesting group of menon this side of the Atlantic who, while practising as physicians, devoted much timeand labor to the study of natural history; such men as Benjamin Smith Barton, DavidHossack, Jacob Bigelow, Richard Harlan, John D. Godman, Samuel George Morton,John Collins Warren, Samuel L. Mitchill and J. Ailken Meigs. He gave an immenseimpetus in Great Britain to the study of morbid anatomy, and his nephew, MatthewBaillie, published the first important book on the subject in the English language.Before the eighteenth century closed practical medicine had made great advance.Smallpox, though not one of the great scourges like plague or cholera, was a prevalentand much dreaded disease, and in civilized countries few reached adult life without anattack. Edward Jenner, a practitioner in Gloucestershire, and the pupil to whom Johnhttp://etext.lib.virginia.edu/images/modeng/O/public/OslEv198.jpg-199-Hunter gave the famous advice: "Don't think, try!" had noticed that milkmaids whohad been infected with cowpox from the udder of the cow were insusceptible tosmallpox. I show you here (Fig. 97) the hand of Sarah Nelmes with cowpox, 1796. Avague notion had prevailed among the dairies from time immemorial that this diseasewas a preventive of the smallpox. Jenner put the matter to the test of experiment. Letme quote here his own words: "The first experiment was made upon a lad of the nameof Phipps, in whose arm a little vaccine virus was inserted, taken from the hand of ayoung woman who had been accidentally infected by a cow. Notwithstanding theresemblance which the pustule, thus excited on the boy's arm, bore to variolousinoculation, yet as the indisposition attending it was barely perceptible, I couldscarcely persuade myself the patient was secure from the Small Pox. However, on his

eing inoculated some months afterwards, it proved that he was secure." The resultsof his experiments were published in a famous small quarto volume in 1798. (Fig.98.)* From this date, smallpox has been under control. Thanks to Jenner, not a singleperson in this audience is pockmarked! A hundred and twenty-five years ago, thefaces of more than half of you would have been scarred. We now know the principleupon which protection is secured: an active acquired immunity follows upon an attackof a disease of a similar nature. Smallpox and cowpox are closely allied and thesubstances formed in the blood by the one are-200-resistant to the virus of the other. I do not see how any reasonable person can opposevaccination or decry its benefits. I show you (Figs. 99, 100) the mortality figures ofthe Prussian Army and of the German Empire. A comparison with the statistics of thearmies of other European countries in which revaccination is not so thoroughlycarried out is most convincing of its efficacy.The early years of the century saw the rise of modern clinical medicine in Paris. Inthe art of observation men had come to a standstill. I doubt very much whetherCorvisart in 1800 was any more skilful in recognizing a case of pneumonia than wasAretæus in the second century A. D. But disease had come to be more systematicallystudied; special clinics were organized, and teaching became much more thorough.Anyone who wishes to have a picture of the medical schools in Europe in the first fewyears of the century, should read the account of the travels of Joseph Frank of Vienna.The description of Corvisart is of a pioneer in clinical teaching whose method remainsin vogue today in France -- the ward visit, followed by a systematiclecture in the amphitheatre. There were still lectures on Hippocrates three times aweek, and bleeding was the principal plan of treatment: one morning Frank saw thirtypatients, out of one hundred and twelve, bled! Corvisart was the strong clinician of hisgeneration, and his accurate studies on the heart were among the first that hadconcentrated attention upon a special organ. To him, too, is due the reintroduction ofthe art of percussion in internal disease discovered by Auenbrugger in 1761.-201-The man who gave the greatest impetus to the study of scientific medicine at thistime was Bichat, who pointed out that the pathological changes in disease were not somuch in organs as in tissues. His studies laid the foundation of modern histology. Heseparated the chief constituent elements of the body into various tissues possessingdefinite physical and vital qualities. "Sensibility and contractability are thefundamental qualities of living matter and of the life of our tissues. Thus Bichatsubstituted for vital forces `vital properties,' that is to say, a series of vital forcesinherent in the different tissues." His "Anatomic Générale," published in 1802, gavean extraordinary stimulus to the study of the finer processes of disease, and hisfamous "Recherches sur la Vie et sur la Mort" (1800) dealt a deathblow to oldiatromechanical and iatrochemical views. His celebrated definition may be quoted:"La vie est l'ensemble des propriétés vitales qui resistent aux propriétés physiques, oubien la vie est l'ensemble des fonctions qui résistent a la mort." (Life is the sum of thevital properties

-202-that withstand the physical properties, or, life is the sum of the functions thatwithstand death.) Bichat is another pathetic figure in medical history. His meteoriccareer ended in his thirty-first year: he died a victim of a post-mortem woundinfection. At his death, Corvisart wrote Napoleon: "Bichat has just died at the age ofthirty. That battlefield on which he fell is one which demands courage and claimsmany victims. He has advanced the science of medicine. No one at his age has doneso much so well."It was a pupil of Corvisart, Rene Théophile Laennec, who laid the foundation ofmodern clinical medicine. The story of his life is well known. A Breton by birth, hehad a hard, up-hill struggle as a young man -- a struggle of which we have onlyrecently been made aware by the publication of a charming book by ProfessorRouxeau of Nantes -- "Laennec avant 1806." Influenced by Corvisart, he began tocombine the accurate study of cases in the wards with anatomical investigations in thedead-house. Before Laennec, the examination of a patient had been largely by senseof sight, supplemented by that of touch, as in estimating the degree of fever, or thecharacter of the pulse. Auenbrugger's "Inventum novum" of percussion, recognized byCorvisart, extended the field; but the discovery of auscultation by Laennec, and thepublication of his work -- "De l'Auscultation Médiate," 1819, -- marked an era in thestudy of medicine. The clinical recognition of individual diseases had made reallyvery little progress; with the stethoscope begins the day of physical diagnosis. Theclinical pathology of the heart, lungs and abdomen was revolutionized. Laennec'sbook is in the category of the eight or ten greatest contributions to the science ofmedicine. His description of tuberculosis-204-is perhaps the most masterly chapter in clinical medicine. This revolution waseffected by a simple extension of the Hippocratic method from the bed to the deadhouse,and by correlating the signs and symptoms of a disease with its anatomicalappearances.The pupils and successors of Corvisart -- Bayle, Andral, Bouillaud, Chomel,Piorry, Bretonneau, Rayer, Cruveilhier and Trousseau -- brought a new spirit into theprofession. Everywhere the investigation of disease by clinical-pathological methodswidened enormously the diagnostic powers of the physician. By this method RichardBright, in 1836, opened a new chapter on the relation of disease of the kidney todropsy, and to albuminous urine. It had already been shown by Blackwell and byWells, the celebrated Charleston (S. C.) physician, in 1811, that the urine containedalbumin in many cases of dropsy, but it was not until Bright began a carefulinvestigation of the bodies of patients who had presented these symptoms, that hediscovered the association of various forms of disease of the kidney with anasarca andalbuminous urine. In no direction was the harvest of this combined study moreabundant than in the complicated and confused subject of fever. The work of Louisand of his pupils, W. W. Gerhard and others, revealed the distinction between typhusand typhoid fever, and so cleared up one of the most obscure problems in pathology.By Morgagni's method of "anatomical thinking," Skoda in Vienna, Schönlein in

