Tropentag 2006 - Book of Abstracts

Tropentag 2006 

International Research on Food Security, Natural 

Resource Management and Rural Development 

Prosperity and Poverty in a 

Globalised World — Challenges 

for Agricultural Research 

Book of Abstracts 

Editors: Folkard Asch, Mathias Becker 

Implementation: Andreas Deininger 

University of Bonn, 

October 11-13, 2006

Impressum 

Die Deutsche Bibliothek — Cataloguing in Publication-Data (CIP) 

Prosperity and Poverty in a Globalised World — Challenges for Agricultural 

Research: international research on food security, natural resource management and 

rural development; book of abstracts / Tropentag 2006 Bonn. 

Hrsg.: Folkard Asch, Mathias Becker 

ISBN: 3-937941-08-8 

© Rheinische Friedrich-Wilhelms-Universität Bonn, Institute of Crop Science and 

Resource Conservation — Division of Plant Nutrition, Bonn, Germany 

Editors: 

Folkard Asch, Mathias Becker, Andreas Deininger, Prathap Pugalenthi 

Layout: 

Andreas Deininger, Folkard Asch 

Typesetting: 

LATEX 2ε 

Bonner Agrikulturchemische Reihe (BAR), Bonn 

Printed by: 

Hausdruckerei der Universität Bonn 

Am Hof 1 

53113 Bonn 

September 2006 

The authors of the articles are solely responsible for the content of their contribution. 

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval 

system, or transmitted in any form or by any means without prior permission of the 

copyright owners.

Preface 

The TROPENTAG is the International Conference on Research on Food Security, Natural 

Resource Management and Rural Development - an annual event alternately organised 

by the Universities of Berlin (Humboldt), Bonn, Göttingen, Kassel (Witzenhausen) 

and Hohenheim in co-operation with the Council for Tropical and Subtropical 

Agricultural Research (ATSAF) and the GTZ Advisory Service on Agricultural 

Research for Development (BEAF). The TROPENTAG 2006 is the eighth annual 

meeting providing a forum for young scientists, students and experts from Germany, 

The Netherlands, Austria and Switzerland and from the developing world involved 

in research for development. The conference theme is “Prosperity and Poverty in a 

globalized world: Challenges for international agricultural research”. 

The process of globalization is improves the access to knowledge and information, 

and, in part, to global markets. But globalization implies also the awareness of 

global implications and “off-site” effects and hence the taking of responsibility for 

the action of individuals, groups or organizations regarding resource use and misuse. 

Land, freshwater, energy, and biodiversity in natural and agricultural ecosystems are 

resources increasingly at stake. This leads to a global use of local resources, with 

global actors increasingly dominating the competition for access to these resources. 

Conflicts for land and water, energy and genetic resources are ongoing in many parts 

of the developing world. While globalization and rapid advances in research are meant 

to benefit mankind at large, there are in reality winners and losers. For example, the 

globalisation of food markets and the regulations of production favour food industries 

rather than smallholder agriculture. With increasing globalisation, local food chains 

are articulated into a global food web, in which large-scale agriculture serves the 

world market while smallholder agriculture serves domestic demands. 

In view of the growing world population, the supply with agricultural commodities 

and food, food security, -quality and -safety must be achieved through an ever more 

efficient use of resources. Such efficiency gains must be combined with an improved 

equity in resource access to allow all stakeholders to benefit from globalization and 

to avoid further conflicts for resources. With complex socio-ecological interactions, 

the research and development efforts must increasingly look beyond disciplinary and 

geophysical boundaries to contribute to the Millennium Development Goals. In this 

context, international agricultural research is seen to provide methods, technologies, 

approaches and new impulses to allow rural populations to sustain income and pro- 

3

duction in harmony with nature, while providing sufficient quality food, clean water 

and energy and a healthy environment to cities. A multitude of new issues arise in 

the field of resource definition, allocation, and use. Who is left out in the process 

of globalization and why? What are the implications for urban and rural livelihood? 

What are on-site and off-site effects on the environment and natural resources? What 

can international agricultural research do to maximize the benefits of globalization 

without marginalizing a segment of the population or to balance the growing need for 

the production of sufficient, high quality food for an increasing world population with 

concerns for the environment? 

The TROPENTAG 2006 is provides a forum to discuss the globalization theme in 

relation to issues of livelihood, poverty and agricultural land use. Participants present 

new scientific findings in different areas of international agricultural research, and can 

interact with donors, policy makers and fellow scientists. In this regard, the Tropentag 

2006 is seen to contribute the political aims of poverty alleviation, food security and 

environmental protection as well as to intercultural dialogue and exchange. 

The organisers are overwhelmed by the large number of submitted contributions from 

more than 700 scientists coming from 72 countries in Europe, Africa, Asia and Latin 

America. This large international interest underlines the TROPENTAG’s reputation 

as an international event on the agenda of the development oriented scientific community 

and decision makers alike. The programme and proceedings are published at 

www.tropentag.de. The organisers acknowledge the generous support by the following 

institutions: 

• Bayer Crop Science 

• Bundesministerium für wirtschaftliche Zusammenarbeit und Entwicklung (BMZ) 

— Federal Ministry for Economic Cooperation and Development 

• Deutsche Gesellschaft für Technische Zusammenarbeit (GTZ) GmbH — German 

Technical Cooperation 

• Deutsche Phytomedizinische Gesellschaft e.V. 

• NRW Stiftung Natur-Heimat-Kultur — Foundation for Nature and Culture, North 

Rhine Westphalia 

• Stiftung Internationale Begegnungen der Sparkasse Bonn — Foundation for 

International Encounters and Cultural Exchange 

• Vater and Sohn Eiselen Stiftung - Eiselen Foundation Ulm 

• Association for the Promotion of ARTS e.V. 

Bonn, September 2006 

for the Organising and Scientific Committee 

Mathias Becker 

Folkard Asch 

Richard Sikora 

4

Contents 

Plenary Session 7 

I Development Economics 9 

a) Markets, Liberalisation and Policies 11 

b) Poverty reduction and Development research 17 

c) Conflicts, Challenges and Diversification 23 

d) Livelihood, Education and Development 29 

II Plants and Soils 37 

a) Plant Production Systems 39 

b) Plant Nutrition and Soils 45 

c) Organic Farming and Organic Compounds 53 

d) Stresses and Biodiversity 59 

III Production Systems and Environment 65 

a) Regional Water Issues and Pollution 67 

b) Farming Systems Management 73 

c) Social Ecology and Land Use 81 

d) Regional Forest Issues 87 

IV Animal Sciences 93 

a) Molecular Genetics and Biodiversity 95 

b) Animal Nutrition 101 

c) Animal Production Systems 107 

V GIS, Modeling and Technology 113 

a) GIS, Modeling and Technology 115 

VI Crops and Soil 123 

a) Crop Production and Management 125 

b) Mixed Cropping Organic Farming 141 

c) Soil Biology and Fertility 157 

d) Biotic Stresses: Fungi and Bacteria 173 

e) Biotic Stresses: Biocontrol 185 

5

VII Water and Forest 197 

a) Forests for Livelihood 199 

b) Agroforestry and Forest Assessment 215 

c) Water Management and Hydrology 229 

d) Water and Waste Management 243 

e) Drought, Irrigation and Water Use 253 

VIIITechnology, Models and GIS 265 

a) GIS and Remote Sensing 267 

b) Model Use in Agriculture 279 

c) Agricultural Technology 293 

d) Biodiversity 309 

e) BIOTA Project 323 

IX Resource and Policy Economics 341 

a) Economic Valuation 343 

b) Conflicts and Stakeholder Involvement 357 

c) Globalization and Liberalization 373 

d) Knowledge and Education 387 

X Institutions and Systems 395 

a) Institutions and Social Capital 397 

b) Social Ecology 411 

c) Adoption and Impact Assessment 425 

e) Poverty (GTZ) 437 

XI Animals and Production Systems 449 

a) Animal Genetics and Breeding 451 

b) Animal Nutrition: Ruminants 469 

c) Animal Nutrition: Chicken and Pigs 477 

d) Endogenous Development by livestock keepers 485 

e) Evaluation of Animal Production Systems 497 

6 

Index of Authors 513

Plenary Session 

13:20 HANS VON GINKEL, Under-Secretary General of the UN, 

Rector of the United Nations University in Tokyo, Japan 

13:50 MARITTA VON BIEBERSTEIN KOCH-WESER, Founder and 

President of Earth 3000, Chief Executive Officer 

Global Exchange for Social Investment 

14:20 in memoriam Sir Hans Singer 

FRANZ HEIDHUES, University of Hohenheim, Germany 

14:30 SIMON MAXWELL, Director, Overseas Development Institute 

London, UK 

7

Tropentag 2006 — University of Bonn 

8

Development Economics 

a) Markets, Liberalisation and Policies 11 

b) Poverty reduction and Development research 17 

c) Conflicts, Challenges and Diversification 23 

d) Livelihood, Education and Development 29 

9


10

Markets, Liberalisation and Policies 

Invited Paper 12 

ARNAB K. BASU: 

Trade Liberalisation, Non-tariff Barriers and Market Access 12 

Oral Presentations 13 

CHRISTINE CHEMNITZ, NANA KUENKEL: 

Standards, A Catalyst for the Winners - a Barrier for the 

Losers? An Empirical Analysis of the Impact of Higher 

SPS Measures on the Trade Performance of Developing 

Countries 13 

MEIKE WOLLNI, MANFRED ZELLER: 

Coffee Cultivation in the Presence of Market Imperfections: 

an Analysis of the Factors That Determine Productive Efficiency 

of Coffee Farmers in Costa Rica 14 

MIET MAERTENS: 

High-value Food Supply Chains, Food Standards and Small 

Farmers in Developing Countries. the Case of Horticulture 

Exports from Senegal 15 

KAI MAUSCH, HERMANN WAIBEL, SOLOMON ASFAW, DAG- 

MAR MITHÖFER: 

Impacts of EurepGAP Standard on Vegetable Export Producers 

in Kenya 16 

11


Trade Liberalisation, Non-tariff Barriers and Market Access 

ARNAB K. BASU 

College of William and Mary, Economics and Public Policy, United States 

Does trade liberalisation leads to increased market access for producers in developing 

(Southern) countries into the consumer markets in developed (Northern) countries? 

From the viewpoint of neo-classical trade theory, trade liberalisation should generate 

increased production efficiency for Southern exporters and lead to an increase in the 

volume of trade. However, empirical evidence over the past decade suggests a growing 

marginalisation of smaller producers and poorer farmers in Southern countries 

as they find their access to Northern markets restricted. It is thus worthwhile to ask 

whether conventional trade barriers have been replaced by non-tariff or hidden barriers 

to trade in the form of product labeling, imposition of traceability criteria and global 

value chains, and if so whether there exists (i) strategic export rivalry amongst Southern 

countries to develop their own or implement Northern standards to gain access to 

Northern markets, (ii) evidence that these schemes (labeling, traceability and value 

chains) favour larger and more organised Southern producers at the expense of their 

poorer counterparts, (iii) evidence that certain types of products are relatively more 

vulnerable in terms of gaining access to Northern markets, and (iv) co-ordination problems 

amongst Northern countries with regards to the enactment and implementation 

of product standards. 

Keywords: Consumer markets, global value chains, product standards, trade barriers 

Contact Address: Arnab K. Basu, College of William and Mary, Economics and Public Policy, 

P. O. Box 8795, VA 23187 Williamsburg, United States, e-mail: akbasu@wm.edu 

12 ID 659


Standards, A Catalyst for the Winners - a Barrier for the Losers? 

An Empirical Analysis of the Impact of Higher SPS Measures on 

the Trade Performance of Developing Countries 

CHRISTINE CHEMNITZ 1 , NANA KUENKEL 2 

1Humboldt-Universität Berlin, International Agricultural Trade and Development, Germany 

2Humboldt-Universität Berlin, Agricultural Economics and Social Sciences, Germany 

Within the debate about developing countries export competitiveness the increasing 

importance of food safety and quality standards especially in OECD countries is a 

major source of concern. The paper analyses the trade performance of 73 developing 

countries within the context of stricter SPS measures. The analysis concentrates on 

the meat and fruit/ vegetable sectors as especially high value product sectors are determined 

by standards. The periods under consideration are 1993–1995, a period before 

the implementation of the SPS Agreement and 2002–2004, after the implementation. 

Cluster analyses group the countries according to the variables “ratio” and “difference” 

of the export value to OECD countries between the two time spans, thus describing 

trade performance regarding to the absolute level of change and relative dynamics. 

Subsequently, relations with EU and US border rejections and with STDF (Standards 

and Trade Development Facility) investment are explored. Four major findings should 

be underlined: 1) The group of developing countries shows both in total and in relative 

terms a very heterogeneous picture of their export development and there is no linear 

relation between total export value and direction of development. 2) Ten groups were 

identified for both markets in the cluster analysis, e.g. small winners (in the fruit/ 

vegetable market e.g. Uganda), large winners (in the meat market e.g. Brazil), large 

losers (in the fruit/ vegetable market e.g. Thailand). 3) Most large exporters increased 

their market share, but very successful groups were also found among small exporters 

especially in the fruit/ vegetable sector. 4) Both, border rejections and STDF investments 

did not reflect a particular structure related to market share development of 

individual countries. The data for border rejections indicates very different strategies 

in adjusting to standards. Among the large, dynamic exporters for example, countries 

with a high and low number of rejections are found. Total investment of the STDF 

in individual countries is enormously high, while other countries in the same cluster 

show low or no investment. Future research should focus on single product level. 

Keywords: Cluster Analysis, Competitiveness, Developing Countries, food Safety, 

SPS 

Contact Address: Christine Chemnitz, Humboldt-Universität Berlin, International Agricultural Trade 

and Development, Luisenstraße 56, Berlin, Germany, e-mail: christine.chemnitz@agrar.hu-berlin.de 

ID 564 13


Coffee Cultivation in the Presence of Market Imperfections: an 

Analysis of the Factors That Determine Productive Efficiency of 

Coffee Farmers in Costa Rica 

MEIKE WOLLNI 1 , MANFRED ZELLER 2 

1 Georg-August-University Göttingen, Institute of Rural Development, Germany 

2 University of Hohenheim, Institute of Agricultural Economics and Social Sciences in the 

Tropics and Subtropics, Germany 

World market prices for coffee dropping to their lowest level in a century have casted 

the economic sustainability of coffee production into doubt. Given increased competitive 

pressure in the coffee sector, an efficient organisation of the production process 

becomes essential for farmers to stay in business. The current paper seeks to identify 

those farm and farmer characteristics that explain differences in technical efficiency 

among farmers. 

Technical efficiency is usually associated with farmers’ management skills. As the 

timing of maintenance activities and fertiliser applications matters in the production 

process, timely availability of labour and liquidity are key factors to achieving productive 

efficiency. As a consequence, imperfect labour and capital markets limit farmers 

that do not dispose of sufficient family labour or liquidity sources in their ability to 

produce efficiently. If market access is associated with high transaction costs, cooperatives 

can be an effective means to overcome these constraints. As concerns liquidtiy 

constraints for example, coffee cooperatives in Costa Rica provide farmers with short 

term credit in the form of fertilzers and other agro-chemicals. 

Primary data from 216 coffee farmers in Costa Rica is being used for the econometric 

analysis. We simultaneously estimate a stochastic frontier model and the effects of 

a range of farm-specific variables on technical efficiency levels. Our model does not 

support the hypothesis that missing access to labour markets is a major constraint in 

coffee production in Costa Rica. We find some evidence that liquidity constraints lead 

to decreased efficiency levels. Farmers who pursue other income-generating activities 

besides coffee that provide them with liquidity attain higher levels of productive efficiency. 

However, the effect of total farm size, which is used as an indicator for wealth, 

on productive efficiency is not significant. The analysis further reveals that membership 

in cooperatives plays an important role in helping farmers to produce efficiently. 

Therefore, specialised coffee cooperatives should be fostered to provide farmers with 

access to productive resources and information, whenever market failures prevail. 

Keywords: Coffee production, cooperatives, market imperfections, stochastic frontier 

analysis 

Contact Address: Meike Wollni, Georg-August-University Göttingen, Institute of Rural Development, 

Planckstraße 15, 37073 Göttingen, Germany, e-mail: mwollni1@gwdg.de 

14 ID 513


High-value Food Supply Chains, Food Standards and Small 

Farmers in Developing Countries. the Case of Horticulture 

Exports from Senegal 

MIET MAERTENS 

Catholic University Leuven, LICOS - Centre for Transition Economics, Belgium 

Agricultural supply chains are changing globally with increased importance of food 

standards, increased vertical coordination and large modern retail chains. The impact 

of these changes for developing countries and for small farmers in those countries 

is not yet well understood. We analyse the developments in high-value, high-standards 

food supply chains and the effects for small farmers and rural households for 

the case of horticulture export production in Senegal. We use a unique dataset derived 

from company level interviews and household surveys in the main horticulture zone in 

Senegal. Pervasive food standards have lead to structural changes in the supply chain 

with a shift from contract-farming with small-scale producers to large-scale vertically 

integrated estate-farming. A comprehensive econometric analysis shows that the restructuring 

of the value chain has enhanced an equitable distribution of rents among 

the rural population. Contract-farming, on the one hand increases the gains from 

high-value production and trade that accrue to the rural smallholder population but 

on the other hand, leads to the exclusion of the poorest farmers. Estate-farming and 

associated rural employment have a smaller (albeit still significantly large) effect on 

rural incomes and probably increase the rents from high-value agricultural trade that 

are extracted by large agro-industrial companies but add to the income of the poorest 

households. This challenges the argument made in the literature that high-standards 

food production needs to integrate small farmers as suppliers if it needs to benefit rural 

development and increase the welfare for the poor. Our study suggests that a dualistic 

structure in high-standards supply chains — with smallholder contract-farming and 

large-scale integrated estate-farming, and with small farmers integrated as suppliers 

and as wage workers — is most likely to bring about a balanced development impact 

with both equity and efficiency concerns addressed. 

Keywords: Contract-farming, high-value supply chains, poverty, rural development, 

vertical coordination 

Contact Address: Miet Maertens, Catholic University Leuven, LICOS - Centre for Transition Economics, 

Deberiotstraat 34, 3000 Leuven, Belgium, e-mail: miet.maertens@econ.kuleuven.be 

ID 275 15


Impacts of EurepGAP Standard on Vegetable Export Producers 

in Kenya 

KAI MAUSCH 1 , HERMANN WAIBEL 1 , SOLOMON ASFAW 1 , DAGMAR MITHÖFER 2 

1 University of Hannover, Development and Agricultural Economics, Germany 

2 International Centre of Insect Physiology and Ecology (ICIPE), Kenya 

As the export of fresh fruits and vegetables from Kenya targets, almost exclusively, the 

European market stricter regulations present a challenge for Kenyan agricultural export 

standards, like EurepGAP, introduced by the food industry. These standards have 

become more important in Europe and influence producer decisions in a developing 

country like Kenya. In this context the issue arises if producer standards help Kenyan 

horticulture export or rather act as a trade barrier to them and others. To address 

these issues a study has been conducted that investigates investments for meeting the 

standard and the process of compliance of small to large-scale Kenyan farmers. For 

this paper the central research questions are:(1) What determines the crop portfolio of 

each farm?, (2) What are the certification investments that the indi-vidual farmer has 

to bear? and (3) What determines labour organisation on the differ-ent farm types?. 

The theoretical basis of the study is production theory including risk and institutional 

economics such as transaction cost theory and principle-agent models. 

The study applies the concept of typical farm models to examine the impact of Eurep- 

GAP standard on three types of EurepGAP certified farms. The first model re-fers to 

small-scale farms that are normally organised in groups. The second model describes 

the large- and medium-scale farms contracted by an export company, which mainly 

produce for this company. Finally, the third model incorporates the farms that an export 

company runs itself. As these farm types are very different in many dimensions 

like the organisation of the farm, the structure of decision-making and especially the 

degree of vertical integration of the supply chain, it is necessary to differentiate them. 

The impact of EurepGAP standards on these three types of farms is analysed based 

on interviews of 19 large- and medium-scale private farms, 9 ex-porter owned farms 

and 47 smallholder farms in Kenya. 

Keywords: EurepGAP, horticulture farms, Kenya 

Contact Address: Kai Mausch, University of Hannover, Development and Agricultural Economics, 

Wilhelm-Bluhm Straße 45, 30451 Hannover, Germany, e-mail: kai.mausch@gmx.de 

16 ID 253

Poverty reduction and Development research 

MATHIAS BRAUN, JOACHIM HOFER: 

Knowledge Management in Development Cooperation 18 

HELMUT ALBERT, GEORG SCHAEFER: 

Modes of Delivery in Development Cooperation — Challenges 

for the Agricultural Sector 19 

ANNEMARIE MATTHESS, ANDREAS SPRINGER-HEINZE, STE- 

FANIE ZINSMEYER: 

Value Chain Promotion for Sustainable, Significant Propoor 

Growth: Conditions and Research Needs 20 

UWE SCHOLZ, PETER JARCHAU, KAI WIEGLER: 

Management of Aquatic Resources and Fish Trade: Challenges 

for the German Development Cooperation 21 

CLAUDIA KRAEMER: 

Poverty Reduction and Pro-poor Growth: the German Development 

Cooperation Perspective and the Challenges for 

Agricultural Research 22 

17


Knowledge Management in Development Cooperation 

MATHIAS BRAUN, JOACHIM HOFER 

Deutsche Gesellschaft für Technische Zusammenarbeit (GTZ), Division 45 Agriculture, 

Fisheries and Food, Germany 

The main assets of organisations involved in development cooperation are the knowledge, 

experience and capacities of their staff. Therefore knowledge as an important 

ressource of an organisation has to be used efficiently in the day to day work of their 

personnel. The objective of knowledge management has to be a more systematic handling 

of knowledge. This means it has to be made readily available wherever it’s 

needed. 

One can differentiate technical knowledge (know what), know how, explicit (can be 

documented) and implicit (connected to people) knowledge. Knowledge management 

means that information are collected, validated and are made available to the staff in 

a structured form. For a consultancy company active knowledge management leading 

to widespread usage of our assets has high priority. 

Important structural elements of knowledge management in a learning organisation 

are standardised products; internet based data banks that include e.g. reports, evaluations 

and other project documents (e.g. contracts, planning documents) and special 

events (e.g. workshops, trainings). They document mostly technical and explicit 

knowledge. Face to face communication is an important element to collect implicit 

knowledge (e.g. debriefing when change of personnel is taking place). The main target 

groups for knowledge management are staff, external consultants and specialists 

and the main customers. 

An important source of data for knowledge management in a company engaged in development 

are recent learning experiences from ongoing and completed interventions 

in development cooperation (e.g. methodology, approach, benchmarks and contacts). 

Keywords: Debriefing, explicit knowledge, implicit knowledge, knowledge management, 

technical knowledge 

Contact Address: Mathias Braun, Deutsche Gesellschaft für Technische Zusammenarbeit (GTZ), Division 

45 Agriculture, Fisheries and Food, Dag-Hammarskjöld-Weg 1-5, Eschborn, Germany, e-mail: 

Paul-Mathias.Braun@gtz.de 

18 ID 629


Modes of Delivery in Development Cooperation — Challenges for 

the Agricultural Sector 

HELMUT ALBERT 1 , GEORG SCHAEFER 2 

1Deutsche Gesellschaft für Technische Zusammenarbeit (GTZ), Division Agriculture, Fisheries 

and Food, Germany 

2Deutsche Gesellschaft für Technische Zusammenarbeit (GTZ), Division Economic Pol- 

icy and Employment, Germany 

Millennium Development Goals (MDG), Poverty Reduction Strategies (PRS), a substantial 

increase in Official Development Assistance (ODA) and a higher quality of aid 

are major topics on the international development agenda. The Paris Declaration on 

Aid Effectiveness (March 2005) defines ownership, alignment, harmonisation, management 

for results and mutual accountability as basic orientations for both donors 

and partner countries. Until 2010 two third of aid shall be channelled through Programme 

Based-Approaches (PBAs). Sector-Wide Approaches (SWAPs) are the most 

prominent form of PBAs at the sector level. SWAPs very often combine traditional 

aid modalities (projects) with new financial instruments like basket funding, budget 

support and TA-pooling. Sector programmes in agriculture have experienced both 

successes and failures. There are a lot of challenges ahead in order to transform the 

sector programme approach into a powerful instrument for agricultural development. 

Agriculture as a productive sector requires strategies that might differ from the concepts 

for social sectors like education and health. Legal, regulatory and institutional 

framework conditions and the role of private stakeholders are at least as important 

as the volume and allocation of public expenditures. On the one hand agricultural 

research should be an important sub-sector in a full-fledged agricultural sector programme. 

On the other hand research could contribute quite a lot to further develop 

the sector approach in agriculture. Basic conclusions and recommendations in this 

regard will be presented. 

Keywords: Agricultural Research, Basket Funding, Budget Support, international 

Development Agenda, Millennium Development Goals, Paris Declaration, Poverty 

Reduction Strategies, Programme-Based Approaches, Sector Programmes in Agriculture, 

Sector-Wide Approaches 

Contact Address: Georg Schaefer, Deutsche Gesellschaft für Technische Zusammenarbeit (GTZ), Division 

Economic Policy and Employment, Dag-Hammarskjöld-Weg 1-5, 65760 Eschborn, Germany, 

e-mail: georg.schaefer@gtz.de 

ID 630 19


Value Chain Promotion for Sustainable, Significant Pro-poor 

Growth: Conditions and Research Needs 

ANNEMARIE MATTHESS 1 , ANDREAS SPRINGER-HEINZE 2 , STEFANIE 

ZINSMEYER 2 

1German Agency for Technical Cooperation (GTZ), Project Support to the Management 

of National Agricultural Research Benin, Benin 

2German Agency for Technical Cooperation (GTZ), Germany 

It is generally accepted that strengthening value chains in agri-business provides economic 

benefit to the involved value chain operators. Strategies, impacts (i.e. total and individual 

net increase of poors’ income through value addition) and efficiency (i.e. invested time and 

resources compared to impacts) of value chain promotion should be analysed a priori on the 

basis of the aforementioned parameters. 

The dimension of economic benefit depends on the size of the market segment, quality requirements, 

and competitors, in particular on their performance and ability to influence the market 

as well as to satisfy buyers and consumers. Chances for significant pro-poor impacts increase 

with the number of involved poor value chain operators, i.e. small scale producers, processors, 

service providers and traders. Even if their technical and economic performance is competitive, 

the degree of horizontal collaboration and their bargaining power within the value chain is 

crucial for their income increase. 

International and urban markets in developing countries offer many opportunities for agri-food 

value chains. The latter are still mainly supplied by local production, but frequently information 

and consequently coherent policy, investment promotion strategies, governance structures and 

technologies to compete with imports are lacking. Under these conditions, it is difficult to 

determine more precisely their potential compared to international markets. 

The argumentation leads to several research issues: 

- Economic and social impacts of ongoing value chain promotion targetting both at local/urban 

and international markets 

- Trends of demand, quality standards and consumption patterns of urban agribusiness markets 

in developing countries and opportunities for value chain promotion, innovative products 

- Investment strategies in terms of policies, capital, services and technologies 

- Access to relevant technological knowledge and market information, 

- Combinations of sector and territorial approaches of economic development and their potential 

for sustainable rural economic growth, 

Keywords: International and urban markets, pro-poor growth, value chains 

Contact Address: Annemarie Matthess, German Agency for Technical Cooperation (GTZ), Project 

Support to the Management of National Agricultural Research Benin, 08 B.P.1132 Tri Postal, Cotonou, 

Benin, e-mail: annemarie.matthess@gtz.de 

20 ID 631


Management of Aquatic Resources and Fish Trade: Challenges 

for the German Development Cooperation 

UWE SCHOLZ, PETER JARCHAU, KAI WIEGLER 

German Agency for Technical Cooperation (GTZ), Division of Agriculture, Fisheries 

and Food, Germany 

In 2004 about 37 % of the worldwide fish production of around 130 million tonnes 

went into the international fish trade. For many developing countries - being net 

importers of fish in 1985 - the trade of fish and fisheries products has become increasingly 

important for their economies: in 2004 they exported 29 million tonnes 

representing a trade value of around US$ 35 billion. 

However, there is a danger that the dynamically growing demand for fish and fisheries 

products from developing countries can result in more even more pressure on often 

already over-utilised fish stocks and in the exclusion of small-scale fisheries (not only 

from trade and but also from fish resources). The small-scale fisheries, representing an 

important basis for food security and livelihood for many communities, are competing 

not only with the local industrial fishing vessels but often also with distant water 

fishing fleets of developed countries. 

In the capture fisheries sector, challenges comprise among others the establishment of 

ecosystem-based fisheries, co-management systems of national, regional and international 

waters, the fight against subsidies to reduce overcapacity of fishing fleets and 

the fight against illegal, unreported and unregulated fishing; in the aquaculture sector, 

challenges are the integration of sustainable and eco-friendly smallholder aquaculture 

produc-tion systems, the sustainable supply of feeds and aquaculture technology and 

above all, for capture as well as farm fisheries, fair and equitable access to trade. 

The authors give an overview on recent trends in world fisheries and aquaculture and 

present the potential fields of interventions/assistance for German Technical Cooperation. 

Keywords: Aquaculture, capture fisheries sector, fisheries, trade 

Contact Address: Uwe Scholz, German Agency for Technical Cooperation (GTZ), Division of Agriculture, 

Fisheries and Food, Eschborn, Germany, e-mail: uwe.scholz@gtz.de 

ID 632 21


Poverty Reduction and Pro-poor Growth: the German 

Development Cooperation Perspective and the Challenges for 

Agricultural Research 

CLAUDIA KRAEMER 

Federal Ministry for Economic Cooperation and Development (BMZ), Rural Development, 

Global Food Security, Germany 

In many developing countries, agriculture is still the major employer and main source of both 

national income and export earnings. Therefore, growth of the agricultural sector promises 

direct poverty reduction effects. Additional effects of agricultural growth can be observed 

through lowering and stabilising food prices, and rising employment rates in rural areas, not 

only in agricultural production, but also in the areas of input-supply and post-harvest processing. 

For these reasons, the internationally agreed MDGs won’t be achieved unless economic 

growth benefits the poor parts of the population. Rural areas and the needs of farmers and other 

stakeholders are diverse. To successfully address the needs of the rural poor, policies need to 

be adapted to these diverse contexts. 

The institutional framework is one major bottleneck for agricultural growth and rural development. 

If the agricultural sector is to gain momentum again, strong institutions with the 

capacity to develop an appropriate blend of policies, regulatory frameworks and investments 

are essential. Extension and research services in particular have to be re-developed to deliver 

client-focused services based on a demand-driven rather than a supply-led approach. This is 

one major principle for the International Agricultural Research Centres which we support with 

significant contributions. 

A changing global context and new demands for aid effectiveness and donor harmonisation 

have created challenges for German Development Cooperation, too. These will be highlighted 

by the following four presentations. The first will give an overview of the emerging new aid 

architecture, which is characterised by a more targeted use of development aid to heighten efficiency 

and avoid duplications. Fisheries contribute significantly to income generation and food 

security, but are threatened by incoherent international policies. Helping to avoid unsustainable 

practices is a challenge highlighted in the second presentation. The value chain approach and 

its linkages to agricultural research is subject of the third presentation, whereas the last one 

focuses on knowledge management and knowledge networks, with the Global Donor Platform 

for Rural Development being one promising example. 

Keywords: Global donor platform, Millennium Development Goals (MDG), poverty reduction, 

Pro-poor growth 

Contact Address: Claudia Kraemer, Federal Ministry for Economic Cooperation and Development 

(BMZ), Rural Development, Global Food Security, Germany, e-mail: 

22 ID 633

Conflicts, Challenges and Diversification 

ELISABETH GOTSCHI, ROBERT DELVE, BERNHARD FRE- 

YER: 

The „wrong“ Gender: Is Social Capital More Accessible to 

Men? 24 

HAILU ARAYA, YOHANNES GEBREMICHAEL, ABERA GE- 

BREAMLAK, ANN WATERS-BAYER: 

Participatory Research That Builds on Local Innovation 

in Beekeeping to Escape Poverty 25 

MICHAEL WAITHAKA, ISAAC MINDE: 

Utilizing Social Capital to Minimize Conflicts in Natural 

Resource Management and Use in Rural Communities in 

Eastern and Central Africa 26 

HERMANN KAMBIRÉ, MARIA BROCKHAUS: 

Local Realities and Global Demands — a Case Study on 

Conflicts and Natural Resource Management in South West 

Burkina Faso 27 

GETACHEW GEBRU, SOLOMON DESTA, DADHI AMOSHA, 

LAYNE COPPOCK: 

Role of Participatory Action Research in Reviving Endogenous 

Rangeland Management: A Case from Southern Ethiopia 28 

23


The „wrong“ Gender: Is Social Capital More Accessible to Men? 

ELISABETH GOTSCHI 1 , ROBERT DELVE 2 , BERNHARD FREYER 1 

1University of Natural Resources and Applied Life Sciences, Institute of Organic Farming, 

Austria 

2International Centre for Tropical Agriculture (CIAT), Zimbabwe 

The creation of farmer groups has been a popular strategy in rural development to 

work with farmers in an organised way. Group organisation strengthens farmers’ capacities 

to access information and markets and gives them a voice that is otherwise 

not heard. Being in a group allows people to increase their number of social relations, 

creates trust and other features of social capital. It has been argued that high levels of 

social capital can be transformed into financial capital. 

Research in 20 agriculture-based groups in Búzi district in Mozambique revealed that 

gender is the key characteristic to human and social capital formation in rural areas. 

Although men and women equally participate in group activities, the benefits outcomes 

of social capital are significantly unequally distributed. Benefits of social capital 

were not equally distributed over members and varied significantly between gender, 

position and education. It was evident that men, group leaders and educated members 

are more likely to access help or credit, than women, members-only and people with 

little education. Women found it harder to benefit from the increased number of social 

relations or the trust created into benefits such as information, access to markets, or 

help in case of need. Whereas men are not restricted on a daily basis and are able 

to create and engage in more relations with group members or other people from the 

community and help others if they are asked to, thus increasing their social capital 

more quickly and strongly. 

The contribution of women to food security has been widely acknowledged and gender 

sensitive approaches have been discussed for years in the development debate. 

Despite attempts to mainstream gender in development activities, there is still a lack 

of understanding in how to do so in planning, implementing and evaluating rural 

development projects. More systematic research is needed to fully understand the 

complexity of group dynamics in relation to culture and gender roles to address the 

different needs of gender groups and overcome existing cultural barriers. 

Keywords: rural development, Mozambique, associations, gender, social capital 

Contact Address: Elisabeth Gotschi, University of Natural Resources and Applied Life Sciences, Institute 

of Organic Farming, Gregor Mendel Strasse 33, Wien, Austria, e-mail: elisabeth.gotschi@gmx.at 

24 ID 414


Participatory Research That Builds on Local Innovation in 

Beekeeping to Escape Poverty 

HAILU ARAYA 1 , YOHANNES GEBREMICHAEL 2 , ABERA GEBREAMLAK 3 , ANN 

WATERS-BAYER 4 

1Institute for Sustainable Development (ISD), Sustainable Community Development, Ethiopia 

2Addis Ababa University, Geography, Ethiopia 

3Tigray Bureau of Agriculture and Rural Development, Extension, Ethiopia 

4 ETC Foundation, ETC EcoCulture, Netherlands 

In Tigray Region in northern Ethiopia, many smallholders earn income by selling honey and bee 

colonies, which are highly demanded and expensive. This contributes importantly to household 

food security. To improve their beekeeping and their incomes, some farmers have been creative 

in developing own innovations, related primarily to beehive modification and queenbee rearing 

but also to honey separation and bee-forage selection. 

As part of a multi-stakeholder research and development programme called PROFIEET (Promoting 

Farmer Innovation and Experimentation in Ethiopia), the Northern Typical Highlands 

Zone platform (Tigray Bureau of Agriculture, Tigray Agricultural Research Institute, Institute 

for Sustainable Development, Mekelle University, Adigrat Catholic Secretariat, Relief Society 

of Tigray, Bureaux of Water Resources and of Education) encourages identification and documentation 

of innovations developed by farmers. Numerous beekeeping-related innovations by 

men and women farmers were found. For example, they modify beehives by combining traits 

of the traditional and modern: making own versions of the top-bar beehive using wood, mud 

and dung. These are far cheaper than the purchased “modern” hives, insulate better against heat 

and cold, and bring higher yields. 

The PROFIEET platform in Tigray is bringing beekeepers together to show and explain their 

innovations to each other and researchers and extension experts, and to develop ideas for joint 

experimentation in participatory innovation development (PID). At an agricultural exhibition 

held in March 2006 in Tigray’s capital Mekelle, the identified beekeeping and other local innovations 

were presented alongside technologies from formal researchers. 

This paper analyses the differentiated responses of farmers, researchers and experts to the innovations 

coming from farmers and from formal researchers and their respective concepts of 

intellectual property rights. The significance of such exchange fora and of the PID activities 

based on smallholders’ innovations is analysed with a view to PROFIEET’s efforts to institutionalise 

farmer-led PID within research, extension and education in Tigray as a means to reduce 

poverty, increase food security and encourage sustainable management of natural resources. 

Keywords: dryland farming systems, endogenous livestock development, Ethiopia, articipatory 

research 

Contact Address: Ann Waters-Bayer, ETC Foundation, ETC EcoCulture, POB 64, NL-3830 AB Leusden, 

Netherlands, e-mail: ann.waters-bayer@etcnl.nl 

ID 418 25


Utilizing Social Capital to Minimize Conflicts in Natural Resource 

Management and Use in Rural Communities in Eastern and 

Central Africa 

MICHAEL WAITHAKA 1 , ISAAC MINDE 2 

1Association for Strengthening Agricultural Research in East and Central Africa (ASARECA), 

Uganda 

2International Crops Research Institute for the Semi Arid Tropics (ICRISAT), Zimbabwe 

The use and management of natural resources in brittle ecosystems is susceptible to multiple 

forms of conflicts. This arises due to the fragile agro-ecological and social space characterised 

by the utilisation of natural resources for multiple purposes by multiple users which invoke 

complex and unequal relationships among a wide variety of social actors and stakeholders. 

Key players are pastoralists and sedentary farmers eking a living on fringes of national parks, 

forests and water bodies. Those areas have complex land tenure, ownership and use systems 

which raise conflicts between different communities. Conflicts lead to deforestation, destruction 

of crops, land degradation and displacement of people depriving many of their assets and 

livelihoods. The nexus between poverty, rural communities and natural resource management 

and use conflicts brings to the fore the fact that natural resources (land, water, forests) are the 

closest and weakest victims for the poor. Studies in Kenya, Tanzania and Uganda have addressed 

the nature, types and dimensions of natural resource management conflicts, and investigated 

mechanisms and procedures for minimising them. Measures to reduce conflicts suffer 

in the wake of lack of clear policy guidelines and weak institutional setups to enforce social 

order. Social capital is a potential least-cost means of addressing rural poverty which can be 

sustained at reasonable costs in a community. Lessons learned in building social capital in selected 

localities can be easily scaled up and out in other areas with minor adjustments based on 

existing economic, socio-cultural settings and agro-ecosystems. Efforts to minimise conflicts 

should revolve around the power and role of social capital in identifying, characterising and 

providing local solutions. Such efforts should strengthen processes of negotiation and encourage 

collective action to community conservation to address degradation. They should consider 

adjustment of customary norms and rules of land holding and access as opposed to outright 

replacement of customary tenure. They should put emphasis on use rights as opposed to ownership 

in order to secure rights access for the poor. For the marginalised poor, public investments 

in provision of water, health and education facilities are required. 

Keywords: Conflict minimisation, east Africa , natural resource management, social capital 

Contact Address: Michael Waithaka, Association for Strengthening Agricultural Research in East and 

Central Africa (ASARECA), Plot 13 John Babiiha Road, Entebbe, Uganda, e-mail: m.waithaka@ 

asareca.org 

26 ID 160


Local Realities and Global Demands — a Case Study on Conflicts 

and Natural Resource Management in South West Burkina Faso 

HERMANN KAMBIRÉ 1 , MARIA BROCKHAUS 2 

1Institut National des Etudes Recherches Agronomiques (INERA), Sociology, Burkina 

Faso 

2Justus-Liebig-Universität Giessen, Institute of Agricultural Policy and Market Research, 

Germany 

In South West Burkina Faso conflicts between farmers and herders are a common phenomenon. 

These conflicts are influenced by factors which range from ecological and sociological to political 

causes. Local realities meet global demands (e.g. for political change, increasing agricultural 

productivity, change of production systems). Sustainable and equitable development is 

not always the outcome of these induced processes of change. 

A six-month case study on conflicts, land use, and the management of natural resources was 

carried out in two villages in the provinces Noumbiel and Poni. Semi-structured interviews 

and focus group discussions were held with farmers, herders, local authorities and the formal 

institutions in the district. 

The results show the different situation in the villages: cooperation and rather successful conflict 

management were predominant in one village. In the other, conflict escalation could be 

observed and out-migration of herders which were immigrated in the village in the last decade. 

Reasons can be seen in stronger competition between the user groups in one village, which was 

enforced by project activities like rice production in an area used as strategic water resource 

by the herders. Additionally, the integration of the herders (‘latest-comers’) in local decision 

making processes differed remarkably, as well as the perception by the herders of the bundle of 

rights they hold. Furthermore, the involvement of local elites varied, which followed a career 

in the capital. In one village the wish was expressed by them to defend the rights of the ‘autochthonous’, 

since a change in the current land tenure system and an upcoming land market 

was expected. In the other, emphasis was put on the opportunity of a win-win situation for both 

user groups by cooperation. 

Induced global processes of change, implemented top-down, can aggravate a segregation in 

local ’first and last classes’, and an exclusion of user groups, if different settings of the resource 

users in access to rights and degree of local citizenship are ignored by policy makers at national 

and global level. 

Keywords: Burkina Faso, farmer-herder conflicts, natural resource management 

Contact Address: Maria Brockhaus, Justus-Liebig-Universität Giessen, Institute of Agricultural Policy 

and Market Research, Senckenbergstraße 3, 35390 Gießen, Germany, e-mail: maria.brockhaus@agrar. 

uni-giessen.de 

ID 552 27


Role of Participatory Action Research in Reviving Endogenous 

Rangeland Management: A Case from Southern Ethiopia 

GETACHEW GEBRU 1 , SOLOMON DESTA 2 , DADHI AMOSHA 1 , LAYNE COPPOCK 3 

1International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI), Global Livestock CRSP Pastoral Risk 

Management Project, Ethiopia 

2Global Livestock CRSP Pastoral Risk Management Project, c/o International Livestock 

Research Institute, Kenya 

3Utah State University, Dept. Environment & Society, United States 

African rangelands are extensive and support large populations of pastoral people and livestock. 

The semi-arid Borana Plateau is an especially important rangeland for Ethiopia. It is over 

95,000-km 2 in size and home to about 350,000 people and one million head of cattle, small 

ruminants, and camels. The grazing systems of the Borana Plateau have become increasingly 

unsustainable in recent decades, however, because of human population growth, expansion of 

maize production in dry-season grazing areas, and range degradation in the form of woody encroachment. 

Heavy grazing by livestock, reduced mobility of pastoralists, and lack of fire have 

contributed to conversion of open, mixed savannah communities to dense woodlands and bushlands. 

Herbaceous forage production for cattle and sheep can then be reduced via competition 

with woody plants for water and light. Residual grass can be subjected to intense grazing pressure, 

further exacerbating the downward spiral. Prescribed fire is the most cost-effective means 

of manipulating vegetation in savannah ecosystems of eastern Africa. A blanket national ban 

on the use of fire was initiated in Ethiopia during the 1970s. This was intended to protect croplands 

and other natural resources from indiscriminant burning, but one unintended consequence 

of this policy has been a weakening of traditional forms of range management that depended, 

in part, on the regulated use of fire to control undesirable woody plants, promote herbaceous 

forage production, and reduce populations of disease-carrying ticks. Efforts by pastoral communities 

to revive endogenous range management practices like the use of fire are now gaining 

the positive attention of policy makers. An alliance among pastoral communities, researchers, 

policy makers, and development actors is being forged to re-introduce prescribed fire to the 

Borana Plateau. Describing this process is the objective of this paper. The process requires a 

combination of indigenous knowledge, modern technology, training, and research, as well as 

creation of a truly collaborative management approach. Rather than top-down research, the key 

elements for change have been participatory action research, outreach, and engagement with a 

wide variety of stakeholders. 

Keywords: Borana Plateau, collaborative problem solving, indigenous knowledge, pastoral 

development , prescribed fire, savannah ecosystems 

Contact Address: Layne Coppock, Utah State University, Dept. Environment & Society, 84322- 

5215 Logan, UT, United States, e-mail: Lcoppock@cc.usu.edu 

28 ID 449

Livelihood, Education and Development 


MARIA BROCKHAUS: 

Science for Development — Policy Broker or Ivory Tower ? 30 


HANNS SYLVESTER, CAY ETZOLD: 

DAAD and its Challenges for Capacity Building 31 

PETER MOLL: 

From Knowledge to Action - Presentation of Curricula Modules 

for a Stronger Implementation Focus in Tropical and 

Development Research 32 

HERMANN WAIBEL, DAVID ZILBERMAN, TIMOTHY KELLEY: 

Assessment of the Impacts of Natural Resource Management 

Research in the CGIAR 33 

AGATA MONIKA JAGODA: 

E-learning for Agricultural Communities 34 

HIEN DINH PHAM: 

Determinants of Successful Participation of Poor Farm Households 

in Transferring Advanced Agricultural Technologies 

- Case Study from the Mountainous Region of Northern 

Vietnam 35 

29


Science for Development — Policy Broker or Ivory Tower ? 

MARIA BROCKHAUS 

Justus-Liebig-Universität Giessen, Institute of Agricultural Policy and Market Research, 

Germany 

Policy-making is a complex process influenced by a multitude of factors and effects 

which are not always transparent, and is executed by policy-makers which do not always 

act rationally. Following the concept of evidence-based policy making, science 

and research (S&R) should inform policy-makers in such a way that the process of 

policy-making is rational, rather than opinion-based (Sutcliffe, Court 2006; Davies 

2004). 

However, the existence of evidence alone is not a guarantee that it will inform policymakers, 

as shown by today’s realities in developing (as well as in developed) countries. 

Besides fulfiling quality standards such as credibility, problem specificity, solution 

orientation, and communicability, the given evidence has to be placed into the policy 

process which consequently, demands more action on the side of S&R institutions. 

Often, it lacks of formal or informal information channels and linkages between S&R 

institutions at national and international levels, and with other actors in the policy 

arena. Additionally, existing linkages are not fully used. 

This paper presents network analysis as a tool to identify relevant actors, and the 

existing or missing paths and channels among them. It uses a case study in Burkina 

Faso as an example and examines the reasons for success and failure in efforts for 

evidence-based policy making. The analysis is based on results of a two-year research 

on policy networks in Burkina Faso (2001–2003). 

In particular, the role of an independent agricultural research network (focusing on 

land policy) will be examined. Its role as a policy broker in the arena of natural 

resource management indicates the importance of active networking to communicate 

scientific evidence, even though manifold obstacles are present, and the potential of 

such organisations is still not fully used. 

The results show that network analysis can be a useful tool to support S&R’s role (and 

responsibility) as a policy broker to avoid inaccessible ivory towers full of evidence. 

Keywords: Burkina Faso, evidence-based policy making, natural resource management, 

network analysis, policy analysis, policy broker, Science & Research 

Contact Address: Maria Brockhaus, Justus-Liebig-Universität Giessen, Institute of Agricultural Policy 

and Market Research, Senckenbergstraße 3, 35390 Gießen, Germany, e-mail: maria.brockhaus@agrar. 


30 ID 527


DAAD and its Challenges for Capacity Building 

HANNS SYLVESTER 1 , CAY ETZOLD 2 

1German Academic Exchange Service (DAAD), Head of Development Co-operation Division, 

Germany 

2German Academic Exchange Service, Head of Section 432 - Alumni and Partnership 

Programmes, Germany 

Prosperity and Poverty in a Globalized World — Challenges for Agricultural Research– 

Considering the Tropentag’s topic and its aims, i.e. an exchange concerning 

the following questions: How to improve livelihood, health and education of the rural 

population? How to reduce pressure on the environment caused by agricultural 

production? How to balance the production of sufficient, high quality food for an increasing 

world population? Which new approaches do exist to optimise the utilisation 

of scarce resources (soil, energy, water)? Then the emphasis laid on the exchange of 

information within the scope of the Tropentag also becomes obvious: The importance 

of the exchange of knowledge and experience as well as interdisciplinary, scientific 

discussions on global challenges. 

The DAAD also aims at these objectives: The exchange of knowledge and experience 

is elementary for facing today’s global challenges. 

The German Academic Exchange Service promotes the worldwide co-operation and 

exchange between institutions of higher education as well as between these institutions 

and politics and economy, particularly the co-operation with developing countries. 

Therefore, the DAAD’s instruments of promotion shall be elucidated, as they serve 

for reducing poverty, for peacekeeping and for a juster design of globalisation. 

By means of education and advanced education of specialists and executives as well 

as the selective set-up of academic structures, crucial suppositions for achieving the 

Millennium Development Goals are created. 

Thereby, Development in Partnership is very important to warrant a sustainable development. 

Particularly the formation of networks for future measures offers an enormous 

advantage. In this context, the topic of the Alumni Networks will be treated, 

whose fusions on regional and sectoral levels aim at realising common projects in 

different disciplines. 

Keywords: Alumni Networks, Development in Partnership, instruments of Promotion 

Contact Address: Hanns Sylvester, German Academic Exchange Service (DAAD), Head of Development 

Co-operation Division, Kennedyallee 50, 53175 Bonn, Germany, e-mail: Sylvester@daad.de 

ID 507 31


From Knowledge to Action - Presentation of Curricula Modules 

for a Stronger Implementation Focus in Tropical and Development 

Research 

PETER MOLL 

Science Development, Germany 

Tropical research has been evaluated lately by DAAD, BMZ and others and requested to develop 

stronger application and implementation elements in university and higher education 

curricula. Many curricula in Germany are of high quality on academic grounds but, in international 

comparison, sometimes lack teaching on possible practical implementation. To provide 

qualification for new job profiles is not everywhere very high on the agenda. The move from 

foremost scientific knowledge generation to a stronger implementation outlook means a challenge 

for higher education that is becoming ever more topical with changes in the university 

education and diploma infrastructure and with increasing emphasis on M.Scs and MAs as respected 

university degrees. It is not the theoretical components themselves nor the practical - 

e. g. field experience - components of teaching alone that present this challenge. The real challenge 

lies in steps towards “management of the interface”. That is, curricula need to include 

ever stronger elements that prepare students for real world applications of the acquired knowledge. 

This involves managerial and communicative as well as social and cultural “techniques” 

for dealing with stakeholders and interest groups. It involves teaching on social, economic and 

political frameworks for development work. And it involves teaching for science management 

and project management, that can prepare absolvees to work in large international science networks 

and prorammes funded e. g. by the Worldbank, GEF or UNEP. The presentation is on 

ways on HOW to possibly extend existing curricula and on how to integrate stronger application 

and implementation elements in tropical research. These modules have been developed 

on the basis of a 2 year monitoring and research project funded by BMBF. During this project 

some 70 experts have been consulted and projects dealing e.g. with land use problems in Africa 

or biodiversity loss in South America have been investigated. Particularly in the anglo-saxon 

academia (USA, GB, Canada) university curricula have been developed lately that go beyond 

mere academic interdisciplinarity and integrate stronger implementation elements. The presentation 

will provide an introduction into this development and some suggestions for action. 

Keywords: Curriculum development, from knowledge to action, implementation focus of tropical 

/ development research 

Contact Address: Peter Moll, Science Development, Viktoriastr. 49, 42105 Wuppertal, Germany, 

e-mail: moll@science-development.de 

32 ID 610


Assessment of the Impacts of Natural Resource Management 

Research in the CGIAR 

HERMANN WAIBEL 1 , DAVID ZILBERMAN 2 , TIMOTHY KELLEY 3 

1Leibniz-University Hannover, Development and Agricultural Economics, Faculty of Economics 

and Management, Germany 

2University of Berkeley, Agricultural and Resource Economics, 

3Food and Agriculture Organisation, Sustainable Development Department, 

During the past decade, research and development activities in natural resources management 

(NRM) has been intensified. Among the CGIAR Centres investments in 

NRM research have increased substantially both within the older commodity-oriented 

Centers and the newer resource management Centers. However, until recently there 

is lack of convincing evidence on the impact of NRM research that could justify the 

roughly 20 % of the CGIAR budget allocation for NRM. 

The paper presents a synthesis of the results and summarises the lessons learned of 

an initiative undertaken by the CGIAR’s Science Council’s Standing Panel on Impact 

Assessment (SPIA) to assess the impacts of past investments in natural resources management 

research (NRMR) in the CGIAR System. In total there were seven impact 

assessment case studies from the following CGIAR Centres: CIAT, CIFOR, CIM- 

MYT, ICARDA, ICRAF, IWMI and WorldFish Center. The studies covered a range 

of geographical regions, with two projects in Sub Saharan Africa, one in North Africa, 

two in Asia and one projects with global coverage. The projects also include different 

types of NRM innovations including both micro and macro projects. 

The paper analyses the case study results by assessing the rates of return to this type of 

research and comparing NRM to the more popular germplasm enhancement research. 

It can be shown that investment in NRM research is economical but seldom reaches 

the high rates of return found for breeding. An assessment of the kind of impacts usually 

not included in the rate of return of NRM research investments is provided. The 

paper also lays out the direction of expansion of existing methods to meet the needs 

of assessing the impacts of NRM research projects and identifies the new direction 

of methodologies to accommodate unique features of NRM research. Measures and 

indicators of impact and some basic issues arising from the nature of NRM research 

are discussed. Finally, some practical recommendations regarding the further conduct 

of NRM impact assessment are submitted. 

Keywords: CGIAR, Impact Assessment, natural Resource Management, Rates of 

Return 

Contact Address: Hermann Waibel, Leibniz-University Hannover, Development and Agricultural Economics, 

Faculty of Economics and Management, Königsworther Platz 1, 30167 Hannover, Germany, 

e-mail: waibel@ifgb.uni-hannover.de 

ID 546 33


E-learning for Agricultural Communities 

AGATA MONIKA JAGODA 

Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, Department of Agriculture and Horticulture, Germany 

Agricultural knowledge and new technologies of food production often do not reach 

the ultimate users: the farmers. E-learning transmits relevant information to farmers 

and educators, thus contributing to higher education and poverty alleviation. Elearning 

is seen as a means of increasing access to educational opportunities in rural 

areas and keeping pace with rapid changes within the agricultural sector. This 

study examines e-learning adoption trends within the agricultural producer community 

in Central-Java, Indonesia. Whereas e-learning has reached early or late adoption 

status within other sectors, such as in the IT sector, Economy and Management, Indonesian 

Agri-Business have yet to “jump on board”. Numerous reasons were noted, 

including: rising cost of traditional, classroom-based training, long distances from peripheral 

regions to centres for education, lack of teachers for agricultural production, 

internet and computer access in Central-Java, wide spread Mobile telephony in the 

rural areas, computer skills for Indonesian farmers, low production costs for e-learning, 

and sustainability of e-Learning courses for Agri-Business. The study did note 

various agricultural e-learning initiatives of online university courses and programs. 

Specific objectives of the project are to: (1) train interested farmers, agricultural researchers, 

educators in the production and use of e-learning courses, (2) Produce elearning 

materials on agricultural production methods, (3) introduce the materials in 

selected communities, (4) support their technical delivery and provide the hardware. 

The production of desirable e-learning courses with free ware Content Management 

Systems (CMS) and the written survey would be published and of interest to regional 

government, e-learning developers and agricultural producers. The author set out to 

understand e-learning adoption trends, barriers and opportunities within Indonesian 

agricultural sector. The study will also examine potential benefits of e-learning to the 

agricultural sector. Opportunities are noted, along with best practices to assist those 

who wish to develop e-learning products and services for this sector. 

Keywords: CMS, e-learning, education, free ware 

Contact Address: Agata Monika Jagoda, Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, Department of Agriculture 

and Horticulture, Mareschstr. 9, 12055 Berlin, Germany, e-mail: info@mathe-agrar.de 

34 ID 499


Determinants of Successful Participation of Poor Farm 

Households in Transferring Advanced Agricultural Technologies - 

Case Study from the Mountainous Region of Northern Vietnam 

HIEN DINH PHAM 

University of Hohenheim, Institut für Agrar und Sozialökonomie in Den Tropen und 

Subtropen, Germany 

In the mountainous regions of Vietnam, advanced technologies are playing an important 

role in both increasing the income and reducing poverty for farm households. Cho 

Don district is a typical mountainous district of Bac Kan province with diversified ethnic 

minority groups and a significant potential for crop and livestock production as 

well as forest exploitation. The district enjoys many transfer programs of advanced 

technologies in agriculture and those programs have been implemented very early. Advanced 

technologies have the potential of helping farm households to increase their 

income, knowledge and skills as well as to reduce poverty. Interestingly, the poverty 

rate has gradually come down in the last years. This paper mainly aims at determining 

the positive and negative factors that have been affecting the participation of farm 

households, communities and other relevant stakeholders in the transfer of advanced 

technologies in agriculture. The logit model and advanced technologies participation 

model are used to identify those factors. The analysis helps to improve and promote 

the technology acceptance, participation and poverty alleviation process more successfully 

and sustainably. The data of this analysis have two sources: primary data 

and secondary data collected in Cho Don district in 2004. We found that advanced 

technologies transferred came from four channels, namely: Government Extension 

Programs, Research Institutes, Foreign Aid Organisations and Non-Governmental Organisations 

(NGOs). Those bring large benefits for farm households and communities. 

However, advanced technologies in agriculture are still not efficiently and sustainably 

accepted because of participation’s insufficient involvement of farm households (especially 

the poor households) and shortage of farm households as well as communities’ 

contribution. In addition, those advanced technologies have not adequately met the 

real needs of farm households and communities. 

Keywords: Advanced technology, participation, transfer 

Contact Address: Hien Dinh Pham, University of Hohenheim, Institut für Agrar und Sozialökonomie 

in Den Tropen und Subtropen, Stuttgart, Germany, e-mail: dphamhien@yahoo.com 

ID 128 35


36 ID 128

Plants and Soils 

a) Plant Production Systems 39 

b) Plant Nutrition and Soils 45 

c) Organic Farming and Organic Compounds 53 

d) Stresses and Biodiversity 59 

37


38

Plant Production Systems 

WANWISA PANSAK, THOMAS HILGER, GERD DERCON, THANUCHAI 

KONGKAEW, GEORG CADISCH: 

Spatial Variability of Crop Growth as Affected by Contour 

Hedgerow Systems 40 

ALEXANDER TUPITSA, JOHN LAMERS, MARTIN WORBES, 

CHRISTOPHER MARTIUS: 

The Functional Assessment of Tree Windbreaks in Khorezm, 

Uzbekistan, Aral Sea Basin 41 

TASSILO TIEMANN, MICHAEL KREUZER, CARLOS LAS- 

CANO, HANS-DIETER HESS: 

Cultivation Site Dependent Variations of Forage Yield and 

Quality of Tropical Shrub Legumes 42 

BORIS M. HILLMANN, HANNAH JAENICKE, BRIGITTE L. 

MAASS: 

Germplasm Movement of Selected Underutilised Multipurpose 

Tree Species in Sri Lanka 43 

LIFENG WU, MARC VÖLKER, DIEMUTH PEMSL, HERMANN 

WAIBEL: 

Multi-period Analysis of Bt-cotton Varieties in China - Using 

Farm Level Panel Data 44 

39


Spatial Variability of Crop Growth as Affected by Contour 

Hedgerow Systems 

WANWISA PANSAK 1 , THOMAS HILGER 1 , GERD DERCON 2 , THANUCHAI 

KONGKAEW 3 , GEORG CADISCH 3 

1University of Hohenheim, Plant Production in the Tropics and Subtropics, Germany 

2University of Hohenheim, Institute of Plant Production and Agroecology in the Tropics 

and Subtropics, Germany 

3Naresuan University, Department of Agricultural Science, Thailand 

In the tropics, soil conservation measures to control water induced erosion have been 

intensively investigated in the past decades. Land management techniques such as 

contour hedgerow systems are very effective in erosion control but they also may lead 

to a pronounced spatial variability in crop response. However, our understanding of 

this phenomenon at field scale is limited. This study aimed, therefore, at assessing 

the spatial variability in crop response under contour hedgerow systems. Data were 

collected from an erosion control experiment in the Loei province of Northeast Thailand 

established in 2003. The trial was set up on a clayey, kaolinitic, typic Haplustalf 

in a split plot design with five maize cropping systems as main plots and two fertiliser 

levels (no fertiliser and 61 and 13.9 kg ha -1 of N and P) as sub-plots. Slope 

gradients ranged from 21–28 %. From these treatments, farmer’s practice, mangograss 

hedgerows, and leucaena hedgerows, each at both fertiliser levels, were selected 

to conduct this study. Maize grain yields, aboveground vegetative biomass, harvest 

index and height were determined per row and related to their transect position in 

each plot. A simple index was used to assess the effect of contour hedgerows on crop 

response, indicating that contour hedgerow systems cannot always be evaluated as 

completely positive. The impact of contour hedges on maize growth in rows adjacent 

to the contour hedgerow was strong. Negative effects on crop growth, however, were 

stronger in the upper part of the alleys and in the mango-grass treatment. Soil fertility 

improvement on the upper part of the alleys and a better management of the barrier 

strip may enhance crop productivity. 

Keywords: Contour hedgerows, crop response index, Leucaena, maize, mango, ruzi 

grass, spatial variability 

Contact Address: Thomas Hilger, University of Hohenheim, Plant Production in the Tropics and Subtropics, 

Garbenstr. 13, 70593 Stuttgart, Germany, e-mail: t-hilger@uni-hohenheim.de 

40 ID 296


The Functional Assessment of Tree Windbreaks in Khorezm, 

Uzbekistan, Aral Sea Basin 

ALEXANDER TUPITSA 1 , JOHN LAMERS 1 , MARTIN WORBES 2 , CHRISTOPHER 

MARTIUS 1 

1 University of Bonn, Center for Development Research (ZEF), Germany 

2 Georg-August-Universität Göttingen, Institute of Agronomy in the Tropics, Germany 

In Uzbekistan, over 50 % of farmland suffers from wind erosion; about 80 t/ha of topsoil 

are lost to wind each year. Winds also decrease land surface humidity, scatter 

seeds and sandblast fields. Windbreaks positively affect microclimatic change, and 

protect neighbouring fields. Strong winds can lose about 50–80 % of their velocity 

passing through optimally designed tree strips. Consequently, air humidity raises 

3–20 % while the air temperature drops by two-three degrees Celsius allowing for 

yield increases by 10–20 %. In 1966–1992, tree windbreaks were planted on about 

40,000 ha of agricultural land in Uzbekistan. After 1992, this practice almost completely 

ceased, due to a change in priority setting after Uzbek independence. Today, 

many old windbreaks are cut down or die due to a lack of care. Well-designed and 

maintained windbreaks to combat erosion need to be re-established. First an inventory 

was conducted using remote sensing techniques on the occurrence and structure 

of tree windbreaks along two transects in Khorezm, a region in Uzbekistan closely located 

to the Aral Sea. We identified more than 2300 tree strips stretching over a total 

of 700 km in the cropland area of 39 thousand hectares of these two transects. The 

land covered with tree strips amounted to 450 ha (about 1 %) which is lower than the 

nationally recommended minimum of 1.5 %. We analysed these windbreaks based on 

recommendations for an optimal windbreak design. Results showed that: 

• Monospecific mulberry strips (Morus spp.) comprised 50 % of windbreaks; 

• Only 70 % of the windbreaks were oriented in the NS and NW-SE directions, the 

desirable direction since the highest speeds (>3 m/s) are generally prevailing from E 

and NE; 

• The majority of the investigated tree strips did not satisfy the minimal height of 5 m; 

other structural criteria like stand porosity, length and width had acceptable values. 

This study revealed the existence of numerous windbreaks in a dryland region where 

generally trees are not expected; however, their structure and layout must be improved 

to gain the expected efficiency and can contribute to combat an advancing land degradation. 

Keywords: Assessment, farmlands, remote sensing , wind erosion, windbreaks 

Contact Address: Alexander Tupitsa, University of Bonn, Center for Development Research (ZEF), 

Walter-Flex-Str. 3, 53113 Bonn, Germany, e-mail: atupitsa@uni-bonn.de 

ID 368 41


Cultivation Site Dependent Variations of Forage Yield and Quality 

of Tropical Shrub Legumes 

TASSILO TIEMANN 1 , MICHAEL KREUZER 1 , CARLOS LASCANO 2 , HANS-DIETER 

HESS 3 

1 ETH Zurich, Institute of Animal Science, Switzerland 

2 Centro Internacional de Agricultura Tropical (CIAT), Colombia 

3 Agroscope Liebefeld-Posieux, Swiss Federal Research Station for Animal Production 

and Dairy Products (ALP), Switzerland 

Ruminants play an important role as assets and sources of high quality food and income for the 

rural population in developing countries. Their productivity is often limited due to low protein 

supply owing to the limited availability of good quality forages, particularly in regions with a 

prolonged dry season and soils of low fertility. As part of an extensive search for forage shrub 

legumes that would meet the requirements as forage plants and perform well on low-fertility 

soils, a series of in vitro-experiments and agronomic evaluations were conducted. Five particularly 

promising legume species were tested in these experiments (Calliandra calothyrsus, 

Cratylia argentea, Desmodium velutinum, Flemingia macrophylla, Leucaena leucocephala). 

The results showed that the cultivation site may have an important influence on the forage quality 

of legumes, particularly for species containing condensed tannins (CT). In vitro-experiments 

with Calliandra calothyrsus showed differences in the tannin content and the degradability of 

nutrients, particularly of crude protein (CP), dependent on the cultivation site. Plants cultivated 

on more fertile soils had clearly lower CT contents than those on low-fertility soils. Apparent 

CP degradability of diets supplemented with C. calothyrsus from more fertile soils was 

approximately 30 % higher (p < 0.001) than CP degradability of diets containing the same 

species cultivated on low-fertility soils. The agronomic evaluation revealed large variations in 

the adaptability of the different shrub legume species to acidic low-fertility soils and their response 

to fertilisation. While Flemingia macrophylla did not show any differences in biomass 

production due to soil type, the other species produced two to three times more biomass on 

the more fertile soil. Fertiliser application affected all species in terms of biomass production 

and leaf proportion but the extent of the response varied widely among species. Overall, these 

experiments showed a high impact of planting site on forage quality and yield and indicate 

that strong interactions between legume species and soil fertility may occur. These finding 

are of particular interest for future extension work, aiming at promoting legume-based feeding 

technologies. 

Keywords: Legumes, protein, ruminants, tannins, tropical forages 

Contact Address: Hans-Dieter Hess, Agroscope Liebefeld-Posieux, Swiss Federal Research Station for 

Animal Production and Dairy Products (ALP), Route de la Tioleyre 4, CH-1725 Posieux, Switzerland, 

e-mail: dieter.hess@alp.admin.ch 

42 ID 127


Germplasm Movement of Selected Underutilised Multipurpose 

Tree Species in Sri Lanka 

BORIS M. HILLMANN 1 , HANNAH JAENICKE 2 , BRIGITTE L. MAASS 1 

1Georg-August-University Göttingen, Department of Crop Sciences, Agronomy in the 

Tropics, Germany 

2International Centre for Underutilised Crops, Sri Lanka 

Multipurpose trees play an important role for the livelihoods of rural and urban people 

in the tropics. Several species are typical components of homegardens. These species 

are mainly unimproved landraces. Tree improvement is a slow process because of the 

long time to flowering and fruiting. The International Centre for Underutilised Crops 

(ICUC), Colombo, Sri Lanka is studying the value of selected underutilised fruit tree 

species for income generation of small-scale entrepreneurs. In this study, jackfruit 

(Artocarpus heterophyllus Lamk.), bael (Aegle marmelos (L.) Correa) and four different 

Annona species were surveyed. Although some improvement research has been 

done with jackfruit, improved planting material seems still confined to nurseries. No 

formal improvement activities appear to have been undertaken for either bael or the 

Annona species. Overall, little is known about the provenance and quality of planting 

material used in farms and whether or how improved lines find their way to the 

user. This work mainly aims to understand the diversity of sources of planting material 

found in homegardens and, consequently, describe germplasm flow. For the study, 

two locations of Sri Lanka were selected where ICUC is active: Kandy and Galle. 

Semi-structured interviews of 30 farmers and about 10 nursery operators per location 

were conducted. Differences between locations were established by applying several 

diversity indices (Sørensen’s coefficient, Shannon’s and Simpson’s indices). The 

germplasm movement for the selected species seemed to be very weakly developed. 

Additionally, farmers were not aware of the importance of improved varieties. The 

results of this study indicate not only the need for research and development in these 

underutilised multipurpose trees but also for more effective dissemination activities. 

Keywords: Aegle marmelos, agroforestry, Annona, Artocarpus heterophyllus, genetic 

resources, germplasm movement, homegarden, multipurpose trees, Sri Lanka, underutilised 

crops 

Contact Address: Brigitte L. Maass, Georg-August-University Göttingen, Department of Crop Sciences, 

Grisebachstr. 6, 37077 Göttingen, Germany, e-mail: bmaass@gwdg.de 

ID 249 43


Multi-period Analysis of Bt-cotton Varieties in China - Using 

Farm Level Panel Data 

LIFENG WU 1 , MARC VÖLKER 2 , DIEMUTH PEMSL 3 , HERMANN WAIBEL 2 

1University of Hannover, Agriculture, Environment and Development, Faculty of Economics 

and Business Administration, Germany 

2University of Hannover, Development and Agricultural Economics, Germany 

3WorldFish Center, Policy, Economics, and Social Sciences, Malaysia 

Previous studies of Bt-cotton adoption in China have reported high farm level benefits. 

However, there is evidence that the farmers continue to use high levels of pesticides 

in spite of the adoption of bollworm resistant transgenic Bt-cotton. Most of these 

studies relied on cross section farm level data comparing adopters and non-adopters. 

In the present study we aim to contribute to a better understanding of the role of 

the insect resistance trait in Bt-varieties in productivity and profitability of smallscale 

cotton farmers. The analysis is based on panel data collected in 2002 and 2005 

from some 150 farmers in five villages in Linqing County, Shandong Province, East 

China. Since Bt-cotton varieties account for 100 % of all the cotton planted in the 

research area, its impact cannot be captured by an adopter non-adopter comparison. 

Instead, the toxin concentration of Bt-plants has been used as a variable to measure 

the effect of the new varieties on bollworm control. A two-period production function 

following the damage control concept was estimated using an instrumental variable 

approach. Results allow assessing the productivity and profitability effect of the Bttrait 

and chemical pesticides. Cotton production activities of farmers in the panel were 

monitored season long and data on inputs and outputs were recorded. In addition, in 

order to quantitatively capture the Bt-trait in cotton varieties, cotton leaves from each 

of the monitored fields were sampled and tested for Bt-toxin concentration. Results 

indicate that overuse of pesticides continues to exist in spite of 100 % Bt-cotton variety 

adoption. A possible reason is that the variation in Bt quality is high and farmers are 

faced with considerable uncertainty of their control effectiveness. Hence, farmers 

still use many sprays targeting cotton bollworm. At the same time, the effectiveness 

of pesticides is limited largely due to a similar problem with quality control. The 

uncertainty inherent in the key determinants of the productivity of pest control inputs 

calls for an integrated analytical framework that combines ecological and economic 

factors. 

Keywords: Bt-cotton, China, damage control, panel data 

Contact Address: Lifeng Wu, University of Hannover, Agriculture, Environment and Development, 

Faculty of Economics and Business Administration, Germany, e-mail: wwllff@sohu.com 

44 ID 387

Plant Nutrition and Soils 


GUY-ERICK AKOUÈGNON, VOLKER HOFFMANN, RAINER 

SCHULTZE-KRAFT: 

Understanding Farmers’ Epistemology of Soil Fertility for 

an Appropriate Communication of the Concept of Integrated 

Soil Fertility Management: Empirical Evidence from 

Southern Bénin Republic 46 


JULIA DUX, LINDSEY NORGROVE, BARBARA WICK, RONALD 

F. KÜHNE: 

Impact of Residue Decomposition and Nutrient Release on 

Soil Enzyme Activity and Nutrient Turnover in Soils in the 

Humid Tropical Lowlands of Cameroon 47 

JÖRN GERMER, JOACHIM SAUERBORN: 

Exploring the Potential for Recycling Nutrients from Waste 

Water to Enhance Agricultural Productivity — the Example 

of Valley View University in Accra, Ghana 48 

STEFAN HAUSER: 

Soil Temperatures During Burning of Large Amounts of 

Wood in a Humid Forest Agro-eco System: Effects on Soil 

pH and Subsequent Maize Yields 49 

RAIMUND KÖSTERS, ANNE PREGER, CHRIS DU PREEZ, 

SONJA BRODOWSKI, WULF AMELUNG: 

Reaggregation of Secondary Grassland Top Soils in the 

South African Highveld: A Chronosequence Study 50 

RAQUEL C. LOPEZ, PAUL L. G. VLEK: 

Potassium: Principal Constraint to Maize Production in 

Imperata-infested Fields at Central Sulawesi, Indonesia 51 

45


Understanding Farmers’ Epistemology of Soil Fertility for an 

Appropriate Communication of the Concept of Integrated Soil 

Fertility Management: Empirical Evidence from Southern Bénin 

Republic 

GUY-ERICK AKOUÈGNON 1 , VOLKER HOFFMANN 1 , RAINER SCHULTZE-KRAFT 2 

1University of Hohenheim, Department of Agricultural Communication and Extension 

(430a), Germany 

2University of Hohenheim, Department of Biodiversity and Land Rehabilitation, Ger- 

many 

There is a general consensus on the necessity of applying both organic and mineral fertilisers to 

sustain nutrient flow in low-input farming systems of densely populated areas of sub-Saharan 

Africa. The successful dissemination of this knowledge requires at village level the pre-identification 

of the factors susceptible to drive or to impede its implementation. At farmers’ level, the 

most basic prerequisite for the successful communication of the message is to understand the 

target group’s own definition of soil fertility and the strategies locally perceived as appropriate 

to build soil fertility. 

In this study the concept epistemology of soil fertility is used to describe the meta-aspect of 

local soil knowledge which is beyond the ethnopedological elicitation and scientific validation 

of local soil categories. It rather seeks the meta-knowledge governing the local distinction of 

soil fertility and management strategies in different categories as a more generic frame to insert 

the “new” concept of soil fertility. 

In four selected villages in Southern Bénin, the descriptors of different soil fertility categories 

and fertilising strategies were elicited. Through the step-wise generalisation procedure of induction, 

the spatial and temporal variability of the different soil and management categories 

are reduced to an overarching rule reflecting the frame of reference for local definition of soil 

fertility and management. In two villages the concept of soil fertility was found limited to the 

ability of a field to sustain maize growth without mineral fertiliser. The use of legume residues 

is prioritised but only on soils that are loosing fertility. Infertile soils are qualified as dead. 

An extension message is designed to translate the concept of integrated soil fertility and its 

missing notions. In the two other villages there was no field differentiation and variability in 

management strategies. Mineral fertiliser or the systematic combination of mineral fertiliser 

and manure are uniformly used. Correspondingly the feasibility of integrated soil fertility management 

and measures to support farmers’ strategies are discussed. 

Keywords: Knowledge dissemination, Integrated soil fertility management, local soil knowledge 

Contact Address: Guy-Erick Akouègnon, University of Hohenheim, Department of Agricultural 

Communication and Extension (430a), Schloss Museumsflügel, 70593 Stuttgart, Germany, e-mail: 

guyerick@uni-hohenheim.de 

46 ID 280


Impact of Residue Decomposition and Nutrient Release on Soil 

Enzyme Activity and Nutrient Turnover in Soils in the Humid 

Tropical Lowlands of Cameroon 

JULIA DUX 1 , LINDSEY NORGROVE 2 , BARBARA WICK 3 , RONALD F. KÜHNE 4 

1Institute of Vegetable and Ornamental Crops, Germany 

2University of Hohenheim, Biodiversity and Land Rehabilitation in the Tropics and Subtropics, 

3Humboldt-University Berlin, Division of Soil Science and Site Science, Germany 

4Georg-August-Universität Göttingen, Institute for Plant and Animal Production in the 


We studied the impact of leaf residue decomposition and nutrient release of two weed / fallow 

species - Imperata cylindrica and Chromolaena odorata — and one pioneer tree — Phyllanthus 

discoideus - on enzyme activity and nutrient turnover in soils in the humid tropical lowlands of 

southern Cameroon in a pot experiment. We tested (i) the impact of litter types on decomposition 

rate, nutrient release and enzyme activities in soil, and (ii) whether soils from different 

vegetation and land uses differed in their ability to support decomposition under controlled conditions. 

We measured mass loss, nutrient release of N and P from decomposing residues, and 

soil enzymes of the C cycle (ß-glucosidase), N cycle (protease) and P cycle (acid and alkaline 

phosphatase) over 120 days. 

Faster decomposition of Phyllanthus and Chromolaena residues and greater release of nutrients 

of N and P from decomposing leaves compared to imperata residues concurred with differences 

in residue quality. After 120 days, Chromolaena and Phyllanthus residue had released nearly 

three times as much of its initial pools of N and P than had Imperata residue. However, rapid 

recycling of N and P from Imperata residues in the early stages of decomposition increases the 

risk of nutrients being lost from the topsoil without contributing to SOM build-up in the longterm. 

Most of the variation in ß-glucosidase activity was associated with differences among residue 

types. Decomposition and mass loss from the plant residue triggered C mineralisation in soils 

and were matched by equivalent increases in ß-glucosidase activity. By contrast, litter type had 

no impact on activities of alkaline phosphatase and protease. The role of N and P supply in 

regulating activity of enzymes that mineralise N and P differed for both nutrients. Protease 

was more responsive to variations in N supply than were P mineralising enzymes to P supply. 

Increases in residue nutrient fluxes of P associated with residue decomposition were not related 

to acid and alkaline phosphatase activity but was positively related to protease activity. 

Keywords: Resiude decomposition, soil enzyme activity, weed infestation 

Contact Address: Barbara Wick, Humboldt-University Berlin, Division of Soil Science and Site Science, 

Invalidenstraße 42, 10115 Berlin, Germany, e-mail: barbara.wick@agrar.hu-berlin.de 

ID 351 47


Exploring the Potential for Recycling Nutrients from Waste Water 

to Enhance Agricultural Productivity — the Example of Valley 

View University in Accra, Ghana 

JÖRN GERMER, JOACHIM SAUERBORN 

University of Hohenheim, Stuttgart, Institute for Plant Production and Agroecology in 

the Tropics and Subtropics, Germany 

Agriculture in many countries of the developing world suffers from soil nutrient depletion 

with a directly associated reduction in yield. Contrariwise the rising population 

produces increasing amounts of organic human wastes derived from the food cycle. 

These wastes contain valuable nutrients which are withdrawn and not returned to the 

arable land instead they contaminate natural ecosystems. Use of human excreta and 

waste water for crop production could improve sustainability of agricultural systems 

through an increased emphasis on recycling and greater return of nutrients and water. 

At the Valley View University alternative sanitation and waste water technologies 

are installed which collect greywater and urine to boost crop production. Greywater 

from showers and sinks is used to irrigate crops like papaya (Carica papaya), banana 

(Musa × paradisiaca), plantain and cassava (Manihot esculenta), while urine collected 

from dry urinals is deployed to fertilise cereals. A mixture of urine and water derived 

from separating toilets is applied to mango (Mangifera indica) and cashew (Anacardium 

occidentale). The performance of all crops is closely monitored with the goal 

of optimal adaptation of the sanitary and collection facilities to local conditions and to 

investigate the nutrient and water cycling efficiency. Parallel the acceptability by the 

local people is assessed and pathogen monitoring programme is in place to guarantee 

hygienic safety. The nutrient efficiency of pure urine is studied in comparison with 

control, compound fertiliser, compound fertiliser plus water, compost and chicken manure 

in 6*5 block design field trial planted to maize. The nutrient supply is based on 

the application of NPK 15:15:15 compound fertiliser at a rate 667 kg ha −1 supplying 

100 kg N, 44 kg P and 83 kg K per hectare. Urine, manure and compost are adjusted 

by the addition of TSP, KCl and Urea to provide the same amount of N, P and K. Preliminary 

results indicate that all nutrient sources increase the production drastically. 

With the aim to assess long term changes in soil fertility and to integrate the impact 

of low and highly variable precipitation, this trial will be continued for several years. 

Keywords: Ecological sanitation, greywater, nutrient efficiency, urine 

Contact Address: Jörn Germer, University of Hohenheim, Stuttgart, Institute for Plant Production and 

Agroecology in the Tropics and Subtropics, Garbenstr. 13, 70593 Stuttgart, Germany, e-mail: jgermer@ 

uni-hohenheim.de 

48 ID 352


Soil Temperatures During Burning of Large Amounts of Wood in 

a Humid Forest Agro-eco System: Effects on Soil pH and 

Subsequent Maize Yields 

STEFAN HAUSER 

International Institute of Tropical Agriculture, Humid Forest Eco-regional Center, Cameroon 

Slash and burn agriculture is still the dominant form of food production in the humid 

and sub-humid tropics of Africa, Asia and South America. In large parts of the Congo 

basin secondary and primary forest is cleared for particular crops. Little information 

is available on the temperatures attained during burning and the immediate changes of 

soil chemical properties. Soil temperature was measured during, and soil pH changes 

after burning 1000, 3000 and 5000 Mg ha −1 of wood, representing fuel loads of a 

range of tree boles commonly felled and burned for land preparation on southern 

Cameroonian Ultisols and Oxisols. During the burning of 1000, 3000 and 5000 Mg 

ha −1 of wood, the mean temperature at the soil surface reached 770°C and 214°C at 

5 cm depth, without differences between fuel loads. At 10 cm depth the soil temperature 

was higher under 3000 (173°C) and 5000 (208°C) Mg ha −1 fuel loads than under 

1000 Mg ha −1 (133°C). At 20 cm depth the temperature was higher under 5000 Mg 

ha −1 fuel load (163°C) than under 1000 (52°C) and 3000 Mg ha −1 (105°C). At 30 cm 

depth no differences were found (32 to 68°C). Burning of 10 Mg ha −1 , representing 

the natural regrowth of two years fallow on deforested land, caused no discernable 

temperature increases at any depth. At 24 hours after ignition, soil under 10 Mg ha −1 

fuel load was at ambient temperature. At 3, 5, 10, and 12 cm depth temperatures were 

different between all fuel loads. At the surface the difference between 10 and 1000 

Mg ha −1 fuel load was not significant, all others were. 

