Proceedings - Tropentag

Tropentag 2012 

International Research on Food Security, Natural 

Resource Management and Rural Development 

Resilience of agricultural systems 

against crises 

Book of abstracts 

Editor: Eric Tielkes 

Reviewers/scientific committee: Renate Bürger-Arndt, Andreas Bürkert, 

Claus Peter Czerny, Alexandra zum Felde, Jóska Gerendás, Oliver Hensel, 

Dirk Hölscher, Christian Hülsebusch, Brigitte Kaufmann, Christoph Kleinn, 

Ronald Kühne, Christian Lambertz, Björn Niere, Zbynek Polesny, 

Eva Schlecht, Anthony Whitbread, Meike Wollni 

Editorial assistance: Mareike Aufderheide, Clemens Voigts

Impressum 

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ISBN: 978-3-95404-215-9 

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Preface 

The annual TROPENTAG, the largest European conference of scientists working in 

Tropical and Subtropical Agricultural and Natural Resource Management, rotates 

between the universities of Bonn, Göttingen, Hohenheim, Kassel-Witzenhausen, 

Hamburg, ETH Zurich and the Czech University of Life Sciences in Prague. 

On-going organisational support for the event is provided by the German Institute for 

Tropical and Subtropical Agriculture (DITSL) in Witzenhausen and the Council for 

Tropical and Subtropical Research (ATSAF e.V.) in co-operation with the GIZ Advisory 

Service on Agricultural Research for Development (BEAF). Mr. Dirk Niebel, 

Federal Minister for Economic Cooperation and Development (BMZ) is the patron of 

TROPENTAG 2012. 

TROPENTAG provides a unique platform for scientific and personal exchange for a 

wide spectrum of the science and development community from students to junior 

and senior scientists and to development experts and funding organisations. This 

development-oriented community values TROPENTAG as an interdisciplinary scientific 

event with attendees from 80+ countries contributing to the stimulating debate. 

TROPENTAG 2012 takes place on the central campus of the Georg-August- 

Universität Göttingen on 19-21 September. It has been jointly organised by the Faculty 

of Agricultural Sciences, Faculty of Forest Sciences and Forest Ecology, Georg- 

August-Universität Göttingen and the Faculty of Organic Agricultural Sciences, University 

of Kassel (Witzenhausen). 

The theme of the 2012 conference is “Resilience of Agricultural Systems Against 

Crises”. This is a particularly relevant theme in today’s world with most of the 2 billion 

poorest people who face on-going food insecurity being smallholder farmers living 

in tropical environments. Sustainably producing food and fibre in the face of 

climate change, population growth, urbanisation and social change requires innovative 

and systems based research to help people living in rural and urban areas build 

resilient and food secure livelihoods. With the current focus of many development 

initiatives on intensification strategies for favourable environments, research and development 

efforts are lacking to support the highly vulnerable communities located 

in fragile, remote and usually semi-arid to arid regions. It is in these environments 

3

that the effects of inadequate system resilience are most acute. This conference will 

provide the platform for discussing and planning new research and development initiatives. 

From the many abstracts received, a panel of reviewers selected contributions that 

present new information on: 

• How agricultural systems can be made more resilient to cope with crises such 

as high climate variability, volatile markets, biotic and abiotic stresses. 

• What do resilient farming systems look like? 

• Scientific approaches that are practical, innovative, scalable and integrative. 

• Model approaches that provide insights to system resilience. 

These aspects will be addressed in TROPENTAG 2012 by several internationally 

renowned keynote speakers, via 19 oral sessions presenting almost 100 talks and 24 

guided poster sessions presenting 360 posters. A special session to commemorate 

the International Center for Tropical Agriculture’s (CIAT) 45th anniversary is also 

planned. 

Our special thanks goes to the Universities of Göttingen and Kassel for providing 

substantial financial and logistical support, and TROPENTAG’s regular donors whose 

financial contributions ensure conference costs are kept low. 

We welcome you to the university town of Göttingen and wish you an enjoyable and 

rewarding stay 

The organising committee of the TROPENTAG 2012 

Prof. Dr. Anthony Whitbread (Göttingen) 

Prof. Dr. Andreas Buerkert (Kassel-Witzenhausen) 

Dr. Esther Fichtler (Göttingen) 

Dr. Christian Hülsebusch (DITSL - Witzenhausen) 

Prof. Dr. Christoph Kleinn (Göttingen) 

Prof. Dr. Eva Schlecht (Kassel-Witzenhausen/Göttingen) 

Dr. Eric Tielkes (DITSL - Witzenhausen) 

Dr. Christian Lambertz (Göttingen) 

Prof. Dr. Dr. Claus-Peter Czerny (Göttingen) 

Göttingen, September 2012 

4

Message 

Almost one billion people worldwide suffer from hunger. Another billion are malnourished. 

This is an unacceptable situation. By 2050, we will probably have to 

feed nine billion people while taking care not to overstretch our planet’s ecological 

capacity. 

Hunger and malnutrition have many causes. One central cause is undoubtedly the 

fact that agricultural productivity in most developing countries is too low to give the 

majority of the rural poor adequate income opportunities or to ensure food security 

for them. This is the very factor that we need to address. So when I assumed office 

in 2009, I made rural development and food security a political priority of the Federal 

Ministry for Economic Cooperation and Development (BMZ) again, considerably increasing 

the Ministry’s financial commitments in the sector. The volume of relevant 

commitments is now more than 700 million euros a year. This is more than 10 per 

cent of my Ministry’s total budget. 

The Tropentag is a renowned international forum for development and agricultural 

research experts to share information and experience as well as knowledge. Numerous 

organisations and experts from a variety of fields from more than 80 countries 

are represented. The event provides a good networking opportunity, especially for 

younger experts. It is intellectual input of this kind that makes a huge difference in 

whether development policy and development cooperation are successful or not. So 

it was my pleasure to accept the role of patron for this Tropentag . 

The three departments that are jointly organising this year’s Tropentag (the Faculty 

of Agricultural Sciences and the Faculty of Forest Sciences and Forest Ecology of 

Göttingen University and the Faculty of Organic Agricultural Sciences of Kassel University) 

all look back on a long tradition of research and teaching. Time and again, 

they have accepted new challenges. And they are leaders when it comes to interdisciplinary 

research. 

This year’s topic, “Resilience of Agricultural Systems against Crises”, is a highly topical 

issue. Small farmers in particular are vulnerable to risks such as drought, floods, 

erosion, plant disease and pests. But if small farmers’ capacity is enhanced in line 

with needs, there are many ways in which they can deal effectively with such risks. 

5

Development-oriented agricultural research can contribute decisively to enhanced resilience, 

for example through the breeding of drought-tolerant plant varieties. 

For many years now, the BMZ has been supporting development-oriented agricultural 

research at international agricultural research centers with an approximate 20 million 

euros per year. In all these projects, partners from German research institutions are 

part of the effort. We will further increase our efforts to transform the valuable, encouraging 

outcomes of international agricultural research in such a way that they can 

inform agricultural practice in our partner countries. This is especially true for the outcomes 

of agricultural research with regard to adaptation to climate change. I clearly 

highlighted this need in the Ten-point Programme for Rural Development and Food 

Security which I presented in the beginning of this year. We have now launched a 

Technical Cooperation project to address this issue. 

IwishtheTropentag every success. I am convinced that its participants’ dedication to 

research, their capacity for innovation and their creativity will contribute a great deal 

to the improvement of global food security. 

Dirk Niebel 

Federal Minister for Economic Cooperation and Development 

6

Contents 

Plenary speeches 9 

I Animals 13 

1) Pastoralism and rangelands 15 

2) Animal breeding and health 37 

3) Monogastric production systems 57 

4) Ruminant husbandry systems 85 

II Plants and Soils 101 

1) Cropping systems and environment 103 

2) Crop biotic stresses (DPG session) 145 

3) Cropping systems to maintain soil quality and available soil moisture 173 

4) Mineral fertilisation and resilience of cropping systems 203 

5) Innovations in cropping systems 219 

III Forestry 263 

1) Forestry 265 

2) Agroforestry 303 

IV Socioeconomics 323 

1) High-value markets 325 

2) Innovation adoption and agricultural productivity 345 

3) Rural development 379 

4) Knowledge, learning and extension 407 

5) Food security and adaptation 427 

V Engineering 449 

1) Innovations in agricultural engineering 451 

2) Water and energy 459 

3) Post-harvest technology 471 

4) Food, health and nutrition 487 

VI Modelling 501 

1) Systems modelling 503 

7

VII Development Cooperation 543 

1) Soils and resilience (CIAT session) 545 

2) Central issues on resilience of agricultural systems against crises 

(GIZ session) 555 

3) Poetry route 559 

Index of Authors 561 

Index of Keywords 575 

8

Plenary speeches 

ACHIM DOBERMANN: 

Looking Ahead: Mega Trends in the Rice Sector 10 

DEBORAH BOSSIO: 

Soils and Resilience, Much More Than a Slow Variable 11 

RODOMIRO ORTIZ: 

Agrobiodiversity Management for Food Security 12 

9

Tropentag 2012 — Universities of Göttingen and Kassel 

Looking Ahead: Mega Trends in the Rice Sector 

ACHIM DOBERMANN 

International Rice Research Institute (IRRI), Philippines 

Contrary to earlier predictions, global consumption of rice has hovered around 65 kg 

per capita since the early 1990s. So far, the global rice equation has not changed much 

yet: for every additional 1 billion people on Earth, we need to produce another 100 

million tons of rice (paddy). Future demand, but also how rice and other food will be 

grown, will depend on structural transformation processes such as a declining share 

of agriculture in gross domestic product and employment, rural to urban migration, 

the rise of an industrial and service economy, and demographic transitions from high 

rates of birth and death to low rates. 

Some mega trends are already emerging in the rice sector. Land is scare and inputs 

costs have risen, requiring further increases in productivity as well as greater efficiency 

of labor, water, fertiliser and energy. This also provides an incentive for more 

skilful, more precise agriculture through one can also better adapt to the environment, 

or even control parts of it. Rural to urban migration has made labor in the agricultural 

sector scarce and expensive, driving mechanisation as well as the development 

of new service sectors. Traditional smallholder farm management is being replaced 

with outsourcing of farming operations or the formation of small enterprises. Rice 

value chains are becoming more tightly integrated because processors and consumers 

demand more information and control over how food is being produced. Farmers increasingly 

turn to the private sector as a source of information, but also as a direct 

buyer of rice and other products, requiring to produce agricultural raw materials with 

new, higher standards. Access to interactive, tailored information is greatly increasing, 

creating wider communication networks. 

Rice science needs to be re-oriented towards these mega trends. We need to anticipate 

what is needed 10 or 20 years from now, and we need to take full advantage of these 

new opportunities, particularly in developing countries. 

Keywords: Agriculture, mega trends, rice, transformation 

Contact Address: Achim Dobermann, International Rice Research Institute (IRRI), DAPO Box 7777, 

Metro Manila, Philippines, e-mail: a.dobermann@irri.org 

10

Plenary speeches 

Soils and Resilience, Much More Than a Slow Variable 

DEBORAH BOSSIO 

International Center for Tropical Agriculture (CIAT), Kenya 

In resilience science soil properties are classified as a ’slow variable’ or a factor that 

changes slowly in response to long-term processes. These slow variablesin part determine 

the resilience of an ecosystem. The slow variable concept in resilience is much 

too limited a lens to understand the role of soil in resilience of agricultural systems 

and livelihoods. Panarchy theory enriches this simple concept by using the metaphor 

of the adaptive cycle, that better explains why apparently stable systems may become 

unstable quite rapidly and how drivers from other domains (social, economic, institutional) 

may critically affect ecological processes. In this paper we explore the role 

of soils in resilience by taking a view through the holistic lens of ecosystem services. 

A whole range of services depends on soil function - water cycles - carbon cycles 

- nutrient cycles. These ecosystem services, in cases where human and ecological 

systems are closely coupled, such as small scale farming communities in developing 

countries, directly impact the resilience of the population. It is possible to understand 

resilience and the role of soil function and soil health better by breaking down the elements 

that can be considered contributing to resilience - response diversity, adaptive 

capacity and ecological buffering capacity. 

Keywords: Resilience science, soil science 

Contact Address: Deborah Bossio, International Center for Tropical Agriculture (CIAT), P.O. Box 823- 

00621, Nairobi, Kenya, e-mail: d.bossio@cgiar.org 

11


Agrobiodiversity Management for Food Security 

RODOMIRO ORTIZ 

Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Dept. Plant Breeding and Biotechnology, 

Sweden 

World population increases by approximately 78 million people annually. About 1 

billion humans suffer from hunger and 3 billion malnourished people live with

Animals 

1) Pastoralism and rangelands 15 

2) Animal breeding and health 37 

3) Monogastric production systems 57 

4) Ruminant husbandry systems 85 

13

Pastoralism and rangelands 

Invited Paper 18 

MARIO YOUNAN, DAVID M. MWANGI, E.NJUGUNA, 

WILLI DÜHNEN: 

Strengthening Resilience of Pastoralists through Improved 

Economic Integration 18 

Oral Presentations 19 

STEFANIE CHRISTMANN, ADEN AW-HASSAN: 

Increased Climate Change Resilience of Semi-Arid Regions 

Based on Collective Environmental Governance with Landscape 

Approach 19 

HAMID REZA ANSARI-RENANI, BARBARA RISCHKOWSKY, 

JOAQUIN MUELLER, SEYED MOJTABA SEYED MOUMEN, 

SEPEHR MORADI: 

Nomadic Pastoralism in Southern Iran 20 

MENGISTU ALEMAYEHU,TILAHUN AMEDE,MICHAEL BÖHME, 

KURT-JOHANNES PETERS: 

Collective Management on Communal Grazing Lands: Its 

Impact on Herbage Production and Land Degradation in the 

Upper Blue Nile Basin, Northwestern Ethiopia 21 

CRISTIAN ANÍBAL MORENO GARCÍA, JÜRGEN SCHELLBERG, 

FRANK EWERT, ANJA LINSTÄDTER, JAN RUPPERT, SUSANA 

B. PERELMAN: 

Responses of Communities Plant Functional Traits Along 

Grazing Gradients on South African Rangelands 22 

Posters 23 

OMER ABDELHADI, SALIH BABIKER, IBRAHIM BUSHARA, 

AHMED IDRIS, BERNARD FAYE, CLAUDIA KIJORA: 

Strategies of El-Kababish Camel Herders to Cope with 

Adverse Climate Conditions in Sudan 23 

THANAMMAL RAVICHANDRAN, NILS TEUFEL, MICHAEL 

BLÜMMEL, ANDRÉ MARKEMANN, ANNE VALLE ZÁRATE: 

Can an Improved Dual Purpose Groundnut Cultivar Increase 

Milk Production in Crop-Livestock Systems in India? 24 

15

Animals 

16 

LENA RATHJEN, JAN PFISTER, FOLKARD ASCH: 

Effects of Management Practices on Carbon Allocation in the 

Semi-Arid Savannahs of the Borana Region, Ethiopia 25 

SABINE BAUMGARTNER, ANNA C. TREYDTE, RINA GRANT: 

Mammalian Herbivores as Designers of African Savannah 

Ecosystems 26 

NOUHOUN ZAMPALIGRÉ, EVA SCHLECHT: 

Comparative Analysis of Ruminant Grazing Itineraries and 

Foraging Behaviour Across Three Agro-ecological Zones of 

Burkina Faso 27 

ESTANISLAO DÍAZ FALÚ, MIGUEL ÁNGEL BRIZUELA, 

DITMAR BERNARDO KURTZ, MARCUS GIESE, FOLKARD 

ASCH: 

Cattle and Sheep Foraging Behaviour in a Heterogeneous 

Subtropical Grassland 28 

BRITTA M. BÖSING, UTA DICKHOEFER, JUN HAO, LIJUN LIN, 

KATRIN MÜLLER,CHENGJIE WANG, THOMAS GLINDEMANN, 

ANDREAS 

SUSENBETH: 

Ecological and Economical Aspects of the Intensity of Sheep 

Grazing in the Inner Mongolian Steppe 29 

JUN HAO, BRITTA M. BÖSING, LIJUN LIN, ANDREAS SUSEN- 

BETH, UTA DICKHOEFER: 

Effects of Alternating versus Continuous Grazing on Feed 

Intake and Performance of Sheep in the Inner Mongolian 

Steppe, China 30 

TERRY ANSAH, HANNE HELENE HANSEN, EMMANUEL L. K. 

OSAFO, IDA K. HINDERICHSEN: 

Variety, Harvest Date after Planting, and Fraction of Napier 

Grass Influence in vitro Gas Production 31 

SUNDAY ADEDUNTAN: 

Influence of Plantation Species on Quality and Quantity of 

Honey Prodution 32 

ALEXANDRA SANDHAGE-HOFMANN, ELMARIE KOTZÉ,CHRIS 

CDU PREEZ, WULF AMELUNG: 

Effects of Rangeland Management on Soil Properties in a 

Grassland and a Bush Savannah, South Africa 33 

MARTHA LUCÍA MOLANO, MARIA LUISA CORTEZ, PATRICIA 

AVILA, SIRIWAN MARTENS, LUZ STELLA MUÑOZ: 

NIRS Prediction of Neutral Detergent Fiber Digestibility of 

Tropical Forages 34

Pastoralism and rangelands — Contents 

ITISHREE PATTNAIK, JHARNA PATHAK: 

Issues and Challenges of Current Agricultural Patterns in 

India: A Step Towards Sustainability 35 

SHANG ZHANHUAN, R.J. LONG, L.M.DING, X.S.GUO: 

Rangelands Ecosystems of the Tibetan Plateau: their Current 

Status and Sustainable Development Strategies 36 

17

Animals 

Strengthening Resilience of Pastoralists through Improved 

Economic Integration 

MARIO YOUNAN 1 ,DAVID M. MWANGI 2 ,E.NJUGUNA 2 ,WILLI DÜHNEN 1 

1Vétérinaires sans Frontières Germany (VsF G), Kenya 

2Kenya Agriculture Research Institute (KARI), Kenya 

Many arid and semiarid environments are rapidly approaching a precarious ecological 

state. The session on ‘Pastoralism and Rangelands’ will look at potential solutions 

for a range of problems that affect pastoralist livestock production at present; these 

include: 

1. The need for an ecologically balanced Natural Resource Management in the 

face of rapidly increasing human and livestock numbers in the drylands, sustainable 

utilisation of tropical rangelands being a major focus for this session 

2. The need to improve market access and provide a more robust marketing infrastructure 

(agricultural value chain approach, public-private partnerships in 

the management of livestock markets) 

3. Workable mechanisms to buffer pastoralist livelihoods against external shocks 

(Early warning systems, Livestock insurances) 

4. Full utilisation of new opportunities created through the advance of modern 

communication technology, banking services and electronic cash transfer systems 

in remote regions 

This paper proposes that increased and more stable incomes are a major contribution 

to buffer pastoralist households against external shocks and to strengthen the 

resilience of pastoralist communities. Too little has been done to improve market access, 

to lower transaction costs and to improve the profitability of producing and selling 

animals and livestock commodities in pastoralist regions. Insufficient economic 

integration and poor market access perhaps pose the same risk to pastoralist livelihoods 

as the losses related to environmental degradation, recurrent natural disasters 

and climate change. Based on experiences by VSF-Germany, KARI and other development 

actors in the pastoralist regions of Kenya and Somalia we review selected 

development interventions in terms of their economic viability and their impact on 

economic integration and incomes of pastoralist households. 

Keywords: Agricultural value chain approach, early warning systems, livestock insurances, 

natural resource management 

Contact Address: Mario Younan, Vétérinaires sans Frontières Germany (VsF G), Nairobi, Kenya, 

e-mail: marioyounan@gmail.com 

18

Pastoralism and rangelands — Oral Presentations 

Increased Climate Change Resilience of Semi-Arid Regions Based 

on Collective Environmental Governance with Landscape 

Approach 

STEFANIE CHRISTMANN, ADEN AW-HASSAN 

International Centre for Agricultural Research in the Dry Areas (ICARDA), Syria 

For 20 years seasonal grazing has been discontinued in semi-desert areas of Uzbekistan. 

As a result the region faces significant loss of important perennial shrubs and 

forage plants. Rangeland degradation puts livelihoods at risk. Additionally climate 

change 40 % above global average indicates rapid governance changes. Current production 

systems are already and will be even more threatened by water scarcity, increasing 

number of days with very high temperature causing partial crop failure, hails 

and strong rains effecting devastating mudflows from eroded foothills. Present coping 

strategies are commuting of men in labor age and out migration of youth, as an 

individual adaptation is hardly possible. 

Facilitated by participatory research, local communities in three villages overcame 

their deep rooted fatalistic acquiescence in the tragedy of the commons leading foreseeable 

to an environment that cannot sustain livelihoods anymore. Local population 

is now ready to introduce new collective governance systems including share of tasks 

and benefits, enforcement of rules and management tools in common rangelands and 

on foothills. Villages developed a common purpose to collectively rehabilitate their 

ecosystems. Results from two participatory socio-economic research projects in different 

areas of Uzbekistan are presented. One village decided to introduce spatial 

planning, reforest foothills, stop free grazing, start collective forage production on 

rangelands based on social fencing and start alternative income options. Two other 

villages decided to establish pastoral user groups, fenced seed isles and seasonal grazing 

on limited rangelands based on strictly prohibited free grazing. In these two villages 

during last 15 years rangeland degradation had induced a shift from collective 

use of rangelands for small ruminants towards individual cattle rearing based on forage 

production on up to 80 % of the household plot. This will be terminated by climate 

change induced severe future water scarcity. Now villagers try to shift back to collective 

rangeland use for sheep and towards diversification on their household plots. 

The findings show (1) critical importance of an integrated ecosystems research and 

development approach with clear focus on collective landscape governance, (2) remarkable 

self-help-potential of local communities if it is addressed adequately, (3) importance 

of a process of social learning over some period. 

Keywords: Climate change adaptation, fenced seed isles, pastoral user group 

Contact Address: Stefanie Christmann, International Center for Agricultural Research in the Dry Areas 

(ICARDA), ICARDA-CAC (Regional Program for Central Asia and the Caucasus), Tashkent, Uzbekistan, 

e-mail: s.christmann@cgiar.org 

19

Animals 

Nomadic Pastoralism in Southern Iran 

HAMID REZA ANSARI-RENANI 1 ,BARBARA RISCHKOWSKY 2 ,JOAQUIN 

MUELLER 3 ,SEYED MOJTABA SEYED MOUMEN 1 ,SEPEHR MORADI 1 

1 Animal Science Research Institute, Animal By-product, Iran 

2 International Center for Agricultural Research in the Dry Areas (ICARDA), Syria 

3 National Institute for Agricultural Technology (INTA), Animal Production, Argentina 

The nomadic pastoralist system in Baft district, Kerman province, is well known in 

Iran for producing cashmere from Raeini goats. However, there is little information 

on the production system. Interviews were carried out with 30 Siahjel nomad families 

of Raen origin in proximity of about 20 km to Baft in 2010 to characterize the 

production system considering family labor force, work sharing, livestock numbers, 

management and marketing practices, and diseases. The nomads move their livestock 

over large distances within the rangelands of the region from May to November and 

the majority migrates to the South during winter and early spring. 87 % of nomad families 

stay and manage their animals together with one or more other related families. 

All household heads are males, and only 17 % at maximum 30 years old. All family 

members are involved in raising livestock; male family members and hired labor 

dominate the physically harder jobs like shepherding and breeding, and women are involved 

in milking and caring. 80 % of the animals are owned by adult or young males, 

none by daughters. Siahjel nomads mainly rely on goats and average proportion of 

goats, sheep and monodactyl per family are 89 %, 8 % and 3 %, respectively. Adult 

breeding females constituted with 44 % the largest group within the goat herds, female 

yearlings, bucks and male yearlings constituted 12 %, 8 % and 7 %, respectively. 

The rationale for keeping a high number of males may be related to their higher production 

of cashmere. Diseases accounted for 57 % of adult and 88 % of young animal 

deaths. The most prevalent diseases were enterotoxaemia, foot and mouth disease, 

pneumonia, agalactia and diarrhoea. Animal sales, meat, cashmere and milk production 

are the major reasons for keeping goats. Nomads sell their animals directly to 

abattoirs or butchers whenever cash is needed. While 41 % and 32 % of nomad farmers 

receive cashmere marketing information from traders and neighbouring farms, 

14 % and 13 % of farmers receive their information from livestock associations and 

markets, respectively. Rangeland is the main source of feeding (85 %), the remaining 

15 % are provided by stubble grazing. 

Keywords: Livestock, herd management, nomads, products, rangelands 

Contact Address: Hamid Reza Ansari-Renani, Animal Science Research Institute, Animal By-product, 

Dehghaniviall St., 31585-1483 Karadj, Iran, e-mail: ansarirenani@yahoo.com 

20

Pastoralism and rangelands — Oral Presentations 

Collective Management on Communal Grazing Lands: Its Impact 

on Herbage Production and Land Degradation in the Upper Blue 

Nile Basin, Northwestern Ethiopia 

MENGISTU ALEMAYEHU 1 ,TILAHUN AMEDE 2 ,MICHAEL BÖHME 3 , 

KURT-JOHANNES PETERS 1 

1Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, Crops and Livestock Sciences, Germany 

2International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI), Ethiopia 

3Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, Horticultural Plant Systems, Germany 

Collective action on communal grazing land has evolved in the highlands of northwestern 

Ethiopia to mitigate the critical problem of land degradation caused by overgrazing 

and to ensure sustainable production of natural pasture mainly for draught 

oxen feeding. However, large portions of the communal grazing lands are still managed 

under free grazing which has been practised continuously in the past. This study 

was undertaken to assess impacts of three different types of grazing land management 

(GLM) viz. a) freely open communal GLM, b) traditional collective management of 

communal grazing land locally named as ‘yebere sar’ GLM and c) private holding 

GLM. These were coupled with two slope gradients (

Animals 

Responses of Communities Plant Functional Traits Along Grazing 

Gradients on South African Rangelands 

CRISTIAN ANÍBAL MORENO GARCÍA 1 ,JÜRGEN SCHELLBERG 1 ,FRANK 

EWERT 1 ,ANJA LINSTÄDTER 2 ,JAN RUPPERT 2 ,SUSANA B. PERELMAN 3 

1University of Bonn, Inst. Crop Sci. and Res. Conserv. (INRES), Germany 

2University of Cologne, Range Ecology and Range Management, Germany 

3Universidad de Buenos Aires, Institute for Agricultural Plant Physiology and Ecology 

(IFEVA), Argentina 

Vegetation communities fulfill certain tasks in the ecosystem which can be expressed 

by their plant functional traits. By representing species of plant communities with 

their trait attributes rather than by species names, one can focus on the ecological 

functions and on the adopted plant strategies of communities which success under 

imposed conditions of the environment. In rangelands of South Africa we studied 

the response of Community Plant Functional Traits (CPFT) to grazing gradients on 

transects which started at the water point on grazing land. One transect per farm 

was established and along each transect, six plots (5 m × 5 m) were placed at equal 

distances. 

We found that the trait-line sampling, a taxon-free method, was appropriate to record 

15 CPFT in both standing biomass and on the regrowth. Close to water points grazing 

was more intense. Here, plant communities exhibited higher specific leaf area 

and higher leaf nitrogen content suggesting a higher photosynthetic capacity. Furthermore, 

communities close to water points exhibited less cell wall components (cellulose, 

hemicelluloses, and lignin) similarly favoring capture of photosynthetically 

active radiation. Communities exposed to intense and frequent grazing are successful 

by possessing quick-return strategy of nutrients invested into leaf tissues via higher 

rates of light capture. 

We conclude that in these so-called “sacrifice areas” on livestock farms (or piosphere) 

there is an ecological niche for vegetation communities with quick-return strategies 

which are not only well adapted to intense and frequent grazing but also provide 

forage of high quality to the benefit of animal husbandry. 

Keywords: Piosphere, plant strategies, taxon-free method, vegetation communities 

Contact Address: Cristian Aníbal Moreno García, University of Bonn, Inst. Crop Sci. and Res. Conserv. 

(INRES), Katzenburgweg 5, D-53115 Bonn, Germany, e-mail: cristian.moreno@uni-bonn.de 

22

Pastoralism and rangelands — Posters 

Strategies of El-Kababish Camel Herders to Cope with Adverse 

Climate Conditions in Sudan 

OMER ABDELHADI 1 ,SALIH BABIKER 2 ,IBRAHIM BUSHARA 3 ,AHMED IDRIS 4 , 

BERNARD FAYE 5 ,CLAUDIA KIJORA 6 

1University of Kordofan, Animal Science, Sudan 

2University of Khartoum, Meat Production, Sudan 

3Dalanj University, Dept. of Animal Production, Sudan 

4Peace University, Animal Production and Range, Sudan 

5Centre de Coop. Internationale en Recherche Agronomique pour le Developpement 

(CIRAD), France 

6Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, Dept. of Animal Breeding in the Tropics and Subtr., 

Germany 

The study aimed to study strategies of El-Kababish camel herders to cope with adverse 

climate conditions in North Kordofan State, Sudan. A total of 122 farmers 

owing 10,386 heads were randomly selected and a semi-structured questionnaire was 

applied in 4 different areas (Sodary, Jabra, Umgrfa and Almuwelih) dominated by 

camel herders. The results indicated that 59 % of camel farmers were owners, while 

41 % were shepherds. Illiteracy among camel owners and shepherd was 49 % and 

56 %, respectively. Camel herders divided their camels in small herds with an average 

size of 85 ± 37.2 heads which were distributed into different regions as a mean of 

avoiding diseases and nutritional crises. Herders tended to keep high percentages of 

breeding females (74.2 %) while breeding males amounted for 25.2 % in the different 

herds. The majority of herders (49.2 %) were found to rear camels only while some 

herders raised sheep and goats separately besides camels. Seasonal migration to the 

northern and southern parts of the state lasted on average 6 ± 1.2 months, depending 

on the availability of water and pasture. The watering interval was long during winter 

and short during summer which enabled wide utilisation of rangeland. Castration of 

males was practised for fattening purposes by 40 % of the farmers. The interviewees 

reported the presence of twelve camel diseases, and local knowledge was extensively 

practised to combat diseases. 

Keywords: Camel, climate conditions, El-Kababish herders, seasonal migration 

Contact Address: Omer Abdelhadi, University of Kordofan, Animal Science, 716 Khartoum, Sudan, 

e-mail: abusin911@yahoo.com 

23

Animals 

Can an Improved Dual Purpose Groundnut Cultivar Increase 

Milk Production in Crop-Livestock Systems in India? 

THANAMMAL RAVICHANDRAN 1 ,NILS TEUFEL 1 ,MICHAEL BLÜMMEL 1 ,ANDRÉ 

MARKEMANN 2 ,ANNE VALLE ZÁRATE 2 

1International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI), India 

2University of Hohenheim, Dept. of Animal Production in the Tropics and Subtropics, 

Germany 

Groundnut is an important crop in dry areas of South Asia where it is grown for 

oil production. In addition, it also serves as valuable source of livestock fodder. In 

Anantapur, one of the poorest districts in southern India, groundnuts occupy 70-80 % 

of the cropped area. A new groundnut cultivar ICGV 91114, developed by scientists 

from ICRISAT1 and ILRI2, with superior grain and fodder traits, was introduced to 

this district in 2003. The present study was designed to capture the impact of this new 

cultivar on milk production on farm compared to the dominant traditional cultivar 

TMV 2. 

Two participatory feeding trials were conducted with 52 farmers from 4 villages, animals 

with average milk yield of 2-5 l day-1 . First, 17 dairy animals were fed with 

groundnut fodder harvested in the rainy season (July to November) together other 

common feeds (rice straw, rice bran, broken rice etc.). The animals were offered one 

groundnut fodder variety for 10 days and then fed with the other groundnut fodder 

variety for the following 10 days, keeping the overall feeding regime constant. Subsequently, 

a similar experiment was conducted with 37 animals and groundnut haulms 

harvested during the winter season (January to April). Milk yields and feed amounts 

were recorded daily. Milk composition was analysed locally while feed samples were 

analysed by Near Infrared Reflectance Spectography at ILRI. 

The results show no significant effect on milk yield of groundnut cultivars based on 

kharif fodder. However, for winter fodder a significant increase in milk yield (400 g) 

can be attributed to feeding ICGV91114. This is supported by the laboratory analysis 

which for this season shows higher levels of nitrogen, metabolisable energy and lower 

lignin and fibre content compared to the traditional cultivar. In contrast, the quality of 

haulms from both cultivars harvested in the rainy season was poor, possibly because 

of rain damage. The results highlight the potential of including the nutritional quality 

of crop residues in crop breeding programmes. However, the results of the present 

study may not be generalised due to the small scale of the trials. 

Keywords: Dual purpose crop, feeding trial, groundnut, mixed farming 

Contact Address: Thanammal Ravichandran, International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI), International 

Livestock Research Institute (ILRI) 904 Aggarwal Corporate Tower Rajendra Place, 

110008 New Delhi, India, e-mail: thanamvet_bha@yahoo.com 

24


Effects of Management Practices on Carbon Allocation in the 

Semi-Arid Savannahs of the Borana Region, Ethiopia 

LENA RATHJEN, JAN PFISTER, FOLKARD ASCH 

University of Hohenheim, Inst. of Plant Production and Agroecology in the Tropics and 

Subtropics, Germany 

Grassland systems cover 3.9 billion ha, 25 % of the earth´s terrestrial area, and could, 

according to FAO (2009), sequester up to 2 GT CO 2 equivalents worldwide if appropriate 

management of vegetation and soil resources would be applied. Carbon is 

stored in different pools: dead and alive biomass like plant roots in the soil, and living 

biomass (grasses, shrubs and trees) and litter aboveground. 

Livestock production has been a major source of income generation and food security 

in the semi-arid savannahs of the Borana region, Ethiopia, ever since. The dependency 

on traditional livestock-based pastoral and agro-pastoral livelihoods under ecological 

and economic pressures (droughts, population growth, overgrazing, etc.) is no longer 

sufficient to sustain food security. To overcome vulnerability of these communities, 

diversification of income is of crucial importance. Payment for environmental services 

(PES) based on reduction of carbon emissions and carbon allocation linked to 

livestock production could be one tool to diversify income of the vulnerable group of 

Borana pastoralists. Range and herd management may have exceptional impacts on 

carbon fluxes in the grass- and bush-land savannahs of southern Ethiopia. 

Four vegetation types; namely grassland, tree savannah, bush land and tree-grass-bush 

savannah, have been distinguished in the research area. The pastoralists differentiate 

between year-round and seasonal grazing by installing “enclosures”. Seasonal grazing 

patterns were found in grass and tree savannah. Therefore, five 900 m 2 plots each were 

located in year-round grazed and seasonally-used grass and tree land. Soil samples 

were taken in four different depths up to 100 cm to analyse for total carbon, soil 

organic matter and soil organic carbon content as well as to examine bulk density, pH 

and texture of the soil. Aboveground biomass was harvested and tree biomass was 

calculated by using allometric equations. A regression analysis was run to portray 

changes in organic carbon pools and allocation across vegetation type, management 

practice and soil depth. 

The results will help to evaluate the impact of management practices on carbon fluxes 

in the soil and on aboveground biomass production. Carbon allocation processes will 

be better understood and information can be used to improve these grazing systems 

towards higher sustainability and crisis resilience. 

Keywords: Carbon allocation, enclosure, grazing, savannah, vegetation type 

Contact Address: Lena Rathjen, University of Hohenheim, Inst. of Plant Production and Agroecology 

in the Tropics and Subtropics, Garbenstraße 13, 70599 Stuttgart, Germany, e-mail: lena.rathjen@ 

uni-hohenheim.de 

25

Animals 

Mammalian Herbivores as Designers of African Savannah 

Ecosystems 

SABINE BAUMGARTNER 1 ,ANNA C. TREYDTE 1 ,RINA GRANT 2 

1University of Hohenheim, Inst. of Plant Production and Agroecology in the Tropics and 


2Scientific Services, South Africa 

African savannahs support a large proportion of the world’s human population, heavily 

relying on resources provided by an intact savannah. Mammalian herbivory is one 

of the major factors regulating savannah ecosystems. However, research quantifying 

and comparing the impact of domestic and wild mammalian herbivore assemblages 

and their densities on the vegetation is rare. In the Kruger National Park (KNP) and 

adjacent communal grazing lands we assessed the vegetation under different grazing 

and browsing regimes in a close-to-natural savannah versus communal grazing land. 

We studied woody plant species composition and structure under browser presence 

and absence. We additionally analysed herbaceous vegetation and soil properties to 

understand the role of grazer densities and assemblage types. 

We found that herbaceous species richness was higher on communal farmlands compared 

to protected areas inside Kruger Park, as was forb cover. The lowest Shannon 

Wiener diversity index was found under mono-specific grazing at wildlife and 

livestock sites. Grass leaf nutrient content was significantly higher and annual grass 

species were less abundant under multi-species wildlife and livestock herbivory. Inside 

KNP, the mono-specific site showed with 311 trees ha -1 and 140 trees ha -1 the 

highest density of bushes and small trees. In contrast, bush density at the livestock 

sites was found to be higher under multi-species herbivory, whereas small tree density 

was significantly lower there. 

Our research showed that certain grass species were strongly resistant against high 

mono-specific grazing pressure. Multi-species herbivory in contrast decreased pressure 

on herbaceous vegetation, enhanced biodiversity and improved grass quality. 

Bush and small tree growth could efficiently be suppressed by multi-species herbivory. 

Different herbivore assemblages show strong impacts on vegetation and soil 

conditions, thus, play an important role as designers of savannah ecosystems. 

Keywords: Biodiversity, bush encroachement, herbaceous community, herbivore assemblage, 

savannah 

Contact Address: Sabine Baumgartner, University of Hohenheim, Inst. of Plant Production and 

Agroecology in the Tropics and Subtropics, Stuttgart, Germany, e-mail: Sabine.Baumgartner@ 


26


Comparative Analysis of Ruminant Grazing Itineraries and 

Foraging Behaviour Across Three Agro-ecological Zones of 

Burkina Faso 

NOUHOUN ZAMPALIGRÉ, EVA SCHLECHT 

University of Kassel / Georg-August-Universität Göttingen, Animal Husbandry in the 

Tropics and Subtropics, Germany 

Mobility is key for livestock production in the agro-pastoral systems of West Africa. 

Population growth and increased climatic risk of crop failure lead to cropland expansion 

which affects herd mobility and access to forage resources to varying degrees 

across agro-ecological zones. Therefore we studied the spatio-temporal variation in 

the use of grazing areas and the foraging time of ruminants in the southern Sahelian, 

northern and southern Sudanian zone of Burkina Faso by monitoring three herds each 

of cattle, goats and sheep in three village territories during a one-year cycle. Grazing 

routes were tracked using a Global Positioning System; coordinates logged at 10 s 

intervals were overlaid on land use maps from where time and activity on different 

land units was derived. 

Maximum itinerary lengths (km/d) were observed in the hot dry season (March-May); 

they were longer for sheep (18.8) and cattle (17.4) than for goats (10.5, p < 0.05). 

Total time on pasture (h/d) ranged from 6–11 with cattle staying longer on pasture 

than small ruminants (p < 0.05). Feeding time accounted for 0.52–0.72 of daily time 

on pasture irrespective of species. Herds spent longer time on pasture and walked 

farther distances in the southern Sahelian than the two Sudanian zones (p < 0.01), 

while daily feeding time was longer in the southern Sudanian than in the other two 

zones (p > 0.05). Proportional time spent resting decreased from the rainy (June- 

October) to the cool (November-February) and hot dry season (p < 0.05), while in 

parallel the proportion of walking time increased. Feeding time of all species was 

to a significantly high proportion spent on wooded land (tree crown cover 5–10 %, 

or shrub cover >10 %) in the southern Sahelian zone, and on forest land (tree crown 

cover >10 %) in the two Sudanian zones, irrespective of season. 

We conclude that with the expansion of cropland, remaining islands of wooded land, 

including also fields fallowed for 3 or more years, are particularly valuable pasturing 

areas for ruminant stock. Measures must be taken that counteract the shrinking of 

wooded land and forests across the whole region, including also active protection and 

(re)establishment of drought-tolerant fodder trees. 

Keywords: Agro-pastoral system, global positioning system, livestock, Sahelian zone, 

Sudanian zone 

Contact Address: Eva Schlecht, University of Kassel / Georg-August-Universität Göttingen, Animal 

Husbandry in the Tropics and Subtropics, Steinstraße 19, 37213 Witzenhausen, Germany, e-mail: 

tropanimals@uni-kassel.de 

27

Animals 

Cattle and Sheep Foraging Behaviour in a Heterogeneous 

Subtropical Grassland 

ESTANISLAO DÍAZ FALÚ 1 ,MIGUEL ÁNGEL BRIZUELA 2 ,DITMAR BERNARDO 

KURTZ 3 ,MARCUS GIESE 1 ,FOLKARD ASCH 1 



2University of Mar del Plata, Dept. of Animal Production, Argentina 

3National Institute of Agricultural Research, Corrientes Experimental Station, Argentina 

Analysis of foraging behaviour is central to understand grazing distribution and to 

optimise grassland management. Our objective was to analyse the effects of environmental 

variables upon foraging behaviour of cattle and sheep co-grazing heterogeneous 

grasslands of tall and short grasses. Three cows and ewes grazing in a 130 ha 

paddock of north-eastern Argentina (INTA Mercedes) were fitted with GPS collars 

during 6 consecutive days in fall, winter, spring and summer 2009. Stocking rate 

was 0.67 AU ha-1 (cattle:sheep ratio = 3:1). Foraging behaviour was assessed by daily 

foraging time, speed, sinuosity and daily displacement. Climate and vegetation were 

also characterised. Behavioural variables were analysed by ANOVA, and its relationships 

with environmental covariates were explored. Daily foraging time was similar 

for cattle and sheep in all seasons (10.9 ± 1.5 hours). Cattle moved faster than sheep 

in spring and summer (7.8 ± 1.8 vs. 4.5 ± 1.8 m min −1 ), showing similar speeds 

in fall and winter (6.4 ±1.2 and 5.7 ± 1.7 m min −1 ). Displacements were predominantly 

straight, irrespective of speed. Daily displacements were higher for cattle 

during spring and summer (5439 ± 1979 vs. 3114 ± 1090 m day −1 ), being similar 

between herbivores in fall and winter (4122 ± 770 and 3611 ± 896 m day −1 ). 

Since there were no variations in daily foraging time, the displacements were a consequence 

of the speed, which was confirmed by its positive correlation (rcattle = 0.77, 

rsheep = 0.71). Cattle walked faster when soil vegetation cover of the tall grasses 

was 90 %, decreasing above and below this value. On the other hand, sheep walked 

faster when standing dead biomass of short grasses increased. This could suggest that 

both herbivores increased their speed tending to increase the encounter rate of the 

preferred forage as it becomes less abundant. For cattle, lower speeds when soil vegetation 

cover decreased below 90 % could reflect a threshold where speed increments 

are not enough to efficiently graze preferred forage, probably causing changes in diet 

selection to sustain the daily intake. Our results may help to develop criteria based on 

seasonal herbivore´s foraging behaviour to optimise grazing management. 

Keywords: Argentina, GPS collars, grazing distribution, mixed grazing 

Contact Address: Estanislao Díaz Falú, University of Hohenheim, Inst. of Plant Production and 

Agroecology in the Tropics and Subtropics, Garbenstrasse 13, 70599 Stuttgart, Germany, e-mail: 

diazfalu@gmail.com 

28


Ecological and Economical Aspects of the Intensity of Sheep 

Grazing in the Inner Mongolian Steppe 

BRITTA M. BÖSING, UTA DICKHOEFER, JUN HAO, LIJUN LIN, KATRIN 

MÜLLER, CHENGJIE WANG, THOMAS GLINDEMANN, ANDREAS SUSENBETH 

Christian-Albrechts-Universität zu Kiel, Institute of Animal Nutrition and Physiology, 

Germany 

An increasing human population and the growing demand for food of animal origin 

intensified sheep production and lead to widespread overgrazing of the grassland in 

Inner Mongolia, China. Hence, strategies for a sustainable livestock husbandry that 

protect the steppe vegetation and at the same time, satisfy farmers’ economic interests 

are strongly needed. We therefore analysed the effects of different grazing intensities 

(GI) on herbage organic matter intake (OMi) and liveweight gain (LWG) of grazing 

sheep. 

During July to September 2005–2010, a grazing experiment was conducted in the 

Xilin River Basin (E 116°42’; N 43°38’) using 15-months-old, female sheep (31.5 ± 

2.0 kg liveweight). Six GIs were tested on two plots each. Plots were alternately 

used for grazing and hay-making year-by-year. Stocking rates ranged from very light 

(GI1: 1.9 ± 0.3 sheep ha-1 ) to very heavy grazing (GI6: 9.7 ± 1.6 sheep ha -1 ) and were 

monthly adjusted to maintain similar herbage allowances. In six animals per plot 

(2009–2010: 4 animals plot-1 ) titanium dioxide was used to determine fecal excretion, 

while digestibility of ingested organic matter was estimated from fecal crude 

protein concentrations. Feces samples were collected on 5 d each in July, August, and 

September every year. Sheep were monthly weighed to determine their LWG. 

Daily OMI ranged between 68 and 89 g kg -0.75 liveweight and was not affected by 

GI (p = 0.120). Nevertheless, LWG decreased from GI1 (101 g d -1 ) to GI6 (70 g d-1 ; 

p < 0.001) maybe due to higher physical activity of sheep at highest GIs. GI effects 

differed between years (p < 0.01 for both parameters) depending on the amount 

and distribution of rainfall. Across all years, mean daily LWG per hectare linearly increased 

from GI1 to GI5 (p < 0.001), but was similar at GI5 and GI6. Moreover, OMi 

of GI5 and GI6 sheep during the 90-d-grazing period reached 763 and 985 kg ha -1 , 

equivalent to 58 % and 75 % of the mean annual herbage production, respectively. 

Increasing GI raises output per unit of land area and hence, income for farmers. However, 

herbage mass at the end of the grazing period limits further increases in LWG 

at very high GIs and is insufficient to prevent soil erosion during winter months, and 

thus to maintain long-term grassland productivity. 

Keywords: Grazing, inner Mongolia, sheep, stocking rate 

Contact Address: Uta Dickhoefer, University of Hohenheim, Livestock Nutrition and Rangeland 

Management in the Tropics and Subtropics, Fruwirthstr. 31, 70599 Stuttgart, Germany, e-mail: 

Uta.Dickhoefer@uni-hohenheim.de 

29

Animals 

Effects of Alternating versus Continuous Grazing on Feed Intake 

and Performance of Sheep in the Inner Mongolian Steppe, China 

JUN HAO, BRITTA M. BÖSING, LIJUN LIN, ANDREAS SUSENBETH, 

UTA DICKHOEFER 


Germany 

Many studies evaluated the effects of different grazing management systems (GS) on 

biomass production and the nutritional quality of the rangeland vegetation. Less work 

has been done on their effects on feed intake and performance of grazing animals. We 

therefore analysed the effects of two GS on digestibility of ingested organic matter 

(dOM), organic matter intake (OMI), and liveweight gain (LWG) of sheep in the Inner 

Mongolian steppe and whether they may differ between grazing intensities (GI) due 

to differences in the amount and quality of herbage on offer. 

A grazing experiment was established in the Xilin River Basin of Inner Mongolia 

(E 116° 42’; N 43°38’) in 2005 that tested two different GS and six different GI from 

very light to very heavy grazing. While in the alternating grazing system, grazing and 

hay-making were alternated annually between two adjacent plots, sheep grazed the 

same plots every year in the continuous grazing system. In July, August, and September 

2009 and 2010, four sheep per plot were selected to determine feces excretion on 

5 d per month using the external marker titanium dioxide, while dOM was estimated 

from fecal crude protein concentrations. Sheep were weighed at the beginning of each 

month to determine their LWG. 

Across both study years, GS did not affect dOM (p = 0.101), OMI (p = 0.381), and 

LWG of sheep (p = 0.701). However, LWG of sheep decreased with increasing GI 

(p = 0.014). Nevertheless, there were no significant interactions between GS and GI 

for all measured parameters (p > 0.05), indicating that differences between GS were 

similar at all GI and/or that alternating grazing was not able to compensate for the 

negative effects of very high GI on animal performance. 

In summary, our study showed that despite positive effects on herbage, alternating 

grazing does not increase dOM, OMI, and hence, LWG of sheep irrespective of GI. 

Keywords: Feed intake, grazing system, growth rates, ruminant 




30


Variety, Harvest Date after Planting, and Fraction of Napier Grass 

Influence in vitro Gas Production 

TERRY ANSAH 1 ,HANNE HELENE HANSEN 2 ,EMMANUEL L. K. OSAFO 3 , 

IDA K. HINDERICHSEN 2 

1Harper Adams University College, Animal Production, Welfare and Veterinary Sciences 

Department, United Kingdom 

2University of Copenhagen, Dept. of Large Animal Sciences, Denmark 

3Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology, Dept. of Animal Science, Ghana 

An experiment was conducted to assess the effect of variety (V), harvest date (HD) 

and plant fraction (PF) on in vitro gas production (IVGP) of Napier grass cultivated 

and harvested in the humid zone of Ghana. The varieties were Local, 16798, 16786 

and 16840. Except for the Local variety, all were improved varieties from ILCA 

(now ILRI). The HD was at 60, 90 and 120 days after planting and leaf and stem 

fractionswere tested separately. A randomised 4*3*2 factorial design was used to 

evaluate the amount and rate of IVGP using the automated AnkomRF system. 

The results from IVGP showed multi-phasic curves indicating differential microbial 

degradation rates. Therefore the results were separated into three phases (0–7, 7.5– 

24.5 and 25–48 hours) based on the mean rate of gas production. Effects of V, HD 

and PF and interactions on amount and rate of IVGP were tested with linear models 

(significance: p < 0.05). There was significant difference in the rate of IVGP in 

phase III among varieties with V16798 showing highest values. Rate of V and HD 

significantly interacted in phases II and III. V and PF interaction was significant in 

phase III for rate. There was a significant difference in absolute IVGP after 48 hours, 

with V16798 highest. There was significant difference in the rate for HD in all 3 

phases. The rate was highest for HD120 in phase I and HD60 higher in phase II 

and III. Interaction between HD and PF was significant in phase I and II for rate of 

IVGP. Total amount decreased with increase in HD (60>90>120). The difference 

in absolute IVGP was significant for HD after 48 hours. There was a significant 

difference in the rate of IVGP for PF in all 3 phases. The rate of IVGP was higher for 

stem in phase I and II, with the leaf taking over in phase III. The overall IVGP for the 

PF was higher for the leaf but the difference was not significant. 

The study revealed that improved and local varieties degraded differentially with large 

differences in PF and HD and could potentially provide complementary fermentation 

substrate throughout 48 hours. 

Keywords: AnkomRF gas production system, mean rate of gas production, napier 

grass variety 

Contact Address: Terry Ansah, Harper Adams University College, Animal Production, Welfare 

and Veterinary Sciences Department, Edgmond, Newport-Shropshire, United Kingdom, e-mail: 

ansahterry@yahoo.com 

31

Animals 

Influence of Plantation Species on Quality and Quantity of 

Honey Prodution 

SUNDAY ADEDUNTAN 

The Federal University of Technology Akure, Dept. of Forestry and Wood Technology, 

Nigeria 

This study was carried out to assess the influence of tree species on the quality (taste, 

aroma, ash content, protein content, moisture content, density and viscosity) and 

quantity (yield) of honey production. Three mono-species plantation (Tectona grandis, 

Cassia siamea, Eucalyptus glubulus) situated at the Forest Research Institute of 

Nigeria, Ibadan, Oyo State, were used for the study. Kenya Tor bar hives replicated 

three times were placed in each of the plantations for a period of 20 weeks. Monitoring 

of the hives was carried out at two weeks interval. At the end of 20 weeks 

the honey combs were harvested. Extraction was carried out manually and proximate 

analysis was conducted to test for the taste, viscosity, aroma, ash content, protein 

content, and moisture content. The result of the analysis revealed that the yield of 

honey was significantly (p ≤ 0.05) higher in E. glubulus plantation (522 ml) while the 

yield was significantly (p ≤ 0.05) lower in T. grandis plantation (322 ml). The honey 

obtained from T. grandis plantation had the best taste, aroma and texture, while the 

honey obtained from the E. glubulus plantation had the least acceptable taste, aroma 

and texture. The ash content of the honey from the E. glubulus plantation was significantly 

higher (1.8 cp). The viscosity of the honey from the T. grandis plantation was 

significantly higher (715 cp) than the one of the two other plantations (603 cp and 555 

cp) Unite Cunti Poisie. The protein content of honey from the C. siamea plantation 

was significantly (p ≤ 0.05) higher than the protein content of the honey obtained 

from the other plantations. It was concluded that the higher the yield the lower the 

quality of honey that was produced and vice versa. 

Keywords: Colony, honey, tree plantation, quality, viscosity, yield 

Contact Address: Sunday Adeduntan, The Federal University of Technology Akure, Dept. of Forestry 

and Wood Technology, Akure, Nigeria, e-mail: niyi_gbenga@yahoo.co.uk 

32


Effects of Rangeland Management on Soil Properties in a 

Grassland and a Bush Savannah, South Africa 

ALEXANDRA SANDHAGE-HOFMANN 1 ,ELMARIE KOTZÉ 2 ,CHRIS CDU PREEZ 2 , 

WULF AMELUNG 1 

1University of Bonn, Inst. Crop Sci. and Res. Conserv. (INRES) - Soil Science, Germany 

2University of the Free State, Dept. of Soil, Crop and Climate Sciences, South Africa 

The grassland biome and the bush savannah of South Africa are the major resources 

for livestock farming; yet, the soils of these rangelands are increasingly threatened 

by overgrazing. The aim of the present study was to investigate how soil properties 

respond to intensified rangeland management under different property right and 

management system. For this purpose we sampled different types of rangeland under 

communal (continuous grazing), commercial (rotational grazing) and landreform 

(mixture of grazing systems) farming, and within each of these systems we differentiated 

good, moderate and poor rangeland conditions along a gradient of increasing 

grazing pressure with decreasing distance to the water points. The analyses comprised 

the assessment of C, N and inorganic nutrient contents as well as physical fractionation 

(aggregates, particulate organic matter). The results showed differences between 

the bush savannah and the grassland in the response of the soils to different rangeland 

management. In the grassland, the commercial farms exhibited higher nutrient contents 

for especially C, N and Mg than the other farm types. The communal farms were 

generally depleted in the respective nutrient stocks. The nutrient depletion increased 

from good to poor rangeland conditions, i.e., with increasing grazing pressure. Along 

that line there was an increased breakdown of macroaggregates with losses of the C 

and N stored therein. In the bush savannah heavy grazing removed more or less all 

vegetation at the poor sites nearby the water points in communal farms. As a consequence, 

C, N and most nutrients were depleted. But, and in contrast to the grassland 

biome, the moderate and partly also the good rangelands exhibited elevated nutrient 

stocks in the very surface soil (0–5 cm) under intensified grazing pressure, and 

bush encroachment in the communal and landreform farms, which exceeded those of 

the commercial ones and the nature reserve. We attribute these findings to increasing 

bush encroachment at the communal and landreform farms, which is negative 

for cattle feeding but apparently offers a chance for improving the soils under these 

management systems. 

Keywords: Bush savannah, grassland, overgrazing, rangeland management, soil degradation, 

soil improvement 

Contact Address: Alexandra Sandhage-Hofmann, University of Bonn, Inst. Crop Sci. and Res. Conserv. 

(INRES) - Soil Science, Nussallee 13, 53115 Bonn, Germany, e-mail: sandhage@uni-bonn.de 

33

Animals 

NIRS Prediction of Neutral Detergent Fiber Digestibility (NDFD) 

of Tropical Forages 

MARTHA LUCÍA MOLANO 1 ,MARIA LUISA CORTEZ 2 ,PATRICIA AVILA 2 , 

SIRIWAN MARTENS 2 ,LUZ STELLA MUÑOZ 1 

1National University of Colombia (UNAL), Dept. of Animal Science, Colombia 

2International Center for Tropical Agriculture (CIAT), Tropical Forages, Colombia 

Near infrared reflectance spectroscopy (NIRS) is a method to obtain rapidly information 

on plant compounds at low cost. It is environmentally friendly as it avoids the use 

of chemical reagents for analysis. Neutral detergent fiber digestibility (NDFD) is used 

to estimate energy content of feedstuffs and also as an important criterion in forage 

breeding. Thus the aim of this work was to develop a NIRS calibration equation for 

NDFD of tropical forages as a necessary step towards a quick tool for decision making 

in breeding and in diet formulation to increase productivity on farm. The study was 

conducted with 238 forage samples (154 grasses and 84 legumes, of which 42 were 

herbaceous and 42 shrubs). Different plant parts were collected with different cutting 

ages, vegetative stage and from varying localities forming a group with a high heterogeneity 

(CV of 36.63 %). They were then scanned and subject to standard laboratory 

analysis. The groups were analysed by the mathematical treatment 2,4,4,1, complete 

wavelength, and the mathematical model MPLS (Modified Partial Least Squares). 

The results of the equation shows an R2 of 0.95, error of 2.1, 3.2 and 3.6, for standard 

error of the calibration (SEC), standard error of cross validation (SECV) and standard 

error for prediction (SEPcalibration) and the RPD (ratio of performance deviation) 

of 4.4 meaning a high predictive ability. This is associated with a correlation coefficient 

of 0.96 with a P


Issues and Challenges of Current Agricultural Patterns in India: 

A Step Towards Sustainability 

ITISHREE PATTNAIK, JHARNA PATHAK 

Gujarat Institute of Development Research, India 

The gains of the green revolution in India of the late sixties, which led to a phenomenal 

increase in crop yield, are slowly losing ground. Intensive agriculture under the green 

revolution led to depletion of soil productivity, water logging, salinity and ground 

water degradation. High-valued crop production and diversification with commercial 

value chains, particularly by large farmers, especially for export markets, may also 

undermine resource sustainability. With the recent spurt in food prices in the wake 

of other uncertainties arising out of declining growth in global food production, financial 

and economic slowdown, climatic variability besides massive land grabbing 

in parts of the developing world, the challenge is to provide for the food security of 

75–105 million new poor globally without depleting land or water resources. In this 

context, this paper tries to analyse the negative externalities of intensive agriculture 

in the face of promoting food security to the ever growing population. The study will 

examine various approaches to meet these challenges. One such method would be 

integrated farming systems, which are pro-poor, pro-environment and believed to ensure 

economically beneficial and environmentally friendly agriculture. The study will 

examine organic farming as an approach to address these challenges. There are ample 

evidences in the literature to suggest that this would be adopted as an approach to 

promote economically profitable and environmental friendly agriculture. Using empirical 

studies already carried out by scholars in India, this paper aims to understand 

how far such an intervention would promote higher yield and ecologically sustainable 

agriculture. It also highlights the need for empowering agriculture extension services 

to promote scientific knowledge to farmers blended with their traditional wisdom. 

Keywords: Integrated farming, organic farming, sustainable agriculture 

Contact Address: Itishree Pattnaik, Gujarat Institute of Development Research, GIDR, In front of Vodafone 

Tower, 380060 Ahmedabad, India, e-mail: itipattnaik7@gmail.com 

35

Animals 

Rangelands Ecosystems of the Tibetan Plateau: Their Current 

Status and Sustainable Development Strategies 

SHANG ZHANHUAN, R.J. LONG, L.M.DING, X.S.GUO 

Lanzhou University, China 

Rangelands on the Tibetan plateau support a unique society and culture on the roof of 

world. Climate change is predicted to worsen the already hars environmental conditions 

on the Tibetan plateau. Kobresia meadow is the dominant vegetation on Tibetan 

plateau, and yak is the key livestock species. Already today, degradation of rangelands 

and deterioration of livelihoods lead to herders out-migration. Livestock numbers 

have increased over the last 60 years, though stagnated during the last 10 years; 

especially yak numbers decreased due to warming and degradation effects. Rangeland 

degradation is expected to increase with global warming effects, especially in winter. 

Spots of barren land provoke heavy carbon losses from top-soil: the conversion of 

1 ha alpine meadow to barren land result in a loss of 10 cm top soil and about 20–46 

tons of soil organic carbon (SOC). It is estimated that close to 5 Mio hectares barren 

land exist in the headwater region of the Yangtze and Yellow river on the Tibetan 

plateau, which are estimated to have lost around 247 Mio tons SOC. In consequence of 

the above, ecological restoration is of first importance to improve Tibetan livelihood. 

Seed banks for rangeland species and active re-sowing of barren land is important to 

restore degraded areas. In addition, the pastoral value chain must be integrated, and 

large, privately managed areas should be dedicated to forage production. Supplying 

enough and nutritious feed and enhancing the value of livestock products is expected 

to enable a reduction of livestock numbers and increase herders’ income. In addition, 

fostering the development of biological control of rangeland pests (e.g., grasshoppers) 

and keeping the ecosystem in balance is needed as well. Overall, the philosophy of 

sustainable development needs to be incorporated into the regional policy and become 

as important as economic development. In particular, more ‘bottom-up’ programs and 

approaches need to be applied for the improvement of livestock and rangeland management, 

to ensure the effectiveness of government investments in maintaining the 

productivity of the Tibetan rangelands. 

Keywords: Alpine meadow, degradation, restoration, sustainable development, 

tibetan plateau 

Contact Address: Shang Zhanhuan, Lanzhou University, No. 768 Jiayuguan West Road, 

730020 Lanzhou, China, e-mail: shangzhh@lzu.edu.cn 

36

Animal breeding and health 


SAMUEL MBUKU, ALEXANDER KAHI, ISAAC SANGA KOSGEY: 

Management Strategies for Small Ruminants among Pastoralists 

in Semi-Arid Kenya: Do They Lead to Genetic Progress? 39 

ANNE FISCHER, BETH SHAPIRO, ANNE MURIUKI, MARTIN 

HELLER, CHRISTIANE SCHNEE, ERIK BONGCAM-RUDLOFF, 

EDY VILEI, JOACHIM FREY, JOERG JORES: 

The Origin of the ‘Mycoplasma mycoides Cluster’ Coincides 

with Domestication of Ruminants 40 

CHARLES MOSES LYIMO, ANNETT WEIGEND, ULRIKE 

JANSSEN-TAPKEN, 

WEIGEND: 

PETER LAWRENCE MSOFFE, STEFFEN 

Assessing Genetic Diversity of Five Tanzanian Chicken 

Ecotypes Using Microsatellite Markers and Mitochondrial 

DNA D-loop Sequencing 

T.O. OKENO, ALEXANDER KAHI, KURT-JOHANNES PETERS: 

Genetic and Economic Evaluation of Alternative Breeding 

Objectives for Adoption in the Smallholder Indigenous Chicken 

41 

Improvement Programme 

ERICK OUMA MUNGUBE, MALO NZIOKA: 

Effect of Deltamethrin on Argas persicus in Selected Clusters 

42 

Within Machakos and Kitui Counties, Kenya 

JOHN ILUKOR: 

Analysis of Animal Health Service Delivery in Uganda: An 

43 

Application of the Social Network Approach 44 

Posters 45 

IMMACULATE OMONDI, ISABELLE BALTENWECK, KERSTIN 

ZANDER, SIEGFRIED BAUER: 

Letting Farmers Decide: Supporting Dairy Farming through 

Delivery of Preferred Breeding Services 45 

THOMAS KAINGA MUASYA, KURT-JOHANNES PETERS, 

ALEXANDER KAHI: 

Genetic Similarity and Environmental Sensitivity for Milk 

and Fertility Traits in Holstein-Friesian by Herd Hierarchy 46 

37

Animals 

38 

EVANS D. ILATSIA, ALICE WARUKIRA MURAGE: 

Determinants of Access to Breeding Services by Smallholder 

Dairy Farmers in Kenya 47 

LUTFI M-A MUSA, MOHAMED-KHAIR A. AHMED, IBRAHIM 

A. ISHAG, IKHLAS NOUR, KURT-JOHANNES PETERS: 

Phenotypic Characterisation of Sudanese Horse Ecotypes 48 

AZAGE TEGEGNE, AWOT ESTIFANOS, ASRAT TERA, DIRK 

HOEKSTRA: 

Technological Options and Approaches to Improve Smallholder 

Access to Desirable Animal Genetic Material for Dairy 

Development: Experience with Hormonal Oestrus Synchronisation 

and Mass Insemination in Ethiopia 49 

MUHAMMAD TARIQ, ABDUL BASIT KHAN, MUHAMMAD 

YOUNAS, EVA SCHLECHT: 

Body Measurements and Body Condition Scoring as Parameters 

for Estimation of Live-Weight in Nilli Ravi Buffalo 50 

BADAR A. AL-QAMASHOUI, STEFFEN WEIGEND, HENNER 

SIMIANER, OSMAN MAHGOUB: 

Assessment of Genetic Diversity and Population Structure of 

Omani Local Chicken Using 29 Microsatellites 51 

NGOC HIEU VU: 

Livestock Genetic Resources in Vietnam: Preservation and 

Management 52 

ITIDAL ABDALLAH BUSHARAH, MUSA TIBIN MUSA: 

Botulism in Livestock in North Darfur State 53 

NASREEN OMER MUSA, KAMAL ELDIN HASSAN ALI ELTOM, 

SALAH M. ELAWAD, AHMED A. GAMEEL: 

Causes of Condemnations of Sheep Carcasses in Abattoirs at 

Khartoum 54 

MUHAMMAD 

YOUNAS: 

ASIF RAZA, EVA SCHLECHT, MUHAMMAD 

Comparative in vitro Efficacy of Selected Medical Plants from 

Cholistan Against Gastrointestinal Helminthes of Sheep and 

Goats 

LOK NATH PAUDEL, UDO TER MEULEN, CLEMENS WOLLNY, 

MATTHIAS GAULY: 

Livestock Bio-diversity vis-à-vis Food and Nutritional Secu- 

55 

rity: Pertinent Issues in Livestock Development in Nepal 56

Animal breeding and health — Oral Presentations 

Management Strategies for Small Ruminants among Pastoralists 

in Semi-Arid Kenya: Do They Lead to Genetic Progress? 

SAMUEL MBUKU 1 ,ALEXANDER KAHI 2 ,ISAAC SANGA KOSGEY 2 

1Kenya Agricultural Research Institute, National Beef Research Centre, Kenya 

2Egerton University, Dept. of Animal Sciences, Kenya 

This study was carried out in Marsabit County of northern Kenya among the Rendille 

and Gabra communities, and aimed at characterising management strategies in order 

to optimise and expand community-based breeding programmes for small ruminants. 

Qualitative information on milking, watering and feeding strategies were categorised 

through identification of various themes each answering the specific research questions, 

and organised into coherent categories for inference. Quantitative data generated 

from the survey, which included livestock ownership patterns and flock sizes, 

were numerically coded for the purpose of computer entry and subjected to General 

Linear Model Procedure (PROC GLM) of SAS for statistical analyses. Further, attempts 

were made to predict genetic gain in traits perceived by the pastoralists to 

be important, namely, live weight (LW) and milk yield (MY) using selection index 

procedures. The results showed that the herders owned and kept small stocks 

in multispecies herds. However, the average flock sizes differed between the Rendille 

(sheep, 141; goats, 225) and the Gabra (sheep, 88; goats, 98). Additionally, herders 

had elaborate feeding and watering regimes that were essential in the management of 

the pastoral rangelands, especially during the present times of unprecedented climate 

variability. Genetic gains in LW and MY were higher in the sires to breed sires (SS) 

than in the dams to breed sires (DS) pathway. The projected population size (3000 

does) in the nucleus would be attained in the 7 th year after the start of the breeding 

programme. In conclusion, the herders’ intricate knowledge on management of 

important genotypes was critical and should be incorporated with conventional approaches 

in planning and executing any community-based sheep and/ or goat genetic 

improvement initiatives. 

Keywords: Breeding programmes, genetic gain, herders, traits 

Contact Address: Samuel Mbuku, Kenya Agricultural Research Institute, National Beef Research Centre, 

3840 20100, Nakuru, Kenya, e-mail: sambuku2002@yahoo.com 

39

Animals 

The Origin of the ‘Mycoplasma mycoides Cluster’ Coincides with 

Domestication of Ruminants 

ANNE FISCHER 1,7 ,BETH SHAPIRO 2 ,ANNE MURIUKI 3 ,MARTIN HELLER 4 , 

CHRISTIANE SCHNEE 4 ,ERIK BONGCAM-RUDLOFF 5 ,EDY VILEI 6 , 

JOACHIM FREY 6 ,JOERG JORES 7 

1ICIPE, Research Center, Kenya 

2Pennsylvania State University, Dept. of Biology, United States 

3Kenya Agricultural Research Institute, National Horticultural Research Center, Kenya 

4Friedrich-Loeffler-Institute, Institute of Molecular Pathogenesis, Germany 

5Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Dept. of Animal Breeding and Genetics, 

Sweden 

6University of Bern, Institute of Veterinary Bacteriology, Switzerland 

7International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI), Kenya 

The ‘Mycoplasma mycoides cluster’ comprises the ruminant pathogens Mycoplasma 

mycoides subsp. mycoides, the causative agent of contagious bovine pleuropneumonia 

(CBPP), Mycoplasma capricolum subsp. capripneumoniae the agent of contagious 

caprine pleuropneumonia (CCPP), Mycoplasma capricolum subsp. capricolum, Mycoplasma 

leachii and Mycoplasma mycoides subsp. capri. These pathogens are obligate 

parasites of goats, sheep and cattle and cause diseases characterised by clinical 

symptoms including pneumonia, mastitis, septicaemia, meningitis, wound infections, 

and arthritis. CBPP and CCPP are major livestock diseases and impact the agricultural 

sector especially in developing countries through reduced food-supply (animal losses) 

and international trade restrictions. In addition, these diseases are a threat to diseasefree 

countries. Several studies have attempted to resolve the evolutionary relationships 

between the members of the ‘M. mycoides cluster’ or to infer the evolutionary 

history of single members within the cluster. However, a comprehensive overview 

of the evolutionary history of the ‘M. mycoides cluster’ and genetic relationship between 

populations is still lacking. We used a multilocus sequence typing (MLST) 

approach to gain insights into the demographic history of and phylogenetic relationships 

among the members of the ‘M. mycoides cluster’. We partially sequenced seven 

housekeeping genes representing a total of 3,816 base pairs from 118 members of the 

‘M. mycoides cluster’ as well as five strains isolated from wild Caprinae, spanning 

their geographic distribution and isolated over the last 100 years. Strikingly, the origin 

of the ‘M. mycoides cluster’ dates to about 10,000 years ago, suggesting that the 

establishment and spread of the cluster coincided with livestock domestication. In 

addition, we show that hybridisation and recombination may be important factors in 

the evolutionary history of the cluster. 

Keywords: Capricolum, hybridisation, recombination, mulfilocus sequence typing 

40 

Contact Address: Anne Fischer, ICIPE, Research Center, Nairobi, Kenya, e-mail: afischer@icipe.org


Assessing Genetic Diversity of Five Tanzanian Chicken Ecotypes 

Using Microsatellite Markers and Mitochondrial DNA D-loop 

Sequencing 

CHARLES MOSES LYIMO 1 ,ANNETT WEIGEND 1 ,ULRIKE JANSSEN-TAPKEN 1 , 

PETER LAWRENCE MSOFFE 2 ,STEFFEN WEIGEND 1 

1Institute of Farm Animal Genetics of the Friedrich-Loeffler-Institute, Breeding and 

Genetic Resources, Germany 

2Sokoine University of Agriculture, Veterinary Medicine, Tanzania 

The study aimed to evaluate the genetic diversity of Tanzanian chicken populations through 

phylogenetic relationship, and to trace the history of Tanzanian indigenous chickens. A total 

of 196 individuals of five ecotypes of Tanzanian local chicken (Ching’wekwe, Kuchi, Morogoro 

Medium, Pemba and Unguja) from eight different regions (Mwanza, Geita, Shinyanga, 

Tabora, Tanga, Morogoro, Unguja and Pemba) were used. The diversity study was based on 

morphological measurements, i.e. wing length, shank length, shank thickness, keel length and 

body weight, and 29 microsatellite markers proposed by ISAG/FAO advisory group for animal 

genetic diversity. Additionally, the degree of shared mtDNA haplotypes from the D-loop 

region was analysed to disclose likely maternal origin of Tanzanian indigenous chicken. A 

Principal Component Analysis of morphological measures distinguished individuals most by 

limb size and body weight. Morogoro Medium, Pemba and Unguja grouped together, while 

Ching’wekwe stood out due to their unproportional short shanks. Kuchi formed an independent 

group due to their comparably long limbs. Microsatellite analysis revealed three clusters 

of Tanzanian chicken populations: Ching‘wekwe clustered together with Morogoro medium, 

Unguja and Pemba ecotypes made up a common cluster distinct from Morogoro medium and 

Ching’wekwe cluster, while Kuchi ecotype formed an independent cluster. According to reference 

mtDNA haplotypes, previously described in the literature by Liu and colleagues, the 

sampled Tanzanian chickens encompassed two haplogroups of different genealogical origins, 

i.e. the respective haplogroups D and E which originated from Southeast Asia and Indian 

subcontinent. The majority (95.2 %) of Kuchi were found in haplogroup E, and in particular 

clustering with the E1 haplotype (76.2 %). Latter is identical to haplotype A3 described by Oka 

and colleagues that contained Shamo game birds sampled from Shikoku Island of Japan in the 

Kōchi Prefecture. In all three analyses, Kuchi formed an outstanding group from the other four 

Tanzanian chicken ecotypes. The overlap with haplotypes from Shamo in Japan and the name 

“Kuchi” which is very similar to the Prefecture Kōchi implies that Kuchi might be imported to 

Tanzania from Japan. Haplotype network analysis of mtDNA suggests that Tanzanian chicken 

originated from the Indian subcontinent and Southeast Asia, respectively. 

Keywords: Genetic diversity, indigenous chickens, East Africa 

Contact Address: Steffen Weigend, Institute of Farm Animal Genetics of the Friedrich-Loeffler- 

Institute, Breeding and Genetic Resources, Höltystrasse 10, 31535 Neustadt-Mariensee, Germany, 

e-mail: steffen.weigend@fli.bund.de 

41

Animals 

Genetic and Economic Evaluation of Alternative Breeding 

Objectives for Adoption in the Smallholder Indigenous Chicken 

Improvement Programme 

T.O. OKENO 1 ,ALEXANDER KAHI 2 ,KURT-JOHANNES PETERS 1 

1Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, Dept. of Crops and Livestock Sciences, Germany 


The aim of this study was to genetically and economically evaluate the breeding objectives 

for adoption in the smallholder indigenous chicken (IC) breeding programme 

in Kenya. A closed three-tier nucleus breeding programme with three breeding objectives 

targeting within breed selection was simulated. The breeding objectives differed 

based on the end marketable products. They included IC dual-purpose (ICD) 

representing the smallholder IC producers’ breeding goal for both eggs and meat production, 

IC layer (ICL), and broiler (ICB) simulating alternative breeding objectives 

for IC egg and meat pure lines, respectively. A flock size of 48,000 breeding hens 

with 1 %, 29 % and 70 % in nucleus, multiplier and commercial flock, respectively, 

was modelled using deterministic approach to assess the genetic and economic merit 

of each breeding objective. The results indicated that cocks were the main contributors 

of genetic gains compared to hens reflecting their ability to transmit superior 

genes faster within the population than hens. The genetic response after one round of 

selection for individual traits differed between the breeding objectives. The highest 

genetic gains for egg number (2.71 eggs) and growth traits (average daily gain, 1.74 g, 

and live weight at 16 weeks, 58.0 g) were realised in ICL and ICB, respectively. The 

genetic responses for age at first egg were desirable in all the breeding objectives 

while that for fertility and hatchability were only favourable in ICD and ICL. Faecal 

egg count had low but desirable response to selection compared to antibody response 

which had negative genetic gains. The ICD reported the highest increase in feed 

intake (0.19 g d -1 ) while ICL had the least (0.12 g d -1 ). The ICB was the most profitable 

breeding objective while ICL was the least. The alternative breeding objectives 

ICL and ICB were found to be superior in genetic improvement for egg production 

and growth traits, respectively, compared to smallholder farmers breeding objective 

(ICD). Adoption of the breeding objective targeting improvement of IC for meat production 

was recommended. However, this must be accompanied by improving the 

production environment realise high profitability. 

Keywords: Breeding programme, three-tier nucleus breeding, dual-purpose, layer, 

broiler, Kenya 

Contact Address: T.O. Okeno, Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, Dept. of Crops and Livestock Sciences, 

Philippstraße 13 Haus 9, 10115 Berlin, Germany, e-mail: otieno24@yahoo.ca 

42


Effect of Deltamethrin on Argas persicus in Selected Clusters 

Within Machakos and Kitui Counties, Kenya 

ERICK OUMA MUNGUBE, MALO NZIOKA 

Kenya Agricultural Research Institute (KARI), Animal Production Research Division, 

Kenya 

A study on prevalence of argasid ticks and their response to deltamethrin treatment 

was undertaken in 4 purposively selected farmer groups (2 each for Katangi and 

Munyumbuni cluster) between March to December 2009. The groups were sensitized 

before the pre-control argasid tick populations were established. Two synthetic 

pyrethroids, deltamethrin (Ectomin®, UltraVetis, Animal health) and deltamethrin 

(Decatix®, Coopers Ltd, Kenya), both effective acaricides, were used to spray on 

chicken houses where birds were separately housed. This was after randomising the 

insecticide by group. Decatix® was used on the chicken houses belonging to members 

of the Nzewani women group in Kithito and Wikwatyo group in Munyumbuni, while 

Ectomin® was used on houses of Ngwate Ngukwate group of Kithito and Mituki ya 

Iveti group of Munyumbuni. Since both Ectomin and Decatix have concentrations of 

5% w/v, a double strength solution of 2 ml (0.1 mg) of acaricide in 10 lites of water 

was used instead of the recommended dilution of 1ml (0.05 mg) for every 10 litres 

of water used for spraying animals. The insecticide was then sprayed on the chicken 

housing units using a knapsack sprayer in the morning before temperature rise during 

the day. Initial spraying was done weekly for the first month, biweekly regimens 

were adopted after the soft tick population dropped substantially. Two of the groups 

were purely women groups while the other two had mixed membership. A total of 

39 members participated in the study, each owning between 10 to 40 chickens. The 

argasid tick population on chicken houses was high and ranged between 0 to 80 with 

participants in the Katangi cluster having slightly higher tick populations than those 

in the Munyumbuni cluster. The commencement of spraying Ectomin and Decatix 

resulted in a significant drop in argasid population in the participating households as 

was revealed during the monitoring visits. However the ticks were never eradicated 

owing to their unique biology. The study showed that synthetic pyrethroids are quite 

effective against argasid ticks and efforts should be made to synchronise soft tick 

control with that of hard ticks. 

Keywords: Argasid ticks, indigenous chickens, tick control 

Contact Address: Erick Ouma Mungube, Kenya Agricultural Research Institute, Animal Health Research 

Division, Kari Katumani Research Centre P.O. Box 340-90100, 90100 Machakos, Kenya, 

e-mail: wamateka@hotmail.com 

43

Animals 

Analysis of Animal Health Service Delivery in Uganda: An 

Application of the Social Network Approach 

JOHN ILUKOR 

University of Hohenheim, Institute of Agricultural Economics and Social Sciences in the 


As a result of continued fiscal challenges from late 1980s to date, most developing 

countries liberalised the provision of most of the animal health services. Clinical 

services are provided by the private sector while preventive services like vaccination 

and disease surveillance are being provided by public and community sector (NGOs) 

without coordination. As a result, many actors of varying capacities, interests and 

relevance are involved in providing animal health services. With resurgence of infectious 

diseases, increased economic and health risks especially to the rural poor, there 

is need to understand relational patterns of actors to ensure good governance in the animal 

health sector so as to address emerging and re-emerging animal diseases risks in 

given political environment. This paper applies social network analytical tools to map 

out actors involved in delivery of both clinical and preventive veterinary services in 

both pastoral and intensive livestock productions systems, rank their influence levels, 

and elicit governance challenges. Preliminary results reveal that the important social 

relations in animal health service delivery are: cooperation of the private veterinarians 

and paravets, private veterinarians and government veterinarians in intensive production 

systems, while in pastoral areas it is the cooperative effort of NGOs, government 

veterinarians, and community based animal health workers (CAHWs). However, low 

level of education among CAHWs, absence of government staff, and poor market 

infrastructure in pastoral areas, and absence of relevant incentives and policies to 

strengthen the existing workable social relations are limiting factors to service delivery. 

At local government level, staff absenteeism and corruption are major threats 

to animal health service delivery. At national level, conflicts between technical staff 

and administrative staff of the ministry of agriculture, conflict between agricultural 

ministry and the national agricultural advisory services have greatly affected animal 

health service delivery. We argue that the government intervention should focus on 

increasing staff in pastoral areas by recruiting diploma staff other than degree staff, 

improve on personnel management, invest in infrastructure and pass policy governing 

the veterinary and para-veterinary relations. 

Keywords: Curative services, preventive services, social network analysis, veterinarians, 

paravets 

Contact Address: John Ilukor, University of Hohenheim, Institute of Agricultural Economics and Social 

Sciences in the Tropics and Subtropics, Wollgrasweg 43, 70599 Stuttgart, Germany, e-mail: john. 

ilukor@gmail.com 

44

Animal breeding and health — Posters 

Letting Farmers Decide: Supporting Dairy Farming through 

Delivery of Preferred Breeding Services 

IMMACULATE OMONDI 1 ,ISABELLE BALTENWECK 2 ,KERSTIN ZANDER 3 , 

SIEGFRIED BAUER 1 

1Justus-Liebig University Giessen, Dept. of Project and Regional Planning, Germany 


3Charles Darwin University, School for Environmental Research, Australia 

Africa has a deficit in animal products and the situation is projected to worsen because 

of the increasing gap between supply and demand. There is, therefore, a need 

for change in the manner in which livestock are reared and for raising the productivity 

of individual animals on the African continent. Kenya, in its “Vision 2030,” aims 

at reducing poverty and hunger through boosting growth in agriculture and livestock 

production by 6–8 % per year. Pragmatic efforts and approaches towards this goal, in 

livestock production, include sustained genetic improvement and appropriate policies, 

among others. Regarding genetic improvement artificial insemination (AI) is one of 

the superior technologies for disseminating genes within a population at a reasonable 

cost. However, after historical changes in dairy policy in Kenya, the use of the breeding 

service has continued to decline with the cost of the service escalating. Current 

policy and development efforts directed towards providing solution to the problems 

facing dairy farmers would benefit from a critical assessment and understanding of 

farmers’ preferences for attributes that could be influencing their choice of these services. 

This is pertinent in identifying important incentives, barriers and opportunities 

for policy and strategic interventions. Consequently, the study applied choice experiments, 

a multi-attribute preference eliciting method, to evaluate farmer preferences 

for AI service attributes in the milk marketing hubs in Kenya. Three hundred dairy 

farmers from three dairy hubs in western Kenya were interviewed. The data was analysed 

using multinomial logit model as well as random parameter logit models. The 

results reveal that dairy farmers derive the highest welfare gain from AI services offered 

by dairy hubs, and the highest welfare loss from local semen. The results bring 

to light the need for proper coordination and organisation of AI service, and the delivery 

of quality service. These findings are expected to inform the design of dairy 

service delivery activities that could not only reduce the barriers to farmer access to 

AI services but also improve the dairy farmers’ incomes from dairy enterprises while 

increasing milk production to meet the increasing consumer demand. 

Keywords: Artificial insemination, choice experiment, dairy services, farmer preferences 

Contact Address: Immaculate Omondi, Justus-Liebig University Giessen, Dept. of Project and Regional 

Planning, Senckenbergstr.3, 35390 Giessen, Germany, e-mail: Immaculate.Omondi@agrar. 

uni-giessen.de 

45

Animals 

Genetic Similarity and Environmental Sensitivity for Milk and 

Fertility Traits in Holstein-Friesian by Herd Hierarchy 

THOMAS KAINGA MUASYA 1 ,KURT-JOHANNES PETERS 1 ,ALEXANDER KAHI 2 



Population wide progeny test schemes in dairy cattle are being modified towards testing 

in selected contract herds. This approach is advantageous due to lower cost and 

ability to record many more traits because the environment is controlled. However, 

apart from achieving accurate differentiation of superior genotypes in superior environments, 

genotype by environment interaction between the selection and production 

environment should be considered. Milk yield and fertility traits records of 5,468 

cows, daughters of 251 sires, born between 1990 and 2005 were used to analyse genetic 

similarity, environmental sensitivity, rank and additive genetic correlation in the 

Holstein-Friesian population in Kenya for 305-day milk yield, age at first calving and 

calving interval between the two environments. The genetic link between selection 

environment and production environment was 0.49. Sire rank and additive genetic 

correlations ranged from 0.16–0.45 and 0.15–0.46, respectively. Top ten common 

sires in the two environments from environment specific and joint genetic analysis 

were 2, 3, 1, and 4, 5, 6, respectively, for age at first calving, calving interval and 305day 

milk yield. Genetic change in the production environment as a result of selection 

in the nucleus was 0.17 days, 0.74 days and 0.21 kg for age at first calving, calving 

interval and milk yield, respectively. The low genetic and sire rank correlations led 

to few common top ten bulls due to severe sire re-ranking across the environments. 

Genetic evaluation based on pooled data resulted in a higher proportion of top ten 

common sires that ranked highly in the selection and production environments. In developing 

countries where population wide recording and testing is not possible due to 

financial and infrastructure constraints, successful implementation of progeny testing 

in selected contract herds requires the breeding objective of the selection environment 

to be defined for the farmers in the production environment. The existence of strong 

genetic links between the selection and production environment can form the basis to 

evaluate the compatibility of the breeding objective of the selection environment with 

needs of farmers in the production environment. 

Keywords: Compatibility, contract herds, correlated response, selection differential 

Contact Address: Thomas Kainga Muasya, Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, Dept. of Crops and Livestock 

Sciences, Philippstraße 13 Haus 9, D-10115 Berlin, Germany, e-mail: muasyakt@yahoo.com 

46


Determinants of Access to Breeding Services by Smallholder Dairy 

Farmers in Kenya 

EVANS D. ILATSIA 1 ,ALICE WARUKIRA MURAGE 2 

1Kenya Agricultural Research Institute (KARI), National Animal Husbandry Research 

Centre, Kenya 

2Kenya Agricultural Research Institute (KARI), Agricultural Economics, Kenya 

Smallholder dairy farming is considered one of the most important activities in the 

agricultural sector in Kenya. It is a source of income and livelihood for up to 800,000 

smallholder farmers who supply for more than 50 % of the total milk output. There 

are several factors that influence farmers’ access to various livestock services. It is 

therefore important to isolate these factors and identify intervention strategies that 

enhance service accessibility. The objective of this study was therefore to examine 

the determinants of smallholder dairy farmers’ use of breeding services in Kenya, 

taking the case of Nyandarua and Kiambu counties. Data was collected through semistructured 

interviews with 140 randomly selected respondents. The breeding services 

considered were artificial insemination (AI), natural bull service, and a combination 

of AI and bull services. A multinomial logit econometric model was used, fitting 

AI as the base category. There was a negative relationship between higher levels of 

education, herd size, and location and the use of bull service. However, education, 

herd size and credit were positively related to the combined option. The results indicate 

that uptake of AI services after the liberalisation of the sector is influenced by 

other factors besides costs-related factors. Factors such as accessibility of breeding 

services and product markets influenced the farmers’ decision to choose among the 

available breeding services. The effectiveness of the breeding services in terms of successful 

conception also played a big role in the choice. A need for concerted efforts 

to increase farmers’ knowledge on utilisation and effectiveness of available breeding 

services is imperative. 

Keywords: Access, breeding services, Kenya, smallholder farmers 

Contact Address: Evans D. Ilatsia, Kenya Agricultural Research Institute (KARI), National Animal 

Husbandry Research Centre, Box 25, 20117 Naivasha, Kenya, e-mail: evansilatsia@yahoo.com 

47

Animals 

Phenotypic Characterisation of Sudanese Horse Ecotypes 

LUTFI M-A MUSA 1 ,MOHAMED-KHAIR A. AHMED 1 ,IBRAHIM A. ISHAG 1 , 

IKHLAS NOUR 2 ,KURT-JOHANNES PETERS 3 

1University of Khartoum, Dept. of Genetics and Animal Breeding, Sudan 

2University of Khartoum, Dept. of Meat Production, Sudan 


In the Sudan, the diversity of agro-ecological zones, climate and cultural conditions 

has resulted in production systems with well-adapted horse ecotypes or breeds. The 

horse breeds serve numerous functions in their respective production systems and are 

bred and selected for sustainable performance. The change in living and production 

patterns has led to a drastic reduction in the numbers of Sudanese horse ecotypes 

placing them on the verge of becoming endangered. Phenotypic and genetic characterization 

to assess the existing biodiversity and differences among the Sudanese 

horse ecotypes is an essential prerequisite to facilitate the conservation and utilisation 

programme in an effective and meaningful way. However, very limited research, 

if any, is being done on equines in the Sudan, and with very limited information 

available. This is an attempt to contribute to the phenotypic characterization (body 

measurements and coat color) of the multitude of horse ecotypes in Sudan. Data 

on phenotypic measurements and descriptions representing the three main horse ecotypes 

in the country (Dongola horse, Western Sudan horse and the Hybrid horse) were 

obtained from 1051 horses, selected according to distribution of the horse population 

and accessibility. The data were classified according to ecotype and age. The body 

measurements include body weight, body length, neck length, body height, chest girth 

and ear length. They were measured using a special tape designed for horses, while 

the coat color was determined by observation. The results indicate clearly the extent 

of genetic pollution that happened, and that prompt action needs to be taken to 

conserve local genetic resources. 

Keywords: Body measurements, phenotypic characterisation, horse, Sudan 

48 

Contact Address: Lutfi M-A Musa, University of Khartoum, Dept. of Genetics and Animal Breeding, 

Khartoum, Sudan, e-mail: lutfimusa@hotmail.com


Technological Options and Approaches to Improve Smallholder 

Access to Desirable Animal Genetic Material for Dairy 

Development: Experience with Hormonal Oestrus 

Synchronisation and Mass Insemination in Ethiopia 

AZAGE TEGEGNE 1 ,AWOT ESTIFANOS 2 ,ASRAT TERA 3 ,DIRK HOEKSTRA 1 


2Tigray Agricultural Research Institute (TARI), Livestock, Ethiopia 

3South Agricultural Research Institute (SARI), Livestock, Ethiopia 

Smallholder farmers and pastoralists dominate cattle production in Ethiopia. Cattle 

serve various functions such as animal traction for crop production, milk, meat and 

manure production, provision of services, and fulfiling social obligations. Production 

is based on indigenous animals, with grazing and low level of inputs. Milk production 

from the local cows is low and average daily milk yield is around 1.5 litres. Most of 

the milk produced is used for household consumption and excess milk is processed 

into butter and marketed in small quantities. Demand for milk and milk products 

has been increasing in urban and peri-urban areas and farmers take advantage of this 

by engaging in urban and peri-urban dairy production. These farmers use improved 

dairy genotypes and better feeding, housing, and management systems. Daily milk 

yield from crossbred dairy cows ranges from 10 to 15 litres. However, due to lack of 

properly organised recording and selection system, there is shortage of good quality 

improved dairy animals. This is again exacerbated by often inefficient and ineffective 

field artificial insemination service resulting in low pregnancy rates and hence, shortage 

of good quality improved replacement dairy animals. As a result, in areas where 

there is good production and marketing opportunity, availability and exorbitant prices 

of such animals has hindered smallholder farmers from entry into the business. The 

IPMS project, in collaboration with its partners, designed a hormonal oestrus synchronisation 

and mass insemination programme to help small farmers get access to 

crossbred animals. In 2011, a total of 375 local cows were crossbred with Holstein 

Friesian semen in selected milk sheds in Tigray (200 cows) and Southern Regional 

States (175 cows). Oestrus response was 90 % and pregnancy rate averaged 62 %. A 

total of 229 crossbred calves have been born as a result of this intervention. This paper 

presents the experiences of the IPMS project in developing technological options 

and organisational and institutional arrangements required for an alternative supply 

system of dairy genetics to kick start and enhance smallholder dairy production in 

Ethiopia. The lessons learned for scaling up are also outlined. 

Keywords: Dairy, genetics, oestrus synchronisation, smallholder farmers 

Contact Address: Azage Tegegne, International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI), P.O. Box 5689, 

Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, e-mail: a.tegegne@cgiar.org 

49

Animals 

Body Measurements and Body Condition Scoring as Parameters 

for Estimation of Live-Weight in Nilli Ravi Buffalo 

MUHAMMAD TARIQ 1 ,ABDUL BASIT KHAN 2 ,MUHAMMAD YOUNAS 2 , 

EVA SCHLECHT 1 

1University of Kassel / Georg-August-Universität Göttingen, Animal Husbandry in the 


2University of Agriculture, Dept. of Livestock Management, Pakistan 

The implementation of management recommendations for Nilli Ravi buffalo in (semi- 

)commercial dairy production systems in Pakistan is often hampered by difficulties to 

determine the animals’ body weight (BW). Managerial decisions are therefore based 

on rough and inaccurate BW estimates. A workable and accurate means of predicting 

BW of this breed by using body measurements and body condition scoring (BCS) was 

therefore explored. 

211Nilli Ravi buffaloes of the Livestock Experiment Station, Bahadurnagar, Okra, 

Pakistan, were divided into age groups 1–3years (G1), 3–8years (G2) and >8years 

(G3). Animals were weighed on a mechanical scale (0–1000 kg, accuracy 1.0 kg), and 

their heart girth (HG), body length (BL) and shoulder height (SH) was measured. In 

addition BCS was performed (1–5 point scale with 0.5 point intervals) as suggested 

by Abeygunawardana and colleagues in 2000. The recorded data was subjected to 

simple and multiple linear regression analysis. 

Buffaloes’ BW ranged from 100–750 kg, the overall mean values of BW, HG, BL, 

SH and BCS were 359±160.9kg, 170±30.1cm, 130 ±19.2 cm, 125±14.5 cm and 

3.8±0.77. With correlation coefficients (r) of 0.97 (HG), 0.94 (BL), 0.93 (SH) and 

0.43 (BCS), the relationship between the individual independent variables with BW 

was significant (p < 0.01) in all cases. The multiple linear regression between BW 

and HG, BL and BCS was highly significant (p < 0.001) for each of the three groups 

(G1: r2 = 0.95, G2: r2 = 0.86, G3: r2 = 0.83).The equation for the most productive 

group G2 was: BW (kg)= -1142.48 + 3.85HG (cm) + 2.56 BL (cm) - 46.87 bcs1– 

27.89 bcs2, whereby bcs1 is a dummy (yes/no, i.e. 1/0) for a BCS between >2.5 -


Assessment of Genetic Diversity and Population Structure of 

Omani Local Chicken Using 29 Microsatellites 

BADAR A. AL-QAMASHOUI 1 ,STEFFEN WEIGEND 2 ,HENNER SIMIANER 1 , 

OSMAN MAHGOUB 3 

1Georg-August-Universität Göttingen, Dept. of Animal Sciences, Germany 

2Institute of Farm Animal Genetics of the Friedrich-Loeffler-Institute, Breeding and 

Genetic Resources, Germany 

3Sultan Qaboos University, College of Agricultural & Marine Sciences, Dept. of Animal 

and Veterinary Sciences, Oman 

This study attempted to assess genetic variation and population structure of indigenous 

chickens in Oman. Twenty nine microsatellite markers were investigated in 158 

birds from six agroecological zones: Batinah (BT), Dhofar (DF), North Hajar (NH), 

East Hajar (EH), Musandam (MU), and East Coast (EC). Among all loci, a total of 

217 alleles was observed across all populations. The average number of alleles per locus 

was 6.9 ± 3.3 and ranged from 2 (MCW 98 and MCW 103) to 20 (LEI094). The 

average number of alleles per population ranged from 5.0±1.9 (DF) to 5.5±2.9 (NH). 

Across populations the observed heterozygosity was 0.54±0.02, while the expected 

heterozygosity was 0.62±0.03. For the six populations, observed and expected heterozygosity 

ranged from 0.51 (EC) to 0.58 (NH) and from 0.57 (BT) to 0.66 (DF), respectively. 

Mean deficit of heterozygotes within populations (FIS) was 0.130 ±0.024, 

and mean fixation index between populations (FST) was 0.034 ±0.005 indicating low 

population differentiation. The mean global deficit of heterozygotes across populations 

(FIT) was 0.159 ±0.023. The mean polymorphic information content (PIC) 

was 0.561, ranging from 0.521 to 0.585. Genetic distance calculated based on Nei’s 

standard distance identified DF as distant population from all populations while the 

smallest distance was between BT and NH populations. Model based clustering using 

algorithm implemented in STRUCTURE software package was used to detect population 

substructures and presence of admixture. The results showed that individuals 

of the six populations were clustered into 3 groups: (NH and BT) and (EC, EH and 

MU) with a high degree of admixture within the groups. In contrast, individuals of 

DF population made up a separate cluster. The results suggest considerable diversity 

and population substructure of the Oman indigenous chickens studied. The Dhofar 

(DF) population was identified as most distant and most inbred (FIS=0.193) of these 

populations. Further studies are needed to evaluate these populations as an important 

reservoir of genetic diversity. 

Keywords: Genetic variation, microsatellites, Omani local chickens 

Contact Address: Badar A. Al-Qamashoui, Georg-August-Universität Göttingen, Dept. of Animal 

Sciences, Albrecht Thaer Weg 3, Göttingen, Germany, e-mail: B.Alqamashoui@agr.uni-goettingen.de 

51

Animals 

Livestock Genetic Resources in Vietnam: Preservation and 

Management 

NGOC HIEU VU 

Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development, Department of Science Technology and 

Environment, Vietnam 

Vietnam is one of the countries, which is rich in biodiversity. Livestock in Vietnam 

play a pivotal role in agriculture by providing draft power, manure for crop production, 

and food for human consumption. The main aim of present livestock development 

in Vietnam is to assist farmers to produce and sustain livestock of high economic 

potential. Most of the species kept are indigenous types, only 12 % of the cattle and 

18 % of the chicken are exotic cross and commercial types. These indigenous types 

posess many positive qualities, e.g. considerable adaptability to harsh climate, poor 

nutrition, resistance to local diseases and parasites and suitability to subsistence farmers’ 

economy. However, their productivity is low compared to improved breeds of 

livestock available in the country. Breeding males are nowadays scarce at the village 

level. Sound national breeding policies have never been formulated and implemented 

for any species of livestock in the country. On the other hand, neglection of indigenous 

breeds led to a situation where a number of native breeds of livestock are now 

under the threat of extension. So, conservation and improvement of indigenous animal 

genetic resources (AnGR), especially cattle, goat, chicken, sheep and buffalo, as 

the order of priority, has been recognised. But the mechanism for implementing this 

agenda remains unclear. Therefore, future efforts should be focused on communitybased 

in situ development and conservation of potential AnGR of Vietnam. In this regard, 

the most successful way could be genetic screening and open nucleus breeding 

strategies for the improvement of most promising indigenous AnGR. The programmes 

may operate through both selection and distribution of males to participating village 

farmers, who agree upon breeding goals. Another way may be operation of sire selection 

and multiplication for distribution scheme. The said approaches will not only 

improve the indigenous genetic material but will conserve them in situ for the benefit 

of the livestock keepers. The suspected success of community-based in situ animal 

genetic resource development and conservation strategies will largely be due to the 

fact that the strategies will be based on the indigenous animal populations in their 

adaptive environment. 

Keywords: Animal genetic resources, conservation, diversity, Vietnam 

Contact Address: Ngoc Hieu Vu, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development, Department of 

Science Technology and Environment, No.2 Ngoc Ha, 43 Ba Dinh District, Vietnam, e-mail: hieuvn. 

khcn@mard.gov.vn 

52


Botulism in Livestock in North Darfur State 

ITIDAL ABDALLAH BUSHARAH, MUSA TIBIN MUSA 

Central Veterinary Research Institute, Pathology Department, Sudan 

Cases suspected to be botulism were known to occur in livestock, especially camels 

in North Darfur States; signs of the disease are paralysis in the hind quarters. This 

study was designated to investigate the problem. 

A total of 275 samples including 120 carcasses from various animal species, 74 soil 

samples, 56 water samples, and 25 tissues were collected from six provinces of the 

state. The tissue samples included small and large intestinal contents, lungs, livers, 

spleens and lymph nodes, besides ruminal contents and blood samples from cattle, 

sheep and goats. Water samples were from pools, microdams, bore holes, wells operated 

by hand pumps, and dams. The soil samples were collected from the same areas. 

In addition we determined calcium, phosphorous, glucose and protein levels in sera 

of 600 (100 each) cattle, camels, sheep, goats, horses and donkeys whether infected 

with the disease or at risk. 

The samples were cultured in medium (cooked meat) for isolation of Clostridium 

species and the isolates were identified by conventional biochemical tests. Detection 

of the botulinum neurotoxin was made by mouse bioassay and typing of the isolates 

by polymerase chain reaction (PCR), comparing the samples with the known positive 

C. botulinum type C DNA and a negative control. The 22 isolates showed a positive 

band at 225 bp; the isolates comprised 19 haemolytic and three non-haemolytic C. 

botulinum strains. 

The results revealed the presence of C. botulinum in all types of the samples investigated. 

A total of 22 C. botulinum type C strains were isolated from the samples: 

2 from water samples, 5 from tissues, 7 from carcasses, and 8 from the soil. Other 

Clostridium species which were: 12 C. tetani,8C. perfringens,7C. glycolicum,6C. 

bifermentans and one C. sordellii from soil. 

The findings indicated that the causative agents of the outbreak were C. botulinum 

strains. Inadequate feeding of animals leads to comsumption of soil (pica) and hence 

to disease. Vaccination and improvement of animal feeding should prevent botulism 

and lower the risk for soil ingestion. 

Keywords: Clostridium botulinum, livestock, pica, undernutrition, Sudan 

Contact Address: Itidal Abdallah Busharah, Central Veterinary Research Institute, Pathology Department, 

El Amarat Street No.1, 11111 Khartoum, Sudan, e-mail: itidalbushara@hotmail.com 

53

Animals 

Causes of Condemnations of Sheep Carcasses in Abattoirs at 

Khartoum 

NASREEN OMER MUSA 1 ,KAMAL ELDIN HASSAN ALI ELTOM 1 ,SALAH M. 

ELAWAD 1 ,AHMED A. GAMEEL 2 

1University of Khartoum, Institute for Studies and Promotion of Animal Exports, Sudan 

2University of Khartoum, Dept. of Pathology, Sudan 

Sheep, either live or slaughtered, are the most important among Sudan’s animal exports 

– a major source of foreign currency. Accordingly, diseases that cause rejection 

of live sheep at veterinary quarantines and in importing countries, as well as pathological 

conditions causing condemnation of sheep meat, should receive more attention 

by veterinarians; not only because of their economic importance, but also because of 

the potential hazards to human health, especially through meat consumption and handling. 

The present investigation reviewed the causes of sheep carcass condemnations 

as well as the condemnation of red offals and some green offals of sheep slaughtered 

for export. The study analysed records from two major abattoirs in Khartoum State 

of Sudan covering the period Jan – Dec 2011. Whole carcass condemnation during 

this period was 0.1 % of the total sheep slaughtered for export. Main causes of carcass 

condemnations were jaundice, (64.8 %) and hydatid cysts (20 %). Other causes 

(15.2 %) included abscesses, emaciation, and adhesions. Total condemnation of offals 

(liver, kidney, heart, lung and spleen) was high (12.8 %), with liver constituting the 

major condemned part (83 %) followed by the lungs (12.4 %), the heart (4.0 %), kidneys 

(0.4 %) and the spleen (0.2 %). Major pathological changes in the condemned 

livers were necrosis, calcification, hydatid cysts, adhesions, fascioliasis, abscesses, 

jaundice, colour changes and fatty degeneration. Although the described pathological 

conditions were not further investigated in relation to the diseases they can represent, 

they point to a high prevalence of parasitic diseases in slaughtered animals. Although 

the described conditions were not related to areas of animal breeding in the country, 

they more or less reflect the diseases of sheep in the western part of the country, 

especially Kurdofan region, where most of export sheep are raised. It is highly recommended 

that the diseases manifesting as jaundice, in addition to other liver diseases 

in sheep are investigated. 

Keywords: Hydatidosis, jaundice, sheep carcass condemnation, Sudan 

Contact Address: Nasreen Omer Musa, University of Khartoum, Institute for Studies and Promotion of 

Animal Exports, Shabmat, 13314 Khartoum North, Sudan, e-mail: nasreenmusa@maktoob.com 

54


Comparative in vitro Efficacy of Selected Medical Plants from 

Cholistan Against Gastrointestinal Helminthes of Sheep and Goats 

MUHAMMAD ASIF RAZA 1 ,EVA SCHLECHT 1 ,MUHAMMAD YOUNAS 2 



2University of Agriculture, Pakistan 

Livestock infestation with gastrointestinal parasites reduces herd productivity in many tropical 

countries. Synthetic anthelmintics can control this problem but high prices, unavailability, side 

effects, or development of resistance lead to their very limited use in many pastoral systems. 

Traditional medicinal plants might therefore be a valuable alternative. Based on interviews with 

l00 pastoralists and 20 local healers in the Cholistan desert, Pakistan, we tested five medicinal 

plants that were said to be effectively used against gastrointestinal parasites in small ruminants, 

namely Capparis deciduas (P-I), Salsola foetida (P-II), Suaeda fructicosa (P-III), Haloxylon 

salicornicum (P-IV) and Haloxylon recurvum (P-V). Aqueous-methanol (70 % : 30 %) extracts 

were prepared of each plant at concentrations of 500, 250, 125, 62.5, 31.2, 15.6, and 7.8 mg 

dry matter per ml. Their anthelmintic activity was evaluated against adults of Haemonchus 

contortus, Paramphistomum cervi and Trichuris ovis, which are the prevalent helminthes in 

the region. Levamisol (0.55 mg ml-1 ) and Oxyclozanide (30 mg/ml) served as positive, and pure 

aqueous-methanol solution served as negative control. Results were expressed as the percentage 

(%) of worms that died during various intervals of time (0, 2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12, 24 hours). 

All plants showed maximum anthelmintic activity at a concentration of 500 mg ml-1 , and effectiveness 

decreased with decreasing concentration. All extracts exhibited minimum and maximum 

activity at 2 and 12 hours post application, respectively. While P-I was most effective 

against H. contortus (43.2 % ±2.68 dead adults after 12 h), P-IV was least effective against this 

helminth (36.5 % ±2.74). P-V showed maximum (42.0 % ±2.89) and P-III minimum (26.4 % 

±2.67) anthelmintic activity against T. ovis. P-V also killed a maximum of P. cervi individuals 

(47.4 % ±2.82), while P-II was least effective against this species (38.0 % ±2.72). The average 

effectiveness of the positive and the negative control against the three helminthes was 87.4 % 

(±3.92) and 18.6 % (±3.87). 

The results indicate that P-I and P-V are promising candidates for the ethno-botanical treatment 

of major gastrointestinal helminthes in small ruminants in Cholistan. Since pastoralists may 

not have easy access to methanol, the anthelmintic activity of purely aqueous extracts of these 

plants is currently investigated. 

Keywords: Anthelmintic activity, ethno-botanical remedies, Haemonchus contortus, small 

ruminants, Trichuris ovis 




55

Animals 

Livestock Bio-diversity vis-à-vis Food and Nutritional Security: 

Pertinent Issues in Livestock Development in Nepal 

LOK NATH PAUDEL 1 ,UDO TER MEULEN 2 ,CLEMENS WOLLNY 3 , 

MATTHIAS GAULY 2 

1Ministry of Agriculture, Dept. of Livestock Services, Central Bovine Promotion Office, 

Nepal 

2Georg-August-Universität Göttingen, Department of Animal Sciences, Germany 

3University of Applied Science Bingen, Faculty of Life Sciences, Germany 

Agriculture is the mainstay of about 65 % people of Nepal. Livestock is the integral 

part of Nepalese agricultural system which contributes about 28 % share to agricultural 

gross domestic production (AGDP). Cattle, buffalo, Yak and Chauries are the 

most important livestock species that contribute more than 73 % share to the livestock 

sector. There are 3 (Lime, Parkote and Gaddai) and 7 (Lulu, Achhami, Siri, Pahadi, 

Terai, Khaila and Chauri) different indigenous breeds of buffalo and cattle, respectively 

in Nepal. The average milk production of local buffalo and cattle is about 850 

and 450 liters per animal per lactation, respectively. Though average production is 

very low, indigenous breeds of buffalo and cattle can survive in harsh environmental 

conditions, lower profile of nutritional regimes and are very hardy against disease 

and parasites. Because of the environmental diversity where Nepal enjoys from subtropical 

to the alpine climate, conservation of the indigenous species, which would be 

very important assets in the future, must get high priority in one side but more importantly, 

keeping the fact in mind that the food and nutritional security is still prevailing 

in more than 30, among 75, districts of Nepal, cross breeding, especially upgrading 

of these indigenous breeds is utmost necessary for the food and nutritional security in 

Nepal. 

Ministry of Agriculture Development has given the high priority for the food and 

nutritional security and has launched the Food Security Promotion Project (FSPP) 

jointly supported by the Government of Nepal and United States Agency for International 

Development (USAID). The results obtained so far are very promising. The 

average milk production of the dairy cattle in the project sites has been found around 

3,000 liters where as that of the highest was 8,263 liters per animal per lactation. 

The results are also encouraging in the case of buffaloes as well. These results have 

proved that there is a great scope to increase the production and productivity of cattle 

and buffaloes which help to increase the income level of the farmers and would be the 

milestone in food and nutritional security in Nepal. 

Keywords: Food and nutritional security, indigenous breeds, livestock, Nepal, 

upgrading 

56 

Contact Address: Lok Nath Paudel, Ministry of Agriculture, Dept. of Livestock Services, Central 

Bovine Promotion Office, Lalitpur, Nepal, e-mail: paudelloknath@yahoo.com

Monogastric production systems 


PATRICIA I. SARRIA, DIEGO A. BUITRÓN, ANDREA RENDÓN, 

LEIDY J. TORRES, SIRIWAN MARTENS: 

Nutritional Value of Canavalia brasiliensis CIAT 17009 Herbage 

Meal in Growing Pigs 60 

DIEUDONNÉ KATUNGA MUSALE,SAMY BACIGALE-BASHIZI, 

FIDÈLE BALEMIRWE KATUNGA, BRIGITTE L. MAASS: 

Feeding Rabbits and Cavies with Improved Forage Legumes 

in South Kivu, DR Congo 61 

MARY OBI, AUSAJI AYUK, BASSEY OKON: 

Cost Effectiveness of Feeding Fermented Taro Cocoyam Meal 

to Laying Japanese Quails (Coturnix coturnix japonica) 62 

MUTAZ QUTOB: 

Nonsteroidal Anti-inflammatory Drugs (NSADS) for Reproduction 

Control in Nile Tilapia 63 

JOHANNES PUCHER, NGUYEN NGOC TUAN, TRINH THI HANH 

YEN, RICHARD MAYRHOFER, MANSOUR EL-MATBOULI, 

ULFERT FOCKEN: 

Feeding Fish Without Fishmeal: Earthworm Meal as Alternative 

Animal Protein Source in Rural Areas 64 

ANOUMOU ADJOAVI CHRISTELLE NADIA, JOACHIM VOGT: 

Common Use and Collapse of a Natural Resource in West 

Africa: The Fishery in Benin 65 

Posters 66 

KHADIGA ABDELATTI, MUAMER MUSA: 

Effect of Dietary Levels of Decorticated Cowpea (Vigna 

unguiculata) Supplemented with Molasses on Broiler Chicks 

Performance 66 

BALGES IBRAHIM, KHADIGA ABDELATTI,HASSAN MUDAWI: 

The Effect of β -glucanase Inclusion in Sorghum Based Diet 

on Performance of Broiler Chicks 67 

OLUTOLA JEGEDE, GBENGA ONIBI: 

Effects of Soyabean Oil and Garlic-in-Water Supplementation 

on Performance, Carcass Traits and Blood Indices of 

Broiler Chicken 68 

57

Animals 

58 

MARTINS ANDOR ISIKA, FREDERICK UGBESIA IGENE, 

CHRISTOPHER ADAMS ENEJI: 

Influence of Bitter Leaf and Ginger Supplementation on Growth 

and Haematological Indices of Broiler Chickens 69 

OLUBUNMI AYOBAMI DUDUYEMI, SAIDU OSENI: 

Modelling Heat Stress Characteristics on Layers’ Performance 

Traits in Southwestern Nigeria 70 

MUYIWA ADEGBENRO, AKINLOLU AYENI, JANET OLOWOY- 

EYE,OLUSOLA MATTHEW BANKOLE, J.OLUWASOLA AGBEDE, 

GBENGA ONIBI, V.AYOBORE ALETOR: 

Leaf Composite Mix as Alternative Premix to Commercial 

Premix in Broiler Finisher Diets 71 

SAMUEL ARO, SAMSON ADETANMI, ESTHER OGUNSHOTE, 

SAMUEL AROWOLO, V.AYOBORE ALETOR: 

Performance, Digestibility and Carcass Characteristics of 

Broilers Fed Graded Levels of Fermented Cassava Tuber 

Wastes 72 

IYABODE DUDUSOLA, SIMEON OLAWUMI, SAIDU OSENI: 

Effects of Egg Weight on Chick Weight and Post Hatching 

Growth Performance of Japanese Quail (Coturnix coturnix 

japonica) 73 

FELIX OLUSEGUN AKINWUMI: 

A Comparative Study of two Fish Culture Systems on the 

Haematology and Growth of a Tropical Freshwater Fish 74 

CARSTEN KROME, KIM JAUNCEY, ULFERT FOCKEN: 

Jatropha curcas Kernel Meal as a Protein Source in Aquaculture 

Diets 75 

OGECHI UGBOR, STEPHEN OCHANG, JOHNNY ONYEMA 

OGUNJI: 

Effect of Oil Bean Meal Diets on Hematology and Histology 

of African Catfish (Clarias gariepinus) 76 

LADISLAO DI DOMENICA, MADHAV KUMAR SHRESTHA, 

STEPHAN WESSELS, GABRIELE HÖRSTGEN-SCHWARK: 

Small-Scale Cooperative Based Aquaculture in Katahr, Nepal 77 

ELEONOR TENDENCIA: 

Management Strategies Employed by Small Scale Shrimp 

Farmers in the Philippines in Coping with Economic Crises 

due to Shrimp Diseases 78 

PHILIP CNALIKWE, LIVINGSTONE DAMBO: 

Growth Performance of Rabbits Fed Telfaria occidentalis and 

Centrocema pubescens as Protein Supplement 79

Monogastric production systems — Contents 

M. HILARIOUS OGUNSIPE, J. OLUWASOLA AGBEDE, 

MARTINS ANDOR ISIKA: 

Evaluation of Growth Indices, Dry Matter Digestibility and 

Economic Implications of Feeding Rabbits with Millet Offal 

OLUFEMI ADU, FRANCIS GBORE: 

Vitamin E Ameliorates the Effect of Dietary Fumonisin B1 on 

80 

Growth Performance of Female Rabbits 81 

WAYUTA PHILIP MSHELIA,SALEH BABANGIDA, ONOJA IKANI 

ISRAEL: 

The Welfare of Working Horses in Northwest Nigeria and 

Their Impact on the Local Economy 82 

PHILIP CNALIKWE, KEMESEIYEFA OLAJINRE TIMIBITEI: 

Evaluation of the Chemical and Phytochemical Constituents 

of Alchornea cordifolia Leaf Meal as Potential Feed for Monogastric 

Livestock 83 

59

Animals 

Nutritional Value of Canavalia brasiliensis CIAT 17009 Herbage 

Meal in Growing Pigs 

PATRICIA I. SARRIA 1 ,DIEGO A. BUITRÓN 1 ,ANDREA RENDÓN 1 , 

LEIDY J. TORRES 1 ,SIRIWAN MARTENS 2 

1Universidad Nacional de Colombia (UNAL), Dept. of Animal Science, Colombia 


In different tropical regions, forage legumes may offer an alternative feeding option 

for pigs because of their high protein content, good biomass yield and other ecological 

and economic advantages. Since 2000, CIAT in collaboration with farmers 

and national partners has identified a number of promising legume species especially 

adapted to the soils and the climate of the hillsides in Colombia, Nicaragua, and other 

countries. Canavalia brasiliensis is a legume selected by farmers for its high productivity, 

good soil cover and outstanding level of drought tolerance based on green 

forage yield. It is a weak perennial legume and can be grown on a wide range of soil 

pH (4.3–8.0) on low fertile soils up to a height of 1800 m asl and has a good regrowth 

up to the second year. In Palmira, Colombia, Canavalia brasiliensis yields 6.1 t ha -1 

dry matter (DM) at 16 weeks, with 19 % crude protein content. 

The objective was to study the consumption and total digestibility of canavalia herbage 

in growing pigs. Twenty-four commercial animals of 39±5.4 kg body weight (BW) 

were utilised to study 0, 10, 20 and 30 % of canavalia herbage meal (CLM) inclusion 

in the total diet. Digestibility coefficients were measured by total collection of feces 

and coefficients of digestibility of CLM alone was estimated by the “difference” 

method. The inclusion of CLM did not affect DM intake (101; 96; 101 and 96 g kg -0,75 

BW, respectively; (p > 0.05). The inclusion of CLM decreased both coefficients, apparent 

digestibility of the DM (%; 84.5a ; 81.8ab ; 76.4bc and 74.7c ) and GE (gross 

energy; %) (85.7a ; 81.5ab ; 70.0bc and 66.8c )(p < 0.05). In contrast, the apparent 

digestibility of crude protein (CP) was similar in all treatments (83.1; 81.9; 77.0 and 

76.5 %) (p > 0.05). The average apparent digestibility coefficients of the CLM alone 

were 51.0 % DM, 61.4 % CP and 14.0 % GE. Thus, CLM was well accepted by growing 

pigs without affecting the apparent digestibility of CP. However, the digestibility 

of DM and GE decreased in a curvilinear way. Based on the results, a CLM inclusion 

of up to 10 % of the diet in growing pig diets offers an alternative protein supplement 

option. 

Keywords: Consumption, digestibility, dry matter, energy, pigs, protein, tropical 

forage legume 

Contact Address: Siriwan Martens, International Center for Tropical Agriculture (CIAT), Tropical 

Forages, Cali, Colombia, e-mail: s.martens@cgiar.org 

60

Monogastric production systems — Oral Presentations 

Feeding Rabbits and Cavies with Improved Forage Legumes in 

South Kivu, DR Congo 

DIEUDONNÉ KATUNGA MUSALE 1 ,SAMY BACIGALE-BASHIZI 2 ,FIDÈLE 

BALEMIRWE KATUNGA 3 ,BRIGITTE L. MAASS 4 

1CIAT, Tropical Forages Program, The Dem. Rep. of the Congo 

2Université Evangélique en Afrique (UEA), Agriculture and Environment Sciences: 

Animal production, The Dem. Rep. of the Congo 

3Université Catolique du Graben (UCG), Faculté de Médecine Vétérinaire, The Dem. 

Rep. of the Congo 

4International Center for Tropical Agriculture (CIAT), Tropical Forages Program, Kenya 

In South Kivu Province, eastern part of the Democratic Republic of the Congo, farmers 

currently focus on small livestock, like poultry, cavies (i.e., Guinea pigs) and rabbits, 

as a consequence of recent violent conflicts. After assessing the agro-ecological 

adaptability of improved forage legumes, four animal feeding trials were conducted 

with rabbits and cavies in a shed at Mugwahi farm in Nyangezi, South Kivu. Both 

species were fed according to traditional practice with available variable local feeds 

as control. Foliage of different adapted forage legumes complemented the local feeds 

at 25 %. For rabbits, Leucaena diversifolia (trial duration 57 days) and Desmodium 

intortum (85 days) were used, while cavies received Canavalia brasiliensis (57 days) 

and D. intortum (85 days). One treatment with cavies complemented 10 % of local 

feeds with a concentrate consisting of 25 % palm cake, 1 % salt and 74 % rice bran (57 

days). Feed acceptability and live weight gains were recorded. A relative palatability 

index (RPI) was calculated by dividing consumed feeds by the offered in relation 

to those expected to be consumed if all feeds were of equal palatability. Palatability 

evaluation showed that some local herbs, like Ageratum conyzoides (Asteraceae) and 

D. intortum were most appreciated by both rabbits and cavies. L. diversifolia was also 

well consumed by rabbits, and C. brasiliensis and concentrate by cavies. Mean weight 

gains of cavies fed C. brasiliensis or concentrate were 2.1±0.8 g and 2.2±0.7 g d -1 , 

respectively, thus, substantially higher than that of the control (0.9±0.6 g) d -1 . This 

indicates that forage legumes can be a good alternative compared to concentrate that 

farmers need to purchase. Cavies fed D. intortum gained little weight (1.0±0.2 g d -1 ), 

comparable to the control (0.9±0.6 g d -1 ). Similarly, rabbits fed L. diversifolia did 

not achieve any difference over local feeds. These preliminary results show that there 

is scope in feeding rabbits and cavies with improved forage legumes. Further investigation 

is required to fully appreciate their potential role for use as small livestock 

species with respect to improving the livelihoods of poor smallholder farmers in DRC. 

Keywords: Acceptability, animal nutrition, domestic cavy, tropical forages 

Contact Address: Brigitte L. Maass, International Center for Tropical Agriculture (CIAT), Tropical 

Forages Program, P.O. Box 863, 00621 Nairobi, Kenya, e-mail: b.maass@cgiar.org 

61

Animals 

Cost Effectiveness of Feeding Fermented Taro Cocoyam Meal to 

Laying Japanese Quails (Coturnix coturnix japonica) 

MARY OBI 1 ,AUSAJI AYUK 2 ,BASSEY OKON 1 

1 University of Agriculture Makurdi, Animal Production, Nigeria 

2 Universty of Calabar, Dept. of Animal Science, Nigeria 

The decreased predictability of seasons due to climate change has had negative effect 

on planting time and output of maize, a major energy source in the tropics. This 

negative effect is further reflected in the decreased availability and high cost of maize. 

However, the idea of making the most of what is easily available at the least cost, has 

increased research into root crops as important feed source in bridging the energy gap 

in poultry feeding. Two hundred and twenty five Japanese quails (Coturnix coturnix 

japonica) were randomly allotted to five dietary treatments (I-V) of 36 hens and 9 

cockerels each. Each treatment was replicated thrice with 12 hens and 3 cockerels per 

replicate. In each of the five diets, 48 hours fermented taro cocoyam meal (Colocasia 

esculenta var. esculenta) was used to replace maize at 0 %, 25 %, 50 %, 75 % and 

100 % for treatments I, II, III, IV and V respectively. The quails were fed one of 

the five experimental diets over a period of 70 days. Feed intake was significantly 

(p < 0.05) influenced by diets, with lowest values obtained for quails in treatment V. 

Cost of feed was significantly (p < 0.05) reduced by the inclusion of taro cocoyam. 

The cost of feed per gram eggs laid was least with treatment II. More savings accrued 

at 25 % inclusion levels with highest profit and return to Naira invested. Losses were 

observed at 75 % and 100 % levels of inclusions. The results indicate that it is cost 

effective to replace maize with 25 % of 48 hours fermented taro cocoyam meal in the 

diet of laying Japanese quails. 

Keywords: Japanese quails, cost effectiveness, fermented taro cocoyam 

Contact Address: Ausaji Ayuk, Universty of Calabar, Dept. of Animal Science, Etta Agbor, 

540001 Calabar, Nigeria, e-mail: yinsaj@yahoo.com 

62


Nonsteroidal Anti-inflammatory Drugs (NSADS) for 

Reproduction Control in Nile Tilapia 

MUTAZ QUTOB 

Al-Quds University, Faculty of Science and Technology, Israel 

Several studies have been conducted to detect the direct effect of inhibiting the aromatase 

activity, the rate limiting enzyme that converts androgens to estrogens needed 

for ovarian differentiation in fish to overcome the immediate need for a more environmentally 

friendly substitute of methyl testosterone. Cyclooxygenase (COX)inhibitors 

are potent and irreversible inhibitors of the COX pathway. Since studies 

on human breast cancer cells showed that COX-inhibitors decreased aromatase messenger 

ribonucleic acid (mRNA) expression at the transcriptional level we tested the 

hypothesis of possible aromatase inhibition by the non-selective COX-inhibitors in 

fry fish tilapia during the crucial period of sexual differentiation. The effects of supplementation 

of COX1-inhibitors (diclofenac and ibuprofen) and COX2-inhibitors 

(etodolac and etoricoxib) in the diets of tilapia on growth rate, mortality and sexual 

differentiation were studied. Furthermore, determination of etoricoxib in fish feces 

using reversed-phase high performance liquid chromatography (RF-HPLC) with 

evaporative light scattering and photo diode array detector (ELSD-PDA system) was 

carried out. Three group experiments were run for 7 months at the Aquaculture Research 

Laboratory, Al-Quds University, Jerusalem. In experiment 1, 20 genetically 

females (XX) larvae were stocked in triplicates in a closed system and were given 

control diet (C group) and a diet supplemented with 10 mg kg −1 diclofenac (1 % 

diclofenac group), 5 mg kg −1 ibuprofen (0.5 % ibuprofen group) and 5 mg kg −1 diclofenac 

(0.5 % diclofenac group), respectively, for 4 weeks. After the 4 th week all diets 

were changed to control diet. Results showed that COX-inhibitors could increase 

growth and alter reproduction in Nile tilapia but subsequent field investigations are 

needed to confirm these results using different classes of COX-inhibitors at different 

concentrations. They were well tolerated by fish except for diclofenac that showed 

high mortality. 

Keywords: Aquaculture, nonsteroidal drugs, reproduction control, Tilapia 

Contact Address: Mutaz Qutob, Al-Quds University, Faculty of Science and Technology, Jerusalem, 

Abu Dis, Israel, e-mail: qutob@planet.edu 

63

Animals 

Feeding Fish Without Fishmeal: Earthworm Meal as Alternative 

Animal Protein Source in Rural Areas 

JOHANNES PUCHER 1 ,NGUYEN NGOC TUAN 2 ,TRINH THI HANH YEN 2 , 

RICHARD MAYRHOFER 3 ,MANSOUR EL-MATBOULI 3 ,ULFERT FOCKEN 4 

1University of Hohenheim, Dept. of Animal Production in the Tropics and Subtropics, 

Germany 

2Hanoi Agricultural University, Department of Aquaculture, Vietnam 

3University of Veterinary Medicine, Fish Medicine and Livestock Management, Austria 

4Johann Heinrich von Thuenen-Institut (vTI), Institute for Fisheries Ecology, Ahrensburg 

Branch, Germany 

Fishmeal is a limited resource and restricts the development of aquaculture especially in rural 

areas which have no established markets to supply suitable feed resources. Previous studies 

have shown that a traditional integrated farmer household in northern Vietnam with in average 

one cattle and one buffalo can produce 11.1 (min)–33.1 (max) kg of dry earthworms per year. 

The aim of this study was to evaluate whether earthworm meal can fully replace fishmeal in 

supplemental feeds and what the feed conversion of such feed is. 

In northern Vietnam, a trial was carried out with common carp in net cages (total 32 nets, 

1.5 × 1.5 × 2 m) lasting for three months. Three iso-nitrogenous (16 % crude plant protein, 

11 % crude animal protein) and iso-lipidic (10 % crude lipid) feeds were tested. Carp were fed 

either 10 g kg-0.8 of feed at a stocking rate of 5 fish per cage or 20 g kg-0.8 at a stocking of 10 

fish per cage. In the feeds A, B and C, fishmeal protein was replaced by 0 %, 50 % and 100 % 

earthworm protein. 

The stepwise replacement of fishmeal by earthworm meal in feeds at lower feeding levels resulted 

in relatively higher specific growth rates of 0.10±0.15 (A), 0.17±0.19 (B) and 0.22±0.16 

(C), while the higher feeding rate accounted for 0.24±0.25 (A), 0.32±0.24 (B) and 0.42±0.27 

(C). Lower feeding levels had relatively lower feed conversion rates of 1.4±0.6 (A), 1.2±0.5 

(B) and 0.9±0.0 (C) than higher feeding rates which reached 1.5±0.3 (A), 1.5±0.6 (B) and 

0.9±0.2 (C). 

It was shown that earthworms are suitable as sole animal protein source in plant-based supplemental 

feeds for common carp under semi-intensive pond management. At an inclusion 

rate of 20 % of earthworm and financial input of 0.3 e kg-1 feed, a household could produce 

56(min)–165(max) of feed. As the FCR in this experiment was 0.9, the potential additional fish 

yield would be 50–149 kg of common carp with a net profit of 83–249 e year-1 and household 

(average income of 156 e per capita and year). Consequently, earthworms as a feed ingredient 

for common carp may open the possibility for farmers in rural areas to engage in semi-intensive 

aquaculture. 

Keywords: Common carp, earthworm, fishmeal replacement 

Contact Address: Johannes Pucher, University of Hohenheim, Dept. of Animal Production in the Tropics 

and Subtropics, Fruwirthstr. 12, 70593 Stuttgart, Germany, e-mail: johannes.pucher@daad-alumni. 

de 

64


Common Use and Collapse of a Natural Resource in West Africa: 

The Fishery in Benin 

ANOUMOU ADJOAVI CHRISTELLE NADIA 1 ,JOACHIM VOGT 2 

1Goethe-Universität Frankfurt am Main, Institute of Physical Geography, Working Group 

Geoecology and Physical Geography, Germany 

2Karlsruhe University, Institute of Regional Sciences, Germany 

The common use of natural resources is a general practice in developing countries. 

They include rangelands, forests and water bodies. The livelihood of many fishermen 

worldwide depends essentially on the availability and accessibility of fish in a lagoon. 

A clear agreement of usage rules and an efficient regulation are necessary to avoid 

overusing these resources. Only an efficient regulation assure the sustainability of the 

resource. 

The regulation of commons in sub-Saharan-Africa was the task of traditional authorities, 

but at present more and more of the modern administration. In this transformation 

phase, the concurrence between two categories of stakeholders with different 

rationalities decreases their engagement and causes crisis, which endanger the value 

of the resource. This problem was analysed using the example of Lake Ahémé in 

Benin, where the fishery collapsed, due to an increasing erosion of regulation and 

rising anthropological pressure. 

The study is based upon literature and empirical research in 2011. With an ethnological 

approach as basis, primary data were collected in five villages of the municipalities 

Kpomassé and Comé (South Benin) on the causes of the decline of fish stocks in 

Ahémé lake. In addition, secondary data from available literature and official statistics 

were analysed. The adaptation processes of fishermen from Lake Ahémé were 

analysed and some scenarios were tested based on the current situation. 

The study should provide the Administration of Fishery in Benin with a decision aid 

for a possible sustainable management of fisheries in Benin, in order to mitigate the 

problems and to increase the resilience of the lagoon fishery system in Ahémé lake. 

Keywords: Benin, commons, lagoon fishery 

Contact Address: Anoumou Adjoavi Christelle Nadia, Goethe-Universität Frankfurt am Main, Institute 

of Physical Geography, Working Group Geoecology and Physical Geography, Bethmannstrasse 15, 

60311 Frankfurt am Main, Germany, e-mail: nadiaanoumou@yahoo.fr 

65

Animals 

Effect of Dietary Levels of Decorticated Cowpea (Vigna 

unguiculata) Supplemented with Molasses on Broiler Chicks 

Performance 

KHADIGA ABDELATTI, MUAMER MUSA 

University of Khartoum, Dept. of Animal Nutrition, Sudan 

This study was conducted to determine the effect of different levels of dietary decorticated 

cowpea (Vigna unguiculata) seeds supplemented with molasses on broiler 

performance. A total of 240 unsexed one-day old broiler chicks (Ross 308) were 

used. The birds were randomly divided into six equal groups, with 8 replicates each 

(5 birds per replicate) in a completely randomised design with factorial arrangement. 

Six experimental diets (each starter and finisher) were formulated to be approximately 

isocaloric and isonitrogenous to meet the nutrient requirements for broiler chicks. 

Three levels (0 %, 10 %, and 20 %) of cowpea with two levels of molasses 0 %, 3 % 

were used. The feed and water were provided ad libitum. Feed intake and body 

weight were recorded weekly. The experiment lasted for 6 weeks. 

The results showed that the inclusion of decorticated cowpea seed at 10 % or 20 % 

without molasses significantly (p < 0.05) improved final body weight and total weight 

gain at finishing period, whereas the addition of molasses at 3 % significantly decreased 

final body weight and total feed intake. The inclusion of 10 % cowpea in the 

diets significantly improved feed conversion ratio and protein efficiency ratio, compared 

with control. Inclusion of 10 % and 20 % decorticated cowpea in the diets 

without molasses were significantly (p < 0.05) better than the other treatments. 

Broiler chicks can tolerate inclusion of 20 % cowpea seeds with positive effects on 

growth performance. Inclusion of high level of molasses in cowpea seed diets has 

negative effect on broiler chicks’ performance. It is recommended to further study the 

economic value of using cowpea in broiler diets. 

Keywords: Broilers, cowpea, molasses 

Contact Address: Khadiga Abdelatti, University of Khartoum, Dept. of Animal Nutrition, University 

Street, 13314 Khartoum, Sudan, e-mail: khadigaatti@yahoo.com 

66

Monogastric production systems — Posters 

The Effect of β-glucanase Inclusion in Sorghum Based Diet on 

Performance of Broiler Chicks 

BALGES IBRAHIM 1 ,KHADIGA ABDELATTI 2 ,HASSAN MUDAWI 3 

1Ministery of Animal Resources and Fisheries, Poultry Production, Sudan 

2University of Khartoum, Dept. of Animal Nutrition, Sudan 

3University of Khartoum, Dept. of Food Technology, Sudan 

An experiment was conducted to study the effect of supplementation of commercial 

enzyme 1,4-β -glucanase (Burgzyme C) on broiler chicks performance, weight gain, 

feed conversion ratio, internal organs weights, serum total protein, glucose and cholestrol. 

One hundred and thirty two birds one day old broiler chicks (Ross )were used in the 

present study, in a complete randomised design. Birds were distributed into three 

groups (44 birds per group) with four replicates (11 birds per replicate). Three levels 

of enzyme 1,4 β -glucanase (Burgzyme C) were used 0.0, 0.125 and 0.25 g kg -1 feed 

with sorghum and groundnut basal diet (A. B and C), respectively. The parameters 

measured were feed intake, body weight, feed conversion ratio dressing percentage, 

relative weight of internal organs and some blood parameters cholesterol, glucose and 

total protein. Feed intake and weight gain recorded weekly for each group. Statistical 

analysis were based on the pen as replication unit, with four replication per treatment. 

Data was analysed using computer pograme SPSS and means were seperated by the 

Duncan method. 

The results indicated that inclusion of the β -glucanase enzyme significantly(p < 0.05) 

decreased total feed intake and significantly (p < 0.05) improved weight gain and 

feed conversion ratio of broiler chicks. β -gluconase supplementation had no effect 

on dressing percentage. However, weight of abdominal fat and weight of the internal 

organs (liver, spleen, gizzard and intestine) were significantly (p < 0.05) decreased 

affected by treatment. Enzyme treatments had no effect on blood glucose and total 

protein but significantly (p < 0.05) decreased serum cholesterol. From the present 

study result using sorghum basal diet, so its recommended to add 0.25 g β -glucanase 

per kg feed to starter broiler diet. 

Keywords: β -glucanase, broiler, cholesterol 

Contact Address: Khadiga Abdelatti, University of Khartoum, Dept. of Animal Nutrition, University 

Street, 13314 Khartoum, Sudan, e-mail: khadigaatti@yahoo.com 

67

Animals 

Effects of Soyabean Oil and Garlic-in-Water Supplementation on 

Performance, Carcass Traits and Blood Indices of Broiler Chicken 

OLUTOLA JEGEDE, GBENGA ONIBI 

Federal University of Technology, Dept. of Animal Production and Health, Nigeria 

Influence of soyabean oil and garlic (Allium sativum) dissolved in water on the performance, 

carcass characteristics and haematological variables of broiler chickens was 

assessed. A total of 160-four-weeks old Harbor strains of broiler chickens were allotted 

to 4 dietary treatments with 10 birds in each nof 4 replicates. A 2×2 factorial 

experimental arrangement of a completely randomised design was adopted. There 

were 2 finisher diets (non-soyabean oil and soyabean oil diets) supplemented with 

or without garlic in drinking water. The soyabean oil diet contained soyabean oil 

at 2 kg per100 kg of feed and garlic supplementation in water was at 1.8 g garlic L -1 . 

The study lasted for 4 weeks during which performance indices, water intake and apparent 

crude protein digestibility were measured. At the end of the feeding trial, 2 

female chickens per replicate were sacrificed to evaluate the carcass characteristics, 

haematological variables and serum cholesterol. Final live weight (FLW) and total 

weight gain (TWG) of the birds were significantly (p < 0.001) affected by the dietary 

treatments with birds on the non-garlic supplementation consistently having higher 

values than those fed on garlic supplemented diets. Also, broilers fed on the soyabean 

oil-based diet had significantly (p < 0.001) higher FLW and TWG than those fed 

the non-soyabean oil diet. However, the FCR values of birds fed soyabean oil-based 

diet (2.46 and 2.54) were lower than those fed non-soyabean oil-based diet (2.56 and 

3.01) for non-garlic and garlic-in-water supplementation, respectively (p > 0.05). Total 

water intake of birds fed supplementary garlic (5.6±0.02 L bird -1 ) was significantly 

(p < 0.05) lower than those on non-garlic supplementation (5.9± 0.31 L bird -1 ). The 

carcass characteristics, relative weight of organs, haematological variables and the 

serum cholesterol concentration of the chickens were not significantly different between 

treatments (p > 0.05). Garlic-in-water supplementation numerically reduced 

abdominal fat deposition from 19.5±5.85 to 18.7± 8.74 g kg -1 live weight. Similarly, 

addition of soyabean oil to diets and garlic-in-water supplementation lowered 

(p > 0.05) serum cholesterol level (140.9 vs 136.6; 145.8 vs 130.4 mg dl -1 ). It was 

concluded that the supplementation of soyabean oil in the diet could lead to better 

broiler performance, and garlic-in-water reduces the abdominal fat deposit with a 

concomitant serum cholesterol reduction. 

Keywords: Broilers, cholesterol, garlic, performance, soyabean oil 

Contact Address: Olutola Jegede, Federal University of Technology, Dept. of Animal Production and 

Health, P.M.B.704, 40001 Akure, Nigeria, e-mail: orimidarah@yahoo.com 

68


Influence of Bitter Leaf and Ginger Supplementation on Growth 

and Haematological Indices of Broiler Chickens 

MARTINS ANDOR ISIKA 1 ,FREDERICK UGBESIA IGENE 2 ,CHRISTOPHER ADAMS 

ENEJI 1 

1University of Calabar, Calabar, Dept. of Animal Science, Nigeria 

2Ambrose Alli University, Dept. of Animal Science, Nigeria 

The increasing concern regarding anti-biotic resistance has elicited alternative usage 

of other substances including essential oils, herbs and spices, such as bitter leaf and 

ginger. This study was conducted to assess the effect of dietary supplementation of 

bitter leaf and ginger on growth performance, carcass, haematological and serum biochemistry 

of broiler chickens. Three hundred and twenty (320) one-week old Anak 

2000 broiler chicks were divided into four equal groups and were randomly allocated 

to four dietary treatments in five replicates each. Four diets were formulated to meet 

the nutrient requirments for the two brioler phases. Diet 1 served as the control containing 

no test ingredient, while diets 2, 3 and 4 contained 0.25 % of bitter leaf, ginger 

and a mixture of bitter leaf and ginger, respectively. Results showed that the final 

live weight and feed intake did not differ significantly (p > 0.05). Birds fed the control 

diet were better (p < 0.05) in terms of daily weight gain (90.0 vs 80.1, 85.4 and 

81.3 g bird-1 ) and feed conversion ratio (2.24 vs 2.53, 2.33 and 2.49) when compared 

to the test diets. Mortality was significantly (p < 0.05) reduced among the chickens 

fed on bitter leaf and ginger diets. The range was 0.48 % in diets 3 and 4 to 1.68 % 

in the control. Dressed weight, eviscerated weight and abdominal fats were significantly 

higher (p < 0.05) in the control diet than in the test diets. Relative weights 

of other carcass cuts were statistically similar. Birds fed diets 2 and 3 had superior 

(p < 0.05) haemoglobin content, packed cell volume and red blood cell values. Total 

cholesterol decreased significantly (p < 0.05) in the bitter leaf and ginger diets with 

values decreasing from 2.50 mg per 100 ml in control diet to 1.60 mg per 100 ml (36 % 

decrease) in diet 3. Creatinin and serum total protein were significantly higher in the 

bitter leaf and ginger diets. It could be concluded from the study that bitter leaf and 

ginger meals supplementation of diets can enhance growth and good health in broiler 

chicken. 

Keywords: Bitter leaf, broiler chickens, ginger, haematology, performance 

Contact Address: Frederick Ugbesia Igene, Ambrose Alli University, Dept. of Animal Science, 

Off Benin-Auchi Express Road, PMB 14 Ekpoma, Nigeria, e-mail: fredogene@yahoo.com 

69

Animals 

Modelling Heat Stress Characteristics on Layers’ Performance 

Traits in Southwestern Nigeria 

OLUBUNMI AYOBAMI DUDUYEMI, SAIDU OSENI 

Obafemi Awolowo University, Dept. of Animal Science, Nigeria 

A hot environment is an important stressor affecting poultry production in tropical 

and sub-tropical regions. Thus, the effect of high ambient temperature and resultant 

heat stress on the performance of commercial egg-laying stocks, need to be studied. 

Data on two strains of layer chickens (Isa Brown and Bovan Nera) were obtained from 

farm records of Funtuna Farms, Ogere- Remo, in Southwest, Nigeria. Performance 

traits include age at point of lay, mortality pattern and egg-laying performance. Climatic 

variables include temperature and relative humidity from which temperaturehumidity 

index (THI) was derived. The THI was grouped into 3 classes: 29 to show the degree of heat stress variation in the chicken houses the birds 

were exposed to. Effect of threshold of heat stress levels and the associated rate of 

decline in egg production and mortality were estimated. Egg-laying records of 4,000 

pullets on each strain were analysed to quantify the effect of heat stress function in a 

fixed effect model on performance. Effect of heat stress, genotype, and age of layers 

on production efficiency, were studied. 

Results revealed that egg production was significantly affected by genotype (p < 

0.05), THI and age of birds (p < 0.001). Hen-housed egg production for Isa Brown 

and Bovan Nera were 4.98±0.21 and 5.20±0.21 per hen per week respectively. There 

was however, significant effect (p < 0.001) of THI on production. The heat stress 

function developed showed a threshold at THI= 27.5 and the associated rate of decline 

were 0.35 eggs per unit increase in THI (egg production= -0.35THI + 6.3). Bovan 

Nera recorded lower rate (0.32 eggs THI -1 ) as against Isa Brown (0.37 eggs THI-1 ). 

Further, significant effect (p < 0.001) of heat stress was recorded on mortality. Isa 

Brown recorded higher mortality (24.19±1.25) per month of lay than Bovan Nera 

(14.46±1.25). 

In conclusion, the production performance of the two strains (IB and BN) was influenced 

by heat stress, genotype and age of bird. There exists variability in heat 

tolerance among the strains and temperature-humidity index (THI) can be used to account 

for the effects of heat stress on production performance of commercial layers 

in humid tropics. 

Keywords: Heat stress, layers, performance traits 

Contact Address: Olubunmi Ayobami Duduyemi, Obafemi Awolowo University, Dept. of Animal 

Science, 220005 Ile Ife, Nigeria, e-mail: bunmid2000@yahoo.com 

70


Leaf Composite Mix as Alternative Premix to Commercial Premix 

in Broiler Finisher Diets 

MUYIWA ADEGBENRO, AKINLOLU AYENI, JANET OLOWOYEYE, OLUSOLA 

MATTHEW BANKOLE, J.OLUWASOLA AGBEDE, GBENGA ONIBI, 

V. AYOBORE ALETOR 

Federal University of Technology, Dept. of Animal Production & Health, Nigeria 

The main objective of this study was to produce alternative but farmers’ friendly premix 

from a composite leaf mix to replace high input commercial premix in broiler 

diet. Consequently, fresh leaves of Moringa oleifera, Ocinum gratissimum, Manihot 

esculenta, Telfaria occidentalis and Vernonia amygdalina were harvested, air-dried, 

ground and analysed for their micro-mineral and vitamin contents. Thereafter, they 

were mixed in equal proportion into a composite mix and used to replace broiler 

commercial premix in a 4-week feeding trial at 0, 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5 % in place of 0, 

20, 40, 60, 80 and 100 % reduction levels of commercial premix, respectively. Three 

hundred 4-week old Abor Acre broilers were randomly allotted at 50 chicks per treatment 

of 5 replicates using growth, haematological indices, serum metabolites and 

cost implication as response criteria. The leaves contained adequate micro-minerals 

and vitamins in different proportions. Of the growth indices measured only the total 

feed intake (TFI) was significantly (p < 0.05) affected with birds on the control having 

significantly (p < 0.05) higher TFI (137.7 g d -1 bird-1 ) than those fed on 2, 3 and 

4 % leaf composite-based diets (128.1–134.6g d -1 bird-1 ). Though the total weight 

gain (TWG) was not significantly (p > 0.05) different, the TWG of birds fed on 1, 3 

and 5 % leaf composite mix diets were numerically higher than those fed the control 

diet with a concomitant higher feed conversion rate (FCR; 1.3–3.9 %). Birds fed on 

leaf composite mix diets had significantly (p < 0.05) lower cholesterol and creatinine 

than those fed the control diet while total protein and globulin, though significantly 

(p < 0.05) affected, did not follow a particular trend. All the haematological indices 

were significantly (p < 0.05) affected but did not follow a particular trend. The % 

cost reduction increased progressively with increased inclusion of leaf composite mix 

in the diets. Conceivably, within the limit of this study, the replacement of commercial 

broiler premix with the composite mix made from the leaves under study could 

help to reduce dependence of broiler farmers on importation of conventional premix 

in developing countries. 

Keywords: Broiler, composite leaf premix, leaves, performance, premix 

Contact Address: Muyiwa Adegbenro, Federal University of Technology, Dept. of Animal Production 

& Health, Off Ilesa Raod, Akure, Nigeria, e-mail: muyiwaz@yahoo.com 

71

Animals 

Performance, Digestibility and Carcass Characteristics of Broilers 

Fed Graded Levels of Fermented Cassava Tuber Wastes 

SAMUEL ARO, SAMSON ADETANMI, ESTHER OGUNSHOTE, SAMUEL 

AROWOLO, V.AYOBORE ALETOR 

Federal University of Technology, Dept. of Animal Production and Health, Nigeria 

Two cassava tuber wastes (CTW), namely cassava peels (CAP) and cassava starch 

residues (CSR) were subjected to solid substrate fermentation using a consortium 

of micro-organisms (Lactobacillus delbrueckii, Lactobacillus coryneformis and Aspergillus 

fumigatus), in order to improve their nutritive quality and reduce their levels 

of anti-nutrients. The microbially fermented (MF) products from the two wastes (MF- 

CAP and MFCSR) were thereafter used at varying levels to formulate seven standard 

broiler diets designated as Diet 1 (0 % CTW), Diet 2 (20 % MFCAP), Diet 3 (40 % 

MFCAP), Diet 4 (60 % MFCAP), Diet 5 (20 % MFCSR), Diet 6 (40 % MFCSR) and 

Diet 7 (60 % MFCSR). Two hundred and ten day-old broiler chicks were randomly 

allotted to the seven treatment diets. The chicks were fed with these diets for eight 

weeks. Growth performance, apparent nutrient digestibility and carcass parameters 

of the broiler birds were used as response criteria. 

The results showed that the final body weight and total weight gain were similar 

(p > 0.05) among the treatments. Total feed intake per bird increased with increase 

in the dietary level of MFCAP while it decreased with increasing level of MFCSR. 

Crude protein digestibility improved significantly (86.5 %) in the 60 % MFCSR diet. 

The dressing percentage ranged from 73 % in the 60 % MFCSR diet to 85 % in the 

20 % MFCAP diet. Carcass morphometry revealed that the breast, drumstick and 

thigh were not significantly (p > 0.05) affected when the two fermented wastes were 

used up to 40 % level for MFCAP and 20 % for MFCSR. Since the final live weight, 

total weight gain and the choice portions of the carcass were not significantly affected, 

these wastes could be utilised for broiler birds at those levels of inclusion without any 

adverse effects on their performance and carcass characteristics. 

Keywords: Chicken, cassava wastes, digestibility, fermentation, growth performance, 

dressing percentage 

Contact Address: Samuel Aro, Federal University of Technology, Dept. of Animal Production and 

Health, 7 Akinnola Street Futa Road, Akure, Nigeria, e-mail: sambolaro@yahoo.co.uk 

72


Effects of Egg Weight on Chick Weight and Post Hatching Growth 

Performance of Japanese Quail (Coturnix coturnix japonica) 

IYABODE DUDUSOLA 1 ,SIMEON OLAWUMI 2 ,SAIDU OSENI 1 

1 Obafemi Awolowo University, Dept. of Animal Sciences, Nigeria 

2 University of Ado-Ekiti, Dept. of Animal Production and Health Sciences, Nigeria 

The study determined the effects of egg weight on chick body weight and post hatching 

growth performance of Japanese quail (Coturnix coturnix japonica). A total of 

2575 eggs were collected and were categorised into 3 weight groups as light (12 g). Egg weight (EW), egg length (EL), egg circumference 

(EC), shank length (SL) and body weight (BW) were measured on the 

egg groups. The data was analysed using PROC MIXED of SAS 2003. Percent fertility, 

hatchability, hatch and rearing mortality were estimated and compared over 3 

egg groups using GLM procedure. The result showed that the effect of egg weight on 

chick weight was significant (p < 0.001) for the medium and heavy group. The chick 

weight at hatch in light, medium and heavy group was 8.75 g, 11.19 g and 13.14 g. 

High positive correlation was observed between BW and SL, indicating that an improvement 

in BW would lead to an improvement in SL and vice versa. There was a 

progressive increase in BW and SL with increase in age in all groups. Positive correlation 

was obseved between egg size, chick weight and growth performance traits. 

There were also significant differences (p < 0.001) between the egg weight groups 

with regards to hatching. Hatchability was 58 %, 90 % and 76 % respectively, being 

highest in the medium weight group. This group also had the highest fertility (94.6 %) 

and lowest rearing mortality (1.5 %). In conclusion, medium sized eggs (10–12g) 

lead to better hatchability, fertility and good quality of day-old chicks with better post 

hatching performance. 

Keywords: Chick weight, egg weight, Japanese quail, post hatching 

Contact Address: Iyabode Dudusola, Obafemi Awolowo University, Dept. of Animal Sciences, Ile-Ife, 

Nigeria, e-mail: iadeogun@oauife.edu.ng 

73

Animals 

A Comparative Study of two Fish Culture Systems on the 

Haematology and Growth of a Tropical Freshwater Fish 

FELIX OLUSEGUN AKINWUMI 

Adekunle Ajasin University, Department of Environmental Biology and Fisheries, 

Nigeria 

The haematological and growth parameters of the African mud catfish Clarias gariepinus 

(Siluriformes: Clariidae) raised separately in ‘in-door concrete’ and ‘out-door 

earthen pond’ systems for a period of 12 months at the fish farm of the Department 

of Environmental Biology and Fisheries, Adekunle Ajasin University, Akungba- 

Akoko, Ondo State, Nigeria were assessed in this study. The water quality of the two 

rearing systems was also studied on a weekly basis. Blood samples were collected 

from five males and five females each in indoor concrete pond and outdoor earthen 

pond by puncturing the caudal peduncle with heparinized plastic syringe. The values 

of haematological parameters were measured using standardised and approved 

methods. The results from this study revealed that there were no statistical differences 

(p > 0.05) in the blood parameters: packed cell volume (%), red blood cell 

(×109 gdl-1 ), lymphocyte (%), haemoglobin (g/dl), thrombocyte (%), white blood 

cell count (×109 gdl-1 ), mean corpuscular volume (fl), mean corpuscular haemoglobin 

(pg) and mean corpuscular haemoglobin concentration (g/dl) of the catfish raised in 

in-door concrete and earthen pond systems, except in the values obtained for neutrophils 

which exhibited significant variations (p < 0.05). The results obtained in the 

study also showed that there were significant differences (p < 0.05) in the reservoir 

water parameters: temperature (°C), dissolved oxygen (mg/L), salinity (%), conductivity 

(S m-1 ), total dissolved solids (ppm) and nitrate (ppm) of the two rearing systems, 

except the values of pH, nitrite (ppm) and total hardness (ppm) which showed 

no statistical difference (p > 0.05). The study showed that the fish population in the 

in-door concrete reservoir showed higher growth rate than in out-door earthen pond. 

It is recommended that intensive in-door concrete fish culture should be encouraged 

in order to reduce pressure on land and deforestation usually associated with earthen 

pond construction. 

Keywords: Concrete pond, earthen pond, fish culture, fish growth, haematology, 

water quality 

Contact Address: Felix Olusegun Akinwumi, Adekunle Ajasin University, Department of Environmental 

Biology and Fisheries, P.M.B 001, 340001 Akungba-Akoko, Nigeria, e-mail: 

olusegunakinwumi2011@yahoo.com 

74


Jatropha curcas Kernel Meal as a Protein Source in 

Aquaculture Diets 

CARSTEN KROME 1 ,KIM JAUNCEY 2 ,ULFERT FOCKEN 1 

1Johann Heinrich von Thuenen-Institut (vTI), Institute for Fisheries Ecology, Ahrensburg 

Branch, Germany 

2University of Stirling, Institute of Aquaculture, United Kingdom 

Fish feed price and availability are the main limiting factors in many tropical aquaculture 

ventures. There is consequently a continuous effort to make fish feed affordable 

to farmers in these regions. One of the reasons for the high prices of fish feed is the 

contained fishmeal. For years now, research has been undertaken to lower the fishmeal 

content of fish feed without lowering its protein content using plant-based feedstuffs. 

A new option in this respect could be Jatropha curcas kernel meal (JKM), which is 

a by-product of Jatropha production for the biodiesel industry. The meal is high in 

protein content and has a promising essential amino acid composition that is similar 

to the one of fishmeal. Also, due to the growing interest in biodiesel and therefore 

Jatropha, it might soon be readily available in a number of tropical countries. Procedures 

for detoxification of phorbol esters from Jatropha curcas kernel meal have been 

developed recently; however, a relatively high content of phytate remains. Commercially 

available phytase products split phytate into sugar and phosphates, however, 

it is unclear whether these are effective under the pH and temperature conditions of 

the fish gut, especially in carp (Cyprinus carpio), which do not have a stomach and 

therefore no acidic conditions. A possible solution to the problem is pre-incubating 

JKM with phytase in conditions suitable for the enzyme (pH 4.5; 45°C). 

In this study, carp were fed five different diets: J100: Fishmeal was replaced 100 % 

by JKM; J50: Fishmeal was replaced 50 % by JKM; J100Inc: Fishmeal was replaced 

100 % by phytase-incubated JKM; J50Inc: Fishmeal was replaced 50 % by phytaseincubated 

JKM; Control: No fishmeal was replaced. Results showed that feed conversion 

ratios (FCR) of diets containing 100 % JKM were significantly worse than 

all other diets (J100: 2.4±0.51; J100Inc: 2.6±0.57). Diet J50Inc (1.2±0.12) showed 

significantly better FCR than diet J50 (1.5±0.15) and was not significantly different 

from the control diet (1.2±0.16). These results suggest that at least 50 % of fishmeal 

may be replaced by JKM, if the JKM is phytase-treated before adding it to the diet. 

Keywords: Aquaculture, carp, fish feed, Jatropha curcas, phytase, phytate 

Contact Address: Ulfert Focken, Johann Heinrich von Thuenen-Institut (vTI), Institute for Fisheries 

Ecology, Ahrensburg Branch, Wulfsdorfer Weg 204, 22926 Ahrensburg, Germany, e-mail: 

ulfert.focken@vti.bund.de 

75

Animals 

Effect of Oil Bean Meal Diets on Hematology and Histology of 

African Catfish (Clarias gariepinus) 

OGECHI UGBOR 1 ,STEPHEN OCHANG 2 ,JOHNNY ONYEMA OGUNJI 1 

1Ebonyi State University, Dept. of Fisheries and Aquaculture, Nigeria 

2Cross River University of Technology, Calabar, Nigeria, Department of Fisheries and 

Aquatic Science, Nigeria 

A 56-day feeding trial was conducted to evaluate the effect of oil bean seed meal 

(Pentaclethra macrophylla) on the histology of intestinal mucosa and hematology of 

Clarias gariepinus. Oil bean meal (OBM) was included in the diets to substitute fishmeal 

at various levels (5 %, 10 %, 15 % and 20 %) in diets 2, 3, 4 and 5, respectively. 

Diet 1 formulated with fishmeal and containing no OBM served as control. All diets 

were made iso-nitrogenous and iso-energetic at a mean crude protein concentration 

of 41.1±0.12% and gross energy content of 16.9±0.04 /kJg-1 . The experiment was 

carried out in triplicate tanks containing 15 fish each (mean initial weight: 77.4±1.02 

g). Fish were fed 3 % of body weight per day in two portions. At the end of experiment, 

highest mean weight gain of 155.7±2.04 g per fish, relative growth rate of 

187 % and specific growth rate of 1.88%/day were recorded in fish fed the control 

diet. The feed conversion ratio (FCR) for control (1.5±0.12), diet 2 (1.6±0.28) and 

diet 3 (1.9±0.31) were not significantly different. Diets 4 and 5 however performed 

badly. In comparison with the control, growth response became lower as higher levels 

of heat-treated OBM were included in the diets. The histological examination 

of C. gariepinus intestinal mucosa indicated that fish fed the control diet remained 

normal. However, progressive damage to epithelial mucosa of C. gariepinus was observed 

with increasing dietary levels of OBM. While fish fed diet 2 showed minor degeneration 

of the intestinal mucosa, those fed diet 5 showed severe damage. Results of 

the hematology showed that the haematocrit (PCV), red blood cell count, white blood 

cell count and haemoglobin concentration were not significantly (p > 0.05) different 

among the fish receiving different treatments. They were however poor relative to 

the control. The poor haematological values and damages to the intestinal mucosa of 

fish fed diets with OBM might be due to the presence of higher levels of heat stable 

anti-nutrients coupled with non-starch polysaccharides. Results of this study indicate 

that including OBM in diets of C. gariepinus beyond a 5 % level may undermine fish 

growth and bring about histological deformation of intestine mucosa. 

Keywords: Alternative protein sources, fish meal, Pentaclethra macrophylla 

Contact Address: Johnny Onyema Ogunji, Ebonyi State University, Dept. of Fisheries and Aquaculture, 

PMB 053 Abakaliki, Nigeria, e-mail: ogunjijo@yahoo.com 

76


Small-Scale Cooperative Based Aquaculture in Katahr, Nepal 

LADISLAO DI DOMENICA 1 ,MADHAV KUMAR SHRESTHA 2 , 

STEPHAN WESSELS 1 ,GABRIELE HÖRSTGEN-SCHWARK 1 

1Georg-August-Universität Göttingen, Dept. of Animal Sciences, Germany 

2Tribhuvan University Rampur, Institute of Agriculture and Animal Science (IAAS), Nepal 

In spring of 2000, the project “Women in Aquaculture in Nepal” began in Kathar 

village in Chitwan, Nepal, initiated by the Asian Institute of Technology (AIT), Thailand, 

and the Aquaculture Development of Tribhuvan University, Institute of Agriculture 

and Animal Science (IAAS), Nepal. The project was created in consideration 

of the following goals: to increase the limited availability of consumable protein in 

rural families, to create additional income for households through sales of raised fish 

and to empower women. In its early stages, the project was accompanied by multiple 

workshops that trained local women in successful aquaculture methods. Additionally, 

26 fish ponds of varying sizes were constructed and stocked with Nile tilapia (Oreocromis 

niloticus) and carp species (Cyprinidae spp.). External assistance was given 

to the farmers until May 2002 at which point the community was largely left to manage 

the fish ponds on their own as a cooperative. In 2011, 106 households with 121 

fish ponds were involved in aquaculture production. The upward trend in growth and 

participation in aquaculture in this region suggests that more households are likely to 

participate. For the study, a status quo analysis and its impact on ethnic women in 

resource-poor communities was conducted through quantitative and qualitative interviews 

carried out in Kathar over a four month period. The presence of household fish 

ponds has been recognised to be beneficial to human health, because it enriches the 

diet by providing fish protein to the local population, and on family income, when 

the fish is sold on the local market, generating extra revenue which can be used to 

purchase additional food items. 

As the project has been very successful in achieving the intended goals, the Nepalese 

government along with varying NGOs started to heavily promote and support the 

project. Currently, more research is taking place to find out if the implementation 

of similar projects in different areas might be as successful as the project in Kathar. 

Thus, rural small-scale aquaculture in Nepal is likely to expand and contribute to 

women empowerment, food security, income generation, employment and the country’s 

overall economic development. 

Keywords: Carp species, ethnic groups, food security, fish ponds, Nile tilapia 

Contact Address: Ladislao Di Domenica, Georg-August-Universität Göttingen, Dept. of Animal 

Sciences, Göttingen, Germany, e-mail: laslo84@yahoo.it 

77

Animals 

Management Strategies Employed by Small Scale Shrimp 

Farmers in the Philippines in Coping with Economic Crises due to 

Shrimp Diseases 

ELEONOR TENDENCIA 

Southeast Asian Fisheries Development Center (SEAFDEC), Aquaculture Department, 

Philippines 

The Philippines is an archipelago of more than 7000 islands. Aquaculture is a source 

of income for Filipinos. Before the 1970’s, aquaculture in the Philippines was synonymous 

with milkfish culture. The success of a trial shipment of tiger shrimp, Penaeus 

monodon, an incidental species in brackishwater milkfish pond, to Japan lured businessmen 

to go into P. monodon monoculture. More ponds were dug, sugarlands and 

ricelands were converted to P. monodon ponds. Stocking densities increased through 

the years. More aquaculture products were introduced resulting to the deterioration 

of the pond environment and consequently to shrimp diseases and to bankruptcy of 

most shrimp farmers especially those with low capital. This paper describes how 

smallholders cope with economic crisis due to shrimp diseases. 