Berlin, Graves and Stokes in Dublin, Marshall Hall, C. J. B. Williams and manyothers introduced the new and exact methods of the French and created a new clinicalmedicine. A very strong impetus was given by the researches-205-of Virchow on cellular pathology, which removed the seats of disease from thetissues, as taught by Bichat, to the individual elements, the cells. The introduction ofthe use of the microscope in clinical work widened greatly our powers of diagnosis,and we obtained thereby a very much clearer conception of the actual processes-206-of disease. In another way, too, medicine was greatly helped by the rise ofexperimental pathology, which had been introduced by John Hunter, was carriedalong by Magendie and others, and reached its culmination in the epoch-makingresearches of Claude Bernard. Not only were valuable studies made on the action ofdrugs, but also our knowledge of cardiac pathology was revolutionized by the work ofTraube, Cohnheim and others. In no direction did the experimental method effect sucha revolution as in our knowledge of the functions of the brain. Clinical neurology,which had received a great impetus by the studies of Todd, Romberg, LockhartClarke, Duchenne and Weir Mitchell, was completely revolutionized by theexperimental work of Hitzig, Fritsch and Ferrier on the localization of functions in thebrain. Under Charcot, the school of French neurologists gave great accuracy to thediagnosis of obscure affections of the brain and spinal cord, and the combined resultsof the new anatomical, physiological and experimental work have rendered clear anddefinite what was formerly the most obscure and complicated section of internalmedicine. The end of the fifth decade of the century is marked by a discovery ofsupreme importance. Humphry Davy had noted the effects of nitrous oxide. Theexhilarating influence of sulphuric ether had been casually studied, and Long ofGeorgia had made patients inhale the vapor until anæsthetic and had performedoperations upon them when in this state; but it was not until October 16, 1846, in theMassachusetts General Hospital, that Morton, in a public operating room, rendered apatient insensible with ether and demonstrated the utility of surgical anæsthesia. Therival claims of priority no longer interest us, but the occasion is one of the mostmemorable in the history of the race. It is well that our colleagues celebrate Ether Dayin Boston -- no more precious boon has ever been granted to suffering humanity.In 1857, a young man, Louis Pasteur, sent to the Lille Scientific Society a paper on"Lactic Acid Fermentation" and in December of the same year presented to theAcademy of Sciences in Paris a paper on "Alcoholic Fermentation" in which heconcluded that "the deduplication of sugar into alcohol and carbonic acid iscorrelative to a phenomenon of life." A new era in medicine dates from those twopublications. The story of Pasteur's life should be read by every student. It is one ofthe glories of human literature, and, as a record of achievement and of nobility ofcharacter, is almost without an equal.At the middle of the last century we did not know much more of the actual causesof the great scourges of the race, the plagues, the fevers and the pestilences, than did

the Greeks. Here comes Pasteur's great work. Before him Egyptian darkness; with hisadvent a light that brightens more and more as the years give us ever fullerknowledge. The facts that fevers were catching, that epidemics spread, that infectioncould remain attached to articles of clothing, etc., all gave support to the view that theactual cause was something alive, a contagium vivum. It was really a very old view,the germs of which may be found in the Fathers, but which was first clearly expressed-- so far as I know -- by Fracastorius, the Veronese physician, in the sixteenth century,who spoke of the seeds of contagion passing from one person to another; and he firstdrew a parallel between the processes of contagion and the fermentation of wine. Thiswas more than one hundred years before Kircher, Leeuwenhoek and others began touse the microscope and to see animalcula,, etc., in water, and so give a basis for the"infinitely little" view of the nature of disease germs. And it was a study of theprocesses of fermentation that led Pasteur to the sure ground on which we now stand.Out of these researches arose a famous battle which kept Pasteur hard at work forfour or five years -- the struggle over spontaneous generation. It was an old warfare,but the microscope had revealed a new world, and the experiments on fermentationhad lent great weight to the omne vivum ex ovo doctrine. The famous Italians, Rediand Spallanzani, had led the way in their experiments, and the latter had reached theconclusion that there is no vegetable and no animal that has not its own germ. Butheterogenesis became the burning question, and Pouchet in France, and Bastian inEngland, led the opposition to Pasteur. The many famous experiments carriedconviction to the minds of scientific men, and destroyed forever the old belief inspontaneous generation. All along, the analogy between disease and fermentation-209-must have been in Pasteur's mind; and then came the suggestion, "What would bemost desirable is to push those studies far enough to prepare the road for a seriousresearch into the origin of various diseases." If the changes in lactic, alcoholic andbutyric fermentations are due to minute living organisms, why should not the sametiny creatures make the changes which occur in the body in the putrid and suppurativediseases? With an accurate training as a chemist, having been diverted in his studiesupon fermentation into the realm of biology, and nourishing a strong conviction of theidentity between putrefactive changes of the body and fermentation, Pasteur was wellprepared to undertake investigations which had hitherto been confined to physiciansalone.So impressed was he with the analogy between fermentation and the infectiousdiseases that, in 1863, he assured the French Emperor of his ambition "to arrive at theknowledge of the causes of putrid and contagious diseases." After a study upon thediseases of wines, which has had most important practical bearings, an opportunityarose which changed the whole course of his career, and profoundly influenced thedevelopment of medical science. A disease of the silkworm had, for some years,ruined one of the most important industries in France, and in 1865 the Governmentasked Pasteur to give up his laboratory work and teaching, and to devote his wholeenergies to the task of investigating it. The story of the brilliant success whichfollowed years of application to the problem will be read with deep interest by everystudent of science. It was the first of his victories in the application of theexperimental methods of a trained chemist to the problems of biology, and it placedhis name high in the group of the most illustrious benefactors of practical industries.

In a series of studies on the diseases of beer, and on the mode of production ofvinegar, he became more and more convinced that these studies on fermentation hadgiven him the key to the nature of the infectious diseases. It is a remarkable fact thatthe distinguished English philosopher of the seventeenth century, the man who morethan anyone else of his century appreciated the importance of the experimentalmethod, Robert Boyle, had said that he who could discover the nature of ferments andfermentation, would be more capable than anyone else of explaining the nature ofcertain diseases.In 1876 there appeared in Cohn's "Beiträge zur Morphologie der-210-Pflanzen" (II, 277-310), a paper on the "Ætiology of Anthrax" by a German districtphysician in Wollstein, Robert Koch (Fig. 105), which is memorable in our literatureas the starting point of a new method of research into the causation of infectiousdiseases. Koch demonstrated the constant presence of germs in the blood of animalshttp://etext.lib.virginia.edu/images/modeng/O/public/OslEv211.jpgdying from the disease. Years before, those organisms had been seen by Pollenderand Davaine, but the epoch-making advance of Koch was to grow those organisms ina pure culture outside the body, and to produce the disease artificially by inoculatinganimals with the cultures Koch is really our medical Galileo, who, by means of a newtechnique, -- pure cultures and isolated staining, -- introduced us to a-212-new world. In 1878, followed his study on the "Ætiology of Wound Infections," inwhich he was able to demonstrate conclusively the association of micro-organismswith the disease. (Fig. 106.) Upon those two memorable researches made by a countrydoctor rests the modern science of bacteriology.The next great advance was the discovery by Pasteur of the possibility of soattenuating, or weakening, the poison that an animal inoculated had a slight attack,recovered and was then protected against the disease. More than eighty years hadpassed since on May 14, 1796, Jenner had vaccinated a child with cowpox and provedthat a slight attack of one disease protected the body from a disease of an alliednature. An occasion equally famous in the history of medicine was a day in 1881,when Pasteur determined that a flock of sheep vaccinated with the attenuated virus ofanthrax remained well, when every one of the unvaccinated infected from the samematerial had died. Meanwhile, from Pasteur's researches on fermentation andspontaneous generation, a transformation had been initiated in the practice of surgery,which, it is not too much to say, has proved one of the greatest boons ever conferredupon humanity. It had long been recognized that, now and again, a wound healedwithout the formation of pus, that is, without suppuration, but both spontaneous andoperative wounds were almost invariably associated with that process; and, moreover,they frequently became putrid, as it was then called, -- infected, as we should say, --the general system became involved and the patient died of blood poisoning. Socommon was this, particularly in old, ill-equipped hospitals, that many surgeonsfeared to operate, and the general mortality in all surgical cases was very high.