Soil pH in 0–5 cm depth, increased within 9 days after burning (DAB) from 6.5 to 8.0 

under 1000, 3000, and 5000 Mg ha −1 fuel load. Under 3000, and 5000 Mg ha −1 fuel 

load the pH continued to increase until 37 DAB, reaching 9.25. The pattern of pH 

with soil depth did not change between 37 and 79 days after burning. 

Maize yields were significantly reduced when planted immediately after burning of 

3000 and 5000 Mg ha −1 of wood, mainly due to low crop establishment. 

Keywords: Cameroon, maize, slash and burn, soil pH, soil temperature, Ultisol 

Contact Address: Stefan Hauser, International Institute of Tropical Agriculture, Humid Forest Ecoregional 

Center, Cameroon, e-mail: s.hauser@cgiar.org 

ID 54 49


Reaggregation of Secondary Grassland Top Soils in the South 

African Highveld: A Chronosequence Study 

RAIMUND KÖSTERS 1 , ANNE PREGER 1 , CHRIS DU PREEZ 2 , SONJA 

BRODOWSKI 1 , WULF AMELUNG 1 

1University of Bonn, Institute of Crop Science and Resource Conservation, Division of 

Soil Science, Germany 

2University of the Free State, Department of Soil, Crop and Climate Sciences, South 

Africa 

Prolonged arable cropping in subtropical sandy grassland soils results in substantial 

losses of water-stable aggregates. This accelerates turnover of soil organic matter, 

leads to substantial soil organic matter losses and facilitates erosion. We hypothesised 

that restoration of these grassland ecosystems must involve the re-establishment 

of soil structure. To test this supposition we sampled chronosequences of degraded 

arable land (more than 20 years of cropping) that had been converted to secondary 

pastures between 1 and 52 years before present in three agro-ecosystems of the South 

African Highveld. Primary grasslands in the savannah also used as pastures served 

as controls. Arable land top soil was sampled for comparison. Samples from the 

surface soils (Plinthusthalfs; 0–10 cm) were fractionated according to aggregate size 

by wet sieving (8000–2800 µm, 2800–2000 µm, 2000–500 µm, 250–500 µm, 250– 

53 µm and < 53 µm). All fractions were analysed for their respective content of 

soil organic carbon and total nitrogen and corrected for sand content. The first results 

show that reconversion of arable land into pasture does indeed recover parts of the soil 

organic carbon and nitrogen in these soils, which is accompanied by at least partial 

reaggregation. Ongoing analyses are evaluated to elucidate to which extent the restoration 

of soil organic matter and aggregation in the secondary grassland is possible in 

the three agro-ecosystems in comparison to the primary grasslands. Nevertheless, it 

can already be stated by now that the original state of the primary grassland is not 

easily reached, thus rising the question whether at least some of the former ecosystem 

services maybe lost irreversibly upon land degradation within post-industrial timescales. 

Keywords: Land use change, secondary grassland, soil aggregation, soil organic matter 

restoration 

Contact Address: Raimund Kösters, University of Bonn, Institute of Crop Science and Resource Conservation, 

Division of Soil Science, Nussallee 13, 53115 Bonn, Germany, e-mail: raimund.koesters@ 

web.de 

50 ID 273


Potassium: Principal Constraint to Maize Production in Imperatainfested 

Fields at Central Sulawesi, Indonesia 

RAQUEL C. LOPEZ, PAUL L. G. VLEK 

University of Bonn, Center for Development Research, Ecology and Natural Resources 

Management, Germany 

On tropical soils that are generally acidic and of low fertility, the low-input annual 

crop cultivation tends to collapse because of Imperata weed infestation. Once infested 

with Imperata, the farmers may only have one or two harvests (e.g. maize) before 

the weeds completely cover the land. Formerly cultivated fields are fallowed and 

eventually abandoned when cultivation no longer provides economic returns. 

A study was conducted in 2003 / 2004 in a rainforest margin in Central Sulawesi 

prone to Imperata infestation to identify the underlying factor constraining maize production. 

Maize was planted in fields with different levels of Imperata infestation. Before 

maize cropping, Imperata was controlled by shallow or deep hoeing or herbicide 

application. Maize was grown with and without fertiliser application (NPKS). 

Fertiliser application significantly enhanced maize growth in all fields as well as improved 

the maize grain yield production for 2 cropping periods, particularly in highly- 

Imperata infested field (4.0 t ha −1 against 0.1 t ha −1 ) but also in medium-infested field 

(8.8 t ha −1 against 3.0 t ha −1 ), and low-infested field (6.3 t ha −1 against 2.4 t ha −1 ). 

Without any fertility inputs, maize grain production in highly-Imperata infested field 

was severely impeded, but with fertiliser application gave the highest stover yield 

(10.9 t ha −1 ). 

A detailed analysis of maize nutrient accumulation revealed that K was the key constraining 

nutrient. In the high-infested field, K levels in the stover tissue were very 

low, the primary cause for the poor grain development in the highly- Imperata infested 

field. The stover source strength of K was apparently unable to meet the sink demand 

for grain production. Although many reports state that farmers abandon the field when 

they can no longer cope with the Imperata as the cropping period proceeds, it could 

be that poor grain production that is discouraging farmers in cultivating such fields. 

Fertilising the fields early in the infestation process might be a suitable measure to 

counter Imperata. 

Keywords: Fertiliser application, Imperata, maize, Nutrient constraints, Potassium, 

Soil fertility, Tropical soils, Upland agriculture, Weed control 

Contact Address: Raquel C. Lopez, University of Bonn, Center for Development Research, Ecology 

and Natural Resources Management, Walter Flex Str.3, 53113 Bonn, Germany, e-mail: rlopez@ 

uni-bonn.de 

ID 109 51


52 ID 109

Organic Farming and Organic Compounds 

BERNHARD FREYER: 

Traditional and Ecological Farming Systems in (Sub) Tropical 

Countries — History, Interactions and Future Perspectives 54 

LUKAS KILCHER: 

How Can Organic Agriculture Contribute to Sustainable 

Development? 55 

DAGMAR LANGE, SUSANNE HONNEF: 

Sustainable Wild Collection of Medicinal and Aromatic Plants 56 

FRANCISCO MARROQUÍN AGREDA, JÜRGEN POHLAN, MARC 

J. J. JANSSENS: 

Effects of Legumes Intercropped in Mango Orchards in 

the Soconusco, Chiapas, Mexico 57 

JUDITH OWITI, WILHELM GRUISSEM, PENG ZHANG: 

Biotechnology Approaches to Modulate Post-harvest Physiological 

Deterioration of Cassava Storage Roots 58 

53


Traditional and Ecological Farming Systems in (Sub) Tropical 

Countries — History, Interactions and Future Perspectives 

BERNHARD FREYER 

University of Natural Resources and Applied Life Sciences (BOKU), Institute of Organic 

Farming, Austria 

Climate change, soil degradation and an increase of health problems impede a sustainable 

development of livelihoods in rural areas in (sub-)tropical regions all over 

the world. Prevalent traditional farming systems have been replaced and modified by 

the Green Revolution, LEISA and agroforestry systems. Today organic farming is 

discussed as a land use system which could help especially smallholder farmers to 

achieve a better income and to protect the environmental resources at the same time. 

This article reflects first conflict areas and interaction possibilities concerning subsistence 

farming seen from a system-theoretical perspective. A comparison between 

traditional and organic farming points out the different qualities. Based on a case 

study in the Rift Valley / Kenya the development of agriculture since the 1950’s along 

the different land use approaches is demonstrated. The specific environmental risks 

and the degree of dependency on external inputs, market and economy are shown in a 

comparison between the different land use approaches. Under specific circumstances 

organic farming could fail to achieve sound environmental development. Nevertheless 

because of the system approach, organic farming offers a framework for a sustainable 

agriculture, integrating forestry, agroforestry, traditional farming techniques and selected 

approaches from the LEISA system. 

Keywords: Agroforestry, LEISA, organic farming, systems analysis 

Contact Address: Bernhard Freyer, University of Natural Resources and Applied Life Sciences 

(BOKU), Institute of Organic Farming, Gregor Mendel Straße 33, 1180 Wien, Austria, e-mail: 

Bernhard.Freyer@boku.ac.at 

54 ID 660


How Can Organic Agriculture Contribute to Sustainable 

Development? 

LUKAS KILCHER 

Research Institute of Organic Agriculture (FIBL), International Cooperation Division, 

Switzerland 

Organic agriculture can, especially in poorer countries, contribute to meaningful socio-economical 

and ecologically sustainable development. On the one hand, this is due to the organic 

practice, which means management of local resources (e.g. local seed varieties, dung, etc.) and 

therefore cost effectiveness. On the other hand, the market for organic products — at local 

and international level — has tremendous prospects for growth and offers to creative producers 

and exporters from the south some excellent opportunities to improve their incomes and living 

conditions. As to whether organic agriculture is a viable alternative for a particular holding, is 

something, which can only be clarified case by case. 

What are the potentials of organic agriculture for the solution of the hunger and poverty problems? 

What can organic agriculture contribute to socially and ecologically sustainable development 

in poor countries? 

At the core of organic agriculture are the promotion of soil fertility, biodiversity (e.g. native 

flora and fauna), locally adapted production methods and the renouncement of chemical inputs. 

Such methods and the cultivation of diverse crops stabilise the delicate eco-systems in 

the tropics and reduce drought sensitivity or pest infestations. Organic production lowers the 

risk of yield failure, stabilises returns and therefore enhances food security of small farmer’s 

families. The author presents examples from international cooperation projects and discusses 

the following hypothesis on the basis of these examples: 

• Organic agriculture is sustainable and diverse; 

• Organic farmers conserve resources; 

• Organic farms produce more; 

• Organic products provide market access and create added value; 

• Organic agriculture raises self-confidence and autonomy; 

• The organic movement mobilises new forces and partnerships. 

Moreover, the author presents a farming system comparison trial, which is starting in kenia 

and india in cooperation with FiBl and local partners. The aim of this trial is to analize the 

contribution of organic agriculture to sustainable development. 

Keywords: Farming system, organic agriculture, sustainable development 

Contact Address: Lukas Kilcher, Research Institute of Organic Agriculture (FIBL), International Cooperation 

Division, Ackerstraße, 5070 Frick, Switzerland, e-mail: lukas.kilcher@fibl.org 

ID 562 55


Sustainable Wild Collection of Medicinal and Aromatic Plants 

DAGMAR LANGE 1 , SUSANNE HONNEF 2 

1 University of Koblenz-Landau, Institute for Natural Sciences, Germany 

2 WWF and Traffic, Biodiversity, Species Conservation and Traffic, Germany 

Besides cultivation in agricultural production schemes, wild collection of medicinal 

and aromatic plants (MAP) plays an important role to achieve food and health security 

according to the Millenium Development Goals of the United Nations. In the case 

of medicinal plants use, the sustainable collection of these valuable natural resources 

is a key for the basic health security for around 80 % of the world’s population. Additionally, 

sustainable wild collection provides people in poorer rural regions of our 

world with a basic income. Between 50,000 and 70,000 plant species are known to be 

used in traditional and modern medicine systems throughout the world. Countless additional 

species are used in the growing cosmetics and foods industries. The great majority 

of MAP species used are sourced by collection from wild resources. Although 

harvest from the wild may provide incentives for the conservation and sustainable 

use of important habitats including sensitive plant areas, over-harvesting, land conversion, 

and habitat loss increasingly threaten a considerable portion (approximately 

15,000 species) of the world’s MAP species and populations. The available certification 

criteria or standards addressing wild collection, as for example organic certification 

schemes, do currently not provide sufficient guidance to ensure the long term 

survival of wild populations. Means to support the sustainable use of MAP resources 

are also lacking within the existing systems. Therefore WWF, TRAFFIC, IUCN and 

the German Federal Agency for Nature Conservation (BfN) started a broad stakeholder 

consultation in 2005 to develop the International Standard for Sustainable Wild 

Collection of Medicinal and Aromatic Plants (ISSC-MAP). The ISSC-MAP aims to 

provide the currently missing guidance in form of a set of principles and criteria that 

can be applied to the management of medicinal and aromatic plant species and their 

ecosystems. 

This paper summarises the rationale, the process and current status and provides an 

outlook on potential implementation scenarios for this standard. 

Keywords: Certification, ISSC-MAP, Sustainable Use, Wild Collection 

Contact Address: Susanne Honnef, WWF and Traffic, Biodiversity, Species Conservation and Traffic, 

Rebstoecker Str. 55, 61130 Frankfurt A.m., Germany, e-mail: honnef@wwf.de 

56 ID 336


Effects of Legumes Intercropped in Mango Orchards in the 

Soconusco, Chiapas, Mexico 

FRANCISCO MARROQUÍN AGREDA 1 , JÜRGEN POHLAN 2 , MARC J. J. JANSSENS 1 

1 University of Bonn, Institute of Horticulture, Germany 

2 El Colegio de la Frontera Sur (ECOSUR), Manejo Integrado de Plagas, Mexico 

Fruit orchards are the principal agricultural crops that generate sustainable economic 

income to the farmers of the Soconusco Coast, Chiapas. These areas integrate 23000 ha 

of mango crops cultivated with high chemical inputs, open soil management and flowering 

stimulation. Outcome of this management is agro-ecological unbalance causing 

high costs, irregularly yields and requiring quarantine measures for commercial 

mango orchards in order to prevent infestation with the Mediterranean fly and other 

fruit flies. In order to alleviate these problems, the principal objectives of this research 

work were centered around the integration of soil cover with Crotalaria longirostrata, 

Vigna unguiculata and Phaseolus vulgaris (cv. Escumite) and their effects on fruit 

development, yield and quality. Since 2005, the effects of different intercropping systems 

with leguminous crops were integrated in two typical mango fruit regions of 

the Soconusco. Three leguminous crops i.e. Crotalaria longirostrata, Vigna unguiculata 

and Phaseolus vulgaris were evaluated as cash and trap crops, The two trials 

are each 120 × 30 m large and encompass four intercropping management systems 

(traditional, 3 combinations maize + legumes), laid out in a block design with four 

repetitions. In each experimental unit, growth and yield parameters of intercropped 

legumes and their interactions with the yield parameters of the companion fruit trees 

were determined. The experiments are located in in San Felipe (15o16´628´´ north 

latitude, 92o37´479´´ west longitude and 128 m.a.s.l.) and in Cintalapa (15o19´431´´ 

north latitude, 92°37´369´´ west longitude and 215 m.a.s.l.). The results demonstrate 

the potential of leguminous crops to improve the ecological stability in traditional fruit 

orchards. Crotalaria longirostrata achieved the highest yield of dry biomass (11.04 t/ha) 

and the treatment with Vigna unguiculata produced 1.03 t/ha. The soil covers integrating 

leguminous crops increase the soil fertility and benefits insect populations. The 

mango yield was highest in combination with Phaseolus vulgaris (9.13 t/ha) and Crotalaria 

longirostrata (7.42 t/ha). Additionally, more abundance and diversity of insect 

population was observed when intercropping leguminous crops between the mango 

trees. 

Keywords: Chiapas, fruit orchards, insect population, legumes, mango yield, Soconusco, 

soil cover 

Contact Address: Francisco Marroquín Agreda, University of Bonn, Institute of Horticulture, 

Auf Dem Hügel 6, D-53121 Bonn, Germany, e-mail: fjmarroquin@hotmail.com 

ID 386 57


Biotechnology Approaches to Modulate Post-harvest Physiological 

Deterioration of Cassava Storage Roots 

JUDITH OWITI, WILHELM GRUISSEM, PENG ZHANG 

Institute of Plant Sciences, ETH Zurich, Switzerland 

Cassava storage roots play an important role not only as a basic food source for the 

developing countries but also as starch reserve for the starch industry. Cassava roots 

undergo post-harvest physiological deterioration (PPD) within 24 hours after harvest, 

thus reducing the crop’s palatability and marketability.PPD is an active physiological 

process involving changes in gene expression, protein synthesis and accumulation 

of secondary metabolites. It shares many features with wound responses in other 

plants, except that wound repair, which seals the wound sites and returns the plant to 

normal development, is inadequate in the detached cassava root.Information regarding 

changes in gene and protein profiles during post harvest physiological deterioration is 

currently scarce. 

Using a proteomics approach, the protein expression profiles of cassava during PPD 

was studied. Proteins were extracted from cassava roots 0 and 12 hours after harvesting 

and separated by 2D-electrophoresis. Changes in protein profiles were found in 

cassava roots in the two PPD time points. Gel image analysis identified unique and 

down-regulated proteins during PPD with annotated functions in protection against 

oxidative stress and regulation of reactive oxygen species. The characterisation of 

differentially expressed proteins in cassava storage root during PPD is an initial step 

towards understanding the mechanisms underlying PPD and will deliver useful tools 

to modulate the process via genetic engineering. 

In parallel, and to further develop the cassava storage root for improved nutrition and 

storage, we are interested in the isolation of cassava root-specific promoters. Partial 

isolation and characterisation of root-specific promoter candidates of cassava is ongoing. 

The obtained information will enable us to generate transgenic cassava with 

improved nutritional traits and longer storage potential. 

Keywords: Keywords: Post-harvest physiological deterioration, protein expression, 

Two- dimensional electrophoresis 

Contact Address: Peng Zhang, Institute of Plant Sciences, ETH Zurich, Universitatstrasse 2, 

8092 Zurich, Switzerland, e-mail: pzhang@ethz.ch 

58 ID 257

Stresses and Biodiversity 

ABULEGASIM ELZEIN, JÜRGEN KROSCHEL, PAUL MAR- 

LEY, GEORG CADISCH: 

Mycoherbicide Research and Development for Integrated 

Striga Control in Africa: Achievements, Constraints and 

Future Perspective 60 

ANJA LINSTÄDTER: 

Indicators for Land Use in Savannahs — Solutions for Detecting 

and Describing Land Use Intensity 61 

K. WYDRA, ZEKARIAS LEYKUN: 

Interaction Between the Physiological State of Ralstonia 

solanacearum, Causal Agent of Bacterial Wilt, in Tomato 

Xylem Vessels and the Tomato Genotype 62 

STEPHAN WINTER: 

Diversity of Geminiviruses Causing Cassava Mosaic Disease 

in Africa 63 

59


Mycoherbicide Research and Development for Integrated Striga 

Control in Africa: Achievements, Constraints and Future 

Perspective 

ABULEGASIM ELZEIN 1 , JÜRGEN KROSCHEL 2 , PAUL MARLEY 3 , GEORG 

CADISCH 1 



2International Potato Center, Integrated Crop Management Division, Peru 

3Ahmadu Bello University, Institute for Agricultural Research, Nigeria 

Striga spp. are important constraints in cereal and legume production in semi-arid tropical 

Africa, where the livelihood of millions of subsistence farmers is adversely affected. An integrated 

approach in which biocontrol represents an important component, appears to be the ideal 

strategy for reducing Striga infestation. Fusarium oxysporum (Foxy 2 & PSM197) proved to 

be highly virulent against their target weed Striga hermonthica, host specific and they can 

be mass-produced. For facilitating practical field application, our research focuses on the 

development of appropriate mycoherbicidal formulations and delivery systems of the fungal 

antagonists. Hence, Pesta formulation, made by encapsulating fungal inoculum in a matrix 

composed of durum wheat-flour, kaolin, and sucrose, was developed. Seed treatment technology 

for coating sorghum and maize seeds as an attractive option for further minimising 

the inoculum amount and facilitating delivery of Striga-mycoherbicides was also investigated 

and an optimised coating protocol for antagonists of Striga was provided. Both formulations 

showed promising efficacy in controlling Striga and in improving the panicle yield of its host 

plant sorghum under glasshouse conditions. Integration of Pesta formulation and treated seeds 

containing Striga-mycoherbicides with Striga resistant and susceptible sorghum and maize cultivars 

under field conditions revealed an additive effect. The resistant cultivars enhanced clearly 

both mycoherbicides efficacy in controlling Striga. These findings are highly relevant to the realisation 

of an integrated Striga control approach. Both technologies “Pesta and seed treatment” 

offer a significant practical and economical solution for large-scale application of antagonists 

for Striga. Further, both mycoherbicides maintained excellent viability (shelf-life) on Pesta 

products and treated seeds after one year of storage which would be sufficient for their use under 

practical conditions of storage, handling and delivery. The compatibility and suitability of 

Pesta and seed treatment technology for formulating and delivering Striga-mycoherbicides will 

contribute to solving the primary difficulties for underemployment of Striga-mycoherbicides 

in Africa. Strategies about how to utilise these progresses to formulate successful integrated 

Striga control methods adoptable and applicable by subsistence farmers were proposed. 

Keywords: Encapsulation, Fusarium oxysporum, Future prospective, Integrated approach, Mycoherbicide, 

Seed coating, Striga hermonthica, weed biological control 

Contact Address: Abulegasim Elzein, University of Hohenheim, Institute of Plant Production and 

Agroecology in the Tropics and Subtropics, Garbenstr. 13, D-70599 Stuttgart, Germany, e-mail: 

gasim@uni-hohenheim.de 

60 ID 584


Indicators for Land Use in Savannahs — Solutions for Detecting 

and Describing Land Use Intensity 

ANJA LINSTÄDTER 

Savanna Range Management - Ecological and Economic Sustainability, University of 

Cologne, Germany 

Tropical savannahs like other arid to semiarid environments are characterised by a 

high temporal and spatial variability of rainfall. For understanding crucial aspects of 

any land management adapted to these conditions, we need to consider the full spatiotemporal 

dynamics of natural resources such as water availability and biomass production. 

A major challenge here are feedbacks between land use and spatial and temporal 

gradients. These feedbacks address thresholds, spatial and temporal scaling (including 

ecological and socio-economic memory), and both local and scientific perception 

of land use intensity. For detecting and describing land use intensity on a local and 

regional level, natural indicators are needed. They are necessary for a standardisation 

of different types of human impact such as grazing, browsing, or woodcutting; and for 

a standardisation of human impact on natural resources such as water and biomass. 

Such indicators are classified and described for land management in arid and semiarid 

environments, distinguishing between (i) direct indicators for the current state of a 

natural resource (e.g. available biomass, species composition), (ii) indirect indicators 

for the current state of natural resources (e.g. milk yield, calving rates), and (iii) direct 

indicators for an ecosystem memory (e.g. the population structure of key species, or 

the vitality of fodder species). For the case of the savannah biome, we give regional 

examples for the indicative value of vegetation and soil. In particular, we present the 

value of plant functional types (PFTs) and their abundance along land use gradients. 

We link existing conceptual approaches such as the concept of increaser/decreaser 

species to the functional concept of Response Groups, i.e. species with the same 

answer to disturbances. The significance of indicative functional groups in the tree 

and grass layer is discussed for the savannah biome in general. 

Keywords: Africa, indicators, land management, land use gradients, Namibia, range 

ecology 

Contact Address: Anja Linstädter, Savanna Range Management - Ecological and Economic Sustainability, 

University of Cologne, Gyrhofstr.15, 50937 Cologne, Germany, e-mail: anja.linstaedter@uni-koeln. 

de 

ID 191 61


Interaction Between the Physiological State of Ralstonia 

solanacearum, Causal Agent of Bacterial Wilt, in Tomato Xylem 

Vessels and the Tomato Genotype 

K. WYDRA, ZEKARIAS LEYKUN 

University of Hannover, Institute of Plant Diseases and Plant Protection, Germany 

Bacterial wilt caused by Ralstonia solanacearum is difficult to control due to the high 

variability of the pathogen and its capability to survive easily in adverse environments. 

Therefore, use of resistant genotypes is the key option for integrated control. However, 

latent infection may cause breakdown of resistance, pathogen dissemination or 

substantial yield reduction even with low wilt incidence. Therefore, the level of latent 

infection was quantified in fourteen ‘resistant’ tomato genotypes in relation to wilt 

incidence. R. solanacearum was detected in the collar of all symptomless genotypes 

and, hence, initial root infection was not limiting for bacterial colonisation. Highest 

differences in bacterial numbers were observed in the mid-stem parts of ‘resistant’ 

genotypes suggesting existence of effective resistance mechanisms on mid-stem level 

in some genotypes. Immunohistochemical analysis revealed differential reactions in 

xylem cell wall structure and composition in resistant and susceptible genotypes. Bacterial 

numbers and wilt incidence were positively correlated, with a higher correlation 

coefficient in the mid stem parts than in lower or upper plant parts. Therefore, quantification 

of bacteria in the mid-stem is suggested as a complementary criterion in 

addition to wilt symptom evaluation to identify genotypes, which suppress the latent 

pathogen multiplication. 

The ability of R. solanacearum to enter the viable but non-culturable (VBNC) state in 

planta was examined in different genotypes after infection. A significant percentage of 

R. solanacearum cells entered the VBNC state in xylem vessel, increasing in number 

with time after infection in symptomatic plants. The influence of the plant on the 

phase change of the bacterium could be an additional characteristic for the selection 

of resistant genotypes. 

Keywords: Bacterial wilt, host plant resistance, Ralstonia solanacearum, tomato 

Contact Address: K. Wydra, University of Hannover, Institute of Plant Diseases and Plant Protection, 

Hannover, Germany, e-mail: wydra@ipp.uni-hannover.de 

62 ID 154


Diversity of Geminiviruses Causing Cassava Mosaic Disease in 

Africa 

STEPHAN WINTER 

Deutsche Sammlung von Mikroorganismen und Zellkulturen (DSMZ), Plant Virus Division, 

Germany 

Cassava mosaic disease (CMD) caused by whitefly transmitted geminiviruses occurs 

wherever cassava is grown in Sub Sahara Africa, presents a serious constraint to cassava 

production and serious yield losses. The viruses causing CMD reflect a considerable 

molecular diversity with 6 distinct species so far described resolving in numerous 

and diverse strains and virus isolates. The cassava mosaic geminiviruses are believed 

to have initially evolved from indigenous African viruses which adapted to cassava 

and now occur, either with overlapping distribution over larger geographies, as with 

African cassava mosaic virus and East African cassava mosaic Cameroon virus or, 

with a more discrete occurrence as is the case for East African cassava mosaic Zanzibar 

virus found only in coastal areas of East Africa, Kenya and the island of Zanzibar. 

The large molecular diversity with viruses from East Africa points to East Africa as 

the centre of diversification. In addition and more significantly recombination evident 

in a number of virus genomes is a driving force of geminivirus evolution. Virus diversity 

and frequent recombination events found in virus genomes provide evidence for 

continuous evolutionary processes and influence the development of epidemics and 

the emergence of “new” viruses. The knowledge of virus diversity, the geographic 

distribution of virus types and the structure of virus populations is a most significant 

prerequisite to deploy cassava with virus resistance characters. A description of the 

current status of cassava geminiviruses in Sub Sahara Africa and the diverse phenotypes 

found in cassava will be presented and discussed in light of putative strategies 

to challenge CMD in Africa. 

Keywords: Cassava mosaic disease, CMD in Sub Sahara Africa, geminivirus diversity 

Contact Address: Stephan Winter, Deutsche Sammlung von Mikroorganismen und Zellkulturen 

(DSMZ), Plant Virus Division, BBA, Messeweg 11/12, Braunschweig, Germany, e-mail: s.winter@ 

bba.de 

ID 658 63


64 ID 658

Production Systems and Environment 

a) Regional Water Issues and Pollution 67 

b) Farming Systems Management 73 

c) Social Ecology and Land Use 81 

d) Regional Forest Issues 87 

65


66

Regional Water Issues and Pollution 

ADANE ABEBE, GERD FOERCH: 

Catchment Characteristics as Predictors of Base Flow Index 

(BFI) in Wabi-shebele River Basin, East Africa 68 

JÜRGEN BURKHARDT, ALICE BEINING, TAYE KUFA, HEINER 

GOLDBACH: 

Different Drought Adaptation Strategies of Coffea Arabica 

Populations Along a Rainfall Gradient in Ethiopia 69 

KANITTA SATIENPERAKUL, WOLFRAM SPREER, WINAI WIRIYA- 

ALONGKORN, SOMCHAI ONGPRASERT, JOACHIM MÜLLER: 

Economic Assessment of Water Saving Irrigation Methods 

in Longan Production in Northern Thailand 70 

IRIT EGUAVOEN: 

Drinking Water Policy, Water Rights and Allocation Practice 

in Rural Northern Ghana 71 

AHMED ABU SHABAN, WERNER DOPPLER, HEINZ-PETER 

WOLFF: 

Determinants of Farmers’ Acceptance of Treated Wastewater 

in Irrigated Agriculture in the Northern Gaza Strip 72 

67


Catchment Characteristics as Predictors of Base Flow Index (BFI) 

in Wabi-shebele River Basin, East Africa 

ADANE ABEBE, GERD FOERCH 

University of Siegen, Germany, Research Institute for Water and Environment, Civil 

Engineering Department, Germany 

The Base Flow Index (BFI) is used as a measure of the base flow characteristics of 

catchments. It provides a systematic way of assessing the proportion of base flow in 

the total runoff of a catchment. It indicates the influence of soil and geology on river 

flows, and is important for low flow studies. Nowadays extreme low flow events are 

more diligently analysed and given focus in the emerging field of ecohydrology. However, 

many of the catchments in developing countries are ungauged, thus, it is often 

difficult to get recorded data on base flows of rivers. This paper seeks to establish a 

relationship between the climatic, morphologic and geologic features of a catchment 

to its base flow in the Wabi-Shebele river basin, East Africa. It employs the parameters 

catchment size, stream density, climate index, soil type, hypsometric integral, 

normalised digital vegetation index (NDVI) extracted from satellite images and geologic 

features to derive the base flow index of a catchment. Values of base flow index 

determined for a network of stream flow gauges are matched to the composite morphometric 

and climatic data using spatial and regression analyses. To relate the BFI to a 

usable flow statistic, a relationship was derived between BFI and Q70, the point on the 

flow duration curve at which flows are exceeded 70 % of the time. Q70 was chosen because 

it is the critical point that has been most often used in most previous works. The 

BFI has a strong relationship with climate and geology. Catchments with high climate 

index (high rainfall or low evapo-transpiration) underlain with granites or basalt tend 

to give high base flow. Among the topographical parameters tested, drainage density 

index has better relationship with BFI. The developed relationship can be used for 

fairly estimating the base flows in the river basin considered. However, in view of 

the tremendous spatio-temporal heterogeneity of climatic and landscape properties 

extrapolation of response information or knowledge from gauged to ungauged basins 

remains fraught with considerable difficulties and uncertainties. 

Keywords: Base flow index, catchment characteristics, GIS, ungauged basins, Wabishebele 

river 

Contact Address: Adane Abebe, University of Siegen, Germany, Research Institute for Water and 

Environment, Civil Engineering Department, Paul-Bonatz-Str.9-11, 57076 Siegen, Germany, e-mail: 

adane.abebe@uni-siegen.de 

68 ID 401


Different Drought Adaptation Strategies of Coffea Arabica 

Populations Along a Rainfall Gradient in Ethiopia 

JÜRGEN BURKHARDT, ALICE BEINING, TAYE KUFA, HEINER GOLDBACH 

University of Bonn, Institute of Crop Science and Resource Conservation - Plant Nutrition, 

Germany 

Ethiopa is the centre of genetic diversity of Coffea arabica. The CoCE project aims 

to assess the diversity and the economic value of the Ethiopian coffee gene pool, focussing 

on traits inherent to the wild coffee populations and their possible usefulness 

for breeders. 

We compared the water use of four wild Coffea arabica populations along a rainfall 

gradient in Ethiopia. Measurements were carried out in situ, as well as in an experiment 

where seeds of the original sites were used to raise seedlings. Measurements 

tackled all relevant parts of water transport, i.e. soil conditions, the hydraulic conductivity 

of the root and the shoot system, stomatal control of gas exchange, and the 

atmospheric demand for water vapour. 

Water use efficiency in situ was found to be higher in the dry than in the wet season, 

and on dry sites compared to wet sites, thus reflecting the availability of water. 

Unexpectedly, no correlation with the rainfall gradient was observed neither when 

measuring the hydraulic system in situ, nor when looking at the reaction of seedlings 

to drought and radiation stress under ex situ conditions. Plants from the driest site, 

Harenna, showed highest transpiration and production. The root system of Harenna 

trees was the most extensive compared to the other sites, and the hydraulic system 

showed the highest efficiency for water transport, stomatal behaviour was liberal. 

Therefore these plants were most vulnerable to drought stress, and eventually they 

were the first of all to be damaged by drought. Plants from the wettest site were 

most conservative in water use and longer withstood drought stress, but had lower 

productivity. 

The results showed that the precipiation gradient was not reflected in a simple way by 

drought stress tolerance of trees. Presumably populations follow different strategies 

under drought stress conditions. Harenna populations might find their way out of 

serious droughts by putting their main effort into seed production (conserving the 

population as a whole), while trees from other populations seem to be more oriented 

to ensure survival of the individuals. 

Keywords: Biodiversity, coffea arabica, in-situ conservation, water relations 

Contact Address: Jürgen Burkhardt, University of Bonn, Institute of Crop Science and Resource Conservation 

- Plant Nutrition, Karlrobert-Kreiten-Straße 13, 53115 Bonn, Germany, e-mail: j.burkhardt@ 

uni-bonn.de 

ID 256 69


Economic Assessment of Water Saving Irrigation Methods in 

Longan Production in Northern Thailand 

KANITTA SATIENPERAKUL 1 , WOLFRAM SPREER 2 , WINAI 

WIRIYA-ALONGKORN 3 , SOMCHAI ONGPRASERT 4 , JOACHIM MÜLLER 2 

1 Mae Jo University, Faculty of Economics, Thailand 

2 University of Hohenheim, Agricultural Engineering, Germany 

3 Mae Jo University, Department of Horticulture, Thailand 

4 Mae Jo University, Department of Soil Conservation, Thailand 

With a total acreage of more than 100,000 ha longan (Dimocarpus longan Lour.) is 

one of the most important fruit crops cultivated in northern Thailand. With flowering 

and main fruit development taking place during the dry season, irrigation is needed 

to ensure high yields and optimal produce quality. Water for irrigation is an increasingly 

scarce resource in the region as a whole and for the single farmers irrigation 

is related to high energy costs for pumping. Deficit irrigation strategies present an 

interesting alternative to increase water use efficiency (WUE), wherever water is a 

limiting factor to production. Therefore, at Mae Jo University, Thailand in cooperation 

with Hohenheim University, Germany, deficit irrigation strategies are tested in 

tropical fruit tree orchards and evaluated with respect to yield and plant responses to 

drought stress. Over two years of field experiments it was documented, that under 

“partial rootzone drying (PRD)” high yield can be obtained with 33 % reduced irrigation 

water use. Responding to farmers’ request, a farmer controlled experiment was 

set up, where conventional irrigation was compared to deficit irrigation under field 

conditions. 180 trees have been split in to three groups: a. Farmer’s irrigation (control), 

b. Optimised irrigation based on open pan evaporation and c. PRD with 60 % 

of calculated optimal irrigation, alternately applied to different parts of the rootzone. 

Irrigation frequency and water consumption was recorded during the irrigation period. 

Total yield and yield per tree was measured, as well as fruit size and colour, as the 

most relevant quality parameters. Based on this data and under consideration of the 

current market prices for longan, an analysis of the economic suitability of deficit irrigation 

was carried out. The specific costs of irrigation were calculated under different 

scenarios regarding energy costs and possible water prices. It was shown, that mainly 

the reduced costs for pumping make deficit irrigation attractive to farmers. Despite 

slightly lower yields, PRD was more cost effective due to energy savings. Different 

scenarios of water pricing offer institutional instruments to promote water saving 

irrigation practices. 

Keywords: Deficit irrigation, dimocarpus longan, fruit quality, PRD, yield 

Contact Address: Wolfram Spreer, University of Hohenheim, Agricultural Engineering, 

70593 Stuttgart, Germany, e-mail: Wolfram.Spreer@gmx.net 

70 ID 493


Drinking Water Policy, Water Rights and Allocation Practice in 

Rural Northern Ghana 

IRIT EGUAVOEN 

Centre for Development Research (ZEF), Social and Political Change (ZEFa), Germany 

Present international drinking water policy dictates communal management of improved 

rural water supply facilities, such as hand pump fitted boreholes, to guarantee 

their technical sustainability and better access to water. Ghana has adopted and implemented 

that approach countrywide in its National Community Water and Sanitation 

Program. 

Some concepts, which the NCWSP policy suggests, contradict both former local water 

right regime and local perceptions of water. Among them are water tariff, formal 

user community and rights to exclude others from access. Pump communities 

are challenged to balance and deal with project legislation and borehole management 

guidelines deriving from water policy, as well as with socio-cultural norms, ecological 

circumstances and practical needs, which all embody divergent management priorities 

and request for different norms applied in such management. 

What empirical impact has the international drinking water approach on the local 

management of household water? What institutional and conceptual changes have 

emerged in comparison with the former water right regime? And what are the consequences 

for the access to water and local water allocation practice? 

The drinking water policy implemented in rural Ghana has provoked major changes 

in the local household management regime. The formal membership in bounded user 

communities, which hold a monopoly on property, use and decision-making rights for 

the facility, was introduced. The regular payment of money for rural water supply was 

extended to all regions. Pump communities got encouraged to sanction non-payment 

with the exclusion from access. But crafted institutions were negotiated on local level 

to balance contradictions between them and the former water right regime. Nonmembers 

of formal user communities may obtain use rights, which limit the amount 

of water, the water use and the withdrawal time. Payments were conceptualised as 

maintenance fees not as water tariffs. And additional rules and the close linkage of 

property and use rights prevent the exclusion of users due to non-payment. Despite 

new conceptual design and diversification of water rights and rules, water allocation 

practice does not show major changes but rather depends on non-normative factors. 

Keywords: Communal management, household water, water rights 

Contact Address: Irit Eguavoen, Centre for Development Research (ZEF), Social and Political Change 

(ZEFa), Walter-Flex-Str. 3, 53113 Bonn, Germany, e-mail: eguavoen@uni-bonn.de 

ID 134 71


Determinants of Farmers’ Acceptance of Treated Wastewater in 

Irrigated Agriculture in the Northern Gaza Strip 

AHMED ABU SHABAN, WERNER DOPPLER, HEINZ-PETER WOLFF 

University of Hohenheim, Farming and Rural Systems in the Tropics and Subtropics, 

Germany 

The Gaza Strip suffers from a critical scarcity of water and competition for water 

resources is high between the different sectors of the Palestinian economy. Prognoses 

indicate that the use of water as a production mean in agriculture will have to rely 

on the increased exploitation of treated wastewater (TWW) in the future. The change 

from freshwater to TWW is not a mere technical challenge but implies changes in the 

current rights for exploiting freshwater resources. Knowledge about the determinants 

of farmers’ acceptance of TWW is a prerequisite for the support of an unobstructed 

transition from the current situation to the expected management of water resources 

in the future. 

The analysis of determinants of farmers’ acceptance was based on data from a random 

sample of 94 farmers in the Biet Hanoun Area. The study area is located in the Northern 

Gaza Strip and will become a site with TWW irrigation according to the plans 

of the Palestinian Water Authority. A classification according to farm activities and 

family income yielded three classes of farming systems: mixed cropping farmers (A), 

low-income perennial crop farmers (B) and high-income perennial crop farmers (C). 

Acceptance of TWW was significantly lowest in class A, but showed no difference 

between farmers from the classes B and C, whereby the fear of diseases and pollution 

through TWW use was the most frequently stated concern. Further analyses by 

a logistic regression model revealed that this concern was the major determinant of 

farmers’ negative attitude towards the use of TWW and has an even larger impact than 

the ownership of own wells, which ranged on the second place. Major determinants 

for a positive attitude are the possession of hitherto non-irrigated areas and the structure 

of cropping activities. Literacy of farmers played an ambiguous role and may 

work in both directions. The overall highly significant results of the model support 

the hypothesis, that acceptance of TWW may origin from better access to information 

as well as from the lack of awareness of potential side effects. 

Keywords: Farming system, logistic regression, wastewater 

Contact Address: Ahmed Abu Shaban, University of Hohenheim, Farming and Rural Systems in the 

Tropics and Subtropics, Fruwirthstraße 12, 70599 Stuttgart, Germany, e-mail: ahmedschaban@hotmail. 

com 

72 ID 254

Farming Systems Management 

INGRID FROMM, JUAN A. DUBON: 

Upgrading and the Value Chain Analysis: The Case of 

Small-scale Coffee Farmers in Honduras 74 

LUIS POCASANGRE: 

Banana Improvement Based on Tissue Culture Propagation, 

Bio-enhancement and Agronomic Management for 

Sustainable Production 75 

JAN BÖRNER, STEPHEN A. VOSTI, ERNST BERG: 

Crop Yield Variability and Risk Aversion as Barriers to 

the Adoption of Fire-free Land Preparation in the Eastern 

Brazilian Amazon? 76 

MARCO HARTMANN, HANS E. JAHNKE, KURT-JOHANNES 

PETERS: 

Poverty Alleviation through Diversification: Potential and 

Constraints of Integrated Agriculture Aquaculture (IAA) 

for Poor People in the Rural Philippines - Evaluation at 

Farm Level 77 

DIETRICH DARR, JÜRGEN PRETZSCH: 

The Spread of Innovations Within Formal and Informal 

Farmers Groups: Evidence from Rural Communities of 

Semi-arid Eastern Africa 78 

HILDEGARD GARMING: 

Valuation of Non-market Goods: Farmer Health in Nicaragua 79 

73


Upgrading and the Value Chain Analysis: The Case of Small-scale 

Coffee Farmers in Honduras 

INGRID FROMM 1 , JUAN A. DUBON 2 

1 University of Leipzig, Small Enterprise Promotion and Training Program, Germany 

2 Georg-August-Universität Göttingen, Institute of Agricultural Economics, Germany 

The body of literature and research related to the value chain analysis has increased 

in recent years. These studies examine trade and production networks at an international 

level. Up to now, there is little evidence of the opportunities for developing 

countries to integrate into the world market with agricultural products. However, the 

export of value-added and differentiated agricultural products opens possibilities for 

development and poverty reduction. There is evidence that small producers and exporters 

in developing can insert themselves successfully in agricultural value chains. 

Small-scale producers, in their interaction with local processors or exporters and international 

retailers, have the possibility to acquire new skills and knowledge. The 

type of trust relationship and power dependence among the actors can determine how 

information flows and how firms upgrade. On the other hand, the implementation and 

compliance with standards provides opportunities for learning and acquiring skills 

and knowledge. The case of small-scale coffee farmers in Honduras illustrates this 

point. There are over 70,000 coffee producers in Honduras, most of which grow coffee 

on farms of less than 10 hectares of land. One of the challenges coffee producers 

have faced in the last 15 years has been the falling prices in the international market. 

Local institutions and producers’ cooperatives have created programs to help smallscale 

coffee farmers adapt to the changes in the global marketplace and assist them 

in increasing their competitiveness. These initiatives include the implementation of 

quality standards, the identification of direct buyers to ensure higher profits, and the 

certification of origin. The aim of this paper is to analyze the impact of these initiatives 

by studying how small-scale coffee farmers have upgraded their production and 

processes in order to increase their competitiveness and profits. 

Keywords: Competitiveness, upgrading, value chains 

Contact Address: Ingrid Fromm, University of Leipzig, Small Enterprise Promotion and Training Program, 

Germany, e-mail: ifromm@yahoo.com 

74 ID 99


Banana Improvement Based on Tissue Culture Propagation, Bioenhancement 

and Agronomic Management for Sustainable 

Production 

LUIS POCASANGRE 

International Network for the Improvement of Banana and Plantain (INIBAP), Costa 

The propagation of banana using tissue culture techniques has completely changed the banana 

industry. Firstly, the rapid increase of areas planted with banana in the last two decades has 

been possible only with this technique. For example, Ecuador, which is now the largest banana 

exporter in the world, only had 48,000 ha planted with banana in 1985, by 2000, this area 

had increased to almost 190,000 ha. This increase of 142,000 ha would not have been possible 

with conventional propagation systems. Secondly, banana producing countries in Central 

America are severely and regularly affected by hurricanes. Every year, thousands of hectares 

are destroyed by hurricanes and flooding. Tissue culture techniques allow for these areas to be 

rapidly replanted. The advantages of using tissue culture plants in comparison to traditional 

planting materials, such as sucker, bits, or corms are well known: uniformity of a plantation’s 

synchronised ratooning, superior agronomic behaviour and higher production. Furthermore, 

tissue culture plants are free of nematodes, weevils and some pathogenic fungi, which can be 

disseminated by suckers. Another breakthrough of this technique is the strong support to the 

plant-breeding programme. At the present, more than 72 countries benefit from pest and diseases 

resistant hybrid, and incalculable tons of pesticides have been saved in those countries 

through the introduction of resistant hybrids. However, this technique does not only have advantages. 

Somaclonal variation is still a problem. Currently, the majority of commercial tissue 

culture laboratories have less than 5 % off-type plants, but in some cases, they can reach up 

to 10 %. Another disadvantage of tissue culture plants is that they are more susceptible to 

the attack of nematodes, weevils and soil borne pathogens than suckers, as they are produced 

under sterile conditions in laboratories and are free of beneficial microorganisms that are normally 

present in field suckers. In order to solve this problem, we are working on the biological 

enhancement of tissue culture plants with mutualistic endophytic fungi. This involves the inoculation 

of plants with endophytic fungi that have antagonistic activity towards nematodes and 

other biotic factors and also a positive effect on plant growth. Currently, we are evaluating 

these endophytes in five countries in Latin America and we have more than 35 ha planted with 

inoculated plants. Preliminary results in commercial plantations in Costa Rica indicate that 

one single inoculation with endophytes has a better nematode control effect than 3 nematicide 

applications. Studies are being conducted at CATIE, Costa Rica, at IITA, Uganda, and at the 

University of Bonn, Germany, to elucidate the mechanisms of action of the endophytes. 

Keywords: Endophytic fungi, nematodes, somaclonal variation, South America 

Contact Address: Luis Pocasangre, International Network for the Improvement of Banana and Plantain 

(INIBAP), INIBAP c/o CATIE, 7170 Turrialba, Costa, e-mail: lpoca@catie.ac.cr 

ID 626 75


Crop Yield Variability and Risk Aversion as Barriers to the 

Adoption of Fire-free Land Preparation in the Eastern Brazilian 

Amazon? 

JAN BÖRNER 1 , STEPHEN A. VOSTI 2 , ERNST BERG 3 

1 Technical University of Munich, Department of Agricultural Economics, Germany 

2 University of California, Department of Agricultural and Resource Economics, United 

3 University of Bonn, Department of Farm Management, Germany 

In the Brazilian Amazon and at many other forest margins in the humid tropics, smallscale 

farmers depend primarily on low-input agriculture. The mechanisation of land 

preparation is often proposed as a profitable and climate-friendly alternative to the 

traditional fallow-based slash-and-burn practice. Yet, adoption rates remain rather 

low. 

Although the high economic performance of mechanical land preparation in experiments 

is primarily due to fertilisation, many proponents tacitly assume that chemical 

fertilisers are being adopted together with the mechanisation method. The question 

that motivates this paper is therefore: Why don’t farmers use fertilisers to increase the 

productivity of the traditional production system in the first place? 

Based on farm-household data from 270 smallholders in the Eastern Brazilian Amazon 

we find that factors, such as income, liquidity constraints, labour endowment and 

social connectedness have little or no explanatory power with respect to fertiliser use. 

Instead, fertilisers seem to be used only for crops that are clearly unprofitable without 

fertilisation. 

In a further step we simulate a set of production functions that identify expected yield 

and yield variance of important annual and perennial crops as a function of fertiliser 

use. The production functions are integrated into a quadratic farm-household optimisation 

model that accounts for production and price risks. The model suggests that risk 

aversion can induce farmers to increase or decrease fertiliser use intensity depending 

on how crop yield variance responds to fertiliser application. 

We use the model to assess the potential of a technology-specific crop-yield insurance 

scheme to induce the adoption of fire-free mechanical land preparation methods that 

require fertiliser applications. A final section elaborates on the implications of the 

results for the design of agricultural research and agro-environmental policies in the 

humid tropics. 

Keywords: Optimisation, simulation, slash-and-burn, small-scale argriculture 

Contact Address: Jan Börner, Technical University of Munich, Department of Agricultural Economics, 

Alte Akademie 14, 85354 Freising, Germany, e-mail: boerner@wzw.tum.de 

76 ID 32


Poverty Alleviation through Diversification: Potential and 

Constraints of Integrated Agriculture Aquaculture (IAA) for Poor 

People in the Rural Philippines - Evaluation at Farm Level 

MARCO HARTMANN 1 , HANS E. JAHNKE 2 , KURT-JOHANNES PETERS 3 

1NGO CIAAP, Cabayugan Integrated Agriculture Aquaculture Project, Philippines 

2Humboldt-Universität Berlin, Development Planning and Project Management, Germany 

3Humboldt-University Berlin, Department of Animal Breeding in the Tropics and Sub- 

tropics, Germany 

Elaborating sustainable livelihood approaches to reduce poverty is a continuing challenge 

for development planners throughout the developing world. In Southeast-Asian 

countries, small scale farming, rice farming in particular, represents the dominat 

source of income. Due to low prices, stagnant or decreasing yields and changes in 

climate, rice production is becoming less profitable for farmers. The role of poor 

farmers in degrading natural resources while searching for accessible income sources 

is well known in the Philippines. Small scale farmers are confronted with the problem 

of declining productivity in rice farming and a limited farm output, which frequently 

is not enough to provide income or at least food for the farm household throughout 

the year. Farmers are forced to look for alternatives, which simultaneously favours 

farm diversification as a possible option. In this presentation, panel data collected 

in the Philippine province of Palawan are used to point out the conditions of small 

scale farming and predominant constraints farmers are facing today. Diversification 

of existing farming systems can play a significant role in improving livelihoods of the 

farming households. Basically, poor rural people do not rely for their livelihood on 

agriculture alone, but as long as there are few opportunities due to almost non-existing 

labour markets in remote areas, practical solutions on the field have to be elaborated to 

overcome food shortages. Data from an economic analysis of an integrated agriculture 

aquaculture (IAA) farming system at a model-project site “on-station” provides evidence 

of the potential of diversification to alleviate poverty of small scale farmers in 

the region. Utilizing this data as a foundation, attention focuses on practical possi-bilities 

“on-farm” of implementing IAA components to diversify individual production 

systems and to identify deriving economic impacts and constraints of the adjustment. 

Keywords: Diversification, Integrated Agriculture Aquaculture , poverty alleviation 

Contact Address: Marco Hartmann, NGO CIAAP, Cabayugan Integrated Agriculture Aquaculture 

Project, P.O. Box 195, 5300 Puerto Princesa City, Philippines, e-mail: m.hartmann@ciaap.com 

ID 195 77


The Spread of Innovations Within Formal and Informal Farmers 

Groups: Evidence from Rural Communities of Semi-arid Eastern 

Africa 

DIETRICH DARR, JÜRGEN PRETZSCH 

Technische Universität Dresden, Institute of International Forestry and Forest Products, 

Germany 

Novel ideas and farming practices spread, and often enough even evolve, through interpersonal 

interaction and communication in rural communities. Hence, facilitating 

cooperation and exchange among farmers becomes a core objective of most extension 

interventions. Formal and informal farmers groups can play an active role to promote 

the diffusion of knowledge and technologies and thus to improve the efficiency and 

efficacy of the technology extension efforts. 

This paper describes the effect of structural and functional variables of farmers groups 

on the spread of agroforestry innovations and tree management related knowledge 

among the group members. Specifically, it was hypothesised that (a) group cohesiveness, 

(b) group activity and (c) member motivation will each be positively related to 

the spread of the technologies among the group. Group social networks represent the 

main analytical level and units of analysis. The technology adoption behaviour of 

individual farm households serves to operationalize the diffusion variable. 

Four full sample surveys of approximately 200 households each have been conducted 

in two districts of Kenya and Ethiopia, respectively. Primary data was collected using 

semi-structured questionnaires, expert interviews, group discussions and rankings, as 

well as observation. Data was analysed employing sociometric and statistical software 

packages. 

The research results clearly support the main hypotheses. The study further presents 

empirical evidence that illustrates the innovative potential of cohesive farmers groups 

and social interaction networks, and that exists in spite of the prevailing top-down 

and largely persuasive extension approaches that currently are being adopted in the 

four study areas. Recommendations refer to the improvement of formal and informal 

farmers groups in order to facilitate the agroforestry extension work. 

Keywords: Agroforestry extension, diffusion of innovations, groups, social networks 

Contact Address: Dietrich Darr, Technische Universität Dresden, Institute of International Forestry and 

Forest Products, Pienner Str. 7, 01737 Tharandt, Germany, e-mail: dietrich.darr@forst.tu-dresden.de 

78 ID 197


Valuation of Non-market Goods: Farmer Health in Nicaragua 

HILDEGARD GARMING 

University of Hannover, Department of Business Administration and Economics, Germany 

Pesticide use is a major factor in farmer health. Pesticide poisoning in Nicaragua affects 

at least 5 % of farmers every year. Economic valuation of health effects is important 

in order to stimulate the diffusion of healthier farming practices. Methodologies 

for economic evaluation of these effects have been developed but actual applications 

in developing countries reamin scarce. 

This paper presents the results of an assessment of the health costs of pesticides by 

Nicaraguan vegetable farmers. A contingent valuation approach was used to measure 

farmers’ willingness to pay (WTP) for low toxicity pesticides. This approach includes 

market and non-market health costs and allows to also assess the chronic health effects 

of pesticides, rarely included in such studies. 

Results show that farmers are aware of the health risks of pesticides and have a positive 

willingness to pay to avoid poisoning. 85 % of the surveyed farmers gave valid 

WTP estimates and about 80 % of these stated a positive WTP. Average WTP for 

avoiding health risks is about 28 % of current pesticide expenditure and is higher 

than actual expenses for acute poisoning. The validity of these results is established 

through scope tests, comparing WTP for pesticides with different toxicity levels and 

a two step regression model. Logistic regression is used to analyse positive willingness 

to pay statements. The variation of the stated WTP is then analysed in a loglinear 

regression model. The tests show that WTP depends on farmers’ previous experience 

with pesticide poisoning, income, access to finance and pesticide exposure 

as measured by pesticide use intensity. 

The results of this study can contribute to a better targeting of rural health policies 

and the design of programmes aiming to reduce negative effects of pesticides. 

Keywords: Economic evaluation, Nicaragua, pesticide poisoning, willingness to pay 

Contact Address: Hildegard Garming, University of Hannover, Department of Business Administration 

and Economics, Königsworther Platz 1, Hannover, Germany, e-mail: garming@ifgb.uni-hannover.de 

ID 465 79


80 ID 465

Social Ecology and Land Use 

REGINA SCHOELL, CLAUDIA R. BINDER: 

Analysis of Diverging System Perspectives for Achieving 

Sustainable Agricultural Production 82 

ALEXANDER FRÖDE: 

Validity vs. Feasibility? - Monitoring Ecological Effects of 

the Extraction of Non-timber Forest Products in Developing 

Countries 83 

GEMEDO DALLE TUSSIE, BRIGITTE L. MAASS, JOHANNES 

ISSELSTEIN: 

Impact of Water Point on Rangeland Condition and Spatial 

Distribution of Vegetation and Soil Nutrients 84 

MOHAMED AHMAD AWAD, WERNER DOPPLER, RALF SCHLAUDERER: 

Implications of Resource Availability and Use for the Economic 

Success of the Farming Families Settling West of 

Lake Nasser, Egypt 85 

MEHRIDDIN TURSUNOV, IHTIYOR BOBOJONOV, JOHN LAMERS, 

ALIM PULATOV: 

The Comparative Advantage of Conservation Agriculture 

in Wheat and Cotton Rotation in the Khorezm Region, Aral 

Sea Basin 86 

81


Analysis of Diverging System Perspectives for Achieving 

Sustainable Agricultural Production 

REGINA SCHOELL, CLAUDIA R. BINDER 

University of Zürich, Social and Industrial Ecology, Department of Geography, Switzerland 

Sustainable agricultural production provides an important contribution for improving 

farmer’s livelihood. It also includes proper handling of pesticides to increase productivity 

and reduce health and environmental risks. Educational programs to improve 

pesticide handling have not had the expected effect. We consider that diverging system 

perspectives among farmers and experts hinder the implementation of sustainable 

agricultural production techniques. We present and discuss the potential of the Mental 

Model Approach (MMA) for investigating the diverging system perspectives of stakeholders 

and show first results from an empirical case study of agricultural production 

in Colombia. We adapted MMA for analysing the differences and misunderstandings 

between experts and farmers perspectives regarding farmers’ livelihood and agricultural 

system dynamics.10 experts and 10 farmers were interviewed. The questions 

included (i) definition of the four livelihood capitals (health, human, physical and natural 

capital); (ii) the relationship and dynamics among the capitals within farmer’s 

production system; and (iii) the listing of actors in the farmer’s agricultural production 

context. Qualitative and statistical analysis of the data provided a general system 

and 10 system diagrams for each group. Additionally for each person interviewed the 

deviation from the general “expert” or “farmer” system was determined. Finally we 

gained an overall view of all perceptions of the system as well as their divergences 

and critical tradeoffs regarding their management decisions. Our analyses showed that 

the system perception differed between experts and farmers in three aspects: (i) capitals 

definition and ranking with respect to importance for the sustainability of farmers 

livelihood; (ii) understanding of the system and its dynamics; (iii) importance of 

the agents in the farmers’ agent network. These results suggest that measures solely 

developed by experts will not have the desired effect as they depart from a different 

systemic logic than the one farmers have. The comprehension of the mental models of 

experts and farmers could be extremely valuable for developing measures to improve 

farmers’ agricultural production system leading to a more sustainable livelihood. 

Keywords: Livelihood, Mental Model Approach, pesticides, sustainable agricultural 

production 

Contact Address: Regina Schoell, University of Zürich, Social and Industrial Ecology, Department of 

Geography, Winterthurerstrasse 190, 8057 Zurich, Switzerland, e-mail: schoellr@geo.unizh.ch 

82 ID 274


Validity vs. Feasibility? - Monitoring Ecological Effects of the 

Extraction of Non-timber Forest Products in Developing Countries 

ALEXANDER FRÖDE 

German Development Service (DED) Zimbabwe, Southern Alliance for Indigenous Resources 

(SAFIRE), Zimbabwe 

Small-scale commercialisation of non-timber forest products (NTFPs) has been widely 

advocated as an option for income generation in rural woodland areas of developing 

countries. It was claimed to often be environmentally sustainable even without regulation, 

therefore posing an attractive alternative solution to destructive logging and 

land conversion activities. However, scientific research and practical experiences have 

given evidence that each commercial extraction a non-timber forest resource entails 

measurable ecological effects.These vary in detail with the amounts and plant parts 

harvested, the techniques used and the management procedures in place. Against the 

background of these risks and the complexity of woodland dynamics, ecological monitoring, 

i. e. the repetitive observation of biotic and abiotic parameters in the concerned 

areas, is of a crucial importance. The paper summarises an analysis of framework conditions 

und practical requirements for an expedient system of ecological monitoring 

for NTFP-related projects at the example of SAFIRE (Southern Alliance for Indigenous 

Resources), a Zimbabwe-based regional non-governmental organisation that facilitates 

extraction of various types of NTFPs by rural communities. It describes the 

process of developing an appropriate set of methods and presents the final ecological 

monitoring system as well as first experiences in its implementation. The methodology 

that was developed was meant to be adapted to the needs of the organisation, 

integrated into its procedures, applicable to varied NTFP commercialisation projects 

and compliant with various framework requirements. The process and the product are 

indicative of dealing with the challenges faced by ecological monitoring in NTFPrelated 

initiatives in developing countries: the lack of reliable baseline data, the need 

to define and use highly aggregated core indicators, limited financial, technical and 

human resources and difficulties in deducting evidence for long-term trends from locally 

and temporally limited natural phenomena. Inter alia, the outputs emphasise 

how scientific rigour and the necessity for reliability and accuracy have to be carefully 

weighted against motivation, skills and restrictions of different stakeholders and 

available resources. 

Keywords: Ecological monitoring, forestry, non-timber forest products, rural development, 

sustainable land-use, Zimbabwe 

Contact Address: Alexander Fröde, German Development Service (DED) Zimbabwe, 

Southern Alliance for Indigenous Resources (SAFIRE), c/o DED, 2 Morecambe 

Av/Bishops Road, P. O. Box 3362, Belvedere, Harare, Zimbabwe, e-mail: alexander. 

froede@gmx.net 

ID 475 83


Impact of Water Point on Rangeland Condition and Spatial 

Distribution of Vegetation and Soil Nutrients 

GEMEDO DALLE TUSSIE 1 , BRIGITTE L. MAASS 2 , JOHANNES ISSELSTEIN 2 

1 Institute of Biodiversity Conservation, Forest Genetic Resources Conservation, Ethiopia 

2 Georg-August-University Göttingen, Department of Crop Sciences, Germany 

The impact of livestock grazing on rangeland condition, woody plants encroachment, 

spatial distribution of soil nutrients and herbage mass change along the grazing gradient 

was investigated. The study was conducted using non-permanent plots established 

at regular interval on line transects radiating from Dambi Pond in Dida Hara 

Pastoral Association of Yaballo district, Borana, Ethiopia. Effects of distance from 

the Pond were analysed using linear regression, Detrended Correspondence Analysis 

(DCA), and Redundancy Analysis (RDA). Results showed that the composition of 

herbaceous vegetation changed from a community of Eleusine intermedia-Cynodon 

dactylon close to the Pond to Chrysopogon aucheri- Sporobolus pellucidus farther 

away from the Pond. Three distinct zones were determined. The zone closest to the 

Pond was characterised by unpalatable forbs, least desirable/undesirable grasses and 

grass species associated with disturbance, bare soil, high density of woody plants, 

soils with higher proportion of silt, higher concentration of P, N, OM, and K. The 

intermediate zone was characterised by clay soil associated with CEC, Ca, Mg, high 

proportions of least desirable and intermediate grass species, high herbage mass, and 

high proportion of woody plants cover. Highly palatable grasses, high score of rangeland 

condition and sand soil characterised the third zone farthest away from the Pond. 

It was concluded that distance from the Pond had a significant impact on soil nutrients 

and, consequently, spatial distribution of herbaceous species and rangeland condition. 

As proximity to the Pond increased, scores of rangeland condition decreased implying 

that the Pond contributed to rangeland deterioration. Rangeland degradation may 

result in local extinction of some plant species and low animal production, finally 

challenging the livelihood of the pastoral community. 

Keywords: Dambi Pond, degradation, distance, soil nutrients, vegetation distribution 

Contact Address: Gemedo Dalle Tussie, Institute of Biodiversity Conservation, Forest Genetic Resources 

Conservation, P.O.Box 80119 Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, e-mail: gemedod@yahoo.com 

84 ID 149


Implications of Resource Availability and Use for the Economic 

Success of the Farming Families Settling West of Lake Nasser, 

Egypt 

MOHAMED AHMAD AWAD 1 , WERNER DOPPLER 1 , RALF SCHLAUDERER 2 

1University of Hohenheim, Farming and Rural Systems in the Tropics and Subtropics, 

Germany 

2University of Applied Sciences Weihenstephan, Department of Agriculture, Germany 

Egypt is a low-income, food-deficit country with limited arable land and water resources. The 

national development policies are directed to establish new settlements by extending the cultivated 

area through desert land reclamation to give farm families a basis for living. Lake Nasser 

area is a major target for such policies. In this study, the most important resources and factors 

affecting the economic success of the families are investigated. The results could provide important 

indications for the successful establishment of a sustainable farming community in the 

area. 

A sample of 100 households was selected using systematic random sampling. Primary data 

was collected using standardised questionnaire in 2004. The families were classified according 

to their settling behaviour into three groups: (a) permanent families, (b) seasonal farmers and 

(c) occasional farmers. A comparative analysis between the groups was applied using the Farming 

Systems Approach to tackle differences in resource capacities and use as well as families’ 

decision making. Correlation and multiple regression were used to analyse the most important 

resources and factors affecting the farmers’ decision-making. 

The analyses results showed that crop cultivation is the most important economic activity in the 

area. It is capital intensive because most crops require high levels of inputs (fertilisers, manure 

and pesticides). The far distance of good markets and continuous irrigation problems are important 

factors increasing cash requirement. Therefore, capital availability is the limiting resource 

affecting the success of crop cultivation. Other resources such as land, water and labour exert 

inconsiderable limitations. Although, the area was supposed to attract poor landless families, 

only farmers with proper access to capital resources are economically successful such as the 

seasonal farmers. The occasional farmers were the least successful because they don’t only 

have limited capital resources but also limited experience in the cultivation in the area. The 

seasonal farmers have good access to credit sources particularly informal credit which makes 

them the most economically successful group. Low input crops were suggested to reduce cash 

requirement and increase the economic success of poor families. 

Keywords: Egypt, farming systems, multiple regression , resource use, socio-economic analysis 

Contact Address: Werner Doppler, University of Hohenheim, Farming and Rural Systems in the Tropics 

and Subtropics, Fruwirthstraße 12, 70593 Stuttgart, Germany, e-mail: doppler@uni-hohenheim.de 

ID 315 85


The Comparative Advantage of Conservation Agriculture in 

Wheat and Cotton Rotation in the Khorezm Region, Aral Sea 

Basin 

MEHRIDDIN TURSUNOV 1 , IHTIYOR BOBOJONOV 1 , JOHN LAMERS 1 , ALIM 

PULATOV 2 

1 University of Bonn, Center for Development Research, Germany 

2 Tashkent Institute of Irrigation and Melioration, Ecogis, Uzbekistan 

The arable land of Uzbekistan is slowly but steadily deteriorating due to erosion, soil 

salinity and unsustainable management practices. Water scarcity together with the 

concurrent shallow groundwater tables are perceived by farmers as major bottlenecks. 

Sustainable agricultural practices must be developed that increase productivity and 

improve resource use efficiency. However, measures aiming at improving the ecological 

conditions cannot be implemented at the expense of the farmers’ economic 

benefits. One promising avenue is the use of soil conservation (SC) practices. We 

studied the effect of SC agriculture on key environment indicators and on financial 

gains in Khorezm region in Northwestern Uzbekistan. A long-term field experiment 

was established on a typical farm-size operational scale (7 ha) on two different soil 

textures. Cotton and winter wheat production were studied (2004–2005) under four 

tillage systems: conventional, intermediate (reduced number of tillage operations on 

the field), permanent bed, zero tillage (no-till). At each of these treatments, the effect 

of surface mulch was also studied. The development and yield of crops, and also the 

soil improvement (indicated by soil bulk density, increase in water infiltration capacity, 

improved organic matter and nutrient availability) were significantly better with 

the bed-planting system than with planting on flat soil (conventional), especially on 

the heavy loamy soil. The highest cotton yield was obtained with the intermediate 

tillage system. The mulch effect was already significant at germination and the initial 

stage of the crop development; in the end, crop residue cover increased yields 

of both cotton and wheat significantly irrespective of the tillage system. Water consumption 

was least with the conservation systems. A financial evaluation showed that 

permanent bed or intermediate tillage systems had 25–30 % higher gross margins than 

conventional tillage caused in particular by higher yields, less labour and machinery 

costs methods. The adaptations of research made the use of SC agriculture principles 

possible and will improve farmer’s profit and livelihood. 

Keywords: Crop residue, financial evaluation, gross margin, no-till, permanent beds, 

soil conservation 

Contact Address: Mehriddin Tursunov, University of Bonn, Center for Development Research, Walter- 

Flex-Str. 3, 53113 Bonn, Germany, e-mail: mehriddin@gmail.com 

86 ID 403

Regional Forest Issues 

ANNE FLOQUET, MALIKI RAFIOU, KAKPO YVONNE: 

Seven Years after the Sfb 308 — Adoption Patterns of Agroforestry 

Systems in Benin 88 

MATTHIAS MIMLER, JÖRG PRIESS, KAMARUDDIN ABDULLAH: 

Scenarios of Land Use and Land Cover Change in Sulawesi: 

Agricultural Expansion at the Expense of Protected Forests? 89 

PRAKASH SADASHIVAPPA, S. SURYAPRAKASH, VIJESH VI- 

JAYA KRISHNA: 

Participation Behaviour of Indigenous People in Non-timber 

Forest Products Extraction and Marketing in the Dry 

Deciduous Forests of South India 90 

FROUKJE KRUIJSSEN, SONGPOL SOMSRI: 

Marketing Local Biodiversity in Thailand: Identification 

of a Possible Good Practice for On-farm Biodiversity Management 

of Tropical Fruit Trees 91 

NORMA ELY SANTOS, SIEGFRIED BAUER: 

Evaluation of Different Forestry Options to Improve Carbon 

Content in Rural Communities in Marajo Island, Brazil 92 

87


Seven Years after the Sfb 308 — Adoption Patterns of 

Agroforestry Systems in Benin 

ANNE FLOQUET 1 , MALIKI RAFIOU 2 , KAKPO YVONNE 3 

1 Cebedes NGO, Benin 

2 Institut National des Recherches Agricoles du Bénin, Bénin 

3 Université d’Abomey-Calavi, Faculté des Sciences Agronomiques, Bénin 

1986 to 1999 German and Beninese scientists have been working on the development 

of agroforestry systems in the context of the SFB 308 project. Evolving from alley 

cropping systems, a large range of designs were experimented on-farm in order 

to cope with specific labour, cash and competition constraints, including alley farming 

with Gliricidia sepium, live fences with Senna siamea, Cajanus cajan as a short 

fallow, Mucuna utilis as a cover crop and planted perennial fallow with Acacia auriculiformis. 

Hundreds of farmers chose one design or more and compared them with 

their initial farming practices, researchers monitored agronomic and socioeconomic 

practices; farmers were invited to adjust designs and management practices in order 

to make as feasible and profitable as possible. On six sites, between 1994 and 1999, 

600 farmers set up 800 trials plots. 

At the end of the program, national farming systems research teams took over some of 

the research sites and went on cooperating with experimenting farmers. Some NGOs 

were invited to promote research results in non experimenting villages. 

In 2005, adoption of these systems was surveyed in two southern sites and in R&D 

central sites. In the South, farmers who had been testing at least one of the technologies 

between 1994 and 1999 were visited. 65 % of these farmers have been adopting 

the Acacia planted fallow. Others techniques have been tested but rejected. Adoption 

depends on profitability and on easiness in setting up the fallow and in marketing fallow 

products. In the central part of Benin, yam-based alley cropping was adjusted 

by farmers who reduced shrub density and labour demand of the technology and by 

researchers who added a cover crop in order improve soil fertility and effects on yam 

yields. Adoption rate is lower but has not yet reached the plateau of the S-curve. 

Even if not every technology developed during the project has been adopted, major 

changes in the way of conducting research in collaboration with farmers within the 

national research system were then tested, yielded some successes and still do. 

Keywords: Adoption, agroforestry systems, innovation, participatory research 

Contact Address: Anne Floquet, Cebedes NGO, 02 Bp 331, Cotonou, Benin, e-mail: uniho@intnet.bj 

88 ID 571


Scenarios of Land Use and Land Cover Change in Sulawesi: 

Agricultural Expansion at the Expense of Protected Forests? 

MATTHIAS MIMLER 1 , JÖRG PRIESS 1 , KAMARUDDIN ABDULLAH 2 

1 University of Kassel, Center for Environental Systems Research, Germany 

2 Institut Pertanian Bogor, Indonesia, 

Globally, the remaining tropical forests are increasingly under pressure. Many forests 

are subject to different uses, resulting either in a (stepwise) transformation / modification 

or in a conversion for the establishment of settlements, agricultural land or 

pastures. At the regional scale, region-specific sets of interacting direct and indirect 

forces are driving land use and land cover change. In Central Sulawesi, Indonesia, population 

growth and immigration, a rising interest of local farmers in cash crops, and 

improved roads influence the demand for agricultural and agro-forestry land. In past 

decades, forest areas, including protected forests like the Lore Lindu National Park 

have been shrinking, due to partly illegal forest use (mainly timber and rattan) and 

forest conversion, during which subsistence crops like rice and cash crops have been 

planted. In the collaborative research project STORMA (“Stability of Rainforest Margins”), 

Indonesian-German research groups from different disciplines are investigating 

the socio-environmental system of the rainforest margins. Studies are conducted 

in Central Sulawesi, a mountainous research area of 7,500 km 2 , with rainforest still being 

the dominant land cover. Based on recent STORMA results and other sources, we 

developed different scenarios to study the effects of both large-scale / global driving 

forces (economy, climate), and regional / local drivers (policy, land-use strategies) on 

land use and land cover change and the associated socio-environmental impacts. By 

embedding our regional scenarios into the global scenarios developed for the Millennium 

Ecosystem Assessment, we achieved consistency with large-scale and global 

driving forces such as demographic and climate changes, or prices for agricultural 

commodities. In this study we use the SITE modelling framework to quantify the scenarios. 

We focus on the question whether and to what extend the changes assumed in 

different scenarios influence patterns, spatial extend and ecosystem services of agricultural 

and forest areas, and how forest margins and protected lowland and mountain 

forests would be affected e.g. in terms of further fractionation. 

Keywords: Land use modelling, MEA-compliant scenarios , protected forest, rainforest 

use and conversion 

Contact Address: Matthias Mimler, University of Kassel, Center for Environental Systems Research, 

Kurt-Wolters-Str. 3, 34109 Kassel, Germany, e-mail: mimler@usf.uni-kassel.de 

ID 470 89


Participation Behaviour of Indigenous People in Non-timber 

Forest Products Extraction and Marketing in the Dry Deciduous 

Forests of South India 

PRAKASH SADASHIVAPPA 1 , S. SURYAPRAKASH 2 , VIJESH VIJAYA KRISHNA 1 

1University of Hohenheim, Department of Agricultural Economics and Social Sciences 

in the Tropics and Subtropics, Germany 

2University of Agricultural Sciences, Department of Agricultural Economics, India 

The paper examines the role of non-timber forest products (NTFP) in the rural household economy 

and the demographic and economic factors determining the participation in forest gathering 

in the dry deciduous forests of Karnataka, South India. It is observed that though the return 

for labour involved in NTFP extraction and marketing is comparatively higher to the existing 

wage rate of the primary sector, the labour supply was skewed towards the latter. The average 

return per day for NTFP could be appreciated by the percent of total labour employed for its 

gathering and marketing. The average return per day was found to be positively associated with 

the availability of product in the locality rather than the labour availability for NTFP extraction 

and marketing. This gives an alarming call on the diminishing NTFP resource in the region. 

Emphasis on agricultural activity was found to have a bearing on the level of extraction of 

NTFP. The stagnating agricultural sector would force more households to involve in the NTFP 

gathering, which could have a hampering effect on the sustainable forest management. Availability 

of women and child labour played an important role in the participation decision and 

income generation from forest gathering, while the share of adult members had negative effect 

on the household getting involved in NTFP gathering. Unit increase in days of employment as 

hired labour was found to reduce the income and is of great relevance as the Marginal Product 

was on par with the existing wage rate in the locality. Alternate employment opportunities for 

the available labour force has significant impact on deciding the extent of NTFP extraction and 

hence the income generation from it. The relative availability of NTFP in the forest range had 

significant influence on the income from NTFP gathering. The policies oriented towards sustainable 

forest management, therefore, ought to take in to consideration of the existing farming 

patterns and vice-versa. The closely knitted agriculture and forestry sectors calls for a multifaceted 

approach for forest management programme, keeping an eye on the development of the 

farming sector of the locality. 

Keywords: Income generation, Participation Decision, Sustainable forest management 

Contact Address: Prakash Sadashivappa, University of Hohenheim, Department of Agricultural Economics 

and Social Sciences in the Tropics and Subtropics, # 254 Ist ’c-Main Kengeri Satellite Town, 

560060 Bangalore, Germany, e-mail: prakashsadashiva@gmail.com 

90 ID 10


Marketing Local Biodiversity in Thailand: Identification of a 

Possible Good Practice for On-farm Biodiversity Management of 

Tropical Fruit Trees 

FROUKJE KRUIJSSEN 1 , SONGPOL SOMSRI 2 

1International Plant Genetic Resources Institute, Regional Office for Asia, the Pacific and 

Oceania, Malaysia 

2Horticulture Research Institute, Department of Agriculture, Thailand, 

In Asia a rich diversity of approximately 500 species of tropical fruits are important in 

people’s lives by providing a range of livelihood options and contributing to the stability 

of ecosystems. This diversity is threatened by increased deforestation, indiscriminate 

harvesting practices and land use conversion. Increasing attention is being given 

to conserving agro-biodiversity at farm level and in the wild, by creating forward market 

linkages by processing a range of products of different varieties. Monitoring of 

sustainable use and management of diversity has been insufficient, especially among 

perennials. It is therefore necessary to identify a set of good practices that support 

conservation and sustainable utilisation of diverse tropical fruit species, to understand 

the situation in which these practices are successful, and to identify their role in terms 

of responding to pressures urging farmers to switch to modern plant varieties. It is 

especially important to identify good practices that benefit farmers. Market-based 

approaches to biodiversity management are considered to have large potential in this 

area. This paper presents the experience in Thailand, where four farmer or women 

groups are successfully processing and marketing products derived from native tropical 

fruit tree varieties. These products are providing income to groups of less than 

50 members by procuring their fruits, paying wages for their labour, and distributing 

profits, and are giving them an incentive to maintain or expand local fruit tree 

varieties in their homegardens and fields. Groups were established because of unmarketable 

fruits, due to oversupply or damage caused by storms, have specialised in 

locally important products, and have received training and financial support from the 

government. These similarities indicate the factors playing a role in bringing together 

and empowering these groups, and facilitating the successful marketing of their products. 

Also some obstacles are identified such as difficulties faced to obtain food safety 

certificates and lack of attractive packaging and promotion. Although more in-depth 

research is necessary, important lessons can be learned and tools can be identified that 

can be tested and implemented for the benefit of farmer income and biodiversity. 

Keywords: Biodiversity, good practices, markets, tropical fruits, value addition 

Contact Address: Froukje Kruijssen, International Plant Genetic Resources Institute, Regional Office 

for Asia, the Pacific and Oceania, Po Box 236 Upm Post Office, 43400 Serdang, Malaysia, e-mail: 

f.kruijssen@cgiar.org 

ID 221 91


Evaluation of Different Forestry Options to Improve Carbon 

Content in Rural Communities in Marajo Island, Brazil 

NORMA ELY SANTOS, SIEGFRIED BAUER 

Justus-Liebig-Universität Giessen, Institute of Agriculture and Food Systems Management, 

Project and Regional Planning, Germany 

Brazilian Amazonia rain forest has suffered changes with high deforestation rates 

taking place during the past few years. Furthermore, common practices such as slashand- 

burn, shifting cultivation and abandonment, can release quantities of greenhouse 

gases that are significant both in terms of their present impact and in terms of the 

implied potential for long-term contribution to global warming. Land use change 

and forestry activities associated to smallholders’ traditional practices can affect the 

local uptake or emissions of carbon by increasing or decreasing the carbon stocks 

and associated fluxes. Therefore, emissions could be reduced if small agriculturalists 

adopted better practices or change their land use. In the case of Marajo Island, an area 

composed of a series of islands geographically constrained but still with a large forest 

area, environmental services through carbon sequestration appears to be a reasonable 

alternative for the major part of small farmers which can not integrate the traditional 

markets and need alternatives for income generation. 

A household survey with one hundred households was conducted in Breves and Curralinho 

districts of Marajó Island. The interviews were oriented to capture the main 

aspects of the farm households, including agricultural production, forest use and extractives 

activities. The Cost Benefit analysis was the main tool applied to evaluate the 

forestry-carbon options selected for the area using as criteria, the net present value and 

internal rate of return. Further, a sensitivity analysis is employed to simulate different 

conditions, in terms of interest rates, carbon prices and payment schemes. 

The paper discusses selected forestry options to be implemented in the region in order 

to improve the carbon content and assesses the associated carbon benefits that could 

emerge in the presence of a carbon trade. Consequently, policy implications for the 

different options are drawn, including governmental finance support to the first years 

of the projects and incentives as carbon payments. 

Keywords: Carbon , Cost Benefit analysis, forestry activities, greenhouse gas emissions, 

land use change 

Contact Address: Norma Ely Santos, Justus-Liebig-Universität Giessen, Institute of Agriculture 

and Food Systems Management, Project and Regional Planning, 35392 Giessen, Germany, e-mail: 

normaelysantos@yahoo.com.br 

92 ID 529

Animal Sciences 

a) Molecular Genetics and Biodiversity 95 

b) Animal Nutrition 101 

c) Animal Production Systems 107 

93


94

Molecular Genetics and Biodiversity 

BARBARA RISCHKOWSKY, DAFYDD PILLING, BEATE SCHERF, 

RICARDO CARDELLINO, IRENE HOFFMANN: 

Insights from FAO’s State of the World’s Animal Genetic 

Resources Reporting Process 96 

MOHAMAD YASER AMIN, KURT-JOHANNES PETERS: 

Awassi Sheep Production and the Development of breeding 

Program Options in Syria 97 

DEO NDUMU, ROSWITHA BAUMUNG, MARIA WURZINGER, 

ADAM DRUCKER, JOHANN SÖLKNER: 

Performance and Fitness Traits Versus Phenotypic Appearance: 

a Novel Approach to Identify Selection Criteria for 

Indigenous Breeds 98 

FARAI CATHERINE MUCHADEYI, STEFFEN WEIGEND, CLEMENS 

WOLLNY, STANLEY MAKUZA: 

Use of Microsatellites and MtDNA to Assess Genetic Diversity 

Within and Between Zimbabwe Chicken Eco-types 99 

NASSER GHANEM, MICHAEL HOELKER, FRANCA RINGS, 

DANYEL JENNEN, KARL SCHELLANDER, DAWIT TESFAYE: 

Large-scale Transcriptional Analysis of Bovine Oocytes Derived 

from Growth and Dominance Phases of Follicular 

Development 100 

95


Insights from FAO’s State of the World’s Animal Genetic 

Resources Reporting Process 

BARBARA RISCHKOWSKY, DAFYDD PILLING, BEATE SCHERF, RICARDO 

CARDELLINO, IRENE HOFFMANN 

Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO), Animal Production and 

Health Division, Italy 

In 1990, FAO was asked by its governing body to prepare a comprehensive programme 

for the sustainable management of animal genetic resources (AnGR). In response, 

the Global Strategy for AnGR management was developed, which is being 

guided by FAO’s Commission on Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture. Assessment 

of the status of AnGR management at country level and of methodological 

tools to support decision-making was considered as an important first step in the programme. 