A structured questionnaire type of survey was employed to gather data. The interview 

was done from March-June 2011. Corporate operated shrimp farms that practiced 

intensive or semi-intensive shrimp monoculture were not included in the survey. Respondents 

were owners of a total of 252 family-owned shrimp farms in the top six 

P. monodon producing provinces of the Philippines. Only 16 shrimp pond owners 

were into P. monodon monoculture, of which 13 were into semi-intensive (stocking 

density (SD) = 20–25 m-2 ) while 3 were into extensive farming (SD>10). The majority 

of the farms (236) had reverted to milkfish monoculture or polyculture of shrimp 

with either milkfish, tilapia or crab. To increase shrimp survival, shrimp were usually 

stocked in net enclosures for 2–3 weeks before release into the rearing pond instead 

of direct stocking practised in semi-intensive or intensive P. monodon culture. Some 

farmers fed the shrimp with commercial pellets in the first month only compared to 

pellet feeding during the whole production cycle in intensive holdings. Most farmers 

relied on naturally grown food such as lumut and lablab (Lablab purpureus) as 

shrimp feed. Percentage return on investment of the different shrimp farming systems: 

polyculture, milkfish monoculture, semi-intensive shrimp monoculture, and extensive 

shrimp monoculture will be compared and advantages and disadvantages of 

the different farming systems will be discussed. 

Keywords: Farming system, shrimp 

Contact Address: Eleonor Tendencia, Southeast Asian Fisheries Development Center (SEAFDEC), 

Aquaculture Department, Tigbauan, Iloilo, Philippines, e-mail: gigi@seafdec.org.ph 

78


Growth Performance of Rabbits Fed Telfaria occidentalis and 

Centrocema pubescens as Protein Supplement 

PHILIP CNALIKWE, LIVINGSTONE DAMBO 

Niger Delta University, Dept. of Livestock Production Technology, Nigeria 

Eighteen mixed bred weaner rabbits (average initial weight 950 – 1366 g) were used 

to investigate the nutrient potential of and growth responses of weaner rabbits to Centrosema 

pubescens and Telfaria occidentalis (Ugu). The forages were cut, air dried 

and milled. Three experimental diets (protein concentrate) were formulated based on 

maize, soybeans, bone meal, vitamin premix, lysine, methionine, salt and wheat bran. 

Diet T1 contained no forage and 20 % protein concentrate; diet T2 contained 5 % Telfaria 

occidentalis and 15 % protein concentrate, and T3 contained 10 % Centrosema 

pubescens and 10 % protein concentrate. The animals were randomly distributed to 

the three diets. The feed was weighed each day before it was administered and it was 

fed ad libitum. Weight gained was recorded once every week in all treatments. Feedgain 

ratio was also evaluated every week. The experiment lasted for six weeks. Data 

obtained were subjected to analysis of variance. The highest final weight (1916 g) 

was observed in T1 though similar to T3 (1850 g) and T2 (1500 g). Average daily 

weight gain was 21 g, 13 and 12 g d -1 in T1, T2 and T3, while the feed/gain ratio 

was 1.75, 2.79 and 4.60 for the 3 treatments, respectively. The difference between 

the treatments was significant (p < 0.05). The feed intake averaged 42.8, 36.3 and 

53.0 g d -1 for treatment T1 , T2 and T3. The result revealed that Telfaria occidentalis 

could better serve as a protein supplement to rabbits than Centrocema pubescens and 

should be recommended. 

Keywords: Centrocema pubescens, protien supplementation, rabbits, Telfaria occidentalis 

Contact Address: Philip C N Alikwe, Niger Delta University, Dept. of Livestock Production Technology, 

34 Agudama, Yenagoa, Nigeria, e-mail: agricbiochem2011@gmail.com 

79

Animals 

Evaluation of Growth Indices, Dry Matter Digestibility and 

Economic Implications of Feeding Rabbits with Millet Offal 

M. HILARIOUS OGUNSIPE 1 ,J.OLUWASOLA AGBEDE 2 , 

MARTINS ANDOR ISIKA 3 

1Adeyemi College of Education, Ondo, Ondo State, Nigeria, Dept. of Agricultural 

Science, Nigeria 

2Federal University of Technology, Dept. of Animal Production and Health, Nigeria 

3University of Calabar, Calabar, Dept. of Animal Science, Nigeria 

A 56-day feeding trial was carried out to evaluate the potential of replacing maize 

in the diets of rabbits with millet offal, an agricultural waste, on the performance indices 

and cost benefit of growing rabbits. Fifty growing rabbits of cross breeds and 

mixed sexes were allotted to five dietary treatments of 10 rabbits per treatment in a 

completely randomised design. A rabbit was taken as a replicate. Millet offal was 

used to replace maize grain at 0, 25, 50, 75 and 100 % in diets 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5, 

respectively. The response criteria included growth indices, carcass cuts, haematology, 

serum metabolites, apparent digestibility and economic benefit. The final body 

weight of 1.72–1.81kg and total weight gain of 0.99–1.04kg of rabbits on the control 

diet was not significantly (p > 0.05) different from those fed the millet offal diets. 

The total feed consumption was significantly (p < 0.05) affected by the dietary treatment 

with rabbits fed the control diet having the highest value (4.02 kg) and rabbit fed 

the 75 % millet offal diet having the lowest value (3.31 kg). Compared with the control 

group, rabbits fed on 25–100 % millet offal diets had an improved feed converion 

ratio of 10.5, 12.5, 17.5 and 18.3 % over those fed the control. The apparent digestibility 

values suggested that millet offal could be tolerated by rabbits even up to 100 % 

(i.e. 47.46 g per 100 g in the gross feed composition) inclusion level, as this level considerably 

decreased cost of feed per kilogram weight gain and improved relative cost 

benefit by up to 52.3 %. The slaughter weight, fasting loss and carcass ‘fast cuts’ were 

not significantly different b etween groups (p > 0.05). Of the entire haematological 

variables measured, only the WBC, MCH and MCV were significantly (p < 0.05) 

influenced by the test diets; increased serum protein and blood glucose and decreased 

total cholesterol were observed in the animals fed on 50–100 % millet offal diets. 

Thus, replacing maize with millet offal could lead to better affordability of rabbit 

meat by resource poor people, better animal protein production/consumption and ultimately 

improved savings of rabbit farmers. 

Keywords: Digestibility, economic implications, maize, millet-offal, rabbit 

Contact Address: J. Oluwasola Agbede, Federal University of Technology, Department of Animal 

Production and Health, Off Ilesa Road, Akure, Nigeria, e-mail: joagbede@yahoo.com 

80


Vitamin E Ameliorates the Effect of Dietary Fumonisin B1 on 

Growth Performance of Female Rabbits 

OLUFEMI ADU 1 ,FRANCIS GBORE 2 

1Federal University of Technology Akure, Dept. of Animal Production and Health, 

Nigeria 

2Adekunle Ajasin University, Dept. of Environmental Biology and Fisheries, Nigeria 

The economic consequences of mycotoxin contamination are profound, and exposure 

of humans and livestock to mycotoxin-contaminated food is particularly a serious 

problem in the tropics. Various nutritional strategies have been proposed to alleviate 

the adverse effects of mycotoxins on livestock. In this study, 49 young female adult 

rabbits were used to evaluate the ameliorative potentials of an antioxidant, vitamin 

E, against the growth-depressing effect of fumonisin B1 (FB1) – an environmental 

mycotoxin produced by Fusarium moulds, on animals. The animals were randomly 

assigned to the control diet without FB1 and six diets containing different concentrations 

of dietary FB1 and/or Vit E (i.e. 0.25 mg FB1, 0.5 mg FB1, 0.75 mg FB1, 

0.25 mg FB1 + 100 mg Vit E, 0.5 mg FB1 + 100 mg Vit E, and 0.75 mg FB1 + 100 mg 

Vit E) for 28 days. The weight changes of the rabbits generally decreased significantly 

(p > 0.05) with increase in the dietary FB1 concentration, and the potential of 

the antioxidant to balance the effect of the toxin on the animals also decreased with 

increase in the dietary FB1 concentrations. The weight gains by the animals fed diets 

containing FB1 were about 26–33 % of those of the control, while those fed diets 

containing FB1 and Vit E had 43–87 % of those on the control. The antioxidant also 

improved the feed efficiency of the animals over those fed diets containing varied 

concentrations of FB1. Therefore Vit E at 100 mg kg -1 of feed is recommended as a 

nutritional supplement to alleviate the growth-depressing effect of FB1 in rabbits. 

Keywords: Mycotoxin, performance, rabbit, vitamin E, Fusarium toxin 

Contact Address: Francis Gbore, Adekunle Ajasin University, Dept. of Environmental Biology and 

Fisheries, P.M.B. 01, 034 Akungba-Akoko, Nigeria, e-mail: fgbore@yahoo.com 

81

Animals 

The Welfare of Working Horses in Northwest Nigeria and Their 

Impact on the Local Economy 

WAYUTA PHILIP MSHELIA 1 ,SALEH BABANGIDA 2 ,ONOJA IKANI ISRAEL 1 

1Ahmadu Bello University Zaria, Dept. of Veterinary Medicine, Nigeria 

2University of Maiduguri, Dept. of Animal Sciences, Nigeria 

Working horses are used for ridden work, draught and pack worldwide. A few horsespower 

mills for crushing sugar are still operating in small scale in Kaduna, Kano and 

Katsina, Northwest Nigeria. Therefore, it has become imperative to assess the welfare 

and economic benefits of these animals, especially in a situation where high animal 

welfare tends to have direct economic benefits. This study generated data via an onthe-spot 

assessment form and a pre-tested questionnaire administered to respondents 

in Kaduna, Katsina and Kano States in 2012. A number of factors where assessed 

namely legal responsibilities, grazing, housing, feeding, husbandry practices, estimated 

work intensity, income generation, labor requirement, quantity and cost of natural 

forage and concentrate. A total of 30 facilities where purposely selected across 

the 3 states. Majority (80 %) of the working horses were the Nigerian breed of horses, 

a member of the group also known collectively as West African barb or West African 

Dongola. About 90 % of the facilities fell short of the minimum standard requirement 

for the welfare of horses. 60–75 % of their income was derived from selling the brown 

sugar powered by the horses and hiring out of horses for various traditional festivities. 

Under these circumstances decisions about horse welfare may be strongly influenced 

by a lot of factors among which could be, the economic benefit of the horse to the 

owner. In this regard assessing the welfare and economic value of these working 

horses will help us to re-focus our attention on the welfare of the horse rather than on 

performance criteria. These working horses are contributing to the sustainance of the 

local economy of these communities but are to some extent subjected to conditions 

beyond their physiological limits. Considering the components of the values of sales 

derived, it is not surprising that horses and the brown sugar consistently remain one of 

the significant agricultural commodities and represent a small but significant portion 

of the total economy of the three nortwestern states studied. In conclusion, there is 

a need to educate owners on ways to identify animal welfare issues especially using 

basic health and behavior parameters. 

Keywords: Economic benefit, animal welfare, working horses 

Contact Address: Wayuta Philip Mshelia, Ahmadu Bello University Zaria, Dept. of Veterinary 

Medicine, Zaria, Nigeria, e-mail: wayutamshelia@yahoo.com 

82


Evaluation of the Chemical and Phytochemical Constituents of 

Alchornea cordifolia Leaf Meal as Potential Feed for Monogastric 

Livestock 

PHILIP CNALIKWE, KEMESEIYEFA OLAJINRE TIMIBITEI 

Niger Delta University, Dept. of Livestock Production Technology, Nigeria 

Phytochemical constituents, proximate and mineral composition of Alchornea cordifolia 

(Schum and Thonn) Muell. Arg. (Euphorbiaceae)), Christmas bush leaf meal 

obtained from the campus of Niger Delta University were investigated in order to 

evaluate its nutritional value for non ruminant livestock since it is well known that 

the presence of antinutrients and toxic substances severely limits the nutritional benefits 

of leaf meals. The results of proximate analyses showed that the leaf meal 

contained moisture (9.96 %), crude protein (17.94 %), carbohydrate (39.53 %), crude 

fat (4.34 %), gross energy (3.37 MJ), ash (11.38 %) as well as crude fibre (16.85 %). 

Elemental analysis revealed the following minerals in the leaf meal: calcium (2.88 %), 

magnesium (0.22 %), potassium (7.25 mg kg -1 ), copper (32.5 mg kg-1 ), iron (192.5 mg 

kg-1 ), manganese (58.35 mg kg-1 ) and cobalt (40 mg kg-1 ). Aluminium, zinc, posphorus, 

selenium and sodium were not detected. Detected phytochemicals in the leaf 

meal were phytate (1.21 %), oxalate (0.86 %), saponin (2.04 %), phenols (1.16 %), 

cardiac glycosides (0.11 %) and hdrocyanic acid (22.30 mg kg -1 ) while alkaloids, anthraquinones, 

tannins, flavonoids and steroids were not detected. Overall concentrations 

of all phytochemicals were low, often the nutritional quality of plants severely 

limited by the presence of antinutrients (oxalate, phytate) and toxic substances (cyanide, 

nitrate, and phenols). The low values of these substances in Alchornea cordifolia 

indicates that the leaf meal may be recommended for non ruminant and human 

consumption. It contains nutrients and mineral elements that make it comparable to 

other leaf meals such as Gmelina leaf meal, Leceunea leucocephala leaf meal, Ipomea 

batatas leaf meal and cassava leaf meal 

Keywords: Anti-nutrients, Alchornea cordifolia, Christmas bush, leafmeal, minerals, 

phytochemical screening, proximate analysis, proximate analysis 

Contact Address: Philip C N Alikwe, Niger Delta University, Dept. of Livestock Production Technology, 

34 Agudama, Yenagoa, Nigeria, e-mail: agricbiochem2011@gmail.com 

83

Ruminant husbandry systems 

Posters 87 

FOLASADE ADEBOYEJO, SIMISOLA ODEYINKA: 

Reproductive Performance of West African Dwarf Goat Fed 

with Moringa oleifera 87 

ABDELAZIZ ELSHEIKH, ABDALLA MOHAMED ABDALLA, 

TARIG ELSHEIKH MAHMOUD: 

Adaptive Strategies by Pastoralists to Cope with Drought 

Episodes in North Kordofan, Sudan 

DHIRAJ KUMAR SINGH, VIVEK KUMAR SINGH: 

Fodder Production and Utilisation Patterns in Disadvantaged 

88 

Areas: A Study of Eastern India 

AHMED IDRIS, MUNA AHMED, ELAGIB FARAHAIN MOHAMED, 

CLAUDIA KIJORA, HESSAIN YOUSIF: 

The Effect of Supplementation Strategies on Productive Per- 

89 

formance of Cows Kept under Different Husbandry Systems 90 

ALINE DOS SANTOS NEUTZLING, MEIKE WOLLNI, EVA 

SCHLECHT: 

Milk Production on Small-Scale Farms in the South of Rio 

Grande Do Sul, Brazil 91 

IVAN B. KOURA, BELARMAIN FANDOHAN, LUC HIPPOLYTE 

DOSSA, MARCEL HOUINATO: 

Peri-Urban Cattle Production System and Herders’ Feeding 

Strategies in the Coastal Area of Southern Benin 92 

MOHAMMAD REZA MARAMI MILANI, ANDREAS HENSE, 

ELHAM RAHMANI, ANGELIKA PLOEGER: 

Effects of Climate Variability on some Main Compounds of 

Milk in Iran 

SHEHADEH KASKOUS, JAWAD SHARAF, ALI AL- HOUARIN, 

REHAB AL-MHITHAWI, RUPERT BRUCKMAIER: 

The Weight of Kids and the Lactation Performance in the 

Mountain Goats with and without Milking during the Suck- 

93 

ling Period 

MAGNUS ANYA, NNEOYI OFEM: 

Micro-livestock Development for Sustainable Livelihoods in 

94 

Cross River State - Nigeria 95 

85

Animals 

86 

HASSEB ELBUKHARY, SALIH BABIKER: 

Production Characteristics of Tagger Goats in Southern 

Kordofan State, Sudan 96 

FRANZISKA SCHULZ, SANDRA AHNERT, ANDREAS SUSEN- 

BETH, UTA DICKHOEFER: 

Effects of Increasing Levels of Quebracho Tannin Supplementation 

on Nutrient Digestibilities in Heifers 97 

CLAUDIA XIMENA LLANOS,KATHERINE GARCÍA, JORGE LUIS 

GIL, PATRICIA AVILA, SIRIWAN MARTENS, BERNARDO 

OSPINA: 

Silage of Sweet Sorghum Residues for Animal Production 

ELISE SCHIECK, JOERG JORES: 

Accelerating CBPP Research Towards a Better Vaccine 

98 

through the Application of Genome Transplantation 

SALLAM BAKHEIT, AHMED IDRIS, BERNARD FAYE: 

The Impact of Management System on Sudanese Camel Calves 

99 

Growth Rate 100

Ruminant husbandry systems — Posters 

Reproductive Performance of West African Dwarf Goat Fed with 

Moringa oleifera 

FOLASADE ADEBOYEJO, SIMISOLA ODEYINKA 

Obafemi Awolowo University, Dept. of Animal Sciences, Nigeria 

The study evaluated the reproductive performance of West African Dwarf (WAD) 

does fed with Moringa oleifera and Gliricidia sepium as inadequate nutrition undermines 

ruminants in representing their full genetic potential. A total of thirty WAD 

goats, consisting of twenty-five matured does and five bucks were used for this study. 

Using a balanced randomised design, the does were divided into five experimental 

treatments based on the feed combination ratio (i.e. 100:0 (T1), 75:25 (T2), 50:50 

(T3), 25:75 (T4), 0:100 (T5) of G. sepium and M. oleifera respectively). Each treatment 

had five does as replicates with an average weight of 12 kg. We observed that 

crude protein intake (CPI) by does’ was greatly influenced by levels of M. oleifera in 

their diets. This invariably enhanced the conception rate of does and Average weaning 

weight of kids (offspring) in treatments with higher level of M. oleifera. Does 

fed with the highest level of M. oleifera had 100 % conception, with conception rate 

decreasing as M. oleifera level decreases. Highest weaning weight of 4.98 kg was 

recorded for kids from the does fed 100 % M. oleifera after three months. Gestation 

length in does, litter size at parturition, birth weight of kids and milk uptake, among 

other reproductive traits assessed, were not significantly different between the treatment 

groups. However, the average birth weight of kids from does fed high level of 

M. oleifera was 300 g higher than their counterparts with ≤25 % M. oleifera inclusion. 

This indicates that improved conception rate, birth weight and weaning weight 

of kids can be achieved by including high levels of M. oleifera in the diets of WAD 

does. 

Keywords: Browse plant, estrus synchronisation, nutrition, productivity, prolificacy 

Contact Address: Folasade Adeboyejo, Obafemi Awolowo University, Dept. of Animal Sciences, Ile- 

Ife, Nigeria, e-mail: talk2edas@yahoo.com 

87

Animals 

Adaptive Strategies by Pastoralists to Cope with Drought Episodes 

in North Kordofan, Sudan 

ABDELAZIZ ELSHEIKH 1 ,ABDALLA MOHAMED ABDALLA 2 ,TARIG ELSHEIKH 

MAHMOUD 3 

1University of Kordofan, Centre for Peace & Development Studies, Sudan 

2University of Kordofan, Fac. of Natural Resources and Environmental Studies, Sudan 

3University of Khartoum, Gum Arabic Research Centre, Sudan 

The northern part of North Kordofan State of Sudan is considered as a real pastoral 

area, dominated by camels and dessert sheep herders. As a result of the recurrent 

drought spells that hit this arid Sahelian area, pastoralists face multitude of challenges 

that trigger development of some adaptive strategies to cope with such environmental 

crisis. The present paper scrutinizes the adaptive strategies tailored by pastoralists in 

Hamrat Elsheikh Administrative Unit in North Kordofan State. It intends to develop a 

model for proper management of the pastoral system in the drought-stricken areas in 

this tate. This model is expected to resolve problems within the system as shortage of 

biomass and range/and species resulting from drought episodes jeopardise the natural 

pastures. Historical, descriptive and analytical approaches were followed via direct 

interviewing with questionnaires, addressing key informants randomly selected from 

pastoralist villages in the study area. The majority of the interviewees (61 %) quoted 

the main adaptive strategies that prevail in the area. These include herd mobility 

in search of water and pastures, keeping drought resistant animals by having a higher 

proportion of desert sheep, goats and camels than cattle, diversifying livestock species 

in favour of resilience to drought, synchronising livestock breeding time with rainy 

season, and herd splitting with assistance from relatives. These strategies mitigate the 

impact of drought on pastoralists’ life in the area. Furthermore, they have also contributed 

very much in boosting-up livestock populations, pave the way for pastoralists 

to survive in the area and sustain their animal resources. However, some shortcomings 

were observed by pastoralists like the lack of some extension and veterinary services 

and lack of dispersion of seeds of range and species. In conclusion, strengthening 

these adaptive strategies could reduce vulnerability of pastoral resources which is key 

to reducing drought risks. 

Keywords: Adaptive strategies, livestock, pastoralists, resilience to drought 

Contact Address: Abdelaziz Elsheikh, University of Kordofan, Centre for Peace & Development Studies, 

P.O.Box 160, El-Obeid, Sudan, e-mail: abdelazizamin70@yahoo.com 

88


Fodder Production and Utilisation Patterns in Disadvantaged 

Areas: A Study of Eastern India 

DHIRAJ KUMAR SINGH 1 ,VIVEK KUMAR SINGH 2 


2International Maize and Wheat Improvement Centre (CIMMYT), India 

The Indian dairy sector is characterised by an inadequate supply of fodder and lack 

of knowledge on feeding. The fodder scarcity affects most farmers, especially small 

and landless livestock keepers. It is documented that crop residues, especially rice and 

wheat are the main feedstuffs that supply about 44 % of the feed requirements of cattle 

in India. It is therefore neccessary to understand the problems in fodder production, 

traditional utilisation patterns and knowledge about quality of fodder, which could 

help farmers to utilise the local feeds in a better way for meeting the future challenges. 

The present study was carried out in Bihar state of India to understand production and 

feeding strategies of different classes of farmers, distinguishing surplus and deficit. 

The primary data was collected from four surplus and four deficit zones districts of 

Bihar. Results show that rice-wheat crop residues are common feeds and these two 

crops constituted more than 90 % of dry fodder production in the fodder surplus zone, 

whereas in the fodder deficit zone these crops constituted 78 %. Paddy straw was the 

most important dry fodder accounting for 67 % of sale volume; its share was higher 

in the surplus zone: about 72 %. Wheat straw was the second important dry fodder 

with respect to production and marketing. The type of fodder used also depended 

on the intensity of production: with increasing intensification of dairy production, 

the share of wheat straw being fed to dairy animals increased. However, the recent 

decline in the area under rice and the use of combine harvesters in rice and wheat 

crops, particularly in the fodder surplus zone, presents a threat to fodder availability 

in Bihar. 

According to farmers’ perception on fodder quality, short chopped straw was the 

most desired quality of paddy and wheat straw. Bright colour was the second important 

quality attributed for wheat straw, and fourth for paddy straw. Purity of fodder 

emerged as third important attribute for wheat and paddy straw. 

Keywords: Rice straw, wheat straw. livestock productivity, quality, smallholders 

Contact Address: Dhiraj Kumar Singh, International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI), 

904, 9th Floor, Aggarwal Corporate Tower, 

d.singh@cgiar.org 

23 Rajendra Place, 110008 New Delhi, India, e-mail: 

89

Animals 

The Effect of Supplementation Strategies on Productive 

Performance of Cows Kept under Different Husbandry Systems 

AHMED IDRIS 1 ,MUNA AHMED 2 ,ELAGIB FARAHAIN MOHAMED 3 , 

CLAUDIA KIJORA 4 ,HESSAIN YOUSIF 5 


2University of Khartoum, Institute of Environmental Studies, Sudan 

3Peace University, Agricultural Economic, Sudan 

4Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, Dept. of Animal Breeding in the Tropics and Subtropics, 

Germany 

5University of Khartoum, Radio-Issotopes, Sudan 

The three extensive sedentary, transhumance and migratory cattle husbandry systems were 

closely monitored during 365 days in the semi-arid rain fed area of Western Sudan. 

In the sedentary system seven groups of cattle herders were selected, in the transhumance system 

three groups and, in the migratory system five groups. Supplementation groups were offered 

either poultry manure and molasses, or only molasses, and were compared to groups 

using farmers’ own concentrate feed. In each group the recently calved cows were monitored 

for post-partum ovarian activity using milk progesterone radioimmunoassay. Days to conception 

were taken as non-return to estrus. Regression analyses were done for fertility parameters 

against body weight (BW) and body condition score (BCS) at calving, 30, 60, and 90 days after 

calving, as well as milk yield (MY) at 30, 60, and 90 days after calving. 

The results revealed that there was a wide variation in both, days to first ovulation and days 

to conception in all systems. Cows in the sedentary and migratory system showed gradual 

increase in BW and MY from calving up to 90 days. BCS was found to decrease from calving 

to 60 days in all systems. Poultry manure/molasses diet as supplementation showed the best 

increase in MY in the sedentary system. Diets substituted with molasses alone increased MY 

in the sedentary and transhumance system. 

It was concluded that poor reproductive performance in cows kept under extensive traditional 

management was due to poor management practices, which ignored high-energy supplementation 

during late pregnancy and early lactation, especially during the dry season when pastures 

deteriorate drastically. Controlled mating and suckling together with good feeding strategies 

may greatly enhance reproductive performance of cows kept under extensive systems of management. 

Fertility of cows kept under traditional extensive systems was low as indicated by 

long post-partum anoestrus periods and long days to conception in the majority of cows investigated. 

The sedentary system showed the shortest days to ovulation and conception as these 

farms used controlled suckling. The migratory system cows showed better fertility parameters 

and were in a better nutritional status than cows in the transhumant and sedentary system. 

Keywords: Dairy cows, feed supplementation strategies, husbandry systems 

Contact Address: Ahmed Idris, Peace University, Animal Production and Range, Khartoum, Sudan, 

e-mail: abuelgoni2002@hotmail.com 

90


Milk Production on Small-Scale Farms in the South of Rio Grande 

do Sul, Brazil 

ALINE DOS SANTOS NEUTZLING 1 ,MEIKE WOLLNI 2 ,EVA SCHLECHT 1 



2Georg-August-Universität Göttingen, Dept. of Agricultural Economics and Rural 

Development, Germany 

Market liberalisation and fierce competition within the dairy sector provoked a continued decline 

of small-scale dairy farms in Brazil since the 1990s. However, small-scale family enterprises 

still prevail in southern Brazil. Therefore we studied factors influencing choice of milk 

marketing channel, milk production, and contribution of milk production to farm income in 200 

small-scale dairy farms in the south of Rio Grande do Sul state. A structured questionnaire was 

administered to the randomly selected farms in summer 2010. 

Factors determining choice of marketing channel were identified using logistic regression analysis. 

While area (ha) devoted to subsistence crops (p < 0.001), total pasture area (ha/cow; 

p < 0.01) and investments (Reais) in dairy production during the past 10 years (p < 0.05) where 

decisive variables on farms delivering milk to producer cooperatives, area of subsistence crops 

(p < 0.001) and cumulative years of schooling of family members (p < 0.05) were influential 

on farms selling milk to private companies. Multiple linear regression analysis showed that 

only the cow numbers influenced daily milk output on cooperative farms (p < 0.001; r 2 =0.68), 

while cow numbers (p < 0.001), daily amount of concentrates offered (kg/cow; p = 0.01) and 

summer pasture area (ha/cow; p < 0.05) determined daily milk output (r 2 =0.83) on farms selling 

milk to companies. Daily milk production of the individual cow depended on fodder maize 

area (ha/cow; p = 0.001, r 2 =0.28) on cooperative farms, and on summer pasture area (ha/cow; 

p = 0.001) and daily amount of concentrates offered (kg/cow; p < 0.01) on farms selling milk 

to companies (r 2 =0.55). The contribution of the dairy unit to overall farm income (%) was 

positively related to winter pasture area (ha/cow; p < 0.01) and negatively related to hiring of 

labor (p < 0.05) on cooperative farms (r 2 =0.66), while on farms selling milk to companies only 

the summer pasture area (ha/cow) had an influence (p < 0.05, r 2 =0.55) on this variable. 

We conclude that irrespective of the milk marketing channel the area available for fodder cultivation 

is key for milk production on small-scale dairy farms in southern Brazil, while concentrate 

feeding plays only a secondary role even for ‘business-oriented’ farms. This must be 

accounted for when exploring options for increasing milk production on such farms. 

Keywords: Companies, cooperatives, dairy cows, farm income, pasture area 




91

Animals 

Peri-Urban Cattle Production System and Herders’ Feeding 

Strategies in the Coastal Area of Southern Benin 

IVAN B. KOURA 1 ,BELARMAIN FANDOHAN 2 ,LUC HIPPOLYTE DOSSA 1 , 

MARCEL HOUINATO 1 

1University of Abomey-Calavi, Dept. of Animal Production, Benin 

2University of Abomey-Calavi, Laboratory of Applied Ecology, Benin 

Despite the increased urbanisation and the obvious shrinking of the forages resources 

around the major coastal cities in southern Benin, cattle farming still represents an 

important activity for many urban dwellers. The objective of the current study was to 

examine this production system with emphasis on the feeding practices and herders’ 

adaptation strategies to cope with the changing urban/peri-urban environment. Fortyfive 

(45) cattle farms located in the coastal belt of the cities of Abomey-Calavi and 

Ouidah were rapidly surveyed in October 2011 with a questionnaire designed to address 

the ownership of the herd, its size and breed composition, and management 

practices. Based on their willingness to cooperate, fifteen (15) herdsmen were then 

selected for more detailed interviews on their feeding strategies. Almost half (48 %) 

of the herds had multiple owners who were wealthy public servants or rich merchants 

living in the city. The animals served as wealth accumulation and were entrusted to 

hired herdsmen who were mainly Fulani people from Niger Republic (49 %), northern 

Benin (47 %) or Burkina Faso (4 %). The average herd size was 55 ± 30. Out of a 

total number of 2477 animals counted, 55.6 % were identified as Borgou cattle (humpless 

× humped), 22.2 % as crossbred between Borgou and the native dwarf shorthorn 

cattle (Lagune), 15.6 % as Lagune, 4.4 % as N’Dama and 2.2 % as Zebu Gudali. Sixty 

percent of the herds were fed exclusively on natural pasture. The remaining 40 % additionallly 

received crop residues. Most respondents mentioned wet seasons (61 %) 

and the short dry season of July to September (27 %) as the periods when forage is 

most available. Forage availability was also perceived as being highly affected by 

the expansion of peri-urban commercial vegetable gardens (98 %), climate variability 

(98 %), and urbanisation (71 %). While all respondents were aware of the decrease of 

and difficulty to access grazing areas, most of them (87 %) mentioned the disappearance 

of palatable forage species due to overgrazing. Splitting and moving herds in the 

long dry season (November-February) farther away from their permanent settlements 

towards wetlands and rural areas were the main adaptive feeding strategies reported 

by the herders. 

Keywords: Cattle husbandry, coastal area, feeding strategies, urban fringe, West 

Africa 

Contact Address: Luc Hippolyte Dossa, University of Abomey-Calavi, Dept. of Animal Production, 

01 BP 526, Cotonou, Benin, e-mail: dolhip@yahoo.com 

92


Effects of Climate Variability on some Main Compounds of Milk 

in Iran 

MOHAMMAD REZA MARAMI MILANI 1 ,ANDREAS HENSE 2 ,ELHAM RAHMANI 2 , 

ANGELIKA PLOEGER 1 

1University of Kassel, Dept. of Organic Food Quality and Food Culture, Germany 

2University of Bonn, Meteorology Institute, Germany 

Climate change is attributed directly or indirectly to human activity. It will affect 

animal welfare, food production and human health through its short-term and longterm 

impacts on all components of global and local food systems (FAO framework, 

2008). In general, the projected climate change is foreseen to have a negative impact 

on food security, especially in developing countries. 

In Iran the change and variability of climate elements in every agro-ecological regions 

are different. Temperature variations are commonly used to detect and quantify possible 

changes in climate. To assess the influence of temperature variability upon main 

compounds of milk the paper addresses the following points: 

1) Statistical investigation of variability in milk compounds in different areas of Iran 

based on the observed variability of local temperatures. 2) Construction of a statistical 

downscaling model to relate large-scale temperature from reanalysis projects to milk 

compounds variability. 

The aim of this research is zoning of potentially positive and negative effects of climate 

change on the milk components in different regions of Iran. This would allow 

finding an optimum scenario for minimizing negative effects of climate change on 

the milk components, such as changing the feed rationing of cows or changes in milk 

processing. 

To treat the research question milk yield, fat and protein content data from individual 

cows (>250 cows per station) on a daily basis were gathered for whole Iran for the 

period 2002–2010. The data is adjusted for the period of times that cow use the natural 

pasture for feeding (springs & summers). Climatic data of near surface temperature 

was taken from stations as well as from the NASA MERRA reanalysis for the same 

area and period. The first result on the preliminary milk data analysis in Northwest 

of Iran reveals a monomodal probability density of the milk compounds. Then the 

simple monthly average of the individual daily data was performed. The results of 

a correlation analysis between the monthly mean values of milk compounds and the 

regression modelling between milk data set and temperature will be presented based 

on the NASA reanalysis MERRA to construct a downscaling model for future use. 

Keywords: Climate change, Iran, milk compounds, NASA MERRA reanalysis 

Contact Address: Mohammad Reza Marami Milani, University of Kassel, Dept. of Organic Food 

Quality and Food Culture, Donatus strasse 2-b,53175 Bonn, Germany, e-mail: marami@uni-kassel. 

de 

93

Animals 

The Weight of Kids and the Lactation Performance in the 

Mountain Goats with and without Milking during the 

Suckling Period 

SHEHADEH KASKOUS 1 ,JAWAD SHARAF 2 ,ALI AL- HOUARIN 2 , 

REHAB AL-MHITHAWI 2 ,RUPERT BRUCKMAIER 3 

1Damascus University, Dept. of Animal Production, Syria 

2General Commission for Scientific Agricultural Research, Animal Wealth Administration, 

Syria 

3University of Bern, Dept. of Veterinary Physiology, Switzerland 

This study was conducted in the Syrian Swida governorate (Oura Research Station) 

with mountain goats to investigate the weight gain of kids and the lactation performance 

with and without milking during the suckling period. 36 goats in their first to 

third lactation were used. Experimental animals were selected at the end of pregnancy 

and they were randomly divided into two equal groups based on their lactation numbers 

and body weight. The daily milk production was measured in the first group by 

lamb-suckling method during the suckling period (60 days) and by twice daily handmilking 

from weaning to the end of lactation. In addition, the weight gain of the kids 

was estimated during the suckling period. For the second group, the same treatment 

has been applied as in the first group, only during the suckling period the milk production 

was determined by a combined lamb-suckling and hand-milking of the residual 

part of milk. Data were analysed by analysis of variance (ANOVA) for repeated 

measurement using the SAS programme package. The weight of the weaning kids 

was higher in group 2 than group 1 (p < 0.05; 12.1 ± 0.36 and 11.0 ± 0.34 kg kid -1 ), 

respectively. The statistical analysis showed also a higher significant difference of 

milk production between the first and second group regarding the daily-, lactation 

yield and the value reached up to 0.89 ± 0.05 vs. 1.11 ± 0.05 kg milk day -1 (p < 

0.01) and 186.8 ± 5.16 vs. 237.9 ± 5.92 kg milk lactation -1 (p < 0.001), respectively, 

while there was no significant difference of lactation length between groups 1 and 2 

(209.9 ± 5.8 and 219.3 ± 5.5 days, respectively). From the above results we can conclude 

that the milking process in parallel to suckling can improve the daily milk yieldand 

the production over the whole lactation period. Consequently production of milk 

for sale is increased, and the increment reached in the milk yield was 27.35 % higher 

in the second group compared to the first group. Thus emphasise the need to use this 

method of rearing at the mountain goats. 

Keywords: Milk production, mountain goats, suckling milk, weaning weight 

Contact Address: Shehadeh Kaskous, Damascus University, Dept. of Animal Production, 

P.O. Box 34749, Damascus, Syria, e-mail: skaskus@scs-net.org 

94


Micro-livestock Development for Sustainable Livelihoods in Cross 

River State - Nigeria 

MAGNUS ANYA 1 ,NNEOYI OFEM 2 

1University of Calabar, Department of Animal Science, Nigeria 

2University of Reading, School of Agriculture, Policy and Development, United Kingdom 

In Nigeria, micro-livestock make valuable contributions to farming systems and to 

people’s livelihoods. Because of their special value to poor households, their integration 

in poverty reduction activities and food security becomes imperative. Cross 

River State is mainly an agricultural state with about 75 % of its people engaged in 

subsistence agriculture. The state is also rated second highest in terms of poverty 

ranking within the south-south zone of Nigeria. The study therefore analysed the implications 

of micro-livestock husbandry as sustainable livelihood options for the poor, 

surveying of micro-livestock farmers in Cross River State, Nigeria. The multi-stage 

sampling technique was used to select a total of 170 micro-livestock farmers from the 

Ikom agricultural zone. The results of the study show that male and female respondents 

were almost equal in percentage (51 % and 49 %, respectively). The majority 

of the livestock farmers was less than 35 years old (69 %), and 76 % had more than 

10 years farming experience. Most of the respondents (71 %) had formal education. 

Poultry and goats ranked high among the respondents (65 %) with flock sizes bellow 

100. Only 16 % earned more than Naira 31,000 per annum. A Tobit regression model 

was used to analyse the effects of micro-livestock keeping on poverty reduction. Sex 

and household size were significant at 1 % (0.439 and 0.240). The results revealed 

that flock size had a negative but significant relationship with poverty (-0.038) while 

the type of livestock kept (0.073) and access to improved breeds (0.489) showed positive 

and significant relationship to poverty reduction. Education also had a significant 

positive coefficient of 0.670. From the foregoing, it can be concluded that microlivestock 

development can help facilitate poverty alleviation in rural communities of 

Nigeria by increasing the income and the protein consumption of the rural people. 

Keywords: Farming system, poverty alleviation, rural communities 

Contact Address: Magnus Anya, University of Calabar, Department of Animal Science, Calabar, 

Nigeria, e-mail: izahanya@yahoo.com 

95

Animals 

Production Characteristics of Tagger Goats in Southern Kordofan 

State, Sudan 

HASSEB ELBUKHARY 1 ,SALIH BABIKER 2 


2University of Khartoum, Meat Production, Sudan 

A survey was carried out using a questionnaire on randomly selected farmers in the 

eastern mountains of southern Kordofan, Sudan. The study attempted to define the 

phenotypic characteristics of the Tagger goats, their management practices and production 

potential with particular emphasis on their meat producing abilities. The mean 

flock size was 29 goats. Total females were 66.7 %, breeding males 7.5 % and castrates 

8.0 %, with a buck to doe ratio of 1:6. Breeding was uncontrolled and kidding 

occurred all year round, but a peak was noticed in the wet season. Age at first kidding 

was 13.5 months which is older than in many African goat breeds . Average kidding 

interval was 7.7 months which was similar to many other African breeds. Twining 

rate was 57 %. The average birth weight was 1.4 kg and average mature weight was 

20 kg for males and 18.5 kg for females. Mortality rate was 16.1 % in young kids and 

7.9 % in adults. 

The slaughter data involved twelve males and an equal number of females slaughtered 

at different age (young and adult). No significant differences were observed between 

both sexes in slaughter weight. The hot dressing percentage was not significantly 

different but it tended to be higher in young male kids and adult females than in young 

females and adult males. The total carcass muscle was greater in young females but 

the total carcass bone was greater in young male kids and adult female goats, while 

the fat content was greater in young male kids than in adult female goats. The yield 

of commercial cuts was generally higher in adult males than in females but the leg, 

the chump and best end of neck were heavier in female goats. 

Keywords: Production characteristics, southern Kordofan, Sudan, tagger goats 

Contact Address: Hasseb Elbukhary, Peace University, Animal Production and Range, Gar Elnabi, 

11111 El Fulla, Sudan, e-mail: elbukhary11@yahoo.com 

96


Effects of Increasing Levels of Quebracho Tannin 

Supplementation on Nutrient Digestibilities in Heifers 

FRANZISKA SCHULZ, SANDRA AHNERT, ANDREAS SUSENBETH, 

UTA DICKHOEFER 


Germany 

Condensed tannins are known to bind to polymers such as cellulose, hamper the adhesion 

of rumen microbes to feed particles, and reduce the activity of microbial enzymes. 

This may strongly decrease fibre digestibility and hence, feed and energy 

intakes of animals offered diets rich in cell wall constituents. The objective was therefore 

to investigate to which extent different levels of Quebracho tannin extract (QTE) 

reduce apparent total tract digestibilities of dry matter (DM), organic matter (OM), 

neutral (NDF), and acid detergent fibre (ADF) in heifers. 

The study comprised five experimental periods (9d adaption + 6d feces collection). 

Six ruminally cannulated heifers (491±35kg bodyweight) were offered a basal diet 

consisting of 2.6 kg d -1 of grass hay, 2.6 kg d -1 of concentrate feed, and 60 g d -1 of a 

mineral premix in two equal meals. While in the first period, no QTE was administered 

(control), all animals simultaneously received 1, 2, 4, or 6 % QTE of their daily 

DM intake during the following four periods. For this, half of the daily QTE dosage 

was diluted in 1 l of warm water and infused intra-ruminally during each feeding. 

Fecal excretions were quantified and feed and feces samples analysed for DM, OM, 

NDF, and ADF contents. 

DM and OM digestibilities linearly decreased from 0.750 (SD 0.018) and 0.776 (SD 

0.015) without QTE supplementation to 0.714 (SD 0.012; R 2 =0.49) and 0.749 (SD 

0.012; R 2 =0.46) at a dietary concentration of 6 % QTE, respectively. The decrease 

in nutrient digestibilities was most pronounced for NDF and ADF with -0.023 (SE 

0.004) per 1 % of QTE for both parameters (R 2 =0.52; R 2 =0.54). Thus, compared to 

the control (0.718, SD 0.024; 0.623, SD 0.039), NDF and ADF digestibilities were 

only 0.590 (SD 0.075) and 0.493 (SD 0.058) at 6 % QTE, respectively. 

Moderate to high concentrations of condensed tannins strongly reduce total tract digestibilities 

of the fibrous fractions in ruminant diets which may negatively impact 

their feed and energy intakes. Together with the direct inhibition of rumen microbes, 

the lower availability of rumen fermentable substrate may furthermore reduce microbial 

protein synthesis and therefore amino acid supply to the animals. 

Keywords: Fibre digestibility, quebracho, ruminant, tannins 




97

Animals 

Silage of Sweet Sorghum Residues for Animal Production 

CLAUDIA XIMENA LLANOS 1 ,KATHERINE GARCÍA 1 ,JORGE LUIS GIL 2 , 

PATRICIA AVILA 2 ,SIRIWAN MARTENS 2 ,BERNARDO OSPINA 2 

1National University of Colombia, Dept. of Animal Science, Colombia 


A special sweet sorghum (Sorghum bicolor) cultivar has a high potential as primary 

material for paper production, due to its agronomic and compositional characteristics. 

The remaining forage parts such as leaves and panicle are by-products in Colombia, 

useful for animal nutrition. However, what first seemed to be the principal new 

business opportunity for farmers with the paper industry has meanwhile changed to a 

secondary income, the main benefit resulting from the animal feed. The objective of 

this study was to evaluate ensiling as a conservation option for sorghum residues, both 

under controlled and simulated field conditions. Sorghum bicolor ICRISAT 615 was 

harvested at milk-ripe stage (90 d), leaves and panicles were mixed. Two treatments 

(molasses alone at 33 g kg-1 fresh matter (FM), T1; molasses+homofermentative Lactobacillus 

inoculum, T2) × two types of packaging (vacuum sealed bags “Rostock 

Model Silages”, Co; standard plastic bag wrapped in black garbage bag, Fi) were 

applied. Silages were stored for 30 d at 25ºC and evaluated for their fermentation 

quality and aerobic stability afterwards. Silage dry matter (DM) ranged between 320 

and350gkg-1 FM. The pH was significantly lower in the Co silages independent 

of the treatment (pH 3.7 vs. 4.2), the same applied for acetic acid contents (6.9 vs. 

11.8 g kg-1 DM on average), explained by oxygen availability in Fi. Proteolysis expressed 

as ammonia-N from total N ranged from 89 to 106 g kg -1 without statistical 

differences, with an original crude protein content of 103 g kg -1 DM. Butyric acid content 

was slightly higher in FiT1 (47 g kg-1 DM) while lactic acid was lowest in this 

treatment (31 g kg-1 DM). Highest lactic acid content was achieved in CoT2 (57 g/kg 

DM), which is low compared to other forages and is explained by the low buffering 

capacity of sorghum (2.2 g lactic acid per 100 g DM). All silages were of good 

quality according to DLG (German Society for Agriculture) criteria, but showed to 

be prone to aerobic deterioration indicated by pH increase after 7 d and yeast infestation, 

except for FiT2, which was least affected. Thus, ensiling offers a good option to 

preserve sorghum residues provided an adequate silo size. 

Keywords: Additives, leave, panicle, silage quality, Sorghum bicolor 

Contact Address: Siriwan Martens, International Center for Tropical Agriculture (CIAT), Tropical 

Forages, Cali, Colombia, e-mail: s.martens@cgiar.org 

98


Accelerating CBPP Research Towards a Better Vaccine through 

the Application of Genome Transplantation 

ELISE SCHIECK, JOERG JORES 

International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI), Kenya 

Contagious bovine pleuropneumonia (CBPP) caused by Mycoplasma mycoides subsp. 

mycoides (Mmm) is one of the most important livestock diseases in sub-Saharan 

Africa. CBPP impacts health and poverty of livestock-dependent people through decreased 

animal productivity, reduced food supply, and the cost of control measures. 

Additionally, CBPP is a barrier to trade in many African countries and this reduces 

the value of livestock and the income of many value chain stakeholders. 

Presently control of CBPP relies mainly on a live vaccine of limited efficacy and 

duration of immunity. Vaccines with better efficacy are necessary for control and 

eradication programmes within all African regions. 

The identification of Mycoplasma target molecules for vaccines has been hampered 

by the non-existence of genetic tools to manipulate the pathogen’s genome in a systematic 

way. Recently, techniques for the targeted mutagenesis of the closely related 

Mycoplasma species Mycoplasma mycoides subsp. capri (Mmc) have been developed 

as part of synthetic biology efforts. Yeast is used as a host cell for the whole 

Mycoplasma genome, opening up to the fast and efficient genome manipulation toolbox 

for yeast. Back-transplantation of the genome to Mycoplasma cells will enable 

the subsequent testing of targeted genes for their role in host pathogen interactions 

using in vitro and in vivo systems. 

Targeted mutagenesis will accelerate the knowledge gain with respect to pathogenicity 

and host specificity and therefore vaccine development. 

We are in the process of transferring the genome transplantation technology to ILRI 

in Africa and adapting the method to field strains of Mycoplasma mycoides subsp. 

mycoides. We have also started the procedure of targeted mutagenesis of putative 

virulence genes in the already established Mycoplasma mycoides subsp. capri model. 

Keywords: Animal health 

Contact Address: Elise Schieck, International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI), Biotechnology- 

Improving Livestock Disease Control, Nairobi, Kenya, e-mail: elises@gmail.com 

99

Animals 

The Impact of Management System on Sudanese Camel Calves 

Growth Rate 

SALLAM BAKHEIT 1 ,AHMED IDRIS 2 ,BERNHARD FAYE 3 

1University of Kordofan, Dept. of Animal production, Sudan 


3Centre de Coop. Internationale en Recherche Agronomique pour le Developpement 

(CIRAD), France 

This study aimed to investigate the effect of management system on the growth rate 

of Sudanese camel calves. Twenty (20) camel calves (10 males and 10 females) at 

the first day of birth were selected, from the Sudanese Arabi (Kababish) bred. The 

camel-calves with their dams were maintained under semi-intensive and traditional 

management systems for 18 successive months. Calves in the semi-intensive system, 

in addition of suckling their respective dams, received supplementation diets (one 

kg of concentrate/head/day), ad libtium watering, health care and spraying weekly 

against ticks and external parasites. The body weight of calves was obtained through 

direct weighing at birth, 6 months, 12 months and 18 months of age. The results 

indicated that there was no significant difference (p > 0.05) in birth weight of calves 

raised under semi-intensive and traditional system. In both systems the males (39 ± 

0.31 kg) were significantly (p < 0.05) heavier than the females (36 ± 0.34 kg). The 

body weight of the calves under semi-intensive system at six, 12 and 18 months of age 

was 123 ± 2.2, 221 ± 2.2 and 326 ± 2.4 kg respectively, the respective body weight 

of camel calves under traditional system was 96 ± 1.6, 159 ± 2.4 and 208 ± 2.5 kg. 

With significant differences (p < 0.01) between systems. The overall mean daily gain 

of camel calves under semi-intensive and traditional system were 535 ± 9.8 g and 

317 ± 5.4 g, respectively. The average daily body gain from birth to 6 months, 6 – 

12 month and 12–18 months of age in semi-intensive system was 477 ± 10.9, 542 

± 8.3 and 585 ± 8.4gd-1 , while corresponding values for calves managed under the 

traditional system were 352 ± 10.6, 272 ± 16.0 and 317 ± 5.5gd-1 . 

Keywords: Daily gain, management system, Sudan, supplementary feeding 

Contact Address: Ahmed Idris, Peace University, Animal Production and Range, Khartoum North 

Shambat, Sudan, e-mail: abuelgoni2002@hotmail.com 

100

Plants and Soils 

1) Cropping systems and environment 103 

2) Crop biotic stresses (DPG session) 145 

3) Cropping systems to maintain soil quality and available soil moisture 173 

4) Mineral fertilisation and resilience of cropping systems 203 

5) Innovations in cropping systems 219 

101

Cropping systems and environment 


WILFRED ELEGBA, ELAINE AZU, NUSRAT AFFUL, KENNETH 

DANSO: 

Domestication of Shea Tree (Vitellaria paradoxa C.F. Gaertn) 

via ex-vitro Propagation 107 

EIKE LUEDELING: 

Historic and Future Winter Chill for Temperate Fruit Trees 

and Knowledge Constraints to Orchard Planning 108 

BRAJA SWAIN, DHIRAJ KUMAR SINGH, M.MEHROTRA, NILS 

TEUFEL: 

Mixed-Farming in South Asian An Era of Resilient Agricultural 

Systems 109 

PETER MUTH, OSAMA ELHASSAN, ABDALLAH MOHAMMED, 

H. FREDERICK W. RATTUNDE, ABOCAR TOURE, BETTINA 

I.G. HAUSSMANN: 

Effect of Marker-Assisted Backcrossing to Introgress Resistance 

to Striga hermonthica into African Sorghum Varieties 110 

MARIO PILZ, JÜRGEN BURKHARDT, DANIEL NEUHOFF, 

OSCAR BUSTAMANTE, PABLO SILES, CHARLES STAVER: 

Effects of Induced Drought and Different Shade Levels on 

Leaf Gas Exchange of Musa spp. 111 

SABINE STÜRZ, ABDOULAYE SOW, FOLKARD ASCH: 

Impact of Irrigation System on Microclimatic Parameters and 

Gas Exchange in Lowland Rice 112 

Posters 113 

AKBAR TAVAKKOLI, SEYED ALI MOHAMMAD MODARRES- 

SANAVY: 

Comparison of Climate Change Effects on Bread Wheat and 

Durum Wheat 113 

ISABEL MADALENO: 

Medicinal Herbs Cultivation, Trade and Consumption in 

Colonia del Sacramento, Uruguay 114 

103


104 

CHRISTOPH GEHRING, MÁRCIO FERNANDES ALVES LEITE, 

FLAVIO HENRIQUE REIS MORAES: 

Allelopathic Effects of the Babassu Palm on Crops, Pasture- 

Grasses and Key Soil Fungi 115 

CODJO SYLVESTRE GERBERT DOSSA, THOMAS CHRISTOPH 

ZIMMER, RALF NAUEN: 

Characterisation of Insecticide Resistance in Clonal Cultures 

of Myzus persicae (Homoptera: Aphididae) Obtained from an 

Italian Field Population in 2010 116 

RENATE GARVI-BODE, JOSEF GARVI: 

Developing New Fair Trade Markets Based on Local Wild 

Perennials: Boscia senegalensis (hanza) attheBaseofaNew 

Emerging Food Chain in Niger Republic 117 

M. KUBILAY ÖNAL: 

The Patterns of Pomological Variation of Wild Plum (Prunus 

divaricata Ledeb.) in Kazdagi (Mt. Ida), Area of Turkey 118 

KLAUS BUTTERBACH-BAHL, LIN SHAN, MEIJU LIU, YANG 

GUANGJUAN, XUNHUA ZHENG: 

ASsessing ThE Risk of Water Saving Ground Cover RICe 

Production Systems on Regional Soil Carbon and Nitrogen 

Stocks (ASTERICS) 119 

JONATHAN AMPONSAH, KENNETH DANSO, WILFRED ELEGBA: 

Enhancing Germination of Aframomum melegueta K. Schum. 

through ex-vitro and in-vitro Propagation Techniques 120 

ADUNNI SANNI, MUHAMMAD BELLO HASSAN: 

Traditional Rainfall Prediction Skills and Response Strategies 

in Selected Frontline States of Nigeria 121 

SINA BESHARAT: 

Evaluation of Hydrus-2D for Soil Water Infiltration by Using 

Laboratory Measurements in the Weighing Lysimeter 122 

BERNADETTA RINA HASTILESTARI, SEBASTIAN GURETZKI, 

MARINA MUDERSBACH, BETTINA BISKUPEK-KORELL, 

PATRICK VAN DAMME, JUTTA PAPENBROCK: 

Euphorbia tirucalli L. – Physiological and Genetical Characterisation 

of a Drought Tolerant Plant and its Potential as a 

Source for Bioenergy Production 123 

BERNHARD LIESE, ANNIKA LOUISE HASS, KONG LUEN 

HEONG, JOSEF SETTELE, TEJA TSCHARNTKE, CATRIN 

WESTPHAL: 

Pollination Services in Irrigated Rice Based Production Landscapes 

124

Cropping systems and environment — Contents 

JOSÉ RIBAMAR GUSMÃO ARAUJO, ROZALINO ANTONIO 

AGUIAR JÚNIOR, CHRISTOPH GEHRING: 

Turiaçu Pineapple: A New Cultivar Native from the Eastern 

Periphery of Amazonia, Maranhão State, Brazil 

FRANCISCO JAVIER MARROQUIN AGREDA, DIEGO SANTIAGO 

RUIZ NORIEGA, JÜRGEN POHLAN, ERNESTO TOLEDO TOLEDO, 

JOSÉ NOE LERMA MOLINA: 

Potential of Crotalaria spp. in the Agroecological Restoration 

125 

of Fruit Orchards in the Soconusco, Chiapas, Mexico 126 

GHAYOOR FATIMA, IQRAR AHMAD KHAN, MUHAMMAD 

JAFAR 

RAZA: 

JASKANI, MANSOOR HAMEED, MUHAMMAD ASIF 

Comparative Studies of Root Anatomy in Some Date Palm 

(Phoenix dactylifera L.) Cultivars from Diverse Origin 

ANSHUL PURI, SHANUJA BERI, ALOK ADHOLEYA: 

Differential Expression of alp Gene and Sporulation Pattern 

127 

of Glomus with Ri T-DNA Transformed Hairy Roots 128 

SAMI UL-ALLAH, ASIF ALI, SHOAIB REHMAN, MICHAEL 

WACHENDORF: 

Forage Production with Limited Water and Nutrient Resources 

in Pakistan 129 

ALEMAYEHU TERESSA 

FATHI HASSAN: 

NEGAWO, HANS-JÖRG JACOBSEN, 

Development of Insect Resistant Transgenic Pea (Pisum 

sativum L.): Molecular and Functional Characterisation of 

Putative Transgenic Pea Plants 130 

JONATHAN C. ONYEKWELU, BERND STIMM, REINHARD 

MOSANDL, JOHNSON ADEYINKA OLUSOLA: 

Seed Germination and Early Growth of Chrysophyllum 

albidum Seedlings under Different Light Intensities 

YASIR MAHMOOD, M. ASLAM KHAN, MUNZUR AHMAD, 

SAMI UL-ALLAH: 

Management of Fungi Associated with Grain Discolouration 

131 

in Rice, an Emerging Threat to Rice Crop in Pakistan 132 

ODUNAYO OLAWUYI, ADEGBOYEGA ODEBODE, SAMUEL 

OLAKOJO, ADENUBI ADESOYE: 

Genetic Evaluation of Quality Protein Maize Genotypes under 

Striga lutea and Mycorrhiza Interaction in Nigeria 133 

YASIR MAHMOOD, M.ASLAM KHAN, NAZIR JAVED, SAMI 

UL-ALLAH: 

Effectiveness of Resistant Germplasm and Biological Control 

Agents as a Sustainable Means for Managment of Fusarium 

Wilt Disease of Chickpea 134 

105


106 

ELFADIL BASHIR, ADAM ALI, MOHAMAD ISMAIL, ELGAILANI 

ABDALLA, OMAR BAKHIT, SALIH SABEEL, ABDELBAGI ALI, 

BETTINA I.G. HAUSSMANN: 

Characterisation of Sudanese Pearl Millet Germplasm as 

Source in Breeding for Adaptation to Climate Change 135 

TAG ELSIR ELAMIN ABDALLA, AHMED MOHAMED 

ELMUSTAFA, HASSAN ABDELGADIR MUBARAK: 

Establishment and Parasitism Efficiency of Trichogramma 

principium (Sugonyaev and Sorokina) on Cotton-infesting 

Helicoverpa armigera (Hb.) in Sudan 136 

VICENCIA DOSSOU-YOVO, TATSIANA CHARNIKOVA, HARRO 

BOUWMEESTER, JOACHIM SAUERBORN: 

Evaluation of Strigolactones Types in Cowpea Genotypes 

under Phosphate Starvation 137 

VAHID BAYAT, FARZAD PAKNEJAD, MOHAMMAD REZA 

ARDAKANI, SAEED VAZAN, ALIREZA PAZOKI: 

Foliar Application of Methanol on Some Quality Traits of 

Soybean under Deficit Irrigation 138 

YASSER MOURSI, HEIKO C. BECKER: 

Genetic Variation in Salt Tolerance in Oilseed Rape 139 

MAJID ROSTAMI: 

Effects of Late Season Drought Stress on Yield and Physiological 

Traits of Spring Wheat Cultivars 140 

AHMED SALLAM, N.EL-SAYED, M.HASHAD, M.OMARA: 

Genetic Variation of Stem Characters in Wheat (Triticum 

aestivum L.) and their Relation to Yield Components under 

Drought and Heat Stress 141 

NASER ALMARRI, ALISTAIR MURDOCH, SIMON MORTIMER: 

The Effect of Environmental Conditions on Seed Germination 

of Some Saudi Arabian Rangeland Species 142 

OMAR A.A. SIDAHMED, ISHTIAG FAROUG ABDALLA, AHMED 

H. ALLAGABO, AWAD K. TAHA: 

Status Quo of Farmers Knowledge about Fruit Flies and their 

Control in Mango and Guava Orchards in Some States in 

Sudan 143

Cropping systems and environment — Oral Presentations 

Domestication of Shea Tree (Vitellaria paradoxa C.F. Gaertn) via 

ex-vitro Propagation 

WILFRED ELEGBA, ELAINE AZU, NUSRAT AFFUL, KENNETH DANSO 

Ghana Atomic Energy Commission, Biotechnology and Nuclear Agriculture Research 

Institute, Ghana 

Horticultural propagation of the Shea tree (Vitellaria paradoxa C.F. Gaertn) is constrained 

by its long gestation period and long tap root of seedlings which makes transplanting 

very difficult. We therefore investigated the effect of heat (high temperature), 

Gibberillic Acid (GA3) and mechanical scarification on reduction of gestation period 

and seedling production in Shea. Seeds were kept in the oven at temperatures ranging 

from 30–60°C for 3, 6, 9 or 12 hours before sown in soil and monitored for germination. 

The incubation of seeds at 30°C for either 3 or 6 hours prior to sowing improved 

germination over the control treatment. To further improve germination, seeds were 

soaked in different concentrations of GA3 (0, 5, 10, 15 or 20 %) for 24, 48, 72 or 

96 hours. Germination of seeds was influenced by the presence and concentration of 

GA3 in the soaking medium. Seeds soaked in 20 % GA3 for 48 hours resulted in the 

highest percentage germination, mean number of leaves and seedling height 12 weeks 

after sowing. However, soaking of seeds in GA3 beyond 48 hours decreased percentage 

germination irrespective of the concentration. Also, seeds soaked in higher GA3 

concentrations developed thin, fibrous root structures compared to controls which had 

a long and thick tap root. Mechanical scarification of seeds involved the complete or 

partial removal of seed testa prior to sowing in soil. The presence or absence of the 

seed testa influenced radicle emergence and growth affecting days to germination. 

This study has shown that both heat and GA3 can enhance seedling production of 

Shea promoting propagation and large scale cultivation. 

Keywords: Emergence, germination, gibberellic acid (GA3), seedling height, testa 

Contact Address: Wilfred Elegba, Ghana Atomic Energy Commission, Biotechnology and Nuclear 

Agriculture Research Institute, Box LG 80, Kwabenya, Ghana, e-mail: oliva4u@yahoo.co.uk 

107


Historic and Future Winter Chill for Temperate Fruit Trees and 

Knowledge Constraints to Orchard Planning 

EIKE LUEDELING 

World Agroforestry Centre (ICRAF), Kenya 

Temperate fruit and nut trees require particular climatic conditions during all 

seasons to produce yields that allow commercial orchard operations. The most critical 

requirement in warm temperate and subtropical regions is winter chill, of which a 

certain quantity must be accumulated for trees to break dormancy and resume regular 

growth in spring. Different models exist for quantifying winter chill, but they differ 

greatly in accuracy and sensitivity to temperature change. All models are empirical 

proxies, which are not founded on thorough understanding of tree physiology. This 

casts doubts on their suitability for climate change projections. The problems associated 

with this range of models are illustrated using a global dataset of winter chill, 

based on temperature records from more than 5000 weather stations around the world, 

and supported by more detailed studies in California’s Central Valley and in high-altitude 

oases in Oman. Results show that winter chill models are not equivalent, and 

the relationships between the various chill metrics are strongly dependent on temperature. 

Accordingly, projected winter chill for climate change scenarios depends 

primarily on the choice of model, casting doubts on the usefulness of many projections 

done in the past. The most robust model across temperature gradients appears 

to be the Dynamic Model, developed in Israel, one of the world’s warmest growing 

regions. Based on a dataset of more than 4000 weather stations worldwide and on 

20 climate scenarios, historic and likely future decline in winter chill was identified 

for warm growing regions. Orchards in North and South Africa, Southern Europe, 

Southern Australia and other subtropical regions, as well as in the Tropical highlands, 

appear particularly at risk. Temperate regions are projected to experience relatively 

stable conditions, while cold regions could even see increasing chill. The accuracy 

of such projections, and thus the ability of orchard managers to plan cultivar succession, 

is constrained by substantial knowledge gaps about tree dormancy. Long-term 

phenology records and innovative statistical tools, most notably projection-to-latentstructures 

regression, can help close some of these gaps, but extensive experimentation 

is also needed to ensure that high-value orchards remain viable in a gradually 

warming future. 

Keywords: Chill portions, chilling hours, climate change, dynamic model, 

phenology, winter chill 

Contact Address: Eike Luedeling, World Agroforestry Centre (ICRAF), United Nations Avenue, 

00100 Nairobi, Kenya, e-mail: e.luedeling@cgiar.org 

108


Mixed-Farming in South Asian an Era of Resilient Agricultural 

Systems 

BRAJA SWAIN 1 ,DHIRAJ KUMAR SINGH 1 ,M.MEHROTRA 2 ,NILS TEUFEL 1 

1International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI), PLE, India 

2SU 125 Pitampura, India 

Two-thirds of the rural poor in South Asia still depend on mixed crop-livestock systems 

for their livelihoods despite a trend towards more specialised farming. In this 

region the main links between cropping and livestock are crop residues as feed and 

dung as farm yard manure. At the same time crop residues can be incorporated into the 

soil directly to improve fertility, vital to improving the sustainability of intensifying 

cropping systems. While mechanisation has reduced the number of draft animals, the 

growing demand for milk and meat and reduced grazing opportunities have increased 

the demand for cereal residues as feed. 

In this regard, the present study seeks to improve the understanding of current croplivestock 

interactions, mainly in regard to the use of crop residues, in mixed systems 

with different levels of agricultural intensification and agro-ecological conditions. 

Surveys were conducted among 480 households in three study sites: two from India 

(Karnal and Udaipur) and one from Bangladesh (Dinajpur) across the Indo-Gangetic 

plains from January to April, 2011. The results indicate that the use of crop-residues 

varies across crops, regions, market integration and also harvesting method (i.e. manual 

or combined). The main residue used for stall feeding in Dinajpur is rice straw 

while in Karnalit is wheat straw and in Udaipur farmers mainly feed maize stover. 

Where crops are harvested by combine harvester (in high intensity areas such as Karnal) 

more than 50% residue is left in the field while more than 70% of residues are 

used as feed when crops are harvested manually. Regression analysis of crop residue 

use shows that landholding size does not determine the share of residues used for 

mulching or feeding. However, herd size has positive impact on the relative extent 

of feeding of crop-residues. The findings on dung use indicate that a higher proportion 

of dung is used as manure in less intensified areas (Udaipur) compared to highly 

intensified systems with good access to inputs as in Karnal. Nevertheless, the threat 

to system sustainability appears to be highest in Udaipur overall demand for off-field 

residue use is greatest within the three study sites. 

Keywords: Crop residue, feeding, manure, mixed-farming, soil fertility 

Contact Address: Braja Swain, International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI), PLE, 9th floor, Aggarwal 

Corporate Tower, 23 Rajendra Place, 110008 New Delhi, India, e-mail: brajacds@gmail.com 

109


Effect of Marker-Assisted Backcrossing to Introgress Resistance 

to Striga hermonthica into African Sorghum Varieties 

PETER MUTH 1 ,OSAMA ELHASSAN 2 ,ABDALLAH MOHAMMED 3 ,H.FREDERICK 

W. RATTUNDE 4 ,ABOCAR TOURE 5 ,BETTINA I.G. HAUSSMANN 1 

1University of Hohenheim, Institute of Plant Breeding, Seed Science and Population 

Genetics, Germany 

2Agricultural Research Corporation (ARC), Damazin Research Station, Sudan 

3Agricultural Research Corporation (ARC), Wad Medani Research Station, Sudan 

4ICRISAT Mali, Mali 

5Institut d’Economie Rurale (IER), Sorghum Breeding, Mali 

The parasitic weed Striga hermonthica causes substantial yield losses in the production of 

sorghum and other cereals in large parts of sub-Saharan Africa. The additional loss of water 

to the root parasite compounds the effect of drought on the parasitized crop, aggravating the 

susceptibility of rural household food security to climate variability. Improved cereal cultivars 

with quantitative striga resistance are expected to stabilise yields in infested areas, and seeds 

of such improved cultivars can be easily regrown by farmers and distributed along traditional 

seed exchange channels. However, conventional resistance breeding is hampered by the labor 

intensity and difficulties of field trials to reliably identify stable host-plant resistance. Markerassisted 

backcrossing (MAB) to transfer previously identified resistance quantitative trait loci 

(QTL) from an exotic, resistant sorghum variety into locally well-adapted sorghum cultivars 

is expected to speed up the development of farmer-accepted, high-yielding and striga-resistant 

varieties. To validate the MAB-approach, breeding lines of five farmer-preferred sorghum cultivars 

from Eritrea, Kenya, Mali and Sudan were introgressed with up to five striga-resistance 

QTL from the exotic sorghum line N13 using MAB techniques. Selected backcross-2 lines 

carrying zero to five introgressed QTL, along with their parental lines, were field-tested under 

striga infestation in multiple locations in Mali and Sudan from 2009 to 2011. Striga count data 

showed resistance levels of the best performing introgression lines similar to that of the donor 

parent N13, and lines combining high resistance and grain yield levels were identified. Elevated 

striga resistance levels were weakly correlated to the total number of introgressed QTL, 

while considerable variation also occurred between lines carrying the same QTL-combinations 

as well as between test environments. Under mild striga pressure, grain yield of the introgression 

lines was on average superior over that of the donor line N13, but still below that of the 

original African sorghum variety. Nevertheless, farmer-participatory evaluation of the introgression 

lines revealed high preference scores for high-yielding and striga resistant breeding 

lines. In general, the marker-assisted introgression of striga resistance into adapted, farmerpreferred 

sorghum varieties was considered a very useful breeding strategy. 

Keywords: Marker-assisted selection, resistance breeding 

Contact Address: Peter Muth, University of Hohenheim, Institute of Plant Breeding, Seed Science and 

Population Genetics, Fruwirthstr. 21, 70599 Stuttgart, Germany, e-mail: 

peter.muth@uni-hohenheim.de 

110


Effects of Induced Drought and Different Shade Levels on Leaf 

Gas Exchange of Musa spp. 

MARIO PILZ 1 ,JÜRGEN BURKHARDT 1 ,DANIEL NEUHOFF 2 ,OSCAR 

BUSTAMANTE 3 ,PABLO SILES 3 ,CHARLES STAVER 4 

1 University of Bonn, Inst. Crop Sci. and Res. Conserv. (INRES), Germany 

2 University of Bonn, Inst. of Organic Agriculture, Germany 

3 Bioversity International, Costa Rica 

4 Bioversity International, France 

Several climate scenarios predict that extreme weather events like droughts are likely 

to become more frequent and severe. Moreover, average precipitation may decrease 

or at least rainfall patterns could change and become less predictable. To face the impact 

of such weather events it may be necessary for the rural population to adapt land 

use practices concerning production techniques and adequate varieties. Agroforests 

tend to offer better resilience to reduced precipitation compared to monocultures and 

annual crops. Hence, agroforestry may play a decisive role in reducing the vulnerability 

of the rural poor to extreme weather events. In general agroforestry systems 

present a more balanced humidity regime. Additionally, advantages result from the 

existence of different shade levels and the reduction of soil and air temperature peaks. 

Thus the evaluation of water budgets and changes in plant water use under prolonged 

drought conditions is essential to predict responses of ecosystems to climate change. 

In a banana (Musa spp.) agroforest with coffee (Coffea arabica) plants associated 

with Erythrina spp. shade trees, we studied the effect of soil moisture depletion and 

different shade levels on leaf gas exchange and chlorophyll fluorescence of two Musa 

varieties: ‘Gros Michel’ (Musa AAA) and ‘Bluggoe’ (Musa AAB). The study was 

conducted at two experimental sites: one at CATIE, Turrialba, Costa Rica consisting 

of an agroforest with different shade levels and the other one near Matagalpa, 

Nicaragua where the induced drought conditions were established. In order to achieve 

a reduced soil moisture content in a fraction of the experimental field in Nicaragua, 

roofs were constructed over individual plants. In addition to the measurements of 

soil moisture content, leaf gas exchange and chlorophyll fluorescence, we collected 

meteorological data such as diurnal precipitation, temperature and relative humidity. 

The preliminary results show clear trends regarding the responses of the two varieties. 

‘Bluggoe’ shows a higher drought tolerance than ‘Gros Michel’. Both varieties performed 

best at a shade level of 50 %, although ‘Gros Michel’ is better adapted to high 

irradiance. An in depth analysis is currently being conducted. 

Keywords: Agroforestry, Central America, chlorophyll fluorescence, drought, leaf 

gas exchange, Musa spp., shading 

Contact Address: Jürgen Burkhardt, University of Bonn, Inst. Crop Sci. and Res. Conserv. (INRES), 

Karlrobert-Kreiten-Straße 13, 53115 Bonn, Germany, e-mail: j.burkhardt@uni-bonn.de 

111


Impact of Irrigation System on Microclimatic Parameters and Gas 

Exchange in Lowland Rice 

SABINE STÜRZ 1 ,ABDOULAYE SOW 2 ,FOLKARD ASCH 1 



2Africa Rice Center, Sahel Station, Senegal 

Interest in water-saving irrigation techniques in Senegal is rising from the aim to 

increase the domestic rice production. Rice-rice double-cropping and expansion of 

the rice growing area are the strategies for becoming self-sufficient on rice in the 

near future. Furthermore, high irrigation costs account for a relatively large share 

of production expenses due to increasing fuel and electricity prices. Nevertheless, 

yield stability under water-saving irrigation is not assured and the reasons remain 

widely unclear. In the absence of a ponded water layer, plants are exposed to higher 

temperature extremes at the growing point. In addition, reduced evaporation can lead 

to lower relative humidity in the canopy. Therefore, microclimate is considered to 

influence gas-exchange parameters. 

Experiments were conducted between November 2008 and October 2010 in Ndiaye, 

located in the Senegal River delta, with typical Sahelian climatic conditions and thus 

three distinct seasons: a hot-dry-season from March to July, a short wet-season from 

August to October and a cold-dry-season from November to February. In bi-monthly 

staggered sowing dates, soil temperature, temperature at the growing point and inside 

the canopy as well as relative humidity inside the canopy was observed for five irrigated 

lowland rice varieties grown under flooded and non-flooded conditions yeararound. 

Gas-exchange measurements for transpiration, assimilation and stomatal conductance 

were conducted on a regular basis. 

The effect of higher temperature amplitude in the absence of a ponded water layer 

was more pronounced in the two dry-seasons than in the wet season. A negative 

effect of water-saving irrigation on soil temperature, temperature at the growing point 

and relative humidity and thus an increased vapour pressure deficit inside the canopy 

was observed under hot and dry conditions. Low soil temperature and high vapour 

pressure deficits were associated with a decrease in stomatal conductance and thus 

assimilation rate. Reduction of assimilation rate without standing water under high 

vapour pressure deficits was more distinct in varieties adapted to the wet tropics than 

in local varieties, whereas neither an impact of irrigation technique nor variety could 

be detected in the wet-season. 

Keywords: Assimilation, Sahel, transpiration, water-saving irrigation 

Contact Address: Sabine Stürz, University of Hohenheim, Inst. of Plant Production and Agroecology 

in the Tropics and Subtropics, Garbenstr. 13, 70599 Stuttgart, Germany, e-mail: sabine.stuerz@ 


112

Cropping systems and environment — Posters 

Comparison of Climate Change Effects on Bread Wheat and 

Durum Wheat 

AKBAR TAVAKKOLI, SEYED ALI MOHAMMAD MODARRES-SANAVY 

Tarbiat Modares University, Dept. of Agronomy, Iran 

Drought, ultraviolet radiation and atmospheric CO 2 enrichment are three environmental 

factors, which affect food security in the future. The objective of present 

research was to study the effect of two levels of carbon dioxide (400 and 900 ppm), 

ultraviolet radiation (UV A, B and C with intensity of 18, 25 and 40 microW cm −2 respectively) 

and water deficit (100 % and 40 % percent of field capacity) on yield and 

some metabolic leaf compound of bread wheat (cv. Pishtaz) and durum wheat (cv. 

Arya). The experiment was conducted in the Faculty of Agriculture, Tarbiat Modares 

University, Tehran, Iran during 2011 growing season and designed as factorial base 

plan RCDB. The result showed that interaction of UV-C and elevated CO 2 increased 

carbohydrates in both cultivars. Interaction between elevated CO 2 and water deficit 

significantly decreased specific leaf area and increased spike per square metre in durum, 

but decreased spike per square metre in bread wheat. UV enhancement did 

not significantly reduce spike per square metre in durum wheat, but it was decreased 

in bread wheat. Leaf proline, falavenoid, antocyanin content and grain protein significantly 

decreased by water deficit in both cultivars. Elevated CO 2 significantly 

increased height of plants, protein, SLA and chlorophyll of flag leaf in bread wheat 

but decreased RWC, Fv/Fm ratio, fertile tillers, spike, grain yield, anthocyanin and 

flavonoids. The elevated CO2 could not affect significantly on the spike per square 

meter, grain weight, proline content of flag leaf. In conclusion, we found that durum 

wheat in comparison to bread wheat had better respond in simultaneous stress. 

Keywords: CO2, food security, UV, water deficit, wheat 

Contact Address: Seyed Ali Mohammad Modarres-Sanavy, Tarbiat Modares University, Dept. of 

Agronomy, P.O. Box 14115-336, 0098 Tehran, Iran, e-mail: modaresa@modares.ac.ir 

113


Medicinal Herbs Cultivation, Trade and Consumption in Colonia 

del Sacramento, Uruguay 

ISABEL MADALENO 

Portuguese Tropical Research Institute, Portugal 

In the global era, few value single-site ethno-geographic research. It is everybody’s 

dream, however, to travel to far distant places, usually green sites, for pleasure and 

tranquility. There we all hope to forget everyday troubles, the exigencies of urgency 

and action, which characterises the 21 st Century interconnected working places 

worldwide. This contribution focus is on a unique living in-between two countries city 

– Colonia del Sacramento, Uruguay – one hour distant by ship from the capital city 

of Argentina, Buenos Aires. Over one million tourists travel year-round to this small 

oasis of peace, enjoying nature as much as architecture. Colonia del Sacramento is 

located on the northern bank of the River Plate. The town has an aura of mysticism 

due to the fact of having been dedicated to the Holy Sacrament. Founded in the late 

January 1680 by the Portuguese Governor of Rio de Janeiro, the port soon became 

a strategic base, aimed at conquering sites further inland. In the midst of the year 

2011 I’ve interviewed fifty urban gardeners and herb traders as to their preferences in 

terms of medicinal plants, teas and cataplasms. Results show that the first preference 

is constituted by herbs of European origin, followed by Native Americans. It was the 

first time that the European influence was singled out in this research. So far I have 

interviewed over 1,000 people from other eight Latin American cities and metropolis 

(Santiago, Belem, St. Louis, Lima, Habana, Central Mexican Region, Rio Cuarto, 

San Jose), and the local medicinal species were always the top ranking use. Hope 

is to contribute to value single-site ethnography in the field of traditional medicinal 

knowledge. 

Keywords: Single-site ethnography, traditional medicinal knowledge 

Contact Address: Isabel Madaleno, Portuguese Tropical Research Institute, Rua António Galvão, 2- 

1ºB, 2780-047 Oeiras, Portugal, e-mail: isabel-madaleno@clix.pt 

114


Allelopathic Effects of the Babassu Palm on Crops, 

Pasture-Grasses and Key Soil Fungi 

CHRISTOPH GEHRING 1 ,MÁRCIO FERNANDES ALVES LEITE 1 , 

FLAVIO HENRIQUE REIS MORAES 2 

1Maranhão State University, Dept. of Agroecology, Brazil 

2University of CEUMA, Dept. of Parasite Biology, Brazil 

The babassu palm (Attalea speciosa Mart.) is prominent throughout large parts of 

Amazonia, both socioeconomically (palm-oil extractivism provides low-income subsistence 

to the rural poor) and ecologically (dominant in frequently-burned degraded 

lands). The association of babassu with annual crops has been hailed as traditional 

agroforestry and in extensive pastures as traditional silvopastoril systems, and minimum 

palm density is even regulated by law (120 adult palms per ha). However, very 

little is known about the ecological properties and effects of this remarkable palm. 

We investigate the possibility of allelopathic effects of babassu leaf and root aqueous 

extracts on (i) germination and initial (5–7 day) growth of five indicator crop species 

(maize, rice, cowpea, Brachiaria and lettuce; microcosm experiments), (ii) Brachiaria 

development, mycorhizal root-infection and number of mycorhizal spores in the soil 

(4-month pot-experiment), and (iii) growth of two further key soil fungi (Trichoderma 

and Fusarium in petri-dishes with aqueous and alcoholic extracts). 

Effects of babassu extracts were negligible on seed germination, initial shoot and root 

growth was strongly affected by babassu leaf and root extracts. Contrary to our expectations, 

both negative (inhibition) and positive (stimulation) reactions occurred in 

similar frequency and strength. Relationships differed between indicator-species and 

effects of root extracts tended to be stronger than those of leaf extracts. Brachiaria 

shoot and root growth was significantly reduced by babassu root (but not leaf) extracts, 

even at its weakest concentration. Root and leaf extracts significantly affected both 

Brachiaria mycorhizal root-infection and spores in the soil. Relationships tended to 

be similar with stimulation at mid-concentrations, and depression at highest concentration. 

Both root and shoot extracts significantly affected Fusarium and Trichoderma 

mycelia growth, relationships differed between species and between aqueous and alcoholic 

extracts. We conclude that babassu leaves and roots exert strong allelopathic 

effects on a wide range of indicator plants and soil fungi. Relationships are, however, 

extremely complex, with differences between indicator-species, growth-stages, 

concentration and type (aqueous/alcoholic) of extractant. Both positive and negative 

allelopathic impacts of babassu are to be expected. We are at the beginning of an 

understanding of babassu above- and belowground interactions. 

Keywords: Arbuscular mycorhiza, Brachiaria, cowpea, Fusarium, maize 

Contact Address: Christoph Gehring, Maranhão State University, Dept. of Agroecology, Rua Paulo 

Assis Marchesine No. 7, 65065-500 São Luis, Brazil, e-mail: christophgehring@yahoo.com.br 

115


Characterisation of Insecticide Resistance in Clonal Cultures of 

Myzus persicae (Homoptera: Aphididae) Obtained from an Italian 

Field Population in 2010 

CODJO SYLVESTRE GERBERT DOSSA 1 ,THOMAS CHRISTOPH ZIMMER 2 , 

RALF NAUEN 2 

1Georg-August-Universität-Göttingen, Dept. of Crop Sciences: Plant Pathology and 

Crop Protection, Germany 

2Bayer Cropscience, Pest Control, Germany 

Green peach aphid, Myzus persicae (Sulzer) is globally known as a polyphagous sucking 

pest insect on a wide variety of host plants and provides damage by direct feeding, 

transmission of plant viruses and honeydew excretion. To keep the pest under economic 

thresholds it is usually controlled by chemical insecticides belonging to different 

mode of action classes. Due to the frequent use of insecticides such as pyrethroids, 

carbamates, organophosphates and neonicotinoids, M. perscae developed resistance 

and is no longer affected by recommended rates of many compounds. This study 

was conducted to characterise the resistance mechanisms in clonal cultures derived 

from an Italian aphid population collected in 2010. Eight clones were investigated for 

their susceptibility towards three different insecticide modes of action by discriminating 

dose bioassays. The results revealed high resistance levels to pirimicarb (carbamate) 

and deltamethrin (pyrethroid), but moderate levels of resistance to imidacloprid 

(neonicotinoid). All clones were also biochemically investigated for the presence 

of metabolic resistance mechanisms such as esterase over-expression as well as target-site 

resistance, i.e. the presence of SNP´s (single nucleotide polymorphisms) in 

genes of target proteins which convert into amino acid substitutions leading to targetsite 

insensitivity. A high level of esterase E4/FE4 was present in all clones. Acetylcholinesterase 

inhibition studies revealed insensitivity to pirimicarb which is linked to 

a heterozygously present S431F mutation as shown by pyrosequencing. Furthermore 

the well-known kdr mutation (L1014F) was identified in the voltage-gated sodium 

channel. Interestingly we did not detect the commonly known M918T super-kdr 

mutation, but identified for the first time in Italian M. persicae a M918L mutation, 

another super-kdr-like mutation. All these mutations result in pyrethroid resistance. 

The implications of the presence of multiple mechanisms of resistance in resistance 

management strategies are discussed. 

Keywords: Insecticide resistance, Myzus persicae, pyrosequencing 

Contact Address: Codjo Sylvestre Gerbert Dossa, Georg-August-Universität-Göttingen, Dept. of Crop 

Sciences: Plant Pathology and Crop Protection, Grisebachstr. 6, 37077 Göttingen, Germany, e-mail: 

gerbert06@yahoo.fr 

116


Developing New Fair Trade Markets Based on Local Wild 

Perennials: Boscia senegalensis (hanza) attheBaseofaNew 

Emerging Food Chain in Niger Republic 

RENATE GARVI-BODE, JOSEF GARVI 

NGO Aridité Prospère, Research Department, Niger 

Niger Republic is battling food insecurity and malnutrition for decades. The battle 

at farming system level however is still mainly done from traditional agricultural 

perspectives like improving crops, applying (chemical) fertiliser, mechanising and irrigation. 

Unfortunately, dependence of the annual crops on yearly rainfall is high with 

harvest failures occurring regularly. 

A resilient farming system in Niger takes into account its extreme dry and variable 

climate. It should be a low input system with crops well adapted to the climate and 

being able to produce in years with poor rainfall. Local wild perennials are well 

adapted to the dry climate and are able to survive the long dry season. 

Hanza (Boscia senegalensis) is a little-valued perennial in Niger and its seed generally 

considered a famine food. Yet it is highly productive, nutritious and could be a 

key element in making Niger self-sufficient in staple foods. Currently the seeds are 

consumed on a large scale in many of Niger’s rural areas, but they have served as 

staple food for numerous people in the rural area during prolonged periods. 

The hanza bush is able to thrive in extensive parts of Niger. Being drought resistant, 

it yields well even in years of insufficient rainfall (


The Patterns of Pomological Variation of Wild Plum (Prunus 

divaricata Ledeb.) in Kazdagi (Mt. Ida), Area of Turkey 

M. KUBILAY ÖNAL 

Akdeniz University, Vocational High School of Technical Science, Turkey 

Consisting of more than 9 000 plant species, 30 % of them being endemics, the flora of 

Turkey is very rich in diversity. A wide range of different geological and climatic conditions 

and the location of the country has greatly contributed to the richness of this 

biodiversity. Turkey is located within the borders of several floristics regions namely: 

Euro-Siberian, Mediterranean, and Irano-Turanian. A broad spectrum of germplasm 

is required in breeding programs for crop improvement. This genetic variation in 

plant populations may be considerable especially in centres of diversity, or gene centres, 

of particular plants. Eight centres of variation, previously termed “centres of 

origin” were originally proposed by Vavilov. Two of these (“Near East”and “the 

Mediterranean”) extend within borders of Turkey where five areas were designed as 

“gene microcentres” by Harlan. In order to identify gene management zones of plum 

(Prunus divaricata Ledeb.) for in-situ conservation in Kazdagi, four plum sites were 

chosen as possible candidates zones. Pomological characteristics of plum fruits collected 

from labelled trees were observed. Average fruit weight, fruit size, fruit colour, 

fruit taste, aroma, solible solids, ratio of stone were recorded. The most fruit samples 

examined were found as rough-fibred or fleshy, little juicy, sour and much aromatic. 

Nevertheless, a few sample were found sweet to be eaten. The observation of pomological 

characteristics of plum populations is one of the ways to determine existing 

variability among them. From the findings of pomological characteristics it can be 

concluded that significant differences were observed in plum trees for fruit colours 

and fruit weight within and between sites. 

Keywords: In-situ conservation, plum, pomological characteristics, Prunus divaricata 

Contact Address: M. Kubilay Önal, Akdeniz University, Vocational High School of Technical Science, 

Dumlupinar Bulvari, Kampüs, 07058 Antalya, Turkey, e-mail: konal@akdeniz.edu.tr 

118


ASsessing ThE Risk of Water Saving Ground Cover RICe 

Production Systems on Regional Soil Carbon and Nitrogen Stocks 

(ASTERICS) 

KLAUS BUTTERBACH-BAHL 1 ,LIN SHAN 2 ,MEIJU LIU 2,1 ,YANG GUANGJUAN 3,1 , 

XUNHUA ZHENG 3 

1Karlsruhe Institute of Technology, Institute for Meteorology and Climate Research, 

Atmospheric Environmental Research, Germany 

2China Agricultural University, Dept. of Plant Nutrition, China 

3Institute of Atmospheric Physics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, China 

In China rice production is increasingly challenged by the growing demand of its 

rising population and the increasing demand for water by the industry/ private sector. 

The latter is resulting in shortages in irrigation water for lowland rice (>90 % of total 

area) as well as to a decline in water quality. Therefore, China enforced its search 

for expanding and to intensify rice cultivation in regions which were formerly of only 

marginal importance. One of the most promising techniques to overcome problems 

in water shortage as well as in temperature limitations of rice production is the socalled 

Ground Cover Rice Production System (GCRPS). Here, lowland rice varieties 

are used and the soil is kept moist between irrigation periods by covering materials, 

thus reducing water demand by 50 up to 90 %. Keeping a soil constantly moist but 

not waterlogged is likely to accelerate mineralisation of soil carbon (C) stocks – with 

negative impacts for soil fertility and nutrient retention- and potentially decrease crop 

nitrogen (N) use efficiency due to increased losses of fertiliser N to the atmosphere or 

hydrosphere. In our study we determined the effects of GCRPS on soil carbon stocks, 

d 13 Candδ 15 N signals and mineralisation activity of the soil by sampling chronosequences 

of land use as well as a large number of adjacent pairs (50+) of traditional 

lowland and GCRPS rice production in Hubei province. Results on changes of soil 

δ 15 N signals but also SOC concentrations shows, that introduction of GCRPS has 

already resulted in detectable and significant changes in soil C and N cycling with so 

far largely unexplored consequences for biosphere-atmosphere exchange. But against 

expectation rice production via the GCPRS technique resulted in increased soil C and 

N stocks, increased N use efficiencies and increased yields. Possibly mechanisms 

how GCRPS is positively affecting C and N cycling in rice systems will be discussed. 

Keywords: Environmental sustainability, ground cover technique, soil C/N stocks, 

rice 

Contact Address: Klaus Butterbach-Bahl, Karlsruhe Institute of Technology, Institute for Meteorology 

and Climate Research, Atmospheric Environmental Research, Kreuzeckbahnstr. 19, 82467 Garmischpartenkirchen, 

Germany, e-mail: klaus.butterbach-bahl@kit.edu 

119


Enhancing Germination of Aframomum melegueta K. Schum. 

through ex-vitro and in-vitro Propagation Techniques 

JONATHAN AMPONSAH 1 ,KENNETH DANSO 2 ,WILFRED ELEGBA 2 

1School of Nuclear and Allied Sciences, Nuclear Agriculture and Mutation Breeding, 

Ghana 

2Ghana Atomic Energy Commission, Biotechnology and Nuclear Agriculture Research 

Institute, Ghana 

In spite of the huge economic importance of Aframomum melegueta K. Schum. in the 

herbal and pharmaceutical industries, its production is limited by the lack of planting 

materials and long juvenile phase. Thus, production has not kept pace with demand; 

hence, an ex-vitro study of breaking of seed dormancy was undertaken to improve 

germination. Seeds were immersed in 25 % H2SO4 for 1 hour and the percentage germination 

compared with cold stratification in a fridge for 7 or 14 days at 4±1°C, and 

a control. 25 % H2SO4 treated seeds had the highest germination percentage (60.7 %) 

compared to cold stratification or control treatments. To further improve germination, 

an in-vitro study was conducted. Seeds scarified with 25 %, 50 % or 75 % H 2SO4 for 1hour, together with controls were soaked in 0 - 25 mg l -1 GA3 for 1day prior 

to inoculation on Lloyds and McCown medium. 25 % H 2SO4 scarified seeds alone 

significantly enhanced percentage germination (100 %). But, plantlets of GA3 treated 

seeds were taller than the 25 % H2SO4 scarified seeds without GA3. Subsequently, the 

seeds were scarified with 25 % H2SO4 and cultured on Lloyds and McCown medium 

fortified with 0 - 100 mg l-1 GA3 in an attempt to optimise germination and growth. 

Although, at 60 mg l-1 GA3 percentage germination equalled germination in the control, 

the plantlets grew less vigorously. Thus, GA3 was found to have no influence on 

growth. Additionally, dormancy was identified to be caused by the hydrophobic waxy 

seed coat, but not dormancy stimulating hormone. Scarification with 25 % H 2SO4 for 

one hour can be used to improve germination. 

Keywords: Aframomum melegueta, Lloyds and McCown medium 

Contact Address: Jonathan Amponsah, School of Nuclear and Allied Sciences, Nuclear Agriculture 

and Mutation Breeding, Adjamankata Kwabenya, Accra, Ghana, e-mail: kofman24@hotmail.com 

120


Traditional Rainfall Prediction Skills and Response Strategies in 

Selected Frontline States of Nigeria 

ADUNNI SANNI, MUHAMMAD BELLO HASSAN 

Ahmadu Bello University, Department of Agricultural Economics and Rural Sociology, 

Institute for Agricultural Research, Nigeria 

Although northern Nigeria has a long history of recurrent drought, the public preparedness 

to prevent or curtail its devastating impact is non-existent. This paper is 

based on the results of a pilot project conducted to strengthen Nigerian Meteorological 

Agency’s (NIMET) capacity to provide reliable planting date forecast in Nigeria. 

This aspect of the project aimed at understanding traditional knowledge base 

and farmers’ prediction methods, community perceptions of impacts of rainfall variability, 

coping strategies and opportunities in four states of Nigeria. Semi-structured 

interview and focus group discussion were used to sources for information. The survey 

indicates that the farmers have developed a variety of traditional indicators for 

predicting weather situation to make farm management decisions and those relating 

to other means of livelihoods. The traditional forecast knowledge has been adapted 

to local conditions and its requirement is dependent on physical observations like behaviour 

of birds, flowering or flushing times of some trees species, prevailing wind 

directions and cloud patterns. The survey also indicates that the farmers have evolved 

series of adaptive contingency strategies over to time to ameliorate the problem of 

drought. These mitigation measures usually integrated within the socio-economic 

framework of the rural farmers and are predominantly temporal stop-gap measures 

until rains return. Impacts of rainfall variability in the communities were asserted to 

include; poor yield, low prices of crop/livestock, low dowry for their daughters, high 

cost of labor as a result of migration to urban centres, inadequate water for dry season 

farming, low income, low standard of living, and high level of poverty. An integration 

of traditional proven methods of rainfall prediction with scientific methods will 

evolve reliable forecast that will reduce risks in rain fed farming systems. 

Keywords: Crop production, northern Nigeria, rainfall prediction, traditional knowledge 

base 

Contact Address: Adunni Sanni, Ahmadu Bello University, Department of Agricultural Economics 

and Rural Sociology, Institute for Agricultural Research, P.m.b 1044 Samaru, Zaria, Nigeria, e-mail: 

adsanni@yahoo.com 

121


Evaluation of Hydrus-2D for Soil Water Infiltration by Using 

Laboratory Measurements in the Weighing Lysimeter 

SINA BESHARAT 

University of Urmia, Department of Water Engineering, Iran 

From a hydrological perspective, water uptake by root systems and their spatial distribution 

can largely control water fluxes to the atmosphere and the groundwater. For 

an improved understanding of the magnitude of these fluxes, accurate estimates of 

the temporal and spatial root water uptake patterns are needed. Although solutions of 

transient water flow can be obtained by numerical modelling, their application may 

be limited in part as root water uptake is generally considered to be one-dimensional 

only. The objective of this study was to evaluation accuracy of two-dimensional root 

water uptake model by Hydrus2-D in the lysimeter. The root water uptake model was 

incorporated into a two-dimensional flow model, and parameters of governing equation 

were optimised, minimising the residuals between measured and simulated water 

content data. Water content was measured at different points and layers. To calibrate 

the flow, a genetic algorithm was used. With the optimised parameters of model, 

simulated and measured water contents during the 30 days period were in excellent 

agreement. Based on results, R 2 values generally ranging between 0.92 and 0.94 and 

a root mean squared error (RMSE) of 0.0236 m 3 m −3 . Finally, results illustrated that 

Hydrus2-D is extremely flexible in simulation of soil water content pattern. The 2D 

root water uptake model has considered the spatial variability of soil water and roots 

distribution to some extent, which almost reached the reality of field, so the simulated 

and measured results were almost similar. This study highlights the importance 

of root distribution and pattern in regulating soil water use and thereby improving 

endurance of plants to seasonal droughts for sustainable agricultural productivity. 

Keywords: Hydrus-2D software, soil water content, soil water infiltration, weighing 

lysimeter 

Contact Address: Sina Besharat, University of Urmia, Department of Water Engineering, Urmia, Iran, 

e-mail: sina323@yahoo.com 

122


Euphorbia tirucalli L. – Physiological and Genetical 

Characterisation of a Drought Tolerant Plant and its Potential as a 

Source for Bioenergy Production 

BERNADETTA RINA HASTILESTARI 1 ,SEBASTIAN GURETZKI 1 ,MARINA 

MUDERSBACH 2 ,BETTINA BISKUPEK-KORELL 3 ,PATRICK VAN DAMME 4 ,JUTTA 

PAPENBROCK 1 

1Leibniz Universität Hannover, Institute for Botany, Germany 

2University of Applied Sciences and Arts, Technology of Renewable Resources, Germany 

3University of Applied Sciences and Arts, Dept. of Bioprocess Engineering, Germany 

4University of Ghent, Dept. of Plant Production - Laboratory for Tropical Agronomy, 

Belgium 

The decrease of mineral oil supplies has induced research on biomass as an alternative source of 

energy. A number of plant species have been examined; however, climate change has brought 

problems to agriculture such as drought. To deal with those consequences, it is important to 

find plants for growing in non arable land. The plant should have high drought tolerance as well 

as be beneficial for other purposes such as phytochemical and pharmaceutical applications. Euphorbia 

tirucalli L. grows well in arid areas, has a high tolerance to drought stress and could be 

therefore a source of biomass. This plant contains also valuable compounds of pharmaceutical 

benefit and might serve as a source of rubber. 

To analyse a broad variety of plants with different genetic backgrounds E. tirucalli genotypes 

collected in different countries (Burundi, India, Indonesia, Italy, Kenya, Morocco, ornamental 

from our greenhouse Hannover, Rwanda, Senegal, Togo, USA) have been investigated for their 

genetic relationship using AFLP analysis with UPGMA clustering. The different physiological 

responses to drought stress are determined in the genotypes from Morocco and Senegal 

by different parameters. The rubber content is measured using Nuclear Magnetic Resonance 

(NMR). 

The cluster analysis shows that the genotypes are divided into two main groups, African genotypes 

with bootstrap value 60 % and non African genotypes (except Rwanda and Kenya) with 

bootstrap value 68 %. The plants respond significantly different to various levels of volumetric 

water content (vwc). Both genotypes from Morocco and Senegal show the same response to 

drought stress by different parameters. The NMR measurement shows that the rubber content 

per fresh weight is different between genotypes, the highest has genotype Senegal (17.33 mg 

g −1 ) and the lowest genotype Burundi (1.48 mg g −1 ). 

The results show that the genotypes might be ecotypes and adapted to the respective conditions, 

although more samples from different regions need to be investigated. The drought tolerance in 

low level vwc shows that this species can grow in arid area. Different rubber content provides 

information to select the most beneficial genotypes; however, more research is needed to make 

sure whether the difference is due to genetic or environmental factors. 

Keywords: Drought tolerance, milk sap 

Contact Address: Bernadetta Rina Hastilestari, Leibniz Universität Hannover, Institute for Botany, 

Herrenhäuser Str. 2, 30419 Hannover, Germany, e-mail: bernadetta.hastilestari@googlemail.com 

123


Pollination Services in Irrigated Rice Based Production 

Landscapes 

BERNHARD LIESE 1 ,ANNIKA LOUISE HASS 1 ,KONG LUEN HEONG 2 , 

JOSEF SETTELE 3 ,TEJA TSCHARNTKE 1 ,CATRIN WESTPHAL 1 

1Georg-August-Universität Göttingen, Dept. of Crop Sciences - Agroecology, Germany 

2International Rice Research Institute (IRRI), Philippines 

3Helmholtz-Centre for Environmental Research (UFZ), Dept. of Community Ecology, 

Germany 

Pollination is an important ecosystem service and essential for seed and fruit set of 

major crops. Thus, it is of outstanding ecological and economic importance and crucial 

for farmers’ well being. There is increasing evidence that pollinator diversity is 

declining due to land use intensification and losses of suitable habitats in agricultural 

landscapes. Extensively managed woody areas represent important nesting and foraging 

habitats for bees in the tropics. Within the framework of the LEGATO Project 

(http://www.legato-project.net/) this study focuses on the effects of woody areas on 

bee species richness and abundance and pollination services in landscapes dominated 

by rice production systems. We ask the following questions: 

1. Does the presence of woody habitats positively affect pollinator richness and 

abundance in landscapes with rice based production systems? 

2. Are pollination services higher in and around rice fields that are located in the 

vicinity of woody habitats? 

3. How do woody habitats in the surroundings influence seed set and fruit quality 

of cucumber, Cucumis sativus L., on the bunds of rice fields? 

The study takes place near Los Banos, Laguna Province, Philippines. Eight study 

areas were chosen within a region of 15 km 2 . Each study area contains three different 

study sites: 1. woody habitat adjacent to rice cropping area, 2. paddy rice field 

adjacent to woody habitat, and 3. rice paddy without any woody habitats in the surroundings. 

Pollination services are determined with a phytometer experiment using 

potted cucumber plants (three insect-pollinated plants and one self-pollinated plant 

per site). Pollinator richness and abundance are recorded with direct observations of 

the potted plants and yellow pan traps (four traps per site). 

We expect that pollination services, bee abundance and richness are increased in and 

around rice fields adjacent to woody habitats. Thus, ecosystem services, such as pollination, 

may benefit from ecological engineering measures that enhance the availability 

of suitable habitats for bees and other beneficial insects, such as biocontrol agents, 

in rice production landscapes. 

Keywords: Bee, cucumber, ecosystem services, habitat, pan traps, sustainability 

Contact Address: Bernhard Liese, Georg-August-Universität Göttingen, Dept. of Crop Sciences - 

Agroecology, Grisebachstrasse 6, 37077 Göttingen, Germany, e-mail: bernhardliese@hotmail.com 

124


Turiaçu Pineapple: A New Cultivar Native from the Eastern 

Periphery of Amazonia, Maranhão State, Brazil 

JOSÉ RIBAMAR GUSMÃO ARAUJO, ROZALINO ANTONIO AGUIAR JÚNIOR, 

CHRISTOPH GEHRING 

Maranhão State University, Dept. of Crop Production, Brazil 

The centre of diversity of the genus Ananas is currently concentrated in an area located 

between 10 o Nto10 o S and 55 o to 75 o W. Brazil is the greatest centre of genetic 

diversity of pinneaple in the world, and next to Ananas comosus, several other Ananas 

species as well as related genera such as Pseudananas and Bromelia, all of which with 

endemic occurence in Amazonia. The present study physical and chemically characterises 

pineapple fuits as well biometric plant characters of the ‘Turiaçu’ cultivar. This 

cultivar is of great importance to Maranhão State, is native to eastern Amazonia and 

derived from selection process of smallholder farmers that developed an agroecossystem 

known as ‘Tacuruba’. Rural poverty in the region is great and is associated with 

slash and burn shifting cultivation. Our field experiment was conducted from 2007 to 

2009 and investigated the effects of different spacings in simple rows. Our data are 

compiled from samples of 12 fruits per plot, and four plot replications. The slips used 

for planting got 35 to 40 cm. We analysed our data with descriptive statistics such 

as general averages of each character and linear correlation coefficients between nine 

main characters. The average fruit weight of the ‘Turiaçu’ cultivar (1 620 grams), the 

medium crown, the content of total soluble solids (16,1°Brix) and the yellow pulp 

colour confirm its outstanding quality and acceptance in local and regional markets 

and constitute a product suitable to markets of increasing exigency. The hight production 

of slips per plant (11,3 slips) assure cultivation in new areas. Fruit form is 

unstable, with a predominance to conic structure. Acidity is lower than that of other 

cultivars, requiring adjustments in harvest period when destined for industrial uses. 

Here we propose a process of agroecological transition in Turiaçu pineapple cultivation, 

in order to guarantee the sustainability of this agroecossystem. 

Keywords: Ananas comosus var. comosus (L.) Merril, fruit quality, native fruit, plant 

biometry 

Contact Address: José Ribamar Gusmão Araujo, Maranhão State University, Dept. of Crop 

Production, Avenida Lourenço Vieira Da Silva S/n. Tirirical, 65055-970 São Luís, Brazil, 

e-mail:gusmao@elo.com.br 

125


Potential of Crotalaria spp. in the Agroecological Restoration of 

Fruit Orchards in the Soconusco, Chiapas, Mexico 

FRANCISCO JAVIER MARROQUIN AGREDA 1 ,DIEGO SANTIAGO RUIZ NORIEGA 1 , 

JÜRGEN POHLAN 2 ,ERNESTO TOLEDO TOLEDO 1 ,JOSÉ NOE LERMA MOLINA 1 

1Autonomous University of Chiapas, Faculty of Agricultural Sciences, Mexico 

2University of Bonn, Associated: Inst. Crop Sci. and Res. Conserv. (INRES), Germany 

Rambutan (Nephelium lappaceum) is a fruit tree from the Malaysian and Indonesian 

regions. It was introduced in the Soconusco, Chiapas, in the 1950’s. The present 

cultivated area amounts to more than 1500 hectare. With increasing importance of 

this crop, the cultivation system is now facing increasing plant sanitary problems, 

substantial soil erosion and productivity issues, which are due to worsen in future by 

a lack of agro-ecological responsibility. From August 2006 until March 2007, the 

effects of different intercropping systems with rambutan and leguminous crops were 

compared. More particularly, the effects of Crotalaria longirostrata (Chipilin), Crotalaria 

spectabilis and Vigna unguiculata were evaluated in so far related to soil fertility, 

insects dynamics, leguminous biomass and rambutan fruit production within a typical 

rambutan orchard of the Soconusco, located at 15 o 21´ North latitude, 92o 33´ West 

longitude and at 335 m asl. The results demonstrate that the legume enriched intercrops 

have a positive effect on the soil fertility and biomass production. By the same 

token, the Crotalaria spp. flowering time concurs with that of Nephelium, offering 

an additional attractive effect for insect pollinators and predators. The agro-ecological 

change in the fruit system was reflected by a superior rambutan fruit production 

of 5 719 kg ha−1 in the intercropped Crotalaria spectabilis as compared to only 2 

840 kg ha−1 in the traditional rambutan cultivation (without legume). Finally, rambutan 

monoculture offers an extraordinary economic income of e 2 266 per hectare 

whereas e 5 840 per hectare were recorded for the different leguminous variants. 

Keywords: Agro-ecology, intercrops, legumes, productivity, rambutan 

Contact Address: Francisco Javier Marroquin Agreda, Autonomous University of Chiapas, Faculty of 

Agricultural Sciences, Entronque Carretera Costera - Pueblo de Huehuetán , 30660 Huehuetán, Mexico, 

e-mail: marroquinf@gmail.com 

126


Comparative Studies of Root Anatomy in Some Date Palm 

(Phoenix dactylifera L.) Cultivars from Diverse Origin 

GHAYOOR FATIMA 1,2 ,IQRAR AHMAD KHAN 2 ,MUHAMMAD JAFAR JASKANI 2 , 

MANSOOR HAMEED 3 ,MUHAMMAD ASIF RAZA 4 

1University of Kassel, Organic Plant Production & Agroecosystems Research in the 


2University of Agriculture Faisalabad, Institute of Horticultural Sciences, Pakistan 

3University of Agriculture Faisalabad, Dept. of Botany, Pakistan 



Worldwide Pakistan is the 5th largest producer of date palm (Phoenix dactylifera L.) 

and the species ranks third among the country’s fruit crops after citrus and mango. 

The > 325 date cultivars growing in Pakistan comprise native and exotic ones which 

differ widely in morphological and anatomical characteristics. Adventitious roots of 

thirty four cultivars from the collection at Jhang Date Palm Research Station were 

used to characterise these differences. To this end a 2 cm piece form each root-shoot 

junction was placed in FAA (formalin acetic alcohol) solution and root parameters 

were measured by a ocular micrometer under a compound microscope, which was 

calibrated with the help of a stage micrometer. The collected data on dermal, ground, 

and vascular tissues subjected to ANOVA and means separated by DMR0.05. 

Epidermis thickness was largest in Berehmi (59.9μm) cultivar followed by Dakki 

(52.8μm) and Kozanabad (46.3μm) while Halawi-2, Jansohaar and Karbalaen had 

similar minima (21.8μm). The largest Sclerenchyma cell thickness was observed in 

Shado (209.7μm), followed by Aseel (196.1μm) and Shamran-2 (187.1μm) while 

values were lowest for Deglut Noor (100.8μm). Makran had the highest cortical 

thickness (798.7μm) pursued by Zaidi (768 μm) and Aseel (738.0 μm), whereas 

thickness was lowest in Jaman (503.8 μm). 

Saib had the thickest endodermis (49.0 μm) followed by Khudrawi-1 (44.5 μm), 

Makran (43.6) and Angoor (44.5 μm) while Zaidi and Deglut Noor had similar minima 

(24.5 μm). Vascular region thickness was highest in Chohara (471.96 μm) followed 

by Zardu (460.24 μm), Shamran and Khudrawi-2 were similar (452.1 μm), 

whereas Daanda (317.4 μm) had the lowest value. The results indicate different evolutionary 

routes for the date palm cultivars studied which merit further molecular 

genetic study. 

Keywords: Date palm, diversity, root anatomy, sclerenchyma thickness 

Contact Address: Ghayoor Fatima, University of Kassel, Organic Plant Production & Agroecosystems 

Research in the Tropics and Subtropics, 37213 Witzenhausen, Germany, e-mail: ghayoor.fatima@ 

gmail.com 

127


Differential Expression of alp Gene and Sporulation Pattern of 

Glomus with Ri T-DNA Transformed Hairy Roots 

ANSHUL PURI, SHANUJA BERI, ALOK ADHOLEYA 

The Energy and Resources Institute, Biotechnology and Bioresources Division, India 

After nitrogen, phosphorous (P) is second most limiting element for plants growth. It 

is a major component of fundamental macromolecules, plays an important role in energy 

transfer, regulation of enzymatic reactions and different metabolic pathways. P is 

taken up by plant roots as phosphate (Pi), which is one of the least available nutrients 

in the soil even after application of P-fertilisers. Plants have evolved a variety of adaptive 

strategies for Pi-acquisition which involves altered root morphology, exudation of 

organic acids, phosphatases and nucleases for solubilising Pi from organic resources 

and the establishment of a symbiosis with arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF). 

Alkaline Phosphatase gene (alp) is an AMF specific, considered to reflect fungal activity 

within the symbiotic system and not reported in uncolonised roots as it is expressed 

only under symbiotic conditions. 

In this study the Ri T-DNA transformed roots were grown in vitro with Glomus intraradices 

as root organ cultures and analysed for the variations in patters for sporulation, 

alp gene expression and nutrient growth profiling. It was demonstrated that 

alp gene regulating the production of alkaline phosphatases was host dependent. For 

the nutrient analysis, the phosphorus concentrations obtained were similar to those 

obtained in the real time expression study with a maximum for Daucus carota var 

pusa kesar (carrot), followed by Trifolium subterraneum (egyptian clover), followed 

by Daucus carota var Berlicummer (carrot) with 0.9993 correlation factor. 

This study helps in the selection of appropriate inoculum as a biofertiliser, based on 

its enzymatic ability to solubilise the phosphates and aiding better nutrient uptake in 

agricultural crops. 

Keywords: Alp gene, biofertilisers, inocula, nutrient growth profiling, phosphorus, 

real time expression, sporulation 

Contact Address: Alok Adholeya, The Energy and Resources Institute, Biotechnology and Bioresources 

Division, Darbari Seth Block, India Habitat Centre, Lodhi Road, 110003 New Delhi, India, 

e-mail: aloka@teri.res.in 

128


Forage Production with Limited Water and Nutrient Resources in 

Pakistan 

SAMI UL-ALLAH 1 ,ASIF ALI 2 ,SHOAIB REHMAN 3 ,MICHAEL WACHENDORF 1 

1University of Kassel, Grassland Science and Renewable Plant Resources, Germany 

2University of Agriculture Faisalabad, Dept. of Breeding and Plant Genetics, Pakistan 

3University of Kassel, Organic Plant Production and Agroecosystems Research in the 


The Agriculture sector has key importance in Pakistan’s economy. It is one of the 

largest sectors, accounting for more than 20 % of national GDP. Livestock, the most 

important contributor, shares more or less 55 % of the agriculture value added. Green 

forage is the most valued and economical source of feed for livestock. Sustainable 

availability of sufficient feed for livestock is critical to smallholders who rely on animals 

for their livelihood. In Pakistan forage production is facing the problems of 

water and fertiliser shortage. An experiment was conducted to evaluate different forage 

types for water and nutrient efficiency at University of Agriculture Faisalabad in 

2010–11. Three factorial completely randomised design was used for the experiment. 

Three fertiliser levels (control, farm yard manure and chemical fertiliser), two irrigation 

levels (recommended irrigation and half than recommended irrigation) and two 

forage species (Trifolium alexandrinum and Avena sativa) were used in the experiment. 

Data obtained was analysed by using statistical software package R. In both 

crops fresh matter and dry matter yield showed highly significant differences for all 

the treatments while interaction of fertiliser treatment with irrigation and forage type 

was significant, also interaction of irrigation with forage types was highly significant. 

Regarding quality traits (acid detergent fiber, crude protein and metabolisable energy) 

all treatments showed non-significant differences except forage type where highly 

significant differences were observed. Differences for neutral detergent fiber were 

significant for both fertiliser and forage type. For fresh matter yield, dry matter yield, 

acid detergent fiber, neutral detergent fiber and metabolisable energy Avena sativa 

showed higher mean values than Trifolium alexandrinum while regarding crude protein 

contents Trifolium alexandrinum showed higher mean values than Avena sativa 

in all treatments. It is concluded from the results that by using Avena sativa as forage 

crop we can get higher yields even in limited resources of water and fertiliser to fulfil 

the needs of the livestock. 

Keywords: Forage production, quality traits, water and nutrient efficiency, yield 

Contact Address: Sami Ul-Allah, University of Kassel, Grassland Science and Renewable Plant 

Resources, Steinstrasse 19, 37213 Witzenhausen, Germany, e-mail: sami_llh@yahoo.com 

129


Development of Insect Resistant Transgenic Pea (Pisum sativum): 

Molecular and Functional Characterisation of Putative 

Transgenic Pea Plants 

ALEMAYEHU TERESSA NEGAWO, HANS-JÖRG JACOBSEN, FATHI HASSAN 

Leibniz Universität Hannover, Plant Genetics, Plant Biotechnology, Germany 

Pea (Pisum sativum L.) is one of the economically important legume crop cultivated 

worldwide. However, its production and storage is constrained by different species of 

insect pests. Thus, development of insect resistant variety is one of the main goals of 

breeding and improvement efforts in many producing countries. In line with this, gene 

transformation can complement the conventional breeding strategy through widening 

access to resistance genes beyond the species gene pool. 

In this study, putative transgenic pea plants developed via Agrobacterium-mediated 

transformation using a construct harboring cry1Ac gene for insect resistance and bar 

gene for herbicide resistance were characterised using molecular and functional analysis. 

The in vitro putative transgenic shoots were micro-grafted on a 5–7 days old 

seedling rootstock germinated under laboratory condition and leaf samples were collected 

for DNA isolation from successfully grafted and well grown plants. Then, 

molecular analysis of the isolated DNA samples was done for cry1Ac and bar genes 

using their respective primers. Functional analysis based on leaf paint was done to 

detect bar gene activity in the segregating progenies of transgenic plants. Filial generation 

of confirmed transgenic plants were raised and analysed for the inheritance of 

the transgene. 

The molecular analysis of successfully grafted in vitro putative transgenic plants 

showed the stable integration of the transgene construct in the analysed clones. Further 

molecular analysis of the filial generations from confirmed transgenic clones 

showed the inherence of the introduced transgenes to the next generations (T1, T2 and 

T3). So far, T4 generation was obtained and further analysis to select homozygous 

transgenic plants is ongoing. Leaf paint test as functional analysis using herbicide 

solution, showed a clear difference between transgenic and control non-transgenic 

plants. The herbicide treated leaves of non-transgenic control plants showed necrosis 

after 5–7 days of herbicide application while the herbicide treated leaves of transgenic 

plants showed no sign of necrosis. In general, the molecular and functional analysis 

from this study confirmed the integration and heritance of the introduced GOIs. Any 

confirmed homozygous cry1Ac transgenic lines from this study would be very valuable 

in the effort of gene stacking in pea improvement. 

Keywords: cry1Ac gene, Pisum sativum, functional analysis, insect resistant, molecular 

analysis, transgenic pea 

Contact Address: Fathi Hassan, Leibniz Universität Hannover, Plant Genetics, Plant Biotechnology, 

Herrenhaüser Str.2, 30419 Hannover, Germany, e-mail: hassan@lgm.uni-hannover.de 

130


Seed Germination and Early Growth of Chrysophyllum albidum 

Seedlings under Different Light Intensities 

JONATHAN C. ONYEKWELU 1 ,BERND STIMM 2 ,REINHARD MOSANDL 2 , 

JOHNSON ADEYINKA OLUSOLA 1 

1Federal University of Technology, Dept. of Forestry and Wood Technology, Nigeria 

2Technical University of Munich, Institute of Silviculture, Center of Life and Food 

Sciences Weihenstephan, Germany 

The need for domestication of important and endangered forest food tree species has 

been pointed out. This study investigated the effects different light intensities on the 

germination of Chrysophyllum albidum seeds and early growth of its seedlings, which 

is a necessary step towards it domestication. Seeds were collected from C. albidum 

elite trees identified in previous study. The light intensities (LI) investigated were 

100 %, 60 %, and 40 % while the controls were under forest canopy and open nursery 

condition. The growth characteristics investigated were total height, collar diameter, 

number of leaves and biomass accumulation. The experiment was conducted at the 

nursery of the Department of Forestry and Wood Technology, Federal University of 

Technology Akure, Nigeria and monitored for 18 weeks. Results showed a significant 

effect of light intensity on seed germination and seedlings early growth. Cumulative 

germination ranged from 19.0 % to 58.7 % and was highest under forest canopy and 

lowest under 100 % light intensity. Seedlings under high light environment (100 % 

light intensity and open nursery condition) died soon after germination, indicating 

that full exposure to light has adverse effect on C. albidum seedling growth. Seedlings 

development was best under low light environment like 40 % and 60 % light intensities. 

Mean total height was 15.2cm; 14.3 cm and 8.8 cm under 40 % light intensity, 

60 % light intensity and forest canopy, respectively while collar diameter was 0.44 cm, 

0.31 cm and 0.25 cm under 40 % light intensity, 60 % light intensity and forest canopy, 

respectively. Except collar diameter, both 40 % and 60 % light intensities had similar 

effect on all growth parameters. Seedlings under 40 % light intensity had a significantly 

higher collar diameter than those under 60 % light intensity. Total biomass 

accumulation after three months of growth was 0.82g (60 % light intensity), 0.66g 

(40 % light intensity) and 0.62g (under forest canopy). Seedlings under forest canopy 

had very poor growth rate, suggesting the C. albidum seedlings may not perform optimally 

under high shade environment. Thus, C. albidum seedlings should not be raised 

under full light or high shade environment. For optimum growth, the seedlings should 

be raised under reduced light environment (e.g. 40–60 % light intensities). 

Keywords: Domestication, early growth, germination, light intensity, Nigeria 

Contact Address: Jonathan C. Onyekwelu, Federal University of Technology, Dept. of Forestry and 

Wood Technology, P.M.B. 704, P.M.B. 704 Akure, Nigeria, e-mail: onyekwelujc@yahoo.co.uk 

131


Management of Fungi Associated with Grain Discolouration in 

Rice, an Emerging Threat to Rice Crop in Pakistan 

YASIR MAHMOOD 1 ,M.ASLAM KHAN 1 ,MUNZUR AHMAD 1 ,SAMI UL-ALLAH 2 

1University of Agriculture Faisalabad, Dept. of Plant Pathology, Pakistan 


Grain discolouration in rice is an emerging threat to rice yield and market value in 

Pakistan. Fungi associated with grain discolouration of rice were isolated and tested 

for their pathogenecity on healthy rice grains. Isolation and purification of many fungi 

such as Fusarium spp, Tricoderma, Aspergillus spp, Helmithosporium, Cercospora 

and Pseudomonas were done. For management of disease, in vitro experiments were 

conducted to evaluate the efficacy of various fungicides and bio-products against 

two prominent fungi causing grain discolouration of rice i.e Aspergillus flavus and 

Fusarium oxysporum. The most effective treatments in fungicides were Kumulus-DF 

(44.04) proved to be best fallowed by Cabrio-top (43.38) and Trimiltox-forte (41.80) 

and in bio-products Neem extract (49.13) was proved to be best fallowed by Brassica 

extract (44.67) in growth inhibition of Aspergillus flavus. While in case of Fusarium 

oxysporum growth inhibition, Defeater (29.16) was proved to be best fallowed by Alliete 

(26.16). In bio products and antagonists evaluation Diver (24.23) and Aspergillus 

niger (42.41) were proved to be best respectively. Germination percentage studies 

of infected rice seeds were carried out after treatment with fungicides/bioproducts. 

Kumulus-DF, Cabrio-top and Trimiltox-forte gave significant result at 80 ppm while 

in bio-products Brassica extract, Neem extract and Diver (Minral oil) also gave significant 

result at 8 % as compare to control. The suitable conditions of fungicides and 

bio-products were found for their application under field conditions. The experiments 

were laid down in completely randomised design (CRD). Data was analysed statistically 

and means were compared by using least significant difference (LSD) test. 

Keywords: Brassica extract, discolouration, Fusarium spp., kumulus-DF, 

neem extract 

Contact Address: Yasir Mahmood, University of Agriculture Faisalabad, Dept. of Plant 

Pathology, Room No 18 C Qazzaffi Hall University of Agriculture, 3800 Faisalabad, Pakistan, 

e-mail:yasir_scout@yahoo.com 

132


Genetic Evaluation of Quality Protein Maize Genotypes under 

Striga lutea and Mycorrhiza Interaction in Nigeria 

ODUNAYO OLAWUYI 1 ,ADEGBOYEGA ODEBODE 2 ,SAMUEL OLAKOJO 3 , 

ADENUBI ADESOYE 2 

1Babcock University, Biosciences and Biotechnology, Nigeria 

2University of Ibadan, Botany, Nigeria 

3Inst. of Agricultural Research and Training, Cereal Improvement Programme, Nigeria 

Striga parasitic weeds, which cause 20 to 80 % yield loss, are major constraints to 

maize production in savannah ecosystems of Nigeria. A single approach to several 

adopted control measures has proved inadequate. Therefore, this study evaluates 

thirty-four genetic traits in four QPM genotypes under artificial striga infestation and 

mycorrhiza inoculation in order to provide information for the selection of the best 

yield components in maize improvement. The pot and field experiments were sited in 

three locations representing different agro-ecological zones of southwestern Nigeria 

in 2008 and 2009 seasons using 6 × 4 × 4 × 3 split-plot design with three replications. 

AMF were inoculated at the rate of 25 g per plant while 10.4 g of striga seeds 

was artificially infested in each designated pot. Uninoculated and uninfested pots and 

plots served as control. The growth, striga and yield related traits were evaluated 

for phenotypic and genotypic coefficient of variability (PCV and GCV), while heritability 

estimates (H2b) and genetic advance (GA) were obtained from phenotypic 

variance components. The GENSTAT and MSTAT programs were used in these calculations. 

Data were analysed using ANOVA, correlation and principal component 

analyses (PCA). 

Combined ANOVA from the three locations showed significant differences (p < 0.05) 

among QPM for all traits evaluated with first three PCA accounting for 38 %, 25 % 

and 23 %, respectively. The influence of AMF was highly significant (p < 0.01) for 

eight traits consisting of growth, yield and striga related traits in ART – 98 – SW5 

– OB. High H2b (53–98.1%) estimates were observed for 15 traits, medium H2b 

(48–50 %) for two traits, while striga emergence count had low H2b (10 %). The 

genotype × environment interaction was highly significant (p < 0.01) for 10 traits. 

Highest GA (58) was recorded for two traits, while PH at 10WAP (0.51) was the 

least. Tolerant genotypes had higher potentials for developing cultivars with broadbased 

resistance to Striga lutea. High heritability suggests quality genetic traits as 

indices for selection of the best yield components in maize improvement. The yield 

increase indicated positive interaction between the genotypes and AMF. 

Keywords: Genetic component, maize, mycorrhiza, striga 

Contact Address: Odunayo Olawuyi, Babcock University, Biosciences and Biotechnology, 

No 22 Olorunsogo street, Back of Presidential Hotel, Osogbo, Nigeria, e-mail: olawuyiodunayo@ 

yahoo.com 

133


Effectiveness of Resistant Germplasm and Biological Control 

Agents as a Sustainable Means for Managment of Fusarium Wilt 

Disease of Chickpea 

YASIR MAHMOOD 1 ,M.ASLAM KHAN 1 ,NAZIR JAVED 1 ,SAMI UL-ALLAH 2 

1University of Agriculture Faisalabad, Dept. of Plant Pathology, Pakistan 


Wilt caused by Fusarium oxysporum f.sp. ciceri is a devastating disease of chickpea 

in word wherever chickpea is grown. Management of this disease is very important 

for word food security because Chickpea is considered as an alternative to animal 

protein due to it highly portentous nature. Chickpea (Cicer arietinum L.) is an annual 

legume and the only cultivated specie within genus Cicer. In my investigation natural 

sources (i.e. looking for resistance in germplasm and biological control agents, isolated 

from natural environment of chickpea) were used for successful management of 

disease. To identify genetic sources of resistance against wilt disease under sick plot 

condition, three hundred and eighteen genotype obtained from various sources were 

evaluated. The experiment was repeated twice during the years of 2010–11 and 2011– 

12, planted in augmented design with single replication. Among those only three 

lines/varieties (5006, k021–10 and k035–10) were found to be highly resistant during 

the year of 2010–11 while only two lines (5006 and k035–10) showed highly resistant 

response during the year 2011–12. Most of the lines/varieties fell between the moderately 

resistance to susceptible range (21–50 % Disease incidence). For the effective 

management of disease six biological control agents were tested against Fusarium 

oxysporum f.sp. ciceri. In vitro experiments Pseudomonas fluorescens was proved to 

be most effective with 5.71mm inhibition zone fallowed by Rhizobium spp. (isolated 

from chickpea roots) with 5.31mm. These were compared in green house, which 

showed that seed and soil inoculation with Pseudomonas fluorescens proved to be 

the most effective with 66.66 % mortality reduction of chickpea plants fallowed by 

Rhizobium spp. with 55.57 % disease reduction over untreated control. 

Keywords: Chickpea, Fusarium oxysporum f.sp. ciceri, Pseudomonas fluorescens, 

Rhizobium spp 

Contact Address: Yasir Mahmood, University of Agriculture Faisalabad, Dept. of Plant Pathology, 

Room No 18 C Qazzaffi Hall University of Agriculture, 3800 Faisalabad, Pakistan, e-mail: yasir_ 

scout@yahoo.com 

134


Characterisation of Sudanese Pearl Millet Germplasm as Source 

in Breeding for Adaptation to Climate Change 

ELFADIL BASHIR 1 ,ADAM ALI 2 ,MOHAMAD ISMAIL 2 ,ELGAILANI ABDALLA 2 , 

OMAR BAKHIT 2 ,SALIH SABEEL 2 ,ABDELBAGI ALI 2 , 

BETTINA I.G. HAUSSMANN 1 

1University of Hohenheim, Institute of Plant Breeding, Seeds Science and Population 


2Agricultural Research Corporation, Pearl millet and Sorghum Breeding Program, Sudan 

Pearl millet (Pennisetum glaucum [L.] R. Br.) is one of the most important crops 

for millions of poor rural households in the whole Sahelian region from Senegal to 

Sudan. The objective of this study was to morphologically characterise and identify 

superiorly adapted pearl millet genotypes which can be used as sources of resistance 

to climate-change-related stresses and for other consequent breeding activities. A set 

of 225 pearl millet accessions collected from different geographical zones of Sudan, 

including 10 accessions provided from ICRISAT, Niger were planted in three different 

locations in Sudan, in lattice design with three replications during 2010 rainy season. 

Twenty morphological and agronomical traits were collected from each accession under 

study. The results showed wide range of variability among the accessions for all 

of the morphological traits investigated such as, days to 50 % flowering, plant height, 

panicle length, 1000 seeds weight and grain yield. Different accessions possess high 

potential for selection of desirable traits. B9 Tabi is the earliest genotype in term 

of days to flowering (62 days), while HSD 7197 was the shortest genotype with a 

height of 118 cm. The early maturing genotypes recorded by PE 08030, HSD 2166 

and B9 Tabi while HSD 2168 and HSD 2281 were the highest yielding genotypes. 

There were 19 genotypes had 5 to 6 tillers while 35 % of the genotypes had 4 tillers. 

30 % of genotypes had panicle length range from 25 to 34 cm while 6 % had medium 

to long bristle length. 11 % of the genotypes with white seeds colour while 26 % 

had gray seed colour. However, high grain yield was associated with early flowering 

genotypes. High heritability was estimated for most of the traits under study such as 

days to flowering (h2 = 0.80), panicle length (h2 = 0.85), seeds colour (h2 = 0.73) and 

spike density (h2 = 0.83). This study provided useful information about the investigated 

genotypes in terms of morphological characterisation and phenotypic plasticity 

and therefore, the most valuable and promising accessions can be recommended for 

commercial cultivation and/or used as source of desirable traits for further breeding 

programs. 

Keywords: Climate change, germplasm, morphological characterisation 

Contact Address: Elfadil Bashir, University of Hohenheim, Institute of Plant Breeding, 

Seeds Science and Population Genetics, Fruwirthstrasse 21, 70599 Stuttgart, Germany, e-mail: 

adam@pz.uni-hohenheim.de 

135


Establishment and Parasitism Efficiency of Trichogramma 

principium (Sugonyaev and Sorokina) on Cotton-infesting 

Helicoverpa armigera (Hb.) in Sudan 

TAG ELSIR ELAMIN ABDALLA, AHMED MOHAMED ELMUSTAFA, 

HASSAN ABDELGADIR MUBARAK 

Agricutural Research Corporation, Sudan 

This study was conducted at the Gezira Research Station Farm during the 2010–11 

season to verify the establishment and parasitism efficiency of Trichogramma principium 

(Sugonyaev et Sorokina) (Hymenoptera: Trichogrammatidae) in eggs of Helicoverpa 

armigera (Hb.) (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae), a major pest of cotton in Sudan 

that causes considerable losses in yield and quality and usually checked with insectiides 

at around 30 % of the total cost of producion. The cultivars experimented were 

“Barac 67B”, “Hamid”, “Burhan” and “Abdin”. Trichogramma was acquired from 

the Rearing Unit, Agricultural Research Corporation, at preimaginal stage, in eggs 

of Corcyra cephalonica (Stainton) (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae). One release was done 

on each of Barac and Hamid and two on each of Abdin and Burhan. The release 

rate was 24,000 parasitoids per feddan, at 7 × 7 m distance between release points 

and 14-day intervals. At the first release, the cultivars’ average of the percentage 

of emerged parasitoids ranged between 60.5 % and 94.8 %, the overall average was 

79.2 % and the percentage of parasitized H. armigera eggs ranged between 60 % and 

22.2 %. At the second release, the corresponding figures were 46.6%-96.7%, 77.7 %, 

and 77.7%-22.2%, respectively. The high level of parasitoid emergence recorded is 

an indication of good viability of the released insects, tolerance of the parasitoid to 

the local weather conditions and the crop environment and acceptance of both, the 

host eggs and the crop. The levels of parasitism were quite acceptable for this introductory 

release. In summary, as evidenced by the successful establishment and 

high parasitism efficiency against H. armigera in this study, T. principium is strongly 

recommended for use on Sudanese cotton cultivars. 

Keywords: Cotton, Helicoverpa armigera, Trichogramma principium 

Contact Address: Tag Elsir Elamin Abdalla, Agricultural Research Corporation, Dept. of Entomology, 

Biological Control, Str. No. 7 Elbihouth, 126 Wad Medani, Sudan, e-mail: tagelsirr@yahoo.com 

136


Evaluation of Strigolactones Types in Cowpea Genotypes under 

Phosphate Starvation 

VICENCIA DOSSOU-YOVO 1,2 ,TATSIANA CHARNIKOVA 1 , 

HARRO BOUWMEESTER 1 ,JOACHIM SAUERBORN 2 

1Wageningen University (WUR), Laboratory of Plant Physiology, The Netherlands 



Farm productivity remains low in sub-Saharan Africa because of a variety of factors 

such as drought, impoverished soils, pests and diseases. For instance Striga spp. are 

mainly found in Africa, particularly in West Africa where >60 % of crops growing 

areas are infested. Yield losses in legume crops, especially cowpea, caused by the 

parasitic Striga weed amount to 40 % annually. In dry areas of Nigeria, for example, 

Striga has reduced cowpea productivity from potential 2–3 t ha -1 to 0.37 t ha-1 . Striga 

germination is induced by strigolactones secreted by the host plant root into the soil. 

It was reported that phosphorous deficiency in the soil increases production of strigolactones. 

A range of phosphate starvation was used to evaluate the amount and types 

of strigolactones in different cowpea genotypes using liquid chromatography coupled 

to tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS). All 13 cowpea genotypes produced two 

types of strigolactones (orobanchol and orobanchyl acetate) and a third unidentified 

strigolactzone. There was significant variation in strigolactones amount among the 

thirteen genotypes investigated. The genotype IT97K-461–4 was shown to have the 

highest and IT81D994 the lowest orobanchol and orobanchyl acetate production compared 

with the other genotypes. Germination bioassays revealed that the cowpea root 

exudates stimulated the germination of Striga gesnerioides seeds even at high dilutions 

of exudate. Selection of plant with low secretion of strigolactones could be an 

interesting trait to breed for Striga resistance. 

Keywords: Liquid chromatography coupled to tandem mass spectrometry, orobanchol, 

orobanchyl acetate, strigolactones 

Contact Address: Vicencia Dossou-Yovo, Wageningen University (WUR), Laboratory of Plant Physiology, 

Droevendaalsesteeg 1, 6708 PB Wageningen, The Netherlands, e-mail: dosbelle@yahoo.fr 

137


Foliar Application of Methanol on Some Quality Traits of Soybean 

under Deficit Irrigation 

VAHID BAYAT 1 ,FARZAD PAKNEJAD 1 ,MOHAMMAD REZA ARDAKANI 1 , 

SAEED VAZAN 1 ,ALIREZA PAZOKI 2 

1 Islamic Azad University, Karaj Branch, Dept. of Agronomy, Iran 

2 Islamic Azad University, Shahr-e-Rey Branch, Dept. of Agronomy and Plant Breading, 

Iran 

To determine effects of methanol foliar application on soybean grain yield under, a 

factorial split-plot experiment based on a randomised complete block design with 

four replications was done at Research Field of Faculty of Agriculture and Natural 

Resources, Islamic Azad University-Karaj Branch, Karaj, Iran, during 2011. The first 

factor was drought stress in two levels (based on depletion of a1=40 % and a2=70 % 

of available soil moisture). The second factor was spraying times of methanol in two 

levels (in the morning at b1= 8–10 AM and in the evening at b2=19–21 PM). Third 

factor was foliar application number of methanol with three levels (each c1=7, c2=14 

and c3= 21 days, Methanol spray was applied 5, 3 and 2 times during growth season 

of soybean, respectively). All treatments were sprayed with 21 % (v/v) methanol 

concentration. Grain yield, biomass, protein and oil percentage and yields were measured 

in this study. The results showed that there was significant (p > 0.05) differences 

between effects of drought stress level on measured parameters. Under normal 

irrigation, the highest (3187 kg ha −1 ) and lowest (1526 kg ha −1 ) soybean grain yield 

was obtained in a1 and a2, respectively. results of oil yield indicated that a1 and a2 

were produced the most (731 kg ha −1 ) and least (484 kg ha −1 ), respectively. Besides, 

results showed that significant differences exists (p > 0.05) between interaction effects 

a*b, a*c, b*c and a*b*c in some traits, as under normal and deficit irrigation 

maximum grain yield were observed by methanol spraying every other week in the 

evening and every 7 days in the morning, respectively. Conclusion: It seems applying 

aqueous solutions 21 % (v/v) methanol on water deficit condition on different periods 

on soybean plants and time application can reduce harmful effects of drought and 

improve plant potential to cope with stress. 

Keywords: Biomass, harvest index , methanol, soybean, yield 

Contact Address: Farzad Paknejad, Islamic Azad University, Karaj Branch, Dept. of Agronomy and 

Plant Breeding, Karaj, Iran, e-mail: farzadpaknejad@yahoo.com 

138


Genetic Variation in Salt Tolerance in Oilseed Rape 

YASSER MOURSI, HEIKO C. BECKER 

Georg-August-Universität Göttingen, Dept. of Crop Sciences: Plant Breeding Unit, 

Germany 

Salinity is one of the harshest environmental stresses that drastically affect crop produciton 

in many parts of the world. About 20 % of the irrigated land throughout the 

world is salt effected. The objectives of this project are (i) to test the genetic variation 

in salt tolerance in a genetically very broad material, (ii) to analyse the variation in 

salt tolerance in a population of doubled haploid (DH) lines, and (ii) to identify genes 

for salt tolerance by QTL analyses. 

The genetic material investigated consisted of (i) 13 genetically very different genotypes, 

and (ii) 138 DH lines from a cross between two very different parents. Seeds 

were germinated in ptri dishes without salt stress (control) and under salt stress (5 

ml 200 mM NaCl added to each petri dish). Salt tolerance was estimated by two approaches: 

(i) germination percentage, and (ii) germination pace, which measures how 

fast the germination process starts. 

For both germination percentage and germination pace a large genetic variation was 

observed. Under stress conditions, the heritability estimates were in similar range 

(0.75 for germination percentage and 0.86 for germination pace), but germination 

percentage and germination pace were not closely correlated. 

As nest step a QTL mapping in this material is under progress. A limitation of the 

present date is, that only seedlngs up to eight days after germination were analysed. 

Therefore experiments to analyse salt tolerance of young plants (about four weeks 

after germination) and adult plants are planned. For such experiments a suitable experimental 

testing system is under development. 

In conclusion, these preliminary results show a large genetic variation for salt tolerance 

in oilseed rape and are the basis of a specific breeding programm for salt tolerant 

oilseed rape for regions where this type of stess frequently occurs. 

Keywords: Oilseed rape, salt tolerance 

Contact Address: Heiko C. Becker, Georg-August-Universität Göttingen, Agronomy and Plant Breeding, 

Von-Siebold-Straße 8, 37075 Göttingen, Germany, e-mail: hbecker1@gwdg.de 

139


Effects of Late Season Drought Stress on Yield and Physiological 

Traits of Spring Wheat Cultivars 

MAJID ROSTAMI 

University of Malayer, Dept. of Agriculture and Natural Resources, Iran 

Undesired effects of drought on plant growth and development are higher than other 

environmental stress. Different crops with considering the environmental and economical 

conditions may counter to drought stress in a specific part of growth stage. 

Before introducing new cultivars for drought prone regions, it is necessary to determine 

the crop susceptibility to drought stress in different growth stage. In order to 

evaluate the effects of late season drought stress on yield and some physiological 

traits in five cultivar of spring wheat an experiment was conducted using strip-plots 

based on randomised complete block design, in Agricultural Research Station of Khorasan, 

Iran. Three levels of irrigation, i.e. complete irrigation (IR1), cutting of last 

irrigation (IR2), and cutting off two last irrigations (IR3) were in the main plots and 

the sub-plots were assigned to 5 cultivars of spring wheat. Based on the results, effect 

of irrigation treatments on grain yield, grain protein percentage and 1000 seed weight 

was significant and by increasing the intensity of drought stress grain yield, 1000 seed 

weight and weight of hectoliter decrease whereas protein percentage increased. Effects 

of irrigation treatments on canopy temperature and leaf relative water content 

(RWC), also was significant (p < 0.05), and with increasing drought stress canopy 

temperature increased but RWC decreased. Results showed that cutting last irrigation 

didn’t have significant effects on yield and quality of wheat cultivars but cutting of 

tow last irrigations have significant effects on these traits. Based on current results 

measuring canopy temperature and RWC for determination of drought intensity is 

recommendable. 

Keywords: Canopy temperature, chlorophyll, drought stress, relative water content 

Contact Address: Majid Rostami, University of Malayer, Dept. of Agriculture and Natural Resources, 

Postal Code: 65719- 95863, Malayer, Iran, e-mail: majidrostami7@yahoo.com 

140


Genetic Variation of Stem Characters in Wheat (Triticum aestivum 

L.) and their Relation to Yield Components under Drought and 

Heat Stress 

AHMED SALLAM, N.EL-SAYED, M.HASHAD, M.OMARA 

Assiut University, Genetics Department, Egypt 

Drought and heat stresses, singly or in combination, are major constraints to wheat 

during grain filling in Mediterranean environments. After anthesis, the stored carbohydrates 

in stems play an important role in grain filling in wheat. The aim of 

this study was to find out the relationship between stem characters such as diameter, 

weight, and density and yield components including 1000-kernel weight (1000-KW) 

and grain yield per spike (GYPS). In addition, the genetic control of these characters 

was investigated. In season 2006/2007, a 7-parents F 1 diallel cross was grown under 

favourable, drought and combined drought and heat stresses environments. Polygenes 

with mainly additive effects were involved in the control of stem characters. Results 

showed that only stem diameter showed highly positive correlation with 1000-KW 

and GYPS under the three different environments. Stem density was positively correlated 

with 1000-KW under favourable environment and with GYPS under drought 

environment. On the other hand, stem weight did not show any correlation with the 

respective characters. The narrow-sense heritability (h 2 ) of stem diameter was of 

comparable magnitude under favourable (0.73), drought (0.62) and combined drought 

and heat stress (0.76). Stem diameter was negatively and significantly correlated with 

heat susceptibility index of 1000-KW (-0.37) but it was not significantly correlated 

with GPYS. The relationship between significant stem characters and 1000-KW and 

GYPS in 12 F2 populations forming a 3 × 4 North Carolina Design was also investigated 

under heat stress in season 2007/2008. Stem diameter (h 2 = 0.62) displayed 

positive correlation with 1000-KW under heat stress which was uniformly significant 

in the 12 F2 populations analysed and with GYPS in only 9 of the 12 populations. 

However, under heat stress stem density (h2 = 0.52) was positively correlated with 

1000-KW in only 5 F2 populations and with GYPS in only 6 of the 12 F 2 populations. 

Based on strong correlation among stem diameter and yield components characters 

under stresses, we concluded that this character plays an important role in grain filling 

under such circumstances. This is possibly due to a greater stem capacity to store 

assimilates. Subsequently, after anthesis, these assimilates are being remobilised to 

grains. 

Keywords: Heat susceptibility index, stem diameter, yield attributes 

Contact Address: Ahmed Sallam, Assiut University, Genetics Department, Assiut, Egypt, e-mail: 

ahmed.salam@agr.au.edu.eg 

141


The Effect of Environmental Conditions on Seed Germination of 

Some Saudi Arabian Rangeland Species 

NASER ALMARRI, ALISTAIR MURDOCH, SIMON MORTIMER 

University of Reading, Dept. of Agriculture, Seed Science Laboratory, United Kingdom 

Saudi Arabia experiences unpredictable and low rainfall and high temperatures. Growth 

of plants occurs mainly in winter. Rangelands occupy about 70 % of the land area. 

Factors which may relieve seed dormancy include: afterripening; chemical treatments 

such as potassium nitrite and nitrate; temperature and light. 

Experiments were carried out to investigate the effects of light, different alternating 

and constant temperature regimes and several chemical treatments on seed germination 

and dormancy of six Saudi Arabian rangeland species. The ultimate aim is to 

anticipate potential impacts of global climate change. 

Seeds of Atriplex leucoclada, A. halimus, Calligonum comosum, Salsola villosa, Teucrium 

polium and Nitraria retusa were collected in Saudi Arabia in 2007 and 2008. 

Seeds of S. villosa were tested with and without covering structures (wings). Germination 

of seeds collected in 2007 was tested at two alternating temperatures (15°/25°C, 

10°/30°C, 12h/12h), three constant temperatures (10°, 20° and 30°C), two light treatments 

(light and darkness) and moistened with either water or 0.01 M potassium nitrite. 

Seeds collected in 2008 were germinated in a range of concentrations of (KNO 2) 

and (KNO3 ) in alternating temperatures (15/25°C, 12h/12h) and light. 

Optimum constant temperature for germination of S. villosa with and without wings 

and T. polium was 20°C with no promotion of germination at alternating temperatures 

implying that seeds were non-dormant. In A. leucoclada, (KNO 2) promoted germination 

in the light but not in darkness at all temperatures. In A. halimus there was no 

effect of light and slight promotion by alternating temperatures and potassium nitrite. 

In C. comosum potassium nitrite promoted germination in light but not in darkness 

at 20°C, 15/25°C and light generally promoted germination. In S. villosa with and 

without wings and T. polium, (KNO2) generally inhibited germination. In T. polium 

light promoted germination in water at 10°, 30° and 10/30°C (data not shown) but not 

at 20°C , 15/25°C. The germination of C. comosum was promoted by exposure to low 

concentrations of (KNO2) (10-3 M) and (KNO2) (10-4 M). 

Results are discussed with reference to the impact of the characteristics of seed dormancy 

and germination on the resilience of their regeneration in rangelands. 

Keywords: Climate change, dormancy, germination, rangeland species 

Contact Address: Alistair Murdoch, University of Reading, Dept. of Agriculture, Seed Science Laboratory, 

RG6 6AR UK Reading, United Kingdom, e-mail: a.j.murdoch@reading.ac.uk 

142


Status Quo of Farmers Knowledge about Fruit Flies and Their 

Control in Mango and Guava Orchards in Some States in Sudan 

OMAR A.A. SIDAHMED 1 ,ISHTIAG FAROUG ABDALLA 2 , 

AHMED H. ALLAGABO 3 ,AWAD K. TAHA 4 

1Omdurman Islamic University, Dept. of Plant Protection, Sudan 

2Agricultural Research Corporation, Agricultural Economics and Policy Research 

Center, Sudan 

3Ministry of Agriculture and Irrigation, Dept. of Agricultural Information, Sudan 

4Sudan University of Science and Technology, Dept. of Plant Protection, Sudan 

The expansion of urban areas resulted in increase in awareness of nutritional value 

of fruits. The latter lead to substantial increase of fruits area in Sudan where about 

326,000 feddan were grown by different types of fruits in 2010. Mango (Mangifera 

indica) and guava (Psidium guajava) are the main fruits produced for local consumption 

and export. However, in the last years, fruit production was hampered significantly 

by fruit flies with infestation damage approaching 100 % in some areas. Accordingly, 

in 2008, fruit flies were added to the list of the national pests of Sudan by 

the first National Workshop on Fruit Flies. The workshop also recommended some 

control measures as a first procedure against fruit flies in Sudan. Following this a set 

of extension activities were conducted by the Federal Ministry of Agriculture among 

farmers to elevate their awareness about fruit flies and their control using pheromones 

and baited traps. A survey of about 50 fruit orchards was conducted in 2011, in 

central states of Sudan (Sennar, Gezira and Khartoum), using a semi-structured questionnaire. 

Descriptive analysis was used for data analysis. Results indicated that 

76 % of sampled fruit farmers were well educated. Also, most of the sampled farmers 

(75 %) owned the land and grew less than 100 fruit trees in the orchard. Only 12 % of 

the farmers mentioned that they experienced high fruit fly infestation in their farms; 

58 % sold the infested fruits, especially those in Khartoum. About 26 % of the sampled 

farmers received information about how to use pheromones, whereas 43 % use 

it. Moreover, 17 % of respondent farmers used the recommended application rate of 

Methyl Eugenol. No synthetic insecticides were used against fruit fly in orchards up 

to survey time. In conclusion, fruit producers are still lacking extension information 

on how and when to apply effective control measures against fruit flies. 

Keywords: Fruit fly, guava, mango, Sudan, trap system 

Contact Address: Omar A.A. Sidahmed, Omdurman Islamic University, Dept. of Plant Protection, 

Abu Said, 11111 Omdurman, Sudan, e-mail: a.omerahmed@yahoo.com 

143

Crop biotic stresses (DPG session) 


CAMILO LESMES FABIAN, CLAUDIA R. BINDER: 

Dermal and Inhalation Exposure Assessment of Pesticide 

Management in Greenhouse Flower Crops in Colombia 

LEILA KIANI, MOHSEN YAZDANIAN, BAHRAM TAFAGHODINIA: 

Effects of Sanitation and using Insect-Proof Screens on 

Population Density of Chaetosiphon fragaefolii (Cockerell) on 

148 

Strawberry under Greenhouse Conditions 

BRUCE OCHIENG OBURA, ELMAR SCHULTE-GELDERMANN, 

ZAKARI KINYUA: 

Factors Influencing Performance of Seedplot Technique in 

149 

Seed Potato Quality Improvement among Small Scale 

Farmers 150 

DALIA MUFTAH ALKHAYAT, STEFAN VIDAL, PETR 

KARLOVSKY: 

Entomopathogens as Endophytes, an Innovative Biological 

Control Strategy 151 

ELLY ATIENO, ELMAR SCHULTE-GELDERMANN, RAMA 

NARLA: 

Integrating Varietal Resistance and Phosphonate Fungicide 

in Management of Foliar Late Blight in Potato 

LUKAS SCHÜTZ, STEFAN VIDAL: 

Agricultural Practices and Possibilities for IPM and Sustainable 

Resource Management in the Mojanda Watershed, 

152 

Ecuador 153 

Posters 154 

ALCIDO ELENOR WANDER, CLEYZER ADRIAN CUNHA, 

AGOSTINHO DIRCEU DIDONET: 

Pesticide Contamination in Land Reform Settlements in Brazil: 

The Case of ‘Cachoeira Bonita’ in Caiaponia, Goias State 154 

XIA HA, TINGTING WEI, BIRGER KOOPMANN, ANDREAS VON 

TIEDEMANN: 

Microclimatic Requirements for Wheat Blast (Magnaporthe 

grisea) and Characterisation of Resistance in Wheat 155 

145


146 

SOULEYMANE NACRO, KARIM SAMA, DONA DAKOUO, 

NIANGO MALICK: 

Developing an IPM Strategy at the Vallée Du Kou Irrigated 

Rice Scheme in Burkina Faso 156 

RENZOANDRE DE LA PEÑA LAVANDER, MARC COTTER, TOM 

VAN MOURIK, JOACHIM SAUERBORN: 

A Model of the Potential Distribution of Striga hermonthica 

in the African Continent and its Prospection under Climate 

Change 157 

THOMAS MIETHBAUER: 

Collective Action and On-farm Benefits of Pesticide Substitution: 

Case Study on Potato Pest Management Practices in the 

Peruvian Highlands 158 

TILAL ABDELHALIM, HIBA ALI, ABDEL GABAR BABIKER, 

MARIA RENATE FINCKH: 

Euphorbia hirta Extract for Manipulation of Seed Germination 

and Haustorium Initiation in Phelipanche ramosa 159 

AZZA SIDDIG HUSSIEN ABBO: 

The Dark Side of Fungal Melanin: Alternaria alternata as 

Example 160 

RASHIDA ABUSIN, ALFATIH AHMED, ABDEL GABAR 

BABIKER: 

Effects of Triclopyr and Nitrogen on Striga Incidence and 

Sorghum Growth and Yield 161 

LOAN VO PHUONG HONG, ZITA SEBESVARI, FABRICE 

RENAUD: 

Modelling Pesticide Fate in the Lower Mekong Delta 162 

BUDDHI SHARMA, GREGORY A. FORBES, HKMANANDHAR, 

SM SHRESTHA, RBTHAPA: 

Measuring Resistance in Potato to Phytophthora infestans with 

Field, Laboratory and Greenhouse Assays 163 

GEOFFREY ONAGA, KERSTIN WYDRA, BIRGER KOOPMANN, 

YACOUBA SERE, ANDREAS VON TIEDEMANN: 

Effects of High Temperature on R Gene Mediated Resistance 

to Rice Blast in two Genetic Backgrounds of Rice 164 

SUNIL ARYAL, MARC SPORLEDER, YAGYA PRASAD GIRI, 

JÜRGEN KROSCHEL: 

Formulation of a Granulovirus-Based Biopesticide for 

Managing the Potato Tuber Moth in Stored Potatoes in Nepal 165

Crop biotic stresses (DPG session) — Contents 

ALICE WARUKIRA MURAGE, GIDEON OBARE, DAVID 

AMUDAVI, ZEYAUR KHAN: 

Efficiency of Push-pull Technology Dissemination Pathways 

for Stemborer and Striga Control in Western Kenya: Data 

Envelopment Analysis Approach 

HENOK KURABACHEW, KERSTIN WYDRA: 

Characterisation of Plant Growth Promoting Rhizobacteria 

166 

and their Potential as Bioprotectant Against Tomato 

Bacterial Wilt Caused by Ralstonia solanacearum 167 

HENOK KURABACHEW, FRANK STAHL, KERSTIN WYDRA: 

Global Gene Expression of Rhizobacteria and/or Silicon 

Mediated Induced Systemic Resistance to Ralstonia solanacearum 

in Tomato (Solanum lycopersicum) 168 

R.F. VIEIRA, TRAZILBO JOSÉ DE PAULA JÚNIOR, HUDSON 

TEIXEIRA, J.E.S. CARNEIRO, R.L. CARDOSO, M.S.LEHNER, 

M.V. QUEIROZ, A.L.PRADO: 

Lines from Brazilian Dry Bean Breeding Programs with White 

Mold Resistance 169 

ESMAT MHEGAZI, FREDRIK SCHLYTER, WEDAD KHAFAGI: 

Population Cycles and Economic Losses Caused by Zeuzera 

pyrina in an Olive Orchard, Egypt 170 

BENJAMIN BLUM, CHRISTIAN GROVERMANN, PEPIJN 

SCHREINEMACHERS, THOMAS BERGER, JIRAWAN 

KITCHAICHAROEN: 

Multi-criteria Analysis for Identifying Appropriate Pest Management 

in Tomato Production in Chiang Mai Province, 

Thailand 171 

147


Dermal and Inhalation Exposure Assessment of Pesticide 

Management in Greenhouse Flower Crops in Colombia 

CAMILO LESMES FABIAN, CLAUDIA R. BINDER 

Ludwig Maximilian University of Munich, Dept. of Geography, Germany 

Pesticides are chemicals of public health concern because epidemiological studies 

have evidenced the association between agricultural occupation activities and related 

health problems. Floriculture is an agricultural activity in developing countries in 

which the greenhouse environment conditions are designed to optimise the plant 

growing rather than to protect the worker’s health. Colombia is the second world 

flower exporter with a cultivated area of 6800 hectares with an average of 15 workers 

per hectare. Numerous studies worldwide have assessed the exposure to pesticides 

in greenhouses; however, there are no available studies in the floriculture system in 

Colombia in which large number of workers might be at risk of exposure. In our 

research, we assess the dermal and inhalation exposure applying the Material Flow 

Analysis methodology to study the dispersion of the pesticides in the human body 

during pesticide management. The study area was a flower farm located in Sabaná 

de Bogotá, Colombia. The Whole Body Dosimetry was applied to obtain the pesticide 

distribution on the human body parts using the tracer uranine as pesticide surrogate 

and tyvek garments as sampling media. The Button Personal Inhalable Aerosol 

Sampler was used to measure inhalation exposure. The results show high levels of 

potential dermal exposure in upper body parts like abdomen, chest and back; however, 

the level of protection given by the personal protective equipment was higher 

than 98.6 %. Actual dermal exposure represented 0,48 % of the total amount of tracer 

applied. From the total human exposure (i.e. actual dermal exposure and inhalation), 

actual dermal exposure represented 95 % and inhalation exposure 5 %. Even 

though exposure values were very low, there is still a high health risk depending on 

pesticide toxicity, type of pesticide mixtures and total time of exposure. Therefore, 

further research is required to determine the level of human exposure and how the 

exposure dynamics change with the time when there is a cumulative exposure to pesticide 

mixtures affected by a determined degradation rate. This research was funded 

by the Swiss National Science Foundation and performed by a cooperation between 

LMU München, ETH Zürich, UniZürich, UniBoyacá and Universidad Nacional de 

Colombia. 

Keywords: Colombia, dermal exposure assessment, developing countries, flowers, 

greenhouses, inhalation exposure assessment, material flow analysis, pesticides 

Contact Address: Camilo Lesmes Fabian, Ludwig Maximilan University of Munich, Department 

of Geography, Luissentrasse 37, 80809 Munich, Germany, e-mail: camilo.lesmes@geographie. 

uni-muenchen.de 

148

Crop biotic stresses (DPG session) — Oral Presentations 

Effects of Sanitation and using Insect-Proof Screens on Population 

Density of Chaetosiphon fragaefolii (Cockerell) on Strawberry 

under Greenhouse Conditions 

LEILA KIANI 1 ,MOHSEN YAZDANIAN 1 ,BAHRAM TAFAGHODINIA 2 

1Gorgan University of Agric. Sc. and Nat. Res., Dept. of Plant Protection, Iran 

2Iranian Res. Org. Sc. and Techn. (IROST), Dept. of Entomology, Iran 

The strawberry (Fragaria ananassa Duchesne) hosts a wide variety of aphid species. 

Chaetosiphon fragaefolli (Cockerell) (Homoptera: Aphididae) produces honeydew 

where sooty molds grow, leading to downgrading of the fruit. Although aphids are 

not the main pests in strawberry fields, strawberry aphid can be a serious problem 

because it can transmit viruses such as cytorhabdovirus, one of the most dangerous 

viruses affecting strawberry. In this study, strawberry plants cultivar Selva, were 

grown to determine the effect of crop sanitation and the use of insect-proof screens 

on the population density of C. fragaefolii, under greenhouse conditions (L:D 14:10, 

26±2°C Temp., and 60±10 % R.H.). A field experiment was conducted during the 

2010/2011 season, in two experimental greenhouses of the Iranian Research Organisation 

Science and Technology (IROST) in Tehran, Iran. Experiments were performed 

as factorial experiments in a completely randomised design with two factors, 

which were sampling time (at eight different times), and the type of greenhouse (organic 

and untreated (control) greenhouse) with ten replications. In the organic greenhouse, 

the crop sanitation and the insect-proof screens were used in order to protect 

the strawberry greenhouses for excluding aphid. Prior to planting, 13×23 screens 

(13×23 threads cm-2 ,13×23 screens have 13 threads by 23 threads in a centimeter 

square) were installed in all windows and doors of the greenhouse. The results indicate 

that under the conditions of the experiment aphid populations were significantly 

different in the greenhouses (F = 208.2688, p < 0.0001, df = 1). C. fragaefolii populations 

in the control greenhouse were significantly greater than populations in the 

organic greenhouse at all times of sampling. However, there was no significant difference 

between sampling times. There was also not a significant difference in time of 

sampling × type of greenhouse interaction, which suggested that difference in aphid 

population across a type of greenhouse was not relative to sampling times. Moreover, 

results showed that no aphid was found in the organic greenhouse in all the sampling 

times. It is concluded that sanitation and using insect-proof screens for C. fragaefolii 

populations control will benefit by decreasing insecticide application and have 

advantages in strawberry aphid integrated pest management programs. 

Keywords: Chaetosiphon fragaefolli, organic greenhouse, sanitation, strawberry 

Contact Address: Leila Kiani, Gorgan University of Agricultural Sciences and Natural Resources, 

Dept. of Plant Protection, Tehran, Iran, e-mail: lili_kiany@yahoo.com 

149


Factors Influencing Performance of Seedplot Technique in Seed 

Potato Quality Improvement among Small Scale Farmers 

BRUCE OCHIENG OBURA 1 ,ELMAR SCHULTE-GELDERMANN 1 , 

ZAKARI KINYUA 2 

1International Potato Center - sub-Saharan Africa (CIP-SSA), Intergrated Crop Management, 

Kenya 

2Kenya Agricultural Research Institute (KARI-Kenya), Crop Protection, Kenya 

Potato seedborne diseases majorly causes continuous low yields in potato production 

in East and Central Africa. A small seedplot technology (SSPT) has been developed 

as a step towards effective management of the seedborne diseases. This was successfully 

promoted and adapted to varying farming conditions, as a self-sustaining 

technology for on-farm seed potato production, where disease-free seed is planted at 

high-density in plots that are apparently free from bacterial wilt. The objectives of 

the study were to establish the influence of spacing and fertiliser nutrient composition 

on the performance of small seedplot, and to determine the influence of fertiliser 

levels on the performance of small seedplot. Trials with 5 potato varieties were conducted 

in seven locations for three seasons. Different fertiliser types (DAP and NPK) 

and rates (0, 45, 90 kg N ha −1 ) were used at a spacing of 20×20 cm and 30×30 cm, 

to optimise management for SSPT. In most locations, tuber numbers were higher 

with NPK application compared with DAP. When planting in common spacing of 

75×30 cm the varieties used in the trials produce about 25 tubers m −1 , whereas the 

SSPT spacings of 20×20 cm and 30×30 cm produced 67 and 54 tubers m −2 , respectively. 

Data was collected on tuber number, size and weight. The results indicated 

that the spacing of 20×20 cm produced higher tuber number per m 2 (51, 71 and 80 at 

0, 45 and 90 kg N ha −1 , respectively) than with a spacing of 30×30 cm (45, 55 and 61 

at 0, 45 and 90 kg N ha −1 , respectively). However, double starter seed is required and 

handling in planting is more difficult. Moreover, the multiplication rate per tuber was 

about 20 % higher at a spacing of 30×30 cm compared with the spacing of 20×20 cm. 

Hence, in general if clean land is extremely limited the spacing of 20×20 cm should 

be chosen to make best use of this part, whereas if clean land is relatively sufficient a 

spacing of 30×30 cm seems to be more practicable and economically viable. 