Believing that it was from outside that the germs came which caused thedecomposition of wounds, just as from the atmosphere the sugar solution got thegerms which caused the fermentation, a young surgeon in Glasgow, Joseph Lister,applied the principles of Pasteur's experiments to their treatment. From Lister'soriginal paper I quote the following: "Turning now to the question how theatmosphere produces decomposition of organic substances, we find that a flood oflight has been thrown upon this most important subject by the philosophic researchesof M. Pasteur, who has demonstrated by thoroughly convincing evidence that it is notto its oxygen or to any of its gaseous-213-constituents that the air owes this property, but to minute particles suspended in it,which are the germs of various low forms of life, long since revealed by themicroscope, and regarded as merely accidental concomitants of putrescence, but nowshown by Pasteur to be its essential cause, resolving the complex organic compoundsinto substances of simpler chemical constitution, just as the yeast-plant converts sugarinto alcohol and carbonic acid." From these beginnings modern surgery took its rise,and the whole subject of wound infection, not only in relation to surgical diseases, butto child-bed fever, forms now one of the most brilliant chapters in the history ofpreventive medicine.With the new technique and experimental methods, the discovery of the specificgerms of many of the more important acute infections followed each other withbewildering rapidity: typhoid fever, diphtheria, cholera, tetanus, plague, pneumonia,gonorrhoea and, most important of all, tuberculosis. It is not too much to say that thedemonstration by Koch of the "bacillus tuberculosis" (1882) is, in its far-reachingresults, one of the most momentous discoveries ever made.Of almost equal value have been the researches upon the protozoan forms ofanimal life, as causes of disease. As early as 1873, spirilla were demonstrated inrelapsing fever. Laveran proved the association of hæmatozoa with malaria in 1880.In the same year, Griffith Evans discovered trypanosomes in a disease of horses andcattle in India, and the same type of parasite was found in the sleeping sickness.Amoebæ were demonstrated in one form of dysentery, and in other tropical diseasesprotozoa were discovered, so that we were really prepared for the announcement in1905, by Schaudinn, of the discovery of a protozoan parasite in syphilis. Just fiftyyears had passed since Pasteur had sent in his paper on "Lactic Acid Fermentation" tothe Lille Scientific Society -- half a century in which more had been done todetermine the true nature of disease than in all the time that had passed sinceHippocrates. Celsus makes the oft-quoted remark that to determine the cause of adisease often leads to the remedy, and it is the possibility of removing the cause thatgives such importance to the new researches on disease.-215-INTERNAL SECRETIONSONE of the greatest contributions of the nineteenth century to scientific medicinewas the discovery of the internal secretions of organs. The basic work on the subjectwas done by Claude Bernard, a pupil of the great Magendie, whose saying it is well to

emember -- "When entering a laboratory one should leave theories in thecloakroom." More than any other man of his generation, Claude Bernard appreciatedthe importance of experiment in practical medicine. For him the experimentalphysician was the physician of the future -- a view well borne out by the influence hisepoch-making work has had on the treatment of disease. His studies on the glycogenicfunctions of the liver opened the way for the modern fruitful researches on the internalsecretions of the various glands. About the same time that Bernard was developing thelaboratory side of the problem, Addison, a physician to Guy's Hospital, in 1855,pointed out the relation of a remarkable group of symptoms to disease of thesuprarenal glands, small bodies situated above the kidneys, the importance of whichhad not been previously recognized. With the loss of the function of these glands bydisease, the body was deprived of something formed by them which was essential toits proper working. Then, in the last third of the century, came in rapid succession thedemonstration of the relations of the pancreas to diabetes, of the vital importance ofthe thyroid gland and of the pituitary body. Perhaps no more striking illustration ofthe value of experimental medicine has ever been given than that afforded by thestudies upon those glands.The thyroid body, situated in the neck and the enlargement of which is calledgoitre, secretes substances which pass into the blood, and which are necessary for thegrowth of the body in childhood, for the development of the mind and for the nutritionof the tissues of the skin. If, following an infectious disease, a child has wasting ofthis gland, or if, living in a certain district, it has a large goitre, normal developmentdoes not take place, and the child does not grow in mind or body and becomes what iscalled a cretin. More than this -- if in adult life the gland is completely removed, or ifit wastes, a somewhat similar condition is produced, and the patient in time loses hismental powers and becomes fat and flabby -- myxedematous. It has been shownexperimentally in various ways that the necessary elements of-216-the secretion can be furnished by feeding with the gland or its extracts, and that thecretinoid or myxedematous conditions could thus be cured or prevented.Experimental work has also demonstrated the functions of the suprarenal glandsand explained the symptoms of Addison's disease, and chemists have even succeededin making synthetically the active principle adrenalin.There is perhaps no more fascinating story in the history of science than that of thediscovery of these so-called ductless glands. Part of its special interest is due to thefact that clinicians, surgeons, experimental physiologists, pathologists and chemistshave all combined in splendid teamwork to win the victory. No such miracles haveever before been wrought by physicians as those which we see in connection with theinternal secretion of the thyroid gland. The myth of bringing the dead back to life hasbeen associated with the names of many great healers since the incident ofEmpedocles and Pantheia, but nowadays the dead in mind and the deformed in bodymay be restored by the touch of the magic wand of science. The study of theinteraction of these internal secretions, their influence upon development, uponmental process and upon disorders of metabolism is likely to prove in the future of abenefit scarcely less remarkable than that which we have traced in the infectiousdiseases.