The assessment was organised as a country-driven process, where countries 

were invited to report on AnGR management to FAO. The reporting process included 

the establishment of a network of National Coordinators and consultative committees, 

subregional training and follow-up workshops. The process of developing the first 

report on the State of the World’s AnGR was considered as important as the outcome. 

169 country reports have now been analysed to assess the countries’ situation with 

regard to the state of livestock diversity, human capacities, current breeding and conservation 

programmes, use of biotechnology, and legal regulations affecting AnGR 

management. The diversity in livestock was assessed as number of breeds. Of the 

reported 7616 breeds 9 % have become extinct, most in Europe, and another 20 % are 

at risk. Management capacities of countries differ within and between regions. In 

general, human and institutional capacities in Europe, North America, Australia, and 

in parts of Asia and Latin America are more developed than in the rest of the world. 

The global report also analyses scientific methods and tools related to AnGR management. 

Although the research interest in recent years has increased, there are still 

large gaps in methods for characterisation, and in defining goals and organisational 

structures for breeding and conservation programmes in lower input environments. 

Concerted efforts are needed to prioritise livestock genetic resources for conservation 

at national, regional and international level. Plant genetic resources have long been 

acknowledged as part of human heritage, awareness has grown that the same is true 

for livestock genetic resources. To maintain at least the most precious part of this 

heritage clearly requires more coordinated efforts. 

Keywords: Animal genetic resources, global assessment, livestock diversity 

Contact Address: Barbara Rischkowsky, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations 

(FAO), Animal Production and Health Division, Rome, Italy, e-mail: Barbara.Rischkowsky@fao.org 

96 ID 560


Awassi Sheep Production and the Development of breeding 

Program Options in Syria 

MOHAMAD YASER AMIN, KURT-JOHANNES PETERS 

Humboldt University Berlin, Animal Breeding in Tropics and Subtropics, Germany 

The fat-tailed Awassi sheep is the only sheep breed in Syria adapted to the harsh environmental 

conditions and it is distributed all over the country. There are about 13.5 

million heads of Awassi sheep in Syria contributing 78 %, 30 % and 100 % of the total 

red meat, milk and wool production, respectively. Awassi sheep is the most important 

livestock animals, grazing on poorly developed wheat and barley fields and on the 

remains of crops such as wheat and corn. The price of mutton of the Awassi breed, 

which is in high demand in Syria, was about 35 % higher than beef in 1995. These 

animals are raised under three husbandry systems (extensive, semi-intensive, and intensive). 

To improve Awassi sheep the General Commission for Scientific Agricultural 

Research (GCSAR) in Syria established few stations located across the country. 

The commission intends to produce specialised lines of animals for milk and meat 

production. Its target is to distribute those animals to farmers and test the on-farm 

performance of the sheep. Despite this effort, Awassi sheep in Syria produce on average 

200—300 kg milk per year compared to Israel, which was able to double milk 

production (over 500 kg) of its strain through intensive selection. This study aims to 

analyse breeding objectives and effective breeding programs. During the first step of 

the study productions systems characterised, breeding objectives determined and local 

as well as regional breeding activities implemented by sheep producer identified. 

In a second step the effective of government breeding stations with regard to their 

impact will be evaluated and alternative breeding programs including a “young ram” 

scheme analysed in relation to genetic progress and the operational challenges. 

Keywords: Awassi, Production, Sheep, Syria 

Contact Address: Mohamad Yaser Amin, Humboldt University Berlin, Animal Breeding in Tropics 

and Subtropics, Phillipstr. 13 Haus 9, 10115 Berlin, Germany, e-mail: yasseramin@hotmail.com 

ID 201 97


Performance and Fitness Traits Versus Phenotypic Appearance: a 

Novel Approach to Identify Selection Criteria for Indigenous 

Breeds 

DEO NDUMU 1 , ROSWITHA BAUMUNG 1 , MARIA WURZINGER 1 , ADAM 

DRUCKER 2 , JOHANN SÖLKNER 1 

1 BOKU - University of Natural Resources and Applied Life Sciences, Sustainable Agri- 

cultural Systems, Division of Livestock Sciences, Austria 

2 Charles Darwin University, Australia 

Ankole cattle are well known for their massive white horns and red coat colour. These 

characteristics are attributed to centuries of cultural breeding practices. Two experiments 

with traditional cattle keepers were carried out at a governmental Ankole nucleus 

farm in South-Western Uganda to identify other phenotypic characteristics as 

well as production and fitness traits which are important indigenous selection criteria. 

Forty one body measurements, per animal, were taken from 15 bulls and 35 cows and 

phenotypic characteristics were described in detail. In the first experiment 12 groups 

of 6 to 8 cattle keepers were invited to rank animals according to their preference for 

a breeding bull or cow based on phenotype alone. While in the second experiment the 

ranking was done on the basis of phenotype in addition to a hypothetical history that 

was randomly assigned to each animal on each day of experiment. The latter history 

included milk yield (on own performance for cows and that of the dam for bulls), fertility 

of the animal and its sire as well as resistance to East Coast Fever. For analysis, 

Generalized Logit Models for Multinomial Logist Models were fitted. To compare different 

models the likelihood-based pseudo R-square measure was used. The results 

indicate that, in the selection of cows, performance and fitness traits are emphasised 

by the cattle keepers. While in the selection of bulls, the phenotypic appearance of the 

animal itself plays an important role. In cows the animals’ milk performance turned 

out to be the main criterion for higher ranking while in bulls resistance to East Coast 

Fever was of highest importance. In both sexes a dark red coat colour was highly 

appreciated. The study portrays the potential usefulness of the methodology in capturing 

information which can be gainfully employed for an insight into indigenous 

selection criteria of stock owners else where. 

Keywords: Ankole cattle, indigenous knowledge, selection criteria, Uganda 

Contact Address: Deo Ndumu, BOKU - University of Natural Resources and Applied Life Sciences, 

Sustainable Agricultural Systems, Division of Livestock Sciences, Gregor Mendel 33, A-1180 Vienna, 

Austria, e-mail: dndumu@boku.ac.at 

98 ID 151


Use of Microsatellites and MtDNA to Assess Genetic Diversity 

Within and Between Zimbabwe Chicken Eco-types 

FARAI CATHERINE MUCHADEYI 1 , STEFFEN WEIGEND 2 , CLEMENS WOLLNY 3 , 

STANLEY MAKUZA 4 

1 Göttingen University, Institute of Animal Breeding and Genetics, Germany 

2 Federal Agricultural Research Centre, Institute for Animal Breeding, Germany 

3 International Livestock Research Institute, (ILRI), Ethiopia 

4 University of Zimbabwe, Department of Animal Science, Zimbabwe 

Village chickens play an integral role in meeting smallholder households social-economic and 

cultural needs. These local chickens are part of the total poultry biodiversity that is needed to 

cope with changing production environments, consumer preferences and market demands. The 

objective of the study was to test whether chickens reared under different climatic and socioeconomic 

factors in geographically distant farming systems differ genetically. Twenty-nine microsatellite 

markers were typed for 238 individuals randomly selected from the five eco-zones 

of Zimbabwe. In addition 516bp of the D-loop region of mtDNA were sequenced for 53 chickens 

from the 5 eco-populations and 60 individuals from broiler and layer reference populations. 

A total of 238 alleles with an average of 8.41 (SD = 4.729) alleles per microsatellite locus were 

observed. Gene diversity averaged 0.66 (0.02) while observed heterozygosity was 0.60 (0.01). 

An average inbreeding coefficient (FIS) of 0.077 (SE = 0.012) was observed across the five ecopopulations. 

Thirteen, 11, 12, 9 and 5 loci contributed to heterozygote deficiency in eco-zone 

1-5 respectively. Overall population variation (FIT ) was 0.084 (SE = 0.0129), 9 % of which was 

due to among population variation (FST ). Phylogenetic analysis indicated the Zimbabwe population 

clustered as one population surrounded by the commercial lines. Fourteen haplotypes 

were observed from the sequenced mtDNA fragment. Number of haplotypes per population 

ranged from 1 to 3. The major haplotype with an outgroup weight of 0.22 was found in three 

Zimbabwe eco-types and 3 commercial lines. The second widely distributed haplotype was 

unique to 52 % of the Zimbabwe chickens across all the eco-zones. While commercial lines 

tend to be less polymorphic and do not share haplotypes with other populations, the Zimbabwe 

chicken eco-types shared some haplotypes among themselves and these reference populations. 

Results show that the Zimbabwe local chicken population although distributed over a broad 

geographic range is insignificantly sub-structured and might be sharing a considerable part of 

their genome with other commercial lines. 

Keywords: Inbreeding coefficient, phylogenetic relationship, population structure, poultry diversity 

Contact Address: Farai Catherine Muchadeyi, Göttingen University, Institute of Animal Breeding and 

Genetics, Kellnerweg 6, Göttingen, Germany, e-mail: cmuchad@gwdg.de 

ID 367 99


Large-scale Transcriptional Analysis of Bovine Oocytes Derived 

from Growth and Dominance Phases of Follicular Development 

NASSER GHANEM, MICHAEL HOELKER, FRANCA RINGS, DANYEL JENNEN, 

KARL SCHELLANDER, DAWIT TESFAYE 

University of Bonn, Institute of Animal Science, Animal Breeding and Husbandry Group, 

Germany 

In previous studies it was indicated that oocytes aspirated at growth phase have higher 

blastocsyt rate than those aspirated in dominance phase. However, the molecular 

mechanisms underlying this variation in developmental potential of the oocytes are 

not well elucidated. So, our objective was to investigate transcriptional activity of 

bovine oocytes derived from different stages of follicular development. Thirty oestrussynchronised 

Simmental heifers were used, and the onset of oestrus was considered as 

day 0. Ultrasonography-guided ovum pick up was performed to collect oocytes from 

small follicles (3—5 mm) at growth (day 3) and dominance (day 7) phases of the first 

follicular wave. BlueChip ( 2000 clones) cDNA array was used for transcriptional 

analysis and 10 transcripts were validated by Real-time PCR. Data analysis revealed 

a total of 51 transcripts to be differentially regulated in the two oocyte groups and 8 out 

of 10 transcripts were confirmed to be in agreement with microarray results. Oocytes 

of day 3 were found to be enriched with transcripts involved in protein biosynthesis 

(RPLP0, RPL8, RPL24, ARL6IP, RpS14, RpS15, RpS4x and RPS3A) or as translation 

elongation (EF1A), energy production as mitochondrial clones (ATP5A1, FL396 

mitochondrion and FL405 mitochondrion), cytoskeleton or chromosome organisation 

(Actin, beta-Actin, H2AZ and KRT8), calcium ion binding (S100A10 and ANXA2), 

signal transduction (G-beta like protein) and thiol-disulfide exchange intermediate 

(TXN). Oocytes of day 7 were enriched with genes involved in cell cycle (CCNB1, 

CKS2, UBE2D3 and CDC31), transcription factors (MSX1, PTTG1, FANK1 and 

PWP1), Aldehyde reductase activity (AKR1B1), nucleotide binding (TUBA6 and K- 

ALPHA −1 ), growth factor (BMP15), and fertilisation (ZP4). In conclusion, our results 

showed differences in oocyte transcriptional activity at different stages of follicular 

development which may explain their differences in developmental competence. 

Keywords: Bovine, Follicular development, Gene expression, Oocyte 

Contact Address: Dawit Tesfaye, University of Bonn, Institute of Animal Science, Animal Breeding 

and Husbandry Group, Endenicher Allee 15, 53115 Bonn, Germany, e-mail: tesfaye@itz.uni-bonn.de 

100 ID 446

Animal Nutrition 

KARIN BARTL, MIRIAM GARCIA, CARLOS A. GOMEZ, HANS– 

RUDOLF WETTSTEIN, MICHAEL KREUZER, HANS-DIETER 

HESS: 

Effect of Diet Type on Milk Yield and Composition of Local 

and Exotic Cattle Breeds Kept in the Coastal Region of 

Peru 102 

HENDERIANA BELLI, I. GUSTI NGURAH JELANTIK, WOLF- 

GANG HOLTZ: 

Improving Calf Performance by Supplementation in Bali 

Cows Grazing Communal Pastures in West Timor, Indonesia 103 

JOHNNY ONYEMA OGUNJI, KLOAS WERNER, MANFRED 

WIRTH, CARSTEN SCHULZ, BERNHARD RENNERT: 

Housefly Maggot Meal (Magmeal): an Emerging Substitute 

of Fishmeal in Tilapia Diets 104 

GETNET ASSEFA, CLAUDIA KIJORA, KURT-JOHANNES PE- 

TERS, KAI SONDER, MICHAEL WINK, NORBERT STEINMÜLLER: 

Effect of Variety, Harvesting Stage and Season on the Concentration 

of Tannins and Alkaloids in Tagasaste (Chamaecytisus 

palmensis) 105 

FIREW TEGEGNE, CLAUDIA KIJORA, KURT-JOHANNES PETERS: 

Evaluating the Temporal, Seasonal and Spatial Variation 

in Nutritive Value of Cactus Pear (Opuntia ficus-indica) Using 

in vitro Gas Production and Chemical Analysis Methods 106 

101


Effect of Diet Type on Milk Yield and Composition of Local and 

Exotic Cattle Breeds Kept in the Coastal Region of Peru 

KARIN BARTL 1 , MIRIAM GARCIA 2 , CARLOS A. GOMEZ 2 , HANS–RUDOLF 

WETTSTEIN 1 , MICHAEL KREUZER 1 , HANS-DIETER HESS 3 

1ETH Zurich, Institute of Animal Science, Switzerland 

2Universidad Nacional Agraria La Molina, Peru 

3Agroscope Liebefeld-Posieux, Swiss Federal Research Station for Animal Production 

and Dairy Products (ALP), Switzerland 

The dominant cattle genotypes used by smallholder farmers in the Central Peruvian 

Andes are the local “Criollo” and Criollo x Brown-Swiss (BS) crossbreds, with an 

often dominating proportion of BS genes. The response of the two genotypes to three 

diets with contrasting quality on milk yield and composition was determined in six 

Criollo and six (almost purebred) BS cows kept in the Peruvian coastal lowlands. 

Diets represented the quality of typical highland dry-season forage (D), typical highland 

rainy-season forage (R) and a diet optimised to meet the cows’ requirements 

(O). The diets consisted of different roughages which contained, per kg of dry matter 

(DM) 40, 76 and 133 g of crude protein, 716, 680 and 519 g of fibre (NDF), and 

4.0, 5.4 and 4.8 MJ of net energy lactation (NEL), respectively. Only diet O was 

complemented with a fixed amount of concentrate. The cows received the roughages 

ad libitum in a changeover arrangement. The mean yields of energy-corrected milk 

(ECM, kg/head/day) with diets D, R and O were 1.99, 4.05 and 4.66 for the Criollo 

and 4.02, 7.01 and 8.77 for the BS cows (effects of breed and diet type; p < 0.001). 

Fat content was not affected by diet type and was lower in the milk of BS (4.63 %) 

than in the milk of Criollo (5.01 %) cows. In contrast, content of protein was affected 

by diet quality but not by breed, whereas lactose content was affected by diet quality 

and by breed. In general, BS cows presented higher absolute increases in ECM 

production due to improved nutrition than Criollo cows, particularly when switching 

to diet O (increases of 4.44 and 2.32 kg for BS and Criollo, respectively). However, 

the relative responses to the different diets were comparable among breeds. This indicates 

that Peruvian Criollo cows (Bos taurus) have the genetic potential to respond to 

nutritional improvements which contrasts with observations made in a previous study 

with Boran cows (Bos indicus) in Ethiopia. 

Keywords: Criollo cattle, dairy production, dry season feeding, milk composition, 

Peru 

Contact Address: Hans-Dieter Hess, Agroscope Liebefeld-Posieux, Swiss Federal Research Station for 

Animal Production and Dairy Products (ALP), Route de la Tioleyre 4, CH-1725 Posieux, Switzerland, 

e-mail: dieter.hess@alp.admin.ch 

102 ID 129


Improving Calf Performance by Supplementation in Bali Cows 

Grazing Communal Pastures in West Timor, Indonesia 

HENDERIANA BELLI 1 , I. GUSTI NGURAH JELANTIK 2 , WOLFGANG HOLTZ 3 

1 University of Nusa Cendana, Department of Animal Production, Indonesia 

2 University of Nusa Cendana, Department of Animal Nutrition, Indonesia 

3 Georg-August-University Göttingen, Institute of Animal Breeding and Reproduction, 

Germany 

Two on-farm experiments were conducted in west Timor to investigate the efficacy of 

strategic supplementation in improving calf performance both during dry and rainy 

season. In experiment 1, twenty four cow-calf pairs were grouped into three groups 

of eight pairs with balanced calf sex. They were grazed on communal native pastures 

for 8 months (control) or supplemented with 1 kg feed supplement consisting 

of 60 % rice bran and 40 % leucaena plus 100 g urea to Bali cows soon after calving 

or with 0.5 kg supplement directly to calves started at 2 months of age. Parameters 

measured included birth weight, milk production, and calf daily gain. In experiment 

2, twenty nine one-year old calves were allowed to night grazing (control, n=19) or 

supplemented with 750 g rice bran (supplemented, n=10) during rainy season. Parameters 

measured in the experiment 2 included daily weight gain and body measurement. 

Most calves in experiment 1 were born during June and July and having birth weight 

varying from 11.4 to 21.5 kg with male calves were significantly (p < 0.05) heavier 

than female calves. Birth weight was relatively unrelated to their dams size but it 

was well predicted by their body measurements. Daily gain significantly declined 

(p < 0.01) with advancing dry season. Neither supplementation to cows or directly 

to calves has any significant effect to calves live weight gain and body measurements. 

Milk production was also unaffected by supplementation. In contrast, live weight gain 

and body measurements of older calves (experiment 2) were significantly improved 

(p < 0.05) by supplementation of 750 g rice bran during rainy season. 

Keywords: Bali calves, body measurements, live weight, strategic supplementation 

Contact Address: Henderiana Belli, University of Nusa Cendana, Department of Animal Production, 

Jalan Eltari II Rt 23 Rw 8 Kelapa Lima, 85228 Kupang, Indonesia, e-mail: heru@kupang.wasantara. 

net.id 

ID 214 103


Housefly Maggot Meal (Magmeal): an Emerging Substitute of 

Fishmeal in Tilapia Diets 

JOHNNY ONYEMA OGUNJI 1 , KLOAS WERNER 1 , MANFRED WIRTH 1 , CARSTEN 

SCHULZ 2 , BERNHARD RENNERT 1 

1 Institute of Freshwater Ecology and Inland Fisheries, Berlin, Inland Fisheries, Germany 

2 Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, Institute of Animal Science, Germany 

Several feed ingredients have been investigated in an attempt to substitute fishmeal in 

the fish and livestock diets. These include animal and plant protein sources. Unfortunately 

attempts to use these ingredients for complete replacement of the fishmeal 

component in tilapia diets have not entirely been successful. A major reason is the 

suboptimal content of essential amino acids in the diets especially methionine. Fish 

growth and feed utilisation are reported to be optimal with proteins of animal origin, 

mainly fishmeal characterised by being of high nutritive value. However, based on 

cost effectiveness, availability and crude protein content, housefly larvae seems to be 

a candidate for replacement of fishmeal in fish diets. In this study a multi-dimensional 

biological approach was used to evaluate the suitability of House fly Maggot meal as 

an alternative protein source for Tilapia Oreochromis niloticus fingerling. Growth 

parameters, protein utilisation, carcass composition, stress indicators and haematological 

parameters were examined. Seven test diets were formulated (Protein content 

36 % dry matter; Gross energy 20 kJ/g). Dietary fishmeal concentration, decreased with 

increasing concentration of magmeal. Amino acid content of magmeal used seemed 

balanced though slightly lower than the fishmeal. However, it contained higher methionine 

content than the fishmeal. Fifteen fingerlings (initial weight 2.0±0.1g) were 

stocked per experimental tank. Experimental diets were fed in triplicates at 5 % body 

weight in two portions daily. Results show that no significant differences were observed 

between different feeding groups in terms of fish weight gain (11.25 — 15.08 

g), Standard Growth Rate (3.45 — 3.76 % /day), and Food Conversion Ratio (1.05 — 

1.22). The mean values for haematocrit, plasma cortisol and glucose were not significantly 

different (p < 0.05) among the feeding groups. This shows that no physiological 

stressful condition was introduced in the fish by feeding magmeal diets. The observation 

suggests that magmeal can completely replace fishmeal in the diet of Tilapia 

Oreochromis niloticus fingerling. Magmeal may therefore compare favourably with 

fish meal in terms of their amino acid profile and can conveniently meet the nutrient 

requirements of Tilapia Oreochromis niloticus fingerling. 

Keywords: Alternative protein source, fishmeal, Housefly maggot meal, Tilapia 

Contact Address: Johnny Onyema Ogunji, Institute of Freshwater Ecology and Inland Fisheries, Berlin, 

Inland Fisheries, Müggelseedamm 310, D-12587 Berlin, Germany, e-mail: ogunjijo@yahoo.com 

104 ID 76

Effect of Variety, Harvesting Stage and Season on the 

Concentration of Tannins and Alkaloids in Tagasaste 

(Chamaecytisus palmensis) 


GETNET ASSEFA 1 , CLAUDIA KIJORA 1 , KURT-JOHANNES PETERS 1 , KAI 

SONDER 2 , MICHAEL WINK 3 , NORBERT STEINMÜLLER 2 

1Humboldt-University Berlin, Department of Animal Breeding in the Tropics and Subtropics, 

Germany 

2International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI), Integrated Natural Resource Management, 

Ethiopia 

3Heidelberg University, Institute of Pharmacy and Molecular Biotechnology, Germany 

Most browse trees in the tropics contain substantial amounts of secondary metabolites such as 

phenolic compounds (mainly tannins) and alkaloids. The astringent effect of tannins and the 

bitter taste of alkaloids accompanied by toxicity generally affect intake and their utilisation by 

animals. In this study the first experiment evaluates contents of hydrolysable tannins (HT) and 

condensed tannins (CT) of 65 accession/varieties of tagasaste. The second and third experiments 

were done on the widely grown variety “MOA” for evaluation of HT, CT and alkaloids. In 

the second experiment regrowths harvested at 4, 6, 8 and 10 months and separated to growing 

bud, leaf, bark, branch and stem were evaluated, while In the third experiment leaves harvested 

during main rainy, dry and short rainy seasons were used. 

The leaves of tagasaste accessions tested gave HT and CT in ranges of 16–197 g/kg and 6.9– 

35.0 abs/g with means of 115 and 12.5 respectively on dry matter basis. In the harvesting stage 

studies the edible fractions have on average higher HT and CT mainly in the leaves (177.2 g/kg 

and 20.1 abs/gm, respectively) and follow a declining trend as harvesting stage progressed. About 

90 % of the alkaloids found in tagasaste were sparteine. High distributions of alkaloids were 

found in the non-edible fractions, where bark (235 mg/kg) was the highest and leaf (40 mg/kg) was 

the lowest. In all fractions, alkaloids increased until the 8 th month and declined at the 10 th 

month. 

High concentration of HT and alkaloids was found in tagasaste leaves harvested during the 

rainy seasons compared to the dry season. However, CT was lower during the short rains and 

dry season and the highest was during the short rains. Generally HT and CT were positively 

correlated (r=0.25), however, both the HT and CT have a negative correlation coefficient of 

r=-0.58 and r=-0.69 with alkaloids respectively. The results of this study showed that varietal 

selection, harvesting management and growing season could be used as a means to control the 

level of tannins and alkaloids. 

Keywords: variety, alkaloids, harvesting stage, season, tagasaste, tannins 

Contact Address: Claudia Kijora, Humboldt-University of Berlin, Department of Animal Breeding in 

the Tropics and Subtropics, Philippstr. 13, House 9, 10115 Berlin, Germany, e-mail: claudia.kijora@ 

agrar.hu-berlin.de 

ID 476 105


Evaluating the Temporal, Seasonal and Spatial Variation in 

Nutritive Value of Cactus Pear (Opuntia ficus-indica) Using in vitro 

Gas Production and Chemical Analysis Methods 

FIREW TEGEGNE, CLAUDIA KIJORA, KURT-JOHANNES PETERS 

Humboldt University of Berlin, Institute of Animal Sciences, Germany 

Cactus pear (Opuntia ficus-indica) is a multipurpose plant of increasing importance 

in dry areas. A series of three investigations done in northern Ethiopia showed that: 

(1) farmers use cactus as forage, (2) it can substitute hay up to 60 % and is a vital water 

source, (3) it is complimentary with urea-treated straw and could partly substitute 

wheat bran provided straw is urea-treated. Since the feeding trials were done during 

a dry season at one location this study investigated the seasonal and spatiotemporal 

variation in chemical composition and in vitro gas production. Three cladodes/pads 

of three age groups (1 years old) from five plants per location (three 

agro-ecologies) were collected during dry and rainy seasons. In vitro gas production 

test was done according to Menke and Steingaß (1988). Data were subjected to 

ANOVA using the General Linear Model of SPSS 13.0. Age affected crude protein 

and crude fibre (p < 0.001) but not dry matter (DM) and ash contents (p > 0.05). 

Season affected (p < 0.001) all chemical composition parameters except ash content. 

Location affected (p < 0.05) all components except DM content. None of the in vitro 

degradation parameters were affected by age and season except b and a, respectively 

(p > 0.05). In contrast, location had effects on a and b (p < 0.001). None of the 

factors affected c (p > 0.05). Gas production was unaffected (p > 0.05) by age and 

season while location appeared to affect (p < 0.05) it at 4 and 48 incubation hours. In 

conclusion, from the nutritionally important components only crude protein content 

is affected by age, season and location. Cactus pear could be fed in all cactus-growing 

zones of the study area year-round but with a strategy that younger cladodes are fed 

during the dry season. 

Keywords: Age, cactus pear, chemical composition, Ethiopia, in vitro gas production, 

location, season 

Contact Address: Firew Tegegne, Humboldt University of Berlin, Institute of Animal Sciences, Philippstr. 

13 Haus 9, 10115 Berlin, Germany, e-mail: firewtegegne@yahoo.co.uk 

106 ID 276

Animal Production Systems 

MARIANA RUFINO, MARIO HERRERO, MARK T. VAN WIJK, 

PABLO TITTONELL, KEN GILLER: 

Cattle Management Strategies of Smallholders in the Eastafrican 

Highlands and their Contribution to Livelihoods 108 

SIMONE KRIESEMER, VOLKER HOFFMANN: 

Determinants of Adoption and Diffusion of Fish Ponds in 

Cameroon 109 

MARKOS TIBBO, JAN PHILIPSSON, WORKNEH AYALEW: 

Sustainable Sheep Breeding Programmes in the Tropics: a 

Framework for Ethiopia 110 

PHILIPP NAGEL, MARIA WURZINGER, LUIS IÑIGUEZ, FRAN- 

CISCO GUADALUPE ECHAVARRÍA CHAIREZ, MANUEL DE 

JESUS FLORES NÁJERA, JUAN MANUEL PINOS RODRÍGUEZ, 

WALTER JORGE GÓMEZ RUIZ, WERNER ZOLLITSCH: 

Characterisation of two Goat Production Systems in the 

Highlands of Mexico 111 

ANDRÉ MARKEMANN, ANGELIKA STEMMER, MARIANNA 

SIEGMUND-SCHULTZE, ANNE VALLE ZÁRATE: 

Stated Preferences of Functions of Llama Keeping in Bolivia 112 

107


Cattle Management Strategies of Smallholders in the East-african 

Highlands and their Contribution to Livelihoods 

MARIANA RUFINO 1 , MARIO HERRERO 2 , MARK T. VAN WIJK 1 , PABLO 

TITTONELL 3 , KEN GILLER 1 

1 Wageningen University, Plant Sciences, The Netherlands 

2 International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI), Kenya 

3 International Centre for Tropical Agriculture, Tropical Soil Biology and Fertility, Kenya 

Livestock has multiple purposes in smallholder systems. It provides food and income 

for the household, nutrients to replenish soil fertility and it is a key asset for insurance 

purposes in times of scarcity. Depending on the importance assigned to these 

functions, farmers will manage livestock in different ways to suit specific purposes. 

Given the diversity of strategies that farmers follow, there is a need to evaluate those 

that contribute the most to farmers’ long-term own goals. Seasonal feed availability 

and quality are considered key constraints affecting the productivity of livestock in 

crop/livestock systems. These usually follow the rainfall patterns implying that there 

contrasting body weight changes during the rainy and the dry season. The magnitude 

of the nutrient transfers at farm scale follows this seasonality. We analysed management 

decisions that affect both cattle productivity and nutrient management within 

the farm. We compared intensive dairy systems, with zero-grazing crossbreed cattle 

with extensive systems with grazing local zebu breeds. We developed a model to analyse 

long-term effects of management decisions around cattle management, and the 

consequences in terms of income and its variability. The model includes two components: 

a simple dynamic livestock model and an organic resources management 

tool. This integrated model allows the analysis of i) the role of the livestock in terms 

of nutrient and labour flows, ii) the temporal variability of flows iii) different production 

systems. An economic balance is included to assess impact of management 

on livelihoods. Different farmers’ objectives around cattle keeping were included in 

the analysis: 1. Generation of cash through milk production (give priority females 

with high potential); 2. Cattle as an insurance (prioritise number above productivity) 

relevant for zebu breeds, and 3. Cattle to provide manure for fertilising crops (feed 

low quality feedstuffs). Tradeoffs between different objectives arise, e.g. effects of 

supplementation (using improved legumes) on animal production vs contribution of 

cattle production to income. There were evident long-term benefits of targeting management 

groups within a herd. 

Keywords: Dynamic modelling, farmers’ objectives, fuzzy logic, trade-offs 

Contact Address: Mariana Rufino, Wageningen University, Plant Sciences, The Netherlands, e-mail: 

mariana.rufino@wur.nl 

108 ID 458


Determinants of Adoption and Diffusion of Fish Ponds in 

Cameroon 

SIMONE KRIESEMER, VOLKER HOFFMANN 

University of Hohenheim, Department of Agricultural Communication and Extension, 

Germany 

In face of a growing world population and declining fish stocks through overfishing, 

aquaculture can play a key role through the provision of high value protein affordable 

to poor people in developing countries. Yet, the full potential of fish farming is 

far from being realised in most African countries and the Cameroonian Government 

continues to import large quantities of fish to satisfy demand. The purpose of this 

study is to identify perceived driving forces that lead to adoption of fish farming in 

earthen ponds in Cameroon and inhibiting forces that hamper their sustainability and 

spread. The underlying theory is Kurt LEWIN’S (1951) psychological field theory 

in which behaviour is defined as a function of the interaction of the individual and 

his/her perceived environment. Everet ROGERS’ (2003) ‘variables determining the 

rate of adoption’ are used as a specific framework. Semi-directive interviews with 

fish farmers for qualitative and quantitative data collection are used. General patterns 

of decision-making processes and important driving and inhibiting forces are 

determined and verified through group discussions. Interviews with local experts give 

initial thematic and logistic direction and help to critically reflect preliminary results. 

The expected outcome is the comprehensive understanding of fish farmers’ perceptions 

and the factor combinations that influence their decision-making, based on the 

model of behaviour modification. This will be achieved through the analysis of fish 

farming as an innovation taking into account its farmer-perceived attributes and other 

variables. In particular, its relative advantage will be considered by the comparison 

of gross margins of alternative income generating activities based on representative 

farmer cases. The results will be discussed in view of recommendations for future promotion 

strategies and the role of spatial considerations in designing such strategies. 

LEWIN, K. 1951: Field theory in social science. New York. 

ROGERS E. 2003: The Diffusion of Innovations. Fifth Edition. The Free Press, New 

York. 

Keywords: Adoption, aquaculture, Cameroon, diffusion, driving and inhibiting forces, 

fish farming, fish ponds 

Contact Address: Simone Kriesemer, University of Hohenheim, Department of Agricultural Communication 

and Extension, 11900 Bayan Lepas, Germany, e-mail: s.kriesemer@cgiar.org 

ID 532 109


Sustainable Sheep Breeding Programmes in the Tropics: a 

Framework for Ethiopia 

MARKOS TIBBO 1 , JAN PHILIPSSON 2 , WORKNEH AYALEW 1 

1 International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI), Animal Genetic Resources, Ethiopia 

2 Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences (SLU), Animal Breeding and Genetics, Swe- 

den 

Improvement programmes for small ruminants in the tropics face several constraints 

that have hampered the establishment and sustainability of such programmes. One 

major shortfall has been weak planning, particularly poor involvement of livestock 

owners and stakeholders in the design and implementation of the programmes. In sub- 

Saharan Africa, low productivity, high density of animals in relation to grazing capacity, 

unreliable rainfall, increasing human population, small landholding, and declining 

land productivity are all major concerns. Studies in Ethiopia show substantial within 

and between breed variations, and hence genetic improvement is feasible among indigenous 

sheep breeds. Different breeding alternatives to maximise production (e.g. 

lamb growth and survival) per animal while culling less productive animals to reduce 

flock sizes, and re-allocating of resources (e.g. feed and health management) 

as a means of upgrading management levels for the genetically superior flocks are 

suggested. Breeding programmes are proposed to be based on open-nucleus flocks 

utilising government ranches at the top of a three tier system of flocks. Selection 

schemes allow an in-flow of high potential breeding ewes from sub-nucleus herds 

for pure-breeding to nucleus flocks in the ranches. The selected superior rams from 

the ranches will be distributed to participating farmers in the sub-nucleus flocks for 

mating. Subsequently village flocks receive selected superior rams from the sub-nucleus 

herds. The programme is proposed to be managed by a nationally mandated 

Animal Genetic Resources Institution, which collaborates with research institutions 

and oversees all activities related to this programme. Such a participatory programme 

is believed to ensure not only long-term genetic improvement and livelihood improvement, 

but also conservation of the indigenous genetic diversity as well as eco-system 

health. 

Keywords: Ethiopia, genetic improvement, indigenous sheep, open-nucleus breeding 

scheme 

Contact Address: Markos Tibbo, International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI), Animal Genetic 

Resources, PO Box 5689, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, e-mail: m.tibbo@cgiar.org 

110 ID 442


Characterisation of two Goat Production Systems in the 

Highlands of Mexico 

PHILIPP NAGEL 1 , MARIA WURZINGER 1 , LUIS IÑIGUEZ 2 , FRANCISCO 

GUADALUPE ECHAVARRÍA CHAIREZ 3 , MANUEL DE JESUS FLORES NÁJERA 3 , 

JUAN MANUEL PINOS RODRÍGUEZ 4 , WALTER JORGE GÓMEZ RUIZ 4 , WERNER 

ZOLLITSCH 1 

1 University of Natural Resources and Applied Life Sciences, Austria 

2 International Center for Agricultural Research in the Dry Areas, Syria 

3 National Institute of Forestry, Agricultural and Animal Research, Mexico 

4 Autonomous University of San Luis Potosí, Mexico 

The aim of this work is to characterise goat production systems in two regions of the 

Mexican highlands. One study area is located in the state of Zacatecas, where the main 

production purpose is meat from older kids or adult animals. In the other site which 

is located in the state of San Luis Potosí, farmers sell young kids and produce milk. 

The research work focuses on the description of the local Criollo breed, the feeding 

management of farmers and general socioeconomic aspects. In interviews and participatory 

workshops, farmers gave valuable information about their production systems 

and the socioeconomic circumstances which they live in. Body measurements were 

taken from 100 female goats per region and a phenotypical description was made. In 

both regions the animals have nearly the same weight, height at withers, chest girth 

and body length at the age of two years. Older animals in Zacatecas stagnate in 

weight and at the age of four years goats in San Luis Potosí are 13 kg heavier; in addition, 

body measurements are seven to nine centimeters greater. Chemical analysis 

of 43 fodder plants from semiarid rangeland collected during the dry season showed 

poor nutrient contents. However, some legumes and composites showed reasonable 

feeding values, although potentially suitable fodder plants sometimes possess defense 

mechanisms preventing them from being eaten by goats or other animals. Goats graze 

the whole year on rangeland and additional stubble grazing is common during the dry 

season. The analysis suggests clear system differentiation: farmers in Zacatecas rely 

on traditional farming methods and their productive purposes are mixed, while farmers 

in San Luis Potosí constantly look for new options of farming (i.e. specific feeds, 

management technologies). Due to this differentiation, which can suggest a different 

adoption rate, it is likely that the recent improvement efforts in the San Luis Potosí 

site, could turn into a more entrepreneurial and modern system. This could act as a 

model for goat production improvement in other Mexican regions. 

Keywords: participatory workshop, production system, socioeconomics 

Contact Address: Philipp Nagel, University of Natural Resources and Applied Life Sciences, Gregor 

Mendel Straße 33, 1180 Vienna, Austria, e-mail: philipp.nagel@boku.ac.at 

ID 106 111


Stated Preferences of Functions of Llama Keeping in Bolivia 

ANDRÉ MARKEMANN 1 , ANGELIKA STEMMER 2 , MARIANNA SIEGMUND- 

SCHULTZE 3 , ANNE VALLE ZÁRATE 3 

1University of Hohenheim, Institute of Animal Production in the Tropics and Subtropics 


2Universidad Mayor de San Simón, Bolivia 

3University of Hohenheim, Animal Breeding and Husbandry in the Tropics and Subtrop- 

ics, Germany 

Bolivia accounts for approximately 63 % of the South American llama population. 

Llamas keep playing an important role in the sustenance of smallholdings in the Andean 

regions fulfiling various functions in the productive, social and cultural life of 

the people. However, these functions have not yet been valued scientifically. This 

study therefore evaluates functions of llama keeping from a breeder’s viewpoint. A 

ranking approach was applied with 75 farmers in 6 villages. The different functions 

of llama keeping were presented visually. Each farmer was asked to arrange the illustrations 

according to his personal preference order. The following 10 functions were 

suggested: i) Means of transportation to cultivated areas, ii) Means of transportation 

for other purposes, iii) Llama dung as energy source, iv) Sale and/or consumption 

of fresh/dried meat, v) Sale of live animals for savings, vi) Sale of live animals for 

emergency purposes, vii) Sale of fibre, viii) Domestic use of fibre, ix) Integration of 

animals in cultural events/rituals, x) Herd as capital resource. Subsequently, ranking 

frequencies of stated preferences were calculated (lower values representing higher 

preferences). Log odds ratios comparing each pair of functions were computed with 

a multinomial cumulative logit model. The capital function was most important (rank 

mean: 2.91, standard deviation: 3.11; 14.6 % of total ranking frequency), followed by 

the transport function to cultivated areas (3.39, 2.05; 13.7 %) and the transport function 

for other purposes in third place (4.79, 2.95; 10.9 %). Logistic regression analysis 

indicates that functions were highly significant. Estimated odds ratios showed 

significant differences for the three highest ranked functions, with the odds of the capital 

function being 4.65 times the odds of the transport function to cultivated areas 

(p < 0.0001). The odds of the latter were 2.51 the odds of the transport function for 

other purposes (p < 0.01). It was concluded that functions indicating the sale of live 

animals or fleece (ranked in 7 th , 8 th and 9 th position) were actually not perceived as 

highly important by the farmers, a fact that has to be taken into account when aiming 

at the improvement of llama husbandry and breeding. 

Keywords: Bolivia, functions of llama keeping, llamas, ranking, stated preferences 

Contact Address: André Markemann, University of Hohenheim, Institute of Animal Production in the 

Tropics and Subtropics (480a), 70593 Stuttgart, Germany, e-mail: markeman@uni-hohenheim.de 

112 ID 617

GIS, Modeling and Technology 

a) GIS, Modeling and Technology 115 

113


114



ANDREAS PRINTZ: 

Future Gis-challenges in Modelling 116 


STEFAN SIEBERT, JIPPE HOOGEVEEN, PETRA DÖLL, JEAN- 

MARC FAURES, SEBASTIAN FEICK, KAREN FRENKEN: 

The Digital Global Map of Irrigation Areas — Development 

and Validation of Map Version 4 117 

CLAUDIA HIEPE, BERND DIEKKRÜGER: 

Soil Erosion in the Upper Ouémé Catchment (Benin) Considering 

Land Use and Climate Change — a Modelling Approach 

118 

JAN-PETER MUND, VINCENT VAN ENGELEN: 

Land Resource Assessment for Social Land Concessions in 

Rural Cambodia 119 

BERND HARDEWEG, HERMANN WAIBEL: 

A Spatial Model of Vegetable Production in Thailand: Results 

and Policy Implications 120 

DITMAR BERNARDO KURTZ, JÜRGEN SCHELLBERG, MATH- 

IAS BRAUN: 

Satellite Based Biomass Estimation on Rangeland in Empedrado, 

Corrientes - Argentina 121 

115


Future Gis-challenges in Modelling 

ANDREAS PRINTZ 

University of Stuttgart, Institute for Landscape Planning and Ecology, Germany 

We live in a fast changing world. Actually we are confronted with profound changes 

of our societies as well as with our natural site conditions. Therefore, the estimation 

of possible future situations and the deduction of adaption strategies are of growing 

importance for planners and decision 

makers. Two important thematic fields for future challenges in GIS (Geographical 

Information System) modelling are focussed: 1.) Integration of socioeconomic and 

natural site content . Most societies nowadays are undergoing a fast and broad 

transformation process (“globalisation”) with fundamental changes in demography, 

ethical values, technology application, labour management, etc. On the other side 

environmental conditions (“global climate change”) are assumed to be soon changed 

profoundly. However, socioeconomic and natural sciences often are “introverted” but 

not able to really communicate with each other as they have different research objects, 

use different methods and speak different languages. As a result the two research 

fields often are parallelized but rarely really integrated. To be able to link both discipline 

fields in a GIS, the challenge is to 

establish a defined correlation of socioeconomic characteristics within a certain spatial 

unit. On a regional level the example of farm types linked 

with landscape units is given. 2.) Visions of future spatial patterns . Possible futures 

often are sketched in form of scenarios. Mostly, several 

scenarios, running over many years, serve to create a database of results within a given 

(modelling) frame to support decision making in spatial 

planning. Thus, there is a growing needs for GIS-based „spatial scenario construction 

models“ (SSCS) that enable the translation of assumed future changes (e.g. in land 

use) in spatial patterns and time steps. While e.g. the mathematical dimension of a 

population growth or land use change is 

“easy” to calculate on aggregated computations of interest, the spatial distribution of 

a future population or land use pattern within a larger 

region is a very sophisticated affair. Defined push and pull factors can lead to a new 

assembling of land use classes. The given example illustrates amongst others the 

development of farmland expansion in Africa (Benin), driven by a strong population 

growth. 

Keywords: Integration, land use classes, spatial distribution 

Contact Address: Andreas Printz, University of Stuttgart, Institute for Landscape Planning and Ecology, 

Grottenau 38, 85356 Freising, Germany, e-mail: apr@uni-stuttgart.de 

116 ID 628


The Digital Global Map of Irrigation Areas — Development and 

Validation of Map Version 4 

STEFAN SIEBERT 1 , JIPPE HOOGEVEEN 2 , PETRA DÖLL 1 , JEAN-MARC FAURES 2 , 

SEBASTIAN FEICK 1 , KAREN FRENKEN 2 

1 University of Frankfurt (Main), Institute of Physical Geography, Germany 

2 Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Land and Water Development 

Division, Italy 

A new version of a digital global map of irrigation areas was developed by combining 

irrigation statistics for 26909 sub-national statistical units and geo-spatial information 

on the location and extent of irrigation schemes. The difference to map version 3 

(available at: http://www.fao.org/ag/agl/aglw/aquastat/irrigationmap/index.stm) is the 

incorporation of a map update for Africa, Europe and parts of Latin America. The 

map shows the percentage of each 5 arc minute by 5 arc minute grid cell (about 86 

km 2 along the equator) that was equipped for irrigation around the year 2000. It is 

thus an important data set for global studies related to land and water, but also for 

assessments on food security or to quantify possible impacts of climate change on 

agriculture. The poster describes the data set and the mapping methodology and gives 

an estimate of map quality at the scale of countries, world regions and the globe. Two 

indicators of map quality were developed for this purpose, and the map was compared 

to irrigated areas as derived from remote sensing based global land cover inventories. 

The main results of the study are, that 278.8 Mio ha were equipped for irrigation at 

the global scale. About 68 % of the total irrigated area is located in Asia, 17 % in 

America, 9 % in Europe, 5 % in Africa and 1 % in Oceania. The largest contiguous 

areas of high irrigation density are found in North India and Pakistan along the rivers 

Ganges and Indus, in the Hai He, Huang He and Yangtze basins in China, along the 

Nile river in Egypt and Sudan, in the Mississippi-Missouri river basin and in parts 

of California. Smaller irrigation areas are spread across almost all populated parts 

of the world. At the global scale, the overall map quality is good, but there are large 

regional differences of map quality. It was found that remote sensing based land cover 

inventories report higher values for the global extent of irrigated land and that there is 

a need for a systematic comparison of the different data sets. 

Keywords: Agriculture, crop management, crop production, global map, irrigation, 

irrigation map, land cover, land use, water use 

Contact Address: Stefan Siebert, University of Frankfurt (Main), Institute of Physical Geography, 

Georg Voigt Str. 14, 60325 Frankfurt, Germany, e-mail: s.siebert@em.uni-frankfurt.de 

ID 211 117


Soil Erosion in the Upper Ouémé Catchment (Benin) Considering 

Land Use and Climate Change — a Modelling Approach 

CLAUDIA HIEPE, BERND DIEKKRÜGER 

University of Bonn, Geographical Institute, Germany 

Soil degradation is a severe problem in Africa. The resulting decline of crop yields 

threatens food security and forces poverty, migration and land use conflicts. Therefore 

effective measures against soil degradation are crucial for the achievement of the 

UN Millennium goals. Prior intervention areas with especially high risks should be 

identified. 

In this study, which is part of the German integrated water resource management 

project IMPETUS, soil erosion by water has been studied in the Upper Ouémé Catchment 

(15.000 km 2 ) in sub-humid Central Benin. Field studies in 2001/02, performed 

by Junge (2004), revealed that soil loss rates on agricultural fields were 10x higher 

on fields than on savannah land. Cotton and yam fields were the main contributors. 

The quantification of soil erosion at the regional scale for longer periods required a 

modelling approach. The semi-distributed continuous erosion model SWAT (Soil Water 

Assessment Tool) has been chosen. In 2004 soil transects were studied in order 

to parameterise a French soil map. For the years 1998 to 2004 the model was successfully 

calibrated and validated against daily measurements of total discharge and 

suspended sediment concentration at various outlets in the catchment. Subsequently, 

the model was applied for different scenarios of climate and land use change until 

2025 using spatially explicit results from the regional climate model REMO and the 

land use/land cover change model CLUE, produced by other IMPETUS members. 

Land use changes lead to a strong increase in erosion rates, whereas lower precipitation 

reduced water and sediment yield significantly. Recent and future areas with high 

erosion risk in the catchment were identified. Based on field observations and farmer 

interviews in 2005, recommendations for a sustainable soil management are given. In 

future, the SWAT model shall be combined with the EPIC model to study the effect 

of agrarian management strategies on crop yield and soil degradation. 

Keywords: Africa, Benin, IMPETUS, modelling, soil degradation, SWAT, water erosion 

Contact Address: Claudia Hiepe, University of Bonn, Geographical Institute, Bonn, Germany, e-mail: 

claudia.hiepe@gmx.net 

118 ID 347


Land Resource Assessment for Social Land Concessions in Rural 

Cambodia 

JAN-PETER MUND 1 , VINCENT VAN ENGELEN 2 

1 Royal University of Agriculture, Department of Land Management and Land Adminis- 

tration, Cambodia 

2 ISRIC - World Soil Information, Netherlands 

The paper presents the application of a land resources assessment method to evaluate 

biophysical resources,their condition, trends and capability for use in rural Cambodia. 

The applied geo-ecological method takes into account a range of different agroecological 

factors. Resulting land units are systematic arrangements of various predefined 

categories. The capability of land units for particular land uses and the adapted 

treatment required for sustainable landuse avoiding degradation are determined next. 

Assessments are required to serve the long-term needs of economic and environmental 

development, land allocation and environmental as well as land management and 

monitoring. Social concession land for sustainable agricultural purposes will be provided 

to landless and poor households in Cambodia. Major constraints for agricultural 

production by poor farmers are limited commercial inputs and a low level of 

technology implying that unfavourable land or soil qualities are difficult to modify 

by current farming operations. Qualities to be considered for a suitability rating are 

e.g. soil fertility, water retention capacity, soil depth, slope and susceptibility to erosion. 

Landscape and ecological field observations, assembled in a standardised soil 

and terrain resources database (SOTER) provide the basis for a suitability assessment. 

A preliminary suitability analysis in two provinces was based on the existing soils 

map and updated MRC soil data. Additional soil and terrain data was gathered from 

the digital terrain model SRTM90, the hydrological network as well as land use and 

land cover pattern derived from Landsat and Spot remote sensing data. Based on 

41 auger samples and 10 full pit analyses a soil mapping process on reconnaissance 

level was started in Oddar Meanchey. Laboratory analyses of field samples have taken 

place in the Soil lab of the Ministry of Agriculture which probes major physical and 

chemical soil analysis]. The suitability assessment combines results from soil fertility, 

water retention capacity, soil depth, slope and susceptibility to erosion, providing 

five suitability classes according FAO (1974). This derived map provides a quick and 

comprehensive overview of land resources and conditions for decision makers in the 

process of land allocation. 

Keywords: Cambodia, land resource assessment, Soil Mapping , SOTER 

Contact Address: Jan-Peter Mund, Royal University of Agriculture, Department of Land Management 

and Land Administration, GTZ-Main Office Phnom Penh, P.O. Box 81, Phnom Penh, Cambodia, e-mail: 

jpmun03@yahoo.com 

ID 435 119


A Spatial Model of Vegetable Production in Thailand: Results and 

Policy Implications 

BERND HARDEWEG, HERMANN WAIBEL 

Leibniz University of Hannover, Development and Agricultural Economics, Faculty of 

Economics and Management, Germany 

In the past decades, vegetable production in Thailand has experienced considerable 

problems: Increased competition for land and labour from rapid urbanisation and industrialisation 

has put pressure on traditional peri-urban vegetable production sites. 

Intensification of the use of external inputs including chemical pesticides and nitrogen 

fertiliser and the relocation of vegetable production sites to more distant rural 

areas were some of the consequences. These adjustments on the producer side however 

were not sufficient to support output growth on par with a growing demand as 

a result of rapidly rising consumer incomes. Consequently, real prices of vegetables 

increased with negative implications for the poorer segments of the population. Also 

consumer safety and food quality is increasingly becoming a concern. The regional 

programming model presented in this paper addresses these issues by analysing the 

technological and spatial dimension of vegetable production in Thailand. The model 

is based on the concept of typical production units and uses cost data elicited by 

means of expert workshops as well as statistical data on the resource endowments of 

vegetable farms in Thailand. The model includes supply and demand of 23 vegetable 

crops disaggregated for 8 regions, 12 periods and different production systems. Positive 

mathematical programming has been used to calibrate regional supply to baseline 

data from official production statistics. Results show that on average only 43 % of vegetable 

demand is satisfied from regional sources. The Bangkok metropolitan region 

imports more than 80 % of its vegetables from other regions. The impact of increasing 

fuel prices on the spatial pattern of vegetable production was only moderate. However, 

improvements in transportation technology result in a significant increase in the share 

of production areas, where the pressure on natural resources is less severe, which in 

turn favours less input-intensive production systems. Government policy aiming at reducing 

over-use of external inputs in vegetable production should therefore encourage 

the relocation of traditional peri-urban vegetable production to the more developed rural 

areas. 

Keywords: Mathematical programming model, Thailand, vegetable supply analysis 

Contact Address: Bernd Hardeweg, Leibniz University of Hannover, Development and Agricultural 

Economics, Faculty of Economics and Management, Königsworther Platz 1, 30167 Hannover, Germany, 

e-mail: hardeweg@ifgb.uni-hannover.de 

120 ID 207


Satellite Based Biomass Estimation on Rangeland in Empedrado, 

Corrientes - Argentina 

DITMAR BERNARDO KURTZ 1,2 , JÜRGEN SCHELLBERG 1 , MATHIAS BRAUN 2 

1 University of Bonn, Institute of Crop Science and Resource Conservation - Crop Produc- 

tion, Germany 

2 University of Bonn, Center for Remote Sensing (ZFL), 

The Empedrado department is located in the Northwest of the Corrientes province in 

Argentina. About 96,692 hectares of the total land area (123,148 hectares) is covered 

with rangelands usually utilised by continuous grazing. As the stocking rates are 

visually estimated, resource utilisation is inefficient and produces either overrested or 

overgrazed areas. 

Alternatively, estimation of vegetation cover based on remote sensing data could provide 

valuable spatial information in support of management decisions as was recently 

shown in Australia. Since the normalised difference vegetation index (NDVI) derived 

from satellite imagery is positively related to the standing green biomass, this relationship 

has been tested for rangelands. The aim of the project was to provide an impartial 

biomass estimation allowing to support adequate grazing management. 

In the present project, five co-registered Landsat 5 TM images (path 226, row 079) 

from the period 2000 to 2003 were used to calculate NDVI. The imagery had been 

radiometrically normalised using multivariate alteration detection transformation technique. 

The historical total dry matter yield (DMY) data, starting in 2000, was checked 

for completeness and accuracy. Only DMY data coincident with the passing dates of 

the satellite were used. DMY from three different paddocks and two different vegetation 

types were analyzed. 

Joint analysis of both vegetation types shows a positive relation between NDVI and 

biomass (n = 10 / r 2 = 0.50). If compared separately, the relationship was found 

far better for the highlands than for the lowlands (n = 6 / r 2 = 0.76; n = 4 / r 2 = 

0.18 respectively). The variation coefficients were between 6 % to 22 % for NDVI 

and 38 % - 84 % for DMY values. The strong variation is attributed to the fact that 

historical measurement included not only green biomass but also standing senesced 

plant material. Furthermore, the lack of sufficient matching dates between DMY and 

satellite overpasses added to the strong variation among the range of biomass data. 

Although the limited repetition rates of the satellite cause considerable restrictions 

in order to establish accurate pixel-by-pixel biomass estimation, the preliminary results 

indicate that the general spatial patterns can be captured and incorporated into 

management scenarios. 

Keywords: Dry matter yield, Landsat images, normalised difference vegetation index, 

Contact Address: Ditmar Bernardo Kurtz, University of Bonn, Institute of Crop Science and Resource 

Conservation - Crop Production, Nussallee 1, 53115 Bonn, Germany, e-mail: dkurtz@uni-bonn.de 

ID 634 121


rangeland, remote sensing 

122 ID 634

Crops and Soil 

a) Crop Production and Management 125 

b) Mixed Cropping Organic Farming 141 

c) Soil Biology and Fertility 157 

d) Biotic Stresses: Fungi and Bacteria 173 

e) Biotic Stresses: Biocontrol 185 

123


124

Crop Production and Management 

EIKE LUEDELING, JENS GEBAUER, ANDREAS BUERKERT: 

Climatic Requirements of Temperate Perennials in Oman 127 

JENS GEBAUER, MAHER NAGIEB, ANDREAS BUERKERT: 

Evaluation of Fruit Production in the Mountain Oasis Balad 

Seed in Northern Oman 128 

NETRA BHANDARI, MARTHA OPONDO, MARIA GERSTER- 

BENTAYA, VOLKER HOFFMANN: 

Grain or Seed? Sorghum Seed Management Practices by 

Farmers in Striga Affected Area of Western Kenya 129 

ALI AL-JALEEL, HASSAN ALI-DINAR, GEORG NOGA: 

Citrus Cultivation in Kingdom of Saudi Arabia: Contribution 

and Impact of a New Crop to the Development of 

‘najran’ Area and Other Parts of the Kingdom of Saudi 

Arabia 130 

SANDRA MARIA GUIMARAES CALLADO, SILKE MEILWES: 

Modernizing Cashew Culture in Northeast Brazil 131 

VERENA DAMIDA VANDAMME, CHRISTIAN RICHTER: 

Cultivation of Yam (Dioscorea spp.) and Soil Fertility Aspects 

in the Kpalimé Region, Togo 132 

KIRSTEN KIENZLER, NAZAR IBRAGIMOV, JOHN LAMERS, 

PAUL L. G. VLEK: 

Optimising Cotton (Gossypium Hirsutum L.) Fertilisation 

in the Irrigated Agriculture of the Aral Sea Basin in Uzbekistan133 

CHARLES MALIDADI, BRIGITTE L. MAASS: 

Cowpea (Vigna unguiculata) for Leafy Vegetable Use in 

Malawi: Agronomic Evaluation on Station and on Farm 134 

JEREMIAH MAGESA, RAY-YU YAN, BRIGITTE L. MAASS: 

Diversity in Nutritional Quality of Cowpea (Vigna unguiculata) 

and Lablab Bean (Lablab purpureus) as Leafy Vegetables 

135 

ANNIA GONZALEZ RIVERO, ANNA KEUTGEN, ELKE PA- 

WELZIK: 

Antioxidant Capacity and Bioactive Compounds of Tomato 

Varieties as Affected by Processing Method 136 

125


126 

ISABEL MARIA MADALENO: 

Medicinal Natural and Agricultural Ecosystems Exploitation 

in Latin America 137 

PANITA BOONSIT, DUMNERN KARLADEE, PUNTIPA PHONGPIACHAN: 

Gamma Oryzanol Content in Local Genotypes of Purple 

Rice from Thailand 138 

REBEKKA POHL, ELKE FISCHER, RAINER SCHULTZE-KRAFT: 

Allelopathy in the Tropical Forage Grass Brachiaria brizantha 

139 

IBRAHIM M. SEIFELDIN, MOHAMED OSMAN KHIDIR: 

Characters Association and Path Coefficient Analysis of 

Yield and Some Yield Components in Sesame (Sesamum 

Indicum L.) 140


Climatic Requirements of Temperate Perennials in Oman 

EIKE LUEDELING 1 , JENS GEBAUER 2 , ANDREAS BUERKERT 2 

1 University of Kassel, Institute of Crop Science, Germany 

2 University of Kassel, Organic Plant Production and Agroecosystems Research in the 


This study was conducted to investigate the climatic conditions favouring the cultivation 

of temperate perennials in the Jabal Akhdar mountain range of northern Oman, 

where farmers are successfully growing roses and temperate and subtropical fruits, 

such as pomegranates, peaches and apricots. In the strongly eroded centre of this 

range, the oases of Al ‘Ayn/Al ‘Aqr (1750–1930 masl), Qasha’ (1620–1640 masl) and 

Masayrat ar Ruwajah (1030–1060 masl) are representing a strong altitude gradient, 

which allows the comparison of cropping systems under different climatic conditions. 

Temperatures and relative air humidity were measured at 30-min intervals throughout 

the year, and field areas with their trees were mapped using high-resolution aerial 

photographs and a Differential Global Positioning System (DGPS). 

While mean relative air humidity in all oases was with 37–40 % relatively similar, 

average annual temperatures strongly varied between sites, ranging from 18.8°C in 

the upper oases, and 20.8°C in Qasha’ to 24.8°C in Masayrat ar Ruwajah. The number 

of hours below 7°C, important to break a temperate fruit tree’s dormancy, was 192 at 

Al ‘Ayn/Al ‘Aqr, 88 at Qasha’ and 0 at Masayrat ar Ruwajah. 

These climatic differences are reflected in the cropping patterns of the three sites. At 

Al ‘Ayn/Al ‘Aqr, farmers grow mostly temperate and subtropical perennials, particularly 

pomegranates (48 % of all perennials) and roses (40 %), while citrus (3 %) and 

peaches (4 %) are of minor importance. At Qasha’, pomegranates (58 %) and roses 

(13 %) are still present, but peaches (13 %), citrus (5 %) and bananas (3 %) take up 

larger percentages. At Masayrat ar Ruwajah, the tree layer is dominated by tropical 

date palm (68 %), which is virtually absent uphill, bananas (15 %) and citrus (12 %). 

Peaches (2 %), roses (0 %) and pomegranates (0 %) cannot fulfil their chilling requirements 

and are thus rarely found. 

Keywords: Chilling requirement, fruit trees, oasis agriculture, Oman, pomegranate, 

rose 

Contact Address: Eike Luedeling, University of Kassel, Institute of Crop Science, Steinstr. 19, 

37213 Witzenhausen, Germany, e-mail: luedeling@uni-kassel.de 

ID 539 127


Evaluation of Fruit Production in the Mountain Oasis Balad Seed 

in Northern Oman 

JENS GEBAUER, MAHER NAGIEB, ANDREAS BUERKERT 

University of Kassel, Organic Plant Production and Agroecosystems Research in the 


Little is known about the agricultural sustainability of the millenia old mountain oases 

in northern Oman. The oasis Balad Seet (23.19°N, 57.39°E, 950–1020 m asl) is located 

in a small valley of the Al-Hajar mountain range and surrounded by limestone 

cliffs up to 1200 m high. 

In this study GIS-based field research on orchards was conducted to investigate the 

structure and fruit tree diversity. Information about local knowledge and management 

of the orchards was gathered through farmer interviews. 

Overall 15 fruit species and six under-utilised fruit species from 14 families were 

identified. A total of 2690 date palms (Phoenix dactylifera L.) comprising 16 varieties 

cover 8.8 ha of man-made terraced land. The palm groves are typical agroforestry 

systems in which the date palms are interplanted with fruit plants such as banana 

(Musa x paradisiaca L.), lime (Citrus aurantiifolia [L.] Swingle), papaya (Carica 

papaya L.) and annual crops. In palm groves intensities of inputs such as manure, 

mineral fertilisers and irrigation water far exceeded outputs of harvests products for 

N, P and K. The surpluses were 303 kg N, 38 kg P and 173 kg K (ha yr) −1 . Yields of 

the 1560 fruit bearing palms strongly depend on the variety and differed from 10 to 

100 kg (palm yr) −1 . High quality irrigation water, the elaborately built soil structure 

of the orchard terraces and adequate drainage are the main factors explaining the lack 

of salinisation in this hyper-arid environment. 

The data show that fruit production with a total of 3478 plants (395 plants ha −1 ) is an 

important component of the oasis agriculture. However, specific horticultural knowhow 

such as clone selection, pruning and grafting seems to be missing. All fruits are 

consumed by the households within the oasis and none are sold outside. In recent 

years the number of lime trees in the oasis declined by approximately 75 % due to the 

rapid spread of the witches broom disease (Crinipellis perniciosa [Stahel] Singer). 

Keywords: Agroforestry, multilayer vegetation structure, orchard, palm groves, sustainability, 

under-utilised fruits 

Contact Address: Jens Gebauer, University of Kassel, Organic Plant Production and Agroecosystems 

Research in the Tropics and Subtropics, Steinstr. 19, 37213 Witzenhausen, Germany, e-mail: 

jgebauer@uni-kassel.de 

128 ID 305


Grain or Seed? Sorghum Seed Management Practices by Farmers 

in Striga Affected Area of Western Kenya 

NETRA BHANDARI 1 , MARTHA OPONDO 2 , MARIA GERSTER-BENTAYA 1 , 

VOLKER HOFFMANN 1 

1University of Hohenheim, Department of Agricultural Communication and Extension, 

Germany 

2Kenya Agricultural Research Institute (KARI), KARI-Kibos, Kenya 

Sorghum (Sorghum bicolor (L.) MOENCH) is the staple food for millions of people in the semiarid 

region of the Sub-Saharan Africa and is popular due to its ability to withstand drought. 

The parasitic weed Striga hermonthica is a major constraint to sorghum production in semiarid 

SSA. Yield losses due to Striga can be up to 100 %. Striga-resistant Sorghum would be 

an important component of integrated Striga control if resistance was bred into locally adapted 

Farmers Preferred Sorghum Varieties (FPSVs). 

The study was conducted in Kenya in April 2006. The study analyses the existing situation 

in the sorghum seed sector and the stakeholders’ perception on seed and seed management 

in western Kenya, one of the worst Striga stricken regions. Participatory methods were used 

throughout the study with the aim to obtain information from the participants on indigenous 

knowledge, cropping systems, seed management and Sorghum seed supply system. 

Local sources of seed varied with farmers receiving new varieties of Sorghum through inheritance 

from their families, gifts and by exchange with relatives and neighbouring farmers as well 

as from the neighbouring villages. It was established that most farmers have a clear distinction 

between seed and grain and they carry out specific and deliberate activities to select and preserve 

seed for sowing. More than 85 % farmers saved their own seed where as 15 % obtained 

seed from the relatives, neighbours, local markets and sometimes from the government extension 

services. They select healthy looking panicles before harvest, thresh, dry, treat and store 

them in a prescribed manner. For various reasons more than 5 % farmers have experienced 

inability to keep their Sorghum seeds time to time before the sowing season and have had to 

purchase from traders in the local markets. This factor has contributed a lot to the fluctuation 

in prices of both sorghum seed and grain throughout the year and sorghum is most expensive 

during the sowing period. 

The study recommends how the Striga resistant FPSVs can be integrated into the existing seed 

supply system either formal or informal. 

Keywords: plant breeding, seed management, seed supply system, Sorghum, Striga, Western 

Kenya 

Contact Address: Netra Bhandari, University of Hohenheim, Department of Agricultural Communication 

and Extension, Schloß, Museumsflügel 120PC, 70599 Stuttgart, Germany, e-mail: bhandari@ 


ID 575 129


Citrus Cultivation in Kingdom of Saudi Arabia: Contribution and 

Impact of a New Crop to the Development of ‘najran’ Area and 

Other Parts of the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia 

ALI AL-JALEEL 1 , HASSAN ALI-DINAR 2 , GEORG NOGA 3 

1Najran Horticulture Development Research Center in Kingdom of Saudi Arabia, Adminstration, 

Saudi Arabia 

2Food and Agriculture Organization in Kingdom of Saudi Arabia, Coordination Program, 

3University of Bonn, Institute of Crop Science and Resource conservation - Horticulture, 

Germany 

Until the late 60 th , ‘Najran’ region in the southern part of Kingdom of Saudi Arabia 

had only few scattered citrus orchards. During the 70 th , interest in growing citrus 

in the region was sporadic and most citrus cultivars were introduced from Syria, 

Lebanon and Iraq. However, the real breakthrough came in the early 80 th when Najran 

Horticulture Development Research Center (NHDRC) was established as a pioneer 

project for development of citrus cultivation in the region. NHDRC immediately 

launched an ambitious programme to introduce certified citrus cultivars from 

internationally recognised propagation centres in USA and other parts of the world. 

Over the years, NHDRC succeeded to provide local farmers with huge amounts of 

adapted citrus cultivars to the region and other areas of the Kingdom. The impact 

of this development was particularly felt by Najran locals where huge improvements 

in farmer’s welfare, economy, social life, health and education were attained. The 

approximate total citrus acreage in Saudi Arabia is 37,500 acres with over 1.5 million 

trees. Najran region by itself possesses one- fourth of the total acreage. The period 

has witnessed tremendous research activities in NHDRC to develop the cultivation 

of this crop in the Kingdom. During the last few years more than 100 different citrus 

cultivars and rootstocks from all over the world were introduced and evaluated 

to select the best promising cultivars to Najran region and other parts of the Kingdom. 

Currently, NHDRC has the capacity to provide farmers annually with 100,000 

— 150,000 certified citrus trees. Investment in this crop not only attracted the locals 

of the region, but other regions in the Kingdom as well. In fact, private companies 

in the last few years and up to this moment have planted thousands of citrus trees in 

other suitable areas of the Kingdom. This paper gives an overview of the progress and 

impact of this crop with the new challenges that need to be resolved to ensure further 

successful development. It is a successful story of a hard work that turned this part of 

the Kingdom into a very effective green belt in a desert country. 

Keywords: Citrus, desert, development, Kingdom, najran, NHDRC 

Contact Address: Ali Al-Jaleel, Najran Horticulture Development Research Center in Kingdom of 

Saudi Arabia, Adminstration, P.O. Box 337, Najran, Saudi Arabia, e-mail: bstanh@awalnet.net.sa 

130 ID 398


Modernizing Cashew Culture in Northeast Brazil 

SANDRA MARIA GUIMARAES CALLADO, SILKE MEILWES 

University of Bonn, Institute of Crop Science and Resource Conservation - Tropical 

Crop Production, Germany 

The cashew tree, Anacardium occidentale L., is a typical tropical, perennial tree 

belonging to the family of the Anarcadiaceae. In Brazil, there are two types of 

cashewtree: the common one and the anão precoce or early fruit setting. This system 

is of considerable value in the environmental, agricultural and socio-economic conditions 

of Northeast Brazil. Northeast Brazil is the main producer with 95 % of the total 

production spread over 680 thousand hectares of cultivated area. The production is 

concentrated mainly in the states of Piauí, Ceará and Rio Grande do Norte. According 

to MEILWES (2006), 70 % of the cultivated area is formed by small producers that 

possess orchards of 10 ha on average. Currently, 90 % of the total cultivated area of 

the cashewtree is characterised by the occurrence of the common cultivation type, considered 

by some experts as the reason of the low productivity of the sector. There are 

several suggestions to increase the productivity of the orchards, among them, the substitution 

of the common orchard type with the early fruit setting type (anão precoce). 

The common type grows up to 12 m, is cultivated in dry conditions at wide spaces 

of 10 × 10 m or even 15 × 15 m and its productivity averages 220 kg/ha of cashewnuts. 

The “anão precoce”, clone CP 76, grows up to 6 m height and produces 1250 kg/ha in 

dry conditions, and 2500 kg/ha in irrigated areas. This type is cultivated at a spacing of 

7 × 7 m, 7 × 4 m or 8 × 6 m. In spite of the better productivity of the “anão precoce”, 

side effects of high density populations are overlooked. It is important to observe 

that the modernisation of orchards can be, in the short or medium term, an excellent 

economic decision to provide income to the farmers. But in the long term, several 

ecological problems could cause decreased productivity in the cashew orchards. The 

present research emphasises the need to verify some factors, like: soil fertility, salt 

accumulation in the soil and harvest management. It further points out what is the 

ecological impact of modernizing cashew orchards in Northeast Brazil. 

Keywords: Anacardium occidentale L., cashew culture, modernisation, North-East 

Brazil 

Contact Address: Sandra Maria Guimaraes Callado, University of Bonn, Institute of Crop Science and 

Resource Conservation - Tropical Crop Production, Sechtemer Strasse 29, 50389 Wesseling, Germany, 

e-mail: scuimara@uni-bonn.de 

ID 349 131


Cultivation of Yam (Dioscorea spp.) and Soil Fertility Aspects in 

the Kpalimé Region, Togo 

VERENA DAMIDA VANDAMME, CHRISTIAN RICHTER 

University of Kassel, Institute of Crop Science, Germany 

As in many parts of West Africa, yam (Dioscorea spp.) is a very important staple food 

crop in the Kpalimé region of Togo, situated 250 m above sea level with an average 

temperature of 25°C and 1500 mm rainfall from March until November. As yam 

has high demands concerning humidity, temperature, and soil fertility (pH, structure, 

nutrients), its cultivation by farmers can serve as an indicator for high soil fertility. 

The aim of our investigation was to describe farmers’ possibilities to overcome the 

decline in soil fertility which takes place due to a growing population and therefore 

shorter time of fallow period in the shifting cultivation system. Therefore yam growing 

farmers in the region of Kpalimé were interviewed concerning their methods of 

growing yam as to rotation, field preparation, cultivation, harvest, and nutrient balances 

(plant residues and fertiliser application). On the same farms soil samples were 

taken and analysed concerning texture, organic matter (C, N), pH, and plant available 

nutrients. Our results show that in the Kpalimé region, after clearing by slash and 

burn, yam is cultivated only in the first year. The fields are not fertlized, as farmers 

can not afford fertilisers and fertiliser transport is difficult. Soil analyses showed 

that the content of organic matter is medium (2.2–3.1 %), but that these (loamy) soils 

are too acid (pH (0.01 m calciumchloride)4.1–5.6) and their contents of plant available 

P (0.7–1.5 mg P-CAL/100 g) and ammoniumacetate exchangeable K (0.16–0.29 

cmol(+)/kg) are too low for high yields. 

To ameliorate soil fertility in the yam fields of Kpalimé, it is recommended to fertilise, 

e.g. with organic fertilisers (farmyard manure, compost etc.), in order to apply P and K 

and other nutrients; to replace natural fallow by controlled green fallow with legumes 

and to intensify legume cultivation; and to incorporate plant residues into the soil 

instead of burning them in order to avoid losses of organic matter with C, N and S. 

Keywords: Soil fertility, Togo, yam 

Contact Address: Christian Richter, University of Kassel, Institute of Crop Science, Steinstraße 19, 

37213 Witzenhausen, Germany, e-mail: chricht@wiz.uni-kassel.de 

132 ID 419


Optimising Cotton (Gossypium Hirsutum L.) Fertilisation in the 

Irrigated Agriculture of the Aral Sea Basin in Uzbekistan 

KIRSTEN KIENZLER 1 , NAZAR IBRAGIMOV 2 , JOHN LAMERS 1 , PAUL L. G. VLEK 1 

1 University of Bonn, Center for Development Research (ZEF), Department of Ecology 

and Resource Management, Germany 

2 Cotton Research Institute, Uzbekistan 

Cotton (Gossypium hirsutum L.) had and still has a central role in Uzbekistan’s economic 

development. Up until now, cotton is grown as state order crop where production 

targets are set by the government. Due to heavy input subsidies during Soviet 

times, unsustainable agricultural practices like over-use of fertilisers was common, 

and farmers had no incentives to efficiently use fertilisers, pay attention to losses to 

the environment, or consider cost-effectiveness of their management. 

Given the on-going reforms after independence, i.e. increasing privatisation, farmers 

need adapted fertiliser management recommendations. Most fertility research conducted 

by the Uzbek Cotton Research Institutes, however, aimed at maximising cotton 

production. The last update occurred before independence and did not consider 

factors such as cotton quality and cost-effectiveness of fertiliser use. As a result, the 

former fertiliser recommendations do not meet the new economic demands. 

Therefore, the response of irrigated cotton to different N, P and K-fertiliser rates was 

studied on a slightly saline soil in Khorezm region, in North-western Uzbekistan. Cotton 

yield, quality, nutrient balances and the economic feasibility of fertilisation rates 

were determined. Results showed that higher NPK rates and balanced proportions of 

N:P:K increased cotton yields while concurrently improving its seed and fibre quality. 

The quality depended highly on the time of picking and showed an optimum at the 

first pick. However, higher application rates negatively affected potential income of 

farmers. An increase in fertiliser rate increased total yield and profits but also delayed 

the opening of cotton-balls, which then did not coincide any more with the period 

when the highest cotton price was offered by the ginneries. Hence, the rate of return 

to investments was highest for lower fertilisation rates. 

The findings suggest that the present fertiliser recommendations are inadequate for increasing 

the yield and quality of Uzbek cotton and simultaneously increasing farmers’ 

income and livelihood. Instead, recommendation windows should be implemented 

which allow to consider various aspects, and on which private farmers can make their 

own decisions depending on their priorities and interests. 

Keywords: Cotton, fertiliser, quality, rate of return, yield 

Contact Address: Kirsten Kienzler, University of Bonn, Center for Development Research (ZEF), Department 

of Ecology and Resource Management, Walter-Flex-Straße 3, 53113 Bonn, Germany, e-mail: 

kkienzler@uni-bonn.de 

ID 302 133


Cowpea (Vigna unguiculata) for Leafy Vegetable Use in Malawi: 

Agronomic Evaluation on Station and on Farm 

CHARLES MALIDADI, BRIGITTE L. MAASS 

Georg-August-University Göttingen, Department of Crop Sciences: Agronomy in the 


Among African leafy vegetables, cowpea is one of the highly appreciated according 

to comprehensive surveys from four African countries conducted within the collaborative 

project ‘Promotion of Neglected Indigenous Vegetable Crops for Nutritional 

Health in Eastern and Southern Africa’ (ProNIVA). However, cowpea leaf for vegetable 

use has been neglected in research and development. The objective of this 

research was to improve the use of cowpea as a vegetable under Malawi conditions. 

Ten cowpea accessions were selected following agronomic evaluation and assessment 

of consumers’ acceptability in collaboration with The World Vegetable Center’s Regional 

Center for Africa (AVRDC-RCA) in Tanzania. Most important properties for 

selection were leaf and grain yield, seed colour, and acceptability to consumers. Two 

local varieties, ‘Nseula’ and ‘Khobwe’, as well as ‘Sudan’, the variety recommended 

by the extension service in Malawi, were taken as local checks. Agronomic evaluation 

was conducted under rain-fed conditions at Bvumbwe Agricultural Research Station 

and on farmers’ fields in two villages, Kankhomba and Tomasi, of southern Malawi 

during six months of the 2005/2006 crop growing season. Leafy vegetable and seed 

yields as well as key features of nutritional quality were determined. High variation 

in leaf yield was determined over three consecutive harvests. Most of the accessions 

previously selected in Tanzania had high leaf yields, similar to ‘Khobwe’, but superior 

to the other checks. Seed yield also differed among accessions. Three selected 

accessions together with ‘Sudan’ had higher seed yields. The on-station trial gave 

leaf and seed yields substantially higher than the on-farm trials. However, there were 

differences between the two villages, with Kankhomba generally giving higher yields 

than Tomasi. Leaf and seed nitrogen contents were substantially higher for four selected 

accessions together with ‘Khobwe’. Farmers indicated they would prefer rather 

early-maturing varieties, which combined both high seed and leaf yields because they 

value the dual use of cowpeas. 

Keywords: African vegetables, genetic resources, leafy vegetable, Malawi, on-farm 

evaluation, underutilised crops, Vigna unguiculata 

Contact Address: Charles Malidadi, Georg-August-University Göttingen, Department of Crop 

Sciences: Agronomy in the Tropics, Grisebachstr. 6, D-37077 Göttingen, Germany, e-mail: 

charlesmalidadi@yahoo.com 

134 ID 300


Diversity in Nutritional Quality of Cowpea (Vigna unguiculata) 

and Lablab Bean (Lablab purpureus) as Leafy Vegetables 

JEREMIAH MAGESA 1 , RAY-YU YAN 2 , BRIGITTE L. MAASS 1 

1Georg-August-University Göttingen, Department of Crop Sciences: Agronomy in the 


2AVRDC (The World Vegetable Center), Nutrition and Analytical Laboratory, Taiwan 

African indigenous vegetables play a significant role in maintaining the nutritional 

well-being of the rural population in Sub-Saharan Africa. They may cover the daily 

requirements of proteins, minerals and vitamins because of their great nutritional 

value. These vegetables are also an important sector for employment and can provide 

cash income for resource-poor farmers due to their short production cycles and 

relatively little management required in cultivation. This study aims at assessing nutritional 

variation among genotypes of cowpea and lablab bean for vegetable use, following 

agronomic evaluation and assessment of consumers’ acceptability of the same 

germplasm in collaboration with The World Vegetable Center’s Regional Center for 

Africa (AVRDC-RCA) in Tanzania. This research was carried out in a greenhouse 

at University of Göttingen within the collaborative project ‘Promotion of Neglected 

Indigenous Vegetable Crops for Nutritional Health in Eastern and Southern Africa’ 

(ProNIVA). To further assess nutritional quality of these species, 41 cowpea and 20 

lablab bean genotypes were evaluated. Young leaves from plants grown in the greenhouse 

under semi-controlled conditions were used as well as young leaves from plants 

grown in pots under sunlight conditions. The latter was performed with selected 

genotypes in order to observe their response to outdoor conditions regarding nutritional 

quality. Leaf samples were freeze-dried, oven-dried or sun-dried. Standard 

laboratory procedures, such as Near Infrared Reflectance Spectroscopy (NIRS), High 

Performance Liquid Chromatography (HPLC) and Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometry 

(AAS) were applied to determine nitrogen, vitamin A, and minerals. The 

collected data was subjected to correlation analysis to determine interdependence of 

traits. Multivariate statistics were also applied for establishing groups of genotypes 

that have similar combination of traits. Results from this research have shown that 

environments had stronger effects on nutrient composition than accessions or species. 

This draws attention on the need to standardise environmental factors for the search 

of qualitatively promising genotypes. 

Keywords: Atomic Absorption Spectroscopy, African vegetables, genetic resources, 

HPLC, Lablab purpureus, NIRS, underutilised crops, vigna unguiculata 

Contact Address: Jeremiah Magesa, Georg-August-University Göttingen, Department of Crop Sciences: 

Agronomy in the Tropics, Grisebachstr. 6, D-37077 Göttingen, Germany, e-mail: jeremagesa@ 

yahoo.com 

ID 301 135


Antioxidant Capacity and Bioactive Compounds of Tomato 

Varieties as Affected by Processing Method 

ANNIA GONZALEZ RIVERO 1 , ANNA KEUTGEN 1 , ELKE PAWELZIK 2 

1 University of Göttingen, Crop Science, Germany 

2 Georg-August-University Göttingen, Institute of Agricultural Chemistry, Germany 

In recent years, the agri-food sector and consumers have begun to look at food not only 

for basic nutrition, but also for health benefits. An increased interest in tomato and its 

products has been created by the fact that their consumption has been correlated with 

a reduced risk of some types of cancer and cardiovascular disease, possibly due to the 

content of some bioactive compounds. 

The purpose of this study was to investigate the variations in the contents of the antioxidants: 

lycopene, ascorbic acid and phenolics, and their contribution to the antioxidant 

activity in nine selected tomato genotypes from Cuba and Germany, which differ in 

colour, size and shape. Furthermore, the nutritional stability of tomato products was 

assessed after the different processing methods as freezing, concentration to obtain 

puree, and ketchup production. 