Keywords: Fertiliser, seedplot, quality seed potato 

Contact Address: Bruce Ochieng Obura, International Potato Center - sub-Saharan Africa (CIP- 

SSA), Intergrated Crop Management, Old Naivasha Road Off Waiyaki Way, Nairobi, Kenya, e-mail: 

b.ochieng@cgiar.org 

150


Entomopathogens as Endophytes, an Innovative Biological 

Control Strategy 

DALIA MUFTAH ALKHAYAT, STEFAN VIDAL, PETR KARLOVSKY 

Georg-August-Universität Göttingen, Dept. of Crop Sciences: Entomological Section, 

Germany 

Entomopathogenic fungi are reported as effective biological control agents against 

many insect pests of crop plants, some of these entomopathogens have already been 

commercialised as biological insecticides, thereafter many examples were reported 

using these myco-insecticides under greenhouse and laboratory conditions, while the 

drawbacks of aerial applications under field conditions, showed limited control success. 

Because of these prevailing problems the idea of testing these Entomopathogenic 

fungi as endophytes came up. Bing and Lewis (1991) were the first to demonstrate 

the endophytism of Beauveria bassiana in maize plants and its effect on the European 

corn borer. Since then many other studies have been published testing the endophytic 

capacity of Beauveria bassiana. In contrast, only one paper has demonstrated that 

Metarhyzium anisopliae has an endophytic activity in tomato plants, at the same time 

promoting plant growth. It is likely that these entomopathogens have more than one 

mode of action operative in controlling plant pests and pathogens. One of these hypothesised 

modes of action relates to the production of secondary metabolites, acting 

as mycotoxins, such as Beauvericin from Beauveria bassiana, and Destruxin A, B, E 

and D known from Metarhyzium anisopliae. 

In our research we present data on the effects of endophytic colonisation of two 

tomato cultivars (Solanum lycopersicum) by three strains of Beauveria bassiana and 

two strains of Metarhyzium anisopliae on greenhouse whitefly development (Trialeurodes 

vaporariorum). Culturing on fungal selective medium and Real-Time PCR 

proved successful endophytic colonisation of the selected fungi in both tomato cultivars, 

while HPLC analysis proved that the mycotoxins Beauvericin and Destruxin A 

were at the non-detectable levels. Moreover, we present in our results that endophytic 

colonisation of tomato plants with some of these entomopathogenic fungi strains can 

significantly enhance the growth of the plants. More evaluation for the field application 

of this biological control strategy is required; therefore, the detection of other 

possibly produced mycotoxins by Beauveria bassiana and Metarhyzium anisopliae 

and their possible synergic effect, the endophytism mechanism and the interaction 

mode with the host plant and its metabolites, as well as the interaction between the 

endophytic entomopathogen and the plants pathogens will be the aim of our coming 

research. 

Keywords: Biological control, endophyte, entomopathogen, mycotoxin 

Contact Address: Dalia Muftah Alkhayat, Georg-August-Universität Göttingen, Sustainable International 

Agriculture, Göttingen, Germany, e-mail: daliakhayat@yahoo.com 

151


Integrating Varietal Resistance and Phosphonate Fungicide in 

Management of Foliar Late Blight in Potato 

ELLY ATIENO 1 ,ELMAR SCHULTE-GELDERMANN 2 ,RAMA NARLA 3 

1University of Nairobi, Plant Science and Crop Protection, Kenya 

2International Potato Center - sub Saharan Africa (CIP-SSA), Integrated Crop Management, 

Kenya 

3University of Nairobi, Plant Science and Crop Protection, Kenya 

Conventional potato production is not possible without fungicide and the commonly 

used fungicides are expensive and are considered as environmental and human hazards. 

The aim of the experiment was to evaluate the efficacy of Phosphonate fungicides, 

the potential of combination with potato cultivars and economic impact as late 

blight control alternative. Two Phosphonates formulations; Agrifos 400 and Fosphite 

were compared Ridomil alternated with Mancozeb on different potato varieties in 

Kabete and Koibatek. Agrifos 400 alone was compared with Ridomil alternated with 

Mancozeb on different varieties in Kisima, Njambini and Limuru. Planting was done 

in 3 m × 3 m plots with four row and 10 tubers per row. Experimental units were 

replicated three times in a split-plot design. The results showed an effect of Phosphonates, 

which represent lower risks to human health and environment than conventional 

fungicides, on control of foliar late blight. In all the five sites Agrifos 400 was not 

significantly different with Ridomil alternated with Mancozeb in control of foliar late 

blight in most the varieties used and they were also comparable in yields with no 

significant differences in most of the sites. Preliminary economic analyses were also 

done and the result showed that there is more economic benefit in the use of Phosphonate 

formulation Agrifos 400 compared to conventional fungicides Ridomil and 

Mancozeb. The study suggests that the relatively inexpensive Phosphonate fungicides 

have significant potential to become an effective management tool for control of foliar 

late blight, and can be used as alternative to the hazardous conventional fungicides. 

Keywords: Developing countries, economic benefit, phosphonate, Phytopthora 

infestans 

Contact Address: Elly Atieno, University of Nairobi, Plant Science and Crop Protection, Nairobi, 

Kenya, e-mail: oushjam@yahoo.com 

152


Agricultural Practices and Possibilities for IPM and Sustainable 

Resource Management in the Mojanda Watershed, Ecuador 

LUKAS SCHÜTZ, STEFAN VIDAL 

Georg-August-Universität-Göttingen, Dept. of Crop Sciences: Entomological Section, 

Germany 

Agriculture in the Mojanda Watershed is facing rainfall reductions caused by climate 

change. Reductions of water availability in the Watershed are also due to constant extension 

of the agricultural activities into the páramo ecosystem above 3000 m asl, with 

this ecosystem having immanently important functions in the local water balance. The 

application of pesticides threatens the quality of water and with less precipitation contaminations 

will further concentrate in the outflow. To analyse problems associated 

with agricultural practices in the area a questionnaire about agricultural practices (28) 

was conducted and fields (20) were surveyed for pests and diseases with a focus on 

potatoes (Solanum tuberosum L.), tree tomatoes (Solanum betaceum Cav.) and peas 

(Pisum sativum L.). Potatoes were infected to a low degree with Phytophthora infestans 

and according to the farmers the Andean potato weevil (Premnotrypes spec.) 

caused biggest losses. To combat the weevil the soils are disinfected with toxic Carbofuran 

(WHO Class 1B). Tree tomatoes showed symptoms of various fungal diseases. 

Most important was Fusarium solani causing the branches to rot and Anthracnosis 

(Colletotrichum gloeosporioides) causing the fruits to rot. Fungicide applications 

were correspondingly high. Peas were only minorly affected by Ascochyta blight 

(Mycosphaerella pinodes) and a root rot. Overall 19 active ingredients were applied 

of which fungicide Mancozeb (WHO class table 5) and insecticide Carbofuran (WHO 

Class 1B) were applied the most. Common IPM methods are advised to reduce pesticide 

use. For tree tomatoes regular cutting of branches infected with F. solani and 

regular collection and disposal of infected fruits with Anthracnosis are advised. For 

potatoes plastic barriers around the fields prevent the Andean potato weevil from laying 

eggs thus reducing infestation with the larvae in the tubers. Local bioinsecticide 

“Biol” seems effective and without harm to the environment, although not used by 

many farmers. Organic fertilisation promises to restore decreasing soil fertility and 

reduce erosion. The newly established extension service programs of the Ecuadorian 

Government, “Schools of the Agrarian Revolution” (ERA) are aimed at reaching 

smallholders and reducing poverty, and should consider IPM methods for improving 

agricultural practices to solve local environmental problems. 

Keywords: Ecuador, IPM, maize, Mojanda watershed, pea, pesticide use, potato 

Contact Address: Lukas Schütz, Georg-August-Universität-Göttingen, Dept. of Crop Sciences: Entomological 

Section, Göttingen, Germany, e-mail: lukas.schuetz@gmx.de 

153


Pesticide Contamination in Land Reform Settlements in Brazil: 

The Case of ‘Cachoeira Bonita’ in Caiaponia, Goias State 

ALCIDO ELENOR WANDER 1 ,CLEYZER ADRIAN CUNHA 2 , 

AGOSTINHO DIRCEU DIDONET 1 

1Brazilian Agricultural Research Corporation (EMBRAPA), National Rice and Beans 

Research Center (CNPAF), Brazil 

2Federal University of Goias (UFG), School of Economics, Brazil 

Brazil is the largest consumer of pesticides in the world, especially products that are 

no longer used in developed countries. Public health studies in Brazil show that inadequate 

use of pesticides increases the incidence of accidents and contamination of poor 

rural communities in Brazil. The objective of this study was to identify factors that determine 

the occurrence of problems with pesticides in a typical Brazilian land reform 

settlement. The study was carried out in the land reform settlement of ‘Cachoeira 

Bonita’ in Caiaponia, Goias state, Brazil. In the empirical analysis the econometric 

model probit was used. The dependent dichotomous variable was the existence of 

health problems in the family setting that are caused by the use of pesticides. The 

independent variables were the family size (p value = 0.0098); the attendance to any 

church, whether Catholic or Protestant (p value = 0.4828); if farmers received any 

technical assistance (p value = 0.8251); the current health condition of the family (p 

value = 0.0223), and if there are exacerbated erosion problems on the farm (p value 

= 0.0298). Data from 28 farmers were collected through a structured questionnaire. 

The probit model showed good fit of 0.5694 by the McFadden R-squared statistic 

and of 20.02 by LR statistic. Among the main findings, larger families have a higher 

probability of accidents involving pesticides. The current health conditions of family 

and the problems of soil degradation in the farm imply a reduction in the likelihood 

of contamination with pesticides. These two results indicate that rural households 

that have good health condition and have experienced environmental degradation on 

their farm have higher environmental awareness. The variable technical assistance 

also reduces the likelihood of accidents with pesticides, but was not statistically significant. 

Finally, the church attendance variable was statistically non-significant and 

had an opposite sign to what we expected. Therefore, the study shows that decision 

makers must plan and programme policies (technical assistance, adequate handling of 

pesticide packing, waste control and management and environmental education) with 

focus on sustainable development, especially in these poor rural communities that are 

marginalised in the process of economic development. 

Keywords: Environmental awareness, pesticide use 

Contact Address: Alcido Elenor Wander, Brazilian Agricultural Research Corporation (EMBRAPA), 

National Rice and Beans Research Center (CNPAF), Rodovia GO-462, km 12, 75375-000 Santo Antonio 

de Goias, Brazil, e-mail: awander@cnpaf.embrapa.br 

154

Crop biotic stresses (DPG session) — Posters 

Microclimatic Requirements for Wheat Blast (Magnaporthe 

grisea) and Characterisation of Resistance in Wheat 

XIA HA, TINGTING WEI, BIRGER KOOPMANN, ANDREAS VON TIEDEMANN 

Georg-August-Universität Göttingen, Dept. of Crop Science, Institute of Plant 

Pathology and Crop Protection, Germany 

Magnaporthe grisea is the causal pathogen of wheat blast, which can cause high yield 

losses in subtropical wheat production. Wheat blast has been a critical problem for 

wheat production areas in South America. The temperature and wetting period are 

important factors in the development of wheat blast. The effect of temperature (20, 

23, 26, 29 and 32°C) and spike wetness time (24, 48, 72 and 96 h) on the flowering 

stage of ears were studied in the susceptible wheat cultivar BR18. The results showed 

that higher temperatures (>26°C) are conducive to the growth and infection of this 

pathogen, which is capable to induce high disease severity even at 29°C and 32°C. 

A minimum spike wetness time of 24 h was required for infection; wetting periods 

above 24 h had little effect on infection and the development of disease symptoms. 

Twenty-seven wheat lines were assessed for their resistance to wheat blast in a standardised 

screening assay in the climate room. Inoculations were performed on the 

leaves and on the ears in separate experiments in order to test the organ-specific responses. 

The set of tested cultivars represented a wide range of susceptibility/resistance 

responses to wheat blast. Leaf infection was not correlated with ear symptoms. Upon 

ear inoculation at flowering stages, cultivar MILAN showed the highest resistance to 

M. grisea, but this was associated with a relatively high susceptibility to Fusarium 

head blight (FHB, Fusarium graminearum). SUMAI 3 and GONDO-CBRD were 

susceptible for M. grisea, but relatively more resistant to F. graminearum. The study 

indicates the existence of resistance sources in wheat lines to blast. However, it also 

demonstrates different resistance factors being involved in the infection of wheat ears 

with head blight and blast. 

Keywords: Fusarium head blight, Magnaporthe grisea, resistance, temperature, 

wetting periods, wheat blast 

Contact Address: Xia Ha, Georg-August-Universität Göttingen, Dept. of Crop Science, Institute of 

Plant Pathology and Crop Protection, Grisebachstr 6, 37077 Göttingen, Germany, e-mail:xha@gwdg.de 

155


Developing an IPM Strategy at the Vallée Du Kou Irrigated Rice 

Scheme in Burkina Faso 

SOULEYMANE NACRO, KARIM SAMA, DONA DAKOUO, NIANGO MALICK 

Institute of Environment and Agricultural Research (INERA), Burkina Faso 

Rice is one of the major food and cash crops in Burkina Faso. National production 

(270,000 tons of paddy) accounts only for 60 % of the population needs. Insect pests 

and diseases are major biotic constraints to rice productivity and production. At the 

irrigated rice scheme of Vallée du Kou (1200 ha) stem borers can cause as much as 

40 % of yield loss during the dry cropping season. Therefore, there was a need to 

develop an IPM strategy. A study has been carried out from 2010 to 2011 during 

4 consecutive cropping seasons (wet and dry) to investigate the effects of periods of 

transplanting on the occurrence of insect pests damages and their natural enemies. For 

this purpose, the irrigated rice scheme was divided into two zones within which 48 

farmers’ fields were randomly selected according to three periods of rice transplanting 

(16 fields per period). A network of 48 light traps was installed into the 48 sites. 

Entomological and agronomic observations were done every two weeks from the 21 st 

dayupto80th day transplanting while records of trap catches done on a daily basis. 

Results revealed that insects of the Chilo genus (C. zaconnius and C. diffusileneus) 

were the major rice pests. Picks of adult populations were reached in dry season 

(April) each year. Damages and parasitism (up to 38,5 %) associated with stem borers 

as well as yields were higher during the third period of rice transplanting as compared 

to the two first ones. This is an important step in setting up an IPM strategy to control 

insect pests and diseases of rice, in order to contribute to the sustainable production 

and food security and to increase small farmers’ income. 

Keywords: Chilo, damages, insect pests, light traps, parasitism, rice, stem borers, 

transplanting 

Contact Address: Dona Dakouo, Institute of Environment and Agricultural Research (INERA), Regional 

Research Centre of Bobo-Dioulasso, Route de Banfora, Bobo-Dioulasso, Burkina Faso, e-mail: 

dakouo@hotmail.com 

156


A Model of the Potential Distribution of Striga hermonthica in the 

African Continent and its Prospection under Climate Change 

RENZOANDRE DE LA PEÑA LAVANDER 1 ,MARC COTTER 2 ,TOM VAN MOURIK 3 , 

JOACHIM SAUERBORN 2 

1Georg-August-Universität Göttingen, Fac. of Forest Science and Forest Ecology, 

Germany 



3International Crops Research Institute for the Semi- Arid Tropics (ICRISAT), Dryland 

cereals, Resilient dryland systems, Mali 

The genus Striga (Orobanchaceae) comprises parasitic weeds recognised as a major 

problem for crop production in sub-Saharan Africa. Striga hermonthica is an obligate 

parasite of pearl millet, sorghum and other important crops in semi-arid and arid regions 

of the tropics, producing millions of hectares of yield loses and a great impact 

on human welfare in the rural areas where it occurs. Under the present situation and 

the possible scenarios within the framework of climate change Striga hermonthica’s 

current and future distribution needs to be estimated urgently, in order to efficiently 

target available prevention and management strategies. Using the maximum entropy 

(Maxent) approach for modelling species’ distributions, our research focuses on better 

describe the present distribution of Striga hermonthica and to predict potential future 

areas where this dangerous parasite could spread in the African continent. 

Historical “presence-only” data gathered from museums together with field studies 

and climatic datasets from the IPCC 4th Assessment Report where used as inputs for 

our distribution models. Acknowledging the uncertainties of the future, the distribution 

of Striga hermonthica was projected for the year 2020, using the IPCC scenarios 

and their climatic models. Our intention is to provide managers and decision-makers 

a useful tool to take preventive and palliative actions against the menage of infestation. 

This is of great relevance especially for vulnerable areas where the parasite has 

not yet appeared. 

The results of this research, based on the environmental preferences of Striga hermonthica, 

show the existence of two different sub-population in Africa where their 

current distributions and their different future trends can be identified. 

Keywords: Africa, climate change, maxent, potential distribution, Striga 

Contact Address: Renzoandre De La Peña Lavander, Georg-August-Universität Göttingen, Fac. of 

Forest Science and Forest Ecology, Auf der Lieth 16, 37077 Göttingen, Germany, e-mail: rzdelander@ 

gmail.com 

157


Collective Action and On-farm Benefits of Pesticide Substitution: 

Case Study on Potato Pest Management Practices in the Peruvian 

Highlands 

THOMAS MIETHBAUER 

International Potato Center (CIP), Social and Health Sciences / Agroecology-IPM, Peru 

Worldwide resource-poor farmers and their agricultural systems are affected by biotic 

stress from insect pests. Economic losses can be significant even with cost intensive 

standard control measures by pesticide use. Additionally there are serious threats to 

human health and the environment. Resilience of ecosystems is affected by pesticides’ 

effect on natural enemies of invasive pest species. Hence there is a need for 

farmers having at hand sufficient options to adapt to those problems. International 

agricultural research for example of the International Potato Center’s Global Program 

on IPM (Integrated Pest Management) has contributed to develop the availability of 

ecological options for pest control management. Field trials and results from participatory 

research on certain pest management practices (e.g. plastic barriers to control 

the Andean Potato Weevil, APW) with some communities in former CIP projects revealed 

clear benefits for adopting farmers. But for scaling out of the new technology 

problems like input market access and coordination within farming communities for 

collective action have to be considered. Ways to provide ecological pest management 

methods to farmers, on how to “educate” their adoption-decision making process and 

how to make their demand effective have to be found. 

The poster will present first insights of an ongoing BMZ-CIP project in 6 communities 

of the Peruvian Highlands. Dissemination of plastic barriers as an option for APW 

control is linked to the economic analysis of the farmer’s adoption-decision-making 

problem. The concept of possible cost savings from pesticide substitution and of 

higher production values (lower damages, higher producer prices) is introduced to 

farmers during training events, whereby an emphasis is put on the farmers doing their 

own calculus exercises. The respective material (manual for farmers and field extensionists) 

is being developed and tested. Farmers’ coordination for collective action 

is being promoted by showing the individual benefits. The problem of input market 

access is tackled by facilitating a link to the respective sales agents. Positive lessons 

for scaling out and complementarity of intervention objectives can be learned from 

cooperation with a NGO partner. Empirical information on farmers’ ex ante adoption 

situation and attitudes will be provided from a recent diagnostic survey. 

Keywords: Adoption, collective action, pest management, potato 

Contact Address: Thomas Miethbauer, International Potato Center (CIP), Social and Health Sciences / 

Agroecology-IPM, Av. La Molina 1895, 12 Lima, Peru, e-mail: t.miethbauer@cgiar.org 

158


Euphorbia hirta Extract for Manipulation of Seed Germination 

and Haustorium Initiation in Phelipanche ramosa 

TILAL ABDELHALIM 1 ,HIBA ALI 2 ,ABDEL GABAR BABIKER 3 , 

MARIA RENATE FINCKH 1 

1University of Kassel, Ecological Plant Protection Group, Germany 

2National Center for Research, Dept. of Phytochemistry, Sudan 

3Sudan University of Science and Technology, College of Agricultural Studies, Dept. of 

Plant Protection, Sudan 

Phelipanche ramosa L. (Pomel), a devastating root parasitic weed, is a copious seed 

producer. The seeds are characterised by prolonged viability and special germination 

requirements. The seeds, following pre-treatment, conditioning, in a moist moderately 

cool environment for several days, germinate in response to exogenous stimulants. 

Subsequent to germination the radical elongates and in response to a second 

host-derived stimulant a haustorium is initiated and attachment to the host root is 

achieved. The parasite inflicts most of its damage to the host prior to emergence. Manipulations 

of seed germination and pre-attachment stages are therefore mandatory 

to avoid and/or reduce the damage and subsequent yield losses. A series of laboratory 

experiments was undertaken to investigate the effects of aqueous extracts from 

Euphorbia hirta on germination, radical elongation and haustorium initiation in P. 

ramosa. P. ramosa seeds conditioned in water and subsequently treated with diluted 

E. hirta extract (10–25 % v/v) displayed considerable germination (47–62 %). Increasing 

extract concentration to 50 % or more, inhibited germination significantly. 

Undiluted extract resulted in lower germination (27 %). Conditioning of P. ramosa 

seeds in Euphorbia extract inhibited germination in response to the synthetic germination 

stimulants GR24 and Nijmegen-1 in a concentration dependent manner. P. 

ramosa germilings treated with diluted Euphorbia extract (10–75 % v/v) displayed 

haustorium initiation comparable to DMBQ at 20 μM. Euphorbia extract applied 

during conditioning reduced haustorium initiation in a concentration dependent manner. 

The results indicate the potentials of E. hirta as a source of compounds that 

can be used as templates for synthesis of more active compounds to manipulate preattachment 

stages in P. ramosa. 

Keywords: Euphorbiaceae, parasitic weeds, strigolactones, suicidal germination 

Contact Address: Tilal Abdelhalim, University of Kassel, Ecological Plant Protection Group, Nordbahnhofstrasse 

1 a, D-37213 Witzenhausen , Germany, Germany, e-mail: tilalkosti@yahoo.com 

159


The Dark Side of Fungal Melanin: Alternaria alternata as Example 

AZZA SIDDIG HUSSIEN ABBO 

University of Khartoum, Department of Crop protection, Sudan 

Melanins are dark, brown to black, high molecular weight pigments produced by organisms 

ranging from animals and plants to micro-organisms. These pigments are 

formed by the oxidative polymerisation of phenolic or indolic compounds. Melanins 

appear to have an indirect as well as a direct function in virulence of microorganisms. 

Melanins accumulate in fungal cell walls and act as body armour protecting 

fungi against environmental stress or unfavourable conditions like extreme temperatures, 

drought, UV, ionizing and gamma radiations, compounds secreted by microbial 

antagonists, and defense responses of host plants and animals against fungal infection. 

The potential protection role of melanins produced in fungal cell walls against 

radiations was investigated in this study through the assessment of the inhibitory effect 

of UV-radiation on the growth rate of Alternaria alternata as a melanized fungus 

and Fusarium oxysporum and Penicillium digitatum as non-melanized fungi. Spore 

suspensions of these fungi were exposed to different wavelengths of UV-radiation 

(300 nm & 600 nm). The growth rates of these fungi were measured after 3, 6 and 

9 days of incubation. The results showed that the inhibitory effect of UV-radiation 

against the nonmelanized fungi; F. oxysporum and P. digitatum was significant when 

compared to the melanized fungus A. alternata which tolerated the radiation with 

growth rates of 0.07 mm h -1 , 0.06 mm h -1 and 0.23 mm h -1 , respectively when exposed 

to the wavelength 600 nm of UV-radiation. When putting in consideration the wide 

application of the classical methods for sterilisation as well as by UV-radiation, the 

gloomy picture of protection becomes clear as melanin is produced by some wide 

spread fungi. 

Keywords: Alternaria alternata, melanin, UV-radiation, wavelength 

Contact Address: Azza Siddig Hussien Abbo, University of Khartoum, Department of Crop protection, 

Grisebachstrasse 6, Khartoum North, Sudan, e-mail: nennsh@yahoo.com 

160


Effects of Triclopyr and Nitrogen on Striga Incidence and 

Sorghum Growth and Yield 

RASHIDA ABUSIN 1 ,ALFATIH AHMED 2 ,ABDEL GABAR BABIKER 3 

1University of Bahri, Protection, Sudan 

2Agricultural Research Corporation, Sinar Station, Crop Protection Centre, Sudan 

3Sudan University of Science and Technology, College of Agricultual Studies, Sudan 

Striga hermonthica, an important root parasitic plant on cereals, is a difficult weed 

to control. Several control measures were reported, but their performance was often 

inconsistent. The present investigation was undertaken to study the effects of nitrogen, 

the herbicide tricolpyr and their combinations on Striga incidence and sorghum 

growth and grain yield. Striga count, in the untreated control, was 10 and 34 plants 

m-2 early and late in the season, respectively. Nitrogen at 43.8 and 87.6 kg ha -1 displayed 

excellent (>80%) suppression of the parasite early in the season, however, only, 

poor (22-38 %) control was achieved late in the season. Tricolpyr at 0.68 kg a.e. ha -1 , 

alone, resulted in moderate to poor control of the parasite. The herbicide at 1.0 and 

1.4 kg a.e. ha-1 , irrespective of nitrogen, resulted in good to excellent (72-100 %) suppression 

of the weed throughout the season. Unrestricted Striga parasitism increased 

sorghum peduncle length, significantly. Nitrogen at 43.8 and 87.6 kg ha -1 reduced 

peduncle length by 10 and 44%, respectively. Triclopyr, alone and in combinations 

with nitrogen reduced peduncle length by 44-61 %. Striga parasitism resulted in a 

low head weight (32.5 g). Nitrogen had inconsistent effects. Triclopyr alone at 0.68 

kg a.e. ha-1 had no effect. However, the herbicide at 1.0 and 1.4 kg a.e. ha -1 increased 

head weight by 49 and 36 %, respectively. Triclopyr, at all rates, when supplemented 

with nitrogen increased head weight by 37-54 %. Unrestricted Striga parasitism reduced 

sorghum grain yield significantly. Nitrogen at 43.8 and 87.6 kg ha -1 increased 

grain yield by 32 and 24 %, respectively. Tricolpyr, at 0.68, 1.0 and 1.4 kg a.e ha -1 , 

alone, increased grain yield by 10.4, 54.8 and 30.5%, respectively. Tricolpyr, at all 

rates, when supplemented with nitrogen, at the lower rate, increased grain yield by 

41-52%. Increasing nitrogen to 87.6 kg ha-1 increased grain yield by 56-57%. The 

data indicate that triclopyr at 1.0 and 1.4 kg a.e. ha -1 , when supplemented with nitrogen, 

had the most consistent performance and resulted in the highest suppression of 

the parasite and the highest sorghum grain yield. 

Keywords: Nitrogen, sorghum, striga, triclopyr 

Contact Address: Rashida Abusin, University of Bahri, Protection, Via street 53 Alamarat, Khartoum, 

Sudan, e-mail: abusinrashida@yahoo.com 

161


Modelling Pesticide Fate in the Lower Mekong Delta 

LOAN VO PHUONG HONG, ZITA SEBESVARI, FABRICE RENAUD 

United Nations University Institute for Environment and Human Security (UNU-EHS), 

Germany 

Vietnam is the second largest rice exporter in the world and the Lower Mekong Delta 

is the main rice growing area in the country. Besides rice, fruit and shrimp farming 

are important industries. Due to its significance in agriculture and aquaculture, water 

quality is of essential importance. However, previous research has shown that water 

pollution by pesticides is a considerable risk for agricultural production as well 

as for human health. Despite these facts, pesticide monitoring for recently used active 

ingredients has not yet been established on a regular basis. Similarly, no efforts 

have been made to predict pesticide pollution and build up different scenarios using 

mathematical models. 

To address these gaps, pesticide use was investigated through surveys and participatory 

rural appraisals with farmers; pesticide residue concentrations were monitored in 

field outflows, connected irrigation canals and in drinking water and finally pesticide 

fate was modelled using different tools such as Steps1–2, RICEWQ and a coupled 

MIKE 11/ MIKE SHE model. This abstract focuses on a pesticide use survey and 

pesticide modelling in an agricultural area with two intensive paddy rice crops per 

year (An Long Commune, Dong Thap province). The fate of ten pesticide compounds 

(buprofezin, butachlor, cypermethrin, difenozonazol, fenobucarb, fipronil, hexaconazol, 

isoprothiolane, pretilachlor, and propiconazol) was modelled from April to July 

2009. 

Steps1–2 builds up the potential “worst case scenario” of pesticide concentrations in 

water and sediment phases via run-off and spray drift. RICEWQ predicts mainly the 

concentrations of pesticides and their metabolites as a result of agrochemical run-off. 

Finally, the fully distributed, physically-based model MIKE SHE and MIKE 11 enables 

to track pesticide movement in different water zones under various conditions 

and to evaluate the likely impacts of alternative mitigation strategies. These three 

approaches together allow providing a risk assessment to humans and/or aquatic organisms 

with regard to pesticides pollution. 

Keywords: MIKESHE, pesticide, RICEWQ, STEPS12, water surface 

Contact Address: Loan Vo Phuong Hong, United Nations University Institute for Environment and Human 

Security (UNU-EHS), Hermann-Ehlers Str. 10, 53113 Bonn, Germany, e-mail: vo@ehs.unu.edu 

162


Measuring Resistance in Potato to Phytophthora infestans with 

Field, Laboratory and Greenhouse Assays 

BUDDHI SHARMA 1 ,GREGORY A. FORBES 2 ,H.K.MANANDHAR 1 , 

S.M. SHRESTHA 3 , R.B. THAPA 3 

1Nepal Agricultural Research Council, National Potato Research Programme, Nepal 

2International Potato Center, Peru 

3Tribhuwan University, Institute of Agriculture and Animal Science, Nepal 

Host plant resistance against Phytophthora infestans was evaluated for twenty-five 

potato genotypes in 2010 and 2011 at Khumaltar, Lalitpur, Nepal. A locally isolated 

strain of P. infestans ’LPR-1’ was used for inoculation in all the assays. Host resistance 

was measured with four assays, three for foliage resistance (field, whole-plant 

and detached leaf) and one for tuber resistance (tuber slice). The inoculum concentration 

was 6 × 103 sporangia ml-1 in all the assays. Inoculum was equally distributed 

over the entire foliage using plastic atomizer in field and whole-plant assays. Detached 

leaves and tuber slices were inoculated with 50 μl suspension of inoculum and 

incubated at 16.5 ± 0.5°C for 7 days. Infected foliage area in the field and wholeplant 

assays, lesion size on detached leaves and colony growth on tuber slices were 

all individually converted to a 0–9 interval scale for susceptibility. Field assessment 

was considered the most robust measure of resistance and therefore was used as the 

benchmark for comparing the other assays. 

More than half of the genotypes had very little disease (scale value < 1), indicating 

they were probably expressing race-specific resistance. Susceptibility levels measured 

in the whole-plant assay were highly correlated (r=0.90) with field values, while the 

correlation was lower for detached leaf (r=0.63) and tuber slice (r=0.46) assays. Low 

correlation in the detached leaf assay was assumed to represent lower resolution of 

the single-cycle assay, and/or experimental error. Low correlation in the tuber assay 

may have also reflected genetic differences as foliage and tuber blight resistance are 

not always correlated. 

Keywords: Assays, detached leaves, host resistance, late blight, quantification, tuber 

slice, potatoe 

Contact Address: Buddhi Sharma, Nepal Agricultural Research Council, National Potato Research 

Programme, Kathmandu, Nepal, e-mail: bpsharma.adhi@ymail.com 

163


Effects of High Temperature on R Gene Mediated Resistance to 

Rice Blast in two Genetic Backgrounds of Rice 

GEOFFREY ONAGA 1 ,KERSTIN WYDRA 2 ,BIRGER KOOPMANN 1 , 

YACOUBA SERE 3 ,ANDREAS VON TIEDEMANN 1 

1Georg-August-Universität Göttingen, Dept. of Crop Sciences, Germany 

2Georg-August-Universität Göttingen, CBL - Tropical and Subtropical Agriculture and 

Forestry, Germany 

3Africa Rice Center, Benin 

Breeding for resistance to rice blast (Magnaporthe oryzae), an economically important 

rice disease worldwide, has relied on broad spectrum resistance mediated by 

R genes for several years. However, higher temperatures associated with climate 

change probably modulate the defense response of rice to Magnaporthe oryzae infection. 

The aim of this work was to evaluate the resistance to rice blast pathogen at two 

temperature regimes (35°C and 28°C). Five broad spectrum resistance genes (Piz-t, 

Pib, Pik-h, Pi5(t) and Pita) in two genetic backgrounds; Oryza indica type and O. 

japonica type, their background parents (Co39 and Lijiangxintuanheigu (LTH)) and 

one cultivar from East Africa were evaluated for resistance to two strains, the highly 

aggressive TAN16 from Tanzania and UgM14 from Uganda. Disease incidence and 

severity varied significantly between isogenic lines. At high temperature (35°C), three 

R genes (Piz-t, Pib, Pik-h) conferred resistance in both backgrounds whereas one cultivar, 

NERICA 4, showed increased susceptibility. At normal temperature (28°C), 

the O. indica isogenic lines showed a shorter incubation period and increased rate 

of lesion expansion compared to the O. japonica isogenic lines. Slow-blasting was 

observed on LTH, the O. japonica background parent, at both normal and high temperature 

when compared to Co39. These results suggest that the genetic background 

and temperature play a role in expression as well as effectiveness of R gene mediated 

resistance in the rice-Magnapothe oryzae interaction. The comparison of the green 

house screening results with the gene expression studies will contribute to determine 

whether the R genes in the two genetic backgrounds share a common gene regulatory 

network at high temperature or otherwise. 

Keywords: Genetic background, Magnaporthe oryzae, resistance genes, temperature 

Contact Address: Geoffrey Onaga, Georg-August-Universität Göttingen, Dept. of Crop Sciences, 

Grisebachstrasse 6, 37077 Göttingen, Germany, e-mail: gonaga@gwdg.de 

164


Formulation of a Granulovirus-Based Biopesticide for Managing 

the Potato Tuber Moth in Stored Potatoes in Nepal 

SUNIL ARYAL 1 ,MARC SPORLEDER 2 ,YAGYA PRASAD GIRI 1 , 

JÜRGEN KROSCHEL 3 

1Nepal Agricultural Research Council, Entomology Division, Nepal 

2International Potato Center (CIP), Global Program of Integrated Crop and Systems 

Research, Nepal 

3International Potato Center (CIP), Global Program of Integrated Crop and Systems 

Research, Peru 

The potato tuber moth, Phthorimaea operculella (Zeller) is one of the major insect pests causing 

significant economic losses during potato storage. The granulovirus infecting P. operculella 

(PhopGV) has been used as a dust-formulation for protecting stored potatoes in several 

South American and North African countries. In 2008, a PhopGV was also isolated in Nepal 

and in vivo multiplied at NARC for further propagation as a biopesticide. In this study, two 

formulation methods for a virus-talcum product (dry and wet), product’s virus titer, and application 

rate was tested in laboratory bioassays. For the wet formulation the virus was mixed 

with water and talcum (1:1 w/w) and the dried product was used; while for the second formulation 

a virus-talcum mixture was prepared similarly but with a 20-fold and 60-fold increased 

virus titer and then further mixed with talcum alone until obtaining the same virus titers as in 

the wet formulation. For each formulation and application rate, six virus concentration levels 

(from 0.007 to 6.8×10-6 larval equivalents (LE) kg-1 potato) were tested. Application rates of 

the product were variable between 3 and 12 g kg-1 potato. Bioassays were conducted with 50 

neonate P. operculella larvae inoculated onto 100 g of treated potato tubers. Each treatment 

was replicated 4-times (completely randomised). Probit regression lines were fitted in a parallel 

assay to each formulation and application rate and treatments compared by the relative 

potencies. All regression lines revealed a common slope of 1.3 (SE±0.24). Talcum increased 

larval mortality through physical protection described by a probit line (y=-1.56+1.15 ln[x in 

gkg-1 ]). For the wet-formulated product data revealed a LC50-value of 0.30 (CL95%: 0.25- 

0.35) LE ton-1 potatoes, independent of the product’s application rate. For the dry-formulated 

product, LC50-value were variable ranging from 1.34 to 6.55 LE ton-1 potatoes, corresponding 

to potencies of 0.22 and 0.04-0.14 compared to the wet formulation, for the 20-fold and 60fold 

increased virus stock preparation. It can be recommended to apply the product at a rate of 

5gkg-1 ; the product should contain 3.6 LE kg-1 talcum (LC99). The dry formulation method 

might be simpler to produce; however, the virus titer should be increased to adjust for reduced 

potency. 

Keywords: Biocontrol, entomopathogen, integrated pest management, Phthorimaea operculella, 

potato insect pests 

Contact Address: Sunil Aryal, Nepal Agricultural Research Council, Entomology Division, Khumaltar 

Lalitpur, Lalitpur, Nepal, e-mail: sunilaryal@hotmail.com 

165


Efficiency of Push-pull Technology Dissemination Pathways for 

Stemborer and Striga Control in Western Kenya: 

Data Envelopment Analysis Approach 

ALICE WARUKIRA MURAGE 1 ,GIDEON OBARE 2 ,DAVID AMUDAVI 3 , 

ZEYAUR KHAN 3 

1Kenya Agricultural Research Institute (KARI), Agricultural Economics, Kenya 

2Egerton University, Agricultural Economics and Agribusiness Management, Kenya 

3International Centre for Insect Physiology and Ecology (ICIPE), Kenya 

“Push-pull” technology (PPT) has widely been promoted as a control measure for 

stemborer and striga weeds in maize fields in Kenya. The technology is relatively 

knowledge-intensive; and provision of information about it is critical for its adoption 

and continued use. Research funding is becoming limited thus knowledge of 

efficiency in resource utilisation is a prerequisite in optimising the adoption process. 

This study focused on the efficiency with which information about PPT is passed 

on to farmers. Efficiency analysis is linked to the relative difficulty encountered in 

estimating the performance of production units. In our case, efficiency was viewed 

as a ratio of inputs in terms of the expenditures on each dissemination pathway, to 

the output as the number of recipients who become aware of the technology and end 

up using it. Secondary data from project records was used and three dissemination 

pathways evaluated namely field days (FD), farmer field schools (FFS) and farmer 

teachers (FT) were evaluation. Data envelopment analysis (DEA) was used where 

each dissemination pathway was treated as a decision making unit (DMU). Two DEA 

models were estimated using the assumption of variable returns to scale (VRS): Model 

one considered the number of farmers trained per pathway as the output, while model 

two considered the proportion of adopters as the output. The results showed that in the 

first scenario, FD had the highest efficiency (90 %), followed by FFS whose efficiency 

was slightly above 60 % and finally FT with efficiency of 40 %. In the second scenario, 

FT led with an efficiency score of 70 %, followed by FD (58 %) and finally FFS 

(52 %). On average, the pathways were operating below the efficient scale suggesting 

that adjusting the scale of operation would probably improve the overall efficiency 

of the pathways. There is still a scope for the institution to increase the number of 

farmers trained for each pathway using the current levels of resources. Use of FD is 

more efficient than FFS and FT in the short-run, but in the long-run, use of FTs would 

be appropriate since the ultimate goal of dissemination is to optimise adoption. 

Keywords: Dissemination pathways, efficiency, push-pull technology 

Contact Address: Alice Warukira Murage, Kenya Agricultural Research Institute (KARI), Agricultural 

Economics, P.O Box 25, 20117 Naivasha, Kenya, e-mail: alice_murage@yahoo.com 

166


Characterisation of Plant Growth Promoting Rhizobacteria and 

their Potential as Bioprotectant Against Tomato Bacterial Wilt 

Caused by Ralstonia solanacearum 

HENOK KURABACHEW 1 ,KERSTIN WYDRA 2 

1Leibniz Universität Hannover, Institute of Plant Diseases and Plant Protection, 

Germany 



Bacterial wilt caused by Ralstonia solanacearum is one of the most destructive bacterial 

diseases of tomato and several other economically important crops. To develop 

a biological control strategy against the pathogen, 150 strains of rhizobacteria were 

isolated from tomato and potato fields in Ethiopia and screened for in vitro antibiosis. 

Thirteen strains inhibited the growth of R. solanacearum. They were identified 

as Pseudomonas putida, P. veronii and Pseudomonas spp, Serratia marcescens and 

Bacillus cereus. These strains were further characterised for their plant growth promoting 

traits: 11 strains produced siderophores, 9 strains solubilised inorganic phosphate, 

all strains produced indole acetic acid and only 1 strain produced HCN. Only 

strain P. putida PP3WT produced the quorum sensing molecule and showed quorum 

sensing inhibition which was depicted by the lack of pigment production by the indicator 

culture in the vicinity of the test strain (PP3WT). Based on the in vitro screening, 

five strains BC1AW, BC2BA, BC3AW, BC4SS and PP3WT (B. cereus and P. putida, 

respectively) were selected for ad planta tests. Strains BC1AW and PP3WT significantly 

reduced bacterial wilt incidence in tomato genotypes King Kong 2 (moderately 

resistant) by 46.8, 44.7 % and L390 (susceptible) by 33.6, 30 %, respectively in pot 

experiments, while in split root experiments they reduced by 48.7, 43.2 % and 25.7 %, 

20.1 % in King Kong 2 and L390, respectively. Shoot dry weight increased in plants 

treated with BC1AW and PP3WT and reduced the number of R. solanacearum in 

mid-stems of both tomato genotypes. Hence, BC1AW and PP3WT were selected as 

promising strains whose effectiveness under field conditions and their mode of action 

at molecular level should be investigated. 

Keywords: Hydrogen cyanide, induced resistance, quorum sensing, R. solanacearum, 

rhizobacteria, siderophore, tomato bacterial wilt 

Contact Address: Kerstin Wydra, Georg-August-Universität Göttingen, CBL - Tropical and Subtropical 

Agriculture and Forestry, Büsgenweg 1, 37077 Göttingen, Germany, e-mail: kwydra@gwdg.de 

167


Global Gene Expression of Rhizobacteria and/or Silicon Mediated 

Induced Systemic Resistance to Ralstonia solanacearum in Tomato 

(Solanum lycopersicum) 

HENOK KURABACHEW 1 ,FRANK STAHL 1 ,KERSTIN WYDRA 2 

1Leibniz Universität Hannover, Institute of Plant Diseases and Plant Protection, 

Germany 



After priming tomato (Solanum lycopersicum) plants with silicon and/or the rhizobacterium 

Bacillus pumilus and later inoculating them with Ralstonia solanacearum, a 

transcriptome analysis of stem tissues was done to examine gene expression. A total 

of 174 genes were differentially regulated of which 113 were up-regulated and 61 

down-regulated. Functional categorisation of these genes revealed that most of the 

up-regulated genes were involved in signal transduction, defence, protein synthesis 

and metabolism, while a large proportion of down-regulated genes were involved in 

metabolism, photosynthesis, signal transduction and lipid metabolism. Silicon priming 

up-regulated defence related genes and transcripts belonging to the salicylic acid 

dependent pathway which leads to induction of systemic acquired resistance (SAR). 

Defence related genes such as peroxidase, PAL and PR proteins were up-regulated 

in B. pumilus primed plants. A greater number of defence related genes were upregulated 

in silicone primed plants than in B. pumilus primed plants. When plants 

were primed with both silicone and B. pumilus, five genes were down-regulated which 

were up-regulated when plants were primed with either silicone or B. pumilus. This 

suggests an antagonistic interaction between genes, which was mediated by ethylenejasmonate 

and salicylate pathways. In all the tested combinations, inoculation of R. 

solanacearum to the primed plant was decisive: the effect of silicon priming will only 

manifest in the presence of the pathogen. This was also observed in previous enzyme 

assays and ad planta experiments. 

In conclusion, separate applications of either silicone or B. pumilus is recommended 

over their combined application for the induction of resistance to R. solanacearum in 

tomato, with silicon being the stronger resistance inducer than B. pumilus. 

Keywords: Ethylene, jasmonic acid, priming, Ralstonia solanacearum, rhizobacteria, 

signal transduction, silicon, Solanum lycopersicum, transcriptome 

Contact Address: Kerstin Wydra, Georg-August-Universität Göttingen, CBL - Tropical and Subtropical 

Agriculture and Forestry, Büsgenweg 1, 37077 Göttingen, Germany, e-mail: kwydra@gwdg.de 

168


Lines from Brazilian Dry Bean Breeding Programs with 

White Mold Resistance 

R.F. VIEIRA 1 ,TRAZILBO JOSÉ DE PAULA JÚNIOR 1 ,HUDSON TEIXEIRA 1 , 

J.E.S. CARNEIRO 2 , R.L. CARDOSO 2 ,M.S.LEHNER 2 ,M.V.QUEIROZ 2 , 

A.L. PRADO 2 

1EPAMIG, Brazil 

2Universidade Federal de Viçosa, Brazil 

Dry bean lines developed for the State of Minas Gerais (MG), Brazil, are tested every 

year at several locations, but generally without white mold (WM) pressure. The 

experiments installed to test these lines are called “cultivation and use value” (VCU). 

Our hypothesis is that among the lines included in the VCUs there are some with 

levels of WM resistance higher than those of the current cultivars. Lines/cultivars 

tested in the VCUs conducted in 2008, 2009, and 2010 were assessed for their reaction 

to WM and yield in an area naturally infested with sclerotia, in Oratórios, MG. 

Based on the results obtained in the VCUs, seven lines (VC 17, VP 21, CNFC 10720, 

CNFC 10722, CNFP 10798, CNFP 11980, and CNFC 11965) and the cultivars BRS 

Vereda and Ouro Branco were selected. In a separate experiment, the reactions of 

these lines/cultivars to WM were compared with the reactions of the following current 

cultivars: Pérola, BRSMG Majestoso, Ouro Negro, and Ouro Vermelho. The 

line A 195, which is known for its WM resistance, was also included for comparison. 

White mold intensity (incidence + severity) was evaluated visually, using a 1-to-9 

scale. Yield varied from 907 to 2716 kg ha -1 . Significant correlations were observed 

between WM intensity and yield (r = -0.69***) and WM intensity and lodging (r = 

0.56***). Six lines, two of them of type III, were ranked in the group with the highest 

yield. WM intensity of these lines varied from 4.2 to 5.6. These VW intensities were 

similar to that verified for the line A 195. On the other hand, three current cultivars 

were ranked in the group with the lowest yield. WM intensities of these cultivars 

varied from 6.3 to 7.5. These results indicate that advanced breeding lines should be 

tested under WM pressure before being released as a new cultivar. They also suggest 

that good source of resistance to WM are present in the lines and cultivars of dry 

beanCultivars/lines with resistance to WM might require fewer fungicide applications 

than current cultivars. 

Keywords: Common beans, integrated management, Phaseolus vulgaris, Sclerotinia 

sclerotiorum 

Contact Address: Trazilbo José de Paula Júnior, EPAMIG, CP 216, 36570-000 Viçosa MG, Brazil, 

e-mail: trazilbo@gmail.com 

169


Population Cycles and Economic Losses Caused by Zeuzera pyrina 

in an Olive Orchard, Egypt 

ESMAT MHEGAZI 1 ,FREDRIK SCHLYTER 2 ,WEDAD KHAFAGI 3 

1Alexandria University, Entomology, Egypt 

2Swedish University of Agriculture Sciences, Sweden 

3Plant Protection Research Institute, Egypt 

The leopard moth, Zeuzera pyrina L. (ZP) (Lepidoptera: Cossidae), is an European 

species with an increasing importance in the last few decades in Egypt. Seasonal 

trends in light-pheromone trap catches for ZP over the period 2002 to 2009 in badly 

infested olive plots are presented. The ZP moths occurred continuously from late 

April throughout the growing season and into fall (beginning harvest). The ZP has an 

annual biological cycle in olives, in Egypt. The results provided evidence of periodic 

changes in population densities. It seems that the bearing pattern generate periodic 

oscillation, e.g. larger number of moths in off-year and smaller one in on-year. The 

ZP reached outbreak densities in the 8th year of the trapping study. The outbreak 

cycle may be within the range of 8–12 years. These findings are discussed in relation 

to bearing patterns of olive trees. 

A three-year field experiment was conducted to show that olive strip cropping may 

reduce ZP infestation and crop losses in olive orchards. In the first 2 years two highly 

susceptible local varieties (Sennara and Toffahi) were planted and naturally injured 

by ZP at a severe level. Yield losses were estimated at 2.6 to 3.1 t ha -1 for Sennara and 

2.1 to 4.8 t ha-1 for Toffahi. The value of these losses was estimated at US$ 1605.7 to 

1770.1 per ha for Sennara and 1433.1 to 3215.8 per ha for Toffahi. In the 3rd year we 

compared the response of eight olive varieties with different cropping systems (variety 

mixtures) to ZP incidence and their subsequent yield and value of losses. The results 

suggested that mixing olive varieties can assist in ZP control. Also, yield loss due to 

ZP damage is influenced by the companion variety and neighbouring vegetation. 

Keywords: Economic loss, leopard moth, olive tree, population trend 

Contact Address: Esmat M Hegazi, Alexandria University, Entomology, Aflaton Str., Alexandria, 

Egypt, e-mail: eshegazi@hotmail.com 

170


Multi-Criteria Analysis for Identifying Appropriate Pest 

Management in Tomato Production in Chiang Mai Province, 

Thailand 

BENJAMIN BLUM 1 ,CHRISTIAN GROVERMANN 1 ,PEPIJN SCHREINEMACHERS 1 , 

THOMAS BERGER 1 ,JIRAWAN KITCHAICHAROEN 2 

1University of Hohenheim, Dept. of Agricultural Economics and Social Siences in the 


2Chiang Mai University, Agricultural Economics, Thailand 

Pest management practised in commercial small-scale vegetable production has widely 

been criticised due to associated negative effects of pesticides use. In northern Thailand 

this issue has recently received increasing attention and alternatives to conventional 

production systems have evolved. These new approaches focus on differentiated 

spread of risks through the employment of (integrated) pest management as well 

as associated adaptations of production considering external conditions. Still, there 

is a lack of holistic scientific studies comparing the new approaches to conventional 

practices. The framework of the present study combines an economic analysis with a 

multi-criteria analysis. This aids in analysing the reasoning in qualitatively different 

pest management schemes in four small-scale tomato production systems in Chiang 

Mai Province, Thailand. Special attention is hereby given to the toxicity and environmental 

impacts of the applied pesticides as well as to associated production risks, 

financial risks, market risks and health risks in tomato production. In total 71 tomato 

producers were interviewed in pre-structured interviews. The obtained data was processed 

with the software package STATA. The results show a conventional open field 

tomato production system with comparably low profits of 9,886 baht ha -1month-1 and 

the highest market risk, highest health risk and highest environmental impact of all 

analysed tomato production systems. An open field tomato production system, technically 

supported by Thailand’s Royal Project Foundation, presents the highest profits 

of 42,297 baht ha-1month-1 . However, the most efficient way of combining economically 

feasible pest management with the reduction of environmental impact and of 

other associated risks presents a tomato production system using transparent plastic 

roofing. The Royal Project Foundation also supports this group of tomato producers. 

Keywords: EIQ, IPM, MCA, Pesticide use, risk assessment 

Contact Address: Benjamin Blum, University of Hohenheim, Dept. of Agricultural Economics 

and Social Siences in the Tropics and Subtropics, 

e-mail:blum.mb@gmail.com 

Greenwai 2, 25938 Nieblum, Germany, 

171

Cropping systems to maintain soil quality and 

available soil moisture 

Oral Presentations 

JESTINOS MZEZEWA, LEON D. VAN RENSBURG, EASTONCE 

GWATA: 

In-field Rainwater Harvesting: A Promising Production Technology 

for Improving Crop Yields in Semi-Arid Regions of 

176 

South Africa 176 

BIRTHE PAUL, BERNARD VANLAUWE, FRED AYUKE, 

MARIANNE HOOGMOED,ANJA GASSNER, TUNSISA HURISSO, 

SAIDOU KOALA, DAVID LELEI, TELESPHORE NDABAMENYE, 

YUSUKE TERANO, JOHAN SIX, MIRJAM PULLEMAN: 

Medium-Term Impact of Tillage and Residue Management 

on Soil Quality and Crop Productivity 

NIKOLA TEUTSCHEROVÁ, BOHDAN LOJKA: 

Amazonian Dark Earths and the Potential of Biochar for their 

177 

Re-creation 

ANNE MURIUKI, MARTHA MUSYOKA,ANDREAS FLIESSBACH, 

DIONYS FORSTER: 

Resilience of Organic versus Conventional Farming Systems 

179 

in Tropical Africa: The Kenyan Experience 

ROBERT KAHLE, IDUPULAPATI RAO, GEORG CADISCH: 

Responses of Different Tropical Forage Legumes under Stress 

180 

Factors of Acid Soil and Drought 181 

KHALID HUSSAIN, CHALERMCHART WONGLEECHAROEN, 

THOMAS HILGER, THANUCHAI KONGKAEW, JAN DIELS, 

GEORG CADISCH: 

Impact of Mixed and Alley Cropping on Grain Yield and 

Water Use of Maize 182 

Posters 183 

FATOMA REZIG, ELSADIG ELHADI, MUBARAK ABDALLA: 

Soil Organic Matter Fractions in Desert Tropics as Influenced 

by Application of Organic Residues 183 

ELSADIG ELHADI, MUBARAK ABDALLA, FATOMA REZIG: 

Improvement of Sand Dune Properties with Organic Waste 

Application for Sand Dune Fixation 184 

173


174 

NGOME AJEBESONE FRANCIS, KELVIN MARK MTEI, 

MATHIAS BECKER: 

Effects of Management Options on Soil Fertility Attributes, 

Weeds and Maize Yields on a Nitisol, Acrisol and Ferralsol of 

Western Kenya 185 

ANDRY ANDRIAMANANJARA, MARIE PAULE RAZAFIMANAN- 

TSOA, TANTELY RAZAFIMBELO, TOVONARIVO RAFOLISY, 

MASSE DOMINIQUE, LILIA RABEHARISOA: 

Optimisation of Rotation Cropping System, Vigna subterranea 

- Oryza sativa, under a Low Nutrient Availability in Malagasy 

Highland 186 

RAÚL C. LÓPEZ SÁNCHEZ, ERNESTO JAVIER GÓMEZ PADILLA, 

KATIA YAMIRKA ALARCÓN BARREDO, CARLOS AVILA 

AMADOR, BETTINA EICHLER-LOEBERMANN, PATRICK VAN 

DAMME, ROELAND SAMSON: 

Selection of Tolerant Crops to be Used in Tropical Salt 

Affected Soils 187 

KAJO STELTER: 

A Typology of the Rice Based Cropping Systems of the Mekong 

Delta, Vietnam 188 

AHMED CHACÓN IZNAGA, MIGUEL RODRÍGUEZ OROZCO, 

EDITH AGUILA ALCANTARA, MEILYN CARRAL PAIROL, 

YANET EDDITH DÍAZ SICILIA, JOSSE DE BAERDEMAEKER, 

WOUTER SAEYS: 

Near Infrared Reflectance Spectroscopy (NIRS): Prediction 

of Chemical Properties in Cuban Soils 189 

ALI SALAHI, FRANZ GRUBER: 

Cultivation on Polluted Areas with Heavy Metals and Naturally 

Enriched Areas 190 

MOHSEN ARMIN, ALI SALAJEGHEH, MOHAMMAD HOSSEIN 

MAHDIAN, VAJIHE GHORBAN NIA: 

Relationships between Aggregate Stability and Selected Soil 

Properties in Tertiary Marly Soils of Iran 191 

HEINRICH HAGEL, CHRISTOPH REIBER, ANA PAULA AMA- 

ZONAS SOARES, CHRISTINE BEUSCH, REINER DOLUSCHITZ, 

JOSÉ FERREIRA IRMÃO, JÖRN GERMER, CHRISTA HOFFMANN, 

MARTIN KAUPENJOHANN, JAN MERTENS, JOACHIM SAUER- 

BORN, MARIANNA SIEGMUND-SCHULTZE, KARIN STOCK DE 

OLIVERIA SOUZA, ANNE VALLE ZÁRATE: 

The Contribution of Innovative Agricultural Systems to 

Sustainable Water Reservoir Use in NE-Brazil 192

Cropping systems to maintain soil quality and available soil moisture — Contents 

VIVEK KUMAR SINGH, NILS TEUFEL,DHIRAJ KUMAR SINGH, 

DEEPAK K. SINGH, S.POONIA, M.L.JAT: 

Conservation Agriculture: Is it the Way Forward for 

Resilient Rainfed Farming Systems in India? 194 

MARCUS OLALERE OLATOYE, WILLMAR L. LEISER, H. 

FREDERICK W. RATTUNDE, HEIKO K. PARZIES, MARKUS 

WEINMANN, GÜNTER NEUMANN, BETTINA I.G. HAUSSMANN: 

The Importance of Crown Root Angle and Mycorrhiza for 

Adaptation of Sorghum Genotypes from West Africa to Low- 

P Soils 195 

V.D. TUAN, THOMAS HILGER, ERISA SHIRAISHI, TRAN DUC 

VIEN, GEORG CADISCH: 

Viability of Soil Conservation on Steep and Fragmented Lands 

– Recent Experiences from Northwest Vietnam 196 

THANH THI NGUYEN, CHRISTIAN BRANDT, CARSTEN 

MAROHN, FRANK RASCHE, LAM THANH NGUYEN,TRAN DUC 

VIEN, GEORG CADISCH: 

An Integrated Approach to Assess Land Use History in a Watershed 

in Northwest Vietnam 

LEONARD KIIRIKA, UDO SCHMITZ, FRANK COLDITZ: 

Legume Small GTPase MtROP9 and its Role in Establishment 

of Plant Defense During Pathogenic and Symbiotic In- 

197 

teractions with Medicago truncatula 198 

MODESTE BIZIMANA, RODRIGUE V. CAO DIOGO, DANIEL 

THOMAS RUKAZAMBUGA NTIRUSHWA, ANDREAS BUERKERT: 

Organic Amendment, Composting, Soil Fertility Improvement 

and Climbing Bean Yield in Degraded Soil of Rwanda 199 

SUMANA NGAMPONGSAI, VEERANA SINSAWAT FORRER, 

ARADA MASARI, SUWIMOL THANOMSUB, PAVEENA CHAI- 

WAN, FONGSEN YANG, SAK PENGPHOL: 

Regeneration of Vigna subgenus ceratotropis Collections in 

Thailand 200 

ANA LUCÍA CADENA GONZÁLEZ-THIELE, MARTEN 

SOERENSEN, IDA THEILADE: 

Social Local Factors that Determine Maintenance of Knowledge 

on Medicinal Plants Species in the Municipalities of 

Zetaquira and Campo Hermoso, Boyacá-Colombia: With an 

Analyses of the Local Depletion of Plant Species and Suggestions 

for Preservation 

HOLGER PABST, KARIN SCHMIDT, YAKOV KUZYAKOV: 

Microbial Biomass Dynamics in Eight Ecosystems During a 

201 

Climatic Transition Phase at Mt. Kilimanjaro 202 

175


In-field Rainwater Harvesting: A Promising Production 

Technology for Improving Crop Yields in Semi-Arid Regions of 

South Africa 

JESTINOS MZEZEWA 1 ,LEON D. VAN RENSBURG 2 ,EASTONCE GWATA 3 

1University of Venda, Soil Science, South Africa 

2University of the Free State, Soil, Crop and Climate Sciences, South Africa 

3University of Venda, Plant Production, South Africa 

Crop yields in semi-arid regions of sub-Saharan Africa continue to be low largely 

due to the low and unreliable rainfall. Research results from the region have shown 

that the low rainfall is further lost by evaporation from the soil and runoff from the 

fields. Water harvesting soil tillage technique to improve crop yields of small scale 

farmers in the Limpopo Province of South Africa was introduced during 2007/2008 

and 2008/2009 cropping seasons. The aim of the study was to determine the effect of 

two tillage methods and intercropping on yield and water use parameters of sunflower 

(Helianthus annuus L.) and cowpeas (Vigna unguiculata L.). Tillage methods tested 

were in-field rainwater harvesting (IRWH) and conventional tillage (CT). IRWH is 

a special crop production technique that promotes runoff on 2-m wide no-till strip 

between crop rows and collects the runoff water in basins where it infiltrates into the 

soil profile. The experiment was configured as a split plot design with tillage as main 

plots and cropping systems as sub-plots. Cropping system treatments consisted of 

a single crop (sunflower or cowpea) and intercrop (sunflower × cowpea). The two 

year experiment proved that the IRWH technique significantly increased the yields of 

sunflower compared to the CT. The results showed further the single stand sunflower 

and cowpea crops produced significantly higher yields at lower water use levels than 

where these crops were intercropped. Thus, it was clear that the single stand cropping 

practice were more efficient than the intercropping practice in converting rainwater 

into food. 

Keywords: Cowpea, intercropping, Limpopo Province, sunflower, tillage 

Contact Address: Jestinos Mzezewa, University of Venda, Soil Science, University Road, 0950 

Thohoyandou, South Africa, e-mail: jestinos.mzezewa@univen.ac.za 

176

Cropping systems to maintain soil quality and available soil moisture — Oral Presentations 

Medium-Term Impact of Tillage and Residue Management on Soil 

Quality and Crop Productivity 

BIRTHE PAUL 1 ,BERNARD VANLAUWE 2 ,FRED AYUKE 3 ,MARIANNE 

HOOGMOED 4 ,ANJA GASSNER 5 ,TUNSISA HURISSO 4 ,SAIDOU KOALA 6 , 

DAVID LELEI 3 ,TELESPHORE NDABAMENYE 4 ,YUSUKE TERANO 4 ,JOHAN SIX 7 , 

MIRJAM PULLEMAN 4 

1International Centre for Tropical Agriculture (CIAT), Tropical Forages Program, Kenya 

2International Institute of Tropical Agriculture (IITA), Natural Resource Management, 

Kenya 

3University of Nairobi, Dept. of Land Resource Management and Agricultural Technology, 

Kenya 

4Wageningen University and Research Center (WUR), Soil Quality, The Netherlands 

5World Agroforestry Center (ICRAF), Dept. of Research Methods, Kenya 

6Tropical Soil Biology and Fertility Institute of CIAT (TSBF-CIAT), Kenya 

7University of California Davis, Dept. of Plant Sciences, United States 

Soil fertility depletion and degradation are major biophysical causes of stagnating 

crop yields in sub-Saharan Africa. Conservation Agriculture (CA) is widely promoted 

for its potential benefits including lower soil erosion, increased soil organic matter, 

and higher and/or more stable crop yields. CA refers to (i) continuous minimum soil 

disturbance; (ii) permanent organic soil cover; and (iii) diversification of crops grown 

in sequence or associations. However, rigorous empirical evidence of CA benefits 

from sub-Saharan Africa is still limited. 

This study aimed to quantify the medium-term impact of tillage and crop residue 

management on soil aggregate stability, soil carbon and crop productivity in a maizesoybean 

rotation. A replicated tillage (conventional, reduced) and residue management 

(retention, removal) field trial was installed in sub-humid western Kenya in 

2003. Soil aggregate fractions, soil carbon and crop yields were measured from 2005 

to 2008. 

Conventional tillage decreased water stable aggregate mean weight diameter by 50 % 

at 0-15 cm (p < 0.001) and 12% at 15-30 cm soil depth (p = 0.027), indicating increased 

susceptibility to erosion. Tillage or residue management alone did not affect 

soil C contents, but when residue was incorporated by conventional tillage, soil C 

increased at 15-30 cm (p = 0.037). Results did not suggest physical C protection 

within soil aggregates. Thus soil (aggregate) C results indicate that the potential of 

CA for climate change mitigation might be overestimated. The weak residue effect on 

aggregate stability and soil C may be attributed to insufficient residue retention, and 

removal by termites and rainstorms. Soybean grain yields tended to be suppressed under 

reduced tillage without residue retention, especially in wet seasons (p = 0.070). 

Contact Address: Birthe Paul, International Centre for Tropical Agriculture (CIAT), Tropical Forages 

Program, Nairobi, Kenya, e-mail: b.paul@cgiar.org 

177


This is likely explained by high runoff, resulting from slaking and crust formation. 

Future research should investigate critical minimum residue retention levels for soil 

conservation and crop productivity and develop methods for smallholder farmers to 

retain sufficient residue cover. 

Keywords: Crop residue management, crop yields, reduced tillage, soil aggregate 

stability, soil macrofauna, soil organic carbon, sub-Saharan Africa, termites 

178


Amazonian Dark Earths and the Potential of Biochar for their 

Re-Creation 

NIKOLA TEUTSCHEROVÁ, BOHDAN LOJKA 

Czech University of Life Sciences Prague, Dept. of Crop Sciences and Agroforestry, 

Institute of Tropics and Subtropics, Czech Republic 

Amazonian Dark Earths (ADE), in Portuguese Terra Preta de Índio, are anthropogenic 

soils. Soils of Amazonia are mainly acid Oxisols, Ultisols and Inceptisols with low 

fertility. Characteristic feature of ADE is high C content, which is increased usually 

by addition of high amount of biochar. According to many previous studies these anthropogenic 

soils greatly improve the yields of cultivated crops. The aim was to prove 

the positive influence of biochar application on plant growth and biomass production 

and further explore the possibility of biochar to improve the current agricultural systems 

in Peruvian Amazon, and thus, decrease the deforestation. For the experiment 

we chose two locally grown crops and one native tree from three distinct families - 

rice, (Oryza sativa L. – Poaceae); cowpea, (Vigna unguiculata [L.] Walp – Fabaceae) 

and bolaina blanca (Guazuma crinita Mart. – Malvaceae). The plants were grown in 

plastic bags with two kilograms of Amazonian Ultisol and different additions of two 

types of biochar, partly decomposed chicken manure and inorganic NPK fertiliser. 

After six weeks of cultivation we measured the stems and roots, weighted above- and 

belowground biomass and analysed pH and soil and foliar nutrient contents. Additionally, 

study of charcoal production and utilisation was done with in depth interviews 

using questionnaires among local farmers and charcoal producers. Soil organic matter 

and pH were increased by all biochar amendments. Generally, biochar improved 

soil nutrient content and soil properties, but influenced biomass production and foliar 

content in smaller extent than it was expected. Significant increase of biomass 

production was observed only in case of cowpea, which was probably caused by the 

ability of cowpea to balance higher C:N ratio by symbiotic N fixing. Furthermore, 

we found generally higher influence on root growth which suggests that higher effect 

on aboveground growth could possibly be observed after longer cultivation time. 

Residues from charcoal production are potential source of low-cost biochar, however, 

these are not widely used in agriculture. Results indicate that agricultural method 

using biochar from charcoal production could be a potential improvement of recent 

agriculture in Peruvian Amazon. However, more especially long-term experiments 

need to be done. 

Keywords: Biochar, nutrient content, Peruvian Amazon, soil fertility, Ultisol 

Contact Address: Nikola Teutscherová, Czech University of Life Sciences Prague, Dept. of Crop 

Sciences and Agroforestry, Institute of Tropics and Subtropics, Bezový Vrch 237, 43111 Jirkov, Czech 

Republic, e-mail: n.teutscherova@seznam.cz 

179


Resilience of Organic versus Conventional Farming Systems in 

Tropical Africa: The Kenyan Experience 

ANNE MURIUKI 1 ,MARTHA MUSYOKA 2 ,ANDREAS FLIESSBACH 3 , 

DIONYS FORSTER 3 

1Kenya Agricultural Research Institute, National Horticultural Research Center, Kenya 

2Intern. Centre for Insect Physiology and Ecology (ICIPE), Plant Health Division, Kenya 

3Research Institute of Organic Agriculture (FiBL), Soil Sciences, Switzerland 

In Kenya, agriculture is largely carried out by smallholder farmers, in a mixed farming noncommercialised 

setting where application of synthetic fertilisers and pesticides is minimal. 

Agricultural production is low and constrained by declining soil fertility, pest and diseases and 

increasingly unpredictable weather due to global warming. This calls for more resilient farming 

systems. Conventional farming is widely advocated because it delivers more yields in the shortterm, 

but it is less effective in combating climate change because of the high energy requirement 

during manufacture of fertilisers. Conversely, organic farming which is based on the use 

of natural soil biological cycles to boost nutrient cycling, enhancement of natural plant protection 

mechanisms, avoidance of pollution and use of nitrogen fixation systems and plants with a 

high carbon sequestration potential to fix nitrogen and carbon respectively is considered better 

suited at mitigating climate change. In 2007, a long-term project was established in Central 

Kenya to compare organic and conventional farming systems at commercial and local farmer 

input levels using agronomic, environmental and social economic data and to disseminate the 

findings to stakeholders. The trial features 4 treatments (Conventional High, Conventional Low, 

Organic High and Organic Low) in a Randomised Complete Block Design (RCBD). Nutrients 

in ‘Conventional’ treatments are supplied by farmyard manure, diammonium phosphate, calcium 

ammonium nitrate and compost, while Tithonia diversifolia, and rock phosphate supply 

nutrients in ‘Organic’ treatments. Pests are controlled using biopesticides and chemical products 

in ‘Organic’ and ‘Conventional’ treatments, respectively. A three-year, maize/baby corn 

based rotation system is followed. There were no treatment differences in yield (p = 0.101) in 

2007, but stover weights in Conventional High were superior to Organic Low and indistinguishable 

from Conventional Low and Organic High (p = 0.034). Differences between treatments 

however were observed in 2011 yields (p = 0.027) and stover (p = 0.003). Dry matter yields 

in Conventional High and Organic High treatments were lower than in Organic Low and indistinguishable 

from Conventional Low. Whereas stover weights at the same input level were 

indistinguishable, they were higher at the higher input level. The results suggested that organic 

farming may be a viable option for tropical Africa. 

Keywords: Baby corn, conventional, grain, maize, organic, stover 

Contact Address: Anne Muriuki, Kenya Agricultural Research Institute, National Horticultural 

Research Center, P.O. Box 220 01000, Thika, Kenya, e-mail: muriukianne@gmail.com 

180


Responses of Different Tropical Forage Legumes under Stress 

Factors of Acid Soil and Drought 

ROBERT KAHLE 1 ,IDUPULAPATI RAO 2 ,GEORG CADISCH 1 



2International Centre for Tropical Agriculture (CIAT), Colombia 

Tropical savannahs represent about 43 % of the world’s arable land and are among the 

few frontiers still available for agricultural expansion. The development of improved 

agropastoral systems forms part of the overall effort to increase the sustainability of 

farms in these regions. Forage legume species and genotypes exhibit a wide phenotypic 

variability in resistance towards aluminum toxic acid soil and progressive soil 

drying, as major constraints limiting productivity in tropical savannah ecosystems. 

Objective of this study was to characterise the adaptive response of rooting systems 

of three genotypes of each of Canavalia brasiliensis, Arachis pintoi and Stylosanthes 

guianensis to forms of abiotic stress in a greenhouse trial using a soil cylinder screening 

method. Plants were grown on a highly aluminum saturated, acid Oxisol with and 

without fertiliser application and liming (high aluminum saturation without fertiliser 

versus low aluminum saturation with fertiliser) under two levels of soil moisture (irrigated 

and progressive soil drying). Main parameters analysed were total root length 

(TRL), deep rooting ability (DRA), mean root diameter (MRD), specific root length 

(SRL), shoot dry weight (SDW) and leaf area (LA). 

Results indicate that under all conditions plants which are able to faster establish DRA 

will have a greater TRL and SDW. Acid soil inhibited development (TRL, SDW) 

stronger than drought stress, while combined stress did not have any further negative 

effect on SDW, although plants reacted with adaptive root growth. C. brasiliensis and 

A. pintoi were found adaptive to toxic aluminum, as indicated by no significant inhibition 

of DRA or decrease of SRL and MRD compared with the control. Nevertheless, 

both species were strongly inhibited by nutrient deficiency under acid soil and had 

strongly reduced SDW. S. guianensis was found sensitive to aluminum for the same 

parameters and had a reduction of SDW of 96 % as compared with the control. Although, 

some adaptive responses could be observed (increased DRA) under drought 

conditions all plants had significantly reduced SDW. C. brasiliensis was found superior 

to A. pintoi and S. guianensis under all stress treatments, with accession Canavalia 

905 performing overall best by combining an extensive root system, large leaves and 

vigorous seedlings. 

Keywords: Aluminum toxicity, drought stress, forage legumes 

Contact Address: Robert Kahle, University of Hohenheim, Inst. of Plant Production and 

Agroecology in the Tropics and Subtropics, Garbenstraße 13, 70599 Stuttgart, Germany, e-mail: 

kahle.robert@gmail.com 

181


Impact of Mixed and Alley Cropping on Grain Yield and Water 

Use of Maize 

KHALID HUSSAIN 1 ,CHALERMCHART WONGLEECHAROEN 1 ,THOMAS HILGER 1 , 

THANUCHAI KONGKAEW 2 ,JAN DIELS 3 ,GEORG CADISCH 1 



2Kasetsart University, Dept. of Soil Sciences, Thailand 

3KU Leuven, Dept. of Earth and Environmental Sciences, Belgium 

Mixed and alley cropping agro-forestry system have greater potential than other systems to 

increase the production and to control erosion on sloppy lands under tropical conditions. But the 

viability of such systems depends on their efficiency under limited soil conditions, which in turn 

makes them acceptable among the farming community. This study was conducted to investigate 

the effect of hedgerows on water availability in a maize-chili intercropping system on sloppy 

land. In 2009, the experiment was established on the Queen Sirikit Farm, Ratchaburi province, 

West Thailand as RCBD with three replicates. The treatments were T1: maize (Zea mays) 

monocrop, tillage, fertiliser; T2: maize intercropped with chilies (Capsicum frutescens), tillage, 

fertiliser; T3: T2 with minimum tillage, fertiliser, relay cropped with Canavalia ensiformis,and 

T4: T3 with Leucaena leucocephala hedgerows. The amount of fertiliser applied was 62, 11, 

36 NPK kg ha −1 . Hedgerows were planted at three positions along the slope: top, middle and 

lower slope. Hedges were pruned regularly to reduce shading of maize rows close to it. Carbon 

isotopic discrimination (δ 13 C) was monitored in maize leaf and grain samples at 100 days after 

planting and at harvest, respectively. Volumetric water contents (VWC) were measured with 

time domain reflectometry (TDR) at 0.25–0.45 m soil depth. The VWC varied from 10–30 % in 

dry to moist conditions. Soil moisture trends and δ 13 C indicated greater water use by the plants 

growing in mixed cropping with fertiliser. The average row grain yield showed non-significant 

differences among treatments in the years 2010 and 2011 but T2 showed the highest yield per 

row followed by T4. Hedgerow treatments had reduced soil loss (≤ 50 %) and runoff (≤ 30 %) 

and increased soil moisture compared to non-leucaena treatments. Chili intercropping showed 

a positive yield impact on maize rows after the chili area by increasing the row grain yield while 

hedgerows negatively affected the maize row yield close to the hedge, more prominent in rows 

just after the hedge. The conservation technique was found effective in improving soil moisture 

during the crop growth period and intercropping was also found beneficial in raising row yields 

of maize. 

Keywords: Alley cropping, chili, maize, mixed cropping, soil conservation, stable isotope 

discrimination, Thailand, water use 

Contact Address: Khalid Hussain, University of Hohenheim, Inst. of Plant Production and Agroecology 

in the Tropics and Subtropics, Garbenstr. 13, 70599 Stuttgart, Germany, e-mail: K.Hussain@ 


182

Cropping systems to maintain soil quality and available soil moisture — Posters 

Soil Organic Matter Fractions in Desert Tropics as Influenced by 

Application of Organic Residues 

FATOMA REZIG 1 ,ELSADIG ELHADI 1 ,MUBARAK ABDALLA 2 

1National Center for Research, Desertification Research Institute, Sudan 

2University of Khartoum, Desertification and Desert Cultivation Studies Institute, Sudan 

The contribution of organic waste (crop residue and sewage sludge) to soil organic 

matter (SOM) in the sand size (particulate organic matter, POM) was investigated in 

soil samples (0–20 cm) collected from field experiments conducted from November 

2008 to February 2011 at the experimental farm of Omdurman Islamic University, 

Sudan (15°19.9 N, 32°39´E, and with an elevation of 381 m above the sea level). 

The study was conducted for five seasons (wheat–guar–wheat–guar–wheat) to study 

the contribution of organic residues in sustaining yields of wheat (Triticum aestivum 

var. Imam) and guar (Cyamopsis tetragonoloba local var.) in a crop rotation system. 

Treatments included recommended inorganic fertiliser (NP) with crop residues 

(RF+CR), crop residues (CR), 10 t ha −1 sewage sludge (SS) and control (C). Each 

treatment was assigned to a plot of 4 m × 4 m and arranged in a randomised complete 

block design with four replicates. Soil organic matter size fractionation was carried 

out in samples collected after the harvest of the fifth crop (2011). Results showed 

that, dry matter content of POM in (RF+CR) and (SS) treatments were significantly 

(p ≤ 0.0001) higher than the control (C) and crop residue (CR) treatments. Similarly, 

the N content was also significantly (p ≤ 0.0001) affected by RF+CR and SS 

application. However, the C content was not significantly affected by the treatments. 

Dry matter weight and N content of the POM increased by 18.2, 68.2, 99.9 %, and 

2.4, 14.4 and 14.7 % for CR, SS and RF+CR treatments, respectively, relative to the 

control. After five seasons, 44 % of the POM dry matter weight was recovered in the 

small size fraction (0.25–0.053 mm) compared to 7.2 % in the (2.0–0.85 mm) sand 

size particles. The results suggest that, in nutrients poor sandy clay loam soil of the 

desert tropics, continuous application of organic residues enhance accumulation of 

particulate organic matter (POM) in sand size particles. 

Keywords: Crop residues, desert tropics, sewage sludge, SOM fractions 

Contact Address: Mubarak Abdalla, University of Khartoum, Desertification and Desert Cultivation 

Studies Institute, 13314 Khartoum, Sudan, e-mail: mubarakaba@yahoo.com 

183


Improvement of Sand Dune Properties with Organic Waste 

Application for Sand Dune Fixation 

ELSADIG ELHADI 1 ,MUBARAK ABDALLA 2 ,FATOMA REZIG 1 

1 National Center for Research, Desertification Research Institute, Sudan, Sudan 

2 University of Khartoum, Desertification and Desert Cultivation Studies Institute, Sudan 

Low organic matter content, low water holding capacity and low nutrients retention 

are the major problems in the soils of the dune in desertified area. These unfavourable 

conditions make sand dune fixation programme unsustainable. Application of organic 

waste as a fertiliser source not only improves sandy soil fertility, it also improves the 

physical and chemical properties of the dunes and provides effective methods for disposal 

of wastes. Sand dune fixation experiment was conducted in 2009 by planting 

seedlings of Salvadora persica L. in Elrawakeeb Dry Land Station located West of 

Omdurman between latitudes 15°2’–15°36’ North longitudes 32°0’–32°10’ East. The 

seedlings were treated with following treatments: chicken manure (CH), chicken manure 

combined with sawdust (CH + SW), sawdust combined with inorganic fertiliser 

(SW+IF), sewage sludge (SS) , sewage sludge combined with sawdust (SS+SW), sawdust 

alone (SW) and control (C) . Each treatment was assigned to a plot of 2 m × 2m 

and arranged in a randomised complete block design with 4 replicates. Soil properties 

were determined from soil samples (0–20 cm) collected from the fixed sand 

dune in the second year after application. Results showed that application of organic 

wastes, increased significantly (p < 0.001) soil organic carbon by 224 %, available P 

by 139.9 %, total nitrogen by 142.9 % and mineral nitrogen 83.5 %. On other hand, 

incorporation of organic waste had resulted in decrease soil pH by 5.6 %. The results 

showed that application of organic wastes in dune soil could be a useful practice in 

sustaining fertility of dune soils and improved sand dune fixation. 

Keywords: Desertification, organic wastes, Salvadora persica, sand dune, soil 

property 

Contact Address: Mubarak Abdalla, University of Khartoum, Desertification and Desert Cultivation 

Studies Institute, 13314 Khartoum, Sudan, e-mail: mubarakaba@yahoo.com 

184


Effects of Management Options on Soil Fertility Attributes, Weeds 

and Maize Yields on a Nitisol, Acrisol and Ferralsol of 

Western Kenya 

NGOME AJEBESONE FRANCIS 1 ,KELVIN MARK MTEI 2 ,MATHIAS BECKER 2 

1 Institute of Agricultural Research for Development (IRAD), Cameroon 

2 University of Bonn, Inst. Crop Sci. and Res. Conserv. (INRES) - Plant Nutrition, 

Germany 

Low soil fertility and high weed infestation are the main culprits for the declining 

maize production in western Kenya. Given the diversity of soil types and the resource 

endowment of farmers, the magnitude of this decline is likely to differ with farms. 

Seven organic and inorganic management options were compared with farmers’ practice 

regarding their effects on soil fertility attributes and weeds in maize fields on three 

contrasting soils of western Kenya over two cropping seasons. Irrespective of the season, 

organic amendments were more effective than mineral fertilisers in enhancing 

soil carbon stocks and the labile and non-labile C fractions. The largest soil C content 

(4.1 %) and C pool (72 Mg ha −1 ) were observed on the clay Nitisol after two seasons 

of reduced tillage, while the lowest C content (1.1 %) and C pool (22 Mg ha −1 )were 

observed on the sandy Acrisol with conventional tillage. The soil N supplying capacity 

increased with the application of both organic and mineral fertilisers and reached 

210 mg kg −1 after two weeks of anaerobic incubation of the mineral N-amended 

Acrisol. Bray-I P content reflected the P application rates and was highest (50–66 mg 

kg −1 ) on the Acrisol with mineral P fertiliser use. Weed biomass accumulation and 

species composition differed with soil types and management options. Zero-tillage 

combined with the use of a cover crop had the lowest weed biomass (


Optimisation of Rotation Cropping System, 

Vigna subterranea - Oryza sativa, under a Low Nutrient 

Availability in Malagasy Highland 

ANDRY ANDRIAMANANJARA 1 ,MARIE PAULE RAZAFIMANANTSOA 1 , 

TANTELY RAZAFIMBELO 1 ,TOVONARIVO RAFOLISY 1 ,MASSE DOMINIQUE 2 , 

LILIA RABEHARISOA 1 

1Laboratory of Radioisotopes, Service of Radio Agronomy, Madagascar 

2Institut de Recherche pour le Développement, France 

Soil degradation, in tropical zone as Madagascar, induced a low nutrient availability 

such as phosphorus deficiency that strongly limited plant production. Cultivation of 

less exploited highlands of Madagascar was studied through integration of legume as 

voandzou (Vigna subterranea) in upland rice (Oryza sativa) based-cropping system. 

It was expected that legumes increased the phosphorus availability in Ferralsol for 

the benefit of rice production. In this study, rotation cropping system as voandzouupland 

rice versus rice monoculture system was tested in a mid-term field trial. The 

experiment was carried out during two consecutive years in which the effectiveness 

of organic (manure), mineral (TSP) and organo-mineral (manure+TSP) fertilisation at 

equivalent P rate of 0, 10, 20 and 30 kg P ha-1 were assessed. The rice yield measured 

during the second year showed the effect of the precedent legume crops under low nutrient 

input (


Selection of Tolerant Crops to be Used in Tropical 

Salt Affected Soils 

RAÚL C. LÓPEZ SÁNCHEZ 1 ,ERNESTO JAVIER GÓMEZ PADILLA 2 ,KATIA 

YAMIRKA ALARCÓN BARREDO 2 ,CARLOS AVILA AMADOR 2 ,BETTINA 

EICHLER-LOEBERMANN 2 ,PATRICK VAN DAMME 3 ,ROELAND SAMSON 4 

1University of Granma, Faculty of Agricultural Sciences, Cuba 

2University of Rostock, Faculty of Agricultural and Environmental Sciences, Germany 

3University of Ghent, Dept. of Plant Production - Laboratory for Tropical Agronomy, 

Belgium 

4University of Antwerp, Dept. of Bioscience Engineering, Belgium 

Saline soils take up between 40 and 50 % of the whole planet and their expansion 

increases near 3 ha min−1 . Cuba has around one million hectares affected by this 

problem of which 228,000 hectares are situated in Granma province. In these areas, 

the introduction of genotypes with tolerance and wildness characteristics is an alternative 

to recover the salt affected soils. A series of experiments with the aim to evaluate 

and select salt-tolerant genotypes of cowpea (6 genotypes), tomato (8 genotypes) and 

bean (40 genotypes) was carried out under controlled, greenhouse and field conditions. 

The effect of 4 levels of salt stress (0.02, 3, 6 and 9 dS m −1 ) was evaluated 

in controlled conditions using the germination percent, length of radicle, height of 

hypocotyl and dry matter of seedling parameters. The second experiment was established 

in a greenhouse to evaluate the effect of two salt levels (0.02 and 6 dS m −1 )on 

crops and measure physiological and biochemical parameters. The number of leaves, 

leaf width, tendril length, root and shoot dry matter, proline and glycine-betaine content 

and osmotic and water potential were also measured. In field conditions the 

crops were cultivated to investigate the effect of salt stress in yield parameters. The 

results showed that all varieties evidenced decrease of parameters in presence of salt 

stress and the seedling damage was moderate in 3 dS m−1 andseverein9dSm−1 . 

A linear, significant and negative dependence between salts levels and germination, 

physiological and biochemical parameters was found. Some affectations were found 

in the growth and biochemical variables due to the content of salts in all the varieties. 

In relation to yield and its components, the results evidenced differences in tolerance 

levels to saline stress among varieties, being IT 86 D-715 (cowpea), Vita and 

Amalia (tomato), TR-VAM 2005 B-13 and TR-VAM 2005–14 (bean) the most tolerant 

ones. However, Cubanita-666 (cowpea), Vita and Amalia (tomato) and TR-VAM 

B-43 (bean) were strongly affected by salinity which revealed salt susceptibility. The 

results showed the great potential of these varieties to be used in salt affected soils. 

Keywords: Crops, salt stress, tolerance 

Contact Address: Raúl C. López Sánchez, University of Granma, Faculty of Agricultural Sciences, 

Marti 4141 altos entre C.Montero y J. Medina, 85100 Bayamo, Cuba, e-mail: rlopezs@udg.co.cu 

187


A Typology of the Rice Based Cropping Systems of the 

Mekong Delta, Vietnam 

KAJO STELTER 

University of Bonn (ARTS), Germany 

In this study the rice based cropping systems of the Mekong Delta of Vietnam are 

structured with focus on their water pollution potential by agro chemicals. 

Experts agree that primarily hydrological and secondly soil conditions explain the establishment 

of certain cropping systems in the Mekong Delta, whereas dykes, sluice 

gates and pumps are employed in most places. Often times socio economic factors 

rather than ecological conditions determine when and where those measures of water 

control are taken into use. Nevertheless, when elaborating an overview, cropping systems 

are still best structured according to ecological conditions that follow a natural 

gradient. 

Rice based cropping systems can be characterised according to their water pollution 

potential because farmers display for each system a typical behaviour of fertiliser 

and pesticides’ application whereas the residues or a misuse of these agro chemicals 

pollute the water bodies. Experts at the Can Tho University and farmers in three agro 

ecological zones have been interviewed to find out what are typical farming practices 

and by which factors other than ecological are they influenced. It was found that at 

the coastal zone where farmers typically practice integrated agriculture-aquaculture 

pesticides are sprayed the least frequently and thus the lowest water pollution should 

occur. In the intensive systems of two and three rice crops per year that are common 

in the upper and middle part of the Delta no difference in the use of pesticides was 

detected though a trend in the survey data suggests that farmers practicing double rice 

on acid sulfate soil are more reluctant to reduce agro chemicals than triple rice farmers 

on alluvial soil. Maybe that is because the more unfavourable ecological conditions 

that prevail with acid sulfate soils lead to a higher pest pressure. No difference in 

the amount of applied fertiliser among the three systems was found and it seems 

that the pollution potential by a misuse of synthetic fertiliser is generally small if 

not negligible. The influence of socio economic factors on specific farming practices 

could not be proven with this survey. 

Keywords: Cropping systems, fertiliser, Mekong Delta, pesticides, rice, water 

pollution 

Contact Address: Kajo Stelter, University of Bonn (ARTS), 65812 Bad Soden, Germany, e-mail: 

kajostelter@gmx.de 

188


Near Infrared Reflectance Spectroscopy (NIRS): Prediction of 

Chemical Properties in Cuban Soils 

AHMED CHACÓN IZNAGA 1 ,MIGUEL RODRÍGUEZ OROZCO 1 ,EDITH AGUILA 

ALCANTARA 1 ,MEILYN CARRAL PAIROL 1 ,YANET EDDITH DÍAZ SICILIA 1 , 

JOSSE DE BAERDEMAEKER 2 ,WOUTER SAEYS 2 

1Central University Marta Abreuöf Las Villas, Fac. Agricultural and Animal Sciences, 

Cuba 

2Catholic University of Leuven (K.U.Leuven), Biosystems-MeBioS, Belgium 

Soil chemical properties are important factors for soil fertility, successful plant growth 

and land management. Conventional methods to determine chemical fertility are often 

too difficult, costly, and time-consuming, therefore economic and environmental 

drivers have promoted the development of new techniques of management agricultural 

systems. For that reason this research investigates the potential of Near Infrared 

Reflectance Spectroscopy (NIRS) as a cost- and time-effective technique to determine 

the fertility of a soil as an input for to optimise the fertilisation for this field. NIRS 

in the context of precision agriculture might be an alternative to the conventional 

analysis methods employed in Cuba for determining organic matter (OM), phosphorus 

(P and P2O5) and potassium (K2O) using a single spectrum per sample. The 

whole process included sampling of Cambisols from different agricultural fields of 

Villa Clara province located at the central part of Cuba, chemical traditional analysis 

and soil reflectance measurements. Samples were air dried before scanning by 

means of a diode array spectrophotometer covering the wavelength range from 399 

to 1697 nm. Calibration models were built using Partial Least Squares Regression 

(PLSR) and Support Vector Machine (SVM). The prediction performance of the calibration 

models was evaluated based on the calibration statistics R2 (the square of 

the correlation coefficient), RMSEP (root mean square error of prediction) and Bias 

(systematic deviation). The best prediction results were obtained for organic matter 

(R2 >0.90; RMSEP≤0.11) and in the other properties were variably acceptable, so 

K2O (R2≥0.80; RMSEP≤2.90); P (R2≥0.80; RMSEP≤0.55) and P2O5 (R2≥0.75; RMSEP≤3.00). It was concluded that NIR spectroscopy has potential to rapidly determine 

the fertility of Cuban soils as an input to optimise the fertilisation. 

Keywords: Calibration models, near infrared reflectance spectroscopy, soil chemical 

properties 

Contact Address: Ahmed Chacón Iznaga, Central University Marta Abreuöf Las Villas, Fac. 

Agricultural and Animal Sciences, Highway to Camajuaní Km 5 1/2, 54830 Santa Clara, Cuba, e-mail: 

ahmedci@uclv.edu.cu 

189


Cultivation on Polluted Areas with Heavy Metals and Naturally 

Enriched Areas 

ALI SALAHI, FRANZ GRUBER 

Georg-August-Universität Göttingen, Institute of Forest Botany, Germany 

For many soil metal contaminants, especially Zn and Ni, within a metal contaminated 

area, hyperaccumulator plants are likely to do well since foliar concentrations will be 

high. 

Cadmium tends to have few effects on plant growth, yet can still exhibit toxicity to 

animals. While this does not obviate the ecotoxicity of high Cd plants, Cd hyperaccumulators 

will not be able to grow beyond the area of soil contamination. Thus, escape 

of Cd hyperaccumulators beyond the area of contamination is not likely to be a concern. 

These observations suggest that escape from the original site must be assessed 

based upon both the plant and soil. 

Cultivation of hyperaccumulators on naturally enriched areas offers the greatest promise 

for use in phytomining. Phytomining is a more specific form of phytoremediation 

where the purpose of metal removal from soil is economic gain. For example, 

millions of acres of Ni rich ultramafic soil are found around the world. These soils 

are potentially amendable to Ni phytomining. However, many of these areas are populated 

by a number of rare and endangered species. For example, serpentine soils in 

northern California and southern Oregon are populated by rare and endemic species 

that exist only on these soils. Given the unique flora of enriched soils, concern has 

been raised that highly competitive and aggressive introduced 

hyperaccumulators may displace some of the natural flora. Another method to reduce 

the potential for escape from the original site of planting is to harvest plants prior to 

seed set. Most hyperaccumulators set seed in mid summer. Since most hyperaccumulators 

are perennials, they will typically be harvested at the time of maximum metal 

accumulation, then plants will continue to grow for an additional harvest the same 

year or in the following year. 

Keywords: Cultivation, heavy metals, Ni, polluted areas, Zn 

Contact Address: Ali Salahi, Georg-August-Universität Göttingen, Institute of Forest Botany, Büsgenweg 

2, 37077 Göttingen, Germany, e-mail: alisalahi2002@yahoo.com 

190


Relationships between Aggregate Stability and Selected Soil 

Properties in Tertiary Marly Soils of Iran 

MOHSEN ARMIN 1 ,ALI SALAJEGHEH 2 ,MOHAMMAD HOSSEIN MAHDIAN 3 , 

VAJIHE GHORBAN NIA 4 

1University of Yasuj, Watershed Management, Iran 

2University of Tehran, Watershed Management, Iran 

3Agriculture Research, Education and Extension Organisation, Iran 

4Gorgan University, Agricultural Sciences and Natural Resources, Iran 

Identification of the critical soil properties affecting aggregate stability is central to 

understanding where erosion might be located within a catchment as a result of natural 

patterns in aggregate stability. There are many literature references on which 

the relationship between soil properties and aggregate stability investigated, but these 

references show that location and soil type play major roles in determining relationships 

between aggregate stability and soil properties. Relation of aggregate stability 

to soil properties thus, differs with climatic zones and soils. There is, therefore, a 

need to study these relationships in different regions in order to isolate which properties 

to manage for improving soil aggregate stability in a given location. While there 

is wealth of research on aggregate stability and its relation to soil properties, only few 

studies have focused on marly soils especially in Iran. Marl or marlstone is a calcium 

carbonate or lime-rich mud which contains variable amounts of clays. Eighty soil 

profiles from calcareous marly soils were selected to study the relationships between 

soil structure as mean weight diameter and eighteen soil properties. The degree of 

similarity among different aggregate stability indices as well as identifying the main 

mechanism of instability was investigated. The aggregate stability was measured using 

Le Bissonnais’s method. Under fast wetting situation, aggregate stability of marly 

soils in Iran is poor, so that, 80 % of the samples studied had a mean weight diameter 

(MWD) less than 0.4. Therefore, we can conclude that the breakdown we observe 

corresponds to the breakdown caused by the compression of entrapped air during 

wetting. This mechanism is simulated by fast wetting treatment. The results of the 

correlation analysis showed that aggregate stability was positively affected by silt, 

very fine sand, fine sand and organic matter contents while clay content, calcium carbonate 

equivalent, soil saturation and acidity negatively affected aggregate stability, 

from which some of this correlations are unexpected. 

Keywords: Aggregate stability, Iran, Le Bissonnais’s method, marly soils, soil 

properties 

Contact Address: Mohsen Armin, University of Yasuj, Watershed Management, Yasuj, Iran, e-mail: 

Mohsenarmin@ut.ac.ir 

191


The Contribution of Innovative Agricultural Systems to 

Sustainable Water Reservoir Use in NE-Brazil 

HEINRICH HAGEL 1 ,CHRISTOPH REIBER 2 ,ANA PAULA AMAZONAS SOARES 3 , 

CHRISTINE BEUSCH 4 ,REINER DOLUSCHITZ 1 ,JOSÉ FERREIRA IRMÃO 3 , 

JÖRN GERMER 5 ,CHRISTA HOFFMANN 1 ,MARTIN KAUPENJOHANN 4 , 

JAN MERTENS 5 ,JOACHIM SAUERBORN 5 ,MARIANNA SIEGMUND-SCHULTZE 2 , 

KARIN STOCK DE OLIVERIA SOUZA 2 ,ANNE VALLE ZÁRATE 2 

1University of Hohenheim, Inst. of Farm Management, Germany 

2University of Hohenheim, Inst. of Animal Production in the Tropics and Subtropics, 

Germany 

3Federal Rural University of Pernambuco, Dept. of Literature and Human Sciences, 

Brazil 

4Berlin University of Technology, Dept. of Soil Science, Germany 



The construction of the Itaparica dam and reservoir induced changes concerning the 

agricultural production systems in the micro-region Itaparica, Sao Francisco river 

basin. Traditional systems – mainly a combination of dryland farming in the river 

flood plains and livestock farming in the adjacent dryer areas – were replaced by 

irrigation agriculture. Even though wide areas with irrigation infrastructure were established 

the sandy soils of many areas are not suitable for irrigation farming. Lack 

of adequate arable land causes a shortage of income opportunities for local farmers. 

Thus large share of many household incomes is derived by compensatory payments 

from the dam operator. Persistent problems are inappropriate farming practices in 

irrigation, inaccurate use of agrochemicals and overstocking of livestock. As a consequence 

soil salinization, overgrazing, erosion, and contamination and eutrophication 

of the reservoir increase and threaten local peoples’ livelihoods. 

The joint research project INNOVATE aims at innovative coupling nutrient cycles to 

counteract erosion, soil degradation, and emission of greenhouse gases. The agriculture-related 

sub-projects “Terrestrial Production” and “Economy” will do research 

with the implementation of a sustainable and productive agriculture with closed nutrient 

cycles. This can contribute to reduce the above mentioned negative impacts, 

ensure food supply, and additionally provide an important income source for the local 

population. Biochar, lake sediments, and manure combined with micro-catchments 

and multipurpose leguminous perennial food crops and feeds, shall improve soil quality 

and water storage capacity. The combination of local and fast-growing trees to the 

crop areas meets the needs for firewood and forage for the dry season and reduces 

the pressure on natural vegetation, conserving its biodiversity. The results will be 

Contact Address: Heinrich Hagel, University of Hohenheim, Inst. of Farm Management, 

70593 Stuttgart, Germany, e-mail: hagel@uni-hohenheim.de 

192


assimilated in a model system quantifying soil organic matter dynamics. Economic 

analyses on farm level monitor the profitability of these systems and facilitate recommendations 

for extension service and policy makers to sustainable establish them. 

Field trials for soil amendment and micro-catchment will be installed on dryer areas 

next to the main irrigation areas, while surveys and measurements on livestock 

systems and socio-economic data will be assessed on farm level by structured questionnaires, 

participatory methods, and structured observations and measurements. 

Keywords: Agriculture, micro-catchment, soil-amendment, reservoir 

193


Conservation Agriculture: Is it the Way Forward for Resilient 

Rainfed Farming Systems in India? 

VIVEK KUMAR SINGH 1 ,NILS TEUFEL 2 ,DHIRAJ KUMAR SINGH 2 , 

DEEPAK K. SINGH 1 ,S.POONIA 1 ,M.L.JAT 1 

1International Maize and Wheat Improvement Centre (CIMMYT), India 


Past food surpluses in India were mainly achieved by intensifying irrigated farming 

systems. However, crop yields in these favourable areas have not greatly increased 

for more than a decade. In order to meet future food needs and to foster economic 

development among the rural poor, there is a growing consensus that development 

efforts must prioritize rainfed agricultural systems where current productivity is low 

and soils are often degraded. Rainfed agriculture in India occupies 67 % of the net 

sown area, contributing 44 % of food grains and supporting 40 % of the population. 

Climate change has influenced the recurrence and spread of drought in these regions, 

increasing production risks. In total, some 450 M Indians earn their livelihoods under 

rainfed conditions. This paper addresses the economic and environment viability 

of conservation agriculture (CA) in rainfed farming systems of Jharkhand, India. 

Conventional vs. conservation agriculture practices are compared within the IFAD 

supported project “Sustainable Intensification of Smallholder Maize-Livestock Farming 

Systems in Hill Areas of South Asia” to examine the potential of conservation 

agriculture in a rainfed context. Overall, 27 group interviews have been conducted 

in 9 blocks of 3 districts in Jharkhand after stratified random sampling. The results 

are also based on 2 on-station trails and 118 village level trails of maize-wheat farming 

systems. Despite low productivity, severe soil erosion and associated socio-economic 

constraints in these farming systems, there is scope to minimise soil disturbance 

and enhance productivity for sustainable intensification through tailored and 

location-specific modifications of resource conserving technologies (RCT’s). The results 

indicate that improved water management, the implementation of conservation 

agriculture (CA) principles, improved agronomic practices and the introduction of 

modern crop cultivars could double or even triple yields. The maize yield of onstation 

maize trial was 7.6 t ha-1 compared to the state average of only 1.8 t ha -1 .Although, 

the proposed technologies have the potential to reduce production costs up to 

30 % while increasing production and enriching the soil for sustainable intensification 

and increased climate resilience, questions remain how researchers, policy makers, 

extension agents, governments and donor agencies can more effectively disseminate 

these beneficial technologies for adoption by smallholder farmers? 

Keywords: Conservation agriculture, Jharkhand, RCT’s, smallholder 

Contact Address: Vivek Kumar Singh, International Maize and Wheat Improvement Centre (CIM- 

MYT), NASC, DP Shastri Marg, 110012 New Delhi, India, e-mail: v.singh@cgiar.org 

194


The Importance of Crown Root Angle and Mycorrhiza for 

Adaptation of Sorghum Genotypes from West Africa to 

Low-P Soils 

MARCUS OLALERE OLATOYE 1 ,WILLMAR L. LEISER 1 , 

H. FREDERICK W. RATTUNDE 2 ,HEIKO K. PARZIES 1 ,MARKUS WEINMANN 3 , 

GÜNTER NEUMANN 3 ,BETTINA I.G. HAUSSMANN 1 

1University of Hohenheim, Inst. of Plant Breeding, Seed Sciences and Population 


2ICRISAT Mali, Mali 

3University of Hohenheim, Inst. of Crop Science, Germany 

Sorghum (Sorghum bicolor L. Moench) is a staple crop of the savannah zone of Westand 

Central Africa (WCA). Most of sub-Saharan African soils (75 %) are deficient in 

mineral nutrients for plant growth. Limited phosphorus (P) availability in soils is a serious 

and frequent constraint to sorghum cultivation in West Africa. Previous research 

has shown that breeding under low-P conditions is necessary and effective in identifying 

sorghum genotypes which are specifically adapted to low-P soils. However, 

there is limited knowledge on the specific adaptation mechanisms of these genotypes. 

The objective of the present study is to investigate the role of root-architecture and 

mycorrhiza-symbiosis in the adaptation of WCA sorghums to low-P soils. 

In 2011 we conducted a pot experiment with 188 sorghum genotypes originating from 

WCA, which represent the Guinea, Durra and Caudatum races of Sahelian and Sudanian 

zone genotypes from different West African countries. The 188 genotypes 

were grown for 38 days on a low-P soil at ICRISAT-Mali. Plant height, vigor score, 

biomass, P-uptake and crown root angle were recorded for each pot. Furthermore fine 

root samples were taken from each pot to evaluate mycorrhizal colonization at the 

University of Hohenheim, which was still in progress by the time of writing this abstract. 

Preliminary results suggest significant genotypic differences for all measured 

traits, including crown root angle and intensity of mycorrhizal root colonization. Once 

measurements are completed, the relationships among the various traits within and 

across groups of germplasm will be assessed. Furthermore, genotypic performance 

in the pot trials will be tested for correlations with yield performance under field conditions, 

in order to elucidate the importance of the various traits for low-P tolerance. 

All 188 tested genotypes are currently also being genotyped as part of an association 

study. This will provide the opportunity to identify the gene loci and associated 

markers involved in low-P tolerance for use in marker-assisted sorghum improvement 

targeting low-P soils. 

Keywords: Breeding, mycorrhiza, phosphorus, root angle, sorghum 

Contact Address: Willmar L. Leiser, University of Hohenheim, Inst. of Plant Breeding, Seed Sciences 

and Population Genetics, 70593 Stuttgart, Germany, e-mail: willmar_leiser@uni-hohenheim.de 

195


Viability of Soil Conservation on Steep and Fragmented Lands – 

Recent Experiences from Northwest Vietnam 

V.D. TUAN 1 ,THOMAS HILGER 1 ,ERISA SHIRAISHI 1 ,TRAN DUC VIEN 2 , 

GEORG CADISCH 1 



2Hanoi Agricultural University, The Center for Agricultural Research and Ecological 

Studies (CARES), Vietnam 

As a consequence of an increasing animal feed demand, maize production area of 

Northwest Vietnam has strongly increased in the past, mainly by expansion into 

forested uplands. Farmers usually slash and burn their fields to prepare a tidy field 

for a new season. Exposed to heavy rainfalls at the onset of the monsoon rains this 

leads to severe erosion and barren lands in the long run. Changes in rainfall pattern 

associated with increasing flood risks pose another threat. This study aimed at 

quantifying benefits of soil conservation in relation to soil loss, soil cover and yield 

in maize based systems to foster their adaption by local farmers. In 2009, we established 

a field trial on a Luvisol with slope gradients of 47-62 % in the Son La province 

of Vietnam. The treatments were maize under farmer’s practice (T1), with Panicum 

maximum grass barriers (T2), under minimum tillage and Arachis pintoi as cover crop 

(T3) or relay cropped with Phaseolus calcaratus (T4). The results showed that erosion 

mainly occurred few weeks after sowing when high rainfall intensities coincided 

with a low soil cover (T1). Later when maize covered the soil well, erosion was minimal. 

Well-established grass barriers reduced soil loss (60 %) and provided animal 

fodder but significantly reduced maize yields (34%) compared to T1. In dry years 

maize yield declined up to 21 % but grass production increased by 26 % compared 

to a normal rainy season. Minimum tillage either with simultaneous growing cover 

crops or relay cropped strongly reduced soil loss compared to conventional cropping. 

Already established cover crops significantly reduced maize yields due to competition 

(T3). But a cut and carry system based on A. pintoi additionally provided a proteinrich 

animal fodder (3.3 t ha-1 ). The most promising option, however, was maize with 

relay cropping, where maize yield reached the same level as T1 and, in addition, produced 

1.16 t ha-1 of P. calcaratus beans. Such extra-benefits from soil conservation 

may help promoting adoption by local farmers, particularly in view of markets. Sound 

management of cover crops, however, is necessary to minimize competition for water, 

nutrient and light. 

Keywords: Cover crop, maize, minimum tillage, relay cropping, soil cover 

Contact Address: V.D. Tuan, University of Hohenheim, Inst. of Plant Production and 

Agroecology in the Tropics and Subtropics, Garbenstr. 13, 70599 Stuttgart, Germany, e-mail: 

vudinhtuan2001@yahoo.com 

196


An Integrated Approach to Assess Land Use History in a 

Watershed in Northwest Vietnam 

THANH THI NGUYEN 1 ,CHRISTIAN BRANDT 1 ,CARSTEN MAROHN 1 , 

FRANK RASCHE 1 ,LAM THANH NGUYEN 2 ,TRAN DUC VIEN 2 , 

GEORG CADISCH 1 



2Hanoi University of Agriculture, Center for Agricultural Research and Environmental 


In the past decades, the introduction and extended cultivation of hybrid maize and hybrid cassava 

provided higher income for farmers but replaced traditional crops, such as upland rice and 

local maize and cassava varieties, in the upland area which surrounds a reservoir in Chieng 

Khoi, Yen Chau district in mountainous Northwest Vietnam. Furthermore, new cultivation 

areas are still expanding into protected forest, grazing areas and fruit tree plantations. Consequently, 

primary forest on the upper, steep slopes is illegally cleared for hybrid maize and 

cassava cultivation. 

Detailed Geographic Information System (GIS) based classification of land uses is difficult 

when crops are planted during the same period of the year and reflect similar spectral bands. 

Therefore, this study aimed to reconstruct ground cover maps, to distinguish characteristic 

upland land uses before and after the reservoir was installed and to determine the sediment 

contribution of different land uses to the reservoir. Hybrid classification combining remote 

sensing data (aerial photograph 1954, Landsat 1973 and 1993) with farmers’ information were 

used to obtain detailed classification of past land cover. 

Compound specific stable isotope (CSSI) analysis of fatty acid methyl ester (FAME) and fallout 

radionuclide (FRN) measurements were chosen to support and match the data obtained by 

remote sensing - GIS and farmer interviews. The integration of FRNs and CSSI-FAME markers 

enables apportioning sediment bodies to land use specific erosion rates. This is achieved 

through the following steps: 1. FRN are used to distinguish sediment strata at the deposition 

sites. To receive an estimate of sediment volumes, a statistical analysis of sediment strata is 

based on spatially distributed sediment profiles. The approach is capable of converting measurements 

of FRN soil inventories to estimate soil erosion and deposition rates. 2. The land use 

specific mass accumulation represented within a stratum is estimated by multiplying the mass 

of the stratum (FRN) by the land use specific soil proportion (CSSI-FAME). 3. Linking the 

land use specific mass accumulation to land use information from GIS allows the evaluation of 

land use specific erosion dynamics corresponding to the sediment strata. 

Keywords: Compound specific stable isotopes, fallout radionuclides, GIS, land use history, 

remote sensing 

Contact Address: Thanh Thi Nguyen, University of Hohenheim, Inst. of Plant Production and 

Agroecology in the Tropics and Subtropics, Garbenstr. 13, 70599 Stuttgart, Germany, e-mail: 

nguyenthanh0406@gmail.com 

197


Legume Small GTPase MtROP9 and its Role in Establishment of 

Plant Defense During Pathogenic and Symbiotic Interactions with 

Medicago truncatula 

LEONARD KIIRIKA, UDO SCHMITZ, FRANK COLDITZ 

Leibniz Universität Hannover, Institute of Plant Genetics, Germany 

Legumes are among the most economically important crop families providing excellent 

sources of protein, vitamins, minerals and other nutrients to human and animal 

diets. Production of legume crops such as peas, soybean, dry beans, etc, which form 

an essential protein source for majority of population in semi-arid and tropical regions 

is hampered by soil borne pathogens. Ability of these crops to defend temselves 

against infections by oomycete root rot pathogens like Aphanomyces euteiches 

and interactions with symbionts (nitrogen fixing bacteria and abascular mycorrizal) 

involves small GTP-binding proteins that function as molecular switches controlling 

the signal transduction pathway resulting to host defense response. 

We investigated the role of Medicago truncatula small GTPase MtROP9 (M. truncatula 

Rho of plants) orthologous to M. sativa Rac1 via an RNA interference silencing 

approach. MtROP9 deficient plants whose roots were transformed by A. rhizogenes 

carrying RNAi vector were produced and infected with pathogenic oomycete 

A. euteiches symbiotic arbuscular mycorrhiza fungus Glomus intraradices as well as 

rhizobial bacteria Sinorhizobium meliloti. Phenotypic observations clearly showed a 

retarded growth in MtROP9i transgenic lines. Neither ROS generation nor MtROP9 

and MtRBOH gene expression resulted after microbial infections. The knockdown of 

MtROP9 clearly promoted mycorrhizal and A. euteiches early hyphal root colonisation, 

while rhizobial infection was clearly impaired. The results of our study suggest 

a key role of small GTPase MtROP9 in development of host plant defense involving 

ROS-mediated early infection signalling. 

These results contributes to the investigation on the development of new techniques 

for the control of soil borne pathogens and provides an outlook to the investigations 

on opportunities for disease resistance development in legumes and in plant breeding 

to capture possibilities of raising crop yield, nutritional quality, limited pesticide use 

and over all poverty alleviation. 

Keywords: Aphanomyces euteiches, arbuscular mycorrhizal symbiosis, Medicago 

truncatula, MtROP9, plant defense proteins, rhizobia bacteria symbiosis, small GT- 

Pase 

Contact Address: Leonard Kiirika, Leibniz Universität Hannover, Institute of Plant Genetics Dept. III, 

Plant Molecular Biology, Herrenhäuser Str. 2, 30419 Hannover, Germany 

e-mail: kiirika@genetik.uni-hannover.de 

198


Organic Amendment, Composting, Soil Fertility Improvement 

and Climbing Bean Yield in Degraded Soil of Rwanda 

MODESTE BIZIMANA 1 ,RODRIGUE V. CAO DIOGO 2 ,DANIEL THOMAS 

RUKAZAMBUGA NTIRUSHWA 3 ,ANDREAS BUERKERT 2 

1National University of Rwanda, Dept. of Soil and Environment, Rwanda 



3National University of Rwanda, Dept. of Crop Production and Horticulture, Rwanda 

The soils in the Gatumba sector of Rwanda are highly degraded due to increased land use 

pressure, mining activities and low inputs use. A study was undertaken at a degraded tantalum 

mined site to (1) identify different sources of organic materials usable as amendments, 

(2) evaluate the effects of improved versus traditional composting on physical and chemical 

properties of soils, and (3) assess the impacts of nutrients recycled under the two systems on 

climbing beans growth and yield. A survey using 50 households (HH) in Gatumba area, and 

200 HH from Muhanga, Huye, Nyamagabe and Nyanza Districts was also conducted. These 

districts have been selected for being the biggest producer of solid wastes around Gatumba sector. 

Materials collected for the study were: (i) farm yard manure (FYM), solid wastes (SW) and 

tithonia biomass (TB) from and around Gatumba and (ii) SW from Muhanga. Composting was 

done under plastic roofing (improved, IR) and tree leaves shade (local system). The treatments 

under plastic roofing were: (i) SW, (ii) FYM, (iii) SW plus Minjingu phosphate rock (MPR, 

13-15 % P, with neutral ammonium citrate solubility of 4.4%), (iv) FYM plus MPR , (v) FYM 

plus SW, (vi) FYM plus SW plus MPR , (vii) TB plus FYM plus SW. Treatments under tree 

leaves shades included: (viii) SW, (ix) FYM and (x) SW plus FYM. MPR was added at the rate 

of 50 g kg-1 dry matter (DM) FYM/SW. The quality of organic materials collected from rural 

and urban areas was very poor with 0.30 % total N, and 0.064 % total P for rural and 0.73 % 

total N and 0.133 % total P from urban SW. Similarly, traditional composting yielded poor quality 

material (0.23 – 0.30 % total N and 0.060-0.072% total P), while plastic roofing increased 

total N from 0.96 to 1.65 %, and total P from 0.13 to 0.30 %). The effects of improved compost 

on growth and yield of climbing beans were assessed using replicated experiments (four 

trials in un-mined and four in degraded sites). We measured plant height, number of pods, 

biomass, and grain yield. Improved compost (5 t DM ha-1 ) improved total DM yield from 1.99 

– 3.54 t ha-1 grain compared to traditional compost (0.76 – 0.90 t ha-1 ) at the same rate of compost 

application. For the growth parameters, improved compost promoted the plant vegetative 

growth, which could be arranged in descending order of treatmsnts as follows: TB-enriched 

compost – MRP-enriched compost – FYM – SW. The highest climbing beans biomass and 

grain yield was 20.06 t ha-1 and 15.55 t ha-1 , and 3.06 and 3.54 t ha-1 (on a dry matter basis) for 

FYM+SW+MPR IR and TB+FYM+SW IR, respectively. Improved compost can contribute to 

the legumes development in small-scale low-input farming system of Rwanda. 

Keywords: Climbing beans, compost, degraded, mined, rock phosphate, soil 

Contact Address: Daniel Thomas Rukazambuga Ntirushwa, National University of Rwanda, Dept. of 

Crop Production and Horticulture, P.O. Box 117, Butare, Rwanda, e-mail: drukazambuga@nur.ac.rw 

199


Regeneration of Vigna subgenus ceratotropis Collections in 

Thailand 

SUMANA NGAMPONGSAI, VEERANA SINSAWAT FORRER, ARADA MASARI, 

SUWIMOL THANOMSUB, PAVEENA CHAIWAN, FONGSEN YANG, SAK PENGPHOL 

Chai Nat Field Crops Research Centre, Field Crops Research Institute, Dept. of 

Agriculture, Thailand 

The implementation of this project was carried to regenerate and safety duplicate 656 

accessions of Vigna species in 2009–2010. Mungbean (Vigna radiata), blackgram 

(V. mungo) and wild Vigna spp. were regenerated. Morphological characteristics, preliminary 

evaluation data, agronomic evaluation data and photographs were recorded. 

The results showed that, given the differences in their own genetics, in situ conservation 

sites, soil type, microclimate and imposed threats, the morphological characteristics 

and agronomic traits of 374 accessions of mungbean varied dramatically. 

The number of pods per plant was from 3 to 36 pods, the number of seed per pod 

varied between 7–19. Seed size of mungbean varied between 25.0–89.5g per 1000 

seeds. Seed weight per plant varied between 2.1–41.3 g plant -1 while the total seed 

yield was from 0.01–2.93kg per 20 m 2 . For 100 accessions of blackgram, it was 

found that seed yield per plant was 4.7–37.9g. Seed size of blackgram varied from 

30–57 g per 1000 seeds. Plant height ranged from 63–162 cm and the number of pods 

per plant was 17–103 pods. The number of seed per pod was 6–8 seeds. For wild 

Vigna species a total of 94 accessions from 19 species were grown in 2009, and 88 

accessions from 7 species were grown in 2010, the number of seed per pod varied 

between 3–14 seeds. Seed size varied between 5–82 g. Seed weight per plant varied 

between 0.5–96.1 g plant -1 . Seed size varied between 8.8–108 g per 1,000 seeds. The 

morphological characteristics and agronomic traits were then recorded in a database 

for a sustainable and efficient use in breeding programme. In summary for two years, 

656 accessions could obtain the seed for further research and safety duplication. All 

accessions were already deposited at the Thai-Department of Agriculture genebank. 

Keywords: Blackgram, genebank, genetic resources, mungbean, wild Vigna 

Contact Address: Sumana Ngampongsai, Chai Nat Field Crops Research Centre, Field Crops Research 

Institute, Dept. of Agriculture, 17000 Muang, Thailand, e-mail: sumana56@hotmail.com 

200


Social Local Factors that Determine Maintenance of Knowledge 

on Medicinal Plants Species in the Municipalities of Zetaquira and 

Campo Hermoso, Boyacá-Colombia: With an Analyses of the 

Local Depletion of Plant Species and Suggestions for Preservation 

ANA LUCÍA CADENA GONZÁLEZ-THIELE 1 ,MARTEN SOERENSEN 1 , 

IDA THEILADE 2 

1University of Copenhagen, Botany Section, Denmark 

2University of Copenhagen, Danish Centre for Forest, Landscape and Planning, 

Denmark 

Analyses of the relation of social factors that determine conservation of traditional 

knowledge on plants species need to be extened in order to understand the reasons 

that communities have to preserve or on the contrary to deplete local traditional plant 

species. The main objective of this study was to identify local social factors that 

promote the knowledge on medicinal plant species in the municipalities of Zetaquira 

and Campo Hermoso, Departamento de Boyacá, Colombia, using quantitative and 

statistical means and to analyse the relation between social factors and the depletion of 

plant species within the localities. The targeted groups were students and adults from 

different localities within each municipality. Structured and semistructured interviews 

were applied. The results indicate that students who inhabit in rural areas far from 

the core of the municipalities have the tendency to describe a large knowledge on 

native plant species. In the case of adults, large knowledge was described in the 

urban area in Zetaquira, while those groups who inhabit in rural areas described the 

highest knowledge in Campo Hermoso. Some factors appeared not to be statistically 

significant. Nevertheless, it is worthwhile to mention them here, such as age and the 

way of transport to reach to the health care centre. The adults between forty to sixty 

years old were able to describe the largest total number of traditional plant species 

and their uses. 

Social factors identified and the lists of disappeared species, species in danger according 

to the perception of the interviewees, and the list of the most valuable species 

(IUV) described during the interviews might be of interest to the design of future 

projects, that aim to preserve medicinal plants within the studied areas. Agroforestry 

systems would be an option that could include production of food and medicines 

based on the interest of the locals. 

Keywords: Ethno-botany, social factors, traditional knowledge conservation 

Contact Address: Ana Lucía Cadena González-Thiele, University of Copenhagen, Botany Section, 

Rolighedsvej 21, 1958 DK Copenhagen, Denmark, e-mail: analu@dsr.life.ku.dk 

201


Microbial Biomass Dynamics in Eight Ecosystems During a 

Climatic Transition Phase at Mt. Kilimanjaro 

HOLGER PABST, KARIN SCHMIDT, YAKOV KUZYAKOV 

Georg-August-Universität-Göttingen, Buesgen Institute: Soil Science of Temperate 

Ecosystems, Germany 

To understand impacts of climate and land use changes on biodiversity and accompanying 

ecosystem stability and services at the Mt. Kilimanjaro, detailed information 

about the soil microbial biomass and fluxes are needed. Transition phases within 

the bimodal tropical climate are of special interest since several parameters experience 

changes in a short time period. Each of the affected parameters has a different 

effect on soil microbes. As an important factor for soil fertility, microbial biomass 

C and N will be described on different pedon depending on land use (natural vs. 

agricultural ecosystems) and climate (altitude gradient). Microbial C content will be 

quantified in different depths and in various dominant ecosystems, i.e., maize fields, 

coffee plantations, lower montane forests, homegardens, savannah, Podocarpus forest, 

Ocotea forest and grasslands. Microbial contents of the different land use types 

will be compared with the conversion of natural ecosytems to agriculture as well as 

to the changing plant diversity. A comparison of all investigated ecosystems - during 

the transition period - should provide a better understanding about the change from 

natural to agricultural land as well as further land degradation. 

Keywords: Climate transition, land-use change, microbial biomass C, montane 

ecosystems 

Contact Address: Holger Pabst, Georg-August-Universität-Göttingen, Buesgen Institute: Soil Science 

of Temperate Ecosystems, Büsgenweg 2, 37073 Göttingen, Germany, e-mail: hpabst@gwdg.de 

202

Mineral fertilisation and resilience of 

cropping systems 


ISMAIL CAKMAK: 

Mineral Fertilisation for Higher Agronomic Benefits and 

Nutritional Value 205 


MOHAMMAD ABDEL-RAZEK, THOMAS GAISER, BERND 

DIEKKRÜGER, HEINER GOLDBACH: 

Triticum aestivum Yield and Water-use Efficiency in the Draâ 

Oases at South East Morocco: Irrigation and N-fertiliser 

Effects 206 

SHAMIE ZINGORE: 

Maize Productivity and Response to Fertiliser Use as Affected 

by Soil Fertility Variability, Manure Application and Cropping 

System in Africa 207 

JOSEPH KUGBE, MANFRED DENICH, MATHIAS FOSU, 

LULSEGED TAMENE DESTA, PAUL L. G. VLEK: 

Season of Burning Influences Fire Induced P-Losses in Ghana 208 

XIANGPING JIA: 

Farmers’ Adoption of Improved Nitrogen Management 

Strategies in Maize Production in China: An Experimental 

Knowledge Training 209 

Posters 210 

JOSEPH KUGBE, LULSEGED TAMENE DESTA, MANFRED 

DENICH, MATHIAS FOSU, PAUL L. G. VLEK: 

Nutrient Deposition During the Harmattan Dry Season Across 

the Northern Region of Ghana 210 

YASSIN MOHAMED DAGASH, SAMIA OSMAN YAGOUB, NAHID 

ABD ALFATAH KHALIL: 

Effect of Sowing Date, Irrigation Intervals and Fertilisers on 

Safflower (Carthamus tinctorius L.) Yield 211 

203


204 

EASTONCE GWATA, DANISO BESWA, JESTINOS MZEZEWA, 

HENRY SILUNGWE: 

Pattern of Nitrogenase Activity in Root Nodules of two 

Contrasting Tropical Soybean Types 212 

TUALAR SIMARMATA, TIEN TURMUKTINI, ANYA CITRARESMI, 

BENNY JOY: 

Application of Straw Compost and Biofertilisers to Remediate 

the Soils Health and to Increase the Productivity of Paddy 

Rice in Indonesia 213 

DANIEL VAN VUGT: 

An Assessment of Soybean-Maize Rotations and Biological 

Nitrogen Fixation on Smallholder Farmers’ Fields in Malawi 214 

IBRAHIM OSMAN, ABDELKARIM AWADELKARIM: 

Effect of Nitrogen Source, Soil Type and Depth of Application 

on Ammonia Volatilisation 215 

NAZAR OMER HASSAN SALIH, MUBARAK ABDALLA, ALI 

AHMED HASSABO: 

Fate of Fertiliser N Applied to a Guar-Wheat Rotation 

System as Influenced by Crop Residue Incorporation in a 

Semi-Arid Vertisol 216 

OGOUDEDJI GEORGES PASCAL CODJOVI, ERNST-AUGUST 

NUPPENAU, KORB JUDITH: 

Maize Production Risks in Pendjari Region, Benin: Chemical 

Fertliser and Termite (Macrotermes bellicosus) Fertlity Effects 217 

CHALERMCHART WONGLEECHAROEN, SUJINEE WONGLEE- 

CHAROEN, KHALID HUSSAIN, THOMAS HILGER, THANUCHAI 

KONGKAEW, WATTANAI ONSAMRAN, JAN DIELS, GEORG 

CADISCH: 

Translocation and Utilisation of Fertiliser N in Tropical 

Sloping Land as Affected by Soil Conservation 218

Mineral fertilisation and resilience of cropping systems — Invited Paper 

Mineral Fertilisation for Higher Agronomic Benefits and 

Nutritional Value 

ISMAIL CAKMAK 

Sabanci University, Fac. of Engineering and Natural Sciences, Turkey 

Currently, poor soil fertility, improper nutrient management and imbalanced mineral nutrition 

are still widespread problems in many developing countries, resulting in both food and nutrition 

insecurity. An adequate and well-balanced mineral fertilisation is essential in achieving and 

maintaining high crop production and also harvesting products with adequate nutrient density. 

Generally, crop production takes places under stressful environments. There are a number 

of published examples showing that mineral fertilisers play a key role in mitigating adverse 

impacts of environmental stress factors on crop plants such as water deficiency, heat stress, 

salinity, and aluminium toxicity. 

Inadequate supply of mineral nutrients to plants diminishes not only productivity but also seed 

nutrient density. Using seeds with low nutrient density is often associated with impairments in 

seed vitality and seedling vigour, leading to reduced agronomic performance of seedlings and 

low yield capacity. Plants emerging from seeds with low nutrient reserves are highly susceptible 

to environmental stress conditions and infection by pathogens. Ensuring sufficient nutrition 

of seeds with mineral nutrients during reproductive growth stage is, therefore, a critical issue 

in achieving positive agronomic impacts on productivity and improving nutritional value of 

the harvested products for human health. Currently, zinc (Zn) and iron (Fe) deficiencies are 

well-documented nutritional problems in human populations, resulting in poor public health, 

especially in the developing world. Reduced dietary intake of those micronutrients represents a 

major reason for high incidence of micronutrient deficiencies where cereal grains are the major 

source of calorie intake. Cereals are inherently very low in micronutrients and contain even 

lower Zn and Fe levels when grown on micronutrient-deficient soils. Increasing concentration 

of Zn and Fe in food crops is, therefore, an important global agronomic target and humanitarian 

challenge. Mineral fertiliser strategy represents a quick solution to alleviate micronutrient 

malnutrition, and highly advantageous strategy as it may also contribute to better yields on 

Zn and Fe deficient soils. In case of Zn, increasing evidence available from field experiments 

shows that foliar application of Zn fertilisers both fortifies grain Zn concentration up to 2-fold 

as well as improving crop yields. The results available suggest that fertiliser strategy is a useful 

agronomic practice for an effective enrichment of cereal grains with micronutrients and thus 

for contributing to nutrition and well-being of human populations. 

Keywords: Human nutrition, mineral fertilisation, seed quality, stress tolerance 

Contact Address: Ismail Cakmak, Sabanci University, Fac. of Engineering and Natural Sciences, 

34956 Istanbul, Turkey, e-mail: cakmak@sabanciuniv.edu 

205


Triticum aestivum Yield and Water-use Efficiency in the Draâ 

Oases at South East Morocco: Irrigation and N-fertiliser Effects 

MOHAMMAD ABDEL-RAZEK 1 ,THOMAS GAISER 1 ,BERND DIEKKRÜGER 2 , 

HEINER GOLDBACH 1 


2University of Bonn, Department of Geography, Germany 

More erratic and decreasing rainfall in the Mansour Eddhabi Dam catchment had severe 

impacts on irrigated agriculture in the downstream Draâ Oases. Among other 

practices, N-fertiliser quantity and source and timing of irrigation are possible mitigation 

measures to increase grain yield and water-use efficiency (WUE) of Triticum 

aestivum (cv. Achtar). Field experiments were conducted during 2009–2010 at two 

oases (Mezguita and Ktoua). The experiments were laid out as split-split plot design: 

main plot was irrigation (farmer’s practice or scheduled at sowing, beginning 

of tillering, beginning of elongation, beginning of ear formation and end of flowering), 

subplot was N-fertiliser (urea or FYM) and sub-subplot was N-fertiliser quantity 

(0, 50 or 100 kg N ha -1 ). At Ktoua, only two fertiliser rates could be tested (0 and 

100 kg N ha -1 ). Another experiment was carried out at Ouarzazate, upstream of the 

Draâ, to identify the grain yield for the area under “unstressed” conditions. There was 

no significant difference between the proposed stages irrigation and farmer’s irrigation 

at both sites. Average grain yields were 2.0 and 3.2 Mg ha -1 and WUE were 2.7 

and 5.7 kg mm -1 in Mezguita and Ktoua respectively. N-fertiliser quantity and source 

had significant effect on grain yield and WUE in Ktoua. Control treatment yielded 

2.3 Mg ha -1 grain and 3.9 kg mm -1 WUE. Application of 100 kg N ha -1 as FYM led 

to an increase of 60 % grain yield and 66 % WUE. Urea 100 kg N ha -1 doubled both 

grain yield and WUE. At Mezguita, the effect of N-fertiliser was less pronounced. 

Application of 100 kg N ha -1 as urea increased the yield by 50 % and WUE by 77 % 

over control (1.9 Mg ha -1 and WUE of 2.6 kg mm -1 ). FYM at a rate of 100 kg N ha -1 

yielded a slightly significant increase. The intermediate 50 kg N ha -1 of either Nfertilisers 

showed no advantage over control. The highest yield attained at Ktoua of 

4.6 Mg ha -1 is still only 60 % of the 7.8 Mg ha -1 unstressed grain yield obtained at 

Ouarzazate. N-fertiliser as urea appears to have a great potential in the area, especially 

in the poorer oasis of Ktoua, where most farmers seldom use fertilisers. Wheatphases 

irrigation might be advantageous over usual farmers’ practices in dryer years. 

Keywords: Achtar, grain yield, Ktoua, Mezguita, Ouarzazate, winter wheat 

Contact Address: Mohammad Abdel-Razek, University of Bonn, Inst. Crop Sci. and Res. Conserv. 

(INRES), Katzenburgweg 5, 53115 Bonn, Germany, e-mail: abdelrazek@uni-bonn.de 

206

Mineral fertilisation and resilience of cropping systems — Oral Presentations 

Maize Productivity and Response to Fertiliser Use as Affected by 

Soil Fertility Variability, Manure Application and Cropping 

System in Africa 

SHAMIE ZINGORE 

International Plant Nutrition Institute (IPNI), Kenya 

To counter growing food insecurity in sub-Saharan Africa (SSA), there are renewed 

efforts to support farmers to intensify crop production mainly by increasing the use 

of fertilisers and improved crop varieties. However, the impact of these efforts will 

be very limited, unless the fundamental issues of providing the crops with balanced 

and adequate nutrients are addressed, and fertiliser recommendations are fine-tuned 

to account for highly variable soil fertility conditions. We conducted multi-location 

nutrient omission trials in sites with high potential for maize production intensification 

(> 800 mm annual rainfall) in East and southern Africa to determine (i) nutrientinduced 

yield gaps; and (ii) nutrient requirements for balanced fertilisation of maize 

under variable soil fertility conditions. Nutrient were applied at rates to achieve a 

yield target yield of 7 t ha-1 . Fields were demarcated into three categories of soil 

fertility (low, medium and high) based on soil organic matter contents. Experimental 

results revealed that N deficiency accounted for the largest yield gaps 1–4 t ha -1 

across all categories of soil fertility. On the high fertility fields, 90 % of the maximum 

attainable yields were achieved with application of N+P. In medium fertility fields, 

additional nutrients (K, Mg Ca, S, Zn and B) were required to significantly increase 

maize yields above the N+P treatment. On the degraded soils, baseline yields were 

very low, and were increased to less than 2 t ha-1 by applying N+P and to less than 

3tha-1 by applying all macro and micronutrients. In the degraded soils, replenishing 

organic matter through strategic fertiliser application with incorporation of crop 

residues may provide an option to increase attainable yields over time. Use of compost 

and animal manures, may also play a role, but available quantities are limited and 

the quality is often poor. To support sustainable intensification of maize production 

in SSA, we have developed the nutrient expert decision support tool to build capacity 

among extension systems and smallholder farmers for the practical identification 

of soil fertility variability and local adaptation of site-specific fertiliser management 

practices. 

Keywords: Maize, yield gap 

Contact Address: Shamie Zingore, International Plant Nutrition Institute (IPNI), P.O. Box 30772- 

00100, Nairobi, Kenya, e-mail: SZingore@ipni.net 

207


Season of Burning Influences Fire Induced P-Losses in Ghana 

JOSEPH KUGBE 1 ,MANFRED DENICH 1 ,MATHIAS FOSU 2 ,LULSEGED TAMENE 

DESTA 3 ,PAUL L. G. VLEK 1 

1University of Bonn, Center for Development Research (ZEF), Germany 

2CSIR-Sari, Soil Fertility, Ghana 

3International Center for Tropical Agriculture (CIAT), Trop. Soil Biology and Fertility 

(TSBF), Malawi 

Between November and February of each year about 45-60 % of the northern region 

(29 % Ghana) of Ghana gets burned. The fires are associated with plant nutrient transfers 

of which local losses of P is of major concern given that it is relatively unavailable 

to crops in the prevailing Fe rich soils. Bush fires, however, provide essential 

cultural and socio-economic goods and services (as in hunting and land preparation 

for agriculture) at relatively cheap cost to the local population: making it difficult to 

implement fire prevention strategies across the region. The need arise therefore to 

device means by which fires may be used to provide the usual services but at a reduced 

cost to soil P losses. In this study early (November) and late (January) burn 

season losses are estimated by a difference in P load before (plant tissues) and after 

(ash) combustion for each combusted IGBP (International Geosphere Biosphere 

Program) land cover type. The seasonal variations are then compared to provide ecological 

insights into efficient means of reducing the nutrient losses during burns. Least 

mean loss (kg km −2 ) occurs across shrublands (127–148) while highest losses occur 

across grasslands (129–402). Given that 88 % and 10 % of the annual burns occur 

across savannah and woody savannah vegetations, the respective P losses of 170–260 

and 158–270 kg km -2 has greater impact on local P losses than the relatively high 

losses across shrubland and grassland vegetations. Besides woody savannah vegetation 

where P losses are highest during early burns than late burns, late burn losses 

across savannah, grassland and shrubland vegetations are higher than early burn losses 

due to comparable tissue concentrations but higher combusted dry material in the late 

season. Comparatively low tissue moisture also enhances combustibility and render 

late burns vulnerable to higher P losses. Early burns are suggested to reduce local P 

losses. The patches of unburned vegetation created by the early burns also inhibit late 

burn occurrence, may enhance wildlife sustenance and promote tree seedling growth 

and establishment for carbon capture and storage. 

Keywords: Bush fire, food security, fuel load, phosphorus nutrition, savannah 

Contact Address: Joseph Kugbe, University of Bonn, Center for Development Research (ZEF), 

Walter Flex Str. 3, 53117 Bonn, Germany, e-mail: joekugbe@yahoo.com 

208

Mineral fertilisation and resilience of cropping systems — Oral Presentations 

Farmers’ Adoption of Improved Nitrogen Management Strategies 

in Maize Production in China: An Experimental Knowledge 

Training 

XIANGPING JIA 

Chinese Academy of Sciences, Institute of Geographical Sciences and Natural Resource 

Research, China 

Chemical fertiliser plays an important role in increasing food production in China. 

Nevertheless, excessive nitrogen fertiliser use in China has resulted in severe environmental 

problems. Scientists attribute the excessive use of nitrogen (N) fertiliser in 

China to inappropriate farming management and propose site-specific nitrogen management 

that targets input applications more precisely to match the spatial and seasonal 

variability in soil conditions has been studied. However, despite great efforts 

made by scientists to improve the efficiency of fertiliser use, N fertiliser use continues 

to rise while its efficiency remains low, which has brought economists’ attention to 

the rationality of overusing N fertiliser. 

The goal of this paper is to examine the impacts of an improved nitrogen management 

(INM) training experiment on farmers’ chemical N use behaviours in maize production 

in China. The knowledge training of INM was randomly assigned to 18 treated 

villages while keep the 12 villages in the neighbourhood as a control. Uniquely, this 

training was delivered by the public extension system so that the research results have 

profound policy implications in its generalisability. 

The research was conducted in Shandong, China, where household data was collected 

from 813 maize farmers. This study finds that while INM training can significantly 

reduce farmers’ N fertiliser use, an INM training is not sufficient to change farmer’s 

practices significantly, and farmers only partially adopted the recommended INM. The 

recommended INM technology requires farmers to spend additional time on fertiliser 

application, which is a significant challenge for a farming system dominated by smallscale 

farms, many with family laborers who engaged in off-farm employment in urban 

areas where wages have been rising significantly since the early 2000s. This study 

reveals that China faces challenges to transform its agriculture to a low-carbon one. 

The research also sheds light on China’s extension system and future technologies in 

meeting the objectives of reducing the excessive nitrogen fertiliser use in agricultural 

production. 

Keywords: China, farmer, maize, nitrogen, training 

Contact Address: Xiangping Jia, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Institute of Geographical Sciences and 

Natural Resource Research, Jia 11 Datun Road Anwai, 100101 Beijing, China, e-mail: xpjosephjia@ 

gmail.com 

209


Nutrient Deposition During the Harmattan Dry Season Across the 

Northern Region of Ghana 

JOSEPH KUGBE 1 ,LULSEGED TAMENE DESTA 2 ,MANFRED DENICH 1 ,MATHIAS 

FOSU 3 ,PAUL L. G. VLEK 1 




3CSIR-Sari, Soil Fertility, Ghana 

The harmattan dry season (November to February) across West Africa is associated 

with dry nutrient deposits that are attributed to external dust sources and the redistribution 

of nutrients from local soils. Quantities of dry nutrient deposits are mostly 

estimated at single sites or in a single (North to south) direction; limiting data and 

knowledge on the two dimensional spatial nutrient deposits. In this study, the geospatial 

distribution of dry nutrient deposits across 15 (5 latitudinal zones and 3 longitudinal 

zones) sites of the entire northern region of Ghana is investigated through a 

modified stratified contiguous unit based spatial technique in order to ascertain the 

spatial variations and the mean dry nutrient inputs. Deposited nitrate-N showed no 

apparent trend in spatial distribution. However, quantity of deposited P, K, Ca, and 

Mg positively correlates with latitude (p < 0.05) and with longitude (p > 0.05), with 

latitude being the greater predictor of dry nutrient deposits. Negative correlations between 

Ca and Mg concentrations on one hand with Na and K concentrations on the 

other hand for all sites suggest that substantial amounts of deposited Na and K may not 

have come from same sources as Ca and Mg. Variation in mean nutrient concentration 

(mg kg −1 ) with month (NO 3 -1 -N: 24-640; P: 23-56; K: 2720-4150; Ca: 1680-2010; 

Mg: 740-930) and not space is attributed to temporal differences in nutrient sources. 

High nutrient concentrations of dry deposits compared to the concentrations of soils 

of harmattan dust sources and to concentrations of local soil nutrients (total N: 710; 

P: 12; K: 25; Ca: 610; Mg: 200) given similar chemical treatments as the dry deposition, 

suggest the return of burned vegetation debris to be a major contributor to 

dry nutrient deposits besides dust transport and redistribution from local soils. Given 

the relatively low amount of total annual dry deposits per unit area (95 % confidence 

interval: 53 122 Mg km −2 ), the total supply of plant nutrients (kg km −2 ) by dry 

deposition (NO 3 -1 -N: 3-40; P: 1-6; K: 100-620; Ca: 70-200; Mg: 40-90) is however 

minimal to the soils available nutrient pool. 

Keywords: Burned ash, food security, geospatial distribution, harmattan, nutrient 

source 

Contact Address: Joseph Kugbe, University of Bonn, Center for Development Research (ZEF), 

Walter Flex Str. 3, 53117 Bonn, Germany, e-mail: joekugbe@yahoo.com 

210

Mineral fertilisation and resilience of cropping systems — Posters 

Effect of Sowing Date, Irrigation Intervals and Fertilisers on 

Safflower (Carthamus tinctorius L.) Yield 

YASSIN MOHAMED DAGASH 1 ,SAMIA OSMAN YAGOUB 1 ,NAHID ABD ALFATAH 

KHALIL 2 

1 Sudan University of Science and Technology, Agronomy, Sudan 

2 Dongola University, Agronomy, Sudan 

Despite the importance of safflower in the world, this crop has received only little research 

attention in Sudan. Therefore, a field experiment was conducted at the College 

of Agricultural Studies, Sudan University of Science and Technology in Khartoum, 

to study the effects of sowing date, irrigation intervals and different types of fertilisers 

on yield, yield components and pigment of safflower (Carthamus tinctorius L.) 

Geeza cultivar during 2010/11 and 2011/12. To this end a split-split plot layout was 

used with four replications. The main plots were two sowing dates (S1) on 13 th and 

(S2) 28 th November. Subplots were three irrigation intervals (7, 14 and 21 days) and 

sub-subplots were three fertiliser levels (urea 80 kg ha −1 , pellet granules 105 kg ha −1 

and farm yard manure 2000 kg ha −1 ). 

Sowing date had significant effects on seed yield in the first season and on seed yield, 

dry weight and pigment yield in the second season (p < 0.05). Irrigation significantl 

affected seed yield and pigment (p < 0.05) and on shoot dry weight in first and second 

season (p < 0.01), respectively. The interaction of sowing date and irrigation intervals 

had significant effects on seed yield in the first season and on pigment in the second 

season. There were no significant effects of fertilisers on all parameters, but farm yard 

manure had some influence on yield components at S2. 

The results showed negative correlations between harvest index, shoot dry weight 

(-0.3), number of seeds per head (-0.04), between pigment and 1000-seed weigh 

(-0.08) and also between seed yield and seed per head (-0.004) in the first season. 

Moreover, there was a negative correlation between pigment yield kg ha -1 and seed per 

head (-0.13) in season two. The higher seed yield of 2700 kg ha -1 and 2300 kg ha −1 

achieved from S1 and S2 in season one, respectively, as compared to 1600 kg ha −1 

and 1000 kg ha −1 from S1 and S2 in season two, respectively. Decreased seed yield 

in season two was due to infestion by Orabanche crenata which was the first record 

in Sudan. It can be concluded that for safflower under this condition the most suitable 

sowing date was 13 th November with an irrigation every 14 days. 

Keywords: Irrigation interval, pigment, safflower, sowing date 

Contact Address: Nahid Abd Alfatah Khalil, Dongola University, Agronomy, Khartoum, Sudan, 

e-mail: nana55512@hotmail.com 

211


Pattern of Nitrogenase Activity in Root Nodules of two 

Contrasting Tropical Soybean Types 

EASTONCE GWATA 1 ,DANISO BESWA 2 ,JESTINOS MZEZEWA 1 , 

HENRY SILUNGWE 2 


2University of Venda, Food Science and Technology, South 

Soybean (Glycine max L) production in marginal areas particularly in smallholder 

cropping systems (SCS) in Africa is useful for improving soil fertility through biological 

nitrogen fixation (BNF) and provision of an affordable source of protein for the 

communities. Production of the crop requires either seed inoculation with commercial 

rhizobial strains (inoculants) at planting or application of nitrogenous fertiliser. 

In SCS in Africa, both the inoculants and fertiliser are often not available readily 

leading farmers to cultivate tropical soybean types which do not require seed treatment 

with inoculants in order to nodulate and attain optimum yields. The tropical 

soybean types are compatible with indigenous rhizobia ubiquitous in African soils. 

However, there is inadequate information about BNF capacity of the tropical soybean 

types. This study assessed the BNF capacity of contrasting tropical soybean 

genotypes using three indicators namely nodule dry weight (NDW), shoot dry weight 

(SDW) and nitrogenase enzyme activity. F2 soybean plants segregating for tropical 

nodulation, were selected randomly from two phenotypic classes consisting of yellow 

(or chlorotic and stunted) and green (or healthy) plants. The nitrogenase activity in 

nodules was assayed ex situ using the Acetylene Reduction method. The highest nitrogenase 

activity (125.09 nmoles h−1 ) per plant was found in the effective nodules 

associated with the fixing genotypes. There was a negative but significant (r = - 0.827; 

p < 0.05) correlation between nitrogenase activity per unit nodule weight and SDW 

suggesting that a relatively high energy requirement for producing a unit SDW. The 

NDW per plant was significantly and positively correlated with SDW in both chlorotic 

and green genotypes. The mean ethylene production per unit nodule weight was at 

least four-fold higher in effective nodules compared with ineffective nodules. The 

results indicated that nitrogenase activity at the whole plant level was not indicative 

of shoot dry matter accumulation and tropical types of soybean can be selected for 

under N depleted growth conditions that are common in marginal areas in Africa. 

Keywords: Fixation, nitrogenase, nodules, tropical soybean 

Contact Address: Eastonce Gwata, University of Venda, Plant Production, University Road, 0950 

Thohoyandou, South Africa, e-mail: ectgwata@yahoo.com 

212


Application of Straw Compost and Biofertilisers to Remediate the 

Soils Health and to Increase the Productivity of Paddy Rice in 

Indonesia 

TUALAR SIMARMATA 1 ,TIEN TURMUKTINI 2 ,ANYA CITRARESMI 3 ,BENNY JOY 1 

1Padjadjaran University, Soil Sciences, Indonesia 

2University of Winaya Mukti, Dept. of Agronomy, Indonesia 

3National Nuclear Energy, Center for Application of Isotope and Radiation, Indonesia 

The intensive use of inorganic fertilisers and agrochemical products during the green 

revolution (early 1960s) had a great impact on the decline of soil health and soil quality. 

Based on the latest investigations, the soil organic content has decreased shraply 

within 30 years. Various field studies revealed that most of the paddy soils in Indonesia 

have been exhausted, as indicated by a low organic matter content (


An Assessment of Soybean-Maize Rotations and Biological 

Nitrogen Fixation on Smallholder Farmers’ Fields in Malawi 

DANIEL VAN VUGT 

International Institute of Tropical Agriculture (IITA), Malawi, Malawi 

Soils in cereal-based smallholder cropping systems in southern Africa are often characterised 

by nitrogen deficiencies which result in low yields. Soybean (Glycine max) 

production can address this problem by biological nitrogen fixation (BNF) which, if 

crop residues are returned to the soil, benefits the following cereal crops. 

This study was conducted to quantify atmospheric nitrogen fixation by soybean crops 

under different external input levels and to assess the rotational benefits of soybean 

on subsequent maize crops under smallholder farmers’ management techniques in 

central Malawi. 

Soybean biomass samples from 150 plots and reference maize and broadleaf weed 

species were collected at mid pod filling stage from 60 on-farm trials in the 2009 and 

2010 growing seasons in Dowa, Mchinji and Salima districts. Soybean treatments 

included farmers’ usual practices, improved variety, inoculation and fertiliser application. 

Samples were analysed for 15N contents and BNF was quantified using the 

natural abundance method. In 2010, 53 farmers compared yields of maize planted 

after the zero-input soybean plots of the 2009 season with maize planted after maize. 

Farmers used their own inputs and practices but similar in each plot. Soil sampling, 

field measurements and structured questionnaires generated data on plot history, crop 

management, yields and farmers’ perceptions on rotation. 

The soybean plots yielded on average 1 202 kg ha -1 . At mid pod-filling stage the crop 

accumulated an average biomass dry weight of 2 761 kg ha -1 containing on average 

103 kg nitrogen per ha. Depending on the reference plant used, soybean fixed 47.3 % 

(for maize) or 56.5 % (broad leaf weeds) of this nitrogen from the atmosphere. There 

was no relationship between nitrogen fixation and fertiliser application or inoculation. 

Average maize yields were 1629, 2941 and 4 365 kg ha -1 in Dowa, Mchinji and Salima 

respectively and maize crops planted after soybean showed 22.4, 56.2 and 33.0 % 

higher yields compared to continuous maize in these sites. 

This study indicates that under current crop management practices, farmers experience 

significant yield gains from planting maize after soybeans. This can partly be 

explained by BNF which results in reduced nitrogen depletion of the soils. 

Keywords: Crop rotation, natural abundance method, nitrogen fixation, soil fertility, 

soybean 

Contact Address: Daniel van Vugt, International Institute of Tropical Agriculture (IITA), 

Chitedze Research Station PO Box 30258, Lilongwe, Malawi, e-mail: d.vanvugt@cgiar.org 

214


Effect of Nitrogen Source, Soil Type and Depth of Application on 

Ammonia Volatilisation 

IBRAHIM OSMAN 1 ,ABDELKARIM AWADELKARIM 2 

1Higher Council for Environment and Natural Resources- River Nile State, Monitoring 

and Evaluation Department, Sudan 

2University of Khartoum, Soil and Environment Sciences, Sudan 

A field experiment was conducted to study the effect of soil type and methods of 

fertiliser application on the ammonia volatilisation when three orders of Sudan soils 

(Aridisols, Vertisols and Entisols) were fertilised by three types of nitrogenous fertilisers; 

namely, aqueous ammonia, urea and ammonium sulphate, in Berber, Gezira 

and Shambat, respectively. These fertilisers were applied by three methods: superficial 

application with irrigation water and injection in depth of 5 cm and 15 cm at a 

rate of 200 kg N ha-1 . A closed system was prepared around the points of application 

to collect volatile ammonia gas on diluted sulfuric acid 0.25 N and ventilation was 

ensured by using a semi-permissible membrane called parafilm. Sulfuric acid was 

analysed using steam distillation apparatus, and then titrated with hydrochloric acid. 

The results indicated that the rate of ammonia loss by volatilisation in Aridisols was 

lower than on Vertisols and Entisols and this is attributed to the different climatic conditions. 

In Berber the experiment was carried out during winter when temperature is 

low, causing a decrease in volatilisation, while in Gezira and Shambat the experiment 

was carried out in summer, and high rate of ammonia loss by volatilisation was observed 

in Entisols. This may be ascribed to the high silt content in this soil. The results 

demonstrated that surface application of nitrogen fertilisers increased loss of ammonia 

by volatilisation more than in the injection method since the fertilisers applied on the 

soil surface are more exposed and this increases volatilisation. In Vertisols and Entisols, 

the rate of ammonia volatilisation decreased gradually from the first week to the 

fourth week. But in Aridisols, increased rate of volatilisation occurred in the fourth 

week due to negative impact of cold season on the microbial growth which limits 

the hydrolysis of ammonium carbonate resulting in delaying of volatilisation process. 

In Vertisols and Entisols, high rates of ammonia volatilisation were noticed in aqueous 

ammonia more than in urea and ammonium sulphate due to the fast hydrolysis 

of aqueous ammonia compared with other types of fertilisers, while in Aridisols, the 

ammonia volatilisation recorded inconsistent values which attributed to cold weather. 

Keywords: Ammonia, fertilisers, soil, volatilisation 

Contact Address: Ibrahim Osman, Higher Council for Environment and Natural Resources- River Nile 

State, Monitoring and Evaluation Department, Berber, Sudan, e-mail: ibramilano@yahoo.com 

215


Fate of Fertiliser N Applied to a Guar-Wheat Rotation System as 

Influenced by Crop Residue Incorporation in a Semi-Arid Vertisol 

NAZAR OMER HASSAN SALIH 1 ,MUBARAK ABDALLA 2 ,ALI AHMED HASSABO 1 

1 University of Al-Neelain, Fac. Agricultural Technology and Fish Science, Sudan 

2 University of Khartoum, Desertification and Desert Cultivation Studies Institute, Sudan 

Guar or cluster bean (Cyamopsis tetragonoloba) is an interesting crop adapted to the 

semi-arid tropics. Nitrogen recovery from inorganic fertiliser in the crop/soil systems 

was monitored for six seasons in a guar-wheat (Triticum aestivum) crop rotation using 

10 % 15 N atom excess urea (12,72 kg ha -1 ). N15 recoveries in wheat straw, wheat head 

and total recovery were 22.46 %, 15.55 % and 38.01 % , respectively on plots without 

crop residue removal and 21.16 %, 15.55 %, and 36.71 %, respectively, on plots with 

crop residue removal. It was observed that continuous incorporation of fertiliser without 

crop residue removal improved the N recovery with 20.46 % as compared to the 

application of inorganic fertiliser with crop residue removal. In the 2 nd ,3 rd ,4 th ,5 th 

and 6 th crop cycle, incorporation of inorganic fertiliser without crop residue removal 

increased N retention of the topsoil by 4.6, 10.1, 3.4, 11.9 and 1.6 %, respectively, as 

compared to the inorganic fertiliser application with crop residue removal. 

N derived from fertiliser (Ndff) in the seeds or pods through all seasons, except the 

2 nd season, was higher on plots with crop residue left and the application of inorganic 

fertiliser then on plots without crop residues and the application of inorganic fertiliser, 

by 8.98 %, 7.77 %, 33.33 % and 1.37 % for the, 3 rd ,4 th ,5 th and 6 th season, respectively. 

It could be concluded that continuous application of crop residues along with 

fertilisers improved N recoveries in a guar-wheat rotation. 

Keywords: Crop residues, crop rotation, guar, N15, semi arid, wheat 

Contact Address: Nazar Omer Hassan Salih, University of Al-Neelain, Fac. Agricultural Technology 

and Fish Science, Khartoum, Sudan, e-mail: nazarmna@yahoo.com 

216


Maize Production Risks in Pendjari Region, Benin: Chemical 

Fertliser and Termite (Macrotermes bellicosus) Fertlity Effects 

OGOUDEDJI GEORGES PASCAL CODJOVI 1 ,ERNST-AUGUST NUPPENAU 1 , 

KORB JUDITH 2 

1Justus-Liebig University Giessen, Institute of Agricultural Policy and Market Research, 

Germany 

2University of Osnabruck, Institute of Behavioral Biology, Germany 

Since the decline of cotton prices on the international market, maize as other crops 

is being cultivated intensively in Benin for income enhancement. As the chemical 

input prices are increasing, farmers are looking for alternative inputs. Termites are 

known to play important roles in soil fertilisation, and through termite mounds and 

the medicinal plants they host, they contribute to health care. It has been noted that 

biased estimation of production function estimates results from the lack of accountability 

risks. Since maize production in Benin has increased at a varying rate since 

1998 it is important that we examine the risks associated with input use. The data 

for this study were collected from farmers from 6 villages in the district of Tanguieta, 

Pendjari Region, Benin. A total of 222 farmers were surveyed. Data from 128 

respondents were found usable in the current analysis. Econometric techniques were 

used to estimate a Just-Pope maize production function, which was used to compute 

marginal products of inputs, and to identify quantity of chemical fertiliser and density 

of inhabited termite mound associated with the boundaries between stages I, II, and 

III of the production function. The response of maize yield to the density of inhabited 

termite mound is elastic, same to the quantity of chemical fertiliser used. The values 

of 1 inhabited termite mound and 5 inhabited termite mounds represent the boundaries 

for the stage II of the maize production function. However, as the density of inhabited 

termite mounds and the quantity of chemical fertiliser used per hectare increase, the 

production risk is expected to increase. Hence, farmers may be cautious in increasing 

the quantity of fertilisers and to a high density of inhabited termite mound on crop 

plot. Thus farmers may increase yield and production by augmenting cautiously the 

quantity of chemical fertiliser and choosing cautiously the crop plot hosting inhabited 

termite mound, other factors remaining constant. 

Keywords: J-P production function, Pendjari, risk, termites 

Contact Address: Ogoudedji Georges Pascal Codjovi, Justus-Liebig University Giessen, Institute 

of Agricultural Policy and Market Research, Senckenbergstrasse 3 Zimmer 415, Giessen, Germany, 

e-mail: atagano@yahoo.fr 

217


Translocation and Utilisation of Fertiliser N in Tropical Sloping 

Land as Affected by Soil Conservation 

CHALERMCHART WONGLEECHAROEN 1 ,SUJINEE WONGLEECHAROEN 1 , 

KHALID HUSSAIN 1 ,THOMAS HILGER 1 ,THANUCHAI KONGKAEW 2 , 

WATTANAI ONSAMRAN 2 ,JAN DIELS 3 ,GEORG CADISCH 1 



2Kasetsart University, Dept. of Soil Sciences, Thailand 


Fertilisers are essential inputs for maintaining or increasing soil fertility in intensive agricultural 

systems. Due to high fertiliser costs and limited supply in developing countries, enhanced 

nutrient management needs to be pursued through maximising the efficiency of nutrient uptake, 

in order to sustain increased crop productivity and simultaneously enhance nutrient cycling and 

soil and water conservation. The fertiliser N consumption of Thailand, moreover, increased 

from 0.78 million tons in 1997 to 1.04 million tons in 2007 and is expected to further increase 

in the future. Both chili (Capsicum annuum) and maize (Zea mays) are important upland crops 

of Thailand. Particular maize receives substantial amounts of fertiliser due to its increasing 

market demand in the past. However, the fertiliser N utilisation (FNU) and translocation (FNT) 

in maize-chili and maize-chili-leucaena systems have yet not been studied, especially on sloping 

land. This research examined FNU and FNT in hillside agriculture as affected by crop 

management and soil conservation. Therefore, a field experiment was conducted in 2010 at 

Queen Sirikit farm, Suan Phueng District, Ratchaburi province in West Thailand (on hilly terrain 

with slope gradients up to 25%). The treatments consisted of four maize based cropping 

systems were (T1) maize monocrop, tillage, (T2) maize-chili intercrop, tillage, (T3) as T2 but 

with minimum tillage, relay cropped with Canavalia ensiformis, and (T4) as T3 but with Leucaena 

leucocephala hedgerow. 15N labeled urea (10 atom % 15N) was applied to a maize row 

in the upper part of each plot. 62 kg ha-1 of N was split applied at 30 and 60 days after maize 

sowing. Plant and soil samples of various positions along the slope, sediment, runoff and resin 

core samples of each plot were collected for stable isotope analyses to study the N recovery 

from fertiliser application and the N translocation. Total FNU in maize was highest in T4 indicating 

that the hedgerow system had positive effects on FNU due to reduced runoff. Only 

very small movements of 15N labeled fertiliser were detected along the slope in all treatments, 

indicating most of the N losses were of volatile nature. 

Keywords: Chili, hedgerows, intercropping, maize, minimum tillage, nitrogen fertiliser use 

efficiency, relay cropping, soil conservation, stable isotopes, Thailand, translocation 

Contact Address: Chalermchart Wongleecharoen, University of Hohenheim, Inst. of Plant Production 

and Agroecology in the Tropics and Subtropics, Garbenstrasse13, 70593 Stuttgart, Germany, e-mail: 

c_wongleecharoen@uni-hohenheim.de 

218

Innovations in cropping systems 


LUIS ERNESTO POCASANGRE: 

The Use of the Musa Diversity to Address the Challenge of 

Climate Change Agriculture and Food Security 223 


MARTIN WIEHLE, KATHLEEN PRINZ, KATJA KEHLENBECK, 

SVEN GOENSTER, SEIFELDIN ALI MOHAMED, REINER 

FINKELDEY, ANDREAS BUERKERT, JENS GEBAUER: 

Homegardens in Sudan - Domestication Spots for Wild Fruit 

Trees: The Case of Ziziphus spina-christi (L.) Willd. 224 

ISALINE MERCERAT, CAROLINE WECKERLE, MICHAEL 

KESSLER, YOHANES PURWANTO, KATJA KEHLENBECK: 

The Dynamic Role of Homegardens for Providing Food, Income 

and Ecological Services in Central Sulawesi, Indonesia 226 

SRUBA SAHA, TAMINA BEGUM, TAPASH DASGUPTA: 

Analysis of Genotypic Diversity in Sesame as Based on 

Morphological and Agronomic Traits 227 

MARIKO INGOLD, HERBERT DIETZ, EVA SCHLECHT, 

ANDREAS BUERKERT: 

Effects of Activated Charcoal and Tannin Amendments on 

Yields of Sweet Corn and Radish on an Irrigated Sandy Soil 

in Northern Oman 228 

Posters 

SETH NUAMAH: 

Making Effective Use of Climate Information by Small Scale 

Farmers in Managing Rain-fed Maize Production: A Case 

229 

Study in Bole, Ghana 229 

ALCIDO ELENOR WANDER, BEATA EMOKE MADARI, 

MARCIA THAIS DE MELO CARVALHO: 

Economic Viability of Biochar Use in Aerobic Rice Production 

in the Brazilian Cerrado 

GABRIELA PEREYRA, FOLKARD ASCH, ALEJANDRO PIETERS, 

ELIZABETH RENGIFO: 

Potential Yield of Venezuelan Maize Varieties under Variable 

230 

Water Supply 231 

219


220 

MOHSEN JAHAN, SAEED BAJOURI, ALI JAHAN: 

Radiation Absorption and Use Efficiency of Sesame as 

Affected by Biofertilisers in a Low Input Cropping System 232 

SHIMELES DAMENE SHIENE, PAUL L. G. VLEK, LULSEGED 

TAMENE DESTA: 

Performance of Farmland Terraces in Maintaining Crop Productivity 

in Wello, Northern Highlands of Ethiopia 233 

BÜLENT TOPCUO ˘GLU: 

The Influence of Humic Acids on the Metal Bioavailability 

and Phytoextraction Efficiency in Long-term Sludge Applied 

Soil 234 

SVEN GOENSTER, MARTIN WIEHLE, MARTINA PREDOTOVA, 

JENS GEBAUER, ABDALLA M. ALI, ANDREAS BUERKERT: 

Partial Horizontal Carbon and Nutrient Balances in Homegardens 

of the Nuba Mountains, Sudan 235 

GRETA JORDAN, MARTINA PREDOTOVA, MARIKO INGOLD, 

HERBERT DIETZ, ANDREAS BUERKERT: 

Effects of Activated Charcoal and Tannin Added to Soil and 

Compost on Carbon and Nitrogen Emissions 236 

BENJAPON KUNLANIT, PATMA VITYAKON: 

Vertical Distribution of Dissolved Organic Carbon in a Sandy 

Soil Treated with Different Quality Litter 237 

SARRA AHMED MOHAMED SAAD, MOAWIA YAHIA BABIKER, 

ANTHONY WHITBREAD: 

The Challenges of Maintaining Soil Productivity and Food 

Security in Sudan 238 

STEFAN HAUSER, DOMINIQUE M. MUNKENDI, ROBERT M. 