CHEMISTRYIT is not making too strong a statement to say that the chemistry and chemicalphysics of the nineteenth century have revolutionized the world. It is difficult torealize that Liebig's famous Giessen laboratory, the first to be opened to students forpractical study, was founded in the year 1825. Boyle, Cavendish, Priestley, Lavoisier,Black, Dalton and others had laid a broad foundation, and Young, Frauenhofer,Rumford, Davy, Joule, Faraday, Clerk-Maxwell, Helmholtz and others built upon thatand gave us the new physics and made possible our age of electricity. New techniqueand new methods have given a powerful stimulus to the study of the chemical changesthat take place in the body, which, only a few years ago, were matters largely ofspeculation. "Now," in the words of Professor Lee, "we recognize that, with its livingand its non-living-217-substances inextricably intermingled, the body constitutes an intensive chemicallaboratory in which there is ever occurring a vast congeries of chemical reactions;both constructive and destructive processes go on; new protoplasm takes the place ofold. We can analyze the income of the body and we can analyze its output, and fromthese data we can learn much concerning the body's chemistry. A great improvementin the method of such work has recently been secured by the device of inclosing theperson who is the subject of the experiment in a respiration calorimeter. This is an airtightchamber, artificially supplied with a constant stream of pure air, and from whichthe expired air, laden with the products of respiration, is withdrawn for purposes ofanalysis. The subject may remain in the chamber for days, the composition of all foodand all excrete being determined, and all heat that is given off being measured.Favorable conditions are thus established for an exact study of many problems ofnutrition. The difficulties increase when we attempt to trace the successive steps in thecorporeal pathway of molecule and atom. Yet these secrets of the vital process arealso gradually being revealed. When we remember that it is in this very field ofnutrition that there exist great popular ignorance and a special proneness to fad andprejudice, we realize how practically helpful are such exact studies of metabolism."[156] Frederick S. Lee, Ph.D.: Scientific Features of Modern Medicine, New York,1911. I would like to call attention to this work of Professor Lee's as presenting all thescientific features of modern medicine in a way admirably adapted for anyone, lay ormedical, who wishes to get a clear sketch of them.-218-CHAPTER VITHE RISE OF PREVENTIVE MEDICINETHE story so far has been of men and of movements -- of men who have,consciously or unconsciously, initiated great movements, and of movements by

which, nolens volens, the men of the time were moulded and controlled. Hippocrates,in the tractate on "Ancient Medicine," has a splendid paragraph on the attitude ofmind towards the men of the past. My attention was called to it one day in the RomanForum by Commendatore Boni, who quoted it as one of the great sayings of antiquity.Here it is: "But on that account, I say, we ought not to reject the ancient Art, as if itwere not, and had not been properly founded, because it did not attain accuracy in allthings, but rather, since it is capable of reaching to the greatest exactitude byreasoning, to receive it and admire its discoveries, made from a state of greatignorance, and as having been well and properly made, and not from chance."I have tried to tell you what the best of these men in successive ages knew, to showyou their point of outlook on the things that interest us. To understand the old writersone must see as they saw, feel as they felt, believe as they believed -- and this is hard,indeed impossible! We may get near them by asking the Spirit of the Age in whichthey lived to enter in and dwell with us, but it does not always come. Literarycriticism is not literary history -- we have no use here for the former, but to analyzehis writings is to get as far as we can behind the doors of a man's mind, to know andappraise his knowledge, not from our standpoint, but from that of his contemporaries,his predecessors and his immediate successors. Each generation has its own problemsto face, looks at truth from a special focus and does not see quite the same outlines asany other. For example, men of the present-219-generation grow up under influences very different from those which surrounded mygeneration in the seventies of the last century, when Virchow and his greatcontemporaries laid the sure and deep foundations of modern pathology. Which ofyou now knows the "Cellular Pathology" as we did? To many of you it is a closedbook, -- to many more Virchow may be thought a spent force. But no, he has onlytaken his place in a great galaxy. We do not forget the magnitude of his labors, but anew generation has new problems -- his message was not for you -- but that medicinetoday runs in larger moulds and turns out finer castings is due to his life and work. Itis one of the values of lectures on the history of medicine to keep alive the goodinfluences of great men even after their positive teaching is antiquated. Let no man beso foolish as to think that he has exhausted any subject for his generation. Virchowwas not happy when he saw the young men pour into the old bottle of cellularpathology the new wine of bacteriology. Lister could never understand how asepticsurgery arose out of his work. Ehrlich would not recognize his epoch-making viewson immunity when this generation has finished with them. I believe it was Hegel whosaid that progress is a series of negations -- the denial today of what was acceptedyesterday, the contradiction by each generation of some part at least of the philosophyof the last; but all is not lost, the germ plasm remains, a nucleus of truth to befertilized by men often ignorant even of the body from which it has come. Knowledgeevolves, but in such a way that its possessors are never in sure possession. "It isbecause science is sure of nothing that it is always advancing" (Duclaux).History is the biography of the mind of man, and its educational value is in directproportion to the completeness of our study of the individuals through whom thismind has been manifested. I have tried to take you back to the beginnings of science,and to trace its gradual development, which is conditioned by three laws. In the firstplace, like a living organism, truth grows, and its gradual evolution may be traced

from the tiny germ to the mature product. Never springing, Minerva-like, to fullstature at once, truth may suffer all the hazards incident to generation and gestation.Much of history is a record of the mishaps of truths which have struggled to the birth,only to die or else to wither in premature decay. Or the germ may be dormant forcenturies, awaiting the fullness of time.-220-Secondly, all scientific truth is conditioned by the state of knowledge at the time ofits announcement. Thus, at the beginning of the seventeenth century, the science ofoptics and mechanical appliances had not made possible (so far as the human mindwas concerned) the existence of blood capillaries and blood corpuscles. Jenner couldnot have added to his "Inquiry" a study on immunity; Sir William Perkin and thechemists made Koch technique possible; Pasteur gave the conditions that producedLister; Davy and others furnished the preliminaries necessary for anæsthesia.Everywhere we find this filiation, one event following the other in orderly sequence --"Mind begets mind," as Harvey (De Generatione) says; "opinion is the source ofopinion. Democritus with his atoms, and Eudoxus with his chief good which heplaced in pleasure, impregnated Epicurus; the four elements of Empedocles, Aristotle;the doctrines of the ancient Thebans, Pythagoras and Plato; geometry, Euclid."And, thirdly, to scientific truth alone may the homo mensuraprinciple be applied,since of all mental treasures of the race it alone compels general acquiescence. Thatthis general acquiescence, this aspect of certainty, is not reached per saltum, but is ofslow, often of difficult growth, -- marked by failures and frailties, but crowned at lastwith an acceptance accorded to no other product of mental activity, -- is illustrated byevery important discovery from Copernicus to Darwin.The difficulty is to get men to the thinking level which compels the application ofscientific truths. Protagoras, that "mighty-wise man," as Socrates called him, who wasresponsible for the aphorism that man is the measure of all things, would have beenthe first to recognize the folly of this standard for the people at large. But we havegradually reached a stage in which knowledge is translated into action, made helpfulfor suffering humanity, just as the great discoveries in physics and chemistry havebeen made useful in the advance of civilization. We have traced medicine through aseries of upward steps -- a primitive stage, in which it emerged from magic andreligion into an empirical art, as seen among the Egyptians and Babylonians; a stagein which the natural character of disease was recognized and the importance of itsstudy as a phenomenon of nature was announced; a stage in which the structure andfunctions of the human body were worked-221-out; a stage in which the clinical and anatomical features of disease were determined;a stage in which the causes of disorders were profitably studied, and a final stage, intowhich we have just entered, the application of the knowledge for their prevention.Science has completely changed man's attitude towards disease.Take a recent concrete illustration. A couple of years ago in Philadelphia and insome other parts of the United States, a very peculiar disease appeared, characterizedby a rash upon the skin and moderate fever, and a constitutional disturbance