Significant differences were found between lycopene, ascorbic acid, total phenolic 

content and total antioxidant capacity among the various genotypes and processing 

methods. There was a significant reduction in the ascorbic acid content for the processed 

samples, compared with the frozen, with the highest values for Goldene Königin 

(GK), Yellow Pearshaped (YP) and Rilia (CRi). There was a remarkable increase 

in lycopene levels of puree, compared with frozen and ketchup. CRi, Suso F1 Hybride 

(SR), Vyta (V) and CIMA (C) had the highest content of lycopene in all processing 

methods. Significant differences were found in the phenolic content of frozen, puree 

and ketchup. The lower values corresponded to frozen samples and the highest to 

ketchup. GK, SR, V and C showed the highest concentration of phenolic compounds 

in all the processing methods. Roma (CRo), CRi and Campbell-28 (CC) had highest 

content of lycopene and phenolic compounds only in the processed products. Total antioxidant 

capacity of all cultivars increased in the processed samples, with the highest 

values for the ketchup. The best tomato product according to the antioxidant capacity 

was ketchup. 

Keywords: Antioxidant capacity, bioactive compounds, processing methods, tomato 

Contact Address: Annia Gonzalez Rivero, University of Göttingen, Crop Science, Albrecht thaerweg 

20-C, 37075 Göttingen, Germany, e-mail: anniagr76@yahoo.es 

136 ID 74


Medicinal Natural and Agricultural Ecosystems Exploitation in 

Latin America 

ISABEL MARIA MADALENO 

Tropical Institute, Department of Natural Sciences, Portugal 

As science and culture go global, accompanying a global economy, tensions ravage 

small communities nearly everywhere for basic needs such as food, shelter and health 

are frequently not met and prosperity is unevenly distributed. The paper addresses 

one of those basic human needs and rights — health — focusing alternative medicinal 

practises and predominantly medicinal herbs production, trade and consumption 

in Latin America, seen as a fair usage of local plant resources by local actors, under 

ancestral Indian healing traditions aimed at lower income urban households. Research 

undertaken in four cities, different in size (2 up to 17 millions) and location 

(North and South America) has shown there are market niches for alternative medicinal 

trade, income generation at small scale being a fact, and medicinal agricultural 

ecosystems being sustainable either in rural, periurban, even urban environments. The 

herbs, fruits, roots, etc. traded and consumed in urban markets come from diverse locations 

ranging from rainforests to mountainous milieus: 1. Lower and upper Amazonia 

(Brazil and Peru); 2.Plateaus and Andean high plateaus (Peru and Chile); Forested volcano 

slopes (Mexico, Peru and Chile); 3.Peri-urban valleys (Chile) and season flooded 

planes (Brazil). Some plant species are wild and collected under demand, but most 

of them are grown in peri-urban and rural areas, using less than one-hectare plots and 

no chemicals at all. Medicinal herbs trade field researched in Lima (Peru), Santiago 

(Chile), Belen (Brazil) and Mexico City (Mexico), depicts a sustainable use of local 

and national natural and agricultural resources, whereas targeting lower income populations, 

contributing to decrease health risks and therefore addressing the issue of 

poverty in a globalised world. 

Keywords: Medicinal plants, Latin America, ecosystems 

Contact Address: Isabel Maria Madaleno, Tropical Institute, Department of Natural Sciences, Rua Andrade, 

8-2ºe, 1170-015 Lisbon, Portugal, e-mail: isabel-madaleno@netcabo.pt 

ID 89 137


Gamma Oryzanol Content in Local Genotypes of Purple Rice 

from Thailand 

PANITA BOONSIT 1 , DUMNERN KARLADEE 1 , PUNTIPA PHONGPIACHAN 2 

1 Chiang Mai University, Agronomy, Thailand 

2 Chiang Mai University, Animal Science, Thailand 

Gamma oryzanol is an unsaponifiable component of rice oil, composed of several 

kinds of ferulic acids and has an effect similar to vitamin E in human health. Previous 

research has concentrated on the content in the rice bran, which is not useful in human 

diet. In this research, objective was to determine the content of gamma oryzanol in 

the unpolished rice grain. Ten purple rice and two white rice genotypes were experimented. 

Three replications of RCBD were designed in the field experiment. Grains 

of purple and white rice genotypes from each replication were milled as unpolished 

giving purple rice grains and brown rice grains respectively. Crude oil was extracted 

from this purple and brown rice grains using n-hexane and ethyl acetate. The content 

of semi purified gamma oryzanol and gamma oryzanol were analysed using a reversephase 

HPLC column of ODS C18. The results show that the contents of crude oil extracted 

from brown rice grains of the white rice genotypes did not differ significantly 

from the contents extracted from purple rice grain of the purple rice genotypes. The 

overall mean was 2.60 g/100g grain. This led to the correlation coefficient of crude 

oil to semi purified gamma oryzanol and gamma oryzanol to be non significant. The 

differences among the contents of semi purified gamma oryzanol were significant, as 

were the differences among the contents of gamma oryzanol. The higher content of 

gamma oryzanol was found in two purple rice genotypes. These two genotypes exhibited 

also a higher semi purified gamma oryzanol content. While the purple rice 

genotypes with a lower gamma oryzanol content exhibited also a lower semi purified 

gamma oryzanol, one of the white rice genotype (KDML105) also showed a lower 

gamma oryzanol, exhibited semi purified gamma oryzanol among the higher group. 

The relationship, however, between these two characters was still significant. Comparison 

of the three characters between the two rice groups indicated that the purple 

rice group exhibited a higher mean of gamma oryzanol content than the white rice 

group mean. 

Keywords: Brown rice grain, Gamma oryzanol, Purple rice grain 

Contact Address: Panita Boonsit, Chiang Mai University, Agronomy, 239 Heuy Khaew Rd., 50200 Chiang 

Mai, Thailand, e-mail: panita@chiangmai.ac.th 

138 ID 161


Allelopathy in the Tropical Forage Grass Brachiaria brizantha 

REBEKKA POHL, ELKE FISCHER, RAINER SCHULTZE-KRAFT 

University of Hohenheim, Institute of Plant Production and Agroecology in the Tropics 

and Subtropics, Department of Biodiversity and Land Rehabilitation, Germany 

Species of the tropical genus Brachiaria are widely used in improved pastures. Field 

observations with the particularly widespread Brachiaria brizantha cv. Marandu indicate 

that it can be difficult to establish and maintain mixtures with a legume. Furthermore, 

in grass-only pastures complete lack of seedling recruitment has been observed. 

A reason for both phenomena could be allelopathy. 

To elucidate the allelopathic potential of B. brizantha cv. Marandu in comparison 

with three other Brachiaria cultivars of current economic importance, B. brizantha cv. 

Toledo and the Brachiaria hybrids Mulato and Mulato II, two laboratory bioassays 

were conducted with aqueous extracts, in different concentrations, from (1) leaves 

and (2) roots of the four cultivars, testing their effect on (1) the grasses themselves 

(autotoxicity test) and (2) three forage legumes, Leucaena leucocephala, Desmodium 

ovalifolium, and Pueraria phaseoloides. 

The autotoxicity test showed germination inhibition and a retarded seedling growth 

in the treatments with cvv. Marandu and Toledo. This could be caused either by allelopathic 

effects or the high osmotic potential of the extract solution. In the test with 

the legumes, aqueous leaf extract of cv. Marandu showed faint but not significant effects 

such as germination inhibition, reduced weight and root length of seedlings of D. 

ovalifolium and L. leucocephala. In contrast, low concentrations of cv. Marandu extract 

had beneficial rather than harmful effects on seedling growth of L. leucocephala. 

Similar observations of growth stimulating effects of allelochemicals in low concentrations 

are reported for other species. 

The findings confirm the allelopathic potential of Brachiaria brizantha cv. Marandu. 

However, further research is needed to elucidate the complex issue of allelopathy 

within the genus Brachiaria. Such research should include (1) work in pastures where 

alleged allelopathy has been observed as well as (2) a comprehensive participatory 

survey in order to complement the rather anecdotic information available so far. 

Keywords: Allelopathy, Brachiaria, Forage grass 

Contact Address: Elke Fischer, University of Hohenheim, Institute of Plant Production and Agroecology 

in the Tropics and Subtropics, Department of Biodiversity and Land Rehabilitation, Garbenstr. 13, 

70599 Stuttgart, Germany, e-mail: fischere@uni-hohenheim.de 

ID 287 139


Characters Association and Path Coefficient Analysis of Yield and 

Some Yield Components in Sesame (Sesamum Indicum L.) 

IBRAHIM M. SEIFELDIN 1 , MOHAMED OSMAN KHIDIR 2 

1 University of Bonn, Department of Crop Science and Plant Breeding, Germany 

2 Faculty of Agriculture, University of Khartoum, Department of Agronomy, 

Two hundreds and twenty F5 families derived from ten sesame crosses and advanced 

by the single seed descent (SSD) method were evaluated at the Demonstration Farm, 

University of Khartoum, Shambat, Sudan, for two consecutive seasons (1998/99 and 

1999/00), using nested design with three replications. Data were collected on 10 characters 

in 10 randomly selected plants. Genotypic associations between 10 characters 

and direct and indirect effects of plant height, number of capsules/plant, number of 

primary branches, number of seeds/capsule, 1000-seed weight and on seed yield/plant 

were estimated. 

Highly significant positive genotypic associations were detected for seed yield/plant 

with seed yield/ha and for each of them with plant height, number of capsules/plant, 

number of primary branches, height to first capsule, days to 50 % flowering and days 

to maturity as well as number of capsules/plant with number of primary branches, 

days to 50 % flowering and days to maturity; plant height with height to first capsule 

and days to maturity; and height to first capsule with number of capsules/plant, 

number of primary branches and days to 50 % flowering. On the other hand, significant 

negative genotypic associations were recorded for 1000-seed weight with 

number of capsules/plant and number of primary branches. However, significant negative 

genotypic associations were detected for number of seeds/capsule with number 

of capsules/plant; number of primary branches with plant height and number of 

seeds/capsule. For the rest of character combinations, there were different patterns of 

associations within and over seasons. 

Path analysis revealed that number of capsules/plant had the highest positive direct 

effect (0.804) on seed yield/plant, followed by the 1000-seed weight (0.314) and 

then the number of seeds/capsule (0.284). On the other hand, the number of primary 

branches via the number of capsules/plant gave the highest positive indirect 

effect (0.555) on seed yield/plant, followed by plant height also via the number of capsules/plant. 

However, the highest negative indirect effect (-0.199) on seed yield/plant 

was exhibited by the 1000-seed weight through number of capsules/plant. 

Keywords: Crosses, direct and indirect effects, F5 families, genotypic association, 

sesamum indicum L., single seed descent (SSD) method 

Contact Address: Ibrahim M. Seifeldin, University of Bonn, Department of Crop Science and Plant 

Breeding, Katzenburgweg 5, 53115 Bonn, Germany, e-mail: ssdmaster@hotmail.com 

140 ID 86

Mixed Cropping Organic Farming 

ALCIDO ELENOR WANDER, AGOSTINHO DIRCEU DIDONET, 

JOSE ALOISIO ALVES MOREIRA, FABIO PIRES MOREIRA, 

ANNA CRISTINA LANNA, JOSÉ ALEXANDRE FREITAS BAR- 

RIGOSSI, ELIANE DIAS QUINTELA: 

Economic Feasibility of Small Scale Organic Production of 

Rice, Common Bean and Maize in Goias State, Brazil 143 

DEEPESH PUTHIYAPURAYIL CHANGAT, VIJESH VIJAYA KR- 

ISHNA, S. SURYAPRAKASH, SETHULEKSHMI KUMBALATH 

RAJAGOPAL: 

Examining the Micro-level Sustainability Status of Conventional 

and Organic Rice Farming Systems of Coastal 

Kerala, India 144 

JANA LOJKOVA, BOHDAN LOJKA, JAN BANOUT, ZBYNEK 

POLESNY, DANIEL PREININGER: 

Perspectives of Organic Farming in the Ucayali Region of 

Peru - Institutional Approach 145 

VIJESH VIJAYA KRISHNA, S. SURYAPRAKASH, SETHULEK- 

SHMI KUMBALATH RAJAGOPAL: 

Conserving the Indigenous-organic Rice Farming System 

of Coastal Kerala, India: Does the Market Provide Superior 

Solutions Than the Standards? 146 

YEYEP DINTAN, RONALD F. KÜHNE, ANAS DINURROHMAN 

SUSILA, ELKE PAWELZIK: 

The Effect of Conventional and Organic Farming on Cabbage 

(Brassica oleracea Var. capitata L.) Yield - a Case 

Study in Lembang, Indonesia 147 

STEFAN HOHNWALD, ELIANA M. ACIOLI DE ABREU, JONAS 

BASTOS DA VEIGA, JOSÉ ADÉRITO RODRIGUES FILHO, 

CLEMENS WOLLNY: 

Performance of Bushy Forage Legumes in Dynamic Smallholder 

Pasture Systems of Northeastern Amazon, Brazil 148 

LA KARIMUNA: 

Study of Secondary Vegetation Treated as Bokashi on the 

Intercropped Maize and Soybean of Smallholding Farmers 

Land in Southeast Sulawesi, Indonesia 149 

141


142 

STEFAN HAUSER, MUSTAPHA NJAYOU, LOUIS ZAPFACK: 

Farmers’ Perception and Use of Planted Calliandra calothyrsus 

Fallow in Southern Cameroon 150 

STEFAN HAUSER, BERTRAM BENGONO, OBATE BITOMO: 

Maize Yield Response to Mucuna pruriens and Pueraria 

phaseoloides Cover Crop Fallow and Biomass Burning Versus 

Mulching in Farmer Managed On-farm Experiments 151 


Nitrogen Fixation and Balance in Burned Versus Mulched 

Mucuna pruriens Var. utilis and Pueraria phaseoloides Relay 

Maize Cropping Systems 152 

BENEDICTA FOSU, PAUL L. G. VLEK, GÜNTHER MANSKE, 

KONRAD VIELHAUER: 

The Use of Azolla sp. to Increase N Fertiliser Use Efficiency 

in Wetland Rice in Dano, Southwestern Burkina Faso 153 

ALEX GUSTAVO PACHECO BUSTOS, HEINER GOLDBACH, 

JÜRGEN POHLAN: 

Interactions Between Coffee (Coffea arabica L.) and Intercropped 

Aromatic Plants under Field Conditions in the 

Sierra Norte of Puebla, Mexico 154 

RICHARD ONWONGA, BERNHARD FREYER: 

Impact of Traditional Farming Practices on Nutrient Balances 

in Smallholder Farming Systems of Nakuru District, 

Kenya 155


Economic Feasibility of Small Scale Organic Production of Rice, 

Common Bean and Maize in Goias State, Brazil 

ALCIDO ELENOR WANDER 1 , AGOSTINHO DIRCEU DIDONET 2 , JOSE ALOISIO 

ALVES MOREIRA 2 , FABIO PIRES MOREIRA 2 , ANNA CRISTINA LANNA 2 , JOSÉ 

ALEXANDRE FREITAS BARRIGOSSI 2 , ELIANE DIAS QUINTELA 2 

1Brazilian Agricultural Research Corporation (EMBRAPA); Federal University of Goias 

(UFG); Faculdades Alves Faria (ALFA), Brazil 

2Brazilian Agricultural Research Corporation (EMBRAPA), National Rice and Beans 

Research Center (CNPAF), 

The increasing demand for healthy food and the need for environmental and economic sustainability 

of agricultural production are promoting organic farming worldwide. Therefore, agricultural 

researchers are challenged to develop such systems together with the stakeholders. In 

Brazil, scientists are testing different farming systems to produce organic food. However, the 

economic feasibility, which is a key factor for technology adoption and sustainable production, 

has not being analysed so far. This paper assesses the economic feasibility of small scale organic 

production of rice, common bean and maize in Goiás State, Brazil. During 2004/05 and 

2005/06 growing seasons, rice, common bean and maize were produced at the organic farm of 

Embrapa Rice and Beans under five mulching systems, with and without tillage. All carried 

out operations and used inputs were recorded. Based on those records, the production costs 

for each crop were estimated in each cropping seasons. The costs include operations like seeding, 

dissecation, ploughing, harrowing, spraying and harvesting, as well as inputs like seeds, 

inoculates, neem oil and organic fertilisers. The benefits include the gross revenue obtained 

by multiplying the production amount with the market price for non-organic products. For the 

purpose of analysis of competitiveness of organic production in comparison to conventional 

farming the market prices assumed were those of conventional production. In the analysis, 

the costs of certification were not considered yet due to lack of certifiers in the region. For 

comparison between traits, the benefit-cost-ratio (BCR) was used. In 2004/05 growing season 

the BCR varied from 0.27 for common bean on sorghum mulch system with tillage up to 

4.05 for green harvested maize produced after Crotalaria in no tillage system. Common bean 

and rice were not economically viable in this growing season. In 2005/06 growing season the 

BCR varied between 0.75 for common bean after sorghum in tillage system and 4.50 for green 

harvested maize produced after fallow in no tillage system. In this season common bean was 

economically viable in leguminous mulching systems and green harvested maize was viable in 

all mulching systems. 

Keywords: Benefit-cost-ratio, organic farming, production costs, smallholder production 

Contact Address: Alcido Elenor Wander, Brazilian Agricultural Research Corporation (EM- 

BRAPA); Federal University of Goias (UFG); Faculdades Alves Faria (ALFA), Rodovia Goiania 

a Nova Veneza, km 12, 75375-000 Santo Antonio de Goias, Brazil, e-mail: awander@cnpaf. 

embrapa.br 

ID 381 143


Examining the Micro-level Sustainability Status of Conventional 

and Organic Rice Farming Systems of Coastal Kerala, India 

DEEPESH PUTHIYAPURAYIL CHANGAT 1 , VIJESH VIJAYA KRISHNA 2 , S. 

SURYAPRAKASH 3 , SETHULEKSHMI KUMBALATH RAJAGOPAL 4 

1Humboldt Unversity Berlin, Department of Agricultural Economics and Social Sciences, 

Germany 

2University of Hohenheim, International Agricultural Trade and Food Security, Germany 

3University of Agricultural Sciences, Department of Agricultural Economics, India 

4Kerala University, Thiruvananthapuram, University Library Research Centre, India 

Agricultural sustainability has been defined as the ability of the farming system to 

maintain its productivity and utility indefinitely. The present study attempts to analyse 

the microlevel sustainability status of conventional and organic rice farming systems 

of Coastal Kerala (India), and evaluates the structural differences existing between 

the sustainable and unsustainable farms. Two farming systems were selected 

for the study — Kuttanad for conventional and Pokkali Lands for organic rice farming. 

The sustainability analysis comprises of formation of an index, taking following 

indicators into account: (i) economic (gross income per hectare and benefit-cost ratio) 

, (ii) energy (net energy efficiency, net economic productivity of energy, and net 

energy productivity of capital), (iii) farming (fertiliser productivity and pesticide productivity), 

and (iv) environmental (cost of nitrate pollution and cost of pesticide pollution). 

This Multi-Criteria Approach manifested that the micro-level sustainability 

shows wide degree of variation depending mainly on the personal characteristics of 

cultivator. The farms were classified into sustainable and unsustainable categories and 

input use across them was compared. Organic farms having larger operational area 

were showing higher level of sustainability. The increasing global concern over environmental 

protection and human health problems caused by agrochemical residues 

in food and environment and the resulting raise in demand for organically produced 

commodities assures brighter future for such systems. Despite rice cultivation being 

not profitable under the organic farming, the overall farming system is made highly 

profitable by including prawn cultivation in the succeeding season. A case-study is 

followed, examining the sustainability status of rice cultivation practices of Kaippad 

system of Kerala, where rice is grown in marshy lands and considerable share of cultivation 

practices are indigenous. Similar to the Pokkali farming, this system also 

depend fully on the organic farming measures. The case-study results also indicate 

that human resources, like information availability and education status of farmers, 

are the major determining factors of micro-level sustainability. 

Keywords: India, Multi criteria approach, Organic farming, rice cultivation 

Contact Address: Vijesh Vijaya Krishna, University of Hohenheim, International Agricultural Trade 

and Food Security, 70593 Stuttgart, Germany, e-mail: vkrishna@uni-hohenheim.de 

144 ID 496


Perspectives of Organic Farming in the Ucayali Region of Peru - 

Institutional Approach 

JANA LOJKOVA, BOHDAN LOJKA, JAN BANOUT, ZBYNEK POLESNY, DANIEL 

PREININGER 

Czech University of Agriculture, Institue of Tropics and Subtropics, Czech Republic 

Organic agriculture in the Ucayali region is more then 10 years a stagnated sector. 

Organic certification and marketing of organic products are absent here. The study 

is focused on the state of the art of organic agriculture in the study area from point 

of view of institutional economy and evaluating the social capital in the communities 

is looking for the answer of stagnation of organic agriculture in the region. Semistructured 

interviews and PRA monitoring were used to collect the field data in the 

six different chosen communities, near Pucallpa, the capital of the region. Contacting 

of key informants of organic agriculture in Peru by questionnaire was also used and 

on the base of this information the actual state of organic agriculture in the region was 

evaluated, like the size of available and used areas, marketing of the products and the 

major problems of the agricultural systems in the area. To describe the actual situation, 

case study of organic product unit is presented in the study and its certification 

cost and evaluation of marketing possibilities are discussed. The results showed that 

organic agriculture is underdeveloped in the Ucayali region and is lacking of market. 

The institution if organic agriculture is not yet efficient. The informal constraints of 

the institution are inhomogeneous by the diversity of its inhabitants. The formal constraints 

are not yet involved. The social capital, which is the precondition of economic 

and social development, as well for organic agriculture development, was on different 

level, mostly low. Disparity of informal constraints, absence of formal constraints and 

low social capital, first of all the low trust among the inhabitants of the communities, 

are the main reason of organic agriculture stagnation in the region. Implementation of 

certification process as the formal constraint of the institution, which allows entering 

in the biomarkets, establishment of the product unit to reduce the transaction costs and 

cooperation with the farmers with high social capital could allow the development of 

organic agriculture in the region. 

Keywords: Formal and informal constraints, institutional economy, institutional xerox, 

pucallpa, social capital 

Contact Address: Jana Lojkova, Czech University of Agriculture, Institue of Tropics and Subtropics, 

Czech Republic, e-mail: 

ID 379 145


Conserving the Indigenous-organic Rice Farming System of 

Coastal Kerala, India: Does the Market Provide Superior 

Solutions Than the Standards? 

VIJESH VIJAYA KRISHNA 1 , S. SURYAPRAKASH 2 , SETHULEKSHMI KUMBALATH 

RAJAGOPAL 3 

1 University of Hohenheim, International Agricultural Trade and Food Security, Germany 

2 University of Agricultural Sciences, Department of Agricultural Economics, India 

3 Kerala University, Thiruvananthapuram, University Library Research Centre, India 

This paper examines the conservation alternatives for the indigenous rice-prawn farming 

system, known as Pokkali farming of Coastal Kerala (India), under the Command 

and Control (C&C) and market creation frameworks. The system exists as a 

world-acclaimed farming model complementing the natural system, utilising indigenous 

knowledge and ensuring efficient utilisation of local resources. The proximity to 

sea and subsequent periodical seawater inundation ensure the uniqueness of the rice 

varieties cultivated, and contribute to the high degree of specialisation in the cultural 

practices followed in the region. The less remunerative rice cultivation compliments 

a highly profitable prawn culture, making it a unique agro-ecological continuum. The 

farming system is traditionally organic, as farmers desist from use of agrochemicals 

in rice farming which hampers the productivity of the succeeding crop, i.e., the prawn 

culture. But lately, the unsustainable monoculture of prawn has caught up, which 

though provides higher net return over rice-prawn culture in short run, is found to be 

unsustainable both from ecological and social contexts. The cost-benefit and production 

function analyses were taken up to substantiate that short-run economic incentives 

form the primary reason for this shift. Despite the state government’s direct intervention 

that has made the monoculture illegal, more area is being gradually brought 

under fallow-prawn and prawn-prawn systems, owing largely to the multitude of constraints 

associated with the labour-intensive rice cultivation. The market mechanism, 

involving a price premium for the branded Pokkali rice, can be seen as an efficient 

alternative for the in situ conservation of the indigenous varieties and cultivation practices. 

Though Pokkali rice is distinguishable in taste, quality and utility from the 

conventional rice, a positive willingness to pay is ensured for this indigenous-organic 

rice, especially in case of the urban consumers. Considering the merit good status of 

organic products, state intervention, especially in the form of subsidies was found to 

be highly popular among the farmer and consumer groups. 

Keywords: Command and control, indigenous farming system, Kerala, Market creation, 

Organic rice, Pokkali lands 



146 ID 82


The Effect of Conventional and Organic Farming on Cabbage 

(Brassica oleracea Var. capitata L.) Yield - a Case Study in 

Lembang, Indonesia 

YEYEP DINTAN 1 , RONALD F. KÜHNE 2 , ANAS DINURROHMAN SUSILA 3 , ELKE 

PAWELZIK 4 

1Ministery of Agriculture, Extension and Training Centre Lembang, Indonesia 

2Georg-August-Universität Göttingen, Institute for Plant and Animal Production in the 


3Agricultural University Bogor, Horticulture, Indonesia 

4Georg-August-University Göttingen, Institute of Agricultural Chemistry, Germany 

Cabbage is the 3rd most important vegetable grown in Indonesia. A major production area 

is located in the highland near Lembang,West Java. High doses of mineral N with frequent 

chemical pesticide application is the most common farming practice, with high potential risk 

to environment and consumer safety. Farm yard manure and biopesticides are major elements 

of organic farming which has been suggested as viable alternative. 

A field experiment (randomised complete block) was conducted in 2005 on the station of the 

Indonesian Vegetables Research Institute, Lembang to test if chicken manure (20 t/ha) and a 

biopesticide (Bacillus thuriengensis) can maintain yield of an early and late cabbage variety 

(Green Coronet and Gloria Ocena) on an Andosol as compared to standard practices (100 and 

200 kg N/ha with weekly applications of Chlorfenafir) and an additional zero control. 

Cabbage growth and yield was the lowest in the zero control across both culticars (23 t/ha net 

weight). Moreover, 40 % of the heads were damaged by cabbage moth (Plutella xilostella) and 

head caterpillar (Crocydolomia binotalis) to such an extent that it would not be accpetable for 

consumers. Biopesticide combined with manure application had a net yield of 40 t/ha, with an 

average damage level of 17 %. In general, synthetic pesticide application combined with 200 kg 

N/ha had the highest net yield (57 t/ha) and lowest damage (5 %) across both cultivars. However, 

explorative analysis for pesticide residue showed contamination levels (0.9 — 11 mg/kg) high 

above the critical limit (0 mg/kg). Furthermore, high nitrate-N contents in the heads (118 mg/kg) 

as well as very high residual nitrate-N in the topsoil (425 mg/kg) clearly show that further research 

and monitoring is necessary to improve consumer safety and reduce pollution risk to 

the groundwater. Manure application alone could not reduce nitrate levels of plants and soil to 

an acceptable level. Further research in crop rotation and use of catch crops are suggested to 

improve N efficiency of manure applications. 

Keywords: consumer safety, conventional farming, organic farming, pollution 

Contact Address: Ronald F. Kühne, Georg-August-Universität Göttingen, Institute for Plant and Animal 

Production in the Tropics, Grisebachstraße 6, 37077 Göttingen, Germany, e-mail: rkuehne@gwdg. 

de 

ID 551 147


Performance of Bushy Forage Legumes in Dynamic Smallholder 

Pasture Systems of Northeastern Amazon, Brazil 

STEFAN HOHNWALD 1 , ELIANA M. ACIOLI DE ABREU 2 , JONAS BASTOS DA 

VEIGA 3 , JOSÉ ADÉRITO RODRIGUES FILHO 3 , CLEMENS WOLLNY 4 

1Georg-August-University Göttingen, Institute of Animal Breeding and Husbandry in the 


2Federal Rural University of the Amazon, Animal Production, Brazil 

3Brazilian Agricultural Research Corporation (EMBRAPA), Brazil 

4International Livestock Research Institute, (ILRI), Ethiopia 

In northeastern Pará, smallholders often use cattle just as a financial instrument on their diversified 

farms: e.g. they buy cattle if cash flows in from crop harvest, and sell them if cash is 

needed for investment. Thus, animal production systems become dynamic, and inappropriate 

stocking rates lead to early pasture degradation. Further on, many promising woody tropical 

forage legume species show development problems if directly grazed on small-scale grasslegume 

pastures because management, for instance, has also to be adapted to grass availability. 

Thus, the legumes’ need for sufficient recuperation time is often neglected. However, experience 

shows hat even overgrazed bushes easily recuperate if enough recuperation time is given. 

Thus, we hypothesise that in the flexible smallholder pasture system, with both long-term overgrazing 

and recuperation time, the performance of woody forage legumes is higher than on an 

intensively used pasture. An on-farm experiment is conducted in the municipality of Igarapé- 

Açu (47º36´W/1º08´S) to test this hypothesis: two dynamic pasture systems with extraordinary 

high stocking rates (2 and 3 AU/ha, respectively) and long restoration times (38 and 83 days, 

respectively) are tested against an intensively used grass-legume pasture. Stocking rates are increased 

until 3 AU/ha after crop harvest and dropped to 0.5 AU/ha during smallholders´ investment 

times. The investment and harvesting times of the following crops will be considered: maize, 

cassava, beans, passion fruit, pepper, and fruit trees. Each treatment are planted with alternating 

lines of totally 300 Cratylia argentea and Flemingia macrophylla bushes, each, on 0.5 ha 

Brachiaria brizantha pastures. The experiment is replicated three times. Three crossbred steers, 

with an average liveweight of 185 kg graze the plots according to different smallholding scenarios. 

Legume establishment and development are evaluated by measuring bush heights, relative 

growing performance, diameters, biomass, consumption ratio, and nodule production during 

the three years of experimental time. The study will show if bushy forage legumes contribute 

more on hardly managed smallholder or on well-managed pastures. 

Keywords: Animal production, Cratylia, Flemingia, N-fixation, pasture management, smallholding 

Contact Address: Stefan Hohnwald, Georg-August-University Göttingen, Institute of Animal Breeding 

and Husbandry in the Tropics and Subtropics, Kellnerweg 6, 37077 Göttingen, Germany, e-mail: 

shohnwa@gwdg.de 

148 ID 143


Study of Secondary Vegetation Treated as Bokashi on the 

Intercropped Maize and Soybean of Smallholding Farmers Land 

in Southeast Sulawesi, Indonesia 

LA KARIMUNA 

University of Haluoleo Kendari, Department of Agronomy, Indonesia 

Slash-and-burn agricultural system is being practised by more than 80 % of the population in 

Southeast Sulawesi province. This system could no longer be maintained due to low yield of 

crops observed. Moreover, the number of soil limiting factors, such as low soil macronutrient 

contents, low cation exchange capacities, shallow top soil layers, and high soil acidities, were 

profoundly discovered. Therefore, the farmers are still under poverty condition. High input 

technology using inorganic fertiliser to increase agriculture production has terribly experienced 

since negative impacts on the environment widely occurred. One of the abundant natural resources 

is the presence of secondary vegetation in land use agricultural system after fallowing. 

The main objective of this paper was to overview the potential biomass derived from secondary 

vegetation as an organic fertiliser on the growth and yield of various crops. The species composition, 

biomass and nutrient stocks of secondary vegetation as well as the potential use as 

source of the organic fertiliser had been reported. The species diversity of vegetation in the 

early stages of development was principally controlled by Chromolaena odorata L., Imperata 

cylindrica L. Beauv and Colopogonium mucunoides L, and the nutrient stocks preserved, i.e. 

N, P, and K contents, were determined. The application of EM4 might help organic biomass to 

be rapidly decomposed in order to release nutrient into the soil. The response of intercropped 

maize and soybean treated as bokashi originated from combined secondary vegetation such as 

C. odorata, I. cylindrica and C. mucunoides, consisting of three levels: 0 t ha −1 , 5 t ha −1 and 

10 t ha −1 , was also described. The results revealed that the treatment of 10 t ha −1 was better 

than other treatments, with the total maize yield of 4.5 t ha −1 . Similar results on the application 

of C. odorata itself showed high yield of intercropped maize and soybean amounted to 

5.2 t ha −1 . The application of organic fertiliser, derived from C. odorata, C. mucunoides, and 

Albizzia lebbeck, might increase doubled or even tripled the yield of maize, peanut, soybean, 

and mungbean compared to control, indicating the promising results of the potential organic 

fertiliser use, replacing slash-and-burn to slash-and-mulch system for the smallholding farmers 

to improve their income and welfare. 

Keywords: Chromolaena odorata, intercropping4, organic fertiliser, slash and burn 

Contact Address: La Karimuna, University of Haluoleo Kendari, Department of Agronomy, Komp. Perum 

Dosen UNHALU Block M/7 Anduonohu, 93232 Kendari, Indonesia, e-mail: lkarimuna@hotmail. 

com 

ID 602 149


Farmers’ Perception and Use of Planted Calliandra calothyrsus 

Fallow in Southern Cameroon 

STEFAN HAUSER 1 , MUSTAPHA NJAYOU 1 , LOUIS ZAPFACK 2 

1 International Institute of Tropical Agriculture, Humid Forest Eco-regional Center, Cameroon 

2 University of Yaounde, Plant Biology, 

The leguminous tree Calliandra calothyrsus was introduced to farmers in southern 

Cameroon for soil fertility and crop yield improvement in shortened fallow phases in 

1989. On-farm trials by ICRAF and IITA used the alley cropping concept, and various 

spatial patterns and tree densities. Initially 2 year old fallow was cropped after slash 

and burn land preparation. This study reports farmers’ perception of the effects of 

C. calothyrsus fallow in four areas and verifies if farmers used the system without 

researchers’ involvement. 

After the initial 2 years fallow, 95 % of farmers cropped, after the second and third 

fallow 41 % and 13 % cropped, respectively. Labor requirements to clear and prepare 

land after C. calothyrsus was perceived as being larger than after natural fallow by 

86 % of farmers after the first fallow; and by 24 % and 13 % after the second and 

third fallow. Perceived and recorded labour requirements were closely correlated. 

Across all crops, 61 % of farmers perceived yields being higher after C. calothyrsus 

than natural fallow; 17 % did not report any difference. Perceived yield advantages 

after C. calothyrsus increased from 57 % after the first fallow to 77 % after 

the third fallow. Yield perception varied with location: in the south 45 % of farmers 

believed C. calothyrsus produced higher crop yields, compared with 70 % north 

of Yaounde. Maize was believed by 78 % of farmers to produce higher yields in 

C. calothyrsus. Groundnut was believed to not respond positively to C. calothyrsus 

with 45 % of farmers reporting higher yields in C. calothyrsus. Cassava yields were 

perceived by 62 % of farmers as higher in C. calothyrsus. For sites where yields were 

measured by researchers, farmers either incorrectly perceived a yield advantage or 

overestimated the yield advantage of C. calothyrsus by a wide margin. The decline 

in the use of C. calothyrsus fallow indicates, that increased labour requirements for 

clearing and land preparation outweighed perceived and real yield advantages. Consequently, 

C. calothyrsus is virtually only used in the high population density area north 

of Yaounde. The species can neither be recommended for large areas nor for all crops. 

Keywords: Adoption, alley cropping, labour requirements , tree based fallows 



150 ID 321


Maize Yield Response to Mucuna pruriens and Pueraria 

phaseoloides Cover Crop Fallow and Biomass Burning Versus 

Mulching in Farmer Managed On-farm Experiments 

STEFAN HAUSER, BERTRAM BENGONO, OBATE BITOMO 


Maize was relay cropped with the cover crops Mucuna pruriens or Pueraria phaseoloides 

or in natural fallow for one to seven consecutive years in three sites: Ngoungoumou, 

an area of low land use intensity (LUI), 100km from the next major market, 

at Evendissi and Andok, a medium LUI area, 15km from the next mayor market. 

Biomass was burned or retained as mulch in all fallow types. Fallow type did not 

affect maize density. Biomass burning increased maize density in the low LUI site 

but had no effect in the other sites. Maize cob production was neither affected by 

fallow type nor by biomass management. Across seven crop years, marketable cob 

production in the low LUI site was 38.5 % higher in Mucuna than in natural fallow 

(p < 0.06). In the medium LUI sites, Mucuna and Pueraria fallow increased marketable 

cob production by 70 — 132 % (p < 0.001). Maize grain yield was closely 

related to the marketable cob production in all sites. In the low LUI site, cumulative 

maize grain yield over seven years was 30 % higher in Mucuna than in natural fallow 

(p < 0.07). This difference was in one year significant (p < 0.05). In the other sites 

maize grain yield was 65 % higher in Mucuna fallow (p < 0.001) and 69–94 % higher 

in Pueraria fallow (p < 0.001). Burning biomass had a cumulative grain yield advantage 

of 33 % at the low LUI site (p < 0.053), with significant (p < 0.02) differences 

in two out of seven years. Biomass burning had no effect on maize grain yield in the 

medium LUI sites. Fallow type and biomass management did not interact. Despite the 

lack of frequent significant advantages of the cover crop fallows in the low LUI site, 

the system can be recommended because it increases food diversity. In the medium 

LUI sites farmers were immediately convinced of the benefits of the system and have 

since moved on to grow high value vegetable crops. 

Keywords: Cameroon, maize, Mucuna pruriens, Pueraria phaseoloides, Ultisol 



ID 65 151


Nitrogen Fixation and Balance in Burned Versus Mulched 

Mucuna pruriens Var. utilis and Pueraria phaseoloides Relay 

Maize Cropping Systems 

STEFAN HAUSER 


The cover crops Mucuna pruriens var. utilis and Pueraria phaseoloides are gaining 

importance in annual sole maize cropping and horticultural systems in the humid forest 

zone of West and Central Africa. Their contribution to the N balance of a sole 

maize relay cropping system was estimated. Over four consecutive years (1998 to 

2001), amounts of N in 8–9 months old aboveground M. pruriens, P. phaseoloides 

and natural fallow biomass and litter were determined. In all years fallow biomass 

was either burned or retained as mulch and a sole maize crop was grown. Maize aboveground 

N-accumulation and N-export with grain was determined. The amount of N2fixed 

was estimated with the N difference method. In 1998, 1999, and 2000, nitrogen 

content in biomass of M. pruriens and P. phaseoloides fallow was higher than in natural 

fallow. In 2000 and 2001 fallow biomass in previously burned plots contained less 

N than when biomass had been retained. There was no fallow-type × biomass management 

interaction. Maize N uptake was higher in the biomass burned treatments in 

1998, yet thereafter higher in the biomass retained treatments. Fallow type had only 

in 1999 an effect with highest maize N uptake in the P. phaseoloides system, followed 

by the M. pruriens system and the natural regrowth. The estimated amounts of N2fixed 

were higher in the P. phaseoloides system; biomass management had no effect. 

Nitrogen export with maize grain was highest in the P. phaseoloides system, followed 

by the M. pruriens system; biomass management had no effect across years. Nitrogen 

uptake into the aboveground maize biomass and N export with grains was balanced 

by the amount of N in fallow biomass and litter in all systems where biomass was 

retained. The amount of N2-fixed did not balance the amount taken up by the maize. 

In the M. pruriens system the N exported with grains was not balanced by N2-fixation. 

Only the P. phaseoloides system had a positive balance of N export in grain versus 

the amount of N2-fixed. 

Keywords: Cameroon, cover crop, maize, Mucuna pruriens, N balance, Pueraria 

phaseoloides, symbiotic N fixation, Ultisol 



152 ID 64


The Use of Azolla sp. to Increase N Fertiliser Use Efficiency in 

Wetland Rice in Dano, Southwestern Burkina Faso 

BENEDICTA FOSU 1 , PAUL L. G. VLEK 2 , GÜNTHER MANSKE 2 , KONRAD 

VIELHAUER 2 

1University of Bonn, (ARTS) Agricultural Science and Resource Management in the Tropics 


2University of Bonn, Center for Development Research (ZEF), Germany 

The use efficiency of N fertiliser in lowland rice is often low because of its loss from 

the soil through biochemical processes. Nitrogen recovery by rice can be as low as 

10 % and rarely exceeds 60 %. Ammonia (NH3 ) volatilisation, usually associated 

with high soil pH and NH + 4 

concentration, is reportedly an important mechanism for 

N losses. Azolla sp., a water fern fixing atmospheric nitrogen in symbiosis with Anabaena 

azollae was used as a physical barrier to prevent the volatilisation of NH 3 . The 

influence of Azolla on the floodwater chemistry and its relation to NH 3 volatilisation, 

its impact on N uptake by rice and its impact on rice yields was evaluated. 

In a field experiment at the Dreyer Research station farmer’s practice (basal application 

of NPK 16 16 16 and one top-dress of urea) “U1” was used as opposed to a split 

urea application “U2”. Secondly, the influence of Azolla (with and without) was assessed 

in plots at 0, 40, 80 and 120 kg N ha 1 with respect to floodwater chemistry, 

NH 3 volatilisation, N uptake, crop growth and grain yield. 

Results revealed that full Azolla cover on the floodwater surface by the time of urea 

application prevented rapid increase in floodwater pH in the range of 0.52 to 0.68 

with the maximum pH value below 8.0. The absence of Azolla resulted in a rise 

of floodwater pH with a maximum of 8.97 and 8.63 for U2 and U1, respectively. 

Floodwater temperature was lowered by 1.9–2.0oC by Azolla. 

In the presence of Azolla total dry matter yield increased by 7.8 % in U2 and 9.8 % in 

U1 and grain yields increased by 3.9, 6.4 and 3.9 % in U2 and 1.8, 7.0 and 5.6 % in 

U1 for N rates at 40, 80 and 120 kg ha 1, respectively. The apparent N-recovery of 

rice was increased between 13.3 and 16.8 % for grain and 39.1 and 42.6 % for straw. 

Plant height, tiller count and panicle count, in plots with Azolla were higher. 

It was concluded that the application of Azolla could be an efficient fertiliser alternative 

or supplement in flooded rice cropping system in Dano. 

Keywords: Ammonia volatilisation, Anabaena azollae, azolla pinnata, nitrogen fixation 

Contact Address: Konrad Vielhauer, University of Bonn, Center for Development Research (ZEF), 

Walter-Flex-Straße 3, 53113 Bonn, Germany, e-mail: kvielhau@uni-bonn.de 

ID 568 153


Interactions Between Coffee (Coffea arabica L.) and Intercropped 

Aromatic Plants under Field Conditions in the Sierra Norte of 

Puebla, Mexico 

ALEX GUSTAVO PACHECO BUSTOS 1 , HEINER GOLDBACH 1 , JÜRGEN POHLAN 2 

1 University of Bonn, Institute of Crop Science and Resource Conservation, Germany 

2 El Colegio de la Frontera Sur (ECOSUR), Manejo Integrado de Plagas, Mexico 

In the context of studying allelopathic interactions between coffee (Coffea arabica 

L.) mint (Mentha piperita L.), Genovese basil (Ocimum basilicum L.), oregano (Origanum 

vulgare L.) and sage (Salvia officinalis), we tested the effect of the intercropped 

species on coffee growth and age of the coffee plantation on the intercropped herbs 

under two ecological conditions (900 and 500 masl) in Puebla, Mexico from February 

to December 2005. Caffeine released from decaying seeds and leaves accumulates in 

a soluble form in the soil. The compound is known to inhibit mitosis, limits the access 

of nutrients and water to surrounding plants which is one of principal problems in intercropped 

coffee plantations. The results demonstrate that sage, oregano, spearmint 

and basil are suitable for growing intercropped with different coffee cropping systems. 

In this study, we observed growth stimulation on coffee plants due to volatilisation of 

essential oils of intercropped species. These volatile essential oils can affect the leaf 

surface of coffee, diminishing the effect of oxidative stress caused by management 

and pruning. All tested herb species stimulated plagiotropic growth of coffee plants, 

increasing the length of the branches and the appearance of new leaves. There are 

indications that these herbs cope with high caffeine levels, stimulate coffee growth 

by a still unknown mechanism. Intercropping certain aromatic herbs with coffee may 

provide an extra income for coffee growers outside the harvest period. Intercropping 

basil, sage, spearmint and oregano in coffee plantations seems to be a promising approach 

for higher income and increasing yield production in coffee farms. Further 

research of the biochemical nature of these interactions is promising and needed. 

Keywords: Allelopathy, caffeine toxicity, coffee (Coffea arabica), intercropping, 

Mentha piperita, Ocimum basilicum, Origanum vulgare, Salvia officinalis 

Contact Address: Alex Gustavo Pacheco Bustos, University of Bonn, Institute of Crop Science and 

Resource Conservation, Endenicher alle 37, 53121 Bonn, Germany, e-mail: alexpacheco30@hotmail. 

com 

154 ID 268


Impact of Traditional Farming Practices on Nutrient Balances in 

Smallholder Farming Systems of Nakuru District, Kenya 

RICHARD ONWONGA 1 , BERNHARD FREYER 2 

1 Ministry of Agriculture, Nairobi, Kenya, Agroforestry and Soil Fertility, Kenya 

2 University of Natural Resources and Applied Life Sciences (BOKU), Institute of Organic 


The smallholder farmers have not been influenced by the “Green Revolution” as they 

have continued with the practice of non-use of chemical fertilisers, pesticides and 

genetically modified organisms. These practices are referred to as “Traditional Farming”. 

Animal compost and recycling of crop residues are the principal soil fertility 

management strategies in the smallholder farming systems (SHFS). However, few 

studies have investigated the impact of these practices on soil fertility in the SHFS.The 

impact of traditional farming practices (TFP) on soil fertility was assessed through 

quantification of nutrient (N, P and K) balances using farm-NUTMON. The study 

was conducted in Gilgil, Lare and Molo divisions of Nakuru district, from April 2003 

to March 2004. A total of 36 farmers, twelve per study site representative of the socioeconomic 

classes participated in the study. The full farm N, P and K balances were 

positive for Gilgil (55, 40, 25 kg ha −1 yr −1 ), negative for N and P in Molo (-86, -4, 4) 

and N in Lare (-60, 5, 4). The nutrient N, P and K balances in cropping activities were 

negative with large variations across land use types and study sites. Highly negative 

N, P and K balances in cropping activities were realised in Lare (-117, -45, -44), followed 

by Molo (-66, 2, -21) and Gilgil (-42, −1 , 0). The pasture and fodder (all sites) 

and cereals (Lare) land use types had the highest nutrient depletion rates. Crop production 

is thus unsustainable, under the TFP, with respect to nutrient balances. In view of 

the central role that manure plays in enhancing soil fertility of the smallholder farms, 

its proper management and handling is considered critical. Efficient use of organic resources 

and introduction of other organic farming based technologies (e.g. legumes in 

short rain season) will tremendously enhance the soil fertility status and subsequently 

lead to increased crop production. Composting, biomass transfer, improved fallows, 

agroforestry, and cover crops are such technologies feasible for adoption in the smallholder 

farms. Further research on the socio-economic impact of these technologies is 

recommended. 

Keywords: Kenya, Nutrient balance, Organic Farming, Traditional farming 




ID 624 155


156 ID 624

Soil Biology and Fertility 

BEATE FORMOWITZ, ANDREAS BUERKERT, RAINER GEORG 

JOERGENSEN: 

Impact of Legume Versus Cereal Roots on Chemical and 

Biological Properties of West African Soils 159 

MINGRELIA ESPAÑA, BELKYS RODRIGUEZ, ELLEN KAN- 

DELER, GARY BENDING, GEORG CADISCH: 

Assessing the Effect of Management Practices on Soil Microbial 

Communities in a Vertisol Using Enzyme and 15 N- 

DNA Stable Isotopic Probing Techniques 160 

ZAFRIN AKTER, TSEHEYE TESFAMARIAM, MARKUS WEIN- 

MANN, GÜNTER NEUMANN, VOLKER RÖMHELD: 

Mn-oxidation and Reduction Capacity of Rhizosphere Microorganisms 

as Related to the Severity of Soil Borne Plant 

Diseases 161 

ANNE PREGER, MATTHIAS RILLIG, ANNIKA JOHNS, CHRIS 

DU PREEZ, INGO LOBE, WULF AMELUNG: 

Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Residues Decline with Prolonged 

Arable Cropping: a Chronosequence Study on Glomalinrelated 

Soil Protein in Sandy Soils of the South African 

Highveld 162 

MOJEED LIASU, ABOSEDE OGUNDARE: 

Effects of Mycorrhizal Inoculation and Inorganic Nutrients 

on the Efficiency of Biomass Transfer to Okra by Tithonia 

diversifolia Hedges. 163 

TARIQ AZIZ, SHAMSA KANWAL, RAHMATULLAH, MUHAM- 

MAD AAMER MAQSOOD: 

Changes in Root Morphology and Organic Acids Extrusion 

Related to Differential P Acquisition by Brassica Cultivars164 

JOSEPH PATRICK GWEYI-ONYANGO, VOLKER RÖMHELD, 

GÜNTER NEUMANN: 

Rock-phosphate Alleviates Detrimental Effects of Aluminium 

in Tomato (Lycopersicon esculentum L.) Production on Acid 

Soils 165 

157


158 

AGUSTIN MERCADO, MEINE VAN NOORDWIJK, THOMAS 

HILGER, GEORG CADISCH: 

Nitrogen Complementarity in Timber Based Hedgerow Intercropping 

Systems on an Acid Upland Soil in the Philippines 166 

HUMBERTO GONZÁLEZ RODRÍGUEZ, ISRAEL CANTÚ SILVA, 

MARCO V. GÓMEZ MEZA, ROQUE G. RAMÍREZ LOZANO: 

Litterfall Deposition in Subtropical Woodlands, Northeastern 

Mexico 167 

ZHIXIN DENG, MARC J. J. JANSSENS: 

Litter Fall Production in West-African Forests and Plantations 168 

FRANK MUSSGNUG, MATHIAS BECKER, TRAN THUC SON, 

ROLAND BURESH, PAUL L. G. VLEK: 

Comparing Static and Dynamic Soil Tests for the Assessment 

of Nutrient Availability in a Low-fertile Lowland Rice 

Soil in the Red River Delta, Vietnam 169 

VOLKER LAABS, ANNE WEHRHAN, ALICIO PINTO, ELIANA 

DORES, WOLFGANG ZECH, WULF AMELUNG: 

Pesticide Fate in the Tropical Environment of Brazil: Implications 

for Sustainable Agriculture and Resource Conservation 

in the Cerrado Area 170 

CLEMENS SCHEER, REINER WASSMANN, JOHN LAMERS: 

Greenhouse Gas Emissions from Irrigated Agriculture in 

Khorezm Region (Uzbekistan) 171 

BONGANI NCUBE, KEN GILLER, MARK T. VAN WIJK: 

Productivity and residual benefits of grain legumes to sorghum 

under semi arid conditions in south-western Zimbabwe 172


Impact of Legume Versus Cereal Roots on Chemical and 

Biological Properties of West African Soils 

BEATE FORMOWITZ 1 , ANDREAS BUERKERT 1 , RAINER GEORG JOERGENSEN 2 

1University of Kassel, Organic Crop Production and Agroecosystems Research in the 


2University of Kassel, Department of Soil Biology and Plant Nutrition, Germany 

To investigate whether root residues of legumes and their specific decomposition are 

responsible for the yield increases on the subsequent cereal in a rotation, 2 g kg −1 

soil of dry roots of cowpea (Vigna unguiculata Walp.; CP), groundnut (Arachis hypogaea 

L.; G), pearl millet (Pennisetum glaucum L.; PM), maize (Zea mays L.; M) 

and sorghum (Sorghum bicolor Moench; SO) were applied to pre-incubated monoculture 

soils from Fada (Burkina Faso, F) and Koukombo (Togo, K). Other treatments 

comprised mineral phosphorus (P) application in an amount equal to the applied P 

through legume root residues and a control (Con). At 5 sampling times over a period 

of 189 days (0, 7, 21, 63 and 189 days after incubation) microbial biomass C (Cmic) 

and N (Nmic) were determined and the soil respiration was measured initially every 

two days and later weekly. During the first 3 weeks Cmic concentrations were almost 

41 % higher in FG and 38 % higher in FCP compared to FCon. In the Koukombo soils 

43 % higher Cmic concentrations were measured in KPM than in KP. Significantly 

higher Nmic concentrations were determined in FG (11.6 µg g −1 ) and FSO (10.5 µg 

g −1 ) compared to FCon (6.2 µg g −1 ). Nmic concentrations measured in KPM (7.0 

µg g −1 ) were significantly higher compared to KP (4.7 µg g −1 ) and KCon (3.7 µg 

g −1 ) and soil respiration was up to 11-fold higher in FG than in FCon, whereas it was 

up to 16 fold higher in KP compared to KCon. Even if no legume-specific effects on 

microorganisms were observed in Koukombo soils, the system-specific effects in the 

Fada soils indicate that influences of legume root residues and their decomposition 

on the microbial population might contribute to the yield-enhancing effect of legume 

rotations. A subsequent experiment with analyses of adenylates, microbial P, ergosterol, 

pH, and POM finalized by September 2006 will allow more insights into soil 

biological and biochemical factors. 

Keywords: Legume-rotation, microbial biomass , root residues, sahel 

Contact Address: Beate Formowitz, University of Kassel, Organic Crop Production and Agroecosystems 

Research in the Tropics and Subtropics, Steinstr. 19, Witzenhausen, Germany, e-mail: 

formowitz@uni-kassel.de 

ID 542 159


Assessing the Effect of Management Practices on Soil Microbial 

Communities in a Vertisol Using Enzyme and 15 N-DNA Stable 

Isotopic Probing Techniques 

MINGRELIA ESPAÑA 1,2 , BELKYS RODRIGUEZ 2 , ELLEN KANDELER 3 , GARY 

BENDING 4 , GEORG CADISCH 1 



2National Institute of Agricultural Research (INIA), Ceniap Maracay, Venezuela, 

3University of Hohenheim, Institute of Soil Science, Germany 

4 University of Warwick, Warwick HRI, United Kingdom 

Land use and agricultural management have been shown to cause significant effects 

on microbial activity, population structure, and on their functions. Recently the approaches 

for studying soil microbiota have moved from biochemical and microbiological 

determinations such as enzyme activities, microbial biomass and respiration 

coefficients towards the investigation of microbial community structures. The effect 

of different management practices (tillage, residues and cropping systems), on soil 

enzymes activities and organic carbon content were evaluated in a long-term experiment 

in a Vertisol conduced at Aragua state in Venezuela since 1997. The most 

important results from 6 years of evaluation of the biochemical and biological properties 

showed a contrasting behaviour between tillage systems. Conventional tillage 

(CT), presented not only higher enzymes activities, but also reduced organic carbon 

accumulation in the topsoil (0–5 cm). The dehydrogenase activity was higher in CT. 

The soil enzymatic activities related to N mineralisation such as urease and protease 

were concentrated in 0–10 cm and were lower in no tillage (NT). The amount of N 

released from crop residues was higher in CT, indicating a faster decomposition rate 

of residues due to higher soil biological activity. There was also a lower soil biological 

activity in the maize-soybean crop rotation system compared to monocrop maize. 

To identify the active microbial community involved in crop residues decomposition 

of different quality an incubation experiment is being conduced with 15 N-enriched 

residues using the stable isotopic probing (SIP) technique. We have shown the potential 

of the 15 N-DNA SIP using both pure culture and soil samples when DNA was 

labelled with > 40 atom% 15 N enrichment. 

Keywords: 15 N-SIP, enzymes activity, management practices, microbial community 

Contact Address: Mingrelia España, University of Hohenheim, Institute of Plant Production and Agroecology 

in the Tropics and Subtropics, Garbenstr. 13, 70593 Stuttgart, Germany, e-mail: mespana@ 


160 ID 322


Mn-oxidation and Reduction Capacity of Rhizosphere 

Microorganisms as Related to the Severity of Soil Borne Plant 

Diseases 

ZAFRIN AKTER, TSEHEYE TESFAMARIAM, MARKUS WEINMANN, GÜNTER 

NEUMANN, VOLKER RÖMHELD 

University of Hohenheim, Institute of Plant Nutrition, Germany 

Crop production is frequently limited by various soil-borne pathogens such as, Streptomyces, 

Gaeumannomyces graminis, Pythium, Sclerotium and Rhizoctonia. Micronutrients 

play a vital role in determining disease resistance in plants and among them 

Manganese (Mn) is of outstanding importance. The plant availability of Mn in soils 

depends on pH, redox potential and microbial activity in the rhizosphere. The activity 

of Mn-reducing microorganisms in the rhizosphere increases Mn solubility, while Mn 

can be immobilised by microbial Mn oxidisers Many pathogenic microbes exhibit a 

Mn-oxidising potential (e.g. G. graminis) and plant growth promoting microbes are 

often Mn-reducers (e.g. Pseudomonas spp.). However, little information is available 

on interactions of microbial activity with the Mn status of plants as related with suppression 

of soil borne pathogens. A better understanding of rhizosphere processes 

determining plant availability of Mn, may offer perspectives for alternative disease 

management strategies reducing environmental risks of pesticide applications. In this 

study, we tested two complementary microbiological methods to investigate the soil 

Mn-oxidising and Mn-reducing capacity of rhizosphere microorganisms in relation to 

the severity of soil-borne plant diseases .“Take-all” disease in wheat caused by the 

soil-borne fungus G. graminis var. tritici.was used as a model system. In a culturedependent 

method, microbial populations were assessed, using an agar plating technique 

with selective media. Bacterial colonies of Mn reducers were identified by their 

clear halo in agar with finely suspended Mn (IV)-oxide, whereas Mn oxidisers were 

surrounded by dark deposits of oxidised Mn on agar containing reduced Mn 2+ . In 

the second method, substrate-induced Mn reduction potential in soil was determined 

by incubating soil samples with MnO2 and yeast extract solution for one week under 

continuous shaking ( aeration). Reduced Mn was determined by Diethylenetriaminepentaacetic 

acid (DTPA) extractaction. The total number of Mn-reducers (log 6.01 

to 7.42 cfu per g soil) in different soils was significantly correlated with DTPA extractable 

Mn (80 to 140 ppm), shoot Mn concentration (18 to 50 ppm) and the severity 

of take-all disease in wheat. 

Keywords: Disease resistance, Mn-oxidisers and Mn-reducers, rhizosphere, Soilborne 

pathogens 

Contact Address: Zafrin Akter, University of Hohenheim, Institute of Plant Nutrition, 

Fruwirth Strasse 20, 70593 Stuttgart, Germany, e-mail: zafrin@uni-hohenheim.de 

ID 600 161


Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Residues Decline with Prolonged Arable 

Cropping: a Chronosequence Study on Glomalin-related Soil 

Protein in Sandy Soils of the South African Highveld 

ANNE PREGER 1 , MATTHIAS RILLIG 2 , ANNIKA JOHNS 2 , CHRIS DU PREEZ 3 , 

INGO LOBE 4 , WULF AMELUNG 1 

1University of Bonn, Institute of Crop Science and Resource Conservation-Soil Science, 

Germany 

2The University of Montana, Division of Biological Sciences, USA 

3University of the Free State, Department of Soil, Crop and Climate Sciences, South 

Africa 

4UFZ Centre for Environmental Research, Department River Ecology, Germany 

In coarse textured soils with little biomass input and low capacity to conserve soil organic matter, 

residues of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) may play an important role for agroecosystem 

functioning due to their ability to promote soil aggregation. Our aim was to assess the fate 

of AMF residues with prolonged arable cropping in subtropical savannah soils following the hypothesis 

that glomalin-related soil protein (GRSP), especially the MAb32B11-immunoreactive 

fraction, constitutes material of largely AMF origin. In three agroecosystems on the South 

African Highveld, surface soils with a history of up to 98 years of cropping after conversion 

from grassland were sampled. We measured four GRSP fractions: Bradford-reactive soil protein 

(BRSP) and immunoreactive soil protein (IRSP), and easily extractable fractions of both. 

The primary grassland sites exhibited generally low contents of soil organic matter (SOM) and 

low GRSP contents. Prolonged arable land use of former grassland soils reduced the content of 

GRSP further. The decline could be described well with a single exponential function with rate 

constants ranging from 0.04 to 0.41 y −1 . Depending on the GRSP fraction, steady-state conditions 

were reached after 11 to 92 years on a level of 39 % to 69 % of the initial contents. We 

conclude that even though GRSP fractions had the same hypothesised origin, they comprised 

pools with different stability or replacement rate, with easily extractable IRSP being lost most 

rapidly. Despite potentially negative management effects on AMF, GRSP contents were not 

reduced below a certain equilibrium content and coincided with low, but stable crop yields. Ongoing 

research on secondary grassland sites with a cropping history shows that an at least partly 

restoration of SOM takes place. The next step will be to assess the extent of GRSP restoration 

and its effects on SOM and soil structure stabilisation in the secondary grassland soils on the 

South African Highveld. 

Keywords: Arable land use, arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi, biomarker, glomalin, soil organic 

matter 

Contact Address: Anne Preger, University of Bonn, Institute of Crop Science and Resource 

Conservation-Soil Science, Nussallee 13, 53115 Bonn, Germany, e-mail: ac.preger@uni-bonn.de 

162 ID 263


Effects of Mycorrhizal Inoculation and Inorganic Nutrients on the 

Efficiency of Biomass Transfer to Okra by Tithonia diversifolia 

Hedges. 

MOJEED LIASU, ABOSEDE OGUNDARE 

Ladoke Akintola University of Technology, Department of Pure and Applied Biology, 

Nigeria 

The effect of introduced arbuscular mycorrhizal (A.M) fungus i.e. Glomus mosesae 

on phytoextraction of soil nutrients by Tithonia diversifolia hedges and efficiency of 

biomass transfer to potted okra plant were investigated. The first experiment (Field) 

was a two way factorial design and the two factors were fertiliser application and mycorrhizal 

inoculation combined to give four treatments i.e. fertilised and inoculated (F+ 

M +), unfertilised and inoculated, (F- M+) fertilised and uninoculated (F+ M -) and 

unfertilised and uninoculated (F-M -). Harvesting was done in two consecutive trials 

each lasting for three months. Harvested leaf biomass from each treatment was applied 

as mulch to potted okra plants in a second experiment with un-supplemented soil 

as control and fertiliser supplemented soil as reference. The highest leaf biomass and 

nutrient yield were at first from Tithonia hedges grown in unfertilised inoculated and 

later from fertilised inoculated soils while the lowest yield in both cases were from unfertilised 

uninoculated soils. Soils supplemented with mulch from Tithonia supported 

the growth of okra plants better than those supplemented with fertiliser only while 

those grown in unsupplemented soils had the poorest growth and fruit yield. Fruits 

produced by okra grown in mulch supplemented soils were generally more acceptable 

to the taste panel than those grown in unsupplemented soils. The least accepted were 

those grown in fertiliser supplemented soils. Thus, nutrient extraction from fertilised 

and unfertilised soils by Tithonia hedges was enhanced by arbuscular mycorrhizal inoculation. 

Soil supplementation with mulch from Tithonia was more efficient than 

directly applied fertiliser in promoting growth and development of potted okra and 

table quality of the resulting fruit. 

Keywords: Biomass transfer, Glomus mosseae, inorganic fertiliser, Okra, soil supplementation, 

Contact Address: Mojeed Liasu, Ladoke Akintola University of Technology, Department of Pure and 

Applied Biology, 23401 Ogbomoso, Nigeria, e-mail: laideliasu@yahoo.com 

ID 66 163


Changes in Root Morphology and Organic Acids Extrusion 

Related to Differential P Acquisition by Brassica Cultivars 

TARIQ AZIZ, SHAMSA KANWAL, RAHMATULLAH, MUHAMMAD AAMER 

MAQSOOD 

Faisalabad University of Agriculture, Institute of Soil & Environmental Sciences, Pakistan 

Wide spread P deficiency around the globe and its low use efficiency in agriculture 

impels to exploit genetic variation among crop species/varieties to increase P use efficiency. 

Sixteen Brassica cultivars were studied for evaluating genetic differences for 

P acquisition from sparingly soluble phosphate rock (PR) and soluble mono ammonium 

phosphate (MAP). Plant biomass production and P content were significantly 

(p < 0.01) different among cultivars. Four cultivars (Rainbow, Peela Raya, CON −1 

and Dunkeld) were studied to identify traits responsible for such contrasting differences. 

These cultivars were grown low P soil for 40 d under control conditions. Cultivars 

supplied with two types of P sources differed significantly for biomass production, 

total root length, specific root length, P and Ca contents both in shoots and roots, 

and ash alkalinity. Cultivars, Rainbow and Dunkeld, accumulated higher biomass as 

well as P contents with either P source. To study differences in organic acids extrusion 

under P deficiency, these cultivars were grown in nutrient solution and after 40 d 

organic acids were collected. Cultivars varied significantly for total as well as different 

organic acids when grown with either deficient or adequate P levels. Longer roots 

and higher quantities of exuded citric acid, malic acid and butaric acid were measured 

for Rainbow and Dunkeld. Shoot dry matter production had a significant positive 

correlation with root dry matter (r=0.85, n=32, p < 0.01), root length (r=0.59, n=32, 

p < 0.05) and root P uptake (r=0.95, n=32, p < 0.01). Efficient P immobilisation in 

PR by the two cultivars was associated with their longer roots and more exudation of 

citric acid. 

Keywords: citric acid exudation, phosphorus 

Contact Address: Tariq Aziz, , e-mail: tasuaf@gmail.com 

164 ID 110


Rock-phosphate Alleviates Detrimental Effects of Aluminium in 

Tomato (Lycopersicon esculentum L.) Production on Acid Soils 

JOSEPH PATRICK GWEYI-ONYANGO, VOLKER RÖMHELD, GÜNTER NEUMANN 

University of Hohenheim, Institute of Plant Nutrition, Germany 

Application of rock-phosphates is considered as an economically cheaper alternative for chemically 

processed P fertilisers on tropical soils, promoting rock phosphate solubilisation but limited 

information exists on secondary effects of rock-phosphates. In this study we provide evidence 

for beneficial effects of rock-phosphate (RP) on growth and yield of tomato (Lycopersicon 

esculentum L. var Moneymaker), grown on a field site at Maseno, Kenya (Oxisol, pHH20 

4.2; PCAL 90 mg/kg soil). Treatments comprised NO3 , NH + 4 and 2:1 NH4NO3 (100mg N kg−1 

soil with NH + 4 and NH4NO3N being supplied together with nitrification inhibitor) in combination 

of with Ca(H2PO4)2; (80mg P Kg−1 soil), rock P (Hyperphos: 200mg P kg−1 soil) and 

no P. Rock P treatment was either band or deep- placed. The result revealed a clear increase in 

yield at 46 days after transplanting (DAT) with RP treatments, particularly after rock-phosphate 

placement close to the roots. This could not be attributed to differences in P-, Ca-, or Mg-nutritional 

status. However, Al accumulation in shoots was significantly reduced by rock-phosphate 

treatments between 29 and 46 DAT as compared to either soluble P treatments or when P was 

omitted, suggesting an alleviatory effect on Al toxicity. This was confirmed by experiments 

under controlled conditions with tomato seedlings grown in rhizoboxes with quartz sand irrigated 

with modified Hogland nutrient solution. Rock P was either homogenously distributed 

over whole rhizobox, or localised to the upper or lower half of rhizobox. The inhibition of 

root growth by Al (3.2mM AlCl3 after pH adjustment to 4.5) was ameliorated by RP, which 

was accompanied by increase in the pH at rhizoplane of the Al-sensitive apical root zones, 

demonstrating prevention of Al-induced inhibition of root elongation by local or homogenous 

application of rock-phosphates. 

Keywords: Acid soils, Al toxicity alleviation, key words. Rock phosphate, Lycopersicon esculentum 

L, rhizoplane pH and RP placement. 

Contact Address: Günter Neumann, University of Hohenheim, Plant Nutrition, Germany, e-mail: gd. 

neumann@t-online.de 

ID 428 165


Nitrogen Complementarity in Timber Based Hedgerow 

Intercropping Systems on an Acid Upland Soil in the Philippines 

AGUSTIN MERCADO 1 , MEINE VAN NOORDWIJK 2 , THOMAS HILGER 1 , GEORG 

CADISCH 1 

1University of Hohenheim, Plant Production and Agroecology in the Tropics and Subtropics, 

Germany 

2World Agroforestry Centre (ICRAF), Southeast Asian Research Program, Indonesia 

Complementarity in agroforestry systems is when trees take up water and nutrients, 

which would not be available to the associated annual food crops. Hedgerow systems 

of Acacia mangium (N2-fixing) and Gmelina arborea (non-N2-fixing) were studied 

to determine from which soil profiles these trees take up N in relation to the maize 

crop, and to assess their N contribution. ( 15 NH 4 )2SO 4 (40 atom %) was injected at 

20 and 100 cm depth using a ceramic porous cup in order to assess 15 N uptake by 

trees and crop. This study was conducted at Claveria, Philippines (8°°30 N 124°°53’ 

E) on a fine mixed isohyperthermic, Ultic Haplorthox soil with 3500 mm rainfall 

per year distributed throughout the year. Nitrogen recycled in tree systems wase substantially 

higher than in the conventional maize monocrop system through pruning 

of lateral branches and N uptake from safety-net zone. A. mangium system provided 

two times more N recycling through prunings compared to the equally fast growing 

G. arborea. A. mangium derived 42 % of its N from atmospheric N2 fixation and 52 % 

from safety-net zone (>100 cm depth). This counterbalanced the mineral N uptake 

by A. mangium from the upper soil depths, leading to higher maize yields and a positive 

system N balance. A. mangium had more fine roots even at lower depths, which 

provided good opportunities for safety-net and nutrient pumping functions compared 

to G. arborea. The maize in A. mangium system benefited with 28 % of its N uptake 

through transfer of fixed N2, e.g., through the application of lateral branches prunings 

and root turnover, as indicated by the 15 N natural abundance method. A. mangium 

was less competitive with maize than G. arborea, and was thus more appropriate as a 

hedgerow species. Timber hedgerow system is a better farming option than the conventional 

maize system due to the N uptake by trees from lower soil depths regardless 

of species being used. 

Keywords: Hedgerow intercropping, N complementarity, timber trees 

Contact Address: Georg Cadisch, University of Hohenheim, Plant Production and Agroecology in the 

Tropics and Subtropics, Garbenstraße 13, 70593 Stuttgart, Germany, e-mail: cadisch@uni-hohenheim. 

de 

166 ID 187


Litterfall Deposition in Subtropical Woodlands, Northeastern 

Mexico 

HUMBERTO GONZÁLEZ RODRÍGUEZ 1 , ISRAEL CANTÚ SILVA 1 , MARCO V. 

GÓMEZ MEZA 2 , ROQUE G. RAMÍREZ LOZANO 3 

1 University of Nuevo Leon, Faculty of Forest Sciences, Mexico 

2 University of Nuevo León, Faculty of Economics, Mexico 

3 University of Nuevo Leon, Faculty of Biology, Mexico 

Litterfall is one of the basic and fundamental processes of nutrient cycling in forest 

ecosystems. This process represents one of the major pathways for the return of organic 

matter and nutrients from the vegetation to the soil (Montagnini and Jordan 

2002, Reyes-Reyes et al. 2003) and therefore contributes to soil formation, structure 

and fertility. In northeastern Mexico, the main type of vegetation, known as 

the Tamaulipan thornscrub, is composed of diverse, dense and spiny shrubs and trees 

which are distinguished by a wide range of taxonomic groups exhibiting differences 

in growth, leaf life spans, growth dynamics, and phenological development. In this 

regard, as an approach to understand the seasonal pattern of litterfall dynamics in the 

subtropical thornscrub woodlands, northeastern Mexico, litter deposition and their 

respective components were quantified at three sites (Ramones, China and Linares 

counties, in Nuevo Leon state of Mexico). Results have showed that litter deposition 

for a year study (November 2004 to October 2005) at the three sites ranged from 

4,619 to 7,171 kgha -1 . In terms of literfall constituents, leaves represented the main 

component with a deposition that ranged from 3,100 to 4,715 kgha -1 . Twigs deposition 

ranged from 545 to 1,546 kgha -1 , and reproductive structures (flowers, fruits 

and seeds) deposition varied from 382 to 545 kgha -1 . The contribution of other litterfall 

components such as bark and insect faces ranged between 270 and 820 kg4ha -1 . 

Spatial and temporal litterfall deposition rates among sites are related to phenological 

events, community plant structure and environmental variables such as extreme 

temperatures. 

Keywords: Litter components, Litter production, litterfall, Subtropical woodlands, 

Thornscrub 

Contact Address: Humberto González Rodríguez, University of Nuevo Leon, Faculty of Forest Sciences, 

Apartado Postal 41, 67700 Linares, Mexico, e-mail: humberto@fcf.uanl.mx 

ID 484 167


Litter Fall Production in West-African Forests and Plantations 

ZHIXIN DENG, MARC J. J. JANSSENS 

University of Bonn, Institute of Crop Science and Resource Conservation, Germany 

Tree litter fall is the major above-ground input of carbon (and nutrients) into the forest 

and plantation floor. Such litter layer protects the underlying humus and mineral 

soil against drought and represents a considerable buffer improving the ecosystem 

capacity. However, on regional scale, litter fall data are scarcely available on sufficient 

stands, which is to be collected and analyzed, when estimating carbon budgets and 

accounting green house gas needed to address international agreements. In many 

local studies, the annual litter fall flux has been found to correlate with site, stand, 

climate characteristics. This opens the possibility of making models to predict tree 

litter fall on reginal scale both in forests and plantations where it is not measured 

directly. 

To develop such models, litter fall was collected and analysed in locally representative 

secondary forests and different tree plantations (mango, orange, oil palm, cashew, 

teak) in Benin, West Africa, with a monthly interval and from North to South Benin 

( 10°N2°E�6°N2°E) covering the unimodal and bimodal Guinean Coast climate 

regime. Then data from a number of West African projects, in which litter fall and 

other stand parameters had been determined, were compiled. This combined data 

set was used to identify the most significant litter fall factors among readily available 

variables of site (longitude, latitude, elevation, soil type, carbon, nitrogen, phosphor, 

potassium, cation exchange capacity and PH value...), stand (diameter at breast 

height, basal area, tree height, number of stems, crown diameter, specific leaf area 

index, eco-volume...) and climate (annual and monthly precipitation amount, number 

of rainy days, temperature...). Accordingly, prediction models of litter fall were 

developed. 

Keywords: Benin, carbon budget, forest, litter fall production, modelling, plantation, 

West Africa 

Contact Address: Zhixin Deng, University of Bonn, Institute of Crop Science and Resource Conservation, 

Auf dem Hügel 6, D-53112 Bonn, Germany, e-mail: deng@uni-bonn.de 

168 ID 407


Comparing Static and Dynamic Soil Tests for the Assessment of 

Nutrient Availability in a Low-fertile Lowland Rice Soil in the Red 

River Delta, Vietnam 

FRANK MUSSGNUG 1 , MATHIAS BECKER 1 , TRAN THUC SON 2 , ROLAND 

BURESH 3 , PAUL L. G. VLEK 4 

1University of Bonn, Institue of Crop Science and Resuorce Conservation-Plant Nutrition, 

Germany 

2National Institute for Soils and Fertilizers, Viet Nam 

3International Rice Research Institute (IRRI), Crop, Soils and Water Sciences Division, 

Philippines 

4University of Bonn, Center for Development Research (ZEF), Germany 

Little is known about suitable soil analyses methods for intensively cropped lowland 

rice soils of low fertility status. Therefore, we evaluated the phytoavailability soil 

test (PST) in comparison to standard laboratory methods (resin bags, chemical extractions) 

in different treatments of a long-term cropping system experiment on a 

degraded Acrisol. The trial evaluated three cropping systems (rice—soybean—rice, 

soybean—rice—maize, and rice—rice—maize) and seven combinations of N, P and 

K and FYM. Using the PST, the resin absorption quantities (RAQ) determined after 

14 days of in situ installation of resin capsules indicated nutrient supply capacities for 

rice that were high for P, in the medium range for K and Fe, but low to very low for 

Ca, Mg, and Mn. Mixed ion-exchange resin bags extracted 12—26 %, 17—22 %, and 

9—18 % of the exchangeable K, Ca and Mg soil contents, respectively, indicating a 

relatively high initial nutrient release from the soil. Resin capsules predicted the total 

P and K uptake of lowland rice better than standard soil tests. The correlation was similar 

for log(RAQ P) (r=0.98) and Olsen-P (r=0.95), while log(RAQ K) predicted 83 % 

(p < 0.01) and exchangeable K only 62 % (p < 0.05) of the variation in total plant K. 

It may be concluded that ion exchange resins provide better estimates of soil nutrient 

availability than routine soil tests and may be used to guide a site- and system-specific 

nutrient management approach. In addition, the PST allows the determination of all 

essential nutrient elements without the need of multiple soil extractions and does not 

require collecting, drying, grinding and sieving of soil samples. 

Keywords: Acrisol, ammonium-acetate extraction, phytoavailability soil test, plant 

uptake, resin bags 

Contact Address: Frank Mussgnug, University of Bonn, Institue of Crop Science and Resuorce 

Conservation-Plant Nutrition, Karlrobert-Kreiten-Straße 13, 53115 Bonn, Germany, e-mail: f. 

mussgnug@uni-bonn.de 

ID 365 169


Pesticide Fate in the Tropical Environment of Brazil: Implications 

for Sustainable Agriculture and Resource Conservation in the 

Cerrado Area 

VOLKER LAABS 1 , ANNE WEHRHAN 2 , ALICIO PINTO 3 , ELIANA DORES 3 , 

WOLFGANG ZECH 4 , WULF AMELUNG 1 

1University of Bonn, Institute of Crop Science and Resource Conservation - Soil Science, 

Germany 

2Research Center Jülich, Institute of the Agrosphere (ICG IV), Germany 

3Federal University of Mato Grosso, Department of Chemistry, Brazil 

4University of Bayreuth, Institute of Soil Science, Germany 

Within the last 30 years a pesticide-intensive agriculture has been established in the highland 

regions of Mato Grosso state (Brazil). In a pilot project we investigated the on-site fate of pesticides 

under tropical field conditions in the Cerrado highlands, the dispersion of pesticides in the 

northeastern Pantanal catchment, and the persistence of pesticides in the aquatic environment 

of the Pantanal outskirts. 

Field experiments with two representative tropical soils showed that the dissipation of 10 selected 

insecticides and herbicides in topsoil was rapid (DT50: 0.6 to 20 d). Nevertheless, polar 

pesticides progressively leached in sandy soils, whereas in clayey soils leaching below the 

plow layer was mainly caused by preferential flow. The experimental evidence suggests that 

for alachlor, atrazine, metolachlor, simazine, and trifluralin a non-point pollution of ground 

water resources in tropical Brazil cannot be ruled out. During a monitoring study, the offsite 

distribution of 29 pesticides and 3 metabolites was assessed in the north-eastern Pantanal 

basin. At least one pesticide was detected in 68 % of analysed surface water samples, 62 % of 

sediment samples, and 87 % of rainwater samples. Surface and rain water samples were most 

frequently contaminated by alachlor, endosulfan compounds, metolachlor, monocrotofos, profenofos, 

and trifluralin. While in surface water samples only low concentrations of


Greenhouse Gas Emissions from Irrigated Agriculture in 

Khorezm Region (Uzbekistan) 

CLEMENS SCHEER 1 , REINER WASSMANN 2 , JOHN LAMERS 3 

1Center for Development Research, Bonn, Department of Ecology and Natural Resource 

Management, Germany 

2Karlsruhe Research Center, Institute for Meteorology and Climate Research, Germany 

3Center for Development Research (ZEF), University of Bonn, Germany 

Agricultural systems in the Khorezm region (Uzbekistan, Central Asia) are characterised 

by monocultures under irrigation in combination with intensive fertilisation. 

Irrigation and fertilisation of arid systems not only stimulates plant growth, but also 

a variety of microbial processes enhancing the turn-over of soil carbon and nitrogen 

(N) leading to elevated emissions of greenhouse gases (GHG) such as N2O and CH 4 . 

In 2005, GHG emissions were measured from experimental fields at 6 research sites, 

encompassing 5 different land use types. Emission rates from irrigated agricultural 

fields were high and represent a significant source of GHG due to N2O emissions from 

cotton and winter wheat as well as CH 4 emissions from flooded rice fields. Even 

an unfertilised plantation of poplar trees showed surprisingly high N2O fluxes. In 

contrast, N2O emissions were very low in spots with native vegetation, i.e. the ‘Baday 

Tugai’ riparian forest along the Amu Darya River. 

The observed temporal patterns of N2O emissions were similar for cotton and winter 

wheat fields. Periods of very high N2O emissions were triggered by fertiliser application 

in combination with irrigation. These “emission peaks” accounted for 80 % of 

the total N2O emissions over one cotton season. Cumulative N2O emissions during 

the cropping season varied between 2.5 kg N2O-Nha −1 - 5.6 kg N2O-Nha −1 , which 

corresponds to 3.8 % of the total fertiliser applied. 

The common management practice of concomitant fertilisation/irrigation in combination 

with the high soil temperatures during the season leads to an elevated soil microbial 

activity. Subsequently, the farming systems in Khorezm experience high losses 

of N via denitrification. This implies low N use efficiency of the fertiliser applied and 

large emissions of N2O-gas. Modifications in the amount and timing and modalities 

of the fertiliser application in combination with improved irrigation techniques may 

improve the agronomic performance and reduce the environmental impacts. 

Keywords: Emission, fertilisation, greenhouse gas, irrigation, N2O 

Contact Address: Clemens Scheer, Center for Development Research, Bonn, Department of Ecology 

and Natural Resource Management, Kreuzeckbahnstr. 19, D-82467 Garmisch-partenkirchen, Germany, 

e-mail: clemensscheer@hotmail.com 

ID 348 171


Productivity and residual benefits of grain legumes to sorghum 

under semi arid conditions in south-western Zimbabwe 

BONGANI NCUBE, KEN GILLER, MARK T. VAN WIJK 

Wageningen University, Plant Production Systems, Department of Plant Sciences, Netherlands 

The study was conducted for three seasons (2002/03, 2003/04 and 2004/05) in semiarid 

southwestern Zimbabwe. The objective was to assess yield and residual benefits 

to sorghum (Sorghum bicolor (L.) Moench) grown after cowpea (Vigna unguiculata), 

Bambara groundnut (Vigna subterranea), groundnut (Arachis hypogaea) and 

pigeonpea (Cajanus cajan). Two varieties of each legume and a sorghum control were 

planted in a randomised complete block design, replicated three times. Soil moisture 

was measured weekly using a neutron probe (Wallingford type). Sorghum was 

planted after each legume phase, and moisture was also measured. Rainfall variability 

affected the grain yield of both the legumes and rotation sorghum. In 2002/03 (314 

mm) cowpeas produced the largest grain yield (1.1 and 1.6 t ha −1 , p < 0.05) at 12.5 % 

moisture content. In a wetter 2003/04 season (650 mm) groundnut varieties had the 

highest grain yield (0.9 and 1.2 t ha −1 , p < 0.05). In 2004/05 (301 mm) most legume 

yields were less than 0.5 t ha −1 except pigeonpea ICPL 87091, which produced 0.7 t 

ha −1 (p < 0.05). Nitrogen fixed was 15–50 % (2002/03), 16–61 % (2003/04) and 29– 

83 % (2004/05). Water use by the legumes was related to the legume type and growth 

duration. Sorghum grain yield in 2003/04 reached 2.2 t ha −1 (p < 0.05), almost three 

times the national average. In 2004/05, the sorghum yields were also high (1 — 1.8 

t ha −1 ), but not significant (p = 0.057) when the previous legumes were compared. 