KAMAMBO, GERMAINE VANGU PAKA: 

Maize, Soybean and Cassava Yield Response to Bat Manure 

in Congo Democratic Republic 239 

PROYUTH LY,LARS S. JENSEN, THILDE B. BRUUN, ANDREAS 

DE NEERGAARD: 

Methane and Nitrous Oxide Emission from the System of Rice 

Intensification (SRI) under Rainfed Lowland Ecosystem in 

Cambodia 240 

CARLOS BETANCOURTH GARCÍA, CLAUDIA SALAZAR 

GONZÁLEZ, MARINO RODRIGUEZ: 

Soil Coverage Evaluation with Calendula (Calendula officinalis 

L.), Crotalaria (Crotalaria sp. L.) and Oat (Avena sp. 

L.) in Meloidogyne spp. Control in Quito Orange (Solanum 

quitoense Lam.) 241

Innovations in cropping systems — Contents 

NIEN CHAU NGUYEN, MICHAEL BÖHME, INA PINKER: 

Plant Genetic Resources in Vietnam: Current Situation of 

Conservation and Utilisation 242 

ASHKAN ASGARI, KOROUS KHOSHBAKHT, SOUFIZADEH 

SAEID, KARL HAMMER: 

Water Availability and Agrobiodiversity Indices - A Case Study 

of Non-Hunting Gharaviz Region 

DJOSSA BRUNO, SINSIN BRICE: 

Importance of Flying Foxes in Reproductive Performance of 

243 

Adansonia digitata in Benin 244 

JOHANNA JACOBI, MARIA ISABEL PILLCO, MONIKA 

SCHNEIDER, STEPHAN RIST: 

Biomass and Carbon Stocks Related to Ecological Complexity 

and Tree Diversity in Three Different Cocoa Production 

Systems 245 

VINCENT SCHMITT, PRIYANIE AMERASINGHE, DIONYS 

FORSTER, BHARADWAJA VADLOORI, URS NIGGLI: 

Improving Peri-Urban Soils with Recycled Waste from the 

Municipality of Patancheru: An Indian Case Study 

ANA MARIA MEDRANO ECHALAR, JUAN CARLOS TORRICO, 

JAVIER FORTANELLI: 

Expansion of Quinoa Crop (Chenopodium quinoa Willd.) and 

246 

Soil Quality Analysis in the Bolivian Intersalar 

TINA RONER, MONIKA M. MESSMER, MARIA R. FINCKH, 

DIONYS FORSTER, RAJEEV VERMA, RAJEEV BARUAH, SHREE- 

KANT S. PATIL: 

Participatory Cotton Breeding for Organic and Low Input 

247 

Farming in Central India 

FANG YANG, YINGZHI GAO, YEWOINWHA TADESSSE ABEBE: 

248 

Effects of Salt-Alkali Stress and Clipping on Stipa baicalensis 

SANJEEV KUMAR, REENA SINGH, ALOK ADHOLEYA: 

Organic Management Practices Enhance AM Biodiversity in 

249 

Tropical Agricultural Soils 250 

JULIE ANDREWS DE FRANÇA E SILVA, CECÍLIA 

HERNANDEZ OCHOA-COUTINHO, SILVIO BRIENZA JUNIOR, 

VANESSA GOMES DE SOUSA: 

Soil Seed Banks in Degraded Pastures Recovered by Forest 

Plantations in the Eastern Amazon, Brazil 

TEMESGEN M. OLANGO, MARCELLO CATELLANI,BIZUAYEHU 

TESFAYE, MARIO ENRICO PÈ: 

251 

Linking Indigenous Knowledge System and Molecular 

Genetic Analysis for Management and Conservation of 

Enset, a Food Security Crop in Southern Ethiopia 252 

221


222 

LI JIANG, JIXUN GUO, MARCUS GIESE,YINGZHI GAO, HONG- 

BIN WEI, HOLGER BRÜCK, FOLKARD ASCH: 

Transpiration Response of C3 and C4 Plants of Northern 

Chinese Steppe Ecosystem to Water Vapor Pressure Deficits 253 

CHRISTINE LUDWIG, MARIELLA KOPF, MARK SWAI, 

SANDRA HABICHT, MICHAEL KRAWINKEL: 

Knowledge and Usage of Bitter Gourd as an Anti-Diabetic 

Plant in Tanzania 

MARC SCHMIERER, HOLGER BRÜCK, FOLKARD ASCH: 

Skyfarming – Staple Food Production in Cities – Light vs 

254 

Energy Demand 255 

ALEXANDR ROLLO, MARIA MARGARIDA RIBEIRO, BOHDAN 

LOJKA, DAVID HONYS, HENRY DANTE SÁNCHEZ DÍAZ, JULIO 

ALFONSO CHIA WONG, HANA VEBROVÁ, RITA COSTA: 

Genetic Variability in Wild and Domestic Populations of Inga 

edulis Mart. (Fabaceae) in Peruvian Amazon 256 

OLIVER VAN STRAATEN, EDZO VELDKAMP, KATRIN WOLF, 

MARIFE D. CORRE: 

Effects of Land Use Change on Soil Organic Carbon: A 

Pan-tropic Study 257 

VAN NHA DUONG, FOLKARD ASCH: 

Effects of Geohumus on Physiological Traits of Maize (Zea 

mays L. cv. Mikado) under Variable Water Supply 258 

MÉNDEZ CUAUHTÉMOC, JIMÉNEZ JAVIER, EDUARDO 

ALANIS RODRIGUEZ, JOSE MANUEL MATA BALDERAS: 

Structural Analysis of Rosette Desert Scrub in Northeast 

Mexico 259 

VÍVIAN DO CARMO LOCH, ALTAMIRO SOUZA DE LIMA 

FERRAZ JUNIOR, FRANCISCA HELENA MUNIZ: 

Ethnoecological Analysis of Bacuri (Platonia insignis Mart.) 

Extractivism in the Chapada Limpa Reserve (Brazil) 260 

MARCUS GIESE, YINGZHI GAO, FOLKARD ASCH, HOLGER 

BRÜCK: 

Management Options for Sustainable Land-Use of Inner 

Mongolia Typical Steppe: Lessons from a Comprehensive N 

Balance 261 

GOLSOOMEH AZIZI, LEILA ALIMORADI, MARYAM JAHANI- 

KONDORI: 

Investigation of Weed Community Diversity in Forage Crop 

Fields in Iran 262

Innovations in cropping systems — Invited Paper 

The Use of the Musa Diversity to Address the Challenge of 

Climate Change Agriculture and Food Security 

LUIS ERNESTO POCASANGRE 

EARTH Univeristy, Tropical Crops, Costa Rica 

The majority of edible and cultivated bananas arose from interspecific crosses of Musa 

acuminata (A genome) and Musa balbisiana (B genome). Currently bananas are used 

as staple food crops in the tropic and subtropics and banana production systems are 

affected by drought, frost and flooding as results of climate change and unfortunately 

we are not using the diversity of Musa germplasm to adapt the best cultivars to address 

these problems. It is well established that cultivars with balbisiana genome are more 

resistant to frost than cultivars with acuminata genome, for example in the subtropics 

in Brazil Prata cultivars (AAB) are more resistant to frost than Cavendish (AAA). In 

Central America, cooking banana like Bluggoe (ABB) is more resistance to drought 

than plantain cultivars (AAB). However the farmers remain with the susceptible cultivars, 

although a replacement must be the solution to address these problems. Concerning 

to dessert banana for exporting, we are using just Cavendish cultivars (AAA), 

which are the most susceptible not just to drought, frost and flooding, but also to pests 

and diseases, such as Black Sigatoka (Mychosphaerella fijiensis) and the burrowing 

nematode (Radopholus similis). However there are hundreds of dessert banana cultivars, 

which are more resistance to biotic and abiotic stresses and can be exported, 

but we are not using them. Bred hybrids, such as FHIA 18 and FHIA 17 are more 

resistance to Black Sigatoka than Cavendish and countries like Cuba and Bolivia the 

farmers are cultivated them for local consumptions. In Dominican Republic, FHIA 21 

(AAAB) has partial replace the black Sigatoka susceptible plantain cultivars Macho 

X Hembra (AAB) and the farmers are saving application of fungicides just with the 

use of FHIA 21. Finally it is important to use the diversity of Musa germplasm, not 

only to address the climate change effects, but also to improve the food security and 

nutrition of the population mainly in tropical and subtropical countries. 

Keywords: Bananas, biotic and abiotic stresses, bred hybrids, germplasm, local 

cultivars, resistance 

Contact Address: Luis Ernesto Pocasangre, EARTH Univeristy, Tropical Crops, P.O Box 4442-1000, 

Guacimo, Costa Rica, e-mail: lpocasangre@earth.ac.cr 

223


Homegardens in Sudan - Domestication Spots for Wild Fruit 

Trees: The Case of Ziziphus spina-christi (L.) Willd. 

MARTIN WIEHLE 1 ,KATHLEEN PRINZ 2 ,KATJA KEHLENBECK 3 , 

SVEN GOENSTER 1 ,SEIFELDIN ALI MOHAMED 4 ,REINER FINKELDEY 2 , 

ANDREAS BUERKERT 1 ,JENS GEBAUER 5 



2Georg-August-Universität Göttingen, Buesgen Institute: Forest Genetics and Forest Tree 

Breeding, Germany 

3World Agroforestry Centre ICRAF, Tree Genetic Resources and Domestication, Kenya 

4University of Khartoum, Dept. of Horticulture, Sudan 

5Rhine-Waal University of Applied Sciences, Sustainable Agricultural Production 

Systems with Special Focus on Horticulture, Germany 

The Christ’s thorn jujube, Ziziphus spina-christi (Rhamnaceae) is one of the most 

important indigenous fruit tree species in Sudan. It has multiple food and cultural 

uses and contributes to income generation, particularly of women. Most fruits are 

collected in central and southern Sudan and traded all over the country. Fruits show a 

high phenotypic diversity with regard to colour, size, and taste, but so far the existing 

populations have not been characterised. 

To fill this knowledge gap and to assess possible domestication processes 250 individual 

trees were sampled from agroforestry homegardens (N=125) and adjacent 

forests (N=125) of five different locations in the Nuba Mountains. Trees and fruits 

were morphometrically characterised and dried leaves used for molecular analysis by 

AFLP (amplified fragment length polymorphism). Pearson’s coefficient was used to 

compute bivariate correlations and means were statistically analysed by t- and Mann- 

Whitney tests at p < 0.05. Regression analysis was used to identify environmental 

factors influencing fruit traits. 

The sampled trees and fruits showed a high morphological diversity regarding stem 

diameter at breast height, fruit size and fruit weight. Fruit sizes decreased with increasing 

latitude and elevation (r=-0.352 and -0.405 respectively). Individual trees 

in homegardens had a significantly larger mean stem diameter at breast height than 

those in forests (16.1 and 12.6 cm, respectively). Multiple regression analyses showed 

a positive influence of the site ’homegarden’ and the tree’s canopy area, but a negative 

effect of elevation on fruit size and fruit dry weight (model adjusted R 2 =0.315 

and 0.384, respectively). First results of AFLP analysis revealed a clear genetic separation 

of populations from homegardens and forests, indicating differences among the 

populations’ seed flow and history. 

Contact Address: Jens Gebauer, Rhine-Waal University of Applied Sciences, Sustainable Agricultural 

Production Systems with Special Focus on Horticulture, Landwehr 4, D-47533 Kleve, Germany, e-mail: 

jens.gebauer@hochschule-rhein-waal.de 

224

Innovations in cropping systems — Oral Presentations 

Semi-domestication by human selection combined with environmental effects may 

have caused the above mentioned differentiation of Z. spina-christi populations in the 

Nuba Mountains. This information on population structure of Z. spina-christi can be 

used to develop local domestication and in situ conservation approaches. 

Keywords: AFLP, agroforestry, in situ conservation, indigenous fruit tree, molecular 

marker, morphological characterisation, Nuba mountains 

225


The Dynamic Role of Homegardens for Providing Food, Income 

and Ecological Services in Central Sulawesi, Indonesia 

ISALINE MERCERAT 1 ,CAROLINE WECKERLE 1 ,MICHAEL KESSLER 1 , 

YOHANES PURWANTO 2 ,KATJA KEHLENBECK 3 

1University of Zurich, Institute of Systematic Botany, Switzerland 

2Indonesian Institute of Sciences (LIPI), Research Center for Biology, Indonesia 

3World Agroforestry Centre ICRAF, Tree Genetic Resources and Domestication, Kenya 

Traditional agroforestry homegardens with their high plant diversity contribute to 

households’ food security and fulfil important social, cultural and ecological functions. 

Generating cash income in a commercialised homegarden may weaken its contribution 

to providing food. In Central Sulawesi, the cash crop cacao was integrated 

into traditional homegardens about 10 years ago. The aim of this study was to assess 

the possible influence of cash crop production on plant species richness and use over 

time. 

In 42 homegardens randomly selected from five villages in the Napu valley, Central 

Sulawesi, inventories of all useful plants were conducted in 2012. Most of these 

homegardens were already surveyed in 2001, 2004 and 2007. Gardeners were interviewed 

about the main use of each species and the importance value ‘SDR’ calculated 

per village for each use category. 

In total, 210 useful plant species were documented in 2012. Forty-six species were 

mainly used for medicine, 36 for fuelwood/timber, 35 for vegetable, 31 for fruit, 26 

for spice, 10 each for staple and stimulant/cash crop and the remaining 16 for other 

uses. In three villages inhabited by locals, spices had the highest SDR value in 2012, 

followed by fruits or vegetables. In 2007, however, staples had the highest SDR in 

two local villages, possibly as a reaction on the global food price crisis. In one of the 

villages inhabited by migrants and located on infertile soils, staples had the highest 

SDR in most of the years. After arrival, these migrant families had not yet access to 

paddy rice fields, thus growing staples for subsistence in their gardens. In the other 

migrant village, located on more fertile soil, stimulants, including the cash crops cacao 

and coffee, constantly had the highest SDR. These migrant families largely depended 

on cash income generation from their gardens as they were only supplied with 

paddy fields for subsistence after arrival, but not yet with plots for tree crop plantations. 

Over time, however, the dominance of staples or cash crops decreased in the 

respective migrant villages and gardens diversified. Homegardens are thus resilient 

agro-ecosystems that contribute in a dynamic and flexible way to food security and 

income generation of rural communities. 

Keywords: Agroforestry, commercialisation, food security, plant diversity 

Contact Address: Katja Kehlenbeck, World Agroforestry Centre ICRAF, Tree Genetic Resources and 

Domestication, United Nations Avenue, 00100 Nairobi, Kenya, e-mail: k.kehlenbeck@cgiar.org 

226

Innovations in cropping systems — Oral Presentations 

Analysis of Genotypic Diversity in Sesame as Based on 

Morphological and Agronomic Traits 

SRUBA SAHA 1 ,TAMINA BEGUM 2 ,TAPASH DASGUPTA 1 

1University of Calcutta, Dept. of Genetics and Plant Breeding, India 

2Indian Council of Agricultural Research, Central Research Institute for Jute and Allied 

Fibres, India 

Germplasm banks, as pools of the genetic variability are fundamental for the developmental 

research of crop species. This variability must be characterised by genetic 

and phenotypic parameters for the identification of duplicates and the organisation 

of core collection, and as a support in the choice of parents for breeding programs. 

When genetic variability is narrowed using traditional breeding methods for a long 

period then induced mutations are one of the most important approaches for broadening 

the genetic variation to circumvent the bottleneck conditions. Although, sesame 

is an ancient and advantageous oilseed crop it is still at an early stage of breeding 

which is reflected by its’ poor yield performance. This study aims to analyse genetic 

diversity of sesame germplasm and mutants from India and Ethiopia. Agro-morphological 

variation in the sesame germplasm was estimated using 14 morphologic and 

agronomic descriptors to characterise and identify genetic diversity. A total of 36 

sesame landraces were collected from the sesame growing areas throughout India and 

Ethiopia. The collection was evaluated for seed yield, yield related characters and 

morphological characters. A large amount of variation was recorded for 14 morphologic 

and agronomic traits. D2 analysis and cluster analysis indicated no strict or narrow 

relationship between observed genetic diversity and geographical differentiation. 

Cluster analysis identified seven main clusters based on agro-morphological characters 

indicating the diversity which could mainly be attributing to diverse agro-climatic 

conditions. D2 analysis revealed that the crossing between the genotypes, Utawadia, 

Humera, and DSS would most likely express a considerable amount of heterosis in 

F1 generation and also provide a wide spectrum of recombinants in segregating generations. 

Principle component analysis revealed that the first three vectors explained 

70.52 % of total multivariate variation. Canonical correlation studies indicated that 

the development characters such as capsule number per plant, capsule length, days 

to flowering, plant height, branches number per plant, and seed yield were the major 

determinates of the genetic diversity in the collection. Single plant selection was 

made from these populations based on different agromorphic traits and yield potential. 

These results have an important implication for sesame germplasm characterisation, 

improvement, agro-morphological evaluation and conservation. 

Keywords: Capsule length, genetic diversity, germplasm, multivariate analysis 

Contact Address: Sruba Saha, University of Calcutta, Dept. of Genetics and Plant Breeding, 35 Ballygaunge 

Circular Road, 700019 Calcutta, India, e-mail: sruba.saha@gmail.com 

227


Effects of Activated Charcoal and Tannin Amendments 

on Yields of Sweet Corn and Radish on an Irrigated Sandy Soil in 

Northern Oman 

MARIKO INGOLD 1 ,HERBERT DIETZ 2 ,EVA SCHLECHT 3 ,ANDREAS BUERKERT 1 



2Royal Gardens and Farms, Royal Court Affairs, Oman 



Crop production in Northern Oman is characterised by irrigated agriculture on sandy 

soils under hot climatic conditions which favour fast microbial turnover of soil organic 

matter. Nutrient losses are high due to the soil’s low CEC and water holding 

capacity. Charcoal and tannins are known to have positive effects on soil physicochemical 

properties and may help retain nutrients in the soil. To test this, activated 

charcoal or tannins were added to goat manure, either by mixing with goat manure 

or by adding to the goats’ feed. Amended manures were applied to sweet corn and 

radish plots at rates of 1.7 t activated charcoal ha −1 a −1 and 2.2 t tannins ha −1 a −1 

in a two-year field experiment. Manure was applied at a rate of 200 kg N ha −1 on 

sweet corn and 135 kg N ha −1 on radish. Phosphorus (P) and potassium (K) in manures 

was determined and application rates adjusted with mineral fertiliser to reach 

56 kg P ha −1 and 130 kg K ha −1 in sweet corn and 38 kg P ha −1 and90kgKha −1 

in radish. Mineral fertiliser and un-amended manure served as controls. Yields were 

generally low for both, sweet corn (1.26–8.66 t ha −1 ) and radish (4.2–10.8 t ha −1 ). 

Tannins had a negative effect on plant growth and yield of both sweet corn and radish 

(27–32 % yield reduction for sweet corn and 42–46 % yield reduction for radish in 

the vegetation period 2011/12). SPAD values indicate that nitrogen (N) availability 

was insufficient which might result from lower mineralisation rates due to tannin effects 

on mineralisation. When fed to goats, charcoal had a slightly depressing effect 

on sweet corn and radish growth compared to un-amended manure, whereas charcoal 

mixed to manure had no or a slightly positive effect on sweet corn and radish growth. 

To determine whether it was possible to increase the efficiency of nutrient release 

from manure for plant nutrition and reduce nutrient losses using activated charcoal or 

tannin amendments, soil analyses, leaching losses and gas emissions are under way. 

Keywords: Charcoal, nutrient turnover, oasis agriculture, organic matter, tannins, 

vegetable production 

Contact Address: Andreas Buerkert, University of Kassel, Organic Plant Production and Agroecosystems 

Research in the Tropics and Subtropics, Steinstraße 19, 37213 Witzenhausen, Germany, e-mail: 

tropcrops@uni-kassel.de 

228

Innovations in cropping systems — Posters 

Making Effective Use of Climate Information by Small Scale 

Farmers in Managing Rain-Fed Maize Production: A Case Study 

in Bole, Ghana 

SETH NUAMAH 

University of Kassel and Fulda University of Applied Science, International Food 

Business and Consumer Studies, Germany 

Crop production under rain-fed conditions largely depends on rainfall for moisture 

supply to crops. The rainfall received is unevenly distributed both geographically 

and seasonally and sets limits on crop production leading to high risk and low yield 

of crops due to water stress. With proper understanding of the major or important 

climatic factors such as rainfall, water and humid periods, important decisions for 

planning and management of rain-fed maize production can be made in Bole. Mean 

monthly historic rainfall and evapo-transpiration data covering the period of 1961– 

2002 for Bole were used to obtain the rainfall amount and its expected pattern and 

distribution, standard deviation, coefficient of variation of each month, aridity indices, 

risk factors, length of growing and humid periods. The results from the analyses 

showed that the growing period for Bole is 214 days, implying that it has a higher 

agricultural potential and a longer drying period. The coefficient of variation and standard 

deviation indicate the dependability of rainfall in each month. The information 

developed could serve as a useful tool for a small scale rain-fed maize farmer during 

crop selection, timing of farming activities (supply of labor, land preparation, time of 

planting, harvesting and drying of crops) and also for agricultural entrepreneurs who 

are new to this particular environment. The information developed could serve as a 

useful tool during crop selection, timing of farming activities (supply of labor, land 

preparation, time of planting, harvesting and drying of crops) and also for agricultural 

entrepreneurs who are new to a particular environment. 

Keywords: Aridity indices, climate, cropping calendar, evapo-transpiration, rainfall, 

risk factor 

Contact Address: Seth Nuamah, University of Kassel and Fulda University of Applied Science, International 

Food Business and Consumer Studies, Steinstrasse 19, 37213 Witzenhausen, Germany, e-mail: 

nuamahseth@yahoo.co.uk 

229


Economic Viability of Biochar Use in Aerobic Rice Production in 

the Brazilian Cerrado 

ALCIDO ELENOR WANDER, BEATA EMOKE MADARI, 

MARCIA THAIS DE MELO CARVALHO 

Brazilian Agricultural Research Corporation (EMBRAPA), National Rice and Beans 

Research Center (CNPAF), Brazil 

In Brazil, biochar, a by-product of charcoal production from plantation timber 

(Eucalyptus sp.), is being tested as a soil amendment to improve soil fertility and 

in turn increase sustainability of aerobic rice production systems (mainly rainfed). 

Thus, this study aimed to assess the economic viability of biochar use in aerobic rice 

production in the Brazilian Cerrado. The study has been carried out with field experiments 

at two sites: Nova Xavantina (MT) and Santo Antonio de Goiás (GO). At MT 

site, results were based on cropping seasons 2008/2009, 2009/2010 and 2010/2011; 

and at GO site, results were based on seasons 2009/2010 and 2010/2011. Treatments 

consisted of a combination of two nitrogen fertiliser levels (0 and 90 kg N ha -1 in GO; 

and 0 and 75 kg N ha -1 in MT) and four levels of biochar (0, 8, 16 and 32 tons ha -1 ). 

Biochar was obtained from Eucalyptus charcoal residues of 2.00 mm particle size. 

Biochar was incorporated into the soil only once, before the sowing of the first crop. 

It was done in one single application, in season 2008/2009 in MT and in season 

2009/2010 in GO. Revenues were generated by paddy rice yields, considering market 

price in April of each considered year (R$ 32.30/bag of 60 kg paddy in 2008/2009, 

R$ 29.00 in 2009/2010 and R$ 27.00 in 2010/2011). Production costs considered are 

mulching, direct seeding, fertilisation, weed control and harvest operations. Under 

market price conditions, in all treatments, the costs were higher than the revenues. 

After using a sensitivity test, varying the market prices for a 60 kg bag paddy rice 

from R$ 30 to R$ 45, only at GO in the cropping season 2009/2010 the results were 

promising. The most promising economic results were obtained using 90 kg N and 8 

tons biochar per hectare. At current market prices for conventional long-grain rice, 

however, it was not as viable as expected. If aerobic rice yields increase and producer 

get an additional price for their production (niche markets), then it may become an 

interesting option under certain conditions. 

Keywords: By-product, economic feasibility, Eucalypt charcoal fine, sensitivity 

analysis, soil amendment 

Contact Address: Alcido Elenor Wander, Brazilian Agricultural Research Corporation (EMBRAPA), 

National Rice and Beans Research Center (CNPAF), Rodovia GO-462, km 12, 75375-000 Santo 

Antonio de Goias, Brazil, e-mail: awander@cnpaf.embrapa.br 

230


Potential Yield of Venezuelan Maize Varieties under Variable 

Water Supply 

GABRIELA PEREYRA 1 ,FOLKARD ASCH 2 ,ALEJANDRO PIETERS 3 , 

ELIZABETH RENGIFO 3 

1University of Hohenheim, Centre for Agriculture in the Tropics and Subtropics, Germany 



3Venezuelan Isntitute for Scientific Research, Centre of Ecology, Venezuela 

Erratic rainfall patterns have caused severe drought conditions in Venezuela directly 

affecting white maize (Zea mays L.) production, increasing the economic risk for 

smallholders and compromising food security. Maize varieties resistant to drought 

are among the few options smallholders can employ to increase yield stability in their 

production system, but selection tools are needed to better identify varieties tolerant 

to water deficit. To this end we evaluated the differences in yield response based on 

secondary traits in five Venezuelan white maize hybrids (D-3273, Danac-842, D1B- 

718, D1B-283, Danac-223) subjected to variable water supply. At 55 days after 

sowing (DAS), plants were subjected to two contrasting water supplies; (1) full irrigation 

(WW) and (2) a shock-like drought (DW) where irrigation was withheld for 

five days, followed by resumption of full irrigation. Under drought conditions, soil 

water content sharply decreased at 60 DAS, due to a combination of leaf, root and 

shoot responses. Flowering length and grain-yield of the five hybrids were negatively 

affected. However, Danac-223 plants were less affected with no reduction of their 

harvest index. Drought stress also significantly affected gas exchange parameters, 

with stomatal control being the major factor affecting photosynthesis. Under variable 

water supply, intrinsic water use efficiency improved in D1B-278 and Danac-223, 

whereas it decreased considerably in Danac-842. In all hybrids, water stress induced 

a decrease in root hydraulic conductivity which highly correlated with leaf water potential. 

Danac-223 was found to be a promising hybrid for cultivation in the western 

plains of Venezuela under variable water supply, due to its medium specific leaf area, 

a more efficient root water transport, enhanced WUE, and stable yield production 

under drought stress. 

Keywords: Drought tolerance, secondary traits, water use efficiency, white maize 

Contact Address: Gabriela Pereyra, University of Hohenheim, Centre for Agriculture in the Tropics 

and Subtropics, Garbenstrasse 13, 70599 Stuttgart, Germany, e-mail: gabrielapereyra1@gmail.com 

231


Radiation Absorption and Use Efficiency of Sesame as Affected by 

Biofertilisers in a Low Input Cropping System 

MOHSEN JAHAN 1 ,SAEED BAJOURI 2 ,ALI JAHAN 3 

1Ferdowsi University of Mashhad, Agronomy and Plant Breeding, Iran 

2Ferdowsi University of Mashhad, Agroecology, Iran 

3Ferdowsi University of Mashhad, Philosophy of Science, Iran 

Cultivation of crops that use water and radiation efficiently is important for sustainable 

agriculture. To estimate light extinction coefficient and radiation use efficiency 

of sesame a randomised complete block design with three replications was conducted 

in the 2009-10 growing season. Treatments were three different types of biofertilisers 

plus control, including 1-Nitroxin (containing Azotobacter sp. & Azospirillum 

sp.), 2-Biophosphor (PSB, containing phosphate solubilising bacteria, Bacillus sp. & 

Pseudomonas sp.), 3- Biosulfur (SSB, containing Thiobacillus ssp.) and 4-control (no 

fertiliser). 

The results showed that application of biofertilisers resulted in a 15 days shorter period 

to achieve maximum leaf area index compared to the control and as a result, 

the maximum fraction of absorbed radiation and consequently sesame dry matter produced 

at 60 days after emergence, 15 days earlier than the control treatment. Although 

the light extinction coefficient in the control (without biofertiliser) was higher than in 

the biofertiliser treatments (0.78 vs. 0.69), radiation use efficiency (RUE) in SSB and 

nitroxin was higher than in the control (1.31, 1.24 and 1.09, respectively). This led 

to highest biological and seed yield, seed oil, protein and harvest index. The results 

indicated that the application of biofertilisers enhanced the utilisation of intercepted 

radiation by sesame canopy and consequently improved quantitative and qualitative 

yields without chemical or synthetic inputs. This may be of high importance in arid 

and semiarid regions under low input conditions. 

Keywords: Biosulfur, ecological system, light extinction coefficient, sesame 

Contact Address: Mohsen Jahan, Ferdowsi University of Mashhad, Agronomy and Plant Breeding, 

Azadi Sq., 91775-1163 Mashhad, Iran, e-mail: jahan@ferdowsi.um.ac.ir 

232


Performance of Farmland Terraces in Maintaining Crop 

Productivity in Wello, Northern Highlands of Ethiopia 

SHIMELES DAMENE SHIENE 1 ,PAUL L. G. VLEK 1 ,LULSEGED TAMENE DESTA 2 




Soil-erosion-induced land degradation and crop production loss is a great challenge 

in the Ethiopian highlands. Consequently, the government has invested in soil and 

water conservation (SWC) measures where farmland terracing is among the widely 

implemented practices. The purpose of this study was to analyse the performance 

of terracing with respect to crop productivity. Yield differences across the slope of 

the terrain, within a terrace and across terrace age were evaluated. The study was 

conducted in the Maybar soil conservation research site (MSCRS) in Wello, northern 

Ethiopia. It is located between 10°58’ and 11°02’ N latitude and 39°38’ and 

39°40’ E longitude. Yield data (grain and biomass) of seven crops such as wheat 

(Triticum spp), emmer wheat (Triticum spp), horse bean (Vicia faba), field pea (Pisum 

sativum), barley (Hordeum spp), maize (Zea mays) and teff (Eragrostis tef ) collected 

between 1995 and 2009 from 40 fixed plots on three terrace positions (upper, middle 

and lower) were statistically analysed using a mixed linear model that employed 

Tukey-Kramer adjustment in SAS (Version 9.2). Generally, yields of all crops except 

wheat decreased significantly (on average 0.37 to 0.15 t ha −1 ) from the upper 

terrace position towards the lower position. Unlike in other studies, the differences 

could be due to the soil depth gradient that in turn influenced nutrient and soil-water 

storage. On the other hand, yields showed insignificant differences across the terrain, 

they showed a decreasing tendency with slope increase. This indicates that terracing 

reduced soil erosion and nutrient translocation. With terrace age, yields showed only 

slight changes. The stable yield under limited fertility improvement measures and reduced 

fallowing indicates that terracing reduced soil and nutrient loss through erosion. 

However, terracing alone does not improve soil fertility and thereby crop production. 

Thus, in order to significantly increase yields terracing should be supplemented by 

soil fertility amendments. 

Keywords: Crop yield, farmland terrace, Maybar, northern Ethiopia, soil erosion 

Contact Address: Shimeles Damene Shiene, University of Bonn, Center for Development Research 

(ZEF), Dept. of Ecology and Natural Resources Management, Walter-Flex-Str.3, 53113 Bonn, 

Germany, e-mail: shimelesdamene@yahoo.com 

233


The Influence of Humic Acids on the Metal Bioavailability and 

Phytoextraction Efficiency in Long-Term Sludge Applied Soil 

BÜLENT TOPCUO ˘GLU 

Akdeniz University, Vocational High School of Technical Sciences Environmental 

Protection and Control Department, Turkey 

Heavy metal pollution of soils causes many environmental and human health problems. 

The bioavailability of metals in soil may be manipulated to improve heavy 

metal phytoextraction. Although phytoremediation has revealed great potential and 

synthetic chelators have shown positive effects in enhancing heavy metal extraction, 

a vast number of negative side-effects was revealed. There exists a need for low costeffective 

and environmental friendly materials as an alternative to synthetic chelators. 

The term humic substances refers to a category of naturally occurring organic materials 

resulting from the decomposition of plant and animal residues. Humic acids (HA) 

provide organic macromolecules with an important role in the transport, bioavailability, 

and solubility of heavy metals. In this research the ability of HA on phytoextraction 

of heavy metals from sludge polluted soil by the use of tobacco plant under 

greenhouse conditions was examined. Long-term sludge treated soil enriched with 

heavy metals (Zn, Cu, Ni, Pb and Cd) was used in the experiment. The influence of 

exogenous HA on the bioavailability of Zn, Cu, Ni, Pb and Cd from sludge applied 

soil and heavy metal uptake of tobacco plant was examined in this greenhouse experiment. 

HA were applied to long-term sewage sludge polluted soil at 1 % and 2 %. 

Soil samples were collected after harvest and total and DTPA-extractable Zn, Cu, 

Ni, Pb and Cd contents of soil were determined. Diethylenetriaminepentaaceticacid 

(DTPA)-extractable Zn, Cu, Ni and Pb concentrations and plant uptake of metals increased 

significantly by HA applications. While HA treatment at 2 % rate to soil 

increased the heavy metal concentration in the shoot tissue, plant growth was diminished. 

The results suggest that soil amendments with HA can be considered as an 

alternative approach to reduce the availability and mobility of heavy metals and to 

increase phytoextraction efficiency of heavy metal polluted soils. 

Keywords: Humic acids, metal bioavailability, phytoremediation, sludge, tobacco 

Contact Address: Bülent Topcuo˘glu, Akdeniz University, Vocational High School of Technical 

Sciences Environmental Protection and Control Department, Dumlupinar Bulvari; Kampüs, 07058 

Antalya, Turkey, e-mail: btoglu@akdeniz.edu.tr 

234


Partial Horizontal Carbon and Nutrient Balances in 

Homegardens of the Nuba Mountains, Sudan 

SVEN GOENSTER 1 ,MARTIN WIEHLE 1 ,MARTINA PREDOTOVA 1 , 

JENS GEBAUER 2 ,ABDALLA MOHAMED ALI 3 ,ANDREAS BUERKERT 1 



2Rhine-Waal University of Applied Sciences, Sustainable Agricultural Production 

Systems with Special Focus on Horticulture, Germany 

3University of Khartoum, Dept. of Horticulture, Sudan 

The transformation of traditional homegardens in the Nuba Mountains, Sudan, towards 

more intensified production systems raises concerns with respect to the sustainability 

of these systems, particularly regarding carbon and nutrient management. 

To assess these different horticultural systems, a nutrient budget approach was used 

to quantify the management related partial horizontal fluxes of carbon (C), nitrogen 

(N), phosphorus (P) and potassium (K). To this end, six representative homegardens, 

comprising three traditional (low input) and three intensified (high input) sites, were 

selected. In each garden, four to five observation plots with site-specific crops were 

monitored daily to quantify management-related carbon and nutrient inputs and outputs. 

Horizontal C balances were positive for all homegardens (1,922 kg ha -1 a-1 for low 

and 3,706 kg ha-1 a-1 for high input systems). In low input homegardens nutrient 

balances amounted to -84 kg N ha-1 a-1 , -10 kg P ha-1 a-1 and -117 kg K ha-1 a-1 versus 

15 kg N ha-1 a-1 , 7 kg P ha-1 a-1 and -168 kg K ha-1 a-1 in high input gardens. Manure 

amendments provided most nutrients in both types of homegardens (low input: 

29 kg N ha-1 a-1 , 9 kg P ha-1 a-1 ,19kgKha-1 a-1 ; high input: 112 kg N ha-1 a-1 , 

27 kg P ha-1 a-1 ,70kgKha-1 a-1 ). A significant N input by biological N fixation was 

only observed in low input systems (17 kg N ha -1 a-1 ) indicating a possible change of 

plant species composition through intensification. The main C source estimated at 

3,900 to 5,000 kg ha-1 a-1 for low and high homegarden types, respectively, was photosynthetically 

captured C stored in the rooting zone. 

The horizontal balances approach indicated nutrient deficits which might result in 

long-term declines of crop yields, in particular for traditional homegardens. Adapted 

management strategies to improve soil fertility through increased organic fertilisation 

and higher nutrient use efficiency are recommended. 

Keywords: Carbon fluxes, East Africa, nutrient fluxes, nutrient use efficiency, soil 

surface nutrient budget approach 

Contact Address: Andreas Buerkert, University of Kassel, Organic Plant Production and Agroecosystems 

Research in the Tropics and Subtropics, Steinstraße 19, 37213 Witzenhausen, Germany, e-mail: 

tropcrops@uni-kassel.de 

235


Effects of Activated Charcoal and Tannin Added to Soil and 

Compost on Carbon and Nitrogen Emissions 

GRETA JORDAN 1 ,MARTINA PREDOTOVA 1 ,MARIKO INGOLD 1 , 

HERBERT DIETZ 2 ,ANDREAS BUERKERT 1 



2Royal Gardens and Farms, Royal Court Affairs, Oman 

The use of organic fertilisers such as compost and goat manure is an important approach 

to sustainable soil fertility management under irrigated subtropical condition, 

particularly in organic agriculture starting to be practised in Oman. However, high 

losses due to leaching and especially volatilisation are hampering the efficiency of 

substrate applications. This study was therefore conducted to quantify changes of 

gaseous carbon (C) and nitrogen (N) emissions after application of activated charcoal 

and tannins to compost or directly to the soil. For this, gaseous emissions of carbon 

dioxide (CO2), ammonium (NH 3 ) and nitrous oxide (N2O) were measured by a 

dynamic closed chamber system consisting of a cuvette connected to a photo-acoustic 

infrared multi-gas monitor (INNOVA 1312–5). Carbon and N emissions were 

monitored for 69 days of composting. Activated charcoal and tannins were added to 

compost consisting of goat manure and plant material at a rate equivalent to 0.5 t activated 

charcoal ha −1 , 0.8 t tannin ha −1 and 0.6 t activated charcoal and tannin ha −1 

as a mixed application. Based on the observations in Oman, a 20-day incubation 

experiment under greenhouse conditions was conducted in Germany. Carbon and N 

emissions from soil amended with goat manure (equivalent to 135 kg N ha −1 )and 

additionally mixed with either 3 t activated charcoal ha −1 , 2 t tannin ha −1 or the sum 

of both these additives were determined. 

The results showed that peaks of gaseous C and N emission were reduced and/or temporally 

shifted in tannin amended compost and also whith tannin application to the 

soil. Tannins applied directly to the soil significantly reduced N 2O (17 %) and significantly 

NH 3 (51 %) emissions in comparison to the control. Application of tannins to 

compost reduced cumulative gaseous emission for C by 2100 g C m −2 69 d −1 (36 %) 

andforNemissionsby6gNtotalm −2 69 d −1 (40 %) compared to the unamended 

compost. In contrast to these results, emissions of all gases increased in activated 

charcoal amended compost. Based on these results, tannins appear to be a particularly 

promising amendment to composts to mitigate gaseous emissions and to soils as 

organic fertiliser amendment, especially under subtropical conditions. 

Keywords: Organic fertiliser, photo-acoustic gas monitor 

Contact Address: Greta Jordan, University of Kassel, Organic Plant Production and Agroecosystems 

Research in the Tropics and Subtropics, Steinstr. 19, 37213 Witzenhausen, Germany, e-mail: 

gretajordan@gmail.com 

236


Vertical Distribution of Dissolved Organic Carbon in a Sandy Soil 

Treated with Different Quality Litter 

BENJAPON KUNLANIT, PATMA VITYAKON 

Land Resources and Environment Section, Plant Science and Agricultural Resources, 

Faculty of Agriculture, Thailand 

Dissolved organic carbon (DOC) is a constituent of soil solution and plays a key role 

in many chemical and biological processes in soils, notably forming organo-mineral 

complexes with micronutrients increasing their availability, cycling of carbon in the 

soil-plant system, mobilising soil pollutants in soils and acting as microbial substrates. 

Distribution of DOC in soils is partly determined by chemical composition of organic 

residues applied to the soils. The objective of this study was to investigate the effects 

of organic residues differing in chemical composition applied yearly for 13 years on 

vertical distribution of DOC in a sandy soil. There were five residue treatments: 1) no 

residue addition, 2) rice straw (RS) (low quality) with low N, lignin, and polyphenols 

but high C/N ratio and cellulose, 3) groundnut stover (GN) (high quality) with high N 

but low lignin, polyphenols, and C/N ratio, 4) dipterocarp leaf litter (DP) (low quality) 

containing low N but high lignin, polyphenols, and C/N ratio, and 5) tamarind litter 

(TM) (medium quality) with medium N, lignin, and polyphenols. The results showed 

that GN and TM treatments produced higher total DOC concentrations than DP and 

RS. Two patterns of vertical distribution of DOC in the soil profile as determined by 

quality of organic residues could be distinguished. They were 1) low DOC in topsoils 

but high DOC accumulation in subsoils indicating high vertical DOC movement, and 

2) high DOC in topsoils but no accumulation in subsoils indicating low DOC movement. 

RS had higher DOC in subsoils than other treatments indicating higher vertical 

movement of DOC. GN treatment had extremely low DOC movement as seen in high 

DOC accumulation in topsoils and no DOC in subsoils throughout the decomposition 

period. Meanwhile, DP and TM treatments had moderately low vertical DOC 

movement as shown by some DOC accumulation in subsoils. 

Keywords: Dissolved organic carbon, dissolved organic carbon movement, molecular 

weight, organic residue quality 

Contact Address: Benjapon Kunlanit, Land Resources and Environment Section, Plant Science and 

Agricultural Resources, Faculty of Agriculture, Mittraphap Highway, 40002 Khon Kaen, Thailand, 

e-mail: benja_kun13@hotmail.com 

237


The Challenges of Maintaining Soil Productivity and Food 

Security in Sudan 

SARRA AHMED MOHAMED SAAD 1 ,MOAWIA YAHIA BABIKER 2 , 

ANTHONY WHITBREAD 3 

1National Center for Research, Dept. of Environmental Pollution, Soil Science Unit, 

Sudan 

2Ekhtibarat Soil and Water Services, Soil Science, Sudan 

3Georg-August-Universität Göttingen, Dept. of Crop Sciences: Tropical Agronomy, 

Germany 

The Republic of Sudan is the largest Arab country in terms of area (with more than 

250 M ha total area). While 16.7 M ha is already used for farm production (irrigated 

and rain fed systems), potential arable area is much larger. Furthermore, Sudan has 

substantial surface water resources, especially in the Blue and White Nile which have 

been partly developed for irrigation purposes. In spite of these natural resources, 

Sudan suffers from food shortages in many years and lacks the resources to cover the 

needs of over 32 million inhabitants, 10 % of them was classified as living in severely 

food insecure households. In order to evaluate soil productivity and food security 

challenges, a survey was conducted where interviews were held with Agricultural 

Ministry officials along with data collection from field visits , sampling and analysis 

of 80 soil samples from irrigated and rain fed schemes during the summer season 

between May and July 2011. The results of the survey revealed that Sudan suffers 

from a range of environmental threats that have affected the productivity of soils and 

crops. Increases in temperature and reduction in rainfall, especially between the years 

1930–1990, have increased the dry areas up to 51 % of total area. The availability and 

prices of crop commodities was also affected. Sorghum, wheat and millet production 

was reduced to 45 % and the prices of sorghum, millet and groundnut were doubled 

compared to February 2012 prices. Results of the soil survey showed generally poor 

soil fertility; in the irrigated schemes the organic matter was often < 1 %; low total 

nitrogen; neutral pH 7.8; extremely low plant available p < 0.08 ppm (Bray) and CEC 

54 cmol kg-1 . In the rain fed areas the organic matter ranged between 1.14 to 2.3 %; N 


Maize, Soybean and Cassava Yield Response to Bat Manure in 

Congo Democratic Republic 

STEFAN HAUSER 1 ,DOMINIQUE MULUMBA MUNKENDI 2 , 

ROBERT MUKENDI KAMAMBO 3 ,GERMAINE VANGU PAKA 3 

1International Institute of Tropical Agriculture (IITA), The Dem. Rep. of the Congo 

2University of Kinshasa, The Dem. Rep. of the Congo 

3Nat. Inst. of Agronomic Research and Studies (INERA), The Dem. Rep. of the Congo 

The Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC) had the highest increase of the hunger 

index over the last 10 years. The agricultural input sector is virtually absent and fertiliser 

costs are prohibitive. In Bas Congo province large deposits of bat guano remain 

largely unused. Insectivorous bats are abundant across the western lowlands and their 

droppings (manure) are easily collected from attics of houses. We investigated the 

effects of bat manure on maize, soybean and cassava, to assess if regular collection of 

the manure or exploitation of the deposits has the potential to increase crop production. 

In 2009 and 2010, 0, 500 and 1000 kg ha −1 bat manure were applied to maize, followed 

by soybean or maize without manure application. In one site cassava received 

0 or 500 kg ha−1 . Bat manure contained 6–10 % N, 0.7–1.5 % K and 0.9–1.8 % P. 

Bat manure was applied at seeding about 5–10 cm from the seed or planting stick and 

covered with soil. 

In site 1 maize grain yield increased significantly from 3.14 to 3.85 Mg ha −1 by 

500 and 1000 kg ha−1 of bat manure, without a difference between the rates. The 

following soybean grain yield in the 500 kg ha −1 manure treatments was 1.74 Mg 

ha−1 yet failed the significance level (p = 0.052) compared to the control (1.39 Mg 

ha−1 ). In site 2 maize grain yield increased from 1.78 to 2.54 Mg ha −1 after 500 kg 

ha−1 manure application, yet did not further increase at 1000 kg ha −1 . The grain yield 

of the following maize crop was numerically higher when the previous maize had 

received manure but differences were not significant. In site 3, on alluvial clay soil 

maize grain yield was 2.0 Mg ha−1 across treatments without significant differences. 

Cassava produced 30.3 Mg ha−1 fresh roots with manure, significantly higher than 

the control (26.0 Mg ha−1 , p = 0.039). 

Bat manure did not generally increase yields, but appears to have potential to increase 

agricultural production. Because the manure is free of charge and constantly 

replenished it appears worthwhile investing in research on conditions under which the 

effects are greatest and optimal application rates and techniques. 

Keywords: Bat guano, cassava, insectivorous bats, nutrient supply, soybean 

Contact Address: Stefan Hauser, International Institute of Tropical Agriculture (IITA), Av. 

Haut Congo, Quartier Revolution, Commune de Gombe, Kinshasa, The Dem. Rep. of the Congo, 

e-mail: s.hauser@cgiar.org 

239


Methane and Nitrous Oxide Emission from the System of Rice 

Intensification (SRI) under Rainfed Lowland Ecosystem in 

Cambodia 

PROYUTH LY, LARS S. JENSEN, THILDE B. BRUUN, ANDREAS DE NEERGAARD 

University of Copenhagen, Faculty of Life Sciences, Dept. of Agriculture and Ecology, 

Denmark 

The system of rice intensification (SRI) receives considerable attention for its 

potentials to increase rice productivity in marginalised rice-growing environment. 

SRI differs from conventional rice management by several parameters, including water 

management. The intermittent irrigation (as opposed to permanent flooding) under 

SRI was carried out in order to improve soil aeration, root activities, reduce ineffective 

tillers and remove toxic substances. This practice may significantly reduce 

methane (CH 4 ) emissions, a potent greenhouse gas. However, this benefit maybe 

offset by increased nitrous oxide (N2O) emissions, which has much higher radiation 

absorbing capacity. The present field study measured the fluxes of CH 4 and N2O under 

SRI practices and compared the emission of greenhouse gases from SRI with a 

Conventional Management Practices (CMP) production system under which continuous 

flooding was applied. The effects of nutrient amendment (composted farmyard 

manure (FYM), mineral fertiliser (MF) and FYM+MF) were also investigated under 

each production system. The results indicated large seasonal variations of CH 4 patterns 

during the growing season with a peak emission of about 1300 mg CH 4 m −2 d −1 

under both production systems two weeks after rice transplanting. N 2O emissions 

were not detected in any treatments, which indicates NO 3 - and available C were limiting 

in the field trial. Under each production system, the highest emission of CH 4 

was under FYM+MF treatments (282 kg CH 4 emission ha −1 under CMP and 213 kg 

ha −1 CH 4 emission under SRI). Total CH 4 emission under SRI practices was reduced 

by 22 % in FYM treatment, 17 % in MF treatment and 24 % in FYM+MF treatment 

compared to CMP practices. There was no effect of water management on CH 4 emission 

in the non-fertilised control. Grain yields were not significantly affected by the 

production system. Thus the CO2-equivalent emitted per kg grain produced is lower 

under SRI than CMP, namely 21 % in FYM+MF treatment, 8 % in MF treatment and 

21 % in FYM treatment, respectively. The results therefore suggest a potential of SRI 

to mitigate the greenhouse gas emission from rice production without compromising 

rice yields. 

Keywords: Cambodia, methane, nitrous oxide, nutrient, system of rice intensification, 

water management, rice 

Contact Address: Proyuth Ly, University of Copenhagen, Faculty of Life Sciences, Dept. of 

Agriculture and Ecology, Thorvaldsensvej 40 3rd Floor, 1871 Frederiksberg C, Denmark, e-mail: 

proyuth@life.ku.dk 

240


Soil Coverage Evaluation with Calendula 

(Calendula officinalis L.), Crotalaria (Crotalaria sp. L.) and Oat 

(Avena sp. L.) in Meloidogyne spp. Control in Quito Orange 

(Solanum quitoense Lam.) 

CARLOS BETANCOURTH GARCÍA, CLAUDIA SALAZAR GONZÁLEZ, MARINO 

RODRIGUEZ 

Nariño University, Production and Health Plant, 

In the department of Nariño the area cultivated with quito orange (Solanum quitoense 

L.) is 600 ha. This crop shows a productivity decrease due to pathogens such as 

the root knot nematode Meloidogyne spp. of up to 50-79%. On the other hand, allelopathic 

plant species release nematotoxic compounds, nematostatics or biocides, 

interfering in the nematode life cycle. This research was carried out in the village La 

Caldera (Pasto), in order to search alternatives of root knot disease management. For 

it a randomised block design was used, with three replications and five treatments, 

which consisted of three soil coverages: Calendula (Calendula officinalis L.), Crotalaria 

(Crotalaria sp. L.) and oats (Avena sp. L.) sown one month before the crop 

was planted and incorporated at flowering time, a chemical control with the application 

of carbofuran at sowing and every third month, and a control. Each experimental 

unit had 12 quito organges planted at 3 × 3 m. Incidence and severity of the nematode 

population were evaluated and quito orange production measured. The results 

showed a 100 % incidence in all treatments, but a positive effect of the soil coverage 

on the nematode severity. Regression analysis allowed to prove that with an increasing 

severity of the nematode population the quito orange production was significantly 

reduced. Meloidogyne incognita was the most abundant species. We conclude that 

calendula, oats and crotalaria are viable alternatives for dealing with the problem of 

root knot nematode. 

Keywords: Management practices, plant coverage, root knot 

Contact Address: Carlos Betancourth García, Nariño University, Agriculture Research Center and Postgraduate 

Studies of Agriculture Sciences, Manzana 41 casa 8 altos de la colina, 057 Pasto, Colombia, 

e-mail: cbet70@yahoo.com 

241


Plant Genetic Resources in Vietnam: Current Situation of 

Conservation and Utilisation 

NIEN CHAU NGUYEN, MICHAEL BÖHME, INA PINKER 

Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, Department Horticultural Sciences, Germany 

Vietnam, a country in Southeast Asia with an enormous richness in genetic resources, 

counts about 12,000 plant species, and more than 19 percent of them have been used 

in daily life of the inhabitants. Nevertheless, the various resources are seriously extinct 

or threatened by climate change and human activities. Therefore, it is very important 

to find appropriate methods for conservation of the indigenous plants and 

landraces. In situ and ex situ are two main methods used for conserving national 

plant genetic resources in Vietnam. With the support of local (ASEAN) and global 

(FAO) organisations, Vietnam had established more than 2.4 million hectares in order 

to protect valuable biological resources. Among that, 43.4 % are national parks, more 

than 49.3 % are natural conservation areas, and the rest are cultural historical environment 

sites. On-farm conservation is practised in the plant genetic resources centres 

of Vietnam with fruit trees, root crops, vegetable crops, ornamental crops, medicinal 

herbs, and forage plants. Ex situ conservation method are highly investigated for 

seven main groups as crop grains, fruit crops, annual and perennial industrial crops, 

vegetables, ornamental crops and forage plants. In a network of 13 Vietnamese plant 

genebanks, 9,408 accessions are conserved. 15,760 accessions are stored in seedbanks 

with medium-term condition, and 152 accessions are conserved for recalcitrant food 

crops in an in vitro bank. Research and utilisation of plant genetic resources are also 

applied. 7.057 accessions are accessed for quantitative and qualitative traits. 1.093 

accessions of 18 genera are used as breeding materials in national breeding programs; 

some new promising cultivars have been released and used in agricultural production. 

Keywords: Conservation, ex situ, genetic resources, in situ, indigenous 

Contact Address: Nien Chau Nguyen, Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, Horticultural Plant Systems, 

Lentzeallee 75, 14195 Berlin, Germany, e-mail: nguyench@cms.hu-berlin.de 

242


Water Availability and Agrobiodiversity Indices - A Case Study of 

Non-Hunting Gharaviz Region 

ASHKAN ASGARI 1 ,KOROUS KHOSHBAKHT 2 ,SOUFIZADEH SAEID 1 , 

KARL HAMMER 3 

1Shahid Beheshti University, G.C., Dept. of Agroecology, Iran 

2Shahid Beheshti University, Environmental Sciences Research Institute, Iran 

3University of Kassel, Agro-Biodiversity, Germany 

Water availability is a fundamental key element in developing agricultural biodiversity 

in rural arid and semi arid farming systems. Gharaviz non-hunting area with 

418 mm annual average precipitation and annual average temperature of 20°C is located 

in western Iran. A fieldwork survey was carried out to investigate the relationship 

between water access and agrobiodiversity indices during July to August 2011. 

Seven different villages were randomly selected, of them 3 inside and 4 outside the 

marginal regions of Gharaviz region. Agricultural biodiversity data were gathered 

through face-to-face interviews of farmers. Altogether, 134 semi-structured questionnaires 

were filled out. Data analyses proceded employing ecological methodology 

program (EMP) as well as SAS and SPSS. Regression test was employed to evaluate 

species richness affectability from distance of village to water resource. The relationship 

between distance from water sources and biodiversity indices was evaluated 

by simple regression test. The results showed the signifance of this relationship as 

well as a negative correlation with average species richness indices (p < 0.01), Shannon 

(p < 0.01) and evenness (p < 0.05). This means that indices values decrease 

as distance to water resources increase. There was a positive correlation to Simpson 

index (p < 0.01) as distance increased. The number of cultivated species in villages 

within non-hunting area restricted to eight species, which was significantly less than 

species richness in marginal areas (17 species). The main reason for this is less water 

availability in “inside” villages compared to “outside” villages. The Golam Kabod 

Sofla village had the highest species richness (10 species) among others due to small 

land plots and nearness to Golam Kabod River. Wheat, barley and chickpea are being 

cultivated in these regions due to drought tolerance. This survey concluded that 

distance to water resource could significantly affect agricultural species richness and 

other biodiversity related indices. 

Keywords: Gharaviz, iran, species richness, water availability 

Contact Address: Korous Khoshbakht, Shahid Beheshti University, Environmental Sciences Research 

Institute, Evin street, 1983963113 Tehran, Iran, e-mail: kkhoshbakht@yahoo.com 

243


Importance of Flying Foxes in Reproductive Performance of 

Adansonia digitata in Benin 

DJOSSA BRUNO, SINSIN BRICE 

University Abomey-Calavi, Laboratory of Applied Ecology, Benin 

Baobab (Adansonia digitata) is a socio-economically important agroforestry woody 

plant mainly pollinated by flying foxes (Pteropus). Different populations of baobab 

exist in the three different bioclimatic zones of Bénin: the guinea-congolian zone, the 

transition zone and the sudanian zone. According to a recent study the baobab tree in 

the tranisition zone showed a high rate of flower abortion just at the starting of fructification. 

The present study aimed to assess the importance of flying foxes pollination 

in the fruiting success in order to find out factors that contribute to flower abortion. 

We characterised flowers measuring sepal and petal sizes as they provide the landing 

area for pollinators, assessed nectar production in baobab populations through the 

three major bioclimatic zones and compared the flower visited/lacerated by bats with 

the fruit production successes in the two first months. We finally bagged some flowers 

avoiding flying foxes visits / laceration and assessed the subsequent fruit productions. 

We reported comparable flower sizes while the nectar production was significantly 

different between the three bioclimatic zones. The fruit production successes with 

bagged flowers were 1.5 %, 10.3 % and 3.3 % respectively in the southern, the transition 

and the northern zone while the bat visited flowers produced respectively in 

the same zones 49.4 %, 22.4 % and 25 %. The fruit production successes were not directly 

correlated with the nectar production that was 17.07 ± 9.25 ml (southern zone), 

14.83 ± 5.62 ml (transition zone) and 26.26 ± 10.22 ml (northern zone). We proved 

the importance of flying foxes in the fruiting success of baobab in Benin. 

Keywords: Baobab, Benin, flying foxes, fruit production, pollination 

Contact Address: Djossa Bruno, University Abomey-Calavi, Laboratory of Applied Ecology, Cotonou, 

Benin, e-mail: djosbruno@yahoo.fr 

244


Biomass and Carbon Stocks Related to Ecological Complexity and 

Tree Diversity in Three Different Cacao Production Systems 

JOHANNA JACOBI 1 ,MARIA ISABEL PILLCO 2 ,MONIKA SCHNEIDER 3 , 

STEPHAN RIST 1 

1University of Bern, Centre for Development and Environment (CDE), Switzerland 

2Uiversidad Mayor de San Andrés (UMSA) La Paz, Dept. of Agronomy, Bolivia 

3Research Institute of Organic Agriculture (FiBL), Switzerland 

In tropical regions, large forest areas are constantly converted into agriculture contributing 

with about 17 % to global greenhouse gas emissions. Given that tropical 

areas are most vulnerable to climate change impacts, the need increases to identify 

and to implement sustainable land use systems that sequester carbon and provide 

ecosystem services at the same time. Cacao as a perennial crop which grows well 

in association with shade trees is one option for vulnerable agricultural areas on tropical 

rainforest margins. The aim of this research was to compare C-stocks in complex 

and simple cacao agroforestry systems and common practice monocultures in Bolivia, 

and to evaluate the role of local organisations for agricultural diversification. Carbon 

stocks were then linked to the different types of cropping systems and the related variables 

age of the plantation, tree and crop diversity and ecological complexity. In 15 

plots of 2304 m2 each, aboveground and belowground biomass as well as tree and crop 

diversity was sampled. Then the role of the affiliation to a cacao cooperative and/or 

other local organisations for diversity was evaluated by interviewing cacao farmers 

with and without affiliation to a local organisation. Results show that C-stocks correlated 

significantly with the Holdridge-Index for ecological complexity, as well as with 

tree diversity and with the proportion of shade trees. The results of the interviews indicate 

that local institutions enhance agricultural diversification and agroforestry by 

awareness rising, further education, and opening markets for agroforestry products. 

The integration of ecological and social data allows to conclude that cacao producers 

diversify their cacao plots if provided with agricultural extension services from local 

organisations, most of all those working with organic certification. This indicates that 

organic cacao cultivation, if oriented towards diversified agroforestry, not only contributes 

to climate change adaptation but also to its mitigation by sequestering more 

carbon than common practice cacao plots. 

Keywords: Agroforestry, Bolivia, cacao, cooperatives 

Contact Address: Johanna Jacobi, University of Bern, Centre for Development and Environment 

(CDE), Hallerstraße 10, 3012 Bern, Switzerland, e-mail: johanna.jacobi@cde.unibe.ch 

245


Improving Peri-Urban Soils with Recycled Waste from the 

Municipality of Patancheru: An Indian Case Study 

VINCENT SCHMITT 1 ,PRIYANIE AMERASINGHE 2 ,DIONYS FORSTER 3 , 

BHARADWAJA VADLOORI 2 ,URS NIGGLI 3 

1 Georg-August-Universität Göttingen, Sustainable International Agriculture, Germany 

2 International Water Management Institute (IWMI), South Asia Regional Office, India 

3 Research Institute of Organic Agriculture (FiBL), International Division, Switzerland 

Cities have been centres of rapid development. But, urbanisation not only results in 

benefits, it often leads to environmental and social problems due to lack of appropriate 

environmental sanitation services and food insecurity. Rapid changes in peri-urban 

land use puts agriculture under pressure and leads to land fragmentation and increased 

production costs. However, peri-urban agriculture could play an important role in 

supplying fresh, perishable fruits and vegetables to city markets, while contributing 

to solving environmental and social challenges. 

This study describes a framework for participatory processes that was used to develop 

a public-private partnership between the Greater Hyderabad Municipal Cooperation 

(GHMC) and socially inclusive groups as well as a method for converting the organic 

component of the city waste to compost (pilot study), that has the potential to revitalize 

the peri-urban soils of Hyderabad. A participatory institutional analysis revealed 

that the GHMC Sanitation and the Community Urban Development wings, were important 

partners. Meetings with farmers, waste pickers, self-help groups (women) 

and rickshaw pullers enabled the selection of a socially inclusive group to develop 

entrepreneur skills. 

Garbage generation in the city of Patancheru is 26’357 kg d −1 (0.57 kg cap −1 d −1 ). 

The organic fraction is estimated at 14’286 kg d −1 (0.31 kg cap −1 d −1 ). Assuming 

a reduction of volume of 75 % and a nutrient content of 1 % N, 0.3 % P and 0.9 % 

K, it would be possible to recycle about 36 kg N, 11 kg P and 32 kg K d −1 . Annual 

production would amount to 13,035 kg N, 3,911 kg P and 11,732 kg K. Business ideas 

jointly developed with stakeholders revealed that the organic fraction from the vegetable 

markets and organic city waste can effectively be collected. But, the moist and 

nitrogen rich material has to be composted with rather sparse carbon rich material 

from farms and other industries. 

Preliminary findings will be verified by more in-depth studies of the pilot project and 

an on-farm fertiliser comparison trial. These follow up studies will also determine if 

the establishment of composting units generate sufficient income, and if farmers are 

willing to use the compost. 

Keywords: Compost, municipal solid waste, Patancheru, peri-urban agriculture 

Contact Address: Vincent Schmitt, Georg-August-Universität Göttingen, Sustainable International 

Agriculture, Göttingen, Germany, e-mail: vincent.archibald.schmitt@gmail.com 

246


Expansion of Quinoa Crop (Chenopodium quinoa Willd.) and 

Soil Quality Analysis in the Bolivian Intersalar 

ANA MARIA MEDRANO ECHALAR 1 ,JUAN CARLOS TORRICO 2 , 

JAVIER FORTANELLI 3 

1CIM, Bolivia 

2Cologne University of Applied Sciences, Institute for Technology and Resources Management 

in the Tropics and Subtropics (ITT), Germany 

3Universidad Autónoma de San Luis Potosi, Instituto de Investigación de Zonas 

Desérticas, Mexico 

The grain of the quinoa was traditionally cultivated by the inhabitants of the Andean 

region and constituted the principal food of the Incas. It is characterised by its high 

nutritive value due to its composition and relationship quantity/quality of protein. 

The principal production of quinoa is obtained in the highland areas of Bolivia. Traditionally, 

the quinoa was sown in small quantities and it was used for self-consumption. 

The location of crops was in hills and slopes, under a manual system management. 

As a consequence of the growing international demand and rising prices, expansion 

of the cultivation in the form of intensive monoculture took place, which generated a 

negative impact on the fragile ecosystems of the altiplano region. In recent years, the 

production of quinoa increased from 9,000 t y -1 in 1970 to more than 30,000 t y -1 in 

2009. 

The present study identifies the quinoa crop evolution in time and space through satellite 

images of the years 1975, 1990 and 2010 in the Bolivian Intersalar. At the same 

time, it employs the physical-chemical soil analysis made by the AUTAPO Foundation, 

in order to perform a detrended corresponse analysis (DECORANA) and a 

classification analysis using a two way indicator species analysis (TWINSPAN). 

A socioeconomic diagnostic was also carried out through interviews and surveys, to 

determine the impacts generated from the extension of the quinoa cultivation. 

The maps generated through satellite images show that between 1975 and 2010, the 

cultivation of quinoa, increased from 70 % to 300 % on flat surfaces and decreased 

from 16 % to 32 % on hillsides. Multivariate analysis indicated that the patterns of soil 

quality are basically determined by Sodic soils. With the socio-economic analysis, it 

was demonstrated that in the studied community, the increasing income for the quinoa 

cultivation had impacts on lifestyle’s changes, eating habits, and social conflicts over 

unequal land ownership and monetary income. 

Keywords: Bolivian Intersalar, land-use change, soil, sustainable agriculture, quinoa 

Contact Address: Ana Maria Medrano Echalar, CIM, Jacaranda 1080, Cochabamba, Bolivia, e-mail: 

anita_medrano@hotmail.com 

247


Participatory Cotton Breeding for Organic and Low Input 

Farming in Central India 

TINA RONER 1 ,MONIKA M. MESSMER 2 ,MARIA RENATE FINCKH 3 , 

DIONYS FORSTER 2 ,RAJEEV VERMA 4 ,RAJEEV BARUAH 4 , 

SHREEKANT S. PATIL 5 

1University of Kassel / Georg-August-Universität Göttingen, Germany 

2Research Institute of Organic Agriculture (FiBL), Switzerland 

3University of Kassel, Ecological Plant Protection, Germany 

4bioRe India, India 

5University of Agricultural Sciences (UAS), India 

Up to 80 % of world’s organic cotton is produced in India. However, involved producers are 

facing increased difficulties to find suitable cultivars. Few hybrids selected for high input farming 

and genetically-modified (GM) cotton, which is explicitly excluded in organic farming, are 

presently dominating the Indian seed market. In addition farmers have lost their traditional 

knowledge on seed production and hybrid seed needs to be purchased each season. Moreover, 

there is a big risk of contamination with GM cotton and the loss of locally adapted genetic 

resources. Therefore fast action is needed to re-establish a GM-free seed chain and breeding 

programs to support organic and low input cotton farmers in India. Participatory plant breeding 

(PPB) offers a great opportunity for developing locally adapted cultivars as well as for maintaining 

and increasing genetic diversity. The close collaboration of farmers, extension agents 

and breeders allows to identify cultivars that suit the circumstances of resource-poor farmers 

in marginal environments. This study was conducted in collaboration with FiBL, bioRe an 

organic cotton producer in Central India and the University of Agricultural Sciences (UAS) 

Dharwad. The main aim of the study was to introduce participatory breeding approaches and 

to test improved cotton cultivars in smallhoders’ organic cotton fields and to gain information 

about the suitability of different types of cotton cultivars for organic and low input farming in 

Central India. The study combined on-station with on-farm trials and was conducted transdisciplinary 

involving the joint expertise and knowledge of organic farmers and breeders. On-station 

seven different cultivars, including different species and plant types were tested under high and 

low input conditions for genotype × management interaction. On-farm in farmers fields five 

commercial cultivars were tested among 20 organic farmers representing different soil fertility 

levels for genotype × environment interaction. In addition, 49 cultivars of different species and 

plant types and five F2 progenies all received from UAS Dharward were examined on-farm at 

bioRe for their suitability under organic and low input farming. First year results of this longterm 

study will be presented. 

Keywords: Cotton seed, Gossypium, low input farming, organic farming, participatory 

breeding 

Contact Address: Tina Roner, University of Kassel / Georg-August-Universität Göttingen, Göttingen, 

Germany, e-mail: tinaroner@bluewin.ch 

248


Effects of Salt-Alkali Stress and Clipping on Stipa baicalensis 

FANG YANG, YINGZHI GAO, YEWOINWHA TADESSSE ABEBE 

Northest Normal University, Institute of Grassland Science, China 

Stipa baicalensis is one of the dominant species in Songnen grassland, where soil 

salinisation-alkalisation is serious problem. In addition, overgrazing is other major 

cause contributing to grassland degradation. Due to above mentioned stresses, the 

population size of S. baicalensis in the grassland dramatically decreased during the 

last four decades. However the response of S. baicalensis to salt-alkali stress and 

overgrazing has not been well understood. 

A two factorial experiment was conducted in the natural field with the addition of 

mixed salt-alkali solution (NaCl: NaHCO3: Na2CO3 = 1:1:1) and clipping (removal 

60 % of aboveground biomass). The aboveground biomass (AB), plant density and 

height, proline and soluble sugar content were measured. The results showed there 

is no significant interaction between salt stress and clipping on AB. Clipping significantly 

reduced AB regardless of salt stress, whereas salt stress has no significant effect 

on AB. Overall, clipping has no significant effect on plant density and height, while 

salt stress significantly increased plant density and height. The content of proline and 

soluble sugar was significantly reduced by clipping and salt-alkali stress in shoot, but 

not in stem-base. As to root, salt-alkali stress and clipping have no significant effect 

on proline content, while salt-alkali stress significantly reduced soluble sugar content. 

In summary, overgrazing has more adverse effects on Stipa baicalensis community 

than salt stress. Since this species didn’t show any morphological and physiological 

resistance to clipping, while it exhibits salt resistance by increasing plant density and 

height in spite of no physiological salt resistance ability. Further, our results suggest 

reducing stocking rate may be an effective way to restore Stipa baicalensis community, 

and the measurements could include rotational grazing, seasonal exclosure and 

even complete exclosure at the overgrazed sites. 

Keywords: Aboveground biomass, clipping, salt stress, Stipa baicalensis 

Contact Address: Yingzhi Gao, Northeast Normal University, Institute of Grassland Science, 

Renmin Street 5268, 100024 Changchun, China, e-mail: Yingzhigao220@163.com 

249


Organic Management Practices Enhance AM Biodiversity in 

Tropical Agricultural Soils 

SANJEEV KUMAR 1 ,REENA SINGH 2 ,ALOK ADHOLEYA 2 

1Teri University, Centre for Mycorrhizal Reserach, Biotechnology and Bioresources 

Division, India 

2The Energy and Resources Institute, Centre for Mycorrhizal Reserach, Biotechnology 

and Bioresources Division, India 

Arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) have been recognised as an important component 

of organic agriculture. Modern agricultural practices, such as chemical fertilisation, 

pest control, continuous monoculture and tillage impact AMF and plant interactions. 

To study the impact of these practices, investigation was undertaken to 

compare the AMF diversity in trap cultures raised on conventially managed as well 

as on organically managed fields. Spores of AMF were collected from trap cultures 

of both fields (northern India) and based on their morphology were grouped into morphotypes. 

Partial sequence analysis of rDNA from single spore of each morphotype 

was undertaken using either a small-subunit internal transcribed spacer (SSU-ITS) or 

a large subunit (LSU) region and fatty acid methyl ester profiles (FAME) of similar 

morphotypes were compared. 

Organic managed sites contributed 18 AM species belonging to genera Rhizophagus 

and Funneliformis and 7 AM fungi of Acaulospora, Gigaspora and Scutellospora. In 

contrast, conventional managed sites selectively favour only smaller size AM species 

belonging to genera Rhizophagus and Funneliformis species. We observed that organically 

managed farmland showed the largest AMF species richness and colonisation 

potential, which suggests that factors contributing to the diversity of AMF are indeed 

complex: for example, chemically managed farmland not only causes loss of fungal 

biodiversity but also selectively favours smaller spores (Rhizophagus sp.), thereby 

affecting ecosystem functioning adversely. The present study showed that both abundance 

and diversity of AMF is favoured by low-input agriculture incorporating planting 

on raised beds (RB) and organic practices such as zero tillage that do not disturb 

the physical properties of the soil. 

Keywords: Arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi, fatty acid methyl ester profiles, large subunit, 

raised beds, Ribosomal DNA 

Contact Address: Sanjeev Kumar, Teri University, Centre for Mycorrhizal Reserach, Biotechnology 

and Bioresources Division, TERI, Darbari Seth Block, Sixth floor, I.H.C, Lodhi Road, 110003 New 

Delhi, India, e-mail: sanjeev.kumar@teri.res.in 

250


Soil Seed Banks in Degraded Pastures Recovered by Forest 

Plantations in the Eastern Amazon, Brazil 

JULIE ANDREWS DE FRANÇA ESILVA 1 ,CECÍLIA HERNANDEZ 

OCHOA-COUTINHO 2 ,SILVIO BRIENZA JUNIOR 3 ,VANESSA GOMES DE SOUSA 2 

1Federal Rural University of Amazon, Institute of Agrarian Science, Brazil 

2Federal University of Pará, Center for Advanced Studies of the Amazon, Brazil 

3Brazilian Agricultural Research Corporation (EMBRAPA), Brazil 

In the Eastern Brazilian Amazon the primary forest has been replaced through a process 

of colonisation, to intensive agricultural activities. In degraded areas, characterised 

by loss of the natural recovery capacity after a natural disaster or man-made 

disturbance, seed banks can be used to make predictions on the floristic composition 

and to understand the dynamics of forest ecosystems and their recovery strategies. 

The objective of this study was to evaluate the floristic composition of the soil 

seed banks present on degraded grassland in four properties of family farming in 

the municipalities of Bragança, Capitão Poço and Garrafão do Norte. These sites 

are proposed for mixed forest species plantation by the Legal Reserve Areas (LRA). 

From each site were collected six soil samples, using a wood guide of 0,25 m 2 to 

a depth of 5 cm, to compose one sample. The experiment was performed from the 

composite samples in a green-house at EMBRAPA, Eastern Amazon, and monitored 

daily. The seedlings were identified and classified according to: life habits, environmental 

groups and types of dispersion. After nine months were accounted a total of 

6,141 seedlings, Bragança: 1,282 individuals, 51 species within 22 families; Capitão 

Poco: 1,260 individuals, 36 species within 16 families; and Garrafão do Norte: 3,599 

seedlings, 57 species within 22 families. In all studied areas there was a predominance 

of herbaceous vegetation (more than 71%; herbaceous and herbaceous vines), 

while the woody vegetation (tree, shrub and woody vine) ranged from 19 to 29 %. 

The pioneer species were more than 57% and species with barochory seed dispersal 

ranged from 39 to 44 %. 

Keywords: Floristic composition, forest plantation, land reclamation 

Contact Address: Julie Andrews de França E Silva, Federal Rural University of Amazon, Institute of 

Agrarian Science, Belém, Brazil, e-mail: julie_franca@hotmail.com 

251


Linking Indigenous Knowledge System and Molecular Genetic 

Analysis for Management and Conservation of Enset (Ensete 

ventricosum), a Food Security Crop in Southern Ethiopia 

TEMESGEN MAGULE OLANGO 1,2 ,MARCELLO CATELLANI 1 , 

BIZUAYEHU TESFAYE 2 ,MARIO ENRICO PÈ 1 

1University of Pisa, Scuola Superiore Sant’Anna, Italy 

2Hawassa University, School of Plant and Horticulture Science, Ethiopia 

Intra-specific diversity of neglected and underutilised crop species (NUS) is a key element 

in resilience of smallholder-based agricultural systems and farmer’s livelihood 

strategies in many developing countries. There has been growing call for inventories 

and integrated methods evaluating utilisation, diversity and distribution of NUS, especially 

in context of the changing farming systems. The enset crop in indigenous 

enset-based farming systems of Southern Ethiopia plays an ecological, economical 

as well as a food and nutrition security role for over 15 million households in the 

region. We are applying an interdisciplinary approach which combines indigenous 

knowledge system (IKS), molecular genetic analysis (MGA) and geographic information 

system (GIS) to investigate socio-cultural values, level of genetic diversity 

and geographic distribution of enset (Enset ventricosum) landraces cultivated in 12 

communities of Wolaita and Gamogofa Zones in southern Ethiopia. Cultural use values, 

local management practices, farmer’s unit of diversity (FUD) and descriptors of 

landraces were documented and de novo microsatellite markers were developed using 

next generation sequencing and data mining approaches. The application of this 

interdisciplinary approach is anticipated to highlight on (i) current use status and potential 

benefit of enset genetic resources; (ii) extent and eco-geographic distribution 

of enset landraces across communities and landscapes; and (iii) detailed prioritisation 

of community centred in situ conservation areas (microcentres of conservation) 

for enset agrobiodiversity. The methodological approach utilised in the study and the 

molecular tools developed imply the multi-functionality of integrated approaches for 

conservation and improved utilisation of crop genetic resources in general and NUS 

crop species such as enset in particular. 

Keywords: Biodiversity conservation, Enset, Ethiopia, indigenous knowledge 

system, molecular genetic analysis, neglected and underutilised species 

Contact Address: Temesgen Magule Olango, University of Pisa, Scuola Superiore Sant’Anna, 

Piazza Martiri della Libertà 33, 56127 Pisa, Italy, e-mail: temeola@gmail.com 

252


Transpiration Response of C3 and C4 Plants of Northern Chinese 

Steppe Ecosystem to Water Vapor Pressure Deficits (VPD) 

LI JIANG 1 ,JIXUN GUO 1 ,MARCUS GIESE 2 ,YINGZHI GAO 1 ,HONGBIN WEI 2 , 

HOLGER BRÜCK 2 ,FOLKARD ASCH 2 

1Northeast Normal University, Institute of Grassland Science, Key Laboratory for 

Vegetation Ecology, China 



Since water is often limiting plant growth in semi-arid ecosystems, the regulation 

of transpiration is an essential component of adaptation strategies. Transpiration of 

plants is usually increasing with water vapor pressure deficits (VPD) of the atmosphere; 

however, different species vary in the regulation of water losses which might 

help to explain plant community dynamics in semi-arid environments. Chamber experiments 

were performed with five dominant plant species originating from steppe 

ecosystems of northern China. These comprised three C3 plants and two C4 annual 

grasses. Canopy transpiration of these five plants cultivated in pots under full water 

supply was measured in a chamber allowing to adjust VPDs ranging from 0.5 

(low pressure deficit) to 2.5 kPa (high deficit). The results showed that C3 plant Leymus 

chinensis reached a maximum transpiration rate at VPD 1.3 kPa with little or 

no further increase in transpiration rate above this value as VPD was increased. In 

contrast, the other four species showed continued linear increase in transpiration rate 

with increasing VPD. The annual dicotyledonous species showed highest transpiration 

rates, while C4 annual grasses showed less water loss per unit leaf area. These 

results indicated different water household strategies of dominant plant species in the 

Songnen grassland. L. chinensis with high transpiration under low VPD and down 

regulation under higher VPD indicate effective stomata regulation during mid-day 

VPD peaks resulting in water conservation. Low transpiration rates of C4 annuals 

might be explained with comparably small rooting systems limiting the water uptake 

under high pressure gradients. The C3 annual dicotyledonous plant, however follows 

an opportunistic strategy with high water consumption. Plants photosynthetic performance 

combined with morphological and functional traits are promising indications 

for studying the adaptation mechanisms of plant species under semi-arid conditions. 

Keywords: C3, C4, stomata, transpiration, vapour pressure deficit, grassland 

Contact Address: Marcus Giese, University of Hohenheim, Inst. of Plant Production and Agroecology 

in the Tropics and Subtropics, Stuttgart, Germany, e-mail: m.giese@uni-hohenheim.de 

253


Knowledge and Usage of Bitter Gourd as an Anti-Diabetic Plant in 

Tanzania 

CHRISTINE LUDWIG 1 ,MARIELLA KOPF 1 ,MARK SWAI 2 ,SANDRA HABICHT 3 , 

MICHAEL KRAWINKEL 1 

1Justus-Liebig-University Giessen, International Nutrition Unit, Germany 

2Kilimanjaro Christian Medical Centre (KCMC), Tanzania 

3AVRDC - the World Vegetable Center, Tanzania 

Diabetes mellitus type two is on the rise all over the world with an alarming incidence 

rate in many low and middle income countries. In Tanzania, the national prevalence 

rate of diabetes is 2.3 per cent. The increasing trend is especially common in urban 

areas. Insufficient supplies of oral anti-diabetic drugs and insulin call for alternative 

strategies to treat this disease. Momordica charantia, the so-called bitter gourd, is 

one promising plant. In some countries, it is used as a phyto-medicinal plant to reduce 

blood glucose levels. The current survey assessed the knowledge and usage of 

it among diabetic patients at the Kilimanjaro Christian Medical Centre, Tanzania. Of 

the 155 interviewed patients, only 7 per cent have heard about the plant, while only 5 

per cent used it, in addition to oral anti-diabetic agents, as a medicinal plant. Preparation 

of the bitter gourd varied from eating it as a juice, cooked, or cooked and mixed 

with other vegetables. Most patients used it once per day. Although the bitter gourd 

was not well known among patients, the concept of using traditional medicine was 

widely accepted. Aloe vera, Moringa oleifera, and African plum tree were among 

the mostly named plants, used for diabetes mellitus, hypertension, wounds, and cancer. 

Generally, patients were very open towards the idea of using bitter gourd as a 

treatment or adjunct treatment for their diabetes mellitus. Further interviews were 

conducted among health workers in the area surrounding Kilimanjaro Christian Medical 

Centre. Here, 35 per cent knew bitter gourd and its health related effects; while 

8 per cent already recommended its use for diabetic treatment. Others would hesitate 

to recommend it due to lack of scientific and reliable data. 

In summation, this survey shows that there is high potential to apply alternative strategies 

to treat diabetes mellitus. However, scientific studies on efficacy and safety of 

such phyto-medicinal plants are needed. In regard to Momordica charantia, clinical 

trials are planned for 2013 in India and Tanzania by the World Vegetable Center to 

test the viability of utilising the gourd as an alternative strategy for treating diabetes 

mellitus. 

Keywords: Diabetes mellitus type two, Momordica charantia, Tanzania, traditional 

medicine 

Contact Address: Christine Ludwig, Justus-Liebig-University Giessen, International Nutrition Unit, 

Wilhelmstr. 20, 35392 Giessen, Germany, e-mail: christine_ludwig@gmx.net 

254


Skyfarming – Staple Food Production in Cities – 

Light vs Energy Demand 

MARC SCHMIERER, HOLGER BRÜCK, FOLKARD ASCH 



Multi-level indoor plant production systems, also referred to as vertical farming or 

skyfarming systems are drawing more and more attention. In the context of climate 

change and population increase accompanied by greater risks of global food shortage, 

such systems could secure food production particularly in mega cities and take pressure 

off arable land. Additionally, such systems minimise water and nutrient use if 

build as closed circulation systems e.g. with biogas production from crop residues and 

its use for thermal regulation. However, even though plenty of design studies for vertical 

farming concepts exist, the total energy demand for plant growth and the potential 

output in terms of yield biomass in such systems is largely unknown. Supplying light 

to the plants assumedly having the greatest share of the total energy requirements for 

such a facility, we calculated the efficiency of high end light emitting diodes (LEDs) 

of different colours in terms of emitted quantum per electrical watt and linked the 

results with a parametric model for the quantum demand of rice. The results showed 

that there are several potential ways to meet the theoretical energy demand for light 

supply in an artificial environment, depending to a large extend on the plant’s physiological 

responses to illumination duration and light quality. In order to further develop 

the model, we designed and constructed a semi-closed chamber system allowing control 

of temperature, vapour pressure deficit, light intensity and quality (ratio of blue, 

green and red wavelengths) and the measurement of canopy gas exchange parameters. 

Those experimental data will also help optimising the basic light management 

in a closed plant production system such as reflection rate from surfaces and rate of 

direct versus diffuse light. Preliminary results of growth experiments will be shown 

and possibilities for increasing the radiation use efficiency in closed plant production 

systems will be discussed. 

Keywords: Artificial lightning, energy demand, light emitting diodes, rice, sky farming, 

vertical farming 

Contact Address: Marc Schmierer, University of Hohenheim, Institute of Plant Production and Agroecology 

in the Tropics and Subtropics, Stuttgart, Germany, e-mail: marc.schmierer@gmail.com 

255


Genetic Variability in Wild and Domestic Populations of 

Inga edulis Mart. (Fabaceae) in Peruvian Amazon 

ALEXANDR ROLLO 1 ,MARIA MARGARIDA RIBEIRO 2 ,BOHDAN LOJKA 1 , 

DAVID HONYS 3 ,HENRY DANTE SÁNCHEZ DÍAZ 4 , 

JULIO ALFONSO CHIA WONG 4 ,HANA VEBROVÁ 1 ,RITA COSTA 5 

1Czech Univerzity of Life Sciences Prague, Dept. of Crop Sciences and Agroforestry in 

the Tropics and Subtropics, Czech Republic 

2Escola Superior Agrária do Instituto Politécnico de Castelo Barnco, Dept. of Natural 

Resources and Sustainable Development, Portugal 

3The Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republic, Institute of Experimental Botany, v.v.i 

- Laboratory of Pollen Biology, Czech Republic 

4Universidad Nacional Agraria de la Selva, Agronomic Faculty, Peru 

5National Institute of Biological Resources, Forest Research Unit, Portugal 

Human activity in the Peruvian Amazon causes native vegetation fragmentation into smaller 

units resulting on the increase of agricultural systems. Understanding the level, the structure 

and the origin of morphologic within and among populations variation is essential for planning 

better management strategies aimed at sustainable use and conservation of Inga edulis 

Mart. species. We evaluated the genetic variability in wild and domestic population to unfold 

cultivation changes over the species genetic resources. We have studied 400 adult trees: 200 

cultivated on arable land and 200 wild growing in untouched lowland rain forest. The individuals 

were randomly selected. Sampling sites were selected and defined on the basis of the 

geographical coordinates: longitude, latitude and altitude. Phenotypic variation was monitored 

using the proposed descriptor of qualitative and quantitative features (e.g., weight of hundred 

seeds). For each individual a voucher specimen was kept. The total genomic DNA was extracted 

from young leaves, conserved in silica gel, with INVITEK, Invisorb ®Spin Plant Mini 

Kit. Samples were then genotyped with five microsatellite (SSR) loci. One locus (Pel5)was 

cross-transferred, developed previously for Pithecellobium elegans. The remaining four loci 

(Inga03, 05, 08, 33) were previously developed for the species. Polymerase chain reaction 

(PCR) was made using a Biometra® T1 Thermocycler using the following profile: 95°C for 2 

min; 95°C for 15 s, 55/59°C for 30 s, 72°C for 30 s, 30 cycles; 72°C for 15 min. The PCR 

products were fluorescently labelled. The visualisation of fragments was carried out according 

to standard protocols on genetic analyser, ABI PRISM® 310 (Applied Biosystems), using 

ABI GENESCAN and GENOTYPER software. The phenotypic and genotypic results of wild 

versus domestic populations are under evaluation to verify if cultivation is altering the allelic 

variation considering that morphology is considerably changed. 

Keywords: Inga edulis, DNA, microsatellite locus, native vegetation, PCR, peruvian Amazon, 

population, variation 

Contact Address: Alexandr Rollo, Czech Univerzity of Life Sciences Prague, Dept. of Crop Sciences 

and Agroforestry in the Tropics and Subtropics, Kamycka 129, 16521 Prague, Czech Republic, e-mail: 

rollo@its.czu.cz 

256


Effects of Land Use Change on Soil Organic Carbon: 

A Pan-tropic Study 

OLIVER VAN STRAATEN, EDZO VELDKAMP, KATRIN WOLF, MARIFE D. CORRE 

Georg-August-Universität Göttingen, Büsgen Institute: Soil Science of Tropical and 

Subtropical Ecosystems, Germany 

Tropical forest deforestation is recognised as one of the major contributors to anthropogenic 

greenhouse gas emissions. In contrast to aboveground carbon stocks, comparatively 

little is known on deforestation’s affect on the magnitude and the factors 

affecting soil organic carbon (SOC). In this regional scale study we focused on tropical 

sites with deeply weathered, low-activity clays soils in three countries: Indonesia, 

Cameroon and Peru. Using a clustered sampling design we compared SOC stocks in 

the top three meters of soil in undisturbed forests (the reference) with converted land 

uses that had been deforested. The most predominant land use trajectories relevant 

for each region were investigated. These included (a) conversions from forest to cashcrop 

plantations (rubber, oil palm, cacao), (b) conversions from forest to cattle grazing 

pastures and (c) conversion from forest to shifting cultivation. Preliminary results 

from the three case study regions found that the conversion of forests to intensively 

managed land uses such as oil palm, rubber and cattle pastures caused significant 

losses of SOC in the top soil. In contrast, the extensively managed shifting cultivation 

land use trajectory in Peru showed no significant change in SOC stocks. In all land 

use trajectories there are indications that SOC may be translocated to deeper depths 

in the soil profile. 

Additionally, regional scale constraints such as soil physical and chemical characteristics 

(soil texture, soil pH) and climatic variables (precipitation, temperature) effect 

on SOC stocks and the changes in SOC stocks associated with land use change have 

been identified using multivariate statistical methods. 

Keywords: Cacao, deforestation, oil palm, plantations, rubber, shifting cultivation, 

soil carbon 

Contact Address: Oliver van Straaten, Georg-August-Universität Göttingen, Büsgen Institute: Soil 

Science of Tropical and Subtropical Ecosystems, Büsgenweg 2, 37073 Göttingen, Germany, e-mail: 

ostraat@gwdg.de 

257


Effects of Geohumus on Physiological Traits of Maize (Zea mays L. 

cv. Mikado) under Variable Water Supply 

VAN NHA DUONG, FOLKARD ASCH 



Drought is one of the most important abiotic factors affecting food security worldwide 

especially in arid or semiarid regions. Geohumus, known as a new generation of hydrophilic 

polymers, can absorb and release water for crops. Thus it was hypothesised 

that applying Geohumus to sandy soils (SS) would increase soil moisture resulting in 

improved performance of maize under water deficit conditions. Plants were grown in 

a split root system filled with 500 g SS (control) and 500 g SS mixed with 10 g Geohumus. 

The roots were divided between the two compartments and plants were watered 

daily to maintain field capacity. Fertiliser was supplied every three days in form of 

nutrient solution. 26 days after germinating, plants were subjected to one of three water 

supply levels (Full irrigation (FI) receiving 100 % FC; partial root drying (PRD) 

with half of the root system exposed to 100 % FC and the other half maintained at 

50 % FC; and deficit irrigation (DI) with equal 50 % FC for both sides of root system) 

for 40 hours before sampling. At sampling plants were decapitated, root water potential 

determined in a scholander bomb and xylem sap sampled at permanent pressure 

20 % above water potential for 10 min. Geohumus application compared to the plants 

grown in sand alone resulted in increases in pHxylem under DI, and strong increases 

in leaf and xylem abscisic acid concentration ([ABA]leaf and [ABA]xylem) under 

FI, PRD and DI. In contrast, there were significant decreases in leaf and root water 

potential and xylem osmotic potential under PRD and DI under Geohumus but leaf 

osmotic potential. However, no significant differences in photosynthesis, stomatal 

conductance, and transpiration between SS and and Geohumus were found. In summary, 

plants with Geohumus application responded stronger to drought stress than 

those grown in SS. 

Keywords: Physiological traits, SM, water deficit 

Contact Address: Van Nha Duong, University of Hohenheim, Inst. of Plant Production 

and Agroecology in the Tropics and Subtropics, 

e-mail:vannha@uni-hohenheim.de 

258 

Garbenstr. 13, 70599 Stuttgart, Germany,


Structural Analysis of Rosette Desert Scrub in Northeast Mexico 

MÉNDEZ CUAUHTÉMOC, JIMÉNEZ JAVIER,EDUARDO ALANIS RODRIGUEZ, 

JOSE MANUEL MATA BALDERAS 

University of Nuevo Leon, Dept. of Silviculture and Forest Management, Mexico 

Ecosystems in arid and semiarid regions of Mexico like the desert scrub rosette (MDR) 

are highly diverse, and one of the most abundant, most widely and historically more 

used. It has been studied earlier, but the available information is almost nonexistent, 

therefore its richness and diversity of its natural resources is unknown. In the absence 

of studies related to these ecosystems, the present research examined the differences 

in vegetation, composition and structure of two areas of desert scrub rosette, a valley 

and a hill. In each area were estimated ecological indicators of abundance (Ar), dominance 

(Dr), frequency (Fr) and importance value index (IVI). The index of Shannon 

& Wiener (H’) to estimate the diversity and Margalef index (Da) to estimate species 

richness were used also. The statistical significance of the variables between the evaluated 

areas was calculated by an analysis of variance (ANOVA) using the average 

values of the sampling sites. The results of the analysis showed significant differences 

(p < 0.05) to abundance and coverage variables between both areas. More than 

40 % of individuals sampled had diameters smaller than 2 cm. The most representative 

family with 12 of the 35 different species was Cactaceae. The valley area had 40 % 

more species than the hill zone. In both (hill and valley) cases the species Lechugilla 

torr was the most abundant and dominant species, with the highest importance value. 

The Shannon index and Margalef showed that both areas are highly rich and diverse 

in relation to other arid and semiarid sites of northeastern Mexico. 

Keywords: Agave, Lechuguilla torr, importance value index, plant diversity, 

Shannon 

Contact Address: Méndez Cuauhtémoc, University of Nuevo Leon, Dept. of Silviculture and Forest 

Management, Francisco Javier Mina # 20, 39000 Chilpancingo, Mexico, e-mail: xtemoc@hotmail.com 

259


Ethnoecological Analysis of Bacuri (Platonia insignis Mart.) 

Extractivism in the Chapada Limpa Reserve (Maranhão, Brazil) 

VÍVIAN DO CARMO LOCH, ALTAMIRO SOUZA DE LIMA FERRAZ JUNIOR, 

FRANCISCA HELENA MUNIZ 

Maranhão State University, Master Course of Agroecology, Brazil 

A central issue of agroecological research is the combination of scientific and traditional 

knowledge, within a pluralistic perspective and covering both natural and social 

sciences. This way it is possible to optimise agroecosystem functioning and maintain 

harmony between society and environment. The rural ‘territory’ is key within 

this context, and those production techniques should have priority that are capable 

of providing a future closely connected with the societies in which they live and the 

ecosystems in which they produce. In Maranhão State, eastern periphery of Amazonia, 

there are 5 extractivist reserves, one of which is the Chapada Limpa Reserve, 

located in Chapadinha county, central Maranhão State. This project strives to gain an 

understanding on how local population interacts with local environmental resources, 

based on their traditional knowledge, and how their management affects the natural 

resources in the environment. For this purpose, we mapped the most significant areas 

of occurrence of the bacuri fruit tree (Clusiaceae – Platonia insignis Mart.) in 

4 communities of the reserve: Juçaral II, Chapada Limpa I, Chapada Limpa II and 

Chapada do Riachão. We established our selection of these 4 areas as main areas of 

bacuri extractivism based on informal interviews with local population at initiation of 

this project. We subsequently applied semi-structured questionnaires, as well as participative 

observation, botanic sampling of vascular plants at flowering, plant physical 

parameters (height, diameter, thickness and weight of bark, seed weight, pulp weight, 

number of seeds per plant) and chemical indicators (pH, total acidity, titratable acidity 

and degree brix) of fruits, as well as the quantification of plant population structure 

based on phytosociological methods. Our preliminary results confirm the prominent 

role of Platonia insignis in our study area and thus confirms its ecological and cultural 

importance. However, management does impact the biodiversity of the associated 

vegetation. 

Keywords: Extractivism, Maranhão State, Platonia insignis 

Contact Address: Francisca Helena Muniz, Maranhão State University, Master Course of Agroecology, 

65053530 São Luis, Brazil, e-mail: fhmuniz@yahoo.com 

260


Management Options for Sustainable Land-Use of Inner Mongolia 

Typical Steppe: Lessons from a Comprehensive N Balance 

MARCUS GIESE 1 ,YINGZHI GAO 2 ,FOLKARD ASCH 1 ,HOLGER BRÜCK 1 



2Northeast Normal University, Institute of Grassland Science, China 

Inner Mongolian semi-arid grasslands are substantially affected by land degradation 

as a consequence of excessive overgrazing during the last decades. Nitrogen (N) is 

considered as a key element for ecosystem functions and therefore of fundamental 

importance to maintain forage production. 

N pathways of Chinese typical steppe were quantified at sites representing different 

land-use practices including heavy grazing (HG) and haymaking. 

Results showed that grassland NPP requires 3–7 g N m −2 yr −1 , which is mainly 

provided by N mineralisation from the large soil organic matter pool. Our N balances 

indicated that HG must be considered as N source with annual total net losses of 

up to 1.7 g N m −2 , mainly due to dust emissions and excrement export, the latter 

resulting from keeping sheep in folds overnight. Soil N mining by HG was indicated 

by reduced pool sizes of both topsoil organic N, and above- and belowground biomass 

N. Haymaking contributed to substantial annual N losses (up to 1.4 g N m −2 ), but sites 

were not affected by wind erosion and thus balanced with regard to N gains and losses. 

Management options in terms of a sustainable N balance could include sheep excrements 

redistribution to grazing areas with a potential to decrease up to 70 % of annual 

N loss related to animal feed intake. N losses due to export of live weight and wool 

were relatively small and could be sustainable as soon as stocking rates are reduced to 

a level at which remaining biomass prevents wind erosion. The establishment of haymaking 

sites ameliorated by e.g. the cultivation of legumes may improve regional N 

balances. Small amounts of mineral N fertiliser can further contribute to a sustainable 

land-use with regard to the N balance and forage production. Most N-related processes 

were more intensive in seasons of higher water availability indicating complex 

interactions between land-use intensity and climate variability. 

Land use practice (e.g. pastoralists in context of socio-economic systems) will be increasingly 

important for the management of N dynamics in Chinese typical steppe 

and, therefore, must be considered as a key component to maintain and optimise 

ecosystem services. 

Keywords: Grazing, N-balance, semi-arid grassland 

Contact Address: Marcus Giese, University of Hohenheim, Inst. of Plant Production and Agroecology 

in the Tropics and Subtropics, Stuttgart, Germany, e-mail: m.giese@uni-hohenheim.de 

261


Investigation of Weed Community Diversity in Forage Crop Fields 

in Iran 

GOLSOOMEH AZIZI 1 ,LEILA ALIMORADI 2 ,MARYAM JAHANI- KONDORI 3 

1Payam Noor University, Dept. of Agronomy, Iran 

2Islamic Azad University - Mashhad Branch, Dept. of Agronomy, Iran 

3Ferdowsi University of Mashhad, Dept. of Agronomy, Iran 

Agricultural biodiversity or “agrobiodiversity” refers to the diversity of all living organisms 

including animals, plants and microorganisms functioning at genetic, species 

and ecosystem levels and contributing to agricultural food production. It also involves 

the interactions between environment and practices made by human for food production. 

In order to evaluate weed diversity in forage crop fields in different provinces 

of Iran, a study was conducted by using data from reports of the plant protection 

organisation, Ministry of Agriculture. 

The results indicated that the number of weed species and families found in alfalfa 

fields were 37 and 18, respectively. The largest family of monocotyledonous and of 

dicotyledonous weeds were Poaceae and Asteraceae. In sainfoin fields, 9 species of 

5 different families were observed with Poaceae having the highest species diversity. 

In clover fields, with 20 different weed species of 11 plant families, was the highest 

species diversity found among the Poaceae family with 6 species and the Brassicaceae 

family showed 4 species. The highest similarity index for alfalfa fields (100 %) was 

observed between West Azerbaijan - Ardabil, West Azerbaijan - Zanjan, West Azerbaijan 

- Kordestan, Ardabil - Kordestan, Zanjan - Kordestan, Zanjan - Gilan, Kordestan 

- Gilan, West Azerbaijan - Gilan and Ardabil - Gilan. The highest similarity 

for sainfoin fields (60 %) was between East Azerbaijan - West Azerbaijan and West 

Azerbaijan - Fars. Also, in clover fields, the highest similarity index was obtained 

between Fars and Isfahan provinces. 

In general, these results suggest that the use of high level of inputs in conventional 

cropping systems has caused a tremendous change in the structure of weed communities. 

In this respect, for instance, herbicides are normally used to control broad 

leaf weeds and this allows narrow leaf species which are resistant to herbicides to 

dominate and hence reduces the functional diversity of weeds as a whole. 

Keywords: Alfalfa (Medicago sativa), clover (Trifolium sp), sainfoin (Onobrychis 

spp.), similarity index, species diversity 

Contact Address: Golsoomeh Azizi, Payam Noor University, Dept. of Agronomy, Mashhad, Iran, 

e-mail: azizi40760@gmail.com 

262

Forestry 

1) Forestry 265 

2) Agroforestry 303 

263

Forestry 


ISMAIL AZEEZ, KAFAYAT FALADE: 

Access to Credit and Value Additions to Some Non-Timber 

Forest Products in Egbeda Local Government Area, Nigeria 269 

MOHAMED KHAMIS, EL NOUR EL SIDDIEG, AYOUB KHALIL: 

Analysis of Natural Regeneration of Boswellia papyrifera 

Stands in Southern Kordofan State, Sudan 270 

SUMAN GHIMIRE: 

Benefit Sharing in Community Forestry in Nepal: Do Poor 

Actually Benefit? 271 

JOACHIM SCHMERBECK, JEAN POUYET, PATNAIK SUDATTA: 

Can Development Interventions Reduce Human Pressure on 

Forest? A Case Study of a Long Term Observation in India 

THERESE HERTEL, BERND STIMM, REINHARD MOSANDL: 

272 

Tree Seed Procurement in Loja, Ecuador, Including a 

Concept for a Regional Tree Seed Program 

DUC LE, HANG NGUYEN, JÜRGEN PRETZSCH, HUY BAO: 

Livelihood of Local People and Dependence on Forest 

Resources: A Case Study in Son Lang Commune Located in 

273 

Ha Nung State Forestry Company, Vietnam 274 

Posters 

KARIN MARITA NAASE: 

Farmers’ Decisions Concerning the Rainforest in Land 

275 

Reform Settlements in the Brazilian Amazon 

THE LONG NGO, DIRK HÖLSCHER: 

275 

Rare Tree Species in Limestone Mountain Forests of 

Northern Vietnam 

JOACHIM KRUG: 

276 

Adapting Landscape-Scale Criteria and Indicator for 

Sustainability Assessment and Improved Natural Forest 

Management 

HAI NGUYEN, KERSTIN WIEGAND, STEPHAN GETZIN: 

Distance Correlations Do Not Scale with Size Correlations of 

277 

Tree Species in a Tropical Rain Forest Stand 278 

265

Forestry 

266 

YAZAR MINN, KATHLEEN PRINZ, REINER FINKELDEY: 

Conservation and Genetic Variation of Teak (Tectona grandis 

Linn. f.) in Natural Populations in Myanmar 279 

KONSTANTINA M.B. KAMEUBUN, KATHLEEN PRINZ, 

YOHANIS NGILI, REINER FINKELDEY, MICHAEL MÜHLENBERG: 

Indigenous Knowledge for Classification and Utilisation of 

Wati (Piper methysticum Forst.) in Marind Tribe of Merauke 

Regency, Southern Papua 

MUNEER ELYAS SIDDIG ELTAHIR, SVEN WAGNER: 

Demographic Structure and Population Biology of Albizia 

amara and Terminalia brownii as the Dominant Tree Species 

280 

in Elsareef Reserved Forest, Kordofan Region, Sudan 

MUNEER ELYAS SIDDIG ELTAHIR, SVEN WAGNER: 

Assessment of Regeneration Situation in Natural and in 

281 

Plantation Parts of Elsareef Reserved Forest 

TOA LOAIZA-LANGE, UDO NEHREN, GERHARD GEROLD: 

Livelihoods Sustainability and REDD Implementation in 

282 

Communal Lands in Northeastern Ecuador 

CHRISTINE WODA: 

283 

Food from the Forest: An Alternative to Agriculture in Crisis? 284 

TANIA OSEJO CARRILLO, TOBIAS WÜNSCHER, MATTHIAS 

DIETER: 

Assessing the Opportunity Cost of Avoided Deforestation in 

Central America: Case Studies in Nicaragua and Costa Rica 

SUJAN MAHARJAN, ASIA KHAMZINA: 

Assessment of Tree Water Use for Development of Resilient 

285 

Agroforestry Systems in Salinized Areas of Northern 

Uzbekistan 286 

DARIUSZ KURZATKOWSKI, CHRISTOPHER MARTIUS, 

MARTIN WORBES: 

Seasonal Changes of Photosynthetic Activity in the Tropical 

Forest of the Araguaia River Floodplain, Brazil 

PAVEL PROPASTIN, OLEG PANFEROV: 

Absorption of Photosynthetically Active Radiation by a Trop- 

287 

ical Rainforest in Indonesia, Measurements and Modelling 

THIDA SWE, DIETER MURACH, NYI NYI KYAW, SAN THWIN: 

Fine Root Biomass and Soil Carbon Storage of Teak 

288 

Plantations in Myanmar 289 

VANESSA GOMES DE SOUSA, SILVIO BRIENZA JUNIOR, 

MOISÉS MOURÃO JÚNIOR: 

Dynamic Growth of Schizolobium parahyba var. amazonicum 

in two Planting Models in the Eastern Brazilian Amazon 290

Forestry — Contents 

DUC LE, WALTER LINTANGAH, JÜRGEN PRETZSCH, 

NORBERT WEBER, HUY BAO: 

Implementation of Sustainable Forest Management in two 

Different Forest Management Unit Models in Vietnam and 

Malaysia 291 

MARLEEN DE BLECOURT, RAINER BRUMME, JIAN CHU XU, 

MARIFE D. CORRE, EDZO VELDKAMP: 

Soil Carbon Stocks Decrease after Conversion from Degraded 

Forest to Rubber Plantation - Southern Yunnan China 292 

ELIZABETH MONGES ZALAZAR, JÜRGEN PRETZSCH, JULIA 

SZULECKA: 

Smallholder Tree Plantations in Paraguay: Comparative 

Assessment of Influencing Factors and Contribution to 

Income Generation 293 

CECÍLIA HERNANDEZ OCHOA-COUTINHO, SILVIO BRIENZA 

JUNIOR, ANA PAULA VIDAL BASTOS, JULIE ANDREWS DE 

FRANÇA ESILVA, VANESSA GOMES DE SOUSA: 

Floristic Composition of Soil Seed Bank in Forest Plantations 

in the Eastern Amazon, Pará, Brazil 294 

ANTONIO LOPES DO BONFIM NETO, HERIBERTO WAGNER 

AMANAJAS PENA, PEDRO SILVESTRE DA SILVA CAMPOS, 

CHRISTOPH GEHRING, TALMIR QUINZEIRO NETO, JORGE 

ALBERTO GAZEL YARED: 

Effects of Land-Use on Deforestation Dynamics in Pará State, 

Amazonia, Brazil 295 

MIGUEL ANGEL PEQUEÑO LEDEZMA, CARLOS ALBERTO 

MORA DONJUÁN, ISRAEL YERENA YAMALLEL, JAVIER 

JIMÉNEZ PÉREZ,EDUARDO ALANIS RODRIGUEZ, MARCO AU- 

RELIO GONZALEZ TAGLE: 

Analysis of the Livestock Passive Forest Restoration in the 

Tamaulipan Thornscrub in Northeast México 296 

MARCO AURELIO GONZALEZ TAGLE, JIMÉNEZ JAVIER, 

DIANA YEMILET AVILA FLORES, WIBKE HIMMELSBACH: 

Reconstructing Past Fire Regimes: Applications and 

Relevance to Fire Management 


Insects Associated with Exotic and Indigeneous Tree Species 

297 

in Plantations in Ondo State Nigeria 298 

DAYANNE SIMONI DE CASTRO SILVA, CECÍLIA HERNANDEZ 

OCHOA-COUTINHO, SILVIO BRIENZA JUNIOR, 

VANESSA GOMES DE SOUSA: 

Floristic Composition of Soil Seed Banks in Degradad 

Agriculture Areas Recovered by Forest Plantations, Brazil 299 

267

Forestry 

268 


People’s Perception Towards Forest Plantation Development 

in Owo and Supare Akoko, Ondo State Nigeria 300 

VANESA RODRIGUEZ OSUNA, JAN BÖRNER, UDO NEHREN, 

HARTMUT GAESE, RACHEL BARDY PRADO: 

Enhancing Cost-Effective Watershed Management in the 

Brazilian Atlantic Forest by Valuing Forest Ecosystem 

Services Linked to Water Quality in the Guapi-Macacu 

Watershed 301 

NASRIN SEYEDI: 

Principle Method to Harvest Resin from Wild Pistachio 

in Iran 302

Forestry — Oral Presentations 

Access to Credit and Value Additions to Some Non-Timber Forest 

Products in Egbeda Local Government Area, Nigeria 

ISMAIL AZEEZ, KAFAYAT FALADE 

University of Ibadan, Dept. of Forest Resources Management, Nigeria 

The capacity to promote sustainable use of Non-Timber Forest Products (NTFPs) and 

facilitate increased financial benefits to local users as incentives for forest conservation 

is low due to neglect by governments particularly in Nigeria. Such capacity is 

however imperative to stemming rural poverty and can be enhanced by incorporating 

NTFP collection and commercialisation research into forest management development 

programs. But sustainable production and conservation of forest products is 

influenced by a number of factors, largely socioeconomic and institutional in nature. 

Men and women also play different roles in the collection and utilisation of NTFPs. 

This paper reports collection and sales of NTFPs against some socioeconomic background 

of identified collectors in Egbeda Local Government Area (LGA), Oyo state, 

Nigeria. Purposive simple random sampling was used to select respondents from the 

study population using the medium of the Egbeda Farmers Association of Nigeria 

(EFAN). Egbeda LGA has 10 cell groups of EFAN and twelve (12) farmers were selected 

from each of the cell group. A total of 120 sets of structured questionnaire 

were used to document demographic information, involvement in NTFPs business 

and access to credit facilities among respondents. Oral interview were also conducted 

to know if they engage in the NTFPs business as a primary occupation or secondary 

occupation, the type of NTFPs specialised in, their sources, number of gathering trips 

per week, and the amount made from the sales of the NTFPs. The data collected 

was analysed using descriptive and inferential statistics. More than half (53.3 %) of 

respondents involved in the NTFPs business in the study area was of the male gender 

and 62.5 % had secondary education. Majority of the respondent (88.2 %) engaged 

in NTFPs gathering as a secondary occupation. Their access to credit facilities was 

low. The amount made from sales without credit facilities is reasonable. Inadequate 

funding, lack of credit facilities, inadequate information about how to market their 

products and its neglect by government were identified as a major constraints to sustainable 

collection and use of NTFPs. NTFPs would contribute more to livelihood in 

the study area, provided access to credit can be facilitated. 

Keywords: Credit access, Egbeda local government area, NTFP, value addition 

Contact Address: Ismail Azeez, University of Ibadan, Dept. of Forest Resources Management, Ibadan, 

Nigeria, e-mail: azeezismail2000@yahoo.com 

269

Forestry 

Analysis of Natural Regeneration of Boswellia papyrifera Stands in 

Southern Kordofan State, Sudan 

MOHAMED KHAMIS 1 ,EL NOUR EL SIDDIEG 2 ,AYOUB KHALIL 3 

1Al Fashir University, Department of Forestry & Range Sciences, Sudan 

2Khartoum University, Dept. of Forest Management, Sudan 

3University of Bahri, Dept. of Forestry, Sudan 

Sudan is characterised by a diversity of natural woody perennials which produce nonwood 

forest products. However, gums and gum resins are among the products that 

contribute significantly in the livelihood of the local inhabitants and in the economy 

of the country as a whole. The genus Boswellia which belongs to the family Burseraceae, 

is native to the dry areas of Africa, Middle East and India. It is considered to be 

very important as some of the species produce gum resin (Frankincense or olibanum), 

which has various applications locally and world-wide. It is used in local cultures in 

terms of wood, fodder, and traditional medicine, in commercial industries and conservation 

of the environment. 

Boswellia papyrifera (Del.) Hochst. is a multipurpose perennial tree that grows on 

the rocky shallow soils of the dry land slopes. It produces gum resin that has various 

local applications, pharmaceutical and industrial. In addition to the multiple uses of 

its wood, the leaves are used as fodder and it appears to play a great ecological role. 

One of the serious problems in the B. papyrifera stands in South Kordofan State is the 

lack of natural regeneration. 

Therefore a regeneration experiment in the natural B. papyrifera stands was carried 

out to analyse the regeneration in tapped and untapped stands. Eight areas were selected, 

based on tapping. In each area three random sample plots (20 m by 20 m), 

were established based on altitudinal range (low, medium and high). In each plot regeneration 

seedlings were counted and recorded, in both tapped and untapped stands. 

The results showed that the number of the germinated seedlings was higher in the 

untapped plots and there was a significant difference in regeneration at (p > 0.05) between 

the tapped and untapped plots of B. papyrifera stands, which reveal that tapping 

has influence on the natural regeneration. It is recommended that the current intensified 

tapping methods to be improved and reduce its effect on natural regeneration. In 

addition to the use of alternative methods of regenerating these Boswellia papyrifera 

trees through enrichment planting by branch cuttings. 

Keywords: Boswellia papyrifera, natural regeneration, South Kordofan, tapped, 

untapped trees, NTFP 

Contact Address: Mohamed Khamis, Al Fashir University, Department of Forestry & Range Sciences, 

Al Fashir University, Al Fashir, Sudan, e-mail: mkhamis43@gmail.com 

270


Benefit Sharing in Community Forestry in Nepal: Do Poor 

Actually Benefit? 

SUMAN GHIMIRE 

University of Bonn, Agricultural Science and Resource Management in the Tropics and 

Subtropics (ARTS), Germany 

Community forestry (CF) in Nepal is said to be a successful, innovative and futureoriented 

participatory forest management program. 17,600 Community Forest User 

Groups (CFUGs) manage more than 1.6 million hectares of national forest, and in 

thirty-two years of its initiation CF approach has evolved as a viable mechanism of 

handling forest to autonomous user groups with legal status with perpetual succession 

and as a means to generate benefit - that the group can mobilise on its own interest. 

Benefit sharing among the members within the group is less emphasised even though 

it determines the socioeconomic upliftment of marginalised groups in caste and class 

based hierarchical Nepalese society. 

Five, three and two CFUGs were selected from Dolakha, Gorkha and Chitawan district 

respectively. 136 forest users and 39 committee members, 9 political partie leaders 

and 3 district forest officers were interviewed. Records on the forest products and 

income sharing were used from district forest offices and CFUGs. Moreover, group 

discussions with the pro-poor identified by the respective groups were conducted. 

Ten, one in each CFUG, pro-poor houses were visited and family members were consulted 

to know if they are satisfied with the existing mechanism. CFUGs’ constitution, 

operational plan and minutes were assessed. 

Result showed that one of the approved objectives of all CFUGs was status upliftment 

of socioeconomically marginalised sections of the group. The CF had fulfiled around 

68 % of the demand of products and users depend on other sources such as agricultural 

fields. Poor users, and users facing problems, got the forest products free-of-cost or 

in discount - up to 90 %. 16, 4 % and none of the income was expended by the poor 

in Dolakha, Chitawan and Gorkha respectively. None of the CFUGs from Chitawan 

and two in Gorkha did not conduct well-being-rankingin order to identify the poor, so 

that the actual poor did not get their benefits. 

Poorïdentification through well-being-ranking like in Dolakha could ensure that the 

real poor got their benefits. Implementation of legal obligation to expend at least 35 % 

of CFUGs’ total income in pro-poor programmes could improve the socioeconomic 

status of marginalised groups. 

Keywords: CFUG, marginalised, pro-poor, socio-economic upliftment, well-beingranking, 

community forest 

Contact Address: Suman Ghimire, University of Bonn, Agricultural Science and Resource Management 

in the Tropics and Subtropics (ARTS), Nussallee 1, 53115 Bonn, Germany, e-mail: 

suman.ghimiray@gmail.com 

271

Forestry 

Can Development Interventions Reduce Human Pressure on 

Forest? A Case Study of a Long Term Observation in India 

JOACHIM SCHMERBECK 1 ,JEAN POUYET 2 ,PATNAIK SUDATTA 3 

1Teri University, Dept. of Natural Resources, India 

2Auroville, Two Banyans, India 

3Teri University, Dept. of Policy Studies, India 

We re-assessed the number of people and their purpose for entering a degraded dry 

forest in the plains of Tamil Nadu (South India) after 21 years. We found a drastic 

reduction in the number of people visiting the forest for the utilisation of forest 

products. These changes seem to be driven by the unavailability of local markets, 

agricultural programmes of local NGOs and better employment options than 21 years 

ago. 

The increasing human pressure on tropical forest is of worldwide concern but data 

on local level that support this trend are hardly available resulting in a lack of information 

for appropriate management strategies. The Palni Hills Conservation Council 

conducted a foot-path survey around the Kadavakurchi Reserved Forest (KRF), a degraded 

dry forest on a 10 km2 hillock at the foot of the Western Ghats in 1990/91. 

Interviews at 19 interview points were done simultaneously on one day a week over 

seven weeks, covering all seven week days. Numbers of people entering the forest 

were assessed, and they were asked about the importance of forest products for their 

livelihoods, as well as about forest-product collection patterns and marketing strategies. 

The survey was redone in 2012 during the same season as in 1991. 

We found an almost 40 % decrease in the number of people entering the forest between 

1991 and 2012, while amongst the different forest uses the number of people 

collecting fuel wood in the forest showed the strongest reduction of 90 %. Heads of 

livestock entering the forest for grazing have increased by 25 % mainly due to a rise 

in the number of goats. 

In interviews with local development institutions in the area, both government agencies 

and NGOs, as well as in 75 households we found that several employment generation 

and watershed development programs have been conducted over the last 21 

years. Household respondents stated that alternative incomes triggered by agricultural 

and small-scale employment programmes underlay their reduced or abandoned 

utilisation of forest products. The main reason for the reduction in fuel wood collection, 

on the other hand, was stated by households as reduced availability of local 

markets. 

Keywords: Development work, dry forest, forest degradation, India, long term 

observation, reduced anthropogenic pressure 

Contact Address: Joachim Schmerbeck, Teri University, Dept. of Natural Resources, 10, Institutional 

Area, 110070 New Delhi, India, e-mail: jschmerbeck.daad@teriuniversity.ac.in 

272


Tree Seed Procurement in Loja, Ecuador, Including a Concept for 

a Regional Tree Seed Program 

THERESE HERTEL, BERND STIMM, REINHARD MOSANDL 

Technical University of Munich, Institute of Silviculture, Center of Life and Food 


South America hosts 22 % of the world´s forests with its unique biological diversity. 

Ecuador is considered being one of the countries with the highest biodiversity, but unsustainable 

land use and forestry practices threaten this diversity. Up to today Ecuador 

has the highest deforestation rate in South America. To counteract the forest losses 

wide-ranged reforestation has to take place but is still at the very beginning. The reforestation 

efforts up to now do not compensate for the high losses in forest cover. 

About 140,000 ha of forest plantations exist in the Andes of Ecuador and the commonly 

used species are Eucalyptus globulus, Pinus radiata and Pinus patula. Just 

recently Ecuadorian organisations paid particular attention to tree species native to 

Ecuador and their reforestation potential. The major obstacle to use native species 

on a larger scale for reforestation is the lack of high quality forest reproductive material. 

Sound information about appropriate seed procurement, propagation methods 

and silvicultural treatment options have to be acquired, applied and communicated. 

The objectives of our study are to evaluate the current seed procurement and management, 

and to develop a concept for a regional tree seed programme for the Province 

of Loja which is practicable and adapted to the local circumstances. 

Data on the current practices were gathered through questionnaire survey and structured 

observations among provincial tree nurseries. National and regional forestry 

strategies and plans were revised to understand the encountered situation. Based on 

the model of DANIDAs national tree seed programme framework a regional seed 

programme was developed, which assesses the main areas of improvement of seed 

management and highlights facts in need for special consideration. 

Our contribution can act as a model for other tropical regions in providing public authorities 

and politicians with an elaborated concept to improve tree seed management. 

Keywords: Native tree species, reforestation, seed supply, tree seed program 

Contact Address: Bernd Stimm, Technical University of Munich, Institute of Silviculture, Center of 

Life and Food Sciences Weihenstephan, Hans-Carl-von-Carlowitz-Platz 2, 85354 Freising, Germany, 

e-mail: stimm@forst.tu-muenchen.de 

273

Forestry 

Livelihood of Local People and Dependence on Forest Resources: 

A Case Study in Son Lang Commune Located in Ha Nung State 

Forestry Company, Vietnam 

DUC LE 1 ,HANG NGUYEN 2 ,JÜRGEN PRETZSCH 1 ,HUY BAO 3 

1Technische Universität Dresden, Institute of International Forestry and Forest Products, 

Tropical Forestry, Germany 

2Forest Science Institute of Vietnam, Tropical Forest Research Centre, Vietnam 

3Tay Nguyen University, Faculty of Agriculture & Forestry, Department of Forest 

Resources & Environment Management, Vietnam 

The local people in the State Forest Enterprises (SFEs) in Vietnam have been traditionally 

dependent on the forests for their livelihood and their living habits have 

become closely integrated with the forest. Since SFEs began to manage the forests 

for timber extraction in 1954, changes in forest policies have had an impact on the 

livelihood of local people, and they have come into conflict with the SFEs over their 

traditional right of forest use and the laws of forest management and protection. 

This research was conducted to determine the extent of dependence on forest resources 

by local households and the level of cooperation between the SFEs and the 

local people. A household survey was conducted in eight villages in the forest area 

managed by Ha Nung State Forestry Company (SFC, previously called as SFE) in Son 

Lang commune, K’Bang district, Gia Lai province. Eighty households were chosen 

by systematic sampling for survey and interview. 

Research findings indicate that the migrant Kinh (also called as Vietnamese) people 

have a higher annual income (approximately 2.7 times) than that of the indigenous 

Bahna people. The main source of income for the Kinh is from coffee (66 %), whereas 

the Bahna people are more dependent on forest (44 %) and less upon coffee (31 %). 

Other agriculture and animal husbandry represent minor sources of income for both 

groups. 

Most of the local people, especially the Bahna, desire greater involvement in the SFC 

forest management, but local people were not considered in forest planning by the Ha 

Nung SFC as participatory, and complaints over lands, forest use, and benefits have 

been frequently registered. The research shows potential impacts of land use on forest 

patterns, and examines conflicts and cooperation in forest management practices in 

the case study region. Recommendations are given for better forest management of 

the Ha Nung SFC with greater involvement of the local people. 

Keywords: Forest dependence, income source, local people, state forest enterprise, 

sustainable forest management 

Contact Address: Duc Le, Technische Universität Dresden, Institute of International Forestry 

and Forest Products, 

lethienduc@gmail.com 

274 

Tropical Forestry, Pienner Str. 7, 01737 Tharandt, Germany, e-mail:

Forestry — Posters 

Farmers’ Decisions Concerning the Rainforest in Land Reform 

Settlements in the Brazilian Amazon 

KARIN MARITA NAASE 

University of Marburg, Institute of Cultural and Social Anthropology, Germany 

Land reform is a sensitive topic in public Brazilian debate due to the landless workers 

movements’ national and international visibility, due to the social and economic inequality 

in Brazil and due to the complexity of interests and positions involved. But, 

as a matter of fact, land reform settlements in the Amazon are amongst the fiercest 

destructors of tropical rainforest in the region. This reality is against customary explanations 

for deforestation, presuming traditional population (including ribeirinhos 

(riverside dwellers), indigenous people, rubber tapers, and small peasants do not destroy 

nature (i.e. tropical rain forest and the general environment). In considering 

this reality common to other regions in the Amazon, there is one central question 

unanswered, far behind political and environmental debates on tropical rain forest 

and land reform: Why do people deforest? During my fieldwork in land reform settlements 

in the Brazilian Amazon, it became evident that there are several options 

and behavioural patterns that lead some settlers to conserve the legal resereve areas 

(80 % of the soil) and others to log nearly every tree on their land-reform allotments. 

Additionally, further questions should be asked about settlers’ options, motives, and 

strategies. Finally, we might ask whether it is truly possible, as land reform proposes, 

to combine conservation of the tropical rain forest with the search for social equity. 

The focus of this contribution is on decisions made by settlers regarding rain forest 

conservation or destruction on their land allotments, as vital element of their livelihood-strategies. 

Therefore, this case study of landless people in the Amazon (in the 

state of Pará) attempts to analyse the decision-making of settlers in a complex social, 

political, economical, and environmental reality, which represents for recently established 

settlers a new situation at different degrees, according to former experiences 

and actual assets available. For most of them, it is a challenge endowed with multiple 

uncertainties and vulnerabilities. Furthermore, in this context, we have to consider the 

weight of the State and its development strategies through the land reform programme 

and environmental policies on peasants’ decisions and actions 

Keywords: Amazon, deforestation, farmers’ decision making, land reform, tropical 

rainforest 

Contact Address: Karin Marita Naase, University of Marburg, Institute of Cultural and Social Anthropology, 

Kugelgasse 10, 35037 Marburg, Germany, e-mail: karin.naase@staff.uni-marburg.de 

275

Forestry 

Rare Tree Species in Limestone Mountain Forests of 

Northern Vietnam 

THE LONG NGO 1,2 ,DIRK HÖLSCHER 2 

1Hung Vuong University, Forestry Department, Vietnam 

2Georg-August-Universität Göttingen, Burckhardt Institute: Tropical Silviculture and 

Forest Ecology, Germany 

In consequence of land use changes, some tropical tree species that have always been 

rare become endangered due to their shrinking habitat and population. In this study, 

we analysed five species, which are named in the red list, in terms of their abundance 

on limestone mountains in northern Vietnam. Three of these species (Excentrodendron 

tonkinense, Chukrasia tabularis and Garcinia fagraeoides) are largely restricted 

to such limestone mountain forests and considered typical to this environment, 

whereas two studied species (Parashorea chinensis and Melientha suavis)have 

a wider distribution range. We asked about the appropriate method to estimate their 

population density, how many trees there might be, and on which sites they preferably 

occur. In an old-growth forest of 6.5 km 2 , a random sampling approach was applied 

as well as adaptive cluster sampling, which is specifically designed for rare events and 

spatially clustered distributions. In these species, adaptive cluster sampling resulted 

in higher mean values of trees per unit ground area and lower variances than random 

sampling. Considerable numbers of trees were found for all the species. The three 

limestone mountain forest species increased in abundance with steepness of the slope, 

increase in rock-outcrop cover and decrease in soil depth; in short, with the severity 

of site conditions. The two species with a wider distribution range (Parashorea and 

Melientha) did not occur on very severe sites. We conclude that adaptive cluster sampling 

is an appropriate method for estimating the population density of these rare tree 

species in this study region, a national park, where some of the red list species still 

occur, and the typical limestone forest species are particularly found on severe sites. 

Keywords: Adaptive cluster sampling, limestone mountains, random sampling, red 

list, trees 

Contact Address: The Long Ngo, Georg-August-Universität Göttingen, Tropical Silviculture and Forest 

Ecology, Burckhardt Institute, 37077 Göttingen, Germany, e-mail: tngo@gwdg.de 

276


Adapting Landscape-Scale Criteria and Indicator for 

Sustainability Assessment and Improved Natural Forest 

Management 

JOACHIM KRUG 

German Federal Research Institute for Rural Areas, Forestry and Fisheries, Thuenen- 

Institute for World Forestry, Germany 

In the last two decades, the concept of sustainable development and more specifically 

of sustainable forest management has been widely discussed. To assess the sustainability 

of forest management, different sets of criteria and indicators (C&I) have been 

developed and implemented, mostly at international and national level. However, 

there is a scarcity of application at the local and respectively forest management unit 

level. 

In order to measure the sustainability of different forest use types in the project area 

“Dinh Hoa District, northern Vietnam”, this study developed a locally adapted set with 

a number of criteria and indicators, focusing on ecological, economical and social aspects. 

A generic set was developed based on existing international templates and was 

adapted to local needs of the Dinh Hoa District using two methods: (1) multi-criteria 

decision making attended by national, regional and local experts and (2) participatory 

methods attended by local stakeholders. The study showed that a combination of 

these two approaches combines scientific validity of the set with recognition of local 

values, increasing its acceptance among all stakeholders. 

An assessment tool was designed for the evaluation of the impact of different natural 

resource management approaches on a specific target group. The focus lies on local 

concerns by communities and individuals with regard to natural resource management 

on landscape-scale, intentionally including parameters further than from forest 

management. 

The applied methods provide a framework to compare different perceptions of sustainable 

forest management, as well as the impact of different forest use types or 

management approaches on the livelihood of the adjacent communities. 

However, the assessment tool can easily be adjusted to different research requirements. 

Keywords: Criteria and indicators, livelihood assessment, sustainable natural forest 

management 

Contact Address: Joachim Krug, German Federal Research Institute for Rural Areas, Forestry and 

Fisheries, Thuenen-Institute for World Forestry, Leuschnerstr. 91, 21031 Hamburg, Germany, e-mail: 

joachim.krug@vti.bund.de 

277

Forestry 

Distance Correlations Do Not Scale with Size Correlations of Tree 

Species in a Tropical Rain Forest Stand 

HAI NGUYEN, KERSTIN WIEGAND, STEPHAN GETZIN 

Georg-August-Universität Göttingen, Dept. of Ecosystem Modelling, Germany 

Spatial patterns of forest trees have long been recognised as evidences of underlying 

biological processes within the forests. We used point pattern analysis methods and 

process-based models to uncover the demography and dynamics of trees in a primary 

rainforest stand. 

A fully mapped 1 ha plot was investigated in the tropical rain forest, Cucphuong National 

park, Vietnam. Trees were stem-mapped, diameter-measured and classified 

into four life-history stages: sapling, juvenile, premature and mature based on diameter 

at breast height. Spatial patterns and tree size correlations of life-history stages, 

within species and between species were analysed using the pair-correlation and rmark-correlation 

functions to reveal scale dependent patterns. 

At community level, sapling and juvenile stages were clustered up to large scales, 

while premature and mature trees were regular and had random distributions. The 

strong evidence of competitive interaction was showed by distance correlations. However, 

tree sizes did not correlate significantly to the same tendency with tree-tree distances. 

In intra-specific interactions, three of four abundant species were significantly 

clustered while negative correlations in tree size were clearly showed within Hydnocarpus 

kurzii and Saraca dives. In addition, marginal repulsions were found in distance 

correlations approved by size correlations when considering the inter-specific 

interactions with dominant species. 

We suggest that self-thinning was an important driver of the forest community dynamics. 

Clustered distributions were predominant among conspecific trees. Weak interspecific 

interactions between light demanding species (S. dives) and other species 

can be explained by competition for light. High diversity of species could cause the 

equilibrated competition for limited resources as an overall competitive effect. Here, 

tree size (diameter at breast height) correlations and inter-tree distance correlations 

did not scale well, however they also mutual complement indicating for competitive 

interactions between tree individuals. 

Keywords: Pair-correlation function, r-mark-correlation function, spatial point pattern 

analysis, tropical rain forest, Vietnam 

Contact Address: Hai Nguyen, Georg-August-Universität Göttingen, Dept. of Ecosystem Modelling, 

Büsgenweg 4, 37077 Göttingen, Germany, e-mail: hnguyen@uni-goettingen.de 

278


Conservation and Genetic Variation of Teak (Tectona grandis 

Linn. f.) in Natural Populations in Myanmar 

YAZAR MINN, KATHLEEN PRINZ, REINER FINKELDEY 

Georg-August-Universität Göttingen, Buesgen Institute: Forest Genetics and Forest Tree 


Teak (Tectona grandis) is a valuable tropical forest tree species which naturally occurs 

in India, Laos, Myanmar and Thailand. Ten polymorphic nuclear microsatellite 

markers (SSRs) and seventy-one AFLP markers (Amplified Fragment Length Polymorphisms) 

were used to investigate genetic variation of teak in natural populations 

in Myanmar for conservation and sustainable utilisation of genetic resources. Adult 

trees and young regeneration were sampled in selectively logged and unlogged populations 

in four regions, each in the northern and southern parts of Myanmar, and two 

plantations in Benin. A total of 1667 samples and 1573 samples were used for SSRs 

and AFLPs, respectively. In general, genetic diversity within teak populations was 

relatively high but not significantly different between management types and between 

regeneration and adults. Myanmar populations were less diverse than Benin populations 

with SSR markers and the allelic richness was significantly higher in southern 

than in northern populations of Myanmar. Additionally, inbreeding was significantly 

higher in the regeneration in unlogged than in selectively logged populations. AFLP 

markers showed contrasting patterns as the Myanmar populations were more diverse 

than those of Benin, and genetic diversity in northern populations was significantly 

higher than in the South of Myanmar. Furthermore, genetic diversity of adult trees was 

significantly higher than in the teak regeneration in unlogged populations. For both 

markers, cluster and structure analyses revealed two major clusters: one with northern 

populations and another one with southern populations of Myanmar and those of 

Benin. A Mantel test showed significant positive correlation between genetic and geographical 

distances among populations. Analyses of molecular variance (AMOVA) 

detected the highest genetic variation within populations. The Fst values were significantly 

different among all teak populations and higher between than within the 

regions in Myanmar. This study suggests applying different conservation strategies 

for northern and southern Myanmar. 

Keywords: AFLPs, genetic variation, SSRs, teak 

Contact Address: Yazar Minn, Georg-August-Universität Göttingen, Buesgen Institute: Forest Genetics 

and Forest Tree Breeding, Buesgenweg 2, 37077 Göttingen, Germany, e-mail: yminn@gwdg.de 

279

Forestry 

Indigenous Knowledge for Classification and Utilisation of Wati 

(Piper methysticum Forst.) in Marind Tribe of Merauke Regency, 

Southern Papua 

KONSTANTINA MARIA BRIGITA KAMEUBUN 1 ,KATHLEEN PRINZ 2 , 

YOHANIS NGILI 3 ,REINER FINKELDEY 2 ,MICHAEL MÜHLENBERG 1 

1Georg-August-Universität Göttingen, Dept. of Conservation Biology: Centre for Nature 

Conservation, Germany 

2Georg-August-Universität Göttingen, Buesgen Institute: Forest Genetics and Forest Tree 


3University of Cenderawasih, Papuan Genome Study Group, Indonesia 

Papua Province harbor a very rich biodiversity which is not inexhaustible to be researched 

and explored. Various plants act as a drug and are traditionally used by 

the community. Marind tribe is located in the district of Merauke in southern Papua. 

Based on its geographical conditions, society of Marind tribe is divided into 3 groups 

in terms of Marind pantai (Marind dufh), Marind rawa (Marind bob), and Marind 

darat (Marind degh). One of the most important traditionally used plant species is 

Piper methysticum, the so-called Wati. Wati leaves contain active substances which 

have a sedative effect and cause long sleeps. The pharmacological effects are known 

by indigenous people of the tribe since the antiquity. The species is used as alternative 

medicine and in beverages, and hence, it is important for social interaction 

between individuals and community groups. In addition, Wati growing in the region 

of Marind show a high diversity in morphology and the indigenous people have specific 

local names for each variety or cultivar. The people can recognise and classify 

the different forms traditionally. In order to the importance of Wati, the plant species 

is a nice example for ethno-botanical studies. These can be carried out based on 

the knowledge of the three ethnic groups in terms of morphological characterisation, 

utilisation, cultivation and preservation of Wati. The present study included explorative 

survey methods and participatory observations. The informants were selected 

by using a purposive sampling technique, and data were collected mainly by semistructured 

and open interviews. The ongoing research shows that Wati is considered 

as sacred and the species is included in every ritual ceremony. Hence, Wati is strongly 

linked with the culture of Marind tribe. 

Keywords: Indigenous knowledge, Marind tribe, Merauke, Papua, Piper methysticum 

Contact Address: Konstantina Maria Brigita Kameubun, Georg-August-Universität Göttingen, Dept. 

of Conservation Biology: Centre for Nature Conservation, Von-Siebold-Str. 2, 37075 Göttingen, 

Germany, e-mail: brigitabio@yahoo.co.id 

280


Demographic Structure and Population Biology of Albizia amara 

and Terminalia brownii as the Dominant Tree Species in Elsareef 

Reserved Forest, Kordofan Region, Sudan 

MUNEER ELYAS SIDDIG ELTAHIR 1 ,SVEN WAGNER 2 

1University of Kordofan, Gum Arabic Research Centre, Sudan 

2Technische Universität Dresden, Institute of Silviculture and Forest Protection, Germany 

The present study was conducted in Elsareef reserved forest, Kordofan region, Sudan 

during 2009–2011. We investigated the demographic characteristics of Albizia amara 

and Terminalia brownii as the dominant tree species in the forest. We also investigated 

the effect of illegal logging as the main threat to the species structure and population 

density. Data was collected from inventory work where systematic sampling 

method was adopted. A number of 40 sample plots (400 m 2 ) along line transects were 

placed. Tree species, growth form, and vitality were recorded in addition to diameter 

at breast height (DBH) (cm) and heights (m). The regeneration life stages, vitality, 

grazing and browsing damage were recorded too. Data was analysed using SPSS 

18.0 and Microsoft Excel Office. Tree numbers, density, proportions, dominance and 

other parameters were calculated. The diameter class distribution of Albizia amara 

was enhanced but the diameter class distribution of Terminalia brownii was fluctuated. 

The causes of regeneration mortality were: competition, drought, frequent wind 

storms and grazing, while termites damage earlier stages of seedling and sapling. Albizia 

amara recorded the highest proportion of stem (52 %) followed by Terminalia 

brownii (29 %). However, Terminalia brownii scored the highest proportion of basal 

area (42.2 %) followed by Albizia amara (31.5 %) and Sclerocarya birrea (21.0 %). 

The effect of recurrent wind storms and illegal logging on the species population was 

not significant. The falling of trees by wind storms provided a large opportunity for 

collection of dry and dead trees by people, but in contrast it increased the opportunity 

of people for illegal logging. The study came up with recommendations which might 

help conserving and enhancing diversity of the species which reproduce the dynamic 

of the forest. 

Keywords: Demographic structure, disturbance, Elsareef reserved forest, forest structure, 

regeneration, sustainable forest management 

Contact Address: Muneer Elyas Siddig Eltahir, University of Kordofan, Gum Arabic Research Centre, 

El gamaa Street, 51111 Elobeid, Sudan, e-mail: moneer129@yahoo.com 

281

Forestry 

Assessment of Regeneration Situation in Natural and in Plantation 

Parts of Elsareef Reserved Forest 

MUNEER ELYAS SIDDIG ELTAHIR 1 ,SVEN WAGNER 2 

1University of Kordofan, Gum Arabic Research Centre, Sudan 

2Technische Universität Dresden, Institute of Silviculture and Forest Protection, Germany 

The present study was conducted in Elsareef reserved forest, Kordofan region, 

Sudan in 2011. We assessed the current structure of woody species regeneration and 

their demography in natural and plantation parts of the Elsareef reserved forest and 

their capability for continuity and recruitment. We also assessed the effect of silvicultural 

influences as well as the effects of the most recurrent natural disturbance 

on regeneration (population density and mortality proportion). Data was collected 

from inventory work where systematic sampling method was adopted. A number 

of 40 sample plots (400 m2 ) along line transects were placed. Tree species, growth 

form, and vitality were recorded in addition to regeneration life stages counting and 

measurements. Moreover, grazing and browsing damage were recorded. Data was 

analysed using SPSS 18.0 and Microsoft Excel Office. Tree numbers, density, proportions, 

dominance and other parameters were calculated. There are 6 regeneration 

species in natural parts and 8 regeneration species in plantations. The total number 

of regeneration species in the whole forest is 10 species. Three species have grown 

in both parts: Albizia amara, Terminalia brownii and Acacia senegal. Three other 

species were found only in the natural part: Boscia senegalensis, Acacia tortilis, and 

Acacia nilotica. Four further species were found only in the plantation part: Ziziphus 

spina-christi, Grewia tenax, Adansonia digitata and Tamarindus indica. Competition, 

drought, frequent wind storms and grazing contributed to the highest mortality of regeneration 

in natural part. However, in the plantation part, the mortality of species 

observed referred to the soil condition adverse climate conditions. Termites caused 

damage at the earlier stages of seedling and sapling development. The study ended 

with recommendations which help the decision maker for better choice of successful 

silvicultural influences in the context of enhancing stability, multifunctionality and 

diversity of this forest. 

Keywords: Demographic structure, Elsareef reserved forest, forest structure, regeneration, 

sustainable forest management, seedlings mortality, silvicultural influences 

Contact Address: Muneer Elyas Siddig Eltahir, University of Kordofan, Gum Arabic Research Centre, 

El gamaa Street, 51111 Elobeid, Sudan, e-mail: moneer129@yahoo.com 

282


Livelihoods Sustainability and REDD Implementation in 

Communal Lands in Northeastern Ecuador 

TOA LOAIZA-LANGE 1,2 ,UDO NEHREN 1 ,GERHARD GEROLD 2 

1Cologne University of Applied Sciences (CUAS), Institute for Technology and Resources 

Management in the Tropics and Subtropics - ITT, Germany 

2Georg-August-Universität Göttingen, Dept. of Landscape Ecology, Germany 

Almost half of the world tropical rain forests are located in the Amazon basin. Tropical 

rainforests are crucial for supporting, providing and regulating ecosystem services. 

Apart from that, they have a high cultural value, as community forests in developing 

countries support livelihoods and fulfil human spiritual and religious needs. This applies 

especially for indigenous populations that directly depend on forest resources. 

Despite the proven necessity to engage local inhabitants in conservation activities, 

little attention has been given to the manner in how indigenous and local inhabitants 

manage community lands in the Amazon. The “tragedy of the commons” opened the 

discussion about the sustainability of open-access land systems and consequently the 

misuse of resources. Later on, Ostrom (1990) showed some principles under which 

circumstances common property regimes could work. Implementation of reducing 

emissions from deforestation and degradation (REDD) proof again the capacity of 

communities to cope under different communal land arrangements. 

In this presentation, an analysis of the territorial configuration and the socio-political 

organisation of two indigenous tribes, the Shuar and the Kichwa are presented and 

compared to a “campesino-mestizo” group living in the buffer zone of the Yasuní 

National Park, Ecuador. In addition, an evaluation of the possible impacts of REDD+ 

implementation is presented. 

Communities living in the Yasuní are highly heterogenic and complex. Insecure land 

tenure, increasing population and national legal uncertainties about carbon property 

rights should be clarified along with the national socio- and environmental safeguards. 

We found high difficulties to discern the impacts of mining and oil companies in the 

region as well as illegal logging effects when compared to the implementation of 

carbon-related-businesses. However, is undoubtedly the importance to define legal 

framework uncertainties, mechanisms of distribution of benefits and governance of 

communal indigenous lands to avoid negative impacts in local livelihoods when entering 

in a REDD process. 

Keywords: Communal lands, conservation, forest dependency, livelihood, REDD+, 

Ecuador Yasuní 

Contact Address: Toa Loaiza-Lange, Cologne University of Applied Sciences, Inst. for Technology and 

Resource Management in the Tropics and Subtropics, Betzdorfer Strasse 2. ITT, 50679 Köln, Germany, 

e-mail: toaloaizalange@gmail.com 

283

Forestry 

Food from the Forest – An Alternative to Agriculture in Crisis? 

CHRISTINE WODA 

GFA Consulting Group / GIZ, Program for Sustainable Management of Natural 

Ressources, Honduras 

Since “Kyoto” there is an increased awareness on international level to enhance forest 

conservation. Nevertheless, positive results have been poor, and deforestation in the 

tropics, as in Central America, is an ongoing problem. At the same time, small scale 

agriculture in Honduras is in crisis under the effects of climate changes, putting in risk 

the family production and local food source. Some rural women in the Biosphere Reserve 

Rio Platano took therefore a decision backward – they are harvesting food from 

a native forest, following the tradition of the ancient Maya culture: They are using the 

nut of the tree Brosimum alicastrum (Swartz), in preparing beverages and pastries. 

The nut is nearly fat free, but a good source of carbohydrates, sugars (malt), protein, 

potassium and calcium, and the essential amino-acid tryptophan, which is poor in the 

typical tropical diet, and needed to produce melatonin and serotonin in the human organism. 

As the women are consuming the nut and making some money while selling 

it, the natural forest got some additional value and the local people are committed to its 

protection. On the other hand, B. alicastrum seems to be a key species of the tropical 

rainforest ecosystem, being the base of the alimentation pyramid for jungle wildlife. 

In this study, there is made a first afford in quantifying the potential production of 

B. alicastrum of 100 ha natural humid rainforest and the percentage being consumed 

by wildlife, which have to be considered in a sustainable management. It also shows 

the potential of B. alicastrum to better the economics of rural women in Honduras 

and might help to end up with the old dilemma of food production, deforestation and 

climate change: not agriculture versus forest, but food from the forest! 

Keywords: Food security, indigenous knowledge, non-timber product, rural women 

economy 

Contact Address: Christine Woda, GFA Consulting Group / GIZ, Program for Sustainable Management 

of Natural Ressources, Tegucigalpa, Honduras, e-mail: cwoda@web.de 

284


Assessing the Opportunity Cost of Avoided Deforestation in 

Central America: Case Studies in Nicaragua and Costa Rica 

TANIA OSEJO CARRILLO 1 ,TOBIAS WÜNSCHER 1 ,MATTHIAS DIETER 2 

1 University of Bonn, Center for Development Research (ZEF), Germany 

2 Johann Heinrich von Thünen-Institut, Forest Based Sector Economics, Germany 

This research examines the scope and equity implications of REDD through case 

studies located in Central America. First, a CO2 emission baseline scenario was 

built considering current deforestation rates and change in carbon stock due changes 

in biomass. Second, feasibility and competitiveness of REDD areas were identified 

through estimating the opportunity cost of land use decisions and benefits from potential 

carbon offsets. Later, the spatial distribution of REDD among service providers 

was identified through overlaying net benefits, land use and land tenure using ArcGis. 

Analysis is done at regional level focusing on Bosawas protected area in Nicaragua, 

including transaction and implementation cost information from Costa Rica’s PES 

scheme and data from enhancement of law enforcement in protected areas in both 

countries. Bosawas, the most extensive moist broadleaf forest in Central America, is 

the living space of two indigenous communities: Miskitu and Mayagna with annual 

deforestation rates between 0.3 % - 7.4 % in the last decade. Costa Rica has successful 

experiences in implementing forest conservation policies based on PES scheme. 

The work relies on empirical data from group discussions and interviews with local 

experts, considering a 30-year land use trajectory. The economic activities analysed 

were: maize, beans, cacao plantation, coffee plantation, beef and dairy cattle. In 

parallel, information about land market values was also collected as an alternative 

way to estimate opportunity cost. Transaction and implementation cost information 

were obtained through interviews with civil servants, project developers, and verifiers 

/ certifiers company representatives. Results suggest that indigenous areas are 

better off to become service providers due to well-defined property rights, but opportunity 

cost lies above carbon off-sets and became uncompetitive areas for REDD 

payments (up to -303 US $ ha −1 yr −1 ) due to low input crop production and reforestation 

projects influencing land use values; while sites located close to markets and main 

mean of transportation report positive net benefits up to 1300 US $ ha −1 yr −1 ; where 

land tenure is unsecured and high deforestation rate. In addition, land market values 

are below estimates from cash flow approach and it may lead to underestimation of 

opportunity costs. 

Keywords: Land tenure, opportunity cost, REDD, transaction costs, implementation 

costs 

Contact Address: Tania Osejo Carrillo, University of Bonn, Center for Development Research (ZEF), 

Walter - Flex Str. 3, 53113 Bonn, Germany, e-mail: tosejo@uni-bonn.de 

285

Forestry 

Assessment of Tree Water Use for Development of Resilient 

Agroforestry Systems in Salinized Areas of Northern Uzbekistan 

SUJAN MAHARJAN 1 ,ASIA KHAMZINA 2 

1 University of Bonn (ARTS), Agriculture, Germany 

2 University of Bonn, Center for Development Research (ZEF), Germany 

Identifying tree species suitable for planting over shallow saline groundwater table 

would help in increasing the productivity of salinized croplands under conditions of 

irrigation water scarcity. Tree water use was examined in five-year-old plantations 

established on highly salinized cropping site over shallow groundwater table ranging 

within 0.9–2.0 m with salinity of 1–5 dSm −1 . Four trees per each species i.e. Elaeagnus 

angustifolia L., Populus euphratica Oliv. and Ulmus pumila L. were monitored 

throughout the growing season, from March till November, using Granier’s Thermal 

Dissipation Probes. Air temperature, relative humidity, net radiation, and wind 

speed were simultaneously recorded by a micro-meteorological station at the research 

site. The active sapwood area was analysed on stem cores and stained disk samples. 

The diurnal sap flux density followed an obvious circadian rhythm, with distinct differences 

among the species. The daily average sap flux density (Fd) ranged from 

0.003–1.08ml cm −2 min −1 for E. angustifolia. and 0.002–0.41ml cm −2 min −1 for 

P. euphratica, to 0.001–0.18ml cm −2 min −1 for U. pumila. Panel regression showed 

that overall explanatory power of meteorological factors on Fd was low with r 2 =0.46. 

The factors’ relative impact differed among the species, thus indicating the importance 

of physiological control of Fd. The contribution of Nr was largest in explaining 

Fd variability in E. angustifolia while vapour pressure deficit was most important in 

the other two species and wind speed showed a negative relation with Fd of U. pumila. 

During the course of the growing season, the species order in water use was E. angustifolia 

> P. euphratica > U. pumila ranging 1.1–13.5, 0.8–8.9 and 0.9–10.2 L day −1 , 

respectively. The seasonal variations in sap flow were also species-dependent with a 

maximum peak observed in July and a minimal flow in March for both E. angustifolia 

and U. pumila. ForP. euphratica the peak flow was recorded in May and minimal in 

November. Given the observed differences in water use characteristics in tree species, 

the species selection appears important for designing resilient tree plantations, capable 

of surviving over shallow saline groundwater table without additional irrigation. 

The most water consumptive E. angustifolia showed thus best suitability for planting 

on salinized cropping sites. 

Keywords: Afforestation, Elaeagnus angustifolia, meteorological factors, Populus 

euphratica,sapflow, thermal dissipation probes, Ulmus pumila 

Contact Address: Sujan Maharjan, University of Bonn (ARTS), Agriculture, Bonn, Germany, e-mail: 

s7sumaha@uni-bonn.de 

286


Seasonal Changes of Photosynthetic Activity in the Tropical Forest 

of the Araguaia River Floodplain, Brazil 

DARIUSZ KURZATKOWSKI 1 ,CHRISTOPHER MARTIUS 2 ,MARTIN WORBES 1 


Germany 


High variation in seasonal environmental patterns in tropical floodplain forest influences 

carbon storage in the biomass. We searched for factors limiting photosynthetic 

activities (A) and hypothesised that the species of diverse successional status differ in 

photosynthetic performance. The measurements were done in a South-East Amazonian 

forest on the Araguaia river (Bananal island) during an aquatic (flood), terrestrial 

dry and terrestrial wet vegetation phase. The highest A, with an average of 14.17 

μmol, 8729 m -2 and 8729 s −1 , was found on the species Piranhea trifoliata during 

the terrestrial dry phase. During the aquatic phase, A in this species was reduced 

by 42 %. Also, A in the evergreen species Amaioua guianensis declined from 10.73 

μmol, 8729 m −2 and 8729 s −1 during the terrestrial wet phase by 23 % during an 

aquatic phase. Decline of A during the aquatic phase was also observed in other 

species. We did not identify any reduction in stomatal conductance and transpiration 

rate by the trees during the aquatic phase, therefore we assume that the reduction of 

A was caused by the anaerobic soil conditions and reduction of photosynthetic active 

radiation. Less reduction of A was found during the terrestrial dry phase. Stomatal 

limitation in form of high leaf temperature (T(leaf)) and reduction in stomatal conductance 

was noted. Phenological observation confirmed pronounced loss of leaves 

by the evergreen species Amaioua guianensis and the pioneer species Vochysia divergens. 

This fact resulted in higher water use efficiency in the remaining leaves. The 

pioneer species Vochysia divergens presented an elevated rate of stomatal conductance 

and WUE, implying a higher capacity to overcome seasonal limitations. We 

identified leaf temperature as the most important limiting factors during the terrestrial 

dry phase, with an inverse correlation between A and T(leaf). Reduction of radiation 

during the aquatic phase and stomatal limitation during the terrestrial dry phase were 

the most evident limiting factors for A in the forest of the Araguaia river floodplain. 

Keywords: Carbon storage, photosynthetic activity, tropical forest 

Contact Address: Dariusz Kurzatkowski, Georg-August-Universität Göttingen, Dept. of Crop 

Sciences: Tropical Agronomy, Hermann Rein Str. 9/311, 37075 Göttingen, Germany, e-mail: 

dariusz_bananal@yahoo.com 

287

Forestry 

Absorption of Photosynthetically Active Radiation by a Tropical 

Rainforest in Indonesia, Measurements and Modelling 

PAVEL PROPASTIN 1 ,OLEG PANFEROV 2 

1Georg-August-Universität Göttingen, Institute of Geography, Cartography, GIS and 

Remote Sensing Sect., Germany 

2Georg-August-Universität-Göttingen, Buesgen-Institute: Bioclimatology, Germany 

The plant ecosystem ability to absorb photosynthetically active radiation (PAR) is 

one of the most important research issues with respect to the modelling carbon assimilation 

by vegetation. In ecosystem research and especially those using remote 

sensing data this ability is characterised by the fraction of absorbed PAR (FAPAR) – 

which is specific for individual vegetation types. However, estimates of FAPAR for 

teh tropical rainforest are rare. The presented study investigates FAPAR in a tropical 

rainforest stand located in the central part of Sulawesi (Indonesia). FAPAR is estimated 

based on field measurements, modelling (using a 3-D radiative transfer model, 

SPM3D), and the FAPAR product of Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer 

(MODIS). FAPAR based on field observations is calculated from hemispherical 

photography and measurements of incoming PAR taken above and below the canopy. 

The estimated mean value is 0.88. FAPAR of the study stand shows pronounced seasonal 

dynamics, which are captured by both the SPM3D and MODIS data: generally, 

the value of FAPAR is lower during wet seasons and higher during dry seasons. The 

comparison of modelling and remote sensing results revealed general underestimation 

of FAPAR by the MODIS product especially under overcast sky conditions (wet 

seasons). At annual scale the FAPAR simulated by the SPM3D shows the mean of 

0.84, and estimated by MODIS - of 0.79. These inconsistencies could not be ascribed 

to contamination of the MODIS FAPAR product by clouds (the MODIS data were 

extensively corrected before the use), but are caused by too large seasonal amplitudes 

in MODIS FAPAR. 

Keywords: Indonesia, radiation absorption, radiation modelling, rainforest 

Contact Address: Pavel Propastin, Georg-August-Universität Göttingen, Institute of Geography, 

Cartography, GIS and Remote Sensing Sect., Goldschmidtstr. 5, 37077 Göttingen, Germany, e-mail: 

ppropas@uni-goettingen.de 

288


Fine Root Biomass and Soil Carbon Storage of Teak Plantations in 

Myanmar 

THIDA SWE 1 ,DIETER MURACH 1 ,NYI NYI KYAW 2 ,SAN THWIN 3 

1University of Sustainable Development, Eberswalde, Department of Forest and Environment, 

Germany 

2Ministry of Environmental Conservation and Forestry, Myanmar 

3University of Forestry, Dept. of Forestry, Myanmar 

Fine roots of trees and under-story vegetation play an important role in the carbon and 

nutrient dynamics of forest soils. Therefore, quantifying changes of soil carbon and 

fine root biomass could be an important consideration under large-scale afforestation 

or reforestation. However, there is little research on the fine root biomass of reforestation 

area and its contribution to the carbon storage of the stand. The study was 

conducted with the main objective of assessing the carbon storage in fine root (

Forestry 

Dynamic Growth of Schizolobium parahyba var. amazonicum in 

two Planting Models in the Eastern Brazilian Amazon 

VANESSA GOMES DE SOUSA 1 ,SILVIO BRIENZA JUNIOR 2 , 

MOISÉS MOURÃO JÚNIOR 2 

1Federal University of Para, Environmental Science, Brazil 


Globally, deforestation has been occurring with great intensity, and in the Brazilian 

Amazon the deforested areas reached about 35 million hectares. Reforestation using 

fast growing species would be a commercially attractive alternative to minimise 

deforestation impacts, bringing environmental benefits, increasing the wood supply 

and reducing pressure on remaining natural forests. However, one of the major impediments 

to reforestation is the lack of scientific knowledge about the behavior and 

growth of native species. Thus, this study aimed to evaluate the dynamic growth 

(height and diameter at breast height - DBH) of Schizolobium parahyba var. amazonicum 

(Huber ex Ducke) Barneby in two production models in the eastern Brazilian 

Amazon. The experiment was conducted in the municipality of Dom Eliseu, State of 

Para, based on the following models: mixed forest species (S. parahyba var. amazonicum 

and Khaya ivorensis A. Chev.), and an agroforestry system (AFS (S. parahyba 

var. amazonicum and Musa sp.). To 40 months of age, in the mixed system, the plants 

of S. parahyba var. amazonicum showed the highest height growth, with averaging 

20.9 m. However, diameter growth was similar in both planting systems, with averages 

of 17.3 cm (mixed) and 17.9 cm (agroforestry). Relating the growth with the 

rainfall of the area, it was observed that irrespective of the model evaluated, there 

was a greater growth in height and diameter of plants during periods of higher rainfall. 

Regardless of the tested models (mixed species and agroforestry) the growth of 

S. parahyba var. amazonicum was satisfactory and this species can be recommended 

for restoration of altered areas. In addition, the AFS can serve as an option for the 

small farmers, which in addition to attending the environmental law, will diversify the 

family income with timber and fruit species. 

Keywords: Amazonia, forestry models, land reclamation, precipitation 

Contact Address: Vanessa Gomes de Sousa, Federal University of Para, Environmental Science, Belém, 

Brazil, e-mail: vanessousa@gmail.com 

290


Implementation of Sustainable Forest Management in two 

Different Forest Management Unit Models 

in Vietnam and Malaysia 

DUC LE 1 ,WALTER LINTANGAH 2 ,JÜRGEN PRETZSCH 1 ,NORBERT WEBER 2 , 

HUY BAO 3 



2Technische Universität Dresden, Institute of Forest Economics and Forest Management 

Planning, Forest Policy and Forest Resource Economics, Germany 

3Tay Nguyen University, Faculty of Agriculture & Forestry, Department of Forest 

Resources & Environment Management, Vietnam 

By the 1990s tropical forests in Southeast Asia had been exhaustively logged, mainly for economic 

growth and development of the countries. Over harvesting and poor forest management 

had led to the decline and degradation of natural forest areas. In the following years sustainable 

forest management (SFM) became one of major topics of the annual meetings of the Asian Senior 

Officials on Forestry (ASOF) at the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN). But 

so far, the number of certified natural forest areas in the region is still behind the expectations. 

This study was based on two forest management units (FMUs) in Vietnam and Malaysia to 

evaluate the lessons learnt while implementing SFM concepts in natural forests for timber production 

under state forest enterprises (SFEs). The case study involved the Deramakot Forest 

Reserve (Sabah, Malaysia), - the first natural tropical forest certified in 1997; and the Dak To 

Forestry Company (Central Highlands, Vietnam), which was the first controlled wood certified 

natural forest in Vietnam, in 2011. Both FMUs were certified under the FSC (Forest Stewardship 

Council) certification scheme for natural forests, and initially received extensive technical 

support from German Society for International Cooperation (GIZ) during the initial phases with 

little involvement by local communities. 

Literature review and discussion were used to understand forest management practices in the 

FMUs. Study findings indicate that forest management of the two case study models is very 

different. The Deramakot Forest Reserve model is very successful, with a high capability of 

duplication, whereas the Dak To Forestry Company model is still facing challenges from such 

issues as illegal logging, conflict over forest and land uses, and lack of support from the relevant 

stakeholders during the SFM process. 

The management aspects of these two models are explained by the “top-down” management 

oriented appraoch with the involvement of an international technical support agency and the 

cetralised administration. It is recommended that a greater involvement of players from private 

sectors and other stakeholders is necessary in order to expedite the performance of forest 

management at the FMU level. 

Keywords: Forest management unit, Malaysia, model, natural forest, stakeholder, state forest 

enterprise, sustainable forest management, timber production, Vietnam 

Contact Address: Duc Le, Technische Universität Dresden, Institute of International Forestry 

and Forest Products, 

lethienduc@gmail.com 

Tropical Forestry, Pienner Str. 7, 01737 Tharandt, Germany, e-mail: 

291

Forestry 

Soil Carbon Stocks Decrease after Conversion from Degraded 

Forest to Rubber Plantation - Southern Yunnan China 

MARLEEN DE BLECOURT 1 ,RAINER BRUMME 1 ,JIAN CHU XU 2 , 

MARIFE D. CORRE 1 ,EDZO VELDKAMP 1 

1Georg-August-Universität Göttingen, Büsgen Institute: Soil Science of Tropical and 

Subtropical Ecosystems, Germany 

2Kunming Institute of Botany, The Chinese Acadamy of Sciences, Center for Mountain 

Ecosystem Studies, China 

Land use conversion from degraded forest patches into rubber plantations is taking 

place in a large area of Xishuangbanna (southern Yunnan, China), northern Laos and 

northern Thailand. These degraded forests consist of woodlots, village forests, and 

mature fallow fields. Due to the mountainous topography most of the established 

rubber plantations are terraced. In the present study we quantified the changes in soil 

carbon stocks after a conversion from degraded secondary forest to terraced rubber 

plantations. The study area has a size of 4200 ha and was located in Xishuangbanna. 

We selected plots in 11 rubber plantations ranging in age from 5 – 46 years. Each 

rubber plot was paired with a degraded secondary forest plot. Paired rubber and forest 

plots were located within short distance and have similar biophysical conditions. The 

selected rubber plantations were established immediately after deforestation. At each 

plot we measured soil carbon concentration and stocks in the top 120 cm of the soil. 

The specific questions addressed in this study are: i) What is the amount of change 

in soil carbon stocks after a conversion from forest to rubber? ii) Which predictor 

variables considering soil characteristics, biophysical factors and management related 

parameters can be used to predict the changes in soil carbon stocks following this 

land use conversion? iii) What is the impact of terracing in rubber plantations on soil 

carbon stocks and soil carbon dynamics? Preliminary results show that conversion 

from degraded secondary forests to rubber plantations result in a significant (p < 

0.05) decrease of soil carbon stock by 40 Mg C ha −1 in the top 120 cm of the soil. 

The strongest decrease in soil carbon stocks occurs in the first 5 years after land use 

conversion. 