proportionate to the extent and severity of the eruption. The malady first broke out inthe members of a crew of a private yacht; then in the crews of other boats, and amongpersons living in the boarding-houses along the docks. It was the cause of a great dealof suffering and disability.There were three courses open: to accept the disease as a visitation of God, achastening affliction sent from above, and to call to aid the spiritual arm of thechurch. Except the "Peculiar People" few now take this view or adopt this practice.The Christian Scientist would probably deny the existence of the rash and of thefever, refuse to recognize the itching and get himself into harmony with the Infinite.Thirdly, the method of experimental medicine.First, the conditions were studied under which the individual cases occurred. Theonly common factor seemed to be certain straw mattresses manufactured by fourdifferent firms, all of which obtained the straw from the same source.The second point was to determine the relation of the straw to the rash. One of theinvestigators exposed a bare arm and shoulder for an hour between two mattresses.Three people voluntarily slept on the mattresses for one night. Siftings from the strawwere applied to the arm, under all of which circumstances the rash quickly developed,showing conclusively the relation of the straw to the disease.Thirdly, siftings from the straw and mattresses which had been thoroughlydisinfected failed to produce the rash.And fourthly, careful inspection of the siftings of the straw disclosed livingparasites, small mites, which when applied to the skin quickly produced thecharacteristic eruption.-222-SANITATIONWHEN the thoughtful historian gets far enough away from the nineteenth centuryto see it as a whole, no single feature will stand out with greater distinctness than thefulfilment of the prophecy of Descartes that we could be freed from an infinity ofmaladies both of body and mind if we had sufficient knowledge of their causes and ofall the remedies with which nature has provided us. Sanitation takes its place amongthe great modern revolutions -- political, social and intellectual. Great Britaindeserves the credit for the first practical recognition of the maxim salus populisuprema lex. In the middle and latter part of the century a remarkable group of men,Southwood Smith, Chadwick, Budd, Murchison, Simon, Acland, Buchanan, J. W.Russell and Benjamin Ward Richardson, put practical sanitation on a scientific basis.Even before the full demonstration of the germ theory, they had grasped theconception that the battle had to be fought against a living contagion which found inpoverty, filth and wretched homes the conditions for its existence. One terrible diseasewas practically wiped out in twenty-five years of hard work. It is difficult to realizethat within the memory of men now living, typhus fever was one of the great scourgesof our large cities, and broke out in terrible epidemics -- the most fatal of all to themedical profession. In the severe epidemic in Ireland in the forties of the last century,one fifth of all the doctors in the island died of typhus. A better idea of the newcrusade, made possible by new knowledge, is to be had from a consideration ofcertain diseases against which the fight is in active progress.

Nothing illustrates more clearly the interdependence of the sciences than thereciprocal impulse given to new researches in pathology and entomology by thediscovery of the part played by insects in the transmission of disease. The flea, thelouse, the bedbug, the house fly, the mosquito, the tick, have all within a few yearstaken their places as important transmitters of disease. The fly population may betaken as the sanitary index of a place. The discovery, too, that insects are porters ofdisease has led to a great extension of our knowledge of their life history. Early in thenineties, when Dr. Thayer and I were busy with the study of malaria in Baltimore, webegan experiments on the possible transmission of the parasites, and a tramp, who-223-had been a medical student, offered himself as a subject. Before we began, Dr. Thayersought information as to the varieties of mosquitoes known in America, but sought invain: there had at that time been no systematic study. The fundamental study whichset us on the track was a demonstration by Patrick Manson, in 1879, of the associationof filarian disease with the mosquito. Many observations had already been made, andwere made subsequently, on the importance of insects as intermediary hosts in theanimal parasites, but the first really great scientific demonstration of a widespreadinfection through insects was by Theobald Smith, now of Harvard University, in1889, in a study of Texas fever of cattle. I well remember the deep impression madeupon me by his original communication, which in completeness, in accuracy of detail,in Harveian precision and in practical results remains one of the most brilliant piecesof experimental work ever undertaken. It is difficult to draw comparisons inpathology; but I think, if a census were taken among the world's workers on disease,the judgment to be based on the damage to health and direct mortality, the voteswould be given to malaria as the greatest single destroyer of the human race. Cholerakills its thousands, plague, in its bad years, its hundreds of thousands, yellow fever,hookworm disease, pneumonia, tuberculosis, are all terribly destructive, some only inthe tropics, others in more temperate regions: but malaria is today, as it ever was, adisease to which the word pandemic is specially applicable. In this country and inEurope, its ravages have lessened enormously during the past century, but in thetropics it is everywhere and always present, the greatest single foe of the white man,and at times and places it assumes the proportions of a terrible epidemic. In onedistrict of India alone, during the last four months of 1908, one quarter of the totalpopulation suffered from the disease and there were 400,000 deaths -- practically allfrom malaria. Today, the control of this terrible scourge is in our hands, and, as I shalltell you in a few minutes, largely because of this control, the Panama Canal is beingbuilt. No disease illustrates better the progressive evolution of scientific medicine. Itis one of the oldest of known diseases. The Greeks and Græco-Romans knew it well.It seems highly probable,-224-as brought out by the studies of W. H. S. Jones of Cambridge, that, in part at least, thephysical degeneration in Greece and Rome may have been due to the great increase ofthis disease. Its clinical manifestations were well known and admirably described bythe older writers. In the seventeenth century, as I have already told you, the

emarkable discovery was made that the bark of the cinchona tree was a specific.Between the date of the Countess's recovery in Lima and the year 1880 a colossalliterature on the disease had accumulated. Literally thousands of workers had studiedthe various aspects of its many problems; the literature of this country, particularly ofthe Southern States, in the first half of the last century may be said to bepredominantly malarial. Ordinary observation carried on for long centuries had doneas much as was possible. In 1880, a young French army surgeon, Laveran by name,working in Algiers, found in the microscopic examination of the blood that there werelittle bodies in the red blood corpuscles, amoeboid in character, which he believed tobe the germs of the disease. Very little attention at first was paid to his work, and it isnot surprising. It was the old story of "Wolf, wolf"; there had been so many supposed"germs" that the profession had become suspicious. Several years elapsed beforeSurgeon-General Sternberg called the attention of the English-speaking world toLaveran's work: it was taken up actively in Italy, and in America by Councilman,Abbott and by others among us in Baltimore. The result of these widespreadobservations was the confirmation in every respect of Laveran's discovery of theassociation with malaria of a protozoan parasite. This was step number three. Clinicalobservation, empirical discovery of the cure, determination of the presence of aparasite. Two other steps followed rapidly. Another army surgeon, Ronald Ross,working in India, influenced by the work of Manson, proved that the disease wastransmitted by certain varieties of mosquitoes. Experiments came in to support thestudies in etiology; two of those may be quoted. Mosquitoes which had bitten malarialpatients in Italy were sent to London and there allowed to bite Mr. Manson, son of Dr.Manson. This gentleman had not lived out of England, where there is now no acutemalaria. He had been a perfectly healthy, strong man. In a few days following thebites of the infected mosquitoes, he had a typical attack of malarial fever.-225-The other experiment, though of a different character, is quite as convincing. Incertain regions about Rome, in the Campania, malaria is so prevalent that, in theautumn, almost everyone in the district is attacked, particularly if he is a newcomer.Dr. Sambon and a friend lived in this district from June 1 to September 1, 1900. Thetest was whether they could live in this exceedingly dangerous climate for the threemonths without catching malaria, if they used stringent precautions against the bitesof mosquitoes. For this purpose the hut in which they lived was thoroughly wired, andthey slept under netting. Both of these gentlemen, at the end of the period, hadescaped the disease.Then came the fifth and final triumph -- the prevention of the disease. The antimalarialcrusade which has been preached by Sir Ronald Ross and has been carriedout successfully on a wholesale scale in Italy and in parts of India and Africa, hasreduced enormously the incidence of the disease. Professor Celli of Rome, in hislecture room, has an interesting chart which shows the reduction in the mortality frommalaria in Italy since the preventive measures have been adopted -- the deaths havefallen from above 28,000 in 1888 to below 2000 in 1910. There is needed a stirringcampaign against the disease throughout the Southern States of this country.The story of yellow fever illustrates one of the greatest practical triumphs ofscientific medicine; indeed, in view of its far-reaching commercial consequences, itmay range as one of the first achievements of the race. Ever since the discovery of