The incorporation of residues had no significant effect on sorghum yield in both seasons. 

The results showed that there is potential for increasing grain legume cultivation 

in semi-arid environments. Modelling these results will provide more information on 

the longer term productivity and sustainability of the rotations. 

Keywords: Bambara groundnut, cowpea, granitic sands, groundnut, pigeonpea, soil 

water 

Contact Address: Bongani Ncube, Wageningen University, Plant Production Systems, Department of 

Plant Sciences, Haarweg 333, 6709 RZ Wageningen, Netherlands, e-mail: bongani.ncube@wur.nl 

172 ID 483

Biotic Stresses: Fungi and Bacteria 

MATTHIAS DONNER, JOSEPH ATEHNKENG, RANAJIT BANDY- 

OPADHYAY, SEBASTIAN KIEWNICK, RICHARD A. SIKORA, 

PETER COTTY: 

Characterisation of Aflatoxin-producing and Non-producing 

Strains of Aspergillus Section Flavi in Nigeria 175 

HOLGER HINDORF, ANJA RITSCHEL: 

Coffee Leaf Rust (Hemileia vastatrix) in the Wild Coffee 

Population (Coffea arabica) of Ethiopia 176 

JAMES W. MUTHOMI, HOLGER HINDORF, J.K. NDUNG’U, 

J.K. GATHUMBI: 

Occurrence of Fusarium Head Blight—causing Pathogens 

and Mycotoxins in Kenyan Wheat 177 

SUSANNE VON BARGEN, CARMEN BÜTTNER: 

Molecular Analysis of Citrus tristeza Virus (CTV) and Citrus-viroids 

from the Sudan 178 

ACHIANGIA PATRICK NJUKENG, STEPHAN WINTER: 

Diversity of Cassava Mosaic Begomoviruses and the Complex 

Structure of the Cassava Mosaic Disease in Cameroon 179 

STEPHAN WINTER, M. KOERBLER, MERETE ALBRECHTSEN: 

Geminivirus Induced Gene Silencing for Functional Characterisation 

of Plant Genes and to Induce Virus Resistance 

by Rna Interference in Cassava 180 

ALEXANDER R. MENDOZA LUNA, RICHARD A. SIKORA, 

SEBASTIAN KIEWNICK: 

Effect of the Application of Antagonistic Fungi with Different 

Modes of Action for the Control of Radopholus Similis 

in Banana 181 

ALEXANDRA ZUM FELDE, LUIS POCASANGRE, RICHARD 

A. SIKORA: 

Can Successive Generations of Banana Plants Be Protected 

from Nematode Attack by A Single Inoculation with Beneficial 

Endophytic Fungi? 182 

173


174 

ALEXANDER R. MENDOZA LUNA, RICHARD A. SIKORA, 

SEBASTIAN KIEWNICK: 


Modes of Action for the Control of Radopholus Similis 

in Banana 183 


Plantain (Musa spp. AAB) Bunch Yield and Root Health 

Response to Combinations of Physical, Thermal and Chemical 

Sucker Sanitation Measures 184


Characterisation of Aflatoxin-producing and Non-producing 

Strains of Aspergillus Section Flavi in Nigeria 

MATTHIAS DONNER 1 , JOSEPH ATEHNKENG 2 , RANAJIT BANDYOPADHYAY 2 , 

SEBASTIAN KIEWNICK 1 , RICHARD A. SIKORA 1 , PETER COTTY 3 

1University of Bonn, Institute of Crop Science and Resource Conservation-Plant Pathology, 

Germany 

2International Institute of Tropical Agriculture (IITA), Plant Health Management Program, 

Nigeria 

3USDA - ARS / University of Arizona, Department of Plant Sciences, USA 

Aflatoxins are toxic metabolites produced by fungi of the genus Aspergillus. Aspergillus 

flavus is the most common toxin producing species, but different strains 

produce different amounts of aflatoxin and some produce none. In West Africa these 

fungi cause aflatoxin contamination in maize both during crop development and in 

storage. In a joint project with the International Institute for Tropical Agriculture, the 

potential of atoxigenic Aspergillus flavus strains as biological control agents was assessed 

for the reduction of aflatoxin contamination of maize in Nigeria. Over 1000 

fungal isolates belonging to Aspergillus Section Flavi were collected by dilution plating 

on modified Rose Bengal agar. The isolates originated from 56 soil samples that 

were collected from Nigerian maize fields located in five agroecological zones. These 

isolates were screened for their aflatoxin producing ability in liquid fermentation. Of 

over 600 isolates screened, 48 % produced detectable quantities of aflatoxin. The aflatoxin 

B1 production of A. flavus isolates varied from 33 ppb up to 19,000 ppb. From 

each soil sample the producing habit of sclerotia and spores was investigated for high 

aflatoxin producers and atoxigenic isolates. Isolates that produced high levels of toxin 

in liquid fermentation produced proportionally less spores and had a higher sclerotia 

mass on Czapeks agar (31C, 25days), while isolates with high spore mass and less 

sclerotia mass produced less aflatoxin. The current research involves molecular genetic 

characterisation of the isolates. Portions of the aflatoxin biosynthetic pathway 

genes, aflR, as well as genes from the Aspergillus flavus genome (taka amylase and 

pecA) were amplified by PCR and sequenced. Phylogenetic trees were constructed 

from the sequence data to assess relationships among the toxigenic and atoxigenic 

isolates. The study demonstrates the differences between aflatoxin producing and 

atoxigenic Aspergillus Section Flavi isolates. 

Keywords: Aflatoxin, Aspergillus flavus, atoxigenic, toxigenic 

Contact Address: Matthias Donner, University of Bonn, Institute of Crop Science and Resource 

Conservation-Plant Pathology, Nussallee 9, 53115 Bonn, Germany, e-mail: matthiasdonner@web.de 

ID 545 175


Coffee Leaf Rust (Hemileia vastatrix) in the Wild Coffee 

Population (Coffea arabica) of Ethiopia 

HOLGER HINDORF 1 , ANJA RITSCHEL 2 

1 University of Bonn, Institute for Plant Diseases, Germany 

2 University of Tübingen, Special Botany/Mycology, Germany 

Coffee (Coffea arabica) as a qualified beverage with a great demand in many countries 

and coffee leaf rust (Hemileia vastatrix) as a quarantine pathogen causing high 

losses have attracted world-wide high attention. Ethiopia as the source of origin for 

perhaps both, the host and pathogen, plays an important role in science either for 

breeders or pathologists. Coffee leaf rust occurs in Ethiopia in nearly all areas and 

under all growing systems like wild, forest, garden and plantation coffee not following 

a certain altitude preference as in Kenya. Disease assessments could be carried 

out during 2003 and 2006 in the four different rainforest areas Harenna (Bale Mountains), 

Bonga, Berhane-Kontir and Yayu of Ethiopia. The disease occurred in all forest 

sites with varying intensities during the season. After collecting uredinospores in the 

field morphological characteristics were studied and all samples could be identified as 

H. vastatrix (Ritschel 2005). Finally race specification could be carried out with the 

necessary differentials in the Center of Coffee Leaf Rust (CIFC) at Oeiras/Portugal. 

The proof of races II (v5), III (v1,5) and X (v1,4,5) was stated by Varzea (pers. comm.) 

for wild coffee in the rainforests at Bonga and Berhane-Kontir. 

But so far the disease did not influence the production seriously. Several reasons 

could be responsible for that situation: First of all, since fungicides were never used, 

the hyperparasite Verticillium hemileiae occurs quite frequently and is able to reduce 

the inoculum under a certain threshold. Secondly the race spectrum might exist of less 

aggressive races. Race specification will be investigated during a second phase of the 

project CoCE supported by BMBF and co-ordinated by the Center for Development 

Research (ZEF), Bonn University. 

For further genetical, morphological and phytopathological investigations on the host 

and pathogen the last ecosystems of rainforest/wild coffee in Ethiopia urgently need to 

be protected. With international help there exists a strong effort to develop an agrosystem 

which preserves the natural rainforest including the wild coffee, but allows people 

to share the benefits of products in that habitat like coffee, spices and fruits. 

Keywords: Coffee, Ethiopia, Hemileia vastatrix, leaf rust 

Contact Address: Holger Hindorf, University of Bonn, Institute for Plant Diseases, Nussallee 9, 

53115 Bonn, Germany, e-mail: h.hindorf@uni-bonn.de 

176 ID 597


Occurrence of Fusarium Head Blight—causing Pathogens and 

Mycotoxins in Kenyan Wheat 

JAMES W. MUTHOMI 1 , HOLGER HINDORF 2 , J.K. NDUNG’U 3 , J.K. GATHUMBI 3 

1University of Nairobi, Department of Plant Science and Crop Protection, Kenya 

2University of Bonn, Institute for Plant Diseases, Germany 

3University of Nairobi, College of Agriculture and Veterinary Sciences, Kenya 

Fusarium head blight is a devastating disease of wheat and other small-grain cereals, 

causing grain yield reduction, reduced quality and mycotoxin contamination. This 

study was conducted in two districts of Kenya to determine the incidence of Fusarium 

species and mycotoxin contamination in freshly harvested wheat. A survey was 

carried out during the 2004 growing season in different agro-climatic zones to determine 

the presence of Fusarium head blight and weather conditions during the critical 

stages of wheat growth. Fungal contamination was determined by isolation on agar 

media while mycotoxin analysis was by direct competitive ELISA. Fusarium head 

blight was reported by 81 % of the farmers and wet conditions were prevalent during 

anthesis. The wheat grain samples were highly contaminated with fungi, especially 

Epicoccum, Alternaria and Fusarium species. The mean Fusarium infection rate varied 

from 13 to 18 %, with the major head blight — causing species being F. poae, 

F. graminearum, F. equiseti, and F. avenaceum. Fusarium poae, F. chlamydosporum 

and F. oxysporum were the most prevalent in all the agro-ecological zones while 

F. graminearum was isolated in 6 out of the 9 agro-ecological zones. Most grain samples 

were contaminated with mycotoxins deoxynivalenol, T −2 toxin, zearalenone and 

aflatoxin B1. The most prevalent mycotoxin was T −2 (86 % of the samples) followed 

by deoxynivalenol (59 %), zearalenone (53 %), and aflatoxin B1 (52 %). The maximum 

mycotoxin concentration was 302 mg/kg, 95.8 mg/kg, 65.7 mg/kg and 6.9 mg/kg for 

deoxynivalenol, zearalenone, T −2 toxin and aflatoxin B1, respectively. The incidence 

and levels of the mycotoxins varied depending on the agro-ecological zone. Samples 

with high proportion of total Fusarium infection contained higher deoxynivalenol and 

T −2 toxin levels. Co-occurrence of deoxynivalenol, T −2 toxin and zearalenone was 

fund in up to 35 % of the samples. The results suggested the presence of Fusarium 

head blight in Kenya and associated mycotoxin contamination, though at low but significant 

levels. The presence of the different mycotoxins, though at low levels, could 

pose chronic adverse health effects to human and livestock fed on the contaminated 

wheat products. 

Keywords: head blight, mycotoxins, wheat 

Contact Address: James W. Muthomi, University of Nairobi, Department of Plant Science and Crop 

Protection, P. O. Box 30197, Nairobi, Kenya, Nairobi, Kenya, e-mail: james_wanjohi@yahoo.com 

ID 608 177


Molecular Analysis of Citrus tristeza Virus (CTV) and Citrusviroids 

from the Sudan 

SUSANNE VON BARGEN, CARMEN BÜTTNER 

Humboldt-University Berlin, Institute for Horticultural Sciences, Germany 

In the Sudan the mostly grown Citrus species are grapefruit (Citrus paradisi, Macfad.) 

cv. ‘Foster pink´ and ´march seedless´, small fruited acid lime (C. aurantifolia, 

Swingle) cv. ´Baladi´ (local), sweet orange (C. sinensis, Osbeck), mandarins (C. reticulata, 

Blanco) and lemons (C. limon, L.). These are grafted predominantly onto sour 

orange (C. aurantium L.) and also on ‘Baladi‘ lime, which are suitable rootstocks 

for the arid climate and the high salinity of irrigated soils in the north-eastern region 

of the Sudan, where Citriculture is most abundant. Certain viroids as well as 

Citrus tristeza virus (CTV) are long suspected to be responsible for many different 

graft transmissible diseases of Citrus in the arid and semi arid region of the Sudan 

creating shortage in food supply and also economic problems. Especially Citrus spp. 

grown on sour orange rootstocks yields a highly susceptible combination for CTV. 

Infected trees are often showing stem pitting and quick decline or die back. On the 

other hand, Citrus exocortis viroid (CEVd) and Hop stunt viroid (HSTVd) infections 

of Citrus species are often symptomless on sour orange rootstocks. Exceptions are 

HSTVd infected mandarins, who are chlorotic, stunted and exhibit typical pegs and 

gumming of the bark. Serological and molecular techniques were applied and CTV 

was detected in oranges, mandarins, grapefruit and lime in nine orchards located in 

Northern State, River Nile and Khartoum. Consecutively it was shown by RT-PCR 

with viroid specific primers, that some mandarins and orange trees were additionally 

infected with Citrus isolates of HSVd and CEVd. Full length viroid genomes were 

cloned and sequences determined. Secondary structure analysis of different viroidisolates 

revealed a characteristic genome-organisation of CEVd belonging to Genus 

Pospiviroid and established Sudanese HSTVd isolates as members of the Genus Hostuviroid. 

Furthermore the presence of Cachexia inducing isolates of HSTVd in the 

Sudan was proved by molecular methods. 

Keywords: Cachexia, citrus exocortis viroid, Hop stunt viroid, sequencing, viroid 

secondary structure 

Contact Address: Susanne von Bargen, Humboldt-University Berlin, Institute for Horticultural Sciences, 

Lentzeallee 55/57, 14195 Berlin, Germany, e-mail: susanne.von.bargen@agrar.hu-berlin.de 

178 ID 284


Diversity of Cassava Mosaic Begomoviruses and the Complex 

Structure of the Cassava Mosaic Disease in Cameroon 

ACHIANGIA PATRICK NJUKENG 1 , STEPHAN WINTER 2 

1 University of Dschang, Faculty of Science, Cameroon 

2 Deutsche Sammlung von Mikroorganismen und Zellkulturen (DSMZ), Plant Virus Divi- 

sion, Germany 

The impact of the Cassava mosaic disease CMD on the reduction of cassava production 

in Africa in the last two decades has been very dramatic. From the late 1980’s 

a highly severe CMD epidemic emerging in north-central Uganda expanded to affect 

cassava plantings in much of the Lake Victoria Basin and westwards to the Democratic 

Republic of the Congo, DRC. The severe decline of the cassava in CMD is 

implicated with the occurrence of a new recombinant virus, the East African cassava 

mosaic virus Uganda variant (EACMV-UG), occurring in single and in mixed infection 

with other begomoviruses in cassava. The greatest challenge posed by the CMD 

pandemic is its westward expansion to Central and West Africa raising concerns that 

it may eventually spread to West Africa with Nigeria being the world’s largest cassava 

producing country. Consequently, the virus situation in cassava growing areas in the 

countries neighbouring DRC requires frequent monitoring, to provide an up-to-date 

overview on the existing virus populations and on newly invading or evolving virus 

types. In Cameroon, two begomoviruses, the East African cassava mosaic Cameroon 

virus, EACMCV, and the African cassava mosaic virus, ACMV, have been reported so 

far. Single and mixed infections exist with EACMCV infections leading to serious disease 

phenotypes. Consequently, a virus survey to resolve the complex cassava virus 

situation Cameroon was conducted. In January/February 2006, cassava with severe 

CMD symptoms was collected from 21 locations across five agroecological zones of 

Cameroon. Cassava cuttings were rooted and maintained at the DSMZ virus department 

to observe developing virus symptoms. Virus infections were studied using a 

novel PCR approach, the rolling circle amplification, RCA, using the bacteriophage 

phI 29 DNA polymerase. RCA amplified viral DNA was characterised by restriction 

fragment length polymorphism, RAPD, resolving a number of polymorphic patterns 

indicating for further virus variants and/or mixed virus infections. Exact identification 

of the begomoviruses by sequence analysis further provided information on diversity 

and distribution of the begomoviruses in Cameroon. Details of the begomovirus populations 

infecting Cassava in Cameroon will be presented. 

Keywords: ACMV, Cameroon, cassava mosaic disease, EACMCV, mixed begomovirus 

infection, virus population structure 



bba.de 

ID 147 179


Geminivirus Induced Gene Silencing for Functional 

Characterisation of Plant Genes and to Induce Virus Resistance 

by Rna Interference in Cassava 

STEPHAN WINTER 1 , M. KOERBLER 1 , MERETE ALBRECHTSEN 2 

1Deutsche Sammlung von Mikroorganismen und Zellkulturen (DSMZ), Plant Virus Division, 

Germany 

2Danish Institute of Agricultural Sciences, Department of Genetics and Biotechnology, 

Virus induced gene silencing (VIGS) is a powerful tool to study gene function of unknown 

plant genes and to induce co-suppression by RNA interference with replicating 

RNA viruses. The expression of genes or gene fragments via VIGS permits gene 

function analysis and the study of candidate genes in a simple, fast and robust method 

prior or as an alternative to the transgenic approach. For crops, like cassava, recalcitrant 

to plant transformation and regeneration, VIGS can be an attractive alternative. 

For this purpose we have constructed a geminivirus VIGS vector from the genomic 

DNA A and DNA B components of an East African cassava mosaic virus, cloned 

within the left and right boarders of a binary vector. The gene to be studied is introduced 

into the recombinant DNA A genome replacing the viral coat protein which is 

dispensable for movement in planta. Upon plant inoculation and during infection, the 

recombinant virus expresses the foreign gene “fragment” and induces the degradation 

of a homo-/orthologous gene by RNAi. If an endogenous gene is targeted, an altered 

mutant phenotype resulting from ’gene knock-outs‘ allows assignment of function to 

unknown genes. The expression an endogenous cassava magnesium chelatase gene 

fragment with the replicating virus lead to silencing of the nuclearly encoded sulphur 

gene significant for chlorophly formation resulting in inhibition of chlorophyll biosynthesis 

and total bleaching of the plants, hence validating the use of the VIGS system. 

By using a similar approach, sequences of a destructive cassava infecting RNA virus, 

Cassava brown streak Ipomovirus (CBSV), were expressed. For this virus not much information 

is available and there exists no basis of natural resistance in cassava. Hence 

overexpression of CBSV sequences that results in RNA interference and sequence 

specific degradation and elimination of infecting CBSV can be an interesting avenue 

to induce virus resistance. The resistance phenotypes resulting from this approach in 

different cassava breeding lines infected with CBSV or mixed infected with CBSV 

and geminiviruses will be presented as examples to discuss the scope of the method. 

Keywords: Cassava brown streak virus, Magnesium chelatase Cassava geminiviruses 



bba.de 

180 ID 410



Modes of Action for the Control of Radopholus Similis in Banana 

ALEXANDER R. MENDOZA LUNA, RICHARD A. SIKORA, SEBASTIAN KIEWNICK 

University of Bonn, Institute of Crop Science and Resource Conservation-Plant Pathology, 

Germany 

Paecilomyces lilacinus strain 251 (PL251) and the non-pathogenic Fusarium oxysporum 

strain 162 (Fo162) are well known as biocontrol agents of a range of plant parasitic 

nematodes. Paecilomyces lilacinus is mainly an egg pathogen of sedentary stages 

of nematodes and the non-pathogenic fungal endophyte Fo162 induces systemic resistance 

in different host plants. Therefore, the two biocontrol agents with different 

modes of action were tested for additive or synergistic effects in their potential to control 

R. similis when co-applied to protect young banana plants. The fungal biocontrol 

agent Fo162 was applied to b anana plantlets (cv.‘Grand naine‘) in a germination tray 

one and three weeks before transplanting. PL251 was incorporated to a sterilized field 

soil:sand (1:1) mixture, 6 days before transplanting. The final concentrations of the 

antagonists were 1 × 108 and 6 × 106 cfu g −1 soil of Fo162 and PL251, respectively. 

Both treatments were inoculated with 1000 R. similis per plant. Banana plants were 

harvested 14 days after nematode inoculation. None of the treatments affected root 

and shoot weight of the banana plants. When applied alone, both biocontrol agents 

significantly reduced the number R. similis per root. The combination of Fo162 and 

PL251 resulted in a penetration rate that was significantly lower compared to the inoculated 

control and Fo162 alone, respectively, but not different from PL251 alone. To 

investigate the interactions between these two biocontrol agents, dual culture in-vitro 

assays were conducted. In none of the assays negative interactions were found. These 

preliminary data indicate a potential to combine these biocontrol agents for increased 

control of R. similis on banana. 

Keywords: Antagonistic fungi, biological control, endoparasitic nematode, Fo162, 

PL251 

Contact Address: Alexander R. Mendoza Luna, University of Bonn, Institute of Crop Science and 

Resource Conservation-Plant Pathology, Nussallee 9, 53115 Bonn, Germany, e-mail: mendozaal66@ 

yahoo.com 

ID 618 181


Can Successive Generations of Banana Plants Be Protected from 

Nematode Attack by A Single Inoculation with Beneficial 

Endophytic Fungi? 

ALEXANDRA ZUM FELDE 1 , LUIS POCASANGRE 2 , RICHARD A. SIKORA 1 

1University of Bonn, Institute of Crop Science and Resource Conservation - Plant Pathology, 

Germany 

2International Network for the Improvement of Banana and Plantain (INIBAP), Costa 

Increasing interest in biocontrol of crop pests for environmental and human health 

reasons have opened the door to a great variety of potential biocontrol agents from a 

range of environments. Among these, beneficial bacterial and fungal endophytes, i.e. 

microorganisms that colonize plant tissue without causing disease symptoms and help 

protect the plant against diseases or pests, are of special interest. This is in part due to 

the fact that they can be isolated, re-introduced and re-isolated from the very tissues 

where pests and diseases are known to attack. In the case of roots and nematodes, this 

is especially interesting, because an introduction of such beneficial organisms into 

root tissues prior to planting would avoid the need for soil applications of biocontrol 

agents in great quantities, as endophytes are already “on site” and ready to protect 

the crop. Beneficial endophytic fungi have been identified for the management of 

the burrowing nematode, Radopholus similis, in banana. These fungi were isolated 

from healthy roots of bananas grown in areas where natural nematode suppression 

was either suspected or proven. Once isolated, fungi were screened for nematode 

suppression in greenhouse trials and later in field experiments. These experiments 

proved that the endophytes chosen are effective in protecting banana plants not only 

at the greenhouse level, but also under field conditions. However, as banana is a 

perennial crop, with re-plantings occurring only at lengthy intervals, the question of 

how to protect second and subsequent generations remains. Evidence of a transfer 

of nematode suppression provided by individual fungal endophytes from one banana 

generation to the next has been found. This data provides incentives to pursue a longterm 

nematode-bio-control approach in banana using beneficial endophytic fungi. 

Keywords: Biocontrol, Musa (AAA), nematode management, suppression, transfer 

Contact Address: Alexandra zum Felde, University of Bonn, Institute of Crop Science and Resource 

Conservation - Plant Pathology, Nussallee 9, 53115 Bonn, Germany, e-mail: zumfelde@uni-bonn.de 

182 ID 488



Modes of Action for the Control of Radopholus Similis in Banana 

ALEXANDER R. MENDOZA LUNA, RICHARD A. SIKORA, SEBASTIAN KIEWNICK 

University of Bonn, Institute of Crop Science and Resource Conservation-Plant Pathology, 

Germany 

Paecilomyces lilacinus strain 251 (PL251) and the non-pathogenic Fusarium oxysporum 

strain 162 (Fo162) are well known as biocontrol agents of a range of plant 

parasitic nematodes. Paecilomyces lilacinus is mainly an egg pathogen of sedentary 

stages of nematodes and the non-pathogenic fungal endophyte Fo162 induces systemic 

resistance in different host plants. Therefore, the two biocontrol agents with 

different modes of action were tested for additive or synergistic effects in their potential 

to control R. similis when co-applied to protect young banana plants. The 

biocontrol fungal Fo162 were applied to banana plantlets (cv.‘Grand naine‘) on the 

germination tray one and three weeks before transplanting. PL251 was incorporated 

to a sterilized field soil:sand (1:1) mixture, 6 days before transplanting. The final concentrations 

of the antagonists were 1 × 108 and 6 × 106 cfu g −1 soil of Fo162 and 

PL251, respectively. Both treatments were inoculation with 1000 R. similis per plant. 

Banana plants were harvested 14 days after nematodes inoculation. None of the treatments 

affected root and shoot weight of the banana plants. When applied alone, both 

biocontrol agents significantly reduced the number R. similis per root. The combination 

of Fo162 and PL251 resulted in a penetration rate that was significantly lower 

compared to the inoculated control and Fo162 alone, respectively, but not different 

from PL251 alone. Determination of the rate of root colonisation by Fo162 revealed 

that in absence of the nematode, the percentage colonized root tissue was significantly 

reduced due to the application of PL251, but no differences were found when plants 

were inoculated with R. similis. To further investigate the interactions between these 

two biocontrol agents, dual culture in-vitro assays were conducted. In none of the 

assays negative interactions were found. These preliminary data indicate a potential 

to combine these biocontrol agents for increased control of R. similis on banana. 

Keywords: Antagonist fungi, biocontrol, endoparasite nematode, Fo162, PL251 

Contact Address: Alexander R. Mendoza Luna, University of Bonn, Institute of Crop Science and 

Resource Conservation-Plant Pathology, Nussallee 9, 53115 Bonn, Germany, e-mail: mendozaal66@ 

yahoo.com 

ID 503 183


Plantain (Musa spp. AAB) Bunch Yield and Root Health Response 

to Combinations of Physical, Thermal and Chemical Sucker 

Sanitation Measures 

STEFAN HAUSER 


Plantain is an important staple in West and Central Africa and the Congo basin. The 

crop is largely grown in extensive ‘slash and burn’ systems, drawing heavily on the 

natural resource base, yet it is low yielding due to its high susceptibility to a complex 

of root and corm pests and diseases. Farmers are unaware of nematodes, banana 

weevil eggs and fungi and there is virtually no pest and disease control. This study 

evaluated the effects on plantain bunch fresh yield of factorial combinations of a simple 

physical sanitation method, paring, followed by five different treatments (control, 

ash-coating, hot-water treatment, boiling-water treatment and nematicide application). 

Paring reduced plantain establishment. It had no effect on fresh bunch yields but reduced 

uprooting and improved root health status. Without previous paring, bunch 

yields after the traditional ash-coating (5.7 Mg ha −1 ) and nematicide application (6.3 

Mg ha −1 ) were not different from control (4.6 Mg ha −1 ). Hot-water treatment (12.0 

Mg ha −1 ) and boiling-water treatment (14.2 Mg ha −1 ) increased yield significantly. 

Boiling-water treated plantains attained 90 % of the total yield earlier than any other 

treatment. Yield losses were mainly caused by pseudostem break. Uprooting caused 

only minor losses. Yield losses in this study can not be attributed to a particular group 

of pests or diseases but all factors contributing to water deficiency leading to low turgor 

permitting pseudostem break. Root health parameters were positively related to 

bunch yield and to bunch mass per producing plant. Due to its simplicity, flexibility, 

low cost, absence of negative environmental consequences and the accelerated production 

boiling-water treatment is the most labour efficient and profitable sucker cleaning 

method. 

Keywords: Cameroon 



184 ID 55

Biotic Stresses: Biocontrol 

RHODA BIRECH, BERNHARD FREYER, JOSEPH MACHARIA: 

Towards Reducing Synthetic Pesticide Imports in Favour 

of Locally Available Botanicals in Kenya 187 

HAYDER ABDELGADER, AHMED MOHAMED: 

Side Effects of Pesticides on Natural Enemies: Selection of 

Soft Pesticides for the Control of Insect Pests in Sudan 188 

BONAVENTURE VIDJINNAGNI AGBOTON, RACHID HANNA, 

AGNES THOMAS ODJO, GEORG GOERGEN: 

Effect of Ants in Biological Control of Cassava Green Mite 

in Africa 189 

KHIN THEIN NYUNT, STEFAN VIDAL: 

Potential for Biocontrol of the Diamondback Moth in Myanmar 

by Using a Predatory Bug 190 

ROBERT KUNZ, SHANTHI WILSON WIJERATNAM, HAN- 

NAH JAENICKE, JOACHIM HELLER: 

Control of Post-harvest Disease (Botryodiplodia sp.) of Rambutan 

(Nephelium lappaceum) and Annona (Annona sp.) by 

Using a Bio-control Agent (Trichoderma spp.) in Sri Lanka 191 

ALFONSO CABRERA, LUIS POCASANGRE, RICHARD A. SIKORA: 

Impact of Plant Parasitic Nematodes in Following Suckers 

on A Root Necrosis Index in Six Commercial Banana Plantations 

of Costa Rica 192 

ABULEGASIM ELZEIN, JÜRGEN KROSCHEL, GEORG CADISCH, 

PAUL MARLEY: 

Enhancing Striga Management Using Pesta Granular Mycoherbicidal 

Formulations: Synergy Between Striga-mycoherbicides 

and Nitrogen Fertiliser 193 

PROSPER FUAMBENG YONGHACHEA, LINDSEY NORGROVE, 

RAINER SCHULTZE-KRAFT: 

Farmers’ Perceptions of Imperata cylindrica and Chromolaena 

odorata Fallows in Cameroon 194 

185


186 

WASANA CHAMKRACHANG, SUCHADA VEARASILP, PORN- 

CHAI LUEANG-A-PAPONG, SONGCHAO INSOMPHUN, ELKE 

PAWELZIK: 

Weed Control in Broadcast Rice: Effectiveness of Fenoxapropp-ethyl 

and 2,4-d Mixture 195


Towards Reducing Synthetic Pesticide Imports in Favour of 

Locally Available Botanicals in Kenya 

RHODA BIRECH 1 , BERNHARD FREYER 2 , JOSEPH MACHARIA 1 

1 University of Egerton, Crop Science, Kenya 

2 University of Natural Resources and Applied Life Sciences (BOKU), Institute of Organic 


Pests and diseases are responsible for 30–40 % loss in agricultural produce in the 

tropics. Unfortunately, these pesticides posses inherent toxicities that endanger the 

health of the farm operator, consumer and the environment. Kenya imports approximately 

7,000 metric tones of synthetic pesticides annually, valued at KShs. 4 billion 

(US$ 50 million). These pesticides are an assortment of different types. Of the total 

pesticide imports, insecticides account for about 40 % in terms of volume (2,900 

metric tones). The current concern is on the health hazards posed by the presence 

of these chemicals in the environment. The situation in Kenya is aggravated when 

cases of pesticide misuse occur due to farmers’ ignorance and illiteracy. Kenya is 

the leading producer of a natural pesticide, pyrethrin, which is a broad-spectrum insecticide 

made from the dried flowers of Chrysanthemum cinerariaefolium. Up to 

8,000 tonnes of dried flowers are produced annually. 95 % percent of all the crude 

pyrethrin is exported to developed countries in the west - 60 % to USA and 35 % to 

Europe. Only 1 % remains in Kenya. Pyrethrin-based insecticides can well replace 

most of the imported synthetics. This would reduce the health risk that the synthetics 

pose. The major problem is that the Kenyan pyrethrins earn a premium price in the 

more environmentally conscious developed countries so that Kenyans are left with no 

option but to import the cheaper synthetics or pyrethrin analogs. This scenario raises 

questions on the willingness and ability of developing countries to pay for better environmental 

health. This paper recognises research challenges and discusses possible 

ways through which developing countries can adopt more environmentally friendly 

agricultural protection measures. These include local pyrethrin preparation at farm 

level, promotion of locally available botanicals like Neem (Azadirachta indica), use 

of by-products from Pyrethrum processing industries, awareness campaigns on safe 

use of pesticides, favourable government policies, and possible support by multinational 

chemical companies. Data reported was obtained from interviews with key informants 

drawn from the Kenya Pesticide Control Board, Pyrethrum Board of Kenya, 

and local firms, which are major consumers of imported pesticides. 

Keywords: Chrysanthemum cinerariaefolium, natural pesticides, pyrethrin, synthetic 

pesticides 




ID 158 187


Side Effects of Pesticides on Natural Enemies: Selection of Soft 

Pesticides for the Control of Insect Pests in Sudan 

HAYDER ABDELGADER, AHMED MOHAMED 

Agricultural Research Corporation, Crop Protection Research Center, Sudan 

In the last decades during the post-war period, the agriculture has developed towards 

methods that are more intensive. Among these is increased use of agrochemicals. In 

the Sudan Gezira, cotton spraying started as early as season 1945/46 when only 1 % 

of the cotton area was sprayed once. By 1978/79 the problem caused by the cotton 

insect pests, particularly the cotton whitefly (Bemisia tabaci) flared up. The number 

of sprays per season went up, reaching 9.25 sprays in season 1978/79, which might 

be attributed partly to the rapid resurgence of insects’ pests as a result of the use 

of non-selective insecticides, which badly affected the natural enemies of these pests. 

The joint use of natural enemies and selective pesticides might attribute to combat this 

problem. Studying the side effects of pesticides is of prime importance to save natural 

population and encourage their role as biological control agents. This paper discuss 

the various methods which can be used to study the side effects on natural enemies and 

the results of some studies carried on the side effects of some insecticides on natural 

enemies both at small and large scale levels in Sudan. The study include testing the 

side effects of some insecticides (Talstar, Polo, Metasystox, Marshal and the mixture 

Reldan + Endosulfan) on two Predators at small scale level at the Gezira Research 

Farm, Wad medani. The Impact of Polo (diafenthiuron) on natural enemies in the 

cotton based ecosystem of the Gezira Scheme (Large Scale) was tested in the Study. 

The results indicated that Polo was relatively safe both at small scale and large scale 

level to the natural enemies observed during the study. 

Keywords: Predators, side effects, Soft insecticdes, Sudan 

Contact Address: Hayder Abdelgader, Agricultural Research Corporation, Crop Protection Research 

Center, P. O. Box 126, Wadmedani, Sudan, e-mail: abdelgaderh@yahoo.com 

188 ID 52


Effect of Ants in Biological Control of Cassava Green Mite in 

Africa 

BONAVENTURE VIDJINNAGNI AGBOTON 1,2 , RACHID HANNA 2 , AGNES THOMAS 

ODJO 3 , GEORG GOERGEN 2 

1Georg-August University of Goettingen, Institute of Plant Pathology and Plant Protection, 

Germany 

2International Institute of Tropical Agriculture, Biocontrol Center of Africa, Benin 

3Université National Bénin, Département des Sciences et Techniques de Production Végé- 

tale, Benin 

Interactions between ants and phytoseiid mites have been rarely studied. On cassava 

plants in Africa, the predatory mite, Typhlodromalus aripo, introduced from Brazil to 

Africa for the biological control of the cassava green mite, Mononychellus tanajoa, 

is frequently found sharing cassava plants and their extrafoliar exudates with several 

species of ants. That T. aripo and ants share space and food on cassava plants may 

result in interactions that could lead to both direct and indirect effects on their respective 

abundance and the biological control of M. tanajoa by T. aripo. As a first step in 

determining the effects of the presence of ants on T. aripo and M. tanajoa abundance 

on cassava, we conducted a series of surveys in 18 farmer-managed cassava fields in 

southern-Benin where we determined densities of ants, T. aripo and M. tanajoa on 

30 cassava plants in each field. In addition, we conducted a factorial experiment in 

which we simultaneously manipulated ant and T. aripo densities on cassava plants 

and recorded ant, T. aripo and M. tanajoa densities. Survey results showed that several 

ant species in the genus Camponotus were most common on cassava plants in 

southern-Benin. Ant abundance was highest in cassava fields bordered by forest or 

dense vegetation and when fields were ‘weedy’, while T. aripo was least abundant in 

weedy cassava fields compared with relatively well-weeded fields. Overall, increasing 

ant abundance in cassava fields was associated with lower T. aripo abundance and 

higher M. tanajoa densities. In the on-station manipulative experiment, ant exclusion 

had no effect on T. aripo and M. tanajoa abundance, probably due to low density of 

the same Camponotus spp during the period of the experiment. The failure to show 

an effect of ant exclusion on T. aripo and M. tanajoa abundance notwithstanding, the 

two studies underscore the complexity of trophic interactions in the cassava food web 

and suggest the need for greater understanding of the interactions between ants and T. 

aripo and the effect of these interactions on biological control of cassava green mite. 

Keywords: Ants, biological control, interaction, Mononychellus tanajoa. , Predator 

mite 

Contact Address: Bonaventure Vidjinnagni Agboton, Georg-August University of Goettingen, Institute 

of Plant Pathology and Plant Protection, Grisebachstraße 6, Goettingen, Germany, e-mail: bagboton@ 

yahoo.com 

ID 71 189


Potential for Biocontrol of the Diamondback Moth in Myanmar 

by Using a Predatory Bug 

KHIN THEIN NYUNT, STEFAN VIDAL 

Georg-August-University Göttingen, Department of Crop Sciences, Entomological Section, 

Germany 

The Diamondback Moth (DBM) is most damaging vegetable pest not only in Myanmar 

than also in most tropical countries, where cabbage plants and ideal temperatures 

for high DBM populations prevail throughout the year. Due to frequent insecticide applications 

development of resistance towards specific compounds, including Bacillus 

thuringiensis, has been reported in several regions. We tested a predatory bug (Eocanthecona 

furcellata — EO), native to Myanmar and commonly found in the field, for 

its effectiveness to prey on DBM. 

We used 2 nd instars of EO nymphs and 5 different DBM larval densities. DBM larvae 

were placed in 9 cm Ø plastic petri dishes and one EO nymph was placed in the centre 

of each arena; these were then kept at a constant temperature (30° C, 75 % RH and 

12:12 L:D) photoperiod in climate cabinets. Larvae consumed per day, larvae still 

alive and molting date were recorded to adult stage of EO. 

The maximum prey consumption per day per EO larvae was surprisingly high and 

exceeded 9.65 (± 0.29) larvae at 30°C in the 5 th instar of EO. During the whole 

lifecycle (2 nd N instars to adult), EO was able to consume between 25.50 ± 2.89 

(minimum) and 70.5 ± 6.35 (maximum) DBM larvae. EO larvae did feed on different 

lepidopteran species; however, they refused to feed on aphids. 

Base on these preliminary data we recommend that the predatory bug Eocanthecona 

furcellata should be tested under field conditions as a biocontrol agent for controlling 

diamondback moth in Myanmar. Additional research is now done to understand the 

host spectrum and the ecology of this species. 

Keywords: Biological control, Eocanthecona furcellata, Diamondback Moth, Myanmar, 

predatory bug 

Contact Address: Khin Thein Nyunt, Georg-August-University Göttingen, Department of Crop Sciences, 

Entomological Section, Grisebachstr.6, 37077 Göttingen, Germany, e-mail: knyunt@gwdg.de 

190 ID 248


Control of Post-harvest Disease (Botryodiplodia sp.) of Rambutan 

(Nephelium lappaceum) and Annona (Annona sp.) by Using a Biocontrol 

Agent (Trichoderma spp.) in Sri Lanka 

ROBERT KUNZ 1 , SHANTHI WILSON WIJERATNAM 2 , HANNAH JAENICKE 3 , 

JOACHIM HELLER 1 

1 University of Applied Sciences Wiesbaden, Faculty of Geisenheim, Germany 

2 Industrial Technology Institute, Post-harvest Laboratory, Sri Lanka 

3 International Centre for Underutilised Crops, Sri Lanka 

Recent studies have shown the importance of products of underutilised fruits, such 

as jams, juices and candied fruits to nutrition, income generation and poverty reduction 

of small-scale entrepreneurs in developing countries. Underutilised tropical fruits 

such as rambutan (Nephelium lappaceum) and annona (Annona sp.) provide important 

contributions to small-holder livelihoods. However, post-harvest losses are significantly 

reducing the potential for income generation. While rambutan is consumed 

as fresh fruit in Sri Lanka and exported in small volumes to Europe, annona is available 

in smaller quantities in the domestic market where it is consumed fresh or in the 

processed form as a cordial or ready to serve (RTS) juice. The Industrial Technology 

Institute (ITI) of Colombo, Sri Lanka, is involved in developing biological control 

mechanisms for post-harvest diseases of tropical fruits, such as papaya, banana and 

mango as well as working together with the International Centre of Underutilised 

Crops on promising underutilised species, such as rambutan, annona and woodapple. 

The project presented here formed a contribution toward this larger national effort. 

The stem end rot caused by Botryodiplodia is one of the most important post-harvest 

diseases of tropical fruits. This project used Trichoderma spp. to reduce the disease 

and to isolate specific strains from several sites within Sri Lanka. In order to confirm 

previous observations and expand on available data, the study included the isolation 

of Botryodiplodia sp. from infected rambutan and annona fruits and Trichoderma spp. 

from soil at the sites. After successful isolation using Koch’s postulates, a series of 

vitro experiments were conducted to test the antagonistic effect of the biological control 

agent against the pathogenic organisms. In vivo tests with infected fruit followed. 

Data will be presented to the effectiveness of Trichoderma strains isolated from Sri 

Lankan soils to control stem end rot on rambutan and annona. 

Keywords: Annona sp., bio-control agent, Botryodiplodia sp, Nephelium lappaceum, 

post-harvest disease, Sri Lanka, Trichoderma sp., underutilised fruits 

Contact Address: Shanthi Wilson Wijeratnam, Industrial Technology Institute, Post-harvest Laboratory, 

363 Bauddhaloka Mawatha, 07 Colombo, Sri Lanka, e-mail: shanthi@iti.lk 

ID 167 191


Impact of Plant Parasitic Nematodes in Following Suckers on A 

Root Necrosis Index in Six Commercial Banana Plantations of 

Costa Rica 

ALFONSO CABRERA 1 , LUIS POCASANGRE 2 , RICHARD A. SIKORA 1 

1University of Bonn, Institute of Crop Science and Resource Conservation-Plant Pathology, 

Germany 

2International Network for the Improvement of Banana and Plantain (INIBAP), Costa 

The objective of the investigation was to study if a root necrosis index could be used to 

estimate amount of plant parasitic nematodes on banana roots. The research evaluated 

correlations between numbers of Radopholus similis, Helycotylenchus multicinctus, 

Pratylenchus spp., Meloidogyne spp., or the addition of the four genera per 100 g 

of functional roots and the root necrosis index described by Speijer and De Waele 

(1997) in six commercial banana plantations of Costa Rica. With a spade roots were 

taken ten centimeters in front of following suckers from an excavation of 15 cm long 

X 15 cm wide X 15 cm depth. Ten banana plants were sampled, mixed in a plastic 

bag and divided in half of the total root content to consider it as one sample. Samples 

were taken from high, medium and poor yielding sectors in each farm. Four samples 

per sector were taken. Roots were gently washed, separated into dead and functional 

roots, indexed the latter roots and from the indexed ones nematodes were extracted, 

counted and identified. Results showed that from 30 possible correlations only 8 

were found. In some farms high population of nematodes and little root necrosis 

index was found and vice versa. No nematode genera in particular had a consistent 

correlation with the index. The study revealed that the root necrosis index evaluated 

couldn’t be used to approximate or estimate amounts of plant parasitic nematodes. 

Results suggest that the index could reveal much more complex information such as 

soil chemical, physical and biological status as well as soil management. This index 

is more useful to give numeric value to root status and be able to compare it between 

different sites cultivated with banana. The investigation was conducted under the 

frame of the Banana Soil Health project funded by the Regional Fund for Agricultural 

Technology (FONTAGRO). 

Keywords: Plant-parasitic-nematodes root-necrosis-index banana 

Contact Address: Alfonso Cabrera, University of Bonn, Institute of Crop Science and Resource 

Conservation-Plant Pathology, Bonn, Germany, e-mail: acabrera@catie.ac.cr 

192 ID 119


Enhancing Striga Management Using Pesta Granular 

Mycoherbicidal Formulations: Synergy Between Strigamycoherbicides 

and Nitrogen Fertiliser 

ABULEGASIM ELZEIN 1 , JÜRGEN KROSCHEL 2 , GEORG CADISCH 1 , PAUL 

MARLEY 3 




3Ahmadu Bello University, Institute for Agricultural Research, Nigeria 

Root parasitic weeds of the genus Striga constitute a major biotic constraint to staple food 

production in Africa, and consequently aggravate hunger and poverty. An integrated approach 

in which biocontrol represents an important component, appears to be the ideal strategy for 

reducing Striga infestation. Therefore, the synergistic effect between Striga-mycoherbicide 

Fusarium oxysporum (isolates Foxy 2 and PSM 197) and nitrogen fertiliser (urea) formulated 

into Pesta granules, in controlling Striga was investigated under glasshouse conditions. Pesta 

granules were made by encapsulating the inoculum of fungal isolates and urea in a matrix composed 

of durum wheat-flour, kaolin, and sucrose. Two g of each granular preparation were 

incorporated pre-planting per pot (4 kg soil) together with Striga seeds. An apparent synergistic 

effect between Foxy 2, PSM197 or of their mixtures and urea, encapsulated into Pesta 

granules, in controlling Striga was observed. All Pesta combinations totally inhibited or significantly 

reduced the emergence of Striga compared to the control, where a steep increase in 

Striga emergence was recorded. Even all the few emerged shoots in the pots treated with fungal 

mycoherbicide/urea combinations became diseased. None of the emerged plants reached 

flowering stage, whereas in the control treatment 13 % of the Striga plant flowered. All Pesta 

preparations were very effective, with ≥92 % efficacy, indicating similar excellent potential of 

Striga control. When considering the improvement of the sorghum plants, however, the highest 

increase in the total biomass (85 %) and in the panicle yield (40 %) was achieved with preparation 

containing the mixture of Foxy2+PSM197+2g urea, confirming the synergistic effect of 

the fungal isolates and urea. However, the significant reduction in Striga emergence and flowering 

as a result of combining mycoherbicides and urea is an important feature to prevent further 

Striga distribution and infestation. These findings are highly relevant to the realisation of an 

integrated Striga control approach adoptable and applicable by subsistence farmers in Africa. 

Keywords: Fusarium oxysporum,Mycoherbicide, parasitic Weed, biological control, Striga 

hermonthica 

Contact Address: Abulegasim Elzein, University of Hohenheim, Institute of Plant Production and 

Agroecology in the Tropics and Subtropics, Garbenstr. 13, D-70599 Stuttgart, Germany, e-mail: 

gasim@uni-hohenheim.de 

ID 578 193


Farmers’ Perceptions of Imperata cylindrica and Chromolaena 

odorata Fallows in Cameroon 

PROSPER FUAMBENG YONGHACHEA, LINDSEY NORGROVE, RAINER 

SCHULTZE-KRAFT 

University of Hohenheim, Biodiversity and Land Rehabilitation in the Tropics and Subtropics, 

Germany 

The productivity and sustainability of most agricultural practices in the humid tropics 

of Africa such as Cameroon depends primarily upon the relative rate of soil ’quality’ 

decline during the cropping phase, soil quality regeneration during the fallow phase, 

and the time allocated to the latter. Due to increased population density and demand 

for arable land, fallow lengths have been shortened and the ability of fallows to restore 

soil fertility and suppress aggressive weeds such as Imperata cylindrica and 

Chromolaena odorata has become less effective. Therefore, fallows are recropped at 

a younger age when these species are still dominant. A survey was conducted during 

April-July 2005 in the North West, South West and Littoral provinces of Cameroon to 

understand how farmers view and value Imperata and Chromolaena fallows, and to 

find out preferred ways of controlling Imperata and Chromolaena in cropped fields. 

The common local names allude to Imperata as a plant that spears or pierces, and/or 

typifies unproductive situations. As to local names for Chromolaena, the names of unpleasant 

and aggressive people are used. Farmers’ perceived that Imperata dominated 

fallows indicate that soils are poor (34%), soils are only suitable for the cultivation 

of groundnut and sweet potato (28%), soils are ’hard’, i.e. compacted and difficult 

to till (16%), soils are ’sterile’, i.e. very unproductive (13%), and soils are not yet 

ready to be tilled again (9%). All farmers stated that fallows dominated by Chromolaena 

indicate softer and more fertile soils but require very high labour input for land 

preparation. Farmers indicated that slashing, deep tillage, rhizome removal, mineral 

fertilisation, weeding and continuous cultivation could effectively control Imperata. 

They recommend that Chromolaena control measures should involve stump removal. 

Farmers could satisfactorily control Imperata and Chromolaena but a perceived high 

labour requirement is seen as limiting factor. The results indicated high weed density 

and declining soil fertility to be due to unsustainable farming practices rather 

than shortened fallow lengths. Food availability in Cameroon could be improved by 

paying more attention to general farming practices. 

Keywords: Chromolaena, Imperata, soil fertility , weed control 

Contact Address: Prosper Fuambeng Yonghachea, University of Hohenheim, Biodiversity and Land 

Rehabilitation in the Tropics and Subtropics, University Hohenheim, 70593 Stuttgart, Germany, e-mail: 

prosperfy@yahoo.co.uk 

194 ID 340


Weed Control in Broadcast Rice: Effectiveness of Fenoxapropp-ethyl 

and 2,4-d Mixture 

WASANA CHAMKRACHANG 1 , SUCHADA VEARASILP 1 , PORNCHAI 

LUEANG-A-PAPONG 1 , SONGCHAO INSOMPHUN 1 , ELKE PAWELZIK 2 

1 Chiang Mai University, Department of Agronomy, Thailand 


Weed control in broadcast rice was experimented in split-split plot design. Two herbicides 

spraying at 10 days and 20 days after seeding were main plots. Irrigating 

3,6 and 9 days after herbicide treatments were sub plots and 3 rates of fenoxapropp-ethyl 

and 2,4-D mixture 3+100,6+200 and 9+300 g(a.i./a.e.)/rai were sub sub plots. 

Hand weeding and non weeding treatments were also included as the control treatments. 

The results indicated that the use of herbicides at 10 days after seeding significantly 

controlled broadleaf weeds and sedge compared to the 20 days treatment. 

Irrigation at 3 and 6 days after herbicide spraying showed better effect in weed control 

than at 9 days after herbicide spraying.Fenoxaprop-p-ethyl and 2,4-D mixture at 

6+200 (a.i./a.e.)/rai and 9+300 (a.i./a.e.)/rai were more effective than the rate at 3+100 

(a.i./a.e.)/rai.The phytotoxicity was found in the cases of fenoxaprop-p-ethyl and 2,4- 

D mixture at 3+100 (a.i./a.e.)/rai and 6+200 (a.i./a.e.)/rai which caused slight phytotoxicity 

whereas 9+300 (a.i./a.e.)/rai resulted in moderate phytotoxicity.The maximum 

phytotoxicity severity was found at 14 days after application.After 35 days of 

application the phytotoxicity seemed to have no obviousresults.The results indicated 

that herbicides spraying at 10 days after seeding got higher yield than the case of 20 

days treatment.Irrigation at 3,6 and 9 days after spraying and the three rates of herbicides 

showed no significant effect on yield and yield components when compared to 

those from hand weeding but highly significant difference when compared to those 

from non weeding method. 

Keywords: Broadcast rice, hand weeding, herbicide, weed control 

Contact Address: Suchada Vearasilp, Chiang Mai University, Department of Agronomy, Chiang Mai, 

Thailand, e-mail: suchada@chiangmai.ac.th 

ID 231 195


196 ID 231

Water and Forest 

a) Forests for Livelihood 199 

b) Agroforestry and Forest Assessment 215 

c) Water Management and Hydrology 229 

d) Water and Waste Management 243 

e) Drought, Irrigation and Water Use 253 

197


198

Forests for Livelihood 

MARCO STARK, YONGPING YANG, HORST WEYERHAEUSER: 

Sustainable Use of Non-timber Forest Products: Pathways 

Toward Balancing Poverty Reduction and Biodiversity Conservation 

Goals in Mountainous Southwest China 201 

MANFRED DENICH, FRANZ GATZWEILER, TADESSE WOLDEMARIAM: 

Conservation and Use of Wild Coffea arabica Populations 

in the Montane Rainforests of Ethiopia 202 

TOBIAS WÜNSCHER, STEFANIE ENGEL, SVEN WUNDER: 

Payments for Forest Environmental Services How Much 

Do We Really Have to Pay? 203 

DANIEL CALLO-CONCHA, MANFRED DENICH, PAUL L. G. 

VLEK: 

A Biophysical Approach to the Environmental Services by 

Land-use Systems Assessment; Functional Biodiversity in 

Tropical Agroforestry Systems (The Case of Tome-acu Community, 

Northern Brazil) 204 

PREM RAJ NEUPANE, ARCHANA GAULI, NETRA BHANDARI: 

Is Community Forestry Beneficial for Poor? : impact Analysis 

of Community Forestry on Livelihoods of Forest Users 

in Nepal 205 

TUAN DO ANH, JÜRGEN PRETZSCH: 

Institutional Structures and Performance of Community 

Forest Management: the Case of Vietnam 206 

HARTMUT GAESE, MARC J. J. JANSSENS, JUAN CARLOS 

TORRICO, SABINE SCHLÜTER, SANDRA MARIA GUIMARAES 

CALLADO: 

Options for the Sustainable Development in Humid Mountain 

and Semi-arid Surrounding Areas in Ceará, Brazil 207 

XUAN PHUC TO: 

People or the National Park an Ethnography of Forest Devolution 

in Vietnam 208 

JULIA SCHMITT, VOLKER HOFFMANN: 

Farmers’ Benefits in Different Value-chains of Non-timber 

Forest Products in China 209 

199


200 

NETRA BHANDARI, BABURAM RIJAL, BHARAT BHUDTHAPA, 

JEETENDRA MAHAT, MOON RAWAT, SHYAM LAL MAHAT, 

SHER BAHADUR ROKAYA: 

Domesticating Wild Non-wood Forest Products (NWFPs): 

Opportunities of Alternative Farming for Rural Livelihoods 

in Nepal 210 

JÖRN STRUWE, JÖRN ACKERMANN, REINHOLD GLAUNER, 

JOBST-MICHAEL SCHROEDER: 

Improving the Livelihood of the Rural Population in the 

Ashanti Region in Ghana through the Implementation of 

an Improved Taungya System with Teak and Albizia 211 

THORBEN KRUSE, HERMANN WAIBEL, FESTUS K. AKIN- 

NIFESI, DAGMAR MITHÖFER: 

Economics of in Situ Conservation of Indigenous Trees by 

Smallholder Farmers in Central Malawi 212 

JOSU ITURBE, JUAN J. JIMÉNEZ-OSORNIO, PETR KARLOVSKY, 

HOLM TIESSEN, BRIGITTE L. MAASS: 

Towards Improved Utilisation and Conservation of the Multipurpose 

Tree Cordia dodecandra in Yucatan, Mexico 213


Sustainable Use of Non-timber Forest Products: Pathways Toward 

Balancing Poverty Reduction and Biodiversity Conservation Goals 

in Mountainous Southwest China 

MARCO STARK 1 , YONGPING YANG 2 , HORST WEYERHAEUSER 3 

1 Center for Mountain Ecosystem Studies (CMES), China 

2 Kunming Institute of Botany (KIB), Ethnobotany Department, China 

3 World Agroforestry Center (ICRAF), China 

Non-timber forest products (NTFPs) have been defined by the FAO as goods of biological origin 

other than wood, derived from forests, other wooded land and trees outside forests. NTFPs 

have attracted considerable interest in rural development initiatives in recent years due to their 

ability to support and improve rural livelihoods while contributing to environmental objectives, 

including biodiversity conservation. However, in spite of more than a decade of research and 

targeted development projects, systematic understanding of the role and potential of NTFPs 

in conservation and development remains weak. Among the many non-timber forest products 

that are being extracted by rural households from natural and planted forests in mountainous 

Southwest-China, mushrooms, medicinal plants, walnuts, pine nuts, wild vegetables, eucalyptus 

oil and honey play an important role in the household economy. Institutional arrangements 

aimed at the sustainable utilisation of NTFPs in communal forests only exists for a few more 

valuable products threatened by over-exploitation, such as the Matsutake mushroom. 

Studies conducted at the Center for Mountain Ecosystem Studies (CMES), a joint Center of 

the Kunming Institute of Botany and the World Agroforestry Center point to important knowledge 

gaps that may lead to serious exploitation and unsustainable use of the natural resource 

“NTFP”, such as: (1) lack of basic knowledge on germplasm and non-existing or incomplete 

inventory; (2) no institutional arrangements to ascertain sustainable extraction levels; (3) insufficient 

market transparency for communities’ (in terms of quality, price, markets for NTFPs); 

(4) insufficient knowledge of NTFP domestication and little understanding of the effects of 

domestication on product quality and price and the conservation of wild sources; and (5) no existing 

research on the full length of the commodity chain for major non-timber forest products 

and the various actors in the chain. 

This paper discusses in particular the potential of certification of NTFPs under organic, ecological 

and fairtrade schemes as a pathway toward balancing poverty reduction and biodiversity 

conservation goals in China’s remote mountain regions. 

Keywords: Commodity chain analysis, organic and fairtrade certification, Yunnan 

Contact Address: Marco Stark, Center for Mountain Ecosystem Studies (CMES), C/o Kunming Institute 

of Botany (KIB), Heilongtan, 650204 Kunming, China, e-mail: m.stark@mail.kib.ac.cn 

ID 400 201


Conservation and Use of Wild Coffea arabica Populations in the 

Montane Rainforests of Ethiopia 

MANFRED DENICH, FRANZ GATZWEILER, TADESSE WOLDEMARIAM 

University of Bonn, Center for Development Research (ZEF), Germany 

Coffea arabica originates from southwest and southeast Ethiopia where wild Arabica 

coffee grows as a small tree in the understory of the montane rainforests. The wild 

coffee populations are highly endangered by deforestation due to the demand for agricultural 

land and settlement areas. This development is alarming as wild coffee is not 

only consumed by local people, but it is also an important cash crop on local markets 

as well as the international specialty market. Above all, it is an invaluable genetic 

resource for national and international coffee breeding in the future. 

Floristic and molecular-genetic studies show the high species diversity of the montane 

rainforest and the high genetic diversity of the wild coffee populations, respectively. 

Eco-physiological studies indicate site-specific differences in the water-use efficiency 

and drought-stress tolerance of wild coffee populations. Research on fungal 

pathogens, such as coffee leaf rust and coffee berry disease, reveals disease-tolerant 

wild coffee plants. Wild coffee collection by local people is based on traditional use 

rights rather than on governmental regulations for forest access. The global potential 

economic value of the Ethiopian coffee-genetic resource for breeding was estimated 

between US$ 0.5 and 1.5 billion. For transferring the research findings into practice, 

the Ethiopian Coffee Forest Forum was established. In collaboration with scientists 

on the one hand, and policy makers, politicians, the authorities and local people on 

the other, it develops approaches for the conservation and use of wild Coffea arabica 

in the montane rainforests. 

An overview of the research approaches and the possibilities for the implementation 

of research-based conservation and use concepts for wild coffee in its forest habitat 

will be given. 

Keywords: Biodiversity, deforestation, economic value, genetic diversity, non-governmental 

organisation, protected area, species diversity 

Contact Address: Manfred Denich, University of Bonn, Center for Development Research (ZEF), 

Walter-Flex-Straße 3, 53113 Bonn, Germany, e-mail: m.denich@uni-bonn.de 

202 ID 498


Payments for Forest Environmental Services How Much Do We 

Really Have to Pay? 

TOBIAS WÜNSCHER 1 , STEFANIE ENGEL 2 , SVEN WUNDER 3 

1 ZEF - Centre for Development Research, University of Bonn, Germany 

2 Swiss Federal Institute of Technology Zurich (ETH), Switzerland 

3 Centre for International Forestry Research (CIFOR), Brazil 

One of the causes of extensive worldwide forest loss is the lack of internalisation of 

indirect forest benefits into the decision-making process of the forest owner. In an 

attempt to create markets and consequently a price for these services an instrument 

called Payment for Environmental Services (PES) has become widely acknowledged 

and increasingly popular. International stakeholders participate in these newly created 

´markets´ in order to secure global environmental services such as biodiversity 

conservation and carbon mitigation. In many cases it is especially the poor who benefit 

from these payments in marginal but forest rich areas. However, despite being a 

market-based instrument most PES programs are centrally organised with structures 

similar to a monopsony. The price, therefore, is largely controlled by the central agent 

and as a result its determination becomes a highly disputed political and social issue. 

We intend to contribute with an economic perspective to the discussion and compute 

minimum farm-scale payments on the basis of economic data from a field survey conducted 

with 178 land owners on Nicoya Peninsula, Costa Rica. We compare three 

different approaches for price determination: i. opportunity cost of forest conservation 

based on monetary flows; ii. willingness to accept (WTA), iii. land sale values. 

Preliminary results show, as expected, differences in the computed payments between 

and within approaches. Unexpectedly, differences between approaches do not always 

follow a general pattern and cannot be predicted on the basis of our data. This not 

only questions the applicability of the approaches but also the use of a uniform payment. 

As the provision of environmental services also varies greatly between land 

porperties, a combination of information on minimum payments and spatially differentiated 

service provision could increase significantly the amount of environmental 

services bought with a fixed budget. We therefore propose auction systems as a forth 

alternative for price determination. Even though more complex, they stimulate the 

service provider to reveal real accetable payment levels and give the service buyer the 

opportunity to maximise environmental services per dollar spent. Auction systems 

are a step towards creating real markets for environmental services. 

Keywords: Auction system, costa Rica, economic incentives, environmental services, 

market based 

Contact Address: Tobias Wünscher, ZEF - Centre for Development Research, University of Bonn, 

Walter-Flex-Straße 3, 53113 Bonn, Switzerland, e-mail: tobias.wuenscher@uni-bonn.de 

ID 589 203


A Biophysical Approach to the Environmental Services by Landuse 

Systems Assessment; Functional Biodiversity in Tropical 

Agroforestry Systems (The Case of Tome-acu Community, 

Northern Brazil) 

DANIEL CALLO-CONCHA, MANFRED DENICH, PAUL L. G. VLEK 


Currently, the environmental services concept and its assessment seems the most appropriate 

approach to estimate, evaluate, conserve and in general make environmental 

use sustainable The most well known environmental services are water purification or 

carbon sequestration. However, there are knowledge gaps. In the case of biodiversity, 

for example, evaluation has mostly been based on quantitative or qualitative studies 

of individuals and functional groups. 

We suggest functional biodiversity as an indicator for the sustainability of land-use 

systems, as it is closely related to the variability, resilience and dynamics of ecosystems. 

The application of the Criteria & Indicators (C&I) approach addresses this intention, 

operationalizing the functions involved in three main clusters: productive, ecological 

and operational through the definition of a sufficient number of indicators to represent 

the most relevant interactions. Such indicators are mainly process based and underline 

the impact of human intervention on ecosystems. 

In this framework, the objective of this research is to assess the factors influencing the 

biophysical processes that determine the capabilities of agroforestry systems to maintain 

functional biodiversity, underlining the importance of the management factor to 

make them more productive and sustainable. 

The data collecting methods include: ecological field studies, interviews, secondary 

sources review supported by remote sensing approaches. The units of analysis are 

agroforestry plots in small farmer properties; data processing is supported by multicriteria 

protocols: workshops at different levels of target groups and specialised software 

(CIMAT 2.0). The results will be used to develop a model of the agroforestry 

systems for deeper understanding and to support decision making by the farmers. 

Keywords: Agroforestry Systems, Biophysical assessment, Criteria & Indicators, Environmental 

Services, functional biodiversity, Tropics 

Contact Address: Daniel Callo-Concha, University of Bonn, Center for Development Research (ZEF), 

Walter-Flex-Str. 3, 53113 Bonn, Germany, e-mail: dcalloc@uni-bonn.de 

204 ID 373


Is Community Forestry Beneficial for Poor? : impact Analysis of 

Community Forestry on Livelihoods of Forest Users in Nepal 

PREM RAJ NEUPANE 1 , ARCHANA GAULI 1 , NETRA BHANDARI 2 

1 Georg August University, Tropical and International Forestry, Germany 

2 University of Hohenheim, Department of Agricultural Communication and Extension, 

Germany 

The critical role of CF for fostering social and economic development in Nepal has been widely 

recognised. It has also been argued that CF programme is essentially a strategy adopted to 

bring about socio economic change and development in rural areas. According to community 

forestry framework in Nepal, Community Forest Users Groups (CFUGs) are entitled to collect 

revenues from the forest products. Funds generated by CFUGs have been used not only for the 

management of their forests, building village level infrastructures such as rural roads, small water 

supply schemes, irrigational canals and schools; but also for conducting income generating 

activities for the users. This indicates that CF holds potentials for rural development as well as 

poverty alleviation in Nepal. 

This study was conducted to explore the impacts of CF on livelihood of Ranipani CFUG, 

Tanahun, Nepal. The indicators observed to asses the impact of CF were based on different 

assets viz. Physical, Natural, Human, Social and Financial. The CF contributions were compared 

in terms of forest product supply situation, number and feeding techniques of livestock, 

forest products availability and time required for collection of the products. The participation 

and perception of users in decision-making have been assessed with respect to different wellbeing 

categories. 

The results show that CF contributes to user livelihood by meeting the basic needs for forest 

products, easy availability of forest products by reducing the time for collecting forest products, 

encouraging to adopt productive livestock and stall-feeding, and this all leads to improved 

living condition of the users. The study observed that the time required for collecting fodder 

was reduced by 56 % and fuelwood by 50 % in the year 2003 compare to the base year 1996. 

Similarly, livestock unit has been increased by 24 % per household. Study suggests that 60 % 

of the CFUG members adopted stall-feeding shifting their open grazing practices. 

The research concluded that the present practice of Ranipani CF plays a fairly significant role in 

capital formation, environmental sustainability, institutional development and its sustainability, 

in the process of community empowerment and social change and the reduction of vulnerability. 

Keywords: Community forest user group, community forestry, livelihood, Nepal 

Contact Address: Prem Raj Neupane, Georg August University, Tropical and International Forestry, 

Albrecht Thaer Weg 10 B/103, 37075 Goettingen, Germany, e-mail: prem_tif@yahoo.com 

ID 479 205


Institutional Structures and Performance of Community Forest 

Management: the Case of Vietnam 

TUAN DO ANH, JÜRGEN PRETZSCH 

Technische Universität Dresden, Institute of International Forestry and Forest Products, 

Germany 

In the last decades, in respond to the increasing rate of forest cover loss, community 

forest management (CFM) has been widely considered as a promising forest management 

system in many developing countries. In this context, local institution (rule) 

systems for forest management have gained considerable attention of many scholars. 

However, the debate on what institutional structures are appropriate for community 

forest management is still going on. In Vietnam, CFM models are rather diverse in 

origin and can be grouped into two major institutional structures. The first is village 

forest management (VFM), in which all households of a village belong to a forest management 

group. The second is forest user group (FUG), formed by a small number of 

households, a subset of a village. The objective of this study is to comparatively analyse 

the performances of CFM models under these institutional structures and to identify 

the determinants affecting the performance. Eleven CFM models were selected 

at Hoa Binh, a mountainous province in the North of Vietnam. In-depth comparative 

case study was chosen as the research approach, and both Rapid Rural Appraisal and 

household interview methods were employed. Multi-criteria approach was applied 

for evaluating the performance in aspects of efficiency, equity, and sustainability. The 

study results show that the performance of the FUG models is higher than that of the 

VFM models. Group size and linkage between local groups and local authorities are 

two key determinants. The communal forests governed by the small-sized groups, 

which are nested under the control of local authorities are better managed than the 

forests governed by the large sized groups operating almost independently. From the 

findings, it is recommended that under the context of the study area, the FUG institutional 

structure is more appropriate, and supportive participation of local authorities 

is necessary for the success of community forest management. 

Keywords: Community forest management, institutional structure, Vietnam 

Contact Address: Tuan Do Anh, Technische Universität Dresden, Institute of International Forestry and 

Forest Products, Pienner Str. 7, 01737 Tharandt, Germany, e-mail: dotuan71@yahoo.com 

206 ID 133


Options for the Sustainable Development in Humid Mountain and 

Semi-arid Surrounding Areas in Ceará, Brazil 

HARTMUT GAESE 1 , MARC J. J. JANSSENS 2 , JUAN CARLOS TORRICO 2 , SABINE 

SCHLÜTER 1 , SANDRA MARIA GUIMARAES CALLADO 2 

1University of Applied Sciences Cologne, Institute for Technology in the Tropics, Germany 

2University of Bonn, Institute of Crop Science and Resource Conservation - Tropical 


The Baturité region in the North of Ceará presents a singular climatic diversity and is 

divided in three sub-regions of a total of 3,822 km 2 : humid highlands and semi-arid 

surroundings (Sertão) and the transition zone inbetween. This mountainous region 

called “Maciço de Baturité” has fundamental ecological importance for the formation 

and maintenance of the hydrological stability, specifically for the supply of the 

metropolitan region of Fortaleza, a city of over 2 Mio inhabitants. The biodiverse 

forests are encroached by agricultural land-use. Agricultural production systems are 

characterised by low technological levels which threaten the stability of the natural 

systems. Population growth is high; the young people emigrate to the cities in search 

of better economic possibilities; though geographically close, markets are not being 

reached by the majority of farmers, and the commercialisation system is inefficient. 

Innovative agricultural production systems were evaluated both from economic and 

ecological point of view together with their social implications. These alternative 

systems are ecological and integrated, for instance organic coffee, intensive floriculture, 

intensive horticulture, sheep-goats, and beekeeping throughout suitable for family 

farms. The “Maciço of Baturité” has an enormous potential as a pilot area for 

regional development. The fragility of the natural systems and the threats to scarce 

water resources of the three sub-regions demands urgent planning and investigation. 

Future development should make benefit of the location advantage of the proximity 

to the large consumer market of Fortaleza. It is important to promote the controlled 

tourism included the other 12 neighbours municipalities as a base for the economic 

and productive impulse and to counteract socio-economic regression. Specific strategies 

for each environment can be proposed: Motivating young people, applying an 

integrated farming system approach, further improvement of flower and vegetable 

cultivation, inputs to be reoriented towards local resources, development of local markets, 

linking tourism with coffee production, restricting coffee production to quality 

cultivars within quality environments. 

Keywords: Baturité, key words: Ceará, options for sustainable development. 

Contact Address: Juan Carlos Torrico, University of Bonn, Department of Tropical Agriculture, Bonn, 

Germany, e-mail: torrico@web.de 

ID 385 207


People or the National Park an Ethnography of Forest Devolution 

in Vietnam 

XUAN PHUC TO 

Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, Junior Research Group Postsocialist Land Relations, 

Germany 

The government of Vietnamese started to implement forest devolution policy in the 

1990s by which it shifted the control over the forest from the state to the hand of local 

villagers. Under the new situation, the bundle of rights over the forest and duration 

of those rights are substantially expanded. The government expects that by giving 

villagers more rights in longer duration, villagers would invest more in land and consequently 

they will receive higher return from their investment. Forest cover thus will 

increase simultaneously. This paper uses property conceptual framework as a lens to 

look at access to forest resources in the uplands of Vietnam. It examines changes in 

property landscape in an upland village located in the buffer zone of a National Park. 

There have been a lot of changes regarding social unit, property object, legal institutions 

and property ideology during and after implementation of devolution policy. 

The implementation of the devolution policy is strongly influenced by global concern 

about biodiversity conservation, market force on landscape value and local power relations. 

At local level, those who have access to political power (local elite) are the 

ones who capture most of benefit from the devolution. By contrast, villagers find 

themselves in a losing side, having no choice but tie to local elite on a patron-client 

basis to gain access to cultivated land. Forest then becomes the place for villagers 

to express their discontent to the local authorities and local elite. Unexpectedly, the 

implementation of the devolution policy worsens local livelihoods and exacerbates 

environmental condition. 

Keywords: Forest Access, National Park, Vietnam 

Contact Address: Xuan Phuc To, Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, Junior Research Group Postsocialist 

Land Relations, Luisenstr. 56, Berlin, Germany, e-mail: txphuc2001@yahoo.com 

208 ID 57


Farmers’ Benefits in Different Value-chains of Non-timber Forest 

Products in China 

JULIA SCHMITT, VOLKER HOFFMANN 

University of Hohenheim, Department of Agricultural Communication and Extension, 

Germany 

Non-timber forest products (NTFPs) are critical to most rural livelihoods in developing 

countries. Therefore, commercialisation of NTFPs has been widely supported 

to achieve rural development and poverty reduction, as anticipated in the Millennium 

Development Goals. However, many initiatives have failed to fulfil these expectations. 

In fact, the benefits rural populations receive from selling NTFPs are often minimal 

compared to benefits received by other stakeholders in respective value-chains. Subsequently, 

alternative schemes, such as fair trade, social and organic certification, as 

well as, ecological and ethnical branding are currently promoted as the means to ensure 

that NTFP commercialisation makes a positive contribution to the livelihoods 

of the rural poor. Achieving fair benefits from NTFPs is particularly important in 

China, where the utilisation of NTFPs, i.e. mushrooms, herbal medicine, bamboo, 

vegetables and many more, has a long history and markets are well established. To 

date, China processes and trades more wild products than any other country, thus 

dominates world trade in NTFPs. Yet, the overlap between severe poverty provinces 

and provinces with abundant forest resources is still significant in China. In the framework 

of a German-Chinese research project between the World Agroforestry Centre in 

China (ICRAF-China) and Hohenheim University, the benefits of collecting and producing 

NTFPs within different value-chains are examined. In particular, the benefits 

for small-scale farmers connected to different NTFP value-chains will be evaluated 

to assess if the benefits of alternative schemes for NTFPs actually justify the participation 

of poor rural household in China. The study is conducted in North-Western 

and South-Western China, in two of the poorest provinces, i.e. Gansu and Yunnan, by 

applying socio-economic surveys in the study sites, a market survey and value-chain 

analyses of selected key NTFPs within the following two years. 

Keywords: China, non-timber forest products, value-chains 

Contact Address: Julia Schmitt, University of Hohenheim, Department of Agricultural Communication 

and Extension, Hohenheim, Germany, e-mail: jschmitt@uni-hohenheim.de 

ID 241 209


Domesticating Wild Non-wood Forest Products (NWFPs): 

Opportunities of Alternative Farming for Rural Livelihoods in 

Nepal 

NETRA BHANDARI 1 , BABURAM RIJAL 2 , BHARAT BHUDTHAPA 3 , JEETENDRA 

MAHAT 3 , MOON RAWAT 3 , SHYAM LAL MAHAT 3 , SHER BAHADUR ROKAYA 4 

1University of Hohenheim, Department of Agricultural Communication and Extension, 

Germany 

2Georg-August-University Göttingen, Tropical and International Forestry, Germany 

3Ministry of Forest and Soil Conservation, Department of Forest, District Forest Office, 

Jumla, Nepal 

4 Tribhuvan University, Institute of Forestry, Nepal 

Non- wood forest products (NWFPs) contribute substantially to the livelihood systems and local 

economies of rural societies in Nepal. NWFP cultivation is not an established trend in Nepal. 

Bringing NWFPs domestication as cultivation practice is a challenging task. However, in addition 

to Jatamansi, many experiments were made to domesticate some valuable NWFPs like 

Atis, Bojho, Sugandhawal, Chiraito, Keshar etc. in Karnali zone in the past decades. NWFP 

cultivation in Jumla has been successfully conducted since couple of decades, but it is limited 

as a domestication trial only and has not yet been brought on commercial scale. The study 

was conducted in Jumla district from 2003 to 2005. Study aimed to assess the profitability in 

trading, economic cultivation and market opportunities of Nardostachys grandiflora. It also 

assessed the investment feasibility of Jatamansi cultivation and assessed the attitude and preference 

of people toward Jatamansi Cultivation. Participatory methods were employed together 

with cost benefit analysis of agricultural crops and Jatamansi in the study. The results show 

that the greatest net present value (NPV) at the 12 % discount interest rate is possible from 

Jatsamansi cultivation than NPV of agricultural crops. NPV received from the Jatamansi cultivation 

is 1.27 times greater than that of the agricultural crops. This means, at present time, 

farmers are getting involved in less profitable cultivation of the conventional agricultural crops. 

Even though, the feasibility of investment on the cultivation of Jatamansi is not economically 

justified, the attitude of people towards cultivation of NWFPs is extremely positive, while its 

demand in the market is high and it can be immediately sold to the local traders. Major factors 

responsible for hindering the cultivation of Jatamansi are lack of land followed by maturity 

period, lack of appropriate techniques, lack of seed and the market price fluctuation. More 

than 28 % respondent realised that lack of land is the major constraints in expanding Jatamansi 

cultivation, where as 24 % realise that maturity period of more than 5 years is a major cause 

that they cannot opt for Jatamansi cultivation. There is a room for maximising the net profit by 

adopting Jatamansi cultivation. 

Keywords: Community forest, cost benefit analysis, cultivation, domestication, Nardostachys 

grandiflora 

Contact Address: Netra Bhandari, University of Hohenheim, Department of Agricultural Communication 

and Extension, Schloß, Museumsflügel 120PC, 70599 Stuttgart, Germany, e-mail: bhandari@ 


210 ID 567


Improving the Livelihood of the Rural Population in the Ashanti 

Region in Ghana through the Implementation of an Improved 

Taungya System with Teak and Albizia 

JÖRN STRUWE 1 , JÖRN ACKERMANN 2 , REINHOLD GLAUNER 1 , JOBST-MICHAEL 

SCHROEDER 1 

1Fed. Research Centre for Forestry and Forest Products, Institute for Worldforestry, Germany 

2Centrum für Internationale Migration (CIM), Germany 

The agricultural landscape in the Ashanti Region of Ghana is dominated by mainly 

small scale subsistence farming with annual crops like maize, maniok, yam, beans, 

etc. An eventual surplus is sold on local markets to gain income. The yield and income 

of the farmers are constantly threatened by degradation of land and soil due to 

annual fires and non-diversified agricultural systems. An alternative to the traditional 

unsustainable farming system is the establishment of agroforestry systems which enable 

permanent agriculture, diversify production as well as risks and offer chances for 

an improved market access. The Institute for Worldforestry of the Federal Research 

Centre for Forestry and Forest Products, Hamburg, is cooperating with a Ghanaian 

timber plantation company and the German Foundation for Forest Conservation in 

Africa. The purpose of this cooperation is to improve the livelihood of the local rural 

population within the surroundings of the plantation sites and simultaneously safeguard 

and expand the plantation sites in an economically and ecologically sustainable 

way. A tree “outgrower” programme based on the Taungya System has been developed 

and is being introduced to farmers in the surroundings of the plantation sites. 

Farmers interested in the programme become trained in workshops in order to attain 

necessary working skills. They are offered teak (Tectona grandis) and albizia (Albizia 

falcataria) seedlings for free which they plant on their land together with their preferred 

staple crops. In addition, seedlings of genetically improved fruit trees (orange, 

mango, oil palm, cashew) are provided and preferrably planted on the outer boundaries 

of the farm land. The task of the farmers is to prepare and maintain the farming 

system. All harvest products (crops, fruits, timber) belong to them. Thus, farmers 

have the opportunity to develop a permanent income. The timber company has the 

right to be the first bidder for the timber when maturity is reached after assumed 10 to 

15 years. Further investigations will evaluate the effects of the programme in regard 

to sustainability, improvements of the rural livelihood and income generating. 

Keywords: Agroforestry, Ghana, taungya, teak 

Contact Address: Jobst-Michael Schroeder, Federal Research Centre for Forestry and Forest Products, 

Institute for World Forestry, Leuschnerstraße 91, 21031 Hamburg, Germany, e-mail: j.m.schroeder@ 

holz.uni-hamburg.de 

ID 118 211


Economics of in Situ Conservation of Indigenous Trees by 

Smallholder Farmers in Central Malawi 

THORBEN KRUSE 1 , HERMANN WAIBEL 1 , FESTUS K. AKINNIFESI 2 , DAGMAR 

MITHÖFER 3 

1Leibniz University of Hannover, Development and Agricultural Economics, Faculty of 

Economics and Management, Germany 

2World Agroforestry Centre (ICRAF), SADC - ICRAF Programme, Malawi 

3International Centre of Insect Physiology and Ecology (ICIPE), Kenya 

Indigenous trees play major roles in the rural livelihood of communities in Sub-Saharan 

Africa, particularly in terms of their environmental service function and contribution 

of tree products to the rural household economy. However, the high rate of deforestation 

in Malawi raises concerns on the sustainability and future supply of these natural 

resources. A case study was conducted in Dedza district in central Malawi during 

2005 to investigate conservation of semi-wild indigenous trees growing and retained 

at the farm, homestead and dimba fields. The study aims at identifying factors influencing 

conservation and the use/ non-use of conservation practices of indigenous 

trees. A total of 133 rural households were interviewed in two geographically and 

socio-economically different Extension Planning Areas (Kanyama and Linthipe) of 

Dedza district. Structured questionnaires were used to collect data on demographic, 

farm household, tree crop and institutional support issues, which are considered to 

influence the adoption process. Data were analysed by logistic regression analysis. 

Results show that farm households in Linthipe cut indigenous trees more frequently 

than in Kanyama. Also, a higher share of farm households in Linthipe uses indigenous 

tree products as an additional source of cash-income. Consequently, tree resources are 

scarcer in Linthipe. In addition, the household sizes in Linthipe increases the pressure 

on the trees. Indigenous tree conservation practices vary between the two locations 

in form and intensity. Expected factors associated with these differences are socioeconomic 

factors, e.g. consumer- worker ratio and external factors like the distance 

to markets. The result of this study will give information on the status of conservation 

of indigenous trees in Malawi and factors that are associated with the decision to conserve 

the trees. The results will provide input to strategies of non-governmental and 

governmental organisations that aim at halting the ongoing environmental degradation 

in Malawi. 