Keywords: China, deforestation, land-use conversion, rubber, soil carbon, terracing, 

Xishuangbanna 

Contact Address: Marleen De Blecourt, Georg-August-Universität Göttingen, Büsgen Institute: Soil 

Science of Tropical and Subtropical Ecosystems, Büsgenweg 2, 37077 Göttingen, Germany, e-mail: 

mblecou@gwdg.de 

292


Smallholder Tree Plantations in Paraguay: Comparative 

Assessment of Influencing Factors and Contribution to Income 

Generation 

ELIZABETH MONGES ZALAZAR, JÜRGEN PRETZSCH, JULIA SZULECKA 

Technische Universität Dresden, Institute for International Forestry and Forest Products, 

Germany 

Together with the global climate change debate, renewable energy is becoming a 

widely discussed topic. Wood based energy is the most traditional source of energy, 

but usually is underestimated in its contribution to the welfare of rural families. Forest 

resources constitute an important element in the rural economy in Paraguay, not 

only for subsistence but for income generation. High deforestation rates in the eastern 

part of the country between 1970’s and 90’s and hardly any reforestation in that 

time, significantly reduced the supply of wood. However, since a couple of decades, 

plantations are being established in small areas but with rising frequency. The study 

aim is to provide a better understanding of the socioeconomic factors influencing tree 

planting for energetic purposes and their contribution to income generation to small 

farms in eastern Paraguay. It is known that personal and socio-economic characteristics 

of an individual influence the respective decision making behaviour. Landowners 

who decide to plant trees engage themselves in an unusual form of land use practice. 

Participatory tools and expert interviews were conducted of smallholder tree growing 

initiatives. Results show that apart from land availability and income level as the 

main factors; the progressive attitude of farmers, social organisation level, and the 

perceived risk towards wood availability are also significant for successful tree growing. 

On the other hand, farmers with fewer resources consider that the government 

should promote state incentives for reforestation. Compared to agriculture or cattle 

breeding, tree planting requires significantly less labor for the farmer, but it also provides 

little financial return in the first years after planting. Other land use practices 

usually appear to be more attractive and profitable than forest plantations. Due to 

these facts, landowners only establish plantations under a certain set of circumstances 

or conditions like being beneficiaries for a long term extension service or a secured 

market for their products. 

Keywords: Energy, income generation, Paraguay, tree planting initiatives 

Contact Address: Elizabeth Monges Zalazar, Technische Universität Dresden, Institute for International 

Forestry and Forest Products, Pienner Str. 7 (Postfach 1117), 01737 Tharandt, Germany, e-mail: 

silvifor@agr.una.py 

293

Forestry 

Floristic Composition of Soil Seed Bank in Forest Plantations in 

the Eastern Amazon, Pará, Brazil 

CECÍLIA HERNANDEZ OCHOA-COUTINHO 1 ,SILVIO BRIENZA JUNIOR 2 , 

ANA PAULA VIDAL BASTOS 1 ,JULIE ANDREWS DE FRANÇA ESILVA 3 , 

VANESSA GOMES DE SOUSA 1 



3Federal Rural University of Amazon, Institute of Agrarian Science, Brazil 

Forest plantation in degraded areas of the Eastern Brazilian Amazon is considered a 

opportunity for land reclamation. The plantations, besides the economic benefits, can 

also be catalysts of natural regeneration in the understory, contributing to biodiversity 

conservation. The aim of this study is to characterise the floristic composition 

of soil seed banks present in the understory of forest plantations, to support environmental 

legislation regarding the maintenance of biodiversity in legal reserves in the 

Eastern Brazilian Amazon. The research is carried out in four rural properties with 

plantations of Schizolobium parahyba var. amazonicum (Huber ex Ducke) Barneby 

and Eucalyptus urograndis at different ages. At the time of data collection, the age 

of the natural vegetation in the plantation’s understory ranged from 6 months to 4 

years. The chosen areas have a distinct land use history prior to planting. Of each 

property were collected composite samples of the seed bank with a wood template 

of 0.25 m2 . The samples were spread on polyethylene trays and incubated during 6 

months in a greenhouse at EMBRAPA, Eastern Amazon, to evaluate the natural regeneration. 

The samples of the soil seed banks showed a total of 2,750 individuals, 

representing 79 species, distributed to 34 botanical families. The heterogeneity index 

of Shannon-Weaver was high and ranged from 2.75 to 3.02, indicating a high diversity 

of floristic composition of the four plantation areas. The Sorensen index ranged from 

0.619 to 0.778, and indicated the existence of high floristic similarity between the 

pairs formed by the four areas of study. In all areas there was a higher predominance 

of herbaceous vegetation (above 50 %). The portion of trees, shrubs and woody vines 

ranged from 36 % to 49 %. The ecological succession was mainly characterised by 

pioneer species (66 %) and early secondary species (23 %). The main types of seed 

dispersion were zoochory (38 %), anemocory and barochory (both 29 %). The studied 

areas may be regarded as strongholds of biodiversity as they show a similar richness 

as secondary forests with a comparable land use history, and whose native vegetation 

is under development with plants age close to 3.5 to 5 years. 

Keywords: Floristic composition, forest plantation, land reclamation 

Contact Address: CecÍlia Hernandez Ochoa-Coutinho, Federal University of Pará, Center for 

Advanced Studies of the Amazon, Mariz e Barros Alameda Tapajós 21 - Marco, Belém, Brazil, e-mail: 

cecilia.ochoa@gmail.com 

294


Effects of Land-Use on Deforestation Dynamics in Pará State, 

Amazonia, Brazil 

ANTONIO LOPES DO BONFIM NETO 1 ,HERIBERTO WAGNER AMANAJAS PENA 1 , 

PEDRO SILVESTRE DA SILVA CAMPOS 1 ,CHRISTOPH GEHRING 2 , 

TALMIR QUINZEIRO NETO 1 ,JORGE ALBERTO GAZEL YARED 1 

1Agricultural University of Amazonia (UFRA), Institute of Agricultural Sciences, Brazil 

2Maranhão State University, Dept. of Agroecology, Brazil 

The constant increase of deforestation in Amazonia, especially in Pará State, and the 

top-ranking in terms of deforestation of several counties of Pará are of considerable 

scientific interest. Conversion of forests to land-use typically follow similar logics, 

even though patterns differ regionally. To measure rates of deforestation across the 

Amazon region, the PRODES project was implemented that measured approximately 

100 000 km 2 of forest loss. Data from this project demonstrate that the gross rates 

of deforestation, which amounted to 23 000 km 2 yr −1 between 2002–2003, are accelerating 

through the last five years by about 13 % per year. This study investigates 

the effects of different land-uses on deforestation dynamics in Pará State. We investigate 

the percentages of forests, deforested areas, timber production, areas planted 

to upland rice, beans, cassava, maize, soybean, banana, cacao, oil palm, oranges and 

black pepper, and the area under pasture, between the years 2000–2009, using Factorial 

Explorative Analysis and Principal Component Analyses, and Varimax grouping 

techniques. We identified the main factors associated with deforestation and their respective 

contributions. Our model explains 86 % of total variance, with a high correspondence 

between variables, and our model was able to reestablish between-county 

ranking and the State Deforestation Index. Deforestation was positively correlated 

with pastures, this being the principal cause of deforestation in our study area. Soybean 

cultivation was indirectly associated with deforestation via cultivation of upland 

rice and maize. We conclude that the principal causes underlying deforestation are 

timber extraction, pastures and the expansion of grain production, with strong differences 

between counties. 

Keywords: Forest, index, multivariate analysis, productive activities, varimax 

Contact Address: Christoph Gehring, Maranhão State University, Dept. of Agroecology, Rua Paulo 

Assis Marchesine No. 7, 65065-500 São Luis, Brazil, e-mail: christophgehring@yahoo.com.br 

295

Forestry 

Analysis of the Livestock Passive Forest Restoration in the 

Tamaulipan Thornscrub in Northeast México 

MIGUEL ANGEL PEQUEÑO LEDEZMA, CARLOS ALBERTO MORA DONJUÁN, 

ISRAEL YERENA YAMALLEL, JAVIER JIMÉNEZ PÉREZ, EDUARDO ALANIS 

RODRIGUEZ, MARCO AURELIO GONZALEZ TAGLE 

University of Nuevo Leon, Dept. of Silviculture, Mexico 

Around 29 % of earth surface is used for livestock by establishing permanent grassland 

or sowing to produce fodder. In Mexico the area having livestock activity is 

110 million hectare equal to around 56 % of Mexican territory. Thornscrub is the 

most abundant and historically mostly used for livestock in desert and semi-desert 

zones in Mexico. The objective of the present study is to analyse the passive forest 

restoration after livestock overgrazing in Tamaulipan Thornscrub in the northeast of 

Mexico. Two study areas were selected, one having history of livestock use and 30 

years of passive forest restoration, and a second area as reference. Four sampling sites 

of 40 m × 40 m each (1600 m 2 ) were established in the study areas. In these sampling 

sites all the bushes and trees with diameter >3 cm (considering a height of 10 cm) 

were evaluated. Ecological indicators such as abundance, dominance, frequency, importance 

value index, Margalef index, and Shannon Wiener index were considered. 

In order to evaluate if significant difference exists in the variables for the evaluated areas 

the mean values of the sampling sites were calculated and an analysis of variance 

was performed. In the area used for livestock, two dominant species were registered 

(Acacia farnesiana and Prosopis glandulosa) with 97 % of absolute dominancy and 

the remaining 3 % divded into 10 species. Of the 3050 subjects counted 60 % belong 

to Acacia farnesiana . The diameter distribution showed that from the total of Acacia 

farnesiana subjects 57 % have between 0 to 10 cm of diameter, indicating that there is 

an active regeneration. The research showed that the passive restoring area presents 

significant difference (p < 0.05) compared to the reference area in all the variables 

(density, crown cover of trees, richness and density). 

Keywords: Abundance, density, Margalef, Shannon 

Contact Address: Miguel Angel Pequeño Ledezma, University of Nuevo Leon, Dept. of Silviculture, 

Anahuac # 109, 67710 Linares, Mexico, e-mail: mikepequeno@hotmail.com 

296


Reconstructing Past Fire Regimes: Applications and Relevance 

to Fire Management 

MARCO AURELIO GONZALEZ TAGLE, JIMÉNEZ JAVIER, 

DIANA YEMILET AVILA FLORES, WIBKE HIMMELSBACH 

University of Nuevo León, Dept. of Silviculture, Mexico 

Nowadays, forest fires have increased significantly around the world, in size, frequency, 

and intensity. Hence, anticipating future forest-fire regimes under a changing 

climate requires that scientists and natural resource managers understand the factors 

that control fire across space and time. Fire scars – proxy records of fires, formed in 

the growth rings of long-lived trees – provide an annually accurate window into past 

low-severity fire regimes. The Mexican forest experiences recurring forest fires, especially 

during El Niño years. In Mexico, the El Niño Southern Oscillation (ENSO) 

is a climate-forcing mechanism that has been shown to affect precipitation and the 

occurrence of fires. Linkages between ENSO and the occurrence of forest fires have 

been recognised at scales ranging from local to regional. La Niña winters (ENSO cool 

phase) in northwestern Mexico are typically hot and dry, and fires are more likely to 

burn during these years. In southern Mexico, however, El Niño winters (ENSO warm 

phase) are dry and fire-prone. However the government efforts for fire prevention are 

still insufficient to reduce both fire frequency and fire intensity. Nevertheless, Mexico 

needs to develop fire prevention strategies with high efficiency in order to avoid the 

loss of natural resources and to protect the reforestation efforts. As any other natural 

disaster, fires have always provoked important biotic and abiotic changes. However, 

not all ecosystems are adapted to the increasing frequency and sizes of forest fire. The 

objective of this presentation is to illustrate the significance and, as far as possible, to 

ascertain the quantitative importance of forest fires and how they can threaten reforestation 

efforts of Mexican agencies in charge of the natural resources. These data 

also offer crucial reference information on fire as a dynamic landscape process for 

use in ecosystem management, especially when managing for forest structure. 

Keywords: Climate change, fire management, reforestation, El Niño 

Contact Address: Marco Aurelio Gonzalez Tagle, University of Nuevo León, Departement of Silviculture, 

Apartado Postal #1, 67755 Linares, Mexico, e-mail: marco.gonzalez@web.de 

297

Forestry 

Insects Associated with Exotic and Indigeneous Tree Species in 

Plantations in Ondo State Nigeria 



Nigeria 

The study was carried out to examine the effect of tree species and age on both aerial 

and soil Arthropod species diversity and abundance. Five plantations comprising 3 

age series of Nauclea diderichii (15, 9 and 5 years old) and two plantations of Gmelia 

arborea and Tectona grandis within Ondo State were selected for the study. Sample 

plots of 50 by 50 m were demarcated in each of the selected sites. Collection of insects 

was done using sweep nets and hand picking method from each of the selected plots. 

Soil samples were also collected from 5 points on each of the selected plots at 0– 

10 cm depth. A total of 43 insects were collected and identified, 170 insects from the 

15 years Nauclea plantation, 140 from the 9 years and 120 individuals from the 5 years 

plantation. A mean abundance of 44 individuals of mesofauna were also encountered, 

20 from the G. arborea plantation, 5 from the T. grandis plantation, and 19 from all 

the N. diderichii plantations. The result of the insect species diversity index obtained 

from Shannon Weiner diversity index, for the three age series of N. diderichii were 

1.67, 1.63 and 1.62 for the 15, 9 and 5 years old plantations, respectively. While 

the diversity index for the G. arborea and T. grandis plantations were 1.63 and 1.68, 

respectively. The mean mesofauna abundance from the three different tree species 

were significantly different (p ≤0.05), while there was no significant difference in the 

mean mesofauna abundance in the Nauclea age series (p ≥0.05) and also there were 

no significant differences in the insect species diversity and abundance in all the sites 

studied. 

Keywords: Diversity, index, mesofauna, plantation pest 



298


Floristic Composition of Soil Seed Banks in Degradad Agriculture 

Areas Recovered by Forest Plantations, Brazil 

DAYANNE SIMONI DE CASTRO SILVA 1 ,CECÍLIA HERNANDEZ 

OCHOA-COUTINHO 2 ,SILVIO BRIENZA JUNIOR 3 ,VANESSA GOMES DE SOUSA 4 

1Federal Rural University of Amazonia, Brazil 



4Federal University of Para, Environmental Science, Brazil 

For a long time the agricultural and livestock activities have been the causative agents 

of environmental change in the Brazilian Amazon. The intensive use of soil through 

slash and burn agriculture provoked significant losses in the structure, natural fertility, 

and diversity of micro-organisms and soil macrofauna, leading to significant losses in 

the productive capacity of the soil. There are several methods to recover degraded 

areas under these conditions. Soil seed banks and seed rains are direct means to 

establish ecological groups and restore flora, being fundamental to the understanding 

of changes in biodiversity and soil remediation. This study aimed to characterise the 

floristic composition of soil seed banks present in the understory of forest plantations 

in areas of “family farming”. To this end we collected four composite samples of 

seed banks with a wood template of 0.25 m2 , in the three municipalities of Bragança, 

Capitão Poço and Garrafão do Norte, Pará State, Brazil. The samples were spread 

on polyethylene trays and incubated during 6 months in a greenhouse at EMBRAPA, 

Eastern Amazon, to evaluate the natural regeneration. In addition, we reviewed the 

literature on habit, ecological groups and seed, dispersal of the species identified. In 

all areas there was a predominance of herbaceous species and pioneers of ecological 

succession. The greatest species diversity of germinated seedlings was found for 

Garrafão do Norte. The main types of dispersion found in the three municipalities 

were anemochory, barochory and zoochory. 

Keywords: Floristic composition, forest plantation, recover degraded areas 

Contact Address: Dayanne Simoni de Castro Silva, Federal Rural University of Amazonia, Belém, 

Brazil, e-mail: dayannesimoni@hotmail.com 

299

Forestry 

People’s Perception Towards Forest Plantation Development in 

Owo and Supare Akoko, Ondo State Nigeria 



Nigeria 

The study was conducted in Owo and Supare Akoko, in the northern senatorial district 

of Ondo State Nigeria. The research aimed to identify the perception of the people towards 

the plantation development and it related activities in the Government reserved 

area; it also assessed the level of awareness of the people towards community forestry. 

Primary data was collected using questionnaire survey and data was collected on the 

awareness and perception of the people towards the plantation development in the two 

communities within northern senatorial district of Ondo State. These two areas were 

selected due to the forest plantation development that was already going on there at 

the time of survey. The findings of the study revealed that there are huge numbers 

of people with a positive perception towards Government decision to create future 

wealth within the environment. However, none of them are fully devoted towards 

forest plantation development. An agricultural crop is the major motive of forest 

development with ability to maximised available land. The research also showed 

that not all the people were aware of the benefits of forest plantation and there was 

less people’s participation. The study also indicated the availability of land was the 

major constraint for forest plantation development. The virgin land in the surrounding 

was decreasing due to unplanned urbanisation, indiscriminate felling and hunger for 

fertile land. The study has revealed that government should take immediate steps to 

implement some of the recommendations of forestry institutions to facilitate forest 

plantation development in the nearest future. 

Keywords: Afforestation, educational status, forest plantation, perception, respondents, 

community forestry 



300


Enhancing Cost-Effective Watershed Management in the 

Brazilian Atlantic Forest by Valuing Forest Ecosystem Services 

Linked to Water Quality in the Guapi-Macacu Watershed 

VANESA RODRIGUEZ OSUNA 1 ,JAN BÖRNER 2 ,UDO NEHREN 1 , 

HARTMUT GAESE 1 ,RACHEL BARDY PRADO 3 

1Cologne University of Applied Sciences, Institute for Technology and Resources 

Management in the Tropics and Subtropics, Germany 

2Consultive Group in International Agricultural Research (CGIAR), Brazil 

3EMBRAPA, Solos, Brazil 

The Guapi-Macacu watershed is located in the Brazilian state of Rio de Janeiro, has a drainage 

area of about 1.640 km2 , and drains into the Guanabara Bay northeast of the metropolitan area. 

The upper catchment in the Serra dos Órgãos mountain range is covered by dense old-growth 

forest of high biological diversity, while pastures and agricultural land dominate in the lower 

catchment. Apart from its outstanding biological value, the watershed provides crucial services 

including water supply to 2.5 million inhabitants in five municipalities. Nevertheless, forests 

and soils in the lower watershed are highly degraded due to the expansion of the agricultural 

frontier, overexploitation, and suburbanisation processes. Several pressures on this ecosystem 

persist. Therefore payments for ecosystem services (PES) schemes are proposed by local initiatives 

and supported by international organizations as a suitable instrument to deal with the 

trade-offs between agricultural use and watershed services in a cost-effective manner. Studying 

the provision costs of and the demand for watershed services can support decision making 

process to evaluate the scope and economic feasibility of PES and alternative management options. 

Water resources in the watershed are of extreme importance for agriculture and also for 

industries, such as water bottle companies, breweries and the biggest Brazilian petrochemical 

complex, COMPERJ. Our study concentrates on calculating the opportunity costs related to the 

provision of watershed services under varying land use systems and evaluating the feasibility 

of PES related aspects, such as preserving or recovering forest areas and integrating good agricultural 

practices. Watershed services are valued in terms of controlling nutrients (Nitrogen 

and Phosphorus in surface water) and sediment loads (measured in terms of turbidity and total 

solids). Replacement and avoided cost methods are applied focusing on the local water treatment 

facility to estimate demand for service maintenance and improvement. To provide empirical 

evidence of the link between land use and water quality indicators, we rely on water quality 

modelling and monitoring specifically adapted to this area. Spatial conservation opportunity 

cost analysis is used to study the costs of watershed services maintenance and improvement 

and derive implication for cost-effective management on the basis of scenario analyses. The 

research activities take place within the framework of the multi-disciplinary German-Brazilian 

cooperation project DINARIO/MP2. 

Keywords: Atlantic forest, cost-effective watershed management, ecosystem services, PES, 

land use systems, water quality 

Contact Address: Vanesa Rodriguez Osuna, Cologne University of Applied Sciences, Institute for 

Technology and Resources Management in the Tropics and Subtropics, Betzdorfer Str. 2, 50679 Köln, 

Germany, e-mail: vanesa.rodriguez@daad-alumni.de 

301

Forestry 

Principle Method to Harvest Resin from Wild Pistachio in Iran 

NASRIN SEYEDI 

Urmia University, Faculty of Natural Resources , Iran 

Mediterranean forests are characterised by a remarkable set of features that make them 

naturally and aesthetically attractive, on the one hand, but also quite fragile, on the 

other, therefore calling for careful strategies for their conservation and management. 

Wild pistachio (Pistacia atlantica Desf.), locally known as “Baneh” in Iran, is the 

most economically important tree species in many rural and boundary areas in the 

West of Iran. It is playing an important role due to its particular characteristics, in 

aforestation of the dry areas and Mediterranean areas in Iran. P. atlantica is also 

used as a rootstock for edible pistachio tree (P. vera L.). The resin of wild pistachio, 

called Saqez, is used for a variety of industrial and traditional uses, including food 

and medicine. Because the resin can be harvested non-destructively, the trees are 

maintained until mortality occurs from natural causes. Unfortunately, over-harvesting 

from wild Pistacia trees lead to degrade the habitat of this species. Rural people use 

traditional methods to extract the resin and with some of these methods Pistacia trees 

are destructed. As well as adaptation of Pistacia trees to harsh desert conditions, their 

longevity also make them ideal candidates for reforestation in arid zones. So the 

extraction is very important to achieve a sustainable development. In this study we 

tried to introduce a principle method to conserve the forests in Zagros Mountain and 

also to obtain economical profit from resin extraction of wild Pistacia trees. 

Keywords: Pistacia atlantica, resin, Iran, Saqez 

Contact Address: Nasrin Seyedi, Urmia University, Faculty of Natural Resources , 46414-356 Urmia, 

Iran, e-mail: shavin81_sa@yahoo.com 

302

Agroforestry 


EDUARDO SOMARRIBA: 

Shade Canopies and the Productivity, Sustainability and 

Resilience of Cacao Agroforestry Systems 305 


OLEG PANFEROV, ANDREI SOGACHEV, NINA TIRALLA,PAVEL 

PROPASTIN, ALEXANDER KNOHL: 

Microclimate Controls of Shade Trees in Agroforestry 

SHEM KUYAH, CATHERINE MUTHURI, JOHANNES DIETZ, 

HENRY NEUFELDT: 

Optimising the Measurement of Landscape Biomass Carbon 

306 

in Agricultural Landscape Mosaics 

CAROLA PAUL, MICHAEL WEBER: 

Enriching Forest Plantations with Understory Crops: An 

307 

Interdisciplinary Approach Towards Reforestation, 

Food Security and Resilient Production Systems 

JOHNSON ADEYINKA OLUSOLA,JONATHAN C. ONYEKWELU, 

REINHARD MOSANDL, BERND STIMM: 

Domestication Potentials of Irvingia gabonensis: FarmLevel 

Tree Growth Characteristics Assessment, Fruit Phenology and 

308 

Effect of Light Intensity on Seed Germination 309 

Posters 310 

FRANCOIS JOST, JÜRGEN PRETZSCH: 

Influence of Agroforestry Systems in Risk Reduction and 

Climate Change Adaptation in the Peruvian Andes 310 

RANDY VILLARIN, OLIVER VILLARIN, REINER FINKELDEY: 

Genetic Differentiation among Natural Populations of Shorea 

contorta and Parashorea malaanonan (Dipterocarpaceae) in 

the Philippines 311 

WILSON ABAYOMI JAYEOBA, BABATUNDE ADENIYI 

OSUNMADEWA, ABDULWAHAB ZAKARI: 

Investigation of Agroforestry Practices within Eucalyptus 

camaldulensis Plantations: A Case Study of Kaduna State 

Forest Management Project, Buruku, Nigeria 312 

303

Forestry 

304 

NIELS SCHWAB, UDO SCHICKHOFF: 

Agroforestry for Resilient Agroecosystems in the Mid-Hills of 

Nepal 313 

PABLO SILES, HARVIN CENTENO, WILSON CABEZAS, 

CHARLES STAVER, JÜRGEN BURKHARDT, OSCAR BUSTAMANTE: 

Preliminary Characterisation of Common Legume Tree Species 

as Coffee Shade for Climate Change Readiness 314 

REIN VAN DER HOEK, ARACELY CASTRO, BISMARCK 

MENDOZA,MARTIN MENA, GLENDA BONILLA, JELLIN PAVON, 

ORLANDO TELLEZ, BERNHARD FREYER, DIANA KURZWEG, 

LAURENT ROUSSEAU, STEVE FONTE, PATRICK LAVELLE, 

IDUPULAPATI RAO: 

Quesungual Slash and Mulch Agroforestry System: 

70Improving Livelihoods of Smallholders in Central America 315 

JULIA SZULECKA, ELIZABETH MONGES ZALAZAR: 

Making Social Forestry Work: A Comparative Study of Smallholder 

Reforestation Projects in Paraguay 

NIKLAS HOLTNE: 

Improving Smallholders’ Access to Good Planting Material - 

317 

Improving Input Supply Chains: A Baseline Survey 

HANA VEBROVÁ, BOHDAN LOJKA, THOMAS P. HUSBAND, 

MARÍA ELENA CHUSPE ZANS, ALEXANDR ROLLO: 

Tree Diversity in Cacao Agroforestry in San Alejandro, 

318 

Peruvian Amazon 319 

HORACIO VILLALON-MENDOZA, TEODORO MEDINA- 

MARTINEZ, ARTEMIO CARRILLO-PARRA: 

Agroforestry as Resilience Tool for Ecological Degraded 

Agricultural Areas of Northeastern Mexico 

GULNAZ JALILOVA, JAN DE GROOT, HARALD VACIK: 

Assessing the Conservation Value of Different Habitats for 

320 

Birds in the Walnut Fruit Forests of Kyrgyzstan 

FRANZISKA HARICH, ANNA TREYDTE,JOACHIM SAUERBORN, 

ERASMUS H. OWUSU: 

321 

Not Only Humans Like Cacao: Conflicts with Wildlife Threaten 

Farmers’ Livelihoods Around the Bia Conservation Area, 

Ghana 322

Agroforestry — Invited Paper 

Shade Canopies and the Productivity, Sustainability and 

Resilience of Cacao Agroforestry Systems 

EDUARDO SOMARRIBA 

CATIE, Agroforestry and Sustainable Agriculture, Costa 

Global changes have immense impacts on human societies. For instance, the livelihoods 

of poor rural families and the sustainable management of their natural resources 

have been shown to be severely impacted by economic globalisation and climate 

change. To tackle these adverse effects in tropical regions, global society and national 

governments seek to enhance the sustainability of the rural livelihoods, generate 

wealth and reduce both poverty and the vulnerability of rural economies, increase 

the resilience and adaptive capacity of households to climate change, and promote the 

shift to green economies with low carbon emissions and high carbon storage. 

Three million smallholders cultivate 7 million hectares of cacao (Theobroma cacao 

L.) worldwide; at least 80 % of the cacao is cultivated under a shade tree canopy. 

Farmers retain a large list of tree species in the plot to provide shade and shelter to 

sustain high cacao yields; and to produce timber, fruits, fiber and other goods for 

family consumption, use in the farm, or sale. Cacao agroforestry systems have been 

ranked as good land use alternatives to cope with climate change because their high 

levels of species diversity, year-round soil cover, high levels of store carbon in the 

soil and aboveground, and other positive attributes. Despite all these good features, 

shaded cacao systems are affected by global changes and it is safe to ask: how productive, 

sustainable and resilient these systems are today and in the presence of global 

changes? Can they be optimised for the simultaneous delivery of valuable goods for 

the household and the provision of ecosystem services for society? How to achieve 

this?. 

In this presentation: 1) the concepts and criteria used to evaluate sustainability and resilience 

of socio-ecological systems are quickly reviewed for Central American cacao 

households; 2) a simple, qualitative model is used to explore (for various cacao farming 

typologies) the relationships between yields (from both cacao and shade trees), 

carbon storage, and shade canopy design and management. A practical methodology 

for the analysis, improved design and management of cacao shade canopies at any 

particular location is presented. 

Keywords: Carbon stocks, Central America, cacao, diagnosis and design, resilience, 

shade canopy, sustainability, yield 

Contact Address: Eduardo Somarriba, CATIE, Agroforestry and Sustainable Agriculture, 

Apartado Postal 108 CATIE, 30501 Turrialba 7170, Costa, e-mail: esomarri@catie.ac.cr 

305

Forestry 

Microclimate Controls of Shade Trees in Agroforestry 

OLEG PANFEROV 1 ,ANDREI SOGACHEV 2 ,NINA TIRALLA 1 ,PAVEL PROPASTIN 3 , 

ALEXANDER KNOHL 1 

1Georg-August-Universität-Göttingen, Buesgen-Institute: Bioclimatology, Germany 

2Technical University of Denmark, Department of Wind Energy, Denmark 

3Georg-August-Universität Göttingen, Institute of Geography, Cartography, GIS and 

Remote Sensing Sect., Germany 

In agroforestry and park systems the crops are growing under the canopy of so called 

“shade trees”. The growth rates and yield of crops depend strongly on energy and 

water fluxes between agroforestry system and atmosphere. The microclimate in agroforestry 

systems is strongly influenced by number (canopy density) and structural parameters 

of shade trees. Therefore, the shade trees can be used to reduce or mitigate 

the negative effect of climate variability (including climate change) on crop growth 

and yield. To quantify the influence of shading trees during different seasons, different 

meteorlogical conditions (cloudy, clear sky), as well as cumulative annual effects, 

the radiation and turbulent transports in agroforestry canopies were modelled on example 

of cacao (Theobroma cacao) agroforestry system in Indonesia. Three typical 

shade tree species - Aleurites moluccana, Cocos nucifera and Gliricidia sepium - 

were chosen for the experiment. Because of high heterogeneity of vegetation structure 

typical for agroforestry system a three-dimensional modelling approach has to be 

applied to describe the canopy transport adequately. In the present study the high resolution 

small scale 3D model of radiative transfer (SPM3D) (Bioclimatology Group, 

Göttingen University) was implemented. The wind regime was modelled by means of 

3D Boundary layer Model SCAlar DIStribution (SCADIS) (Wind Energy, TU Copenhagen). 

The structure of different shade trees and its variations were measured directly 

and retrieved from hemispherical photos. The inaccessible structural parameters were 

estimated using allometric functions obtained from direct measurements. The results 

show the non-linear influence of the number, size and spatial distribution of shade 

trees on radiative and wind regimes in cacao agroforestry systems. 

Keywords: Agroforestry, climate change, microclimate, shade trees, cacao modelling 

Contact Address: Oleg Panferov, Georg-August-Universität-Göttingen, Buesgen-Institute: Bioclimatology, 

Büsgenweg 2, 37077 Göttingen, Germany, e-mail: opanfyo@gwdg.de 

306

Agroforestry — Oral Presentations 

Optimising the Measurement of Landscape Biomass Carbon in 

Agricultural Landscape Mosaics 

SHEM KUYAH 1 ,CATHERINE MUTHURI 1 ,JOHANNES DIETZ 2 , 

HENRY NEUFELDT 2 

1Jomo Kenyatta University of Agriculture and Technology (JKUAT), Botany, Kenya 

2World Agroforestry Centre (ICRAF), Kenya 

Development of quick, reliable and economical methods of predicting the amount 

of biomass carbon stored in the landscape is essential if smallholder farmers are to 

benefit from carbon markets by growing trees on their farms. While estimation of 

landscape carbon can be easily achieved through use of allometric models, the quality 

of the model depends on the empirical data used. As part of the effort in developing 

standard methods of estimating biomass carbon in agricultural landscapes, a study 

was conducted in Western Kenya in three sentinel blocks (Lower, Middle and Upper 

Yala) along the River Yala basin. The study used established trees with the aim to 

determine (i) sources of error that can be easily avoided, (ii) ways of achieving quality 

empirical data, and (iii) constraints accompanying biomass estimation. Seventy 

two trees ranging in diameter at breast height from 3–102 cm (total basal area: 10.2 

m2 ) were randomly selected for destructive sampling and their dendrometricmeasurements 

taken. The roots system, stem, branches and leaves contribute 22 %, 45 % 30 % 

and 3 % of the total tree biomass respectively. Belowground biomass sampled to a 

depth of 2 m within 2 m radius from the tree edge allowed only 77.6 % of the total 

root biomass to be captured. About 1.1 % of the total aboveground biomass was lost 

though sectioning the stem and branches into practically weighable pieces (

Forestry 

Enriching Forest Plantations with Understory Crops: 

An Interdisciplinary Approach Towards Reforestation, Food 

Security and Resilient Production Systems 

CAROLA PAUL, MICHAEL WEBER 

Technische Universität München, Institute of Silviculture, Germany 

Deforestation in the Central American Republic of Panama is continuing at a rate of 

13,000 ha per year. Politicians and scientists therefore widely acknowledge the need 

for reforestation in order to restore environmental services such as the regulation of 

hydrological regimes, the maintenance of biodiversity, and the storage of carbon. In 

this context tropical timber plantations are considered as a sustainable and economically 

feasible way to foster reforestation of degraded lands. However, the greatest 

obstacle to the implementation of timber plantations for small as well as large-scale 

reforestation is the long time period of up to 10 years until the first returns out of wood 

harvesting can be expected. 

The present study presents an approach to overcome this obstacle by introducing four 

different crop rotations into high value timber plantations of six exotic and native 

tree species in an agroforestry trial in Eastern Panama. The aim of the trial was to 

identify optimal tree-crop combinations as well as optimal tree planting distances and 

light regimes to allow first returns out of wood plantations during the establishment 

phase. Initial tree growth and mortality has been evaluated in the different agroforestry 

systems in comparison to tree monocultures. Socioeconomic methods were 

used to evaluate the suitability and feasibility of this agroforestry system using participatory 

interviews with local farmers and methods of investment appraisal including 

risk analysis. 

Results show that the enrichment of forest plantations with Cajanus cajan even improved 

tree performance of some species. Combining reforestation with crop production 

can help to overcome the frequent criticism - observed in the interviews - of 

forest plantations reducing the area available for food production. These agroforestry 

systems can improve food security in rural areas, while the agroforestry systems tend 

to have higher net present values on a long time view of 25 years. 

Keywords: Agroforestry, Panama, reforestation, taungya, tropical forest plantations 

Contact Address: Carola Paul, Technische Universität München, Institute of Silviculture, Hans-Carl- 

Von-Carlowitz-Platz 2, 85354 Freising, Germany, e-mail: paul@forst.wzw.tum.de 

308

Agroforestry — Oral Presentations 

Domestication Potentials of Irvingia gabonensis: Farm Level Tree 

Growth Characteristics Assessment, Fruit Phenology and Effect of 

Light Intensity on Seed Germination 

JOHNSON ADEYINKA OLUSOLA 1 ,JONATHAN C. ONYEKWELU 1 , 

REINHARD MOSANDL 2 ,BERND STIMM 2 

1Federal University of Technology, Dept. of Forestry and Wood Technology, Nigeria 

2Technical University of Munich, Institute of Silviculture, Center of Life and Food 


Throughout the tropics, there are indigenous forest tree species that produce locally 

important NTFPs, thus contributing to food security and increasing diversity of foods 

necessary to reduce monotony in rural people’s diets. This study examines tree growth 

characteristics, fruits phenology and germination of Irvingia gabonensis (var. gabonensis) 

seeds under different light intensities. Ten villages with high abundance of 

I. gabonensis trees were purposefully selected from rainforest and derived savannah 

ecosystems of Ondo State, Nigeria. Ten trees were selected from each village, their 

age and silvicultural history obtained from their owners and their growth parameters 

measured. Fruits were harvested from each tree and their phenology investigated. 

Mean tree age across the villages ranged from 6 to 47 years, with trees in rainforest 

being older (mean: 40–47 years) than those within savannah ecosystem (mean: 6–16 

years). Thus, I. gabonensis trees within rainforest are aging and need to be replaced. 

88 % of trees in derived savannah were planted against only 2 % of those within rainforest, 

thus indicating higher domestication of the species in derived savannah and 

explaining the lower age of the trees in this ecosystem. Variation in tree growth characteristics 

is as follows: total height 5.1–28.8 m; dbh 16.5–125.3 cm; crown height 

3.0–20.0 m; crown diameter 1.3–24.0 cm; leaf length 5.2–14.6cm and leaf width 2.7– 

7.2 cm. Fruit phenotypic variation is as follows: length 4.65–7.1 cm; width 5.0–7.2 

cm; weight 64.7–202.1 g; flesh weight 55.1–177.70 g; flesh depth 1.0–2.2 cm; seed 

length 3.0–5.0 cm; seed width 2.5–3.9 cm; seed weight 9.6–25.4 g and kernel weight 

1.5–6.8 g, which reveals a wide variation in I. gabonensis fruit. Seed germination 

commenced on the 21st and ended on the 68th days after sowing. Seeds sown under 

40 % and 100 % light intensities and control had mean cumulative germination 

of 65.5 % while those under 60 % light intensity had 61.8 % germination. The nonsignificant 

difference in seed germination under the different treatments implies that 

germination of I. gabonensis seeds is not affected by light environment. 

Keywords: Domestication, fruit phenology, germination, growth characteristics, 

Irvingia gabonensis, light intensity 

Contact Address: Johnson Adeyinka Olusola, Federal University of Technology, Dept. of Forestry and 

Wood Technology, P.M.B. 704, P.M.B. 704 Akure, Nigeria, e-mail: johnsonolusola5@gmail.com 

309

Forestry 

Influence of Agroforestry Systems in Risk Reduction and Climate 

Change Adaptation in the Peruvian Andes 

FRANCOIS JOST, JÜRGEN PRETZSCH 

Technische Universität Dresden, Inst. of International Forestry and Forest Products, 

Germany 

Climate change as a long-term hazard is already affecting the small-scale farmers in 

Andean regions of Peru through extreme weather events. Weather hazards like frosts, 

hailstorms and droughts are affecting crops and livestock, increasing food insecurity 

and poverty levels. 

Risk reduction and adaptation measures are one of the most urgent aspects for local 

small-scale farmers depending on agriculture. Although they have reduced the impacts 

of these hazards by adapting farming techniques, varying their crops and altering 

their planting season, so far not much is known about the related local knowledge, 

behaviour and action. 

The Achamayo river basin is a typical inter-Andean valley of Peru’s central highlands 

ranging from 4500 m asl down to 3262 m asl, where agriculture remain one of the 

main economic activities and traditional agricultural practices are still in use. Here, 

droughts, more precisely, agricultural droughts during the midsummer (“veranillos”) 

are one of the events which affect crops most directly and thus the livelihoods of the 

small-scale farmers in the region. Even if the mean annual rainfall has not changed 

significantly, there is a loss in the yield production due to agricultural droughts, and 

their incidence is increasing in the last years. 

By increasing the trees and forest share in the area i.e. through agroforestry systems, 

small-scale farmers can adapt their systems to prevent natural hazards (locally 

mitigating their negative effects) and simultaneously contribute to climate change mitigation 

(increasing the storage of carbon in the system), linking both adaptation and 

mitigation strategies. 

The main objective of the research is to analyse the use of trees as a measure of 

adaptation to agricultural droughts in the rural areas of the tropical Andes. The main 

focus is put on the relation between the presence of trees in the crops (agroforestry 

systems) and their influence on agricultural droughts (analysing their effects in the 

yield) and consequently in the farmer’s livelihood (with emphasis on food security). 

Keywords: Adaptation, agricultural droughts, agroforestry, Andes, climate change, 

food security, Peru, rural livelihood 

Contact Address: Francois Jost, Technische Universität Dresden, Inst. of International Forestry and 

Forest Products, Rudolf-Leonhard-Str 24, 01097 Dresden, Germany, e-mail: francoisjost@gmail.com 

310

Agroforestry — Posters 

Genetic Differentiation among Natural Populations of 

Shorea contorta and Parashorea malaanonan (Dipterocarpaceae) 

in the Philippines 

RANDY VILLARIN 1 ,OLIVER VILLARIN 2 ,REINER FINKELDEY 1 

1Georg-August-Universität Göttingen, Forest Genetics and Forest Tree Breeding, 

Germany 

2Palarao Elem. School, Dept. of Education-Region VIII, Philippines 

The rapid decline of the Philippine forests during the past century has resulted in 

highly fragmented tree populations. To conserve the remaining forest genetic diversity 

and to better support an effective forest restoration activities in the country, 

genetic differentiation among the remaining natural populations of the ecologically 

important and critically endangered timber species, Shorea contorta and Parashorea 

malaanonan (Dipterocarpaceae), was investigated using microsatellite markers developed 

for Shorea species. 

Results revealed a higher mean values for populations in the northern than in the central 

region, in both dipterocarps, concerning on their allelic richness, effective number 

of alleles, and observed and expected heterozygosities. Further, population differentiation 

was higher in the northern (FST=0.187) than in the central region (FST=0.134) 

for P. malaanonan. An opposite trend of F ST value, on the other hand, was obtained 

for S. contorta populations (northern: 0.017; central: 0.038). Analysis for inbreeding 

coefficient (FIS) among populations within region generally showed an excess of 

heterozygotes for the studied dipterocarps. The groupwise differentiation of these different 

genetic parameters between populations from two regions in both dipterocarps, 

however, was not significant based from the two-sided test. 

Analysis of molecular variance (AMOVA) showed significant difference between 

populations from northern and central region for both dipterocarps (P. malaanonan: 

12.48 % variation, P=

Forestry 

Investigation of Agroforestry Practices within Eucalyptus 

camaldulensis Plantations: A Case Study of Kaduna State Forest 

Management Project, Buruku, Nigeria 

WILSON ABAYOMI JAYEOBA 1 ,BABATUNDE ADENIYI OSUNMADEWA 2 , 

ABDULWAHAB ZAKARI 1 

1Federal College of Forestry Mechanisation, Forestry Research Institute of Nigeria, 

Nigeria 

2Technische Universität Dresden, Inst. of Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing, 

Germany 

The environmental services that agroforestry practices can provide especially their potential 

contribution to the conservation of biodiversity, climate amelioration and livelihood 

improvement has recently attracted attention among agroforestry and conservation 

scientist. An investigation of agroforestry practices within Eucalyptus camaldulensis 

in Kaduna State Forest Management Project Nigeria was carried out. A total 

of 100 questionnaires were administered with 77 retrieved from the respondents. 

The questionnaire was structured to access and identify the benefit of agroforestry 

practices to the rural communities (forest management staffs and the core villagers). 

Results obtained from the study revealed that 77 % of the respondents are male while 

52 % of the respondents are married. 71 % of the respondents are involved in other 

activities than agriculture, which serve as their source of income. 60 % of the respondents 

rear livestock while 58 % of the respondents benefit from non- timber forest 

products (NTFP). 51 % of the respondents experience pest and diseases on their farm. 

The Chi-square analysis of data collated among 8 variables including gender, age, size 

of farm land, impact of agroforestry, effect of agroforestry on soil fertility, beneficial 

relationship between food crops and tree crops revealed that the computed value X2 of 

these variables are greater than the critical value thus null hypothesis is rejected and 

the alternative hypothesis accepted. Therefore there is significant difference within 

the variables. The results of the study show that agroforestry practices serve as a 

means of improving the livelihood of the rural communities in the study area and also 

provide other in-direct benefit such as reclamation of soil fertility. It is recommended 

amongst other things that there should be provision of adequate knowledge about the 

benefits derived from improved agroforestry practices to farmers through extension 

services. 

Keywords: Agroforestry practices, Bukuru, Eucalyptus camaldulensis, Kaduna, 

Nigeria 

Contact Address: Wilson Abayomi Jayeoba, Federal College of Forestry Mechanisation, Forestry 

Research Institute of Nigeria, P.M.B 2273 Afaka Kaduna State, 00234 Kaduna, Nigeria, e-mail: 

wilson4us2002@yahoo.com 

312

Agroforestry for Resilient Agroecosystems in the 

Mid-Hills of Nepal 

NIELS SCHWAB 1,2 ,UDO SCHICKHOFF 2 

1 Kaule e.V., Bonn, Germany 

2 University of Hamburg, Institute of Geography, Germany 


In order to adopt sustainable land use and to improve food security and livelihood, 

agro-forestry systems offer an alternative to traditional farming that can be advantageous 

in terms of productivity, biodiversity, and ecological services provided. 

16 farmers of Kaule, a Nepalese village in the Mid-Hills have changed over from 

traditional farm management with crop rotation systems to the integration of woody 

perennials on the same land management units. Poor nutrient conditions and susceptibility 

to erosion characterise the region’s prevalent soils. The agroforestry farmers 

have taken different measures to enhance the soil fertility, such as the use of green 

manure. The Nepali-German organisation Kaule e.V. supports the adoption of agroforestry 

systems in Kaule. In the context of scientific documentation and evaluation of 

this project the study’s objective is to compare soil properties and phytodiversity of: 

A) 15 years ago established agroforestry land, B) 2 years ago established agroforestry 

land, and C) conventional crop rotation land. 

Soil samples (n=96) were taken at 24 terraces (8 per land type) and analysed. The 

fields’ crops, shrubs and trees were examined by stratified random sampling. The 

survey included soil and vegetation parameters of field boundaries – in general the 

terrace risers. 

Analysis of variance shows significant (p < 0.05, ANOVA / Kruskal-Wallis test) differences 

of agroforestry land (A) and conventional land (C) in terms of plant diversity, 

plant cover, and soil parameters. Soils of agroforestry land provide more favourable 

conditions for plant growth e.g. concerning pH, total C, total N, CEC, and exchangeable 

Al, Ca, and Mg. Although the transition process to agroforestry has been in 

progress for only 2 years in ‘B’, soil parameters already reflect the shift to restoring 

farm soil fertility. Terrace risers’ soil parameters are not correlated with management. 

Species richness of agroforestry lands’ tree and shrub layers is higher compared to 

conventional lands’. Transition lands’ α-andβ -diversity indices have reached values 

of agroforestry land within two years since conversion has started. 

In conclusion, agroforestry in the Nepalese Mid-Hills provides ecological and economic 

benefits and is a viable option to develop more efficient, more resilient and 

sustainable land use systems. 

Keywords: Agroforestry, Mid-Hills, Nepal, phytodiversity, soil fertility 

Contact Address: Niels Schwab, Kaule e.V., Bonn 

current address: Bundesstraße 55, 20146 Hamburg, Germany, e-mail: nielsschwab@gmx.net 

313

Forestry 

Preliminary Characterisation of Common Legume Tree Species as 

Coffee Shade for Climate Change Readiness 

PABLO SILES 1 ,HARVIN CENTENO 2 ,WILSON CABEZAS 2 ,CHARLES STAVER 3 , 

JÜRGEN BURKHARDT 4 ,OSCAR BUSTAMANTE 1 

1Bioversity International, Costa Rica 

2Agricultural Catholic University of the Dry Tropics, Esteli, Nicaragua 

3Bioversity International, France 


Agroforestry practices are proposed for adaptation to the increased temperatures and 

more irregular rainfall associated with climate change in the coffee growing areas of 

Mesoamerica. We propose that understanding the functional characteristics of different 

legume trees can contribute to the design of multi-purpose, multi-strata shade, 

including climate change readiness. The genera of Inga and Erythrina of the Fabaceae 

family are common in coffee fields due to their capacity to fix nitrogen. We studied 

photosynthetic parameters and biomass accumulation of young trees grown in 15-L 

pots of five species found as coffee shade - Erythrina poeppigiana (Ep), Inga jinicuil 

(Ij), I. oerstediana (Io), I. punctata (Ip) and I. vera (Iv) at 10, 40 and 100 % of full 

solar irradiance. After 125 days, Ep had accumulated the highest biomass, followed 

by Iv and Io. Biomass of Ep, Iv, and Ip declinaed linearly with irradiance, while 

for Io and Ij, biomass declined less at intermediary irradiance. Leaf area for Io and 

Ij increased in 40 % irradiance compared to others species, although leaf area ratio 

increased in all species with declining irradiance. At leaf level, the photosynthetic capacity 

expressed by the maximum carboxylation rate (Vcmax in μmol m −2 s −1 )and 

potential light-saturated electron transport rate (Jmax in μmol m −2 s −1 ) were higher 

in Ep, Iv and Io compared to Ip and Ij, according to the highest biomass accumulation. 

Vcmax and Jmax reduced with declining irradiance showing an acclimation to 

shade related to changes in leaf traits as leaf specific area, but the rated of reduction 

was specie specific. Diurnal courses of photosynthesis and transpiration (T) showed 

highest values at 100 % full sun. Instantaneous water use efficiency (WUE An/T) 

was higher for 100 % irradiance for Ep, Iv, and Io compared to Ij and Ip, for WUE 

was higher at 40 % irradiance. These results indicate that species differences need to 

be further characterised to provide the basis for the design of climate-change ready 

multi-strata. Follow-up field studies are needed to pruning and thinning. These parameters 

are also essential for modelling long-term photosynthesis and productivity 

in these agroforestry systems. 

Keywords: Agroforestry, biochemical model, light, photosynthesis, shade species, 

water use efficiency 

Contact Address: Jürgen Burkhardt, University of Bonn, Inst. Crop Sci. and Res. Conserv. (INRES), 

Karlrobert-Kreiten-Straße 13, 53115 Bonn, Germany, e-mail: j.burkhardt@uni-bonn.de 

314


Quesungual Slash and Mulch Agroforestry System: Improving 

Livelihoods of Smallholders in Central America 

REIN VAN DER HOEK 1 ,ARACELY CASTRO 2 ,BISMARCK MENDOZA 3 ,MARTIN 

MENA 4 ,GLENDA BONILLA 3 ,JELLIN PAVON 4 ,ORLANDO TELLEZ 1 ,BERNHARD 

FREYER 5 ,DIANA KURZWEG 5 ,LAURENT ROUSSEAU 6 ,STEVE FONTE 2 ,PATRICK 

LAVELLE 2 ,IDUPULAPATI RAO 2 

1International Center for Tropical Agriculture (CIAT), Central America / CIM, Nicaragua 

2International Center for Tropical Agriculture (CIAT), Soils Reseach Area, Colombia 

3National Agricultural University, Nicaragua 

4Instituto Nicaraguense de Tecnología Agropecuaria (INTA), Nicaragua 

5University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences (BOKU), Inst. of Organic Farming, 

Austria 

6Institut de Recherche pour le Développement (IRD), France 

Food insecurity and poverty are major problems in rural areas of Central America, particularly 

for those farmers who depend on maize-bean-livestock systems in sub-humid 

ecosystems. Intensive use of agricultural lands and farming in not suitable areas, and 

limited use of soil conservation practices, have lead to an extensive degradation of 

natural resources. Earlier work on hillsides of Central America has shown that both 

the Quesungual Slash and Mulch Agroforestry System (QSMAS) and silvopastoral 

systems with improved forages can enhance eco-efficiency to improve livelihoods of 

poor farmers by increasing agricultural productivity and profitability, and facilitating 

the generation of other ecosystem services. 

This research compares QSMAS, in combination with improved (stress-adapted) food 

crops (maize and bean) and multipurpose improved forages (grasses and legumes), to 

the traditional crop-livestock system based on slash-and-burn agriculture and traditional 

pastures. Experimental plots were established in 16 farms in two regions of 

Nicaragua. Baseline studies on ecosystem parameters included soil quality, fertility, 

macrofauna, erosion, and carbon stocks. Agricultural productivity and ecosystem 

benefits of improved crop-livestock systems are being assessed on the experimental 

plots with natural forest as reference. Sociocultural and socioeconomic factors driving 

adoption are defined of both participating and non-participating farmers, to support 

the development of strategies for translating the results into practice. 

Preliminary results (one year) show no significant effects of treatments on crop yields, 

although in one region maize productivity tended to be higher with improved varieties 

and improved management. Erosion is highest in the traditional (especially slashand-burn) 

system, and lowest on QSMAS plots. Although in general QSMAS did not 

show significant differences in physical and chemical soil quality parameters when 

Contact Address: Rein van der Hoek, International Center for Tropical Agriculture (CIAT), Central 

America / CIM, Managua, Nicaragua, e-mail: r.vanderhoek@cgiar.org 

315

Forestry 

compared to the traditional system, abundance of macrofauna was greater suggesting 

improved soil conditions. 

Out and up scaling activities have included several workshops and field days with 

farmers, technicians and researchers, directly and indirectly (through NGOs and local 

authorities) involved in the project. In the coming year evaluations of food crops will 

continue, as well as the monitoring of ecosystem parameters. In addition, grazing 

trials will be implemented to assess the effect of the improved sylvopastoral system 

on milk production. 

Keywords: Bean, Central America, maize, multipurpose forages, quesungual slash 

and mulch agroforestry system, slash-and-burn 

316


Making Social Forestry Work: A Comparative Study of 

Smallholder Reforestation Projects in Paraguay 

JULIA SZULECKA, ELIZABETH MONGES ZALAZAR 

Technische Universität Dresden, Institute for International Forestry and Forest Products, 

Germany 

Paraguay has one of the smallest forest plantation areas in Latin America currently 

estimated at 66 000 hectares. Additionally in the second half of the 20 th century 

the dramatic deforestation rate assessed by the World Resources Institute reached 

2,65 %. Those are just some of the reasons explaining the particular importance of 

promoting plantation activities within the country. One such initiative has been the 

project for management of natural ressources (PMRN) of the German Development 

Agency (GIZ) involving assistance for smallholders in the establishment of forest 

plantation plots. 

This paper tries to explain the observable difference in the performance of two nearly 

neighbouring communities. It asks why in the same region (Department of San Pedro) 

and operating under the auspices of the same external project (PMRN) the results of 

the two case study areas (in Cuatro Vientos and Choré communities) are so divergent. 

After the analysis of the relevant documents and a field visit to both areas, the variation 

between the plantation results can be explained by the degree of self-organisation 

and institutional capacity, with the formalised cooperative in Cuatro Vientos as 

a potential “champion” and the loose producers committee in Choré as the visible 

“laggard”. The paper discusses the initial conditions, external factors of influence and 

project outcomes regarding forest plantations. It broadly assesses the socio-economic 

and environmental impacts of plantations, producers’ attitudes towards planting trees, 

plantation integration at the farm level, options for value added chains and microfinance 

and finally long-term continuation of the efforts after the project. It finally 

points to the importance of governance and institutional set-up in plantation forestry 

and provides lessons learned for making social forestry work at the grassroots local 

level. 

Keywords: Development, Paraguay, smallholder plantations, social forestry, socioeconomic 

impact 

Contact Address: Julia Szulecka, Technische Universität Dresden, Institute for International Forestry 

and Forest Products, Pf 1117, 01735 Tharandt, Germany, e-mail: julia.szulecka@gmail.com 

317

Forestry 

Improving Smallholders’ Access to Good Planting Material - 

Improving Input Supply Chains: A Baseline Survey 

NIKLAS HOLTNE 

University of Copenhagen, Forest and Landscape, Denmark 

In Kenya, forest cover has been reduced to about 2 % over the last decades, and forests 

are still threatened by increased population and climate change. In order to increase 

resilience against climate change and to conserve the remaining forests, the government 

of Kenya has set a national goal of 10 % tree cover in their Vision 2030. Tree 

planting activities are being promoted on smallholder farms, since agroforestry systems 

are more resilient and sustainable than monoculture systems, as well as reforestation 

of natural forests. The current system of input supply for tree seeds consists 

of a range of actors, with no specific coordination of efforts. This situation is typical 

for eastern and southern Africa. 

The purpose of this study was to identify actors in the input supply system of planting 

materials and to identify the constraints and opportunities for improving tree nurseries 

and the distribution of quality germplasm to agroforestry systems. 

Findings conclude that NGO started group nurseries face many problems rendering 

them unsuitable as source of germplasm for smallholders in the long run. The NGOs 

mainly promote indigenous species for forest restoration, with little consideration to 

farmers needs. There are strong indications that small scale individual nurseries are 

more efficient in supplying species in demand, therefore representing a vital link in 

the input supply system. It can also be seen that training efforts of these small scale 

enterprises results in higher profit. 

NGOs are performing an important role in reforestation and preservation. However, it 

can be recommended that they change their roles as seed providers, of often low quality 

seeds, to offer technical training and support to small scale nurseries. National 

seed centres and NGOs should focus on small scale nurseries, provide training programs 

and establish good quality seed sources of useful exotic and indigenous species. 

This would make the input supply system more efficient, providing the best quality 

germplasm to rural farmers. Promotion and value chain interventions for agroforestry 

products on a larger scale will further improve the value chain from input supply to 

outputs, such as timber and fruits. 

Keywords: Agroforestry, input supply system, seed sources, tree-planting 

Contact Address: Niklas Holtne, University of Copenhagen, Forest and Landscape, 

Lyngbygårdsvej 71 St Tv, 2800 Kongens Lyngby, Denmark, e-mail: niklasholtne@hotmail.com 

318


Tree Diversity in Cacao Agroforestry in San Alejandro, 

Peruvian Amazon 

HANA VEBROVÁ 1 ,BOHDAN LOJKA 1 ,THOMAS P. HUSBAND 2 , 

MARÍA ELENA CHUSPE ZANS 3 ,ALEXANDR ROLLO 1 

1Czech University of Life Sciences Prague, Dept. of Crop Sciences and Agroforestry in 

the Tropics and Subtropics, Czech Republic 

2University of Rhode Island, Dept. of Natural Resources Sciences, United Kingdom 

3National Intercultural University of Amazon, Dept. of Ecology and Botany, Peru 

Cacao cultivation that maintains higher proportions of shade trees in a diverse structure 

(cacao agroforestry) is progressively being viewed as a sustainable land-use practice 

that complements the conservation of biodiversity. Our basic hypothesis was that 

cacao agroforestry systems can support relatively high tree diversity compared to primary 

and secondary forest. The objective of this study was to assess the impacts of 

forest conversion on tree communities by comparing tree species richness, diversity 

and composition between natural primary and secondary forest and cacao agroforestry 

systems. In total we collected data in 30 (25 × 25 m) plots on three land-use systems 

(20 in cacao agroforestry, 5 in secondary forest and 5 in primary forest) in San Alejandro, 

Peruvian Amazon. All trees were identified to species, and their height and 

DBH recorded. Cacao farmers were also interviewed to document their knowledge 

about association of cacao with trees. Our results support the hypothesis that cacao 

agroforestry contains relatively high tree species richness and diversity comparable to 

secondary forest. Although we found higher tree density in primary and secondary 

forest compared to cacao agroforestry. The species richness was found the highest 

in the primary forest. According to the species diversity indexes, the species composition 

of cacao agroforestry is higher than in secondary forest. Farmers have very 

good and extensive knowledge about advantages that trees provide for cacao, soil improvement 

and biodiversity conservation. However, we also found that tree species 

cultivated in cacao agroforestry are very different from the species found in primary 

forest, so there is a question if the relatively high tree diversity and richness is able to 

support some of the original faunal diversity found in natural forest. In this context 

our study forms a good scientific background for the further monitoring of ecological 

changes in human modified landscapes in the Amazon region. 

Keywords: Cacao agroforestry, Peruvian Amazon, primary forest, secondary forest, 

species diversity, species richness 

Contact Address: Hana Vebrová, Czech University of Life Sciences Prague, Dept. of Crop Sciences 

and Agroforestry in the Tropics and Subtropics, U Zelezné lávky 16, 11800 Praha 1, Czech Republic, 

e-mail: hana.vebrova@seznam.cz 

319

Forestry 

Agroforestry as Resilience Tool for Ecological Degraded 

Agricultural Areas of Northeastern Mexico 

HORACIO VILLALON-MENDOZA 1 ,TEODORO MEDINA-MARTINEZ 2 , 

ARTEMIO CARRILLO-PARRA 3 

1University Autonomus of Nuevo Leon, Agroforestry, Mexico 

2University Automonus Tamaulipas, Ecology, Mexico 

3University Autonomus of Nuevo Leon, Wood Technology, Mexico 

In northeastern Mexico predominant livestock under extensive management, coupled 

with low and erratic rainfall, uneven topography, results in degradation of large areas 

with phenomena such as soil erosion and loss of biodiversity. The objective of this research 

was to test agroforestry - systems in response to the problem of soil erosion and 

is proposed as a dynamic way to support the resilience of these ecosystems damaged 

through missmanagement, to conserve the ecosystems and to diversify the production 

in order to generate sustainable benefits for the rural population of the region. The 

work consisted in the restoration of a degraded area to a productive area with contour 

lines and reforestation in the region of Linares, Nuevo Leon, Mexico. The following 

forest species were planted: Acacia berlandieri, A. rigidula, Leucaena leucocephala, 

Havardia pallens, Prosopis laevigata and Opuntia sp. Forage grass was promoted 

(Lolium perenne) between levels. There where the agroforestry model was established 

erosion was controlled. The grass showed a yield of 790 kg DM ha -1 y-1 in the 

first year after establishment and of 4090 kg DM ha -1 y-1 from the third year on. The 

LAI increased from 0.025 on the degraded area to 2.75 in the agroforestry area. The 

content of soil organic matter in the agroforestry module increased from 0.6 % in the 

first year to 4.2 % after 3 years. Statistical analysis indicated that the species with the 

highest survival rates after three years were Havardia pallens and Acacia rigidula. 

The study area is more suitable for the production of forage grasses (4090 kg ha -1 ) 

than for corn production (480 kg ha -1 ). The species recommended to implement in 

the agroforestry system are H. pallens and A. rigidula. It was demonstrated that agroforestry 

systems can be implemented as a resilience tool on degraded areas. 

Keywords: Agroforestry, Havardia pallens, leaf index, Leucaena leucocephala, 

Prosopis laevigata 

Contact Address: Horacio Villalon-Mendoza, University Autonomus of Nuevo Leon, Agroforestry, 

Carr. Nal km 145, 67700 Linares, Mexico, e-mail: horacio.villalon@gmail.com 

320


Assessing the Conservation Value of Different Habitats for Birds 

in the Walnut Fruit Forests of Kyrgyzstan 

GULNAZ JALILOVA 1 ,JAN DE GROOT 2 ,HARALD VACIK 1 

1University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences (BOKU), Dept. for Forest and Soil 

Sciences, Austria 

2Orech-Les Scientific Project, Kyrgyzstan 

Walnut fruit forests represent both a valuable hotspot of biological diversity and have 

significant economic value for the livelihoods of local communities. However, the 

sustainable management of these forests is a complex task requiring the successful 

juggling of the different interests of local stakeholders, including fulfiling their economic, 

social and ecological demands. Here, birds were chosen as the indicator of 

biodiversity with which to evaluate the effects of such forest management activities. A 

research study was conducted in 2005 during the birds’ breeding season in five different 

habitats (primary and secondary forests, plantation, agroforestry and brushwood) 

using the point sampling method. A total of 23 species were recorded. According 

to the various diversity indices employed, the best habitats for species richness 

were areas of agroforestry, while primary forests were found to be the best habitats 

in terms of species abundance. In contrast, the lowest bird diversity was observed in 

plantations due to their structural homogeneity. In addition, habitat suitability was assessed 

according to both horizontal and vertical structural parameters and tested using 

5 selected indicator bird species. The results reveal a link between birds and vegetation, 

with abundance of old trees, availability of dead wood and habitat understorey 

density found to be the most important indicators of bird survival. Our research findings 

highlight that it is imperative to protect existing primary forests which are genetic 

diversity hotspots for endemic species such as Dendrocopos leucopterus. Although 

areas under agroforestry were primarily found to be relatively promising habitats in 

terms of species richness, these intensively managed ecosystems may also be useful 

for simultaneously fulfiling the needs of local people, if such projects are carefully 

planned and managed. 

Keywords: Biodiversity, bird diversity, forest management, Kyrgyzstan, walnut fruit 

forests 

Contact Address: Gulnaz Jalilova, University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences (BOKU), Dept. 

for Forest and Soil Sciences, Peter Jordan Strasse 82, 1190 Vienna, Austria, e-mail: gulnaz.jalilova@ 

boku.ac.at 

321

Forestry 

Not Only Humans Like Cacao: Conflicts with Wildlife Threaten 

Farmers’ Livelihoods Around the Bia Conservation Area, Ghana 

FRANZISKA K. HARICH 1 ,ANNA C. TREYDTE 1 ,JOACHIM SAUERBORN 1 , 

ERASMUS H. OWUSU 2 



2University of Ghana, Dept. of Animal Biology and Conservation Science, Ghana 

Human-wildlife conflicts (HWC) are a severe threat to smallholders’ livelihoods 

around many conservation areas in the tropics and subtropics. Among them is the 

Bia Conservation Area (BCA) in Ghana, where many farmers are experiencing increasing 

levels of crop-raiding. We determined the wildlife species involved in HWC 

and examined the effects of crop-raiding on the livelihood of people around the BCA. 

The kind and extent of damage was recorded and possible factors influencing the risk 

of raids were investigated. Also, prevention measures applied by farmers and their 

pay-offs were analysed. 100 interviews were conducted in 10 fringe communities 

around the BCA. The presence and relative density of different wildlife species were 

assessed through transect walks and spoor plot monitoring in the transition zone of 

the BCA. Crop-raiding took place all around the BCA but was most severe in the 

northern part. Elephants (Loxodonta africana cyclotis) were identified as the major 

conflict generating species, but also smaller mammals such as squirrels (Sciuridae 

spp), bushbuck (Tragelaphus scriptus) and cane rats (Thryonomys swinderianus)were 

found to cause damage. The relative density for squirrels was by far the highest of 

all species recorded in the farmland. Cacao (Theobroma cacao) was most frequently 

raided (99 %), followed by cassava (Manihot esculenta), yam (Dioscorea spp.) and 

plantain (Musa spp.). Traditional prevention measures applied by farmers were only 

partly effective and hardly any non-traditional methods based on chili pepper were 

used. One mitigation approach could be the use of buffer crops that are unpalatable 

for wildlife, such as ginger or chili pepper. Latter could then serve as basic material 

for wildlife repellent measures like chili grease fences or chili-dung bricks. However, 

further education of farmers on such mitigation measures is needed, as is general 

training on improved farming practices. 

Keywords: Crop-raiding, Ghana, smallholders’ livelihood, wildlife, human-wildlife 

conflict 

Contact Address: Franziska K. Harich, University of Hohenheim, Inst. of Plant Production and 

Agroecology in the Tropics and Subtropics, Garbenstrasse 13, 70599 Stuttgart, Germany, e-mail: 

harich@uni-hohenheim.de 

322

Socioeconomics 

1) High-value markets 325 

2) Innovation adoption and agricultural productivity 345 

3) Rural development 379 

4) Knowledge, learning and extension 407 

5) Food security and adaptation 427 

323

High-value markets 


CHUTHAPORN NGOKKUEN, ULRIKE GROTE: 

Can Geographical Indication Increase Household Welfare 

and Reduce Poverty? Evidence from Rural Northeastern 

Thailand 327 

EKO RUDDY CAHYADI, HERMANN WAIBEL: 

Can Contract Farming Reduce Vulnerability to Poverty 

among Oil Palm Smallholders in Indonesia? 328 

BEATRICE W. MURIITHI, GEORG NOGA, ANIK BHADURI: 

Commercialisation of Smallholder Horticulture: A Panacea 

or a Deterrent to Reduction of Rural Poverty Vulnerability, 

an Asset-Based Approach 329 

PRADYOT JENA, ULRIKE GROTE, TILL STELLMACHER: 

Welfare Effects of Coffee Certification: Some Evidence from 

Nicaragua 330 

JOHN GACHIGI, ELOSY KANGAI, JOHN MBURU: 

An Evaluation of Dynamism in Compliance with Global GAP 

Standards among Horticultural Smallholder Farmers in 

Kenya 331 

KHIN MAR CHO, DONALD JEROME TOBIAS: 

Importance of Mobile Technology in Food and Agribusiness 

Value Chains: Electronically Linking Farmers with Markets 332 

Posters 333 

MIRA KIM TEOH, FRANK HARTWICH: 

Value Chain Development Interventions in Francophone 

Africa: A Review of Donor Approaches 333 

SOVI SOVIANA, JOFI PUSPA: 

Multi-Layer Distribution System of the Indonesian Fruit- 

Vegetable Sector: Current Challenges and Future 

Perspectives 334 

FENGLI XIU, SIEGFRIED BAUER, FENGGUANG XIU: 

Comparative Advantage and Competitiveness of China’s 

Agricultural Products in the EU Market 335 

325


326 

ANNE ULRICH: 

Participation of Small-Scale Farmers in an Expanding 

Horticultural Market: Impacts of Global Production 

Processes on their Livelihoods 

MARIA-BELEN ROLDAN, INGRID FROMM, ROBERT AIDOO: 

From Production to Export Markets: The Case of the Cacao 

336 

Value Chain in Ghana 

PRIYANKA PARVATHI, HERMANN WAIBEL: 

Fair Trade and Organic Agriculture in Developing Countries 

337 

– A Review 

ELIZABETH KABURA NYAGA, ANTHONY GIKANDI MURIITHI, 

JOSEPH PATRICK GWEYI-ONYANGO: 

A Mechanism to Discover Hidden Markets and to Improve 

338 

Information Flow Towards Food Producers: A Case of 

Kiambu District, Kenya 339 

MARCUS NAGLE, MARIA ISABEL MATUTE GIRON, KARLA 

PEÑA PINEDA, MATTHIAS JÄGER, JOACHIM MÜLLER: 

Environmental and Quality Assessment Along the Post- 

Harvest Value Chain for Export-Quality Capsicum Products 

in Peru 340 

TILL STELLMACHER, DIRK RÖTTGERS, ETTI WINTER, 

ULRIKE GROTE: 

International Market-Based Instruments and the Protection 

of Ecosystems in Tanzania: Potentials and Pitfalls 

SABINA KHATRI KARKI, ULRIKE GROTE, PRADYOT JENA, 

HARTMUT STÜTZEL: 

Impact of Certification for Tribal Coffee Growers Wellbeing: 

341 

A Case Study from Araku Valley, India 

BISMARK AGYEI YEBOAH, AGBETI SOWAH: 

Farm and Farmer Characteristics that Influence Tomato 

Farmers’ Awareness and Willingness to Adopt Mobile Phone 

342 

Based MIS in Ghana 343 

JUSTUS OCHIENG, BEATRICE KNERR, GEORGE OWUOR, 

EMILY OUMA: 

The Role of Collective Action in Improving Market 

Performance of Smallholder Banana and Legume-Based 

Systems in Central Africa 344

High-value markets — Oral Presentations 

Can Geographical Indication Increase Household Welfare and 

Reduce Poverty? Evidence from Rural Northeastern Thailand 

CHUTHAPORN NGOKKUEN, ULRIKE GROTE 

Leibniz Universität Hannover, Institute for Environmental Economics and World Trade, 

Germany 

Can a Geographical Indication (GI) which indicates that a certain product originates 

from a certain region with a given quality being attributable to its place of origin, become 

a tool to promote socio-economic livelihoods of rural communities? A GI is one 

kind of intellectual property right which has gained increasing interest among policy 

makers and in academia alike since its protection has been ensured multilaterally under 

the Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPS) Agreement of 

the World Trade Organisation (WTO). Thung Kula Rong-Hai Thai Hom Mali Rice 

(TKR) being traditionally produced in the Thung Kula Rong-Hai (TKRH) area in the 

Northeast of Thailand is the first registered GI Jasmine rice in Thailand. The producers 

in the TKRH area along with other business operators of the TKR value chain 

have to apply for GI certification which then provides protection against any counterfeiting 

by parties other than the genuine producers. This case study aims at finding 

the potential impact of the GI certification adoption on household welfare and rural 

poverty. It uses data obtained from a cross-sectional household survey of 541 TKR 

households in two districts of the TKRH area from 2009. A non-parametric Propensity 

Score Matching (PSM) analysis is applied to assess the causal effect of the GI 

certification on farm household’s welfare. The central question is whether GI certification 

adoption for Jasmine rice results in improved household welfare in terms of 

increased consumption expenditures and in a decreased propensity to fall below the 

poverty line. The study finds a significant and positive effect of GI certification adoption 

on the household welfare and poverty reduction in rural Thailand. However, a 

long lasting positive impact on household welfare and poverty in rural communities 

depends on the awareness and the rate of adoption of the TKR households to make 

use of their embedded right to apply for GI certification. The results stress the importance 

of a sustainable and well-functioning and for the producers reachable GI 

registration system which facilitates the registration procedure for GI certification to 

TKR producers. 

Keywords: Geographical indication, propensity-score matching, rural household 

welfare, rural livelihoods, rural poverty, Thailand 

Contact Address: Chuthaporn Ngokkuen, Leibniz Universität Hannover, Institute for Environmental 

Economics and World Trade, Koenigsworther Platz 1, 30167 Hannover, Germany, e-mail: ngokkuen@ 

iuw.uni-hannover.de 

327


Can Contract Farming Reduce Vulnerability to Poverty among 

Oil Palm Smallholders in Indonesia? 

EKO RUDDY CAHYADI, HERMANN WAIBEL 

Leibniz Universität Hannover, Institute of Development and Agricultural Economics, 

Germany 

This paper uses an asset-based vulnerability approach to investigate the poverty risk 

of smallholder farmers in the oil palm industry in Indonesia. In particular the question 

is asked to what extent contractual arrangements between smallholders and large 

agro industry companies are an effective means to reducing vulnerability, i.e. the 

risk from falling into poverty. In order to better understand such vulnerability, four 

types of shocks experienced by oil palm smallholders namely price, production, health 

and demographic and other economic shocks were also analysed. Data were randomly 

collected from 245 smallholders consisting of 126 contract and 119 non-contract 

smallholders in the province of Jambi, Indonesia. Results show that contract 

smallholders tend to be more dependent on oil palm. They reported price and production 

shocks more frequently while non-contract smallholder experienced health, 

demographic, and other economic shocks more extensive. Using a probit model we 

find that the negative impact of price shocks can be reduced by participation in the 

contract scheme; however this is not the case for production shocks. We find that 

contract smallholders are significantly less vulnerable, however not because of contract 

participation but mainly because of their better asset endowments. The results 

of vulnerability estimates suggest that about 40 % of smallholders are expected to be 

non-poor but the occurrence of shocks can make them fall back into poverty. Hence 

our findings differ from past publications on oil palm households’ well-being which 

only looked at static poverty and thus reported low poverty headcount ratios. Our results 

suggest that policy measures must focus on reducing vulnerability rather than ex 

post poverty. Consequently contact schemes need to be reviewed in order to be more 

effective for the poor and vulnerable. 

Keywords: Contract farming, oil palm, smallholders, vulnerability to poverty 

Contact Address: Eko Ruddy Cahyadi, Leibniz Universität Hannover, Institute of Development 

and Agricultural Economics, Königsworther Platz 1, 30167 

cahyadi@ifgb.uni-hannover.de 

328 

Hannover, Germany, e-mail:


Commercialisation of Smallholder Horticulture: 

A Panacea or a Deterrent to Reduction of Rural Poverty 

Vulnerability – An Asset-Based Approach 

BEATRICE W. MURIITHI 1 ,GEORG NOGA 2 ,ANIK BHADURI 1 

1University of Bonn, Center for Development Research (ZEF), Economics and 

Technological Change, Germany 

2University of Bonn, Inst. Crop Sci. and Res. Conserv. (INRES) - Horticulture, Germany 

Commercialisation and diversification into horticulture has often been seen as a propoor 

development strategy in Kenya. Whereas the horticultural sub-sector seems to be 

successful in economic terms at macro level, the extent to which these economic gains 

derived from commercialisation of horticulture impact on the poor at the household 

level in the long-run has not been clearly understood. The argument of “pro-poorness” 

of commercialisation of the horticultural sub-sector is often based on cross-sectional 

income or expenditure poverty measurements, reporting who is poor at the time of 

survey. These methods not only fail to show who is likely to remain poor in the future 

or who is moving out of poverty. The current study follows an asset-based poverty 

measurement approach utilizing two-wave panel data comprising of 309 vegetable 

producing smallholders from selected districts in eastern and Central Kenya. Results 

indicate that over 37 % smallholder farmers have exited from commercial vegetable 

production as their main livelihood activity while about 20 % have abandoned production 

of vegetables altogether. While per capita income among farmers who have 

abandoned horticulture business have increased by about 40%, per capita asset holding 

have reduced by about 10 %. Using logistic regression model, factors such high 

dependency ratio, availability of remittances, opportunities for small business enterprises 

and old age are seen to have contributed to shifting away from horticultural 

business. On the other hand, household with higher income and land endowments 

and have access to extension services are likely to remain in commercial horticultural 

farming. Policy implication focuses on creating a better investment environment to 

promote small rural based businesses as an alternative livelihood to vegetable production 

business, exploring the potential role of safety nets to allow investment in household 

assets, and promoting access to extension services. Further research should look 

at contribution of horticulture to gender differentiated groups of smallholder farmers. 

Keywords: Assets, commercialisation, horticulture, Kenya, poverty, smallholders 

Contact Address: Beatrice W. Muriithi, University of Bonn, Center for Development Research (ZEF), 

Economics and Technological Change, Walter-Flex Str. 3, Bonn, Germany, e-mail: beatomuriithi@ 

yahoo.com 

329


Welfare Effects of Coffee Certification: Some Evidence from 

Nicaragua 

PRADYOT JENA 1 ,ULRIKE GROTE 1 ,TILL STELLMACHER 2 

1Leibniz Universität Hannover, Environmental Economics and World Trade, Germany 


Nicaragua is the second poorest country in Latin America with the production of coffee 

playing a central role in the economy. In the last years, certification of smallholder 

cooperatives has been increasingly promoted as an instrument to enhance smallholders’ 

incomes and to satisfy growing worldwide demand for healthier and more socially 

and environmentally-friendly produced coffees. By applying econometric models 

to survey data from 233 coffee smallholders in Jinotega Municipality, North-central 

Nicaragua, this paper empirically shows the impacts of Fairtrade, Organic, and 

double (Organic and Fairtrade) certification standards against the counterfactual of 

non-certification on the income of cooperatively organised smallholders. The results 

show modest positive impacts of both Organic and double certification on smallholders’ 

incomes but no significant income effects of Fairtrade certification. The findings 

further illustrate that Organic certification has been more effective in denting income 

poverty among the ‘extreme poor’ of the cooperatively-organised smallholder coffee 

farmers in Nicaragua relative to the ‘moderately poor’, while Fairtrade certification 

shows no positive impact in this regard. The paper concludes that the current impacts 

of certification on income poverty of coffee smallholders in Nicaragua are nascent; 

however, it asserts that certification can contribute to poverty reduction if it is complemented 

by an efficient and frictionless institutional framework and by other effective 

development strategies. Beyond smallholders’ income, the base of all certification 

approaches is a strong organisational capacity on the production side, especially 

when they aim to improve smallholders’ livelihoods. However, challenges remain. 

The first and probably most difficult challenge is the availability and maintenance of 

strong organisational and infrastructural capacities. The success of certification is often 

interlinked with capacities of the agricultural cooperative sector in the respective 

country. Second, certification needs proper monitoring. The effective and regular 

verification of certification requirements by accredited inspectors is still challenging, 

not only in remote rural areas of developing countries. Third, certification needs the 

‘right’ concepts and standards to be applied to certain local environments, especially 

when aiming simultaneously at socio-economic, ecological and health concerns. 

Keywords: Certification, coffee, cooperatives, impact evaluation, Nicaragua, poverty 

reduction 

Contact Address: Pradyot Jena, Leibniz Universität Hannover, Environmental Economics and World 

Trade, Königsworther Platz 1, 30167 Hannover, Germany, e-mail: jena@iuw.uni-hannover.de 

330


An Evaluation of Dynamism in Compliance with Global GAP 

Standards among Horticultural Smallholder Farmers in Kenya 

JOHN GACHIGI 1 ,ELOSY KANGAI 2 ,JOHN MBURU 2 

1St. Paul’s University, Dept. of Development Studies, Kenya 

2University of Nairobi, Dept. of Agricultural Economics, Kenya 

Efforts to overcome the challenges of implementing Global GAP standards for export 

horticulture have been hampered by the dynamism in compliance among key stakeholders 

viz. smallholder farmers and exporting companies. Limited knowledge exists 

on the dynamism of compliance and factors driving the changes. Yet, such knowledge 

would provide lessons to stakeholders implementing similar sets of farm standards. 

This research sought to fill this information gap. The main objective was to examine 

how different compliance mechanisms emerged since the enforcement of Global GAP 

standards and how they have been changing over time. The study was carried out in 

four districts in Eastern and Central Provinces of Kenya in 2010. 

Data was gathered through key informant interviews, case studies, focus group discussions, 

observation and Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA) tools. It is evident that 

after the initial trainings and enforcement, exporters have remained the most influential 

in maintaining compliance with the standards. The findings also show that farmer 

groups have been crucial in smallholder compliance. However, the groups were found 

very dynamic in terms of group dynamics, choice of contractor (exporter), compliance 

levels between farmers within a group and across groups, linkages with other stakeholders, 

farmer innovativeness to either achieve or remain Global GAP compliant, and 

also had varying impact on member’s welfare. These changes were mainly a result 

of the need to cut costs, spreading of risks, leniency in contract enforcement, group 

mismanagement, and breaching of contracts. 

The findings of this study are important to stakeholders in devising implementation 

strategies to achieve sustainability, improve levels of compliance and access to export 

markets. The findings inform policy makers and other development partners on how to 

position new food safety standards within the ever dynamic smallholder horticulture 

business in developing countries. 

Keywords: Contracts, global GAP, group dynamics, smallholder horticulture 

Contact Address: Elosy Kangai, University of Nairobi, Dept. of Agricultural Economics, 

P.O Box 1285-00100, Nairobi, Kenya, e-mail: kangaielsie@gmail.com 

331


Importance of Mobile Technology in Food and Agribusiness Value 

Chains: Electronically Linking Farmers with Markets 

KHIN MAR CHO, DONALD JEROME TOBIAS 

Cornell University, Cooperative Extension in New York City, United States of America 

This project focuses on assessing the requirements for electronically linking rural 

farmers in Ethiopia, Rwanda and Bangladesh. Rural farmers are limited in their ability 

to successfully market products by a lack of market knowledge. The availability of 

inexpensive cell phones and increased use of SMS platforms is changing the nature of 

market communication. The opportunities for small rural farmers to improve market 

price and to identify new markets is now possible. 

Using “Concept Mapping” process researchers were able to determine what factors 

were most important in helping rural farmers access markets. Concept Mapping is a 

process that allows information to be collected from a variety of stakeholders and to 

be organised using sophisticated statistical analysis that produces a visual representation 

that captures common trends. The process requires a “prompt statement” that 

will generate a single idea to complete the thought. The “prompt statement” used was 

“I would be much better able to market and distribute my products if....” Statements 

were gathered through interviews in community settings and at formal group meetings. 

Participants responded to this prompt and generated between eighty and ninety 

statements for each of the three countries. These statements were rated by participants 

on two five-point scales (importance and feasibility) and then analysed using the Concept 

Mapping program. Participants were producers, retailers, middlemen, extension 

agents and agribusiness representatives. 

The results of this study can be examined from three perspectives. First, there is a high 

degree of similarity in the features that farmers consider most desirable. Secondly, 

there are common issues around the type of market information that farmer’s desire. 

Lastly, there are contextual issues; many farmers wanted to use technology as a means 

of organising themselves into coops, and influence policy in regard to quality and price 

of storage, pesticides, seeds and equipment. 

The goal of this project is to offer specific recommendations that will lead to the development 

of cell phone platform technologies that will assist local farmers in maximising 

profits and accessing markets. With USAID funding this project was conducted 

in Rwanda, Ethiopia and Bangladesh but provides insight to issues common among 

all developing countries. 

Keywords: Communication, farmers, market, mobile phone, technology 

Contact Address: Khin Mar Cho, Cornell University - New York City, Community and Economic 

Development, 40 East 34th Street, Suite 606, 10016 New York, United States of America, e-mail: 

kc458@cornell.edu 

332

High-value markets — Posters 

Value Chain Development Interventions in Francophone Africa: 

A Review of Donor Approaches 

MIRA KIM TEOH, FRANK HARTWICH 

United Nations Industrial Development Organisation, Agribusiness Development 

Branch, Austria 

Value chain development has become a prominent tool in development assistance. 

Due to the concept’s inclusive approach, which considers all stages of a product’s 

transformation from conception to disposal, it has been increasingly applied in interventions 

targeting sustainable agricultural development. In Francophone Africa, 

agricultural value chain development has traditionally been shaped by the French filière 

– an early value chain concept that places much emphasis on state control. This 

study strives to measure the extent to which the filière framework continues to influence 

value chain interventions in the region. Particularly, it addresses the question 

of whether value chain development projects targeted at Francophone African countries 

share common characteristics and draws implications for project design from 

its findings. For this purpose, twenty project documents published by various international 

aid agencies focusing on Francophone African countries were assessed 

against ten predetermined criteria. The study revealed remarkable similarities – the 

most dominant being a high degree of government control, a strong focus on firm 

development and an emphasis on institutional frameworks, which were independent 

of the targeted commodity, recipient country and even the implementing agency. To 

obtain indications on whether these findings were specific to Francophone Africa, 

similar documents focusing on Anglophone African countries, which do not have a 

history of filière approaches to value chain development, were subsequently included. 

This comparison showed large deviations, with interventions targeted at Anglophone 

Africa placing a very low emphasis on the criteria of government involvement, firm 

development and institutional frameworks. These findings indicate that the French filière 

approach continues to decisively shape value chain development in Francophone 

Africa irrespective of the project-implementing organisation. 

Additionally, striking findings were made concerning environmental and gender mainstreaming 

considerations within value chain development interventions, which featured 

lowly for both examined regions. In a time when environmental sustainability 

and gender equality have become conceptualised by the current development discourse 

these findings are surprising, indicating that a large proportion of agricultural 

value chain development projects might not yet have caught up with these development 

paradigms. 

Keywords: Filière, Francophone Africa, value chain development 

Contact Address: Mira Kim Teoh, United Nations Industrial Development Organisation, Agribusiness 

Development Branch, Damaschkestrasse 7, 3100 St. Pölten, Austria, e-mail: mira.teoh@gmx.at 

333


Multi-Layer Distribution System of the Indonesian Fruit- 

Vegetable Sector: Current Challenges and Future Perspectives 

SOVI SOVIANA, JOFI PUSPA 

Justus-Liebig University Giessen, Department of Agricultural Economics, Germany 

As in the case of most of developing countries, Indonesia’s agricultural sector is facing 

challenges that require a change of agricultural management strategy. The challenges, 

among others, include: consumers’ demand of better quality and accessibility of agricultural 

products, and the increasing competition from imported agricultural products 

ever since the free-market policy was implemented. Such a market dynamic poses a 

threat for players in the Indonesian agricultural supply-chain, characterised by many 

intermediaries and multi-levels of business transactions within the supply chain or the 

so called multi-layer distribution system. This situation is especially critical for perishable 

products such as fruits and vegetables. Realizing the importance to establish a 

more resilient system, this article aims to (1) identify and observe the multi-layer distribution 

system, especially for the Indonesian fruit-vegetable sector, and (2) propose 

alternative solutions for a more effective and efficient fruit-vegetable supply-chain. 

The current challenges can be summarised as follows. We observed that the distribution 

of fruit-vegetable from farmers to end-consumers is a multi-stage operation, 

typically involving at least five intermediaries, namely collectors, village/local 

wholesalers, agents at central markets, traditional markets and retailers such as fruitvegetable 

vendors, small restaurants, and small markets. Information flow is lacking, 

each player seems to have information only from its direct upstream and downstream 

clients. Information about end-consumers’ preferences, for example, will likely not 

reach the farmers, and hence, it hinders the farmers to quickly adapt to changing 

demand. There are some evidences showing the inefficiency of the supply-chain. 

As future perspective, we propose some options to increase the supply-chain’s efficiency: 

(1) contract farming and direct collaboration with modern-supply-chains 

players as options to shorten the length of supply-chain and to be more consumeroriented; 

(2) possibility to reposition the existing cooperatives’ network; (3) opportunity 

to strengthen farmers’ bargaining power by creating producer organisations or 

community-based enterprise; and (4) understanding the consumers’ needs better and 

integrating consumer-oriented policies in all supply channels. Nevertheless, the improvement 

of distribution systems should also be accompanied by favourable political 

situation and more research on the consumer side to enable upstream players to better 

fulfil consumer demand. 

Keywords: Fruit-vegetable sector, Indonesia, multi-layer distribution, supply-chain 

Contact Address: Sovi Soviana, Justus-Liebig University Giessen, Department of Agricultural 

Economics, Senckenbergstrasse 3, 35390 Giessen, Germany, e-mail: s.soviana@yahoo.com 

334


Comparative Advantage and Competitiveness of China’s 

Agricultural Products in the EU Market 

FENGLI XIU 1 ,SIEGFRIED BAUER 1 ,FENGGUANG XIU 2 


2Shenyang Ligong University, School of Science, China 

China established trade relations with European Union (EU) in 1975. The bilateral 

trade between China and EU has increased dramatically especially since 2002. In the 

China-EU agricultural trade relations, China has played an increasingly more important 

role and China’s total agricultural exports to EU and imports from EU increased 

significantly in the recent years. EU has become one of the largest and most important 

markets of China’s agricultural trade. China imported 6.8 % of the total agricultural 

products from EU in 2010, which was China’s fourth largest import market. EU has 

become the second largest export partner of China since 2005. The market share of 

China’s agricultural products in EU market increased gradually especially the laborintensive 

products such as animal products and horticultural products. Whether this 

trade relationship remains viable for both partners in terms of competitiveness remains 

an empirical issue in the background of world food price crisis. As well the 

implications of these trade relationships to resource use particularly labor and land 

in agricultural production in China. In order to measure the comparative advantage 

and competitiveness of China’s agricultural products in EU market, the comparative 

advantage indexes, that is, revealed comparative advantage (RCA), trade competitive 

index (TC) and revealed competitive advantage index (CA), of China’s agricultural 

products in EU are estimated in this paper. Results show that China’s agricultural 

products have lost their comparative advantage in EU market compared to other sectors 

and other partners. Although the competitiveness of China’s agricultural products 

in EU has become less significant, the productivity of agricultural products in China 

is slightly higher than the world level especially for the labor-intensive compared to 

the land intensive products. Hence, China could export less land intensive but export 

more labor intensive products such as horticultural products and animal products to 

EU. China should import more land-intensive products such as cereals and vegetable 

oilseeds from EU. 

Keywords: Agricultural trade, China, comparative advantage, competitiveness, EU 

Contact Address: Fengli Xiu, Justus-Liebig University Giessen, Dept. of Project and Regional 

Planning, Senckenbergstr. 3, 35390 Giessen, Germany, e-mail: Xiu.Fengli@agrar.uni-giessen.de 

335


Participation of Small-Scale Farmers in an Expanding 

Horticultural Market: Impacts of Global Production Processes on 

their Livelihoods 

ANNE ULRICH 

University of Heidelberg, Germany 

Small-scale farmers in rural areas in sub-Saharan Africa are often the focus for development 

interventions. While small-scale farmers’ adaptation and resilience to climate 

change has drawn much attention, their linkages with and impacts through global production 

processes remains strikingly absent. Economic liberalisation, the decreasing 

confidence in the role of states as agents for development and pressure from NGOs 

and consumers for multinational corporations to be responsible for their impacts on 

society, has led to a shift away from governmental regulation of international business 

activities towards more voluntary self-imposed guidelines. Associated with this 

change is the concept of corporate responsibility that has impacts on developing country 

stakeholders mainly through guidelines along the supply chain, for example with 

measures such as codes of conduct, quality standards and labelling. There is limited 

research on how these initiatives impact on small-scale farmer livelihoods, on their 

environment and their levels of access to resources. 

The paper addresses the impact on smallholder lives through a case study in Laikipia, 

Kenya. Here local smallholders were integrated into global markets through the establishment 

of export-oriented large-scale horticultural companies beginning in the 

1980s. Kenya has experienced a sharp increase in high-value exports, such as fruits 

and vegetables, and a decrease in the importance of traditional tropical export commodities 

such as coffee, cacao and tea. As horticultural production is labor intensive 

and produced for a large share by small-scale farmers it is generally viewed to provide 

opportunities for poverty alleviation. Associated with the growing market for 

horticultural produce, however, are a growing number of quality standards that aims 

to meet end-consumer demands and food safety concerns. The increasing control 

of supermarkets over the supply chain further puts pressure on the production process. 

The impacts on small-scale farmers are not conclusive and it is called for more 

empirical evidence to address if the rise of and enhanced stringency of these standards 

marginalise small-scale farmers from the global market. The paper evaluates 

how small-scale farmers are incorporated in the global supply chain and how the increasing 

spread and stringency of standards and labels impact on their opportunity of 

participation. 

Keywords: Corporate responsibility, horticultural production, Kenya, small-scale 

farmers 

Contact Address: Anne Ulrich, University of Heidelberg, Heidelberg, Germany, e-mail: 

ulrich@sai.uni-heidelberg.de 

336


From Production to Export Markets: The Case of the Cacao Value 

Chain in Ghana 

MARIA-BELEN ROLDAN 1 ,INGRID FROMM 1 ,ROBERT AIDOO 2 

1Bern University of Applied Sciences, Switzerland 

2Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology, Agricultural Economics, Agribusiness 

& Extension, Ghana 

For many smallholders, agriculture is their main source of income. Understanding 

how value chains work can derive many benefits to increase productivity and therefore 

farmers’ income. Many different stakeholders around the world are involved 

in the cacao value chain, which is part of a billion-dollar chocolate industry. Cacao 

farming in many developing countries is the main source of income for households. 

West Africa is the most important cacao-producing area worldwide, accounting for 

70 percent of the total production. In Ghana, small-scale farmers, with plantations 

of no more than 4 hectares, are responsible for most of the national production. This 

investigation sought to determine if the interactions of these farmers with different 

local and international stakeholders were improving their situation. The study took 

place in two main cacao producer regions in Ghana, Brong Ahafo and Western. Three 

hundred small scale farmers in 20 different villages were interviewed. Interviews of 

different key stakeholders in Ghana, such as COCOBOD and in Switzerland, Felchlin 

AG, Chocolats Halba and Chocosuisse were conducted. This study focused on 

identifying the relationships, support, benefits and/or problems between stakeholders 

(national and international) and small scale farmers. On the other hand, the issue of 

contract farming and its impact on cacao farmers in Ghana was analysed. The results 

indicate that small scale farmers have little or no contact with stakeholders especially 

with chocolate manufacturers, the lack of farming contracts is high in both regions 

and if farmers work under contract there is little or no information about contracting 

terms and conditions. Awareness of sustainable production or certifications to motivate 

better producer price among farmers is also missing. Finally, a participatory 

value chain analysis is proposed in order to improve relationships between farmers 

and stakeholders. 

Keywords: Cacao, contract farming, Ghana 

Contact Address: Ingrid Fromm, Bern University of Applied Sciences, Swiss College of Agriculture, 

Department of International Agriculture, Länggasse 85, 3052 Zollikofen, Switzerland, e-mail: 

ingrid.fromm@bfh.ch 

337


Fair Trade and Organic Agriculture in Developing Countries – 

A Review 

PRIYANKA PARVATHI, HERMANN WAIBEL 


Germany 

Fair trade regimes and organic agricultural systems are two innovations that increasingly 

play an important role for agriculture in developing countries. While fair trade 

arrangements have its origin in the developing countries, organic agriculture was 

started in the industrialised nations and has only recently become popular in the Third 

World. Whereas organic certification is purely production-oriented, fair trade regimes 

includes labor standards and guarantee a minimum price and a pro poor price premium. 

In combining the two innovations; developing a pro-environment and pro poor 

agenda are promoted simultaneously. Both can be mutually reinforcing as fair trade 

often combined with organic production standards open up new market prospects. 

More specifically what has been the ground level impact of both these movements 

and how these have been perceived by the smallholder farmers has always been a 

topic of research. Adopting these certification schemes does not come without challenges 

and costs for the farmers. But these systems will only be accepted if they prove 

to offer better livelihood strategies. 

In this paper we explore the opportunities and constraints of marketing organic products 

from developing countries under fair trade managements. Based on available 

literature, we review evidence of the magnitude of organic production and fair trade 

systems in developing countries. We explore theoretically and empirically how these 

two are likely to influence the smallholder producers. We also propose a framework 

for studying the impact of fair traded organically produced commodities using the 

case of black pepper in India. The framework will generate testable hypotheses regarding 

the two innovations. Results will allow assessing if organic production under 

fair trade regimes will discriminate against the smaller and poorer farmers. It will 

also contribute to design policies that can better adhere to inclusive growth in the 

agricultural sector in India. 

Keywords: Fair trade, India, organic farming, sustainability, vulnerability 

Contact Address: Priyanka Parvathi, Leibniz Universität Hannover, Institute of Development 

and Agricultural Economics, Königsworther Platz 1, 30167 Hannover, Germany, e-mail: 

parvathi@ifgb.uni-hannover.de 

338


A Mechanism to Discover Hidden Markets and to Improve 

Information Flow Towards Food Producers: A Case of Kiambu 

District, Kenya 

ELIZABETH KABURA NYAGA 1 ,ANTHONY GIKANDI MURIITHI 2 , 

JOSEPH PATRICK GWEYI-ONYANGO 3 

1Research Consultant, United States 

2Cotton Development Authority, Planning, Kenya 

3Kenyatta University, Dept. of Agricultural Science and Technology, Kenya 

Food insecurity in many regions in Kenya is mainly attributed to changes in rainfall 

patterns, lack of markets to sell agricultural produce from regions with surplus and 

poor infrastructure to distribute to regions facing deficits. Small scale farmers are in 

desperate need of markets to sell their produce at a good price. They require information 

on credit and input markets. This paper discusses the methodologies to improve 

farmers’ access to these markets and enhance access to relevant information that they 

may find useful in making decisions. The study argues that providing a platform 

for farmers to interact and transact business directly with buyers, sellers, researchers 

and other relevant stakeholders in agribusiness would provide market for the farmers. 

This interaction may facilitate exchange and dissemination of update information on 

changes in the markets and, changes in consumer needs and taste. Many studies have 

shown that networking among individual or groups either in social or professional 

networks may help in development of the members. This paper argues that providing 

farmers and agricultural extension agents with access to current information and 

communication technologies (ICT) could be instrumental in finding new markets for 

the farmers and in dissemination of relevant information. By facilitating the agricultural 

extension agents to have access to internet, mobile phone and rural radio, hidden 

markets can be discovered and new information and technology can reach the farmers 

before they become obsolete. Many businesses have grown through advertising their 

products online. A national website managed by extension agents can help farmers 

advertise their produce so that anyone willing to buy can contact the farmer directly. 

Agricultural based businesses can also advertise their products in the website. Consumers 

can use the website to buy fresh produce directly from the farmers. Although 

internet is not available to most households in Kenya, agricultural extension agents 

can post information of buyers and sellers in village boards and in the market place. 

This paper discusses how ICT can be implemental in finding new markets and reducing 

food insecurity in Kenya 

Keywords: Extension, food insecurity, ICT, Kenya 

Contact Address: Elizabeth Kabura Nyaga, Research Consultant, Highland Park, United States, e-mail: 

eliza_kabura@yahoo.com 

339


Environmental and Quality Assessment Along the Post-Harvest 

Value Chain for Export-Quality Capsicum Products in Peru 

MARCUS NAGLE 1 ,MARIA ISABEL MATUTE GIRON 1 ,KARLA PEÑA PINEDA 2 , 

MATTHIAS JÄGER 3 ,JOACHIM MÜLLER 1 

1University of Hohenheim, Dept. of Agricultural Engineering, Tropics and Subtropics 

Group, Germany 

2National Institute of Agricultural Innovation (INIA), Peru 

3Bioversity International, Colombia 

With declining commodity prices and the existence of niche markets for differentiated 

products in Europe, a window of opportunity exists for varieties of crops which are 

unexploited. This is the case of some varieties of chili peppers (Capsicum spp.) in 

Peru. A more diversified base of Capsicum products may increase incomes of farmers 

whose livelihood depends mainly on over-exploited varieties. Currently pests and 

diseases are becoming more frequent, making small farmers increasingly vulnerable 

to harvest losses and economic instability. Income augmentation among farmers can 

be addressed by securing revenues per cultivated area unit, one approach being the 

cultivation of varieties with an enhanced value. This poverty reduction strategy is 

considered to be more environmentally friendly than other strategies such as the extension 

of production area, which is unfeasible in many contexts (especially due to 

availability of land, a limiting production factor in developing countries), and less 

counterproductive to the environment as a result of deforestation which extension often 

entails. Products with enhanced value are those for which a niche market has 

been identified, however to reach such a market, especially in Europe, standards and 

consumer requirements must be fulfiled and guaranteed on the side of the exporting 

country. This study was aimed at assessing good agricultural practices (GAP) and 

good post-harvest and manufacturing practices (GMP) along the value-chain of Capsicum 

products followed by an environmental impact evaluation by means of Life 

Cycle Assessment in order to identify bottlenecks and shortcomings found along the 

value chain that hinder compliance with necessary certifications for these value-added 

products to be sold in EU markets. The importance of compliance of quality assurance 

and environmental certifications is that of being able to ultimately obtain higher 

prices for value-added-differentiated products and thus higher income to actors along 

the supply chain, among them small scale farmers. 

Keywords: Capsicum products, export certifications, life cycle assessment (LCA), 

Value chain assessment 

Contact Address: Marcus Nagle, University of Hohenheim, Dept. of Agricultural Engineering, Tropics 

and Subtropics Group, Garbenstr. 9, 70593 Stuttgart, Germany, e-mail: naglem@uni-hohenheim.de 

340


International Market-Based Instruments and the Protection of 

Ecosystems in Tanzania: Potentials and Pitfalls 

TILL STELLMACHER, DIRK RÖTTGERS, ETTI WINTER, ULRIKE GROTE 


Germany 

Tanzania is home to some of the world’s most diverse and richest ecosystems. They 

provide the backbone of the livelihoods of millions of Tanzanians, particularly the 

rural poor, and underpin the country’s tourism industry. However, in the last decades, 

unprecedented population growth coupled with rural poverty and agricultural expansion 

led to a massive degradation and loss of these ecosystems. 

Against this backdrop, various ecosystem protection instruments have been implemented 

by the Tanzanian state, international donors and NGOs. A total of 792 protected 

areas were created - accounting for 39 percent of the country’s terrestrial area. 

The effectiveness of these protected areas, though, often proved limited. In the last 

years, international market-based instruments such as the CDM, REDD, or ecosystem 

certification according to standards of the CCBA or Plan Vivo, are increasingly 

promoted as new pathways towards environmental sustainability. 

This paper analyses the potentials and pitfalls of international market-based instruments 

for the protection of ecosystems in Tanzania. It is based on structured interviews 

conducted in 2011 with decision-makers working in environmentally-concerned 

national state agencies, NGOs, research institutes and private companies in 

Arusha, Dar-es-Salaam, Morogoro, Moshi and Zanzibar. 

The paper shows the skepticism of the decision-makers in Tanzania towards international 

‘innovative’ market-based instruments for the protection of ecosystems and the 

discrepancy between the level of international debate and practical implementation so 

far. Major pitfalls are found in the increased complexities and high costs related to 

the implementation of these instruments. This entails the risk to perpetuate Tanzania’s 

dependency on international donors’ support and expertise. 

Keywords: CDM, certification, market-based instruments, REDD, Tanzania 

Contact Address: Till Stellmacher, Leibniz Universität Hannover, Institute for Environmental 

Economics and World Trade, Königsworther Platz 1, 30167 Hannover, Germany, e-mail: 

t.stellmacher@uni-bonn.de 

341


Impact of Certification for Tribal Coffee Growers Wellbeing: 

A Case Study from Araku Valley, India 

SABINA KHATRI KARKI 1 ,ULRIKE GROTE 1 ,PRADYOT JENA 1 , 

HARTMUT STÜTZEL 2 

1Leibniz Universität Hannover, Environmental Economics and World Trade, Germany 

2Leibniz Universität Hannover, Biological Production Systems, Germany 

Coffee is one of the major sources of income for the tribal communities in Araku 

valley in a southern state of India namely Andhra Pradesh. It was introduced in order 

to promote the sustainable livelihood of these communities by (i) providing a continuous 

and assured source of income to the inhabitants of the community and (ii) by 

preserving the ecosystem. The farmers were organised in a cooperative called Small 

and Marginal Tribal Farmers Mutually Aided Cooperative Society (SAMTFMACS) 

in 2007. The cooperative is double certified by both organic and fairtrade certification 

standards and is the only cooperative in India to have received fair-trade certification. 

Current research assesses the decisive factors to adopt organic and fairtrade certification 

and its impact on tribal coffee growers’ well-being in relation to poverty reduction. 

The empirical analysis in this paper is based on the cross-sectional data of 

211 households, collected in 2011. The non-parametric propensity score matching 

technique is applied to address the problem of self-selection bias that is often present 

in a non-experimental sampling. The paper follows a ‘with and without’ treatment 

approach in which the certified farmers and the conventional farmers have been used 

as the treatment and the control groups, respectively. Findings suggest that the education 

level, agriculture as primary occupation, year and amount of coffee production, 

training received are the major influential factors for the adoption of certification. Further, 

adoption of the certification is found to have positively affected well-being of the 

farmers, given the increment of their total income level and per capita income. 

Keywords: Certification, coffee, cooperative, poverty reduction, propensity score 

matching 

Contact Address: Sabina Khatri Karki, Leibniz Universität Hannover, Environmental Economics 

and World Trade, Karl-Wiechert-Allee 15 Room No 337/338, 30625 Hannover, Germany, e-mail: 

sabinakarki7@gmail.com 

342


Farm and Farmer Characteristics that Influence Tomato Farmers’ 

Awareness and Willingness to Adopt Mobile Phone Based Market 

Information Services in Ghana 

BISMARK AGYEI YEBOAH, AGBETI SOWAH 

University of Bonn, Agricultural Science & Natural Resource Management in the 

Tropics and Subtropics (ARTS), Germany 

The provision of mobile phone based market information services (MIS) is an innovation 

that can improve marketing options, market efficiency and incomes of tomato 

farmers, who hitherto are easily censored out of market information as a result of 

the “two-level” tomato marketing system in Ghana. Following the theory of technology 

adoption, the success of this innovation depends on the awareness, willingness 

to adopt and adoption by farmers’ which in turn are influence by farmer and farm 

level characteristics. The aim of this study was to determine these farmer and farm 

characteristics that influence the awareness and willingness to adopt the mobile phone 

based MIS. Purposive sampling techniques were used to sample 107 tomato farmers 

from 10 communities in the Dangme East and West districts of the Greater Accra region 

of Ghana. The binary probit model was used to analyse the data collected. The 

results showed that there is a low awareness level among farmers in that only farmers 

who had larger farm size (above 2 hectares), were educated and had SMS ability 

were significantly aware of the service. Location (urban or rural), farm size, quantity 

of tomatoes harvested, ability to read and write English and belonging to a farmer 

association had significant effects on willingness to adopt. The implication of this 

finding is that organisations that promote the use of mobile phone based MIS should 

not neglect the need to promote awareness of the existence of such services among 

farmers. More training should be offered in order to encourage farmers’ interest and 

willingness to adopt the market information services. 

Keywords: Ghana, market information services, mobile phone, probit model, 

horticulture 

Contact Address: Bismark Agyei Yeboah, University of Bonn, Agricultural Science & Natural 

Resource Management in the Tropics and Subtropics (ARTS), Hirschberger Str. 58-64, Zi 40124, 

53119 Bonn, Germany, e-mail: bayeboah@uni-bonn.de 

343


The Role of Collective Action in Improving Market Performance 

of Smallholder Banana and Legume-Based Systems 

in Central Africa 

JUSTUS OCHIENG 1 ,BEATRICE KNERR 1 ,GEORGE OWUOR 2 ,EMILY OUMA 3 

1University of Kassel, Dev. Economics, Migration and Agricultural Policy, Germany 

2African Economic Research Consortium (AERC), CMAAE Program, Kenya 

3International Institute of Tropical Agriculture (IITA), Burundi 

Since the 1990s, collective actions through farmers’ cooperatives have increasingly 

come into the focus of international aid organisations as a strategy to enhance smallholders’ 

livelihoods and improve food security in low-income countries. They recently 

have been recognised also as a positive force for rural development in Central 

Africa. Still, research-based information about the success factors is still largely missing. 

In an effort to fill this gap and to provide a basis for further improvements, the 

research presented in this contribution aims at examining the extent to which certain 

attributes and asset endowments of smallholder farmer groups and cooperatives 

facilitate collective action initiatives to adopt strategies to improve their marketing 

performance. It is based on empirical data collected in 2012 through farmer surveys 

and focus group discussions in banana and legume based systems in Rwanda and DR 

Congo. 

The market orientation strategies considered are market-led approaches which include 

collective marketing, implementation of business plans, product transformation 

and participatory market research. These are aimed at improving income, food 

security and market potential of smallholder producer groups while also motivating 

adoption of agricultural productivity enhancing technologies. The marketing strategies 

have been designed and disseminated by the Consortium for the Improvement of 

Agriculture-Based Livelihood in Central Africa (CIALCA), in collaboration with the 

National Agricultural Research Institutions (NARS) and other development partners 

in project areas. CIALCA aims at improving livelihoods of smallholder farmers in 

banana-based systems of Central Africa through enhancement of agricultural productivity, 

household income and nutrition. Preliminary results indicate that more mature 

cooperatives with efficient internal institutions, functioning activities, and a strong resource 

base of natural, human and physical capital are more likely to improve their 

market performance. Gender composition affects market performance, which tends to 

be higher in male-dominated cooperatives. Linkages or collaborations with external 

service providers ranging from private sector, government and non-governmental organisations 

have the potential to improve market performance of farmer cooperatives. 

Keywords: Farmer cooperatives, market orientation strategies, social capital 

Contact Address: Justus Ochieng, University of Kassel, Dev. Economics, Migration and Agricultural 

Policy, Steinstrasse 19, D-37213 Witzenhausen, Germany, e-mail: jastopheli@yahoo.com 

344

Innovation adoption and agricultural 

productivity 


PRABHAKARAN RAGHU, VIJESH KRISHNA, ZAIDI PERVEZ: 

Cultivar Selection for Farm Profitability and Risk Management: 

Case of Rainfed Maize in India 348 

MARTIN NOLTZE, STEFAN SCHWARZE, MATIN QAIM: 

Impacts of Natural Resource Management Technologies on 

Agricultural Yield, Income, and Poverty: The System of Rice 

Intensification in Timor Leste 349 

THI HOA VU, TUNG PHUNG DUC, HERMANN WAIBEL: 

Farm Size and Productivity: Empirical Evidence from Rural 

Vietnam 350 

SERGIE BANG, GAE GOWAE, JUDITH FRANCIS, GERD 

RUECKER: 

Resilience of Pacific Agricultural Systems against Crisis 351 

NINA DOHMEIER, LIFENG WU, HERMANN WAIBEL: 

What Happened to Bt Cotton? Evidence from Shandong 

Province, China 352 

ISABEL LAMBRECHT, ROEL MERCKX, BERNARD VANLAUWE, 

PIETER PYPERS, MIET MAERTENS: 

Understanding the Dynamics of Agricultural Technology 

Adoption: Integrated Soil Fertility Management in South Kivu, 

DR Congo 353 

Posters 354 

THEA NIELSEN: 

A Qualitative Approach to Understand the Potential of Weather 

Indexed Crop Insurance to Help Ethiopian Farmers Cope 

with Risks 354 

CHRISTOPHER MÜNKE, CHAMNAN CHHOUN, THEA LACH, 

VEASNA AO, NANNA ROOS, CARSTEN NICO HJORTSØ: 

The Informal Market of Edible Crickets and Spiders in 

Cambodia. Potentials of a Traditional Food Source 355 

345


346 

JACKSON LANGAT, JOB LAGAT, OWUOR GEORGE, BENARD 

MUOK, 

FREYER: 

RHODA BIRECH, KIBET NGETICH, BERNHARD 

Constraints to Integrating Non-Food Biofuel Feedstock in 

Smallholder Farms in Kenya 

LENA HOHFELD, HERMANN WAIBEL: 

Is There a Future for Agriculture in Rural Villages in North- 

356 

East Thailand? 

ANTHONY GIKANDI MURIITHI, MICAH POWON, ERIC BETT, 

LUCY MUTHONI: 

Determinants of Irrigated Cotton Farming among Smallholders 

357 

in Bura Irrigation Scheme, Kenya 

ELIZABETH NAMBIRO, VICTOR WASIKE, PETER OKOTH: 

Climate Variability and Agriculture in Western Kenya: 

358 

Farmers’ Perceptions and Coping Strategies 

SABRINA M. MEINECKE,ARJUN PANDEY, AUNG MYO THANT, 

ANNA MADALINSKA, CECILIE SØRENSEN, MARK WILSON: 

Crop Production and Livelihood Strategies in Solio Village 3, 

359 

Nyeri District, Kenya 360 

SENAKPON ERIC HAROLL KOKOYE, DANSINOU SILVERE 

TOVIGNAN, AFOUDA JACOB YABI, ROSAINE NERICE 

YEGBEMEY, ERNST-AUGUST NUPPENAU: 

Land Use in Agriculture: Econometric Modelling of the Land 

Allocation within the Northern Benin Farms 

LAM THANH NGUYEN, THANH THI NGUYEN, HUU NGUYEN 

XUAN: 

Driving Factors of Land Use Changes in Chieng Khoi 

361 

Catchment, Yen Chau District, Northwest Vietnam 

REGINALD GUUROH, HOLM UIBRIG, E.ACHEAMPONG: 

Community Adaptation Strategies for Increasing Resilience 

362 

of Homegardens – Case Study from Southern Burkina Faso 

MUTASIM M.M. ELRASHEED, ABDEL GABAR BABIKER: 

Productivity and Technical Efficiency of Small-Scale Sorghum 

Production in Different Agro-Ecological Zones of Gadrif State, 

363 

Sudan 

SATTAR MANDAL, ADSPIJKERS, NICOLE WRAGE, JENS 

GEBAUER, FLORIAN WICHERN: 

364 

Sustainable Development of Bangladesh Agriculture: 

Examples for Strategies to Adapt to a Changing Environment 365 

CHRISTIAN STAACKE, CHRISTIAN BUNN, MARIA GUADALUPE 

BACA GOMEZ, PETER LÄDERACH: 

Efficiency Analysis of Coffee Cultivation: The Case of Smallholder 

Farming in the Coffee Sector of Nicaragua 366

Innovation adoption and agricultural productivity — Contents 

CHIMA EZEH: 

Economic Efficiency of Cocoyam Production among Smallholder 

Farmers in Southeastern Nigeria 

OLIVER WASONGA, FRANCIS OPIYO, MOSES NYANGITO, 

CHRISTIAN HÜLSEBUSCH: 

Adapting or Coping? Analysis of Pastoralists’ Responses to 

367 

Climatic Stressors in Kenya’s Drylands 

HYCENTH TIM NDAH, JOHANNES SCHULER, SANDRA UTHES, 

368 

PETER ZANDER, KARIM TRAORE, MPHATSO-S GAMA, 

ISAIAH NYAGUMBO, BERNARD TRIOMPHE, MARC CORBEELS: 

Adoption Potential of Conservation Agriculture in Sub- 

Saharan Africa 369 

SREEJITH ARAVINDAKSHAN, SVEND RASMUSSEN, VIJESH 

KRISHNA, FREDERICK ROSSI: 

Environmental Efficiency and Resilience of Conservation 

Tillage in Cereal Ecosystems: The Case of Eastern Indo- 

Gangetic Plain in Bangladesh 

TIL FEIKE, NAN HA, MICHAEL K. APPIAH, R.DOLUSCHITZ: 

Yield Gap Analysis of Cotton in two Major Production 

370 

Regions of China 

GIRMA KELBORO, TILL STELLMACHER,VOLKER HOFFMANN: 

Bridging the Researcher-People Knowledge Gap in Biodiver- 

371 

sity Conservation: The Case of Nech Sar National Park 

AMBECHA O. GEMECHIS, PAUL STRUIK, BEZABIH EMANA: 

372 

Tomato Production in Ethiopia: Constraints and 

Opportunities 

SITA RANA, PRIYANKA PARVATHI, HERMANN WAIBEL: 

Factors Affecting the Adoption of Organic Pepper Farming 

373 

in India 

MST. NADIRA SULTANA, MOHAMMAD MOHI UDDIN, KURT- 

JOHANNES PETERS, WOLFGANG BOKELMANN: 

Socio-Economic Determinants of Milk Prod. in Bangladesh: 

374 

An Empirical Evidence on Water Use Against Water Crisis 

MARIA D. NUNEZ BURBANO DE LARA, JUAN A. REYES- 

AGÜERO, JOACHIM SAUERBORN, ANNE C. BELLOWS: 

Changes in Traditional Cultivation and Use of Maguey (Agave 

spp.) and Nopal (Opuntia spp.): Relevance for Sustainable 

375 

Livelihoods 

WAQAS AHMED MALIK, THOMAS BREUER, R.SCHLAUDERER: 

Environmental and Economic Effects of Manure Management 

376 

in Turkey 377 

347


Cultivar Selection for Farm Profitability and Risk Management: 

Case of Rainfed Maize in India 

PRABHAKARAN RAGHU 1 ,VIJESH KRISHNA 2 ,ZAIDI PERVEZ 1 

1International Maize and Wheat Improvement Center (CIMMYT), India 



Drought is one of the major abiotic constraints for maize production in India, where 

about 80% of maize is still grown under rainfed conditions. Lack of irrigation restricts 

the use of production inputs on farm, further limiting the crop productivity. 

The present study examines the rainfed maize production systems of India, to identify 

the impacts of cultivar selection as an adaptive strategy to combat drought stresses. 

The farm-level maize production details were collected during 2010 and 2011 from 

three districts of Rajasthan, Bihar and Karnataka states of India, making a total sample 

of 340 maize cultivating households. The data showed diverse cultivation systems 

of maize across the selected districts, mainly with respect to the season of cultivation, 

cropping pattern followed, and input-use. Most of the sampled farmers recognized 

open pollinated varieties (OPVs, including improved composite and local landraces) 

as more congenial for growing under such risk-prone, rainfed conditions, compared 

to the commercial hybrids. 

Varietal adoption is an important coping strategy for managing drought risk, and the 

hybrid and OPVs production systems co-existed only in Kharif (rainy season). Therefore, 

we limited our examination to the sub-group of 308 sample farmers who cultivate 

maize in this season, largely without irrigation. Production system characterization 

was undertaken to delineate the impacts of farmer practices, including varietal adoption, 

and on production risks. The production and profitability risks were estimated 

employing mean-variance (Just-Pope type) functions, which showed that hybrids perform 

at par or better than the OPVs in reducing abiotic risk, even in the most droughtprone 

rainfed system of Rajasthan. The paper also identifies the relevance of consumption 

utility differences across the cultivars in determining their rate of on farm 

adoption. A low consumption preference was cited as one of the major reasons for the 

non-adoption of hybrid maize in the traditional production systems. The study shows 

that the research and development activities on hybrid development should focus on 

developing not only the drought tolerant maize hybrids, but also on consumption quality 

traits, which could be helpful in enhancing food and nutritional security of maize 

producing households living in the rainfed environment. 

Keywords: Drought, hybrid seed adoption, mean-variance production function 

Contact Address: Prabhakaran Raghu, International Maize and Wheat Improvement Center (CIM- 

MYT), Socioeconomics Program, Water Technology Centre Building, Indian Agricultural Research Institute 

(IARI) Campus, Room No. 223-224, 2nd Floor, Pusa Campus, 110012 New Delhi, India, e-mail: 

t.prabhakaran@cgiar.org 

348

Innovation adoption and agricultural productivity — Oral Presentations 

Impacts of Natural Resource Management Technologies on 

Agricultural Yield, Income, and Poverty: The System of Rice 

Intensification in Timor Leste 

MARTIN NOLTZE, STEFAN SCHWARZE, MATIN QAIM 

Georg-August-Universität Göttingen, Dept. of Agricultural Economics and Rural 


Natural resource management (NRM) technologies, such as the system of rice intensification 

(SRI), have been proposed to tackle agricultural challenges such as decreasing 

productivity growth and environmental degradation. Yet, the benefits of NRM technologies 

for farmers are often debated. Impacts seem to be context-specific, which is 

especially relevant in the small farm sector with its large degree of agroecological and 

socioeconomic heterogeneity. This was not always considered in previous research. 

We analyse the impacts of SRI adoption on rice yield and household income among 

smallholder farmers in Timor Leste. Heterogeneity is accounted for in an endogenous 

switching regression framework. Comparing mean yield and income levels, we 

find no significant differences between SRI adopters and non-adopters. This is due 

to negative selection bias; SRI seems to be adopted more on plots and by farmers 

with less than average yields. Controlling for this bias reveals significant yield and 

income gains. Poor and non-poor households benefit from SRI adoption; small and 

specialised farms benefit more than larger farms. The results also suggest that SRI 

may not be beneficial when compared to conventional rice grown under favourable 

conditions and with best management practices. This reveals that the impacts are 

very context-specific, depending on micro-level agroecological and socioeconomic 

conditions. Such heterogeneity in impacts can also be expected for other NRM technologies, 

which often depend on the farmers’ capacity to adapt general principles to 

local conditions. We find that successful adoption is crucially based on good information 

flows and effective extension services. Innovative technology transfer models, 

such as farmer-to-farmer extension as well as participatory learning and knowledge 

sharing, may support more widespread and successful adoption of NRM technologies. 

Keywords: Endogenous switching regression, impact assessment, system of rice 

intensification, Timor Leste 

Contact Address: Martin Noltze, Georg-August-Universität Göttingen, Dept. of Agricultural 

Economics and Rural Development, Platz der Göttinger Sieben 5, 37073 Göttingen, Germany, e-mail: 

mnoltze@uni-goettingen.de 

349


Farm Size and Productivity: Empirical Evidence from Rural 

Vietnam 

THI HOA VU, TUNG PHUNG DUC, HERMANN WAIBEL 


Germany 

The inverse relationship between farm size and productivity is a major hypothesis of 

agricultural development which is particularly relevant for the land reform debates 

in developing countries. In the course of Vietnam’s economic reforms, agricultural 

production has attained high growth rates. However, land market is still in its infancy 

and the allocation of agricultural land to the most productive farms does not take 

place to the necessary extent. The land-man ratio is a constraint for the development 

of efficient farm sizes. In this paper, we submit an empirical test for the inverse 

relationship between farm size and land productivity in three provinces in Vietnam. 

Additionally, we investigate to what extent farm size affects labor productivity in 

agriculture. 

The study hypothesises that as farm size increases land productivity decreases but 

labor productivity increases. This hypothesis is tested by using data on some 2200 

rural households in three provinces of Vietnam, namely Ha Tinh, Thua Thien Hue, 

and Dak Lak in 2008 collected under the DFG project “Impact of Shocks in the Vulnerability 

to Poverty: Consequences for Development of Emerging Southeast Asian 

Economies”. There are two models used in this analysis: a fixed-effects model with 

village dummies and a random effects model. 

Results confirm the negative relationship between land productivity and farm size. 

This finding still holds when village-related factors such as soil quality, irrigation facilities, 

and prices are ruled out in the fixed-effects model. Another finding is the 

existence of decreasing returns to scale. This fact is explained by the low level of 

mechanisation in agricultural production in these provinces. Moreover, the study finds 

an inefficient allocation of land, labor and other inputs which is ascribed to the abundance 

of family labor in small farms and the imperfections of the land, labor, and 

credit markets. Higher crop yields of small farms are merely obtained by means of 

using production inputs excessively. Finally, the results show that larger landholdings 

increase labor productivity. The outcomes of the study call for further reforms 

in land market and the provision of more off-farm labor opportunities to facilitate the 

development of larger farms. 

Keywords: Farm size, labor productivity, land market, land productivity, land 

reform, returns to scale, Vietnam 

Contact Address: Thi Hoa Vu, Leibniz Universität Hannover, Institute of Development and Agricultural 

Economics, Königsworther Platz 1, 30167 Hannover, Germany, e-mail: hoavu@ifgb.uni-hannover.de 

350


Resilience of Pacific Agricultural Systems against Crisis 

SERGIE BANG 1 ,GAE GOWAE 2 ,JUDITH FRANCIS 3 ,GERD RUECKER 4 

1National Agricultural Research Institute of Papua New Guinea, Agricultural Systems, 

Papua New Guinea 

2University of Papua New Guinea, Science Faculty, Papua New Guinea 

3CTA, Science & Technology Policy, The Netherlands 

4International Bureau of the Federal Ministry of Education and Research, Asia-Pacific, 

Germany 

Though populations in Pacific Island Countries (PICs) are growing at a rate of up to 3 % per 

annum, agricultural productivity is relatively low or stagnant. Farming communities rely on 

traditional production practices with low levels of intensification, posing considerable risks 

in terms of food security and income generation in the long term. Increasing deforestation, 

vulnerability to natural hazards and changing weather patterns due to Climate Change (CC) 

pose additional risks. Improvement in agricultural productivity, distribution and marketing of 

locally produced food at affordable prices is needed. 

This can only be achieved through sustainable intensification and by building resilience of the 

agricultural systems in the Pacific Island Countries with a focus on improving smallholder 

production systems and local marketing infrastructure. The development and adoption of technologies 

such as tolerant crops, integrated soil fertility management systems, increased crop 

and livestock diversity to include the use of indigenous genetic resources and improved seed 

systems and management of natural resources can contribute to achieving sustainability. PICs 

also need to invest more in science and technology to track climatic changes and loss of biodiversity, 

forests and fisheries as well as to undertake the research and development needed to 

achieve transformative changes. 

Hence, PICs need to develop strategic long term programmes which are collaborative, crosssectoral 

and multipronged in targeting bottlenecks in the overall innovative agricultural systems 

(including crops, livestock, forestry and fisheries). Research, development and innovation in 

PICs for resilient agricultural systems include: 

a) Improving the human capacity in key areas of natural hazards and CC mitigation and adaptation; 

b) Improving the preparedness of smallholder farming communities to the effects of CC; 

c) Improving the integration of national information systems which are linked into regional and 

international systems; 

d) Improving the enabling policy and institutional environment at national and regional level. 

Keywords: Agricultural productivity, climate change, development, innovation, Pacific Island 

Countries, vulnerability 

Contact Address: Sergie Bang, National Agricultural Research Institute of Papua New Guinea, Agricultural 

Systems, P O Box 4415, 411 Lae, Papua New Guinea, e-mail: sergie.bang@nari.org.pg 

351


What Happened to Bt Cotton? 

Evidence from Shandong Province, China 

NINA DOHMEIER 1 ,LIFENG WU 2 ,HERMANN WAIBEL 1 

1Leibniz Universität Hannover, Institute of Development and Agricultural Economics, 

Germany 

2Ministry of Agriculture, China, National Agricultural Technology Extension Service 

Centre (NATESC) , China 

Bt cotton has been widely declared a success story of a cotton pest management technology 

that has solved major pest problems in cotton in China. Benefits resulting 

from Bt cotton adoption are stated to be a significant reduction of pesticide use as 

well as labor input and hence cost savings for farmers and decrease of environmental 

pollution and human health effects. 

However, recent evidence from a long-term, in-depth case study of some 150 farmers 

in five villages in Shandong province provides some evidence that the past benefit 

assessments could have been overestimated. Using panel data of village and farm 

characteristics as well as on cotton production collected through household survey 

and season-long monitoring in 2002, 2005 and 2012 allow a long term assessment 

of the technology. Using descriptive statistics and econometric analysis of the panel 

data set allows a more realistic assessment of the benefits, costs and constraints of 

this technology under farmer conditions in China. For example, results show that 

the profitability of the technology has been hampered by the need for more chemical 

control of secondary pests and farmers are uncertain about the quality of Bt cotton 

seeds due to a severe lack of quality control mechanisms in place. Costs have gone 

up due to an increase in cotton seed prices while at the same time cotton lint faced a 

downward trend. Finally, agricultural policy in China is changing and the government 

is not subsidising rice and corn production which lowers the competitiveness of cotton 

production among farmers. While in 2005 all 150 farmers in the panel planted cotton, 

in 2012 this number has dropped to just over 50 farmers. From a methodological point 

of view, this study allows to quantify benefits in a cropping systems context, which 

are lower than estimates of previous studies. 

Keywords: Biotechnology, Bt cotton, China, economic analysis, impact assessment 

Contact Address: Nina Dohmeier, Leibniz Universität Hannover, Institute of Development 

and Agricultural Economics, Königsworther Str. 30, 30167 Hannover, Germany, e-mail: 

dohmeier@ifgb.uni-hannover.de 

352


Understanding the Dynamics of Agricultural Technology 

Adoption: Integrated Soil Fertility Management in South Kivu, 

DR Congo 

ISABEL LAMBRECHT 1 ,ROEL MERCKX 1 ,BERNARD VANLAUWE 2 , 

PIETER PYPERS 3 ,MIET MAERTENS 1 


2International Institute of Tropical Agriculture (IITA), Natural Resource Management, 

Kenya 

3Tropical Soil Biology and Fertility Institute of CIAT (TSBF-CIAT), Kenya 

The adoption of new agricultural technologies by smallholder farmers is still a pertinent question 

for academics and policy-makers. Relatively little is known about technology adoption in 

the poorest countries and about the adoption of composite technology packages. In this paper 

we analyse the adoption of Integrated Soil Fertility Management (ISFM) practices by smallholder 

farmers in South Kivu, DR Congo, after the introduction of these techniques by the 

Consortium for Improving Agricultural-based Livelihoods in Central Africa (CIALCA). ISFM 

is a complex technology including the simultaneous use of improved germplasm, judicious 

chemical fertiliser application and organic matter management. 

We use original data from a farm-household survey among 450 households, conducted in the 

period February - June 2011 in two different territories in South-Kivu. We specifically model 

consecutive steps in farmers’ adoption decisions as factors might differently affect the tryout 

of a new technology and the sustained adoption of it. We model technology adoption as a three 

step process including awareness, tryout and sustained adoption. By specifying awareness as 

the first step in the adoption process, we explicitly account for selection bias caused by nonexposure. 

In addition, we explicitly model the adoption of different components of ISFM. We 

use a combination of probit and Heckman selection models. 

We find that awareness rates are higher for improved germplasm (84 %) and organic matter 

management (73 %) compared to chemical fertiliser (57 %). Tryout rates range between 57 % 

and 8 % for different components but adoption rates are quite low (36 % to 4 %). Membership 

of farmers’ associations and CIALCA presence in the village increase the likelihood of farmers 

to be aware, test and adopt ISFM technologies. Farm size has no major impact, but farmers 

renting a larger share of their plots have a higher likelihood of testing and adopting chemical 

fertiliser and improved germplasm. Land fertility is found to decrease the application of organic 

matter management and increase the adoption of chemical fertiliser. Access to off-farm income, 

livestock and non-land asset ownership significantly increase the likelihood of adoption of all 

components (with the largest effect for chemical fertiliser), which points to the importance of 

cash constraints. 

Keywords: Adoption, agricultural technology, fertiliser, improved germplasm, integrated soil 

fertility management, organic matter management 

Contact Address: Isabel Lambrecht, KU Leuven, Dept. of Earth and Environmental Sciences, 

Celestijnenlaan 200e Bus 2411, 3001 Heverlee, Belgium, e-mail: isabel.lambrecht@ees.kuleuven.be 

353


A Qualitative Approach to Understand the Potential of Weather 

Indexed Crop Insurance to Help Ethiopian Farmers Cope with 

Risks 

THEA NIELSEN 



The ineffectiveness and problems of traditional mechanisms for households to adapt 

to and cope with climate variability creates a need for alternatives, especially with the 

expected increase in the frequency and severity of extreme climatic events. This study 

explores the potential of weather indexed crop insurance (WICI) to help farmers cope 

with weather-related risks in two villages in central Ethiopia where WICI for drought 

was available. To understand weather-related risks, existing coping mechanisms, and 

opinions of and experiences with WICI, a qualitative approach was employed. Focus 

group discussions with smallholders in three villages as well as semi-structured 

interviews with key stakeholders were conducted. The main analysis is based on focus 

group discussions held separately with policyholders and non-policyholders in 

two villages where WICI was available. Two additional focus group discussions 

which took place in a village where multi-peril insurance was available offer interesting 

comparisons. Transcripts from the focus group discussions were analysed with 

a computer software program, Atlas.ti. The analysis highlights the failure of WICI 

to enable smallholders to cope with major weather-related risks as policies insured 

against drought only, whereas farmers reported suffering from other natural disasters 

as well. Moreover, the demonstrated and self-reported lack of understanding about 

WICI among policyholders not only reduces the sustainability and adoption of WICI, 

but also decreases the potential of WICI to enable households to take more production 

risks such as increased fertiliser use. Based on the findings, we recommend increasing 

smallholder involvement in the design of WICI policies and offering more effective 

training about WICI to potential policyholders. This study demonstrates that a “one 

size fits all” approach to WICI may not be appropriate in villages where farmers live 

with diverse weather-related risks. Therefore, insurance companies should consider 

providing a variety of WICI products within villages. This would allow smallholders 

to insure against natural disasters they consider most significant based on their 

production system. 

Keywords: Coping mechanisms, Ethiopia, natural disasters, risk, weather indexed 

crop insurance 

Contact Address: Thea Nielsen, University of Hohenheim, Institute of Agricultural Economics and 

Social Sciences in the Tropics and Subtropics, Wollgrasweg 43, 70593 Stuttgart, Germany, e-mail: 

thea.nielsen@uni-hohenheim.de 

354

Innovation adoption and agricultural productivity — Posters 

The Informal Market of Edible Crickets and Spiders in 

Cambodia. Potentials of a Traditional Food Source 

CHRISTOPHER MÜNKE 1 ,CHAMNAN CHHOUN 2 ,THEA LACH 2 ,VEASNA AO 2 , 

NANNA ROOS 3 ,CARSTEN NICO HJORTSØ 4 

1University of Copenhagen, Faculty of Life Science, Denmark 

2Fisheries Administration, Marine Aquaculture Research and Development Center, 

Cambodia 

3University of Copenhagen, Dept. of Human Nutrition, Denmark 

4University of Copenhagen, Dept. of Resource Economics and Food Policy, Denmark 

The contribution outlines the current market of edible crickets and one species of edible tarantula 

in Cambodia and how this supports the livelihoods of Cambodians. 

Eating insects as part of the diet (entomophagy) is common among rural and urban people in 

South East Asia. In Cambodia, most people regularly consume a variety of insects and spiders 

as part of their diet, and an informal market for such a food source has developed throughout 

the country. This market contributes an additional source of income to rural/urban livelihoods, 

due to an increasing demand in recent years. 

In this study a market assessment was conducted in 6 provinces, including the capital Phnom 

Penh, as well as a review of the current institutional framework regarding policies and responsible 

stakeholders. Both qualitative and quantitative research methods were applied, including 

questionnaire surveys, focus group discussions and key stakeholder interviews. The data was 

collected in the period January-May 2012. The study is part of the WINFOOD project, a collaboration 

between University of Copenhagen and the Department of Post-Harvest Technologies 

and Qualitative Control, Fisheries Administration, Cambodia. 

The findings show that crickets have the potential for a larger domestic market, as well as export 

to the neighbouring countries of Cambodia, through domestication and scaled up collection 

practices. On the other hand, edible tarantulas are facing the challenge of overexploitation due 

to increased market demand, which puts pressure on the natural population of the tarantulas 

and consequently, the livelihoods of collectors. 

Among the national government and international agencies the awareness of the potentials 

and constraints of the edible insect sector is limited. This is a field which is gaining more 

international recognition as an alternative source of food and livestock feed and therefore it 

is recommended that the Cambodian government and other stakeholders begin investigating 

the potentials and limitations of the edible insect market. Edible insects in Cambodia can 

contribute to resilience of agricultural systems to supply food and feed, but it has yet to find 

its place within academic disciplines and natural resource governance structures in order to be 

sustainably utilised. 

Keywords: Alternative food sources, Cambodia, entomophagy, livelihood strategies, value 

chain analysis 

Contact Address: Christopher Münke, University of Copenhagen, Faculty of Life Science, Stenderupgade 

5, 2tv, 1738 Copenhagen, Denmark, e-mail: cmunke@dsr.life.ku.dk 

355


Constraints to Integrating Non-Food Biofuel Feedstock in 

Smallholder Farms in Kenya 

JACKSON LANGAT 1 ,JOB LAGAT 1 ,OWUOR GEORGE 1 ,BENARD MUOK 2 , 

RHODA BIRECH 3 ,KIBET NGETICH 4 ,BERNHARD FREYER 5 


2African Centre for Technology Studies, PIESCESS, Kenya 

3Egerton University, Crop Horticulture and Soil Sciences, Kenya 

4Egerton University, Sociology and Anthropology, Kenya 


Austria 

Agricultural farming is a predominant enterprise in developing countries and mainly Africa. 

This is attributed to land availability, abundant labor from its vast population, favourable climatic 

conditions and food demand among other factors. Most of the rural households depend 

on subsistence farming to meet their food requirements with minimal commercialisation which 

mainly target the export market. There is thus need for caution on introduction of another enterprise 

in the smallholder farms so as not to distort the vulnerable food production enterprise. 

There is however evidence that most farms are not optimally being utilised. Hence increasing 

on the portfolio of the farm enterprises on the household level need not necessarily hinder or 

reduce their food production capabilities. One such additional enterprise could be non-food 

biofuel feedstock farming which has a dual potential of generating income and as a source of 

energy in the households. In Kenya, potential biofuel production areas have been zoned taking 

cognizance of the food production requirements, climatic conditions and biodiversity requirements 

in the midst of the energy demand and supply situations prevailing in the country. There 

is however ample evidence that the taking up of biofuel feedstock farming by the smallholder 

farmers is slow even though the government and a number of non-governmental organisations 

are deeply involved in its promotion. The study thus seeks to identify the factors within the 

smallholder farms that hinder the adoption of the Jatropha and Croton biofuel feedstock. A survey 

was conducted in three agro-ecological zones being Laikipia, Nyeri and Lamu, of which 

a representative random sample of 273 farms was selected for the study with 136 having biofuel 

crops in their farms and 137 being the control group. The study used a logistic regression 

econometric model sorted by crop type to take care of the uniqueness of each crop in terms 

of their agro-ecological requirements. The factors that influence the integration of Croton in 

the smallholder farms are household size and proximity to the urban centre. Gender of the 

household head, land size and access to off-farm farm income were the main determinants of 

farmers’ decision to adopt Jathropa. 

Keywords: Biodiesel, biofuel, feedstock, integration, Croton megalocarpus, Jatropha curcas 

Contact Address: Jackson Langat, Egerton University, Agricultural Economics and Agribusiness 

Management, Box 536 Egerton, Nakuru, Kenya, e-mail: jlangat@gmail.com 

356


Is There a Future for Agriculture in Rural Villages in Northeast 

Thailand? 

LENA HOHFELD, HERMANN WAIBEL 


Germany 

The importance of agriculture in rural villages in emerging market economies like 

Thailand is declining. As a result of rural-urban migration rural livelihoods are diversifying 

and the rural population tends to rely on remittances from migrant household 

members as a main source of household income. At the same time they use their 

agricultural resource base only as a safety net. As a result, agriculture is neglected by 

many village households, although there is potential for agricultural entrepreneurship 

in the course of rising prices for agricultural commodities as for example rubber. 

Drawing upon a unique set of household panel data from three provinces in Northeast 

Thailand, collected from some 2,000 households between 2007 and 2010, this paper 

investigates investment in agriculture by rural households. A double hurdle model 

is used to account for zero inflated data as well as for possible differences in the 

determinants for the decision to invest and the amount of investment. 

Results show that only one third of the households have made investments in agriculture 

and most of these are on a small scale of not more than 400$. Non-investors 

in agriculture tend to be potentially marginalised households with female or older 

household heads. Factors that positively affect the probability of investment in agriculture 

are farm size, household wealth and income. Diversification in wage and selfemployment 

as well as shock experiences discourage investments. The investment 

volume is influenced by farm size, household wealth, education of the HH head, savings, 

additional off-farm income and the number of household members working in 

agriculture. 

Our findings suggest that most rural households in Northeast Thailand neglect agriculture. 

Farm investments are only made by a few wealthy households with the consequence 

that the already existing inequality in wealth is likely to increase further, 

which could lead to social problems and the impairment of village development in the 

long run. 

Keywords: Double hurdle model, farm investments, rural development, rural households, 

Thailand 

Contact Address: Lena Hohfeld, Leibniz Universität Hannover, Institute of Development and Agricultural 

Economics, Hannover, Germany, e-mail: hohfeld@ifgb.uni-hannover.de 

357


Determinants of Irrigated Cotton Farming among Smallholders in 

Bura Irrigation Scheme, Kenya 

ANTHONY GIKANDI MURIITHI 1 ,MICAH POWON 1 ,ERIC BETT 2 , 

LUCY MUTHONI 3 

1Cotton Development Authority, Planning, Kenya 


Austria 

3Kenya Agricultural Research Insitute, Socio-Economics, Kenya 

Under the Kenyan Government’s policy in Vision 2030 for addressing poverty, cotton 

production has been identified as a key sub-sector for economic development for the 

drier areas of the country. The Bura Irrigation project was set up by the government 

in 1977; the project functioned fairly well, producing cotton and maize from 1982 to 

1990 with an area of 2,500 hectares being irrigated. For the next fifteen years, there 

was little or no crop harvest due to lack of adequate irrigation water. In 2009, the 

project was revived through an Economic Stimulus Programme and irrigated cotton 

was reintroduced in 2010 by the Cotton Development Authority in partnership with 

the National Irrigation Board, Equity Bank and Ginners among other stakeholders. 

In 2011 a survey was carried out to determine the levels of adoption of irrigated cotton 

production in the scheme. Questionnaires were administered to 100 randomly 

selected farmers. All households used inorganic fertilisers as part of their soil fertility 

management strategies. Based on a logit analysis, access to credit, market for seed 

cotton, availability of labor, years of farming, off-farm income, contact with extension 

officers, pest management and timely provision of irrigation water significantly and 

positively affected adoption for irrigated cotton farming. The results from this survey 

suggest that the strategy for improving the adoption of irrigated cotton farming 

will differ depending on infrastructure and the socio-economic niches of farmers in 

a given area. This study proposes enhancing these strategies with Bt-cotton farming, 

commercial cotton seed production and integrated crop management. 

Keywords: Bt cotton, economic stimulus programme, integrated crop management, 

irrigated cotton 

Contact Address: Anthony Gikandi Muriithi, Cotton Development Authority, Planning, Riverside 

Drive, Nairobi, Kenya, e-mail: gikandimuriithi@yahoo.com 

358


Climate Variability and Agriculture in Western Kenya: 

Farmers’ Perceptions and Coping Strategies 

ELIZABETH NAMBIRO 1 ,VICTOR WASIKE 2 ,PETER OKOTH 1 

1International Center for Tropical Agriculture (CIAT), SLM, Kenya 

2Kenya Agriculture Research Institute, Horticulture and Industrial Crops, Kenya 

Agriculture practices in the tropics are vulnerable to climate change. Higher temperatures 

reduce crop yields while encouraging weed and pest proliferation. Changes in 

precipitation patterns increase crop failures in the short-run and production declines 

in the long-run. In 2005, nearly half of the economically active population in Africa 

(2.5 billion people) relied on agriculture for livelihood. In Kenya, the challenge facing 

the arid and semi arid lands (ASALs) ecosystems is how to enhance community 

resilience whose livelihoods depend on climate-sensitive resources. In response to 

this, a baseline study was undertaken in Western Kenya along a gradient across agroecological 

zones from the Upper Midland Zone (UM1), Lower Midland Sugarcane 

Zone (LM1), Marginal Sugarcane Zone (LM2), Lower Midland Cotton Zone (LM3) 

up to the Marginal Cotton Zone (LM4). The study sites were in Kakamega, Vihiga, 

Siaya, Bondo and Rarieda districts, respectively. Using a structured questionnaire, a 

total of 160 households were interviewed. In addition 2 focus group discussions were 

done in each district. 

The results showed that 90 % of farmers had observed a shift in the onset of seasons 

in the last 10 years. The farmers in UM1 and LM1 reported the merging of the long 

and short rainy season. There was an emergence of the short rainy season in the 

LM3 which was previously not the case since they only had one long rainy season per 

year. Other changes attributed to climate variability included increased incidences of 

existing and / the emergence of new weeds, pests and diseases for crops, increased 

prevalence of livestock and human diseases. 

To face the climate variability, farmers employed several coping strategies such as: 

changing of crops and / varieties grown (e.g., abandon local late maturing crop varieties 

and adopting new and improved early-maturing varieties), rearing local animal 

breeds that are tolerant to diseases, and seeking veterinary and human medical attention 

rather than depending on traditional remedies. 

Keywords: Africa, agro-ecological zone, arid, climate change, resilience, semi-arid 

Contact Address: Elizabeth Nambiro, International Center for Tropical Agriculture (CIAT), SLM, 

ICIPE Complex, off kasarani road; P.O Box 823, 00621 Nairobi, Kenya, e-mail: enambiro@yahoo.com 

359


Crop Production and Livelihood Strategies in Solio Village 3, 

Nyeri District, Kenya 

SABRINA MEERSOHN MEINECKE, ARJUN PANDEY, AUNG MYO THANT, ANNA 

MADALINSKA, CECILIE SØRENSEN, MARK WILSON 

Copenhagen University, Dept. of Agriculture and Ecology, Denmark 

This Sustainable Land Use and Natural Resource Management (SLUSE) research 

project investigates the reconstruction of agricultural livelihoods in a young resettlement 

community known as Village 3 in a semi-arid area in the central highlands of 

Kenya. A majority of the villagers are formerly displaced people who were granted 

land as part of a resettlement scheme initiated by the Kenyan Government in 2007, 

after some twenty years of living as squatters. In order to better understand the constraints 

and needs of the resettled community as they begin to construct their new 

agriculture based livelihoods, the paper explores the importance of crop production 

compared to other livelihood activities, and the factors influencing farmers’ decisionmaking. 

A combination of qualitative and quantitative methods drawing from both 

social and natural science disciplines were employed to establish the livelihood activities 

the villagers are engaged in and how they regard the contribution of these 

activities to their livelihood strategies. Furthermore the study explored the existing 

crop cultivation practices and the role of culture, knowledge, property rights, climate, 

soil fertility, water availability, and access to markets, credit and inputs on the famers’ 

choice of crop production system. The results from the questionnaire survey, several 

interviews and a number of PRAs show that agriculture is the most important activity 

in Solio Village 3, although livestock, casual labor and small businesses are also 

prominent. Farmers are faced with constraints to their crop production, most notably 

the difficult climatic conditions, lack of financial capital, and lack of knowledge about 

the most suitable crops to grow. These factors influence their choice of crop production 

system, and they now focus on drought resistant crops such as beans, although 

they still try to cultivate traditional crops like maize. Most farmers are engaged in at 

least one other livelihood activity than agricultural production, a diversification strategy 

aimed at increasing their livelihood security. 

Keywords: Crop production, livelihood strategies, resettlement 

Contact Address: Sabrina Meersohn Meinecke, Copenhagen University, Dept. of Agriculture and 

Ecology, Ægirsgade 71 5. Sal, 2200 Copenhagen N, Denmark, e-mail: sameme@ruc.dk 

360


Land Use in Agriculture: Econometric Modelling of the Land 

Allocation within the Northern Benin Farms 

SENAKPON ERIC HAROLL KOKOYE 1 ,DANSINOU SILVERE TOVIGNAN 1 , 

AFOUDA JACOB YABI 2 ,ROSAINE NERICE YEGBEMEY 3 , 

ERNST-AUGUST NUPPENAU 1 


Germany 

2University of Parakou, Department of Agricultural Economics, Benin 

3Justus-Liebig University Giessen, Institute of Project and Regional Planning, Germany 

Agriculture is an important activity for many people in tropical West Africa. Among 

the factors involved in agricultural production, land is considered as one of the main 

factors that influences widely the outputs. Furthermore, land-cover and land-use 

changes might affect livelihoods as well as food security in rural areas. Therefore 

one of the most important issues to be decided on by farmers is how to allocate the 

available land among a given numbers of crops. This article aims at understanding the 

driving forces that determine the decision making on land allocation on West African 

farms, giving evidence of farms in the Northern Benin. Using an individual inquiry 

questionnaire, primary data were collected from a sample of 210 farmers randomly 

selected in two villages. Agricultural lands are mainly allocated to cereal, legumes 

and cash crops. The seemingly unrelated regression of land sizes allocated to these 

three categories of crops revealed that socio-economic and demographic characteristics, 

institutional arrangements on land and access to production factors (labor and 

capital for instance) explained 33 % to 58 % of the variations observed in land allocation. 

The findings highlight at different levels of significance - 1 %, 5 %, and 10 % - 

that the main determinants of land use are the location (village), the household head 

characteristics (sex, side activity, group membership, experience in agriculture), the 

household size, the number of household members working in agriculture, the salaried 

workers use, the household’s capital, and the access to credit. Consequently agricultural 

policy has to focus on enhancing household’s capital. This could be done by 

facilitating the access to credit. In this line, requirements and conditions for accessing 

credit should be reviewed. Moreover, support and advice from extension service 

need to be enhanced in order to improve farmers’ skills and promotion of farmers 

associations. 

Keywords: Agriculture, allocation, determinants, land use design, northern Benin 

Contact Address: Senakpon Eric Haroll Kokoye, Justus-Liebig University Giessen, Institute of 

Agricultural Policy and Market Research, Giessen, Germany, e-mail: kharsene@yahoo.fr 

361


Driving Factors of Land Use Changes in Chieng Khoi Catchment, 

Yen Chau District, Son La Province, Northwest Vietnam 

LAM THANH NGUYEN 1 ,THANH THI NGUYEN 2 ,HUU NGUYEN XUAN 1 

1Hanoi University of Agriculture, Center for Agricultural Research and Environmental 




In Northwest Vietnam, land use has been intensified over the last years. Additionally, 

shortening rainy events and increasing of intensive rains happens more frequently. 

This has negative impacts on crop productivity due to large amounts of nutrients 

lost by soil erosion, limitation of fertiliser use and market fluctuation. This study 

was carried out in order to identify the main factors influencing land use change in 

Chieng Khoi Catchment, Yen Chau district, Son La province, Northwest Vietnam. 

The research methods were field ground truth survey with key informants for land use 

history, household interviews and group discussions for identifying factors of land 

use changes in this area. 42 ground truthing points with key informants were collected, 

and 40 households were randomly selected for interview in April 2012. The 

results reveal that since the year 2000, land use intensified towards commercial production. 

Population pressure and policy implications are the main factors for land use 

changes. Local farmers are viewing high risks from soil erosion and land degradation, 

unfavourable climate, and unstable food security. Farmers introduced landcover 

changes mainly for commercial purposes. However, the benefits from a governmental 

project with forest plantation are still limited, which disappoints the farmers. Local 

farmers recognised the high risk related to the cultivation of cassava and maize, 

but they see no better opportunity to secure their livelihood. Local perception also 

changed the way of living. Thus, land use change is heading towards a rather unstable 

direction, while government policy and supports are lacking, which could control this. 

Urgent measures are needed to control the negative impacts of the driving factors and 

to enable a sustainable development in Chieng Khoi Catchment. 

Keywords: Chieng Khoi Catchment, driving factors, land use change, Northwest 

Vietnam 

Contact Address: Lam Thanh Nguyen, Hanoi University of Agriculture, Center for Agricultural 

Research and Environmental Studies (CARES), Hanoi, Vietnam, e-mail: lamkku@gmail.com 

362


Community Adaptation Strategies for Increasing Resilience of 

Homegardens – Case Study from Southern Burkina Faso 

REGINALD TANG GUUROH 1 ,HOLM UIBRIG 2 ,EMMANUEL ACHEAMPONG 3 

1University of Bonn, Department of Geography, Germany 


Germany 

3Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology, Faculty of Renewable Natural 

Resources, Ghana 

Agriculture remains the backbone for the economies of many countries and plays a 

critical role in feeding the world’s most vulnerable people. Rapid population growth, 

loss of soil fertility, among others, have already impacted negatively on food production. 

Additionally, climate change has compounded the problem. In order to develop a 

resilient production system, farmers need to reorganise and find adaptation strategies. 

An exploratory research was conducted to study homegardens and farmer adaptation 

strategies in Burkina Faso. The Bieha district was purposively selected for the study. 

The initial Rapid Rural Appraisal was complemented by a household survey. Tools 

of data collection included; personal observation, key informant interview, and focus 

group discussion. For the survey, eighty households were selected based on systematic 

sampling. Data was collected by individual interviews at household level, and 

for statistical calculations, the households were subsequently categorised as small, 

medium and commercial based on the size of their homegarden. All respondents mentioned 

droughts, unpredictable rainfall patterns, floods, fluctuating market prices and 

bushfires as their most common crises. 100 % of respondents have been affected by 

droughts/unpredictable rainfalls, 65 % by floods and 20 % by bush fires. Respondents 

agreed that building strong social systems and institutions, diversification of income 

and livelihood sources as well as the adoption of better natural resources management 

practices would ensure more resilient production. There was a significant positive correlation 

between number of income sources and household total income. Similarly, 

a significant positive correlation was found between number of crop species grown 

and income generated. The households who belonged to cooperatives had higher incomes 

from sales of their homegarden products than others who sold individually. In 

conclusion, it is clear from the study that farming systems need to be adapted so as to 

ensure that they remain resilient in the face of crises. The outcome of this research has 

shown that local people are themselves aware of the threats that they face but would 

need support by way of capacity building so that their adaptation strategies can be 

well and appropriately developed. 

Keywords: Adaptation, crises, diversification, homegarden, livelihood, resilience 

Contact Address: Reginald Tang Guuroh, University of Bonn, Department of Geography, Meckenheimer 

Allee 166, Room 331, D - 53115 Bonn, Germany, e-mail: guuroh@yahoo.co.uk 

363


Productivity and Technical Efficiency of Small-Scale Sorghum 

Production in Different Agro-Ecological Zones of Gadrif State, 

Sudan 

MUTASIM M.M. ELRASHEED, ABDEL GABAR BABIKER 

Sudan University of Science and Technology, College of Agricultual Studies, Sudan 

Gadarif State, the granary of Sudan, produces the bulk of the Sudanese main food 

grain: sorghum. Unfortunately, sorghum productivity, which is highly related to the 

conditions of the rainy season, revealed a fluctuating phenomenon with a declining 

trend over time. A stochastic frontier production function using Maximum Likelihood 

Estimation technique was used to obtain farm specific technical efficiencies, their determinants 

and causes of inefficiency for the small-scale rain-fed sorghum producers 

in three agro-ecological zones of Gadarif State, Sudan: low (400–500 mm), moderate 

(500–600 mm) and high annual rainfall (>600 mm). Both primary and secondary data 

were used, although primary data was the main source. A multistage stratified random 

sampling technique was used to collect data from 200 respondents by means of 

a questionnaire during 2009/2010. Results revealed that farmers’ efficiency increased 

with the increasing level of rainfall and almost reached the frontier under high rainfall 

conditions, although, in all agro-ecological zones sorghum yields were relatively 

very poor (680 kg ha-1 ), particularly if known that this study was conducted during 

good rainy season as perceived by farmers. Technical efficiencies were substantially 

and significantly affected by availability of machinery at right time, seed rate, availability 

of labor and finance. Factors causing inefficiency were highly related to education, 

Striga-weed infestation (the major threat of sorghum production in the state), 

and technological improvements in terms of sorghum variety (Striga and drought resistance 

and/or tolerance), machinery types, recommended agricultural packages (by 

Agricultural Research Corporation, Sudan). We argue that the introduction of water 

harvesting techniques in the low and moderate rainfall zone, farmers’ field schools to 

change farmers beliefs, attitude and direction to accept the recommended packages, 

and technological improvements are essential to improve both sorghum efficiency and 

productivity. 

Keywords: Rain-fed agriculture, Sorghum productivity, Striga infestation, technical 

inefficiency 

Contact Address: Mutasim M.M. Elrasheed, Sudan University of Science and Technology, 

College of Agricultural Studies, Agricultural Economics, Shambat, Khartoum North, Sudan, e-mail: 

mutasimmekki@yahoo.com 

364


Sustainable Development of Bangladesh Agriculture: Examples 

for Strategies to Adapt to a Changing Environment 

SATTAR MANDAL 1 ,AD SPIJKERS 2 ,NICOLE WRAGE 3 ,JENS GEBAUER 3 , 

FLORIAN WICHERN 3 

1Bangladesh Planning Commission, Agriculture, Water Resources & Rural Institutions 

Division, Bangladesh 

2Former FAO Representative to Bangladesh, The Netherlands 

3Rhine-Waal University of Applied Sciences, Life Sciences, Germany 

Geo-morphological conditions shaped by interfaces of two contrasting environments - the Himalayas 

to the north and the Bay of Bengal to the south - make Bangladesh one of the most 

vulnerable countries to climate change. Flash floods, cyclones, storm surges in the south and 

water scarcity with droughts in the northern regions are frequent. The rise of average air temperature 

already affects growth of winter vegetables and wheat. Reduced and erratic precipitation 

limits rain-fed cropping and reduces groundwater recharge, consequently counteracting further 

development of tubewell irrigation for rice production. Frequent unpredicted floods submerge 

crops. Besides storm surges, sea level rise causes salt water intrusion further reducing arable 

land, fresh water availability and biodiversity in the southern regions. Environmental changes 

have aggravated already stressful low productive farming of crops, animal husbandry and fish 

culture. These manifold stressors to agriculture and rural development, which add on to population 

growth and urbanisation, are very pronounced in Bangladesh. Indeed, Bangladesh can act 

as a model country to develop climate adaptation strategies, which can be applied elsewhere. 

To create potential research demands, three examples of adaptation practices in smallholder 

farming systems are proposed. The first example elucidates the contribution of private sector 

led irrigation water market to dry season Boro rice production, which improved national food 

security. Here, future challenges lie in improving water and nutrient use efficiency, counteracting 

soil salinity and finding alternative engine fuel. The second example illustrates soil fertility 

management, which increases soil health through improved soil organic matter management 

and balanced fertilisation to enhance resilience of cropping systems (e.g. against soil salinity). 

Thirdly, homestead gardening is at the core of adaptation strategies as it provides household 

nutrition from diverse field crops, fruits and vegetables as well as timber and non-timber forest 

products. The homestead production systems do also supplement family income and significantly 

buffer food price fluctuations. This diversity however is threatened by climate change 

variables. Future research therefore will focus on investigating the effect of transformation 

processes on biodiversity and sustainability of smallholder agriculture. 

Keywords: Biodiversity, climate adaptation strategies, homegardens, irrigation, nutrient use 

efficiency, smallholder farming, soil salinity 

Contact Address: Florian Wichern, Rhine-Waal University of Applied Sciences, Life Sciences, 

Landwehr 4, 47533 Kleve, Germany, e-mail: florian.wichern@hochschule-rhein-waal.de 

365


Efficiency Analysis of Coffee Cultivation: The Case of 

Smallholder Farming in the Coffee Sector of Nicaragua 

CHRISTIAN STAACKE 1 ,CHRISTIAN BUNN 1 ,MARIA GUADALUPE BACA 

GOMEZ 2 ,PETER LÄDERACH 2 

1Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, Faculty of Agriculture and Horticulture, Germany 

2International Center for Tropical Agriculture (CIAT), Nicaragua 

Coffee, one of the main contributors to agricultural GDP in Nicaragua, is the dominating 

cash crop within smallholder farming systems of the central and northern highland 

departments. In recent years certain activities have been undertaken by development 

agencies and policy makers to strengthen smallholders’ production capacities in order 

to improve their livelihoods. However, still today the majority of Nicaraguan smallholder 

coffee producers is suffering from poverty, making them highly vulnerable 

to extreme shocks. Shortages in financial as well as managerial capacities put their 

efforts in production at risk, enforcing inefficiency in the use of scarce resources. 

To cope with risks linked to climate change and to volatile agricultural commodity 

markets, smallholder farmers are forced to manage scarce resources in their portfolio 

the most efficient way. This research especially focuses on efficiency and inefficiency 

of smallholder farming in the coffee sector of Nicaragua. To this end we analysed a 

sample of 135 coffee cultivating households distributed in 4 different coffee producing 

departments. The data is a sub-set of a bigger survey developed within the Coffee 

Under Pressure Project of the International Center for Tropical Agriculture (CIAT) 

including 3,500 coffee cultivating farmers in Nicaragua. The selected households 

have been separated into two groups, namely traditional and organic certified farmers. 

The collected data contain socio-economic as well as farm level specific production 

input quantities and prices. A stochastic frontier analysis is undertaken to analyse 

technical as well as cost efficiency. 

The mean technical efficiency of traditional farmers is estimated to be 52.7 %, while 

organic producers show an efficiency of 56.7 %. Similar results were found in the case 

of cost efficiency. Surprisingly traditional farmers showed lower average costs while 

producing higher outputs than organic farmers. The applied inefficiency model found 

the variable age to be significant, with inefficiency increasing as older the household 

head is older, and vice versa. 

Keywords: Cost efficiency, smallholder coffee production, stochastic frontier 

analysis, technical efficiency 

Contact Address: Christian Staacke, Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, Faculty of Agriculture and 

Horticulture, Berlin, Germany, e-mail: ch.staacke@googlemail.com 

366


Economic Efficiency of Cocoyam Production among Smallholder 

Farmers in Southeastern Nigeria 

CHIMA EZEH 

Abia State University, Dept. of Agricultural Economics & Extension, Nigeria 

The study determined the economic efficiency of cocoyam production among smallholder 

farmers in southeastern Nigeria, with particular focus on Imo State. Motivation 

for the choice of the study area emanated from the fact that Imo State contributes heavily 

to cocoyam production in the country and thus assists Nigeria to sustain its global 

status as the world’s largest producer of cocoyam. The research was guided by the following 

specific objectives: to describe the socio-economic attributes of the cocoyam 

farmers in Imo State; to determine the economic efficiency of cocoyam production; 

to estimate the socio-economic determinants of economic efficiency of cocoyam production; 

to estimate the production elasticity and return to scale of the enterprise; to 

identify constraints to cocoyam production and make policy recommendations based 

on research findings. Multistage sampling technique was used to select 1000 smallholder 

cocoyam farmers across the agricultural zones of the state from which data 

were elicited using structured and pre-tested questionnaires. Profit function of the 

Cobb-Douglas stochastic frontier model was used to estimate economic efficiency, 

elasticity and return to scale. The estimated farm level economic efficiency ranged 

from 0.351 to 0.985 with a mean of 0.625, implying a wide gap between the economic 

efficiency of the best and worst producers. To close the efficiency gap, the 

average producer requires a cost saving of 38.1 % to attain the status of the best efficient 

farmer in the area. The study suggests as a remedial measure the intensification 

of farmer education and extension of specific technologies to the cocoyam farmers to 

further boost their economic efficiency. 