America, the disease has been one of its great scourges, permanently endemic in theSpanish Main, often extending to the Southern States, occasionally into the North, andnot infrequently it has crossed the Atlantic. The records of the British Army in theWest Indies show an appalling death rate, chiefly from this disease. At Jamaica, forthe twenty years ending in 1836, the average mortality was 101 per thousand, and incertain instances as high as 178. One of the most dreaded of all infections, the periodsof epidemics in the Southern States have been the occasions of a widespread panicwith complete paralysis of commerce. How appalling the mortality is may be judgedfrom the outbreak in Philadelphia in 1793, when ten thousand people died in threemonths. The epidemics in Spain in the early part of the nineteenth century were of-226-great severity. A glance through La Roche's great book on the subject soon gives onean idea of the enormous importance of the disease in the history of the SouthernStates. Havana, ever since its foundation, had been a hotbed of yellow fever. The bestminds of the profession had been attracted to a solution of the problem, but all in vain.Commission after commission had been appointed, with negative results; variousorganisms had been described as the cause, and there were sad illustrations of thetragedy associated with investigations undertaken without proper training or propertechnique. By the year 1900, not only had the ground been cleared, but the work oninsect-borne disease by Manson and by Ross had given observers an important clue. Ithad repeatedly been suggested that some relation existed between the bites ofmosquitoes and the tropical fevers, particularly by that remarkable student, Nott ofMobile, {Ala.} and the French physician, Beauperthuy. But the first to announceclearly the mosquito theory of the disease was Carlos Finlay of Havana. Early in thespring of 1900, during the occupation of Cuba by the United States, a commissionappointed by Surgeon-General Sternberg (himself one of the most energetic studentsof the disease) undertook fresh investigations. Dr. Walter Reed, Professor ofBacteriology in the Army Medical School, was placed in charge: Dr. Carroll of theUnited States Army, Dr. Agramonte of Havana and Dr. Jesse W. Lazear were theother members. At the Johns Hopkins Hospital, we were deeply interested in thework, as Dr. Walter Reed was a favorite pupil of Professor Welch, a warm friend ofall of us, and a frequent visitor to our laboratories. Dr. Jesse Lazear, who had been myhouse physician, had worked with Dr. Thayer and myself at malaria, and gave up thecharge of my clinical laboratory to join the commission.Many scientific discoveries have afforded brilliant illustrations of method inresearch, but in the work of these men one is at a loss to know which to admire more -- the remarkable accuracy and precision of the experiments, or the heroism of the men-- officers and rank and file of the United States Army; they knew all the time thatthey were playing with death, and some of them had to pay the penalty! Thedemonstration was successful -- beyond peradventure -- that yellow fever could betransmitted by mosquitoes, and equally the negative-227-proposition -- that it could not be transmitted by fomites. An interval of twelve ormore days was found to be necessary after the mosquito has bitten a yellow fever

patient before it is capable of transmitting the infection. Lazear permitted himself tobe bitten by a stray mosquito while conducting his experiments in the yellow feverhospital. Bitten on the thirteenth, he sickened on the eighteenth and died on thetwenty-fifth of September, but not until he had succeeded in showing in two instancesthat mosquitoes could convey the infection. He added another to the long list ofmembers of the profession who have laid down their lives in search of the causes ofdisease. Of such men as Lazear and of Myers of the Liverpool Yellow-FeverCommission, Dutton and young Manson, may fitly be sung from the noblest ofAmerican poems the tribute which Lowell paid to Harvard's sons who fell in the Warof Secession:Many in sad faith sought for her,Many with crossed hands sighed for her;But these, our brothers, fought for her,At life's dear peril wrought for her,So loved her that they died for her.Fortunately, the commander-in-chief at the time in Cuba was General LeonardWood, who had been an army surgeon, and he was the first to appreciate theimportance of the discovery. The sanitation of Havana was placed in the hands of Dr.Gorgas, and within nine months the city was cleared of yellow fever, and, with theexception of a slight outbreak after the withdrawal of the American troops, has sinceremained free from a disease which had been its scourge for centuries. As GeneralWood remarked, "Reed's discovery has resulted in the saving of more lives annuallythan were lost in the Cuban War, and saves the commercial interest of the world agreater financial loss each year than the cost of the Cuban War. He came to Cuba at atime when one third of the officers of my staff died of yellow fever, and we werediscouraged at the failure of our efforts to control it." Following the example ofHavana other centres were attacked, at Vera Cruz and in Brazil, with the samesuccess, and it is safe to say that now, thanks to the researches of Reed and hiscolleagues, with proper measures, no country need fear a paralyzing outbreak of thisonce dreaded disease.-228-The scientific researches in the last two decades of the nineteenth century madepossible the completion of the Panama Canal. The narrow isthmus separating the twogreat oceans and joining the two great continents, has borne for four centuries an evilrepute as the White Man's Grave. Silent upon a peak of Darien, stout Cortez witheagle eye had gazed on the Pacific. As early as 1520, Saavedra proposed to cut a canalthrough the Isthmus. There the first city was founded by the conquerors of the newworld, which still bears the name of Panama. Spaniards, English and French foughtalong its coasts; to it the founder of the Bank of England took his ill-fated colony;Raleigh, Drake, Morgan the buccaneer, and scores of adventurers seeking gold, foundin fever an enemy stronger than the Spaniard. For years the plague-stricken Isthmuswas abandoned to the negroes and the half-breeds, until in 1849, stimulated by thegold fever of California, a railway was begun by the American engineers, Totten andTrautwine, and completed in 1855, a railway every tie of which cost the life of a man.The dream of navigators and practical engineers was taken in hand by Ferdinand de