Keywords: Conservation practices, In situ conservation, indigenous trees, Logistic 

Regression 

Contact Address: Thorben Kruse, Leibniz University of Hannover, Development and Agricultural Economics, 

Faculty of Economics and Management, Humboldtstr. 27, 30169 Hannover, Germany, e-mail: 

thorbenkruse@web.de 

212 ID 438


Towards Improved Utilisation and Conservation of the 

Multipurpose Tree Cordia dodecandra in Yucatan, Mexico 

JOSU ITURBE 1 , JUAN J. JIMÉNEZ-OSORNIO 2 , PETR KARLOVSKY 1 , HOLM 

TIESSEN 1 , BRIGITTE L. MAASS 1 

1 Georg-August-University Göttingen, Department of Crop Sciences, Germany 

2 Universidad Autónoma de Yucatán, Departamento de Manejo y Conservacion de Recur- 

sos Naturales Tropicales (PROTROPICO), México 

The tree ‘Ciricote’ (Cordia dodecandra: Boraginaceae) is distributed naturally in 

Mexico, Guatemala, Belize and Honduras, where it is an important component of dry 

tropical forests and thickets. This traditional multipurpose tree is frequently found 

in Maya homegardens and plays an important role for livelihoods. The edible fruits 

are used to make preserves and jams, among others. Its yellow colour with dark 

red streaks makes the wood valued in manufacturing furniture and handicrafts. Occasionally 

its value is even higher than that of mahogany. Therefore, Ciricote can 

constitute an additional source of income for smallholders. As severe deforestation 

and land use change took place in much of Central America, the few natural stands 

of Ciricote left are threatened by genetic erosion. Because of its environmental adaptation 

and economic potential, however, Ciricote has been considered an appropriate 

species to reforest substantial areas of degraded land in Yucatan. However, there is 

hardly any information available about the provenance of planting material used in 

nurseries or the genetic structure of populations in general. Therefore, the present 

study focuses on estimating levels of genetic diversity in Ciricote by using both morphological 

traits related to wood and fruit characteristics as well as molecular markers, 

AFLPs in this case. Overall six Ciricote populations isolated from each other, two 

each from the states of Campeche, Quintana Roo and Yucatan have been characterised. 

Leaf samples have been collected from about 25 trees per population for laboratory 

analysis. Comprehensive data analysis by multivariate statistical procedures has been 

performed. The GIS-base computer tool FloraMap has been applied to predict both 

the distribution of Ciricote in the wild and its potential climatic adaptation. Results 

may, therefore, assist in selecting most appropriate germplasm for the promotion of 

Ciricote as well as areas climatically suitable for reforestation. Due to the better understanding 

of the diversity contained in populations, on the other hand, it is likely that 

the conservation of this multipurpose species will be improved through its utilisation. 

Keywords: Agroforestry, genetic resources, molecular marker, multipurpose tree, underutilised 

crop 

Contact Address: Brigitte L. Maass, Georg-August-University Göttingen, Department of Crop Sciences, 

Grisebachstr. 6, 37077 Göttingen, Germany, e-mail: bmaass@gwdg.de 

ID 131 213


214 ID 131

Agroforestry and Forest Assessment 

CARLOS ALBERTO RUIZ GARVIA, HOLM TIESSEN, MAR- 

TIN WORBES: 

Production Potential and Ecosystem Quality of Secondary 

Forests recovered from Agriculture - Tools for Landuse Decisions 

217 

ANDREA CORINNA MAYER, SVENJA MARQUARDT, HÉLÈNE 

LAURENCE BOUILLOT, MARTHA SERRANO, STEPHAN BECK, 

HUMBERTO ALZÉRRECA: 

Effects of Grazing Intensity on Selected Trees and Shrubs 

in Sub-andean Silvopastoral Systems in Bolivia 218 

CÉLIA MARIA BRAGA SARMENTO, JONAS BASTOS DA VEIGA, 

SILVIO BRIENZA JUNIOR, OSVALDO R. KATO, ARI PIN- 

HEIRO CAMARÃO: 

Development of Trees in Sylvopastoral System in Eastern 

Brazilian Amazon: Establishment Phase 219 

EDGARDO I. GARRIDO-PEREZ, GERHARD GEROLD, MARIO 

UCAN-MAY: 

Hurricane Wilma: When Lianas Protect Trees 220 

OSCAR ALBERTO AGUIRRE CALDERON, JAVIER JIMENEZ 

PEREZ, JOSÉ JAVIER CORRAL RIVAS: 

An Analysis of Spatial Forest Structure Using Neighbourhood-based 

Variables 221 

JAVIER JIMENEZ PEREZ, OSCAR ALBERTO AGUIRRE CAL- 

DERON, MARCO AURELIO GONZALEZ TAGLE: 

Tree Crown Structure in a Mixed Coniferous Forest in Mexico 222 

MARCO AURELIO GONZALEZ TAGLE, JAVIER JIMENEZ PEREZ, 

OSCAR ALBERTO AGUIRRE CALDERON: 

Structural Development and Woody Species Composition 

Along a Fire Chronosequence in Mixed Pine-oak Forest of 

Northeast Mexico 223 

BETTINA ORTHMANN, JOCHEN SCHÖNGART, KLAUS HEN- 

NENBERG, STEFAN POREMBSKI: 

Effects of Three Different Logging Regimes on the Stand 

Structure of Isoberlinia doka (Caesalpinaceae) and Local 

Forestry Income in Central Benin (West Africa) 224 

215


216 


Groundnut / Cassava / Maize Intercrop Yields Over Three 

Cycles of a Fallow / Crop Rotation with Planted Senna 

spectabilis, Flemingia macrophylla and Dactyladenia barteri 

on Ultisol 225 


Biomass Production, Nutrient Uptake and Partitioning in 

Planted Senna spectabilis, Flemingia macrophylla and Dactyladenia 

barteri Fallow Systems Over Three Fallow/Cropping 

Cycles on Ultisol 226 

KOROUS KHOSHBAKHT, KARL HAMMER: 

Participatory Domestication of Prunus caspica Kov. & Ekin 227 

WOLFRAM SPREER, CORNELIUS JANTSCHKE, PATUMPORN 

TIYAYON, PITTAYA SRUAMSIRI, JOACHIM MÜLLER: 

Predicting Canopy Temperature Distribution Within the 

Canopies of Tropical Fruit Trees Based on Thermographic 

Measurements 228


Production Potential and Ecosystem Quality of Secondary Forests 

recovered from Agriculture - Tools for Landuse Decisions 

CARLOS ALBERTO RUIZ GARVIA, HOLM TIESSEN, MARTIN WORBES 

Georg-August-Universität Göttingen, Institute of Agronomy in the Tropics and Subtropics, 

Germany 

Forest fallow in large areas of Semiarid Americas plays a vital role in the maintenance 

of land quality and are also important for the community. The total benefits of ecosystem 

services provided by forest fallows and the potential for forest production have 

not been evaluated, largely because forest productivity under secondary land cover has 

rarely been measured with an eye to marketable products. We here explored options 

for improved landuse management in secondary forest in Northern Yucatan, Mexico. 

We measured nutrient budgets in soils and vegetation and use tree-ring analysis to 

predict tree productivity in fallow vegetation of different succession states. Cross 

dating techniques were used to identify correlation between tree growth and climatic 

patterns. Furthermore, trials were established to identify limiting factor in soils. 

Overall fertility may be lower in young secondary forest. Unlike the other indices of 

fertility, K levels were significantly higher in young forest which may indicate translocation 

functions of plants when K becomes limiting factor. This result is consistent 

with more rapid turnover of organic matter or greater amounts of material cycling 

through the forest floor litter layer. 

Tree species of young secondary forest showed the higher mean annual diameter increment 

than those from old secondary forest. Tree ring analysis for core-samples of 

Cordia dodecandra and Piscidia piscipula showed a positive relation with the annual 

rainfall and total precipitation in the rainy period. In Piscidia piscipula the mean ringwidths 

vary between 0.8 mm per year whereas in Cordia alliodora 0.6 mm per year. 

Tree species of young secondary forest show higher annual increment with 1.2 mm 

per year than old secondary forest. 

Keywords: Landuse change, secondary forest, soil quality, tree ring analysis 

Contact Address: Carlos Alberto Ruiz Garvia, Georg-August-Universität Göttingen, Institute of 

Agronomy in the Tropics and Subtropics, Grisebachstraße 6, 37077 Göttingen, Germany, e-mail: 

cruiz@gwdg.de 

ID 83 217


Effects of Grazing Intensity on Selected Trees and Shrubs in Subandean 

Silvopastoral Systems in Bolivia 

ANDREA CORINNA MAYER 1 , SVENJA MARQUARDT 2,1 , HÉLÈNE LAURENCE 

BOUILLOT 1 , MARTHA SERRANO 3 , STEPHAN BECK 4 , HUMBERTO ALZÉRRECA 4 

1 ETH Zurich, Institute of Animal Sciences, Switzerland 

2 ETH Zurich, Swiss Federal Institute for Snow and Avalanche Research, Switzerland 

3 Herbario de La Universidad Mayor de San Andres, Bolivia 

4 Programa Estratégico de Acción para la Cuenca del Río Bermejo, Bolivia 

The mountain forests of the Bolivian Subandino are traditionally used for cattle grazing. 

Large parts of these silvopastoral areas are located in regions dedicated to nature 

conservation, and there is concern that cattle grazing may alter plant species composition 

and vegetation structure of the forest. There does not exist published knowledge 

concerning cattle diet in Subandean forests and the impact of different cattle 

stocking rates on forest vegetation. In a controlled grazing experiment, the effect 

of different cattle stocking rates on the intensity of browsing on trees was assessed. 

In the community of Salinas, Department of Tarija, Bolivia, inside the Reserva Nacional 

de Flora y Fauna Tariquia, an experimental area divided into three parcels 

of 100m × 300 m each, consisting in one third open pasture and two thirds forest 

(Bosque Montano Tucumano-Boliviano), was established. The parcels were stocked 

with different numbers of cattle: i) cattle stocking rate typical for the region (total animal 

weight 1286 kg); ii) cattle stocking rate significantly lower than usual (694 kg); 

iii) cattle stocking rate significantly higher than usual (2001 kg). Naturally regenerated 

trees (427 plants of 9 species) were selected, and the browsing intensity was 

assessed once per week during six weeks, using a scale of five levels based on the measurement 

of shoot lengths and numbers of leaves. The woody plants of the parcel with 

the highest cattle stocking rate were browsed significantly more intensely (25–50 % 

browsed) than the woody plants in the parcels with lower cattle stocking rate (1–25 % 

browsed). The plant species browsed most intensely was the shrub Piper amalago 

(between 25 % and 50 % browsed), followed by the tree species Allophylus edulis, 

Cedrela sp., Diatenopteryx sorbifolia and Chrysophyllum gonocarpum; Barnadesia 

odorata, Celtis iguanaea and Patagonula americana were browsed less intensely by 

the cattle; the latter was browsed only in the parcel with the highest stocking rate; Myrciaria 

floribunda was not browsed at all. Since the cattle mainly browsed on species 

with tender leaves, these plant species might be most threatened by grazing cattle. 

Keywords: Andes, forest grazing, livestock nutrition, silvopastoralism 

Contact Address: Andrea Corinna Mayer, ETH Zurich, Institute of Animal Sciences, Universitätsstrasse 

2, Zurich, Switzerland, e-mail: andrea.mayer@inw.agrl.ethz.ch 

218 ID 521


Development of Trees in Sylvopastoral System in Eastern 

Brazilian Amazon: Establishment Phase 

CÉLIA MARIA BRAGA SARMENTO 1 , JONAS BASTOS DA VEIGA 2 , SILVIO 

BRIENZA JUNIOR 2 , OSVALDO R. KATO 2 , ARI PINHEIRO CAMARÃO 2 

1 Rural Federal University of Amazon, Brazil 

2 Brazilian Agricultural Research Corporation (EMBRAPA), Brazil 

In the Brazilian Eastern Amazon, the productivity of pastures established by slashand-burn 

(SB) is reduced with the time, leading to a process of pasture degradation. 

The sylvopastoral systems (SPS) that integrate pasture and trees can increase the sustainability 

of that land-use. This study object to evaluate the pasture and four trees 

performance in SPS in Igarapé-Açu, State of Pará, Brazilian Eastern Amazon (1o 

6’ S and 47o 31’ W). The soil is a sandy Latossolo Amarelo of low fertility. In 

2001, a Brachiaria brizantha+B. humidicola pasture was established in two areas 

of 2.4 hectares of a 10-year-secondary vegetation, with a biomass of 74 t/MS ha—1. 

In one of the areas, the land was prepared by SB method and another by slash-andtrituration/mulch 

(STm) method. Both areas have been used in a grazing experiment 

(18 days of grazing, 36 days of rest, three paddocks). In march 2004, in three paddocks 

(50 m × 53 m) of each method a trial of tree performance in SPS was superimposed. 

In each paddock seedlings of Schyzolobium amazonicum, Tectona grandis, 

Khaya ivorensis and Bertholletia excelsa were planted, each in one line of 50 m, 5 m 

apart. The distance between lines was 8 m. From April 2004 to April 2006, the height 

and the stem base were measured each two months. In this phase establishment, there 

was no differences due to method of land preparation, possibly due to the long time 

from imposition of the treatment (two years). For the SB method, in terms of height 

and stem base, the trees of better performance were Schyzolobium amazonicum with 

285 ± 41 cm and 5 ± 1 cm, and Tectona grandis with 194 ± 25 cm and 5 ± 0.3 cm, 

respectively. For the STm method, these values were Schyzolobium amazonicum with 

262 ± 39 cm and 4 ± 0.7 cm, and Tectona grandis with 198 ± 24 cm and 5 ± 0.5 cm, 

respectively. As the trial goes on, it is intended to measured the effect of tree over the 

pasture, the soil, and the animal comfort. 

Keywords: Amazon, height, slash-and-burn, slash-and-trituration, stem base, sylvopastoral 

system, trees 

Contact Address: Célia Maria Braga Sarmento, Rural Federal University of Amazon, Belem, Brazil, 

e-mail: celia_braga05@yahoo.com.br 

ID 448 219


Hurricane Wilma: When Lianas Protect Trees 

EDGARDO I. GARRIDO-PEREZ 1 , GERHARD GEROLD 1 , MARIO UCAN-MAY 2 

1 Institute of Geography, Goettingen University, Landscape Ecology, Germany 

2 Independent Contractor, Ejido Solferino, Quintana Roo, Mexico 

It has been proposed that global change increases hurricane’s frequency and liana 

abundance; and that lianas pull and break trees. Indeed, trees hosting live lianas 

should have a higher probability to be broken during hurricanes. We tested this when 

Hurricane Wilma stroke North Eastern Yucatan Peninsula (October 2005). There we 

have 6 pairs of 400m 2 forest plots. We marked and identified all trees ≥3,16 cm 

dbh and lianas ≥1 cm diameter at ground level. Before the hurricane we cut the 

lianas in one plot of each pair. We located: three, two and one pair of plots in the 

≥55yr, 18yr, and 10yr-old stands respectively. For the ≥55yr-old stands, the % of 

snapped-trunk trees was smaller in the liana-cut (4 %, SD=0,21), than in uncut plots 

(7 %, SD=2,17), suggesting that lianas “helped” the hurricane to snap trees. For the 

18yr-old stand, the hurricane snapped more trunks in the liana-cut plots (averages: 

liana-cut=8%; liana-uncut=1,3 % snapped trees), suggesting that lianas avoided treesnapping. 

The same occurred in the 10yr-old stand (liana-cut=9%; liana-uncut=2,7 % 

snapped-trees). Liana-cutting did not change the % of other damage types. For example, 

in the ≥55yr-old stands, the % of trees having only large branches remaining 

were: Liana-cut=0,8 % (SD=1,3), and liana-uncut= 1,3 % (SD=2,2). Dominant lianas 

were: Cydista spp and Arrabidaea spp (both soft-bodied Bignoniaceae, in the ≥55yrold 

stands), and Dalbergia glabra (heavy-bodied Papilionoidae, in both, 18- and 10yrold 

stands). We suggest D. glabra individuals functioned as “fixing-cables” avoiding 

snapping. Results suggest that liana-cutting before logging may be not-necessary and 

can be structurally detrimental in secondary forests in hurricane areas. 

Keywords: Hurricanes, Liana-cut, Mexico, tree-snapping 

Contact Address: Edgardo I. Garrido-Perez, Institute of Geography, Goettingen University, Landscape 

Ecology, Goldschmidtstr.5, 37077 Goettingen, Germany, e-mail: egarrid@gwdg.de 

220 ID 482


An Analysis of Spatial Forest Structure Using Neighbourhoodbased 

Variables 

OSCAR ALBERTO AGUIRRE CALDERON 1 , JAVIER JIMENEZ PEREZ 1 , JOSÉ JAVIER 

CORRAL RIVAS 2 

1 University of Nuevo Leon, Departament of Silviculture, Mexico 

2 Georg-August-University Göttingen, Institute of Forest Management, Germany 

The study presents an analysis of forest spatial structure and diversity in the Federal 

State of Durango where the majority of the forests consist of pure pine stands or pine 

mixed with oak. Natural forests of greater diversity and of high ecological significance 

are found only in a few isolated localities in the Santa Bárbara valley. These 

forests, with rare conifers including the genera Picea, Abies and Pseudotsuga are 

found on particular sheltered, humid sites. For one such rare site, a detailed analysis 

of forest spatial structure was made, based on three one-quarter hectare plots where 

all the trees and their coordinates had been assessed. The objective of the study was 

to provide a quantitative description of the spatial structure of the plots, using new 

parameters of spatial diversity and to present a method for comparative analysis of 

the three forest sites. The analysis is using a new approach for describing complex 

forest structures in a straightforward manner. To evaluate the spatial attributes, it is 

not necessary to measure distances between trees or to establish tree coordinates. The 

spatial characteristics can be established merely on the basis of evaluating the immediate 

neighbourhood of a given number of reference trees. The variables describe 

the distributions of spatial mingling, size differentiation and contagion, which can be 

easily interpreted allowing a better description and reproduction of the ecosystems, 

quantitative comparisons between complex forest structures, as well as the development 

of indicators of sustainability of forest resource management. This research was 

supported by the Consejo Nacional de Ciencia y Tecnología (CONACyT), Project: 

41181-Z, and by the Alexander von Humboldt Foundation. 

Keywords: Contagion, diameter differentiation, distribution, forest density, mingling 

Contact Address: Oscar Alberto Aguirre Calderon, University of Nuevo Leon, Departament of Silviculture, 

Carretera Nacional km. 145, 67700 Linares, Mexico, e-mail: oaguirre@fcf.uanl.mx 

ID 328 221


Tree Crown Structure in a Mixed Coniferous Forest in Mexico 

JAVIER JIMENEZ PEREZ, OSCAR ALBERTO AGUIRRE CALDERON, MARCO 

AURELIO GONZALEZ TAGLE 

University of Nuevo Leon, Departament of Silviculture, Mexico 

Characterisation of tree crown structure provides critical information to assess a variety 

of ecological conditions for multiple purposes and applications. For biomass 

growth, for example, tree crowns have basic physiological functions: assimilation, 

respiration, and transpiration. How tree crowns spatially interact and grow can bring 

about a seamless landscape of unique features and microclimatic conditions that are 

highly relevant to biological diversity, soil processes, productivity, wildlife habitats, 

ecosystem health and sustainability. Approaches to measuring tree crown structure 

and variability within multiple diameter distributions are particularly important in uneven-aged, 

multi-species natural stands. Results of using diameter distributions and 

various crown index measurements to describe their respective tree crown attributes 

and properties are presented and discussed. Specific patterns of values of these indices 

were found which suggest they have potential for use as indicators of crown structure 

complexity and variability across a wide spectrum of forest conditions and types. In 

light of these results, we also address the relevance of these results for forest inventory 

and monitoring programs. This research presents the results of indicators for tree 

crown structure in a mixed forest in Sierra Madre Oriental, México. Diameter, height, 

basal area and crown parameters of 504 trees were measured. Several crown indexes 

(crown width index, crown thickness index, crown spread ratio, crown projection area 

and crown surface area) were used. The ratio between the crown surface area regarding 

the surface area of the light crown and the crown projection area differs greatly 

between the tree species. The conclusion of this research is that mixed forests present 

a specific structure, in accordance with its stem parameters, diameter distribution, and 

crown indexes. This study was financially supported by Consejo Nacional de Ciencia 

y Tecnología and Comisión Nacional Forestal, through the project: “Análisis Estructural 

de los Ecosistemas de Pinus cembroides (Pino Piñonero) y su Aprovechamiento 

en el Estado de Nuevo León: 14660” and by Universidad Autónoma de Nuevo León. 

Keywords: Crown indices, forest structure, Mexico, mixed forests, tree crown 

Contact Address: Javier Jimenez Perez, University of Nuevo Leon, Departament of Silviculture, Carretera 

Nacional Km. 145, 67700 Linares, Mexico, e-mail: jjimenez@fcf.uanl.mx 

222 ID 343


Structural Development and Woody Species Composition Along a 

Fire Chronosequence in Mixed Pine-oak Forest of Northeast 

Mexico 

MARCO AURELIO GONZALEZ TAGLE, JAVIER JIMENEZ PEREZ, OSCAR 

ALBERTO AGUIRRE CALDERON 

University of Nuevo Leon, Departament of Silviculture, Mexico 

Although forest fires have become a critical question in Mexico following the fire 

season of 1998, there is little know regarding the effect of the forest fires on forest 

structure and composition, and dynamics in the mixed pine-oak forest in northern 

Mexico. Therefore, a chronosequence of sites with increasing time since fire were 

selected. This approach is very common studying the effects of forest fire on forest 

structure and succession as it is almost impossible to perform a real time series as 

one would have to wait for decades to obtain results. The accurate fire history was 

developed using tree ring analysis and fire scars. Increment cores were taken from 

P. teocote and P. pseudostrobus. The objectives of this study were to determinate how 

fire has shaped forest structure and composition in mixed pine-oak forest and describe 

trends and stages of structural development. Stand level vegetations characteristics, 

environmental data (solar radiation, slope, aspect and elevation) were analysed along 

a 134 year chronosequence at 23 sites in the mixed forest of the Sierra Madre Oriental. 

Detrended canonical analysis confirmed that the time since fire was correlated to 

most biotic variables and indicates that the disturbance regime is tightly coupled to 

ecosystem function. The study revealed that there were important differences between 

post-fire cohorts in terms of species richness, stand compositions and structure. High 

woody plant diversity was generally found in young stands, while the intermediate 

and major stands showed the lowest woody plant diversity. In old stands, woody plant 

diversity was increased again. In turn, the forest structure was less divers in young 

stands compared to intermediate, major and old stands. By exploring forest stand 

structure and composition in the context of ecosystem function we have addressed for 

the mixed pine-oak forests an overlooked topic in fire ecology science today. Finally, 

management of this mixed pine-oak forest should include some component of the natural 

disturbance regime to maintain forest health and a sustainable use of resources. 

Keywords: Chronosequence, fire ecology, forest structure, Mexico, Sierra Madre 

Oriental, structural development 

Contact Address: Marco Aurelio Gonzalez Tagle, University of Nuevo Leon, Departament of Silviculture, 

Apartado Postal #1, 67755 Linares, Mexico, e-mail: marco.gonzalez@web.de 

ID 356 223


Effects of Three Different Logging Regimes on the Stand 

Structure of Isoberlinia doka (Caesalpinaceae) and Local Forestry 

Income in Central Benin (West Africa) 

BETTINA ORTHMANN 1 , JOCHEN SCHÖNGART 2 , KLAUS HENNENBERG 1 , STEFAN 

POREMBSKI 1 

1 University of Rostock, Institute of Biosciences, Germany 

2 Max-Plank-Institute for Limnology, Plön, Tropical Ecology, 

Selective logging is the most frequent form of timber wood exploitation in the woodland-savannah 

mosaic in central Benin. The intensity of the selective logging activities 

has increased considerably in recent years though knowledge of the impact of 

selective logging on the woodland-savannah mosaic is sparse. In the presented study 

a modelling approach was chosen in order to test for effects of three different logging 

regimes on stand structure and local forestry income of Isoberlinia doka (Caesalpiniaceae) 

and local forestry income. The model was applied for woodlands with a high 

density of I. doka that are characteristic elements throughout the Guinea and Sudanian 

domain in West Africa The three logging regimes correspond to three scenarios 

developed in the IMPETUS-project (Integrated Approach for Efficient and Sustainable 

Use of Fresh Water in West Africa). The three scenarios reflect (A) economic 

growth and implementation of the decentralisation, (B) “business as usual”, and (C) 

economic stagnation and institutional uncertainty. For scenario A the stand structure 

developed towards a higher number of fertile individuals of I. doka. In scenario B 

stand structure stayed stable but showed a low number of fertile individuals of I. doka. 

Scenario C revealed the absence of fertile individuals and a strong decrease even for I. 

doka individuals of of medium size. Total local forestry income within the modelling 

period of 20 years was highest in scenario C (354 USD ha −1 ) followed by scenario 

B (230 USD ha −1 ) and lowest in scenario A (130 USD ha −1 ). However, in the last 

year of the modelling period (2025) local forestry income was high for scenario A 

(16 USD ha −1 ) and scenario B (15 USD ha −1 ), but extremely low in scenario C (3 

USD ha −1 ). The study shows that only scenario A represents an economically and 

ecologically optimised management that guarantees both a long-term economic benefit 

and a potential for natural regeneration of I. doka due to a sufficient number of 

fertile individuals. 

Keywords: Africa, conservation, forest management, forest-savannah mosaic, modelling, 

tree-ring analysis 

Contact Address: Bettina Orthmann, University of Rostock, Institute of Biosciences, Frankensteiner 

Str. 146, 64297 Darmstadt, Germany, e-mail: bettina.orthmann@biologie.uni-rostock.de 

224 ID 282


Groundnut / Cassava / Maize Intercrop Yields Over Three Cycles 

of a Fallow / Crop Rotation with Planted Senna spectabilis, 

Flemingia macrophylla and Dactyladenia barteri on Ultisol 

STEFAN HAUSER 


Three complete cycles of two years fallow followed by slash-and-burn land preparation 

and one year of groundnut/cassava/maize intercropping were conducted with 

Senna spectabilis, Flemingia macrophylla and Dactyladenia barteri planted hedgerow 

fallows versus no-tree control on an Ultisol in southern Cameroon to determine if 

yields of this most common subsistence field type can be increased. 

Groundnut grain yields were unaffected by fallow system in 1998 and 2001 and the 

sum of the three cropping years. Maize grain yield was unaffected by fallow system 

in 1998. In 2001 and 2004 maize grain yield was highest in the S. spectabilis 

system. Total maize grain yield across the three cropping years was higher in the 

F. macrophylla and S. spectabilis systems than in the D. barteri system. Cassava root 

yields were in all years and the sum of the three years unaffected by fallow system. 

Cassava root (1998, 2001) and groundnut grain (2001) yields had significant spatial responses 

to the distance from hedgerows, with yield increases with increasing distance 

from hedgerows. Annual biomass production of hedgerow prunings during cropping 

phases ranged from zero (D. barteri) to 3.4 Mg ha −1 (S. spectabilis). During the 

growth of groundnut and maize, hedgerows produced < 1Mg ha −1 in 1998, < 0.6 

Mg ha −1 in 2001 and < 0.8 Mg ha −1 at any individual pruning. Combined relative 

crop yields over the three cycles were lower in planted fallow than in no-tree control. 

The N export with groundnut and maize grain and cassava roots, as an indicator of 

crude protein production was lower in the planted hedgerow fallow systems than in 

no-tree control. The planted fallow hedgerow system appears unsuitable to improve 

crop yields because the nutrient supply from prunings is low due to their low biomass 

production. Yet on short distances, the spatial response of cassava and groundnut indicates 

competition between hedgerows and crops, which was most pronounced on 

cassava and groundnut in the S. spectabilis system. The crop combination appears 

incompatible with planted hedgerow trees as benefits realised by the maize were outweighed 

by losses in groundnut. 

Keywords: Cameroon, cassava, Dactyladenia barteri, Flemingia macrophylla, groundnut, 

maize, Senna spectibilis, subsistence agriculture, Ultisol 



ID 62 225


Biomass Production, Nutrient Uptake and Partitioning in Planted 

Senna spectabilis, Flemingia macrophylla and Dactyladenia barteri 

Fallow Systems Over Three Fallow/Cropping Cycles on Ultisol 

STEFAN HAUSER 


Six years after establishment and after 5 consecutive maize / cassava intercrops, an 

alley cropping (hedgerow intercropping) experiment on Ultisol in southern Cameroon 

was converted to a two-year fallow, one-year groundnut/maize/cassava intercropping 

system. Biomass production and nutrient uptake of all components in planted Senna 

spectabilis, Dactyladenia barteri and Flemingia macrophylla hedgerow fallow were 

determined after three two-year fallow phases and compared to natural fallow. 

Total above-ground biomass dry matter production by the end of each of the three fallow 

phases was significantly higher in the S. spectabilis system than any other system, 

due to the significantly higher biomass production of the S. spectabilis. Total above 

ground biomass production in the F. macrophylla and the D. barteri systems was not 

different from that in natural fallow. The volunteer biomass between hedgerows was 

only once significantly reduced by S. spectabilis during the first fallow phase. The 

amount of litter did not differ between fallow systems. The biomass of S. spectabilis, 

F. macrophylla and D. barteri comprised 96, 95 and 65 % wood, respectively. Relative 

to the total biomass, wood constituted 67 % in S. spectabilis and about 20 % in 

F. macrophylla and D. barteri systems. 

Except for Mg, the S. spectabilis system accumulated more nutrients in above ground 

biomass than any other system. The highest nutrient uptake achieved in the S. spectabilis 

system was 335 kg ha −1 N, 331 kg ha −1 Ca, 230 kg ha −1 K, and 39 kg ha −1 P. Relative 

to the S. spectabilis system, nutrient accumulation, except for Mg, was the lowest 

in the natural fallow control followed by the F. macrophylla and the D. barteri system. 

In F. macrophylla and S. spectabilis, 95 % and 85 % of the nutrients were accumulated 

in the wood. In D. barteri the nutrient distribution between leaves and wood 

was approximately equal. Export of the hedgerow wood would remove between 9 

and 16 % of the nutrients accumulated in the F. macrophylla and D. barteri systems 

but between 27 and 53 % in the S. spectabilis system. 

Keywords: Dactyladenia barteri, fallow, Flemingia macrophylla, nutrient accumulation, 

planted fallow, Senna spectabilis, Ultisol, wood export 



226 ID 63


Participatory Domestication of Prunus caspica Kov. & Ekin 

KOROUS KHOSHBAKHT 1 , KARL HAMMER 2 

1 University of Shahid Beheshti, ESRI, Department of Ecological Agriculture, Iran 

2 University of Kassel, Agro-Biodiversity, Germany 

In contrast to the widely cultivated agricultural and horticultural crops of the world 

that have been domesticated for millennia, the initiatives to domesticate some of the 

indigenous fruit trees in different regions are starting now with wild, or virtually wild, 

gene pools. Hyrcanian forest region is located in southern of the Caspian Sea. Indigenous 

people living in rural areas depend on the wild fruit trees in their diet. They use 

them as table fruit, conserve and local food as well as folk medicine. Throughout the 

area, there are indigenous species that produce locally important fruits and other nontimber 

forest products that have the potential to be domesticated to provide economic 

and livelihood benefits to subsistence farmers. Their commercial importance has led 

farmers to identify some of these indigenous species as candidates for domestication. 

Prunus caspica, which is locally named ”toresh hali � � �� 

�� ” is an indigenous fruit 

tree occurring in the Caspian coast of Iran and Caucasian. Semi-cultivated individual 

plants for its edible fruits have been planted in home gardens of the area indicating 

furthering domestication of this species. The fresh fruit with 2–4 cm in diameter is 

part of the diet of people in the fruiting season. The fruits are eaten raw or used to prepare 

a local tart candy. It traditionally was prepared by heating of the fruits for a long 

time, but today because of more demand, small factories for preparation of this have 

been established. As demand for fruits and other products is increasing, the supply of 

fruits from forests is threatened by increasing deforestation. This situation is seriously 

threatening food and germplasm security and calls for urgent action aimed to expand 

domestication and cultivation of this species. To be successful, tree domestication 

should provide farmers with both food security and opportunities for cash generation. 

Participatory domestication allows farmers to be the beneficiaries and guardians of 

the use of their indigenous knowledge. This approach conforms to the aims of the 

Convention on Biological Diversity that seeks to protect the rights of local people to 

their indigenous knowledge and germplasm. 

Keywords: Domestication, Hyrcanian forest region , indigenous knowledge, Iran 

Contact Address: Korous Khoshbakht, University of Shahid Beheshti, ESRI, Department of Ecological 

Agriculture, Tehran, Iran, e-mail: kkhoshbakht@yahoo.com 

ID 49 227


Predicting Canopy Temperature Distribution Within the Canopies 

of Tropical Fruit Trees Based on Thermographic Measurements 

WOLFRAM SPREER 1 , CORNELIUS JANTSCHKE 1 , PATUMPORN TIYAYON 2 , 

PITTAYA SRUAMSIRI 3 , JOACHIM MÜLLER 1 


2 Chiang Mai University, Department of Horticulture, Thailand 

Thermal imaging is a potential tool for estimating plant temperature, which can be 

used as an indicator of stomatal closure and water deficit stress. For the field use, 

however, devices are not commonly affordable. In this study, thermal photographs 

have been used to develop a reference scheme which allows predicting the temperature 

distribution within the canopy of fruit trees. Based on this, drought stress can be 

determined by use of common infrared (IR) thermometry. 

With mango (Mangifera indica L.) and longan (Dimocarpus longan, Lour.), two of 

the most important fruit crops of northern Thailand, commercially produced under 

irrigation, have been selected. Two field experiments and one greenhouse experiment 

were surveyed with a thermal camera (Infratec VarioCAM). Different levels of water 

supply, different canopy shapes and the respective temperature distribution within the 

canopy were analyzed. A wet cloth and a latex coated leaf served as wet and dry 

reference, respectively. Thermographic data was evaluated with “Irbis professional 

2.2” software. Climate data (air temperature, wind speed, relative humidity and global 

radiation) were recorded in the same intervals as thermal photographs were taken. 

Light penetration through the canopy was taken as a measure for the leaf area. Leaf 

transpiration was measured by use of a porometer for leaves exposed to sunlight and 

in the shade. 

It was shown that leaves at the outer area of the canopy have a stronger cooling effect 

by transpiration, which maintains the temperature at a rather constant level, while inner 

leaves and not transpiring plant parts heat up in the curse of the day. Gradients 

were worked out for different shapes of canopy, in order to predict the spatial temperature 

distribution within the three dimensional body of the canopy. Predicted values 

are being compared to field measurements with IR thermometry. 

Keywords: Canopy shape, infrared thermometry, longan, mango, stomatal resistance, 

water supply 



228 ID 497

Water Management and Hydrology 

DARYA ZAVGORODNYAYA: 

Do Farmers Manage their Irrigation System after Transfer 

of Responsibilities? lessons from Uzbek Water Users 

Associations. 231 

ELKE HERRFAHRDT: 

Water Governance Reforms in the Kyrgyz Republic 232 

BERNHARD TISCHBEIN, CHRISTOPHER CONRAD, GAVHAR 

PALUASHEVA, IRINA FORKUTSA, MIRZAKHAYOT IBRAKHI- 

MOV, JOHN LAMERS, CHRISTOPHER MARTIUS, PAUL L. G. 

VLEK: 

Integrated Water Management Options Towards Improving 

Water Use Efficiency: the Case of a Sub-unit of the 

Khorezm Irrigation and Drainage System in Uzbekistan 233 

MOHAMMAD AZIZUR RAHMAN, JACKSON ROEHRIG, LI- 

JALEM ZERAY: 

Estimation of Potential Recharge and Groundwater Resources 

- A Case Study in Low Barid Area, Bangladesh 234 

SANCE LIPU, GERHARD GEROLD: 

Hydrological and Suspended Sediment Concentration Study 

in a Small Rainforest Catchment (a Case Study in Nopu 

Catchment in Central Sulawesi, Indonesia) 235 

JEAN-PIERRE SANDWIDI, JANOS BOGARDI, PAUL L. G. 

VLEK, NICK VAN DE GIESEN, CHARLES RODGERS: 

Groundwater Potential Evaluation in the Kompienga Dam 

Basin by Chloride Mass Balance Approach 236 

LIJALEM ZERAY, JACKSON ROEHRIG, DILNESAW ALAMIREW 

CHEKOL: 

Climate Change Impact on Lake Ziway Watershed’s Water 

Availability, Ethiopia 237 

MARION SCHOPP: 

Water Consumption in Private Households in Benin 238 

KRISHNA REDDY KAKUMANU, SIEGFRIED BAUER, T. S. 

AMJATH BABU: 

Participatory Irrigation Management through Moral Suasion: 

A Case Study Comparing the Formal and Informal 

Organisational Structures 239 

229


230 

HEP SOKHANNARO: 

Assessment of Perceptions and Attitudes Changes of the 

Post-tsunami Community on the Use of Aquatic Resources 

in Ranong Province, Thailand 240 

KONRAD VIELHAUER, ALMUT BRUNNER, PAUL L. G. VLEK: 

Dammed-up Problems: Challenges and Difficulties in Smallholder 

Irrigation Agriculture in Southwestern Burkina Faso 241


Do Farmers Manage their Irrigation System after Transfer of 

Responsibilities? lessons from Uzbek Water Users Associations. 

DARYA ZAVGORODNYAYA 

University of Osnabrück, Germany 

The process of irrigation water reforms on farmers’ behaviour in Uzbekistan is analysed. 

The research question addressed the design, implementation and further activities 

of water users associations (WUA) as the water supply organisation connecting 

governmental and farmers’ responsibilities. 

Qualitative data was collected by semi-structured interviews, primary observations, 

participatory rural approach and standardised questionnaire while focusing on stakeholders’ 

perception towards WUAs. Stakeholders consisted of local officials, scientists, 

local and international experts and members of WUAs. Special attention was 

placed on the functioning of WUAs’ during 2003 to 2005. By 2004 the average irrigated 

area of the WUAs in Khorezm was 2 400 ha, and the average number of WUA 

members was 143 irrigators. The range of the irrigated land of WUAs in Khorezm 

varies from 1 232 ha (in Pitnayk) to 4 096 ha (in Gurlen). The minimum number of 

WUA members (45 farmers) was observed in Pitnayk, the maximum in Shavat, where 

one WUA includes 240 farmers. 

The results showed that the functioning of a WUA depended on a score of managereal 

topics, qualifications which lacked WUA’s, farmers’ and state’s sides all together. 

WUAs have been created by a strong top-down approach causing weak decision-making 

and low acceptance from members. Members suffered from a lack of information 

about the purposes and roles of WUAs. The state did not liberalise prices on agricultural 

commodities . The result showed furthermore that farmers followed own rules of 

(non-)coping with the newly established WUAs, such as a developed social networking 

between members of a WUA. This was rooted in the historical, traditional and 

post-soviet experience of irrigation systems management. The lack of possibilities to 

determine the type and amount of their production or to sell agricultural products on 

markets of their choice, does obstruct a smooth and rapid adaptation of farmers to a 

WUA imposed by the administration. 

Keywords: Participatory management, transition 

Contact Address: Darya Zavgorodnyaya, University of Osnabrück, Am Hardtbach 35, Alfter, Germany, 

e-mail: daryaz@web.de 

ID 524 231


Water Governance Reforms in the Kyrgyz Republic 

ELKE HERRFAHRDT 

German Development Institute, Department IV: Natural Resource Management and Environmental 

Policy, Germany 

Water scarcity is a problem facing all Central Asian republics, which are highly dependent 

on irrigation agriculture. It is calling for solutions in the form of changing 

old and developing new institutions at the international, national and local levels. This 

paper focuses on reforms and institutional changes in the Kyrgyz water governance. 

It is based on empirical data generated with the help of a country working group 

of the DIE postgraduate training course. The Kyrgyz agricultural sector is the most 

advanced among the Central Asian countries with regard to the implementation of 

Integrated Water Resources Management (IWRM). Despite the fact that IWRM is underlying 

many donor programmes in Kyrgyzstan and most reforms in the region, I 

argue that achievements are far from satisfactory. Preliminary results of the reform 

process suggest partial or no implementation. Regarding decentralisation progress has 

formally been made but the newly built organizations (e.g. Water User Associations) 

are still dominated by old organizations such as the Departments of Water Management 

(DWM). Old (informal) institutional and mental patterns also prevent progress 

with respect to participation. Moreover, many relevant policymakers and stakeholders 

are not aware of the IWRM concept. Accordingly, decentralisation and participation 

are underdeveloped. This means that Central Asian governments, donor organisations 

and researchers need to put more emphasis on the fields of sustainable institution and 

capacity building as well as on the distribution of information among all stakeholders. 

For only when water management problems at the local and national levels are solved 

can there be scope for achieving international solutions. 

Keywords: Agriculture, Integrated Water Resource Management, irrigation, IWRM, 

Kyrgyz Republic, water governance, water management 

Contact Address: Elke Herrfahrdt, German Development Institute, Department IV: Natural Resource 

Management and Environmental Policy, Tulpenfeld 4, 53113 Bonn, Germany, e-mail: elke.herrfahrdt@ 

die-gdi.de 

232 ID 38


Integrated Water Management Options Towards Improving 

Water Use Efficiency: the Case of a Sub-unit of the Khorezm 

Irrigation and Drainage System in Uzbekistan 

BERNHARD TISCHBEIN 1 , CHRISTOPHER CONRAD 2 , GAVHAR PALUASHEVA 1 , 

IRINA FORKUTSA 1 , MIRZAKHAYOT IBRAKHIMOV 1 , JOHN LAMERS 1 , 

CHRISTOPHER MARTIUS 1 , PAUL L. G. VLEK 1 


2 University of Wuerzburg, Geography/Remote Sensing, Germany 

The performance of many irrigation systems in arid and semi-arid regions is far below 

expectations, which is indicated by high water input, insufficient yields (as a 

consequence: low water use efficiency) and severe impacts on the water and soil resources. 

The required increase of food production in the coming decades needs to be 

realised to a large degree on irrigated lands under the existing restrictions of water 

availabilty (‘more crop per drop’) and given an increased competition. At the same 

time, it is feared, that water availability is becoming even more problematic due to 

global change. All this leads to a strong need to improve the water use efficiency 

while taking the requirements of further water users and environmental aspects into 

consideration. 

The Khorezm irrigation and drainage system in the lower Amu Darya basin is a typical 

example with a very drastic dimension of the current problems. In the context of the 

ZEF/UNESCO-Project aiming at the restructuring of land and water use towards a 

sustainable and economically feasible situation, the current irrigation and leaching 

strategies on field level and medium-size areas have been analyzed. Approaches to 

raise water use efficiency must start from the field level and consider concurrently 

the system operation by e.g. irrigation scheduling models. To reduce the root zone 

salinisation caused by shallow groundwater, to increase the effectiveness of leaching, 

and to evaluate the option of conjunctive use, the drainage system (operation and 

design) was considered to develop an integrated water management approach. 

Based on a monitoring programme and model simulations, irrigation efficiencies are 

estimated (in the range of 30 %) and steps (regarding the full range of operation, maintenance 

and re-design) towards the improvement of water use efficiency are conceived. 

Although the concepts are related to a special site, the approach can be seen as a 

promising contribution regarding the situation of many irrigation and drainage systems 

in arid and semi-arid regions. 

Keywords: Drainage, integrated water management, irrigation, Uzbekistan, water 

use efficiency 

Contact Address: Bernhard Tischbein, University of Bonn, Center for Development Research (ZEF), 

Walter-Flex-Strasse 3, 53113 Bonn, Germany, e-mail: tischbein@uni-bonn.de 

ID 466 233


Estimation of Potential Recharge and Groundwater Resources - A 

Case Study in Low Barid Area, Bangladesh 

MOHAMMAD AZIZUR RAHMAN, JACKSON ROEHRIG, LIJALEM ZERAY 

University of Applied Sciences Cologne, Institute for Technology in the Tropics, Germany 

The study area consists of eight upazillas of north-west region of Bangladesh. This 

is one of the driest part of Bangladesh, normally less rain from November to April. 

The study area has been irrigated using about 2000 Deep Tubewells. It covers only 

80 % of the total cultivable area. The remaining 20 % area is planned to cover by 

installation of additional Deep Tubewell under Bangladesh Multipurpose Development 

Authority (BMDA). To ensure long term sustainability the consequences of the 

groundwater development in the region need to be analyzed. This study tried to explore 

the appropriate modelling technique to increase agricultural production through 

optimal utilisation of available water resources using MODFLOW. From the study it 

can be seen that groundwater resources are inadequate in Raninagar, Durgapur and 

Puthia upazillas of the study area. Present withdrawals of groundwater to fulfil the 

requirement of Boro in excess of potential recharges and available resources have created 

the tendency of continuous lowering of groundwater level in these 3 Upazillas. 

The deficit indicates a non-sustainable situation with increasing draw down. 80 % 

coverage of Boro for all cultivable land of Upazillas will incur an additional draw 

down, for which, quite a large number of shallow Tubewell need to be replaced by 

Deep Tubewell. Monitoring of groundwater level in these Upazillas need to be carefully 

continued for future action. Vertical percolation of rainwater is the main source 

of groundwater; increasing duration of percolation time and area by construction of 

water control structures on the rivers and Kharies will increase groundwater recharge. 

There is a possibility of increase of groundwater recharge by conservation of surface 

water in rivers and kharies in the post monsoon by retention structures. Conjunctive 

use of surface water —groundwater irrigation should be promoted and a conjunctive 

water allocation plan must be established. 

Keywords: Bangladesh, Groundwater, irrigation , Low Barind, Modflow, Recharge 

potential 

Contact Address: Mohammad Azizur Rahman, University of Applied Sciences Cologne, Institute 

for Technology in the Tropics, Wetzlarer Strasse.18 Zimmer-11, 51105 Koeln, Germany, e-mail: 

azizur1978@yahoo.com 

234 ID 463


Hydrological and Suspended Sediment Concentration Study in a 

Small Rainforest Catchment (a Case Study in Nopu Catchment in 

Central Sulawesi, Indonesia) 

SANCE LIPU, GERHARD GEROLD 

Georg-August-Universität Göttingen, Department of Landscape Ecology, Germany 

Hydrological and SSC characteristic in the Nopu catchment is strongly related to the 

land use changing, topographical condition and the rainfall intensity. Forest conversion 

and land clearing, leads to higher overall runoff and SSC particularly during the 

rain events. 

The aims of the study are to foresee the effect of land use changing on the hydrological 

pattern, to investigate the suspended sediment concentration and total output in 

temporal and spatial basis. 

Three weirs have been constructed at the outlet of each river-section but we focus only 

at weir 2 and 3 represent the slash and burn and natural rainforest sub-catchment. In 

order to understand good relation between land-use changing, hydrological processes 

and suspended load, a number of hydrometric sensors were installed. The data were 

used in this study are water level, turbidity in relation to the discharge and total suspended 

sediment in respective time. Moreover, the suspended sediment samples were 

taken automatically at weir 2. 

Higher SSC exist in weir 2 by 1.4 to 1.5 times higher than at weir 3. The total annual 

runoff in weir 2 and 3 at year 2002 and 2004 shows, despite lower rainfall amount in 

2004, there was an increasing in runoff of about 219 mm at weir 2. 

Soil compaction processes, fast growing of imperata and young secondary forest in 

the study area results on higher runoff but lower SSC in comparison at weir 2 and 

3 in year 2002 and 2004. The highest discharge at weir 2 was 1.821 m 3 sec −1 (with 

h = 0.529 m) with the highest turbidity of 962 NTU, whereas at weir 3, the highest 

discharge was 0.440 m 3 sec −1 (h = 0.384 m) with the turbidity value of 515.5 NTU. 

TSS at weir 2 was ± 186.5 ton (1.61 tha −1 ) whilst at weir 3 was ± 3.54 ton (0.043 

tha −1 ). In 2002, higher output due to the higher overall rainfall intensity and the ratio 

between the SSC output at weir 2 in 2002 was ± 13-folds higher than one at weir 3 

and in 2004 the ratio was jump to 37 times 

Keywords: Rainforest catchment, runoff, suspended sediment concentration [SSC], 

total suspended solid [TSS], turbidity 

Contact Address: Sance Lipu, Georg-August-Universität Göttingen, Department of Landscape Ecology, 

Goldschmidt Straße 5, 37077 Göttingen, Germany, e-mail: sancelipu@yahoo.com 

ID 281 235


Groundwater Potential Evaluation in the Kompienga Dam Basin 

by Chloride Mass Balance Approach 

JEAN-PIERRE SANDWIDI 1 , JANOS BOGARDI 2 , PAUL L. G. VLEK 1 , NICK VAN DE 

GIESEN 3 , CHARLES RODGERS 1 

1 University of Bonn, Centre for Development Research (ZEF), Germany 

2 United Nations University for Education and Human Security (UNU-EHS), Germany 

3 TUDelft, Delft, The Netherlands 

Water scarcity constrains socio-economic development in the sahelian country of 

Burkina Faso. During dry periods, residents have utilised groundwater to secure access 

to drinking water. Groundwater is accessed via hand-dug wells and, since the 

1970’s, first via modern wells and later on boreholes equipped with manual pumps 

provided by governmental and non-governmental organisations. Insufficient knowledge 

of groundwater resources has led to low success rates in exploitation, however, 

and groundwater resource evaluation appears to be a prerequisite for sustainable water 

management. This article presents an evaluation of groundwater potential within 

a watershed of 5900 ha in Eastern Burkina Faso. The results are derived from 18 

months of field work in which water was sampled monthly during the rainy season 

from rain gauges, piezometers and boreholes with hand pump. Deep groundwater 

from boreholes was also collected during dry season. More than 100 samples were 

collected from 4 characteristic sites in the research watershed and sent for laboratory 

analysis for chloride ion concentration. 

The climatic water balance was determined based on careful field measurements. 

Stream discharges were measured using divers, precipitation and other climatic data 

were collected from rain gauges and weather station. In addition, Eddy Correlation 

(EC) data were used to infer evapotranspiration. 

These data have supported an estimate of groundwater potential using chloride mass 

balance approach, which has been supplemented and validated using the equations of 

water balance method. The groundwater potential which reflects the annual recharge 

estimates will assist in efforts to provide sustainable and reliable water supplies within 

the basin and the country. 

Keywords: Chloride mass balance, groundwater potential, water balance 

Contact Address: Jean-Pierre Sandwidi, University of Bonn, Centre for Development Research (ZEF), 

Walter-Flex-Str.3, 53113 Bonn, Germany, e-mail: wsandjp@yahoo.fr 

236 ID 94


Climate Change Impact on Lake Ziway Watershed’s Water 

Availability, Ethiopia 

LIJALEM ZERAY 1 , JACKSON ROEHRIG 1 , DILNESAW ALAMIREW CHEKOL 2 

1 University of Applied Sciences Cologne, Institute of Technology in the Tropics, Germany 

2 University of Bonn, Center of Development Research, Germany 

Lake Ziway, an Ethiopian Rift Valley Lake, is located about 160kms south of the capital 

city, Addis Ababa, between 7°51’N to 8°7’N and 38°43’E to 38°57’E. It has an 

open water area of 434km 2 and average depth of 4 m. The area is characterised by 

semi-arid to sub-humid climate with mean annual precipitation and temperature of 

650mm and 25°C, respectively. The lake watershed, which covers an area of about 

7300km 2 , is composed of two main rivers flowing in to the lake, Meki and Katar, 

and one river flowing out of the lake, Bulbula. To estimate the level of impact of 

climate change on the watershed’s water availability, climate change scenarios were 

developed for four future periods of 25 years until the year 2099 using the outputs of 

HadCM3 coupled atmosphere-ocean GCM model. These outputs were downscaled 

to the watershed scale through the application of the SDSM model. Generally, both 

precipitation and temperature show an increasing trend from the 1981–2000 (base period) 

level. It is estimated that the average monthly and annual precipitation in the 

watershed might increase by up to 29 % and 9.4 %, respectively. Besides, the average 

maximum temperature might rise up to 3.6°C, and 1.95°C; and the average minimum 

temperature 4.2°C and 2°C monthly and annually, respectively. These changes of 

the climate variables were applied to SWAT hydrological model to simulate future 

flows. The simulation result reveals that, except during the 2001–2025 period, the 

total average annual inflow volume into Lake Ziway might decline significantly by up 

to 19.47 % for A2a- and 27.43 % for B2a-scenarios. This combined with the unbalanced 

supply-demand equation in the watershed is expected to have significant impact 

on the lake water balance. This could even worsen the recent lake level fluctuation 

and aerial coverage contraction. Hence, in Lake Ziway Watershed, runoff is likely to 

decrease in the future and be insufficient to meet future demands for water of the ever 

increasing population in the region. 

Keywords: A2a, B2a, Ethiopia, GCM, HadCM3, Lake Ziway, Rift Valley, Scenario, 

SDSM, SWAT, Water balance, Watershed 

Contact Address: Lijalem Zeray, University of Applied Sciences Cologne, Institute of Technology in 

the Tropics, Hahnenstr. 21b-003, 50354 Hürth, Efferen, Germany, e-mail: lijalemz@yahoo.com 

ID 481 237


Water Consumption in Private Households in Benin 

MARION SCHOPP 

University of Bonn, Institute of Agriculture Policy, Market Research and Economics, 

Germany 

Benin, a small country in West-Africa, doesn’t fall in the category of water scarcity. 

There are villages with lots of wells or pumps, but there are many cases in which the 

conditions are not ideal. In the case of the dry season the wells may fall dry, which 

cause longer ways than during the rainy season. Compared to water consumption in 

urban areas many of the households have the possibility of getting access to water 

pipes. But often the standpipes have to be considered as a status symbol. Even if 

the households are equipped with water pipes, they are not used in several regions. 

Based on this background information an analysis of water consumption in different 

areas was made in the framework of an interdisciplinary study (Hadjer, Klein, Schopp, 

2005) by the IMPETUS project. 

Two hypotheses have to be proved: 

1. Water consumption is a linear function to the household size. 

2. There is a correlation between main age of the household members and the water 

consumption. 

Regarding important criteria like economic status (rich or poor), demographic status 

(monogamy or polygamy), water access (kind of sources in villages, peripheries and 

towns) and seasonality (rainy and dry season as well as short-term strategy of the 

household members) some correlations could be found: 

If the raw data were classified, water consumption from nearly 19 litres could be 

considered. As expected furthermore the consumption of rich households was much 

higher than of the poor ones. However, the water consumption seems to be higher 

in the rainy season than in the dry season even though their domestic need is much 

increased in the dry season. 

These results indicate that water consumption was influenced by a lot of various factors. 

Programmes aiming for improving the current water situation in Benin need to 

consider carefully the specific socio demographic and socio economic conditions as 

well as the preferred taste of different water sources. 

Keywords: Benin, household, water consumption, water consumption per capita, water 

scarcity 

Contact Address: Marion Schopp, University of Bonn, Institute of Agriculture Policy, Market Research 

and Economics, Nussallee 21, Bonn, Germany, e-mail: schopp@agp.uni-bonn.de 

238 ID 59


Participatory Irrigation Management through Moral Suasion: A 

Case Study Comparing the Formal and Informal Organisational 

Structures 

KRISHNA REDDY KAKUMANU 1 , SIEGFRIED BAUER 1 , T. S. AMJATH BABU 2 

1Justus-Liebig-Universität Giessen, Institute of Agriculture and Food Systems Management, 

Germany 

2Justus Liebig University, Institute of Agricultural Policy and Market Research, Germany 

The decreasing trend observed in the area irrigated by traditional water harvesting 

structures, mainly irrigation tanks in the last four decades is quite opposite to the trend 

shown by the area under bore well irrigation, which is expanding radically and is comparable 

with area covered under major and medium irrigation projects. This shift in 

usage pattern of irrigation water is mainly attributed to the state interference in operation 

and maintenance of traditional irrigation structures and the biased provision of the 

share of the state irrigation budget to major and medium projects. The development 

of new technologies for groundwater pumping added woes to it. Recently some state 

governments of India are implementing the policy of free electricity for agricultural 

purposes to retain their vote bank in rural areas where majority of voters are farmers. 

This in turn causes an decrease in stabilisation value leading to over exploitation of 

groundwater resource. In such situations managing the common property resources 

like irrigation tanks is a difficult task exacerbated with the present political oriented 

Water Users Associations (WUAs) structure. So under these present circumstances, 

the current study attempts to find a solution by employing moral suasion (creating 

awareness, training, educating and voluntary compliance) which can be an effective 

alternative approach to combat this problem and to encourage the farmers to operate 

and maintain common property resources. As a part of this a case study was carried 

out in Nalgonda district of Andhra Pradesh, India for comparing the modus operandi 

of formal and informal WUAs, which is a part of Participatory Irrigation Management 

(PIM). The results show that the area commanded by tank irrigation has substantially 

increased under the informal WUA due to rehabilitation of their irrigation tanks and 

developing them into a cascade. This in turn had an influence on yield of groundwater 

pumps in the area as well. The formal one is unable to manage this for long term due 

to lack of funds and burocratic supervision of Irrigation department. This paper also 

suggests a modified structure of WUAs for better managerial efforts. 

Keywords: Irrigation tanks, moral suasion, stabilisation value, water users association 

Contact Address: Krishna Reddy Kakumanu, Justus-Liebig-Universität Giessen, Institute of Agriculture 

and Food Systems Management, Senckenbergstr.3, 35390 Gießen, Germany, e-mail: kittu_ 

kakumanu@rediffmail.com 

ID 421 239


Assessment of Perceptions and Attitudes Changes of the Posttsunami 

Community on the Use of Aquatic Resources in Ranong 

Province, Thailand 

HEP SOKHANNARO 

Royal University of Agriculture, Faculty of Fishery and Aquaculture, Cambodia 

Fisheries is an important issue because of severely declining stocks driven by world 

market demands. While worries about unlimited extraction of resources have lead 

to a number of measures being tested, most attempts have been unsuccessful. The 

December 2004 Tsunami affected coastal people severely. However, it may provides 

us a small window of opportunity to divert attention from going back to fishing if 

the fisheries are provided with alternative livelihood options. The objective of this 

study was to understand whether and how the perceptions and attitudes toward fishing 

in coastal areas may have changed since the tsunami. Five coastal villages in 

Ranong Province, Thailand were selected because most of impacted people are fishermen 

or coastal aquatic resources users. A combination of research tools was applied 

including RRA, field observation, a semi-structured questionnaire and key informant 

interviews; all applied to measure perceptions and attitudes of the local community. 

A total of 247 households were contacted, with 494 responses. The analyses indicate 

that, the recently Tsunami disaster did not influence changes of community’s perceptions 

and attitudes, in particular elder fishermen, in terms of going back to fishing. It 

was also noted that the majority of fishermen still highly satisfied with their occupation 

in the hope that fishery resources still available for them. The satisfactions were 

confirmed with the indicators that fishermen would reinvest in fishing once they have 

opportunity even their love one or they were severely injured, their fishing facilities 

were totally destroyed, and their properties were completely damaged by the disaster. 

The important reasons for not adopting an alternative occupation for these fisher 

folks relate to fishing as their main source of income, their low levels of educations, 

the high number of years of experience they have in fishing, and their age. It is difficult 

to convert them to have alternative occupations which are not related to fishery 

activities. There is a need to provide alternative sources of income, to relieve dependency 

on coastal resources or it should have some of the same characteristics as those 

considered desirable in fishing. 

Keywords: Aquatic resources, community perception, Post-Tsunami effect 

Contact Address: Hep Sokhannaro, Royal University of Agriculture, Faculty of Fishery and Aquaculture, 

Chamkar Daung Dangkor District, Phnom Penh, Cambodia, e-mail: vathana20@yahoo.com 

240 ID 84


Dammed-up Problems: Challenges and Difficulties in Smallholder 

Irrigation Agriculture in Southwestern Burkina Faso 

KONRAD VIELHAUER, ALMUT BRUNNER, PAUL L. G. VLEK 


The adequate distribution of water over time as well as its efficient use is one of the 

major challenges for irrigation agriculture in southwestern Burkina Faso. Although 

an average annual rainfall of about 900 mm would be high enough to assure sufficient 

yields in agriculture in general and to account for food production for the 13.9 million 

inhabitants of Burkina Faso in specific, the unevenly distributed rainfall leads to 

severe water allocation problems during the dry season. Small dams are so far the 

most commonly used practice to store rainfall water in the rainy season and to enable 

irrigation agriculture in the dry season. During the last 20 years, the number of reservoirs 

in Burkina Faso has increased from 186 in 1985 to more than 600 in 2006 and 

construction of new dams continue to be sponsored by a great number of donors. 

The questions to raise in this paper is, in which way these micro dams may be a 

viable option particularly to small-farmers, given the problems of farmers’ capacity to 

organise themselves effectively in addition to agro-ecological and economic concerns. 

Therefore, this study exemplifies the ecological and technological potentials and limitations 

of small dams in southwestern Burkina Faso in order to illustrate their agroeconomical 

constraints and benefits for small-scale irrigation systems. For example, 

although some small dams were only built recently, erosion and siltation problems 

are already visible, which is indicated by changes in reservoir morphology. Water discharge 

measurements show that these changes in sediment budget have a considerable 

effect on relative evaporation losses in correlation to water volume and water storage 

capacity. 

On the other hand agro-economical potentials and limitations are studied, concerning 

the spatial and temporal relations between the flooded land surface to the utilised irrigation 

perimeters and the number of cropping cycles without irrigation to the number 

of cropping cycles with irrigation, crop profitability, water use efficiency as well as 

farmers’ organisation and management structures. 

Keywords: Crop profitability, erosion, farmers’ organisation , irrigation agriculture, 

off-season crop, rice, silting, small reservoirs 

Contact Address: Konrad Vielhauer, University of Bonn, Center for Development Research (ZEF), 

Walter-Flex-Straße 3, 53113 Bonn, Germany, e-mail: kvielhau@uni-bonn.de 

ID 515 241


242 ID 515

Water and Waste Management 

ANDREA RECHENBURG, SUSANNE HERBST: 

Hygienic Aspects of Sanitation and Water in the Rural Areas 

of the Mekong Delta, Vietnam 244 

KLAUS UWE, JOACHIM CLEMENS, UTE ARNOLD: 

Wastewater Management and Ecological Sanitation at Can 

Tho University, Mekong Delta, Vietnam 245 

UTE ARNOLD, JULIA FUCHS, ANDREA RECHENBURG, TIEN 

TRAN KHUU, JOACHIM CLEMENS: 

Evaluation of the Waste Water Treatment Efficiency from 

Small Scale Biogas Systems in the Mekong-delta 246 

JULIA FUCHS, UTE ARNOLD, TIEN TRAN KHUU, JOACHIM 

CLEMENS: 

Evaluation of Small Scale Biogas Systems in the Mekong-delta 247 

SHYAM PARIYAR, SEBASTIAN WULF: 

Influence of Enzyme Addition and Substrate Loading on 

the Efficiency of Biogas Production 248 

PHONG NGUYEN THANH, TUAN LE ANH, D. V. NI, CARSTEN 

CUHLS, UTE ARNOLD, JOACHIM CLEMENS: 

Urine Separation and Urine Treatment to Produce a Mineral 

Fertiliser 249 

UDOMPORN PANGNAKORN: 

Valuable Added the Agricultural Waste for Farmers Using 

in Organic Farming Groups in Phitsanulok, Thailand 250 

HOSSEIN SABAHI, AMIR GHALAVAND: 

Effect of Manure, Inorganic Fertiliser and Manure-fertiliser 

Combination on N Losses, N-use Efficiency and Yield of 

Oilseed Rape (Brassica napus L.) 251 

243


Hygienic Aspects of Sanitation and Water in the Rural Areas of 

the Mekong Delta, Vietnam 

ANDREA RECHENBURG, SUSANNE HERBST 

University of Bonn, Institute for Hygiene and Public Health, Germany 

Improvements in the availability and quality of water and sanitation are essential for 

reducing incidences and subsequently death due to waterborne diseases. Therefore, 

the Millennium Development Goal No. 7 Target 10 aims at halving the population 

living without adequate drinking water and sanitation until 2015. The Mekong delta 

is home of 17.6 million people of whom about 14 million live in rural areas. According 

to estimations about 10 million people in these still underprivileged rural areas 

live without adequate sanitation and 9.3 million lack safe drinking water. During the 

last decades, projects by UNICEF and different NGO´s as Oxfam supported the abstraction 

of ground water for drinking water purposes in the Mekong delta. In general, 

groundwater is regarded as hygienically safer than surface water but is sometimes 

rejected by the population because of its taste and chemical quality. 

In the framework of the interdisciplinary project SANSED a study was carried out on 

the hygienic quality of the different drinking water sources and acceptance of sanitation 

facilities in rural area of the Mekong Delta, Vietnam. 

The VAC model (Vuon=orchard, Ao=fish pond, Chuong=livestock farming) is an established 

integrated traditional Vietnamese farming system, which practices nutrient 

recycling. Untreated excreta from animals and humans (night soil) are used as a fertiliser 

in agriculture or as fodder in aquaculture. So, heavy contamination with fecal 

pathogens and eggs of parasites occurs in soils, vegetables and fish, but also in surface 

water which is the main drinking water source. 

Implementing sanitation solutions that treat human and animal excreta before recycling 

them, such as biogas plants, will reduce contamination of the surface water and 

provide as surplus organic fertilisers and energy for free. Especially, in the Mekong 

Delta, where nutrient recycling is traditionally practised the introduction of biogas 

systems would enhance life quality and substantially contribute to public health. A 

participatory approach and complementing hygiene education of the population addressing 

drinking water hygiene and sanitation issues is assessed as necessary in order 

to achieve a sustainable long-term impact of these interventions. 

Keywords: Drinking water sources, sanitation , Vietnam 

Contact Address: Andrea Rechenburg, University of Bonn, Institute for Hygiene and Public Health, 

Sigmund-Freud-Str. 25, D-53105 Bonn, Germany, e-mail: andrea.rechenburg@ukb.uni-bonn.de 

244 ID 520


Wastewater Management and Ecological Sanitation at Can Tho 

University, Mekong Delta, Vietnam 

KLAUS UWE, JOACHIM CLEMENS, UTE ARNOLD 

University of Bonn, Institute od Crop Science and Resource Conservation - Plant Nutrition, 

Germany 

With up to 1000 inhabitants per square kilometre (average 226 p.p.km 2 ), the Mekong 

Delta is one of the most densely populated areas in Vietnam and in the world. Hygienic 

non-safe reuse of human excreta from latrines directly above fish-ponds is well 

known in the south of Vietnam, but forbidden by the government. In urban areas 

wastewater from toilet flushing is collected separately on household level and treated 

anaerobic in septic tanks, but neither using the biogas nor the nutrients in the effluent. 

Due to the fact, that about 80 % of the nutrients in domestic wastewater is from human 

excrements, this project focus on the reuse of urine and feaces. To collect and 

treat the excrements, different technologies are tested. One existing dormitory (100 

male students) and one part of a new dormitory (80 male students) were equipped 

with source separation for wastewater disposal. The domestic wastewater is drained 

in four pipes: brown water (diluted feaces) from separation toilets, yellow water (diluted 

urine) from separation toilets, yellow water from dry urinals and grey water from 

hand washing, laundry (by hand) and showering. The brown water fraction will be 

treated by anaerobic reactor to gain biogas and the solids by vermicomposting before 

using it in agriculture. Experiments with urine will be conducted on drying, precipitation 

and stripping to ensure hygienic safe use in agriculture later. Greywater will be 

treated by aerated membrane to gain experiences on this technology for the reuse of 

water. 

First results will be presented on experiences with collection, composition and treatment 

of separated wastewater sources as well as on acceptance by the users. Based 

on this, recommendations will be given on implementation and design of systems for 

ecological sanitation in the Mekong Delta. 

Keywords: Construction, ecological sanitation, greywater, urine, vermicomposting 

Contact Address: Joachim Clemens, University of Bonn, Institute of Crop Science and Resource Conservation 

- Plant Nutrition, Karlrobert-Kreiten-Strasse 13, 53115 Bonn, Germany, e-mail: a.clemens@ 

uni-bonn.de 

ID 612 245


Evaluation of the Waste Water Treatment Efficiency from Small 

Scale Biogas Systems in the Mekong-delta 

UTE ARNOLD 1 , JULIA FUCHS 1 , ANDREA RECHENBURG 2 , TIEN TRAN KHUU 3 , 

JOACHIM CLEMENS 1 

1Universitäty of Bonn, Institute of Crop Science and Reseource Conservation - Plant 

Nutrition, Germany 

2University of Bonn, Institute for Hygiene and Public Health, Germany 

3Can Tho University, College of Technology, Viet Nam 

In the Mekong Delta waste water of households and farms is mainly discharged directly 

into the surface waters (fishponds and canals/rivers) which causes hygienic 

problems and may lead to fish death due to oxygen depletion. One kind of treatment 

waste water may get at the moment is anaerobic digestion at a few farms owning biogas 

systems. In this study these different small scale biogas digesters (10 concrete 

fixed-dome and 9 plastic tube systems, 5,7–8 m 3 ) were examined and their efficiency 

to improve water quality was evaluated. Amount and concentration of waste water and 

hygienic parameters of in- and outflow was analysed (BOD5, COD, N, P, E.coli, pH, 

EC, Redox, turbidity, suspended solids, Coliforms, Salmonellae, Helminth eggs,) and 

fluxes calculated. By passing the biogas digester several kg of solids are retained and 

thus water quality is improved in terms of turbidity but also other water quality parameters. 

Removal rates were higher in the concrete systems. BOD5 concentrations were 

reduced to about half of their initial concentrations in average, but reduction rates differed 

in a wide range between the digesters. E. coli and Coliform were reduced by 

passing the biogas digester, the highest reductions being 3 log units (99.9 %), resulting 

in E. coli concentrations from 9.0E+04 to 1.4E+08 MPN/100ml. 

Waste water treated by anaerobic treatment in small scale systems does not match 

Vietnamese Water Quality standards (TCVN) but can be recommended as a suitable 

pretreatment, providing advantages compared to other pretreatments like septic tanks 

or settling ponds. 

Keywords: Biogas, hygiene, Vietnam, waste water 

Contact Address: Ute Arnold, Universitäty of Bonn, Institute of Crop Science and Reseource Conservation 

- Plant Nutrition, Karlrobert-Kreiten-Str. 13, 53113 Bonn, Germany, e-mail: uarnold@uni-bonn.de 

246 ID 592


Evaluation of Small Scale Biogas Systems in the Mekong-delta 

JULIA FUCHS 1 , UTE ARNOLD 1 , TIEN TRAN KHUU 2 , JOACHIM CLEMENS 1 

1 University of Bonn, Institute of Crop Science and Resource Conservation - Plant Nutri- 

tion, Germany 

2 Can Tho University, College of Technology, Viet Nam 

Small Scale Biogas Systems are used to produce biogas in the south of Vietnam. The 

biogas is used as renewable energy for cooking. In this study nineteen biogas systems 

(9 fix dome systems and 10 plastic tube systems) were surveyed to investigate 

their operation and to deduce optimisation measures. The biogas amount and quality 

and the substrate input were analysed. Data on size of the animal house, number of 

animals and the farmer’s experiences concerning maintenance and operation of the 

systems were collected. All systems were operated by pig excrements. The size of 

the systems varied between 5,7 and 8 m 3 . The size was not adapted to the amount 

of excrements that was treated in the fermenter: the organic load was in a range of 

2,33 and 23,06 kg oDM/d with hydraulic residence times (HRT) between 1,19 and 

20,4 days. Biogas was produced between 0,12 and 7,14 CH 4 m 3 /d or 26,8 and 882 

CH 4 m 3 /oDM. We did not find a significant correlation between HRT, organic load 

and biogas yield. One reason could be the lack of substrate agitation. Substrate may 

sediment in the fermenter and contribute for a longer time to the CH 4 production. 

Most of the farmers are able to control and maintain the systems. The most frequent 

problem is that during the cleaning procedure of the animal houses the excrements 

sometimes stuck in the inflow pipe of the biogas plant. From time to time rodents 

cause problems at the plastic tube system, due to erode the plastic tubes. All farmers 

are interested to produce electricity with biogas. 

The systems may be optimised by decreasing the water amount, which the farmers 

use for cleaning. With this measure the hydraulic residence time will get increased 

and the biogas yield may be higher. Although, the effect of this measure needs further 

investigations in the future. 

Keywords: Biogas, concrete, methane production, organic dry matter, plastic 

Contact Address: Julia Fuchs, University of Bonn, Institute of Crop Science and Resource Conservation 

- Plant Nutrition, Karl-Robert-Kreiten-Str. 13, 53115 Bonn, Germany, e-mail: juliafuchs@web.de 

ID 593 247


Influence of Enzyme Addition and Substrate Loading on the 

Efficiency of Biogas Production 

SHYAM PARIYAR 1 , SEBASTIAN WULF 2 

1 University of Bonn, Institute of Crop Science and Resource Conservation (INRES), Department 

of Plant Nutrition , Secondary Resource Management (REMA), Germany 

2 University of Bonn, Institute of Plant Nutrition, Germany 

Biogas from the fermentation of slurry is often used for the local supply of energy 

in developing countries. Fossil energy sources are substituted and therefore greenhouse 

gas emissions are reduced. Harvesting residues or energy crops can be added 

to fermentation in order to increase gas yields but the fermentation process might be 

limited by the hydrolysis of cellulose and hemicellulose, which is a prerequisite for 

the production of acetic acid as the substrate of methanogenic bacteria. It is discussed, 

whether the addition of enzymes to biogas digestors can increase the biogas yield. 

In our experiment enzymes are tested which can also be produced on local level in 

developing countries. 

12 anaerobic digestors (V=8 l) are continuously fed with different co-substrates (maize 

silage, rye silage and grass silage). To each of the substrates either active or inactivated 

enzymes are added with 2 repetitions per treatment. Substrates and enzymes 

are added daily and fermentation residues are removed. The substrate loading is successively 

increased in order to determine the effect of substrate availability on the 

efficiency of enzyme addition. Gas production and gas quality is determined daily 

and frequently samples are taken for determination of residue parameters (e.g. COD, 

buffer capacity, VFA). 

First results with a loading of 1g ODM l −1 d −1 indicate an increase of biogas production 

from maize by enzyme addition. Data to be presented will include higher loading 

rates, gas production from rye and grass as co-substrates and information on the effect 

of substrate loading on the stability of the fermentation process. 

Keywords: Anaerobic digestion, co-digestion, energy crops, greenhouse gas emissions, 

slurry 

Contact Address: Shyam Pariyar, University of Bonn, Institute of Crop Science and Resource 

Conservation (INRES), Department of Plant Nutrition , Secondary Resource Management (REMA), 

Hirschberger Str.58-64, na 53119, Bonn, Germany, e-mail: spariya1@uni-bonn.de 

248 ID 619


Urine Separation and Urine Treatment to Produce a Mineral 

Fertiliser 

PHONG NGUYEN THANH 1 , TUAN LE ANH 1 , D. V. NI 1 , CARSTEN CUHLS 2 , UTE 

ARNOLD 3 , JOACHIM CLEMENS 4 

1University of Can Tho, Viet Nam 

2Gewitra, Germany 

3Universitäty of Bonn, Institute of Crop Science and Reseource Conservation - Plant 

Nutrition, Germany 

In the Mekong-delta waste water from households is not treated. Especially in rural 

and peri urban areas it could be possible to establish new waste water treatment systems. 

One option is to divert urine from the other waste water as urine contains more 

than 80 % of the N, and more than 50 % of P and K that is excreted by . Treated urine 

can be used as a source of mineral fertiliser in crop plants. Our research purposes are 

to recycle nutrients in urine instead of eliminating them and to prove that treated urine 

is environmentally safe to use. We have installed urine diverting systems in a school 

to collect the urine. The school is visited by female and male 200 pupils. Urine from 

male and females are collected in separate tanks. In the tanks (500 liters) concentrated 

sulfuric acid is used to inactivate pathogens and to adjust a low pH to prevent ammonia 

losses. During the first 3 months 500 liters of urine was collected. The urine was 

used to fertilise spinach and tomatoes in initial experiments. This collected volume 

of urine corresponds to a theoretical value of 0.014 liter/pupil*d only. Thus, the system 

seems not be completely accepted. In a questionnaire that was performed prior of 

installing the toilets, students and teachers appreciated the toilet construction as the 

former toilets were in poor condition. The collected urine had N and P concentrations 

of 26.81 and 1 g/l, respectively. The urine was free of Salmonella and E. coli. 

In laboratory experiments acidified and untreated were dried to increase the nutrient 

concentration per kg urine. The urine was dried at 50oC for 72 hours. After drying, 

about 40 % were lost in the untreated and 18 % in the acidified urine. 

Acidification seems to be efficient to reduce pathogens and volatilisation losses of 

ammonia. Other acids such as phosphoric acid could be used to increase the nutrient 

concentration. The results are the base for the a treatment unit of urine that will be 

collected at a dormitory in the University of Can Tho. 

Keywords: Acidification, drying, hygiene, urine, waste water 

Contact Address: Joachim Clemens, University of Bonn, Institute of Crop Science and Resource Conservation 

- Plant Nutrition, Karlrobert-Kreiten-Strasse 13, 53115 Bonn, Germany, e-mail: a.clemens@ 

uni-bonn.de 

ID 611 249


Valuable Added the Agricultural Waste for Farmers Using in 

Organic Farming Groups in Phitsanulok, Thailand 

UDOMPORN PANGNAKORN 

Naresuan University, Department of Agricultural Science„ Thailand 

The royal government of Thailand is very active in efforts to educate farmers in good 

agricultural practices, organic farming, and sustainable agriculture. This includes an 

active policy on improved livelihood, education of the rural population, and also reduced 

pressure environment caused by agricultural production. Group of farmers in 

Phitsanulok province, Thailand, have grown bananas and produced several products 

from bananas for widely food used, medicinal used, animal feed and other used etc. 

Banana peels are become serious environmental problem caused by the bananas production. 

Utilisation of bananas peel for organic fertiliser was studied by Naresuan 

University, Thailand. Potential of bananas peels to make organic fertiliser and development 

to commercial were done. Laboratories are in place to test efficiency of 

the fertiliser was investigated. This project organised several training course for the 

groups of farmers on “the development of compost manure fertiliser from banana 

peels”. During these courses the farmers learn to make organic fertiliser from the banana 

peels. Additional, the farmers learn organic farming is a whole-system approach 

to optimising the natural fertility resources of a farm. It works through traditional practices 

of recycling farm-produced livestock manures, composting, green manuring, and 

crop residue management. The training helps the farmers to understand major nutrient 

content of fertiliser, organic material in their community, soil organisms to break 

them down to release nutrients, understand how to use technology equipment for commercially 

and include marketing. The outcome of the project not only reduced cost of 

using chemical fertiliser but also increased income and strengthening farmers of the 

organic farming group. 

Keywords: Agricultural waste, banana peels, organic farming, organic fertiliser 

Contact Address: Udomporn Pangnakorn, Naresuan University, Department of Agricultural Science„ 

Department of Agricultural Science Faculty of Agriculture Natural Resources and Environment, 

65000 Phitsanulok, Thailand, e-mail: udomporn1@yahoo.com.au 

250 ID 260


Effect of Manure, Inorganic Fertiliser and Manure-fertiliser 

Combination on N Losses, N-use Efficiency and Yield of Oilseed 

Rape (Brassica napus L.) 

HOSSEIN SABAHI 1 , AMIR GHALAVAND 2 

1 Shahid Beheshti University, Agroecology, Iran 

2 Tarbiat Modares University, Agronomy, Iran 

Farmyard manure is a valuable source for plant nutrition, but high N loss and low N 

fertiliser use efficiency are serious challenges fronting them. In attention to environmental 

importance of this problem, we suggested this 2-year experiment on winter 

rapeseed (Brassica napus L.) in rainfed condition (average precipitation was 700mm). 

Treatments conclude 0, 50,100, 150, 200 kg N ha −1 urea (fertiliser treatments), 150 kg 

N ha −1 urea + 50 kg N ha −1 manure (Int1), 100 kg N ha −1 urea + 50 kg N ha −1 manure 

(Int2), 50 kg N ha −1 urea + 100 kg N ha −1 manure (Int3), 150 kg N ha −1 manure 

(Org). The inorganic fertiliser plots also received 25 kg P ha −1 and 50 kg K ha −1 . 

Optimum fertiliser treatment was 150 kg N ha −1 . The greatest seed yield (3 t ha −1 ) 

obtained in 150 kg N ha −1 + 50 kg N ha −1 treatment in two year. Seed yield for 

organic treatment (org) was nonsignificantly lower in 2002 (2.3 vs. 2.5 t ha −1 ) and 

significantly greater in 2003 than optimum fertiliser treatment (2.9 vs. 2.6 t ha −1 ). 

Results also showed that Int2 and Int3 treatments decrease N loss (4 and 9.5 kg N 

ha −1 yr −1 respectively) compared to manure (25.5 kg N ha −1 yr −1 ) and optimum inorganic 

fertiliser (38.5 kg N ha −1 yr −1 ). Apparent N use efficiency was calculated as 

[(total treatment N uptake in 2 yr — total check N uptake in 2 yr)/ N applied in 2yr] 

∗100. This was 20 % for manure (org), 57 % for Fropt, 37 % for int2 and 24 % for int3. 

This difference may be due to remained 57 % of N in soil from manure treatment at 

final of experiment. The greatest physiological N use efficiency (average 26 %) was 

obtained in Int3 treatment, this can be due to better synchronisation of N release and 

crop uptake. 