Keywords: Cocoyam, Nigeria, smallholder farmers, stochastic fontier model 

Contact Address: Chima Ezeh, Abia State University, Dept. of Agricultural Economics & Extension, 

82 Lagos Street, 440003 Umuahia, Nigeria, e-mail: chimaezeh@yahoo.com 

367


Adapting or Coping? Analysis of Pastoralists’ Responses to 

Climatic Stressors in Kenya’s Drylands 

OLIVER WASONGA 1,3 ,FRANCIS OPIYO 2 ,MOSES NYANGITO 1 , 

CHRISTIAN HÜLSEBUSCH 1 

1German Institute for Tropical and Subtropical Agriculture (DITSL), DAAD-GrassNet 

Programme, Germany 

2International Rescue Committee, Kenya 

The livestock-based livelihoods in the vast drylands of Africa are among the most vulnerable 

systems to climatic-related risks due to their over-dependence on natural resources that are 

subject to bio-physical variability. This has been exacerbated by weakening of pastoral risk 

management strategies and inadequate supportive policies. For centuries, however, pastoralists 

have demonstrated tremendous ability to cope with climate variability, often employing sophisticated 

and continually evolving processes and practices to take advantage of new opportunities. 

That notwithstanding, the present concern is that the adaptive capacity of pastoralist communities 

may not be sufficiently robust to respond to the shocks associated with the contemporary 

climatic and environmental dynamics. 

The traditional adaptive strategies are being undermined by increased population pressure leading 

to conversion of grazing lands to other uses, thereby restricting pastoral mobility. This is aggravated 

by increasing climatic anomalies (e.g., frequent and severe droughts and floods), limited 

livestock marketing opportunities, changing land tenure and unclear property right regimes. 

Other constraints include rising socio-political conflicts and breakdown of traditional social and 

resource governance institutions. These factors work in concert to weaken pastoral resilience 

against otherwise ‘normal’ climatic variability as shown by large scale livestock losses during 

droughts and subsequent impoverishment of pastoral households. 

Over the last two decades, the climate change challenge has elicited several studies in Kenya’s 

drylands, most of them focusing on the impacts of climate variability on pastoral livelihoods 

and existing risk management mechanisms. However, little attention has been paid to the sustainability 

of the existing coping strategies. Questions that arise amid these efforts are: 1) Are 

pastoralists adapting or just coping with the changes (are the responses reactive or proactive)? 

2) Are the current coping strategies capable of enhancing or undermining adaptation in the future? 

3) What can be done to strengthen the existing coping strategies and ensure that they form 

the basis for future adaptation? 

The paper examines existing pastoral responses to climatic and environmental risks, their sustainability, 

and discusses how their capacity can be enhanced to ensure effectiveness, and compatibility 

with pastoralism and future adaptation strategies in Kenya’s pastoral areas. 

Keywords: Climatic variability, coping strategies, Kenya, pastoral resilience 

Contact Address: Oliver Wasonga, German Institute for Tropical and Subtropical Agriculture 

(DITSL), DAAD-GrassNet Programme, Steinstraße 19, D-37213 Witzenhausen, Germany, e-mail: 

o.wasonga@ditsl.org 

368


Adoption Potential of Conservation Agriculture in 

Sub-Saharan Africa 

HYCENTH TIM NDAH 1 ,JOHANNES SCHULER 1 ,SANDRA UTHES 1 , 

PETER ZANDER 1 ,KARIM TRAORE 2 ,MPHATSO-S GAMA 3 ,ISAIAH NYAGUMBO 4 , 

BERNARD TRIOMPHE 5 ,MARC CORBEELS 5 

1Leibniz Centre for Agricultural Landscape Research (ZALF), Inst. of Socio-Economics, 

Germany 

2Institut de l’Environnement et de Recherches Agricoles (INERA), Production Ecology 

and Resources Conservation, Burkina Faso 

3Ministry of Agriculture and Food Security, Malawi 

4International Maize and Wheat Improvement Centre (CIMMYT), Zimbabwe 

5Centre de Coop. Intern. en Recherche Agronomique pour le Développement (CIRAD), 

France 

In a continent facing a fast increasing population, smallholder farming in Africa is exposed to 

double challenge: 1) to increase food production and, 2) to preserve natural resources. While 

conventional tillage-based agriculture has been held accountable for soil degradation, Conservation 

Agriculture (CA) based on minimal or no-tillage is increasingly seen as a promising alternative 

for highly productive and sustainable farming. Despite its potential, CA adoption rates 

in Africa, compared with other continents, have remained extremely low. While literature on 

adoption contraints is abundant, comprehensive, holistic frameworks and tools for explaining 

or predicting adoption are still lacking. In particular, such frameworks and tools could help in 

assessing systematically under which ecological, socio-economic and institutional conditions 

CA is best suited for smallholder farming in Africa and for its scaling up. The objective of 

this contribution therefore is to demonstrate how a newly developed Qualitative expert-based 

Assessment Tool (QAToCA) was applied in case studies across Malawi, Burkina Faso, and 

Zimbabwe; 1) to determine the Relative Adoption Potential (RAP) of CA, 2) to assess the institutional, 

agro-ecological, socio-economic and cultural influences on the RAP of CA, and 3) to 

determine the site-specific hindering and supporting factors to the RAP of CA for the different 

case studies. Results show that for the two south African case studies, Malawi has a high RAP 

for CA while Zimbabwe has a much lower potential. On the other hand the two case studies 

in south western and northern Burkina Faso both showed a relatively high adoption potential 

of CA. Major differences in adoption potential are explained by economic market incentives, 

prevailing institutional arrangements as well as some biophysical incentives. 

Keywords: Adoption potential, Burkina Faso, conservation agriculture, Malawi, Zimbabwe 

Contact Address: Hycenth Tim Ndah, Leibniz Centre for Agricultural Landscape Research (ZALF), 

Institute of Socio Economics, Eberswalder Strasse 84, 15374 Müncheberg, Germany, e-mail: 

ndah@zalf.de 

369


Environmental Efficiency and Resilience of Conservation Tillage 

in Cereal Ecosystems: The Case of Eastern Indo-Gangetic Plain in 

Bangladesh 

SREEJITH ARAVINDAKSHAN 1 ,SVEND RASMUSSEN 2 ,VIJESH KRISHNA 3 , 

FREDERICK ROSSI 4 

1 University of Copenhagen, Forest and Landscape, Life, Denmark 

2 University of Copenhagen, Institute of Food and Resource Economics (FOI), Life, 

Denmark 

3 Georg-August-Universität Göttingen, Dept. of Agricultural Economics and Rural 


4 International Maize and Wheat Improvement Center (CIMMYT), Socioeconomics 

Program, Bangladesh 

Despite increasing cereal production in Asia, capital intensive technologies of the green revolution 

era have accounted for stagnant productivity of major crops and depletion of natural environment 

in cereal-ecosystems, thus reducing its ability to resist damage or recover (resilience). 

Along with other factors, degradation of the natural resource base resulting from inappropriate 

land and input use is widely documented in Asia as one of the root-causes of this yield 

stagnation and resilience loss. Hence, the global agricultural research and development focus 

is being gradually shifted to conservation tillage in cereal systems with an increased interest 

in developing agricultural technologies that are resource conserving, environmentally sustainable 

while ensuring financial profit to the farmers. In Bangladesh, the average productivity of 

the major cereal crops, rice and wheat, remains significantly low compared to neighbouring 

countries in South Asia. Low productivity, resilience loss together with resource constraints 

confines Bangladesh’s capacity to feed its 150 mio people from 8.2 mio ha of cultivable land. 

Bangladesh is one of the poorest countries in the world, and ranks low on almost all measures 

of economic development, thus leaving the population extremely vulnerable to natural disasters 

and climate events. This paper attempts to explore the environmental efficiency and resilience 

of four agricultural practices, namely power tiller operated seeder, bed planting, strip planting 

and conventional tillage using efficiency variables mainly the primary sources of greenhouse 

gases while trying to understand farmers’ adaptive capacity against climatic events. Taking 

each farm as a Decision Management Unit (DMU), a nonparametric method of Data Envelopment 

Analysis for the estimation of production frontiers was employed, where productive 

efficiency of DMUs is empirically measured. The Frontier Efficiency Analysis in ’R’ of unpublished 

primary data collected during two years of adoption (2008 and 2012) among different 

technology adopters (N=284) in four districts of the eastern Indo-Gangetic Plain in Bangladesh 

showed that, farms practising conservation tillage emitted 43 % less CO2 and could save 40 % 

of fossil fuel per hectare compared to the conventional practitioners. 

Keywords: Bangladesh, conservation tillage, eastern Indo-Gangetic Plain, environmental 

efficiency, resilience 

Contact Address: Sreejith Aravindakshan, University of Copenhagen, Forest and Landscape, Life, 

Bülowsvej 17, 1870 Frederiksberg, Denmark, e-mail: sreejith.agri@gmail.com 

370


Yield Gap Analysis of Cotton in two Major Production Regions of 

China 

TIL FEIKE, NAN HA, MICHAEL KUSI APPIAH, REINER DOLUSCHITZ 

University of Hohenheim, Institute of Farm Management, Germany 

Cotton is globally the most important agricultural trade commodity, with China being 

the number one producer and consumer of cotton fiber. Its production offers high 

income possibilities in rural China, however often at the expense of severe natural 

resource degradation. The North China Plain (NCP) in the East and the Xinjiang 

Province in the Northwest account for more than 50 % of national cotton production. 

Comparing the two regions shows that yield levels per hectare in the NCP are only half 

of the average yields in Xinjiang, with both regions lacking far behind the potential 

yields. Closing the yield gap would improve resource use efficiency significantly, 

and give a strong contribution to a more sustainable production of cotton in China. 

Therefore the present paper tries to analyse the causes for the yield gaps, and elaborate 

the potentials for closing the gaps in the two regions. 

Two main reasons for the differences in yields were identified: management and climate. 

The NCP features much smaller production units compared to Xinjiang, which 

leads to a higher occurrence of poor management and a much lower technological 

level. This becomes evident comparing the level of mechanisation, with drip-fertigation 

and flood-irrigation being the prevailing irrigation method in Xinjiang and the 

NCP, respectively. The climatic conditions for cotton production are even more unfavourable 

in the NCP compared to Xinjiang, with high night temperatures, very high 

relative humidity and frequent heavy rainfalls from flowering to bud-opening stage. 

This leads to an increased disease pressure, increased shedding of squares, flowers 

and buds, increased respiration, unsuccessful pollination and degraded fiber quality, 

which explains the low yield levels in the NCP. Xinjiang on the other side, being 

blessed with favourable climatic conditions for cotton production, cannot tap its full 

yield potential due to seasonal water shortage and high salinity levels of agricultural 

soils. Due to the climatic constraints, an increase in technological level in the NCP 

has only limited potential to increase cotton yields significantly. Thus shifting cotton 

production from the NCP to Xinjiang is recommended to achieve higher yield levels, 

and thus resource use efficiency on national level. 

Keywords: China, cotton, yield gap 

Contact Address: Til Feike, University of Hohenheim, Institute of Farm Management, Schwerzstr.43, 

70593 Stuttgart, Germany, e-mail: tilfeike@uni-hohenheim.de 

371


Bridging the Researcher-People Knowledge Gap in Biodiversity 

Conservation: The Case of Nech Sar National Park, Ethiopia 

GIRMA KELBORO 1 ,TILL STELLMACHER 1 ,VOLKER HOFFMANN 2 


2University of Hohenheim, Dept. of Social Sciences in Agriculture, Germany 

This study aims to analyse knowledge perceptions and gaps between researchers and 

local communities in Nech Sar National Park, Ethiopia, and to suggest ways of integrating 

knowledge systems into practices. The study is based on findings generated 

by key informant interviews, focus group discussions, and interviews with 60 sample 

households in Nech Sar National Park between May 2010 and March 2011 and interviews 

of key informants among wildlife conservation experts and officers. Many 

studies concerned with biodiversity in Africa show a rapid degradation of the diversity 

of genes, species or ecosystems. Extensive systems of protected areas (PAs) aim 

to maintain biodiversity by using different conservation concepts. However, PAs also 

created manifold conflicts with local people who use species and ecosystems for their 

livelihoods. Local people describe changes of biodiversity by using trends of flagship 

species, such as grasses, trees and larger animals. For grasses, they pinpoint 

to those preferred for cattle grazing in the priority list. For tree species, they focus 

on those providing shade for meetings, those which can be used as a source of traditional 

medicines to treat animal and human diseases, or invasive species that takeup 

grassland plains used for cattle grazing. For larger animals, they use either those 

that attack their cattle or those that graze and browse together with cattle as indicators 

of the population trends. Researchers often identify local people’s non-sustainable 

resource utilization as a cause for degradation of natural resources. The local people 

living inside Nech Sar National Park, however, associate the degradation with the prohibition 

of traditional land management practices, such as burning for renewing grass 

growth for their cattle and transhumance, by the park administration. These diverse 

perceptions call for action to bridge the knowledge and communication gap between 

researchers, park managers and local people. Improved knowledge exchange can be 

generated through more participatory and transdisciplinary research. This serves as 

an important step towards the development of innovative management approaches for 

Nech Sar Natonal Park that effectively integrate local peoples’ livelihood needs and 

the conservation of biodiversity and natural resources. 

Keywords: Biodiversity, Ethiopia, indigenous knowledge, protected areas 

Contact Address: Girma Kelboro, University of Bonn, Center for Development Research (ZEF), 

Walter-Flex-Str. 3, 53113 Bonn, Germany, e-mail: Girma75@yahoo.com 

372


Tomato Production in Ethiopia: Constraints and Opportunities 

AMBECHA O. GEMECHIS 1,2 ,PAUL STRUIK 2 ,BEZABIH EMANA 3 

1Jimma University, College of Agriculture and Veterinary Medicine, Ethiopia 

2Wageningen University and Research Centre, Centre for Crop Systems Analysis (CSA), 

The Netherlands 

3SID Consult, Ethiopia 

Tomato is a popular and widely grown vegetable crop in Ethiopia, ranking 8 th in terms 

of annual national production. It is consumed in every household in different modes, 

but in certain areas, such as Walo, Hararge, Shawa, Jimma and Wallaga, it is also an 

important co-staple food. Primary data were collected from 400 randomly selected 

smallholder producers who were equally distributed among five different study zones 

where tomato was a co-staple. Surveys and Focus Group Discussions (FGDs) were 

held with growers and staff of the Ministry of Agriculture during 2011. Qualitative 

and quantitative data were gathered by employing a structured questionnaire. Before 

launching the survey, the questionnaire was pre-tested and was improved accordingly. 

Primary data collected were used to describe the actual tomato production management 

practices and to quantify the distribution of crop area and production in relation 

to agro-ecological conditions in the different administrative zones (North Walo, East 

Hararge, East Shawa, Jimma and East Wallaga) and growing seasons. Yield constraints 

were identified based on the survey including the 400 smallholder producers. 

The FGDs were used for triangulation. Constraints appeared to include lack of resources 

such as irrigation water, nutrients and high-quality seed, but also weather 

conditions including drought and cold. Crop production management varied significantly 

across study zones because of differences in agro-climatic conditions, access 

to resources and culture. Average fruit yields ranged from 6.5 to 24.0 Mg ha −1 and 

were different for the five survey zones. According to the survey and FGDs results 

about 32–40 % of the growers used irrigation. Supplementary irrigation was required 

in most of the production regions to sustain food security and commercially viable 

tomato production. There were also several major weeds, insect pests and diseases 

including late blight and Fusarium wilt reducing the yield. Possibilities for yield improvement 

are discussed and recommendations are made to further improve tomato 

yield in the different growing zones. 

Keywords: Biocides, diseases, Ethiopia, improved seed, irrigation water, nutrients, 

pests, tomato 

Contact Address: Ambecha O. Gemechis, Jimma University, College of Agriculture and Veterinary 

Medicine 

current address: Wageningen University and Research Centre, Centre for Crop Systems 

Analysis (CSA), Wageningen, The Netherlands, e-mail: ambecha.gemechis@wur.nl 

373


Factors Affecting the Adoption of Organic Pepper Farming in 

India 

SITA RANA, PRIYANKA PARVATHI, HERMANN WAIBEL 


Germany 

India is well-known for the production of spices and was ranked first with around 3.1 

million metric tons of spices in 2004. India´s share in the world spice market is 48 % 

in quantity and 43 % in value. Thus, Indian economy is influenced by the spice sector, 

which has the potential for growing more than 25 cash crops. 

Pepper is originally from the Malabar Coast, Kerala, India. Kerala produces more 

than 90 % of pepper, which is an important source of livelihood for more than 80 % 

of people living in this state. Pepper in this region is grown traditionally as a backyard 

crop. Frequent occurrence of diseases, depletion of soil fertility, and a small 

land holding size are severe constraints to pepper production. In addition, the farm 

gate price of pepper from 1999 to 2000 was Rs 215 kg -1 y-1 but it decreased to Rs 

74 kg-1 y-1from 2003 to 2004. The domestic prices are highly dependent on international 

pepper prices and are hence fluctuating. All these factors have made pepper 

production unremunerative. Adoption of organic farming is an alternative approach to 

address these problems and benefit the small farmers in a sustainable and eco-friendly 

way. 

This research attempts to find out the factors affecting organic farming adoption by 

small scale pepper farmers in Kerala. Here, information is collected from a crosssectional 

data of 200 small scale pepper farmers, 100 conventional and 100 organic. 

In this study, logit analysis is used to examine the factors affecting adoption in terms 

of community set-up, socio economic characteristics and perception. The results will 

help understand the driving factors behind organic pepper production in India. This 

will enable developing policies more suitable for developing small scale organic agriculture 

in India. 

Keywords: Adoption, logit analysis, organic farming, pepper 

Contact Address: Sita Rana, Leibniz Universität Hannover, Institute of Development and Agricultural 

Economics, Königsworther Platz I, 30167 Hannover, Germany, e-mail: rana@ifgb.uni-hannover.de 

374


Socio-Economic Determinants of Milk Production in Bangladesh: 

An Empirical Evidence on Water Use Against Water Crisis 

MST. NADIRA SULTANA 1 ,MOHAMMAD MOHI UDDIN 2 , 

KURT-JOHANNES PETERS 3 ,WOLFGANG BOKELMANN 4 

1University of Kiel, IFCN Dairy Research Center, Germany 

2Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, Dept. Animal Breeding in the Tropics and Subtropics, 

Germany 


4Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, Dept. of Agricultural Economics and Social Sciences, 

Germany 

Water is the most critical natural resources acknowledged in all over the world. Since in large 

parts of the world, including Bangladesh, it is getting difficult to meet the growing demand 

by mobilising more water, the discourse has turned its focus to demand effective water management. 

But efficient water management in milk production is constrained by farm specific 

factors (e.g. socio-economic) and external factors (e.g. infrastructure for water procurement). 

Since infrastructure problems are a matter of public body, we were specifically interested to see 

whether there is any effect of farm specific factors on milk production and water use. Therefore, 

this study empirically tested the influence of socio-economic factors on milk production 

and water use in dairy production systems in Bangladesh. The cross sectional data set collected 

from 220 sample dairy farms covering three regions and three dairy production systems 

was submitted to two-stage regression analysis. In the first stage, a general linear regression 

model was used to explore the factors that influence milk production and water use intensity 

(as defined by low, medium and high intensity), in the second stage, water use intensity was 

regressed by using multinomial logit regression model to identify underlying socio-economic 

determinants in water use intensity. The results indicated that age of farmer, experience and 

training significantly influence milk production. As level of water use intensity increases from 

low to high, milk production increases by 60 %, which indicates the need to use more water 

in dairy farms. Therefore, it is of great interest to investigate which factors determine the water 

use intensity. The mulginomial-logit regression model revealed that a high level of water 

use intensity in relation to a low level was significantly and positively influenced by farm size 

and ownership of the farm, while age and experience of the farmers significantly influenced 

medium level of water use intensity compared to low level. it is concluded that increasing farm 

size (i.e. utilising economies of scale) and gaining experience would particularly be helpful to 

improve the management of water resources in view of high water scarcity in Bangladesh. 

Keywords: Bangladesh, milk production, socio-economic factors, water shortage, water use 

intensity 

Contact Address: MST. Nadira Sultana, University of Kiel, IFCN Dairy Research Center, Kiel, 

Germany, e-mail: nadira.sultana@ifcndairy.org 

375


Changes in Traditional Cultivation and Use of Maguey 

(Agave spp.) and Nopal (Opuntia spp.) in the Upper Mezquital 

Valley of Mexico: Relevance for Sustainable Livelihoods 

MARIA DANIELA NUNEZ BURBANO DE LARA 1 ,JUAN ANTONIO 

REYES-AGÜERO 2 ,JOACHIM SAUERBORN 3 ,ANNE CAMILLA BELLOWS 1 

1University of Hohenheim, Institute of Social Sciences in Agriculture, Germany 

2University of San Luis Potosí, Institute for Research in Desertic Areas, Mexico 



A large share of the inhabitants of the Upper Mezquital Valley (Mexico) belongs to the Ñähñu 

indigenous group. In this semi-arid and highly marginalised region, livelihood strategies have 

for centuries been closely intertwined with maguey (Agave spp.) and nopal (Opuntia spp.) 

cultivation, turning these natural resources into intrinsic to the population’s cultural identity. 

However, traditional resource-use patterns have been increasingly disrupted due to the displacement 

of traditional and locally produced items by industrial products. The absence of 

local markets in combination with growing structural inequalities has led the inhabitants of the 

region to search for alternative livelihood strategies. By applying the sustainable livelihoods 

approach, this study explores the changes of traditional maguey and nopal cultivation and use 

during the last two decades in the Ñähñu community of San Andrés Daboxtha, as well as the 

drivers and impacts of these changes, as perceived by community members. 

Field research revealed a growing neglect of maguey and nopal cultivation since the early 

1990s, resulting in the further deterioration of the resource base through the strong decline 

of maguey and nopal stocks. This neglect was explained, among others, through migration to 

the United States and the associated flow of remittances that turned traditional resource-use 

patterns into seemingly obsolete livelihood strategies. In contrast, one cooperative producing 

maguey syrup has enabled its mainly female members to maintain and enhance their livelihood 

resource base through the creation of a slowly growing market and the continuous access to 

reforestation programs. 

Increasingly difficult conditions in the United States have recently led large numbers of migrants 

to return to the Upper Mezquital and try to add value to the raw materials available in 

the region. Formerly neglected agricultural practices have thereby served as safety net for these 

migrants to return to. The reversal of migratory flows bears both opportunities and challenges; 

overexploitation of maguey was represented a major concern. Departing from the outlined 

findings, we discuss the promotion of agroecological practices as a strategy to contribute to the 

sustainable use of maguey and nopal as means of securing local livelihoods. 

Keywords: Agroecology, biological resilience, cultural resilience, indigenous, Mexico, 

migration 

Contact Address: Maria Daniela Nunez Burbano de Lara, University of Hohenheim, Institute of 

Social Sciences in Agriculture, Schloss Museumsfluegel 031, 70599 Stuttgart, Germany, e-mail: 

dnunez@uni-hohenheim.de 

376


Environmental and Economic Effects of Manure Management in 

Turkey 

WAQAS AHMED MALIK 1 ,THOMAS BREUER 2 ,RALF SCHLAUDERER 1 

1University of Applied Sciences Weihenstephan-Triesdorf (HSWT), Fac. of Agriculture, 

Germany 

2Deutsche Gesellschaft für Internationale Zusammenarbeit (GIZ), Dev. 45 - Agriculture, 

Fisheries and Food, Germany 

Increase in livestock production and consumption in Turkey has resulted in serious 

environment and health risks in form of increased air pollution, water pollution, and 

ground water contamination in many areas. The inefficient manure management is 

also causing economic losses. Additionally not much data is available regarding the 

manure management options available to farmers and their agricultural systems. The 

presented paper is the result of a study conducted to analyse the current situation and 

discuss the possible further options not only technically but also economically. 

Turkey is a large, middle-income country with a growing population of 73.7 million 

and a rapidly developing economy. The consumption of livestock products, i.e. meat 

and milk, has increased manifold and the trend is expected to grow upwards. The rising 

demand has given an impulse for the investors to invest in the large livestock farms 

but environmental and health risks of the manure management are not yet treated sufficiently. 

To obtain basic information field visitswere undertaken. Secondary data were used 

such as from KTBL, LfL Bayern, various agriculture chambers in EU, and GIZ project 

reports. For the calculations machinery costs were analysed in detail. A situation 

analysis examines the current manure management practices and the infrastructure 

available for it. Based on the findings two aspects of manure management are worked 

out in detail: manure storage and its field application/transport. The costs differ considerably 

between the various options for the Turkish livestock farmers.The slurry 

application costs for various combinations having a standard farm-field distance of 

2 km vary from 4.19 e/m 3 to 4.80 e/m 3 . 

The analysis suggests that the introductions of new and improved manure management 

practices through better storage structures and application machines or equipment 

can not only be economically viable but also have a positive effect of the environment. 

The qualitative benefits, such as reduction in environmental stress and 

pollution, have not been evaluated during this study. 

Keywords: Biogas, environment, cost analyses, transport costs 

Contact Address: Ralf Schlauderer, University of Applied Sciences Weihenstephan, Department of 

Agriculture, Steingruberstraße 2, 91746 Weidenbach, Germany, e-mail: ralf.schlauderer@hswt.de 

377

Rural development 


THEA NIELSEN, ALWIN KEIL, MANFRED ZELLER: 

The Influence of Socio-Economic Characteristics and Social 

Networks on Smallholders’ Risk Preferences in Vietnam 382 

LUCREZIA TINCANI: 

Constructing Resilient Livelihoods in Burkina Faso: Finding 

the Right Balance between Persistence and Adaptation 383 

JAN BARKMANN, BYRON MAZA, RAINER MARGGRAF: 

Trade-Offs Between Biodiversity Protection and Poverty 

Alleviation Using Payment for Ecosystem Services at the Pasture-Forest 

Frontier in South Ecuador 384 

JOHN ILUKOR, REGINA BIRNER: 

A Transaction-Cost Framework for Analysing Institutional 

Arrangements for Providing Animal Health Services in 

Developing Countries 385 

TINOUSH JAMALI JAGHDANI, BERNHARD BRÜMMER: 

Willingness to Pay for Irrigation Water from Groundwater 

in Spot Water Market by Self Selectivity: An Example from 

Iran 386 

LUCIE ANDELTOVÁ,KARIN HOLM-MUELLER,T.WÜNSCHER: 

The Role of Risk in Conservation Auctions for Outcome-Based 

Payments for Environmental Services and the Cost-Effectiveness 

Implications: Experiments in Kenya 387 

Posters 388 

MASOUD YAZDANPANAH, DARIUSH HAYATI: 

Understanding of Intention Regarding Water Conservation 

in Face of Drought: The Case of Iranian Agricultural Professionals 

388 

LEONARD HAGGAI ODUORI, MARGARET NGIGI, AQULLARS 

KALIO: 

Analysis of Motivational Factors Affecting Credit Demand 

among Small-Scale Farmers in Western Province, Kenya 389 

379


380 

DIRK RÖTTGERS, ETTI WINTER: 

Implementing Sets of Institutions Using Economic 

Experiments: A Case with Diverse Stakeholders in Sikunga, 

Namibia 

ABDELATEIF HASSAN IBRAHIM, SIEGFRIED BAUER: 

Assessing the Effects of Credit Access on the Profitability of 

Farms in Rural Sudan: An Empirical Study from North 

390 

Kordofan State 

NGUYEN LOC DUC, ULRIKE GROTE, KATHARINA RAABE: 

391 

Rural-urban Migration in Vietnam: Do Households and 

Migrants Get Better Off? 

JOCHEN DÜRR: 

Value Chains and the Forward and Backward Linkages of 

392 

Agriculture in Guatemala 

YING HOU, MARION KANDZIORA, BENJAMIN BURKHARD, 

FELIX MÜLLER: 

Application of the DPSIR Model to Analyse Ecosystem 

393 

Service Drivers of Agricultural Human-Environment Systems 394 

MODUPE OLAJUMOKE OWOLABI, ANJA FASSE,ULRIKE GROTE: 

Typical Farms in the Bio-Energy Value Chain: A Village Case 

Study in Tanzania 

XI ZHAO: 

395 

Return Migrants and Employment in Rural China 

XIAOHUAN YAN, SIEGFRIED BAUER: 

Determinants of Household Participation in Land Rental 

396 

Market in Rural China: Evidence from Henan Province 

XIAOHUAN YAN, SIEGFRIED BAUER, JILIANG XUE: 

Vocational Training to Facilitate Rural Urban Migration in 

397 

China: A Nonparametric Analysis 

IFEANYI NWACHUKWU: 

Analysis of Livelihoods and Income Generation among Rural 

398 

Dwellers in Southeastern Nigeria 

JOHANNES PESCHKE: 

Banking on Variety – Systems Diversity in Small Scale 

399 

Farming Systems in Sub-Saharan Africa 

BEZAWIT BEYENE CHICHAIBELU, HERMANN WAIBEL: 

Financial Vulnerability and Indebtedness of Poor Households 

400 

in Thailand and Vietnam 

JULIANE ERBACH, EVA SCHLECHT, ULF LIEBE: 

Decency of Women’s Working Conditions in Peri-Urban Dairy 

401 

Production Systems in the District Faisalabad, Pakistan 402

Rural development — Contents 

JAENAL EFFENDI, HEIKO FAUST: 

The Role of Islamic Micro-Finance Institutions on Poverty 

Alleviation and Environmental Awareness in Indonesia 403 

HASSAN ROBA, BRIGITTE KAUFMANN: 

Natural Resources Governance in Northern Kenya: 

Implication of Institutional Changes on Environmental 

Management 404 

CHO CHO SAN, BEATRICE KNERR: 

Livelihood and Resource Use Situation of Mangrove Forest 

Dependent Rice Farmers in Yanbye Township, Myanmar 405 

381


The Influence of Socio-Economic Characteristics and Social 

Networks on Smallholders’ Risk Preferences in Vietnam 

THEA NIELSEN, ALWIN KEIL, MANFRED ZELLER 



Risk is an integral part of decision making, especially in smallholder agriculture in 

developing countries. Nevertheless, influencing factors of risk preferences are poorly 

understood. This study contributes to closing knowledge gaps on how socio-economic 

characteristics, various indicators of social capital including social networks, and 

shock-induced losses influence risk preferences and how these influences may differ 

across five different methods to elicit risk preferences. We analyse influencing factors 

of smallholders’ risk preferences in a random sample of 300 households which is 

representative of Yen Chau district, Son La Province, an upland area of northwestern 

Vietnam. The five methods are a non-hypothetical lottery called the multiple price list 

technique and four hypothetical methods. Ordinary Least Squares (OLS), tobit, and 

probit regression models identify influencing factors of risk preferences separately for 

each elicitation method. To the best of our knowledge, there exists no study which has 

explicitly tested for an influence of various indicators of social capital on risk preferences 

or which has collected risk preferences using such a wide range of techniques 

within-sample. 

We find that most respondents are risk averse, with a high percentage being classified 

as very risk averse. In most OLS and tobit models, female gender, older age, lower education, 

lower network-based trust with extended family members, larger household 

impacts of idiosyncratic shocks, and poorer connections to local authorities are statistically 

significant in increasing risk aversion. Nevertheless, the low explanatory power 

of the models is a clear sign that unobservable or hard-to-observe factors, such as genetics 

and prior experiences, are likely to be of greater importance in determining risk 

preferences. The result that most respondents are (very) risk averse indicates that they 

may be unwilling to make investments that could increase households’ productive capacity 

because of the associated (perceived) risks. Thus, policymakers and extension 

agents should recommend that smallholders invest step-wise in new income-earning 

activities or technologies. We also recommend that safety nets, such as agricultural 

insurance, should be targeted to the most risk averse individuals to help smallholders 

better adapt to natural disasters and other risks. 

Keywords: Lottery choice task decision, risk preferences, social networks, Vietnam 

Contact Address: Thea Nielsen, University of Hohenheim, Institute of Agricultural Economics and 


thea.nielsen@uni-hohenheim.de 

382

Rural development — Oral Presentations 

Constructing Resilient Livelihoods in Burkina Faso: Finding the 

Right Balance between Persistence and Adaptation 

LUCREZIA TINCANI 

School of Oriental and African Studies (SOAS), Centre for Development, Environment 

and Policy (CeDEP), United Kingdom 

Research on resilience in farming systems often focuses on encouraging diversification, 

so that risks are spread across a wider portfolio of activities. However, the 

financial literature has long warned that diversification is only beneficial if activities 

within the portfolio are not interdependent (low covariance), otherwise – akin to a row 

of dominos spaced too closely together – shocks affecting one component can quickly 

reverberate through the whole system. The long-term study of ecosystems has similarly 

documented the detrimental effect of high interdependence on the capacity of 

ecosystems to recover after hurricanes and other natural disasters. 

This Ph.D. research applied these principles to livelihood systems in the arid Sahel, 

examining the processes fostering resilience and allowing households to ensure their 

food security year-round. With over 2.5 billion people living in drylands worldwide, 

it is important to understand how sustainable livelihoods are constructed and maintained 

in such a risk-prone environment. To model the adaptive trajectory of livelihoods, 

resilience was observed at the relational scale of the household over a whole 

agricultural cycle, from harvest to harvest (2009–2010). Results revealed that risktaking 

behaviour of interviewees varied over the cycle, alternating between periods of 

persistence (continuing the same livelihood activities) and adaptation (pursuing new 

livelihood activities), refuting the commonly-held notion of ‘linear’ adaptation. 

Three indicators of resilience were computed, capturing strategies which were diverse 

but exhibited low interdependence and could easily be adapted by intensifying current 

activities or accessing new ones. This study shows how resilience theory applied to 

livelihoods may provide a more holistic approach to ensuring food provision in riskprone 

environments. The identified indicators can be used as a diagnostic tool, quantifying 

current level of resilience and guiding policy interventions to foster resilience. 

Keywords: Adaptation, diversification, food, resilience, Sahel, risk aversion 

Contact Address: Lucrezia Tincani, School of Oriental and African Studies (SOAS), 

Centre for Development, Environment and Policy (CeDEP), Russell Square, WC1H 0XG London, 

United Kingdom, e-mail: lucrezia.tincani@soas.ac.uk 

383


Trade-Offs Between Biodiversity Protection and Poverty 

Alleviation Using Payment for Ecosystem Services at the 

Pasture-Forest Frontier in South Ecuador 

JAN BARKMANN 1 ,BYRON MAZA 2 ,RAINER MARGGRAF 1 



2Universidad Nacional de Loja, Agriculture and Renewable Natural Resources, Ecuador 

Ecuador is very rich in biodiversity but has the highest annual deforestation rate in 

South America with much land being converted to pastures. The presentation investigates 

the effects of contrasting instument options including Payments for Ecosystem 

Services (PES) that all foster a forest conversion ban in mountainous southern 

Ecuador. Biodiversity effects are expressed as cost-efficiency of conservation, and 

poverty alleviation effects as improvements of the GINI coefficient of farm household 

incomes. The tested conservation instruments differ with respect to being either 

mandatory or voluntary, and if all farmers are compensated by the same ’flat’ 

payment rate per hectare or if the compensation equals individual opportunity costs 

calculated from survey data. Additionally, dedicated ’pro-poor’ PES were investigated 

restricting payments to the poorest households. Empirical opportunity cost 

data stem from a sample of 130 local farming households living at the northern edge 

of the UNESCO Biosphere Reserve “Podocarpus-El Cóndor” in southern Ecuador. 

In all cases, a fixed budget of 25,000 USD yr -1 is distributed. The amount equals 

the typical annual per ha payments of the Ecuadorian national Socio Bosque programme 

times forest area of the 130 households. The average opportunity costs is 

156 USD ha-1 yr-1 . A voluntary PES paying just farmer’s opportunity costs can cover 

305 ha (36 % of total forest area of the farms); the GINI coefficient does nor change. 

A mandatory approach covering a all farms in proportion to forest size and paying a 

flat 156 USD ha-1 yr-1 compensation only secures 136 ha. With most payments dispensed 

to the relatively least poor farmers, the GINI coefficient rises slightly to 0.488. 

Voluntary approaches with 156 USD ha-1 yr-1 improve the GINI coefficient to 0.477. 

If payments are restricted to the 60 % poorest farmers at flat compensation rates between 

150 and 300 USD ha-1 yr-1 , only 168 to 84 ha forest are covered but the GINI 

coefficient improves to 0.470–0.462. While mandatory approaches always perform 

worst, we conclude that severe trade-offs between cost efficiency and poverty alleviation 

are likely to impact PES application in the study area - and in other regions 

characterised by a majority of intensively used smallholder farms. 

Keywords: Biodiversity conservation, economic incentives, environmenral justice 

Contact Address: Jan Barkmann, Georg-August-Universität Göttingen, Dept. of Agricultural 

Economics and Rural Development, Platz der Göttinger Sieben 5, D-37073 Göttingen, Germany, 

e-mail: jbarkma@gwdg.de 

384


A Transaction-Cost Framework for Analysing Institutional 

Arrangements for Providing Animal Health Services in 

Developing Countries 

JOHN ILUKOR, REGINA BIRNER 



In the developing countries, the current policy environment is fragile and ineffective in guiding 

animal health services delivery. Most of the existing institutional arrangements are developed 

as responses to the crisis but not based on systematic and analytical theoretical frameworks. 

Analytical frameworks that guide the policy formulation for providing animal health 

services are needed in order to address growing animal disease risks in a sustainable manner. 

Existing analytical frameworks for analysing institutional arrangements for providing animal 

health services are based on market failure attributes with diminutive attention to governance 

attributes of animal health services and contextual factors that are unique to animal production 

system. Therefore, we present a framework of analysing institutional arrangements for providing 

animal health services based on market failures, governance issues and contextual factors. 

Williamson’s discriminating alignment hypothesis is applied to assess cost effectiveness of the 

institutional arrangements and to generate testable hypothesises. Based on market failures attribute, 

governance attributes and contextual factors, we generate the following hypotheses: 

H1: The community animal health worker system is transaction cost minimising under conditions 

of low economies of scale, transaction intensity, and low measurability in marginal areas. 

H2: The para veterinary system is transaction cost minimising under conditions of low economies 

of scale, transaction intensity, and low measurability in productive areas. 

H3: The government service delivery system is transaction costs minimising under externalities, 

free rider problem, and high economies of scale, asset specificity, and high measurability. 

H4: An integrated livestock service delivery system is transaction cost minimising when a mix 

of attributes of hypotheses H1, H2 and H3 exists. 

H5: The private veterinarian system cannot provide any real livestock service in marginal areas. 

H6: Even in productive areas, the private veterinary system will not be cost effective in providing 

services. 

Empirical methods for testing these hypotheses will be presented, along with conclusions. 

Keywords: Animal health services, governance attributes, institutional arrangements, market 

failures 

Contact Address: John Ilukor, University of Hohenheim, Institute of Agricultural Economics and 


john.ilukor@gmail.com 

385


Willingness to Pay for Irrigation Water from Groundwater in Spot 

Water Market by Self Selectivity: An Example from Iran 

TINOUSH JAMALI JAGHDANI, BERNHARD BRÜMMER 

Georg-August-Universität Göttingen, Department of Agricultural Economics and Rural 


Understanding the economic value of water can inform decision makers of the full 

social benefits and costs of water use, which is of particular importance in agriculture 

with its huge and often heavily subsidised water use. In the few available irrigation 

water markets, the price that is paid for an extra unit of irrigation water reflects 

the willingness to pay (WTP) of farmers but is blurred by the impact of other factors. 

Analysing this WTP and its determinants hence gives us the chance to find the 

‘right’ value of water. One specific methodological challenge, however, arises from 

the observation that participation in water markets is usually not randomly distributed 

across the population of all water users. In consequence, self-selectivity issues arise 

for the analysis of WTP for irrigation water, which are often ignored in the existing 

water valuation literature. This study attempts to show that self-selectivity is indeed 

an issue in our case study of the spot water market in the Rafsanjan aquifer in southeastern 

Iran. The main source of irrigation water is groundwater. A two-stage random 

sampling was carried out in a field study from November 2008 - February 2009. In 

this survey, information was collected on different aspects of groundwater, irrigation, 

production and cost of the pistachio production, and socioeconomic characteristics 

of the farmers. The factors affecting the WTP have been analysed by the Heckman 

sample selection model with emphasis on the effects of the farmers’ decisions to participate 

in the spot water market. The price which is paid by the farmers is used as the 

dependent variable. Results show that the self-selectivity parameter in the Heckman 

model is significant at an estimate of -0.73. This indicates that the average WTP of 

all farmers in the Rafsanjan aquifer is actually much less than the WTP of those who 

participated in the spot water market. The significant and effective variables in the 

Heckman model are mainly related to technical characteristics. The study suggests 

that the promotion of the groundwater market could be a way to get a clear picture of 

the groundwater scarcity in depleting aquifers such as Rafsanjan. 

Keywords: Groundwater, Heckman sample selection model, irrigation water, 

pistachio, Rafsanjan, self selectivity 

Contact Address: Tinoush Jamali Jaghdani, Georg-August-Universität Göttingen, Department of 

Agricultural Economics and Rural Development, Platz der Göttinger Sieben 5, D-37073 Göttingen, 

Germany, e-mail: tjamali@gwdg.de 

386


The Role of Risk in Conservation Auctions for Outcome-Based 

Payments for Environmental Services and the Cost-Effectiveness 

Implications: Experiments in Kenya 

LUCIE ANDELTOVÁ 1 ,KARIN HOLM-MUELLER 2 ,TOBIAS WÜNSCHER 1 

1University of Bonn, Center for Develoment Research (ZEF), Department of Economic 

and Technological Change, Germany 

2Institute for Food and Resource Economics, Environmental and Resource Economics, 

Germany 

While most PES programmes tie payments to defined land use practices (“actionbased 

PES”), PES schemes in which payments are made conditional on conservation 

outcome (“outcome-based PES”) are argued to have many advantages as opposed to 

indirect approaches. On the other hand, an outcome-based contract exposes farmers 

to additional uncertainty, which implies different impacts on the cost-effectiveness. 

Further, although the auction theory assumes risk neutrality among bidders, farmers 

are generally considered to be risk averse, which might further deepen the divergence 

of impacts on cost-effectiveness under those two PES mechanisms. 

The overall objective of this study was to assess whether “outcome uncertainty” adversely 

affects the cost-effectiveness of conservation auctions for outcome-based PES 

(as compared to the auction for action-based PES), and on the contrary whether “input 

uncertainty” improves the cost-effectiveness of conservation auctions. 

Field experiments were conducted with farmers in Western Kenya and the findings 

highlight the trade-off conservation agencies are facing. Whereas outcome-based 

conservation contracts are argued to improve the ecological performance, the empirical 

results of this study show that “outcome uncertainty” indeed adversely affects 

the contract costs of conservation auctions. Thus, the supposed higher quality in the 

implementation of conservation contracts might be traded off with higher costs and 

lower quantity of allocated contracts. 

On the contrary, the study shows that participants with uncertain farm income are 

much more willing to participate in a PES programme and accordingly decrease their 

bids in the conservation auction. However, the cost-effectiveness potential of this 

“input-uncertainty” decreases with repetition of the auction for conservation contracts 

and might entirely disappear in the long run. 

Keywords: Conservation auction, cost-effectiveness, outcome-based, payments for 

environmental services, uncertainty 

Contact Address: Lucie Andeltová, University of Bonn, Center for Develoment Research (ZEF), 

Dept. of Economic and Technological Change, Walter-Flex-Str. 3, 53113 Bonn, Germany, e-mail: 

lucie.andeltova@gmail.com 

387


Understanding of Intention Regarding Water Conservation in 

Face of Drought: The Case of Iranian Agricultural Professionals 

MASOUD YAZDANPANAH 1 ,DARIUSH HAYATI 2 

1Khuzestan Ramin Agricultural and Natural Resources University, Dept. of Agricultural 

Extension and Education, Iran 

2Shiraz University, Dept. of Agricultural Extension, Iran 

Iran is a semi-arid country which faced with frequent drought and water shortage. 

Recently some efforts have been made to implement water conservation among water 

users, particularly farmers. However, despite the increasing importance of water conservation 

across the world, very little is known about the psychosocial variables that 

predict whether or not people will conserve water. The present study uses an extended 

model of the theory of planned behaviour (TPB), which includes additional variables 

of moral norm, self-identity, and the risk perception to predict the intentions regarding 

water conservation in a random sample of agricultural professionals (n=80) in a 

survey conducted in Iran. Findings revealed that the subjective norm and perceived 

behavioural control had positive and significant correlation with water conservational 

intention. But attitude was not significantly related to intention. Findings also showed 

that the extended model is an improvement over the TPB for predicting intention 

and activities regarding water conservation. Multiple regression analysis showed that 

moral norm, perceived behavioural control, and risk perception can predict 68 % of 

variances in water conservation intentions, while in the original model social norm 

and perceived behavioural control can predict 49 % of those variances. Therefore, 

those professionals who had a greater commitment to water conservation activates 

also had a greater intention to engage in such activities; moreover, the significance of 

perceived behaviour control revealed that professionals did not have complete volition 

in their water conservation activities. Based on the research findings some applicable 

recommendations will be presented toward agricultural professionals’ water conservational 

intention and behaviour improvement in the presentation. 

Keywords: Agriculture professionals, Iran, moral norm, self-identity, theory of 

planned behaviour, water conservation 

Contact Address: Masoud Yazdanpanah, Khuzestan Ramin Agricultural and Natural Resources Univ., 

Dept. of Agricultural Extension and Education, Ahwaz, Iran, e-mail: masoudyazdan@gmail.com 

388

Rural development — Posters 

Analysis of Motivational Factors Affecting Credit Demand among 

Small-Scale Farmers in Western Province, Kenya 

LEONARD HAGGAI ODUORI 1 ,MARGARET NGIGI 2 ,AQULLARS KALIO 2 

1Centre for African Bio-Entreprenuership, Research Department, Kenya 

2Egerton University, Agricultural Ecoconomics and Agribusiness Management, Kenya 

Western Province is an agricultural region that enjoys good rainfall and farmers practice 

mixed farming. For many farmers, there exists opportunities for accessing farm 

credit offered by lenders. However, they have been reported to fear accessing credit 

from banks. The study assessed what factors contribute towards the fear to seek institutional 

credit, despite the easement of its availability by lenders. We found that 

demand for credit did not match its supply by government (KES. 3.5 Billion for youth 

and women), banks (KES. 24 Billion from Equity) and micro-finance institutions. 

Looking at the influence of socio-economic characteristics and the farming environment 

on demand for credit, it was hypothesised that the motivational factors to seek 

information on credit and subsequent application do not inhibit small-scale farmers 

from seeking credit. The study did not consider the lenders’ organisational weaknesses 

and political-economy issues that constrain or engender demand for credit. 

Multi-stage random sampling was used to arrive at a sample of 224 respondents. Primary 

data was collected using interviews and observations on farm ecological conditions. 

The research revealed that farmers spend only 1.6 hours per season planning 

for the farm, 0.3 hours planning for the market and 5 hours working on the farm. 

This reflected low management capacity. Factors significantly motivating the intention 

to seek credit were those which improved the farmers’ perception of self-ability 

and control such as youth, asset ownership, risk loving attitude and high expectations 

of increased farm output and investment. The subjective norms arising out of interaction 

with neighbours who have borrowed and model farmers significantly enhanced 

inclination towards acquiring credit. The action of applying for formal credit was 

strongly encouraged by an increase in asset ownership. We recommend that in order 

to improve the farmers’ capacity to utilise available credit there is need to train 

them in entrepreneurship and savings and give them small loans to finance products 

with ready markets or link with markets through vertical integration and franchising. 

This would enhance access to better prices to improve cash flow, thereby easing loan 

repayments. 

Keywords: Credit demand, Heckman two stage, managament capacity, motivational 

factors 

Contact Address: Leonard Haggai Oduori, Centre for African Bio-Entreprenuership, Research Dept., 

Maimahiu Road, Nairobi, Kenya, e-mail: haggai200@yahoo.com 

389


Implementing Sets of Institutions Using Economic Experiments: 

A Case with Diverse Stakeholders in Sikunga, Namibia 

DIRK RÖTTGERS, ETTI WINTER 


Germany 

Ecosystems are complex and so are relations between stakeholders of different ecosystem 

services (ESS). To help a diverse group of stakeholders manage an ecosystem sustainably, 

a certificate-based payment for ecosystem services (PES) is useful. Manifold 

PES-schemes have been tested using experimental economics. Apart from empirical 

findings, studies as side note often concluded that economic experiments are a useful 

tool for educating participants on their situation and possible solutions. On a more 

basic level, it can even help shape the picture of the situation, so that stakeholders 

can level with each other. Still, economic experiments are primarily used as a tool 

for data collection and not taken seriously as tool for informing and educating, both 

stakeholders and researchers. In contrast to previous studies, our analysis aims at 

testing experimental economics as a tool for education and qualitative analysis. Using 

experiments for educational purposes is particularly useful for ESS management 

under a certificate-based ecosystem management scheme. A problematic ecosystem 

management setting often comprises a group of diverse local stakeholders and a set 

of resources many of which are common pool resources produced by one ecosystem. 

The region we chose for our experiments is the Sikunga conservancy, which is 

part of the Caprivi strip in Namibia. Its community just recently implemented selfmanagement 

and is a candidate for a certificate-based PES. Although the ecosystem 

in Sikunga fulfils many services, we concentrate on three main ESS in the experiments: 

biodiversity, carbon mitigation and agriculture. Accordingly the participants 

in the economic experiments are local stakeholders of these services: farmers, tourism 

entrepreneurs, fire-wood-collecting households, administrators, and political as well 

as institutional leaders. Because of the experiments, local stakeholders were successfully 

brought to new insights into challenges connected to the management of 

their ecosystem. While proposing possible solutions, locals as well as us outside researchers 

gained insights into matters of governing and other qualitative information 

otherwise hardly attainable. Though it was not the goal of our experiments, we can 

also report that experiments for educational purposes do not lose their validity as data 

collection tool, although trade-offs between data quantity and experiment depth have 

to be made. 

Keywords: Management of ecosystems, Namibia, PES, qualitative analysis 

Contact Address: Dirk Röttgers, Leibniz Universität Hannover, Inst. for Environmental 

Economics and World Trade, Königsworther Platz 1, 30163 Hannover, Germany, e-mail: 

roettgers@iuw.uni-hannover.de 

390


Assessing the Effects of Credit Access on the Profitability of Farms 

in Rural Sudan: An Empirical Study from North Kordofan State 

ABDELATEIF HASSAN IBRAHIM, SIEGFRIED BAUER 

Justus-Liebig University Giessen, Dept. of Project and Regional Planning, Germany 

Although serious attention has been given to support the process of development 

in developing countries, poor people in rural areas remain largely marginalised. In 

Sudan as an example, several factors are contributing to that. Poor people in rural 

Sudan have limited access to credit, information, and agricultural inputs. In addition, 

they are forced to irrationally allocate their available resources due to inefficient policy 

processes. This study focuses on the access to credit as a problem that persists 

in North Kordofan State, where several NGOs and governmental institutions implemented 

packages of microfinance service. The provision of microfinance to the small 

farmers was a major strategy employed by central bank of Sudan and other institutions 

to increase farmers’ productivity and reduce poverty. Accordingly, this paper 

aims at investigating the factors affecting credit constraints conditions for credit users 

and non-users. In addition, it tries to determine the factors influencing the profit to 

farmers from agriculture. The study relies on a survey conducted in 2009 in North Kordofan 

State, using structured questionnaire. It surveyed 200 farm households, which 

were selected through a multi-stage random sampling technique. 

Descriptive statistical tools and Heckman selection model (two-step estimates) were 

applied to analyse the data. Results show that, farm profits for all categories in the 

study area were SDG 1768 (100 Sudanese pound ≈ 18 ¤). The credit users were 

better off with a profit of SDG 2022 compared to SDG 1513 for non-users. The 

results of the probit model show that value of assets, savings and annual incomes are 

significant variables determining the credit constrained conditions. In addition, the 

results of Heckman model show the significance of several factors. These include 

household size, savings, labor used, land owned, distance of MFIs, off-farm income 

and extension services. Methodologically, the study found that using of OLS, for 

testing the parameters produces a bias in sample data. Therefore, the study uses of the 

Heckman selection model to correct the expected biasness. The study suggests that in 

order for the farm profits to be improved, first the agricultural investment should be 

improved, particularly the adoption of efficient and sustainable technology. 

Keywords: Credit, farm profitability, gross margin, Heckman model, poverty, 

selection bias 

Contact Address: Abdelateif Hassan Ibrahim, Justus-Liebig University Giessen, Dept. of Project and 

Regional Planning, Senckenberg Str. 3, 35390 Giessen, Germany, e-mail: lateif73@hotmail.com 

391


Rural-Urban Migration in Vietnam: Do Households and Migrants 

Get Better Off? 

NGUYEN LOC DUC, ULRIKE GROTE, KATHARINA RAABE 


Germany 

Vietnam, considered to have undergone rapid economic and social development, has 

experienced an exponential increase in the movement of people from rural to urban 

area. Migration is one of the reasonable strategies to reduce poverty in place of origins 

and supply labor for industrialisation in urban areas. This paper investigates the 

interaction of migrants and their rural households in three provinces in the central region 

of Vietnam. It addresses three questions. (1) What motivates rural households to 

send their household members to urban areas? (2) Do migrants become better off in 

the destination area? (3) What is the effect of migration on rural household’s income? 

The analysis is based on panel data of 2,200 households from rural areas in Central 

Vietnam covering the period 2007–2010, and on migrant survey data of 299 migrants 

traced in and around Ho Chi Minh City in 2010. The empirical evidence from a probit 

model shows that migration is an adaptation strategy for households that are exposed 

to social shocks. Else, migration is more likely to be observed among households with 

higher human and social capital endowments and among households that are financially 

better off. Through constructing the employment quality index, the study found 

that migrants perceive themselves to be better off at the place of destination. The 

results from difference in difference specifications with propensity score matching 

techniques suggest that migration has positive income growth effects and that these 

effects are more pronounced in provinces with fewer job opportunities. While migration 

thus aggravates income disparities within villages, it may reduce those between 

provinces. 

Keywords: Difference in difference, employment quality index, impact assessment, 

migration, propensity score matching, remittance 

Contact Address: Nguyen Loc Duc, Leibniz Universität Hannover, Institute for Environmental 

Economics and World Trade, 

nguyen@iuw.uni-hannover.de 

392 

Koenigsworther Platz 1, 30167 Hannover, Germany, e-mail:


Value Chains and the Forward and Backward Linkages of 

Agriculture in Guatemala 

JOCHEN DÜRR 

University of Kassel, Economic Development, Migration and Agricultural Policy, 

Germany 

Agriculture is still the most important sector in rural areas of almost all developing 

countries. Additionally, through forward and backward linkages, the agricultural sector 

generates employment and value added indirectly in other sectors like industry and 

commerce. One important question is which value chains have the highest multipliers 

and potential to stimulate economic growth and create jobs. Especially if there is, 

as in Guatemala, a highly dualistic farm structure: 92 % of all farmers possess only 

22 % of total cultivated land, whereas the oil palm, sugar cane and banana plantations 

concentrate on large landholdings and are expanding at the expense of small farms. 

There are no reliable data about income and job generation (or losses) of this process, 

but they are essential for regional and national development planning. 

The present study examines 28 value chains in the main agricultural regions of Guatemala. 

The methodology uses input-output-tables to show the most important variables 

of the value chains like output, value added and employment. Unlike other 

studies which utilise official social accounting matrices to quantify the forward and 

backward linkages of agriculture, we used a bottom-up-approach starting from agricultural 

production, following the value chains back and forth from the local to the 

national level. 

Results show that nearly half (47 %) of total value added is produced in agriculture, 

34 % in industry, and 18 % in commerce. This means that for one dollar created in 

agriculture, another dollar is generated in the forward and backward sectors. One 

third of this value added is attributable to peasant agriculture, and more than half of 

all the jobs generated in the value chains can be traced back to small scale agriculture. 

The sugar cane and palm oil industry do not create much wealth for the regions where 

they are grown. Therefore, agricultural policy should support peasant agriculture not 

only for social, but also for economic reasons. 

Keywords: Forward and backward linkages, input-output analysis, peasant 

agriculture, value chains 

Contact Address: Jochen Dürr, University of Kassel, Economic Development, Migration and 

Agricultural Policy, Steinstr. 19, 37213 Witzenhausen, Germany, e-mail: jochenduerr@gmx.de 

393


Application of the DPSIR Model to Analyse Ecosystem Service 

Drivers of Agricultural Human-Environment Systems 

YING HOU, MARION KANDZIORA, BENJAMIN BURKHARD, FELIX MÜLLER 

University of Kiel, Institute for Natural Resource Conservation, Germany 

Integrating environment and human systems, ecosystem services have been drawing 

an increasing concern from environmental researchers and managers. One research 

focus regarding ecosystem services is the dynamics and the drivers, since this issue 

can well reveal the impacts of social and economic systems on natural systems. However, 

due to the insufficiency of quantitative analysis of the interrelationships between 

ecosystem service changes and social-economic drivers, the exact reasons for ecosystem 

service dynamics are usually still unclear. The Driver-Pressure-State-Impact- 

Response (DPSIR) model is a promising tool to identify the interactions between the 

components of human-environment systems and describe the cause-effect processes. 

It has potentials to quantitatively analyse how ecosystem services change under the 

drivers of human systems. 

Our research aims at identifying the drivers of ecological integrity/ecosystem services 

and human well-being in agricultural human-environment systems and demonstrating 

how these drivers play their roles. We proposed a framework coupling DPSIR, ecological 

integrity/ecosystem services as well as human well-being and put forward the DP- 

SIR indicators for the case area: Jiangsu, China. Then we revealed the factors significantly 

impacting ecological integrity, ecosystem services and human well-being of the 

research area through correlation analysis, which took the 13 prefecture-level cities of 

Jiangsu as the sample. The results show that urbanisation, industrialisation and economic 

development are the predominant positive drivers of the regional biodiversity, 

food provisioning service and rural residents’ living standards at the prefecture-level 

city scale. Additionally, the knowledge, technology and finance inputs for agriculture 

also have generally positive impact on these aspects. This phenomenon is probably 

due to the high intensity land use for regional economic development and human habitation, 

which can save land for more natural vegetation. Contrarily, the expanding of 

farming land and the increasing of agricultural economy are two important negative 

driving forces of biodiversity, ecosystem food provisioning capacity and the wellbeing 

of the rural populations. Our study provides a promising approach based on the 

DPSIR model to quantitatively capture the drivers of ecosystem services and human 

well-being for agricultural human-environment systems at the regional scale. 

Keywords: DPSIR, driving force, dynamics, ecosystem services, human-environmental, 

quantify 

Contact Address: Ying Hou, University of Kiel, Institute for Natural Resource Conservation, 

Olshausenstr. 75, 24118 Kiel, Germany, e-mail: yhou@ecology.uni-kiel.de 

394


Typical Farms in the Bio-Energy Value Chain: A Village Case 

Study in Tanzania 

MODUPE OLAJUMOKE OWOLABI, ANJA FASSE, ULRIKE GROTE 

Leibniz Universität Hannover, Institute of Environmental Economics and World Trade, 

Germany 

Traditional biomass, particularly firewood, plays a significant role in rural household 

energy consumption. However, high rate of deforestation and continuous loss of biodiversity 

in most of the developing countries has been linked to over exploitation of 

forest resource and continuous dependence of rural habitant on biomass. As postulated 

by the literature, excessive biomass consumption can be reduced through biofuel 

production.This paper therefore seeks to determine the present and future participation 

of a typical household farm in the bioenergy value chain by addressing these 

questions: (1) What are the main factors influencing the household energy consumption? 

(2) Which of household groups cultivate more of Jatropha plant? 

The primary data used in this analysis are drawn from a surveyed cross sectional data 

set of Tandai village households located in Morogoro region of Tanzania in 2010. 

Income categories’ statistical t-test results of the surveyed households shows variation 

in some of the households’ socio-economic factors and their per capita firewood 

consumption. The rich households consumed more of firewood than the poor households. 

More so, they were found to have more land and more household members 

compared to the poor households. The result of a multivariate regression analysis 

further proved the significant effect of wealth and household size on household total 

energy consumption. The alternative sustainable prospective energy source Jatropha 

plant has been found to be more cultivated on the rich households’ plots than by poor 

households. Chi-sqare-test results show a higher percentage of hired labor for the rich 

households compared to the poor ones. 

Keywords: Bioenergy, firewood, Jatropha, wealth 

Contact Address: Modupe Olajumoke Owolabi, Leibniz Universität Hannover, Institute of Environmental 

Economics and World Trade, Dorotheen Str 7, 30419 Hannover, Germany, e-mail: 

olajumokeowolabi@yahoo.com 

395


Return Migrants and Employment in Rural China 

XI ZHAO 

University of Kassel, Dept. of Development Economics, Migration and Agricultural 

Policy, Germany 

Through the national economic reform, China has achieved great progress toward 

economic growth and full employment since the 1970s. However, with rapid urbanisation 

and increasing income gap between rural and urban areas, more and more farm 

labor left the agricultural sector and shifted to off-farm sectors. 

It is stated by the national statistical office that in 1952 approximately 84 % of China’s 

workers were engaged in agriculture; in 1997 the figure had declined to 41 %. It is estimated 

that by 2030 farm employment may account for only 10 % of the total. Many 

scholars argue that the huge reduction in farm employment is to endanger China’s 

food security. With increasing population, natural disasters, and decreasing arable 

land, the large withdrawal of labor from agriculture has become a significant factor 

leading to food crisis in China. 

Since the global financial crisis in 2008, a large number of migrant workers lost their 

jobs in urban centres, they had to go back to their rural home villages. These returnees 

have different employment status after return. Based on the data from a field survey 

conducted in 2011, we find that many return migrants have given up their original 

agricultural work and entered non-agricultural employment, while many of them were 

unemployed. 

This paper explores why return migrants chose non-farm work or unemployment, 

and what the major determinants of their employment status are. By this the study 

puts forward some policy recommendations to ensure food supply by promoting full 

employment in rural China. 

Keywords: Employment, return migrants, rural development 

Contact Address: Xi Zhao, University of Kassel, Dept. of Development Economics, Migration and 

Agricultural Policy, Steinstr. 19, 37213 Witzenhausen, Germany, e-mail: dongxi1982@hotmail.com 

396


Determinants of Household Participation in Land Rental Markets 

in Rural China: Evidence from Henan Province 

XIAOHUAN YAN, SIEGFRIED BAUER 


Economic reforms in rural China have led to the emergence of land and labor markets. 

The development of rural land rental markets can improve agricultural productivity 

and equity by facilitating transfers of land to more productive farmers and facilitating 

the participation in the non-farm economy of less productive farmers. In recent 

years the incidence of land rental activities has increased rapidly. There are large differences 

of households’ participation in land renting activities, both between regions 

and within regions. The purpose of this study is to analyse the factors affecting households’ 

participation in land rental markets in one of the big agricultural provinces in 

China, namely Henan Province. Data from 464 households in three counties are used 

to analyse the participation in land rental markets. Multinomial logit model and tobit 

model are used to identify the determinants for households’ land rental participation 

and rental size. The results show that households’ land endowment and off-farm employment 

are the main incentives for households’ land rental participation. However, 

this participation decision is constrained by household’s labor resource endowment 

and the opportunity cost of off farm employment. Institutional factors, such as the reallocation 

times in the village and village-level indicators of land-transfer rights have 

significant impacts on households’ land rental participation, while the expectation of 

the next reallocation and land contracts do not play a significant role in land renting 

activity. Among all of the households’ characteristics variables, only household 

heads’ age has a significant influence on the participation in land rental market. The 

main recommendations of this study are polices to secure the land tenure and reduce 

transaction cost of land transfer; this will stimulate the development of rural land 

rental markets. Appropriate measures in providing more off-farm work opportunities 

will increase the potential supply of land. 

Keywords: China, land rental markets, off-farm employment, tenure security 

Contact Address: Xiaohuan Yan, Justus-Liebig University Giessen, Dept. of Project and Regional 

Planning, Senckenberg Str. 3, Giessen, Germany, e-mail: Xiaohuan.Yan@agrar.uni-giessen.de 

397


Vocational Training to Facilitate Rural Urban Migration in China: 

A Nonparametric Analysis 

XIAOHUAN YAN 1 ,SIEGFRIED BAUER 1 ,JILIANG XUE 2 


2Northwest A&F University, College of Economics and Management, China 

The rapid industrialisation and urbanisation has driven gigantic numbers of rural laborers 

in China moving off-farm and into urban areas. However, the poor education 

they have received and low skills they possess have seriously hampered their way into 

urban employment and poses huge challenges to China’s social stability and sustainable 

development. In order to solve this problem, the government implemented the 

“Sunshine Project” in 2004 which aims to provide non-agricultural skill training for 

rural migrants before they leave their rural home areas. This paper focuses on the 

training situation and its efficiency for China’s rural migrants after the implementation 

of this project. The results indicate that the formal training programme focuses 

on the long term effects. The trainees receive both theoretical education and practical 

training, they can get certificates nationally recognised, which facilitate their job 

hunting. On the contrary, the informal training programs are very market-oriented 

and basically address the short term or instant effect. Both the formal and the informal 

training are important and they are complementary. The supply of rural migrants’ 

training programmes increased after the implementation of the “Sunshine Project”. 

Based on provincial panel data, the paper analyses the TFP (total factor productivity) 

change in China’s rural migrants training during 2004–2009 through a nonparametric 

Malmquist index approach. Twenty-nine provinces’ training input and output data 

were selected from China Labor Statistical Yearbook 2005–2010. The results indicate 

that the TFP of China’s rural migrants training increased from 2004 to 2009 primarily 

due to technical progress; the TFP of China’s rural migrants training varied among 

regions. Recommendations of this study are as follows: in addition to continue investment 

in the migrants’ pre-job training, government should also create policies to 

stimulate employers to invest in the migrants’ on-job training, thereby establishing a 

more flexible investment sharing mechanism. 

Keywords: China, Malmquist index, rural migrants, vocational training 

Contact Address: Xiaohuan Yan, Justus-Liebig University Giessen, Dept. of Project and Regional 

Planning, Senckenberg Str. 3, Giessen, Germany, e-mail: Xiaohuan.Yan@agrar.uni-giessen.de 

398


Analysis of Livelihoods and Income Generation among Rural 

Dwellers in Southeastern Nigeria 

IFEANYI NWACHUKWU 

Michael Okpara University of Agriculture, Dept. of Agribusiness and Management, 

Nigeria 

A livelihood strategy encompasses not only activities that generate income but many 

other kinds of choices, including cultural and social that come together to make up 

the primary occupation of a household. This study therefore examined livelihoods 

and income generation for poverty alleviation among rural dwellers in Southeastern 

Nigeria with specific interest in Abia State, Nigeria. Beyond the broad objective, 

the study sought specifically to identify and analyse livelihood strategies in the study 

area; estimated the income distribution; determine the poverty line, gap and incidence 

as well the profitability of the strategies, and determinants of the profitability in the 

livelihood strategy with highest participation. 

A total of 240 households were selected across the agricultural zones using multistage 

sampling technique from which data and information were elicited. Analytically, 

the study employed cluster analysis in the identification and analysis of livelihood 

strategies while the estimation of income distribution applied Gini coefficient. 

Also, poverty indicators were used to measure poverty incidence and gap while the 

stochastic frontier model was employed in analysing the determinants of the profitability 

in the livelihood strategy with highest participation. The study identified 8 

primary livelihood activities with crop production emerging as the most dominant. 

Income distribution showed high level of inequality (Gini index = 0.987) with per 

capita income falling below the operational national minimum wage. The poverty 

gap and incidence gave a scary picture of worsening poverty situation, judging from 

the poverty indicators (head count index = 0.567; poverty gap = 0.568). Civil-public 

service emerged as the most profitable among the identified primary livelihood 

activities but recorded a very slim proportional participation. As the only livelihood 

activity with overwhelming household participation, crop production was found to be 

influenced negatively by equipment and consumption costs while its profitability was 

determined by education, household size and remittances. On the strength of the findings, 

the study suggests adoption of a form of livelihood diversification which will 

incorporate crop production as an integral constituent and intensification of extension 

delivery systems. 

Keywords: Income inequality, livelihoods, poverty alleviation, Gini coefficient 

Contact Address: Ifeanyi Nwachukwu, Michael Okpara University of Agriculture, Dept. of Agribusiness 

and Management, 56 Nkwerre Street, 440003 Umuahia, Nigeria, e-mail: nwachukwu.ifeanyi@ 

mouau.edu.ng 

399


Banking on Variety – Systems Diversity in Small Scale Farming 

Systems in Sub-Saharan Africa 

JOHANNES PESCHKE 

Carl von Ossietzky University Oldenburg, Institute of Cultural Studies, Germany 

Samll scale farming systems in sub-Saharan Africa are not only production systems of 

agricultural products. They are primarily livelihood systems within a living community, 

reflecting the social and natural environments as well as the thoughts and ideas 

of their individuals. Those livelihood systems, the farm households, are cultural, environmental 

and economic systems at the same time. That still counts for the majority 

of the population in sub-Saharan Africa, living in rural and sub-urban areas. 

Livelihood systems develop and adjust themselves to their environments for centuries. 

While some technological changes are absorbed easily, others could be observed being 

neglected or were just taken over for a short period of time. Looking at the system’s 

properties, it can be observed that those options with a significant positive or 

no effect on the diversity of the system are those being accepted easily. The diversity 

of the system must be the primary measure, in order to maintain the capacity for 

resilience against potential crises. 

This study is based on 100 randomly selected rural households in Northern Malawi. 

Data analysis demonstrates that the diversity in activities of the farming household is 

continually maintained in order to tackle risky and uncertain situations, while maintaining 

the livelihood for their household members. The presented study postulates 

that farm households achieve an optimum diversity in order to address the needs of 

subsistence, income and security, depending on the specific environments. I argue 

that “banking on variety” is just that strategy for small scale farming systems in sub- 

Saharan Africa to maintain the resilience against potential crises. 

Keywords: Diversity, household, livelihood system, Malawi, smallholder farming 

system 

Contact Address: Johannes Peschke, Carl von Ossietzky University Oldenburg, Institute of Cultural 

Studies, Ammerländer Heerstr. 114-118, 26129 Oldenburg, Germany, e-mail: johannes.peschke@ 

uni-oldenburg.de 

400


Financial Vulnerability and Indebtedness of Poor Households in 

Thailand and Vietnam 

BEZAWIT BEYENE CHICHAIBELU, HERMANN WAIBEL 


Germany 

The lack of finance is a major reason for poverty. Also a typical feature of the poor, 

especially the rural poor, is that their income highly fluctuates often as a result of 

shocks. This volatile nature of the poor households’ cash-flow underlines the need 

for good financial management which the poor are often not well equipped to do. In 

emerging market economies the delivery of financial services has advanced, albeit 

with larges differences in access. Some programs may also have led to over-supply of 

credit and may be responsible for unproductive investment which may have resulted 

in levels of indebtedness exceeding the repayment capacity of rural households. In 

general, excessive debt accumulation coupled with household liquidity constraints 

could weaken the social and economic well-being of households and result in financial 

distress. 

This study seeks to examine household indebtedness in rural Thailand and Vietnam 

with a particular focus on the indebted households whose consumption level is near 

the poverty line. The main objectives of the study are (1) to evaluate the extent of indebtedness 

of households and (2) assess the changes in the level of household indebtedness 

over time, (3) to analyse the factors that make certain households accumulate 

excessive debt, and (4) to develop the concept of financial vulnerability. Results are 

presented in three steps. First, descriptive analysis will be carried out to assess the 

extent and pattern of households’ indebtedness. Second, multivariate analysis will be 

performed to determine factors that influence households’ level of indebtedness and 

make households more financially vulnerable. Third, longitudinal analysis will be 

used to examine which factors and characteristics of households influence transition 

of household indebtedness across time and between two countries. Results will provide 

policy makers and other stakeholders an insight into the financial situations of 

the poor suggesting appropriate measures to reduce financial vulnerability. 

Keywords: Financial vulnerability, household indebtedness, poverty, Thailand, 

Vietnam 

Contact Address: Bezawit Beyene Chichaibelu, Leibniz Universität Hannover, Institute of 

Development and Agricultural Economics, Königsworther Platz 1, 30167 Hannover, Germany, e-mail: 

chichaibelu@ifgb.uni-hannover.de 

401


Decency of Women’s Working Conditions in Peri-Urban Dairy 

Production Systems in the District Faisalabad, Pakistan 

JULIANE ERBACH 1 ,EVA SCHLECHT 1 ,ULF LIEBE 2 



2University of Kassel / Georg-August-Universität Göttingen, Rural Sociology, Germany 

Equitable working conditions and fair payment for female workers are often insufficient. 

To analyse the decency of women’s working conditions in dairy production 

systems in Pakistan, a study was conducted applying qualitative and quantitative research 

tools. Female workers (n=73) were asked about their on-farm activities in a 

semi-structured face to face interview. In addition participatory research tools were 

applied in group-discussions to determine problems the women are facing. The research 

was carried out from September to December 2011. 

The workload of female family members is enormous: it is the task of women to take 

care of the household, the children and the livestock. Not only the high number of 

working hours which can take up to 15 hours, but also high physical workload like the 

transport of heavy material on their heads, might be considered as inappropriate. Main 

tasks of women are to prepare dungcakes (86.1 %), to feed the buffaloes (86.1 %), 

to clean the animal sheds (91.7 %), to milk the buffaloes (65.3 %) as well as doing 

housework and other work. 

More than two thirds (69.8 %) of the interviewees related the hard work to negative 

impacts on their body condition. For example, 57.5 % of the interviewed women regularly 

suffer from temperature stress. In most cases where working women owned 

one or a few buffaloes (n=47), their work was performed as “unpaid family labor” 

while the milk was mainly produced for subsistence, informal sale to neighbours or 

a milkman (dhody). Female farm laborers also participated in the interviews (n=26). 

These women are facing similar health problems, but additionally complained about 

inadequate payment. Most of them (61.5 %) are not getting paid in a monetary terms: 

Commonly the labor (88.5 %) is compensated with non-monetary goods like dungcakes, 

milk, feed or food. 

The combined results of the qualitative and quantitative research approaches indicate 

that the working conditions for female workers in peri-urban dairy production units 

of Faisalabad are partly not decent. 

Keywords: Decent work, dungcake, women, working condition 




402


The Role of Islamic Micro-Finance Institutions on Poverty 

Alleviation and Environmental Awareness in Indonesia 

JAENAL EFFENDI, HEIKO FAUST 

Georg-August-Universität-Göttingen, Dept. of Human Geograph, Germany 

Micro finance institutions have expanded in Indonesia as well as in large parts of the 

world. The expansion of micro finance programs has been reviewed as an effective 

means of empowering poor people, smallholder farmers and entrepreneurs relying on 

the agriculture sector. At the same time, the Islamic micro finance institutions (IMFI) 

have well developed to support financial schemes, particularly in rural communities 

during planting periods. However, the nexus between Islamic micro finance, poverty 

reduction and environmental awareness has remained largely unexplored. 

This study examines the role of Islamic micro finance on poverty alleviation and environmental 

awareness in Indonesia. The data analysis is based on randomly collected 

primary level data from three different areas, including: lowland, coastal and mountain 

areas (180 respondents) using standardized questionnaires, focus group discussions 

and multistage approaches. In advance, an in-depth literature analysis of the role 

of Islamic micro-finance to eradicate poverty and increase the environmental awareness 

has been utilised. The preliminary findings a) give strong evidence that Islamic 

micro finance has positive effects on improving the welfare of the recipients compared 

to the control group (90 respondents); 93.3 % of 90 entrepreneur respondents 

said that their welfare improved after adopting Islamic financial schemes. b) Despite 

these positive impacts, Islamic micro finance does not affect significantly the environmental 

awareness although it has contributed positively to the well-being of the 

poor in general. c) It is captured that litter straggles along the coast and local people 

do not care about the hygienic quality of their food due to lack of social training on 

environmental issues. 66 % of 90 (IMFI) entrepreneur respondents did not receive 

such training on ecological sustainability from the institutions. Nevertheless, Islamic 

micro finance institutions are concerned about environmental issues but they do not 

have a mandate to enforce the environmental awareness and the behavior. This would 

be the task of the local, regional and national governments. The potential role of Islamic 

micro finance systems in poverty reduction and environmental training should 

be investigated at larger scale. 

Keywords: East Java, environmental awareness, Indonesia, Islamic micro finance, 

poverty alleviation 

Contact Address: Jaenal Effendi, Georg-August-Universität-Göttingen, Dept. of Human Geograph, 

Goldschmidtstr. 5, 37077 Göttingen, Germany, e-mail: jaen_nur@yahoo.com 

403


Natural Resources Governance in Northern Kenya: Implication of 

Institutional Changes on Environmental Management 

HASSAN ROBA 1 ,BRIGITTE KAUFMANN 2 

1National Museums of Kenya, Kenya 

2German Institute of Tropical and Subtropical Agriculture (DITSL), Germany 

Community Based Natural Resources Management (CBNRM) has gained some popularity 

in the recent past as a panacea for resource governance in many parts of Sub- 

Sahara Africa, including the arid and semi arid environment of northern Kenya. In 

most of the places, community groups were created by external environmental conservation 

agents to address resource degradation. In these cases, customary laws and 

management practices based on traditional institutions and in-depth knowledge of the 

environment have been replaced by rules and regulations developed by the environmental 

management groups. Alienation of traditional resource governance institutions 

is partly said to be due to poor understanding of how they operate, including 

decision making and rules enforcement. We studied the implication of these changes 

among the Borana and Rendille pastoralist communities in northern Kenya. We conducted 

semi-structured interviews with the members of environmental management 

groups, elders who were the custodians of the customary laws for resources management, 

and also held focused group discussions with key informants. In both pastoral 

communities, contemporary community based approaches to environmental conservation 

are effective only in areas where active monitoring and guarding of environment 

by community scouts was present. Elders who were the custodians of traditional 

institutions are not consulted for important decisions such as development of new land 

use plans and access to the grazing resources. Furthermore, we observed that traditional 

institutions had an elaborate system for making environmental management 

decisions and their enforcement. It is evident that contemporary approaches to participatory 

environmental management touted as successful model need to be reconsidered 

in light of problems pointed out. We recommend that a more accommodative model 

that adequately caters for the roles of traditional institutions, resource use regimes, 

production strategies and knowledge of local communities be adopted in the arid and 

semi- arid environment of northern Kenya to enhanced genuine participation. 

Keywords: Community participation, indigenous institution, natural resource 

management, Northern Kenya 

Contact Address: Hassan Roba, National Museums of Kenya, Nairobi, Kenya, e-mail: b.kaufmann@ 

ditsl.org 

404


Livelihood and Resource Use Situation of Mangrove Forest 

Dependent Rice Farmers in Yanbye Township, Myanmar 

CHO CHO SAN, BEATRICE KNERR 

University of Kassel, Development Economics, Migration and Agricultural Policy, 

Germany 

Wunbaike Reserve mangrove forest and the nearby mangrove ecosystem have been 

degraded within a few decades mainly due to agricultural encroachment, conversion 

of mangrove forest for shrimp farming, and uncontrolled fuel wood collection related 

to the increasing population pressure in the region. At the same time, mangrove 

related farming contributes decisively to local food security and to the stability of 

local livelihoods. Under these conditions there is a need for socially, economically 

and ecologically sustainable mangrove management in the region. The present study 

analyses, in the framework of a case study, the livelihood and resource use situation 

of farm households which are engaged in rice production in the mangrove forests. For 

that purpose 173 rice farmers in Yanbye Township were interviewed in 2011/12. 

The results show that the main forest products extracted by the rice farmer households 

are fuel wood (by 100 %), wood for fences (by 89 %), fish (by 93 %), shrimp 

(by 81 %), crab (by 86 %) and vegetables (by 52 %). Besides less than half of the 

households collected nipa palm as roofing material (28 %), and forest honey (15 %). 

98 % of farmers used these products essentially for subsistence purposes. Fish and 

fish related products as well as crab are the commercial products. On average 80– 

98 % of the total household income is contributed by rice production in cash and in 

kind. This demonstrates that for the farm households, rice production might have a 

strong priority against the preservation of the mangrove forests which applies even 

more as alternative sources of income are missing and the local population’s educational 

level is low. The public value of the mangrove forests until now has not been 

assessed, and therefore public interest in preserving it has not been highlighted, with 

the consequence that it is not high on the political agenda. Our research intends to 

provide policy input by contributing clarifications with regard to the social value of 

the mangrove forests, i.e. their opportunity costs in case of degradation and loss. 

Keywords: Local livelihood, mangrove ecosystem, resource use situation 

Contact Address: Cho Cho San, University of Kassel, Development Economics, Migration and 

Agricultural Policy, Steinstr. 19, 37213 Witzenhausen, Germany, e-mail: cho.thirimon@gmail.com 

405

Knowledge, learning and extension 


LOES WITTEVEEN, RICO LIE: 

Visual Problem Appraisal. Using Filmed Narratives for 

Learning and Mediated Participation 409 


SIMONE KATHRIN KRIESEMER, DETLEF VIRCHOW, KATINKA 

WEINBERGER: 

Assessing Sustainable Technology Options to Increase the 

Resilience of the Poorest and Most Vulnerable 410 

BERNARD TRIOMPHE, ANN WATERS-BAYER: 

Joint Learning to Enhance Innovation Systems in African 

Agriculture 411 

MARIA RESTREPO, CLAUDIA LEVY, BRIGITTE KAUFMANN: 

Participatory Monitoring and Evaluation as a Learning Tool: 

The Case of Agro-Pastoralists Testing Livestock Production 

Options to Enhance their Livelihood 412 

SUSANNE HOFMANN-SOUKI, THOMAS AENIS, MAJA-CATRIN 

RIECHER, JUDITH EMMERLING, ANNA KROPINA, UTA ZETEK, 

KAROLIN KÖLLING, NAM LE PHUONG: 

Impact-oriented Evaluation for Improvement of Extension 

Services in Vietnam 413 

Posters 

QUY HANH NGUYEN: 

415 

Towards Resilience? The Evolution of the Agricultural 

Knowledge System in Vietnam’s Mekong Delta 415 

YINAGER DESSIE BELAY, MICHAEL HAUSER, MARIA 

WURZINGER: 

Assessing the Impact of Social Learning and Social Capital 

for the Adoption of Soil Conservation Innovations: A Case 

Study in Northern Ethiopia 

AMLAKU ASRES, JOHANN SÖLKNER, RANJITHA PUSKUR, 

MARIA WURZINGER: 

416 

The Impact of Social Networks on Dairy Technology 

Adoption in North-West Ethiopia 417 

407


408 

ANN WATERS-BAYER, CHESHA WETTASINHA,YOHANNES G. 

MICHAEL, SAIDOU MAGAGI, LAURENS VAN VELDHUIZEN: 

Strengthening Local Adaptive Capacity: The Key to Resilience 

in the Face of Climate Change 

FANOS BIRKE, ANN WATERS-BAYER: 

Institutionalising Participatory Innovation Development in 

418 

Agricultural Extension: Case Study of Tahtay Maychew, 

Ethiopia 

FANOS BIRKE, DIRK HOEKSTRA: 

Innovative Approaches of Knowledge Management and 

Capacity Development for Market Oriented Agricultural 

419 

Development in Ethiopia 

SAMUEL MBUKU, ALEXANDER KAHI, ISAAC SANGA KOSGEY: 

420 

Indigenous Knowledge and Adaptation Strategies of 

Pastoralists to Climate Variability in Northern Kenya 

PHILIPP ÖHLMANN: 

The Impact of Religiosity on Economic Success in Rural South 

421 

Africa 422 

OYÉMONBADÉ HERVÉ RODRIGUE AWOYE, EULOGE K. 

AGBOSSOU, ROSAINE NERICE YEGBEMEY, SENAKPON ERIC 

HAROLL KOKOYE: 

Scientific and Local Knowledge on Climate Change in 

Tropical West Africa: Do Farmers’ Perceptions Fit the 

Measured Changes? 

ROSEANE VIANA, ANNE CAMILLA BELLOWS: 

The Right to Adequate Food within the School Feeding 

423 

Program for Quilombola Communities in Amapá, Brazil 

LASSE ENGLYST OLSEN: 

Farmer Learning in Rotational Farmer Groups: Case Studies 

424 

from the Rwenzori Region, Western Uganda 425

Knowledge, learning and extension — Invited Paper 

Visual Problem Appraisal 

Using Filmed Narratives for Learning and Mediated Participation 

LOES WITTEVEEN, RICO LIE 

Van Hall Larenstein University of Applied Sciences, Development Studies, 


The film-based learning strategy of Visual Problem Appraisal (VPA), which is used 

to enhance the analysis of complex issues and facilitate a plan of action. It is used 

in workshops dealing with problem analysis and policy design, and involves the participants 

‘meeting’ stakeholders through the latter’s filmed narratives. Workshop participants 

consult stakeholders through watching them on films. A VPA set consists 

of a series of filmed interviews (between 20 and 30) complemented with two documentaries. 

These films provide particular perspectives on the contextual reality of the 

stakeholders. Within a set workshop format of ‘scoping’, ‘stakeholder consultation’ 

and ‘action’, the participants ‘interview’ the stakeholders, which gives them a chance 

to explore the complex and conflictive arena of the issue at stake. The participants 

soon come to realise that stakeholder consultation is not about finding out one final 

truth, but about experiencing personal versions and diverse framings of reality. Stakeholders 

who interviewed and filmed in the VPA production articulate their motives to 

document their life story and allow exposure by a wider audience as willingness to 

communicate and share their experiences and views. A major motive is described as 

mediated participation. Interviewees realise that their filmed narratives may provide 

access to policy-making processes they are otherwise excluded from. 

The first VPA set, ‘Rice from the Guyana’s’ (Witteveen, 2007; reprinted from 1996) 

focused on international agribusiness and rural development issues in the Guyana’s. 

A second VPA set, ‘Kerala’s coast’ (Witteveen, 2003), was produced in Kerala, India 

and focused on integrated coastal zone management. A third VPA set, filmed in 

Ghana, Tanzania and Zambia, focused on HIV/AIDS and rural development in Sub- 

Saharan Africa (Witteveen, Lie and Thachapuzha, 2008) and a fourth set on rural 

livelihoods in KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa will be released in 2012. 

Keywords: Filmed narratives, learning, mediated participation, social change, visual 

problem appraisal 

Contact Address: Loes Witteveen, Van Hall Larenstein Univ. of Applied Sciences, Developm. Studies, 

Droevendaalsesteeg 2, 6700 AK Wageningen, The Netherlands, e-mail: Loes.Witteveen@wur.nl 

409


Assessing Sustainable Technology Options to Increase the 

Resilience of the Poorest and Most Vulnerable 

SIMONE KATHRIN KRIESEMER 1 ,DETLEF VIRCHOW 1 ,KATINKA WEINBERGER 2 

1University of Hohenheim, Food Security Center (FSC), Germany 

2Centre for Alleviation of Poverty through Sustainable Agriculture (CAPSA), Indonesia 

When a crisis strikes, it is often the poorest and most vulnerable people who suffer 

most, particularly in South and Southeast Asia where the majority of the world’s poor 

reside. Victims often lack solutions to diversify into sustainable production activities 

that increase their resilience to shocks and lead to a higher but sustainable productivity 

level. Knowledge on appropriate technology options exists but is mostly contained 

in separate “knowledge silos”. To make the knowledge available within the region 

would require increased South-South dialogue and intraregional learning that could 

spur technology adoption contributing to improved food security and nutrition. But 

technologies will only be adopted in a sustainable manner if they are suitable and 

adaptable to farmers’ local conditions. 

Hence, an analytic framework was developed to identify agricultural innovations that 

are sustainable, productivity enhancing and suitable for the poorest and most vulnerable 

parts of the population. The framework contains a set of tools to collect and 

evaluate information on appropriate innovations based on relevant indicators. In particular, 

it has sections on environmental, social, and economic sustainability but also 

on important properties of the innovation itself. 

Preliminary information on already available agricultural innovations was collected 

among project associates from ten countries in South and Southeast Asia, as well 

as the national and international agricultural research communities. Promising innovations 

were selected in a group process involving all associates and experts of the 

respective innovations were identified. A questionnaire was then sent to all experts to 

collect detailed information and data about the technologies or best practices. Multi 

criteria decision making was used to involve project associates in constructing a composite 

technology indicator to compare the available innovations. 

All sustainable technologies will be accessible in the online data base of SATNET 

Asia, the “Network for Knowledge Transfer on Sustainable Agricultural Technologies 

and Improved Market Linkages in South and Southeast Asia”. The data base will 

contain fact sheets, descriptions of typical enabling environments, extension material 

and recommendations for dissemination strategies as well as links to regional experts 

and will enable relevant stakeholders and multipliers from research and extension 

services to find appropriate technology options. 

Keywords: Best practice, evaluation, innovation, multi criteria decision making 

Contact Address: Simone Kathrin Kriesemer, University of Hohenheim, Food Security Center (FSC), 

Wollgrasweg 43, 70599 Stuttgart, Germany, e-mail: simonekriesemer@gmx.de 

410

Knowledge, learning and extension — Oral Presentations 

Joint Learning to Enhance Innovation Systems in African 

Agriculture 

BERNARD TRIOMPHE 1 ,ANN WATERS-BAYER 2 

1Centre de Coop. Intern. en Recherche Agronomique pour le Développement (CIRAD), 

France 

2ETC Foundation, Prolinnova International Support Team, Germany 

Recognition is growing that strong and dynamic innovation systems are essential for 

adaptation to the rapid changes being experienced by smallholder farmers, including 

growing population pressure on limited natural resources and climate change. Yet 

relatively little is documented about how innovation processes unfold in smallholder 

agriculture. Most researchers, development practitioners and policymakers implicitly 

or explicitly work with a linear model of transfer of “innovations” from research 

via extension to farmers for adoption. This seldom reflects how innovation actually 

happens. Recent studies have revealed that effective innovation takes place within 

heterogeneous networks of researchers, farmers, private entrepreneurs, NGOs, government 

and other stakeholders who interact over time in a non-linear, iterative and 

non-predictable fashion to solve a pressing problem, adapt to new conditions or take 

advantage of new opportunities. The outcome of such interactions usually consists of 

a mix of technical, organisational and institutional innovations developed and refined 

“on the go” – often quite different from what the initiators envisaged. 

The EU-funded project JOLISAA (Joint Learning in Innovation Systems in African 

Agriculture) is assessing recent or ongoing cases of innovation in smallholder agriculture 

in Benin, Kenya and South Africa, as a basis for identifying lessons about 

the conditions that favour or impede innovation processes. From their inventory of 

diverse cases, JOLISAA partners have selected some lessons-rich-cases for deeper 

analysis. Together with the actors involved in these cases, a collaborative assessment 

is made of how the innovation process unfolded, the roles and contributions of the different 

actors and the nature of linkages between them. Special attention is given to the 

contributions of smallholders to the process. The collaborative assessment is meant 

to provide lessons not only for the people directly involved in the cases but also more 

generally for policymakers, researchers and development practitioners, about how to 

support effective innovation processes that strengthen the knowledge, creativity and 

linkages of the smallholders themselves. This should render them more resilient to 

rapid and even sudden changes. The paper presents highlights and challenges related 

to the methodology as well as initial lessons drawn from the inventory and assessment 

of innovation cases. 

Keywords: Agricultural innovation systems, local knowledge, smallholders 

Contact Address: Ann Waters-Bayer, ETC Foundation, Prolinnova International Support Team, 

Rohnsweg 56, 37085 Göttingen, Germany, e-mail: ann.waters-bayer@etcnl.nl 

411


Participatory Monitoring and Evaluation as a Learning Tool: 

The Case of Agro-Pastoralists Testing Livestock Production 

Options to Enhance their Livelihood 

MARIA RESTREPO, CLAUDIA LEVY, BRIGITTE KAUFMANN 

German Institute of Tropical and Subtropical Agriculture (DITSL), Germany 

Increasing climate variability affects crop and livestock production and therefore the 

livelihood of resource-dependent communities such as agro-pastoralists producing in 

drought-prone areas of Gaza province in southern Mozambique. Adaptation involves 

a process of learning and development. Learning by experience follows cycles of 

action–reflection where new knowledge is created and can be enhanced by introducing 

a structured monitoring and evaluation activity. Learning as a process of iterative 

reflection includes single-loop (correcting errors form routines), double-loop (innovations 

to find new solutions), and triple-loop learning (designing new governance 

norms and protocols). 

This research examines how a participatory monitoring and evaluation system 

(PM&E) stimulated learning in two community based organisations (CBO) that tested 

a number of livestock production options for their suitability as livelihood strategies. 

Since most of CBO members are illiterate, a PM&E was developed that could be handled 

by them. Semi-structured interviews (n=21) and focus groups (n=6) with CBO 

members were conducted to assess the type of learning occurring (single-, double- and 

triple-loop learning) after the development and implementation of a PM&E, and its 

role in enhancing livelihood strategies. The results reveal that the PM&E system permitted 

the group members to learn from: (1) the community-based activities, as their 

outcome became more visible and could be easily communicated, allowing the identification 

of possible improvement options (second-loop learning); (2) the implementation 

of the PM&E process, which enhanced and fortified members’ skills to plan, 

implement, and follow a PM&E system (single-loop learning); and to learn about 

(3) the relevance of collective action (single-loop learning) and a change in the CBO 

governance to plan and implement collective action (triple-loop learning); (4) the importance 

of transparency and accountability (single-loop learning) in collective action 

initiatives. The PM&E system promoted learning among and empowerment of the 

CBO members, which in turn created opportunities for consensus building, collective 

decision-making and action. It introduced a motivational aspect that acted as a 

positive feedback, and supported moving from single to double and triple-loop learning, 

which facilitates the implementation of innovative approaches, and showed to be 

effective when dealing with uncertainty. 

Keywords: Agro-pastoralists, livestock production, monitoring and evaluation 

Contact Address: Maria Restrepo, German Institute of Tropical and Subtropical Agriculture (DITSL), 

Steinstrasse 19, 37213 Witzenhausen, Germany, e-mail: majorestre@gmail.com 

412

Knowledge, learning and extension — Oral Presentations 

Impact-Oriented Evaluation for Improvement of Extension 

Services in Vietnam 

SUSANNE HOFMANN-SOUKI 1 ,THOMAS AENIS 1 ,MAJA-CATRIN RIECHER 1 , 

JUDITH EMMERLING 1 ,ANNA KROPINA 1 ,UTA ZETEK 1 ,KAROLIN KÖLLING 1 , 

NAM LE PHUONG 2 

1Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, Dept. of Agricultural Economics, Germany 

2Hanoi University of Agriculture, Dept. of Resource and Environmental Economics, 

Vietnam 

The ability to adjust extension programs to farmers’ needs is clearly linked with resilience 

of the agricultural system. Extensionists in Vietnam are aware of serious limitations 

in this field. One particular problem is the absence of a useable methodology 

to improve their services to farmers under serious personal and financial constraints. 

A co-operative project between junior lecturers of Hanoi University of Agriculture 

and Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin has been carried out in order to develop a model 

for a rapid and impact-oriented appraisal of extension programs to be applied by the 

National Agricultural Extension Centre in Hanoi. 

As a main element, the logical framework approach has been adapted to be used for 

ongoing programme evaluation. The result is an iterative process of situational analysis, 

development of a goal system which shows impact pathways for the respective 

extension programs’ activities, intelligent choices on the priority aspects to be analysed, 

definition and selection of indicators, and rapid appraisals. 

After a first hypothetical loop, in March 2012 three extension programmes have been 

evaluated with the following results: 

• The systems’ clear orientation towards best farmers is a main constraint. While 

“collaborative” and “demonstration” farmers who both have formal relationship 

to the extension system expressed their satisfaction with the trainings, “normal” 

farmers who typically are the poorer ones are not even addressed by the extension 

programs and even do not receive input supply such as new varieties or 

special fodder. 

• The main challenges for the vertical knowledge flow between extensionists and 

farmers are the low number of extensionists on commune and village level, and 

their heavy workload; 

• Horizontal knowledge transfer between farmers is quite effective especially due 

to informal meetings; 

• Farmers’ capabilities are different – while the better educated farmers were 

able to attend and understand the content the extension activities, especially the 

poorer farmers demanded more practical training and learning by doing; 

Contact Address: Thomas Aenis, Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, Agricultural Extension 

and Subject Related Didactics Group, Luisenstr. 53, 10099 Berlin, Germany, e-mail: 

thomas.aenis@agrar.hu-berlin.de 

413


• Need assessment and monitoring turned out to be rather informal, sporadic and 

unsystematic. 

The contribution will further discuss consequences for both, application within the 

system and further development of the methodology. 

Keywords: Extension, impact-oriented evaluation, logical framework, Vietnam 

414

Knowledge, learning and extension — Posters 

Towards Resilience? The Evolution of the Agricultural Knowledge 

System in Vietnam’s Mekong Delta 

QUY HANH NGUYEN 

University of Bonn, Center for Development Research (ZEF), Germany 

Innovative changes of agricultural and rural development of a region, in a knowledgerich 

globalised world, are growingly directed, if not determined, by vigorous transformations 

of its local knowledge system whose functions are to bridge and nourish 

global and local knowledge interaction and new knowledge creation. This paper 

adopts a dual issue-based and actor-oriented approach to explore the evolution of the 

agricultural knowledge system of the Mekong Delta (MD), the largest and highly productive 

region of agricultural production in Vietnam. Data used in this analysis were 

collected and selected from one-year field-research in the MD in April 2010–2011. 

From our issue-based analysis, the region has been confronted chronic post-Green- 

Revolution challenges of a long pursuit of agricultural modernisation charaterised 

by top-down planning, water control system improvement, high yield-led intensive 

production and growth-based progress. As an alternative, over the past decades, sustainable 

principles and practices have been introduced. At the implementing level, 

however, the transfer of such new knowledge, because of its more complicated nature, 

even with foreign concepts is facing difficulties in overcoming epistemological, 

technical and cultural barriers. Moreover, ever-increasing negative repercussions of 

the so-called climate change effects such as salinisation or drought as well as dam 

and dyke-controlled water resources over- or mis-exploitation at inter-provincial and 

cross-border scales are posing a threat to any sustainable development efforts, with 

marginalised communities as the most vulnerable groups. Such old and emerging 

challenges require localised and instrumental knowledge and innovation from novel 

seed varieties, farming techniques to systemic management of natural resources and 

pro-poor rural development. Our actor analysis has demonstrated new role-taking of 

plural stakeholders in knowledge diffusion and generation for agricultural and rural 

development spanning public, private and civil society arenas, especially the involvement 

of farmer groups who have less been recognised. 

It is argued in this paper from the case of the MD that the resilience of the region’s 

agricultural system to new development challenges more than ever before is greatly 

dependent upon the resilience of the transformational knowledge system on which it 

is based, and thus a fortiori, to which extent professionals and farming communities 

co-produce knowledge in partnership. 

Keywords: Agricultural knowledge system, resilience, Vietnam’s Mekong Delta 

Contact Address: Quy Hanh Nguyen, University of Bonn, Center for Development Research (ZEF), 

Walter-Flex-Str. 3, 53113 Bonn, Germany, e-mail: hanh.nguyen@uni-bonn.de 

415


Assessing the Impact of Social Learning and Social Capital for the 

Adoption of Soil Conservation Innovations: A Case Study in 

Northern Ethiopia 

YINAGER DESSIE BELAY 1 ,MICHAEL HAUSER 1 ,MARIA WURZINGER 2 

1University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences (BOKU), Centre for Development 

Research (CDR), Austria 

2University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences (BOKU), Dept. of Sustainable 

Agricultural Systems, Austria 

The adoption of soil conservation innovations demands the development of understanding 

among the different actors to promote the collective process needed for soil 

conservation practices. In this regard, social learning and social capital play key roles. 

However, studies on the impact of social learning and social capital for soil conservation 

show mixed results. While some studies show positive outcomes of social 

learning and social capital for soil conservation, others show negative effects. This 

paper explores the impact of social learning and social capital on the adoption of stone 

terraces in Ethiopia. Data were collected via semi-structured interviews, group discussions, 

and in workshops. Moreover, the review of pertinent project documents and 

literature complements the analysis. The findings show that social learning results for 

the emergence of social capital elements such as the development of positive interactions 

among the actors, broader understanding of soil conservation, trust development 

and mutual understanding. It also opens opportunity to recognize the important role of 

indigenous and scientific knowledge for the adoption of soil conservation measures. 

The emergence of the above mentioned outcomes had encouraged the adoption of 

stone terraces. In contrast, the positive outcomes of social learning were non-existent 

on non-adopters of stone terraces. The non-adoption can partly be explained by the 

insufficient participation of non-adopters in learning platforms. Hence, our case study 

shows that soil conservation policies should invest on the creation or strengthening of 

social capital through social learning. 

Keywords: Social learning, social capital, soil conservation, Ethiopia 

Contact Address: Yinager Dessie Belay, University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences (BOKU), 

Centre for Development Research, Brigittnauer Lande 224-228/6543, Vienna, Austria, e-mail: 

yinagerd@yahoo.com 

416


The Impact of Social Networks on Dairy Technology Adoption in 

North-West Ethiopia 

AMLAKU ASRES 1 ,JOHANN SÖLKNER 1 ,RANJITHA PUSKUR 2 , 

MARIA WURZINGER 1 

1University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences (BOKU), Dept. of Sustainable 

Agricultural Systems, Austria 


Social structure, especially in the form of social networks, affects the adoption of 

agricultural technologies. In light of an increasing focus on new demand-driven agricultural 

extension approaches that leverage social networks as an opportunity, too little 

is known about (a) which network characteristics matter? and (b) how do specific 

network characteristics matter? This paper investigates the impact of social networks 

in relation to smallholder dairy production technology adoption in Ethiopia. Structured 

household interviews were conducted on randomly selected 304 smallholder 

dairy farmers. Combined social network analysis and economic approaches is used 

to analyse dairy production adoption that incorporates social learning. Results reveal 

that smallholders acquire knowledge about improved dairy practices mainly from 

the public extension system (extension network), and to a lesser extent through their 

close associates (peer networks). The market networks are not a significant predictor 

of dairy adoption; supporting the finding that innovation is supply-driven by extension 

rather than market-driven by product demand articulated by traders. Likewise, 

community networks have no direct effects, suggesting that community-based associations 

(for example, cooperatives, self-help groups, etc.) are less likely to technology 

adoption decisions in this particular case. These findings suggest that the potential 

contributions of other social networks, particularly communication networks and market 

networks that can significantly affect adoption, often remain untapped. Given the 

adoption of agricultural production technologies as an essential means of boosting 

productivity, increase production and improving incomes of smallholder households, 

these results indicate that technology-promoters may have to change their approach 

and focus on the innovative use of all kinds of social networks as an important determinant. 

In addition, this finding shades light to design suitable strategies that leverage 

social networks to promote more rapid adoption of agricultural technologies by smallholders. 

Keywords: Adoption, dairy, Ethiopia, innovation, social networks 

Contact Address: Amlaku Asres, University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences (BOKU), Dept. 

of Sustainable Agricultural Systems, Gregor - Mendel Straße 33, 1180 Vienna, Austria, e-mail: 

asresamlaku@yahoo.com 

417


Strengthening Local Adaptive Capacity: The Key to Resilience in 

the Face of Climate Change 

ANN WATERS-BAYER 1 ,CHESHA WETTASINHA 1 , 

YOHANNES GEBRE MICHAEL 2 ,SAIDOU MAGAGI 3 , 

LAURENS VAN VELDHUIZEN 1 


2Addis Ababa University, Ethiopia 

3National Agricultural Research Institute, Niger 

Climate change poses countless challenges for smallholders, yet the initiatives of 

these smallholders to respond to change offer entry points to sustainable processes 

of climate-change adaptation. Partners in PROLINNOVA – a global network for Promoting 

Local Innovation in agriculture and natural resource management – studied 

how crop farmers and pastoralists responded creatively to change. For example, pastoralists 

in Ethiopia observed longer and more frequent drought, but also population 

growth, less access to grazing and water because of irrigation schemes and national 

parks, and increased conflict. Their responses include cutting and carrying fodder 

from national parks, making private and community below-ground cisterns to store 

water and diversifying their herds to include more goats and camels that can withstand 

dry periods better than can cattle. Local adaptation in Niger included making 

more use of donkeys than in the past and collecting hay from communal land to use 

as dry-season fodder. Such local innovations serve as entry points for farmer-led joint 

research – a process in which scientists and extensionists join with farmers to further 

develop the local ideas, integrating local and scientific knowledge. This approach 

to research and development focuses on the positive – on farmers’ innovativeness; it 

builds mutual respect among all partners in joint research; it stimulates farmers to 

value their own knowledge and skills; it provides solutions that are less costly and 

more site-appropriate than many introduced technologies; it enhances the confidence 

of farmers and gives them greater control over their own development. Above all, it 

builds the adaptive capacities of rural communities to deal with change. Local people 

involved in this process are better able to analyse their situation, learn to pool their 

energies and knowledge, and become better linked with other actors with whom they 

can continue to take adaptive action to address emerging problems. They thus become 

more resilient to shocks and stresses in a constantly changing environment. 

Keywords: Climate-change adaptation, Ethiopia, indigenous knowledge, interactive 

research, local innovation, Nepal, Niger, resilience, smallholders 

Contact Address: Ann Waters-Bayer, ETC Foundation, Prolinnova International Support Team, 

Rohnsweg 56, 37085 Göttingen, Germany, e-mail: ann.waters-bayer@etcnl.nl 

418


Institutionalising Participatory Innovation Development in 

Agricultural Extension: Case Study of Tahtay Maychew, Ethiopia 

FANOS BIRKE 1 ,ANN WATERS-BAYER 2 

1International Livestock Research Institute, Improving Productivity and Market Success 

of Ethiopian Farmers Project, Ethiopia 


Since 2005, the Prolinnova-Ethiopia multistakeholder platform has promoted participatory 

approaches in agricultural research and development and worked towards institutionalisation 

of participatory innovation development (PID) in governmental and 

non-governmental organisations, community-based organisations and institutions of 

higher education in Ethiopia. A study of the experience of Tahtay Maychew District 

Office of Agriculture, a partner of Prolinnova-Ethiopia in Tigray Region in northern 

Ethiopia, revealed that innovations developed by local farmers are being actively 

promoted by extension agents and subject-matter specialists in the Office of Agriculture. 

Moreover, this activity is becoming part of their daily routine in extension work, 

even though the Tigray Regional Bureau of Agriculture does not directly support the 

approach with structural, financial and human resources. The progress towards institutionalising 

PID within the extension service at district level was facilitated by the 

fact that the NGO coordinating the Prolinnova-Ethiopia platform in Tigray Region 

encouraged the Office of Agriculture to assume full responsibility to implement the 

activities of identifying local innovation and promoting farmer-led experimentation 

processes in a way that fitted into the regular extension activities. The study found 

that the major challenges faced by Prolinnova partners in Tigray Region for better 

institutionalisation of this approach are: i) the relatively weak collaboration among 

platform partners other than the Office of Agriculture and the coordinating NGO; and 

ii) the platform’s lack of a clear strategy for institutionalising PID. More active collaboration 

and linkages are needed at all levels within the region, instead of leaving 

all the responsibility only with the district-level extension agents. A change in attitude 

towards the potential of PID as an approach to extension is still needed among 

decision-makers at higher levels in the Tigray Bureau of Agriculture if sustainable 

institutionalisation of PID is to be achieved. 

Keywords: Ethiopia, multi-stakeholder, participatory innovation development, 

Prolinnova 

Contact Address: Fanos Birke, International Livestock Research Institute, Improving Productivity 

and Market Success of Ethiopian Farmers Project, Gurdshola, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, e-mail: 

f.mekonnen@cgiar.org 

419


Innovative Approaches of Knowledge Management and Capacity 

Development for Market Oriented Agricultural Development in 

Ethiopia 

FANOS BIRKE, DIRK HOEKSTRA 

International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI), Improving Productivity and Market 

Success (IPMS) Project, Ethiopia 

The delivery of extension services in the contemporary environment of developing 

countries requires innovative and inter-related approaches of knowledge management, 

skills development and partner linkages. Improving Productivity and Market Success 

(IPMS) of Ethiopian farmers project has been testing different tools and processes 

that give emphasis on market demand, knowledge sharing, capacity development and 

public-private partnership for improving the extension service delivery in 10 pilot districts 

of four regional states of the country. This paper explains the IPMS approaches, 

methods and processes used for effective knowledge management, skills development 

and partner linkages activities during implementation of value chain based development 

intervention. The lessons learned provide valuable information for scaling up to 

other areas with similar potential for market-oriented agricultural development. 

The IPMS project followed systematic and step-wise approaches of knowledge management 

and capacity development by support of various ICT and non ICT tools that 

facilitated multidirectional knowledge flows, empowerment of practitioners and linkage 

creation to improve productivity, profitability and sustainability of market oriented 

agricultural development. Major tools and processes that brought the intervention 

to fruition include; establishment of agricultural knowledge centres for up to 

date and relevant information resource delivery, enhancement of programme delivery 

and technical skills through participatory training; establishing partnership with 

various stakeholders and institutions at all levels; and developing a web based platform, 

Ethiopian agriculture portal www.eap.gov.et, for availing agricultural resources 

relevant to Ethiopian agriculture. A lesson from IPMS on implementing the above 

components include; the need for an overall understanding of knowledge as a critical 

‘input’ to agricultural development being internalised among programme implementers 

at all levels; importance in building capacity of actors, not only in being implementers 

but also in forging linkages, identifying needs and managing partnership 

processes; and the importance of having all actors on the same page of development 

agenda. 

Keywords: Capacity development, Knowledge management, market oriented 

agriculture 

Contact Address: Fanos Birke, International Livestock Research Institute, Improving Productivity 

and Market Success of Ethiopian Farmers Project, Gurdshola, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, e-mail: 

f.mekonnen@cgiar.org 

420


Indigenous Knowledge and Adaptation Strategies of Pastoralists 

to Climate Variability in Northern Kenya 

SAMUEL MBUKU 1 ,ALEXANDER KAHI 2 ,ISAAC SANGA KOSGEY 2 

1Kenya Agricultural Research Institute, National Beef Research Centre, Kenya 

2Egerton University, Department of Animal Sciences, Kenya 

The Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change 

indicates that the anticipated warming in sub-Saharan Africa is expected to be greater 

than the global average. Consequently, in-depth pastoralists’ indigenous knowledge 

(IK) of complex agro-ecological dynamics is critical in detecting availability and appropriate 

management of rangeland resources. The current study aimed at describing 

the IK and adaptation strategies that have been practised by the Rendille pastoralists 

in Marsabit County of northern Kenya over time. Data were obtained through formal 

personal and key informant interviews and focused group discussion. MS Access 

software was used for database management while the General Linear Model Procedure 

of SAS was used for quantitative analyses. A chi-square analysis was performed 

where deemed essential to establish the association between different attributes studied. 

The information gathered from qualitative approach were categorised through 

identification of various thematic areas on IK and adaptation strategies, and organised 

into coherent categories for inferences. Pastoralists in the study area used various IK 

indicators from flora, fauna, climate variables, astrology and general environment in 

drought monitoring. Although the indicators were not compared with seasonal forecasts 

issued by the formal institutions, it is evident that this rich knowledge is yet to be 

fully harnessed and optimally combined with modern science. The pastoralists have 

developed a basket of reactionary adaptation strategies to maintain their animal genetic 

resources in the rangelands. It is concluded that creation of livelihood conditions 

that enable the pastoralists to respond to climate changes by addressing the linkages 

between poverty and vulnerability is critical for successful adaptation strategies in the 

rangelands. 

Keywords: Adaptation, climate, indigenous knowledge, Kenya, pastoralists 

Contact Address: Samuel Mbuku, Kenya Agricultural Research Institute, National Beef Research 

Centre, 3840 20100, Nakuru, Kenya, e-mail: sambuku2002@yahoo.com 

421


The Impact of Religiosity on Economic Success in Rural 

South Africa 

PHILIPP ÖHLMANN 

Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, Department of Agricultural Economics, Quantitative 

Agricultural Economics, Germany 

Recent literature argues that development research should take into account social 

and cultural factors such as religion. Religiosity, it is often argued, affects economic 

performance in two ways. On the one hand, it has an intrinsic effect causing individuals 

to be hard-working and frugal. On the other hand, religiosity has a social effect 

and is a source of social capital. As such religiosity constitutes a resource that yields 

economic returns. It serves as an instrument of risk-mitigation, reduces transaction 

costs, and enables collective action. In some cases churches even provide economic 

infrastructure such as savings groups and small business support. This social capital 

function of religiosity is particularly relevant in rural areas of developing countries 

where adversity is high and at the same time institutional structures are weak. There it 

contributes to improving livelihoods and their sustainability. Against this background 

the objective of this paper is to assess the economic impact of religiosity in the specific 

context of rural South Africa. For this purpose a survey of 207 households was conducted 

in Fetakgomo Municipality in the Limpopo Province. Fetakgomo is entirely 

rural and – like South Africa as a whole – has a high religious diversity, particularly 

within the Christian religion. Data was collected on income, religiosity, and socioeconomic 

characteristics of the households. Household income includes formal and 

informal labor income, social grants as well as the implicit profits from subsistence 

agriculture. Based on non-linear regression models it could be shown that membership 

in certain denominations has a significant positive effect on household income 

while correcting for main income determinants such as age, education, and household 

size. The practice of traditional African religion has a significant positive effect as 

well. 

Keywords: Household welfare, religion, social capital, South Africa 

Contact Address: Philipp Öhlmann, Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, Department of Agricultural 

Economics, Quantitative Agricultural Economics, Invalidenstr. 42, 10115 Berlin, Germany, e-mail: 

philipp.oehlmann@agrar.hu-berlin.de 

422


Scientific and Local Knowledge on Climate Change in Tropical 

West Africa: Do Farmers’ Perceptions Fit the Measured Changes? 

OYÉMONBADÉ HERVÉ RODRIGUE AWOYE 1 ,EULOGE K. AGBOSSOU 2 ,ROSAINE 

NERICE YEGBEMEY 3 ,SENAKPON ERIC HAROLL KOKOYE 4 

1Julius-Maximilians-University Wuerzburg, Inst. of Geography and Geology, Germany 

2University of Abomey-Calavi, Fac. of Agricultural Sciences, Benin 



Germany 

The perceptions of climate change shape farmers’ adaptation decisions. However, there is a 

huge debate on whether farmers’ perceptions of climate change are relevant, true and realistic 

for further adaptation analysis. This paper aims at comparing the climatic variability - scientific 

knowledge referring to rainfall and temperature variabilities - and the farmers’ perceptions 

- local knowledge - of climate change. Secondary data such as daily rainfall series from 1952 

to 2010 and temperature series from 1950 to 2008 were collected, respectively from the rainfall 

station of Toffo and the synoptic station of Bohicon. Primary data on farmers’ socio-demographic 

characteristics and perceptions of climate change were collected by a sample of 184 

household heads randomly selected in the Municipality of Toffo in the Republic of Benin. On 

the one hand, the secondary data reveal that the cumulate average rainfall over the sub-periods 

1952–1969, 1970–1989, and 1990–2010 were 1111.7 mm year-1 , 1014.1 mm year-1 ,and 

1183.5 mm year-1 , respectively. Besides this trend, the number of rainy days has declined and 

the wet seasons’ length has shortened. After 1978, the minimum and average temperature increased 

about 0.8°C and 0.7°C, respectively. Subsequently, there is a significant difference 

(p


The Right to Adequate Food within the School Feeding Program 

for Quilombola Communities in Amapá, Brazil 

ROSEANE VIANA, ANNE CAMILLA BELLOWS 

University of Hohenheim, Dept. for Social Sciences in Agriculture, Germany 

The Federal funds of the National School Feeding Program in Brazil are transferred 

to the State or Municipal Education Departments and in some instances directly to the 

Schools and are used for the procurement of food stuffs. Its objective is to contribute 

to meeting the nutritional needs of students and healthy eating habits. In 1988, the 

federal constitution recognised quilombola traditional territories rights and the right 

to adequate food in the public schools for all students. Quilombola are afro-descendants 

who live mostly in rural areas and considered to be one of the most insecure 

social groups. Since 2005, schools in quilombolas areas in the State of Amapá have 

received double per capita to provide better food for this group to improve their food 

and nutrition security situation. The revised School Feeding Program law signed in 

2009 reaffirmed the right to adequate food for all students in public schools. In 2010, 

the Federal Constitution amended to explicitly recognised adequate food as a Human 

Right. The objectives were to analyse the realisation of the right to adequate 

food within the school feeding programme for quilombola in practice in the State 

of Amapá and to identify whether the programme functions in accordance with the 

existing national and international legislation. This is a qualitative exploratory research 

to describe the perception of quilombolas students and their families about the 

school feeding program, from a human rights perspective, through participant observation, 

written essays and in-depth interviews with public officers, right holders and 

stakeholders in charge of recourse mechanisms. Students don´t eat the meal at school 

when it is not good or enjoyable. Students and families don’t complain when the 

school doesn´t offer food neither when the food is not good. Rights holders don´t 

know about their rights, neither about recourse mechanism. Even Brazil recognised 

the right to food in national legislation, the State is not meet its obligation to respect, 

protect and fulfil the right to adequate food within the school feeding programme for 

quilombola. 

Keywords: Human right to adequate food, Quilombola, school feeding 

Contact Address: Roseane Viana, University of Hohenheim, Dept. for Social Sciences in Agriculture, 

70593 Stuttgart, Germany, e-mail: nutriane@gmail.com 

424


Farmer Learning in Rotational Farmer Groups: Case Studies 

from the Rwenzori Region, Western Uganda 

LASSE ENGLYST OLSEN 

University of Copenhagen, Faculty of Life Sciences, Institute of Food and Resource 

Economics, Denmark 

The present abstract sums up the work from a MSc thesis written at the Institute 

of Food and Resource Economics under the Agricultural Development programme 

at the Faculty of Life Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Denmark. It deals with 

farmer learning in farmer field schools focusing on agroecological methods, in which 

members rotate between each other’s farms. 

Using members farm’s as a field of interaction and source of experience supporting 

member’s learning processes is a rethinking of the traditional Farmer Field School 

concept. Taking departure in learning about agroecological methods in the so-called 

Farmer Family Learning Groups in the Rwenzori Region, Western Uganda, this study 

examines the social dynamics of learning and individual members learning processes. 

The methods are qualitative interviews on individual and group level, using the tool 

‘learning history’ as a tool for capturing farmer learning processes. The framework 

for analysis primarily base on Kolb’s experiential learning process and Nonaka & 

Takeuchi classification of knowledge. The (tentative) findings are that: in order for 

farmers to benefit from rotation between members, social capital determining the social 

dynamics of rotation has to develop in the group; farmers have different learning 

styles and thus benefit differently from different learning situations; farmer’s learning 

styles appear to be influenced by factors such as social status, pride and educational 

opportunities. The recommendations are for rotation to go hand in hand with efforts 

to build social capital. 

Keywords: Adoption, agroecological practices, farmer field schools, farmer groups, 

group interactions, learning processes 

Contact Address: Lasse Englyst Olsen, University of Copenhagen, Faculty of Life Sciences, Institute 

of Food and Resource Economics, Hostrupsvej 20 Kld 3, 1950 Frederiksberg C, Denmark, e-mail: 

trilomlasse@gmail.com 

425

Food security and adaptation 

Posters 429 

SUSANNE NEUBERT, AXEL KRUMSIEK: 

Increasing Resilience to Climate Change and Economic Shocks 

in Small Scale Agriculture in Zambia 429 

ABRHAM SEYOUM TSEHAY, SIEGFRIED BAUER: 

Price Variability and Consumption Patterns: Implications to 

Food Security Using Panel Data from Rural Ethiopia 430 

MA’SOUMEH FOROUZANI, MASOUD YAZDANPANAH: 

Explaining Farmers’ Drought Management Behaviour in 

Southern Iran 431 

AFTON HALLORAN, JAKOB MAGID: 

Can Urban Agriculture Land Use Planning Maintain the 

Resilience of Dar es Salaam’s Food System? 432 

MICHAEL PHILLIPH MUSYOKA, SIEGFRIED BAUER: 

Impacts of Rising Food Price on Household Welfare and 

Incidence of Food Insecurity in Kenya 433 

KAI MAUSCH, CYNTHIA BANTILAN: 

Applicability and Spillover Effects of ICRISAT Technologies 

– Enhancing Benefits to the Global Farming Community 434 

ALICIA P. RONDÓN-KRUMMHEUER, KARLHEINZ KNICKEL, 

LAURA SUSANNE SHUFORD: 

Microfinance for Ecosystem-Based Adaptation to Climate 

Change (MEbA) 435 

TSIGE-YOHANNES HABTE, MICHAEL KRAWINKEL: 

Nutritional Adequacy in Africa: The Bases for Planning 

Sustainable and Diverse Food Supply 436 

MAROLYN VIDAURRE DE LA RIVA, ANDRÉ LINDNER: 

Assessing Adaptation to Climate Change: Environmental and 

Socioeconomic Changes in the Andes of Bolivia 437 

ERIC WEISS, MOHAMED SALIFOU ISSAKA, ANDRÉ 

TANDJIEKPON, PETER KELLER: 

Link Between Cash Crop Production and Household Food 

Security in West Africa: the Case of Cashew Promotion in 

Benin 438 

427


428 

THOMAS VETTER,OLIVER CUPIT, HUGO FRANCISCO CHAVEZ 

AYALA, VICTORIA MUNKAGER, MATILDE LUND FRANDSEN, 

PHILIPP SCHLIEPER, IDA WELDINGH PEDERSEN: 

Winds of Change: Livelihoods of an Iban Community in 

Transition 439 

FENGLI XIU, SIEGFRIED BAUER, FENGGUANG XIU: 

China’ Soybean Import Demand: An Analysis of Impacts of 

Price Fluctuation and Agricultural Policy Transition 440 

ABDELATEIF HASSAN IBRAHIM, SAYED ALI FADAL ELMOLA 

ZAREBA: 

Household Food Security under the Conditions of Poverty: 

Evidence from Kordofan Region, Central-West Sudan 441 

HARALD VON WITZKE, TILMAN BRÜCK, THI HUONG DIU 

PHAM: 

Effects of Vietnamese Controlled-Price Policy on Competition 

with Thailand 442 

ANJA CHRISTINCK, EVA WELTZIEN: 

Plant Breeding and Food Security: 

Targeting the Needs of Resource-Poor Farmers in Plant Breeding 

Programs for Marginal Areas 443 

JACKSON GILBERT MAJALIWA MWANJALOLO, RUGER 

WINNEGGE, NELE FOERCH: 

Community Resilience and Climate Change 444 

BALGAH ROLAND AZIBO, GERTRUD BUCHENRIEDER, 

INNOCENT NDOH MBUE: 

Natural Shocks, Risk Perceptions and Resilience: Evidence 

from Cameroon 

PHILEMON CHELANG’A, GIDEON OBARE, SIMON C. KIMENJU: 

Analysis of Urban Consumers’ Willingness to Pay a Premium 

for African Leafy Vegetables (ALVs) in Kenya: A Case of 

445 

Eldoret Town 

HORST OEBEL,GEOFFROY GANTOLI, EVINCE O. YEGBEMEY: 

Value Chain Promotion for Food Security in Small-Scale 

446 

Farming Context: Results of two Year Experiences in 

Atacora-Donga Region, Benin 447

Food security and adaptation — Posters 

Increasing Resilience to Climate Change and Economic Shocks in 

Small Scale Agriculture in Zambia 

SUSANNE NEUBERT, AXEL KRUMSIEK 

Seminar für Ländliche Entwicklung (SLE), Centre for Rural Development, Germany 

In this empirical research work, the question was explored on how Zambian small 

scale agriculture can develop and thereby increase its resilience to climate change and 

economic shocks. Based on a resilience concept, which encompasses the categories 

buffer capacity, adaptive capacity and organisation and also considers economic criteria, 

data from expert interviews and farmer’s focus group discussions were analysed 

according to these categories. By doing so, six measures were identified as particularly 

suitable in order to increase both in one: resilience to climatic change and 

resilience to economic shocks. These are: Further crop diversification, expansion of 

conservation agriculture, expansion of animal draught power, punctual intensification 

of irrigation, introduction of an e-voucher-system and revitalisation of a warehousesystem. 

How these measures impact on resilience and how they can be established 

on the local up to the political level was elaborated in multi-level-charts together with 

Zambian experts and policy makers. Aside of this more applied oriented result, the 

data analysis also relieved the more academic result that effective adaptation measures 

towards climate change are mostly also effective towards economic shocks and 

these two categories largely foster each other. In the paper, three of the identified 

measures are further outlined, i.e. the e-voucher system, which enables small scale 

farmers to buy the inputs they need in a more flexible way, conservation agriculture, 

which improves the buffer capacity of soils and boosts yields at the same time, and 

crop diversification, which lowers production risks against the background of increasing 

price and climate variability. While incentives are necessary on each level and 

from both the government and the private sector, farmers’ adaptive and organisational 

capacities have to be strengthened in a parallel process in order to strengthen their 

ability to apply the suggested measures successfully. Last but not least, the results 

suggest that the measures have to be implemented as a bundle. Standalone measures 

are not strong enough to buffer shocks sufficiently and they cannot develop synergies. 

Only in a bundle, spill over effects can be achieved and the full benefit can develop. 

Keywords: Adaptation to climate change, adaptive capacity, agricultural policies, 

buffer capacity, economic shocks, multi level charts, organisational capacity, 

resilience, small scale agriculture, Zambia 

Contact Address: Susanne Neubert, Seminar für Ländliche Entwicklung (SLE), Centre for Rural 

Development, Hessische Strasse 1-2, Berlin, Germany, e-mail: susanne.neubert@agrar.hu-berlin.de 

429


Price Variability and Consumption Patterns: Implications to Food 

Security Using Panel Data from Rural Ethiopia 

ABRHAM SEYOUM TSEHAY, SIEGFRIED BAUER 


The earning from agricultural production has been historically low and unpredictable 

for Ethiopian small holders. This pressure from prices has somewhat shaped the consumption 

patterns of households in rural Ethiopia thereby reflecting their strategy 

to overcome food insecurity. However, achieving food security has been a growing 

challenge in recent times particularly since 2006 due to macroeconomic imbalances 

and inflationary pressures fanned by rising global commodity prices of food and fuel. 

Hence, an understanding of food consumption patterns and parameters is fundamental 

to predicting the effects of policy changes on households with different characteristics. 

This paper examines the impacts of different factors including changes in 

prices, income and demographic variables in influencing the consumption behaviour 

of households in their rational move to attain food security. 

Quadratic Almost Ideal Demand System (QUAIDS) is used since it provides a unified 

framework for analysing the combined effects in a systematic way. The QUAIDS 

augmented with selected village and household characteristics is estimated to derive 

the elasticities and the outlay equivalent ratios. 

The research also attempts to evaluate changes in consumption patterns of households 

across villages and clusters formed based on major agro-ecological zones and subzones 

in the country. Moreover, sufficient treatment will be given to look at households’ 

consumption behaviour overtime and understand how it reflects (relates to) 

their status of food security. A longitudinal rich data set from the Ethiopian Rural 

Household Survey (ERHS) is the primary data source for this study. The ERHS is 

conducted by the Department of Economics (Addis Ababa University) in collaboration 

with International Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI) and Center for the 

Study of African Economies (CSAE- University of Oxford). The panel data set includes 

15 peasant associations and a total of 1477 rural households surveyed for four 

rounds in five years interval since 1994. Finally, based on the results, the research will 

draw policy implications that will be used by both policy makers and other researchers 

targeting on food security of rural households in Ethiopia. 

Keywords: Food demand, food security, rural Ethiopia 

Contact Address: Abrham Seyoum Tsehay, Justus-Liebig University Giessen, Dept. of Project and 

Regional Planning, Senckenbergstr.3, 35390 Giessen, Germany, e-mail: abrhamseyoun@yahoo.com 

430


Explaining Farmers’ Drought Management Behaviour in 

Southern Iran 

MA’SOUMEH FOROUZANI, MASOUD YAZDANPANAH 

Khuzestan Ramin Agricultural and Natural Resources University, Dept. of Agricultural 

Extension and Education, Iran 

Rural households’ income in developing countries is highly uncertain in face of the 

enormous risks such as drought-induced shocks. Drought damages can be widespread 

and cause significant economic losses, particularly in agriculture. It has led, also, 

serious short and long-term impacts on the households’ well-being. For example, in 

Iran, fifty villages in Kerman province were evacuated due to lack of water in 2000 

and more than one million head of livestock perished throughout the country. 

As such, it is important to analyse the management strategies to lessen the effects 

of drought. The question that needs to be addressed in the agricultural sector is that 

how farmers perceive and manage drought. Insight into the farmers’ perceptions and 

drought management can be the missing link between the increase of sustainable productions 

and the reduction of vulnerability. It also provides a knowledge base for developing 

public policy measures which ultimately aim to increase a desirable drought 

management among farmers. This paper reports on a study to elicit the factors explaining 

drought management practices in southern Iran. For this purpose we have 

applied a social-psychological model, the theory of planned behaviour, to identify 

the psychosocial factors that influence Iranian farmer’s decision-making process to 

engage in drought management practices. The focus of the data analysis was on exploring 

the influence of drought management determinants i.e. attitudes, perceived 

behavioural control, and social norms, as theorized by the planned behaviour theory, 

on the farmers’ drought management practices 

We chose our sample of farmers who suffered from drought (n=100) through a multistage 

stratified random sampling method in Boushehr Province, southern Iran. Findings 

revealed that the theory can explain intention and behaviour regarding drought 

management. Multiple regression analysis showed that the factors such as awareness 

regarding drought, drought effects and perceived behaviour control regarding drought 

management could predict 33 percent of variances in drought management intention, 

while intention regarding drought management, awareness regarding drought, drought 

effects, and subjective norms and irrigated lands could predict 65 percent of variances 

in drought management behaviour. We formulated suggestions for a better drought 

adaptation. 

Keywords: Drought, drought management, farmers, southern Iran, theory of planned 

behaviour 

Contact Address: Masoud Yazdanpanah, Khuzestan Ramin Agricultural and Natural Resources Univ., 

Dept. of Agricultural Extension and Education, Ahwaz, Iran, e-mail: masoudyazdan@gmail.com 

431


Can Urban Agriculture Land Use Planning Maintain the 

Resilience of Dar es Salaam’s Food System? 

AFTON HALLORAN, JAKOB MAGID 

University of Copenhagen, Department of Agriculture and Ecology, Denmark 

Rapid and unplanned urbanisation threatens future sustainable development in cities 

like Dar es Salaam, Tanzania, with a growing population of 4.39 per cent annually. 

Due to the pressure to rapidly modernise, existing activities and physical aspects of 

the urban space that contribute to the resiliency of the urban environment, like urban 

agriculture, are often ignored. Urban food production, or urban agriculture, in Dar es 

Salaam contributes substantially to the informal labor market and economy, as well 

as to human and environmental health. Despite all of these positive attributes, the 

increasing value of land within the city maintains the paradigm that agriculture is not 

an important urban land use. Nevertheless, not all stakeholders believe this to be true; 

the inherent value of urban food production has been recognised and the process of 

conserving agricultural land on the periphery of the city is underway. This study concerns 

the current legitimisation of urban agriculture within the Dar es Salaam Master 

Plan 2012–2032. It investigates the interactions of key stakeholders at the local and 

national government level, as well as the advantages and disadvantages of creating 

urban agriculture zones and its impact on urban farmers. Data collection was carried 

out during February to August 2010 and January to April 2012 and collected 

through an action research methodology. Information concerning the legitimisation 

process was obtained mainly though semi-structured interviews with key stakeholders, 

strategic planning and visioning sessions, workshops and site visits. It was found 

that although the conservation of land around the periphery of the city could buffer 

the impact of urbanisation on the Dar es Salaam food system, many of the existing 

open space urban farmers in the medium density areas of the city might not benefit 

from this process. This is due to the fact that the implementation and coordination of 

such ‘urban agriculture zones’ has taken into consideration those who currently occupy 

the zoned space. In conclusion, producing food within the city limits contributes 

to economic, social and environmental resiliency, but local and national governmental 

processes can often marginalise an already resilient activity, such as open space 

farming within the city. 

Keywords: Food systems, global south, legitimisation, sustainability, sustainable 

development, urban agriculture, urban resiliency, urbanisation 

Contact Address: Afton Halloran, University of Copenhagen, Department of Agriculture and Ecology, 

2100 Copenhagen Ø, Denmark, e-mail: aftonhalloran@dsr.life.ku.dk 

432


Impacts of Rising Food Price on Household Welfare and Incidence 

of Food Insecurity in Kenya 

MICHAEL PHILLIPH MUSYOKA, SIEGFRIED BAUER 


In line with the world food price crisis, Kenya has witnessed food price increases in 

the recent past. This study attempts to evaluate the welfare and food security impacts 

of food price increases between 2005 and 2009 in Kenya. Estimates from a quadratic 

food demand system and a net benefit ratio are used to evaluate the welfare impacts 

while an ex-ante estimation of food poverty incidence using Foster Greer and Thorbecke 

(FGT) measures is employed. Scenarios allowing for perfect and imperfect 

price transmission between agricultural producers and food consumers are simulated. 

This is to reveal whether, in presence of rising food price crisis, agriculture offered a 

cushion, and if so to which income group of households. As well, it reveals the role 

of the market in transmitting prices efficiently and effectively. Results reveals that, 

with uniform price transmission (consumer to farm gate), the negative impact of food 

price increase was reduced by about 83 % (43 % to 7 %) for rural and 16 % (44 % to 

37 %) for urban households. the lowest income decile benefits if price increases are 

uniformly transmitted and one would need to take away equivalent of 27 % of the 

pre-crisis food expenditure from the lowest rural income quintile. Food insecurity 

increased (decreased) most (6 %) for urban (rural) poor households. Welfare and food 

insecurity impacts were more severe for urban poor households and these would be 

better off with cash than in-kind transfers. Improving agricultural productivity, subsidies 

and price supports for vegetables and maize, improving price transmission and 

up-scaling and proper geographical targeting of the safety net programs are some of 

the viable options. 

Keywords: Food insecurity, food price increases, Kenya, welfare 

Contact Address: Michael Philliph Musyoka, Justus-Liebig University Giessen, Dept. of Project and 

Regional Planning, Senckenbergstr.3, 35390 Giessen, Germany, e-mail: pmusyokam@yahoo.com 

433


Applicability and Spillover Effects of ICRISAT Technologies – 

Enhancing Benefits to the Global Farming Community 

KAI MAUSCH, CYNTHIA BANTILAN 

International Crops Research for the Semi-arid Tropics (ICRISAT), Institutions, 

Markets, Policy and Impacts, Malawi 

Sustained, well-targeted, and effectively used investments in agricultural R&D improved 

productivity worldwide and thereby contributed to food security. In this context, 

research spillover effects refer to situations in which a technology that is developed 

for a specific target region or product is also applicable to other locations or 

products that are not targeted during the research process. 

This study examines the impacts of ICRISAT groundnut breeding research with particular 

attention on the most critical production constraints facing smallholder farmers 

in sub-Saharan Africa and Asia. Based on a review of literature and expert elicitation 

among groundnut experts, it is hypothesised that new technologies addressing the 

most binding productivity constraints ranked in order of importance (i.e. 1. drought, 

2. leaf spots and 3. rosette virus) will produce a significant level of direct and spillover 

impacts as the new technologies developed generates new knowledge which could be 

adapted far beyond the locations or regions where ICRISAT research is originally targeted. 

The approach builds on the international trade model using the principle of 

economic surplus and applies recently developed tools in GIS and spatial analysis of 

inter-country and inter-regional research applicability of new technologies across a 

range of ago-climatically homogeneous research domains and thereby estimates the 

research spillover benefits of crop breeding research globally. 

Utilizing these information will lead to further spread of new varieties that were developed 

to fit better in the current farming system or aim at improving this. Furthermore, 

the increased uptake of groundnut technologies will improve soil fertility as well as 

nutrition of the rural population based on a diversified diet and the nitrogen fixation 

abilities of legume crops. 

Keywords: Agricultural research, impact, spillover effects, targeting 

Contact Address: Kai Mausch, International Crops Research Instiute for the Semi-Arid Tropics 

(ICRISAT), Institutions, Markets and Policy, Chitedze Agricultural Research Station PO Box 1096, 

Lilongwe, Malawi, e-mail: k.mausch@cgiar.org 

434


Microfinance for Ecosystem-Based Adaptation to Climate Change 

(MEbA) 

ALICIA P. RONDÓN-KRUMMHEUER, KARLHEINZ KNICKEL, 

LAURA SUSANNE SHUFORD 

Frankfurt School of Finance & Management, International Advisory Services / FS- 

UNEP Collaborating Centre for Climate & Sustainable Energy Finance, Germany 

The impacts from climate change and extreme weather events relate to not only on the changes 

and extremes themselves, but also on exposure and vulnerability they produce. Adaptation and 

adaptive capacity are therefore key concerns in climate change actions. The Frankfurt School– 

UNEP Collaborating Centre for Climate & Sustainable Energy Finance addresses in its work 

the financial dimension of climate change mitigation and adaptation. The project ’Microfinance 

for Ecosystem-based Adaptation to Climate Change’ (MEbA) works to elaborate innovative financial 

instruments and mechanisms that will support vulnerable local communities, small land 

holders, farmers and other rural actors in the Northern Tropical Andes of Peru and Colombia 

in adapting to climate change. 

The underlying concept of MEbA is to encourage Microfinance Institutions (MFIs) to invest 

in the resilience of ecosystems upon which these communities depend in order to secure and 

maintain their livelihoods. MEbA will try to connect two worlds of thinking and acting that are 

normally rather separate; the world of finance and the world ecosystem-based strategies. 

MEbA proponents and MFIs will partner in the respective regions to include adaptation-related 

measures in their portfolio of financial services and products. Possible measures include 

sustainable land and water management, disaster risk reduction and establishment of diverse 

(and more resilient) agroforestry systems. In order to achieve these aims, vulnerabilities of 

targeted ecosystems and climate risks, the dependence of local populations on the health of 

these ecosystems for their wellbeing and relevant MFI portfolios will need to be identified and 

assessed. 

Another essential concept of MEbA is that risk management and adaptation to climate change 

should be integrated into the MFI investment portfolios to reduce exposure and vulnerability in 

rural communities while at the same time increasing climate resilience. Increasing resilience 

and reducing vulnerability to climate change will also contribute to mitigation. 

The presentation will facilitate a discussion about the crucial role of investments and funding 

in climate change mitigation and adaptation in both rural communities and MFIs. The resulting 

discussions will help to fine-tune the project activities and to incorporate relevant experiences 

of conference participants. 

Keywords: Adaptation, agriculture, agroforestry, Andes, climate change, climate finance, climate 

risks, Colombia, disaster risk reduction, ecosystem-based, financial instruments, financial 

mechanism, microfinance, mitigation, Peru, resilience of ecosystems, smart 

Contact Address: Alicia P. Rondón-Krummheuer, Frankfurt School of Finance & Management, 

International Advisory Services / FS-UNEP Collaborating Centre for Climate & Sustainable 

Energy Finance, Sonnemannstrasse 9-11, 60314 Frankfurt am Main, Germany, e-mail: 

a.rondon-krummheuer@fs.de 

435


Nutritional Adequacy in Africa: The Bases for Planning 

Sustainable and Diverse Food Supply 

TSIGE-YOHANNES HABTE, MICHAEL KRAWINKEL 

Justus-Liebig University Giessen, International Nutrition Unit, Germany 

The relative increase in regional and global cereal production can be paralleled by 

the decline in legume and vegetable production affecting the micronutrient supply. 

This can coincide with the emergence of simplified diets, lack of dietary diversity, the 

nutrition transition phenomenon and the coexistent of hunger, malnutrition, obesity 

and obesity related systemic diseases. It has therefore become necessary to test the 

adequacy of the diets of some selected countries in Africa in order to find out the state 

of the matter and hint the direction for change. 

The continent is virtually divided into four regions from which two representative 

countries are arbitrarily selected. FAOSTAT and WHO regional food consumption 

patterns were used as the source of information on food types, qualities and levels of 

consumption. Data are entered to the Nutrisurvey tools in order to test the adequacy. 

In Egypt, Ethiopia, Cameroon and Ghana food ingredients from plant origin make 

more than 80 % of the diet. In Algeria, Kenya and Zimbabwe this fraction account for 

about 70 % of the diet and in South Africa it lies at levels as low as 61 %. Cereals are 

the major sources of food energy in North, East and South Africa, whereas in West 

Africa roots and tubers are equally important. The average energy value of the daily 

diets is 2749 kcal. In North Africa and Ghana the daily diets contain 3346 and 3522 

kcal respectively, whereas in East Africa the energy content is 2077 kcal, in Ethiopia 

it goes as low as 1900 kcal. 

All of the countries have proved to be calcium deficient. All except Algeria, Egypt 

and Ghana, are additionally deficient in folic acid. Ethiopia, Kenya and Zimbabwe 

are also deficient in Fe, K, and vitamin C. Vitamin A, E and some vitamin Bs are 

lacking in Ethiopian diets. The problem is probably attributable to the low intake of 

the total diet. S. African diet is apparently adequate in Fe but deficient in folic acid 

and vitamin C. 

Keywords: Africa, food quality, food types, level of consumption, nutritional 

adequacy 

Contact Address: Tsige-Yohannes Habte, Justus-Liebig University Giessen, Intern. Nutrition Unit, 

Wilhelmstr. 20, 35392 Giessen, Germany, e-mail: tsige-yohannes.habte@ernaehrung.uni-giessen.de 

436


Assessing Adaptation to Climate Change: Environmental and 

Socioeconomic Changes in the Andes of Bolivia 

MAROLYN VIDAURRE DE LA RIVA, ANDRÉ LINDNER 

Technische Universität Dresden, Institute of International Forestry and Forest Products 

- Tropical Forestry, Germany 

Bolivia contributes only 0.04 % carbon dioxide emission of the world, yet smallholders 

are particularly vulnerable to changing social and environmental conditions. 

These changes have led to an increase in food insecurity and losses in production due 

to drought, frost, disease, and pests. This article outlines the understanding of adaptation 

to climate change and its impact on environmental and socioeconomic changes 

that are affecting the livelihoods in communities of the Andean region. We use a 

case study of Charazany valley in The Apolobamba National Park; northwest of La 

Paz – Bolivia. Mainly qualitative methods were used to collect and analyse data following 

the framework for participatory vulnerability assessments. Primary data was 

collected at the community level applying different participatory research methods. 

According to the Bolivian National Institute of Statistics (INE 2010), the occurrence 

of extreme weather events are increasing since 2002, particularly drought, frost, hailstorms, 

landslides and fire. Equal observation has been made by local communities 

which highlight them as the principle reasons for their losses in production. Community 

members are forced to search for new off-farm alternatives beyond agriculture 

for subsistence, like working in construction, mining, and manufacturing (INE 2004). 

This means a significant impact on the structure of the families and their respective 

role in the agriculture activities. Nevertheless there is a correspondingly large array 

of possible adaptation options that families are implementing. Most of them are related 

to ancient traditional techniques in agriculture; as example the use of local bioindicators 

to forecast the weather, variation in time and space of plantations, conservation 

in situ of indigenous crop varieties. Intensification of land use, diversification 

of irrigation system and water storage practices and the use of artificial products are 

some techniques adopted as conventional practices that can prevent losses in production. 

The local organisation is aware of the problem, however, testimonies point out 

that farmers don’t have the capacity or the economical resources to mitigate the risk 

in production. Several actions have been considered to promote the adaptive capacity; 

nevertheless the current target is to improve existing livelihoods and reducing 

vulnerability in the long term in comparable short time. 

Keywords: Adaptation, Andes, climate change, participatory vulnerability 

assessments 

Contact Address: Marolyn Vidaurre de La Riva, Alexander von Humboldt Foundation - TU Dresden, 

International Climate Protection Fellowship - Tropical Forestry, Pienner Str. 7, 01737 Tharandt, 

Germany, e-mail: marolynvida@gmail.com 

437


Link Between Cash Crop Production and Household Food 

Security in West Africa: The Case of Cashew Promotion in Benin 

ERIC WEISS 1 ,MOHAMED SALIFOU ISSAKA 2 ,ANDRÉ TANDJIEKPON 2 , 

PETER KELLER 2 

1National Opinion Research Centre (NORC), M&E, United States 

2Deutsche Gesellschaft für Internationale Zusammenarbeit (GIZ) Gmbh, African Cashew 

Initiative (ACi), Benin 

Cash Crop production often is suspected to be contradictory to food security. In order 

to understand the impact of cashew promotion on food security in Benin, a survey has 

been conducted by the African Cashew Initiative (ACi) in 2010–2011. 

In Benin, cashew nuts represent the second export cash crop after cotton. For about 

200,000 people the cashew sector plays an important role in setting their livelihoods, 

within those 180.000 small scale farmers. In 2011, the total cashew export from Benin 

was about 140,000 MT and its contribution to GDP was 4 %. With about 1–2 ha only, 

Cashew orchards are largely cultivated by small-scale farmers beside food crops for 

consumption and selling. 

Data from 657 cashew farming families in 13 districts was collected and used to 

(1) determine the extent to which income from cashew helps to avoid or helps to 

reduce the frequency, duration and severity of poor households’ food shortages and 

(2) to determine the potential impact of the ACi interventions on household food security, 

especially the potential for reducing or eliminating food shortages. 

The findings show, as dry season coincides with the start of the cashew harvest and 

trading, farmers have the chance to earn money by selling cashew and to reinvest 

it into households‘ food security. One can state that cashew production and selling 

helps to avoid food shortages. 43 % of the surveyed households experienced food 

shortages while 57 % did not. Amongst those who had experienced food shortages, 

94 % pointed out that income from cashew had worn away households´ food shortage 

and/or reduced the severity of the situation. Concerning the group who had not experienced 

food shortages, 75 % mentioned likewise their additional income from selling 

cashew. 

The Benin case shows, that cash crop production and food security are linked and not 

necessarily contradictory. Small-scale farmers do profit from income generated by 

cashew production on their fields especially in a time, when households need money 

to stay food secure. 

Keywords: Benin, cash crop production, Cashew, food security, small scale farmers 

Contact Address: Mohamed Salifou Issaka, Deutsche Gesellschaft für Internationale Zusammenarbeit 

(GIZ) Gmbh, African Cashew Initiative (ACi), Elevage, 322 Natitingou, Benin, e-mail: 

issaka.salifou@giz.de 

438


Winds of Change: Livelihoods of an Iban Community in 

Transition 

THOMAS VETTER, OLIVER CUPIT, HUGO FRANCISCO CHAVEZ AYALA, 

VICTORIA MUNKAGER, MATILDE LUND FRANDSEN, PHILIPP SCHLIEPER, 

IDA WELDINGH PEDERSEN 

University of Copenhagen, Faculty of Science, Denmark 

As the Malaysian economy becomes increasingly globalised, and interventionist policies 

of agricultural modernisation are pursued, rural communities are changing. Many 

livelihoods which were traditionally farm-based are shifting towards a state of mixed 

rural-urban strategies. In this case study, a number of trends and shocks were examined 

in order to assess the resilience of rural Malaysian communities against crisis. 

The study was conducted in an Iban longhouse community in South-West Sarawak, 

Malaysia. An interdisciplinary approach to data collection was employed, incorporating 

both social and natural science methods. Multiple shocks and trends were found 

to affect assets in the village, acting as drivers of livelihood decisions. To these belong 

mobility, land tenure, government incentives, fluctuations in cash-crop markets, 

logging and environmental degradation. 

The identified shocks and trends were not found to pose a major threat to the current 

livelihood strategies due to the abundance of relatively diversified livelihood portfolios 

and a general shift towards wage labor. The households most vulnerable were 

those involved in cash-crop farming and a lack in stable sources of income. Food 

security in the village is high, due to the maintenance of subsistence lowland rice 

cultivation by the majority of households. Culture and tradition play a key role in 

continuing traditional farming systems, despite some signs indicating that a lack of 

labor, as a result of migration, has influenced the abandonment of hill rice cultivation. 

Logging and environmental degradation have affected natural assets, but decreasing 

reliance on these assets means that livelihoods have not been significantly affected. 

Although land tenure currently remains under Native Customary Rights law, the community’s 

recent application for land titles provides a positive outlook for future land 

security and even opportunities to diversify livelihoods through re-engaging in agriculture 

(re-agrarianisation). However, the benefits of the titling process will vary 

greatly among households. At present, increasing mobility and the continuing process 

of de-agrarianisation are most prevalent in providing resilience, by reducing vulnerability 

to environmental degradation and dependence on cash-crop markets. Flexibility 

of livelihood portfolios increases resilience by allowing for new livelihood opportunities 

to be capitalised upon. 

Keywords: Cash crops, de-agrarianisation, diversification, Malaysia, mobility 

Contact Address: Thomas Vetter, University of Copenhagen, Faculty of Science, Grundtvigsvej 14B, 

1864 Frederiksberg C, Denmark, e-mail: thomas.vetter@me.com 

439


China’ Soybean Import Demand: An Analysis of Impacts of Price 

Fluctuation and Agricultural Policy Transition 

FENGLI XIU 1 ,SIEGFRIED BAUER 1 ,FENGGUANG XIU 2 


2Shenyang Ligong University, School of Science, China 

After WTO accession in December 2001, China’s international trade developed rapidly. 

In 2004, China started to have an agricultural trade deficit and its deficit has been increasing 

at a large rate since then thanks to the soared agro-food imports. China is 

the largest destination market for global soybean exports and accounts for about twothirds 

of the total global soybean trade. The soybean import value of China increased 

dramatically especially after 2001 from 2.2 USD billion in 2000 to 29.7 USD billion 

in 2011, with average annual growth rate more than 31 %. With the increasing global 

food price and expanding domestic demand of China, the soybean import demand 

analysis becomes the central issue concerned by scholars and Chinese government. In 

recent years Chinese government pays more attention to “San-Nong” problem (i.e. the 

three agricultural-related issues: agriculture, rural areas and peasants).Accompanying 

the reduction and elimination of agricultural taxes and fees, the Chinese government 

has started to introduce various subsidies-including direct payments to grain producers 

based on acreages, subsidies for purchased farm inputs, for improved varieties of 

seeds and for the purchase of agricultural machinery. Since 2008, soybean production 

has been subsidised from the government. In order to analyse China’s soybean import 

demand and forecast the future trend under the increasing global food price and domestic 

agricultural policy transition, China’s soybean import demand function is built 

and ARIMA model is used. Results show that the policy transition from taxing to 

subsidising agriculture, domestic soybean production and exchange rate have significant 

effects on soybean import. After parameter estimation and test, ARIMA (1, 4, 1) 

is chosen as the best forecasting model and can predict the trend of soybean import. 

Although there is a slight decrease in soybean import in 2011, it is predicted that in 

2012 China’s soybean import will increase around 10.5 %. More domestic agricultural 

subsidies are necessary to encourage Chinese domestic soybean production and 

trade policy adjustment to satisfy domestic consumption. 

Keywords: Agricultural support, ARIMA model, China, soybean import demand 

Contact Address: Fengli Xiu, Justus-Liebig University Giessen, Dept. of Project and Regional 

Planning, Senckenbergstr. 3, 35390 Giessen, Germany, e-mail: Xiu.Fengli@agrar.uni-giessen.de 

440


Household Food Security under the Conditions of Poverty: 

Evidence from Kordofan Region, Central-West Sudan 

ABDELATEIF HASSAN IBRAHIM 1 ,SAYED ALI FADAL ELMOLA ZAREBA 2 


2University of Western Kordofan, Department of Economics, Sudan 

Despite the proper efforts that have been made by government and NGOs to support 

the food security in Sudan, there are still significant numbers of food insecure people 

in the country. Several factors are responsible for this, including: limited access to 

food, due to low productivity of agricultural crops and drastically increase of food 

prices which effects on the food security status of farm households, who access the 

majority of their food from the market. This situation forced the farm households to 

adopt different coping mechanisms in order to secure their food consumption. This 

paper will give detailed findings on the potential impact of socio-economic and environmental 

factors that hinder the household food security under the conditions of 

poverty. It will also argue that if the income from agricultural growth is spent locally 

and rural off-farm activities are promoted, this can have a considerable impact on 

the incomes of the poor. The data were collected in Kordofan region, Central-West 

Sudan during the season 2009/2010. A structured questionnaire was prepared and 

distributed to 200 farm households using multi-stage random technique. In addition, 

group discussions were conducted with key informants to ensure the accuracy of the 

data in the questionnaires. Descriptive statistics and econometric estimates were used 

to analyse the primary data obtained from the survey. The results of the descriptive 

statistics show that 75 % of sampled households did not have sufficient food to secure 

their needs, especially during the off-season, whereas 73 % of households reported 

inadequate income to buy food. In addition, the results of OLS regression show that 

the costs of production inputs, seed, area cultivated, type of land, rainfall distribution, 

net farm income, off- farm income, and animal ownership are the significant variables 

determining the food security status in the area. Given the close link between local 

production and food insecurity, investments in the agricultural sector that increase 

food availability and strengthen the resilience of the food production system will have 

immediate positive impact on all elements of food security in food insecure areas. 

Keywords: Environmental factors, food prices, food security, off-farm income, 

poverty, productivity 

Contact Address: Abdelateif Hassan Ibrahim, Justus-Liebig University Giessen, Dept. of Project and 

Regional Planning, Senckenberg Str. 3, 35390 Giessen, Germany, e-mail: lateif73@hotmail.com 

441


Effects of Vietnamese Controlled-Price Policy on Competition 

with Thailand 

HARALD VON WITZKE 1 ,TILMAN BRÜCK 2 ,THI HUONG DIU PHAM 1 

1Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, Department of Agricultural Economics, Germany 

2German Institute for Economic Research (DIW), Development and Security, Germany 

Vietnam and Thailand are the two top rice exporters who contribute more than 50 % 

of market shares in the international market. Therefore, any changes in their rice 

policies have a strong influence on the world market. 

Currently, the strongest and most frequently impact on the Vietnamese rice industry 

is the controlled-price policy that regulates the competition in rice market. It restricts 

the volume of export rice in order to ensure national food security. In terms of economic 

efficiency, this policy keeps Vietnamese rice production under its full potential 

compared with the Thai rice industry. Many experts suggest that Vietnam puts more 

attention on national food security than necessary. This causes market distortion and 

weakens the Vietnamese competition with Thailand. 

In order to examine the effects of the controlled-price policy with a quantitative 

method, we build and run a spatial equilibrium model with 3 different scenarios: 

(1) Controlled-price policy updated every week; (2) Controlled-price policy updated 

every month; (3) Controlled-price policy updated every 3 months. With known production, 

consumption, domestic price, transportation cost and elasticities of demand 

and supply function of Vietnamese and Thai rice industry, the model shows that with 

less changes in the controlled-price policy, the competitiveness of the Vietnamese rice 

on international markets rises without having negative effects on the national food security 

goal. Non-rice farmers will be losers due to higher domestic prices for rice, but 

the majority of the population who are farmers, accounting for more than 70 % of the 

population, will benefit from the higher volume and turnover of rice export, and so 

the net social revenue will increase also. Therefore, we highly recommend that the 

controlled-price policy should not be too often changed in order to achieve a better 

competitiveness of Vietnamese rice. 

Keywords: Rice export, Vietnamese rice policy 

Contact Address: Thi Huong Diu Pham, Humboldt-University of Berlin, Department of Agricultural 

Economics, Storkower strasse 223 WEN 23.07.40, 10367 Berlin, Germany, e-mail: phamhuongdiu@ 

gmail.com 

442


Plant Breeding and Food Security: 

Targeting the Needs of Resource-Poor Farmers in Plant Breeding 

Programs for Marginal Areas 

ANJA CHRISTINCK 1 ,EVA WELTZIEN 2 

1seed4change, Germany 

2International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics (ICRISAT), Mali 

We establish the internationally agreed definition of food security, which rests on the 

three conditions of food availability, access to food, and issues of food utilisation. 

We then outline how decentralised and participatory plant breeding approaches (PPB) 

can effectively address each of these aspects, based on experiences gained in various 

geographical regions. In the past, conventional plant breeding programs have mainly 

concentrated on increasing food availability. Other aspects of food security have attracted 

far less attention in most breeding programs. Furthermore, poor farmers working 

under marginal conditions do not “automatically” profit from breeding work done 

under more favourable conditions. Rather, plant breeding for marginal environments 

requires that the specific set of conditions which is typical for such environments will 

be addressed. 

Participatory breeding methods can contribute to all three aspects of food security 

– availability, access and utilisation. Even under marginal conditions, yields can 

increase substantially and periods of food shortage can be curtailed, and not at the 

expense of other factors such as yield stability or food quality. 

Several studies suggest that farmers can increase their revenue or make cost savings 

through the implementation of PPB. Informal rural seed networks combined with PPB 

measures play an important role in assuring access to food, particularly for the poorest 

members of farming communities. Owing to its decentralised organisation, PPB 

programs generate many different varieties for different production conditions and 

purposes. The approach tends to enhance food diversity and to maintain traditional 

knowledge that can help counteract food shortages and malnutrition. 

Thus, the unique potential of PPB for improving food security is the impact it can 

make in those very situations where people are afflicted by food insecurity. Progress 

can be achieved for specific production conditions and user groups, not simply through 

breeding in its narrowest sense, but by bringing the context, the objectives and the direction 

of the breeding programme more sharply into focus. PPB approaches can 

form part of comprehensive strategies to adapt farming systems to climate change by 

increasing the options available to farmers for flexible adaptation to shifting circumstances. 

Keywords: Food security, marginal environments, plant breeding 

Contact Address: Anja Christinck, seed4change, Gichenbach 34, 36129 Gersfeld, Germany, e-mail: 

mail@seed4change.de 

443


Community Resilience and Climate Change 

JACKSON GILBERT MAJALIWA MWANJALOLO 1 ,RUGER WINNEGGE 2 , 

NELE FOERCH 2 

1Makerere University, College of Agricultural and Environmental Sciences, Uganda 

2University of Siegen, Centre for International Capacity Development, Germany 

The effects of climate change present some of the major challenges that will haunt 

mankind for a long time to come. Climate change has already affected the livelihoods 

of many smallholder farmers across Africa, who largely rely on rain-fed agriculture 

and other natural resources. 

For instance, farmers around Soroti, Northern Uganda, can observe a change in rainfall 

patterns over the past few years. Living in the floodplains close to Mount Elgon, 

they are used to frequent floods but also droughts. However, the unpredictability of 

rainfall patterns is a new phenomenon and presents a challenge they have to adjust to 

and cope with. An investigation was undertaken by a team of DAAD Alumni from 

eastern Africa region to i) assess the climate change resilience of the rural communities 

and ii) identify their coping strategy to the above challenge brought by climate 

change and variability. Household surveys and historical data analysis were conducted 

in two sub-counties namely Gweri and Dokolo of Soroti district. The rural 

communities of Soroti district are very vulnerable to climate change related impacts, 

due to their low level of resilience to these shocks; exacerbated by high demographic 

pressure, low income; inappropriate food storage, inadequate access to health services, 

erosion of indigenous knowledge, limited access to energy; violent conflicts 

with neighbouring communities, high frequency and magnitude of the shocks. Farmers 

have taken steps to adapt to the climatic changes and variability related negative 

impacts. The most common adaptation strategies in the region include change in 

lifestyle from livestock keeping to agriculture; change in the types of crop, planting 

date and migrating to other areas. A strategy to enhance resilience was participatory 

developed with the two rural communities in order to increase their productivity with 

minimum soil degradation, increase their access to market and market information, 

empower them in participatory planning and plan implementation. 

Keywords: Climate change, participatory planning, resilience, rural communities, 

vulnerability 

Contact Address: Ruger Winnegge, University of Siegen, Centre for International Capacity Development, 

Hölderlinstr. 3, 57068 Siegen, Germany, e-mail: ruger.winnegge@uni-siegen.de 

444


Natural Shocks, Risk Perceptions and Resilience: 

Evidence from Cameroon 

BALGAH ROLAND AZIBO 1 ,GERTRUD BUCHENRIEDER 2 , 

INNOCENT NDOH MBUE 3 

1Bamenda University of Science and Technology and Pan African Institute for 

Development in West Africa (PAID WA), Social Sciences, Cameroon 

2Universität der Bundeswehr München, Professur für Politik und Entwicklung außerhalb 

der OECD-Welt (associated research fellow of IAMO), Germany 

3University of Douala, Dept. of Hygiene, Safety and Security, Cameroon 

Invariably it is the poorest of the poor who are the most affected in the event of disasters, 

policies, laws or enabling milieu for safeguarding their livelihoods. A major concern 

in disaster research is to explore the relationship between shock experiences and 

victims’ perceptions of risk, as well as possible effects on victims’ behaviour towards 

future shocks. Taking the victimized households of the 1986 Lake Nyos disaster as 

our sampling units, a quasi-experimental design was employed. Matching was done 

by comparing former disaster–affected and non–affected households. Both groups 

sampled were of adequate size, and subject to the same questionnaire. Selection of 

test households (470) was purposely limited to nine of the ten towns accommodating 

both survivors and non survivors of the 1986 Lake Nyos disaster. A list constructed 

with traditional rulers in each village allowed for random sampling of non victims 

for comparative analysis. All selected households were interviewed. The t-test for 

equality of means was applied and the results related to theory because we think this 

straight-forward statistical approach best suits the complexity of the topic with regard 

to interpreting power. Within the t-test for equality of means, we compare households 

affected by the Lake Nyos disaster with those who were not. The results reveal differentiated 

perceptions of risk and management behaviour contingent on households’ 

experiences from the examined shock (mean membership in groups and networks 

amongst victims, 1.65 > for non victims, 1.23; p = 0.001


Analysis of Urban Consumers’ Willingness to Pay a Premium for 

African Leafy Vegetables (ALVs) in Kenya: 

A Case of Eldoret Town 

PHILEMON CHELANG’A 1 ,GIDEON OBARE 1 ,SIMON CHEGE KIMENJU 2 


2Georg-August-Universität-Göttingen, Dept. of Agricultural Economics and Rural 


Kenya has close to 210 species of African leafy vegetables (ALVs) that have been 

integrated for use as food by rural families for many generations. The continued 

dominance of ALVs in the diets of vulnerable rural families resulted to the vegetables 

being regarded as poor man’s food given that exotic vegetables connoted civilisation 

and thus commonly consumed by urban population. However, in the recent 

past, the demand for ALVs has been increasing as a result of urbanisation, emergence 

of supermarkets, change of dietary habits and increased awareness about its value. 