Lesseps in January, 1881. The story of the French Canal Company is a tragedyunparalleled in the history of finance, and, one may add, in the ravages of tropicaldisease. Yellow fever, malaria, dysentery, typhus, carried off in nine years nearlytwenty thousand employees. The mortality frequently rose above 100, sometimes to130, 140 and in September, 1885, it reached the appalling figure of 176.97 perthousand work people. This was about the maximum death rate of the British Army inthe West Indies in the nineteenth century.When, in 1904, the United States undertook to complete the Canal, everyone feltthat the success or failure was largely a matter of sanitary control. The necessaryknowledge existed, but under the circumstances could it be made effective? Manywere doubtful. Fortunately, there was at the time in the United States Army a manwho had already served an apprenticeship in Cuba, and to whom more than to anyoneelse was due the disappearance of yellow fever from that island. To a man, theprofession in the United States felt that could Dr. Gorgas be given full control of thesanitary affairs of the Panama Zone, the health problem, which meant the Canalproblem, could be solved. There was at first a serious difficulty relating to thenecessary administrative control by a sanitary officer. In an interview which-229-Dr. Welch and I had with President Roosevelt, he keenly felt this difficulty andpromised to do his best to have it rectified. It is an open secret that at first, as wasperhaps only natural, matters did not go very smoothly, and it took a year or more toget properly organized. Yellow fever recurred on the Isthmus in 1904 and in the earlypart of 1905. It was really a colossal task in itself to undertake the cleaning of the cityof Panama, which had been for centuries a pest-house, the mortality in which, evenafter the American occupation, reached during one month the rate of 71 per thousandliving. There have been a great many brilliant illustrations of the practical applicationof science in preserving the health of a community and in saving life, but it is safe tosay that, considering the circumstances, the past history, and the extraordinarydifficulties to be overcome, the work accomplished by the Isthmian CanalCommission is unique. The year 1905 was devoted to organization; yellow fever wasgot rid of, and at the end of the year the total mortality among the whites had fallen to8 per thousand, but among the blacks it was still high, 44. For three years, with aprogressively increasing staff which had risen to above 40,000, of whom more than12,000 were white, the death rate progressively fell.Of the six important tropical diseases, plague, which reached the Isthmus one year,was quickly held in check. Yellow fever, the most dreaded of them all, never recurred.Beri-beri, which in 1906 caused sixty-eight deaths, has gradually disappeared. Thehookworm disease, ankylostomiasis, has steadily decreased. From the very outset,malaria has been taken as the measure of sanitary efficiency. Throughout the Frenchoccupation it was the chief enemy to be considered, not only because of its fatality,but on account of the prolonged incapacity following infection. In 1906, out of every1000 employees there were admitted to the hospital from malaria 821; in 1907, 424;in 1908, 282; in 1912, 110; in 1915, 51; in 1917, 14. The fatalities from the diseasehave fallen from 233 in 1906 to 154 in 1907, to 73 in 1908 and to 7 in 1914. Thedeath rate for malarial fever per 1000 population sank from 8.49 in 1906 to 0.11 in1918. Dysentery, next to malaria the most serious of the tropical diseases in the Zone,

caused 69 deaths in 1906; 48 in 1907; in 1908, with nearly 44,000, only 16 deaths,and in 1914, 4. But it is when the general-230-figures are taken that we see the extraordinary reduction that has taken place. Out ofevery 1000 engaged in 1908 only a third of the number died that died in 1906, andhalf the number that died in 1907.In 1914, the death rate from disease among white males had fallen to 3.13 perthousand. The rate among the 2674 American women and children connected with theCommission was only 9.72 per thousand. But by far the most gratifying reduction isamong the blacks, among whom the rate from disease had fallen to the surprisinglylow figure in 1912 of 8.77 per thousand; in 1906 it was 47 per thousand. Aremarkable result is that in 1908 the combined tropical diseases -- malaria, dysenteryand beri-beri -- killed fewer than the two great killing diseases of the temperate zone,pneumonia and tuberculosis -- 127 in one group and 137 in the other. The whole storyis expressed in two words, effective organization, and the special value of thisexperiment in sanitation is that it has been made, and made successfully, in one of thegreat plague spots of the world.Month by month a little, gray-covered pamphlet was published by Colonel Gorgas,a "Report of the Department of Sanitation of the Isthmian Canal Commission." I havebeen one of the favored to whom it has been sent year by year, and, keenly interestedas I have always been in infectious diseases, and particularly in malaria anddysentery, I doubt if anyone has read it more faithfully. In evidence of theextraordinary advance made in sanitation by Gorgas, I give a random example fromone of his monthly reports (1912): In a population of more than 52,000, the death ratefrom disease had fallen to 7.31 per thousand; among the whites it was 2.80 and amongthe colored people 8.77. Not only is the profession indebted to Colonel Gorgas andhis staff for this remarkable demonstration, but they have offered an example ofthoroughness and efficiency which has won the admiration of the whole world. As J.B. Bishop, secretary of the Isthmian Canal Commission, has recently said: "TheAmericans arrived on the Isthmus in the full light of these two invaluable discoveries[the insect transmission of yellow fever and malaria]. Scarcely had they begun activework when an outbreak of yellow fever occurred which caused such a panicthroughout their force that nothing except the lack of steamship accommodationprevented the flight of the entire body from the Isthmus. Prompt, intelligent andvigorous application of the remedies shown to he effective by the-231-mosquito discoveries not only checked the progress of the pest, but banished it foreverfrom the Isthmus. In this way, and in this alone, was the building of the canal madepossible. The supreme credit for its construction therefore belongs to the brave men,surgeons of the United States Army, who by their high devotion to duty and tohumanity risked their lives in Havana in 1900-1901 to demonstrate the truth of themosquito theory."One disease has still a special claim upon the public in this country. Some fourteenor fifteen years ago, in an address on the problem of typhoid fever in the United

States, I contended that the question was no longer in the hands of the profession. Inseason and out of season we had preached salvation from it in volumes which fill statereports, public health journals and the medical periodicals. Though much has beendone, typhoid fever remains a question of grave national concern. You lost in thisstate in 1911 from typhoid fever 154 lives, every one sacrificed needlessly, every onea victim of neglect and incapacity. Between 1200 and 1500 persons had a slow,lingering illness. A nation of contradictions and paradoxes -- a clean people, by whompersonal hygiene is carefully cultivated, but it has displayed in matters of publicsanitation a carelessness simply criminal: a sensible people, among whom educationis more widely diffused than in any other country, supinely acquiesces in conditionsoften shameful beyond expression. The solution of the problem is not very difficult.What has been done elsewhere can be done here. It is not so much in the cities,though here too the death rate is still high, but in the smaller towns and rural districts,in many of which the sanitary conditions are still those of the Middle Ages. HowGalen would have turned up his nose with contempt at the water supply of the capitalof the Dominion of Canada, scourged so disgracefully by typhoid fever of late! Thereis no question that the public is awakening, but many State Boards of Health needmore efficient organization, and larger appropriations. Others are models, and it is notfor lack of example that many lag behind. The health officers should have specialtraining in sanitary science and special courses leading to diplomas in public healthshould be given in the medical schools. Were the health of the people made a questionof public and not of party policy, only a skilled expert-232-could possibly be appointed as a public health officer, not, as is now so often the case,the man with the political pull.It is a long and tragic story in the annals of this country. That distinguished man,the first professor of physic in this University in the early years of last century, Dr.Nathan Smith, in that notable monograph on "Typhus Fever" (1824), tells how thedisease had followed him in his various migrations, from 1787, when he began topractice, all through his career, and could he return this year, in some hundred andforty or one hundred and fifty families of the state he would find the same miserabletragedy which he had witnessed so often in the same heedless sacrifice of the youngon the altar of ignorance and incapacity.TUBERCULOSISIN a population of about one million, seventeen hundred persons died oftuberculosis in this state in the year 1911 -- a reduction in thirty years of nearly 50 percent. A generation has changed completely our outlook on one of the most terriblescourges of the race. It is simply appalling to think of the ravages of this disease incivilized communities. Before the discovery by Robert Koch of the bacillus, we werehelpless and hopeless; in an Oriental fatalism we accepted with folded hands a state ofaffairs which use and wont had made bearable. Today, look at the contrast! We areboth helpful and hopeful. Knowing the cause of the disease, knowing how it isdistributed, better able to recognize the early symptoms, better able to cure a veryconsiderable portion of all early cases, we have gradually organized an enthusiasticcampaign which is certain to lead to victory. The figures I have quoted indicate howprogressively the mortality is falling. Only, do not let us be disappointed if thiscomparatively rapid fall is not steadily maintained in the country at large. It is a long