Keywords: winter oilseed rape, N loss, N-use efficiency , nitrogen, organic 

Contact Address: Hossein Sabahi, Shahid Beheshti University, Agroecology, Evin, Tehran, Iran, e-mail: 

sabahy_h@yahoo.com 

ID 25 251


252 ID 25

Drought, Irrigation and Water Use 

RAJAA MUSTAFA, MAU MARKUS, FRIEDRICH KUHLMANN: 

Risk Management in the Rain-fed Farming of Gedaref Area, 

Eastern Sudan 255 

SONJA SIART, EVA WELTZIEN, MOUSSA KANOUTÉ, VOLKER 

HOFFMANN: 

How Do Farmers Source Sorghum Seed after a Poor Rainy 

Season in Southern Mali? 256 

IHTIYOR BOBOJONOV, MARC MÜLLER, JOHN LAMERS, CHRISTO- 

PHER MARTIUS: 

Optimal Cropping Pattern under Conditions of Uncertain 

Water Supply. A Spatially Explicit Approach for Khorezm 

Region, Uzbekistan 257 

WIBKE HIMMELSBACH, EDUARDO JAVIER TREVIÑO GARZA, 

HUMBERTO GONZÁLEZ RODRÍGUEZ: 

The Effects of Drought Stress on Mexican Pine-oak Forests 

in the Eastern Sierra Madre 258 

EDITH AGUILA ALCANTARA, HOLM TIESSEN: 

Interactions Between Nutrient Availability and Soil Moisture 

in Tropical Calcareous Soils from Yucatan, Mexico 259 

PAULO CELSO SANTIAGO BITTENCOURT, JONAS BASTOS 

DA VEIGA, ARI PINHEIRO CAMARÃO, OSVALDO R. KATO, 

BARBARA RISCHKOWSKY: 

Comparing Slash-and-burn and Slash-and-trituration/mulch 

as Land Preparation for Pasture Establishment in Brazilian 

Eastern Amazon: Soil Humidity 260 

ADRIANA CAMPOS, BARBARA WICK, HOLM TIESSEN: 

Moisture Effect on Enzyme Activities in Calcareous Soils 

from the Yucatan Peninsula, Mexico 261 

AYORINDE OLUFAYO, JOHNSON FASINMINRIN, AYODELE 

EBENEZER AJAYI: 

Effect of Variable Irrigation on Water Use and Growth of 

Jutemallow (Corchorus olitorius) 262 

IBRAHIM ALABDULLAH, ERNST-AUGUST NUPPENAU: 

Irrigation Systems in Syria: Can Institutional Reforms Control 

the Degradation? 263 

253


254 

HAIDER SHAPO, ADAM ADAM: 

Effects of Alley-cropping Systems on Crop Productivity 

and Water Use Efficiency in Semi-desert Region of Northern 

Sudan 264


Risk Management in the Rain-fed Farming of Gedaref Area, 

Eastern Sudan 

RAJAA MUSTAFA 1 , MAU MARKUS 2 , FRIEDRICH KUHLMANN 2 

1 University of Gezira, Agricultural Economics, Germany 

2 Justus-Liebig-University Giessen, Institute of Agricultural and Food Systems Manage- 

ment, Germany 

It is argued that the adoption of the recommended improved technologies in the mechanised 

rain-fed sub-sector of Gedaref in Eastern Sudan can increase farm income 

while diversifying by introducing sheep and gum arabic enterprises to sorghum monoculture 

of Gedaref may lead to farm income stability. Under these arguments in favour 

of diversification and use of improved technology, this paper aims mainly at studying, 

analysing the performance and to evaluate different management strategies in this 

sub-sector under uncertainty. The mechanised rain-fed agricultural sub-sector of the 

Sudan has high potentiality of building a national food stock and foreign exchange 

earnings, which could contribute substantially to agricultural development as well as 

of the whole economy. However, the agricultural production in this sub-sector is generally 

characterised by a high degree of instability, which arises from the nature of 

the agricultural production that dependent on uncontrollable weather conditions and 

unpredictable input and output prices, which resulted in instable, production, farm 

income and market risk. The financial feasibility of different investment and management 

strategies is evaluated under both; the current traditional and the improved 

cultural practices. The stochastic budgeting technique by using NPV of farm income 

as a measure of performance is used in this paper to simulate production, market risk 

and the performance over a twenty-years planning horizon on an average farm in the 

study area. Empirical results showed that the introduction of forest and livestock activities 

contribute substantially to farm income stability with very low probability of 

loss at the end of the planning period while the adoption of the new recommended 

technology also stabilise farm income and guarantee the profitability of the business 

at the end of the same planning period. 

Keywords: Gedaref, Mechanized, Rain-Fed, risk Management, Stochastic Budgeting 

Contact Address: Rajaa Mustafa, University of Gezira, Agricultural Economics, Unterhof 

69 App. 1004, 35392 Giessen, Germany, e-mail: mrajaa@yahoo.com 

ID 294 255


How Do Farmers Source Sorghum Seed after a Poor Rainy Season 

in Southern Mali? 

SONJA SIART 1 , EVA WELTZIEN 2 , MOUSSA KANOUTÉ 2 , VOLKER HOFFMANN 1 

1University of Hohenheim, Department of Agricultural Communication and Extension 


2International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics (ICRISAT), Mali 

Farmers in Mali normally use home-produced seed for sowing sorghum (Sorghum 

bicolor (L.) Moench). In case of problems, farmers resort to using seed from other 

sources. To better understand what problems farmers in southern Mali may have with 

seed availability we conducted a survey during the season 2005/2006, following a 

drought year. 

The survey was conducted immediately after the sowing period of sorghum to be able 

to explore the actual sources of seeds farmers had used. Individual interviews with 

287 household heads in a total of 16 villages in the two project regions were conducted 

using a questionnaire. 

Results show that following the drought year a major percentage of farmers (65.2 %) 

planted more than one sorghum variety. This is in contrast to results obtained from 

a similar survey one season earlier, following a good year for sorghum production. 

Similarly farmers mentioned using other seed sources than their own production more 

frequently, e.g. the own village (30 %), as well as other villages, projects and markets. 

Reasons for searching seeds from outside the household were mostly the interest in 

cultivating a new variety and to some smaller extend the interest in testing a new 

variety. About 10 % of farmers mentioned that they ran out of seeds. Relations between 

the seed donors and seed beneficiaries are mostly family ties and neighbourhood. 

Projects, friends and markets are of smaller importance. Seeds are exchanged 

or given for free. Purchase is more prominent this season, but still it is less important 

than the traditional ways of trading seeds. 

In the 2005 season the majority (75.5 %) of farmers reported that they extended the 

surface sown with sorghum and 42.6 % mentioned the food shortages” after the previous 

season as explanation. 

It can thus be concluded, that farmers did not face a problem in seed availability and 

access after the bad rainy season. Their decisions regarding seed source and variety 

choice were driven by their concern about the low cereal harvest in the preceding year. 

This concern was primarily addressed by extending the area planted with sorghum the 

following season. 

Keywords: Mali, seed access, seed availability, seed sources, sorghum 

Contact Address: Sonja Siart, University of Hohenheim, Department of Agricultural Communication 

and Extension (430a), Stuttgart, Germany, e-mail: sonja_siart@web.de 

256 ID 325


Optimal Cropping Pattern under Conditions of Uncertain Water 

Supply. A Spatially Explicit Approach for Khorezm Region, 

Uzbekistan 

IHTIYOR BOBOJONOV, MARC MÜLLER, JOHN LAMERS, CHRISTOPHER 

MARTIUS 


Khorezm is an Oblast of Uzbekistan in the lower Amu Darya Basin close to the remainders 

of the Aral Sea, and therefore strongly affected by the well-known ecological 

problems, that have their roots predominantly in the national and international 

water use policies. The latter contribute to elevated water usage and an estimated 16– 

18,000 m 3 of irrigation water per hectare are used. The high level of irrigation water 

application causes shallow groundwater tables and secondary soil salinity. Moreover, 

fluctuations in the regional irrigation water supply from the Amudarya River create severe 

uncertainty in agricultural production. Therefore, there is an urgent challenge for 

improving both, the ecological situation and the security of agricultural income, which 

presently is very low compared to the Uzbek average. Despite various reforms, farmers 

are still restricted in their decisions what to crop and when. Therefore, the work 

described in this paper aims at supporting the regional crop allocation and water distribution 

process with the purpose to improve the ecological and economic situation 

in the Khorezmian agricultural sector. The model established in this study aims at decision 

makers on the governmental level as well as at single farmers. Economic/mathematic 

optimisation techniques and GIS tools were combined for a better implementation 

and integration of spatial data and microeconomic data. An expected value-variance 

(EV) approach is used to analyse the risk associated with variability and the stochastic 

nature of water availability. Capillary rise from groundwater, soil salinity, soil texture 

and soil humus, distance from irrigation canals are the main criteria for defining optimal 

crop-mixes for certain locations while taking into account the risk associated 

with the activity type and level of water use. Results show that substantial increase in 

water efficiency can be achieved by adjusting the production patterns with respect to 

risk issues, which is essential in improving the ecological and economic situation in 

the region. 

Keywords: Amu Darya Basin, Expected value-variance (EV) analysis, Spatial approach, 

Uncertainty, Water use effecinecy 

Contact Address: Ihtiyor Bobojonov, University of Bonn, Center for Development Research (ZEF), 

Walter-Flex-Str. 3, 53113 Bonn, Germany, e-mail: ihtiyor@uni-bonn.de 

ID 303 257


The Effects of Drought Stress on Mexican Pine-oak Forests in the 

Eastern Sierra Madre 

WIBKE HIMMELSBACH, EDUARDO JAVIER TREVIÑO GARZA, HUMBERTO 

GONZÁLEZ RODRÍGUEZ 

University of Nuevo Leon, Department of Silviculture, Mexico 

Mexican pine-oak forests are exposed to extreme conditions: high temperatures, scarce 

precipitation distributed irregularly over the year, and intensive silvo-pastoral activities. 

This and the irrational and unsustainable use of natural resources is modifying 

hydrological cycles, ground water supply, and contributes plainly to soil erosion. As 

an approach to understand how natural tree regeneration copes with these stress factors, 

the water relations in mixed pine-oak forest were studied in the Eastern Sierra 

Madre. Water potentials (Ψ) were related to soil water-content and evaporative demand 

components in natural pine-oak forest where silvo-pastoral influences could be 

ignored for the moment. In this way, the exclusive effects of climatic and soil variables 

on the forest species oak, pine, cedar, arbutus, and acacia were investigated at 

different aspects (north and southeast) from January 2006 until today. Environmental 

data (air temperature (Temp), relative humidity (RH), vapour pressure deficit (VPD), 

precipitation, and soil water-content) were taken simultaneously. The water potentials 

were measured two times a day, 6:00 a. m. and 12:00 p. m. and possibly twice a 

month. All studied species showed the typical diurnal pattern of variation in Ψ, high 

values at predawn and low values at midday. Comparing the two aspects, all Ψ, soil 

water-content, VPD and Temp at midday showed significant differences. In general, 

the southern site was significantly warmer and dryer, and Ψ were more negative at the 

southeast. With increasing temperature, the Ψ decreased for all species at both sites, 

while oaks had the highest values and pine and cedar trees the lowest at the north. At 

the southern site, acacia had highest Ψ followed by oak, pine, and cedar with more 

negative values. So, oak was the less stressed species at the north and acacia at the 

southeast. Pines and cedars seemed to be more stressed at both aspects. The differences 

between the Ψ measured at both aspects could be explained by the significant 

difference in soil water-content, VPD and Temp at midday. 

Keywords: Climate, drought stress, pine-oak forest, soil water content, water potentials, 

water relations 

Contact Address: Wibke Himmelsbach, University of Nuevo Leon, Department of Silviculture 

current address: Mexico, e-mail: waldkauz-ruft@web.de 

258 ID 453


Interactions Between Nutrient Availability and Soil Moisture in 

Tropical Calcareous Soils from Yucatan, Mexico 

EDITH AGUILA ALCANTARA, HOLM TIESSEN 

Georg-August-Universität Göttingen, Institute of Plant Production and Agroecology in 


As the strong seasonality in the tropics affects soil moisture, this factor can be an important 

limiting factor for nutrient availability in calcareous tropical soils. Based on 

this sentence, we assess in red and black calcareous tropical soils from Yucatan, Mexico; 

the interaction between two soil moisture levels (100%WHC and 50 % WHC) and 

the availability to plants of five nutrients (Ca 2+ , Mg 2+ , K + , PO4 3- , and NO 3 ) using ion 

exchange membranes. Three different land uses were identified: forests, milpas, and 

homegardens. Because of the extreme soil variability, which appears as a mosaic of 

black and red soils, the sampling was based on a random design, with colour differentiation. 

The experiment was conducted during 45 days under controlled laboratory 

conditions. Soils were placed in two caps with a resin membrane in between and 

joined with the help of tweezers. Resin membranes were replaced every five days, 

and the removed membranes were extracted in 0.5 N HCl. Extracts were kept at 4°C, 

and cations were analysed by atomic absorption Ca 2+ and Mg 2+ , and K + by flame 

emission spectroscopy. Anions were measured by colourimetric analyses. The availability 

of all nutrients, except phosphorus, was lower at full moisture compare to 50 % 

WHC in both soil types. For instance, nitrate decreased 40 % when soil water content 

reached full moisture, while phosphate availability increased around 90 %. Homegardens 

presented higher content of phosphate and potassium, while nitrate was more 

available in forests. Related to the differences between both soil types, it was found 

that nitrate, phosphate and potassium content was lower in red soils compare to the 

black group, but magnesium was higher. Summarizing, fertility problems of these 

soils have been caused by low levels of phosphate and potassium, and their interactions 

with the available water. 

Keywords: Calcareous tropical soils, ion exchange membrane, nutrient availability, 

resin, soil moisture, water content, Yucatan 

Contact Address: Edith Aguila Alcantara, University of Göttingen, Crop Sciences - Agronomic in the 

Tropics, Albrechtthaerweg 20-C, 37075 Göttingen, Germany, e-mail: edithaa72@yahoo.es 

ID 604 259


Comparing Slash-and-burn and Slash-and-trituration/mulch as 

Land Preparation for Pasture Establishment in Brazilian Eastern 

Amazon: Soil Humidity 

PAULO CELSO SANTIAGO BITTENCOURT 1 , JONAS BASTOS DA VEIGA 2 , ARI 

PINHEIRO CAMARÃO 2 , OSVALDO R. KATO 2 , BARBARA RISCHKOWSKY 3 

1 Rural Federal University of Amazon, Institute of Agricultural Science, Brazil 

2 Brazilian Agricultural Research Corporation (EMBRAPA), Brazil 

3 Georg-August University of Göttingen, Institute of Agronomy and Animal Production in 


Land preparation is a important factor for land-use sustainability in tropical forest areas. 

For the last ten years the Embrapa Amazônia Oriental research centre has tested 

slash-and- tritruration/mulch (STm) of secondary vegetation as a new method of land 

preparation before planting crops and pastures in Northeastern Pará, Brazil. Besides 

avoiding the negative impacts of fire of the traditional slash-and-burn (SB), the STm 

method might also improve soil humidity favouring plant growth. This study compared 

the impact of both methods of land preparation on the dynamics of soil humidity 

on a sandy Latossolo Amarelo under pasture use in the municipality of Igarapé-Acu 

(01° 06’ S and 47° 31’ W). The predominant climate is hot and rainy, with a dry season 

from September to December, annual temperature from 25 to 27°C and average 

annual precipitation of 2,500 mm (Am type of climate). An area of 4.8 ha covered by 

a 10-year old secondary vegetation (capoeira), with a biomass of 74 t MS ha −1 was 

divided in two similar parts, one was slashed and burnt in December 2000, and the 

remaining part was cut and mulched with an AHWI bush chopper in February 2001. 

In March 2001, a Brachiaria brizantha + B. humidicola pasture was planted in both 

area. After the pasture establishment, both areas were grazed by steers in a rotational 

system (18 days of grazing, 36 days of rest, three paddocks). From September 2003 

to June 2004, every 15 days humidity (gravimetric method) was measured in five soil 

layers, 0–5; 5–10; 10–20; 20–40; 40–60 cm, at two randomly selected points of each 

paddock. The available forage mass was measured each 36 days. It was observed that, 

in comparison to SB, the STm method increased soil humidity during the study period, 

mainly in the upper soil layers (0–5; 5–10; 10–20 cm), corresponding to an increase 

in forage mass. The results indicate a potential advantage of agricultural practices that 

avoid the use of fire in land preparation. 

Keywords: Amazon, land preparation, mulching, pastures, secondary vegetation, 

slash-and-burn, slash-and-trituration, soil humidity 

Contact Address: Paulo Celso Santiago Bittencourt, Rural Federal University of Amazon, Institute of 

Agricultural Science, Belém, Brazil, e-mail: paulocelso2006@yahoo.com.br 

260 ID 609


Moisture Effect on Enzyme Activities in Calcareous Soils from the 

Yucatan Peninsula, Mexico 

ADRIANA CAMPOS 1 , BARBARA WICK 2 , HOLM TIESSEN 1 

1Georg-August-University Göttingen, Crop Sciences -Agronomy in the Tropics and Subtropics, 

Germany 

2Humboldt-University Berlin, Division of Soil Science and Site Science, Germany 

The Yucatan Peninsula presents a mosaic of different soils, which is the main cause 

of their distinguishing chemical characteristics and might originate differences in the 

mineralisation rate and transformation of nutrients. The principal agricultural practices 

in the region are the traditional shifting cultivation (Milpa), and Home Gardens. 

Previous studies showed a decline in soil fertility that may be associated to problems 

with the sorption of nutrients and organic matter. There is no information about the 

impact of these agricultural practices on transformation of nutrients, and the possible 

problems related to moisture content, which plays an important role on the biochemical 

processes of the soil. Therefore, the study had as objective to evaluate the effect 

of moisture content on enzymes’ activities in the soil. Soil enzymes play an essential 

role in catalysing reactions necessary for organic matter decomposition and nutrient 

cycling. Four enzymes were chosen: Acid and Alkaline Phosphatase, β Glucosidase, 

and Protease. These give indications on the potential capacity of the soil to carry out 

specific reactions and can have an important implication in nutrient cycling. The study 

sites were located in the communities of Hocaba and Xmakuil, Yucatan, Mexico. The 

sampling was done in the dry season (December 2004). Three ecosystems were studied: 

Milpa, Home Garden (agricultural systems), and Forest (reference system). The 

soil samples were taken at 0–10 cm depth. To evaluate the effect of moisture on the 

enzymes’ activities, two contrasting moisture contents were employed (50 and 100 % 

WHC) and Control soils (without water). In general, a decrease in enzyme activity 

was found in the Milpas and Home Gardens in comparison to the Forest, possibly 

due to lack of appropriate organic substrate (specially in Home Gardens) and to soil 

degradation. The moisture content had an effect on the enzymes: the highest moisture 

content produced a decline between 10–73 % of enzyme activity in comparison 

to Control soils. At 50 % WHC, there was also a decrease, but the effect was not too 

pronounced. Protease was the enzyme that reacted most to moisture content. 

Keywords: β-Glucosidase, acid and Alkaline Phosphatase, Home Garden, Milpa, 

Moisture Content, Protease 

Contact Address: Adriana Campos, Georg-August-University Göttingen, Crop Sciences -Agronomy 

in the Tropics and Subtropics, Am Weendespring 24, 37077 Göttingen, Germany, e-mail: 

adrianajcampos@yahoo.es 

ID 577 261


Effect of Variable Irrigation on Water Use and Growth of 

Jutemallow (Corchorus olitorius) 

AYORINDE OLUFAYO 1 , JOHNSON FASINMINRIN 1 , AYODELE EBENEZER AJAYI 2 

1 Federal University of Technology, Agricultural Engineering, Nigeria 


Jute mallow (C. olitorius) is a leafy vegetable widely cultivated in sub-saharan Africa 

and most Asian countries and it is a good alternative for okra and other vegetables. 

However, its production during off—season will require good knowledge of its behaviour 

under water stress. Therefore, water use, growth and biomass yield of Jute 

mallow (C. olitorius) under three water management strategies were investigated during 

the dry season of 1999 and late rainy season of 2000 on the field at the Experimental 

farm of the Federal University of Technology, Akure, south western Nigeria. 

The crop was subjected to three irrigation treatments A, B and C, i.e. 1Ep (full pan 

evaporation), ¾ Ep and ½ Ep respectively (three replication). Soil moisture content in 

the first 50 cm layer was monitored. Yield and agronomic parameters were measured 

during crop growth. Plant height in the three treatments A, B and C were 93.9 cm, 

80.2 cm and 63.9 cm in 1999 and 102.7 cm, 96.9 cm and 81.0 cm in 2000 respectively. 

Values of leaf area and leaf area index (LAI) were highest in irrigation treatments at 

full level (A) during the trials. Biomass yield at crop maturity were 5.22 tha −1 , 4.14 

tha −1 and 1.96 tha −1 in 1999 and 6.02 th a 1, 5.89 tha −1 and 5.76 tha −1 in 2000 for A, 

B and C treatments respectively. A significant decrease in water use efficiency (WUE) 

for biomass production was observed with decrease irrigation water application. The 

values of WUE were 0.70Kgm −3 , 0.59 Kgm −3 and 0.15 Kgm −3 of water in 1999 

and 0.51 Kgm −3 , 0.44Kgm −3 and 0.19 Kgm −3 in 2000 for irrigation treatments 1 Ep, 

¾ Ep and ½ Ep respectively at 7 WAP (weeks after planting). These results suggest 

that the crop made efficient use of water applied at full level for optimum growth and 

yield. 

Keywords: Biomass yield: Pan evaporation, irrigation, Jute mallow, Leaf Area Index 

(LAI), Water Use Efficiency (WUE) 

Contact Address: Ayorinde Olufayo, Federal University of Technology, Agricultural Engineering, 

P. M. B. 704, 341000 Akure, Nigeria, e-mail: ayo_olufayo@yahoo.com 

262 ID 141


Irrigation Systems in Syria: Can Institutional Reforms Control 

the Degradation? 

IBRAHIM ALABDULLAH, ERNST-AUGUST NUPPENAU 

Justus- Liebig University Giessen, Institute of Agricultural Policy and Market Research, 

Germany 

In Syria, where the extent of water scarcity is reflected in the staggering figures of 

water deficit i.e. 258 m 3 per person per year, paradoxically, agriculture accounts for 

about 95 % of total consumption of water. Driven by this fact, current research work 

tries to address the major bottlenecks in ensuring efficient use of water in two distinct 

agricultural entities i.e. the public river (Euphrates) irrigation system and private 

wells irrigation system. The two major issues that meddle with the economic use of 

water in the former system are (1) the fixed water charge per unit area irrelevant to the 

consumption level and (2) lack of proper monitoring of water use. In private wells region, 

the main issues are (1) uncontrolled water pumping and (2) illegal well digging. 

Even though, water intensive crops, wheat and cotton are predominantly cultivated 

in the research area, the analysis is limited to cotton alone as it requires more water 

(9887m 3 |ha) compared to wheat (3959 m 3 |ha). The objectives of this study are (i) comparing 

costs of existing irrigation technologies and determining the water productivity 

in cotton fields and (ii) finding institutional solutions for the current water problems in 

both regions. The existing water policy has caused the lowering of groundwater levels 

in wells region while raising it in river irrigated zones. Most farmers face water crisis 

in wells irrigated region while spatial location of the farmers determines the degree 

of water scarcity in the river irrigated system. The central solution can be the pricing 

policy reforms that link the water charges to level of consumption and seasonal 

availability. These policy changes are expected to enhance water productivity in cotton 

irrigated fields by accelerating shifts in technology (e.g. drip irrigation systems) 

which are capital intensive as well as water management measures which are labour 

intensive. 

Keywords: Irrigation systems, water policy, water problems, water productivity 

Contact Address: Ibrahim Alabdullah, Justus- Liebig University Giessen, Institute of Agricultural Policy 

and Market Research, Senckenbergstr. 3, 35390 Giessen, Germany, e-mail: ibra161@yahoo.de 

ID 424 263


Effects of Alley-cropping Systems on Crop Productivity and Water 

Use Efficiency in Semi-desert Region of Northern Sudan 

HAIDER SHAPO 1 , ADAM ADAM 2 

1 Agricultural Research Corporation, Sudan (ARC), Agroforestry Research Unit, Sudan 

2 University of Gezira, Faculty of Agricultural Sciences, Sudan 

A series of experiments were conducted in the semi-desert regions of Northern Sudan 

during 1998–2000, to investigate the potential of alley cropping system for exploiting 

residual water in the surface horizons and beyond the rooting depth of associated 

crops. The first experiments were assigned in RCB design, replicated 3-times. Three 

N-fixing trees were used in the alley cropping hedgerows, namely, Acacia ampliceps, 

Acacia stenophylla and Leucaena leucocephala. Regular monitoring was carried out 

for determining water use in the system. In the second experiment, monitoring of 

A.stenophylla alley cropping microclimate was studied, including measurements of 

solar radiation, wind speed, relative humidity, maximum and minimum temperatures, 

and shade movement. Changes in the alley cropping microclimate were quantified, 

and related to plant responses and growth of all components of the system. The obtained 

results showed that there were complex interactions and extensive overlap between 

different climatic factors and water use in the system. In the first experiment 

there were significant differences (p = 0.01) among the tree species in their abilities 

to extract the water from the different soil horizons as the trees differed in their 

growth nature and competitive interactions. The A.stenophylla tree, with its deep 

roots and open canopy, gave the highest saving in irrigation water. On monthly basis, 

the maximum savings occurred during June. In the second experiment, the Carrot 

yield increased over the control by 487 % and its yield increased as the solar radiation 

decreased across the different zones of the alley. Similarly, sweet pepper gave a total 

yield of 5833 kg/ha of fruit fresh weight. High wind speed and solar radiation, which 

characterised this season tended to cause water stresses for the plants growing in the 

control. 

Keywords: Acacia stenophylla, Alley cropping, semi —desert, Solar radiation , Water 

use 

Contact Address: Haider Shapo, Agricultural Research Corporation, Sudan (ARC), Agroforestry Research 

Unit, Wad Medani, Sudan, e-mail: hsafi123@yahoo.com 

264 ID 598

Technology, Models and GIS 

a) GIS and Remote Sensing 267 

b) Model Use in Agriculture 279 

c) Agricultural Technology 293 

d) Biodiversity 309 

e) BIOTA Project 323 

265


266

GIS and Remote Sensing 

FELIX PORTMANN, PETRA DÖLL, STEFAN SIEBERT: 

Global Dataset of Monthly Crop-specific Irrigated Areas 

around the Year 2000 269 

SARAH SCHNEIDER, RAINER SCHULTZE-KRAFT, JOSE FARIÑAS: 

Biogeography and GIS: Case Study Centrosema brasilianum 270 

AMANDA BARBOSA LIMA, JOSÉ JAVIER CORRAL RIVAS, 

KLAUS VON GADOW, UWE MUUSS: 

Spatial Structure Analysis Using Three Different Approaches 271 

THOMAS GAISER, HEIKE WEIPPERT, ATTANDA MOUINOU 

IGUE, KARL STAHR: 

Application of the Land Resources Information System SLISYS 

in the Oueme Basin of Benin (West Africa) 272 

ATTANDA MOUINOU IGUE, JEAN COSSI HOUNDAGBA, THOMAS 

GAISER, KARL STAHR: 

Land Use/cover Map and their Accuracy in the Oueme 

Basin of Benin (West Africa) 273 

CHUONG VAN HUYNH, MICHAEL BÖHME, MICHAEL LA 

ROSA: 

Social-economical Database Implementation into GIS to 

Analyse Land Suitability for Citrus Fruit Production: A 

Case Study in the Thua Thien Hue Province, Vietnam 274 

BIRTE JUNGE, KARL STAHR: 

Monitoring of Land Use Intensification and Linkage to Soil 

Erosion in Nigeria and Benin 275 

DITMAR BERNARDO KURTZ, MARIA CRISTINA GOLDFARB, 

FRANCISKO NUNEZ, OSCAR QUIROS: 

Range Condition Evaluation in Empedrado, Corrientes - 

Argentina 276 

CLAUDIA SANETRA, HELMUT HERZOG: 

Leaf Senescence Patterns in Cowpea and Assessment of 

Chlorophyll Depletion by Digital Imaging. 277 

267


268 

STEFAN SIEBERT, JIPPE HOOGEVEEN, PETRA DÖLL, JEAN- 

MARC FAURES, SEBASTIAN FEICK, KAREN FRENKEN: 

The Digital Global Map of Irrigation Areas — Development 

and Validation of Map Version 4 278


Global Dataset of Monthly Crop-specific Irrigated Areas around 

the Year 2000 

FELIX PORTMANN, PETRA DÖLL, STEFAN SIEBERT 

University of Frankfurt (Main), Institute of Physical Geography, Germany 

To assess virtual water trade in a globalised world, we need to differentiate water requirements 

of rainfed and irrigated agriculture. To achieve this differentiation with a 

higher reliability than in the study of Yang et al.(2006), it is necessary to know which 

crops grow where and when under either rainfed or irrigated conditions. Here we 

present the first version of a global dataset of monthly crop-specific irrigated areas 

around the year 2000. A twin global dataset of monthly crop-specific rainfed areas 

which is consistent with the irrigated areas is currently being developed. The dataset 

considers 26 irrigated crops including all major food crops, permanent cultures, cotton, 

and irrigated grassland. For each month of the year (representative for the time 

period 1998 to 2002 around the year 2000) the irrigated area of each crop in each 5 

minute grid cell (size 8 km × 8 km at the equator) is provided. As data sources national 

cropping calendars (FAO) and mainly national statistics on harvested areas for 

both irrigated and rainfed crops (FAO, EUROSTAT, and others) were combined with 

spatially explicit 5 minute grids of areas equipped for irrigation (Siebert et al., 2005) 

and a global data set of main crop types (Leff et al., 2004). We present the methods for 

the map generation, selected elements of the resulting ample dataset, and discuss the 

limitations of the dataset. Global and regional studies can take profit of this dataset. It 

might be used for a broad range of applications besides the currently foreseen global 

water balance calculation with WaterGAP (Döll and Siebert, 2002). 

Keywords: Global mapping, harvested crop area, irrigation, virtual water, water balance 

Contact Address: Felix Portmann, University of Frankfurt (Main), Institute of Physical Geography, 

Senckenberganlage 36, 60325 Frankfurt am Main, Germany, e-mail: portmann@em.uni-frankfurt.de 

ID 196 269


Biogeography and GIS: Case Study Centrosema brasilianum 

SARAH SCHNEIDER 1 , RAINER SCHULTZE-KRAFT 1 , JOSE FARIÑAS 2 

1University of Hohenheim, Institute for Plant Production and Agroecology in the Tropics 


2National Institute of Agricultural Research (INIA), CIAE-Monagas, Venezuela 

Plant and animal biodiversity is constantly decreasing as result of demographic pressure 

and overexploitation of natural resources, and valuable genetic resources are 

lost. This includes many unexplored and/or insufficiently researched plant species 

that could be useful for nature and humankind. 

Among such species, the wild pasture legume Centrosema brasilianum (L.) Benth. is 

insofar an interesting species as it is well adapted to drought and acid, low-fertility 

soils. Because of these characteristics, it has a high potential for marginal production 

conditions where farmers are in particular need of improved livelihoods. Available 

germplasm collections of C. brasilianum have still a narrow genetic base which, for 

successful germplasm development programs such as breeding projects, should be 

increased by further collecting. However, the natural distribution of the species is not 

sufficiently well known to design cost-efficient collection strategies. 

In this study, an updated digital map of the geographic distribution of C. brasilianum 

germplasm in tropical America is created with the help of the GIS tool FloraMap. 

The species occurs from latitude 10° N (north Venezuela) to 16° S (southwest Brazil) 

and from longitude 35° W (northeast Brazil) to 80° W (Panama). Furthermore, distribution 

maps according to rainfall conditions at the origin sites are presented. Their potential 

for eventual germplasm selection aiming at cultivar development is discussed. 

Then, with focus on Venezuela from where particularly much germplasm and herbarium 

information is available, a map of probable distribution of C. brasilianum is presented. 

Since the FloraMap software only considers climate information, our study 

recurs to a second important data source, the soil and terrain database SOTER, which 

is concerned with soil properties. By combining FloraMap with SOTER, and applying 

appropriate GIS technology, it was possible to create a map of Venezuela showing 

various levels of probability regarding regions where C. brasilianum can be expected 

to occur and, thus, where future collection missions should concentrate. High probabilities 

were identified for some regions of the state of Zulia, the west of Guárico, 

Anzoátegui and the northern part of Bolívar. 

Keywords: Biodiversity, Biogeography, Centrosema brasilianum, GIS, Latin America, 

pasture legume, Venezuela 

Contact Address: Sarah Schneider, University of Hohenheim, Institute for Plant Production and 

Agroecology in the Tropics and Subtropics, Garbenstrasse 13, 70599 Stuttgart, Germany, e-mail: 

sarahschneider@gmx.net 

270 ID 159


Spatial Structure Analysis Using Three Different Approaches 

AMANDA BARBOSA LIMA, JOSÉ JAVIER CORRAL RIVAS, KLAUS VON GADOW, 

UWE MUUSS 

Georg-August-University Göttingen, Institute of Forest Management, Germany 

Forest structural diversity, which may be defined as the diversity of tree species and 

tree dimensions and their spatial arrangement, can be indicative of overall biodiversity 

and habitat suitability. The ability to assess and to describe spatial structures 

with affordable cost is the key to managing uneven-aged multi-species forests. The 

knowledge of forest structure is useful in forecasting tree growth and for monitoring 

the modifications caused by timber harvesting operations. Many authors have 

suggested variables that can be used to describe forest structure and diversity, and 

numerous structural indices have been proposed. To assess the different scales and 

levels of forest structure within a given area, more integrated and comprehensive approaches 

are required which include not only species diversity (i.e., mixture), but also 

the distribution of the tree positions (i.e., spatial distribution) and the special arrangement 

of the tree dimensions (i.e., size differentiation). One of the main problems is 

to characterise and describe forests with different spatial characteristics more accurately, 

using affordable assessment techniques. This study describes an analysis of 

three groups of indices: (1) aggregation index of Clark and Evans combined with the 

segregation index of Pielou and the Shannon index (i.e., macroscale structure analysis), 

(2) the three neighbourhood-based parameters “contagion”, “species mingling” 

and “dominance” (i.e., microscale structure analysis), (3) pair-correlation function 

and Mark-correlation function which is based on point pattern analysis (i.e., surface 

analysis). The specific forest structures were studied using fully enumerated plots 

with measured tree positions from three different forest types: a subtropical forest 

from Southern Africa, a temperate forest from Europe and a boreal forest from Northern 

Mongolia. The neighbourhood-based variables proved to be equally effective as 

the other variables for characterising small-scale differences of forest structure, but 

have the advantage that they are easier to assess during forest inventories than the 

traditional measures of forest spatial structure and diversity. 

Keywords: Aggregation index of Clark and Evans, neighbourhood-based parameters, 

point pattern analysis, segregation index of Pielou, Shannon index, spatial forest 

structure 

Contact Address: Amanda Barbosa Lima, Georg-August-University Göttingen, Institute of Forest Management, 

Büsgenweg 5, 37077 Göttingen, Germany, e-mail: amandablima@hotmail.com 

ID 375 271


Application of the Land Resources Information System SLISYS in 

the Oueme Basin of Benin (West Africa) 

THOMAS GAISER 1 , HEIKE WEIPPERT 1 , ATTANDA MOUINOU IGUE 2 , KARL 

STAHR 1 

1 University of Hohenheim, Institute for Soil Sciences and Land Evaluation, Germany 

2 National Institute for Agricultural Research of Benin (INRAB), Benin 

The objective of the soil and land resources information system SLISYS for the 

Oueme basin in Benin is the estimation of long-term evolution of crop yields and 

of diffuse emissions from agricultural land into water bodies in relation to climate 

and land management changes. 

SLISYS-Oueme was created to provide data about soils, climate and terrain conditions 

in the Oueme basin. The data domain of SLISYS-Oueme contains soil information 

based on the SOTER map of Benin, climate information from 133 meteorological 

stations distributed in the whole country as well as model specific data on crop management. 

Land cover is derived from a LANDSAT TM PLUS interpretation from 

the year 2003 (Igue et al. 2006). On the land cover unit “Mosaic of fallow and 

cultivation”, 16 crops as well as fallow land are distinguished considering crop specific 

management with respect to fertilisation, irrigation and length of fallow period. 

SLISYS-Oueme contains a spatially distributed model for the estimation of diffuse 

emissions at a high spatial and temporal resolution. The estimation of crop yields for 

the 16 crops is based on simulations with the agroecosystems model EPIC (Erosion 

Productivity Impact calculator, USDA 1990). The basin has been subdivided into 

hydrological response units (LUSAC: land use-soil association-climate unit) which 

are quasi-homogenous with respect to land use, soil and climate. EPIC calculates the 

crop yields for each LUSAC unit. The results are then aggregated to the department or 

subbasin scale according to the area coverage of each LUSAC. As an example for potential 

applications of SLISYS, calculations of actual and nutrient limited crop yields 

as well as the effects of fallow systems on crop productivity at the department level 

are presented 

Keywords: Benin , crop production, information system, land resources 

Contact Address: Thomas Gaiser, University of Hohenheim, Institute for Soil Sciences and Land Evaluation, 

Emil-Wolff-Straße 27, 70593 Stuttgart, Germany, e-mail: tgaiser@uni-hohenheim.de 

272 ID 183


Land Use/cover Map and their Accuracy in the Oueme Basin of 

Benin (West Africa) 

ATTANDA MOUINOU IGUE 1 , JEAN COSSI HOUNDAGBA 2 , THOMAS GAISER 3 , 

KARL STAHR 4 

1National Institute for Agricultural Research of Benin (INRAB), Benin 

2University of Abomey-calavi, 

3University of Hohenheim, Institute for Soil Sciences and Land Evaluation, Germany 

4University of Hohenheim, Soil Science and Petrography, Germany 

In the scope of the European Union water initiative for developing countries, the research 

programme RIVERTWIN (A Regional Model for Integrated Water Management 

in Twinned River Basins) was initiatited for three river basins, Neckar in Germany, 

Oueme in Benin Republic and Chirchik in Uzbekistan. 

Our contribution in this work is to establish a soil and land resources information 

system (SLISYS). The objectives of SLISYS is to provide information about soils, 

climate and terrain conditions in the Oueme basin, to estimate crop yield in relation 

with soil quality and land management and to assess the extent of diffuse pollution 

from agricultural production. Apart from soil and climate information, the distribution 

of crops and land management practices is crucial to achieve the above mentioned 

objectives. Therefore, a land use/cover map has been established at the scale 

1:200.000 from satellites images LANDSAT TM Plus of 2003 from 3 scenes. After 

image treatment, imaged maps were established and interpretation keys were defined. 

For efficacy reasons, the interpretation was carried out at the scale of 1:50.000 in order 

to get maximum information. Field controls were done during one month. More 

than 650 observations points were checked during the ground checks. Finally, 17 land 

use/cover classes were defined. 

The subsequent accuracy check shows that the overall interpretation accuracy is high 

(89 %). The land use unit “mosaic of cultivation and fallows” has been interpreted 

most precisely, whereas the classification of the unit “humid and dry dense forest” 

has the lowest precision. Crops and fallow land were then distributed within the land 

use unit “mosaic of cultivation and fallow” according to agricultural statistics from 

2003. 

Keywords: Accuracy, Benin , land use/cover classification, RIVERTWIN project, 

Satellite images 

Contact Address: Attanda Mouinou Igue, National Institute for Agricultural Research of Benin 

(INRAB), Rue de l’IITA Togoudo, B.P. 988 Cotonou, Benin, e-mail: igue_attanda@yahoo.fr 

ID 166 273


Social-economical Database Implementation into GIS to Analyse 

Land Suitability for Citrus Fruit Production: A Case Study in the 

Thua Thien Hue Province, Vietnam 

CHUONG VAN HUYNH 1 , MICHAEL BÖHME 2 , MICHAEL LA ROSA 3 

1 Humboldt-University Berlin, Faculty of Agriculture and Horticulture, Germany 

2 Humboldt-University Berlin, Horticultural Plant Systems, Germany 

3 Humboldt University Berlin, Horticultural Economics, Germany 

Agricultural land suitability analysis and land use planning is being considered as a 

very complex process usually solved by multi-criteria and interdisciplinary approaches. 

In general, land suitability analysis takes into account the influences of physical in 

relation to socio-economic, infrastructure and environmental issues for agricultural 

crops. The study aims at integrating the socio-economic, infrastructure databases into 

GIS together with the physical data for land suitability analysis. A case study in an 

area of about 6637 hectare in Thua Thien Hue Province, Vietnam has been conducted. 

This area is characterised by 4 major soil groups with 16 soil units; slopes ranging 

from 3° -15°, topsoil depths from 30 cm to more than 100 cm; scarce water resources, 

summer drought and winter heavy rain; very poor to moderate soil fertility. The rural 

infrastructures and socio-economic status are underdeveloped and not very attractive 

for agricultural development. Growing local citrus species in smallholder farms at 

low management and investment level using mainly family labour with potential to 

extension of cultivated area is the land use type proposed for this study. Through 

the integration of physical, socio-economic and infrastructure data in GIS, suitability 

level analysis and criteria development could be divided into two stages: land physical 

and socio-economic and infrastructure evaluations. The study has proved that 

the integration of databases into GIS is a very powerful and robust tool for land suitability 

analysis and decision making process. Besides the physical factors, the socio 

economic and infrastructure factors used in this study mainly consist of 5 main criteria 

(rural road systems, inputs-market-prices, accessibility to technology, capital and 

labour availability, institutions and policies) with 3–6 sub criteria for each main criterion. 

The result showed that all those factors affected the suitability for citrus fruit 

production. Market-prices, inputs and technology in socio-economic group and low 

soil fertility, scarce water resources in physical group are main constraint factors for 

decision of area extension. It can be concluded that the investigated area is marginally 

till moderately suitable for citrus fruit production. 

Keywords: Citrus, GIS, land suitability, physical factors, social-economic factors 

Contact Address: Michael Böhme, Humboldt-University Berlin, Horticultural Plant Systems, 

Lentzeallee 75, 14195 Berlin, Germany, e-mail: michael.boehme@rz.hu-berlin.de 

274 ID 230


Monitoring of Land Use Intensification and Linkage to Soil 

Erosion in Nigeria and Benin 

BIRTE JUNGE 1 , KARL STAHR 2 

1 International Institute of Tropical Agriculture (IITA), Soil Science Unit, Nigeria 

2 University of Hohenheim, Institute of Soil Science and Petrography, Germany 

Since the 1960s, a dramatic acceleration in urban growth has unfolded in sub-Saharan 

Africa. The increasing population density involves the intensification of land use 

through expansion of the cultivated area and shortening of the fallow period. Not 

adapted land use practices inevitably lead to soil degradation like loss of topsoil due to 

water erosion. Avoidance of soil deterioration by enhanced conservation is therefore 

necessary to maintain its productivity and to contribute to food security and poverty 

alleviation in rural communities. 

The study presents the intensification of land use and the evolution of soil erosion 

features for some pilot villages across a transect from the Derived to Northern Guinea 

Savannah of Benin and Nigeria. For monitoring land use and erosion within the last 

decades, aerial photographs from the sixties and seventies and the satellite images 

LANDSAT 7 ETM (1999, 2000 and 2001) and IKONOS (2000) were interpreted. 

Interviews concerning past and current farming systems, tillage, use of crop residues 

etc. as well as the development of the families also were made in the study areas. 

The interpretation of photos and images clearly shows the increase of farm land within 

the last decades. The cultivated area of many pilot villages has reached the border of 

neighbouring settlements, and there is no fallow in many places any more. Only 

one test site located in Central Nigeria is characterised by recent settlement of different 

tribes due to the availability of fertile soil. The analyses and questionnaire also 

show that the land use system in Southern Benin is characterised by oil palm trees 

and maize. Systems with cereals and root crops dominate in the centre of Nigeria 

and with sorghum/maize or pearl millet and cowpea in Northern Nigeria. Legumes 

like cowpea or groundnut have been introduced into the farming systems in the last 

decades. Linear soil erosion features that were infrequently extended in the sixties 

and seventies have spread until now. Sheet erosion has already led to the exposure of 

iron pan on lower slopes and destroyed farm land in some pilot villages of Northern 

Nigeria. 

Keywords: Benin, land use intensificaiton, Nigeria, soil erosion 

Contact Address: Birte Junge, International Institute of Tropical Agriculture (IITA), Soil Science Unit, 

Oyo Road, Ibadan, Nigeria, e-mail: b.junge@cgiar.org 

ID 150 275


Range Condition Evaluation in Empedrado, Corrientes - 

Argentina 

DITMAR BERNARDO KURTZ 1 , MARIA CRISTINA GOLDFARB 2 , FRANCISKO 

NUNEZ 2 , OSCAR QUIROS 2 

1University of Bonn, Institute of Crop Science and Resource Conservation - Crop Production, 

Germany 

2National Institute for Agricultural Technology, Corrientes, Argentina, 

The total area of rangelands constitutes 78 % of the Empedrado department surface 

(Corrientes province — Argentina). Rangeland evaluation is considered essential part 

of a good management and sustainable use of the grassland resource. Worldwide, 

different tools with different complexity are available, from field to remotely based 

procedures. In these work, both approaches were investigated. For that reason, two 

sampling sites were considered: highlands and lowlands, both selected regarding accessibility 

and representativeness. In each field site, several attributes were recorded 

in a nine-block design of 28.5 m × 28.5 m. and five random samples within. In the laboratory, 

normalised difference vegetation index (NDVI) was calculated from a Landsat 

5 TM image (path 226, row 079) acquired on 27 July 2006 coincident with the 

fieldwork date. In addition, trend and cover index was calculated as an indicator of 

range condition. 

The results indicate that in the highland site, weeds contributed with 49.1 % whilst 

grasses contributed with 48.6 % of the species. Dry matter yield (DMY) was 3,506 kg/ha; 

weeds contributed 2,295 kg/ha (65.5 %) and grasses 1,180 kg/ha (33.7 %). Species that 

contributed to total DMY were: Vernonia chamaedrys (50.1 %), Sorghastrum agrostoides 

(13.7 %), Eryngium horridum (11.3 %) and S. nutans (10.9 %). In the lowlands, 

grasses contributed up to 97.3 % and grasslike plants about 2.3 %. DMY was 

2,287.1 kg/ha and grasses contributed 2,225 kg/ha (97.3 %). Species that contributed 

more to total DMY were: Paspalum intermedium (45.4 %), S. agrostoides (26.7 %) 

and Andropogon lateralis (18.3 %). Statistical analyses indicate that the two sites 

are significantly different regarding standing death material, total DMY and NDVI. 

Additionally, the trend and cover index was sensitive to detect the different range 

conditions, being higher in the lowland site than in the highland site. No significant 

differences were found when considering mulching and percentage of bare soil. Interestingly, 

NDVI and trend and cover index show to be inversely related. The ongoing 

results suggest further studies to take advantage of the remote sensing techniques. 

Keywords: Landsat, normalised difference vegetation index, rangelands, trend and 

cover index 

Contact Address: Ditmar Bernardo Kurtz, University of Bonn, Institute of Crop Science and Resource 

Conservation - Crop Production, Nussallee 1, 53115 Bonn, Germany, e-mail: dkurtz@uni-bonn.de 

276 ID 635


Leaf Senescence Patterns in Cowpea and Assessment of 

Chlorophyll Depletion by Digital Imaging. 

CLAUDIA SANETRA, HELMUT HERZOG 

Humboldt University Berlin, Crop Science in the Tropics and Subtropics, Germany 

Leaf senescence patterns were investigated with three genotypes of cowpea (Vigna 

unguiculata L. Walp.). The progression of leaflet abscission at the main stem was 

recorded during the reproductive phase. At harvest, the genotype Lobia had only 8 % 

of its leaflets abscised, while RCXAC and IFH 27–8 had 29 % and 95 % leaflets shed, 

respectively. Leaf senescence progressed from the bottom of the plants, but in IFH 

27–8 there was a sudden leaf shedding at maturity. The senescence pattern with its 

genotypic survival rates of leaflets could be related to the distinct patterns of blooming 

and new pod development of the genotypes. A diagram depicting the time period of 

blooming showed two connected peaks for Lobia, two separated peaks for RCXAC 

and only one for IFH 27–8. Furthermore, it remains to be investigated whether the 

different leaf senescence patterns express differing strategies to use resources for pod 

production. At harvest, Lobia produced more pods per plant than the other two genotypes, 

but because of a higher amount of seeds per pod and higher kernel weight, seed 

yield was higher in IFH 27–8. 

A method to estimate chlorophyll depletion by digital imaging is being developed. 

Chlorophyll analysis of leaflets of various stages of depletion was carried out for all 

genotypes and the data obtained were then related to the average green intensity value 

from imaging. This value was calculated by the software tool integrating the colour 

values of single pixels and the pixel number of the total leaflet area. A highly significant 

correlation including 6 genotypes may represent a standard curve for cowpea in 

general. 

Keywords: Chlorophyll, cowpea, digital imaging, leaf senescence 

Contact Address: Claudia Sanetra, Humboldt University Berlin, Crop Science in the Tropics and Subtropics, 

Albrecht-Thaer-Weg 5, 14195 Berlin, Germany, e-mail: claudia.sanetra@agrar.hu-berlin.de 

ID 469 277


The Digital Global Map of Irrigation Areas — Development and 

Validation of Map Version 4 

STEFAN SIEBERT 1 , JIPPE HOOGEVEEN 2 , PETRA DÖLL 1 , JEAN-MARC FAURES 2 , 

SEBASTIAN FEICK 1 , KAREN FRENKEN 2 

1 University of Frankfurt (Main), Institute of Physical Geography, Germany 

2 Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Land and Water Development 

Division, Italy 

A new version of a digital global map of irrigation areas was developed by combining 

irrigation statistics for 26909 sub-national statistical units and geo-spatial information 

on the location and extent of irrigation schemes. The difference to map version 3 

(available at: http://www.fao.org/ag/agl/aglw/aquastat/irrigationmap/index.stm) is the 

incorporation of a map update for Africa, Europe and parts of Latin America. The 

map shows the percentage of each 5 arc minute by 5 arc minute grid cell (about 86 

km 2 along the equator) that was equipped for irrigation around the year 2000. It is 

thus an important data set for global studies related to land and water, but also for 

assessments on food security or to quantify possible impacts of climate change on 

agriculture. The poster describes the data set and the mapping methodology and gives 

an estimate of map quality at the scale of countries, world regions and the globe. Two 

indicators of map quality were developed for this purpose, and the map was compared 

to irrigated areas as derived from remote sensing based global land cover inventories. 

The main results of the study are, that 278.8 Mio ha were equipped for irrigation at 

the global scale. About 68 % of the total irrigated area is located in Asia, 17 % in 

America, 9 % in Europe, 5 % in Africa and 1 % in Oceania. The largest contiguous 

areas of high irrigation density are found in North India and Pakistan along the rivers 

Ganges and Indus, in the Hai He, Huang He and Yangtze basins in China, along the 

Nile river in Egypt and Sudan, in the Mississippi-Missouri river basin and in parts 

of California. Smaller irrigation areas are spread across almost all populated parts 

of the world. At the global scale, the overall map quality is good, but there are large 

regional differences of map quality. It was found that remote sensing based land cover 

inventories report higher values for the global extent of irrigated land and that there is 

a need for a systematic comparison of the different data sets. 

Keywords: Agriculture, crop management, crop production, global map, irrigation, 

irrigation map, land cover, land use, water use 

Contact Address: Stefan Siebert, University of Frankfurt (Main), Institute of Physical Geography, 

Georg Voigt Str. 14, 60325 Frankfurt, Germany, e-mail: s.siebert@em.uni-frankfurt.de 

278 ID 661

Model Use in Agriculture 

JOHNSON FASINMINRIN, AYORINDE OLUFAYO: 

Comparison of Flood Prediction Models for River Lokoja, 

Nigeria 281 

ONELIA ANDRADE, STEFAN ERASMI, MARTIN KAPPAS: 

A Land Resource Database for Land Evaluation Modelling 

in the Tocuyo River Basin, Venezuela 282 

ANDREAS ROTH, FRANK GRESENS, JÜRGEN BURKHARDT, 

HEINER GOLDBACH: 

Future Scenarios of Biomass Dynamics under Pastoral Conditions 

and Regional Water Balance Aspects for the Drâa 

Catchment in South-eastern Morocco 283 

TINA SCHIEDER: 

Analysis of Water Use and Allocation for the Khorezm Region 

in Uzbekistan Based on an Integrated Economic-hydrologic 

Water Management and Planning Model 284 

FRANK-MICHAEL LANGE, FIRESENAI SEREKE, STEFANIE 

COLOMBO: 

Application of the Epic Model in the Oueme Basin (Benin, 

West Africa) - Simulation of Crop Productivity and Nitrogen 

Dynamics 285 

BOHDAN LOJKA, JANA LOJKOVA, DANIEL PREININGER, 

JAN BANOUT, ZBYNEK POLESNY: 

Assessment of an Improved Fallow Agroforestry System in 

the Peruvian Amazon through Modelling Approach 286 

DILYS SEFAKOR KPONGOR, PAUL L. G. VLEK, ROLF SOMMER: 

Modelling Sorghum Yield in Response to Inorganic Fertiliser 

Application in the Semi-arid Region of Ghana 287 

KAI SCHMIDT, MIRJAM HAUCK, HARTWIG HOLST: 

Determining the Development Rates of Grape Berry Moth 

Stages 288 

MICHAEL KRAUSE, HOLM UIBRIG: 

Woody Plants in Smallholders’ Farm Systems in the Central 

Highlands of Ethiopia: A Decision and Behaviour Modelling 

289 

279


280 

FRIEDERIKE TÄSTENSEN: 

Participatory 3d Modelling in Bonga, South-western Ethiopia 290 

STANLEY KARANJA NG’ANG’A, JAMES KUNG’U, PABLO 

TITTONELL, ERNESTO GONZÁLEZ ESTADA, DE RIDDER 

NICO, QUIROS CARLOS, MARIO HERRERO: 

Exploring Trade Offs Around Farming Livelihoods Activities 

in Smallholder Crop Livestock Systems in Kenya 291


Comparison of Flood Prediction Models for River Lokoja, Nigeria 

JOHNSON FASINMINRIN, AYORINDE OLUFAYO 

Federal University of Technology, Department of Agricultural Engineering, Nigeria 

Flood estimation is one of the major aspects of hydrologic designs and is vital in planning 

for flood regulation and protection. This research work was aimed at comparing 

prediction models for forecasting flood occurrences in River Lokoja, in Kogi State 

Nigeria. Relevant climatic data such as rainfalls, flood discharges and river stages 

of 24 years duration (1980 — 2003) were collected from Lower Niger River Basin 

Authority based in Lokoja. Variations in rainfall distribution were analysed and five 

plotting positions: California, Cunnanae, Grigortons, Hazens and Weibull were used 

to compute the return periods for the observed flood discharges. Flood magnitudes 

and the corresponding return periods were plotted by fitting the used plotting positions 

into the Log-Pearson Type III distribution. The derived prediction equations 

(models) from the plots of discharge against return periods were used to forecast 

flood magnitudes for 5, 10, 15, 20, 25, 50, 100, 200, and 500 years return periods. 

Results showed that the highest rainfall occurred between the months of August and 

September. Standard deviation, skew and variance of rainfall were 83.28, 0.287 and 

6935.13 respectively. The rating curve for River Lokoja showed that an exponential 

relationship exists between the river stage and the associated discharge with reasonably 

high coefficient of correlation (0.09). Plot of river discharge against the return 

period showed that the maximum flood discharge (2.39 × 104 m 3 s −1 ) had a 25 year 

return period using the Weibull’s distribution. Derived prediction equations (models) 

gave flood magnitudes of 2.60 × 104 m 3 s −1 , 2.56 × 104 m 3 s −1 for a return period of 

50 years using the Weibull, Grigorton and California plotting positions respectively. 

These results are very useful in predicting magnitudes of flood occurrences and their 

effects on Lokoja metropolitan city. 

Keywords: Discharge, flood, rainfall, rating curve, Return period 

Contact Address: Ayorinde Olufayo, Federal University of Technology, Agricultural Engineering, 

P. M. B. 704, 341000 Akure, Nigeria, e-mail: ayo_olufayo@yahoo.com 

ID 316 281


A Land Resource Database for Land Evaluation Modelling in the 

Tocuyo River Basin, Venezuela 

ONELIA ANDRADE, STEFAN ERASMI, MARTIN KAPPAS 

University of Göttingen, Institute of Geography, Cartography, GIS & Remote Sensing 

Sect., Germany 

Tocuyo River Basin is the most important hydrographical ecosystem in the Center- 

Western region of Venezuela. Population growth and urban expansion in the basin 

have caused a degradation of natural resources, an increase of soil erosion risk, and 

a relative land scarcity for agricultural uses, therefore land evaluation to optimise the 

land use is necessary. 

Land evaluation involves the assessment of land performance used for a specific purpose, 

involving the execution and interpretation of surveys and studies, of all aspects 

of land to identify and make a comparison of promising kinds of land use applicable 

to the objectives of the evaluation. It is, therefore, necessary to obtain, analyse and 

interpret detailed information of all factors that interact with the land to proposing an 

integral management of this basin. 

In this study a methodology has been established, integrating remotely sensed imagery 

from Landsat-7, ETM+ (WRS −2 , P/R: 6/53), digital elevation model (SRTM), 

1:100.000 scale topographic and thematic maps, ground survey methods, and digital 

data in a geographic information system (GIS). A new cadastre based on a GIS with 

information about land forms, geology, hydrology, vegetation, soils, climate, infrastructure 

land cover, land use changes is developed to have a database in digital format 

for a detailed survey of the study area. 

The resulting information especially that related with land use/land cover patterns and 

their spatial distribution is a prerequisite for planning sustainable development of the 

region. It can be successfully used in land use/land cover change detection analysis, 

determination of soils erosion risk, and identification of land units for land evaluation. 

These objectives are underway. 

Keywords: Land evaluation, land resources database, Tocuyo river basin, Venezuela. 

Contact Address: Onelia Andrade, University of Göttingen, Institute of Geography, Cartography, GIS 

& Remote Sensing Sect., Goldschmidtstr. 5, 37077 Göttingen, Germany, e-mail: oneliaandrade@yahoo. 

es 

282 ID 234


Future Scenarios of Biomass Dynamics under Pastoral Conditions 

and Regional Water Balance Aspects for the Drâa Catchment in 

South-eastern Morocco 

ANDREAS ROTH, FRANK GRESENS, JÜRGEN BURKHARDT, HEINER GOLDBACH 


Germany 

The process-oriented and spatial explicit ecosystem model SAVANNA is used to assess 

biomass dynamics in rangeland landscapes in south-eastern Morocco. This region 

has been facing continuous droughts during the past 30 years, forcing semisedative 

farmers and nomads to deal with low ground water levels and highly variable 

patterns of yield and vegetation. Variances of stocking rates and thus economic uncertainty 

are the results. Model scenario results with a prospective to 2020 are expected 

to develop useful strategies relying to transhuman decision making. 

The model was calibrated for rangeland areas of the Drâa river catchment, located 

between the High Atlas mountains in the north and the Lac Iriki pan in the south. 

Measurements of biomass (kg/ha) and plant component parameters (g/m 2 DWT, Dry 

Weight Matter) of many saharan, iranoturanean and oromediterranean species were 

collected for calibration purposes. These species are the basic nourishment of trespassing 

nomadic and sedentary herds. Multiple simulation runs with ‘no grazing’ and 

‘grazing’ conditions were carried out. for calibration and sensitivity analysis with 

three basic SAVANNA vegetation types: herbaceous (e.g. Stipa ct. parviflora), shrub 

(e.g. Artemisia herba-alba/-mesatlantica) and woody (e.g. Juniperus pho.). Model 

results were used to determine regional influences of sheep, goat and dromedare herd 

populations on vegetation cover, species composition and distribution in order to assess 

their influence on the local/regional water cycle. 

Keywords: Biomass dynamics, ecosystem modelling, herd dynamics, Morocco, transhumance 

Contact Address: Andreas Roth, University of Bonn, Institute of Crop Science and Resource Conservation 

- Plant Nutrition, Karlrobert-Kreitenstrasse 13, 53115 Bonn, Germany, e-mail: aroth@uni-bonn.de 

ID 250 283


Analysis of Water Use and Allocation for the Khorezm Region in 

Uzbekistan Based on an Integrated Economic-hydrologic Water 

Management and Planning Model 

TINA SCHIEDER 


Water availability and an effective and sustainable management of water resources 

is an important factor in social and economic development. This applies notably for 

the case study area. The highly arid area Khorezm is situated in the Central Asian 

Republic of Uzbekistan and the Amu Darya delta region. Due to historical and recent 

expansion of irrigation projects the region is highly dependant on water for irrigation 

purposes. But inefficient water consumption and management result in drastic ecological, 

social, and economical problems like rise of soil and water salinity, water scarcity, 

declining yields, health problems and rising groundwater levels. This development 

and an increasing competition among water users within the region and between upand 

downstream areas along the river calls for a more efficient water allocation and 

management approach. 

In the presented study a regional analysis for different spatial resolutions of water 

allocation and use and effects of alternative water management strategies and policies 

to hydrologic cycles, plant growth, yields and areas and farmers is carried out 

for the Khorezm Region. The main objectives of the study will be the detection and 

determination of water supply and demand and as a consequence thereof the water 

availability and water use patterns in the region of Khorezm. Based on agronomic, 

hydrologic and climatologic fundamentals and calculations, economic consequences 

of alternative more effective water uses, management and allocations shall be determined 

and analysed and can serve as policy recommendations. 

The water allocation model is programmed in Gams (General Algebraic Modelling 

System) and is made of a system of non-linear differential equations. The development 

of such a framework of analysis can be a step to integrate different disciplines 

(natural sciences, economics, social sciences) to find out a better water management 

including efficient, equitable, and environmentally sustainable water allocation mechanisms 

for the study area. 

Keywords: Gams, integrated hydrologic-economic model, irrigation, optimisation 

model, Uzbekistan, Water allocation 

Contact Address: Tina Schieder, University of Bonn, Center for Development Research (ZEF), Rheinbacher 

Straße 2, 53115 Bonn, Germany, e-mail: tina.schieder@uni-bonn.de 

284 ID 189


Application of the Epic Model in the Oueme Basin (Benin, West 

Africa) - Simulation of Crop Productivity and Nitrogen Dynamics 

FRANK-MICHAEL LANGE, FIRESENAI SEREKE, STEFANIE COLOMBO 

Terra Fusca, Engineering and Consulting, Stuttgart, Germany 

Water resources in developing countries are under increasing pressure from the continuous 

growing demand for sufficient quantities of good quality water for all purposes. 

The European Union Water Framework Directive introduces interdisciplinary 

and holistic considerations for entire river basins. Therefore, decision support systems 

that integrate water balance models are a helpful tool to establish river basinmanagement 

plans. The EU-funded project RIVERTWIN aims at refining, testing 

and implementing an integrated regional model to facilitate water resource management 

in twinned river basins. One part of the RIVERTWIN Project was to simulate 

crop productivity and the impact of specific cropping systems on the nitrogen dynamics 

under varying climate and soil conditions and different fertilisation levels in the 

Oueme Basin (Benin). The specific objective of the study was to evaluate the potentials 

of the EPIC model to support the understanding of N dynamics of specific 

cropping systems in order to avoid the risk of N leaching from agricultural sites without 

sacrificing crop yield at the same time. Therefore, over 43 cropping seasons with 

various fertiliser inputs and contrasting soil and climate conditions were simulated in 

the Oueme Basin. The EPIC simulations were based on daily weather data recorded 

close to the research sites, detailed soil information and daily records on farming activities. 

To summarise the results of testing the EPIC simulation model, the following 

conclusions can be drawn: Crop yields were predicted with reasonable accuracy for 

sites with good data availability, whereas the simulation results didn‘t correspond well 

with observed yields for sites located at farmer fields and local crop varieties. For the 

case of local varieties the agronomic characteristics of the simulated crops included in 

EPIC were adjusted to obtain yields closer to local yields. Generation of supplementary 

model inputs continue to pose a major task for the Oueme Basin research area. 

Based on the results of the testing of the Epic submodel, our conclusion is that the 

model could be satisfactorily employed in the assessment of agricultural productivity 

and environmental impact, since it incorporates as much data as possible based on 

land management, climate and soil conditions. 

Keywords: Crop productivity, Epic, local varieties, modelling, nitrogen dynamics 

Contact Address: Frank-Michael Lange, Terra Fusca, Engineering and Consulting, Stuttgart, Wollgrasweg 

27, 70599 Stuttgart, Germany, e-mail: lange@terra-fusca.de 

ID 299 285


Assessment of an Improved Fallow Agroforestry System in the 

Peruvian Amazon through Modelling Approach 

BOHDAN LOJKA, JANA LOJKOVA, DANIEL PREININGER, JAN BANOUT, ZBYNEK 

POLESNY 

University of Agriculture Prague, Institute of Tropics and Subtropics, Czech Republic 

As traditional slash-and-burn systems with prolonged fallow periods are no longer feasible 

in most parts of the tropics, improved agroforestry systems have high potential to 

increase the productivity of farming systems and sustain continuous crop production. 

Our objective was to assess biophysical and economic performance of planted leguminous 

tree fallow (using Inga edulis) compared to traditional slash-and-burn farming 

system, practised by farmers on fields infested with noxious weedy grass Imperata 

brasiliensis around the city of Pucallpa, Peru. The evaluation consists of two parts. 

An existing agroforestry model SCUAF was used to predict biophysical factors, such 

as changes in soil characteristics and farm outputs (crop and tree yield). While a costbenefit 

analysis spreadsheet, which uses the output from SCUAF and economic data 

on input/output levels and prices, calculates economic performance of the systems. 

The Inga fallow system can provide improvements to a range of soil biophysical measures 

(C, N, P content). This enables higher levels of farm outputs to be achieved 

(higher cassava yields). However, for smallholders the improved system must be 

more economically profitable than the existing one. At prices currently encountered, 

the Inga fallow system is more profitable than the Imperata fallow system only in long 

term. The time taken for the smallholders to convert from the current system to the 

new system is important. In adopting the Inga fallow system, smallholders will incur 

lower profits in the first years, and it will take approximately ten years for smallholders 

to begin making a profit above that achievable with the Imperata fallow system. 

Unless smallholders are capable of accepting the lower profitability in the first years, 

or there is some government assistance, or a kind of incentive, they are less likely to 

adopt the new system. 

Keywords: Cost-benefit analysis, Imperata brasiliensis, improved fallow, Inga edulis, 

SCUAF, slash-and-burn 

Contact Address: Bohdan Lojka, University of Agriculture Prague, Institute of Tropics and Subtropics, 

Kamýcká 129, 169 21 Prague, Czech Republic, e-mail: lojka@itsz.czu.cz 

286 ID 172


Modelling Sorghum Yield in Response to Inorganic Fertiliser 

Application in the Semi-arid Region of Ghana 

DILYS SEFAKOR KPONGOR, PAUL L. G. VLEK, ROLF SOMMER 


Agriculture in the Guinea-savannah of Ghana is the main basis of livelihood for the 

people. Agriculture employs about 80 % of the population and is characterised by 

low external inputs. Soils in this area are light textured and inherently low in organic 

carbon, cation exchange capacity, nitrogen and phosphorous. Sorghum is one of the 

important staple crops cultivated in this region. Its successful and viable cultivation 

is, however, restricted to compound farms where animal manure is applied to increase 

soil productivity and yields. On the other hand, sorghum yields of the more remote, 

so called bush farms are notoriously low. Bush farms conventionally relied on long 

fallows to restore some moderate soil fertility, and are nowadays less productive partly 

due to the shorter fallows and annual bush burning in the area. This is worsened by 

the transfer of nutrients through the removal of crop residues from the bush farms to 

use as feed and beddings for animals around the compound. Under these conditions, 

the demand for sorghum outweighs the level of production from the compound farms 

resulting in seasonal famine. Hence, there is the need to explore means of increasing 

the production of sorghum. 

This study seeks to assess and predict the inorganic fertiliser yield response of sorghum 

on both compound and bush farms. To achieve this, experiments were conducted with 

three levels of inorganic phosphate and four levels of N fertiliser application. The 

plots were laid out in a randomised complete block design with four and seven replicates 

in bush and compound farms, respectively. The DSSAT crop-soil simulation 

model is used to simulate sorghum crop yields. It uses soil, weather, and crop management 

data as input parameters. The model is currently being calibrated and will be 

used to forecast Sorghum yield in this region over the next 10 years using generated 

weather data and different management and fertilisation scenarios. The model is anticipated 

to support the identification of the most promising management of inorganic 

fertiliser application in Sorghum production in both management systems. 

Keywords: Modelling, Soil productivity, Sorghum yield 

Contact Address: Dilys Sefakor Kpongor, University of Bonn, Center for Development Research (ZEF), 

walter flex str. 3, 53113 Bonn, Germany, e-mail: kpongor@yahoo.com 

ID 285 287


Determining the Development Rates of Grape Berry Moth Stages 

KAI SCHMIDT 1 , MIRJAM HAUCK 2 , HARTWIG HOLST 2 

1 University of Bonn, Mathematical Seminar, Germany 

2 State Research Station Geisenheim, Department of Phytomedicine, Germany 

The grape berry moth Lobesia botrana, a severe pest of vineyards and stone fruits, 

completes its life cycle within two and occasionally three generations in Northern 

Europe, while in the Mediterranean climates of the Near East four generations are 

common. Due to the cryptic nature of the developing larvae that feed inside the berries, 

just the short time window from egg oviposition to egg hatch is applicable for control, 

as emerging larvae are fast to dwell into the berry where they are sheltered from 

insecticides. To estimate this crucial window within each generation the rates of the 

development stages have to be determined. Development is most obvious a nonlinear 

function of temperature. Hence, a set of climate chamber experiments were 

established to monitor the development of the moth stages at constant temperatures 

in the range of 10°C to 28°C. The data provide information about the longevity of 

adult males and females, egg production and the population dynamics of the stages 

L1, L2-L4 and pupae, as these vary with temperature. The results were used a) to 

estimate the parameters of the related temperature response functions of each stage 

and b) to provide the parameters for an age structured Leslie model. As a result 

the complete life cycle of the moth is summarised to a constant parameter vector of 

the model, which is applicable for a large range of temperature patterns. Applying 

the Leslie model with its estimates, taken from the results of the climate chamber 

experiments, to long-term field data demonstrates both the importance and need of 

constant temperature experiments as well as the possibilities of upscaling laboratory 

results to field situations. 

Keywords: Grape berry moth, modelling, parameter estimation, pest control 

Contact Address: Kai Schmidt, University of Bonn, Mathematical Seminar, Nussallee 15, 53115 Bonn, 

Germany, e-mail: kai.schmidt@uni-bonn.de 

288 ID 522


Woody Plants in Smallholders’ Farm Systems in the Central 

Highlands of Ethiopia: A Decision and Behaviour Modelling 

MICHAEL KRAUSE 1 , HOLM UIBRIG 2 

1University of Kassel, Department of Development Economics and Agricultural Policy, 

Germany 

2Dresden University of Technology, Institute of International Forestry and Forest Prod- 

ucts, Germany 

Various strategies towards poverty reduction have been followed in rural areas of the Ethiopian 

highlands. In this context the contribution of woody plants to the livelihoods of farm households 

has widely been recognised. So, the contemporary depletion of natural forests and deforestation 

due to the massive use of tree produce and agricultural land expansion drives research on 

deliberate tree growing on-farm. 

Farmers’ perceptions of the utility and the constraints of locally available woody species were 

assumed to influence the decision making and the behaviour of tree integration into current landuse 

types. Accordingly, the objectives of this study have been (1) to analyse farmers’ decisions 

in making use of woody plants under perceived constraints and (2) to analyse influencing factors 

that determine the deliberate tree growing behaviour. 

The methodology of this study based on the approaches of the ‘Farming Systems’ and the ‘Behavioural 

Decision-Making’. Influence diagrams were constructed incorporating the perceived 

utility and decision determinants of deliberately grown woody plants. The ‘Discriminant Analytical 

Approach’ served to model farmers’ tree adoption behaviour referring to external and 

internal influencing factors. Two villages were selected in the central highlands to contrast 

(i) two agro-ecological zones and (ii) different access to markets for tree produce. A standardised 

questionnaire constituted the major tool for surveying 130 systematic-randomly selected 

and ex-post stratified households. 

Results from the decision modelling revealed that woody plants are grown on-farm according 

to the perceived utility of species, predominantly fuelwood and timber-based produce, followed 

by cash-generation. Service functions pertaining to the protection of land gain secondary importance 

to tree produce. Major decision determinants comprise resource-based factors, e.g. the 

shortage of land and seedlings, over stochastic-environmental factors. The competition with 

agricultural crops for resources is decisive to consider woody species not disturbing the agricultural 

production. Results of the ‘Discriminant Analysis’ confirmed that the adoption of trees is 

characterised by the available resource base, the access to infrastructure and support services 

as well as by personal characteristics of the farmers. If access to the market is given, the deliberate 

growing of trees renders additional cash income and thus contributes to the liquidation of 

farms. 

Keywords: Behavioural decision-making, discriminant analysis, farming systems, land-use 

pattern, non-competitive tree integration 

Contact Address: Michael Krause, University of Kassel, Department of Development Economics and 

Agricultural Policy, Steinstrasse 19, 37213 Witzenhausen, Germany, e-mail: krause@uni-kassel.de 

ID 113 289


Participatory 3d Modelling in Bonga, South-western Ethiopia 

FRIEDERIKE TÄSTENSEN 

Carl-von-Ossietzky University of Oldenburg, Landscape Ecology, Germany 

The participatory 3D modelling approach presented herein bases on a publication by 

RAMBALDI and CALLOSA-TARR from 2001. The work was carried out as part 

of a diploma thesis conducted in the Bonga region of south-western Ethiopia during 

a three month field trip in 2005. For the purpose of this thesis, titled ’Conservation 

areas for wild coffee in Ethiopia: an exemplary planning concept based on land use’, 

the original approach developed in and for the Asian region was adopted. 

Participatory 3D modelling basically is a Community-integrated Geographic Information 

System (CiGIS) (RAMBALDI AND CALLOSA-TARR, 2001). Its key focus is 

the establishment of means that allow ordinary people to work and understand spatial 

data, to create new realities e.g. the change of land uses and to provide information 

on the area. The approach thereby tries a much wider integration of stake holders. In 

the context of the thesis, the 3D modelling was used as a tool to gather spatial data on 

habitat types. This information in turn formed the spatial data base for the land use 

types. These types were also gathered through mapping in the field — in order to have 

two comparable data sets. For the actual participatory mapping, local farmers were 

invited to mark predefined habitat types and thereby expatiate their expert knowledge. 

The presentation will give an overview over the possibilities of 3D modelling as a 

CiGIS, highlight key differences between the work conducted and the original approach, 

and give details on the lessons learned. It will also give hands-on tips on the 

construction of a basic model, the documentation of the modelling process as well as 

the finished model, and the organisation of modelling sessions. 

Keywords: 3d, CiGIS, Ethiopia, gIS, modelling, participartory, spatial information 

Contact Address: Friederike Tästensen, Carl-von-Ossietzky University of Oldenburg, Landscape Ecology, 

Binsenstrasse 19, 26129 Oldenburg, Germany, e-mail: friederike.taestensen@4o2.de 

290 ID 450


Exploring Trade Offs Around Farming Livelihoods Activities in 

Smallholder Crop Livestock Systems in Kenya 

STANLEY KARANJA NG’ANG’A 1 , JAMES KUNG’U 2 , PABLO TITTONELL 3 , 

ERNESTO GONZÁLEZ ESTADA 1 , DE RIDDER NICO 4 , QUIROS CARLOS 1 , MARIO 

HERRERO 1 

1International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI), Kenya 

2Kenyatta University, Environmental Foundation, Kenya 

3International Centre for Tropical Agriculture, Tropical Soil Biology and Fertility, Kenya 

4Wageningen University, Department of Plant Sciences, Netherlands 

We outline the use of the IMPACT (Integrated Modelling Platform for mixed Animal 

Crop systems) tool in exploring the trade offs around farming livelihoods activities in 

smallholder crop livestock systems in Kenya. The tool was used to collect information 

relating to the characteristics of the farm household (household size, labour time 

budgets, off-farm income and dietary pattern), as well as the physical components 

of the farming systems (land, crops, soils, pastures, number of plots, etc) and their 

management practices. Data on prices of inputs and outputs and nutrient composition 

of all resources were also collected. The minimum data requirement for characterising 

and analysing small holder mixed farming systems in Kenya was identified. The 

information was collected from two contrasting sites, Central and Western Kenya. IM- 

PACT framework was then used to analyse the current livelihoods, to explore options 

for their development and reveal trade-offs between objectives farmers are facing in 

Kenya. Standard data files for running a variety of models and nutrient flows were generated 

for testing alternative scenarios related to poverty alleviation, soil fertility and 

the role of livestock. We describe some baseline results which provide summary analysis 

of the household’s economic, food security, soil fertility balances and labour efficiency. 

Results on comparative system analysis of the different sites were performed 

on the contribution and the role of each component such as livestock, crops, and offfarm 

incomes sources to the farmers livelihood and trade-offs between farmers objectives 

are also presented. The paper concludes with discussion of an in-depth analysis 

that can be made out of such system using a household simulation model which is 

linked to the impact tool to explore option for improving farmer’s livelihood. 

Keywords: Households, impact, livelihoods, Smallholder farms 

Contact Address: Stanley Karanja Ng’ang’a, International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI), 

Old Naivasha Road, +254 Nairobi, Kenya, e-mail: s.karanja@cgiar.org 

ID 535 291


292 ID 535

Agricultural Technology 

TERESA ROJAS, MARTHA LAZARTE: 

Improved Technology for the Construction of Healthy and 

Secure Houses in Rural Areas of the Peruvian Andes 295 

SOMBAT CHUENCHOOKLIN: 

Development of Pico-hydropower Plant for Farming Village 

in Upstream Watershed, Thailand 296 

HERMANN PLATZEN: 

Chemical Delinting Enhances Uniformity of Seed-dressing 

and the Phytosanitary Protection of Field-grown Cotton 297 

OLAWALE JOHN OLUKUNLE, PHILIP OGUNTUNDE: 

Design of a Row Crop Weeder 298 

CORNELIUS JANTSCHKE, ANTON SARVAS, KARLHEINZ KÖLLER: 

Autonomous Irrigation Management by Fluent Soil Moisture 

Detection 299 

SATID PINMANEE, WOLFRAM SPREER, JOACHIM MÜLLER: 

Development of a Low-cost Tensiometer Driven Irrigation 

Control Unit for Fruit Tree Irrigation 300 

VITHANAGE PRIMALI ANURUDDHIKA WEERASINGHE, HEL- 

MUT SINN, SIEGFRIED KLEISINGER: 

A New Opto-electronic Sensor for Soil Humidity Measurement 

— Evaluation by Numerical Modelling with Hydrus 

2D Software 301 

EL-AMIN AKOY, MOHAMED ISMAIL, EL-FADIL AHMED, 

WOLFGANG LUECKE: 

Design and Construction of A Solar Dryer for Mango Slices 302 

PHUPAICHITKUN SARAWUT, BUSARAKORN MAHAYOTHEE, 

METHINEE HEAWSUNGCHARERN, SERM JANJAI, JOACHIM 

MÜLLER: 

Single-layer Drying Model for Longan (Dimocarpus longan 

Lour.) 303 

MAHASIN HASSAN MOHAMED ALI AHMED, WOLFGANG 

LÜCKE, DIETER VON HÖRSTEN: 

Thermal Disinfestation of Stored Grain Using Solar Energy 304 

293


294 

OLAWALE JOHN OLUKUNLE: 

Development of a Double Action - Self Fed Cassava Peeling 

Machine 305 

SULEEPORN CHUANSIN, SUCHADA VEARASILP, SOMBAT 

SRICHUWONG, ELKE PAWELZIK: 

Selection of Packaging Materials for Soybean Seed Storage 306 

BETTINA FRAUZ, ULRIKA WEINMANN, HANS OECHSNER: 

Inactivation of Cereal Mycotoxines to Gain Income Security 

Over Biogas Production 307


Improved Technology for the Construction of Healthy and Secure 

Houses in Rural Areas of the Peruvian Andes 

TERESA ROJAS 1 , MARTHA LAZARTE 2 

1 Georg-August-Universität Göttingen, Institute of Rural Development, Germany 

2 Ngo Alternativa, 

This paper presents a Peruvian project titled: “Training and Diffusion of Improved 

Adobe(1) Technology for the construction of Healthy and Secure Houses”. This 

project was developed by the Japanese International Cooperation Agency (JICA) in 

cooperation with the Peruvian NGO Alternativa and the Peruvian governmental institution 

SENCICO. 

As Peru is a developing country where earthquakes frequently occur, a huge impact of 

this project has to be expected. The selected rural areas were Lunahuana, Pacaran and 

Viñac which are located in the southern part of Peru. In those areas, where most of the 

people live in poverty, the principal activities are agriculture and livestock farming. 

The aim of this project is to train and motivate local people in construction of adobe 

houses using an improved technology, which increase the houses’ resistance to earthquakes 

and, as a result, improve living conditions. As health is a core issue of the 

project, other aspects such as construction of improved stoves and adequate management 

of human depositions and water, were considered as well. 

Participatory methodology was used during the elaboration of the houses’ prototype. 

Two theoretical and practical courses about improved stoves were carried out, as well 

as, many sessions about the use of these stoves, management of human excrements 

and water. 

To date, 20 people are trained during two months. They were involved in the construction 

of two houses in Pacaran and one house is under construction in Lunahuana. 

Another house will be constructed in Viñac during this year. Also, two improved 

kitchens were constructed in Pacaran and Lunahuana. Besides that, more than 150 

habitants of Pacaran, Lunahuana and near shanty towns participated in the sessions 

described above. As a result of that, they learned about the importance of using improved 

adobe technology, the health hazards of smoke generated by traditional cooking 

technologies in their kitchens and the necessity to manage human excrements and 

water. The total impact of this project will be assessed at the end of 2007. 

1 Adobe is an unburnt sun-dried brick. 

Keywords: Adobe technology, healthy and secure rural houses, improved stoves, 

Peru 

Contact Address: Teresa Rojas, Georg-August-Universität Göttingen, Institute of Rural Development, 

Werrastr. 36, 12059 Berlin, Germany, e-mail: terojaslara@hotmail.com 

ID 399 295


Development of Pico-hydropower Plant for Farming Village in 

Upstream Watershed, Thailand 

SOMBAT CHUENCHOOKLIN 

Naresuan University, Civil Engineering, Thailand 

Research on the development of Pico-hydropower plant for a farming village in Thailand 

was carried out. It is one aspect given by the national plan for the renewable technology 

development with wisely energy utilisation from natural resources included 

wind, water, solar energies, bio-gas, and farm waste according to the Ministry of National 

Energy reported, respectively. Some upstream watersheds in Thailand have 

potential for the development of large scale hydropower plants by means of dam constructions. 