Furthermore, they are pertinent in view of the fact that they are resilient enough to 

thrive in poor soils and well-suited to the small plots especially with the current increasing 

costs of production, demographic pressure and environmental degradation. 

This study surveyed 204 urban consumers in Eldoret Town of Kenya to determine 

the willingness to pay (WTP) a premium for African leafy vegetables (ALVs) and the 

underlying determinants using the semi-double bounded contingent valuation choice 

and logit models, respectively. The results show the consumers prefer ALVs than exotic 

leafy vegetables - on average, ALVs would fetch a premium of 79%; 88 % and 

70 % in open air and supermarkets respectively. Consumers preferred ALVs because 

they were perceived to be more nutritious than the exotic vegetables. The results also 

indicate that most consumers were planning to increase their consumption of ALVs in 

future. The Consumers’ WTP a premium was positively influenced by: age, presence 

of children in the household, years of schooling of the household decision maker and 

the number of years the consumers have been consuming ALVs. Therefore, greater 

effort to explore the potential of such vegetables could lead to enhanced agricultural 

productivity, more-stable vegetable supplies, improved nutrition and higher incomes 

in rural areas. 

Keywords: African leafy vegetable, consumers’ willingness to pay, Kenya, open air 

markets, semi-double bounded contingent valuation, supermarkets 

Contact Address: Philemon Chelang’a, Egerton University, Agricultural Economics and Agribusiness 

Management, Nakuru, Kenya, e-mail: pchelang@yahoo.com 

446


Value Chain Promotion for Food Security in Small-Scale Farming 

Context: Results of two Year Experiences in Atacora-Donga 

Region, Benin 

HORST OEBEL 1 ,GEOFFROY GANTOLI 2 ,EVINCE OSVALD YEGBEMEY 1 

1Deutsche Gesellschaft für Internationale Zusammenarbeit (GIZ), Conservation and 

Management of Natural Resources (ProCGRN), Benin 

2University of Parakou, Dept. of Rural Economics and Sociology, Benin 

During the food price crisis in 2008, the German cooperation programme for agriculture 

and resource conservation has formulated a food security programme co-financed 

by the European community. Between October 2009 and October 2011, the food security 

programme Atacora/Donga (PASA) in the northwest of Benin worked with 

about 90.000 small scale farmer households to improve productivity of rice and corn. 

A special attention was made on the processing and marketing of cereals. Activities 

were planned and implemented using the value chain approach ValueLinks, with 

special regards to economic potential and promotion of women activities in the value 

chain. The implication of all stakeholders from public and private sector has allowed 

a strong ownership. The final evaluation in January 2012 revealed: 

• An increase of cereal productiveness of 40 % (rice) up to 50 % (corn) 

• The rate of local processing of rice produced in the region passed from 24 % in 2009 

to 50 % in 2010 with an improved quality. 

• An increase of more than 20 % of income for women participating at the processing 

trainings 

• Food security in the region 

New strategies for input supply, training and private sector participation in the value 

chain approach ensure durability for a long-term food security in the region. The 

active involvement of local stakeholders at different stages of planning and implementation 

contribute now to a better integration of the value chain approach in local 

development plans. The public agricultural training agency helps to stimulate private 

investments in agriculture and processing with Public Private Partnerships (PPP). 

Keywords: Benin, food security, value chain approach 

Contact Address: Horst Oebel, Deutsche Gesellschaft für Internationale Zusammenarbeit (GIZ), 

Conservation and Management of Natural Resources (ProCGRN), B.P.322, Natitingou, Benin, e-mail: 

horst.oebel@giz.de 

447

Engineering 

1) Innovations in agricultural engineering 451 

2) Water and energy 459 

3) Post-harvest technology 471 

4) Food, health and nutrition 487 

449

Innovations in agricultural engineering 


UWE RICHTER, DAVID D. GOLICHA, CHRISTIAN HÜLSEBUSCH, 

BRIGITTE KAUFMANN: 

Development of a New Low Cost Long Time GPS-device for 

the Recording of Grazing Itineraries 452 

NOUHOU ALI: 

Irrigated Agriculture in Niger: Which Strategy to Adopt 

Against Food Crises and Poverty? 453 

ZELALEM TAMRAT, FEKADU BEYENE: 

Assessing Governance of Small-Scale Irrigation Scheme in 

Eastern Ethiopia Zelalem Tamrat 454 

CAROLINE PAUL, EKKEHARD KÜRSCHNER: 

Can Water-Saving Technology Increase Resilience in Smallholder 

Irrigation Schemes? Experiences from Bangladesh 

from a Socio-Economic Perspective 455 

MARCUS NAGLE, KIATKAMJON INTANI, BUSARAKORN 

MAHAYOTHEE, SARDSUD VICHA, JOACHIM MÜLLER: 

Non-destructive Mango Quality Assessment using Image 

Processing: Inexpensive Innovation for the Fruit Handling 

Industry 

MOHAMMAD KAZEM SOURI, MOJGAN BAKHTIARI ZADE: 

Effects of Plant Essential Oils on Storage Decay of Valencia 

456 

Oranges 457 

451

Engineering 

Development of a New Low Cost Long Time GPS-Device for the 

Recording of Grazing Itineraries 

UWE RICHTER 1 ,DAVID DUBA GOLICHA 2 ,CHRISTIAN HÜLSEBUSCH 3 , 

BRIGITTE KAUFMANN 3 

1University of Kassel, Agricultural Engineering, Germany 

2Kenya Agricultural Research Institute, Marsabit Research Centre, Kenya 

3German Institute for Tropical and Subtropical Agriculture (DITSL), Germany 

Knowledge about grazing itineraries is important in order to understand decision making 

processes in pastoral production systems. Recently the use of GPS-technology 

has enabled a detailed spatial description of animal and herd movements in pastoral 

systems. Researchers either follow herds themselves - or equipped herders - with 

handheld GPS devices to record larger scale movements of entire herds, or place collars 

on individual animals to track herds or record individual animal movements on 

pasture. Animal or herd GPS data yields particularly informative data on grazing 

management in extensive livestock systems if recorded for longer periods and over 

different seasons and on larger numbers of animals or herds simultaneously but both 

above GPS-devices have disadvantages for expanded studies. Most handheld devices 

have a battery life of only around 24 hours and therefore require daily maintenance, 

whereas GPS-collars are too expensive to be used on many animals or in many herds 

simultaneously. The goal of this study was to develop a GPS-tracking device with the 

capacity to record the daily herd movements for a long period of time at reasonable 

cost. Commercial low price GPS-tracking devices, which require no maintenance, 

were combined with solar backpacks to warrant energy supply for the GPS. Two types 

of solar backpacks and three types of GPS-trackers were used and tested with Gabra 

pastoralists in northern Kenya. The devices were given after a short briefing to three 

herders, each of which carried the backpacks when herding their goats for 2 consecutive 

months. During this period, each herder was visited thrice to download data and 

monitor equipments. The combination of the VOLTAIC solar charger backpack 

and the Wintec WBT 202 GPS proved reliable and recorded data for 65 days with 

a total of 685 hours and 933 km of recorded tracks. On average the herder moved 

10.5 hours per day a distance of 21.9 km with an average speed of 2.09 km h -1 . A 

combination of a solar backpack with a GPS-tracking device is a reliable long term 

and low cost alternative for recording grazing itineraries. 

Keywords: Daily herd movements, GPS-technology, grazing itineraries, herd tracking, 

low cost, pastoral production 

Contact Address: Uwe Richter, University of Kassel, Agricultural Engineering, Nordbahnhofstrasse 1a, 

37213 Witzenhausen, Germany, e-mail: judge@uni-kassel.de 

452

Innovations in agricultural engineering — Oral Presentations 

Irrigated Agriculture in Niger: Which Strategy to Adopt Against 

Food Crises and Poverty? 

NOUHOU ALI 

Karlsruhe Institute of Technology (KIT), Institute of Rgional Science and Spacial Planning 

(IfR), Germany 

One of the most vulnerable ecosystems of the African continent is situated in the 

Sahel. Shaken by repeating food crises, the Sahel suffers from the devastating consequences 

of climate change and population pressure. Precipitations are irregularly 

distributed as to their spatial and temporal occurrence, the Sahara Desert expands inexorably, 

cropping soils turn more and more barren every year, the climate refuges 

move to the country’s south where the annual demographic growth attains 3.6 % in 

some communes. Given this staggering situation, the Nigerien peasants have followed 

the lead of other peasants of the Sahel and chose to intensify the cultivation 

by irrigating crops around water courses, fountains and pools to compensate the lack 

of food. Since three decades, however, this practice has under achieved the peasant’s 

expectations. Actually, the husbandry techniques are still archaic and the products are 

not competitive with imported goods, moreover the consumers’ skepticism is rampant. 

Additionally, the lobbying practice of the grocery merchants contributes to the 

precarious situation of the agricultural producers. The state which has been attempting 

to valorize these agricultural systems through several support schemes is faced 

with the precariousness of the public finances and the peasants’ mentality. By means 

of a qualitative study conducted between March and October 2011, the present work 

strives to contribute to the analysis of irrigated agriculture systems in the southwest of 

Niger. The research focused on the traditional rice cultivation, vegetable gardens and 

the irrigation facilities. The study examined in detail the existing irrigation practices, 

the profits made and the difficulties the peasants faced. Finally, the problem-solving 

approaches chosen by the public authorities are discussed. 

Keywords: Irrigated agriculture, foods crisis, Sahel, Niger 

Contact Address: Nouhou Ali, Karlsruhe Institute of Technology (KIT), Institute of Rgional 

Science and Spacial Planning (IfR), Kaiserstrasse 12, 76131 Karlsruhe, Germany, e-mail: 

nouhougeo@yahoo.de 

453

Engineering 

Assessing Governance of Small-Scale Irrigation Scheme in 

Eastern Ethiopia 

ZELALEM TAMRAT 1 ,FEKADU BEYENE 2 

1Haramaya University, Institute of Pastoral and Agropastoral Studies & College of Social 

Science and Humanities, Ethiopia 

2Haramaya University, College of Agriculture and Environmental Sciences, Ethiopia 

Erer River small-scale irrigation scheme in eastern Ethiopia provides a range of benefits 

to a number of users, including agropastoral, pastoral, state-farm and town communities, 

which has increased the complexity of governance. This paper examines 

the governance of small-scale irrigation scheme with particular focus on assessing irrigation 

institutions and the dynamics of interactions among user-groups that in turn 

affect the scheme‘s governance system. We rely on in-depth case study and survey 

to capture perceptions on performance of institutions for different purposes. The results 

reveal that governance of the irrigation scheme is often found to be dysfunctional 

and unsustainable due to the dynamics of social, political, historical, economic and 

environmental dimensions affecting water availability. The regional trans-boundary 

nature of the river and lack of effective formal institutions governing inter-group relations 

at a wider scale are crucial in influencing governance. The result suggests 

that institutional resilience in governing the scheme can be realised if different social 

actors (communities, regional government officials and local administrators) create a 

platform that provides opportunities for dialogue among contesting user-groups, craft 

institutions facilitating equitable intergroup distribution of benefits, devolve decisionmaking 

and transfer accountability to user-groups where community-based institutions 

could play greater role in transforming water-use relations. 

Keywords: Access, governance, institutions, irrigation scheme, user-group 

Contact Address: Fekadu Beyene, Haramaya University, College of Agriculture and Environmental 

Sciences, P. O. Box 161, Haramaya, Ethiopia, e-mail: keneefbk@gmail.com 

454


Can Water-Saving Technology Increase Resilience in Smallholder 

Irrigation Schemes? Experiences from Bangladesh from a 

Socio-Economic Perspective 

CAROLINE PAUL 1 ,EKKEHARD KÜRSCHNER 2 

1Leibniz Centre for Agricultural Landscape Research, Institute for Socio-economics, 

Germany 

2CEP-Consult, Germany 

Dry-season rice in Bangladesh is mostly produced with small-scale irrigation using groundwater. 

The uplifting of groundwater requires fuel or electricity which is expensive for smallholder 

farmers. Additionally, electricity is highly unreliable. Both factors hamper a secure water 

supply for irrigation. Farmers increasingly develop their own solutions to enhance irrigation 

efficiency such as repairing canals, irrigating at night or even switching to alternative crops in 

regions with severe water stress. In this context, the water-saving technology “Alternate Wetting 

and Drying” (AWD) is discussed as a possible means to enable farmers to cope with scarce 

water and energy resources. The study is based on a research collaboration of the Centre for 

Rural Development and the International Rice Research Institute in 2010. 

AWD is based on the knowledge that irrigated rice requires 15–30 % less water than generally 

applied. Our results confirm the economic benefit – farmers practicing AWD report cost savings 

up to 18 % as the irrigation frequency decreases. This mostly applies to farmers who own 

a water pump. However, smallholder farmers and share croppers mostly depend on pump 

owners for buying irrigation water often at a fixed seasonal rate irrespective of their actual 

water consumption. Furthermore, they have little control over the timing of irrigation which is 

crucial for maximising economic savings and ensuring that no harvest losses take place when 

practicing AWD. 

In principle, AWD has a great potential to increase resilience of farmers in dealing with the 

challenges of water scarcity and energy cost. However, the frequently found seasonal payment 

arrangements and the scheduling of irrigation which is not aligned with the requirements of 

AWD decrease the incentive or the possibility of farmers within an irrigation scheme to practice 

AWD. Only when these structural issues within local irrigation schemes are adapted, AWD can 

unfold its full benefits to the individual farmer. 

Therefore, local stakeholders within the same irrigation scheme should be encouraged to find 

mechanisms that allocate economic benefits to all farmers on a fair and collective base. Furthermore, 

organisations involved in disseminating AWD should be capacitated to address economic 

and organisational aspects during their advisory services. 

Keywords: Alternate wetting and drying, irrigation organisation, smallholder rice farmers, 

water and energy scarcity, water-saving technology 

Contact Address: Caroline Paul, Leibniz Centre for Agricultural Landscape Research, 

Institute for Socio-economics, Eberswalder Strasse 84, 15374 

caroline.paul@zalf.de 

Müncheberg, Germany, e-mail: 

455

Engineering 

Non-Destructive Mango Quality Assessment Using Image 

Processing: Inexpensive Innovation for the Fruit Handling 

Industry 

MARCUS NAGLE 1 ,KIATKAMJON INTANI 1 ,BUSARAKORN MAHAYOTHEE 2 , 

SARDSUD VICHA 3 ,JOACHIM MÜLLER 1 



2Silpakorn University, Dept. of Food Technology, Thailand 

3Mae Fah Luang University, School of Agro-Industry, Thailand 

Thailand is one of the most important mango producers in Southeast Asia, but fruit 

sorting is still done by hand which is tedious and inaccurate. Thus, the need exists for 

improvement of efficiency and accuracy of fruit quality assessment that can meet the 

demands of international markets. Low-cost and non-destructive sensing technologies 

capable of sorting fruits according to their properties would help promote the 

mango export industry in Thailand. Image processing techniques have been applied 

increasingly for sorting applications in recent years. This work has assessed the application 

of image processing for detecting value parameters in Thai mango varieties, 

namely ‘Nam Dokmai’ and ‘Maha Chanok’. An automatic image acquisition system 

was developed and laboratory experiments were conducted to obtain optical data and 

reference analyses. Fruit qualities including colour and the presence of defects such 

as anthracnose, bruises and latex stains were monitored during the ripening process. 

To evaluate origins of mechanical damage, field research using mock fruits included 

in transport shipments was conducted to record conditions during the post-harvest 

handling chain. Image processing and quantitative analyses were used to assess the 

data. The Pearson correlation coefficients and p-values have provided a confidence 

that the machine vision system is able to collect accurate colour data from the mango 

fruits. For the defects detection, the images acquired by the automatic picture acquisition 

system were segmented and analysed by using discriminant analysis to evaluate 

the threshold of detection. The results will be incorporated for development of a 

robust classification system for quality prediction and establishment of a machine vision 

system for automatic grading and sorting of mangos. The work has also helped 

to recommend better post-harvest practices. Proper post-harvest handling and quality 

assurance will improve product value. As a result, farmers and exporters can have better 

access to high-value international markets, enabling them to increase their income 

and provide consumers with a premium product. 

Keywords: Image processing, mango, post-harvest handling, quality assessment, 

Thailand 



456


Effects of Plant Essential Oils on Storage Decay of 

Valencia Oranges 

MOHAMMAD KAZEM SOURI, MOJGAN BAKHTIARI ZADE 

Tarbiat Modarres University, Department of Horticulture, Iran 

Oranges are among the most important fruits produced in Iran. Kerman province and 

Jiroft region represent the most important production zones in Iran. Blue and green 

decay of citrus fruits are the major reasons for reduction in fruit quality and market 

losses. Decaying due to blue and green molds in citrus fruits is caused by Penicillium 

digitatum and P. italicum. In commercial production chemical pesticides are used for 

controlling the disease. So, in this study the effects of three plant essential oils from 

rosmary, thyme and artemisia at three levels of 0, 500 and 1000 mg l -1 on disease 

infection of the Valencia orange fruits were evaluated in three replicates. 

The results showed that when fruits were inoculated with fungi suspansion solution 

using scrashing, fruits independent of the essential oil type and the concentration were 

almost completely decayed in less than one week. But, when fruits were inoculated 

just with soaking of fruits in fungi solution, treatments were significantly different 

regarding the number of healthy or decayed fruits, percent of weight loss, decaying 

intensity, fruit juice soluble solids, titrable acidity, and the content of vitamin C, but 

not for fruit juice pH (p < 0.05). 

In this study the control group, fruits without any treatment, showed the highest percentage 

of healthy fruits with the highest fruit weight, total soluble solids, vitamin C 

and titrable acidity at the end of experiment. There was no significant difference between 

this control and the second level of artemisia and thyme application (500 mg l -1 ) 

which in part showed a significant improvement compared to control 2 and both levels 

of rosemary. 

Keywords: Artemisia, decaying, essential oil, rosemary, thyme, valencia orange 

Contact Address: Mohammad Kazem Souri, Tarbiat Modarres University, Department of Horticulture, 

Tehran, Iran, e-mail: mk.souri@modares.ac.ir 

457

Water and energy 

Posters 460 

ALEXANDER SCHÖNING, MARTINA WEGNER, ELISABETH 

VAN DEN AKKER, KLAUS ACKERMANN: 

Water Spreading Weirs: Improving Resilience in Dry Areas 460 

MOHAMMAD JAFARI, MAHSHID SOORI, ALI NOORI FARD: 

Optimal Site Selection for the Construction of Small Dams as 

a Water and Soil Erosion Management Option: Case Study 

from Kermanshah Province, Iran 461 

MAJID ROSTAMI: 

Sustainable Agriculture in Drought Prone Regions of Iran by 

Using Indigenous Knowledge 462 

KHALED OSATI, ALI SALAJEGHEH, MOHAMMAD MAHDAVI, 

PAUL KOENIGER: 

Statistical and Trend Analysis of Surface Water Quality for 

the Upstream of Karkheh River in Iran 463 

WEILI ZHANG, AIGUO XU, S.X.WU: 

Study on Driving Factors for Water Pollution in China 464 

HAMID REZA SHARIFAN: 

Development of Passive Sampler for the Monitoring of 

Herbicides in Aqueous Environments 465 

ANDREA DÜHRKOOP, OLIVER HENSEL: 

Subsurface Irrigation by Auto-regulative Working Porous 

Pipes Tested in Field Trials 466 

HOUMAN LIAGHATI, BEATRICE KNERR, NAGHMEH 

MOBARGHEI, AFSANEH NAEIMYFAR: 

Assessing the Effect of Gross Domestic Product and Energy 

Consumption on Water Pollution in Iran 

FATIH ELRAHMAN ELDIRDIRI, YAHIA OMAR ADAM GUMA, 

MOHAMMED H. MOHAMMED: 

Development of LPG and Household Woodfuel Consumption: 

467 

Case Study of two Rural Areas in Gezira State, Sudan 

SEBASTIAN ROMULI, SHKELQIM KARAJ, JOACHIM MÜLLER: 

Optimisation of Mechanical Oil Extraction from Husked 

468 

Kernels of Jatropha curcas L. Using Matrix Additives 469 

459

Engineering 

Water Spreading Weirs: Improving Resilience in Dry Areas 

ALEXANDER SCHÖNING 1 ,MARTINA WEGNER 1 ,ELISABETH VAN DEN AKKER 1 , 

KLAUS ACKERMANN 2 

1Deutsche Gesellschaft für Internationale Zusammenarbeit (GIZ), Rural Development 

and Agriculture, Germany 

2Deutsche Gesellschaft für Internationale Zusammenarbeit (GIZ), Environment and 

Climate Change, Germany 

The Sahel is characterised by adverse climatic conditions and degraded natural resources. 

Due to a rising population density and unsustainable cultivation practices, 

degradation of natural resources, particularly of soils, is progressing. Additional challenges 

result from the effects of climate change: the probability of dry spells and 

heavy rainfalls increases, and the repartition of rainfalls changes. Rural households 

in such fragile contexts are seriously affected by food insecurity and poverty. 

Various soil and water conservation measures have been introduced over the past 

decades to combat land degradation and desertification. They can ensure a more effective 

use of natural resources, if they are integrated in a systems approach, considering 

the various types of uses, e.g. for agriculture, livestock husbandry, and forestry. 

German development cooperation has extensive experience in the rehabilitation of 

degraded land, both individually and community owned. A relatively new technology 

for the rehabilitation of degraded inland valleys are water spreading weirs, which have 

been introduced in the late nineties. 

Water spreading weirs are masoned constructions that extend from one side of the 

valley to the other, usually built in a series to stabilise the entire valley. The weirs 

permit spate flows to overflow and flood the inland valleys. Due to the reduced speed 

of the water flow, fertile soil is deposited, and water infiltrates into the ground, thereby 

lifting the water table. This allows farmers to grow crops all year round (rainfed and 

irrigated), even on formerly degraded land, thereby contributing to food security and 

resilience. 

In order for water spreading weirs to be successful and sustainable, they need to be 

planned participatively with the local population, and they need to be integrated in 

the relevant land use planning instruments. Land rights need to be clear, and local 

maintenance structures need to be created and trained. 

Water spreading weirs are now widely implemented in Burkina Faso, Niger and Chad, 

and have the potential for further upscaling. 

Keywords: Desertification, land degradation, resilience, Sahel, soil and water conservation, 

sustainable use of natural resources, water spreading weirs 

Contact Address: Alexander Schöning, Deutsche Gesellschaft für Internationale Zusammenarbeit 

(GIZ), Rural Development and Agriculture, Dag-Hammarskjöld-Weg 1-5, 65760 Eschborn, Germany, 

e-mail: alexander.schoening@giz.de 

460

Water and energy — Posters 

Optimal Site Selection for the Construction of Small Dams as a 

Water and Soil Erosion Management Option: Case Study from 

Kermanshah Province, Iran 

MOHAMMAD JAFARI 1 ,MAHSHID SOORI 2 ,ALI NOORI FARD 3 

1University of Tehran, Dept. of Range and Watershed Management, Iran 

2Urmia University, Dept. of Range and Watershed Management, Iran 

3Fars & Khuzestan Cement Commercial Co., Planning & Development, Iran 

Worldwide, semi-arid areas face water deficiency and soil erosion. A fast growing 

population and the resulting increase in food demand, increase the pressure on water 

and soil resources. An appropriate management and an optimal utilisation of soil and 

water resources are key to fight water scarcity and erosion in semi-arid zones. One 

effective management solution is the use of small dams. It is important to select the 

appropriate locations for small dam projects and to implement the right dam type such 

as cement dams or gabion dams. The site selection is difficult because spatial information 

and many influential variables must be gathered and analysed; these variables 

include technical, social and economical criteria. 

This case study concentrated on the 9092 ha Meykhoran rural watershed located in 

Kermanshah Province, Iran. Geological, pedological, hydrological, and topographical 

information was gathered. Data analysing was done using tree-stage analytical 

hierarchy process. ARC-GIS, GS+, and PCI-GEOMATICA software were applied to 

analyse the gathered spatial information. The first stage involved the determination of 

hierarchical levels consisting of object, criteria, sub-criteria. During a second stage, 

standardisation, weighting, and paired comparisons of criteria and sub-criteria was 

done. In a last step, after overlaying criteria layers, the final maps for the determination 

of the optimal sites for the constructing of small dams were prepared. Using these 

patterns to locate further natural resources management projects will help to optimise 

usage of spatial information, save time, and decrease costs. 

Keywords: Geographical information systems, small dams, soil erosion, spatial 

information, water deficiency 

Contact Address: Mahshid Soori, Urmia University, Dept. of Range and Watershed Management, 

Nazlu Street-Urmia University, Urmia, Iran, e-mail: m.souri@urmia.ac.ir 

461

Engineering 

Sustainable Agriculture in Drought Prone Regions of Iran by 

Using Indigenous Knowledge 

MAJID ROSTAMI 

University of Malayer, Dept. of Agriculture and Natural Resources, Iran 

During the length of history, in the face of different disasters and stressful conditions 

in the central and eastern parts of Iran, indigenous people of these area developed 

technologies and knowledge, which enable them to live. Now a day this knowledge 

and many traditional practices which in the past have been regarded as primitive or 

misguided are now seen sophisticated and acceptable. It is clear that the concept 

of traditional knowledge does not exclusively belong to indigenous peoples. In the 

central and eastern parts of Iran, the availability of water is the most limiting factor 

for the agricultural development. The dry regions of Iran are characterised by high 

temperature, low rainfall and limited renewable water resources and knowledge of the 

local ecosystem simply means survival of community. There is tow type of problems 

in these areas; first of all the lack of fresh water and secondly the availability of fresh 

and clean water at the right place and time. Indigenous practice and knowledge of the 

farmers played an important role in sustainable development in drought prone regions 

of Iran. Some of these positive practices such as religious practices and social beliefs 

are based on symbolism, and other positive practices are based on the experience of 

different people during the long time of resident in a given area. This paper document 

different examples of indigenous practices such as Qantas and tube wells, subsurface 

dam, clay pot irrigation, participatory irrigation, drought early warning and rainfall 

prediction which rural use for decreasing the negative effects of water stresses in 

drought prone areas. 

Keywords: Irrigation management, traditional practices, waters harvesting system 

Contact Address: Majid Rostami, University of Malayer, Dept. of Agriculture and Natural Resources, 

Postal Code: 65719- 95863, Malayer, Iran, e-mail: majidrostami7@yahoo.com 

462


Statistical and Trend Analysis of Surface Water Quality for the 

Upstream of Karkheh River in Iran 

KHALED OSATI 1 ,ALI SALAJEGHEH 1 ,MOHAMMAD MAHDAVI 1 , 

PAUL KOENIGER 2 

1University of Teheran (UT), Dept. of Rehabilitation of Arid and Mountain Regions, Iran 

2Federal Institute for Geosciences and Natural Resources (BGR), Germany 

Karkheh Basin drains an area of about 51 843.22 km 2 and originates from the middle 

and southwestern parts of the Zagros Mountains in western Iran. Karkheh River 

ranks as number third in terms of mean discharge amount of Iran after Karun and Dez 

Rivers. River surface water quality and quantity changes in the upstream of Karkheh 

basin has been a major concern for water managers. This study is focusing on the 

upstream areas of Karkheh River basin which involve Gharehsoo and Gamasiab subbasins 

and some parts of Saimareh Miani subbassin. The climate of the study area 

is semi-arid and the precipitation decrease from north to south. Trend analyses have 

been employed to determine whether a significant change has occurred in surface water 

quality or not. Considering the effects of precipitation and river water quantity 

on river surface water quality, both sudden and gradual trends over time with and 

without precipitation and flow adjustment for the effects of exogenous variables have 

been investigated. Finally the various parametric and non-parametric tests strengths 

and weaknesses are discussed. The removal process involves modelling, and thus 

explaining the effect of exogenous variables with regression or LOWESS (LOcally 

WEighted Scatterplot Smooth) are helpful to reduce the background variability so 

that any trend “signal” present can be seen. However, if the probability distribution of 

the surface water quality parameters has changed over the period of record, a trend in 

the residuals may not necessarily be due to a trend in river discharge and precipitation. 

In this context, removing the significant role of exogenous variables reflect the real 

conditions. 

Keywords: Exogenous variables, Karkheh, Mann-Kendall, regression, surface water 

quality 

Contact Address: Khaled Osati, University of Teheran (UT), Dept. of Rehabilitation of Arid and 

Mountain Regions, Karaj, Iran, e-mail: khaled.ausati@gmail.com 

463

Engineering 

Study on Driving Factors for Water Pollution in China 

WEILI ZHANG, AIGUO XU, S.X.WU 

Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences (CAAS), Institute of Agricultural Resources 

and Regional Planning, China 

Since 1970s, the N and P eutrophication of major Chinese lakes and water systems 

has worsened. Investigation revealed that non-point source pollution from agriculture 

and rural regions is the leading source of water pollution. The contribution of nonpoint 

source pollutants from fertilisation of crop land, rural animal husbandry and 

untreated sewage of transition regions between rural and urban areas is much greater 

than that of point-source of domestical and industrial wastes in urban areas with developed 

wastewater pipe nets. Since the 1980s, the acreage of vegetables, fruits and 

flowers has increased by 4.4 times. Due to high profit, it is common use to apply 

very high rates of N and P fertilisers on these crops. The average fertiliser application 

rate is 569–2000kg (pure nutrient) per ha on a single crop, about 10 times more than 

applied on grain crops. The increasing vegetable area with high fertiliser input is one 

of the biggest problems for eutrophication of water bodies in watersheds. At the same 

time, animal units in rural regions tend to develop towards a very high concentration 

of animals in certain townships. N and P amounts from animal husbandry in such 

concentrated regions has reached very high levels, as much as 1721 kg N and 639 kg 

P2O5 per hectare agricultural land area, far more than the acceptance capacity of soil 

for these nutrients. In almost all of the important watersheds in China, non-point 

source N- and P-discharge to aquatic ecosystems from animal husbandry is becoming 

a crucial pollution source. Fast expansion of new city zones without wastewater pipe 

nets in transition regions between rural and urban areas make such zones the main 

non-point source for pollution. Although the non-point source pollution is already serious 

in the country, the growing influence of certain factors will lead to an even worse 

situation in the early 21 century. The non-point source pollution from agriculture and 

rural areas will become one of the biggest challenges for a sustainable development 

of China. 

Keywords: Eutrophication, non-point source pollution, nitrate pollution 

Contact Address: Weili Zhang, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences (CAAS), Institute of Agricultural 

Resources and Regional Planning, Zhongguancun South Avenue 12, 100081 Beijing, China, 

e-mail: wlzhang@caas.ac.cn 

464


Development of Passive Sampler for the Monitoring of Herbicides 

in Aqueous Environments 

HAMID REZA SHARIFAN 

Royal Netherlands Institute of Sea Research, Marine Organic Biogeochemistry Dept., 


Atrazine (ATR) is widely used to control broadleaf weeds, e.g. in the cultivation of 

corn and it has been identified as a principal contaminant of surface waters. For a 

better understanding of the environmental impacts of ATR herbicides on the aqueous 

environment, it is important to have an analytical tool to easily measure chemical 

compounds. Therefore, the development of a sensitive analytical methodology in 

water quality monitoring is needed for the detection of persistent pollutants in marine 

biota and aqueous environments. 

Passive samplers are highly sensitive, reproducible monitoring tools which offer the 

ability to integratively sample a wide range of environmental pollutants over an exposure 

period in water resources. In this study we investigated the solute transfer 

rate of atrazine through polyethersulfone (PES) membrane under a flow condition of 

400 RPM of stirring speed. PES is a semi-permeable membrane which allows the 

transport of hydrophilic chemicals through to the sorbent, while excluding colloids, 

particles, biogenic substances. The analysed water extraction has been carried out by 

GC-MS. 

Keywords: Atrazine, passive samplers, water contamination 

Contact Address: Hamid Reza Sharifan, Royal Netherlands Institute of Sea Research, Marine Organic 

Biogeochemistry Department, Texel, The Netherlands, e-mail: Hamid.reza.Sharifan@NIOZ.nl 

465

Engineering 

Subsurface Irrigation by Auto-regulative Working Porous Pipes 

Tested in Field Trials 

ANDREA DÜHRKOOP, OLIVER HENSEL 

University of Kassel, Agricultural Engineering, Germany 

According to Food and Agriculture Organisation of the United Nations (FAO) irrigation 

consumes 70 % of surface and groundwater resources of the world. In developing 

countries this value may attain 95 %. Due to irrigation, climate change and population 

growth, in many countries water consumption exceeds the renewable water resources, 

leading to widespread groundwater depletion and water scarcity. It can be assumed 

that current irrigation methods use only a minor portion of the applied water, and that 

losses up to 60 % due to percolation, evaporation and water management are common. 

The authors present a BMBF joint research project dealing with an innovative approach 

to water-saving irrigation, based on porous irrigation pipes as an upgrade of 

both subsurface and traditional pot irrigation. Clay pot (pitcher) irrigation is a type of 

subsurface irrigation. The unglazed porous clay pot is embedded in the ground and 

filled with water, which eventually drains through the porous pot wall. Savings of up 

to 70 % compared with conventional irrigation methods were observed, as well as a 

significant reduction of fertiliser requirements. 

In the BMBF joint research project (partners comprise both Algerian , Kenyan and 

German Universities, GIZ, DITSL, C.R.S.T.R.A - Research Center for Science and 

Technologies in Arid regions, German industry companies) which investigates in an 

effective subsurface irrigation technology following the pot-irrigation principle. Due 

to the specific material properties, the irrigation pipes are auto regulative, i.e. they 

release water depending on soil moisture and thus the plants’ water demand. This 

innovative irrigation technology will be field-tested in Algeria and Kenya from 2012 

through 2013. 

The irrigation method offers an easy-to-use low-tech system. Compared with existing 

irrigation methods, the system owns a high saving potential in terms of water 

consumption as well as operating costs. It is easy to handle and to maintain and 

environmentally sustainable. 

Preliminary research works on the method of operation, laboratory tests and first results 

of the field-trials will be presented. 

Keywords: Auto-regulative, intelligent irrigation, irrigation, subsurface irrigation, 

water saving 

Contact Address: Andrea Dührkoop, University of Kassel, Agricultural Engineering, Nordbahnhofstr.1 

a, 37213 Witzenhausen, Germany, e-mail: andrea.duehrkoop@uni-kassel.de 

466


Assessing the Effect of Gross Domestic Product and Energy 

Consumption on Water Pollution in Iran 

HOUMAN LIAGHATI 1 ,BEATRICE KNERR 2 ,NAGHMEH MOBARGHEI 1 , 

AFSANEH NAEIMYFAR 3 

1Shahid Beheshti University, Environmental Sciences Research Institute, Iran 

2University of Kassel, Development Economics, Migration and Agricultural Policy, 

Germany 

3Islamic Azad University, Shahr-e-Qods Branch, Dept.of Agriculture, Iran 

Today water pollution is one of the major environmental problems. Clean, safe, and 

adequate freshwater is vital for the survival of all living organisms and the functioning 

of ecosystems, communities, and economies. But the quality of the world’s water is 

increasingly threatened as human populations grow, industrial and agricultural activities 

expand, and as climate change threatens to alter the global hydrologic cycle. The 

effectiveness of Gross Domestic Production (GDP) process on pollution development 

is slight. Investigating the amount of economic growth and energy consumption on 

Iran’s water pollution is the main goal of this study. This investigation used time serie 

data for 1979–2007 and the vector error correction model (VECM). Results show 

that with increasing economic growth firstly the amount of pollution will increase but 

finally with increasing GDP it will decrease. Also with an increasing energy consumption 

equal to one percent, water pollution will increase equal to 0.55 percent. 

With respect to the positive effect of energy consumption on water pollution, any 

policy on energy productivity increase, will decrease water pollution. Finally, results 

showed that for adjusting shock effects on water pollution, it will need more than 1.54 

years periods. Using the alternative clean energy sources like wind and solar energy is 

an important factor to reduce the level of water pollution in Iran. Also more realistic 

price for water resource and technologies led to more efficient use of water resources. 

In addition technologies with less concentration of energy consumption, have been 

suggested to reduce the level of water pollution in Iran. 

Keywords: Environment, energy consumption, GDP, VECM, water pollution 

Contact Address: Naghmeh Mobarghei, University of Shahid Beheshti, Environmental Science 

Research Institute, Flat 3 - No 44- West Kavian Alley- Jolfa Street- Shariati Street, Tehran, Iran, e-mail: 

n_mobarghaee@sbu.ac.ir 

467

Engineering 

Development of LPG and Household Woodfuel Consumption: 

Case Study of two Rural Areas in Gezira State, Sudan 

FATIH ELRAHMAN ELDIRDIRI 1 ,YAHIA OMAR ADAM GUMA 2 , 

MOHAMMED H. MOHAMMED 2 

1Technische Universität Dresden, Institute of Forest Economics and Forest Management 

Planning, Germany 

2University of Khartoum, Faculty of Forestry, Shambat Campus, Sudan 

Sudan depends mainly on the forestry sector to supply its energy need. However, 

Woodfuel (WF) are one of the main causes of deforestation. The new petroleum discoveries 

in the end of this century and LPG availability allow following new policy 

to alleviate the pressure on forest. Trying to understand the effect of this new energy 

development, this study was designed to investigate the level of and patterns of WF 

consumption, WF share in energy budget and household WF dependency as well as 

main determinant of household energy demand (i.e the price of WF, price of alternatives, 

income and family size). Based on survey, group discussion and official interview 

(during the period between 1998 and 2007) from two rural areas in Gezira state 

the study was conducted. The level of house WF consumption before and after these 

energy developments was investigated in the two selected areas with different access 

to woodfuel and LPG resource. The collected data were analysed and discussed using 

SPSS program. Descriptive, regression and elasticity’s of demand analysis were 

performed. 

The results suggested that the level of household WF consumption significantly decreased 

in the two areas compared with the national reported level. Among the variable 

tested WF consumption was found to be affected mainly by price of LPG and to 

less extend by its own price. There was variation between the two study areas concerning 

the effect of income, main energy source and WF dependency. The result reveals 

significant reduction in share of WF in household energy expenditure in the two periods 

associated with increase in LPG expenditure. In the light of the results and the 

discussion a numbers of valuable policy recommendations were suggested. The study 

support the presumption that LPG price reduction policy and charcoal price policy, 

have succeeded in reducing WF consumption but in the long run other policy option 

might be necessary specifically under the expected increase in price of LPG in future. 

Keywords: LPG, woodfuel, woodfuel demand, woodfuel consumption 

Contact Address: Fatih Elrahman Eldirdiri, Technische Universität Dresden, Inst. of Forest Economics 

and Forest Management Planning, Pienner Str23 Stoeckhard Bau, 01737 Tharandt, Germany, e-mail: 

nagafat@googlemail.com 

468


Optimisation of Mechanical Oil Extraction from Husked Kernels 

of Jatropha curcas L. Using Matrix Additives 

SEBASTIAN ROMULI, SHKELQIM KARAJ, JOACHIM MÜLLER 

University of Hohenheim, Agricultural Engineering in the Tropics and Subtropics, 

Germany 

The need of renewable fuels produced from various plants is increasing significantly 

nowadays. Jatropha curcas L. is an important plant potential source for biofuel production. 

The plant is used by various industries as raw material for biodiesel production. 

However, the mechanical extraction efficiency should be increased because 

the kernels are husked and this fiber is decreasing the quality of feed from detoxified 

press cake. In order to facilitate the process of mechanical oil extraction and improve 

feed quality, an addition and optimisation of matrix material in feedstock is necessary. 

As for the additives, cellulose is considered to be one of the prospective additives, because 

it increases fiber contents which later on, will increase the efficiency of the oil 

extraction. In this study, three different types of additives are selected such as corn, 

wheat and triticale. The objective of this study was the investigation performance 

of the additives in oil extraction from Jatropha kernel. Therefore, the additive type 

and amount are selected to be the main variable parameters. The experiments were 

conducted using mechanical screw press type – Komet D85-1G. With respect to the 

physical properties of the machine, another four processing factors are also determined; 

screw press (16 and 21.5 mm choke ring size), press cylinders (1 and 1.5 mm 

bore size), nozzles (8, 10 and 12 mm nozzle diameter), and rotational speed (220, 

290, and 355 rpm). It is expected that the addition of additives such as corn, wheat or 

triticale will provide structure and strength for improving the extraction process with 

better oil recovery value. 

Keywords: Additives, Jatropha curcas, matrix pressing, oil extraction, physic nut 

Contact Address: Sebastian Romuli, University of Hohenheim, Agricultural Engineering in the Tropics 

and Subtr., Garbenstraße 9, 70599 Stuttgart, Germany, e-mail: sebastian_romuli@uni-hohenheim.de 

469

Post-harvest technology 

Posters 473 

ISAIAH ETEMO MUCHILWA, OLIVER HENSEL: 

A Review of Computational Methods for the Design of 

Innovative Drying Systems for the Prevention of Postharvest 

Aflatoxin Contamination of Maize in Kenya 473 

OLIVER HENSEL: 

Drying Kinetics of Yam Dioscorea batatas 474 

SONIA RINCON, PATRICIA CUERVO, OLIVER HENSEL: 

Drying of Mentha spicata in a Dual Solar-Biomass Tunnel 

Dryer in Colombia 475 

ADUNNI SANNI, GRACE ESROM JOKTHAN: 

Postharvest Food Safety Innovation: Non-chemical Hermetic 

Cowpea Storage Technology in Northern Nigeria 476 

ASIEH SIAHMARGUEE, GOLSOOMEH AZIZI, AHMAD NEZAMI, 

MARYAM JAHANI: 

Investigation of Laboratory Freeze Tolerance of Field Grown 

Fennel (Fueniculum vulgar) Ecotypes 477 

KAYODE A. AROWORA, CHARLES O. ADETUNJI, OLUYEMISI 

B. FAWOLE, S.S.AFOLAYAN, O.O.OLALEYE, J.B. ADETUNJI, 

BUKOLA AYOBAMI OGUNDELE: 

Effects of Aloe vera Coatings on Quality Characteristics of 

Oranges Stored under Cold Storage 478 

OSILAMAH SOLOMON IMHOMOH, SØREN K. RASMUSSEN, 

STEPHEN ONAKUSE, IVY DRAFOR AMENYAH, MARGARET 

OTTAH ATIKPO: 

Post-harvest Losses and Food Sustainability Challenges of 

Rural Farmers in Developing Countries: A Case Study of 

Rural Maize Farmers in Ghana 479 

AMRO BABIKER HASSAN, DIETER VON HÖRSTEN, 

WOLFGANG LÜCKE: 

Controlling Sitophilus zeamais (Coleoptera: Curculionidae) 

in Maize Grains by Using Microwave and Radio Frequency 

Energy 480 

O. PETER KOLAWOLE, A.S.OGUNLOWO, LEO AGBETOYE, 

LATEEF SANNI, ABASS ADEBAYO: 

Innovative Development of a Cassava Processing Machine 481 

471

Engineering 

472 

AGUS ARIP MUNAWAR, DIETER VON HÖRSTEN, DANIEL 

MÖRLEIN, ELKE PAWELZIK, JENS KARL WEGENER: 

Non-destructive Method for Determining Inner Quality 

Attributes of Intact Mango by Near Infrared Spectroscopy 482 

NATTASAK KRITTIGAMAS, SUCHADA VEARASILP, DIETER 

VON HÖRSTEN, WOLFGANG LÜCKE: 

Improving of Thermal Uniformity of Mango During Radio 

Frequency Heat Treatment for Insect Control 483 

MARCUS NAGLE, TOMOKO TADOKORO, BUSARAKORN 

MAHAYOTHEE, SARDSUD VICHA, JOACHIM MÜLLER: 

Monitoring of Ripening Processes in Mango Fruits using Laser 

Backscattering: An Innovative Optical Technique 

MAHA ADDAS, MUHI EL-DINE HILALI, B.RISCHKOWSKY, 

PANAGIOTIS KEFALAS: 

484 

The Quality of Syrian Shanklish a Traditional Dairy Product 485 

SARANA SOMMANO, DARYL JOYCE, BRUCE D’ARCY, PRIYA 

JOYCE, K.RATNAYAKE: 

Phytotoxicity by Essential Oil May Play a Role in Postharvest 

Browning Disorder of Cinnamon Myrtle (Backhousia 

myrtifolia) Tissues 486

Post-harvest technology — Posters 

A Review of Computational Methods for the Design of Innovative 

Drying Systems for the Prevention of Postharvest Aflatoxin 

Contamination of Maize in Kenya 

ISAIAH ETEMO MUCHILWA, OLIVER HENSEL 


Maize (Zea mays L.) is the preferred staple food crop in Kenya. It is grown in all 

agro-ecological zones and on two out of every three farms and accounts for about 

40 percent of daily calories with an annual per capita consumption of 98 kilograms. 

Aflatoxin contamination of maize is a recurrent problem in Kenya. In 2004 and 2005 

alone 157 deaths were documented and in 2010, 2.3 million bags of maize grown 

in the Eastern and Coastal regions were declared unfit for human consumption by 

the Ministry of Public Health and Sanitation due to unacceptably high levels of aflatoxin 

contamination. Kenya is yet to attain food self sufficiency and enhancing the 

resilience of the maize production system to aflatoxin contamination is necessary for 

food security. 

Aflatoxins are produced by the fungi Aspergillus flavus and parasiticus. They are 

known carcinogens and have also been shown to be antinutritional, mutagegenic, teratogenic 

and immuno suppressants. The risk of aflatoxin contamination is enhanced 

during growth by prolonged moisture and nutrient stress conditions and also by exposure 

to high humidity and temperature in the harvest/post harvest period. Climate 

change, evidenced by erratic rainfall distribution during the crop cycle, is responsible 

for the escalation of both these risk factors and poses a significant challenge for the 

management of aflatoxin contamination. The optimal temperatures and water activity 

for the growth of A. flavus and A. parasiticus is 35–37°C and 0.95 respectively, and 

for aflatoxin production, between 28–33°C and 0.90–0.95 respectively. This paper 

reviews documented numerical simulations of low temperature drying of maize and 

assesses the suitability of the provided partial differential equations, modelling heat 

and mass transfer, on the basis of their accuracy, range of application and ability to 

predict the occurrence of high aflatoxin contamination risk factors in drying. 

Keywords: Aflatoxin contamination, computational methods, maize drying, post 

harvest loss management 

Contact Address: Isaiah Etemo Muchilwa, University of Kassel, Agricultural Engineering, Nordbahnhofstr. 

1a, 37213 Witzenhausen, Germany, e-mail: imuchilwa@yahoo.co.uk 

473

Engineering 

Drying Kinetics of Yam Dioscorea batatas 

OLIVER HENSEL 


In Asian countries such as China and Japan there is an increasing interest to use Yam 

(Dioscorea batatas) as a food additive due to its nutritive and technological properties. 

Also in European organic food production it can have a future market as component 

of blends of flour for bakery and pasta that until now are typically based on maize, 

potatoes, rice, soybean or buckwheat and often contain locust bean gum or guar flour. 

New additives based on Yam can upgrade these standard blends with respect to sensory, 

physiological and health aspects. Due to the increasing number of people with 

allergic problems, Yam can also play an important role in bakery and dairy industry 

e.g. as thickening agent in yoghurt production. Typical processing consists of convective 

drying which enables milling and further distribution/use as flour. In order 

to create a production line in food industry, the drying kinetics of Yam need to be 

investigated including the knowledge of sorption isotherms and the determination of 

the final moisture content required for proper milling behaviour. 

The poster presents systematic lab trials to investigate the influence of temperature 

(40, 60 and 80°C), size (slice thickness), shape (cubes, slices, sticks) as well as the 

effect of peeling and the cutting direction as pre-treatments of raw material of Yam 

on the duration of the drying process. In addition colour changes were investigated to 

proof quality aspects using the L*a*b* system measured by chromameter technology. 

Out of the results optimum processing parameters can be named which enable to build 

up optimised production lines. 

Keywords: Drying kinetics, processing, quality, yam 

Contact Address: Oliver Hensel, University of Kassel, Agricultural Engineering, Nordbahnhofstr. 1a, 

37213 Witzenhausen, Germany, e-mail: agrartechnik@uni-kassel.de 

474


Drying of Mentha spicata in a Dual Solar-Biomass Tunnel Dryer in 

Colombia 

SONIA RINCON 1 ,PATRICIA CUERVO 1 ,OLIVER HENSEL 2 

1National University of Colombia, Dept. of Mechanical and Mechatronics Engineering, 

Colombia 


Colombia is a country with a very high production potential of aromatic plants due 

to its variety of climatic conditions and available arable land. The currently industry 

of aromatic plants is incipient with a production concentrated only on fresh product. 

The commercialisation of dried products is limited to local market. The drying 

process is inefficient causing high energy consumption and a product with low quality 

standards. The development and implementation of efficient economic driers in 

which high quality products can be obtained is a very important task in Colombia. 

A dual (solar-biomass) tunnel drier, based on the Hohenheim type which overcomes 

the problem of different climatic conditions is constructed and tested. This new concept 

includes a modular structure that facilitate mobility, side windows to help control 

the temperature inside the dryer while running in the solar mode and trays for the up 

and download of the product. The dryer is designed for 24 hours operation; the thermal 

energy is obtained through solar radiation during the day and biomass burning 

during the night. The total area of the solar collector is 16 m 2 , the drying area is 

20 m2 . The capacity of the drier is 2 to 5 kg m-2 depending on the drying product. 

The dryer operates in a farm near Bogotá, the capital city of Colombia, which is located 

in the Andean region of the country. The mean radiation varies between 300 

and 900 W m-2 between 9:00 a. m. and 5:00 p. m. Coffee shells, a residual biomass 

available in large quantities in the country, are used as biomass source. The power 

consumption of the dryer is 240 W when it works with the solar system and 260 W 

when it works with biomass. 

Experimental results of the performance of the tunnel during drying of Mentha spicata 

are presented. Air temperature and relative humidity together with product temperature 

and water content were continuously measured at different lengths of the 

drier. Collector and burner efficiencies were determined. The loss of essential oils 

and colour changes of the product during drying were also measured. 

Keywords: Drying, renewable energy, tunnel dryer 

Contact Address: Sonia Rincon, National University of Colombia, Department of Mechanical and 

Mechatronics Engineering, Carrera 30 No. 45 - 03, 1 Bogota, Colombia, e-mail: slrinconp@unal.edu.co 

475

Engineering 

Postharvest Food Safety Innovation: Non-Chemical Hermetic 

Cowpea Storage Technology in Northern Nigeria 

ADUNNI SANNI 1 ,GRACE ESROM JOKTHAN 2 

1Ahmadu Bello University, Department of Agricultural Economics and Rural Sociology, 

Institute for Agricultural Research, Nigeria 

2National Open University of Nigeria, Dept. of Animal Science, Nigeria 

Nigeria has comparative advantage for cowpea production as evident by being Africa’s 

major producer with an estimated 2.44 million tons annually (about 66 % of the world 

yearly production). Post-harvest infestation with weevils is the main challenge facing 

cowpea producers and traders. Farmers are therefore compelled to sell off the cowpea 

immediately after harvest, when the prices are lowest or resort to the use of toxic 

chemicals to preserve the cowpea from weevil attack. The chemicals contaminate the 

cowpea grains, and hundreds of human fatalities have been reportedly linked to the 

consumption of such polluted cowpea in Nigeria. Adoption of health conscious storage 

techniques such as hermetic sealing of cowpea in plastic bags (Triple bagging) is 

a safe alternative to prevent food borne illness from consuming contaminated cowpea. 

The technology involves ‘bagging’ the cowpea using non-chemical, hermetic storage 

bags with very low oxygen density (less than 2 %) to suffocate and thereby killing the 

insects. RIU-Nigeria brokered a multi-stakeholders collaboration with IITA in 2009, 

to contribute to the dissemination of Purdue Improved Cowpea Storage (PICS) technology. 

The demand for triple bags soared within the first three years of intervention 

and production increased from 500 bags in 2007 to about 80,000 bags in 2010. An 

analysis of the benefit cost ratio of using triple bags for cowpea storage revealed an 

increase in income by about 48 % per bag stored within 4 – 6 months. Reduction in 

media reports on hospitalisation and deaths attributable to cowpea poisoning could 

also be an indication of wide adoption and use of non-chemical, hermetic storage. 

Based on the estimated annual total production of 2.44 million MT of cowpea grains 

in Nigeria, if one third of the production is consumed without storing, it implies that 

about 16.3 million bags (1.63 Million MT/100 kg = 16.3 Million triple bags) will be 

needed annually to meet potential market demand. There is need for policy advocacy 

to create enabling environment for the uptake of this innovation through strengthening 

the triple bag production and distribution network and also reinforce the regulation 

and control against the use of toxic and banned chemical in cowpea storage. 

Keywords: Cowpea, hermetic, RIU-Nigeria, storage, technology, tripple bag 

Contact Address: Adunni Sanni, Ahmadu Bello University, Department of Agricultural Economics 

and Rural Sociology, Institute for Agricultural Research, P.m.b 1044 Samaru, Zaria, Nigeria, e-mail: 

adsanni@yahoo.com 

476


Investigation of Laboratory Freeze Tolerance of Field Grown 

Fennel (Fueniculum vulgar) Ecotypes 

ASIEH SIAHMARGUEE 1 ,GOLSOOMEH AZIZI 2 ,AHMAD NEZAMI 3 ,MARYAM 

JAHANI 3 

1 Islamic Azad University, Dept. of Agronomy, Iran 

2 Payam Noor University, Dept. of Agronomy, Iran 

3 Ferdowsi University of Mashhad, Dept. of Agronomy, Iran 

In order to investigate the freezing tolerance of field grown Fennel (Fueniculum vulgare 

Mill) under controlled conditions, a factorial experiment with completely randomised 

design was conducted with three replications at the Agricultural College, 

Ferdowsi University of Mashhad, in 2004. Treatments were two fennel ecotypes 

(Khorasan and Kerman), two planting dates (Oct 8 th and 29 th ) and six temperatures 

(0,-3,-6,-9,-12,-15°C). Plants were harvested from the field on Dec 7 th in controlled 

conditions and exposed to the freezing temperature. Plant survival percentage and 

re-growth after 21 days under the greenhouse, and degree of plant necrosis after six 

days under the lab condition were evaluated. Greenhouse results showed that there 

was no significant difference between Khorasan and Kerman ecotypes for survival 

percentage, height and number of nods but Kerman ecotype had a higher leaf number 

than Khorasan. Planting date had a significant effect on survival percentage, height, 

number of leaves, number of nods and percentage of plant dry weight, with the late 

planting date being higher than the early one for all measured criteria. With lower 

temperatures, survival percentage, height, number of leaves, number of nodes and dry 

weight tended to decrease. There was a significant difference between planting dates 

in degree of plant necrosis on day 6 under lab conditions, being 3.4 % and 2.8 % for 

29 Oct. and 8 Oct., respectively. The highest degree of necrosis showed with the 

-15°C freezing treatment, being twice the necrosis degree at 0°C. 

Keywords: Dry weight, height, necrosis degree, survival percentage 

Contact Address: Golsoomeh Azizi, Payam Noor University, Dept. of Agronomy, Mashhad, Iran, 

e-mail: azizi40760@gmail.com 

477

Engineering 

Effects of Aloe vera Coatings on Quality Characteristics of 

Oranges Stored under Cold Storage 

KAYODE ADEBISI AROWORA 1 ,CHARLES O. ADETUNJI 1 ,OLUYEMISI B. 

FAWOLE 2 ,S.S.AFOLAYAN 1 ,O.O.OLALEYE 1 , J.B. ADETUNJI 3 ,BUKOLA 

AYOBAMI OGUNDELE 1 

1Nigerian Stored Products Research Institute (NSPRI), Nigeria 

2University of Ilorin, Dept. of Agronomy, Nigeria 

3University of Ilorin, Dept. of Biochemistry, Nigeria 

Three hundred and twenty (320) oranges of Valencia variety were stored under cold 

conditions in the refrigerator for 8 weeks. The following parameters were measured 

during storage: total soluble solids, titratable acidity, weight loss, firmness, pH, vitamin 

C and sugar/acid ratio. 

The final value for firmness for coated oranges was found to be 1781.25 ± 118.30N, 

while that of uncoated oranges was 1531.25 ± 185.53N. The pH was gradually increasing 

during the course of storage in the two treatments, whereas vitamin C was 

found to be decreasing in storage. The total soluble solids for coated oranges was 

9.79 ± 1.14 % while that of uncoated oranges was found to be 9.34 ± 0.06 % at the 

end of storage. There was a linear decrease in titratable acidity during the course of 

storage. It was found that the value obtained for coated oranges was higher than that 

of uncoated oranges which was obtained to be 1.14 ± 0.07 at the end of storage. Converse 

to this was obtained for % weight losses in the two treatments. The weight loss 

for coated oranges was 29.20 ± 0.55 %, while that of uncoated oranges was 53.30 ± 

1.17 % at the end of storage. A linear increase was observed in sugar/acid ratio in 

the two treatments during the course of storage with higher value being recorded for 

uncoated oranges as 8.90 ± 0.87, while lower value was gotten for coated oranges as 

7.43 ± 0.34 %. 

Keywords: Aloe vera, coatings, oranges, quality, storage 

Contact Address: Kayode Adebisi Arowora, Nigerian Stored Products Research Institute (NSPRI), 

Food Safety and Quality Control, NSPRI km 3 Asa-Dam Road, Ilorin, Nigeria, e-mail: arowora2001@ 

yahoo.com 

478


Post-harvest Losses and Food Sustainability Challenges of Rural 

Farmers in Developing Countries: A Case Study of Rural Maize 

Farmers in Ghana 

OSILAMAH SOLOMON IMHOMOH 1 ,SØREN K. RASMUSSEN 1 , 

STEPHEN ONAKUSE 2 ,IVY DRAFOR AMENYAH 3 ,MARGARET OTTAH ATIKPO 4 

1Copenhagen University, Dept. of Agriculture and Ecology, Denmark 

2University College Cork, Food Business and Development, Ireland 

3Methodist University College, Dept. of Agricultural Economics, Ghana 

4CSIR-Food Research Institute, Food Microbiology Division, Ghana 

Post-harvest losses in crop production are of great concern today. Resources such as 

labor, land, water and fertilisers/chemicals used as production inputs are wasted. An 

attempt was made to quantify these losses in maize production during storage and 

its impacts on the livelihoods of rural farmers in Ghana. Three hundred and seventy 

one (371) maize farmers from 9 districts in 3 regions were interviewed in order to 

gain the farmers’ perceptions of post-harvest losses and causes. Data collection was 

done between March and April 2011 (after the minor season of maize farming). Formal 

and informal interviews were conducted among experts in maize storage. A visit 

to some storage sites revealed poor storage facilities, which are prone to factors responsible 

for maize losses and low level of technical expertise among maize farmers. 

Some findings show that about 51.8 % of farmers still rely on saved maize seeds from 

previous harvest as source of planting material. Only 20.2 % of farmers use certified 

seeds, while others get their seeds from the open market. Over 94 % of farmers 

harvest maize when matured and dried on the stalk. This according to experts is a 

major source of pest infestation and mycotoxins contamination. Fifty-five per cent of 

the farmers store their maize in bags, 32.6 % in local cribs and only 0.3 % store in 

household metal silos. This may account for the high losses recorded, which ranges 

from 10–30 %. The farmers identified insects, rodents and fungal infestation as the 

major problems they experience during maize storage, which is usually up to a period 

of 3–9 months. Statistical analysis was carried out using factors that could contribute 

to maize losses. These factors are location of the storage structures (in the field or 

in the house); period of storage (months i.e. between 3–9 months) and methods of 

treating storage structures before storage. None of the above-mentioned factors was 

statistically significant to maize storage losses at p < 0.05. 

Keywords: Maize and food sustainability, post-harvest losses 

Contact Address: Osilamah Solomon Imhomoh, Copenhagen University, Dept. of Agriculture and 

Ecology, Skovridergardsvej 23 St 7., 2830 Virum, Denmark, e-mail: soloosilamah@yahoo.com 

479

Engineering 

Controlling Sitophilus zeamais (Coleoptera: Curculionidae) in 

Maize Grains by Using Microwave and Radio Frequency Energy 

AMRO BABIKER HASSAN, DIETER VON HÖRSTEN, WOLFGANG LÜCKE 

Georg-August-Universität Göttingen, Dept. of Crop Sciences: Section of Agricultural 

Engineering, Germany 

Infestation with insect pests is a serious problem associated with raw and processed 

stored products. Among the stored product pests, maize weevil, Sitophilus zeamais 

(Coleoptera: Curculionidae), is one of the most economic primary pests of stored 

cereal grains, particularly maize. Generally, chemical fumigants are used to disinfest 

product, however, these pesticides have a negative impact on human health and 

environment. Therefore, the industry has been forced to explore non-chemical alternatives. 

One possible alternative is the use of dielectric heating, microwave (MW) or 

radio frequency (RF) energy to rapidly heat product to lethal levels. 

To study the potential of MW and RF treatments for controlling insect pests in stored 

grains, the adults of S. zeamais were exposed to the MW (2450 MHz) and RF (27.12 

MHz) at different temperatures 45, 50 and 55°C for 3 min in maize grains at 10, 

14 and 18 % initial moisture contents (IMC). Moreover, the germination capacity of 

treated maize was also determined to study the effect of these treatments on grain 

quality. Results show that there is a possibility for controlling S. zeamais adults with 

MW and RF energy. However, in comparing between the effect of MW and RF on 

the mortality of the adults, the results proved that the mortality rates of the adults 

were lower in MW treatments than those of RF. The lethal temperature of the adults 

was estimated as 55°C under MW treatments, while it was 50°C under RF treatments 

at all studied levels of IMCs. Both MW and RF treatments significantly (p < 0.05) 

reduced the germination rate of maize grains. However, the germination rate of the 

grains treated with RF is higher then the MW treated grains. 

In conclusion, the current study indicated the potential application of MW and RF 

as alternative methods in controlling stored pest. Moreover, the findings confirm that 

radio frequency heating was more effective than microwave heating in the eradication 

of S. zeamais as well as maintaining higher germination rates of maize grains than 

those treated with microwave heating. 

Keywords: Germination, maize weevil, microwave, mortality, radio frequency 

Contact Address: Amro Babiker Hassan, Georg-August-Universität Göttingen, Dept. of Crop Sciences: 

Section of Agricultural Engineering, Gutenberg Str. 33, Göttingen, Germany, e-mail: amrobabiker@ 

yahoo.com 

480


Innovative Development of a Cassava Processing Machine 

O. PETER KOLAWOLE 1 ,A.S.OGUNLOWO 1 ,LEO AGBETOYE 1 ,LATEEF SANNI 2 , 

ABASS ADEBAYO 2 

1The Federal University of Technology, Agricultural Engineering Department , Nigeria 

2International Institute of Tropical Agriculture (IITA), Nigeria 

Climate change has affected weather patterns. The global weather system is threatening 

to spin out of control; seasons are becoming unpredictable, global warming is 

affecting agricultural systems. Food production systems are all being undermined, the 

impact is being felt by the world’s poorest people. Africa’s most important food crop 

used to be maize, however, production of maize in Africa became risky due to unpredictable 

rainfall, and it is not financially feasible to depend on irrigation. For this 

reason, cassava (Manihot esculenta, Crantz) became the most important food crop 

in Africa. The crop could play vital roles in the world food security because of its 

capacity to yield under marginal soil conditions and its tolerance to drought. The 

processing stages in cassava to flour include peeling, washing, grating, dewatering, 

pulverising, sieving/sifting and drying. Dewatering of cassava mash is the second 

after peeling and second to drying in rate determining factor. It is the most difficult 

operation when producing high quality cassava flour (HQCF). This HQCF can replace 

maize or wheat flour. A study was conducted and cassava dewatering parameters was 

evaluated. TMS 4(2) 1425 variety of cassava at three levels of maturity (9, 12 and 

15 months) was used in the study. Dewatering pressure was obtained from hydraulic 

jack. Evaluated parameters were pressure drop, face area of the filter medium and 

cassava mash resistance. The cassava mash resistance varied with the tuber harvesting 

age. Grated cassava mash had a porosity of 0.0181. The result presented the 

distribution and values of parameters used in developing a combined processing machine 

for conveying, dewatering, pulverising and sifting process. The machine was 

evaluated with cassava mash at 68 % moisture content wet basis. Feed screw speeds 

at 20 rpm interval from 20 rpm to 100 rpm; dewatering pressure was created by the 

use of spring at 100 N, 200 N and 300 N. The machine at 40–50 rpm produced a 

mash with an average moisture content of 47–52 % wet basis good enough for HQCF 

production. 

Keywords: Global warming, HQCF, innovative machine, cassava 

Contact Address: O. Peter Kolawole, The Federal University of Technology, Agricultural Engineering 

Department , Akure, Nigeria, e-mail: p.kolawole@cgiar.org 

481

Engineering 

Non-destructive Method for Determining Inner Quality Attributes 

of Intact Mango by Near Infrared Spectroscopy 

AGUS ARIP MUNAWAR 1 ,DIETER VON HÖRSTEN 1 ,DANIEL MÖRLEIN 2 , 

ELKE PAWELZIK 3 ,JENS KARL WEGENER 1 

1Georg-August-Universität Göttingen, Dept. of Crop Sciences: Section of Agricultural 


2Georg-August-Universität-Göttingen, Dept. of Animal Sciences, Germany 

3Georg-August-Universität Göttingen, Dept. of Crop Sciences: Inst. Quality of Plant 

Products, Germany 

To evaluate the feasibility of near infrared spectroscopy (NIRS) technique in measuring 

inner quality in intact mango, relationships called calibration models between soluble 

solid content (SSC), ascorbic acid, total acidity (TA) measured by standard laboratory 

measurement and near infrared diffuse reflectance spectra in the wavelength 

range of 1000 - 2500 nm were established. Multivariate analysis was then applied to 

develop these relationships to predict inner quality attributes from a set of wavelength 

as predictor variables. A total of 58 mangos, cultivar Kent were used as samples 

with an acceptable range of maturity stages. Multiplicative scatter correction (MSC) 

was applied to mango NIR spectra prior to calibration model development. A partial 

least square regression (PLSR) combined with ten-segments of cross validation was 

then used to develop the models for predicting SSC, ascorbic acid and TA of intact 

mango fruit. The quality of calibration model was then quantified by the correlation 

coefficient (r), standard error of calibration (SEC) and root mean square error of prediction, 

resulted from cross validation (RMSEP). The result showed that MSC-PLSR 

can predict and determine inner quality attributes of intact mango fruit satisfactorily, 

with correlation coefficient, SEC and RMSEP were (0.82, 1.36 oBrix and 1.47oBrix), (0.84, 0.66 mg/100g and 0.8 mg/100g) and (0.98, 26.05 mg/100g and 26.94 mg/100g) 

for SSC, Ascorbic acid and TA respectively. These results demonstrated that near infrared 

spectroscopy technique was feasible for determining inner quality attributes of 

intact mango fruit. It may also conclude that this technique combined with a proper 

calibration model can be considered as one of non-destructive method and should be 

able to replace laborious and costly standard laboratory measurement. 

Keywords: Inner quality, mango, multivariate analysis, NIRS, non-destructive method 

Contact Address: Agus Arip Munawar, Georg-August-Universität Göttingen, Department of Crop 

Sciences: Section of Agricultural Engineering, Gutenberg Str. 33, 37075 Göttingen, Germany, e-mail: 

amunawa@gwdg.de 

482


Improving of Thermal Uniformity of Mango During Radio 

Frequency Heat Treatment for Insect Control 

NATTASAK KRITTIGAMAS 1 ,SUCHADA VEARASILP 2 ,DIETER VON HÖRSTEN 3 , 

WOLFGANG LÜCKE 3 

1Chiang Mai University, Dept. of Plant Science and Natural Resources, Thailand 

2Chiang Mai University, Postharvest Technology Institute / Postharvest Technology Innovation 

Center, Thailand 



Hypothesis in this study was to improve the distribution of electromagnetic energy 

from radio frequency (RF) heating of mango fruit (Magnifera indica L.). Therefore, a 

rotating container was developed and filled with a medium (water) to support a homogeneous 

movement and uniformity of electromagnetic energy. The experiment was to 

compare the uniformity of heat inside mango fruit treated by several thermal methods 

based on U.S (USDA-APHIS-PPQ, 2002) regulation for control fruit fly in mango. 

Design of rotating container combined with RF applicator was done. The indicator 

affected on movement of mango fruit then was investigated by using three different 

weights (360, 330 and 250g) of mango (Magnifera indica L.) to determine the flow 

rate as well as the velocity of the movement of fruit around the container per time was 

also measured. Comparison of heating method between radio frequency, hot water 

and hot air on mango fruit were evaluated by infrared camera for the uniformity of 

heat in treated mango fruit. The result was found that 1000 watt RF heating energy 

applied to container of fruit-roll could provide a consistent distribution of thermal 

treatment in mango with exposure period for 5–10 minutes which was equivalent to 

the result from dipping in hot water for a period of 40 minutes. Besides that the thermal 

distribution in mango treated with hot air showed non-uniform heat distribution 

inside flesh fruit. Moreover, the RF heating operation process required shorter time 

than immersion into hot water and exposure to hot air. The results recorded also that 

there were no contact damages observed since the mango fruit moved freely in water 

filled chambers. 

Keywords: Heat uniformity, mango, radio frequency, rotating container 

Contact Address: Nattasak Krittigamas, Chiang Mai University, Dept. of Plant Science and Natural 

Resources, Chiang Mai, Thailand, e-mail: nattasak.k@cmu.ac.th 

483

Engineering 

Monitoring of Ripening Processes in Mango Fruits Using Laser 

Backscattering: An Innovative Optical Technique 

MARCUS NAGLE 1 ,TOMOKO TADOKORO 1 ,BUSARAKORN MAHAYOTHEE 2 , 

SARDSUD VICHA 3 ,JOACHIM MÜLLER 1 



2Silpakorn University, Dept. of Food Technology, Thailand 

3Mae Fah Luang University, School of Agro-Industry, Thailand 

Thailand is the most important mango (Mangifera indica L.) producer in Southeast 

Asia. Demands for non-destructive techniques for mango quality prediction have been 

increasing with an expansion of overseas markets supported by several export promotion 

programs. Laser light backscattering measurements based on photon absorption 

and light scattering properties of materials have been increasingly studied for the application 

in the food industry. In this work, the possibility to use laser light backscattering 

for monitoring of mango quality during ripening was studied regarding. The 

potential to predict physiochemical parameters of the fruit such as total soluble solid 

(TSS), individual sugar content, starch content, dry matter content (DM), texture and 

peel and flesh colour was evaluated during ripening experiments with Thai mangos. 

Images of the laser light backscattering on the fruit surface were obtained from fruits 

using laser diodes irradiating at four wavelengths. The laser backscattering was captured 

by a CCD camera as a monochrome image. The captured images were then 

analysed to create intensity profile to derive backscattering properties in pixel number 

to compare the fruit qualities measured by conventional destructive methods. Differences 

in backscattering behaviours were found during different ripening stages due to 

changes in photon absorption and reflection of tested wavelengths corresponding to 

chemical compounds of the fruits. Laser images at 635 nm showed less photon migration 

in later stages of ripening which resulted in the increase of scattering due to the 

changes in the fruit compounds. The results from the study show the potential use of 

laser backscattering for the prediction of mango quality during ripening. Further development 

and improvement of the technique regarding the image acquisition and the 

determination of sensitive wavelength corresponding to certain chemical components 

of the fruit are required. 

Keywords: Laser backscattering, mango, non-destructive analysis, ripening 



484


The Quality of Syrian Shanklish a Traditional Dairy Product 

MAHA ADDAS 1,2 ,MUHI EL-DINE HILALI 1 ,BARBARA RISCHKOWSKY 1 , 

PANAGIOTIS KEFALAS 2 

1International Center for Agricultural Research in the Dry Areas (ICARDA), 

Diversification and Sustainable Intensification of Production Systems, Syria 

2Mediterranean Agronomic Institute of Chania (MAICH), International Center for 

Advanced Mediterranean Agronomic Studies (CIHEAM), Greece 

Shanklish is an important dairy product in the Middle East, particularly in Syria, 

Lebanon and Turkey. It is used in the traditional cuisine as main component on a 

daily basis especially in the harsh mountainous coastal regions, where it is difficult 

to make a living from agriculture. Shanklishis typically formed into 6 cm diameter 

balls and ripened in jars for two months. Due to the mold growth during the ripening 

process the end product may contain aflatoxins, which is seen as one of the major 

etiological factors in the development of hepatocellular carcinoma. To address this 

problem a survey was carried out in the Syrian mountain region where Shanklish is 

mainly produced. 

Twenty eight Shanklish samples were collected from nine villages at different ripening 

stages. The traditional processing methods were observed and documented. The 

chemical composition and aflatoxin content were determined. 

It was found that 66 % of the farmers in the study area, process all their milk into 

Shanklish, and another 22 % process 50 % of their milk. The average Shanklish produced 

per farm is 114 kg per year. Almost 27 % of the farmers face a problem of 

crumbling due to overheating of butter milk which negatively affects Shanklish texture. 

Product spoilage due to elevated product moisture was observed in 11 % of 

farms. 

The content of fat was affected by location and varied from 4.4 to 12.7 % reflecting a 

low efficiency of churning. Total solids and protein also varied from 50.2 to 57.3 % 

and from 30.7 to 42.3 % respectively, according to different processing practices. The 

total aflatoxins in the collected samples varied between locations from 0.22 to 2.55 

μgkg-1 . Due to the heavy aflatoxin contamination Shanklish from eight out of nine 

locations did not meet the standards of the United States Food and Drug Administration. 

Improvements in processing practices and hygiene can overcome the observed 

problems of Shanklish quality. 

Keywords: Aflatoxins, shanklish, traditional dairy products 

Contact Address: Barbara Rischkowsky, International Center for Agricultural Research in the Dry 

Areas (ICARDA), P.O. Box 5466, Aleppo, Syria, e-mail: b.rischkowsky@cgiar.org 

485

Engineering 

Phytotoxicity by Essential Oil May Play a Role in Postharvest 

Browning Disorder of Cinnamon Myrtle (Backhousia myrtifolia) 

Tissues 

SARANA SOMMANO 1,2 ,DARYL JOYCE 2 ,BRUCE D’ARCY 2 ,PRIYA JOYCE 3 , 

K. RATNAYAKE 2 

1Chiang Mai University, Science and Technology Research Institue, Thailand 

2The University of Queensland, School of Land, Crop and Food Sciences, Australia 

3BSES Limited, Australia 

Cinnamon myrtle (Backhousia myrtifolia) is an Australian native ornamental that has 

a strong potential to Japanese cut flower market. However, cut stems of this flower 

are easily susceptible to postharvest discolouration (browning), which generally becomes 

a hurdle to its export industry. Temperature stress was suggested to be one of 

the possible causes of the disorder. However, the descriptions of browning symptom 

varied from one flowering season to another. There is therefore a need to understand 

what may involve in the browning process and later to develop treatments that ideally 

could eliminate the problem. To innitially elucidate the mechanism, leaf and floral 

tissues were heat treated at 60°C for 30 min to induce browning. Light (LM) and 

scanning electron microscopes (SEM) were used to follow up physiological changes 

of cell structures. The oil gland structure was well charecterised by SEM. LM images 

suggested that browning was initiated around cells surrounding tissue oil gland. 

Also, upon exogenous treatment with B. citriodora leaf oil, young B. myrtifolia leaves 

showed greater susceptibility to browning than did mature leaves. However, no such 

effect was observed on treated floral tissue. Discolouration caused by oil released 

upon cell rupture was also monitored. Tissue disruption by abrasion caused less tissue 

discolouration than did essential oil application and is possibly due to the epidermal 

and hypodermal cells acting as barriers. This is the first report on the evidence 

of essential oil damage that may involve in tissue browning of B. myrtifolia. Further 

investigations are on physiological and biochemical responses of the plant tissues during 

browning process. 

Keywords: Australian native cut flower, cell structures, discoloration, oil glands 

Contact Address: Sarana Sommano, Chiang Mai University, Science and Technology Research Institue, 

50200 Chiang Mai, Thailand, e-mail: sarana.s@cmu.ac.th 

486

Food, health and nutrition 

Posters 489 

DANISO BESWA, SURETHA DE KOCK, MUTHULISI SIWELA, 

EASTONCE GWATA: 

The Rheological Properties of Wheat- Finger Millet 

Composite Flour as Influenced by Vital Wheat Gluten and 

Enzyme Lipopan F 489 

FOLUSO OLUTOPE ADETUYI, IBRAHIM OLUSOLA DADA: 

Nutritional, Zn Bioavailability and Antioxidant Properties of 

Water Leaf (Talinum triangulare) Mucilage 490 

IGNASIUS RADIX A.P. JATI, DONATUS NOHR, HANS KONRAD 

BIESALSKI: 

Iron, Zinc, Carotenoids, Bioactive Compound, and 

Antioxidant Activity of Indonesian Black Colored Rice 491 

ANDRIATI NINGRUM, NHUT NGUYEN MINH, MATTHIAS 

SCHREINER: 

Carotenoids and Carotenoid Derived Compounds in Pandanus 

amaryllifolius from Indonesia 492 

PATRICIA CUERVO, SONIA RINCON, OLIVER HENSEL: 

Effect of Drying Temperature on the Quality of Stevia 

rebaudiana 493 

GAMMAA A.M. OSMAN, EIMAN E. DIAB, NAGAT S. 

MAHMOUD, RANDA A. A. ELAGIB, MOHAMED A.H. RUSHDI, 

AMRO BABIKER HASSAN: 

Effect of Gamma Irradiation and Storage on Fungal Growth, 

Aflatoxin Production and Quality Characteristics of 

Groundnuts 494 

MD. TARIQUL ISLAM SHAJIB, DILRUBA YASMIN JHORNA, 

MONJHURUL AHSAN CHOWDHURY, LALITA BHATTACHAR- 

JEE,INGE SINDBJERG FOMSGAARD, SHEIKH NAZRUL ISLAM: 

Nutrient Composition of Artocarpus lakoocha Fruit: A Minor 

Indigenous Fruit Can Meet the Nutrient Requirement of the 

Rural Peoples of Bangladesh 495 

FANTA DESISSA GUTEMA, DELIA GRACE: 

Raw Milk Consumption Behaviour and Assessment of its Risk 

Factors among Dairy Producers in Urban and Peri-Urban 

Areas of Debre-Zeit, Ethiopia: Implication for Public Health 496 

487

Engineering 

488 

HENRY SILUNGWE, EASTONCE GWATA: 

Assessment of Microbial Contamination in the Traditional 

Beverage of Farm Workers in Limpopo (South Africa) 497 

AYMAN AMER EISSA: 

Health Monitoring of Packed Agricultural Products Using 

Dynamic Analysis 498 

PIYACHAT AKARANUCHAT,SUCHADA VEARASILP, SA-NGUANSAK 

THANAPORNPOONPONG, NATTASAK KRITTIGAMAS, SANGTIWA 

SURIYONG, ELKE PAWELZIK, WOLFGANG LÜCKE, DIETER 

VON HÖRSTEN: 

Combining Radio Frequency Drying with Hot Air Oven for 

Energy Reduction in GABA Rice 499

Food, health and nutrition — Posters 

The Rheological Properties of Wheat - Finger Millet 

Composite Flour as Influenced by Vital Wheat Gluten and 

Enzyme Lipopan F 

DANISO BESWA 1 ,SURETHA DE KOCK 2 ,MUTHULISI SIWELA 3 , 

EASTONCE GWATA 4 

1University of Venda, Food Science and Technology, South 

2University of Johannesburg, Food Technology Department, South Africa 

3University of KwaZulu Natal, Dept. of Dietetics and Human Nutrition, South Africa 


Finger millet (Eleusine coracana) is a drought tolerant cereal crop which thrives in 

marginal areas prone to drought particularly in Africa where it is considered as one 

of the staple crops. On the other hand, many African countries import, at a premium 

price, wheat for the baking industry. Therefore substitution of a proportion of wheat 

flour with finger-millet flour would reduce the cost of bread making in these countries. 

This study was designed to examine the rheological properties of a wheat-finger 

millet composite flour suitable for bread making. Composite blends of wheat flour 

each containing 10 %, 20 % and 30 % of finger millet flour were constituted. Vital 

wheat gluten and enzyme lipopan F were added to the wheat-finger millet composite 

blend containing 20 % finger millet flour. The effects of these flour substitutions on 

the rheological properties of the resultant composite doughs were determined using 

the farinograph and mixograph methods. The finger-millet flour substitutions did not 

affect water absorption significantly. Dough development time generally increased 

with the proportion of finger millet flour substitution. Vital wheat gluten and enzyme 

lipopan F decreased dough stability by approximately 42 % and 14 % respectively. 

However dough stability decreased with the addition of vital wheat gluten alone. The 

mixing tolerance index showed a positive correlation with the finger millet proportion 

as well as with the addition of either the vital wheat gluten or enzyme lipopan F 

or a combination of both the gluten and the enzyme. The results of this study indicated 

that a combination of 0.3 % gluten and 0.002 % lipopan F at 20 % finger millet 

flour substitution in wheat flour were optimum in improving dough rheological characteristics. 

This blend of flour composite holds promise in the bread-making industry 

in countries with abundant finger millet grain but limited wheat grain particularly in 

southern Africa. In addition, the finger millet growers in the marginal areas could 

benefit from an increased demand for the grain in the region and abroad. 

Keywords: Composite flour, dough, enzyme, finger millet, wheat flour 

Contact Address: Daniso Beswa, University of Venda, Food Science and Technology, University Road, 

0950 Thohoyandou, South, e-mail: daniso.beswa@live.co.za 

489

Engineering 

Nutritional, Zn Bioavailability and Antioxidant Properties of 

Water Leaf (Talinum triangulare) Mucilage 

FOLUSO OLUTOPE ADETUYI 1 ,IBRAHIM OLUSOLA DADA 2 

1Ondo State University of Science and Technology, Chemical Sciences Department, 

Nigeria 

2Rufus Giwa Polytechnic, Science Laboratory Technology Department, Nigeria 

In South-West and South-East Nigeria, when water leaf (Talinum triangulare) isto 

be cooked the leaves are squeezed with or without salt to remove the mucilage from 

the leaf before cooking, the resultant extracted mucilage are thrown away. Waterleaf 

mucilage was extracted to obtain a greenish, viscous solution. The solution was 

heated and precipitated with ethanol and acetone. The greenish coloured solid was 

dried in an oven at the temperature of 45°C to give a yield of 21 g mucilage kg -1 water 

leaf. The nutritional evaluation (proximate composition, mineral and Zn bioavailability 

determination) and antioxidant properties investigation (vitamin C, total phenol, 

flavonoid, Ferric reducing antioxidant power (FRAP) and DPPH free radical scavenging 

ability) of the mucilage was subsequently carried out. The result of the study 

revealed that the water leaf mucilage is high in protein (54.30 g per 100 g) and fat 

(29.00 g per 100 g) with a high energy value (499.8 kcal). However it has low fibre 

content of 3.50 g per 100 g. The mucilage is also high in minerals Ca, Mg and Fe 

but low in Zn 0.76 ppm. The calculated phytate : zinc molar ratio of 30.0 for the 

mucilage was twice the critical value for reduced zinc bioavailability (15.0). However 

the calculated calcium : phytate molar ratio of 5.44 was just below 6.0. The 

calculated [Ca][Phytate]/[Zn] molar ratio (0.59 mol kg -1 ) was just above the critical 

level. The flavonoids of the mucilage was found to be 9.17 mg QE g -1 at 250μgml-1 and 3.57 mg QE g-1 at 500 μgml-1 while the total phenol was 2.98 mg GAE g-1 at 

50 μgml-1 and 1.23 mg GAE g-1 at 100 μgml-1 . The water leaf mucilage exhibited 

a high level of antioxidant activities as depicted by high reducing power FRAP 

(6.37 mg AAE g-1 ) and DPPH scavenging ability (28.78 %). 

The high antioxidant activity as depicted by the high FRAP and DPPH scavenging 

ability of the muculage of waterleaf vegetable can contribute to the health management 

of man. 

Keywords: Antioxidant, nutrient, total phenol, water leaf, Zn bioavailability 

Contact Address: Foluso Olutope Adetuyi, Ondo State University of Science and Technology, 

Chemical Sciences Department, PMB 353, Okitipupa, Nigeria, e-mail: foluadetuyi@yahoo.co.uk 

490


Iron, Zinc, Carotenoids, Bioactive Compound, and Antioxidant 

Activity of Indonesian Black Colored Rice 

IGNASIUS RADIX A.P. JATI, DONATUS NOHR, HANS KONRAD BIESALSKI 

University of Hohenheim, Institute for Biological Chemistry and Nutrition, Germany 

Black rice (Oryza sativa var Malang) is one variety of rice which has dark colour. 

In Indonesia black rice has only been used in a small amount as an ingredient in 

traditional ceremony. The objective of this research were to investigate the effect of 

boiling on iron, zinc, carotenoids, phenolic, and anthocyanin contents of back rice, 

and the antioxidant activity of the extract using DPPH, FRAP, superoxide radical 

scavenging, and linoleic acid bleaching methods (TBARS). 

There were no significant differences on iron and zinc contents between raw and 

boiled rice. The iron content for raw and boiled rice were 1,66 ± 0,42 and 1,87 ± 0,39 

mg/100g, respectively, and the zinc content were 2,24 ± 0,22 and 2,0 ± 0,50 mg/100g, 

respectively. Boiling could significantly decrease the anthocyanin and phenolic contents. 

The anthocyanin content were 205,54 and 52,59 mg cyanidin equivalent/100g 

for raw and boiled rice, respectively. The phenolic content were 728,9 and 553,04 mg 

catechin equivalent/100g, respectively. For carotenoids, lutein was the major compound 

identified, followed by α-carotene, ß-carotene, ß-cryptoxanthine, lycopene, 

and zeaxanthine. The contents for raw extract were 1106,49; 547,90; 50,70; 11,40; 

7,80; and 3,57 ng/100 g, respectively. There were no significant differences between 

raw and boiled sample. 

The antioxidant activities were significantly reduced by the boiling process. Scavenging 

activity against DPPH was reduced from 87,49 % to 61,4 %. Feric reducing/antioxidant 

power (FRAP) was reduced from1101,24 to 758,05 mmol Fe [II]/mg 

extract, superoxide radical scavenging was reduced from 72,14 % to 46,39 %, and 

inhibition of TBARS formation for raw sample was 0,54 μmol and 1,05 μmol for 

boiled sample. 

Based on the results black rice could potentially be used as a substitute for white rice 

in Indonesian diet. The iron, zinc, and carotenoids content of black rice could give a 

better contribution than white rice for micronutrient intake. Moreover black rice has 

bioactive compounds such as anthocyanin and phenolics, which could act as natural 

antioxidant. 

Keywords: Anthocyanin, antioxidant activity, black rice, carotenoids, micronutrient, 

phenolic 

Contact Address: Ignasius Radix A.P. Jati, University of Hohenheim, Institute for Biological Chemistry 

and Nutrition, Stuttgart, Germany, e-mail: radix_astadi@yahoo.com 

491

Engineering 

Carotenoids and Carotenoid Derived Compounds in 

Pandanus amaryllifolius from Indonesia 

ANDRIATI NINGRUM, NHUT NGUYEN MINH, MATTHIAS SCHREINER 

University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences (BOKU), Institute of Food Science, 

Austria 

In Indonesia, several herbal leaves also generally for condiments to improve aroma 

and flavor in foods e.g. pandan leaves. Pandanus amaryllifolius leaves, commonly 

known as pandan, are often used to give a refreshing, fragrant flavor to both sweet 

and savoury South-East-Asian dishes (rice, chicken, jellies, drinks, puddings, custard 

or sweets). Pandan leaves are also used in cooking ordinary non-aromatic rice to 

imitate the more expensive aromatic Basmati and Jasmine rices. As a traditional 

herbal this leaves are generally used to treat the typhus illness in Indonesia. The effect 

of antimicrobial effect of Pandanus amaryllifolius leaves have been investigated on 

the preservation of stored milk. 

In this research the general objective is to investigate the formation of natural aroma 

compounds (norisoprenoids) from carotenoids as an approach for “green technology” 

application that can be applied for further application in flavors or fragrance industries. 

At the beginning we used Pandanus amaryllifolius leaves from Indonesia as a 

model plant. Several natural resources in Indonesia as one of developing countries 

have not yet been fully utilised and have low economical values, so that give further 

impact for the food security in Indonesia and thus correlated to the sustainable 

development. 

In our preliminary research, we have investigated carotenoids (ß-carotene and lutein 

as major carotenoids) which are potential as enzymatic precursors by HPLC RP-C18. 

Carotenoid derived compounds or norisoprenoids (alpha-ionone and ß-ionone) as putative 

enzymatic reaction products are identified by HS-SPME GC-MS as one approach 

for solvent-less flavor analysis which is suitable to green chemistry. These 

analytical approaches are used to investigate the enzymatic reaction activities in this 

model plant. 

Keywords: Indonesia 

Contact Address: Andriati Ningrum, University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences (BOKU), 

Institute of Food Science, Donaufelder Straße 54 Room Number 4083, 1210 Wien, Austria, e-mail: 

andriati.ningrum@students.boku.ac.at 

492


Effect of Drying Temperature on the Quality of Stevia rebaudiana 

PATRICIA CUERVO 1 ,SONIA RINCON 1 ,OLIVER HENSEL 2 

1National University of Colombia, Dept. of Mechanical and Mechatronics Engineering, 

Colombia 


Recent research has shown that consuming stevia in its raw form, fresh or dried, 

helps to treat several health problems such as diabetes, allergies, digestive problems, 

anxiety, and high blood pressure. Besides these benefits, it also contains vitamin C, 

calcium, beta-carotene, niacin, chrome, iron, magnesium, potassium and silicium, 

proteins and fiber. Therefore, it is important to find alternatives to dry the plant’s 

leaves trying to minimise its negative effects and keeping the amount of medicinal 

properties. 

The main objective of the drying process is to eliminate moisture and to stabilise 

chemically and microbiolically natural products. Generally, the drying process leads 

to a reduction of the visual, organoleptic and functional characteristics of the plants 

which affect negatively its final quality parameters like colour, texture, aroma, essential 

oil content and shape. These effects are caused by the increase of the product’s 

temperature while drying, the drying time and the elimination of moisture. The 

knowledge of the drying parameters that minimise these effects and that allow to obtain 

products with the required quality characteristics is a necessary task to study. 

The purpose of this study is to establish the effect of the drying temperature on the 

colour of Stevia rebaudiana. Since this plant is used as tea or as herb infusion, the 

colour is also an essential criterion for quality which influences the consumers’ acceptance 

of the product. The herbs were dried in a tray oven at temperatures between 

40°C and 80°C with controlled air flow and relative humidity of the air. The change 

in colour was determined with a colorimeter Minolta CR400 which allows a tridimensional 

colour representation in coordinates L*, a* and b*. The drying kinetics 

was also determined. Finally it was found that combinations of temperatures beginning 

with high temperature are not advisable since they produce severe changes in 

the colour that affect negatively the final quality of the product, diminishing their 

medicinal properties and their commercial value. 

Keywords: Drying, quality, stevia 

Contact Address: Patricia Cuervo, National University of Colombia, Dept. of Mechanical and Mechatronics 

Engineering, Carrera 30 # 45-03, Bogota, Colombia, e-mail: spcuervoa@unal.edu.co 

493

Engineering 

Effect of Gamma Irradiation and Storage on Fungal Growth, 

Aflatoxin Production and Quality Characteristics of Groundnuts 

GAMMAA A.M. OSMAN 1 ,EIMAN E. DIAB 1 ,NAGAT S. MAHMOUD 1 , 

RANDA A. A. ELAGIB 1 ,MOHAMED A.H. RUSHDI 2 ,AMRO BABIKER HASSAN 3 

1National Center for Research, Environment and Natural Resource Research Institute 

(ENRRI), Sudan 

2Sudanese Atomic Energy Commission (SAEC), Sudan 



Gamma irradiation has been established as a safe and effective physical means for microbial 

decontamination, disinfestation, shelf-life extension and improvement of overall 

nutritional attributes. The aim of this study was to determine the fungal growth, 

aflatoxin production, nutritive value and the quality characteristics of extracted oil of 

two groundnut (Arachis hypogaea) cultivars namely Sodari and Madani as affected of 

gamma irradiation at dose levels of 0, 1, 1.5 and 2 kGy followed by storage at room 

temperature. 

After two years storage at room temperature, the results revealed that the fungal 

growth was significantly (p < 0.05) lower in the irradiated seeds compare to the control 

one for both cultivars. Furthermore, gamma irradiation treatments significantly 

(p < 0.05) reduced the production of aflatoxin especially at the dose of 2 kGy, which 

was 5.50 and 4.50 ppb in the cultivar Sodari and Madani, respectively. Moreover, the 

results indicated that gamma irradiation had significant (p < 0.05) effects on crude oil 

and crude protein contents after storage for both cultivars. For the quality characteristics 

of extracted groundnut oil, the results proved that gamma irradiation treatments 

with storage caused significant (p < 0.05) reduction in the acid value and the peroxide 

value, while the relative viscosity significantly increased, however, no significant 

change in refractive index was observed for both cultivars. 

In the current study, the obtained results confirm that application of gamma irradiation 

prevent the fungal growth as well as production of the aflatoxin effectively for a long 

period of time extending to two years without adverse damage in groundnut quality. 

Keywords: Aflatoxin, fungal growth, gamma irradiation, groundnut, storage 

Contact Address: Amro Babiker Hassan, Georg-August-Universität Göttingen, Dept. of Crop 

Sciences: Section of Agricultural Engineering, Gutenberg Str. 33, Göttingen, Germany, e-mail: 

amrobabiker@yahoo.com 

494


Nutrient Composition of Artocarpus lakoocha Fruit: 

A Minor Indigenous Fruit Can Meet the Nutrient Requirement of 

the Rural Peoples of Bangladesh 

MD. TARIQUL ISLAM SHAJIB 1 ,DILRUBA YASMIN JHORNA 2 , 

MONJHURUL AHSAN CHOWDHURY 3 ,LALITA BHATTACHARJEE 4 , 

INGE SINDBJERG FOMSGAARD 1 ,SHEIKH NAZRUL ISLAM 5 

1Aarhus University, Science and Technology, Department of Agroecology, Denmark 

2Patuakhali Science and Technology University, Dept. of Biochemistry, Bangladesh 

3Regional Soil Resource Development Institute (SRDI), Bangladesh 

4Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), National Food Policy Capacity Strengthening 

Programme (NFPCSP), Bangladesh 

5University of Dhaka, Institute of Nutrition and Food Science, Bangladesh 

Bangladesh has been blessed with a plenty of minor indigenous fruits that are very 

rich in micronutrients. Minor fruits are edible fruits which have no real commercial 

value. However, they are rich in vitamins and minerals, are easily accessible to the 

poor people and can be an economically viable nutrient source. They grow naturally 

in the wild, relatively free of serious insect and disease problems. As part of 

the development of a new food composition database for Bangladesh, the minor fruit 

Artocarpus lakoocha Roxb. was collected from four different wholesale markets located 

at entry points to the city of Dhaka and two remote areas of Bangladesh. After 

washing and drying, which removes unwanted substances from the fruits, the edible 

part (EP) was analysed for ascorbic acid, carotenoid, dry matter (DM), calcium (Ca), 

magnesium (Mg), potassium (K), phosphorus (P), iron (Fe), zinc (Zn), copper (Cu) 

and manganese (Mn). Ascorbic acid and the carotenoid content of the fruit samples 

were analysed by spectrophotometric measurement. Macrominerals (Ca, Mg, K and 

P) were analysed by flame photometric and spectrophotometric procedures and trace 

elements (Fe, Mn, Zn and Cu) were analysed by atomic absorption spectrophotometry. 

The results were compared with literature, Indian food composition tables and 

the United States Department of Agriculture National Nutrient Database for Standard 

Reference. Artocarpus lakoocha contained higher amounts/ of carotenoids (4609.00 

μg per 100 g EP) and other nutrients than some of the major fruits of Bangladesh. The 

results of this study will help to create awareness among the people of Bangladesh of 

the importance of eating more Artocarpus lakoocha fruits and of protecting this tree 

from extinction in order to maintain biodiversity. 

Keywords: Artocarpus lakoocha, Bangladesh, minor indigenous fruit, nutrient composition, 

rural people 

Contact Address: Md. Tariqul Islam Shajib, Aarhus University, Science and Technology, Department 

of Agroecology, Forsøgsvej 1 Flakkebjerg, Slagelse, Denmark, e-mail: tariqul.shajib@agrsci.dk 

495

Engineering 

Raw Milk Consumption Behaviour and Assessment of its Risk 

Factors among Dairy Producers in Urban and Peri-Urban Areas 

of Debre-Zeit, Ethiopia: Implication for Public Health 

FANTA DESISSA GUTEMA 1 ,DELIA GRACE 2 

1Wollega University, School of Veterinary Medicine, Dept. of Veterinary Public Health, 

Ethiopia 


A cross-sectional study was conducted from October 2009 to March 2010 in order 

to assess the risk to public health associated with raw milk consumption. The study 

investigated raw milk consumption behaviour, factors associated with the consumption 

of raw milk and milk handling practices among dairy farming communities in 

urban and peri urban areas of Debre-Zeit. A total of 170 dairy farmers were surveyed. 

Whether the levels of education, income, urbanisation and awareness of milk borne 

diseases could be associated with raw milk consumption was tested by statistical analyses. 

Of the 170 participants, 54 (31.8 %) producers had a habit of consuming raw 

milk. The proportion of dairy farmers consuming raw milk was significantly higher in 

peri urban areas (94.8 %) than in urban areas of Debre-Zeit (13.0 %, χ 2 =89.3, df=1, 

OR=124.1, p < 0.001). Of the factors tested, only residing in peri urban areas was 

significantly associated with consumption of raw milk (p < 0.001). All, 29.4 % and 

19.4 % of the farmers included in this study used plastic containers for transporting, 

milking and storing milk, respectively. The proportion of farmers who stored milk 

at room temperature (46.5 %) was significantly higher than those who stored at refrigeration 

temperature (24.1 %, χ 2 =13.9, df=2, p = 0.001). Storage of milk at room 

temperature for more than 24 hours for milk fermentation was a common practice 

among those who did not boil milk for consumption (82.0 %, 41/50). The majority of 

the 170 dairy farmers (85.6 %) were unaware of milk borne diseases associated with 

consumption of raw milk. The study showed that the habit of raw milk consumption, 

poor milk handling practices and inadequate knowledge of milk borne diseases 

among dairy producers imply the risk of milk borne diseases in the study area. 

Keywords: Consumption habit, Debre-Zeit, milk borne disease, raw milk, risk factors 

Contact Address: Fanta Desissa Gutema, Wollega University, School of Veterinary Medicine, Dept. of 

Veterinary Public Health, Nekemte, Ethiopia, e-mail: fntdesi@yahoo.com 

496


Assessment of Microbial Contamination in the Traditional 

Beverage of Farm Workers in Limpopo, South Africa 

HENRY SILUNGWE 1 ,EASTONCE GWATA 2 

1University of Venda, Food Science and Technology, South Africa 


Agricultural systems in the smallholder sector in southern Africa are largely subsistent. 

Household members of each smallholder farm provide all the necessary labor 

requirements at the farm. The farmers often prepare traditional foods and beverages 

for consumption during the long working periods in the fields. One such traditional 

non-alcoholic beverage called ’mageu’, prepared from the porridge of cereal grains 

(such as corn or sorghum), is widely consumed in the region during field work. Partly 

because of the simplicity in its preparation, it has gained popularity in both rural and 

urban areas. It is now also produced commercially in many countries in the region. 

However, there is insufficient information about contamination of ’mageu’ by micro-organisms 

such as Salmonella that may cause health problems for farm workers, 

thus jeopardising farm labor and hence farm production. This study was designed to 

assess microbial proliferation in traditionally prepared ’mageu’ (TPM) in comparison 

with commercially prepared ’mageu’ (CPM). The total plate count method was 

used to detect the proliferation of four commonly occurring micro-organisms namely 

Salmonella, Escherichia coli and Basiluss cereus. The pH and titratable acidity were 

also determined. The plate counts for the TPM was significantly (p < 0.05) high, 

attaining approximately 68.5 × 102 CFU mL−1 . In contrast, the mean proliferation 

of the micro-organisms in the CPM was significantly lower reaching a maximum of 

0.3 × 102 × CFU mL−1 . The TPM was more acidic (pH=3.5) than the CPM (pH=4.6). 

Similarly, the titratable acidity ranged between 0.4–0.5 % for the CPM and 0.3–0.8 % 

for the TPM. It was recommended that the traditional preparation of ’mageu’ could 

utilise a commercial starter and a simplified HACCP procedure in order to minimise 

microbial proliferation. Improving the hygienic preparation of this traditional beverage 

by the farmers could contribute to both their health status and efficient farm 

production in the harsh agro-ecologies that are prevalent in southern Africa. 

Keywords: Farm worker, labor, microorganisms, traditional beverage 

Contact Address: Eastonce Gwata, University of Venda, Plant Production, University Road, 0950 

Thohoyandou, South Africa, e-mail: ectgwata@yahoo.com 

497

Engineering 

Health Monitoring of Packed Agricultural Products Using 

Dynamic Analysis 

AYMAN AMER EISSA 

King Faisal University, Agricultural Systems Engineering, Saudi Arabia 

Mechanical injuries are responsible for considerable decay of fresh fruits and vegetables. 

Produce discarded because of damage in the chain between the grower and 

the consumer is estimated at around 30–40%. With regard to transportation, frequent 

attention has been devoted to delicate fruits such as apple. Effectiveness of cushioning 

materials and damping ratio in protecting impact damage of apples is the primary 

objective of this research. Health monitoring of packed agricultural product are not 

only important from practical and economical view point, they also exhibit interesting 

dynamics. In this study the variation in dynamic response and modal parameters 

(natural frequency, damping ratio, mode shape) as the main features of damage have 

been analysed. The measurements of the dynamic response looked at two types of 

fruit package: carton and plastic and three cushioning materials to control vibration: 

without paper - with paper-wrap - with foam-net. The modal parameters estimation 

was based on the acquired data using vibration exciter as an actuator and piezoelectric 

accelerometers with pulse analyser. Six vibration modes were identified in the 

following range (0–1.6 kHz) by two techniques frequency domain decomposition and 

enhanced frequency domain decomposition. The cushioning material interaction is 

also studied for damage feature. The study showed that: tight-filling of the container 

with cushioning material may move the natural frequency of fruit out of range that 

transport vehicle and reduce resonant vibration and vibration bruising. The technique 

of enhanced frequency domain decomposition introduces significant improvements 

for estimating damping capacity and identifying very close modes. 

Keywords: Cushioning material, damage detection system, health monitoring, 

identification modal analysis, quality of fruits 

498 

Contact Address: Ayman Amer Eissa, King Faisal University, Agricultural Systems Engineering, 

P. O. Box 420, 31982 Al-hassa, Saudi Arabia, e-mail: aymanhafiz@kfu.edu.sa


Combining Radio Frequency Drying with Hot Air Oven for 

Energy Reduction in GABA Rice 

PIYACHAT AKARANUCHAT 1 ,SUCHADA VEARASILP 2,1 , 

SA-NGUANSAK THANAPORNPOONPONG 1,2 ,NATTASAK KRITTIGAMAS 1,2 , 

SANGTIWA SURIYONG 1 ,ELKE PAWELZIK 3 ,WOLFGANG LÜCKE 4 , 

DIETER VON HÖRSTEN 4 

1Chiang Mai University, Dept. of Plant Science and Natural Resource, Thailand 

2Chiang Mai University, Postharvest Technology Institute / Postharvest Technology Innovation 

Center, Thailand 

3Georg-August-Universität Göttingen, Dept. of Crop Sciences: Inst. Quality of Plant 

Products, Germany 



Fresh GABA rice contains high moisture content approximately 38 % wet basis (wb). Most 

of fast drying process require high energy consumption and affect negatively to its quality. 

Beside that, the microorganisms are easily grown in the wet grain. Therefore, immediately 

drying to prevent the growing of microorganisms is also needed. This study has been conducted 

in order to compare the effectiveness of different drying methods in order to decrease 

the moisture content (MC) of the fresh GABA rice (36 % MC) to 14 % MC wet basis and the 

control the microorganisms on the dried product. The treatments were hot air drying (50°C and 

60°C), solely radio frequency (RF) drying at 27.12 MHz for 65°C, 75°C and 85°C and combination 

of hot air drying and RF drying by applied first the hot air drying at 50°C until they 

decreased their moisture to 30 %, 25 % and 20 % and thereafter apply RF drying at 65°C, 75°C 

and 85°C until the final moisture reached to 14 %. The specific energy consumption (SEC) 

was calculated. The moisture content, the cooking quality were determined followed by their 

viscosities as well as disease decontamination was also detected regarding to Bacteriological 

Analytical Manual (BAM) and the GABA content were also determined. The results showed 

that RF solely drying took significantly shorter period of time than other methods. SEC value 

completely confirmed that hot air drying consumed higher energy (52.56–17.37 MJ kg-1 ) than 

combination with RF (between 12.43–6.21 MJ kg-1 ) while solely RF drying expressed the SEC 

between 0.81–0.42 MJ kg-1 . Drying with RF treatments decreased the number of microorganism 

contamination effectively. Furthermore, their treated rice provided better cooking qualities. 

However, the highest number of GABA content was found in the treatment of combined hot 

air oven method to 20 % followed by RF 65°C, 75°C and 85°C treatments. Therefore, it can 

be concluded that RF drying combine with conventional hot air drying is an alternative way 

for saving energy consumption in GABA rice process and the microorganism decontamination 

could be achieved with positive improvement on their cooking qualities. 

Keywords: Cooking qualities, drying, GABA rice, radio frequency 

Contact Address: Piyachat Akaranuchat, Chiang Mai University, Dept. of Plant Science and Natural 

Resource, 50200 Chiang Mai, Thailand, e-mail: jj-piya@hotmail.com 

499

Modelling 

1) Systems modelling 503 

501

Systems modelling 


PETER CARBERRY: 

Using Systems Modelling to Assess Production Efficiency in 

Contrasting Agricultural Systems 507 


MARIANA CRISTINA RUFINO, PHILIP K. THORNTON, 

STANLEY KARANJA NG’ANG’A, IANETTA MUTIE, PETER G. 

JONES, MARIO HERRERO: 

Transitions in Agro-Pastoralist Systems of East Africa: 

Impacts on Food Security and Vulnerability 

ANTON EITZINGER,PETER LÄDERACH, BEATRIZ RODRIGUEZ: 

508 

Central American Bean Systems and the Changing Climate 

GERHARD GEROLD, STEFAN HOHNWALD: 

Models and Implementation of Carbon-Optimised Land 

509 

Management Strategies in Southern Amazonia: Carbiocial 

MAKSUD BEKCHANOV, ANIK BADHURI: 

510 

Economic Gains from Benefit Sharing Based Water 

Allocation in the Aral Sea Basin 511 

Posters 512 

BEHNAM BEHTARI, MARTIN DE LUIS: 

Comparison of Fitting Crop Seedling Emergence Models with 

some Nonlinear Models 512 

BEHNAM BEHTARI, MARTIN DE LUIS: 

Modelling the Effect of Sowing Depth on Green Bean, 

Sunflower and Maize Seedling Emergence 513 

AFOUDA JACOB YABI, VICTORINE OLODO, ROSAINE NERICE 

YEGBEMEY: 

Analysis of the Economic Efficiency of Investments in Cotton 

Production in the Municipalities of Kouande and Kerou in 

Northern Benin 514 

AMBE EMMANUEL CHEO, HANS-JÜRGEN VOIGT, ROY 

LYONGA MBUA: 

Climate Change and the Vulnerability of Water Resources in 

Northern Cameroon 515 

503

Modelling 

504 

MUNIR HOFFMANN, THOMAS OBERTHÜR, CHRIS DONOUGH, 

JULIE M. PASUQUIN, GATOT ABDURROHIM, K.INDRASUARA, 

AHMAD LUBIS, TENRI DOLONG, RAHMADSYAH, ANTHONY 

WHITBREAD: 

Simulating Potential Yield in Oil Palm: Its Application in 

Yield Gap Analysis and the Limitations 516 

CRISTIAN RODOLFO FELDKAMP, DAVI JOSE BUNGENSTAB, 

HORST JÜRGEN SCHWARTZ: 

Different Environmental Indicators Lead to Conflicting 

Impact Assessments - The Example of South American Beef 

Production 517 

MOHAMED ELTOM ELHAJA, IBRAHIM SAEED IBRAHIM, 

ELMAR CSAPLOVICS, MOHAMED SALIH DAFALLA : 

Monitoring Sand Encroachment on Agricultural Land in White 

Nile State, Sudan, during 1975–2008 using Remote Sensing 

and GIS 518 

MARIANA VIDAL MERINO, THOMAS BERGER, JÜRGEN 

PRETZSCH, UTA BERGER: 

Modelling the Adaptation Strategies of Farmers of the 

Andes Against Climate Change and the Related Development 

of Land Use / Land Cover 519 

MAJDALDIN RAHAMTALLAH ABUALGASIM MOHAMMED, 

BABATUNDE ADENIYI OSUNMADEWA, ELMAR CSAPLOVICS: 

Assessing Variations in Land Use Land Cover of Kassala State, 

Eastern Sudan Using Multi-temporal Landsat Imagery 520 

NGUYEN TIEN LONG, MICHAEL BÖHME: 

Sustainability Assessment by Fuzzy Evaluation: Case Study 

in Urban Vegetable Cultivation Systems in Red River Delta, 

Vietnam 521 

CLAUDIA AMELIA HUBER MÉNDEZ,SERGEY BLAGODATSKIY, 

GEORG CADISCH: 

The Environmental Impact on Carbon Balance of Rubber 

Plantations - A Case Study on Nabanhe National Nature 

Reserve in Xishuangbanna, China 522 

MUSTAFA M. EL ABBAS, ELMAR CSAPLOVICS, TAISSER H. 

HAMADELNILE DEAFALLA: 

Spatio-Temporal Integration of Socio-Economic Factors 

Related to the Land-Cover Changes in the Blue Nile Region, 

Sudan 523 

HAI NGUYEN TRUNG, REBINA S. SASA, VADAKATTU V.S.R. 

GUPTA, ANTHONY WHITBREAD: 

Measuring and Modelling the Decomposition Dynamics of 

Diverse Crop Residues 524

Systems modelling — Contents 

EIKE LUEDELING, HENRY NEUFELDT: 

Can Smallholder Farmers in the Sahel Benefit from Payments 

for Carbon Sequestration? 525 

EIKE LUEDELING: 

Climate Analogues for Climate Change Impact Projection and 

Adaptation Planning 526 

REBECCA SCHAUFELBERGER, CARSTEN MAROHN, GEORG 

CADISCH: 

Quantification of Water Flows and Sediment Transport in 

Paddy Cascades in Vietnam and Representation in a Landscape 

Scale Model 527 

BOAZ SWASWA, PAUL L. G. VLEK,LULSEGED TAMENE DESTA, 

PETER OKOTH: 

Mapping Land Degradation Patterns Using NDVI as a Proxy: 

A Case Study of Kenya 528 

MARIANA VIDAL MERINO, FRANCOIS JOST, GREGORY AMOS, 

FERNANDO MEDINA, JÜRGEN PRETZSCH, UTA BERGER: 

Challenges Presented by Climate Change in the Andean 

Region: Land Use Cover Change and Adaptive Response of 

Small Farmers 529 

DANIEL CASTRO, BERNHARD BRÜMMER: 

Analyzing Sectorial and Regional Heterogeneity Effects in 

Agricultural Efficiency: A Mixed Model Approach 530 

MASARRA BASHIR, ELMAR CSAPLOVICS: 

Assessment of Land Use/ Land Cover Changes Using Multi- 

Temporal Satellite Imagery (South Darfur, Sudan) 531 

BALGAH ROLAND AZIBO, GERTRUD BUCHENRIEDER: 

Can the Social Mechanisms Framework be Applied in 

Modelling Natural Shocks? 532 

BENJAMIN STUCH, RÜDIGER SCHALDACH, ELLEN KYNAST: 

Resilience of Rainfed Farming Systems under Changing 

Climate 533 

MARIA FABIANA NAVARRO RAU, DITMAR BERNARDO KURTZ, 

ESTANISLAO DÍAZ FALÚ, MARCUS GIESE: 

Evaluating Spatio-Temporal Relationships between Climate 

Variables and NDVI in Humid Grasslands of Northeastern 

Argentina 534 

TIL FEIKE, MICHAEL KUSI APPIAH, YUSUYUNJIANG 

MAMITIMIN, REINER DOLUSCHITZ: 

Agricultural Land Use Change, Resource Competition and 

Conflict in the Tarim Basin, Xinjiang, China 535 

505

Modelling 

506 

ORIANA OVALLE, PETER LÄDERACH, CHRISTIAN BUNN: 

Global Impact of Climate Change on Coffee Suitability 536 

ARISOA RAJAONA, NELE SUTTERER, FOLKARD ASCH: 

Potential of Waste Water Use for Jatropha Cultivation in Arid 

Environments 537 

MAGDALENA ZAKALEK, CLAUDIA RAEDIG, UDO NEHREN, 

DAC THAI HOANG HO: 

Landscape Vulnerability Assessment in Data-Poor Regions: 

A Case Study in a River Basin, Central Vietnam 538 

HANG LA THI THU, NGUYEN TIEN LONG: 

Multicriteria Analysis for Land Suitability Assessment for 

“Gia Lun” Banana in Nam Dong District, Thua Thien Hue 

Province, Vietnam 539 

FAZLULLAH AKHTAR, USMAN KHALID AWAN, BERNHARD 

TISCHBEIN: 

Maize Yield Response to Deficit Irrigation using the Aquacrop 

Model under Shallow Groundwater Conditions in Uzbekistan 540 

LEIGH WINOWIECKI, TOR-GUNNAR VAGEN, LULSEGED T. 

DESTA, EBAGNERIN JÉRÔME TONDOH, ANDREW SILA, 

JEROEN HUISING: 

Understanding Soil Organic Carbon Dynamics at the Landscape 

Scale: Hotspot Mapping 541 

WEILI ZHANG, AIGUO XU, R.L. ZHANG, Q.L.LEI, H.J.JI, 

H.Z. ZHANG, Y.G.TIAN, H.Y.LONG: 

Development of China Digital Soil Map at 1:50,000 Scale 542

Systems modelling — Invited Paper 

Using Systems Modelling to Assess Production Efficiency in 

Contrasting Agricultural Systems 

PETER CARBERRY 

CSIRO Sustainable Agriculture Flagship, Partnering for International Food and Fibre 

Security, Australia 

The prospects for increasing global agricultural productivity can be assessed by comparing 

current performance of farm enterprises relative to their potential productivity 

as well as the riskiness of current and proposed intensification options. The concept 

of eco-efficiency, the production of food and fibre products relative to the ecological 

resources used as inputs, is used in this paper to diagnosis of state of agricultural 

production in contrasting agricultural systems in Australia (rainfed wheat systems), 

China (irrigated wheat-maize double crop systems) and Zimbabwe (rainfed maize systems). 

Surveyed crop yields in these three countries were compared against simulated 

yields at farmer-specified levels of inputs and risk. 

In this study APSIM is used to simulate the potential and attainable yields of surveyed 

crops from three diverse production systems that are prominent in Australia, 

China and Zimbabwe. APSIM is well suited to this application, having been widely 

tested against experimental and farmer field data for the systems of interest in this 

study. The pathway of closing yield gaps is evident in all three systems. However, 

for Australian wheat farmers, new technologies and practices are also essential to increase 

production without added riskiness. In contrast, Chinese farmers can reduce 

inputs and risks without sacrificing production through more efficient use of their 

fertiliser inputs. African farmers have the opportunity for significant production increases 

with current technological inputs but to do so requires acceptance of much 

higher risks. This paper uses a novel return–risk analysis framework to benchmark 

contrasting production systems and to identify likely pathways for improving their 

eco-efficiency. 

Keywords: Eco-efficiency, farm yields, systems modelling 

Contact Address: Peter Carberry, CSIRO Sustainable Agriculture Flagship, Partnering for International 

Food and Fibre Security, QLD 4350 Toowoomba, Australia, e-mail: peter.carberry@csiro.au 

507

Modelling 

Transitions in Agro-Pastoralist Systems of East Africa: 

Impacts on Food Security and Vulnerability 

MARIANA CRISTINA RUFINO 1 ,PHILIP K. THORNTON 2,1 ,STANLEY KARANJA 

NG’ANG’A 1 ,IANETTA MUTIE 1 ,PETER G. JONES 3 ,MARIO HERRERO 1 

1International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI), Sustainable Livestock Futures, Kenya 

2University of Copenhagen, Earth System Science Partnership Program on Climate 

Change, Agriculture & Food Security (CCAFS), Denmark 

3Waen Associates, Y Waen, United Kingdom 

Climate-induced livelihood transitions in the agricultural systems of Africa are increasingly 

likely. There is limited evidence on what such transitions might look like. 

We tested the hypothesis that sedentary farmers in transition zones that may become 

warmer and drier in the future may be forced to increase their reliance on livestock 

vis-à-vis cropping in the future. We carried out fieldwork in 12 sites in Kenya, Tanzania 

and Uganda to understand changes in farming systems in the recent past. We 

then evaluated what the impacts of these changesmay be on household incomes and 

food security in the future, using crop and household modelling. We found no direct 

evidence for the hypothesised extensification of production in the study sites. Human 

diets have changed considerably in the last 40 years, as cropping has been taken up 

by increasing numbers of households, even in marginal places. Maize predominates, 

but some householders are increasing their crop and diet diversity, particularly in the 

locations with higher annual rainfall. At all sites people wanted to have more livestock. 

Food insecurity was common at all sites with an annual rainfall of 800 mm or 

less, and critical levels were seen at the sites with less than 700 mm of rainfall. Households 

were self-sufficient in securing adequate dietary energy from food production 

in 7 of the 12 sites, all with rainfall higher than 800 mm. Model results indicate 

that climate change may create opportunities for diversifying cropping in some places 

and allowing cropping to start whereit is not currently possible. Other places might 

see substantial reductions in crop yields. Although many householders have some 

knowledge about drought-tolerant crops, few cultivate millet, sorghum and cassava. 

Reliance on maize may be increasingly risky in view of its susceptibility to climate 

change impacts. Policies aimed at increasing the consumption of cassava, sorghum, 

millet and pigeonpea could be highly beneficial for future food security in the region. 

Vulnerability in the drier locations is already high, and policies should support safety 

nets and market and infrastructural development. Households in the wetter areas need 

to manage risk and to increase cropping diversity. Acritical requirement is knowledge 

transfer concerning the growing and utilisation of unfamiliar and untraditional crops. 

Keywords: Food security, pastoralism 

508 

Contact Address: Mariana Cristina Rufino, International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI), Sustainable 

Livestock Futures, PO Box 30709, 00100 Nairobi, Kenya, e-mail: m.rufino@cgiar.org

Systems modelling — Oral Presentations 

Central American Bean Systems and the Changing Climate 

ANTON EITZINGER 1 ,PETER LÄDERACH 2 ,BEATRIZ RODRIGUEZ 1 

1International Center for Tropical Agriculture (CIAT), Decision and Policy Analysis 

Program (DAPA), Colombia 


Program (DAPA), Nicaragua 

In order to be able to adapt to climate change, bean producing smallholders in Central 

America have to know which type of changes and to which extent and ranges these 

changes will occur. Adaptation is only possible if global climate predictions are downscaled 

and distinct/regionally specific, to give farmers a direction on what to adapt to, 

but also to provide detailed information about the extent of climate change impact and 

the exact location of the affected population to local, national, and regional governments 

and authorities, and the international cooperation/donors in order to coordinate 

and focus their interventions in the future. Our analysis show that there will be people 

who will be more affected by climate change than others; some might have to leave the 

agricultural sector while others will have to change their whole operation. But there 

will be also new opportunities for those who will adapt quickly making them winners 

of changes in climate. This presentation seeks to assess the expected impact of climate 

change on bean production in 4 countries in Central America. We downscaled 

GCM (Global Climate Models) to a local scale and predicted future bean production 

using the dynamic crop model Decision Support for Agro-technology Transfer 

(DSSAT). Based on the DSSAT-results 3 types of focus-spots where impact is predicted 

were found to be significant. Simultations were repeated with the full range of 

available GCMs to address uncertainty of model predictions. Alongside this analysis 

we started a field trial using 10 bean varieties in 5 countries to calibrate DSSAT 

and run it in order to make assumptions on determining factors and possible breeding 

strategies. Outputs of downscaled climate data show that temperature is predicted to 

increase in the future, while precipitation will slightly reduce. Crop modelling shows 

that bean yields will decrease high along the dry corridor in Central America and Hot- 

Spots with more than 50 % yield reduce could be identified in the study area. Based on 

the results we finally made recommendations for adaptation- and mitigation strategies 

such as irrigation and water-catchment, controlled agricultural land use shift, genetic 

improvement for heat-stress besides others. 

Keywords: Adaptation strategies, bean production, Central America, climate change, 

crop modelling, impact focus spots 

Contact Address: Anton Eitzinger, International Center for Tropical Agriculture (CIAT), Decision and 

Policy Analysis Program (DAPA), Ciat A.a. 6713, Cali, Colombia, e-mail: a.eitzinger@cgiar.org 

509

Modelling 

Models and Implementation of Carbon-Optimised Land 

Management Strategies in Southern Amazonia: Carbiocial 

GERHARD GEROLD, STEFAN HOHNWALD 

Georg-August-Universität Göttingen, Dept. of Landscape Ecology, Germany 

The globally relevant land use frontier of southern Amazonia is extremely dynamic. 

Deforestation is accelerating along the Cuiabá-Santarém highway and is associated 

with further major C losses and GHG releases. Global interest in curtailing these 

emissions is high as the relevance of the affected ecosystems (rainforest and savannahs) 

for C storage and GHG cycling is of global importance. Model calculations 

of C and GHG fluxes from the respective ecosystems for different land use scenarios 

are still highly uncertain because (a) dynamic land use patterns are not fully captured 

yet and (b) GHG models need precise in-situ calibration. Consequently, regionally 

specified models are essential and the key target of this project. 

The main goals of this multi- and interdisciplinary approach for Brazilian-German 

cooperation within the BMBF-FONA-programme are viable C-optimised land management 

strategies mitigating GHG emissions and maintaining ecosystem services 

(ESS) under changing climate conditions. They are urgently needed to meet the goals 

set by Brazilian national plans and international treaties such as REDD and the Kyoto 

protocol. 

Three regions along the land use frontier of southern Amazonia were selected: Novo 

Progresso (southern Pará): most active deforestation; Sinop (northern Mato Grosso): 

young soy bean production; Cuiabá (Central Mato Grosso): established cultivation 

(>20 years) and adapted mechanised cropping (e.g. no till). Analyses focus on 

soil carbon (C) turnover, climate, ecosystem functions and socio-economic processes. 

Simulation models will be combined as software packages to support the decisiontaking 

process based on field and acquired data, including a step-by-step up-scaling 

from local to landscape and regional scale. All research and implementation activities 

include direct involvement of the stakeholders. Furthermore, joint field experiments 

for improving C storage and ecosystem functions will be performed on-farm in tight 

cooperation with state (Environmental Agencies, district administration) and private 

organisations (farmer) of Mato Grosso and southern Pará. 

The presentation will give an overview on the Brazilian-German collaborative research 

and progress of research results. 

Keywords: Carbon-optimised land management, climate change, decision support 

system, ecosystem services, land use change, southern Amazonia 

Contact Address: Gerhard Gerold, Georg-August-Universität Göttingen, Dept. of Landscape Ecology, 

Goldschmidtstraße 5, Göttingen, Germany, e-mail: ggerold@gwdg.de 

510

Systems modelling — Oral Presentations 

Economic Gains from Benefit Sharing Based Water Allocation in 

the Aral Sea Basin 

MAKSUD BEKCHANOV, ANIK BADHURI 

University of Bonn, Center for Development Research (ZEF), Germany 

Water scarcity is rapidly increasing in many arid and semi-arid regions of the world 

due to population growth, irrigation expansion, industrial development, and climate 

change. At the same time, since water is delivered to the water users without considering 

its real economic value, water wastage is very high, especially in water abundant 

upstream regions of river basins, leaving less water to the downstream water users. 

Thus, there is strong need to provide efficient and equitable distribution of basin water 

resources among water users. Administrative water allocation fails to maintain 

Pareto efficient allocation and thus there is a potential for further increase in benefits 

of water users in the basin without losses incurred by any. This paper presents alternative 

water allocation mechanism which is based on benefit sharing by introducing 

tradable water use rights and incentives water users for rational water use. To this end, 

hydro-economic model combining both econometric and mathematical programming 

approaches was developed and applied to the case of the Aral Sea basin, where water 

is a critical resource for sustainability and development, as evidenced by the Aral 

Sea desiccation - one of the worst ecologic disasters in the world. Preliminary results 

show that all the riparian regions get additional benefits after introducing tradable water 

rights. In a normal year, overall basin benefit due to improved water productivity 

and efficient water allocation can increase $US 83 million under intra-catchment water 

rights trading, while $US 124 million under intra-catchment water rights trading 

without increase in total water use. Concurrently, if water users agree for keeping 

benefits unchanged while admitting conditions of benefit sharing based water allocation, 

water rights trading would allow saving additional water which can be released 

to the Aral Sea and thus serve to improve ecological sustainability in the region. It 

is argued that benefit sharing based water allocation, once its transaction costs are 

acceptable, can be more feasible option to increase water use efficiency in the basin 

than other technological improvements which require huge investment expenditures. 

Keywords: Hydro-economic model, inter- and intracatchment, sustainability, water 

rights trading, water use rights 

Contact Address: Maksud Bekchanov, University of Bonn, Center for Development Research (ZEF), 

Dept. of Economic and Technological Change, Walter-Flex-Str. 3, D-53113 Bonn, Germany, e-mail: 

maksud@uni-bonn.de 

511

Modelling 

Comparison of Fitting Crop Seedling Emergence Models with 

Some Nonlinear Models 

BEHNAM BEHTARI 1 ,MARTIN DE LUIS 2 

1Islamic Azad University, Tabriz Branch, Dept. of Crop Ecology, Iran 

2University of Zaragoza, Dept. of Geography, Spain 

Seedling emergence is one of the most important processes determining yield and 

the possibility of crop failure. There has been accomplished numerous researches 

in recent years to understand and predict the emergence patterns of crop and weed 

species for different objectives. Nonlinear regression models have been developed to 

explain crop and weed emergence patterns as a function of time. In this study, we 

tested some seedling emergence models by field data of three crop species including 

green bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L. var. Sunray), sunflower (Helianthus annuus L. 

var. Alistar) and maize (Zea mays L. var. Merit). Prediction of crop seedling emergence 

with the France and Thornley model, and growth by the Logistic, Gompertz and 

Monomolecular models were also attempted. Seed emergence indices (SOE, MED, 

ERI, T0.5) showed that seedling emergence of maize was greater than green bean and 

sunflower. The values of the median emergence date (T0.5) predicted by the logistic 

model were in close agreement with the time required for 50 % emergence calculated 

directly from interpolation of the raw emergence data. While shoot length (Lf) of 

crop seedling emergence fitted by Logistic and Monomolecular models were significant, 

it was not significant in Gompertz model statistically. Among the three models, 

the Gompertz and the Logistic models gave quite satisfactory results as the predicted 

values from the model and the observed values from the experiment were close (ME 

0.9 in most of the cases and RMSE12 in all cases). Results showed that the empirical models with an inflection point 

are recommendable because they predicted growth of crops seedling superiorly. 

Keywords: Growth, model fitting, nonlinear regression 

Contact Address: Behnam Behtari, Islamic Azad University, Tabriz Branch, Dept. of Crop Ecology, 

1655 Tabriz, Iran, e-mail: behtari@live.com 

512

Systems modelling — Posters 

Modelling the Effect of Sowing Depth on Green Bean, Sunflower 

and Maize Seedling Emergence 

BEHNAM BEHTARI 1 ,MARTIN DE LUIS 2 

1Islamic Azad University, Tabriz Branch, Dept. of Crop Ecology, Iran 

2University of Zaragoza, Dept. of Geography, Spain 

Crop prediction models often assume a standard sowing depth but this may vary both 

between and within crops. Quantitative information about sowing depth effects on 

seedling emergence in green bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L. var. Sunray), sunflower 

(Helianthus annuus L. var. Alistar) and maize (Zea mays L. var. Merit) are scarce. 

The main objective of this study was to develop a seedling emergence model for 

these crops and was select a best-fitted model associated with sowing depth. To do 

this, a factorial experimental based on completely randomised design was conducted 

at Research Greenhouse of Agriculture College of Ahar, to quantify the response of 

seedling emergence to sowing depth. Several linear and non-linear functions were 

used to describe the relationship between emergence percentage and rate with sowing 

depth. The pot experiment was conducted in a constant temperature (21°C ± 1) using 

ten sowing depths (1–10 cm). The results indicated that the percentage emergences of 

all species in the shallow first five levels of sowing depth (1–5 cm) were high, but at 

deeper levels, seedling emergence were suffering a severe loss. Emergence percentage 

per 1 cm increase in sowing depth according to linear regression models in green 

bean, sunflower and maize were 9.0 %, 10.8 % and 10.0 % percent and emergence 

rate 0.59, 0.64 and 0.95 days, respectively. Emergence indices (SOE, MED, ERI, 

D50 %) showed that seedling emergence of maize was greater than green bean and 

sunflower. For all species an increase in pre-emergence mortality with increasing 

depth was observed in the experiments. However, the fitted probit curves for each 

illustrate that the rate of increase varied between species. The rate of emergence 

varied between species. In addition, the quadratic model appeared to provide the 

best-fit overall for emergence response to sowing depth in the experiment. 

Keywords: Emergence indices, model fitting, modelling seedling emergence, probit 

curves 

Contact Address: Behnam Behtari, Islamic Azad University, Tabriz Branch, Dept. of Crop Ecology, 

1655 Tabriz, Iran, e-mail: behtari@live.com 

513

Modelling 

Analysis of the Economic Efficiency of Investments in Cotton 

Production in the Municipalities of Kouande and Kerou in 

Northern Benin 

AFOUDA JACOB YABI 1 ,VICTORINE OLODO 1 ,ROSAINE NERICE YEGBEMEY 2 

1University of Parakou, Department of Agricultural Economics, Benin 


Since the years 2000, the cotton sector in Benin was faced with a crisis due to institutional 

and financial management. The adverse effects of this crisis were known to 

be a drastic decrease in farmers’ incomes and a worsening of poverty in rural areas. 

This paper aims at analysing in this context the economic efficiency of investments in 

cotton production. For this, data were collected by surveying 140 randomly selected 

in the municipalities of Kouande and Kerou in Northern Benin. Data collected were 

related to cotton productivity and its unit price, to quantities of inputs used and their 

unit prices. A Cobb-Douglas and a Translog models were estimated by considering 

six inputs, namely cotton acreage, mineral fertiliser, insecticide, herbicide, capital and 

family labor. The estimated models allowed computing the marginal productivities of 

the different inputs. As a result, the analysis with the Cobb-Douglas model shows 

that investing in land and inputs of mineral fertiliser, insecticide and herbicide was 

economically efficient. In fact, the marginal productivities of the named inputs were 

higher than their unit prices, respectively. In contrast, the Translog model did reveal 

that a given production input, when isolated from the others, was not economically 

efficient. However, the cotton productivity was determined by the inputs interactions 

such as labor- herbicide, labor-capital and capital-herbicides, which helped significantly 

improving the economic efficiency of the investments. From these results, 

institutional and financial management of the sector should be oriented toward the 

identified input factors and their interactions in order to mitigate the adverse effects 

of the crisis in the study area. 

Keywords: Cotton, economic efficiency, investment, Kouande, Kerou, Benin 

Contact Address: Afouda Jacob Yabi, University of Parakou, Department of Agricultural Economics, 

B.P. 123, Parakou, Benin, e-mail: ja_yabi@yahoo.com 

514


Climate Change and the Vulnerability of Water Resources in 

Northern Cameroon 

AMBE EMMANUEL CHEO, HANS-JÜRGEN VOIGT, ROY LYONGA MBUA 

Brandenburg University of Technology Cottbus, Dept.of Environmental Geology, 

Germany 

Water resources in northern Cameroon have continuously been reducing over the past 

years. Many studies have suggested two principal causes and these include: 

1. Human activities such as poor farming practices, unsustainable use of water 

resources, increased demand of water, deforestation, land use change etc.; 

2. Human induced climate change. 

Northern Cameroon in this study includes: the Adamawa, North and Far North Regions 

located closer to the Sahel regions of Africa. These regions are already water 

stressed because of their location and any further change in climate with rising 

temperature would impact water resource either positively or negatively. Time series 

analysis and a 12 month Standardized Precipitation Index (SPI) with digital data 

between 1957 and 2006 were used to investigate the variation of water resources in 

this Sudano-Sahelian region of Cameroon. The results obtained varies between the 

different regions with an increased annual trend in temperature and precipitation for 

Ngaoundere (Adamawa Region) and Garoua (North Region), whereas Maroua (Far 

North Region) had a decreased annual trend in both precipitation and temperature. 

Further variability results obtained from the 12 months Standardized Precipitation Index 

(SPI12) showed that wetter periods outnumber drought periods in all 3 regions. 

The study then concluded that water resources vary with changing climatic conditions 

and the severity of the impact varies from region to region. Furthermore, water deficiency 

in northern Cameroon might not be due to climate change. The reasons might 

be a combination of poor water management and other factors such as population 

growth, environmental conditions etc. 

Keywords: Climate change, northern Cameroon, rainfall, vulnerability, water 

resources 

Contact Address: Ambe Emmanuel Cheo, Brandenburg University of Technology Cottbus, Dept.of 

Environmental Geology, Postfach 10 13 44, 03013 Cottbus, Germany, e-mail: bodiambe@yahoo.com 

515

Modelling 

Simulating Potential Yield in Oil Palm: Its Application in Yield 

Gap Analysis and the Limitations 

MUNIR HOFFMANN 1 ,THOMAS OBERTHÜR 2 ,CHRIS DONOUGH 2 , 

JULIE MAE PASUQUIN 2 ,GATOT ABDURROHIM 3 ,KOOSENI INDRASUARA 4 , 

AHMAD LUBIS 5 ,TENRI DOLONG 6 ,RAHMADSYAH 7 ,ANTHONY WHITBREAD 1 

1Georg-August-Universität Göttingen, Dept. of Crop Sciences - Tropical Agronomy, 

Germany 

2International Plant Nutrition Institute (IPNI), Southeast Asia Program, Malaysia 

3PT Sampoerna Agro Tbk, Indonesia 

4PT Bakrie Sumatera Plantations Tbk, Indonesia 

5Permata Hijau Group, Indonesia 

6PT REA Kaltim Plantations, Indonesia 

7Wilmar International Limited, Singapore 

Knowledge about yield gaps, i.e. the difference between attainable and actual yield, is key 

information for sustainably intensifying crop production systems. For oil palm, one of the 

fastest growing agricultural industries in SE Asia, increasing yields on existing plantations 

is needed to meet the increasing demand for vegetable oil and to avoid further pressure for 

new plantations. Considering that average yields of 4 t oil ha −1 are commonly reported in 

Indonesia and that yields of 8 t ha −1 at the block scale and 6 t ha −1 at the plantation scale 

are achievable, large yield increases should be possible. One of the most promising methods 

for increasing yield is through the use of “Best management practices” (BMP) to increase the 

yield in mature plantations. These practices, promoted by the International Plant Nutrition 

Institute (IPNI), include practices such as improved harvest techniques and optimised nutrient 

management. From 2006–2010, these BMP’s were tested on block scale at six sites located in 

Kalimantan and Sumatra. Results show that yields in blocks managed according to the BMP 

guidelines were significantly higher than in standard managed blocks across these different 

sites. However, as the potential yield is unknown at the specific site, it is hard to judge how 

much BMP contributes to closing the hypothesised yield gap. A recently developed oil palm 

growth model PALMSIM has been employed to simulate potential yield based on incoming 

radiation and water availability for the blocks in the six sites. 

The paper will present the simulated results compared with yield achieved under standard management 

and BMP. The difference between actual and simulated yield answers how much BMP 

contributes to close the gap in relation to potential yield. It is argued that simulating the yield 

by a potential crop growth model is a necessary first step, but as long as site-specific yield 

determining factors such as rooting depth and local hydrology are ignored, the potential yield 

can be often overestimated. For some sites soil restrictions may cause a larger gap between 

potential and site-specific potential yield. Future modelling work in oil palm has to address 

effects of inherent soil characteristics on site specific potential yield. 

Keywords: Crop growth modelling, Indonesia, oil palm, potential yield, yield gap analysis 

Contact Address: Munir Hoffmann, Georg-August-Universität Göttingen, Dept. of Crop Sciences - 

Tropical Agronomy, Grisebachstraße 6, 37077 Göttingen, Germany, e-mail: mhoffma@gwdg.de 

516


Different Environmental Indicators Lead to Conflicting Impact 

Assessments - The Example of South American Beef Production 

CRISTIAN RODOLFO FELDKAMP 1 ,DAVI JOSE BUNGENSTAB 2 , 

HORST JÜRGEN SCHWARTZ 3 

1University of Buenos Aires, Faculty of Agronomy, Argentina 

2Mato Grosso do Sul State University (UEMS), Department of Agriculture, Brazil 

3Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, Department of Livestock Ecology, Germany 

Beef is one of the most important food commodities which is reflected in its high 

international trade volume. Global demand for beef has been rising consistently over 

the past five decades. About one third of all agricultural land on the globe is wholly or 

partially occupied by beef production systems. Beef production systems have a bad 

reputation in terms of environmental impacts from land area and total water requirements 

to GHG emissions. The paper examines three different evaluation tools applied 

to extensive and semi-intensive beef production systems in South America. System 

behaviour was tested for the impact of interventions on energy efficiency and methane 

output by using simulation models. Compensatory carbon sequestration area was calculated 

for 31 beef production enterprises with three levels of production intensity 

using a “carbon footprint” type of accounting. Evaluation of water productivity was 

carried out by calculating “virtual water contents” for three levels of production intensity 

typically found in South America. Results were conflicting. Energy efficiency 

was not improved through intensifying interventions. Likewise there was no reduction 

in methane outputs when yield enhancing interventions were applied. On the other 

hand intensification had a marked positive effect on carbon footprint, i.e. a significant 

reduction of the required carbon sequestration area. Yield enhancing measures 

had no effect in either way on water productivity with the exception of increasing 

nutrient densities in the diet, which were found to improve water productivity but not 

energetic and or economic efficiency. The complexity of the findings points to the necessity 

to develop an evaluation system which takes into account conflicting responses 

by weighted assessment of the different environmental impacts against different economic 

and political backgrounds. 

Keywords: Beef production, environmental impact, greenhouse gases, landscape use, 

South America, water footprint 

Contact Address: Horst Jürgen Schwartz, Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, Department of Livestock 

Ecology, Asternplatz 2a, 1220ß Berlin, Germany, e-mail: schwartzhj@googlemail.com 

517

Modelling 

Monitoring Sand Encroachment on Agricultural Land in 

White Nile State, Sudan, during 1975–2008 using Remote Sensing 

and GIS 

MOHAMED ELTOM ELHAJA 1,2 ,IBRAHIM SAEED IBRAHIM 1 ,ELMAR 

CSAPLOVICS 2 ,MOHAMED SALIH DAFALLA 1 

1University of Khartoum, Soil and Environment Sciences, Sudan 

2Technische Universität Dresden, Inst. of Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing, 

Germany 

Wind erosion is an important soil degradation process affecting arid and semi-arid 

regions worldwide. This process is destructive and damaging; covering fertile lands, 

bushes, trees, roads and buildings. Sand encroachment in the White Nile State has 

been recognised as the most serious environmental problem, thus also facing the study 

area 50 km south of Khartoum, including the El Geteina and Ed Duim localities, 

which are part of the Gezira agricultural scheme. The objective of this study is to 

monitor and assess the encroachment of sand dunes and vegetation degradation in the 

study area during a period of 34 years using remotely sensed imagery and GIS techniques 

as well as to evaluate the efficiency of remote sensing and GIS in achieving 

these objectives. For this purpose four satellite images (MSS 1974, TM 1986, ETM+ 

2000 and 2008) were analysed in addition to field information, soil analysis and other 

existing information (topographical and geological maps). The study was based on 

visual interpretation, digital analysis, laboratory analysis and field work, whereupon 

geometric and radiometric correction, image enhancement, visual interpretation of 

colour composites, unsupervised and supervised classifications as well as change detection 

were applied. The results revealed that during the study period the shifting 

dunes increased 11 % (annual rate 0.32%/year) and the vegetation cover decreased 

by 20 % (annual rate 0.58%/year) while the cultivated areas (rain-fed agriculture on 

sandy soils, rain-fed agriculture on clay soil and irrigated agriculture) increased 2 %, 

10 % and 7 % (annual rate 0.05%/year, 0.29%/year and 0.20%/year) respectively. This 

trend indicates accelerated land degradation as the result of regional climatic change 

and human misuse of land. The study proves that remotely sensed image and geographic 

information system techniques provide detailed results which should be further 

exploited in similar studies. 

Keywords: Remote sensing, GIS, sand encroachment, White Nile State, wind erosion 

Contact Address: Mohamed Eltom Elhaja, University of Khartoum, Soil and Environment Sciences, 

Khartoum, Sudan, e-mail: elhaja75@yahoo.com 

518


Modelling the Adaptation Strategies of Farmers of the Andes 

Against Climate Change and the Related Development of 

Land Use / Land Cover 

MARIANA VIDAL MERINO 1 ,THOMAS BERGER 2 ,JÜRGEN PRETZSCH 3 , 

UTA BERGER 1 

1Technische Universität Dresden, Inst. of Forest Growth and Forest Computer Sciences, 

Germany 

2University of Hohenheim, Dept. of Agricultural Economics and Social Siences in the 


3Technische Universität Dresden, Inst. of International Forestry and Forest Products: 


There is a strong demand from policy makers for predictions about the impacts of climate 

change and the effect of potential adaptation responses on the local scale. This can be a difficult 

task, especially when dealing with highly complex socio-ecological systems. This paper 

discusses the suitability of agent-based-models (ABMs) for such a task. Formally, agent-based 

modelling is a computational method that enables a researcher to create, analyse, and experiment 

with models composed of agents that interact with each other within an environment. 

The research uses mathematical programming-based multi-agent systems (MP-MAS), an ABM 

software application for simulating land use change in agriculture and forestry. We use MP- 

MAS for assessing the development of farming systems under potential climate change scenarios 

in agricultural systems of the Andes of Peru. MP-MAS couples a cellular component 

representing a physical landscape with an agent-based component representing land-use decision-making. 

The uniqueness of MP-MAS lies in the fact that it incorporates whole farm 

mathematical programming to simulate land use decision-making. 

A prototype was implemented with the data available from the INCA project in the Achamayo 

watershed located in Junín, Peru. As environmental driver of land use change the model used 

information about daily average, minimum and maximum temperature of the last 30 years 

to predict three different scenarios for the year 2050. Main land uses included agriculture, 

grasslands, forest plantations and urban areas. Preliminary results show in all scenarios an 

expansion of the agricultural land while grasslands decrease in total area and also in quality 

(with more grassland area categorised as “low density”). Between the adaptation responses of 

farmers, agroforestry was the one with a higher increase. 

Further model development considers water availability as abiotic driver of land use change, 

market forces, as well as potential policy interventions (e.g. credit, subsidies) for local livelihood 

improvement. The relative impact of these drivers on systems dynamics will be discussed. 

Keywords: Adaptation, climate change, farming system, land use, land use change, modelling 

Contact Address: Mariana Vidal Merino, Technische Universität Dresden, Inst. of Forest Growth and 

Forest Computer Sciences, Institut Für Waldwachstum und Forstliche Informatik Postfach 1117, 01735 

Tharandt, Germany, e-mail: marianavidal@forst.tu-dresden.de 

519

Modelling 

Assessing Variations in Land Use Land Cover of Kassala State, 

Eastern Sudan Using Multi-temporal Landsat Imagery 

MAJDALDIN RAHAMTALLAH ABUALGASIM MOHAMMED, BABATUNDE 

ADENIYI OSUNMADEWA, ELMAR CSAPLOVICS 

Technische Universität Dresden, Inst. of Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing, 

Germany 

Land cover change plays a pivotal role in regional socioeconomic development and 

global environment changes. In semi-arid region, where fragile ecosystems are dominant, 

the land cover change often reflects the most significant impact on the environment 

due to excessive human activities. 

According to the location of the selected study area in semi-arid region, human activities 

such as livestock grazing by nomads and large scale mechanised farming operation 

has influenced the ecological pattern of the area thereby resulting to loss of natural 

vegetation, reduction of ground water via a low rainfall trend and decrease in clay soil 

which accelerate desert-like condition and introduction of unfavourable mesquite tree. 

The study attempt to assess and analyse variation of land use land cover changes and 

it is impacts in Kassala state, particularly the changes on the agricultural territories in 

the Gash river scheme, Eastern Sudan. Multi-temporal remotely sensed data (Landsat 

Thematic Mapper (TM) and Enhanced Thematic Mapper plus (ETM+) between 1986 

and 2011 were used together with Geographical Information System (GIS) techniques 

to assess changes in the study area. To minimise the seasonal fluctuation and removal 

of different distortions from the satellite images, atmospheric correction, radiometric 

correction for the spectral reflectance, geometric correction, resembling and rectification 

using a nearest neighbourhood method were done. To identify the land use land 

cover classes, a supervised maximum likelihood classification routine were used for 

the entire sub areas. The classes identified were: labid soil (clay soil), badopa soil 

(sandy clay soil), high dense mesquite trees, low dense mesquite tree and sand land. 

The study reveals that there was rapid increase of invasion of mesquite tree as well as 

increase in sand land during the period of the study and clear decrease in cultivated 

and grass land. 

Keywords: Kassala state, land used land cover, remote sensing, semi-arid region, 

Sudan 

Contact Address: Majdaldin Rahamtallah Abualgasim Mohammed, Technische Universität Dresden, 

Inst. of Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing, Gerok Str 38/0703, 01307 Dresedn, Germany, e-mail: 

majdi-dri@hotmail.com 

520


Sustainability Assessment by Fuzzy Evaluation: Case Study in 

Urban Vegetable Cultivation Systems in Red River Delta, Vietnam 

NGUYEN TIEN LONG, MICHAEL BÖHME 

Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, Dept. of Horticultural Plant Systems, Germany 

Fuzzy logic is a scientific tool that permits the simulation of system dynamics without 

a detailed mathematical description by using “if-then” linguistic rules. There rules 

describe the logical evolution of the system according to the linguistic values of its 

principal characters that we call linguistic variables. This paper presents the results of 

the sustainability assessment by fuzzy evaluation of urban vegetable cultivation systems 

in Red River Delta, Vietnam. The case studies were conducted in three selected 

communes in urban areas of Ha Dong district in Hanoi in Red River Delta, Vietnam. 

The farms in those communes are small-scale vegetable and/or mixed vegetable-rice 

farms. Vegetables grown in the study area included cabbage, bean, cucumber, leafy 

cabbage, cauliflower, tomato, kohlrabi, and cauliflower. Average farm size was 0.107 

ha in which 0.089 ha was used for vegetable production, the number of plot was 4.52 

and plot size was 0.025 hectares. A workshop was carried out in February 2010, total 

476 rules were gathered based on twelve indicators by using farmers’ perceptions 

as well as their preferences into the decision making process. The fuzzification and 

defuzzification processes have done by using Fuzzy Logic Toolbox in MATLAB software. 

The results showed that the value for environmental sustainability indicators 

was 0.33, the social sustainability indicator was lowest (0.25), and economic sustainability 

was highest (0.50). The overall sustainability index of vegetable cultivation 

systems in the study area was very low (0.31). The results of this study indicate that 

urban vegetable cultivation systems in Red River Delta, Vietnam were unsustainable. 

Keywords: Fuzzy evaluation, Red River Delta Vietnam, sustainability assessment, 

vegetable 

Contact Address: Nguyen Tien Long, Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, Dept. of Horticultural Plant 

Systems, Lentzeallee 75, 14195 Berlin, Germany, e-mail: nguyentl@cms.hu-berlin.de 

521

Modelling 

The Environmental Impact on Carbon Balance of Rubber 

Plantations - A Case Study on Nabanhe National Nature Reserve 

in Xishuangbanna, China 

CLAUDIA AMELIA HUBER MÉNDEZ, SERGEY BLAGODATSKIY, 

GEORG CADISCH 



Rubber plantations in the Nabanhe National Nature Reserve (NNNR) keep expanding 

at an accelerated rate since the 1970s, displacing primary and secondary tropical seasonal 

rainforests and change the land use in the buffer zones of the forest reserve. This 

conversion can revert ecosystem carbon sinks to sources due to burning and clearing, 

so that large amounts of carbon are emitted to the atmosphere. This contributes to the 

already constantly increasing atmospheric CO2 concentration, which is considered to 

be one of the most important contributors to the present climatic variability and climate 

change. Nevertheless, it is not clear to what extent rubber plantations are able to 

store carbon under different environmental conditions compared to other land uses. 

The aim of this research is to study the carbon balance of rubber plantations in the 

NNNR depending on different environmental and management conditions. 

Rubber plantations in the NNNR are located at higher elevations than are usually recommended 

for rubber cultivation. The biomass and latex yield therefore decrease with 

increasing elevation and thus decreasing temperatures. As a consequence of a lower 

biomass production under such conditions, carbon sequestration potential of rubber 

plantations would be lower, thereby decreasing its mitigation potential concerning 

atmospheric carbon concentration. 

The study is based on a literature review and application of the LUCIA model (Land 

Use Change Impact Assessment tool). The carbon sequestration potential of the area’s 

different land uses (primary forest, secondary forest, rubber and rice) will be assessed 

using the LUCIA model, which will allow evaluating the impact of rubber cultivation 

compared to the other land uses. Primary forest has the highest capacity for sequestering 

carbon, while secondary forest and rubber plantations perform similarly, and 

rice contributes the least to carbon sequestration. Additionally, the carbon emissions 

of the changing land use in the area during the past 20 years will be computed, and 

different management options to enhance carbon sequestration in rubber plantations 

such as intercropping and appropriate fertilisation will be assessed. The results of 

different scenario runs will be presented at the conference. 

Keywords: Carbon sequestration, China, land use change, rubber, Xishuangbanna 

Contact Address: Claudia Amelia Huber Méndez, University of Hohenheim, Inst. of Plant Production 

and Agroecology in the Tropics and Subtropics, Stuttgart, Germany, e-mail: clauhuberm@hotmail.de 

522


Spatio-Temporal Integration of Socio-Economic Factors Related 

to the Land-Cover Changes in the Blue Nile Region, Sudan 

MUSTAFA MAHMOUD EL ABBAS 1 ,ELMAR CSAPLOVICS 1 , 

TAISSER HASSAN HAMADELNILE DEAFALLA 2,1 

1 Technische Universität Dresden, Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing, Germany 

2 University of Khartoum, Dept. of Forest Management, Sudan 

Considering the dramatic loss of natural resources occurred in the Blue-Nile region of 

Sudan, this study is of great value of developing a method for monitoring the changes 

over time and its driving forces. Moreover, especially when we deal with communities 

a high dependency on natural resources for their everyday needs and income 

generation that has to be considered. The study utilised three consecutive optical multispectral 

images to evaluate the land-cover dynamics during the period 1990 to 2009. 

The method adopted in this research uses cross operation of multi-temporal classified 

images and subsequent reclassification of the overlaid images to be compared for 

change detection. New layers of segments were created representing the change areas 

(from-to) as well as the overlapped areas (no change) of each pair of classified images. 

Aggregated to the community-level, social survey of household data provides a comprehensive 

perspective additionally to earth observation data for predetermining hot 

spots of degraded and successfully recovered areas. Hence, the study utilised a well 

designed questionnaire to address the factors affecting land-cover dynamics and the 

possible solutions based on local community’s perception. Population Proportional to 

Size (PPS) sampling technique was applied to collect 120 questionnaires distributed 

among six villages. The data was analysed based on descriptive statistic analysis 

using SPSS Software. Randomly selected sites mentioned by the respondents were 

visited and spatially allocated. Subsequently, these data were introduced to develop 

rule sets for the change analysis based on object-based approach. The present study 

exhibits a great potential for accurate land-cover change detection, when utilising object-based 

post-classification technique with optical multispectral satellite imagery. It 

also shows the strong capability of the adopted method for gaining knowledge of the 

change dynamics and it is driving forces. At the community level, the study indicates 

that due to the disregarding of customary land laws the local community no more look 

at the forest as their own, and thus have commenced to practice all their activities in 

the forests as illegal. Moreover, the results of the combined analysis indicate that the 

mechanised rain-fed agriculture was the major force of forest cover loss. 

Keywords: Land tenure, land-cover dynamics, natural resources, object-based, 

optical multispectral imagery 

Contact Address: Mustafa Mahmoud El Abbas, Technische Universität Dresden, Photogrammetry 

and Remote Sensing, 

mmelabbas@hotmail.com 

St. Petersburger Straße 12, 01069 Dresden, Germany, e-mail: 

523

Modelling 

Measuring and Modelling the Decomposition Dynamics of 

Diverse Crop Residues 

HAI NGUYEN TRUNG 1 ,REBINA S. SASA 2 ,VADAKATTU V.S.R. GUPTA 3 , 

ANTHONY WHITBREAD 1 


Germany 

2Limpopo Department of Agriculture, South Africa 

3CSIRO Ecosystem Sciences, Australia 

In many tropical farming systems, organic sources play a dominant role in the cycling 

of nutrients in the soil-plant system. The quality of plant residues as indicated by 

C:N ratio, lignin, tannin and other indicators of quality has a profound effect on the 

decomposition patterns and in effect on the mineralisation/immobilisation dynamic of 

N. A closed chamber incubation experiment was conducted to measure the interaction 

of soil type and crop residue quality (canola, wheat, pea and mucuna) on decomposition. 

Briefly, residues were incorporated into 2 soil types (Alfisol and Calcaresol) 

and incubated at 25oC for 14 weeks. The production of CO 2 was measured in NaOH 

traps which were regularly titrated and renewed. A treatment that contained soil but 

no residues was included as a control. Over the entire period of the incubation, the C 

mineralisation was significantly higher in the Alfisol than in the Calcaresol soil. The 

rate of CO2-C release in both soils decreased with time during the incubation, and the 

treatments containing mucuna residues released less CO2-C than other residue treatments. 

Meanwhile, the mineral N in the 2 soils was initially dominated by the NH + 4 -N 

form, this declined within 14 days of the start of incubation and thereafter remained 

low. 

To date there have been limited attempts to model the decomposition pattern of diverse 

plant residues in farming systems models such as APSIM, DSSAT and CropSys. This 

is a priority area of research for low input agricultural systems, which relies largely 

on crop residues and manures for nutrient input. Using the Surface Organic Matter 

(SurfaceOM) module in APSIM, the input of fresh organic matter (FOM) was adjusted 

to represent the residues used in the incubation experiment via the “FPOOL” 

which describe carbohydrate, cellulose and lignin like parameters of the residues. By 

adjusting these proportions from the typical 0.2:0.7.0.1 ratio with constant C:N ratio, 

to ratios which better match the measured quality parameters, we were able to better 

represent the results of decomposition processes of the residues inputs and importantly 

more closely simulate N mineralisation. 

Keywords: APSIM, crop residues, decomposition, incubation, mineralisation 

modelling 

Contact Address: Hai Nguyen Trung, Georg-August-Universität Göttingen, Dept. of Crop Sciences: 

Tropical Agronomy, Grisebachstr. 6, 37077 Göttingen, Germany, e-mail: tnguyen2@gwdg.de 

524


Can Smallholder Farmers in the Sahel Benefit from Payments for 

Carbon Sequestration? 

EIKE LUEDELING, HENRY NEUFELDT 


Carbon finance is often cited as a potential source of income for smallholder farmers 

in developing countries, yet for many environments, data on carbon scheme viability 

are unavailable. To close this knowledge gap for West African parkland systems, 

we used ecological niche modelling and a literature review to estimate potential carbon 

stocks in newly established parklands for 19 climate scenarios. Based on resulting 

carbon sequestration rates, the economic viability of hypothetical carbon finance 

schemes was evaluated using a carbon finance business model. Climate analogue 

analysis was used to illustrate the climatic trajectory of selected current parkland locations. 

For a hypothetical scenario, in which parklands were assumed to cover the maximum 

area possible, potential carbon stocks in agricultural land were estimated at 1,284 

Tg C, compared to 725 Tg C for a ‘treeless agriculture’ scenario under baseline climate 

conditions. Carbon sequestration potentials were much lower for most future 

scenarios. Due to low annual sequestration rates of about 0.4 Mg per hectare, profitability 

of carbon sequestration schemes was low. Even when large numbers of farmers 

(>40,000) participated, projects targeting small farms (2 ha of new parklands per 

farm) required high carbon prices of >US$ 11 t -1 , even for the most viable payment 

scheme tested. For farmers, profitability was always low, even at higher carbon prices. 

Under optimistic assumptions, net present values (perceived value over a project lifespan 

of 25 years) of carbon sequestration were below 50 USD for all project schemes 

targeting small farmers. It seems unlikely that Sahelian farmers will engage in such 

activities, unless substantial non-carbon benefits are also derived. Climate analogue 

locations for three sites in Senegal, Mali and Niger indicated decreasing climatic suitability 

for parkland agroforests for most future scenarios. In this light, carbon sequestration 

does not seem like a promising source of income for project managers or 

farmers in the Sahel. However, parkland agroforests have been shown to benefitfarmers 

through diversifying farm incomes, improving soil fertility and providing positive 

microclimatic effects. The prospects of agroforestry to provide adaptation benefits to 

farmers are thus much greater than their potential to generate substantial cash flows 

through carbon finance mechanisms. 

Keywords: Agroforestry, carbon sequestration, climate analogue analysis, climate 

change, ecological niche modelling, maximum entropy (MaxEnt), parklands 



525

Modelling 

Climate Analogues for Climate Change Impact Projection and 

Adaptation Planning 

EIKE LUEDELING 


Climate change will affect land use systems around the world, yet reliable projection 

of the impacts of particular climate scenarios is currently only possible for selected 

systems, for which robust models exist. Many smallholder farming systems throughout 

the developing world are characterised by mixed cropping, integration of trees 

with annual crops and suboptimal crop management. Such situations cannot currently 

be modeled at the scale and accuracy required for adaptation planning. Climate 

analogue analysis promises potential for overcoming this constraint. The premise of 

this approach is that for most places of interest and for most climate scenarios, it is 

possible to find a currently existing location that presently has a similar climate to 

the projected climate at the target location. Comparison of environmental and socioeconomic 

conditions at target and analogue locations can deliver information that is 

informative for climate change impact projection. Land use strategies at the analogue 

locations may be useful for adapting the target location to climate change. Visits by 

land managers from the target location at analogue locations may serve to increase 

awareness of the need to adapt and to gain useful insights into what kinds of management 

practices are possible under climate regimes expected in the future. 

The usefulness of the climate analogue approach is currently constrained by a number 

of factors: (1) site-specific climate data is not normally available, especially for the 

future, so that climate matching is limited to monthly means of temperature extremes 

and rainfall; (2) differences in soil types and other crucial environmental and socioeconomic 

factors cannot currently be captured, casting doubts on the transferability of 

land use strategies between analogue and target locations; (3) the approach has yet to 

prove its applicability in the field. Strategies to overcome some of these constraints 

are proposed. 

Keywords: Adaptation, climate analogues, climate change impacts, climate data 



526


Quantification of Water Flows and Sediment Transport in Paddy 

Cascades in Vietnam and Representation in a 

Landscape-Scale Model 

REBECCA SCHAUFELBERGER, CARSTEN MAROHN, GEORG CADISCH 



In Vietnam, the second most important rice producer in South East Asia, most of 

the rice is grown on paddy terraces. These terraces modify water flow and sediment 

transport in sloping landscapes, holding back sediments originating in uplands fields. 

The Land Use Change Impact Assessment tool (LUCIA) is a dynamic and spatially 

explicit model developed at the Institute for Plant Production in the Tropics and Subtropics, 

University of Hohenheim. LUCIA simulates consequences of land use change 

on watershed functions, biomass production, environmental services and soil productivity 

and fertility at landscape scale in small mountainous catchments. The aim of 

this work was to develop a module simulating the water flow and sediment transport 

in paddy cascades and implement it in LUCIA. 

To calibrate the model field measurements were conducted 2011 in Yen Chau, Northwest 

Vietnam. The topography of the cascade was mapped first. Water inflow and 

outflow into a cascade and flow between the individual paddies were quantified using 

water clocks and sediment loads of the water were measured using turbidity sensors. 

After the rice harvest top soil samples were taken on a grid of 10 m 2 and analysed using 

Mid-Infrared-Spectroscopy (MIRS) for organic carbon, total nitrogen and texture. 

For MIRS- validation data from Schmitter (2009) were used. 

Inflows into the cascades occur only during the rice season (when inlets are not 

blocked). Each cascade is seen as one tank with limited outflow through pipes or, during 

heavy rain events, overflow surpassing the paddy bunds. Inflows into a tank are 

rainfall and channel flow, while evapotranspiration, infiltration, bund flow and outflow 

leave the cascade. First standalone runs of the paddy module have been undertaken 

and the integration into the LUCIA model has been technically accomplished. Further 

steps include plausibility tests of the combined model. 