fight against a strong enemy, and at the lowest estimate it will take severalgenerations before tuberculosis is placed at last, with leprosy and typhus, among thevanquished diseases. Education, organization, cooperation -- these are the weapons ofour warfare. Into details I need not enter. The work done by the National Associationunder the strong guidance of its secretary, Mr. Farrand, the pioneer studies of-233-Trudeau and the optimism which he has brought into the campaign, the splendiddemonstration by the New York Board of Health of what organization can do, havehelped immensely in this world-wide conflict.SOME years ago, in an address at Edinburgh, I spoke of the triple gospel whichman has published -- of his soul, of his goods, of his body. This third gospel, thegospel of his body, which brings man into relation with nature, has been a trueevangelion, the glad tidings of the final conquest of nature by which man hasredeemed thousands of his fellow men from sickness and from death.If, in the memorable phrase of the Greek philosopher, Prodicus, "That whichbenefits human life is God," we may see in this new gospel a link betwixt us and thecrowning race of those who eye to eye shall look on knowledge, and in whose handnature shall be an open book -- an approach to the glorious day of which Shelley singsso gloriously:HappinessAnd Science dawn though late upon the earth;Peace cheers the mind, health renovates the frame;Disease and pleasure cease to mingle here,Reason and passion cease to combat there,Whilst mind unfettered o'er the earth extendsIts all-subduing energies, and wieldsThe sceptre of a vast dominion there.(Dæmon of the World, Pt. II.)QUIZ1. Who was Xenophanes and what did he notice about human kind?2. In ancient Egypt anyone who treated a sick person had to find out two things. Whatwere these two things? Once he found out these two things what did he have to do?3. In ancient Egypt what was the supposed cause of most diseases? How does thisdiffer from our view on disease today? Do you agree more with the ancient Egyptiansor the modern way of looking at disease? Why?4. What were two things Egyptian medicine had in common with modern medicine?5. What is the most famous Egyptian medical document ever discovered?6. What health necessity was regulated by law in ancient Egypt?7. How did ancient man view the world and how did this effect the way he tried tocure disease? Is this the same view we have of the world today? How does it differ?

8. What were saliva and worms used for in ancient Egypt?9. What were powdered mummies used for in Europe?10. What did the word alchemy or chemistry come from?11. Our first recorded observations of anatomy are in connection with the art of_________________________________.12. What was the most important organ in ancient times and thought to be the seat ofthe soul? What has now replaced that organ as the “most important” in modernthought (Hint: Aristotle agreed with the modern doctors) ?13. What is hepatoscopy and when did it become a popular medical study?14. What did the Babalyonians contribute to medicine in their time?15. How was mathematics regarded in the time of the Middle Ages?16. The medicine of the Old Testament was influenced by what race?17. Ancient man defined magic as what?18. In what Holy Book were enactments against witches to be found?19. How did the New Testament differ from the Old Testament in its view on withesand divination?20. What was the most popular healing tool in ancient times that is still populartoday?21. What are Yin and Yang and where are they spoken of?22. Who are the Wu? Is there a similar equivalent in Islam?23. How did the Chinese believe that a person’s health was determined?24. How was the first medicine discovered?25. In China what medical art reached its peak?26. Who practiced inoculation? During what era?27. What influence did Pythagoras have on medicine?28. What in his teaching influenced medicine the most?29. Many people refer to Hippocrates as the Father of Medicine. However, there wereother famous doctors before him. Name one.30. How were State physicians elected in Plato’s time?31. What is the doctrine of signatures?32. What did Aristotle say about the medical significance of dreams?33. Hippocrates said that nature and the body could only be understood as a______________________.34. How did Hippocrates divide the body?35. The great contribution that Hippocrates made to medicine was_______________________________________________________________.36. Before 300 B.C. what was taboo in the medical field and how did Alexandriachange this?37. What did Aristotle consider the central organ of the body?38. Who was the first to make an exhaustive study of the pulse?

39. In what areas did Alexandria contribute the most knowledge?40. What was the Medieval thought expressed by Jerome that encouraged people notto bathe?41. Who was a famous Italian medical professor during medieval times?42. From what era is the earliest known complete manuscript?43. What did the Arabs do in less than a century that took the Germans a thousandyears?44. How did Greek medicine come to the Arabs originally?45. Who was Honein?46. Who was called the rival to Galen?47. What was considered the “medical bible” for much of history?48. How did Avicenna spend the last days of his life?49. What was one limitation of Arab medicine?50. In what domain did the Arabs make the most advances?51. How did the Arab knowledge pass from the Arab world to South and CentralEurope?52. How was Roger Bacon important to medicine?53. What authorities did Roger Bacon use in his treatise, “Cure of Old Age and thePreservation of Youth?”54. Osler says of later European manuscripts that, “The influence of the __________isstriking.55. The Greek doctrine of what colored all conceptions of disease until modern times?56. What practice carried into the Middle Ages and was looked at warily by thechurch but encouraged in University studies?57. What is the Quadivium?58. In Mediaval times physicians practiced astrology. True or False?59. During what age did Europe start to reject the knowledge of the Arabs? Why?60. What three things did the 16 th century do to medicine?

61. How did Paracelsus feel about Avicenna? How did he express his feelings?62. What project was Vesalius obsessed with in the 16 th century? Did he accomplishhis task?63. Who finally realized that blood moved in a circle?64. Who was the Dutch Hippocrates? Why was he called that?65. What does the author say that science hopes to accomplish by knowing the worldbetter?66. Who laid the foundations of modern clinical medicine according to Olser?67. What was Pastuer’s ambition that he shared with the King?68. What did Koch prove in his paper about anthrax?69. What does the author call “one of the most momentous discoveries ever”?70. When doctors discovered parasites and germs how did their perception ofmedicine change?71. What does Dr. Payne say is the basis of medicine?72. What work did Claude Bernanrd do?]73. How did Pliny learn anatomy?74. For long centuries Egypt represented possession of knowledge – true or false?75. Sanitation is called a modern revolution in the later pages of Osler’s work,however earlier in the document he credits _______________________withfollowing important cleanliness procedures.76. What do we know about medicine and Neolithic skulls?77. Who is the God of Medicine in Ancient Egypt?

This Image and data are copyrighted by Kristie Burns, Mh, ND

Note: My area of speciality for the past ten years has been Arab Medicine. For this reason, thischart I created focuses on that topic. However, the entire chart can also be applied to any otherherbal history. The only difference would be that one would need to substitute the name“Americans use...” at the bottom of the chart instead of “Arabs use...”. You could also substitutethe name of any other culture at the bottom of the chart as the data applies to almost every nationin the world.This Image and data are copyrighted by Rod Petsef and Kristie Burns, Mh, ND

This Image and data are copyrighted by Rod Petsef and Kristie Burns, Mh, ND

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Directory For Midwives: Or, a Guide for Women In Their Conception, Bearing; and Suckling TheirChildrenby Nicholas Culpeper

Herbal Healing 204

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