Keywords: Landscape modelling, paddy hydrology, paddy model 

Contact Address: Rebecca Schaufelberger, University of Hohenheim, Inst. of Plant Production and 

Agroecology in the Tropics and Subtropics, 70593 Stuttgart, Germany, e-mail: r.schaufelberger@ 


527

Modelling 

Mapping Land Degradation Patterns Using NDVI as a Proxy: 

A Case Study of Kenya 

BOAZ SWASWA 1 ,PAUL L. G. VLEK 1 ,LULSEGED TAMENE DESTA 2 , 

PETER OKOTH 2 


2International Center for Tropical Agriculture (CIAT), Tropical Soil Biology and Fertility 

(TSBF), Kenya 

Land degradation remains a major challenge to food production and environmental 

integrity particularly for sub-Saharan Africa. Once productive soils have been ruined 

due to human and natural degradation processes, the mapping of the patterns of 

degradation in order to propose intervention approaches is a challenge. This study 

employed the use of Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI) as a proxy to 

assess land degradation patterns in Kenya. The study employed the use of 500 m, 

Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer Normalized Difference Vegetation 

Index (MODIS/NDVI) and the gridded climate CRU TS 3.1 (0.5° × 0.5°) data for 

the period (2000–2009). The relationship between annual green biomass (as reflected 

by NDVI) and mean annual precipitation (MAP) dynamics was computed using Pearson’s 

correlation coefficient while linear regression was performed to determine the 

magnitude of change of the NDVI over time (inter-annual change in NDVI). All computations 

were done in a GIS environment using ArcGIS 9.2. Mean precipitation 

over the 10 year period ranged between 550 and 870 mm at national level. There 

was relatively reduced precipitation in years 2000, 2003, 2005 and 2008. Despite 

the annual fluctuations, there was a general increase in mean precipitation at national 

level over the period of assessment. Correlation between NDVI and MAP at national 

and regional levels revealed clear patterns of NDVI change and hence potential for 

degradation or improvement. The degrading areas span across different agroecological 

zones humid (Kakamega, Kisii) to arid (Kitui, Narok, Turkana, Garissa) lands 

suggesting that there are various drivers of degradation in these respective regions. 

Positive and significant changes in the NDVI slope were observed for some selected 

locations such as Wajir and Baringo that are located in the dryland areas implying the 

‘greening’ of the drylands. Despite the assessment showing solid visual extent of the 

land degradation problem, assessments using NDVI do not identify the actual causes 

of degradation or improvements. There is need to follow up such assessments with 

detailed field observations at selected georeferfenced sites to ascertain the causes of 

the patterns observed. 

Keywords: Food production, Kenya, land degradation, mean annual precipitation, 

normalized difference vegetation index 

Contact Address: Boaz S Waswa, University of Bonn, Center for Development Research (ZEF), Walter- 

Flex-Straße 3, 53113 Bonn, Germany, e-mail: bwaswa@uni-bonn.de 

528


Challenges Presented by Climate Change in the Andean Region: 

Land Use Cover Change and Adaptive Response of Small Farmers 

MARIANA VIDAL MERINO 1 ,FRANCOIS JOST 2 ,GREGORY AMOS 2 , 

FERNANDO MEDINA 3 ,JÜRGEN PRETZSCH 2 ,UTA BERGER 1 

1Technische Universität Dresden, Inst. of Forest Growth and Forest Computer Sciences, 

Germany 

2Technische Universität Dresden, Inst. of International Forestry and Forest Products, 

Germany 

3University of Bangor, School of Environment, Natural Resources and Geography, United 

Kingdom 

For people living in the Andean Mountains, climatic change is not a problem of the future - 

thea already face the effects. The Andean region of Peru is bearing the consequences of climate 

change, such as retreat of glaciers and extreme weather events, which are increasingly affecting 

the livelihoods of small local farmers and increasing the vulnerability of the farm systems they 

depend on. 

This paper presents the first results of the “International Network on Climate Change in the 

Andean Region (INCA)” project. The INCA is a scientific network specialised on climate 

change that seeks to understand the situation of local farming and forestry systems in the Andean 

Region, deriving and testing livelihood strategies for farming systems and indigenous 

communities. 

First results of the INCA project, based on research in the Achamayo Watershed in Peru, include: 

a) A study of the perception of local people towards the development of climate over the 

last 10 years. b) An analysis via satellite images and field research on land use cover/change 

since 1921. c) An assessment of the adaptation strategies available and used by small-scale 

farmers. 

Project results show that farmers are well aware of the ongoing changes in weather patterns, 

signaling the occurrence of frosts and heavy rainfall as main causes of agricultural loss. The 

decrease of water springs during dry season was reported to have a direct impact on the livestock 

which rely on natural grasslands as main fodder source. The analysis of land use cover 

change supported this former statement, reporting severe grasslands degradation, with 21.26 % 

decrease of the “high density grassland” land cover since 1921. Concrete strategies to forecast, 

disperse and mitigate the climatic risk were identified. 

Ongoing research within the INCA project applies modelling techniques for assessing the development 

of farming systems under potential climate change scenarios and the consequences 

of the resulting land use mosaics on economical utilities (food security and income) and environmental 

services. 

Keywords: Adaptation, Andean Region, climate change, land use, land use cover change, 

small farmers 

Contact Address: Mariana Vidal Merino, Technische Universität Dresden, Inst. of Forest Growth and 

Forest Computer Sciences, Institut Für Waldwachstum und Forstliche Informatik Postfach 1117, 01735 

Tharandt, Germany, e-mail: marianavidal@forst.tu-dresden.de 

529

Modelling 

Analyzing Sectorial and Regional Heterogeneity Effects in 

Agricultural Efficiency: A Mixed Model Approach 

DANIEL CASTRO, BERNHARD BRÜMMER 

Georg-August-Universität Göttingen, Department of Agricultural Economics and Rural 


Technical and allocative efficiency of farm households has been widely studied in the 

context of panel data. While these techniques account for the estimation of efficiency 

in different frameworks, they do not investigate the latent heterogeneity at the sector 

level and at the regional level; an accurate analysis of the heterogeneity at the regional 

and sector level, as the one proposed here using mixed models, might, for instance, 

reflect differences in policy impacts, in technological progress, or even knowledge of 

the farmer at the regional or sector level. A common approach in this extent is to 

define farm types and analyse them using a consistent methodology, the estimation of 

a production function per sector. On the other hand, regional heterogeneity is often 

accommodated by adding regional categorical variables as a set of dummy regressors 

in the estimation. 

A more general framework which is capable of accommodating these sources of heterogeneity 

in a flexible way is the mixed model approach. In the existing literature, 

this framework has been introduced in several different ways. First, by defining a 

second level error as an indicator of the firm’s efficiency rate. Another approach, with 

the aim of relaxing the distributional assumptions, allows for time-varying efficiency 

levels with heterogeneity in slopes and intercepts for individual firms. 

Our data allow classifying the farms according to agricultural subsectors and regional 

location, on the basis of a rotating panel data for 5 years (2003–2005) from the Farm 

Business Survey in The United Kingdom. Five types of farms to account for sector 

heterogeneity were defined; the data also allow us to identify the county to account 

for regional heterogeneity. Although our data come from the UK, the mixed model 

approach developed here will be of great potential for similar applications in developing 

countries, since sector and regional heterogeneity might be a major concern in 

this setting. 

We compare the estimation results of several mixed models approaches like the one 

described before with the conventional stochastic frontier procedure. Estimations 

show similarities in coefficient and efficiencies estimations; on the other hand, variation 

between sectors and regions seem to have strong magnitude. 

Keywords: Efficiency analysis, linear mixed models, stochastic frontier, unobserved 

heterogeneity 

Contact Address: Daniel Castro, Georg-August-Universität Göttingen, Department of Agricultural 

Economics and Rural Development, Platz der Göttinger Sieben 5, 37073 Gottingen, Germany, e-mail: 

d.castromedina@stud.uni-goettingen.de 

530


Assessment of Land Use / Land Cover Changes Using Multi- 

Temporal Satellite Imagery (South Darfur, Sudan) 

MASARRA BASHIR, ELMAR CSAPLOVICS 

Technische Universität Dresden, Institute of Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing, 

Germany 

South Darfur lies in a region that suffers significantly from the impacts of environmental 

degradation. Overgrazing, deforestation and overcropping have caused soils 

with an inherently low fertility. As a result the land use changed and led to a further 

competition and overexploitation of the natural resources. Subsequently conflicts has 

resulted in the majority of the population abandoning their homelands and becoming 

internally displaced or refugees. 

The aim of this study was to map and assess of land use land/ land cover change in Edd 

Al Fursan locality which located in Southern Darfur State during the period 1999– 

2008. Multi-temporal Landsat (ETM) & (Aster) data have been utilised to detect land 

use/ land cover change. The images were geometrically corrected to a common map 

projection, followed by image processing operations, namely atmospheric correction, 

supervised image classification and accuracy assessment. The major Land Use Land 

Cover classes present in the study area are: grass land, forest land, fallow land, cultivated 

land, and bare land. Two methods of change detection were applied; these were 

Post Classification Comparison (PCC), and Multivariate Alteration Detection with 

Maximum Autocorrelation Factor Postprocessing (MAD/MAF). The comparisons of 

land use/ land cover showed that the natural vegetation cover (grass and forest lands) 

decreased from 21 %, 19 % in 1999 to 19 %, and 17 % in 2008 respectively, while 

the agricultural land increased from 25 % to 30 %. Moreover the fallow land has decreased 

from 24.5 % to 20.5 %, at the same time the bare land increased from 11 % 

in 1999 to 14 % in 2008. The linear transformations of (MAD/MAF) (unsupervised 

change detection) were applied to examine the quality of change. The study indicates 

that change in land use/ land cover in the study area is due to overpopulation as the 

results of conflict and environmental crisis that led to clearance of forest cover either 

for agricultural expansion or other domestic purpose (building materials or fuelwood). 

On the other hand overcultivation resulted in decrease of fallow period and increased 

in bare land. 

Keywords: Change detection, land use/ land cover change, multi-temporal data 

Contact Address: Masarra Bashir, Technische Universität Dresden, Institute of Photogrammetry and 

Remote Sensing, Gerokstr. 38, 01307 Dresden, Germany, e-mail: masarrabashir@hotmail.com 

531

Modelling 

Can the Social Mechanisms Framework be Applied in Modelling 

Natural Shocks? 

BALGAH ROLAND AZIBO 1 ,GERTRUD BUCHENRIEDER 2 

1Bamenda University of Science and Technology and Pan African Institute for Development 

in West Africa (PAID WA), Social Sciences, Cameroon 

2Universität der Bundeswehr München, Professur für Politik und Entwicklung außerhalb 

der OECD-Welt (associated research fellow of IAMO), Germany 

Theorizing in the social sciences has generally been characterised by a dichotomy between 

concrete (practical) and abstract models. While concrete models attempt to explain 

social phenomena based on observable outcomes, abstract modelling has often 

departed from logical thinking, being characterised by critical assumptions, culminating 

in logically attractive but often practically unrealistic models. Many sociologists 

however agree that the social mechanisms framework is useful model for rigorizing 

the identification, understanding and analysis of real world social phenomena. In summary, 

the social mechanism framework departs from the assumption that the relationship 

between inputs and outputs of social phenomena must necessarily be explained 

by the underlying mechanisms, and not based on simple relations displaced for instance 

by regression or correlation coefficients. This article extends this conventional 

wisdom in the social science to the analysis of natural shocks, whose rapid upsurge 

has been observed in recent years. It suggests that this concept in itself provides a 

middle ground theory that sufficiently combines abstract logic and empirical validity 

in understanding and explaining natural shocks. It is argued that an adequate theoretical 

and methodical approach of examining formal and informal responses based 

on the social mechanisms framework is prerequisite for understanding and explaining 

the black box often existing when such shocks occur in developing countries. This is 

very crucial as formal (state and market) mechanisms often fail or function only partially 

in such countries. An adapted theoretical model is proposed that enables natural 

shocks to be conceptualised as social phenomena. Such an approach can help explain 

aspects of vulnerability, adaptability and resilience observed or not when extreme 

events occur. Apart from providing a theoretical model with respect to shocks, empirical 

examples are provided to strengthen the argument that the social mechanisms 

framework provides an adaptable model that can significantly improve quantitative 

analysis of shocks, as long as they are perceived as social phenomena. 

Keywords: Modelling, natural shocks, social mechanisms, social phenomena 

Contact Address: Balgah Roland Azibo, Bamenda University of Science and Technology and Pan 

African Institute for Development in West Africa (PAID WA), Social Sciences, TP.O Box 5044 Nkwen, 

00237 Bamenda, Cameroon, e-mail: balgazib@yahoo.com 

532


Resilience of Rainfed Farming Systems under Changing Climate 

BENJAMIN STUCH, RÜDIGER SCHALDACH, ELLEN KYNAST 

University of Kassel, Center for Environmental Systems Research, Germany 

Climate change is a phenomenon that affects resiliences of agricultural systems against 

crisis. Adaptation approaches are required to increase/maintain resiliences in the near 

future. Without the implementation of suitable adaptation options, climate change 

is expected to negatively impact food production, food availability and food access. 

Food security is at risk especially among subsistence farmers in the tropics and subtropics. 

Modelling agricultural systems is one approach to understand and identify future agricultural 

vulnerabilities against climate change at the one hand, and adaptation options 

on the other hand. Recent studies on future climate impacts on agriculture production 

emphasised on mean climate change patterns. Vulnerabilities to annual climate fluctuations 

have rarely been considered, although, they affect food security in general 

and food stability/persistency in particular. 

We assume that climate change impacts are underestimated when relying only upon 

analysis of mean climate changes. For that reason, our study focuses on changes 

in the year-to-year crop yield fluctuations due to changing climate variability. We 

compare these trends with trends in mean yields. Since such impact assessments are 

strongly influenced by the climate scenario input, we additionally analyse the effect 

of the large disparities among global circulation models (GCM), emission scenarios 

and bias correction methods on the crop yield calculations. Therewith, we consider 

climate uncertainties in the calculation of future agricultural resiliences. 

In the study, we apply three state of the art climate models, two emission scenarios 

and two bias correction methods to drive the dynamic vegetation model LPJmL for 

the computation of crop yields. From the gridded yield series, we analyse changes in 

the standard deviation of crop yields (and their means) between the baseline (1971– 

2000) and the 2050s (2041–2070). We analyse the crop signal robustness (agreement) 

over the different sets of model runs. Finally, we classify regions in respect to the potential 

changes of agricultural resiliences. This classification is spatially differentiated 

and considers the different natures of climate impacts (changing means and changing 

variability). 

The study results can contribute to more effective and efficient adaptation planning to 

promote resilient farming systems in the future. 

Keywords: Climate uncertainty, climate variability, crop modelling, food security 

Contact Address: Benjamin Stuch, University of Kassel, Center for Environmental Systems Research, 

Wilhelmshöher Allee 47, 34109 Kassel, Germany, e-mail: stuch@cesr.de 

533

Modelling 

Evaluating Spatio-Temporal Relationships between Climate 

Variables and NDVI in Humid Grasslands of 

Northeastern Argentina 

MARIA FABIANA NAVARRO RAU 1 ,DITMAR BERNARDO KURTZ 1 , 

ESTANISLAO DÍAZ FALÚ 2 ,MARCUS GIESE 2 

1National Institute of Agricultural Research, Corrientes Experimental Station, Argentina 



In northeastern Argentina, subtropical grasslands occupy over 50,000 km2 and are mainly devoted 

to raising cattle, representing the main economic resource for the inhabitants. Some 

evidence have shown that precipitation and temperature in this region are changing according to 

global change forecasts. Therefore, our objective was to confirm the existence of such patterns 

and evaluate if vegetation is responding to it. For this purpose, a 11-year series of biweekly 

NDVI (MODIS, 2000–2011) were used. Integrated NDVI values for early, middle, late and the 

entire growing season were calculated. For the same period, information about temperature, 

amount of precipitation and days with precipitation was considered. Trends of NDVI and its 

correlation with climate variables were analysed for five different grassland types identified in 

the study region. The annual precipitation and temperature did not show a significant negative 

trend (slope was -0.105 and -0. 041, p > 0.05 respectively). However, the number of days with 

precipitation during the current growing season showed a significant negative trend along the 

years (slope = -0.550, p < 0.001). This indicates that, despite the total amount of precipitation 

remains unchanged, it is concentrated in less frequent and bigger events. Indeed, this variable 

was strongly correlated with the NDVI (r=0.78, p < 0.001), which also decreased significantly 

over the analysed period (slope ranged from -0.144 to -0.253, p < 0.001). The amount of 

precipitation was strongly correlated with NDVI late in the growing season and there was a 

weak correlation in the early season (r=0.85 and 0.38, respectively). In conclusion, the trend 

of climate variables in the study region is mainly represented by changes in the frequency and 

intensity of the precipitation, which is affecting negatively the grassland productivity. As a 

consequence, implementation of management practices tending to optimise the water fluxes is 

necessary to minimise the impact of climate change on this ecosystem. Moreover, given that 

NDVI and its related variables are good indicators of the vegetation attributes, understanding 

their relationship with climate variables would allow predicting changes on productivity under 

different climatic scenarios, being also a key when looking for adaptive responses of grassland 

and livestock production systems. 

Keywords: Argentina, climate change, grassland productivity, NDVI, subtropical humid 

grasslands 

Contact Address: Maria Fabiana Navarro Rau, National Institute of Agricultural Research, Corrientes 

Experim. Station, Ruta 12 km 1008, 3400 Corrientes, Argentina, e-mail: mnavarro@cnia.inta.gov.ar 

534


Agricultural Land Use Change, Resource Competition and 

Conflict in the Tarim Basin, Xinjiang, China 

TIL FEIKE, MICHAEL KUSI APPIAH, YUSUYUNJIANG MAMITIMIN, 

REINER DOLUSCHITZ 

University of Hohenheim, Institute of Farm Management, Germany 

The Tarim River Basin is a continental arid region in the Northwest of China, which 

is characterised by extreme vulnerability. Rainfall is very rare and thus all kind of 

human activities, as well as the natural ecosystems depend on the water, which is 

supplied through snow- and glacier-melt to the Tarim River. A tremendous land use 

change can be observed in the last decades, which puts severe pressure on natural 

resources. This publication examines the changes in agricultural land use in the last 

decades, investigates the causes of change, and elaborates the consequential resource 

use conflicts. Statistical yearbooks of the local regions, literature review and data obtained 

through expert interviews and a stakeholder workshop constitute the data base 

for the analysis. Land use change was assessed for the four administrative regions 

along the Tarim, namely Bayangol and Aksu prefecture, as well as the Division 1 and 

Division 2 of the military farms. In total the area for annual crops nearly doubled 

to more than one million hectare from 1989 to 2009, with the strongest increases in 

cotton area. The increase was significantly higher outside the military farms, which 

can mainly be attributed to the strong population increase in the same period. Furthermore 

the “Grain-for-Green” policy promotes the establishment of perennial production 

systems, especially orchards. This led to an increase of orchard area from 40,000 

to 300,000 hectare in total, again with the highest increases in Aksu prefecture. As orchards 

have about double the water demand compared to annual crops, the promotion 

of perennials further aggravates the competition for water, not only between agriculture 

and the natural vegetation, but also between upstream and downstream farmers. 

As a consequence limited water availability restricted the expansion of agricultural 

land in the Division 2, which is located at the lower reaches of the river. This has a 

direct impact on the agricultural GDP, which increased at a four times lower rate in 

Division 2 compared to the other three regions. Ultimately a population decrease in 

the lower reaches can be observed in the last years, with farmers being re-settled to 

other parts of Xinjiang. 

Keywords: China, cotton, grain-for-green, land use change 

Contact Address: Til Feike, University of Hohenheim, Institute of Farm Management, Schwerzstr.43, 

70593 Stuttgart, Germany, e-mail: tilfeike@uni-hohenheim.de 

535

Modelling 

Global Impact of Climate Change on Coffee Suitability 

ORIANA OVALLE 1 ,PETER LÄDERACH 2 ,CHRISTIAN BUNN 3 


(DAPA), Colombia 


Program (DAPA), Nicaragua 

3Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, Faculty of Agriculture and Horticulture, Germany 

The fact that climate change will have an adverse impact on agriculture is evident. 

Various studies show that the exposure of coffee systems to climatic changes will 

result in decreased suitability, yield, inferior quality and increased pest and disease 

pressure. This is commonly related to in increases in temperature and changes precipitation 

patterns. To date, no global study on the impact of climate change on coffee 

suitability exists. 

To assess the impact of climate change on coffee suitability globally we first quantified 

changes in predicted climate patterns by 2030 and 2050 using 18 Global Circulation 

Models (GCM). Then, we modeled the potential current world coffee distribution using 

the Maxent crop prediction programme training it on over 5200 unique coffee 

evidence locations worldwide. This model is widely acknowledged to yield the most 

accurate results. Finally, we projected the future global coffee distribution to using 

the GCM’ to identify the level of exposure of coffee suitability under progressive climate 

change. As climate input data we used 19 bioclimatic variables from Worldclim 

(current climate) and 18 GCMs (future) under emission scenario A2 and on 2.5 arcminutes 

(approximately 5 kilometers) scale. 

The specific results show that suitability in the Mesoamerican coffee regions tend to 

be lower in areas between 400 – 800 m. a.s.l. While South American coffee regions 

show increasing suitability of 40 % in areas close to the equator with an average altitude 

between 1600 – 2000 m. a.s.l., the areas north and south of the equator show a 

decrease of suitability up to 60 %. In some African coffee regions (Ethiopia, Kenya 

and Madagascar) coffee-suitability gains up to 40 %. While in some South East Asia 

coffee regions (Vietnam) coffee-suitability loses close to 60 %. 

Thus, our model reveals drastic losses of coffee area in low regions at high latitudes. 

However, our model implicitly assumes unchanged cultivation practices. We therefore 

conclude that coffee research must focus on developing new means that address 

the coming changes. Our results are expected to serve as an analysis tool for future 

projects related to socioeconomic, vulnerability and political analysis of the adaptation 

of coffee production. 

Keywords: Climate change, Coffea arabica, modelling 

Contact Address: Oriana Ovalle, International Center for Tropical Agriculture (CIAT), Decision and 

Policy Analysis (DAPA), Cra 1 N 56 - 50, Cali, Colombia, e-mail: o.ovalle@cgiar.org 

536


Potential of Waste Water Use for Jatropha Cultivation in Arid 

Environments 

ARISOA RAJAONA 1 ,NELE SUTTERER 2 ,FOLKARD ASCH 1 



2Trier University of Applied Sciences, Institute for Applied Material Flow Management, 

Germany 

Water is relevant for all socio-economic development and for maintaining healthy 

ecosystems. As population increases and development calls for increased allocations 

of groundwater and surface water for domestic, agriculture and industrial sectors, 

pressure on water resources intensifies, leading to tensions, conflicts among users, and 

excessive pressure on the environment. Additionally, energy demand scenarios show 

an increase over time that leads decision makers to look for renewable energy sources. 

Indeed, imbalances between availability and demand, the degradation of groundwater 

and surface water quality, competition and conflicts contribute to water scarcity. 

Scarcity often occurs in the arid and semiarid regions affected by droughts and wide 

climate variability. This induces countries to use sewage effluent after a certain level 

of treatment resulting generally in nutrient rich treated sewage effluent (TSE). Jatropha 

has been introduced as an option for energy supply since it is claimed to be 

drought resistant and can grow on marginal sites. In order to evaluate the suitability 

of jatropha cultivation in a combined plant production / effluent treatment system, 

considering both the advantage of using available resources (water and nutrients) and 

also the fact that salinity issues may arise, jatropha water requirements were calculated 

using CROPWAT 8.0. Concentrating on a case study of Southern Morocco, the 

crop evapo-transpiration (ETc) during the growing period (February - August) was 

768 mm. Additionally, the gross irrigation requirements ranged from 868 to 1,329 

mm. Moreover, the corresponding nutrient input from the effluent irrigation was 84– 

129 kg ha −1 for N, 24–37 kg ha −1 for P, and 169–259kg ha −1 for K, respectively. The 

average soil salinity in the root-zone was between 2 dS m −1 and > 9dSm −1 depending 

on the leaching fraction. Since Jatropha has been reported to be salt sensitive, the 

use of waste water while controlling soil salinity has to be reconsidered even if the 

nutrient and water supply can be satisfied. 

Keywords: Bioenergy, fertiliser, Morocco, salinity, waste water 

Contact Address: Arisoa Rajaona, University of Hohenheim, Inst. of Plant Production and Agroecology 

in the Tropics and Subtropics, Garbenstrasse 13, 70593 Stuttgart, Germany, e-mail: arajaona@ 


537

Modelling 

Landscape Vulnerability Assessment in Data-Poor Regions: 

A Case Study in a River Basin, Central Vietnam 

MAGDALENA ZAKALEK 1 ,CLAUDIA RAEDIG 1 ,UDO NEHREN 1 , 

DAC THAI HOANG HO 2 

1Cologne University of Applied Sciences, Institute for Technology and Resources 

Management in the Tropics and Subtropics, Germany 

2Hue University of Agriculture and Forestry, Library and Information Center, Vietnam 

Landscapes worldwide undergo highly dynamic land use development to promote 

economic growth and thus human well-being. This causes conversion of forests and 

other natural areas of vegetation to agricultural land or settlement area, and is frequently 

accompanied by the expansion of road and electricity networks and an increased 

use of natural resources. Consequences, namely fragmentation of natural 

landscapes, deforestation, biodiversity loss, soil and water pollution, and soil erosion, 

add to landscape vulnerability, and in the long run will negatively affect human wellbeing. 

The present study aims at identifying the spatial distribution of landscape vulnerability 

of the Vu Gia Thu Bon River Basin (VGTB) in Central Vietnam. The construction 

of such a vulnerability map is a first step to identify critical areas in large regions, 

where more detailed research is necessary. The study is conducted as part of LUCCi 

project (http://www.lucci-vietnam.info), which comprises a topographically heterogeneous 

area of > 12,000 km2 for which hardly any spatial data are available. 

The landscape vulnerability assessment focuses on four criteria relevant degradation 

in the study area: 

• forest loss and degradation; 

• contaminant input by rivers; 

• illegal logging impact by roads (of firewood and non-timber forest products 

NTFPs); 

• soil erosion. 

The following spatial data are classified into vulnerability classes and transferred into 

a gridded map: forest classification data is based on LANDSAT satellite images and 

distinguishes between forest (low vulnerability) and degraded forest (high vulnerability). 

Buffer areas along rivers are classified based on distance ranging from very high (0– 

50 m) to low vulnerability (>200 m) to contaminant input. Illegal logging impact 

areas are classified based on distance from road, ranging from very high (0–200 m 

for firewood and NFTPs) to medium (200–1,000m for firewood and NFTPs) to low 

(> 20 km, maximal range for illegal logging). 

Contact Address: Magdalena Zakalek, Cologne University of Applied Sciences, Inst. for Technology 

and Resources Management in the Tropics and Subtropics, Betzdorfer Str. 2, 50679 Cologne, Germany, 

e-mail: magdazakalek@googlemail.com 

538


Multicriteria Analysis for Land Suitability Assessment for 

“Gia Lun” Banana in Nam Dong District, 

Thua Thien Hue Province, Vietnam 

HANG LA THI THU 1 ,NGUYEN TIEN LONG 2 

1Hue University of Agriculture and Forestry, Dept. of Breeding and Plant Genetics, 

Vietnam 

2Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, Dept. of Horticultural Plant Systems, Germany 

“Gia lun” banana (Musa sapientum Linn.) is one of the major fruit crop in Thua Thien 

Hue province, Central Vietnam. However, productivity of “Gia lun” banana was low 

to compare to those in other regions in Vietnam and other countries. The considerable 

constraints facing “Gia lun” banana development included socio-economic factors 

and physical conditions. This study aims to determine physical land suitability areas 

for the “Gia lun” banana production in Nam Dong district, Thua Thien Hue province, 

Vietnam by using multi-criteria evaluation, and the GIS technique to achieve optimum 

utilisation of the available land resources for sustainable agricultural production 

following framework for land evaluation FAO (1976). Eight parameters for crop suitability 

and five parameters for environmental suitability are considered and suitability 

analysis was carried out by fuzzy membership classification. In addition, this study 

also incorporated farmers’ perceptions as well as their preferences into the decision 

making process by using analytic hierarchy process (AHP). Geoprocessing models 

were used to excuse the sequence command to generate physical suitability index 

map for “Gia lun” banana in the study area. The physical suitability of “Gia lun” 

banana map showed that there was 26 The results of this study will be brought forward 

by local land users and administrator who need to have scientific support in order 

to meet the increased demand for fruit production without enhancing environmental 

degradation for their decision on the future land use systems in the study area. 

Keywords: Geoprocessing models, GIS, land suitability assessment, multi-criteria 

analysis, “Gia lun” banana 

Contact Address: Hang La Thi Thu, Hue University of Agriculture and Forestry, Dept. of Breeding 

and Plant Genetics, Hue City, Vietnam, e-mail: lathithuhanghuaf@yahoo.com 

539

Modelling 

Maize Yield Response to Deficit Irrigation using the Aquacrop 

Model under Shallow Groundwater Conditions in Uzbekistan 

FAZLULLAH AKHTAR 1 ,USMAN KHALID AWAN 2 ,BERNHARD TISCHBEIN 2 

1University of Bonn, Agricultural Science & Resources Management in Tropics and 

Sub-Tropics, Germany 


Maize is one of the most widely consumed cereal crops grown worldwide under different 

environmental conditions. The growing global population puts more strain for 

increased cereal production in the next decades to feed this population which greatly 

drive the global water demand for different purposes. Meanwhile humankind has to 

cope with the predicted impacts of future climate change on water resources availability 

especially in the arid and semi-arid regions. Irrigated agriculture is hence 

under high pressure to increase the water use efficiency during these conditions. For 

this purpose several techniques and models have been developed to simulate the current 

and future scenarios for future planning and management of the water resources. 

AquaCrop, is among such models which reliably simulates achievable yields of major 

crops as a function of water consumption under rainfed, supplemental, deficit, and 

full irrigation conditions, with comparatively less data demand. In this study, carried 

out in Khorezm province of Uzbekistan, the AquaCrop model was used to derive the 

optimal and deficit irrigation schedules for maize crop. Groundwater levels in the 

region are shallow. We used Hydrus-1D model to simulate the capillary rise. Later 

capillary rise contribution was introduced into the AquaCrop model. Hence, together 

with optimal irrigation schedule, deficit irrigation strategies were derived as proportionally 

reduced water supply (RWS) of 20, 40, 50 and 60 % throughout the crop 

growth and as a stress introduced at specific crop growth stages. The results show 

that proportionally RWS of 20, 40, 50 and 60 % resulted into 3, 20, 30 and 45 % yield 

reduction respectively. In these simulations, 20 % proportional reduction in irrigation 

water application led to a negligible 3 % yield loss. During stress at the late yield 

formation stage, at least 25 % of the optimal supply can be saved easily for almost no 

yield loss. It means that deficit irrigation is more feasible in the late yield formation 

stage rather than vegetative stage. This study is unique due to the fact that capillary 

rise contribution quantified by Hydrus-1D model has been introduced into AquaCrop. 

This way it overcomes the missing consideration of capillary rise contribution by the 

standard version of AquaCrop model. 

Keywords: AquaCrop, capillary rise, deficit irrigation, shallow groundwater 

Contact Address: Fazlullah Akhtar, University of Bonn, Agricultural Science & Resources Management 

in Tropics and Sub-Tropics, Walter- Flex- Str.3, 53113 Bonn, Germany, e-mail: fakhtar@ 

uni-bonn.de 

540


Understanding Soil Organic Carbon Dynamics at the Landscape 

Scale: Hotspot Mapping 

LEIGH WINOWIECKI 1 ,TOR-GUNNAR VAGEN 2 ,LULSEGED TAMENE DESTA 3 , 

EBAGNERIN JÉRÔME TONDOH 4 ,ANDREW SILA 2 ,JEROEN HUISING 1 

1International Center for Tropical Agriculture (CIAT), Kenya 




4International Center for Tropical Agriculture (CIAT), Soils Program, Mali 

Soil organic carbon is an important indicator of soil health as it integrates inherent soil 

properties as well as aboveground landscape dynamics, including land-use change. 

Establishing regional soil organic thresholds using systematic and spatially explicit 

baseline data can guide restoration activities and land-use planning. The Land Degradation 

Surveillance Framework offers a methodology to assess soil organic carbon 

values and stocks across the landscape, while accounting for the variability at three 

different spatial scales. Seven sentinel sites were sampled in Tanzania in 2010. Each 

site has 160 plots, where topsoil (0–20 cm) and subsoil (20–50 cm) as well as cumulative 

mass samples were collected, current and historic land use was recorded, and 

vegetation measurements were made. A total of 1,993 plots were included in the current 

study. Average topsoil organic carbon was 10.9 g C kg −1 (n=1058) and average 

subsoil organic carbon was 8.3 g C kg −1 (n=935) for the seven sites. Organic carbon 

concentrations measured in the lab were related to satellite image reflectance data 

using multilevel and ensemble models, and predictive maps were generated. These 

maps were also used to assess spatial patterns and landscape features that influence 

soil organic carbon concentrations and to identify low-carbon hotspot areas. These results 

can also be useful for establishing regional soil organic carbon reference values, 

for example according to climatic zones and native vegetation types. The systematic 

sampling employed in this study allows for robust comparisons of soil organic carbon 

values and soil mass within and between land uses and at different spatial scales. 

Keywords: Hotspot mapping, landscape assessment, soil organic carbon 

Contact Address: Leigh Winowiecki, International Center for Tropical Agriculture (CIAT), 

ICIPE Duduville Complex, Box 823-00621, Nairobi, Kenya, e-mail: l.a.winowiecki@cgiar.org 

541

Modelling 

Development of China Digital Soil Map at 1:50,000 Scale 

WEILI ZHANG, AIGUO XU, R.L. ZHANG, Q.L.LEI, H.J.JI, H.Z.ZHANG, 

Y.G. TIAN, H.Y.LONG 

Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences (CAAS), Institute of Agricultural Resources 

and Regional Planning, China 

In order to meet the increasing demands for soil information with a high resolution 

by different disciplines such as agriculture, environment and economy, China Digital 

Soil Map at 1:50,000 Scale (CDSM-50000) has been developed since 1999. Soil and 

soil nutrient maps at 1:50,000 scale and soil profile records were collected from 2400 

counties of China. These maps and records were achieved during the period of the 

2nd Chinese National Soil Survey from 1979 to 1985. A data model called CDSM- 

50000 was developed, which contains 10 map layers and 16 attribute tables. Data 

of about 150,000 soil profiles were, for the first time, integrated into CDSM-50000. 

Every profile contains dozens of soil physical and chemical properties, such as soil 

depth, texture, organic matter, pH value, contents of N, P, K, S, etc. Soil nutrient 

information of 80,000 plough layer samplings during the period from 1999 to 2008 

was also collected and integrated into CDSM-50000. To merge different county soil 

maps with different mapping standards into one map according to the data model of 

CDSM-50000, a complicated soil data processing procedure was developed. Map 

data of 1100 counties had been already merged to CDSM-50000. The data model 

was approved to be successful to organise all soil survey information of China of the 

last 50 years. Hundreds of soil profiles were collected from 5 provinces to test the 

reliability of the developed CDSM-50000. A good coherence was found between 

CDSM-50000 and the reality of soil type distribution. The finalised digital soil map 

was supplied to 15 provinces and applied in cropland nutrient management, arable 

land fertility evaluation, strategy development in eutrophication controlling, and to 

study the effects of climate chance. 

Keywords: Digital soil map, organic matter, soil profile, soil quality 

Contact Address: Weili Zhang, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences (CAAS), Inst. of Agricultural 

Resources and Regional Planning, Zhongguancun South Avenue 12, 100081 Beijing, China, 

e-mail: wlzhang@caas.ac.cn 

542

Development Cooperation 

1) Soils and resilience (CIAT session) 545 

2) Central issues on resilience of agricultural systems against crises 

(GIZ session) 555 

3) Poetry route 559 

543

Soils and resilience (CIAT session) 


P. LAVELLE, S.DOLEDEC, V.GOND, J.OSZWALD, I.VEIGA, 

B. RAMIREZ, W. SANTOS, X. ARNAULD DE SARTRE, 

T. DECAENS, M. GRIMALDI, B. HUBERT, M. MARTINS, 

P. LENA, P. DE ROBERT, A. FEIJOO, M.P. HURTADO, 

G. RODRIGUEZ, D. MITJA, I. MIRANDA, E. GORDILLO, 

E. VELASQUEZ, T.OTERO, A.VELASQUEZ, J.M.THIOLLAY, 

S. DE SOUSA, L.E. MORENO, G. BROWN, R. MARICHAL, 

P. CHACON, C. SANABRIA, T. DESJARDINS, T. SANTANA 

LIMA, F. MICHELOTTI, O. VILLANUEVA, J. VELASQUEZ, 

E. GUEVARRA, S.FONTE: 

The Need for Eco-Efficient Landscapes to Prevent Irreversible 

Degradation of Agroecosystems in Deforested Amazonia 547 

EBAGNERIN JÉRÔME TONDOH, WOWO ARMAND KONÉ, 

ARNAUTH 

HUISING: 

MARTINEZ GUÉI, SERGE YAO TANO, JEROEN 

Potential of Short-Term Legume Fallows for Conserving Soil 

Macrofauna Diversity and Enhancing Maize Productivity in 

Semi-Deciduous Forest Landscapes, Ivory Coast 

ARACELY CASTRO, MARIELA RIVERA, OSCAR FERREIRA, 

JELLIN PAVON,EDWIN GARCÍA, E.AMÉZQUITA,M.AYARZA, 

EDMUNDO BARRIOS, MARCO RONDÓN, NATASHA PAULI, 

MARIA BALTODANO, BISMARCK MENDOZA, LUIS ALVAREZ 

WÉLCHEZ, J.RUBIANO, SIMON COOK, IDUPULAPATI RAO: 

Ecosystem Services from Smallholder Agriculture through 

Slash-and-Mulch Based Agroforestry on Hillsides of Central 

549 

America 

JOB KIHARA, GENEROSE NZIGUHEBA, JEROEN HUISING, 

J. CHEN, MARKUS WALSH: 

Understanding Variability in Crop Response to Fertiliser and 

550 

Amendments: Example from SSA 

LAURENT ROUSSEAU, STEVE FONTE, ORLANDO TELLEZ, 

REIN VAN DER HOEK, ARACELY CASTRO, PATRICK LAVELLE: 

Biological Indicators of Soil Quality and Impacts of Land Use 

552 

Management in Agricultural Landscapes of Northern 

Nicaragua 553 

545


546 

LULSEGED T. DESTA,QUANG BAO LE, ERMIAS AYENEKULU, 

SILESHI GUDETA,EBAGNERIN J. TONDOH,LEIGH WINOWIECKI, 

JOB KIHARA, PAUL L. G. VLEK: 

Analysis of the Impact of Management Scenarios in Tackling 

Land Degradation in Sub-Saharan Africa: Multi-criteria 

Approach to Match a Problem to its Potential Solution 554

Soils and resilience (CIAT session) — Oral Presentations 

The Need for Eco-Efficient Landscapes to Prevent Irreversible 

Degradation of Agroecosystems in Deforested Amazonia 

PATRICK LAVELLE 1,9 ,SYLVAIN DOLEDEC 2 ,VALERY GOND 3 , 

JOHAN OSZWALD 4 ,IRAN VEIGA 5 ,BERTHA RAMIREZ 6 ,W.SANTOS 5 , 

X. ARNAULD DE SARTRE 7 ,THIBAUD DECAENS 8 ,MICHEL GRIMALDI 9 , 

B. HUBERT 10 ,M.MARTINS 11 ,P.LENA 9 ,P.DE ROBERT 9 ,A.FEIJOO 12 , 

M.P. HURTADO 9 ,G.RODRIGUEZ 6 ,D.MITJA 9 ,I.MIRANDA 13 ,E.GORDILLO 6 , 

E. VELASQUEZ 14 ,T.OTERO 14 ,A.VELASQUEZ 6 ,J.M.THIOLLAY 9 , 

S. DE SOUSA 5 ,L.E.MORENO 6 ,GEORGE BROWN 15 ,R.MARICHAL 16,9 , 

P. CHACON 17 ,C.SANABRIA 17 ,T.DESJARDINS 9 ,T.SANTANA LIMA 13 , 

F. MICHELOTTI 5 ,O.VILLANUEVA 6 ,JAIME VELASQUEZ 6 ,E.GUEVARRA 1 , 

STEVE FONTE 1 

1International Center for Agricultural Resarch (CIAT), TSBF Institute, Colombia 

2Lyon 1 University, France 

3CIRAD, France 

4Rennes 2 University, Geography, France 

5Federal University of Para, NEAF, Brazil 

6Universidad de la Amazonia, Florencia, Colombia 

7Pau University, Geography, France 

8Rouen University, Ecology, France 


10Institut National de la Recherche Agronomique, France 

11Museu Paraense Emílio Goeldi, Brazil 

12Universidad Tecnológiga de Pereira, Faculdad de Ciencias Ambientales, Colombia 

13Universidade Federal Rural da Amazônia, Brazil 

14Universidad Nacional de Colombia, Colombia 

15EMBRAPA Forestry, CNPF, Brazil 

16Université Pierre et Marie Curie, France 

17Universidad del Valle, Colombia 

Considerable effort has been devoted to the conservation of primary forest in the Amazon, 

but less so to design and implement ecoefficient uses of cleared land for meeting 

the economic, social and environmental challenges faced in the region. We conducted 

a multidisciplinary diagnostic of ecoefficiency in 51 farms from six regions of the 

Brazilian and Colombian Amazon cleared between 15 to 60 years ago, with diverse 

colonisation histories. Land-use intensity was assessed with an indicator based on 

present landscape composition and structure and the historical land-use change. Indicators 

of soil ecosystem services (ES: chemical fertility, hydric functions and C 

storage) and biodiversity of plants and 5 soil and above ground invertebrate groups 

Contact Address: Patrick Lavelle, International Center for Agricultural Resarch (CIAT), TSBF Institute, 

Cali, Colombia, e-mail: p.lavelle@cgiar.org 

547


were assessed. Intensity of land-use increased with time elapsed since deforestation 

along with production efficiency (farm incomes per ha and per labor unit) and social 

wellbeing. Meanwhile, an indicator of biodiversity continued unchanged as land-use 

intensity increased until a well-marked tipping point, beyond which biodiversity fell 

sharply. A composite indicator of soil ES decreased regularly with land-use intensity. 

An ecoefficiency index, that combines indicators of social wellbeing, productivity, 

biodiversity and ES, also exhibited a sudden decrease when land-use intensity exceeded 

a critical threshold value. This tipping point corresponds with a shift from 

predominantly forested to open agropastoral landscapes, when the last forest patches 

become fragmented before disappearing. At that point, only 20 % of the original 

primary forest is left on average. Landscapes dominated by agroforestry production 

systems had much higher ecoefficiency, with a higher productivity than extensive 

livestock breeding systems and greater conservation of biodiversity and ES. Our study 

indicates the need for reconstructing landscapes in deforested Amazonia, by identifying 

the best spatial combination of productive systems that sustain livelihoods and 

natural ecosystems that act as buffers to prevent degradation of ES and biodiversity. 

Keywords: Amazonia, biodiversity, ecoefficiency, ecosystem services, land use 

intensity, landscape, tipping point 

548


Potential of Short-Term Legume Fallows for Conserving Soil 

Macrofauna Diversity and Enhancing Maize Productivity in 

Semi-Deciduous Forest Landscapes, Ivory Coast 

EBAGNERIN JÉRÔME TONDOH 1,2 ,WOWO ARMAND KONÉ 2 , 

ARNAUTH MARTINEZ GUÉI 2 ,SERGE YAO TANO 3 ,JEROEN HUISING 4 


2University of Abobo-Adjamé, Dept. of Natural Sciences, Center for Tropical Ecology 

Research, Ivory Coast 

3University of Cocody-Abidjan, Laboratory of Zoology, Ivory Coast 


It is increasingly admitted that one option to reduce land degradation in humid tropical 

countries is to adopt sustainable farming practices that conserve belowground 

biodiversity and enhance crop yields. However, very few field investigations have 

documented this assertion. A study based on the beneficial effects of 1-year-old improved 

fallows (Cajanus cajan, Pueraria phaseloides) on a subsequent maize crop in 

degraded agro-ecosystems landscapes in Western Ivory Coast, was designed to assess 

the relationship between increased crop yield and soil macrofauna abundance and diversity. 

The methodological approach consisted in (i) a comparative impact of natural 

and improved fallows on soil chemical properties, soil macro-invertebrates diversity, 

and maize productivity, and (ii) the modelling of the relationship between maize productivity 

and soil macro-invertebrates. Results revealed positive impacts of improved 

fallows on earthworm diversity and species richness, while only soil pH and total 

phosphorus were significantly increased beneath legume fallows. However no consistent 

rises were found in maize production apart from slight and marked changes in 

total biomass and cob production, respectively when improved fallows were pooled 

as one treatment. Mixed-effect models suggested that improved fallows have beneficial 

impacts on macrofauna communities, which presence significantly increased 

maize grain yield and total production. On the other hand, some taxonomic units of 

soil macrofauna, namely termites, diplopoda, earthworms, diptera larvae, chilopoda, 

hemiptera were found to be indicators species of legume fallows, with hemiptera being 

specialist and restricted to P. phaseloides. Overall, results provide more insights 

into the role of improved fallows in sustaining agricultural production in agro-ecosystems 

through soil macro-invertebrates. Additionally, the contribution of these organisms 

in the resilience of agricultural systems is discussed. 

Keywords: Biodiversity, improved fallow, indicator species, soil macro-invertebrates, 

sustainable agriculture 

Contact Address: Ebagnerin Jérôme Tondoh, International Center for Tropical Agriculture (CIAT), 

Soils Program, c/o ICRAF Sahel, BPE 5118 Bamako, Mali, e-mail: j.e.tondoh@cgiar.org 

549


Ecosystem Services from Smallholder Agriculture through 

Slash-and-Mulch Based Agroforestry on Hillsides of 

Central America 

ARACELY CASTRO 1,2 ,MARIELA RIVERA 2,1 ,OSCAR FERREIRA 3,2 , 

JELLIN PAVON 4 ,EDWIN GARCÍA 1,2 ,E.AMÉZQUITA 5 ,M.AYARZA 6 , 

EDMUNDO BARRIOS 7 ,MARCO RONDÓN 8 ,NATASHA PAULI 9 ,MARIA EUGENIA 

BALTODANO 1 ,BISMARCK MENDOZA 10 ,LUIS ALVAREZ WÉLCHEZ 11 , 

J. RUBIANO 12 ,SIMON COOK 13 ,IDUPULAPATI RAO 1 

1International Center for Tropical Agriculture (CIAT), Soils Reseach Area, Colombia 

2Challenge Program on Water and Food (CPWF) of the CGIAR, Sri Lanka 

3Universidad Nacional de Agricultura (UNA), Honduras 

4Instituto Nicaraguense de Tecnología Agropecuaria (INTA), Nicaragua 

5National University, Colombia 

6Corporación Colombiana de Investigación Agropecuaria (CORPOICA), Colombia 


8International Development Research Centre (IDRC), Canada 

9University of Western Australia, Australia 

10National Agricultural University, Nicaragua 

11FAO-Panama, Panama 

12Universidad del Valle, Colombia 

13International Water Management Institute (IWMI), Sri Lanka 

Ecosystem services (ES) can be defined as the benefits that people get from nature. 

They embrace provisioning (e.g., food and freshwater), regulating (e.g., regulation of 

climate and maintenance of soil quality); supporting (e.g., primary production and nutrient 

cycling); and cultural (e.g., educational and inspirational values) services. Generation 

of ES by smallholder farming communities on hillsides of Central America has 

been severely affected by the extensive use of traditional-unsustainable practices combined 

with anthropogenic pressures and climatic variability. The Quesungual Slash 

and Mulch Agroforestry System (QSMAS) has been demonstrated as a land management 

strategy with high potential for generating multiple ES in these agroecosystems. 

QSMAS is a smallholder production system that combines basic management principles 

applied with simple technologies to improve the use and conservation of vegetation, 

soil, and water in drought-prone areas of the sub-humid tropics. It has been 

successfully promoted as an alternative to the traditional slash and burn (SB) agriculture. 

Research work conducted in Honduras between 2005 and 2009 showed that 

QSMAS contributes to food security through a sustainable increase in productivity 

of maize (Zea mays L.) and common bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.), and by enhancing 

the resilience to extreme weather conditions (water deficit and excess), compared 

Contact Address: Aracely Castro, International Center for Tropical Agriculture (CIAT), Soils Reseach 

Area, Recta Cali-Palmira, km 17, 6713 Palmira, Colombia, e-mail: a.castro@cgiar.org 

550


to the traditional SB system. In addition QSMAS enhances the generation of other 

ES at agroecosystem scale by contributing to the restoration of degraded resources 

(soil and biodiversity) at plot and landscape scales, and by reducing deforestation, 

soil erosion and global warming potential compared to the SB system. Experience 

from on-farm participatory validation in Nicaragua and Colombia suggests that slashand-mulch 

based agroforestry systems have high possibilities of acceptance by local 

authorities and adoption by smallholders in vulnerable agroecosystems. 

Agroecoregions with potential for adaptation and adoption of QSMAS have already 

been identified, based on site similarity analyses integrating biophysical and socioeconomic 

conditions. Additional studies are being conducted to evaluate the feasibility 

of QSMAS’ integration with silvopastoral systems in smallholder farms of Nicaragua, 

and to use the system as a strategy for restoration and conservation of biodiversity in 

El Salvador. 

Keywords: Bean, maize, QSMAS, Quesungual slash and mulch Agroforestry 

system, slash-and-burn, sorghum 

551


Understanding Variability in Crop Response to Fertiliser and 

Amendments: Example from SSA 

JOB KIHARA 1 ,GENEROSE NZIGUHEBA 2,1 ,JEROEN HUISING 1 ,J.CHEN 1,3 , 

MARKUS WALSH 3 

1International Center for Tropical Agriculture (CIAT), Tropical Soil Biology and Fertility 

(TSBF), Kenya 

2Earth Institute, Tropical Agriculture Program, United States 

3Earth Institute, Tropical Agriculture Program, Tanzania 

The African Soils Information Service (AfSIS) implemented diagnostic trials in 10 

different sites within 5 countries of sub-Saharan Africa: Kenya, Malawi, Mali, Nigeria 

and Tanzania, to identify soil fertility constraints to crop production. At each site, 23 

to 32 trials were conducted within 10 km by 10 km sentinel sites. The treatments 

tested included a control, a full NPK treatment, 3 treatments in which the N, P and 

K nutrient were omitted at a time from the full NPK treatment, and one treatment in 

which multi-nutrients (Ca, Mg, micronutrients) were added to the full NPK treatment. 

Two optional treatments, manure or lime were included depending on the availability 

of manure and soil pH levels in case of lime. The test crops were maize and sorghum. 

In most sites, nutrient limitation was in the order N>P>K except in more acidic soils 

(e.g. in Kontela, Mali) where P was more limiting than N and in Mbinga, Tanzania, 

where K was as limiting as N and P. Nutrient omission resulted in significant yield 

reductions averaging 30 % for N and 20 % for P, relative to the full NPK treatment. 

For maize growing sites, yield increases of at least 0.5 t ha-1 following application 

of lime (500 kg ha-1 ) on acidic sites and of manure in comparison to the full NPK 

treatment were common. In each site soil amendments consisting of lime, manure 

and multi-nutrients, had higher grain yield than NPK treatments in at least 40 % of 

the cases, indicating wide existence of non-responsive soils. A clustering technique is 

explained as an attempt to identify the different patterns of crop responses to nutrient 

omissions and amendments. Distribution of the fields to the resulting clusters depicted 

observed variability in the tested sites. The contribution of different covariates such 

as soil carbon, pH and available P to the responses are also presented. Suggestions 

for minimum treatments needed to diagnose soil constraints, and analysis framework 

for such trials are made. 

Keywords: Nutrient omission, responsive soils, soil constraints, spatially-explicit 

Contact Address: Job Kihara, International Center for Tropical Agriculture (CIAT), Tropical Soil 

Biology and Fertility (TSBF), Nairobi, Kenya, e-mail: j.kihara@cgiar.org 

552


Biological Indicators of Soil Quality and Impacts of Land Use 

Management in Agricultural Landscapes of Northern Nicaragua 

LAURENT ROUSSEAU 1 ,STEVE FONTE 2 ,ORLANDO TELLEZ 3 , 

REIN VAN DER HOEK 3 ,ARACELY CASTRO 2 ,PATRICK LAVELLE 2,1 


2International Center for Tropical Agriculture (CIAT), Tropical Soil Biology and Fertility, 

Colombia 

3International Center for Tropical Agriculture (CIAT), Central America, Nicaragua 

The tropical dry forest region along the western slope of Central America is a highly biodiverse 

and fragile area that is under increasing pressure from agricultural production, thus threatening 

the provision of ecosystem services, biodiversity, and ultimately the integrity of these 

landscapes and the communities who depend on them. To address this issue we evaluated the 

impact of common agricultural management practices (cropping and livestock systems) vs. the 

Quesungual slash and mulch agroforestry system (QSMAS), a promising alternative land use 

based on the inclusion of native trees with active pruning and residue management. In February 

of 2011 soil sampling was conductedon a series of hillside farms near the town of Somotilloin 

northern Nicaragua to assess soil physical properties, chemical fertility and the abundance and 

diversity of soil macrofauna within four management systems: 1) QSMAS based on maize production; 

2) traditional maize cropping system with few trees (TC); 3) pasture system with few 

trees (PS); and 4) secondary forest (SF) was used as a reference. In addition to examining the 

influence management, we sought to develop indicators of soil quality based on the presence 

or absence of particular soil invertebrate species as well as basic soil physical and chemical 

properties. Macrofauna excavated from the soil (0–30 cm) were more abundant under QSMAS 

(657 individuals m−2 ) than in TC (177 individuals m−2 ; p = 0.011), with PS and SF demonstrating 

intermediate populations. At the same time, SF presented significantly higher richness 

of taxonomic groups than either TC or SP (p < 0.001), and demonstrated the greatest populations 

of Arachnida, important top-predators and potential indicators of food web structure. 

While we found no significant influence of management system on soil chemical variables, soil 

compaction (penetration resistance and shear strength) was significantly higher under SP than 

either SF or QSMAS (p < 0.05), with TC intermediate in value. Multivariate co-inertia analyses 

suggested significant covariation between most data sets (chemical fertility, physical status, 

aggregate morphology and macrofauna). Most notably, a strong association between macrofauna 

and soil physical status (p = 0.013), suggested that compaction by livestock strongly 

limits the activity and diversity of soil macrofauna. Finally, we used the Indicator Value index, 

which ranks species according to their specificity and fidelity across sites, along with farmer 

consultation to identify key indicator species of soil quality that could greatly facilitate future 

evaluation land management impacts by farmers and technicians in the region. 

Keywords: Indicator species, land use management, Quesungual agroforestry system, soil 

macrofauna, soil quality 

Contact Address: Steve Fonte, International Center for Tropical Agriculture (CIAT), Tropical Soil 

Biology and Fertility, Cali, Colombia, e-mail: s.fonte@cgiar.org 

553


Analysis of the Impact of Management Scenarios in Tackling 

Land Degradation in Sub-Saharan Africa: Multi-criteria 

Approach to Match a Problem to its Potential Solution 

LULSEGED TAMENE DESTA 1 ,QUANG BAO LE 2 ,ERMIAS AYENEKULU 3 , 

SILESHI GUDETA 4 ,EBAGNERIN JÉRÔME TONDOH 5 ,LEIGH WINOWIECKI 6 , 

JOB KIHARA 6 ,PAUL L. G. VLEK 7 



2ETH Zurich, Natural and Social Science Interface (NSSI), Institute for Environmental 

Decisions (IED), Switzerland 


4World Agroforestry Centre (ICRAF), Chitedze Agricultural Research Station, Malawi 




Land degradation is a serious environmental problem with widespread effect at different 

scales. Due to its complexity and wide geographical coverage, it is not economically 

and technically possible to manage all areas affected. Tackling land degradation 

and restoring degraded landscapes thus require information on hotspots that require 

priority intervention. Long-term (1982–2003) satellite based vegetation greenness 

signal (NDVI) and rainfall data were used to analyse land productivity and identify 

major areas of concern in sub-Saharan Africa (SSA). Next, available literature has 

been consulted to identify suitable management options that can be adapted to the 

environmental conditions of hotspots. The impacts of the identified management and 

restoration options in reversing land degradation were then assessed using scenario 

analysis. Results show that application of conservation agriculture to restore degraded 

croplands can improve land productivity and food security of about 14 million people. 

Setting-aside degraded areas and allowing them to recover (e.g., through enclosures) 

could improve productivity of ca. 0.3 million km 2 land. However, this intervention 

requires designing ways of accommodating the needs of about 8.7 million people who 

utilise those ’marginal’ areas for cultivation or livestock grazing. The study illustrates 

the impact of land degradation on land productivity and the feasibility of suitable land 

management and restoration measures to tackle the problem. Such analyses can make 

an important contribution to achieving the Millennium Development Goals 1 and 7, 

enhancing food security without compromising ecological health and integrity. 

Keywords: Land degradation, management scenarios, NDVI, rainfall, restoration, 

sub-Saharan Africa 

Contact Address: Lulseged Tamene Desta, International Center for Tropical Agriculture (CIAT), Trop. 

Soil Biology and Fertility (TSBF), Chitedze Agricultural Research Station, Box 158 Lilongwe, Malawi, 

e-mail: lulseged_tamene@yahoo.com 

554

Central issues on resilience of agricultural 

systems against crises (GIZ session) 


MARTINA WEGNER: 

The Approach of the German Ministry for Economic 

Cooperation and Development (BMZ) and GIZ Experience 556 

THOMAS HARTMANSHENN, NADINE GÜNTHER: 

Approaches and Starting Points for Supporting Agricultural 

Development in the Conflictive Environment in Afghanistan 557 

ELISABETH VAN DEN AKKER, BARBARA GERHAGER, 

FELIX ZEISKE: 

A Knowledge Hub for Efficient Agricultural Water Use: 

www.agriwaterpedia.info 558 

555


The Approach of the German Ministry for Economic Cooperation 

and Development (BMZ) and GIZ Experience 

MARTINA WEGNER 

Deutsche Gesellschaft für Internationale Zusammenarbeit (GIZ), Rural Development 

and Agriculture, Germany 

The rural population in developing countries is increasingly exposed to longer-term 

deteriorations of the ecological, political, economical and social environment due to 

population growth, climate change and/or excessive exploitation of natural resources. 

Long-term degradation of the environment increases the vulnerability of rural populations. 

Sudden disasters and shocks are worsening the effects of long-term progressive 

degradation and destabilisation processes. Rural development bears considerable 

potential to reduce rural people’s vulnerability and to strengthen their resilience. 

Some examples of the impacts of rural development on resilience will be presented in 

this session. 

Keywords: Disaster, destabilisation, resilience, rural development 

Contact Address: Martina Wegner, Deutsche Gesellschaft für Internationale Zusammenarbeit (GIZ), 

Rural Development and Agriculture, Eschborn, Germany, e-mail: martina.wegner@giz.de 

556

Central issues on resilience of agricultural systems against crises ... — Oral Presentations 

Approaches and Starting Points for Supporting Agricultural 

Development in the Conflictive Environment in Afghanistan 

THOMAS HARTMANSHENN, NADINE GÜNTHER 

Deutsche Gesellschaft für Internationale Zusammenarbeit (GIZ), Germany 

Agriculture and rural development are key sectors in the Afghan development process. 

Some 85 % of the population in Afghanistan live in rural areas and depend on agriculture 

for their living. Topographic and climatic conditions are limiting factors for agricultural 

activities and development opportunities in rural Afghanistan. Additionally, 

current initiatives for development and reconstruction are confronted with political instability 

and a conflictive environment that poses risks for the local population as well 

as national and international staff, and endangers the development process in general. 

The presentation provides insights into the status quo of Afghanistan’s agriculture: 

How to support a gender-sensitive agricultural development in such an environment? 

What are challenges, potentials, successful methods and best practices? 

Keywords: Conflicts, gender sensitive, risks, rural development 

Contact Address: Thomas Hartmanshenn, Deutsche Gesellschaft für Internationale Zusammenarbeit 

(GIZ), Eschborn, Germany, e-mail: Thomas.Hartmanshenn@giz.de 

557


A Knowledge Hub for Efficient Agricultural Water Use: 

www.agriwaterpedia.info 

ELISABETH VAN DEN AKKER, BARBARA GERHAGER, FELIX ZEISKE 

Deutsche Gesellschaft für Internationale Zusammenarbeit (GIZ) GmbH, Germany 

The agricultural and water sector is facing a tremendous challenge in the upcoming 

decades: 

The need for food and agricultural products will continuously increase while at the 

same time the availability of water resources will decrease; a situation which is aggravated 

by climate change. With water resources being already scarce in many countries, 

water allocation, access and effective agricultural water use are key for food 

security and sustainable development. Globally, practitioners, scientists, politicians 

and the private sector have developed much knowledge in water management. Hence, 

one of the major challenges is the accessibility of this knowledge as agricultural water 

management was a niche topic during the last years. Knowledge is documented in 

paper reports, stored in archives and libraries while experts shifted to other sectors. 

Making accessible, linking and further developing the former experiences with regard 

to the new challenges will form an important corner stone for effective and sustainable 

water use in agriculture. Accessibility of knowledge is of upmost importance in our 

partner countries. Through an internet based platform, we offer an affordable access 

to a wide range of experts and expertise all over the world. As working means, GIZ 

established the website www.agriwaterpedia.info as a public, internet-based, multilingual 

knowledge platform. With the platform, we offer context specific best practices 

and lessons learnt as well as an online-based network for experience sharing. 

The presentation will demonstrate the www.agriwaterpedia.info website in detail and 

guide the audience through the different layers and possibilities. Within our session, 

we like to trigger the exchange of interested experts to add on or exchange their knowledge 

in the network. 

Keywords: Agricultural water use, climate change, expert’s network, knowledge 

platform 

Contact Address: Elisabeth van den Akker, Deutsche Gesellschaft für Internationale Zusammenarbeit 

(GIZ), Rural Development and Agriculture, Eschborn, Germany, e-mail: elisabeth.akker-van@giz.de 

558

Poetry route 


KEMAL KASIM AHMED, ZULHAM SIRAJUDDIN, HASHIM 

DURRANI, LOES WITTEVEEN, JORGE CHAVEZ TAFUR: 

Resilience – Touching a Colourful Sky – Breaking the Mould 

of Linear Models of Innovation and Creating Innovative 

Learning Spaces for Social Changes of Resilient Small-Scale 

Farmers 560 

559


Resilience – Touching a Colourful Sky – Breaking the Mould of 

Linear Models of Innovation and Creating Innovative Learning 

Spaces for Social Changes of Resilient Small-Scale Farmers 

KEMAL KASIM AHMED 1 ,ZULHAM SIRAJUDDIN 1 ,HASHIM DURRANI 1 , 

LOES WITTEVEEN 1 ,JORGE CHAVEZ TAFUR 2 

1Van Hall Larenstein University of Applied Sciences, Rural Development and 

Communication, The Netherlands 

2ILEIA - Centre for Learning on Sustainable Agriculture, The Netherlands 

The world has become a confusing place. Agricultural production continues to grow, 

and absolute poverty worldwide is decreasing. Yet, hunger is increasing, and mostly 

so among the rural poor. 

We can write a long story about how resilient small-scale farmers are, and how 

marginalised by the powers that be. But who’s listening? While the Centre for 

Learning on Sustainable Agriculture (ILEIA) was raising this question, a group of 

students at Van Hall Larenstein University of Applied Sciences (VHL) was engaged 

in a course about Media Design for Social Change exploring the portrayal of social 

resilience. The encounter resulted in a beautiful series of poems and paintings that, 

put together, capture the idea of resilience in an entirely non-linear, intuitive way. 

Resilience thinking helps us to avoid the trap of simply rebuilding and repairing the 

structures of the past, but instead anticipate, adapt, learn and transform human actions 

and societies for improved wellbeing in the lights of the unprecedented challenges 

of our interconnected and turbulent world. So far much of conventional models of 

intervention in agriculture and rural development policy neither gave attention to the 

ever changing global challenges, uncertainties and complexities of environment under 

which small scale farmers live nor acknowledges the importance of local knowledge’s 

in rural areas. Rather, it is more dedicated to increase production by transferring hardware 

technologies. Social resilience could be conceived as a livelihood capital which 

requires due consideration in vulnerable rural contexts of unsustainability, insecurity, 

poverty and emic and etic processes of change. 

We describe resilience of small-scale farmers from the perspective of communication 

and rural innovation and explore how complex issues can be unravelled and expressed 

through poems and other art forms. The paper argues that other innovative trajectories 

can be utilised to create spaces of learning and communication and thereby encourage 

or articulate social resilience. 

Keywords: Poetry, social change, social resilience, spaces of learning 

Contact Address: Loes Witteveen, Van Hall Larenstein Univ. of Appl. Sciences, Development Studies, 

Droevendaalsesteeg 2, 6700 AK Wageningen, The Netherlands, e-mail: Loes.Witteveen@wur.nl 

560

Index of Authors 

A 

Abbo, Azza Siddig Hussien 

.......... 160 

Abdalla, Abdalla Mohamed 

........... 88 

Abdalla, Elgailani . . . 135 

Abdalla, Ishtiag Faroug 

.......... 143 

Abdalla, Mubarak . . . 183, 

184, 216 

Abdalla, Tag Elsir Elamin 

.......... 136 

Abdel-Razek, Mohammad 

.......... 206 

Abdelatti, Khadiga 66, 67 

Abdelhadi, Omer . . . . . 23 

Abdelhalim, Tilal .... 159 

Abdurrohim, Gatot . . 516 

Abebe, Yewoinwha 

Tadessse . . 249 

Abusin, Rashida . . . . . 161 

Acheampong, Emmanuel 

.......... 363 

Ackermann, Klaus . . . 460 

Addas,Maha ........ 485 

Adebayo,Abass ..... 481 

Adeboyejo, Folasade . . 87 

Adeduntan, Sunday . . 32, 

298, 300 

Adegbenro, Muyiwa . . 71 

Adesoye, Adenubi . . . 133 

Adetanmi, Samson . . . 72 

Adetunji, Charles O. . 478 

Adetunji,J.B. ....... 478 

Adetuyi, Foluso Olutope 

.......... 490 

Adholeya, Alok . 128, 250 

Adjoavi Christelle Nadia, 

Anoumou . . 65 

Adu,Olufemi ........ 81 

Aenis,Thomas ...... 413 

Afful,Nusrat ........ 107 

Afolayan,S.S. ...... 478 

Agbede, J. Oluwasola 71, 

80 

Agbetoye,Leo ...... 481 

Agbossou, Euloge K. 423 

Aguila Alcantara, Edith 

.......... 189 

Ahmad, Munzur . . . . . 132 

Ahmed, Alfatih ..... 161 

Ahmed, Kemal Kasim 560 

Ahmed, Mohamed-Khair 

A. ........ 48 

Ahmed,Muna ........ 90 

Ahnert, Sandra . . . .... 97 

Aidoo, Robert . . . .... 337 

Akaranuchat, Piyachat 

.......... 499 

Akhtar, Fazlullah . . . . 540 

Akinwumi, Felix Olusegun 

........... 74 

van den Akker, Elisabeth 

...... 460, 558 

Al-Houarin,Ali ...... 94 

Al-Mhithawi, Rehab . . 94 

Al-Qamashoui, Badar A. 

........... 51 

Alanis Rodriguez, Eduardo 

...... 259, 296 

Alarcón Barredo, Katia 

Yamirka . . 187 

Alemayehu, Mengistu . 21 

Aletor, V. Ayobore 71, 72 

Ali Mohamed, Seifeldin 

.......... 224 

Ali, Abdalla Mohamed 

.......... 235 

Ali, Abdelbagi . . . . . . 135 

Ali,Adam .......... 135 

Ali,Asif ............ 129 

Ali,Hiba ........... 159 

Ali, Nouhou . . ...... 453 

Alikwe, Philip C N 79, 83 

Alimoradi, Leila . . . . 262 

Allagabo, Ahmed H. . 143 

Almarri, Naser . . . . . . 142 

Alves Leite, Márcio Fernandes 

.......... 115 

Amazonas Soares, Ana 

Paula . . . . . 192 

Amede,Tilahun ...... 21 

Amelung, Wulf . ...... 33 

Amenyah, Ivy Drafor 479 

Amer Eissa, Ayman . 498 

Amerasinghe, Priyanie 

.......... 246 

Amos, Gregory . ..... 529 

Amponsah, Jonathan . 120 

Amudavi, David . . . . . 166 

Amézquita, E. ....... 550 

Andeltová,Lucie .... 387 

Andriamananjara, Andry 

.......... 186 

Ansah,Terry ......... 31 

Ansari-Renani, Hamid 

Reza ...... 20 

561


Antonio Aguiar Júnior, 

Rozalino . 125 

Anya, Magnus . ...... 95 

Ao,Veasna ......... 355 

Aravindakshan, Sreejith 

.......... 370 

d’Arcy, Bruce ....... 486 

Ardakani, Mohammad 

Reza ..... 138 

Armin,Mohsen ..... 191 

Arnauld de Sartre, X. 547 

Aro,Samuel ......... 72 

Arowolo,Samuel ..... 72 

Arowora, Kayode Adebisi 

.......... 478 

Aryal,Sunil ......... 165 

Asch, Folkard 25, 28, 112, 

231, 253, 255, 

258, 261, 537 

Asgari,Ashkan ...... 243 

Asres, Amlaku ...... 417 

Atieno, Elly ......... 152 

Atikpo, Margaret Ottah 

.......... 479 

Avila Amador, Carlos 187 

Avila Flores, Diana Yemilet 

.......... 297 

Avila, Patricia .... 34,98 

Aw-Hassan,Aden .... 19 

Awadelkarim, Abdelkarim 

.......... 215 

Awan, Usman Khalid 540 

Awoye, Oyémonbadé 

Hervé Rodrigue 

.......... 423 

Ayarza,M. .......... 550 

Ayenekulu, Ermias . . 554 

Ayeni,Akinlolu ...... 71 

Ayuk, Ausaji ......... 62 

Ayuke,Fred ......... 177 

Azeez, Ismail ....... 269 

Azizi, Golsoomeh . . . 262, 

477 

Azu, Elaine ......... 107 

562 

B 

Babangida, Saleh . . . . . 82 

Babiker, Abdel Gabar 

. 159, 161, 364 

Babiker, Moawia Yahia 

.......... 238 

Babiker, Salih . . . . 23, 96 

Baca Gomez, Maria 

Guadalupe 366 

Bacigale-Bashizi, Samy 

........... 61 

Badhuri, Anik . ...... 511 

de Baerdemaeker, Josse 

.......... 189 

Bajouri, Saeed ...... 232 

Bakheit, Sallam ..... 100 

Bakhit,Omar ....... 135 

Bakhtiari Zade, Mojgan 

.......... 457 

Balemirwe Katunga, Fidèle 

........... 61 

Baltenweck, Isabelle . . 45 

Baltodano, Maria Eugenia 

.......... 550 

Bang,Sergie ........ 351 

Bankole, Olusola Matthew 

........... 71 

Bantilan, Cynthia . . . . 434 

Bao,Huy ...... 274, 291 

Bardy Prado, Rachel . 301 

Barkmann,Jan ...... 384 

Barrios, Edmundo . . . 550 

Baruah, Rajeev . . .... 248 

Bashir,Elfadil ...... 135 

Bashir, Masarra . . . . . 531 

Bastos, Ana Paula Vidal 

.......... 294 

Bauer, Siegfried . 45, 335, 

391, 397, 398, 

430, 433, 440 

Baumgartner, Sabine . . 26 

Bayat,Vahid ........ 138 

Becker,HeikoC. .... 139 

Becker, Mathias . . . . . 185 

Begum,Tamina ..... 227 

Behtari, Behnam 512, 513 

Bekchanov, Maksud . 511 

Belay, Yinager Dessie 416 

Bellows, Anne Camilla 

...... 376, 424 

Berger, Thomas . 171, 519 

Berger,Uta ..... 519, 529 

Beri,Shanuja ....... 128 

Besharat,Sina ....... 122 

Beswa, Daniso . 212, 489 

Betancourth García, Carlos 

.......... 241 

Bett, Eric . .......... 358 

Beusch, Christine . . . 192 

Beyene,Fekadu ..... 454 

Bhaduri, Anik ....... 329 

Bhattacharjee, Lalita . 495 

Biesalski, Hans Konrad 

.......... 491 

Binder, Claudia R. . . . 148 

Birech, Rhoda ....... 356 

Birke, Fanos . . . . 419, 420 

Birner,Regina ...... 385 

Biskupek-Korell, Bettina 

.......... 123 

Bizimana, Modeste . . 199 

Blagodatskiy, Sergey 522 

Blum,Benjamin ..... 171 

Blümmel,Michael .... 24 

Bokelmann, Wolfgang 

.......... 375 

Bonfim Neto, Antonio 

Lopes Do . 295 

Bongcam-Rudloff, Erik 

........... 40 

Bonilla, Glenda . .... 315 

Bossio, Deborah ...... 11 

Bouwmeester, Harro . 137 

Brandt, Christian . . . . 197 

Breuer,Thomas ..... 377 

Brice,Sinsin ........ 244 

Brienza Junior, Silvio 251, 

290, 294, 299

Brizuela, Miguel Ángel 

........... 28 

Brown,George ...... 547 

Bruckmaier, Rupert . . . 94 

Brumme, Rainer .... 292 

Bruno, Djossa ....... 244 

Bruun, Thilde B. .... 240 

Brück, Holger . . 253, 255, 

261 

Brück, Tilman . . .... 442 

Brümmer, Bernhard . 386, 

530 

Buchenrieder, Gertrud 

...... 445, 532 

Buerkert, Andreas 

199, 224, 228, 

235, 236 

Buitrón, Diego A. .... 60 

Bungenstab, Davi Jose 

.......... 517 

Bunn, Christian . 366, 536 

Burkhardt, Jürgen . . . 111, 

314 

Burkhard, Benjamin . 394 

Bushara, Ibrahim . . . . . 23 

Busharah, Itidal Abdallah 

........... 53 

Bustamante, Oscar . . 111, 

314 

Butterbach-Bahl, Klaus 

.......... 119 

Böhme, Michael . 21, 242, 

521 

Börner, Jan . ........ 301 

Bösing, Britta M. . 29, 30 

C 

Cabezas, Wilson . . . . 314 

Cadena González-Thiele, 

Ana Lucía 201 

Cadisch, Georg 181, 182, 

196, 197, 218, 

522, 527 

Cahyadi, Eko Ruddy . 328 

Cakmak,Ismail ..... 205 

Campos, Pedro Silvestre Da 

Silva ..... 295 

Carberry, Peter ...... 507 

Cardoso, R.L. . ...... 169 

Carneiro,J.E.S. ..... 169 

Carral Pairol, Meilyn 189 

Carrillo-Parra, Artemio 

.......... 320 

Carvalho, Marcia Thais de 

Melo ..... 230 

Castro Silva, Dayanne Simoni 

de 

.......... 299 

Castro, Aracely 315, 550, 

553 

Castro,Daniel ....... 530 

Catellani, Marcello . . 252 

Centeno, Harvin . . . . . 314 

Chacon,P. .......... 547 

Chacón Iznaga, Ahmed 

.......... 189 

Chaiwan, Paveena . . . 200 

Charnikova, Tatsiana 137 

Chavez Ayala, Hugo Francisco 

.......... 439 

Chelang’a, Philemon 446 

Chen,J. ............ 552 

Cheo, Ambe Emmanuel 

.......... 515 

Chhoun, Chamnan . . . 355 

Chia Wong, Julio Alfonso 

.......... 256 

Chichaibelu, Bezawit 

Beyene . . . 401 

Cho, Khin Mar . . .... 332 

Chowdhury, Monjhurul Ahsan 

.......... 495 

Christinck, Anja . . . . . 443 

Christmann, Stefanie . . 19 

Chuspe Zans, María Elena 

.......... 319 


Citraresmi,Anya .... 213 

Colditz, Frank ....... 198 

Cook, Simon ........ 550 

Corbeels, Marc ...... 369 

Corre, Marife D. 257, 292 

Cortez, Maria Luisa . . . 34 

Costa,Rita .......... 256 

Cotter, Marc ........ 157 

Csaplovics, Elmar . . 518, 

520, 523, 531 

Cuauhtémoc, Méndez 259 

Cuervo, Patricia 475, 493 

Cunha, Cleyzer Adrian 

.......... 154 

Cupit,Oliver ........ 439 

D 

Dada, Ibrahim Olusola 

.......... 490 

Dafalla , Mohamed Salih 

.......... 518 

Dagash, Yassin Mohamed 

.......... 211 

Dakouo, Dona ...... 156 

Dambo, Livingstone . . 79 

van Damme, Patrick . 123, 

187 

Danso, Kenneth . 107, 120 

Dasgupta,Tapash .... 227 

De Blecourt, Marleen 292 

De La Peña Lavander, Renzoandre 

.......... 157 

De Luis, Martin . 512, 513 

Decaens, Thibaud . . . 547 

Denich, Manfred 208, 210 

Desissa Gutema, Fanta 

.......... 496 

Desjardins,T. ....... 547 

Desta, Lulseged Tamene 

208, 210, 233, 

528, 541, 554 

Di Domenica, Ladislao 77 

Diab, Eiman E. ...... 494 

563


Dickhoefer, Uta 29, 30, 97 

Didonet, Agostinho Dirceu 

.......... 154 

Diekkrüger, Bernd . . . 206 

Diels, Jan . ..... 182, 218 

Dieter, Matthias . . . . . 285 

Dietz, Herbert . . 228, 236 

Dietz, Johannes ..... 307 

Ding,L.M. ........... 36 

Diogo, Rodrigue V. Cao 

.......... 199 

Dobermann, Achim . . . 10 

Dohmeier, Nina . .... 352 

Doledec,Sylvain .... 547 

Dolong, Tenri ...... 516 

Doluschitz, Reiner . . 192, 

371, 535 

Dominique, Masse . . 186 

Donough, Chris ..... 516 

Dossa, Codjo Sylvestre 

Gerbert . . . 116 

Dossa, Luc Hippolyte . 92 

Dossou-Yovo, Vicencia 

.......... 137 

Du Preez, Chris C .... 33 

Duc, Tung Phung . . . . 350 

Dudusola, Iyabode . . . . 73 

Duduyemi, Olubunmi 

Ayobami . . 70 

Duong, Van Nha .... 258 

Durrani, Hashim .... 560 

Díaz Falú, Estanislao . 28, 

534 

Díaz Sicilia, Yanet Eddith 

.......... 189 

Dühnen, Willi ........ 18 

Dührkoop, Andrea . . . 466 

Dürr,Jochen ........ 393 

E 

Effendi,Jaenal ..... 403 

564 

Eichler-Loebermann, 

Bettina . . . 187 

Eitzinger, Anton ..... 509 

El Siddieg, El Nour . . 270 

El-Matbouli, Mansour 64 

El-Sayed,N. ........ 141 

Elagib, Randa A. A. . 494 

Elawad, Salah M. ..... 54 

Elbukhary, Hasseb . . . . 96 

Eldirdiri, Fatih Elrahman 

.......... 468 

Elegba, Wilfred . 107, 120 

Elhadi, Elsadig . 183, 184 

Elhaja, Mohamed Eltom 

.......... 518 

Elhassan,Osama .... 110 

Elmustafa, Ahmed 

Mohamed 136 

Elrasheed, Mutasim M.M. 

.......... 364 

Elsheikh Mahmoud, Tarig 

........... 88 

Elsheikh, Abdelaziz . . 88 

Eltahir, Muneer Elyas 

Siddig . . . 281, 

282 

Eltom, Kamal Eldin Hassan 

Ali ........ 54 

Emana, Bezabih . .... 373 

Emmerling, Judith . . 413 

Eneji, Christopher Adams 

........... 69 

Englyst Olsen, Lasse . 425 

Enrico Pè, Mario . . . 252 

Erbach, Juliane . ..... 402 

Estifanos,Awot ...... 49 

Ewert,Frank ......... 22 

Ezeh, Chima ........ 367 

F 

Falade, Kafayat ..... 269 

Fandohan, Belarmain . 92 

Farahain Mohamed, Elagib 

........... 90 

Fasse,Anja ......... 395 

Fatima, Ghayoor .... 127 

Faust,Heiko ........ 403 

Fawole, Oluyemisi B. 478 

Faye, Bernard . . . 23, 100 

Feijoo,A. .......... 547 

Feike,Til ...... 371, 535 

Feldkamp, Cristian Rodolfo 

.......... 517 

Ferraz Junior, Altamiro 

Souza de Lima 

.......... 260 

Ferreira Irmão, José . 192 

Ferreira,Oscar ...... 550 

Finckh, Maria Renate 

...... 159, 248 

Finkeldey, Reiner . . . 224, 

279, 280, 311 

Fischer,Anne ........ 40 

Fliessbach, Andreas . 180 

Focken,Ulfert .... 64,75 

Foerch,Nele ........ 444 

Fomsgaard, Inge Sindbjerg 

.......... 495 

Fonte, Steve 315, 547, 553 

Forbes, Gregory A. . . 163 

Forouzani, Ma’soumeh 

.......... 431 

Forrer, Veerana Sinsawat 

.......... 200 

Forster, Dionys . 180, 246, 

248 

Fortanelli, Javier .... 247 

Fosu, Mathias . . 208, 210 

Francis,Judith ...... 351 

Francis, Ngome Ajebesone 

.......... 185 

França E Silva, Julie Andrews 

de . 251, 

294 

Freyer, Bernhard 315, 356 

Frey,Joachim ........ 40 

Fromm, Ingrid ...... 337

G 

Gachigi,John ....... 331 

Gaese,Hartmut ..... 301 

Gaiser, Thomas . . . . . 206 

Gama, Mphatso-S . . . 369 

Gameel, Ahmed A. . . . 54 

Gantoli, Geoffroy . . . 447 

Gao, Yingzhi . . 249, 253, 

261 

García, Edwin ....... 550 

García, Katherine . . . . . 98 

Garvi,Josef ......... 117 

Garvi-Bode, Renate . 117 

Gassner,Anja ....... 177 

Gauly, Matthias ...... 56 

Gbore, Francis ....... 81 

Gebauer, Jens . . 224, 235, 

365 

Gebre Michael, Yohannes 

.......... 418 

Gehring, Christoph . . 115, 

125, 295 

Gemechis, Ambecha O. 

.......... 373 

George, Owuor . . . . . . 356 

Georges Pascal Codjovi, 

Ogoudedji 217 

Gerhager, Barbara . . . 558 

Germer,Jörn ........ 192 

Gerold, Gerhard 283, 510 

Getzin, Stephan ..... 278 

Ghimire, Suman . .... 271 

Ghorban Nia, Vajihe . 191 

Giese, Marcus . . . 28, 253, 

261, 534 

Gil,JorgeLuis ....... 98 

Giri, Yagya Prasad . . . 165 

Glindemann, Thomas . 29 

Goenster, Sven . 224, 235 

Goldbach, Heiner . . . 206 

Golicha, David Duba 452 

Gond, Valery . ...... 547 

Gonzalez Tagle, Marco 

Aurelio . . 296, 

297 

Gordillo, E. . ........ 547 

Gowae,Gae ........ 351 

Grace, Delia ........ 496 

Grant,Rina .......... 26 

Grimaldi, Michel . . . . 547 

de Groot, Jan ....... 321 

Grote, Ulrike 

327, 330, 341, 

342, 392, 395 

Grovermann, Christian 

.......... 171 

Gruber, Franz ....... 190 

Guangjuan,Yang .... 119 

Gudeta, Sileshi . . .... 554 

Guevarra,E. ........ 547 

Guo,Jixun .......... 253 

Guo,X.S. ............ 36 

Gupta, Vadakattu V.S.R. 

.......... 524 

Guretzki, Sebastian . . 123 

Guuroh, Reginald Tang 

.......... 363 

Guéi, Arnauth Martinez 

.......... 549 

Gwata, Eastonce . . . . 176, 

212, 489, 497 

Gweyi-Onyango, Joseph 

Patrick . . . 339 

Gómez Padilla, Ernesto 

Javier . . . . 187 

Günther,Nadine ..... 557 

H 

Ha,Nan ............ 371 

Ha,Xia ............. 155 

Habicht, Sandra . .... 254 

Habte, Tsige-Yohannes 

.......... 436 

Hagel,Heinrich ..... 192 

Halloran,Afton ..... 432 

Hameed, Mansoor . . 127 


Hammer, Karl . ...... 243 

Hansen, Hanne Helene 31 

Hao,Jun ......... 29,30 

Harich, Franziska K. . 322 

Hartmanshenn, Thomas 

.......... 557 

Hartwich,Frank ..... 333 

Hashad,M. ......... 141 

Hassabo, Ali Ahmed . 216 

Hassan Hamadelnile Deafalla, 

Taisser 

.......... 523 

Hassan Salih, Nazar Omer 

.......... 216 

Hassan, Amro Babiker 

...... 480, 494 

Hassan,Fathi ....... 130 

Hassan, Muhammad Bello 

.......... 121 

Hastilestari, Bernadetta 

Rina . . . . . 123 

Hauser,Michael ..... 416 

Hauser,Stefan ...... 239 

Haussmann, Bettina I.G. 

. 110, 135, 195 

Hayati, Dariush . . . . . 388 

Haß, Annika Louise . 124 

Hegazi,EsmatM .... 170 

Heller,Martin ........ 40 

Hense,Andreas ...... 93 

Hensel, Oliver . . . . . . 466, 

473–475, 493 

Heong, Kong Luen . . 124 

Herrero, Mario . . . . . . 508 

Hertel, Therese ...... 273 

Hilali, Muhi El-Dine . 485 

Hilger, Thomas 182, 196, 

218 

Himmelsbach, Wibke 297 

Hinderichsen, Ida K. . . 31 

Hjortsø, Carsten Nico 355 

Ho, Dac Thai Hoang . 538 

van der Hoek, Rein . 315, 

553 

565


Hoekstra, Dirk . . . 49, 420 

Hoffmann, Christa . . . 192 

Hoffmann, Munir . . . . 516 

Hoffmann, Volker . . . 372 

Hofmann-Souki, Susanne 

.......... 413 

Hohfeld,Lena ....... 357 

Hohnwald, Stefan . . . 510 

Holm-Mueller, Karin 387 

Holtne,Niklas ...... 318 

Honys,David ....... 256 

Hoogmoed, Marianne 177 

Hou,Ying .......... 394 

Houinato,Marcel ..... 92 

Huber Méndez, Claudia 

Amelia . . . 522 

Hubert,B. .......... 547 

Huising, Jeroen 541, 549, 

552 

Hurisso,Tunsisa .... 177 

Hurtado,M.P. ....... 547 

Husband, Thomas P. . 319 

Hussain, Khalid 182, 218 

Hölscher,Dirk ...... 276 

von Hörsten, Dieter . 480, 

482, 483, 499 

Hörstgen-Schwark, 

Gabriele . . . 77 

Hülsebusch, Christian 

...... 368, 452 

I 

Ibrahim, Abdelateif Hassan 

...... 391, 441 

Ibrahim, Balges ...... 

Ibrahim, Ibrahim Saeed 

67 

.......... 518 

Idris, Ahmed . 23, 90, 100 

Igene, Frederick Ugbesia 

........... 69 

Ilatsia, Evans D. . . .... 47 

Ilukor,John ..... 44,385 

Imhomoh, Osilamah 

Solomon . 479 

566 

Indrasuara, Kooseni . 516 

Ingold, Mariko . 228, 236 

Intani, Kiatkamjon . . 456 

Ishag, Ibrahim A. ..... 48 

Isika, Martins Andor . 69, 

80 

Islam, Sheikh Nazrul 495 

Ismail, Mohamad . . . . 135 

Israel, Onoja Ikani .... 82 

J 

Jacobi,Johanna ..... 245 

Jacobsen, Hans-Jörg . 130 

Jafari, Mohammad . . 461 

Jahan,Ali .......... 232 

Jahan,Mohsen ...... 232 

Jahani,Maryam ..... 477 

Jahani- Kondori, Maryam 

.......... 262 

Jalilova, Gulnaz ..... 321 

Jamali Jaghdani, Tinoush 

.......... 386 

Janßen-Tapken, Ulrike 41 

Jaskani, Muhammad Jafar 

.......... 127 

Jat,M.L. ........... 194 

Jati, Ignasius Radix A.P. 

.......... 491 

Jauncey,Kim ........ 75 

Javed,Nazir ........ 134 

Javier, Jiménez . 259, 297 

Jayeoba, Wilson Abayomi 

.......... 312 

Jegede,Olutola ....... 68 

Jena, Pradyot . . . 330, 342 

Jensen,LarsS. ...... 240 

Jhorna, Dilruba Yasmin 

.......... 495 

Ji,H.J. ............. 542 

Jia, Xiangping ...... 209 

Jiang,Li ............ 253 

Jiménez Pérez, Javier 296 

Jokthan, Grace Esrom 476 

Jones, Peter G. ...... 508 

Jordan, Greta ....... 236 

Jores,Joerg ....... 40,99 

Jost, Francois . . . 310, 529 

Joy,Benny .......... 213 

Joyce,Daryl ........ 486 

Joyce,Priya ......... 486 

Judith,Korb ........ 217 

Jäger,Matthias ...... 340 

K 

Kabura Nyaga, Elizabeth 

.......... 339 

Kahi, Alexander . . 39, 42, 

46, 421 

Kahle, Robert . . ..... 181 

Kalio, Aqullars ...... 389 

Kameubun, Konstantina 

Maria Brigita 

.......... 280 

Kandziora, Marion . . 394 

Kangai,Elosy ....... 331 

Karaj,Shkelqim ..... 469 

Karlovsky,Petr ...... 151 

Kaskous, Shehadeh . . . 94 

Katunga Musale, 

Dieudonné . 61 

Kaufmann, Brigitte . 404, 

412, 452 

Kaupenjohann, Martin 

.......... 192 

Kefalas, Panagiotis . . 485 

Kehlenbeck, Katja . . 224, 

226 

Keil,Alwin ......... 382 

Kelboro, Girma . .... 372 

Keller, Peter ........ 438 

Kessler,Michael .... 226 

Khafagi,Wedad ..... 170 

Khalil, Ayoub ....... 270 

Khalil, Nahid Abd Alfatah 

.......... 211 

Khamis, Mohamed . . 270 

Khamzina, Asia . . . . . 286 

Khan, Abdul Basit . . . 50

Khan, Iqrar Ahmad . . 127 

Khan, M. Aslam 132, 134 

Khan,Zeyaur ....... 166 

Khatri Karki, Sabina . 342 

Khoshbakht, Korous . 243 

Kiani, Leila ......... 149 

Kihara,Job ..... 552, 554 

Kiirika,Leonard .... 198 

Kijora, Claudia . . . 23, 90 

Kimenju, Simon Chege 

.......... 446 

Kinyua,Zakari ...... 150 

Kitchaicharoen, Jirawan 

.......... 171 

Knerr, Beatrice . 344, 405, 

467 

Knickel, Karlheinz . . 435 

Knohl, Alexander . . . 306 

Koala, Saidou ....... 177 

deKock,Suretha .... 489 

Koeniger,Paul ...... 463 

Kokoye, Senakpon Eric 

Haroll . . . 361, 

423 

Kolawole, O. Peter . . 481 

Kongkaew, Thanuchai 

...... 182, 218 

Koné, Wowo Armand 549 

Koopmann, Birger . . 155, 

164 

Kopf, Mariella . . . . . . 254 

Kosgey, Isaac Sanga . . 39, 

421 

Kotzé, Elmarie ....... 33 

Koura, Ivan B. ....... 92 

Krawinkel, Michael . 254, 

436 

Kriesemer, Simone Kathrin 

.......... 410 

Krishna, Vijesh . 348, 370 

Krittigamas, Nattasak 

...... 483, 499 

Krome,Carsten ...... 75 

Kropina, Anna ...... 413 

Kroschel, Jürgen . . . . 165 

Krug, Joachim ...... 277 

Krumsiek,Axel ..... 429 

Kugbe, Joseph . . 208, 210 

Kumar Singh, Vivek . . 89, 

194 

Kumar,Sanjeev ..... 250 

Kunlanit, Benjapon . . 237 

Kurabachew, Henok . 167, 

168 

Kurtz, Ditmar Bernardo 

....... 28,534 

Kurzatkowski, Dariusz 

.......... 287 

Kurzweg,Diana ..... 315 

Kusi Appiah, Michael 

...... 371, 535 

Kuyah,Shem ....... 307 

Kuzyakov, Yakov . . . . 202 

Kyaw,NyiNyi ...... 289 

Kynast, Ellen ....... 533 

Kölling, Karolin . . . . . 413 

Kürschner, Ekkehard 455 

L 

La Thi Thu, Hang . . . 539 

Lach,Thea ......... 355 

Lagat,Job .......... 356 

Lambrecht, Isabel . . . 353 

Langat,Jackson ..... 356 

Lavelle, Patrick 315, 547, 

553 

Le Phuong, Nam . . . . 413 

Le,Duc ........ 274, 291 

Le,QuangBao ...... 554 

Lehner,M.S. ........ 169 

Lei,Q.L. ........... 542 

Leiser, Willmar L. . . . 195 

Lelei, David . ....... 177 

Lena,P. ............ 547 

Lerma Molina, José Noe 

.......... 126 

Lesmes Fabian, Camilo 

.......... 148 


Levy,Claudia ....... 412 

Liaghati, Houman . . . 467 

Lie,Rico ........... 409 

Liebe,Ulf .......... 402 

Liese, Bernhard . . . . . 124 

Lin, Lijun ........ 29,30 

Lindner, André . ..... 437 

Linstädter,Anja ...... 22 

Lintangah, Walter . . . 291 

Liu,Meiju .......... 119 

Llanos, Claudia Ximena 

........... 98 

Loaiza-Lange, Toa . . . 283 

Loc Duc, Nguyen . . . 392 

Loch,VívianDoCarmo 

.......... 260 

Lojka, Bohdan . 179, 256, 

319 

Long, H.Y. .......... 542 

Long, R.J. ........... 36 

Lubis,Ahmad ....... 516 

Ludwig, Christine . . . 254 

Luedeling, Eike 108, 525, 

526 

Lund Frandsen, Matilde 

.......... 439 

Ly,Proyuth ......... 240 

Lyimo, Charles Moses 41 

Läderach, Peter 366, 509, 

536 

López Sánchez, Raúl C. 

.......... 187 

Lücke, Wolfgang . . . 480, 

483, 499 

M 

Maass, Brigitte L. .... 61 

Madaleno,Isabel .... 114 

Madalinska, Anna . . . 360 

Madari, Beata Emoke 230 

Maertens,Miet ...... 353 

Magagi,Saidou ..... 418 

Magid,Jakob ....... 432 

Maharjan,Sujan ..... 286 

567


Mahayothee, Busarakorn 

...... 456, 484 

Mahdavi, Mohammad 463 

Mahdian, Mohammad Hossein 

.......... 191 

Mahgoub, Osman .... 51 

Mahmood, Yasir 132, 134 

Mahmoud El Abbas, 

Mustafa . . 523 

Mahmoud, Nagat S. . 494 

Malick, Niango ..... 156 

Malik, Waqas Ahmed 377 

Mamitimin, Yusuyunjiang 

.......... 535 

Manandhar, HK . . . . . 163 

Mandal, Sattar ...... 365 

Marami Milani, Mohammad 

Reza . . 93 

Marggraf, Rainer . . . . 384 

Marichal,R. ........ 547 

Markemann, André . . . 24 

Marohn, Carsten 197, 527 

Marroquin Agreda, Francisco 

Javier 

.......... 126 

Martens, Siriwan . 34, 60, 

98 

Martins,M. ......... 547 

Martius, Christopher . 287 

Masari,Arada ....... 200 

Mata Balderas, Jose 

Manuel . . . 259 

Matute Giron, Maria Isabel 

.......... 340 

Mausch,Kai ........ 434 

Mayrhofer, Richard . . . 64 

Maza, Byron ........ 384 

Mbua, Roy Lyonga . . 515 

Mbuku, Samuel . . 39, 421 

Mburu, John ........ 331 

Medina, Fernando . . 

568 

529 

Medina-Martinez, Teodoro 

.......... 320 

Medrano Echalar, Ana 

Maria .... 247 

Mehrotra, M. ....... 109 

Meinecke, Sabrina Meersohn 

..... 360 

Mena,Martin ....... 315 

Mendoza, Bismarck . 315, 

550 

Mercerat, Isaline .... 226 

Merckx,Roel ....... 353 

Mertens,Jan ........ 192 

Messmer, Monika M. 248 

ter Meulen, Udo . . . . . . 56 

Michelotti, F. ....... 547 

Miethbauer, Thomas . 158 

Minn, Yazar ........ 279 

Miranda,I. ......... 547 

Mitja, D. ........... 547 

Mobarghei, Naghmeh 467 

Modarres-Sanavy, Seyed 

Ali Mohammad 

.......... 113 

Mohammed, Abdallah 

.......... 110 

Mohammed, Mohammed 

H. ....... 468 

Molano, Martha Lucía 34 

Monges Zalazar, Elizabeth 

...... 293, 317 

Mora Donjuán, Carlos 

Alberto . . . 296 

Moradi,Sepehr ....... 20 

Moraes, Flavio Henrique 

Reis ..... 115 

Moreno García, Cristian 

Aníbal . . . . 22 

Moreno,L.E. ....... 547 

Mortimer, Simon .... 142 

Mosandl, Reinhard . . 131, 

273, 309 

van Mourik, Tom . . . . 157 

Moursi, Yasser . . . . . . 139 

Mourão Júnior, Moisés 

.......... 290 

Mshelia, Wayuta Philip 82 

Msoffe, Peter Lawrence 

........... 41 

Mtei, Kelvin Mark . . . 185 

Muasya, Thomas Kainga 

........... 46 

Mubarak, Hassan Abdelgadir 

..... 136 

Muchilwa, Isaiah Etemo 

.......... 473 

Mudawi, Hassan . . . . . . 67 

Mudersbach, Marina . 123 

Mueller,Joaquin ..... 20 

Muftah Alkhayat, Dalia 

.......... 151 

Mukendi Kamambo, 

Robert . . . 239 

Mulumba Munkendi, Dominique 

. . 239 

Munawar, Agus Arip 482 

Mungube, Erick Ouma 43 

Muniz, Francisca Helena 

.......... 260 

Munkager, Victoria . . 439 

Muok, Benard ....... 356 

Murach, Dieter . . . . . . 289 

Murage, Alice Warukira 

....... 47,166 

Murdoch, Alistair . . . 142 

Muriithi, Anthony Gikandi 

...... 339, 358 

Muriithi, Beatrice W. 329 

Muriuki, Anne . . . 40, 180 

Musa, Lutfi M-A ..... 48 

Musa, Muamer ....... 66 

Musa, Musa Tibin . . . . 53 

Musa, Nasreen Omer . 54 

Musyoka, Martha . . . 180 

Musyoka, Michael Philliph 

.......... 433 

Muth, Peter . . ....... 110 

Muthoni, Lucy ...... 358

Muthuri, Catherine . . 307 

Mutie, Ianetta ....... 508 

Muñoz, Luz Stella . . . . 34 

Mwangi, David M. . . . 18 

Mwanjalolo, Jackson G.M. 

.......... 444 

Mzezewa, Jestinos . . 176, 

212 

Mörlein, Daniel ..... 482 

Mühlenberg, Michael 280 

Müller, Felix . . ..... 394 

Müller, Joachim 340, 456, 

469, 484 

Müller, Katrin ........ 29 

Münke, Christopher . 355 

N 

Naase, Karin Marita . 275 

Nacro, Souleymane . . 156 

Naeimyfar, Afsaneh . 467 

Nagle, Marcus . 340, 456, 

484 

Nambiro, Elizabeth . . 359 

Narla,Rama ........ 152 

Nauen,Ralf ......... 116 

Navarro Rau, Maria 

Fabiana . . 534 

Ndabamenye, Telesphore 

.......... 177 

Ndah, Hycenth Tim . . 369 

Ndoh Mbue, Innocent 445 

de Neergaard, Andreas 

.......... 240 

Negawo, Alemayehu 

Teressa . . . 130 

Nehren, Udo . . . 283, 301, 

538 

Neubert, Susanne . . . . 429 

Neufeldt, Henry 307, 525 

Neuhoff, Daniel ..... 111 

Neumann, Günter . . . 195 

Nezami, Ahmad ..... 477 

Ng’ang’a, Stanley Karanja 

.......... 508 

Ngampongsai, Sumana 

.......... 200 

Ngetich, Kibet ...... 356 

Ngigi, Margaret . . . . . 389 

Ngili, Yohanis ....... 280 

Ngo,TheLong ...... 276 

Ngokkuen, Chuthaporn 

.......... 327 

Nguyen Minh, Nhut . 492 

Nguyen Trung, Hai . . 524 

Nguyen Xuan, Huu . . 362 

Nguyen, Hai ........ 278 

Nguyen, Hang ...... 274 

Nguyen, Lam Thanh 197, 

362 

Nguyen, Nien Chau . . 242 

Nguyen, Quy Hanh . . 415 

Nguyen, Thanh Thi . 197, 

362 

Nielsen, Thea . . 354, 382 

Niggli,Urs ......... 246 

Ningrum, Andriati . . . 492 

Njuguna, E. . . . ....... 18 

Noga,Georg ........ 329 

Nohr,Donatus ...... 491 

Noltze, Martin ...... 349 

Noori Fard, Ali ...... 461 

Nour,Ikhlas .......... 48 

Nuamah,Seth ....... 229 

Nunez Burbano de Lara, 

Maria Daniela 

.......... 376 

Nuppenau, Ernst-August 

...... 217, 361 

Nwachukwu, Ifeanyi . 399 

Nyagumbo, Isaiah . . . 369 

Nyangito, Moses . . . . 368 

Nziguheba, Generose 552 

Nzioka,Malo ........ 43 

O 

Obare, Gideon . . 166, 446 

Oberthür, Thomas . . . 516 

Obi,Mary ........... 62 


Obura, Bruce Ochieng 

.......... 150 

Ochang,Stephen ..... 76 

Ochieng, Justus . . . . . 344 

Ochoa-Coutinho, CecÍlia 

Hernandez 

. 251, 294, 299 

Odebode, Adegboyega 

.......... 133 

Odeyinka, Simisola . . . 87 

Oduori, Leonard Haggai 

.......... 389 

Oebel,Horst ........ 447 

Öhlmann, Philipp . . . 422 

Önal, M. Kubilay . . . . 118 

Ofem,Nneoyi ........ 95 

Ogundele, Bukola Ayobami 

.......... 478 

Ogunji, Johnny Onyema 

........... 76 

Ogunlowo, A.S. . . . . . 481 

Ogunshote, Esther .... 72 

Ogunsipe, M. Hilarious 80 

Okeno,T.O. .......... 42 

Okon,Bassey ........ 62 

Okoth, Peter .... 359, 528 

Olakojo,Samuel .... 133 

Olaleye,O.O. ....... 478 

Olango, Temesgen Magule 

.......... 252 

Olatoye, Marcus Olalere 

.......... 195 

Olawumi, Simeon . . . . 73 

Olawuyi, Odunayo . . 133 

Olodo, Victorine . . . . 514 

Olowoyeye,Janet ..... 71 

Olusola, Johnson Adeyinka 

...... 131, 309 

Omar Adam Guma, Yahia 

.......... 468 

Omara,M. .......... 141 

Omondi, Immaculate . 45 

Onaga,Geoffrey .... 164 

Onakuse, Stephen . . . 479 

569


Onibi,Gbenga .... 68,71 

Onsamran, Wattanai . 218 

Onyekwelu, Jonathan C. 

...... 131, 309 

Opiyo,Francis ...... 368 

Ortiz, Rodomiro . ..... 12 

Osafo, Emmanuel L. K. 

........... 31 

Osati, Khaled ....... 463 

Osejo Carrillo, Tania . 285 

Oseni,Saidu ...... 70,73 

Osman, Gammaa A.M. 

.......... 494 

Osman, Ibrahim ..... 215 

Ospina,Bernardo ..... 98 

Osunmadewa, Babatunde 

Adeniyi . . 312, 

520 

Oszwald,Johan ..... 547 

Otero,T. ............ 547 

Ouma, Emily . . . .... 344 

Ovalle, Oriana ...... 536 

Owolabi, Modupe Olajumoke 

. . . 395 

Owuor,George ...... 344 

Owusu, Erasmus H. . 322 

P 

Pabst,Holger ....... 202 

Paknejad, Farzad .... 138 

Pandey,Arjun ....... 360 

Panferov, Oleg . . 288, 306 

Papenbrock, Jutta .... 123 

Parvathi, Priyanka . . 

374 

338, 

Parzies, Heiko K. .... 195 

Pasuquin, Julie Mae . 516 

Pathak,Jharna ........ 35 

Patil, Shreekant S. . . 248 

Pattnaik, Itishree . . . . . 35 

Paudel,LokNath ..... 56 

Paul,Birthe ......... 177 

Paul,Carola ........ 308 

Paul,Caroline ....... 

570 

455 

de Paula Júnior, Trazilbo 

José ...... 169 

Pauli, Natasha ....... 550 

Pavon, Jellin . . . 315, 550 

Pawelzik, Elke . . 482, 499 

Pazoki,Alireza ...... 138 

Pedersen, Ida Weldingh 

.......... 439 

Pena, Heriberto Wagner 

Amanajas 295 

Pengphol, Sak . . ..... 200 

Pequeño Ledezma, Miguel 

Angel .... 296 

Perelman, Susana B. . . 22 

Pereyra, Gabriela .... 231 

Pervez, Zaidi ........ 348 

Peschke, Johannes . . . 400 

Peters, Kurt-Johannes 21, 

42, 46, 48, 375 

Peña Pineda, Karla . . 340 

Pfister,Jan ........... 25 

Pham, Thi Huong Diu 442 

Pieters, Alejandro . . . 231 

Pillco, Maria Isabel . . 245 

Pilz, Mario ......... 111 

Pinker,Ina .......... 242 

Ploeger, Angelika . . . . 93 

Pocasangre, Luis Ernesto 

.......... 223 

Pohlan,Jürgen ...... 126 

Poonia,S. .......... 194 

Pouyet,Jean ........ 272 

Powon, Micah . . . . . . 358 

Prado,A.L. ......... 169 

Predotova, Martina . . 235, 

236 

Pretzsch, Jürgen 

274, 291, 293, 

310, 519, 529 

Prinz, Kathleen 224, 279, 

280 

Propastin, Pavel 288, 306 

Pucher,Johannes ..... 64 

Pulleman, Mirjam . . . 177 

Puri,Anshul ........ 128 

Purwanto, Yohanes . . 226 

Puskur, Ranjitha . .... 417 

Puspa, Jofi .......... 334 

Pypers,Pieter ....... 353 

Q 

Qaim, Matin . ....... 349 

Queiroz,M.V. ....... 169 

Quinzeiro Neto, Talmir 

.......... 295 

Qutob,Mutaz ........ 63 

R 

Raabe, Katharina . . . . 392 

Rabeharisoa, Lilia . . . 186 

Raedig, Claudia . . . . . 538 

Rafolisy, Tovonarivo 186 

Raghu, Prabhakaran . 348 

Rahamtallah Abualgasim 

Mohammed, 

Majdaldin 520 

Rahmadsyah ........ 516 

Rahmani,Elham ..... 93 

Rajaona, Arisoa . . . . . 537 

Ramirez, Bertha . . . . . 547 

Rana,Sita .......... 374 

Rao, Idupulapati .... 181, 

315, 550 

Rasche,Frank ....... 197 

Rasmussen, Svend . . . 370 

Rasmussen, Søren K. 479 

Rathjen,Lena ........ 25 

Ratnayake,K. ....... 486 

Rattunde, H. Frederick W. 

...... 110, 195 

Ravichandran, Thanammal 

........... 24 

Raza, Muhammad Asif 

....... 55,127 

Razafimanantsoa, Marie 

Paule ..... 186 

Razafimbelo, Tantely 186 

Rehman,Shoaib ..... 129

Reiber, Christoph .... 192 

Renaud, Fabrice . . . . . 162 

Rendón, Andrea . . .... 60 

Rengifo, Elizabeth . . . 231 

van Rensburg, Leon D. 

.......... 176 

Restrepo,Maria ..... 412 

Reyes-Agüero, Juan 

Antonio . . 376 

Rezig, Fatoma . . 183, 184 

Ribamar Gusmão Araujo, 

José ...... 125 

Ribeiro, Maria Margarida 

.......... 256 

Richter,Uwe ........ 452 

Riecher, Maja-Catrin 413 

Rincon, Sonia . . 475, 493 

Rischkowsky, Barbara 20, 

485 

Rist,Stephan ........ 245 

Rivera, Mariela . .... 550 

Roba, Hassan ....... 404 

de Robert, P. ........ 547 

Rodriguez Osuna, Vanesa 

.......... 301 

Rodriguez, Beatriz . . 509 

Rodriguez, G. ....... 547 

Rodriguez, Marino . . 241 

Rodríguez Orozco, Miguel 

.......... 189 

Roland Azibo, Balgah 

...... 445, 532 

Roldan, Maria-Belen 337 

Rollo, Alexandr 256, 319 

Romuli, Sebastian . . . 469 

Rondón, Marco ..... 550 

Rondón-Krummheuer, Alicia 

P. 

.......... 435 

Roner, Tina ......... 248 

Roos, Nanna ........ 355 

Rossi,Frederick ..... 370 

Rostami, Majid 140, 462 

Rousseau, Laurent . . 315, 

553 

Rubiano,J. ......... 550 

Ruecker,Gerd ....... 351 

Rufino, Mariana Cristina 

.......... 508 

Ruiz Noriega, Diego 

Santiago . . 126 

Rukazambuga Ntirushwa, 

Daniel Thomas 

.......... 199 

Ruppert, Jan . . ....... 22 

Rushdi, Mohamed A.H. 

.......... 494 

Röttgers, Dirk . . 341, 390 

S 

S.Sasa,Rebina ..... 524 

Saad, Sarra Ahmed Mohamed 

.......... 238 

Sabeel, Salih . . ...... 135 

Saeid, Soufizadeh . . . 243 

Saeys,Wouter ....... 189 

Saha, Sruba . ........ 227 

Salahi, Ali .......... 190 

Salajegheh, Ali . 191, 463 

Salazar González, Claudia 

.......... 241 

Salifou Issaka, Mohamed 

.......... 438 

Sallam, Ahmed ..... 141 

Sama, Karim . . ...... 156 

Samson, Roeland . . . . 187 

San,ChoCho ....... 405 

Sanabria,C. ........ 547 

Sandhage-Hofmann, 

Alexandra . 33 

Sanni, Adunni . . 121, 476 

Sanni,Lateef ........ 481 

Santana Lima, T. . . . . 547 

dos Santos Neutzling, Aline 

........... 91 

Santos,W. .......... 547 


Sarria, Patricia I. ..... 

Sauerborn, Joachim 

60 

137, 157, 192, 

322, 376 

Schaldach, Rüdiger . . 533 

Schaufelberger, Rebecca 

.......... 527 

Schellberg, Jürgen .... 22 

Schickhoff, Udo ..... 313 

Schieck, Elise ........ 99 

Schlauderer, Ralf . . . . 377 

Schlecht, Eva . 27, 50, 55, 

91, 228, 402 

Schlieper, Philipp . . . 439 

Schlyter,Fredrik .... 170 

Schmerbeck, Joachim 272 

Schmidt,Karin ...... 202 

Schmierer, Marc .... 255 

Schmitt, Vincent . . . . 246 

Schmitz, Udo . . . .... 198 

Schnee, Christiane .... 40 

Schneider, Monika . . 245 

Schreinemachers, Pepijn 

.......... 171 

Schreiner, Matthias . . 492 

Schuler, Johannes . . . 

Schulte-Geldermann, 

369 

Elmar 150, 152 

Schulz,Franziska ..... 97 

Schwab,Niels ....... 

Schwartz, Horst Jürgen 

313 

.......... 517 

Schwarze,Stefan .... 349 

Schöning, Alexander 460 

Schütz,Lukas ....... 153 

Sebesvari,Zita ...... 162 

Sere, Yacouba ....... 164 

Settele, Josef ........ 124 

Seyed Moumen, Seyed 

Mojtaba . . . 20 

Seyedi,Nasrin ...... 302 

Shajib, Md. Tariqul Islam 

.......... 495 

Shan,Lin ........... 119 

571


Shapiro,Beth ........ 40 

Sharaf,Jawad ........ 94 

Sharifan, Hamid Reza 465 

Sharma, Buddhi ..... 163 

Shiene, Shimeles Damene 

.......... 233 

Shiraishi,Erisa ...... 196 

Shrestha, Madhav Kumar 

........... 77 

Shrestha,SM ....... 163 

Shuford, Laura Susanne 

.......... 435 

Siahmarguee, Asieh . 477 

Sidahmed, Omar A.A. 

.......... 143 

Siegmund-Schultze, 

Marianna . 192 

Sila, Andrew ........ 541 

Siles, Pablo .... 111, 314 

Silungwe, Henry 212, 497 

Simarmata, Tualar . . . 213 

Simianer, Henner ..... 51 

Singh, Deepak K. . . . 194 

Singh, Dhiraj Kumar . 89, 

109, 194 

Singh, Reena ........ 250 

Sirajuddin, Zulham . . 560 

Siwela, Muthulisi . . . 489 

Six,Johan .......... 177 

Soerensen, Marten . . . 201 

Sogachev, Andrei .... 306 

Somarriba, Eduardo . 305 

Sommano, Sarana . . . 486 

Soori, Mahshid ...... 461 

Souri, Mohammad Kazem 

.......... 457 

deSousa,S. ......... 547 

Sousa, Vanessa Gomes de 

251, 290, 294, 

299 

Soviana,Soviana .... 334 

Sow, Abdoulaye ..... 112 

Sowah,Agbeti ...... 343 

Spijkers,Ad ........ 365 

572 

Sporleder,Marc ..... 165 

Staacke, Christian . . . 366 

Stahl,Frank ......... 168 

Staver, Charles . 111, 314 

Stellmacher, Till 330, 341, 

372 

Stelter, Kajo . . ...... 188 

Stimm, Bernd . . 131, 273, 

309 

Stock de Oliveria Souza, 

Karin .... 192 

van Straaten, Oliver . . 257 

Struik,Paul ......... 373 

Stuch, Benjamin .... 533 

Stürz,Sabine ........ 112 

Stützel, Hartmut . . . . . 342 

Sudatta, Patnaik ..... 272 

Sultana, MST. Nadira 375 

Suriyong, Sangtiwa . . 499 

Susenbeth, Andreas . . 29, 

30, 97 

Sutterer, Nele . . . .... 537 

Swai,Mark ......... 254 

Swain,Braja ........ 109 

Swe,Thida ......... 289 

Szulecka, Julia . 293, 317 

Sánchez Díaz, Henry Dante 

.......... 256 

Sölkner,Johann ..... 417 

Sørensen, Cecilie . . . . 360 

T 

Tadokoro, Tomoko . . 484 

Tafaghodinia, Bahram 149 

Tafur, Jorge Chavez . . 560 

Taha,AwadK. ...... 143 

Tamrat, Zelalem . . . . . 454 

Tandjiekpon, André . . 438 

Tano,SergeYao ..... 549 

Tariq, Muhammad .... 50 

Tavakkoli, Akbar . . . . 113 

Tegegne,Azage ...... 49 

Teixeira,Hudson .... 169 

Tellez, Orlando . 315, 553 

Tendencia, Eleonor . . . 78 

Teoh,MiraKim ..... 333 

Tera,Asrat ........... 49 

Terano,Yusuke ...... 177 

Tesfaye, Bizuayehu . . 252 

Teufel, Nils . 24, 109, 194 

Teutscherová, Nikola 179 

Thanapornpoonpong, Sa- 

Nguansak 499 

Thanomsub, Suwimol 200 

Thant, Aung Myo . . . 360 

Thapa,RB .......... 163 

Theilade, Ida . . . ..... 201 

Thiollay,J.M. ....... 547 

Thornton, Philip K. . . 508 

Thwin,San ......... 289 

Tian,Y.G. .......... 542 

von Tiedemann, Andreas 

...... 155, 164 

Tien Long, Nguyen . 521, 

539 

Timibitei, Kemeseiyefa 

Olajinre . . . 83 

Tincani, Lucrezia . . . . 383 

Tiralla, Nina ........ 306 

Tischbein, Bernhard . 540 

Tobias, Donald Jerome 

.......... 332 

Toledo Toledo, Ernesto 

.......... 126 

Tondoh, Ebagnerin Jérôme 

. 541, 549, 554 

Topcuo˘glu, Bülent . . . 234 

Torres, Leidy J. ....... 60 

Torrico, Juan Carlos . 247 

Toure, Abocar ....... 110 

Tovignan, Dansinou Silvere 

.......... 361 

Traore,Karim ....... 369 

Treydte, Anna C. . 26, 322 

Triomphe, Bernard . . 369, 

411 

Tscharntke,Teja .... 124

Tsehay, Abrham Seyoum 

.......... 430 

Tuan, Nguyen Ngoc . . 64 

Tuan,V.D. ......... 196 

Turmuktini, Tien . . . . 213 

U 

Uddin, Mohammad Mohi 

.......... 375 

Ugbor, Ogechi ....... 76 

Uibrig,Holm ....... 363 

Ul-Allah, Sami . 129, 132, 

134 

Ulrich,Anne ........ 336 

Uthes, Sandra ....... 369 

V 

Vacik, Harald ....... 321 

Vadloori, Bharadwaja 246 

Vagen, Tor-Gunnar . . 541 

Valle Zárate, Anne . . . 24, 

192 

Vangu Paka, Germaine 

.......... 239 

Vanlauwe, Bernard . . 177, 

353 

Vazan, Saeed ........ 138 

Vearasilp, Suchada . . 483, 

499 

Vebrová, Hana . . 256, 319 

Veiga,Iran .......... 547 

Velasquez, A. ....... 547 

Velasquez, E. ....... 547 

Velasquez, Jaime .... 547 

van Veldhuizen, Laurens 

.......... 418 

Veldkamp, Edzo 257, 292 

Verma, Rajeev ...... 248 

Vetter, Thomas ...... 439 

Viana,Roseane ...... 424 

Vicha, Sardsud . 456, 484 

Vidal Merino, Mariana 

...... 519, 529 

Vidal, Stefan . . . 151, 153 

Vidaurre de La Riva, 

Marolyn . . 437 

Vieira, R.F. ......... 169 

Vien, Tran Duc . 196, 197 

Vilei, Edy . . . ......... 40 

Villalon-Mendoza, Horacio 

.......... 320 

Villanueva, O. . . . .... 547 

Villarin, Oliver ...... 311 

Villarin, Randy . . .... 311 

Virchow, Detlef ..... 410 

Vityakon, Patma . . . . . 237 

Vlek, Paul L. G. 208, 210, 

233, 528, 554 

Vo Phuong Hong, Loan 

.......... 162 

Vogt,Joachim ........ 65 

Voigt, Hans-Jürgen . . 515 

Vu,NgocHieu ....... 52 

Vu,ThiHoa ........ 350 

van Vugt, Daniel . . . . 214 

W 

Wachendorf, Michael 129 

Wagner, Sven . . . 281, 282 

Waibel, Hermann . . . 328, 

338, 350, 352, 

357, 374, 401 

Walsh, Markus . . .... 552 

Wander, Alcido Elenor 

...... 154, 230 

Wang,Chengjie ...... 29 

Wasike, Victor ...... 359 

Wasonga, Oliver ..... 368 

Waswa,BoazS ...... 528 

Waters-Bayer, Ann . . 411, 

418, 419 

Weber,Michael ..... 308 

Weber, Norbert ...... 291 

Weckerle, Caroline . . 226 

Wegener, Jens Karl . . 482 

Wegner, Martina 460, 556 

Wei, Hongbin . . ..... 253 

Wei,Tingting ....... 155 


Weigend,Annett ..... 41 

Weigend, Steffen . . 41, 51 

Weinberger, Katinka . 410 

Weinmann, Markus . . 195 

Weiss,Eric ......... 438 

Weltzien, Eva ....... 443 

Wessels,Stephan ..... 77 

Westphal, Catrin . . . . 124 

Wettasinha, Chesha . . 418 

Whitbread, Anthony 238, 

516, 524 

Wichern,Florian .... 365 

Wiegand,Kerstin .... 278 

Wiehle, Martin . 224, 235 

Wilson,Mark ....... 360 

Winnegge, Ruger .... 444 

Winowiecki, Leigh . . 541, 

554 

Winter, Etti . . . . . 341, 390 

Witteveen, Loes 409, 560 

Witzke, Harald von . . 442 

Woda, Christine ..... 284 

Wolf,Katrin ........ 257 

Wollni,Meike ........ 91 

Wollny, Clemens ..... 56 

Wongleecharoen, Chalermchart 

182, 218 

Wongleecharoen, Sujinee 

.......... 218 

Worbes, Martin . . . . . 287 

Wrage,Nicole ...... 365 

Wu,Lifeng ......... 352 

Wu,S.X. ........... 464 

Wurzinger, Maria . . . 416, 

417 

Wydra, Kerstin . 164, 167, 

168 

Wélchez, Luis Alvarez 

.......... 550 

Wünscher, Tobias . . . 285, 

387 

573


X 

Xiu, Fengguang 335, 440 

Xiu,Fengli ..... 335, 440 

Xu,Aiguo ..... 464, 542 

Xu,JianChu ........ 292 

Xue, Jiliang ......... 398 

Y 

Yabi, Afouda Jacob . 361, 

514 

Yagoub, Samia Osman 

.......... 211 

Yan, Xiaohuan . . 397, 398 

Yang,Fang ......... 249 

Yang, Fongsen ...... 200 

Yared, Jorge Alberto Gazel 

.......... 295 

Yazdanian, Mohsen . . 149 

574 

Yazdanpanah, Masoud 

...... 388, 431 

Yeboah, Bismark Agyei 

.......... 343 

Yegbemey, Evince Osvald 

.......... 447 

Yegbemey, Rosaine Nerice 

. 361, 423, 514 

Yen, Trinh Thi Hanh . . 64 

Yerena Yamallel, Israel 

.......... 296 

Younan, Mario . . ..... 18 

Younas, Muhammad . 50, 

55 

Yousif,Hessain ....... 90 

Z 

Zakalek, Magdalena . 538 

Zakari, Abdulwahab . 312 

Zampaligré, Nouhoun . 27 

Zander,Kerstin ....... 45 

Zander,Peter ....... 369 

Zareba, Sayed Ali Fadal 

Elmola . . . 441 

Zeiske, Felix ........ 558 

Zeller, Manfred ..... 382 

Zetek, Uta .......... 413 

Zhang,H.Z. ......... 542 

Zhang,R.L. ......... 542 

Zhang, Weili . . . 464, 542 

Zhanhuan, Shang ..... 36 

Zhao,Xi ............ 396 

Zheng, Xunhua ...... 119 

Zimmer, Thomas Christoph 

.......... 116 

Zingore, Shamie .... 207

Index of Keywords 

A 

Abundance ......... 296 

Acacia ............. 320 

Adaptation 310, 363, 383, 

421, 435, 437, 

519, 526, 529 

strategies ....... 509 

to climate change . . . 

429 

Adaptive 

capacity ........ 429 

cluster sampling 276 

strategies ........ 88 

Additives ....... 98,469 

Adoption . 158, 353, 374, 

417, 425 

potential . . . .... 369 

Afforestation . . . 286, 300 

Aflatoxin 

contamination . . 473 

Aflatoxins . 485, 494, 496 

Aframomum melegueta 

.......... 120 

Africa 117, 157, 359, 436 

African leafy vegetable 

.......... 446 

Agave .............. 259 

Aggregate stability . . 191 

Agricultural 

droughts . . . .... 310 

ecosystems ..... 307 

innovation systems . . 

411 

knowledge system . . 

415 

policies . . . ..... 429 

Agricultural 

productivity .... 351 

research ........ 434 

support ........ 440 

technology ..... 353 

trade ........... 335 

value chain approach 

18 

water use ....... 558 

Agro-ecological zone 359 

Agro-pastoral system . 27 

Agro-pastoralists . . . . 412 

Agroecological practices 

.......... 425 

Agroecology . . . 126, 376 

Agroforestry 

111, 201, 225, 

226, 245, 306, 

308, 310, 313, 

314, 316, 318, 

320, 435, 525 

cacao . .... 305, 319 

practices ....... 312 

system 290, 551, 553 

Alchornea cordifolia .. 83 

Alfalfa ............. 262 

Alley cropping ...... 182 

Allometric equations . 307 

Aloevera ...... 254, 478 

Alpgene ........... 128 

Alpine meadow . . . . . . 36 

Alternaria alternata . 160 

Alternative food sources 

.......... 355 

Aluminum toxicity . . 181 

Amazon ............ 275 

Amazonia . 290, 510, 548 

Ammonia ........... 215 

volatilisation . . . 215 

Ananas comosus ..... 125 

Andeanregion ...... 529 

Andes ..... 310, 435, 437 

Animal 

genetic resources . 52 

health . . . ........ 99 

services ..... 385 

nutrition . ....... 61 

welfare .......... 82 

Anthelmintic activity . 55 

Anthocyanin ........ 491 

Anti-nutrients ........ 83 

Antioxidant ......... 490 

activity ........ 491 

Aphanomyces euteiches 

.......... 198 

AquaCrop . ......... 540 

Aquaculture . . . 63, 75, 77 

Arachis pintoi ....... 181 

Arbuscular mycorhiza 

...... 115, 198 

Argasid ticks ......... 43 

Argentina ....... 28,534 

Aridity indices . . . . . . 229 

ARIMAmodel ...... 440 

Artemisia . . . ........ 457 

Artificial insemination 45 

Artocarpus lakoocha . 495 

Atlantic Forest ...... 301 

Atrazine ........... 465 

575


B 

Babycorn .......... 180 

Banana ........ 223, 344 

Bangladesh 370, 375, 495 

Baobab ............. 244 

Batguano .......... 239 

Bean ........... 316, 551 

production . . . . . 509 

Bee ................. 124 

Beef production ..... 517 

Benin . . . 65, 92, 217, 244, 

361, 411, 423, 

438, 447, 514 

Biochar . . . 179, 228, 236 

Biochemical model . . 314 

Biocides ............ 373 

Biocontrol ..... 151, 165 

Biodiesel ........... 356 

Biodiversity 26, 321, 365, 

372, 548, 549 

conservation . . 

384 

252, 

Bioenergy ...... 395, 537 

Biofertilisers . . . 128, 213 

Biofuel ............. 356 

Biogas ............. 377 

Biological resilience . 376 

Biosulfur ........... 232 

Biotechnology ...... 352 

Birddiversity ....... 321 

Bitter leaf ............ 69 

Black rice . . ........ 491 

Blackgram .......... 200 

Bolivia ........ 245, 247 

Boswellia papyrifera . 270 

Brachiaria .......... 115 

Brassica extract ..... 132 

Brazil . 91, 125, 192, 251, 

260, 287, 294, 

295, 299, 424 

Breeding ........... 195 

objectives . ...... 42 

program ..... 39,42 

services ......... 47 

576 

Broiler . .......... 71,72 

Browseplant ......... 87 

Btcotton ....... 352, 358 

Buffalo . . . 50, 52, 56, 402 

Burkina Faso .... 27,156, 

369, 383, 460 

Bush 

encroachment . . . . 26 

fire ............ 208 

savannah ........ 33 

C 

Cacao 245, 257, 305, 322, 

337 

agroforestry .... 319 

modelling ...... 306 

Calibration models . . 189 

Cambodia ...... 240, 355 

Camel . . . ............ 23 

Cameroon ...... 445, 515 

Canavalia brasiliensis 60, 

61, 181 

Canopy temperature . 140 

Capacity development 420 

Capillary rise ....... 540 

Capricolum .......... 40 

Capsicum ...... 182, 218 

products . . . .... 340 

Carbon ............. 307 

allocation ....... 25 

emission ....... 236 

fluxes .......... 235 

sequestration . . . 522, 

525 

stocks ......... 305 

storage . . . . 287, 289 

Carotenoids ......... 491 

Carp .............. 64,75 

species .......... 77 

Cash crop production 361, 

438, 439 

Cashew ............. 438 

Cassava ......... 72,239 

Catchment .......... 511 

Catfish ........... 74,76 

Cellstructures ...... 486 

Central America 111, 305, 

316, 509 

Centrocema pubescens 79 

Certification . . . 330, 341, 

342 

Chaetosiphon fragaefolli 

.......... 149 

Charcoal ........... 228 

Chicken 52, 66–69, 72, 73 

breeding ........ 42 

indigenous . . . 41, 42 

performance . 68, 69 

Chickpea ........... 134 

Chili ........... 182, 218 

Chilling hours ....... 108 

China . 209, 292, 335, 352, 

371, 397, 398, 

440, 464, 522, 

535 

Chlorophyll . . ....... 140 

fluorescence . . . . 111 

Choice experiment . . . . 45 

Cholesterol ....... 67,68 

Chrysophyllum albidum 

.......... 131 

Cinnamon .......... 486 

Citrus .............. 127 

Climate ........ 229, 421 

analogue . . 525, 526 

conditions ....... 23 

data ........... 526 

finance ......... 435 

risks ........... 435 

transition . ...... 202 

variability . 368, 423, 

533 

Climate change . 93, 108, 

135, 142, 157, 

297, 306, 310, 

359, 418, 423, 

435, 437, 444, 

509, 510, 515

Climate change 

519, 525, 529, 

534, 536, 558 

adaptation ....... 19 

impacts . . . ..... 526 

Climbing beans ..... 199 

Clostridium botulinum 53 

Clover .............. 262 

Coatings ............ 478 

Cocoyam ........... 367 

fermented ....... 62 

Coffee 330, 342, 366, 536 

Collective action 21, 158, 

344 

Colombia . . . . . . 148, 435 

Commercialisation . . 226, 

329 

Commonbeans ..... 169 

Commoncarp ........ 64 

Communal lands . 20, 283 

Communication ..... 332 

Community 

forestry . . . ..... 271 

participation .... 404 

Companies ........... 91 

Compatibility . ....... 46 

Competitiveness ..... 335 

Compost . . 199, 236, 246 

Computational methods 

.......... 473 

Conservation 52, 242, 283 

agriculture . 194, 369 

auction . ....... 387 

tillage . ........ 370 

Consumption habit . . 496 

Contingent valuation . 446 

Contract 

farming . . . 328, 337 

herds ........... 46 

Cooking qualities . . . . 499 

Cooperatives .... 91,245, 

330, 342 

Coping 

mechanisms .... 354 

Coping 

strategies ....... 368 

Corporate responsibility 

.......... 336 

Correlated response . . . 46 

Cost 

analyses ....... 377 

effectiveness 62, 301, 

387 

efficiency . ..... 366 

Cotton .... 136, 248, 371, 

514, 535 

Bt ............. 358 

irrigation ....... 358 

parasites ....... 136 

Covercrop .......... 196 

Cowpea 66, 115, 137, 176, 

476 

seeds ........... 66 

Credit .............. 391 

access ......... 269 

demand ........ 389 

Crop 

insurance ...... 354 

modelling . 509, 516, 

533 

production . 121, 360 

residues . . . 109, 178, 

183, 216, 524 

rotation .... 214, 216 

yield . . . . . . 178, 233 

Crop-raiding . ....... 322 

Cropping 

calendar ....... 229 

systems ........ 188 

Cucumber .......... 124 

Cultural resilience . . . 376 

Curative services ..... 44 

Cushioning material . 498 

D 

Dairy ..... 24,49,93,417 

cows ........ 90,91 

services ......... 45 


Damage detection system 

.......... 498 

Datepalm .......... 127 

De-agrarianisation . . . 439 

Decentwork ........ 402 

Decision support system 

.......... 510 

Decomposition ...... 524 

Deficit irrigation .... 540 

Deforestation . . 257, 275, 

292, 295 

Demographic structure 

...... 281, 282 

Dermal exposure 

assessment 148 

Desertification . . 184, 460 

Destabilisation . . . . . . 556 

Developing countries 152 

Diabetes ............ 254 

Digestibility . . . 60, 72, 80 

Digitalsoilmap ..... 542 

Disaster ............ 556 

risk reduction . . . 435 

Discoloration . . . 132, 486 

Dissemination pathways 

.......... 166 

Dissolved organic carbon 

.......... 237 

Diversification . 363, 383, 

439 

Diversity . . . 52, 127, 298, 

400 

DNA ............... 256 

Domestication . . 40, 131, 

309 

Dormancy .......... 142 

Double hurdle model 357 

DPSIR .............. 394 

Dressing percentage . . 72 

Drought . . . 111, 348, 431 

management . . . . 431 

stress . 140, 141, 181 

tolerance . . 123, 231 

Dry forest .......... 272 

577


Drying ......... 475, 493 

quality . . . ...... 493 

kinetics . . ...... 474 

Dual purpose crop .... 24 

Dungcake .......... 402 

Dynamic model ..... 108 

E 

Early warning systems 18 

Earthworm ........... 64 

EastAfrica ...... 41,235 

Eco-efficiency . . 507, 548 

Ecological 

niche modeling . 525 

system ......... 232 

Economic 

analysis ........ 352 

benefit ...... 82,152 

efficiency ...... 514 

experiment ..... 390 

feasibility . . . . . . 230 

implications ..... 80 

incentives ...... 384 

shocks ......... 429 

stimulus programme 

358 

Ecosystem ..... 390, 435 

services . . . 124, 301, 

394, 510, 548 

Ecuador . . 153, 273, 283, 

384 

Educational status . . . 300 

Efficiency analysis . . 530 

Eggweight .......... 73 

ElNiño ............. 297 

Elaeagnus angustifolia 

.......... 286 

Emergence indices . . 513 

Emissions .......... 236 

Employment ........ 396 

quality index . . . 392 

Endophyte .......... 151 

Energy 

consumption . . . 467 

578 

Energy 

demand ........ 255 

Enset ............... 252 

Entomopathogen 151, 165 

Entomophagy ....... 355 

Environment . . . 377, 467 

Environmental 

awareness . 154, 403 


factors ......... 441 

impact ......... 517 

justice ......... 384 

service payments 387 

sustainability . . . 119 

Erosion . . . 196, 233, 416, 

461 

Essential oil ........ 457 

Estrus synchronisation 87 

Ethiopia 21, 233, 252, 354, 

372, 373, 416– 

419, 430, 496 

Ethno-botanical remedies 

........... 55 

Ethno-botany . . ..... 201 

Eucalyptus ..... 230, 312 

Euphorbia tirucalli . . 123 

Euphorbiaceae ...... 159 

Eutrophication ...... 464 

Evaluation ..... 410, 412 

Evapo-transpiration . . 229 

Ex situ ............. 242 

Exogenous variables . 463 

Expert’snetwork .... 558 

Export certifications . 340 

Extension ...... 339, 414 

service .... 192, 209, 

245, 312, 349 

Extractivism ........ 260 

F 

Fairtrade ........... 338 

Fallout radionuclides 197 

Farm 

income .......... 91 

Farm 

investments .... 357 

profitability .... 391 

size ............ 350 

worker ......... 497 

yields .......... 507 

Farmer 

cooperatives .... 344 

decision making 275 

field schools . . . . 425 

preferences ...... 45 

perceptions 332, 423, 

431 

Farming system . . 78, 95, 

519 

Farmland terraces . . . 233 

Feed 

intake ........... 30 

supplementation 

strategies . . . 90 

Feeding 

strategies . . . 92, 109 

trial ............. 24 

Feedstock .......... 356 

Fencedseedisles ..... 19 

Fennel ............. 477 

Fermentation ......... 72 

Fertiliser . . 150, 188, 205, 

207, 209, 215, 

353, 537 

Fibre digestibility ..... 97 

Financial 

instruments . . . . . 435 

mechanism ..... 435 

vulnerability . . . . 401 

Finger millet . . . ..... 489 

Fire management . . . . 297 

Firewood ........... 395 

Fish 

culture .......... 74 

feed ............ 75 

meal ............ 76 

replacement . . . 64 

Fishponds ........ 77,78

Floristic composition 251, 

294, 299 

Flowers ............ 148 

Flyingfoxes ........ 244 

Food 

crisis .......... 453 

demand ........ 430 

insecurity . . 339, 433 

prices ..... 433, 441 


quality ......... 436 

security . 56, 77, 113, 

117, 208, 210, 

226, 238, 284, 

310, 430, 438, 

441, 443, 447, 

508, 533 

sustainability . . . 479 

systems ........ 432 

types .......... 436 

Forage 

legumes . 60, 61, 181 

production . . 34, 129 

Forest .............. 295 

degradation .... 272 

dependency 274, 283 

management . . . 281, 

282, 291, 321 

plantation . 251, 294, 

299, 300 

primary ........ 319 

regeneration . . . 281, 

282 

resource . ...... 274 

restoration . . . . . 296 

secondary ...... 319 

structure . . . 281, 282 

Forest-pasture frontier 

.......... 384 

Forestry models . . . . . 290 

Francophone Africa . 333 

Fruit 

indigenous ..... 495 

fly ............. 143 

Fruit 

phenology ...... 309 

production ..... 244 

quality . . . . 124, 125 

Fuelload ........... 208 

Functional analysis . . 130 

Fungal growth ...... 494 

Fusarium ...... 115, 132 

oxysporum ..... 134 

headblight ..... 155 

toxin ............ 81 

Fuzzy evaluation . . . . 521 

G 

Gamma irradiation . . 494 

Garlic ................ 68 

Gas production ....... 31 

Gender ............. 344 

sensitive ....... 557 

Genebank .......... 200 

Genetic 

background .... 164 

component ..... 133 

differentiation . . 311 

diversity .... 41,227 

engineering . . . . . . 12 

gain ............ 39 

resources . . 200, 242 

variation .... 51,279 

Genetics . . . .......... 49 

Genomics ............ 12 

Geographical indication 

.......... 327 

Geospatial distribution 

.......... 210 

Germination . . . 107, 131, 

142, 309 

Germplasm . 12, 135, 223, 

227 

Ghana ..... 322, 337, 343 

Gibberellic acid . .... 107 

Ginger ............... 69 

Gini coefficient ..... 399 

GIS ....... 197, 461, 518 


GlobalGAP ........ 331 

Globalwarming ..... 481 

Goats . . . . . . 52, 87, 94, 96 

Gossypium .......... 248 

Governance ......... 454 

attributes ....... 385 

GPS ......... 27,28,452 

Grassbarriers ....... 196 

Grassland ............ 33 

productivity . . . . 534 

Grazing . . 21, 25, 29, 261 

distribution ...... 28 

gradient ......... 22 

itineraries ...... 452 

system .......... 30 

Greenrevolution ..... 35 

Greenhouse gases . . . 517 

Grossmargin ....... 391 

Ground cover technique 

.......... 119 

Groundnut . . 24, 434, 494 

Groundwater . ....... 386 

Group 

dynamics ...... 331 

interactions . . . . . 425 

Growth 

characteristics . . 309 

model ......... 512 

performance ..... 30 

rates ............ 30 

Guava .............. 143 

Guineapig ........... 61 

H 

Habitat . . ........... 124 

Haematology ..... 69,74 

Haemonchus contortus 55 

Harmattan . . ........ 210 

Health 

monitoring ..... 498 

Heat 

stress ....... 70,141 

susceptibility index . 

141 

579


Heavy metals ....... 190 

Hedgerows ......... 218 

Herbage production . . 21, 

26 

Herbivore assemblage . 26 

Herd 

management ..... 20 

tracking ........ 452 

Herders .............. 39 

Herding ......... 23,452 

Homegarden . . . 226, 363, 

365 

Honey ............... 32 

Horse ............. 48,82 

Horticultural production 

...... 329, 336 

Hostresistance ...... 163 

Hotspotmapping .... 541 

Household .......... 400 

indebtedness . . . 401 

welfare ........ 422 

Human nutrition ..... 205 

Human-wildlife conflict 

.......... 322 

Humic acids ........ 234 

Husbandry systems . . . 90 

Hybrid seed adoption 348 

Hybridisation ........ 40 

Hydatidosis .......... 54 

Hydro-economic model 

.......... 511 

Hydrogen cyanide . . . 167 

Hydrus-2D software . 122 

I 

Imageprocessing .... 456 

Impact assessment 

330, 349, 352, 

392, 414, 509 

Importance value index 

.......... 259 

Improved 

fallow ......... 549 

germplasm . . . . . 353 

580 

Improved 

seed ........... 373 

In situ .............. 242 

conservation . . . 118, 

225 

Income 

generation . 274, 293 

inequality ...... 399 

Incubation .......... 524 

India . . 194, 246, 272, 338 

Indicator species 549, 553 

Indigenous 

knowledge 280, 284, 

372, 418, 421 

system ...... 252 

Indonesia . 280, 288, 334, 

403, 492, 516 

Induced resistance . . . 167 

Inga edulis ......... 256 

Innovation . 410, 417, 481 

Inocula ............. 128 

Input supply system . 318 

Insect 

pests ........... 156 

resistant ........ 130 

Insecticide resistance 116 

Insectivorous bats . . . 239 

Institutional arrangements 

........... 385 

Integrated 

crop management . . . 

358 

farming ......... 35 

pest management . . . 

165, 169 

Intelligent irrigation . 466 

Interactive research . . 418 

Intercropping . . 126, 176, 

218 

Investment .......... 514 

IPM ............ 153, 171 

Iran . . . 93, 191, 243, 302, 

386, 388, 431, 

462, 463 

Irrigation . 193, 365, 373, 

386, 453, 466 

cotton ......... 358 

interval ........ 211 

knowledge ..... 462 


organisation . . . . 455 

scheme ........ 454 

Irvingia gabonensis . . 309 

J 

Japanese quails . . . 62, 73 

Jatropha curcas . 75, 395, 

469, 573 

K 

Kenya . 47, 166, 307, 329, 

336, 339, 368, 

404, 411, 421, 

433, 446, 528 

Knowledge 


platform ....... 558 

training ........ 209 

Kyrgyzstan ......... 321 

L 

Labor productivity . . . 350 

Lagoon fishery ....... 65 

Land 

degradation 21, 460, 

528, 554 

market ......... 350 

productivity .... 350 

reclamation . . . . 251, 

290, 294 

reform . . . . 275, 350 

rental markets . . 397 

tenure ..... 285, 523 

Landuse ....... 519, 529 

change . . . . 202, 247, 

362, 510, 519, 

522, 529, 535

Land use 

conversion ..... 292 

design ......... 361 

history ......... 197 

intensity ....... 548 

land cover change . . . 

520, 523, 531 

management .... 553 

systems ........ 301 

Landscape ..... 539, 548 

modelling ...... 527 

assessment ..... 541 

use ............ 517 

Laser backscattering . 484 

Leaf 

gas exchange . . . 111 

index .......... 320 

Leafmeal ............ 83 

Learning processes . . 409, 

412, 425 

Lechuguilla torr ..... 259 

Legumes ....... 126, 186 

Leopardmoth ....... 170 

Leucaena leucocephala 

. 182, 218, 320 

Life cycle assessment 340 

Light 

extinction coefficient 

232 

traps ........... 156 

Limestone mountains 276 

Linear mixed models 530 

Livelihood 274, 283, 363, 

399, 412, 439 


strategies . . 355, 360 

system ......... 400 

Livestock . 20, 27, 56, 88, 

296 

diseases ......... 53 

insurances ....... 18 


productivity ..... 89 

Local 

cultivars ....... 223 

innovation ...... 418 

knowledge ..... 411 

livelihood . . . . . . 405 

Logical framework . . 414 

Logitanalysis ....... 374 

Lottery choice task decision 

.......... 382 

Low input farming . . . 248 

Lowlandrice ........ 112 

LPG ................ 468 

M 

Magnaporthe spp. . . 155, 

164 

Maize . 80, 115, 133, 153, 

180, 182, 196, 

207, 209, 218, 

239, 316, 479, 

507, 551 

drying ......... 473 

germination .... 480 

rotation ........ 214 

weevil ......... 480 

white .......... 231 

Malawi ........ 369, 400 

Malaysia ....... 291, 439 

Malmquistindex .... 398 

Management 

capacity . . . 389, 390 

practices ....... 241 

scenarios ....... 554 

Mango . . . . 127, 143, 456, 

482–484 

Mangrove ecosystem 405 

Manure . . . 109, 207, 228, 

236 

Marginal environments 

.......... 443 

Marindtribe ........ 280 

Marinepollutants .... 465 

Marker-assisted selection 

.......... 110 


Market ............. 332 

failures ........ 385 

instruments . . . . . 341 

orientation strategies 

344, 420 

oriented agriculture . 

420 

Marlysoils ......... 191 

Material flow analysis 148 

Matrix pressing . . . . . 469 

Mediated participation 

.......... 409 

Medicago 

sativa .......... 262 

truncatula ...... 198 

Melanin ............ 160 

Mesofauna .......... 298 

Metal bioavailability . 234 

Methane ............ 240 

Methanol ........... 138 

Mexico ............. 376 

Micro-catchment .... 193 

Microfinance ........ 435 

Micronutrient . . . .... 491 

Microorganisms ..... 497 

Microsatellites . . 51, 256, 

311 

Migrantsreturn ..... 396 

Migration ...... 376, 392 

Milk 

borne disease . . . 496 

compounds ...... 93 

data ............. 93 


Milkfish ............. 78 

Millet offal . ......... 80 

Minimum tillage 196, 218 

Mitigation . ......... 435 

Mixed cropping ..... 182 

Mixed 

farming 24, 109, 182 

grazing ......... 28 

Mobile phone . . 332, 343 

581


Model .............. 291 

fitting ..... 512, 513 

Modelling . 507, 513, 519, 

524, 532, 536 

Molasses ............ 66 

Molecular 

genetic analysis 130, 

252 

marker ......... 225 

Momordica charantia 254 

Mongolia ............ 29 

Monitoring ..... 124, 412 

Montane ecosystems . 202 

Moringa oleifera ..... 87 

Morocco ........... 537 

Multi-layer distribution 

.......... 334 

Multi-stakeholder . . . 419 

Multipurpose forages 316 

Mungbean .......... 200 

Municipal solid waste 246 

Musa ..... 111, 223, 290 

Myanmar ........... 289 

Mycoides ............ 40 

Mycoplasma ......... 40 

Mycorrhiza 133, 195, 250 

Mycotoxin ...... 81,151 

Myzus persicae ...... 116 

N 

N 

balance . ....... 261 

supply . . ....... 185 

15N ........... 216 

Namibia ............ 390 

Napier grass variety . . . 31 

Natural 

abundance method . . 

214 

forest . . ........ 291 

resource management 

18, 404, 523 

regeneration .... 270 

shocks 354, 445, 532 

582 

NDVI ...... 528, 534, 554 

Neemextract ....... 132 

Neglected species . . . 252 

Nepal ....... 56,313, 418 

Nicaragua .......... 330 

Niger ...... 418, 453, 460 

Nigeria . . . 121, 131, 269, 

312, 367, 476 

Nile tilapia . . . ........ 77 

NIRS ....... 34,189, 482 

Nitratepollution ..... 464 

Nitrogen ............ 161 

emission ....... 236 

fixation ........ 214 


Nitrogenase ......... 212 

Nitrous oxide ....... 240 

Nodules ............ 212 

Nomads .............. 20 

Non-destructive 

analysis ........ 484 

method ........ 482 

Nonsteroidal drugs . . . 63 

NTFP ..... 269, 270, 284 

Nutrient ........ 240, 373 

composition .... 495 

content ........ 179 


fluxes .......... 235 

growth profiling 128 

omission ....... 552 

source . . . ...... 210 

supply ......... 239 

turnover ........ 228 

use efficiency . . 235, 

365 

Nutritional adequacy . 436 

O 

Oasisagriculture .... 228 

Oestrus synchronisation 

........... 49 

Off-farm income 397, 441 

Oil 

extraction . . .... 469 

glands ......... 486 

Oil palm . . . 257, 328, 516 

Oilseedrape ........ 139 

Olivetree ........... 170 

Oman ........... 51,236 

Openairmarkets .... 446 

Opportunity cost . . . . 285 

Optical multispectral 

imagery . . 523 

Orabanche ......... 211 

Oranges ........ 457, 478 

storage .... 457, 478 

Organic ............ 180 

farming 35, 149, 248, 

250, 338, 374 

fertilisers . . 213, 236 

matter management . 

228, 353, 542 

residue quality . . 237 

wastes ......... 184 

Organisational capacity 

.......... 429 

Orobanchol . ........ 137 

Orobanchyl acetate . . 137 

Overgrazing ......... 33 

P 

Paddy 

hydrology ...... 527 

model ......... 527 

soils ........... 213 

Pair-correlation function 

.......... 278 

Pakistan ............ 129 

Palm . . 115, 257, 328, 516 

Pantraps ........... 124 

Panama ............ 308 

Papua ............... 280 

Paraguay ....... 293, 317 

Parashorea malaanonan 

.......... 311 

Parasites . . ..... 136, 156

Parasitic weeds ...... 159 

Paravets ............. 44 

Parklands ........... 525 

Participatory 

breeding ....... 248 

innovation . . . . . . 419 

planning ....... 444 

vulnerability 

assessment 437 

Passivesamplers .... 465 

Pastoral 


resilience . . .... 368 

user group . . . 19, 88, 

421 

Pastoralism ...... 91,508 

Pea ................. 153 

Pentaclethra macrophylla 

........... 76 

Pepper ............. 374 

Performance . . 71, 72, 81 

Peru . . 179, 256, 310, 319, 

435 

PES ................ 390 

Pest management . . . 158, 

162, 298, 373 

Pesticide use 

148, 153, 154, 

162, 171, 188 

Phaseolus vulgaris . . 169 

Phenology .......... 108 

Phenotypic characterisation 

........... 48 

Phosphorus . . . . 128, 195 

availability ..... 186 

nutrition . . . .... 208 

Photosynthetic activity 

...... 287, 314 

Phthorimaea operculella 

.......... 165 

Physicnut .......... 469 

Physiological traits . . 258 

Phytase .............. 75 

Phytate .............. 75 

Phytochemical screening 

........... 83 

Phytodiversity ...... 313 

Phytometer ......... 124 

Phytopthora infestans 152 

Phytoremediation . . . 190, 

234 

Pigment ............ 211 

Piosphere ............ 22 

Piper methysticum ... 280 

Pistachio ....... 302, 386 

Pisum sativum ...... 130 

Plant 

adaptation ...... 181 

biometry ....... 125 

breeding .... 12,443 

coverage ....... 241 

defense proteins 198 

diversity . . . 226, 259 

strategies ........ 22 

Plantations . 32, 257, 289, 

298, 308 

Platonia insignis .... 260 

Plum ............... 118 

Poetry .............. 560 

Pollination ..... 124, 244 

Pollutedareas ....... 190 

Populus euphratica . . 286 

Post harvest 

handling ....... 456 

losses .......... 479 

loss management 473 

Post hatching . ....... 73 

Potato 150, 152, 153, 158 

insectpests .... 165 

quality seed .... 150 

Poverty . . . 329, 391, 401, 

441 

alleviation . . 95, 399, 

403 

reduction . 117, 330, 

342 

Pro-poor . ........... 271 

Probit .......... 343, 513 


Producer price . ..... 337 

Production 

characteristics . . . 96 

function . . ...... 217 

Productive activities . 295 

Productivity . . . . 126, 441 

Prolificacy ........... 87 

Propagation technique 

.......... 120 

Propensity score matching 

. 327, 342, 392 

Prosopis ....... 296, 320 

Protected areas . . . . . 372 

Prunus divaricata ... 118 

Pseudomonas fluorescens 

.......... 134 

Public-private partnership 

.......... 246 

Push-pull technology 166 

Pyrosequencing . . . . . 116 

Q 

Quality assessment . . 456 

Quebracho ........... 97 

Quinoa ............. 247 

Quorum sensing ..... 167 

R 

Rabbit ........ 61,79–81 

Radiation 

absorption ...... 288 

modelling . ..... 288 

Radio frequency 480, 483, 

499 

Rainfall . . . 229, 515, 554 

prediction . ..... 121 

Rainfed farming . . . . . 194 

Rainforest . . .... 275, 288 

Ralstonia solanacearum 

...... 167, 168 

Rambutan .......... 126 

Rangeland ........... 20 

management ..... 33 

species . . ....... 142 

583


Real time expression . 128 

Recombination . ...... 40 

Redlist ............. 276 

REDD ......... 285, 341 

Reforestation . . 273, 297, 

308 

Relay cropping . 196, 218 

Religion ............ 422 

Remittance . . . ...... 392 

Remote sensing 197, 518, 

520 

Renewable energy . . . 475 

Reproduction control . 63 

Resettlement ........ 360 

Resilience . . 11, 305, 359, 

363, 370, 383, 

415, 418, 429, 

439, 444, 445, 

460, 556 

of ecosystems . . 435 

to drought ....... 88 

Resin ............... 302 

Resistance ..... 155, 223 

breeding ....... 110 

genes .......... 164 

Restoration ...... 36,554 

Rhizobacteria . . 134, 167, 

168, 198 

Ribosomal DNA . . . . 250 

Rice . . . 10, 119, 156, 164, 

188, 240, 255 

blast ........... 164 

export ......... 442 

lowland ........ 112 

straw ........... 89 

upland ......... 186 

Risk . . 217, 354, 445, 557 

assessment . . . . . 171 

aversion ........ 383 

factor .......... 229 

factors ......... 496 

preferences ..... 382 

Rock phosphate .... 199 

584 

Root 

anatomy ....... 127 

angle .......... 195 

knot . . . ........ 241 

Rooting behaviour . . . 181 

Rosemary .......... 457 

Rubber . . . . 257, 292, 522 

Rural 

communities 95, 444, 

495 

development . . . 117, 

357, 396, 556, 

557 

households 327, 357 

livelihoods . 310, 327 

migrants ....... 398 

poverty ........ 327 

women economy 284 

S 

Safflower ........... 211 

Sahel . . 27, 112, 383, 453, 

460 

Sainfoin ............ 262 

Salinity ............. 537 

Salt 

stress ...... 187, 249 

tolerance . . 139, 187 

Salvadora persica . . . 184 

Sand encroachment . . 518 

Sanitation .......... 149 

Savannah . . . . 25, 26, 208 

School feeding ...... 424 

Sclerotinia sclerotiorum 

.......... 169 

Seasonal migration . . . 23 

Seed 

sources ........ 318 

supply ......... 273 

quality ......... 205 

Seedling mortality . . . 282 

Selection 

bias ........... 391 

marker assisted . 110 

Selection 

differential . . .... 46 

Selfselectivity ...... 386 

Semi-arid . . 216, 359, 520 

grassland ....... 261 

Sensitivity analysis . . 230 

Sesame ............. 232 

seedyield ...... 227 

Sewage sludge ...... 183 

Shade 

canopy . . . . 305, 111 

trees ...... 306, 314 

Shanklish ........... 485 

Sheatree ........... 107 

Sheep ......... 29,52,54 

Shifting cultivation . . 257 

Shorea contorta ..... 311 

Shrimp ...... 78,162, 405 

Siderophore . . . ...... 167 

Silage quality . . . ..... 98 

Silicon ............. 168 

Similarity index ..... 262 

Skyfarming ........ 255 

Slash-and-burn . 316, 551 

Sludge ............. 234 

Small ruminants ...... 55 

Smallholder 

47, 49, 89, 194, 

322, 328, 329, 

336, 337, 365, 

367, 411, 418, 

438, 455, 529 

agriculture 400, 429, 

455 

coffee production . . . 

366 

horticulture . . . . . 331 

plantations ..... 317 

Social 

capital 344, 416, 422 

change . . . . 409, 560 

factors ......... 201 

forestry ........ 317 

learning ........ 416

Social 

mechanisms .... 532 

network analysis . 44 

networks . . 382, 417 

phenomena ..... 532 

resilience . . .... 560 

Socio-economic impact 

...... 317, 375 

Soil ................. 199 

acidity . . . ...... 181 

aggregate stability . . 

178 

amendment 193, 230 

C/Nstocks ..... 119 

carbon .... 178, 257, 

292, 541 

chemical properties . 

189 

conservation . . . 182, 

196, 218, 416, 

460 

constraints . . . . . 552 

cover .......... 196 

degradation ...... 33 

erosion 233, 416, 461 

fertility . . . 109, 179, 

214, 313 

health .......... 213 

improvement .... 33 

macro-invertebrates . 

549 

macrofauna 178, 553 

management . . . 238 

profile ......... 542 

properties . 183, 184, 

191 

quality .... 238, 247, 

542, 553 

salinity . . ...... 365 

water content . . . 122 

water infiltration 122 

Solanum lycopersicum 

.......... 168 

Sorghum . . . 98, 110, 161, 

195, 364, 551 

South Africa 22, 176, 411, 

422 

SouthAmerica ...... 517 

Soybean . . 138, 212, 214, 

239 

harvest index . . . 138 

import demand . 440 

oil .............. 68 

Spatial 

information .... 461 

planning ........ 19 

point pattern analysis 

278 

Species 

diversity . . . 262, 319 

richness . . . 243, 319 

Spillover effects . . . . . 434 

Sporulation ......... 128 

Stable isotopes . 182, 218 

Stem borers . ........ 156 

Stevia .............. 493 

Stipa baicalensis .... 249 

Stochastic frontier analysis 

...... 366, 530 

Stockingrate ......... 29 

Stomata ............ 253 

Stover .............. 180 

Strawcompost ...... 213 

Strawberry .......... 149 

Stresstolerance ..... 205 

Striga 110, 133, 157, 161, 

166 

infestation . ..... 364 

genotypes ...... 137 

Strigolactones . . 137, 159 

Stylosanthes guianensis 

.......... 181 

Sudan . . . ......... 23,48, 

53, 54, 96, 143, 

225, 281, 282, 

518, 520 

Sudanianzone ....... 27 


Suicidal germination . 159 

Sunflower .......... 176 

Supermarkets ....... 446 

Supply chain ........ 334 

Surface water quality 463 

Sustainability . . 124, 305, 

338, 432, 511 


Sustainable 

agriculture . 35, 247, 

351, 549 

development 36, 432 

forest management . . 

274, 277, 291 

System of rice intensification 

..... 240, 

349 

T 

Tannins ......... 97,228 

Tanzania ....... 254, 341 

Taro ................. 62 

Taxon-free method . . . 22 

Teak ....... 279, 289, 298 

Technical 


inefficiency ..... 364 

Technology 332, 410, 476 

Tectona grandis ..... 289 

Telfaria occidentalis .. 79 

Tenure security . ..... 397 

Termites . . . .... 178, 217 

Terracing ........... 292 

Thailand . . 182, 218, 327, 

357, 401, 456 

Theory of planned 

behaviour 

431 

388, 

Thyme .............. 457 

Tibetan plateau ....... 36 

Tickcontrol .......... 43 

Tilapia .............. 63 

Tillage ......... 176, 178 

Timber production . . . 291 

585


TimorLeste ......... 349 

Tobacco ............ 234 

Tomato . . . 167, 168, 171, 

343, 373 

Traditional 

beverage ....... 497 

dairy products . . 485 

knowledge 121, 201, 

462 

medicine . . 114, 254 

Transformation ....... 10 

Transgenic pea . . . . . . 130 

Trapsystem ......... 143 

Trees 

planting initiatives . . 

293, 318 

seed program . . . 273 

tapped ......... 270 

Trichoderma ........ 115 

Trichuris ovis ........ 55 

Triclopyr ........... 161 

Tunnel dryer ........ 475 

U 

Ulmus pumila L. .... 286 

Ultisol . ............ 179 

Underutilised species 252 

Unobserved heterogeneity 

.......... 530 

Uplandrice ......... 186 

Urban 

agriculture ..... 432 

fringe ........... 92 

resiliency ...... 432 

Urbanisation ........ 432 

UV ................. 113 

radiation . . ..... 160 

V 

Value chain 333, 337, 393 

addition ........ 269 

analysis ........ 355 

approach . . . .... 447 

586 

Value chain 


chain development . . 

333 

Vegetables ..... 228, 521 

Vegetation 

communities . . . . . 22 

cover ........... 21 

index .......... 528 

type ............ 25 

Vertical farming ..... 255 

Vietnam . . . 52, 188, 196, 

274, 278, 291, 

350, 362, 382, 

401, 414, 415, 

442, 521 

Visual problem appraisal 

.......... 409 

Vitamin E . . .......... 81 

Vitellaria paradoxa . . 107 

Vocational training . . 398 

Vulnerability 

328, 338, 351, 

444, 515, 539 

W 

Walnut ............. 321 

Waste water ......... 537 

Water 

availability ..... 243 

conservation .... 388 

contamination . . 465 

crisis .......... 375 

deficiency . 113, 258, 

455, 461 

erosion .......... 21 

footprint ....... 517 

harvesting system . . . 

462 


pollution . . 188, 467 

quality . . . . . 74, 301 

resources ....... 515 

rights trading . . . 511 

Water 

saving 112, 455, 466 

spreading weirs . 460 

use ............ 182 

efficiency . . . 231, 

314 

intensity ..... 375 

rights ....... 511 

Water buffalo . . . ..... 50 

Water leaf .......... 490 

Watershed management 

.......... 301 

Weed 

biomass ........ 185 

species composition . 

185 

Well-being-ranking . . 271 

WestAfrica ..... 92,333 

Wheat . 89, 113, 141, 206, 

216, 507 

blast ........... 155 

flour ........... 489 

Vigna .............. 200 

Wildlife ............ 322 

Willingness to pay . . . 446 

Winderosion ....... 518 

Women ............. 402 

Woodfuel . . . ........ 468 

consumption . . . 468 

demand ........ 468 

Working condition . . . 402 

Y 

Yak .................. 56 

Yam ................ 474 

Yield gap . . 207, 371, 507 

analysis ....... 516 

Z 

Zambia . ............ 429 

Zimbabwe . ......... 369 

Zn .................. 190 

bioavailability . . 490

Proceedings - Tropentag

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