However, most of proposed dam sites in the upstream watershed are located 

within the restricted area as for the forestry and environmental conservation 

zone according to the national environmental law of conservation. Pico-hydropower 

plant is more suitable for the economic and farming zones of such watersheds. A waterfall 

site in Ban-Yaeng Village, Nakornthai District in Phitsanulok Province which 

locates at the upstream of Wangthong Watershed (Sub-basin of Nan River) was selected 

as the pilot project for the construction of the hydropower plant. The appropriate 

technology using the centrifugal pumping machine as for the water-turbine connected 

to a 3-phase motor producing electricity of 380 volts at revolution of 1500 rpm 

was applied. The system was based on low cost of construction, local materials, and 

easy construction and maintenance systems. Its performance of the overall system 

by mean of the efficiency was found to be 52 % resulted by the effective head of 8.4 

meters, flow rate of 15 liters per second, and electrical power production of 644 watts 

which can be used for the light, some house-ware appliances, and some farming equipments. 

It can be applied to other small farming villages in any upstream watershed 

with enough head and flow rate in the stream over the year round in order to save 

investment cost for farming systems with the clean technology. However, it can be 

transferred to larger farming villages if higher head and larger flow rate in the natural 

stream or river were found which depended on the country and topography. 

Keywords: Pico-hydro, renewable energy, farm village, upstream watershed, rural 

development. 

Contact Address: Sombat Chuenchooklin, Naresuan University, Civil Engineering, Faculty of Engineering 

Naresuan University Phitsanulok-Nkonsawan Road, 65000 Muang, Thailand, e-mail: sombatck@ 

hotmail.com 

296 ID 252


Chemical Delinting Enhances Uniformity of Seed-dressing and the 

Phytosanitary Protection of Field-grown Cotton 

HERMANN PLATZEN 

Bayer Crop Science, Leverkusen, Germany 

Modern seed dressings provide a broad and defined protection against diseases and 

pests of cotton. Main problems to be addressed by seed dressing include diseases of 

the foot root complex with Rhizoctonia , Fusarium , Phythoptora and Pythium and 

early sucking pests like aphids, white flies and thrips. Precondition for a uniform 

and effective protection of the young cotton plants against these pests and diseases 

is a uniform loading of the seeds with the agrochemicals. Tests were conducted to 

identify the possible factors resulting in uneven seed loading in various steps of the 

processing line. These included remnants of lint on the seed surface, large diameter 

of the seed, and variable amounts of dust on the seed. 

The main reason for an uneven agrochemical load of cotton seeds was related to the 

unevenness of the lint remaining on the seed coat. The removal of this lint with sulphuric 

acid resulted in the highest level of evenness in chemical seed loading and 

provided the highest uniformity in the protection and performance of field-grown cotton. 

However, for seeds to be able to germinate, it is important that the acid is completely 

neutralised, which may be achieved with calcareous slurry or with NH 4 —gas. 

Chemical delinting, acid neutralisation and subsequent seed dressing with agrochemicals 

can all be achieved with the batch treater technology, which is suited for both 

commercial companies and for individual cotton growers. It may be concluded that 

chemical delinting is a precondition for an even agrochemical load and hence an even 

protection and uniform growth performance of field-grown cotton. 

Keywords: Batch treater, Gossypium hirsutum, seed treatment 

Contact Address: Hermann Platzen, Bayer Crop Science, Leverkusen, Liefenroth 38, D 51645 Gummersbach, 

Germany, e-mail: platzen41@freenet.de 

ID 622 297


Design of a Row Crop Weeder 

OLAWALE JOHN OLUKUNLE 1 , PHILIP OGUNTUNDE 2 

1 Federal University of Technology, Department of Agricultural Engineering, Nigeria 

2 University of Technology Delft, Water Management, Netherlands 

The operations involved in the crop production cycle include land clearing, land forming/land 

leveling, tillage, and crop establishment, harvesting and post harvest operations. 

Crop establishment is necessary to eliminate the effect of weeds, pests and 

disease infestation and to provide suitable conditions for optimum yield. More than 

3000 species of weeds had been identified all over the world. The cost of weed management 

is enormous, however the opportunity cost of weed management is higher. 

Weed control measures must be put in place to check the growth and propagation of 

weeds. Chemical and manual weed control methods are viable alternatives; however, 

whereas environmental impact of herbicides made chemical method unsustainable, 

drudgery limits the size of farm of an individual in sub-saharan Africa. Introduction 

of an effective mechanical weeder is expected to encourage subsistent farmers leading 

to increased production and hence reducing poverty. To achieve this objective, a row 

crop weeder was developed in the Federal University of Technology, Akure in Nigeria. 

The weeder was designed, fabricated and tested and found to be very efficient. 

The machine consists of an abrasive nail- brush mounted on a shaft, transmission system, 

5Hp engine, frame and wheels. The height of cut of the machine is adjustable, 

thus the machine operates as a mower when cutting height is 2 cm to 4 cm above 

the ground level, but works effectively as a weeder between —2 cm to 1 cm. The 

machine is simple, cost effective and useful for small to medium scale farm holders. 

It is also a positive step towards reduction of drudgery involved in row crop weeding. 

Zero tillage, conventional tillage (with plough and harrow) and other cultural 

tillage practices that would present crops on the flat are well suited for the adoption 

of this machine. The cost the prototype machine was estimated at 500 US Dollars 

(N 65,000.00). However the cost of the commercial model was estimated at 300 US 

Dollars (N39, 000.00). The machine is economically viable with fuel consumption 

limited to 8 litres per day. 

Keywords: Drudgery, food security, mechanical weeding 

Contact Address: Olawale John Olukunle, Federal University of Technology, Department of Agricultural 

Engineering, Praise Close, Peace Avenue FUTA South Gate, 0234 Akure, Nigeria, e-mail: 

wale_olukunle@yahoo.com 

298 ID 313


Autonomous Irrigation Management by Fluent Soil Moisture 

Detection 

CORNELIUS JANTSCHKE, ANTON SARVAS, KARLHEINZ KÖLLER 

University of Hohenheim, Institute of Agricultural Engineering, Process Engineering in 

Plant Production, Germany 

Irrigation scheduling is essential to increase momentary soil-water availability to the 

plant. Guaranteeing a high level of water availability in the root zone plays a prerequisite 

role for productivity in terms of crop quantity and quality. Different substitute 

measurement methods have been used to manage irrigation. Soil water content, θ, 

is a central state variable that influences hydraulic properties of soil, which are to be 

found already when mathematical models are used to quantify water flow and nutrients 

transport in the soil. The direct acquisition of moisture content in soil has been a 

difficult task until the effect of the dielectric properties of soil constituents became ascertainable 

for the propagation speed of electromagnetic waves. Time Domain Reflectometry 

(TDR) enables to measure transient variation of moisture content. It enables 

to improve a determination of water dynamics in cropped soils during and between 

irrigation events (depletion rates at different depths, plant water uptake etc.). The 

number of potential simultaneous spots to be measured by TDR is limited. To cover 

broad areas stationary measurement setup is unaffordable and technically problematic. 

A dynamic sensor that is based on the TRIME technology (IMKO) has recently been 

developed. The sensor is designed to define the spatial distribution of water content in 

shallow top soil layers (h=3 cm). The system works with a high temporal resolution 

of 1 Hz. In order to acquire information about the moisture content of the relevant 

root zone, a current research approach intends to combine a second measurement 

system that is based on a modified active microwave sensor to provide the average 

water content for 30 cm penetration depth. The sensor fusion is promising, thus moisture 

content variation can be detected at high resolution and accuracy over large areas. 

Consequently the dynamics of moisture content in the root zone will become quotable 

over plot and field scale. Such information will be used for an interactive design of autonomous 

irrigation management in order to improve general and plant-related water 

use efficiency. 

Keywords: Fluent, Irrigation, Site Specific, Soil Moisture, TDR, TRIME, Water Use 

Contact Address: Cornelius Jantschke, University of Hohenheim, Institute of Agricultural Engineering, 

Process Engineering in Plant Production, Garbenstraße 9, 70593 Stuttgart, Germany, e-mail: cornelius. 

jantschke@uni-hohenheim.de 

ID 519 299


Development of a Low-cost Tensiometer Driven Irrigation Control 

Unit for Fruit Tree Irrigation 

SATID PINMANEE 1 , WOLFRAM SPREER 2 , JOACHIM MÜLLER 2 

1 Thai-Vietnamese-German Collaborative Research Program, Thailand 


Irrigated fruit tree production is an important source of income for upland farmers 

in northern Thailand. As water is an increasingly scarce resource in the hillsides, 

strategies for more efficient water use are fundamental for sustainably increasing agricultural 

production and ensuring farmers’ livelihoods. However, modern technology 

for an improved irrigation is often not affordable to upland farmers. Therefore, an 

adapted solution for optimised irrigation was investigated. 

An automatic tensio control (ATC) unit was developed to use soil water tension to 

open and close the inlet valve of a micro-irrigation lateral. It works without electric 

components, so that it can be operated in areas without access to electricity. Furthermore, 

it is assembled from cheap, locally available materials. Thus, it can be easily 

copied and adapted to different agro-ecological, as well a socio-economic environments. 

The ATC was tested under controlled conditions, whereby soil water tension and the 

opening and closing times of the main valves were recorded. Additionally, soil water 

content was measured by use of time domain reflectometry (TDR). To monitor the 

functioning of the ATC under field conditions, three units were set up on commercial 

orchards in Mae Sa Mai, close to Chiang Mai. The operation was left to farmers, who 

participated in the evaluation of the device. 

Testing the ATC on station and under field conditions, it has proven its reliability in 

maintaining a favourable moisture regime in the soil. Thereby an optimal water supply 

of the trees was obtained, avoiding over irrigation. For farmers, however, the complete 

automatic functioning of the device was considered to be the most favourable aspect. 

Keywords: Adapted technology, automatic irrigation, soil moisture, soil water tension 



300 ID 495


A New Opto-electronic Sensor for Soil Humidity Measurement — 

Evaluation by Numerical Modelling with Hydrus 2D Software 

VITHANAGE PRIMALI ANURUDDHIKA WEERASINGHE, HELMUT SINN, 

SIEGFRIED KLEISINGER 

University of Hohenheim, Agricultural Engineering, Germany 

Water is becoming a very scarce resource with the increasing population all over the 

world. Since 75 % of the fresh water is used for agriculture purposes, improving efficiency 

is essential in irrigation to address global water scarcity. Water can be used 

more efficiently by using new technology. Precise soil moisture measurement plays a 

major role in high efficiency water use. There are a lot of sophisticated soil moisture 

sensors which are directed towards well-resourced farmers. But, the majority of the 

world’s farmers are the resource poor smallholders who have not been able to afford 

that sophisticated irrigation technologies. This paper is to introduce a new low cost 

near infra red sensor with a special moisture conductive cladding material. Numerical 

modelling is a fast and inexpensive approach to evaluating the moisture movement in 

the soil-sensor system. A prerequisite for the accurate soil moisture flux modelling is 

precise parameterisation of soil and cladding material hydraulic functions. Bimodal 

Van Genuchtan parameterisation of Durner model was used to get hydraulic parameters 

of the special cladding material. Available hydraulic parameters of the soil were 

used for the model. There is a possibility to change the environmental and soil characteristics 

according to weather or climate of the place where sensors are supposed to 

be installed. Simulated results show a very good relationship with hydraulic characteristics 

of the cladding material and the soil during a definite range of matrix potential. 

Experimental observations show good correspondence to the simulation results 

in modelling. The suitability of the Hydrus 2D software for evaluation of soil-sensor 

relationship will be discussed. 

Keywords: Modelling, near infra red, opto-electronic sensor, soil moisture 

Contact Address: Vithanage Primali Anuruddhika Weerasinghe, University of Hohenheim, Agricultural 

Engineering, Garbenstrasse 9, 70599 Stuttgart, Germany, e-mail: primali@uni-hohenheim.de 

ID 437 301


Design and Construction of A Solar Dryer for Mango Slices 

EL-AMIN AKOY 1 , MOHAMED ISMAIL 2 , EL-FADIL AHMED 3 , WOLFGANG 

LUECKE 4 

1 University of Zalingei, Department of Agricultural Engineering, Sudan 

2 University of Khartoum, Department of Agricultural Engineering, Sudan 

3 Ministry of Science and Technology, Energy Research Institute, Sudan 

4 University of Göttingen, Institute of Agricultural Engineering, Germany 

Based on preliminary investigations under controlled conditions of drying experiments, 

a natural convection solar dryer was designed and constructed to dry mango 

slices. This paper describes the design considerations followed and presents the results 

of calculations of design parameters. A minimum of 16.8m 2 solar collector area 

is required to dry a batch of 100 kg sliced mango (195.2 kg fresh mango at 51.22 % 

pulp) in 20 hours (two days drying period). The initial and final moisture content 

considered were 81.4 % and 10 % wet basis, respectively. The average ambient conditions 

are 30ºC air temperature and 15 % relative humidity with daily global solar 

radiation incident on horizontal surface of about 20 MJ/m2/day. The weather conditions 

considered are of Khartoum, Sudan. A prototype of the dryer was so designed 

and constructed that has a maximum collector area of 1.03m 2 . This prototype dryer 

will be used in experimental drying tests under various loading conditions. The constructed 

solar dryer was used to dry thin layer of mango slices, variety Kitchner from 

about 81.2 % moisture content (wet basis) to 15.6%(wet basis) in 8 hours. Thin layer 

solar drying experiments were conducted for mango slices (Mangifera indica L) variety 

Kitchner at 3mm slice thickness. Three different mathematical models available 

in literature namely, Lewis, Henderson & Pabis and Page models were used to evaluate 

the best fit of experimental data. The best fit of the thin layer solar drying of 

mango slices was obtained by Page‘s model which fitted very well the experimental 

data with high value of R 2 (0.98) and low value of χ 2 , SSE and MSBE. According to 

the results, Page model could satisfactorily describe drying curve of mango slices. 

Keywords: Construction, design, drying constant, mango slices, modelling, solar 

dryer 

Contact Address: Wolfgang Luecke, University of Göttingen, Institute of Agricultural Engineering, 

Göttingen, Germany, e-mail: luecke1@gwdg.de 

302 ID 501


Single-layer Drying Model for Longan (Dimocarpus longan Lour.) 

PHUPAICHITKUN SARAWUT 1 , BUSARAKORN MAHAYOTHEE 2 , METHINEE 

HEAWSUNGCHARERN 3 , SERM JANJAI 4 , JOACHIM MÜLLER 1 


2 Silpakorn University, Department of Food Technology, Thailand 

3 Chiang Mai University, Faculty of Agro-Industry, Thailand 

4 Silpakorn University, Department of Physics, Thailand 

Dried longan, using deep-bed dryer, is an important product in Thailand since 2000. 

To prevent the non-uniform product, information about moisture content of the product 

of each layer during drying are important. The modelling of this dryer is not 

reached due to the complexity of drying single fruit and single layer model. Semiempirical 

and empirical models of single layers were used for simulation of the single 

layer inside the bulk dryer. In this work, based on standard of ASABE, 15 singlelayer 

models were used on nonlinear fitting programming on MATLAB. The coefficient 

of each model was calculated by fitting with drying curve of drying experiment 

at different drying conditions. Effect of size of fruit and also temperature, air velocity 

and relative humidity of drying air to coefficient was studied. The evaluated index of 

model was defined in term of Residue Sum of Square (RSS), Standard Error of Estimation 

(SEE) and R 2 . As results of all models showed highly fitting with experiment 

data, RSS is the best index for evaluate model because this index give the different 

result of each model while this was not found in SEE and R 2 index. For the reason 

of low coefficients that show low RSS index, Modified Page’s model is the simplest 

model for modelling the moisture content of each single layer in the bulk of longan. 

There are no effect of air velocity and relative humidity to drying curve and coefficient 

of each model but these has correlation with temperature and size of fruit. The model 

with coefficients that are a function of temperature and the size of fruit are widely use 

in the industries. 

Keywords: Drying, fruit, longan, model 

Contact Address: Phupaichitkun Sarawut, University of Hohenheim, Agricultural Engineering, 

Graben Str.9, 70599 Stuttgart, Germany, e-mail: sarawut@ats.uni-hohenheim.de 

ID 606 303


Thermal Disinfestation of Stored Grain Using Solar Energy 

MAHASIN HASSAN MOHAMED ALI AHMED, WOLFGANG LÜCKE, DIETER VON 

HÖRSTEN 

University of Göttingen, Department of Crop Science, Agricultural Engineering, Germany 

Food grains are a major dietary source for humans. During storage, grains are seriously 

affected by many factors, which cause deterioration and losses. Most losses 

result from infestation by biological agents, mainly insects, which are more active 

under tropical conditions. Losses as high as 50 % have been reported in many tropical 

countries. The most common control method is chemical insecticides, but serious 

problem have been identified their future. High temperature treatment is one of the 

promising alternatives. It is safe, effective and highly accepted in the market, but it 

has been seriously constrained by its high-energy requirement. Solar energy has the 

potential as alternative source of energy because it is free, abundant, and environmental 

friendly. This study aimed to reduce using non-sustainable energies and eliminate 

insecticides using, therefore, protecting environment and preserving grains in a good 

condition for prolonged time. 

Experiment was carried out at the Department of Crop Science, Agricultural Engineering 

Goettingen University, Germany. Thermal disinfestation apparatus was 

designed to heat grain a continuous-flow system. A solar collector, (3 × 0.25 m), 

was constructed from black-painted stainless steel as absorbing material, glass cover, 

polystyrene for bottom insulation and wood as side insulation and frame. Grain wheat, 

10 % moisture content was used in the experiment. System was running under direct 

solar radiation. Grain, collector and ambient temperatures and solar radiation were 

recorded. Possibility of obtaining insect lethal temperature 60°C, using different grain 

flow-rates, was examined. 

Results explained that, using solar energy, lethal temperature for all stored-grain insects, 

could be obtained using different grain flow-rates. Grain flow-rate was found 

to be in the range of 13.33–30.67 kg/h.m 2 of absorber surface area, according to solar 

radiation quantity. Maximum solar radiation recorded was 850 W/m 2 . The system can 

work for 5 h/day under German weather conditions. 

With these results it is possible to construct solar driven thermal disinfestation apparatus 

for grain flow in a continuous-flow system. Results seem to be promising in 

tropics and subtropics where much solar radiation is available. 

Keywords: Solar energy, stored grain, thermal disinfestation 

Contact Address: Mahasin Hassan Mohamed Ali Ahmed, University of Göttingen, Department of Crop 

Science, Agricultural Engineering, Gutenbergstraße 33, 37075 Göttingen, Germany, e-mail: shwok@ 

yahoo.com 

304 ID 512


Development of a Double Action - Self Fed Cassava Peeling 

Machine 

OLAWALE JOHN OLUKUNLE 

Federal University of Technology, Department of Agricultural Engineering, Nigeria 

The federal government in Nigeria opened up the market and challenges of cassava 

production, processing and export in 2004, since then there has been the need to improve 

the concept and methods of production/processing of cassava. One of the major 

challenges of cassava processing is peeling. Engineers at the Federal University of 

Technology, Akure, Nigeria, initiated a major research effort to address this challenge, 

the effort resulted in the design of two models of a hand fed cassava peeling machine. 

Feedbacks from users and the public resulted in the development of a self-fed cassava 

peeling machine. Three models of the latter have been developed and reported. 

In this study an appraisal of the prospects and limitations of the previous designs is 

presented. The result of the appraisal was used as the basis for the design of yet an 

improved version of the self fed cassava peeling machine. The machine consists of a 

7Hp Honda engine, two lines of abrasive brush, two lines of auger arranged in parallel, 

transmission system, frame and tuber monitor. Further improvement was done on the 

existing models of the self-fed cassava-peeling machine. Major area of improvement 

include, increase in the length of the peeling brush from 30 cm to 60 cm and automatic 

adjuster for a range of cassava tuber sizes. A double action self-fed cassava peeling 

machine was developed and tested under various crop, machine and operational conditions. 

The effect of brush type, speed and orientation on efficiency of the peeling 

process was determined. Tubers were presented as cuttings of 20 to 25 cm long and 

at three different ranges of diameters as < 8 cm, 8–10 cm and > 10 cm. Results show 

that auger speed of 250 to 1000 rpm resulted in peeling efficiencies of between 82 

to 92 % at various peripheral speeds of the peeling brush. Adoption of this peeler is 

expected to (i) promote timely processing of fresh tubers (ii) reduce labour input and 

(iii) increase production and hence the income of local processors. 

Keywords: Cassava Peeling Machine , double Action, Self-Fed 

Contact Address: Olawale John Olukunle, Federal University of Technology, Department of Agricultural 

Engineering, Praise Close, Peace Avenue FUTA South Gate, 0234 Akure, Nigeria, e-mail: 

wale_olukunle@yahoo.com 

ID 312 305


Selection of Packaging Materials for Soybean Seed Storage 

SULEEPORN CHUANSIN 1 , SUCHADA VEARASILP 1 , SOMBAT SRICHUWONG 1 , 

ELKE PAWELZIK 2 

1 Chiangmai University, Department of Agronomy, Thailand 


Soybean seeds var. CM. 60 has been processed and dried to 9.06 percent moisture 

content. Seeds were stored in 4 different kinds of plastic bag i.e. Metallized film, 

Aluminum foil, Polypropylene, and Woven Polypropylene for a period of 4 months 

under controlled temperature (16°C) and relative humidity (65 %). The experimental 

design was arranged in Factorial in RCB consisting of 2 factors; storage period and 

packaging material. Changes in fungal flora, water activity value, Carbon dioxide 

and Oxygen level, standard germination and vigour by accelerated aging technique, 

electrical conductivity test and acidity value were monthly determined, it was found 

that seed moisture content was increased in time and showed positive correlation with 

water activity value and negative correlation with seed germination and seed vigour 

showed in terms of low percentage standard germination, the electrical conductivity 

from seed exudates. Oxygen level showed positive correlation with free fatty acid 

value and showed positive correlation with storage fungi: Aspergillus sp., A. flavus, 

A. glaucus, A. niger, A. terreus and Penicillium sp. While field fungi: Cercospora 

kikuchii, Curvularia lunata, Fusarium spp. and Macrophomina phaseolina were decreased. 

From this experiment, soybean seeds were stored in Metallized film bags 

and Aluminum foil bags observed highly standard germination and seed vigour, and 

keep water activity and seed moisture content in low level could delay seed quality 

deterioration followed by Polypropylene bags and woven bag. 

Keywords: Packaing material, seed germination, seed vigour, soybean seed, storage 

period 

Contact Address: Suchada Vearasilp, Chiang Mai University, Department of Agronomy, Chiang Mai, 

Thailand, e-mail: suchada@chiangmai.ac.th 

306 ID 229


Inactivation of Cereal Mycotoxines to Gain Income Security Over 

Biogas Production 

BETTINA FRAUZ 1 , ULRIKA WEINMANN 2 , HANS OECHSNER 1 

1University of Hohenheim, State Institute of Farm Machinery and Farm Structures, Germany 

2University of Hohenheim, Institute for Animal Nutrition, Germany 

As the Food and Agricultural Organisation of the United Nations (FAO) classified 

25 % of the world’s crops contaminated with Fusarium and its intermediate catabolic 

products (FAOstat, 2005), cereal production is facing severe yield losses through 

mould infections. One of the dominating toxins produced by an indigenous population 

of moulds is Deoxynivalenol (DON). It is know to provoke harmful anorexia 

and emesis caused by short- or long-term administration to living beings. This forms 

a hazardous situation for nutrition safety. Due to the known negative impacts of toxins 

produced, the most feasible, environmentally compatible and economical option 

has to be found to detach contaminates off the human food chain. A substitutional 

generation of income is imperative, to secure farmers income. Current research at 

Hohenheim’s State Institute of Farm Machinery and Farm Structures focus on a potential 

deactivation of mycotoxines by biogas fermentation processes. A set of novel 

routines have been run in test series. The parameter variation of temperature, infection 

rate and time of exposure in a bench-scale set-up was used to evaluate chances 

of a toxine deactivation and a simultaneous production of biogas. First findings of 

the running cooperative project under foundation of the German FNR prove the inactivation 

potential of biogas fermentation to either Fusarium (CFU), DON or DOM −1 . 

Retention times of 0.5 days showed no evidence of Fusarium spores after extraction 

and examination. A simultaneous and suitable production of biogas underlines the 

realistic economic potential of this approach in the course of practical retention times 

and conditions of a fermentation process. Thus food security is potential to be gained 

over income production. 

Keywords: Anaerobic Fermentation, Biogas, Energy Production, Fusarium, Inactivation, 

Mycotoxine 

Contact Address: Bettina Frauz, University of Hohenheim, State Institute of Farm Machinery and Farm 

Structures, Garbenstrasse 9, 70599 Stuttgart, Germany, e-mail: b-frauz@uni-hohenheim.de 

ID 511 307


308 ID 511

Biodiversity 

JOHANNES KOTSCHI: 

Coping with Climate Change and the Role of Agrobiodiversity 311 

YOUPENG KE, JIANCHUN GUO, TAN JIHU: 

A Preliminary Study on Indicator System of Natural Rubber 

Security in China 312 

ALICE BEINING, JÜRGEN BURKHARDT: 

Ecophysiological Diversity of Wild Coffea Arabica Populations 

in Ethiopia — Implications for A Succesfull Conservation 

Strategy 313 

ROBERTA B. RODRIGUES, MENELAOS PAPAGIANNOPOU- 

LOS, JOSÉ GUILHERME S. MAIA, KAORU YUYAMA, FRIED- 

HELM MARX: 

Camu-camu: a Promising Fruit from the Amazon Basin 314 

MARIA BYSTRICKY, MICHAEL PETERS, GERMAN ESCO- 

BAR, RAINER SCHULTZE-KRAFT, LUIS H. FRANCO: 

Floral Biology of Cratylia argentea — First Results of a 

Study in Colombia 315 

TEODARDO CALLES, RAINER SCHULTZE-KRAFT, ORLANDO 

GUENNI: 

Diversity Assessment of the Tropical Legumes Genus Stylosanthes: 

A Research Project in Venezuela 316 

KATRIN ZÖFEL, RAINER SCHULTZE-KRAFT, MICHAEL PE- 

TERS, LUIS H. FRANCO: 

Field Characterisation of a Collection of the Forage Tree 

Legumes Leucaena diversifolia and L. trichandra — an Ongoing 

Project in Colombia 317 

ELFADL ELFADL, CHRISTOF KLING, ALBRECHT MELCHINGER: 

Evaluation of Heterosis in Durum Wheat (Triticum durum 

Desf.) 318 

TAHANI ELAGIB, HEIKO PARZIES, HARTWIG GEIGER: 

Marker Assisted Heterotic Grouping of Sudanese Landraces 319 

OLIVER HENSEL: 

Decentralised Post-harvest Technologies to Produce Value 

Added Crops from Neglected Plants 320 

309


310 

STEFAN HAUSER, SERAPHIN NGOUMBE, BERNARD ALOYS 

NKONGMENECK: 

Effects on Plant Species Composition of Glyphosate Application 

in a Plantain System after Secondary Forest Clearing 321

Biodiversity 

Coping with Climate Change and the Role of Agrobiodiversity 

JOHANNES KOTSCHI 

AGRECOL - Association for AgriCulture & Ecology, Germany 

The world’s biological diversity is eroding. This concerns in particular the entire agricultural 

diversity of genes, species and their agrarian ecosystems, thus the resource 

base for food. With species becoming extinct, mankind is jeopardised. In this process, 

the effects of climate change become increasingly important. The most relevant climate 

change-related factors to agriculture are: the rise in temperature, reduced water 

supply and increased UV radiation. Severe implications are expected for agriculture 

and food supply notably in sub-tropical regions. As a consequence, a two-pronged 

strategy is required: mitigation of and adaptation to climate change. Agrobiodiversity 

plays a key role in this, which calls for a revision of the present conservation 

approaches. Instead of ex-situ conservation in gene banks a broader concept has to be 

envisaged by which emphasis is on in-situ conservation complemented by gene banks. 

The reason is twofold: (1) as future needs are unknown, a maximum of genetic resources 

has to be conserved at the lowest possible public cost. On-farm conservation 

is not necessarily less costly, but the costs are mainly borne by farmers and it produces 

private and public benefits (2) adaptation of genetic resources to environmental 

change is a necessary process that requires exposure to the environment, rather than 

deep-freeze storage in a gene bank. 

So far, there is little awareness among professionals of the close relationship between 

climate change and food security and the role agrobiodiversity has to play. It is imperative 

to manage agrobiodiversity in a sustainable way. Climate change-induced 

environmental stress may in fact go beyond the reach of adaptation. But the in-situ 

approach offers a great chance to shape a future worth living. 

Keywords: Conservation strategies, in-situ conservation, stress adaptation 

Contact Address: Johannes Kotschi, AGRECOL - Association for AgriCulture & Ecology, Johannes 

Acker Straße 6, 35041 Marburg, Germany, e-mail: kotschi@agrecol.de 

ID 625 311


A Preliminary Study on Indicator System of Natural Rubber 

Security in China 

YOUPENG KE 1,2 , JIANCHUN GUO 2,3 , TAN JIHU 3 

1Chinese Academy of Tropical Agriculture, Rubber Reseach Institution, China 

2South China University of Tropical Agriculture, Economics and Managment College, 

China 

3South China University of Tropical Agriculture, Tropical Agricultural Development Re- 

search Institute, China 

Natural rubber, a kind of world bulk industrial raw material and one of four important 

industrial raw materials, is scarce, short and strategic resource indispensable for 

national defense and industrial construction. Recent international gross demand for 

natural rubber has been steadily rising; international export resource of natural rubber 

has been decreasing annually. 

The occupied rate of consumption of natural rubber in China has raised from 7.43 % in 

1981 to 19.56 % in 2004, the growth range has reached as high as 163.26%; The share 

of China’s natural rubber product in the world is 3.40 % in 1981 up to 6.68 % in 2005, 

which has increased 96.47%; The import share in the world has increased from 6.80 % 

in 1981 to 20.63 % in 2005, the percent of growth is up to 208.83 %. domestic gap 

between supply and demand has inclined to enlarge and self-sufficiency rate has been 

unremittingly falling, in addition to the right to participate in rules of international 

rubber production, price, market and so on has been gradually marginalised, which 

extremely threatens China, whose present producing scale is only fifth in the world 

market, while consumption and import is first and its self-sufficiency is below 30 %. 

For all these reasons, the purpose of the study is to design an indicator system of 

natural rubber security based on the analysis of influencing factors of China’s natural 

rubber production, consumption and import, the status in the world natural rubber 

market and etc.. On the basis of the above analysis, the paper mainly explores the definition 

content of the indicator system of natural security, and discusses the methods 

to calculate the security indicators, furthermore to discuss the criterion of the security 

indicators. 

Keywords: China, indicator system, natural rubber, security 

Contact Address: Youpeng Ke, Chinese Academy of Tropical Agriculture, Rubber Reseach Institution, 

China, e-mail: ypke92@hotmail.com 

312 ID 557

Biodiversity 

Ecophysiological Diversity of Wild Coffea Arabica Populations in 

Ethiopia — Implications for A Succesfull Conservation Strategy 

ALICE BEINING, JÜRGEN BURKHARDT 


Germany 

Drought is a serious constraint on the productivity of Coffea arabica in many countries worldwide 

that prevents the cultivars from expressing their full genetic potential. Hence, the development 

of drought resistant plants is considered a promising strategy to ensure economic 

production when resources are limited. However, early domestication and modern plant breeding 

severely eroded genetic variations of modern cultivars compared with their wild progenitors, 

making crop plants increasingly susceptible to environmental stresses. Consequently, wild populations 

of Coffea arabica that can be found in the Ethiopian Afromontane rainforests constitute 

the last remaining genetic reserves of great value for the producing and consuming world. Despite 

its importance however, natural stands of wild coffee are diminishing at alarming rate 

mainly due to deforestation activities. Thus, there is an urgent need to assess the ecophysiological 

diversity and to identify suitable sites for conservation activities in order to maintain the 

irreplaceable genetic resources of Coffea arabica found in Ethiopia. 

The study focuses on distant wild populations of Coffea arabica in Ethiopia that are widely 

distributed over an area with high heterogeneity in water availability. It is hypothesised that this 

gradient promotes different selection pressure for traits related to water use. Differences in gas 

exchange, carbon isotope discrimination and leaf water relations were studied in their natural 

habitat as well as under controlled environmental conditions in order to determine whether 

climate-driven shifts in physiological traits between distant populations of Coffea arabica are 

caused by phenotypic plasticity or represent ecotypic differences. 

The results of the in situ study indicate that there is a high variability in water use strategies 

among the populations and that they are well-adapted to their local environment. When grown 

under identical environmental conditions (ex situ), populations still maintain differences in their 

ecophysiological behaviour. However, their adaptive differences in physiology do not reflect 

the water availability of the site of origin. This has major implications for the conservation 

strategy of the threatened wild coffee populations and in situ conservation should be seen as 

the most important instrument in order to maintain the ecophysiological diversity found in the 

wild populations of Coffea arabica in Ethiopia. 

Keywords: Drought, ecophysiological diversity, in situ conservation, rainfall gradient 

Contact Address: Alice Beining, University of Bonn, Institute of Crop Science and Resource Conservation 

- Plant Nutrition, Karlrobert-Kreiten-Straße 13, 53115 Bonn, Germany, e-mail: abeining@ 

uni-bonn.de 

ID 627 313


Camu-camu: a Promising Fruit from the Amazon Basin 

ROBERTA B. RODRIGUES 1 , MENELAOS PAPAGIANNOPOULOS 1 , JOSÉ 

GUILHERME S. MAIA 2 , KAORU YUYAMA 3 , FRIEDHELM MARX 1 

1 University of Bonn, Institute of Nutrition and Food Sciences, Germany 

2 Federal University of Para, Food Chemistry, Brazil 

3 Instituto Nacional de Pesquisa da Amazonia(INPA), Brazil 

The Amazon forest contains a great number of fruit bearing species in the wild state, 

with a small part being explored by harvesting from the wild or subsistence agriculture. 

This group includes the camu camu (Myrciaria dubia), family Myrtaceae. The most 

distinctive feature of the camu camu fruit attracting attention is its extremely high 

content of vitamin C (1000 to 3000 mg/100 g in the pulp). The harvest of camu camu 

fruit in naturally occurring stands is difficult - at harvest time the shrubs are usually 

partially flooded. Recently, growing trials on non-flooded soils are promising. In the 

harvest regions, the fruit is consumed in the form of juice, ice-cream, fruit purees and 

jams, not being consumed in its natural state due to its high acidity. More recently 

there has been an increasing demand for camu camu pulp in the larger commercial 

centres of Brazil for the production of healthy beverages. Compounds like ascorbic 

acid and anthocyanins, present in the camu camu, are known to act as dietary antioxidants. 

They are reactive oxygen species scavengers, which can play an important role 

in the prevention of illnesses like cancer or cardiovascular diseases or to slow down 

the ageing process. For a better understanding of the health benefits from the camu 

camu fruit, we have determined the antioxidant capacity of the fruit with the Total 

Oxidant Scavenging Capacity assay. This assay is based upon the ethylene yielding 

reaction of α-keto-γ-methiolbutyric acid with three different reactive oxygen species 

(ROS). The time course of ethylene production was monitored during one hour by 

repeated headspace GC. In comparison with other fruit, camu camu presents outstanding 

antioxidant features. Not only the extremely high content of ascorbic acid but also 

compounds likes anthocyanins or flavonolglycosides seem to contribute to the overall 

antioxidant capacity of camu camu fruit pulp. The camu camu is, until now, a hardly 

known fruit that presents a high potential to be explored as a functional food not only 

in the Amazon region but also in the big markets of Europe and the USA. 

Keywords: Antioxidant capacity, camu-camu, Myrciaria dubia, TOSC assay, Vitamin 

C 

Contact Address: Friedhelm Marx, University of Bonn, Institute of Nutrition and Food Sciences, Endenicher 

Allee 11-13, 53115 Bonn, Germany, e-mail: f.marx@uni-bonn.de 

314 ID 243

Biodiversity 

Floral Biology of Cratylia argentea — First Results of a Study in 

Colombia 

MARIA BYSTRICKY 1 , MICHAEL PETERS 2 , GERMAN ESCOBAR 2 , RAINER 

SCHULTZE-KRAFT 1 , LUIS H. FRANCO 2 

1University of Hohenheim, Institute for Plant Production and Agroecology in the Tropics 


2International Centre for Tropical Agriculture (CIAT), Colombia 

Cratylia argentea is a forage legume shrub well adapted to infertile, acid soils. In 

combination with its high drought tolerance and nutritive value, this renders the plant 

particularly useful for the subhumid tropics, where it grows best below 1200masl. 

A lack of knowledge of the species’ reproductive system makes germplasm management 

difficult. Apparently there is a certain outcrossing rate as indicated by high genetic 

variability within accessions as well as abundant visits of insects. Our objective 

is to verify the dependence of reproduction on insect visits. There are tree possibilities: 

(a) The visiting insects produce self-pollination through tripping, causing pollen 

transfer between anthers and stigma of the same flower; (b) the insects serve as pollen 

vectors thus producing cross-pollination; (c) a mixed mating system, which is most 

likely. 

We defined three floral phases: 1. Closed bud: Anthers open the day before anthesis. 

2. Anthesis: flowers open in the morning and close in the afternoon, the pollen being 

mature only for a short time while the stigma is always receptive. 3. Withering: 

Flowers close and remain so for some days before either the whole flower or the 

petals drop, then leaving behind the ovary. Generally the percentage of pod set is very 

low (4–7 % in non-manipulated, non-isolated flowers). 

Current studies aim at the assessment of pod set and number of seeds per pod after 

the following treatments: natural self-pollination (labeling non-manipulated isolated 

flowers); artificial self-pollination (manual tripping of isolated flowers); natural crosspollination 

(labeling flowers visited by insects); and artificial cross-pollination (after 

emasculation of flower buds). Furthermore, the main insects visiting C. argentea flowers 

are being identified, and pollen dispersal by insects is being studied by marking 

flowers with fluorescent powder. 

As environmental conditions may affect the floral biology of C. argentea, results of 

this study should be validated at other sites to assess the impact of site properties on 

reproductive system and pod set. 

Keywords: floral biology, forage legumes, reproductive system 

Contact Address: Rainer Schultze-Kraft, University of Hohenheim, Department of Biodiversity and 

Land Rehabilitation, Garbenstraße 13, 70593 Stuttgart, Germany, e-mail: rsk@uni-hohenheim.de 

ID 374 315


Diversity Assessment of the Tropical Legumes Genus Stylosanthes: 

A Research Project in Venezuela 

TEODARDO CALLES 1 , RAINER SCHULTZE-KRAFT 1 , ORLANDO GUENNI 2 

1University of Hohenheim, Biodiversity and Land Rehabilitation in the Tropics and Subtropics, 

Germany 

2Central University of Venezuela (UCV), Agricultural Botany, Venezuela 

The genus Stylosanthes is probably the most important genus for purposes other than 

grain production (e.g. forage, soil cover, soil improvement). Currently, some species 

have a particular importance for low-input agro-ecosystems in Australia, Africa, Southeast 

Asia, India and China. In previous research, germplasm and herbarium surveys 

were conducted in Venezuela and a comprehensive taxonomic and biogeographic 

database was obtained. It helped to better understand the natural distribution of the 

genus and identify collection gaps regarding both species and regions of particular 

interest. Based on the herbarium survey, three distinct groups of odd specimens were 

identified. With this information, a trip was organised to the respective origin regions 

to collect herbarium specimens, seeds and inflorescences. Examination of the collected 

material showed, that the three odd groups represent two as yet undescribed 

species (“Stylosanthes venezolensis” and “Stylosanthes falconensis”) and one new 

botanical variety of Stylosanthes viscosa from high altitudes (above 2500 m asl). One 

of the conclusions of the survey was that some Venezuelan Stylosanthes species have 

multiple adaptations and can be found in a quite broad range of environments; therefore, 

quite distinct ecotypes are likely to occur. Since ecological conditions alone 

may not be sufficient to classify populations as distinct ecotypes, in-depth genetic 

studies are required to determine whether populations from contrasting environments 

are actually genetically so diverse that they can be classified as ecotypes. To properly 

assess the natural, inter- and intra-specific diversity of Stylosanthes species, future research 

in Venezuela will concentrate on the variability occurring in the wild. For this, 

germplasm collecting missions will be conducted to regions covering environmental 

ranges of particular interest. Then, the collected germplasm will be used for molecular 

analysis of genetic diversity, applying the Random Amplification of Polymorphic 

DNA (RAPD) technique. As a result, we will be able to identify not only inter- and 

intra-specific Stylosanthes variations but also to map the occurrence of such genetic 

diversity in Venezuela. The information obtained will help breeders and biodiversity 

managers to design further collecting and conservation strategies. 

Keywords: Diversity, genetic, RAPD, Stylosanthes, Venezuela 

Contact Address: Teodardo Calles, University of Hohenheim, Biodiversity and Land Rehabilitation 

in the Tropics and Subtropics, Garbenstraße 13, 70599 Stuttgart, Germany, e-mail: callest@ 


316 ID 588

Biodiversity 

Field Characterisation of a Collection of the Forage Tree Legumes 

Leucaena diversifolia and L. trichandra — an Ongoing Project in 

Colombia 

KATRIN ZÖFEL 1 , RAINER SCHULTZE-KRAFT 1 , MICHAEL PETERS 2 , LUIS H. 

FRANCO 3 

1University of Hohenheim, Department of Biodiversity and Land Rehabilitation, Germany 


Previous research has shown that Leucaena diversifolia and the closely related L. trichandra 

can be considered as promising tree legumes: Because of their adaptation to acid/infertile soils 

and to higher altitudes (


Evaluation of Heterosis in Durum Wheat (Triticum durum Desf.) 

ELFADL ELFADL 1 , CHRISTOF KLING 2 , ALBRECHT MELCHINGER 2 

1 University of Hohenheim, Crop Production Institute, Germany 

2 University of Hohenheim, State Plant Breeding Institute, Germany 

Development of hybrid durum wheat rests on the premise that there is heterosis in 

this crop. In deciding whether or not hybrids are producible, information is needed 

not only on the magnitude of heterosis but also on the types of gene action and their relative 

importance in the inheritance of all agronomic and quality traits. Unfortunately, 

there is no relevant durum-specific data available on the achievable heterosis level in 

F1 hybrids and their yield stability relative to pure lines in any environment. The 

main objectives of this study were: I. Evaluation of magnitude of heterosis in hybrid 

between durum wheat lines derived from two diverse germplasm pools. II. Identification 

of the nature of gene action controlling the inheritance of the investigated traits. 

Ten diverse parental lines, five German lines and five CIMMYT lines; were crossed 

following an incomplete diallel mating scheme to produce 45 F1 hybrids. The parents 

and their F1 hybrids were planted at Obregon, CIMMYT experimental station, in a 

replicated lattice design. Thirteen agronomic traits were investigated for the amount 

of heterosis, predominant gene action and for phenotypic correlation. Significant positive 

heterosis was observed in many traits. The superiority of inter-pool hybrids over 

intra-pool hybrids with respect to mean performance and heterosis for grain yield and 

other traits was observed in this study. However, the heterotic expression revealed 

by these hybrids was highly affected by unusual growing conditions, particularly the 

high temperature during grain filling period, and lack of adaptation of German lines to 

these conditions. It has been generally observed that hybrids between unadapted parents, 

exhibit more heterosis than hybrids between adapted ones. Heterosis for grain 

yield could be attributed to the yield components grains/spike, grains/spikelet and 

thousand grain weight. Both additive and non additive gene actions played a role in 

the inheritance of the investigated traits, however, additive gene action was predominant. 

None of the parents could be identified as a good general combiner for all traits 

studied, none the less, various best combiners for the most relevant characteristics 

were found. 

Keywords: Additive gene action, durum wheat, Heterosis, Hybrid, Non additive gene 

action 

Contact Address: Elfadl Elfadl, University of Hohenheim, Crop Production Institute, Schwerzstr. 2/702, 

70599 Stuttgart, Germany, e-mail: elmogtaba@yahoo.com 

318 ID 34

Biodiversity 

Marker Assisted Heterotic Grouping of Sudanese Landraces 

TAHANI ELAGIB, HEIKO PARZIES, HARTWIG GEIGER 

University of Hohenheim, Population Genetics, Germany 

Sorghum [Sorghum bicolor (L.) Monech] is the most important grain crop in the Sudanese 

economy and diet. In Sudan sorghum ranks first in terms of cultivated area 

(6 million hectares) and production (2.6 million metric tons) (FAO, 2005). However, 

yield per unit area is very low (250 kg/ha) in comparison to the world average 

(1390 kg/ha).The aim of this study therefore is to characterise the pattern of molecular 

genetic diversity in a representative samples of Sudanese sorghum landraces and to 

determine genetically distinct pools which shall serve as base materials for hybrid 

breeding. 

The pattern of genetic diversity was assessed among 40 sorghum landraces from Sudan 

along with 27 cultivars from ICRISAT.Thirty-one simple sequence repeat markers 

(SSRs) were used. Fifteen of them were used as individual primers while the other 16 

were combined into sets suitable for triplex PCR loaded on a 3 % metaphor gel. 

In total 193 alleles (different fragment sizes) were observed in the Sudanese landraces 

and in the world collection. The number of alleles per locus ranged from 4 for primer 

Sb5–256 to 19 for Sb5–206 & Sb6–84 with an average of 12.9 alleles per locus. In 

the triplex PCR, the number of alleles per locus ranged from 2–8 averaging to 2.8. 

A dendogram was constructed from Modified Rogres, Distance (MRD) measures.The 

accessions clustered into eight major groups. No major clustering by race was observed. 

Based on the cluster analysis, 31 landraces and inbred lines were selected for production 

of testcrosses with 2 cytoplasmic male sterile (ms) lines derived from different 

gene pools. In addition, diallel crosses among representatives of different clusters 

were produced. The landraces, inbred lines, and testcrosses were evaluated in regular 

yield trials at two test sites in Sudan (Wad Medani and Damazin) in 2005 while the 

diallel crosses (in generation F2) were evaluated at Wad Medani only. The evaluation 

will be repeated in the 2007 season. Final clustering will be based on both molecularmarker 

and field data. 

Keywords: Sorghum, Diversity 

Contact Address: Tahani Elagib, University of Hohenheim, Population Genetics, Fruwirthstr. 21, 

70599 Stuttgart, Germany, e-mail: tahani_3@yahoo.com 

ID 148 319


Decentralised Post-harvest Technologies to Produce Value Added 

Crops from Neglected Plants 

OLIVER HENSEL 

University of Kassel, Agricultural Engineering, Germany 

Land use systems described by a diverse range of cultivated species can only be 

successful if farmers have the opportunity to generate additional income from that 

kind of agriculture. Especially neglected crops, even when being cultivated on small 

scale areas and/or mixed cropping and rainforestation systems, enable new marketing 

chances. The poster presents research activities at the Naban River watershed in the 

Dai Autonomous Prefecture of Xishuangbanna, Yunnan province, Southwest China, 

where special crops like medicinal plants, herbs, spices and mushrooms where investigated 

to be alternative products to the farmers. These products need to be processed 

to achieve marketing- and transportation condition. Therefore simple processing such 

as drying and smoking (spices, mushrooms) or extraction (medicinal plants) has to be 

done, which could be performed on farm level, whereas the added value remains in 

the village. Up to now for these crops there is no substantiated knowledge available 

about how to optimise the processing parameters (e.g. temperature, duration, preprocessing). 

In both laboratory and field tests appropriate species are to be identified 

and optimised processing procedures are to be developed to be able to produce value 

added and marketable products. In addition there is to be assumed, how far renewable 

energy sources (e.g. solar dryers and extractors) can be used to increase economic 

and ecologic benefits. First results were presented from a cooperation project between 

Kassel University and TianZi Biodiversity Research and Development Centre, 

located at Jinghong / Southwest China, where spices have been processed by a combined 

smoking / drying — plant. 

Keywords: China, neglected plants, processing 

Contact Address: Oliver Hensel, University of Kassel, Agricultural Engineering, Nordbahnhofstr. 1a, 

37213 Witzenhausen, Germany, e-mail: agrartechnik@uni-kassel.de 

320 ID 472

Biodiversity 

Effects on Plant Species Composition of Glyphosate Application in 

a Plantain System after Secondary Forest Clearing 

STEFAN HAUSER 1 , SERAPHIN NGOUMBE 1 , BERNARD ALOYS NKONGMENECK 2 

1 International Institute of Tropical Agriculture, Humid Forest Eco-regional Center, Cameroon 

2 University of Yaounde, Plant Biology, Cameroon 

Weed control is a major challenge in African smallholder agriculture. In long-term 

crops, particularly those planted at low densities, such as plantain (Musa spp. group 

ABB) weed control is virtually absent and has received little research attention. Plantain 

is dominantly grown after slash and burn of old secondary forest, where little 

weed growth occurs in the first year. Declining availability of such land and increasing 

pressure of invasive weeds requires changing plantain management. Plantain is 

the most important food cash crop in Cameroon and large parts of the Congo basin. 

This study evaluates how herbicide use affects the species composition in a plantain 

field established in young secondary forest. 

Plant species were determined in plantain plots and sub-plots were either slashed or 

treated once or twice with 6l ha −1 Round-up®. Species’ survival was determined at 

10, 20, and 30 days after treatment (DAT). The forest around the site, sampled as a 

control had 154 species. At 14 months after planting 171 species were identified in 

plots to be slashed and 182 species in plots to be treated with herbicide. Survival 

at 30 DAT, following single herbicide application ranged from 13 to 25 %. When 

treated twice, survival was 32 % (p < 0.001 compared to single treatment). Slashing 

caused the disappearance of 12 species (equivalent to 97 % survival). About 100 

DAT, 170 and 139 species were identified in slashed and sprayed plots, respectively, 

representing 99.4 and 76 % of the initial number of species. When herbicide was 

used at 17 months after planting, species numbers increased by about 20 % over the 

following 5 months, when treated once and when treated twice. Weeds were classified 

by their response to herbicide into highly susceptible: died within 10 DAT, 40 spp., 

25–26%; susceptible: died within 10–30 DAT, 53 spp., 32–35%; tolerant: showed 

symptoms but recovered, 54 spp., 32–35%; resistant: showed no symptoms, 8 spp., 

4–6 %. All tolerant and resistant species were members of the forest plant community. 

No typical cropping phase weed was tolerant or resistant. Glyphosate use may retain 

species communities similar to those found in forests. 

Keywords: Glyphosate, plantain, Round-up, secondary forest, species community, 

survival, weeds 



ID 324 321


322 ID 324

BIOTA Project 

JUDY KARIUKI: 

The Governance of Biodiversity: the Case of Kakamega 

Forest, Western Kenya 325 

BARBARA TAUBERT, JÜRGEN PRETZSCH: 

Cultural Foundations of Stakeholder Attitudes and Acting 

- the Case of Forest Management in Kenya 326 

IASON DIAFAS: 

Economic Valuation of the Benefits of Conserving Kakamega 

Forest, Kenya 327 

STEPHEN MUTIE, JOHN MBURU, CHRIS ACKELLO-OGUTU, 

PAUL GUTHIGA: 

Local Communities’ Dependence on Ntfps in Kakamega 

Forest: Analysis of Economic Value, and Determinants of 

Participation and Extraction Levels 328 

PAUL GUTHIGA, JOHN MBURU, KARIN HOLM-MÜLLER: 

Local Communities’ Perceptions Towards Forest Management 

Regimes: Case of Kakamega Forest in Kenya 329 

ELIZABETH NAMBIRO, MATHIAS BECKER, KARIN HOLM- 

MÜLLER: 

Land Use Intensity in Western Kenya: Case of Kakamega 330 

MARK T. VAN WIJK, PABLO TITTONELL, MARIANA RUFINO, 

MARIO HERRERO, KEN GILLER: 

Dynamics of Resource and Labour Allocation in Smallholder 

Farms of the Western Kenya Highlands 331 

JANN LAY, GEORGE MICHUKI, TOMAN OMAR MAHMOUD: 

Boda-bodas Rule: the Poverty and Inequality Implications 

of Non-farm Activities in Western Kenya 332 

UTE RIETDORF, ROBERT KAPPEL, WILSON OLARASHA KAIKAI: 

Linking Local Resources to SME Development. A Pathway 

Out Off Poverty? 333 

DAVID MUGAMBI, DANIEL MUGENDI, ANTHONY WAMBUGU, 

JOHN MBURU: 

Estimating Recreational Benefits of Kakamega Forest in 

Kenya Using the Travel Cost Method 334 

323


324 

KARIN GAESING, WONDIMU KENEA: 

Participatory Land Use Planning for the Protection of Biodiversity 

335 

THUWEBA DIWANI, MATHIAS BECKER: 

Implications of Differential Nutrient Flux Management on 

Soil Fertility and Crop Productivity in Major Farm Types 

of Kakamega, Kenya 336 

FRANCIS E.A. NGOME, FRANK MUSSGNUG, MATHIAS BECKER: 

The Contributions of Nitrogen Fixation by Field-grown Common 

Beans to N Balances in Agricultural Production Systems 

of Kakamega District 337 

JOHN MUO KASINA, DIETER WITTMAN, CHRISTOPHER MAR- 

TIUS, MANFRED KRAEMER: 

Bee Pollinator Species in Kakamega Farmlands as Influenced 

by Kakamega Forest, Kenya 338 

JOERG SZARZYNSKI, CHARLES RODGERS, PAUL L. G. VLEK: 

Impact of Climate Variability and Land Cover Changes on 

Agriculture, Biodiversity, and Human Health in West Africa 339 

INGRID REIBER, KLAUS MÜLLER, GREGOR MAISENBACHER, 


Fundación Vuelta Larga in Northeast Venezuela: Development 

of Environmentally Friendly Rural Technologies and 

Nature Conservation Strategies 340

BIOTA Project 

The Governance of Biodiversity: the Case of Kakamega Forest, 

Western Kenya 

JUDY KARIUKI 

University of Dortmund, Spatial Planning, Germany 

Kenya is endowed with diverse land based natural resources, which contribute directly 

or indirectly to the socio-economic welfare of its people. Institutions responsible for 

managing natural resources in Kenya are many and varied. These being the product 

of a series of legislative measures and administrative decrees promulgated through 

out the last century. This includes the multiple statutes addressing biodiversity conservation, 

which are implemented by various organisations that include the sectoral 

ministries and the civil society. This system encourages duplication of efforts and 

sometimes counters effects in policy implementation due to lack of proper networking. 

This has resulted to a competitive, independent approach towards biodiversity 

management thus evading the holistic approach required for effective biodiversity 

conservation. The outcome is an un-integrated system with each sector viewing its 

territory as a platform for its own exclusive activities irrespective of the other players. 

Biodiversity degradation in Kenya has therefore persisted despite the efforts geared 

towards its conservation. The challenge is in harmonising the institutional network, 

that is, the statutes and organisations mandated with biodiversity conservation so that 

the actor’s roles are better defined and linked thus enhancing its conservation. This 

study examines the effects of the multiple institutions on biodiversity conservation. 

It further looks into a way forward in harmonising the institutional set-up with the 

aim of contributing to a less beauracratic and streamlined system that would be better 

implemented. 

The main objectives of this study therefore are to attain institutional order that will 

enable sustainable conservation and management of biodiversity in Kenya. It is also 

meant to institutionalise the outcomes of the Biota research project by addressing 

the proper institutional hierarchy appropriate for the implementation of Participatory 

Land Use Planning (PLUP) and other approaches recommended for biodiversity conservation 

and sustainable livelihoods . 

Keywords: Biodiversity, governance, institutionalisation, sustainability 

Contact Address: Judy Kariuki, University of Dortmund, Spatial Planning, August - Schmidt Str. 10, 

Dortmund, Germany, e-mail: wambuikar@yahoo.com 

ID 117 325


Cultural Foundations of Stakeholder Attitudes and Acting - the 

Case of Forest Management in Kenya 

BARBARA TAUBERT, JÜRGEN PRETZSCH 

Technische Universität Dresden, Institute of Internationale Forestry and Forest Products, 

Germany 

Human behaviour towards forests is guided by individual perceptions and world views. 

Prevailing cultural norms and rules find their expression in the variety of different 

skills and practices that exist within a society in relation to natural resources. 

Forests in Western Kenya represent a highly contested resource that is used, exhausted 

and restored in various ways. Since the pressure on the forests results from high 

population growth rates and an intensive agricultural land use combined with rural 

poverty, forest maintenance and rehabilitation require the participation of the rural 

population. Understanding the cultural meanings, roots and reasons of their forest 

related behaviours can increase the options for forest protection and sustainable forest 

management. 

The study aims to reveal the socio-cultural foundations of stakeholder perceptions and 

behaviour towards forests, as well as to identify the origins and underlying sources 

of cultural impact. Two concepts, the Ordered Adaptive Structure (Bargatzky 1986) 

and the Level Scheme (Irrgang 2004), provide the theoretical framework of the study. 

Both concepts serve to reveal the specific visions and sacred ideas that guide local 

people to use, manage, (over-)exploit and rehabilitate forest resources. 

This poster presents the main theoretical underpinnings of the research project, as 

well as the state of the scientific debate. Findings of a first exploratory study that was 

carried out at the Kakamega forest and around Mt. Elgon using key informant interviews 

and other empirical qualitative research methods serve to illustrate the attitudes 

of selected stakeholders towards forest management, as well as their impact on the 

forests. 

Keywords: Attitudes, cultural impact, forest use, perception, values 

Contact Address: Barbara Taubert, Technische Universität Dresden, Institute of Internationale Forestry 

and Forest Products, Pienner Str.7, 01737 Tharandt, Germany, e-mail: taubert@forst.tu-dresden.de 

326 ID 135

BIOTA Project 

Economic Valuation of the Benefits of Conserving Kakamega 

Forest, Kenya 

IASON DIAFAS 


The main purpose of this study is to measure the magnitude, in monetary terms, of the 

indirect and non-use benefits associated with the conservation of Kakamega forest, 

Kenya. This is part of an organised attempt by BIOTA East Africa to estimate the 

Total Economic Value (TEV) of the forest to the communities residing around the 

forest. Such an attempt is important in order to demonstrate the economic benefits 

of conserving the forest and compare them with the opportunity cost of conservation. 

TEV encompasses direct use values (timber, and non-timber forest products), indirect 

use values (water regulation, soil erosion prevention, etc.) as well as non-use values 

(existence value, bequest value). 

In order to estimate indirect use values, as well as non-use values, the use of stated 

preference (SP) techniques was deemed appropriate. This was justified on the grounds 

that there are very limited data on the ecological services of the forest that would 

facilitate the use of revealed preference methods. Furthermore, SP methods are better 

suited to estimate non-use values. 

The chosen methods for measuring the values that the local population attaches to the 

services of the forest are Contingent Valuation (CV) and the Choice Modelling technique 

(CM). The reason for choosing to employ CM on top of CV is the additional information 

that will be obtained with regard to the values of specific attributes/services 

of the forest. The concurrent use of those techniques may also help to test for convergence 

between the values obtained from each of them, and potentially shed light 

on the existence or non-existence of systematic differences between these two closely 

related methods. Following the pretesting of the questionnaire, the survey was administered 

to 320 respondents in face-to-face interviews. Due to size of the sampling 

population, the respondents were picked using a stratified random sample. 

Keywords: Economic Valuation 

Contact Address: Iason Diafas, University of Bonn, Center for Development Research (ZEF), Bonn, 

Germany, e-mail: idiafas@uni-bonn.de 

ID 417 327


Local Communities’ Dependence on Ntfps in Kakamega Forest: 

Analysis of Economic Value, and Determinants of Participation 

and Extraction Levels 

STEPHEN MUTIE 1 , JOHN MBURU 2 , CHRIS ACKELLO-OGUTU 1 , PAUL GUTHIGA 2 

1 University of Nairobi, Department of Agricultural Economics, Kenya 


The study assesses the types and quantities of direct non-timber forest products (NTFPs) 

extracted by the local people living around the Kakamega Forest in Western Kenya. 

It further analyses the factors that influence a household’s decision to participate in 

NTFPs’ collection and the level of extraction undertaken. The results of this study are 

derived from a stratified sample of 370 households who were interviewed with a semistructured 

questionnaire. The quantities of the different products obtained by extracting 

households are valued at the average market prices to obtain their financial values. 

The results of the study indicate that the forest generates a substantial economic value 

to the local people. It was found that this value is comparable to that of the common 

crop enterprises in the research area. A Heckman two- stage regression model is used 

to analyse the socio-economic, institutional, and geo-physical factors that influence 

the household decision to participate in forest extraction and the quantities of the different 

products obtained. Proximity to the forest edge, the form of forest management 

approach, age and education level of the household head, household private land holding 

and participation in forest conservation activities are the main factors influencing 

the household decision to extract NTFPs from the forest. The level of extraction for 

the participating households is influenced by their proximity to the forest, the household 

size, participation in forest conservation activities and whether the household 

uses the extracted forest products as a source of income. The study concludes by 

highlighting some important policy inferences for sustainable use and conservation of 

Kakamega Forest. 

Keywords: Forest extraction, Gross Margin. , Heckman model, Kakamega Forest, 

nTFPs 

Contact Address: Stephen Mutie, University of Nairobi, Department of Agricultural Economics, Kapenguria 

Road P.O. Box 29053, Nairobi, Kenya, e-mail: stmutie@yahoo.com 

328 ID 489

BIOTA Project 

Local Communities’ Perceptions Towards Forest Management 

Regimes: Case of Kakamega Forest in Kenya 

PAUL GUTHIGA 1 , JOHN MBURU 1 , KARIN HOLM-MÜLLER 2 


2 University of Bonn, Institute for Agricultural Policy, Germany 

Kakamega Forest is located in western Kenya and covers approximately 240 Km 2 . 

The forest is the only lowland tropical rainforest in Kenya and it is world famous for 

its diversity of unique and numerous flora and fauna. However its survival is under immense 

threat since it is located in a densely populated area where local communities 

depend heavily on agriculture and forest extraction for their livelihoods. Currently, 

the forest is divided into three different parts that are managed through three distinct 

management approaches: an incentive-based approach of the Forest department (FD), 

a protectionist approach of the Kenya Wildlife Service (KWS) and a quasi private- approach 

of a local church mission, the Quakers. A review of literature clearly indicates 

that forest management regimes of public forests are important in assigning property 

rights to the various stakeholders and guiding use and consequently the outcomes. 

On the same footing research has pointed out the centrality of the local communities 

in the process of natural resource management. The persistence of resource degradation 

problems and failure of technical simple technical or economic prescription 

clearly indicates that there is need to consider the more complex aspects of natural resource 

management. The perception of the local people towards management regimes 

and the factors that condition their perception is important in designing policies for 

sustainable use of natural resources. This study considers how the local communities 

perceive the management regimes in terms of meeting the goal of utilising and 

conserving forest biodiversity. Satisfaction ranking showed that the strictest regime 

among the three was ranked highest overall. Coincidentally, the highest ranked regime 

has the best performance among the three in conserving the forest in its pristine state. 

An ordered logit regression was used to analyse factors influencing the overall satisfaction 

ranking. The results indicate that socio-economic factors are not significant 

in explaining the level of satisfaction ranking but involvement in forest conservation 

activities appears important in explaining satisfaction ranking. The paper concludes 

by highlighting some policy implications of the results. 

Keywords: Management Regime, Perception, Satisfaction ranking 

Contact Address: Paul Guthiga, University of Bonn, Center for Development Research (ZEF), Walter- 

Flex Str. 3, 53113 Bonn, Germany, e-mail: pguthiga@uni-bonn.de 

ID 269 329


Land Use Intensity in Western Kenya: Case of Kakamega 

ELIZABETH NAMBIRO 1 , MATHIAS BECKER 1 , KARIN HOLM-MÜLLER 2 

1University of Bonn, Institute of Crop Science and Resource Conservation - Plant Nutrition, 

Germany 

2University of Bonn, Institute for Agricultural Policy, Germany 

In Kenya, agriculture remains the main occupation and source of income for majority 

of the population and accounts for about one-third of the gross domestic product 

and employs more than two-thirds of the labour force. Increasing per capita food production 

and raising rural incomes are the great challenges facing Kakamega farmers 

in western Kenya. One way of solving the problem of food shortage in Kakamega 

is to increase agricultural productivity. Land use intensification is one of the current 

methods used to increase agriculture productivity in Kakamega. Several hypotheses 

have postulated market access, population growth, socio economic characteristics and 

agro ecological zones to have possible effects on land use intensity. Two-stage sampling 

design was used to select the households. The survey was conducted among 

280 households representing a combination of high or low population density, two 

different agro ecological zones and high or low market access, to test these hypotheses. 

Using a censored regression model, the result show that agro ecological zone, 

market access and some socio-economic characteristics of households and their interactions 

are important drivers of land use intensity in Kakamega. As one moves 

from low market access to high market access regions; the degree of land use intensity 

increases. Also as one move from the Lower Midland to Lower Highland agro 

ecological zones the land use intensity tends to increase. In addition to market access 

and agro ecological zones, specific socio-economic characteristics of the households 

also influences land use intensity. This analysis confirmed the hypothesis that market 

access, agro-ecological zone and socio-economic characteristics are some of the 

factors that influence land use intensity. 

Keywords: Agro-ecological zones, land use intensity, market access 

Contact Address: Elizabeth Nambiro, University of Bonn, Institute of Crop Science and Resource 

Conservation - Plant Nutrition, Karlrobert-Kreiten Str. 13, 53115 Bonn, Germany, e-mail: enambiro@ 

yahoo.com 

330 ID 179

BIOTA Project 

Dynamics of Resource and Labour Allocation in Smallholder 

Farms of the Western Kenya Highlands 

MARK T. VAN WIJK 1 , PABLO TITTONELL 2 , MARIANA RUFINO 1 , MARIO 

HERRERO 3 , KEN GILLER 1 

1Wageningen University, Plant Production Systems, Department of Plant Sciences, Netherlands 

2International Centre for Tropical Agriculture, Tropical Soil Biology and Fertility, Kenya 

3 International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI), Kenya 

In many highland areas of Africa population growth has led to farm sizes smaller than 

1 ha and to the (virtual) extinction of communal land. In spite of the agroecological 

potential of these areas, food security is often achieved by less than 20 % of the 

households. This is caused by multiple factors; soil fertility depletion due to continuous 

cultivation, soil water erosion, and limited nutrient inputs to the farm system. 

A range of nutrient management technologies have been proposed to counterbalance 

these problems. However, their adoption is restricted by lack of land, financial resources 

and labour. The latter is counter-intuitive, as one may assume that labour is 

amply available in highly populated regions; however, labour demands for different 

activities take place at peak periods during which farmers need to hire external labour. 

Thus, any strategy to increase food production, improve resource use efficiency and/or 

maintain the resource base should be designed by considering the dynamics of labour 

allocation to competing farm (and non-farm) activities. We developed a modelling 

framework that includes the spatial and temporal dimensions of smallholder farming 

systems to be able to analyse these issues. By using summary models that describe 

the short- and long-term dynamics of the major components of the farming systems 

(livestock, crop/soil, labour/finance) we are able to synthesize knowledge and analyse 

trade-offs of implementing different management technologies. Analysis using 

the model framework showed how different labour and cash constraints limit the possibilities 

for intensification of the farming system for farmers of different resource 

endowment. 

Keywords: FARMSIM, household modelling, nutrient management, soil fertility, 

sub-Saharan Africa 

Contact Address: Mark T. Van Wijk, Wageningen University, Plant Production Systems, Department of 

Plant Sciences, Haarweg 333 (PO 430), 6700 AK Wageningen, Netherlands, e-mail: mark.vanwijk@ 

wur.nl 

ID 383 331


Boda-bodas Rule: the Poverty and Inequality Implications of Nonfarm 

Activities in Western Kenya 

JANN LAY 1 , GEORGE MICHUKI 2 , TOMAN OMAR MAHMOUD 1 

1 Institute for the World Economy, Poverty Reduction, Equity and Development, Germany 

2 German Institute for Global and Area Studies, Hamburg, Germany 

Several reasons have been advanced for income diversification into nonfarm activities 

among rural households in Sub-Saharan Africa. Broadly, one may classify diversification 

behaviour as ‘survival-led’ or ‘opportunity-led’. Poor rural households with 

low asset endowments will embrace multiple livelihoods to ensure survival. At the 

same time, richer rural households with higher asset endowments will choose to diversify 

their livelihoods to maximise returns to their assets. The existence of these two 

types of non-agricultural activities implies a U-shaped relationship between the share 

of income derived from nonfarm activities and household wealth (and accordingly 

total household income). According to this view on nonfarm activities, the poverty 

and distributional impact of nonfarm activities should be ambiguous: ‘Survival-led’ 

engagement in non-farm activities should be inequality decreasing through increasing 

the incomes of the poorer parts of the population and hence reduce poverty. ‘Opportunity-led’ 

diversification however would increase inequality and have a minor effect 

on poverty, as it may be confined to non-poor households. Some authors have pointed 

to this ambiguity, but the literature has so far not explicitly addressed the relationship 

between different diversification strategies, on the one hand, and poverty and distributional 

outcomes, on the other. In this paper, we first attempt to confirm empirically 

that diversification into nonfarm income can be ‘survival‘ or ‘opportunity’ driven. We 

estimate a choice model where we allow individuals to choose between staying in 

agriculture and the two types of nonfarm diversification using data from a household 

survey conducted by the authors in Kakamega district in Western Kenya. Our empirical 

findings seem to confirm the existence of ‘survival-led’ and ‘opportunity-led’ 

diversification. We find the poverty and inequality implications of the differently motivated 

diversification strategies to correspond to the expected patterns. 

Keywords: Income diversification, inequality, nonfarm activities, poverty 

Contact Address: Jann Lay, Institute for the World Economy, Poverty Reduction, Equity and Development, 

Duesternbrooker Weg 120, 24105 Kiel, Germany, e-mail: jann.lay@ifw-kiel.de 

332 ID 494

BIOTA Project 

Linking Local Resources to SME Development. A Pathway Out 

Off Poverty? 

UTE RIETDORF 2,1 , ROBERT KAPPEL 1 , WILSON OLARASHA KAIKAI 2 

1 German Institute of Global and Area Studies (GIGA), Hamburg, Germany 

2 University of Leipzig, Small Enterprise Promotion and Training (SEPT), Germany 

After decades of different approaches, most rural areas are still the poorest regions 

of their countries, struggling with a host of disadvantages compared to urban ones. 

One of the options discussed to bridge the inter-regional gap in a globalised world is 

the development of small scale enterprises (SMEs) in rural areas. Based on the use 

of local resources in terms of land, human and social capital as well as biodiversity, 

non-farm enterprises and off-farm activities are regarded as solutions to earn more, to 

spread the risk of household incomes, to accumulate capital, and to have a positive impact 

on regional development by providing employment and linking different sectors 

of the economy. 

Yet the complex interrelationship of the agricultural and manufacturing sector in rural 

locations and towns is barely understood in its full scope of interdependent factors. 

This relationship is a market-related one and depends on the growth of both sectors. 

Research undertaken in 2005/beginning of 2006 indicated that the linkage potential 

fuelling regional economic development seems to be positively influenced by producing 

cash crops like sugar cane. At the same time, this raises questions of the long-term 

competitiveness of the related industry which subsequently affects the sustainability 

of agricultural income and thus the linkage potential. 

In the rural context of Kakamega District, Kenya the issue of linkages between the 

farming sector and the development of small scale enterprises concerns not only the 

level of income that can be achieved through diversification of activities nor only the 

amount of investment necessary to start a venture or upgrade agricultural production. 

The potential for linkages to generate income is also influenced by the population 

growth rate, high dependency ratios, land scarcity, declining soil fertility, locational 

and institutional disadvantages arising out of infrastructural problems. In making 

references to a comparative study done in Kasama District, Zambia, possible patterns 

of regional development and pathways to strengthen inter-sectoral linkages emerge. 

Keywords: Linkages, poverty reduction, regional development, SME development 

Contact Address: Ute Rietdorf, German Overseas Institute (DUEI)/University of Leipzig, University of 

Leipzig: Sept (Small Enterprise Promotion and Training), An Der Luppe 39, 04178 Leipzig, Germany, 

e-mail: rietdorf@uni-leipzig.de 

ID 244 333


Estimating Recreational Benefits of Kakamega Forest in Kenya 

Using the Travel Cost Method 

DAVID MUGAMBI 1 , DANIEL MUGENDI 1 , ANTHONY WAMBUGU 2 , JOHN MBURU 3 

1Kenyatta University, Environmental Science, Kenya 

2Kenyatta University, Economics, Kenya 

3University of Bonn, Centre for Development Research (ZEF), Germany 

Forests have high use and non-use values. They act as good reservoir for both wildlife 

and forest biodiversity among other benefits. Kakamega Forest is a unique example of 

the few remaining fragments of the tropical rain forest, a rare ecosystem found in the 

tropics. The forest has rich diversity of fauna and flora. It is an important tourist destination 

which attracts both local and international tourists who visit throughout the 

year. With such a recreational demand, there is dire need to estimate the recreational 

benefits for this forest. Thus, the core objective of this study is to apply the zonal travel 

cost method to estimate the recreational benefits of the forest. In order to achieve this 

objective the study relies on past records of the tourists’ numbers and their countries of 

origin. The data was collected from two main forest sites: Kakamega Forest Reserve 

which is managed by the Forest Department and Kakamega National Forest Reserve 

which is under the management of Kenya Wildlife Services. The collected data was 

appropriately analysed to estimate the recreational value of the forest. The preliminary 

result from this study shows that the annual recreational value of Kakamega 

Forest part under Kenya Wildlife Service has high magnitude than that of Forest Department. 

Thus, the results reveals that the areas of forest which are well conserved 

and protected yield high recreational benefits. The study concludes by giving appropriate 

policy guidelines with recommendations on how to improve the management 

and protection of Kakamega Forest biodiversity for both direct and indirect benefits. 

Keywords: Forest values, recreational value, travel cost method 

Contact Address: John Mburu, University of Bonn, Centre for Development Research (ZEF), Walter- 

Flex-Str. 3, 53113 Bonn, Germany, e-mail: jmburu@uni-bonn.de 

334 ID 235

BIOTA Project 

Participatory Land Use Planning for the Protection of Biodiversity 

KARIN GAESING, WONDIMU KENEA 

University of Dortmund, Faculty of Spatial Planning, Germany 

Poor households reduce their expenditures and earn their living by using ‘free’ resources 

from the forest. In Kakamega Forest in Kenya this has led to a devastating destruction 

of biodiversity. Such a situation requires not only solutions on the individual 

farmer’s side, but also collective action within the communities living close to the forest, 

the formulation and implementation of appropriate policies to protect biodiversity 

and competent actors with the possibility to embark on concerted action. Participatory 

land use planning has proved to be a method that can provide a platform for discussion 

of problems, solutions and different options. It can bring different stakeholders 

together for planning and implementation and it has the possibility to implement identified 

solutions, if Government, administration and NGO/CBO are properly involved 

in the process. The poster explains the method of Participatory Land Use Planning, 

its usefulness with regard to the protection of biodiversity as well as the link between 

participatory research and policy formulation. 

Keywords: Biodiversity, buffer zone, livelihoods, participatory land use planning 

Contact Address: Karin Gaesing, University of Dortmund, Faculty of Spatial Planning, Schlossstr. 78, 

33824 Werther, Germany, e-mail: karin.gaesing@web.de 

ID 623 335


Implications of Differential Nutrient Flux Management on Soil 

Fertility and Crop Productivity in Major Farm Types of 

Kakamega, Kenya 

THUWEBA DIWANI, MATHIAS BECKER 


Germany 

Small-scale farms, ranging from subsistence to market oriented production, dominate 

the agricultural matrix in Kakamega District in Kenya. Main components of most of 

these farms are field crops, dominated by maize-bean intercropping, home gardens 

with fruit trees and vegetables, and forage production patches. An additional feature 

of the market-oriented farms is the production of industrial crops such as tea (predominant 

on Ultisols in the south of the district) and sugarcane (predominant on sandy 

Alfisols in the north of the district). Variable soil fertility and declining crop yield 

trends have been recorded during the past decade and were associated with land use 

intensification in the absence of external input use and a poor crop residue management. 

In two-year on-farm observation trails in 16 representative farms, the large 

spatial variation in soil fertility, both within and between farms, was studied. Resource 

flow mapping was related to crop yield and soil fertility. Farms were classified 

into two categories: (1) small, largely subsistence-oriented farms with maize yields < 

1 Mg ha −1 and (2) larger market-oriented farms with diverse crops and usually maize 

yields exceeding 1.5 Mg ha −1 . In each of the major soil types (Alfisol and Ultisol) 

four farms of each category were selected (16 farms). Nutrient balances (N, P, K) at 

farm and plot level and resource flow maps (inputs, products, labour) were established 

and linked to soil fertility descriptors (org. C fractions, pH, avail. P). Additionally, the 

effects of selected soil fertility-enhancing technologies (mineral fertiliser use, application 

of farm yard manure and Tithonia diversifolia, and leguminous live-mulches) 

on nutrient flows and budgets were evaluated. Data were analysed by the NUTMON 

model in view of evaluating resource base quality scenarios and to define and target 

site and system-specific intervention strategies. 

Keywords: Bean, Maize, NUTMON, Resource flow mapping, Tithonia 

Contact Address: Thuweba Diwani, University of Bonn, Institute of Crop Science and Resource 

Conservation - Plant Nutrition, Karlrobert-Kreiten-Strasse 13, 53115 Bonn, Germany, e-mail: 

thuwebadiwani@yahoo.com 

336 ID 621

BIOTA Project 

The Contributions of Nitrogen Fixation by Field-grown Common 

Beans to N Balances in Agricultural Production Systems of 

Kakamega District 

FRANCIS E.A. NGOME, FRANK MUSSGNUG, MATHIAS BECKER 


Germany 

Land use and cropping intensification without resource base conservation causes a decline 

in soil fertility, which limits agricultural production in Western Kenya. Widespread 

N and P deficiencies appear to be the main culprits of the observed declining yield 

trends. The common bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) is widely cultivated for subsistence 

by farmers on 60–80 % of their agricultural land area. This field-grown common bean 

is likely to contribute N by BFN which might differ between soil types and cropping 

or management systems. Hence, field experiments were conducted in 21 selected prototypic 

farmers’ fields in Kakamega District, Kenya, during the short rains of 2005. 

The biomass, N accumulation, and the share of N derived from BNF ( 15 N natural 

abundance method) by common beans were determined under 7 management scenarios. 

The total N accumulation by common bean ranged from 6–83 kg ha −1 with some 

4–55 kg ha −1 derived from the soil and the remainder being derived from BNF. The 

sole crop common bean accumulated 2 times more biomass and BFN-N compared 

to the intercrop, and treatments in the Alfisol accumulated only 70–80 % compared 

to those of the Ultisol zone (3–27 kg N ha −1 ). In addition, the share of N derived 

from the atmosphere (%Ndfa) was 20–54 and 19–50 %Ndfa for the Alfisol and Ultisol 

zones, respectively. Meanwhile the %Ndfa under farmers’ management was only 

30–39 % in the Alfisol and 21–33 % in the Ultisol. This share of biologically fixed N 

was larger in mixed maize-common bean than in sole crop situations. The addition 

of organic or of mineral N fertiliser tended to reduce %Ndfa, while improved weed 

control and P fertiliser application resulted in a significant increase in N accumulation 

and Ndfa. It may be concluded that field-grown common beans have the potential to 

contribute to the N pool of the cropping system of Western Kenya by BNF. However, 

this will largely depend on P application and weed control. 

Keywords: Biological N2 fixation, delta 15-N, Kenya, Phaseolus vulgaris L 

Contact Address: Frank Mussgnug, University of Bonn, Institue of Crop Science and Resuorce 

Conservation-Plant Nutrition, Karlrobert-Kreiten-Straße 13, 53115 Bonn, Germany, e-mail: f. 

mussgnug@uni-bonn.de 

ID 425 337


Bee Pollinator Species in Kakamega Farmlands as Influenced by 

Kakamega Forest, Kenya 

JOHN MUO KASINA 1 , DIETER WITTMAN 2 , CHRISTOPHER MARTIUS 1 , 

MANFRED KRAEMER 3 


2 University of Bonn, Institute of Crop Science and Resource Conservation - Ecology of 

Cultural Landscapes, Germany 

3 University of Bielefeld, Biological Collection, Germany 

Bees have been relied on world-over as the main pollinators of crops in agricultural 

systems. Honey bees (Apis mellifera L.) are the most highly utilised pollinators in 

these systems because of their easy domestication. However, continued research has 

shown that some solitary bees are better pollinators of particular crops, hence the 

changing perception of pollinator needs of different crops. In agriculture, it is generally 

agreeable that inputs such as fertiliser, labour or capital could limit crop production 

and hence are given priority. However, pollination is not well appreciated as a 

limiting factor of production though it can limit crop yields. This is mainly due to 

the fact that it is an ecosystem service that has been perceived as ‘free’ and plenty, 

a common characteristic of public goods/services. But due to the continued destruction 

of ecosystems and the resultant decline of pollinators, the pollination service has 

become an important factor of production to consider. Kakamega forest is the only 

remaining forest patch of the guineo-congolian rainforest that used to span from West 

Africa through central to eastern Africa. It is a main habitat for pollinators that support 

pollination needs of many crops in the surrounding farmlands. The farmlands are 

characterised by continued degradation of the pollinator habitats due to the intensity 

of farming, and it is not known the impact this has on the pollinator abundance and 

diversity on the farmlands. This study was undertaken to determine the effect of the 

forest (distance) on the bee pollinator activity density (abundance) and diversity in the 

farmlands up to 8km away from the forest. Dry common bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) 

was used for this study, because it is planted by almost all farmers and hence can provide 

an overview of the bee pollinators in the farmlands. Initial findings indicate that 

some bee species are influenced by the distance to the forest and bee activity density 

was different in the north and south of the forest. 

Keywords: Beans, honeybees, kakamega farmlands, Kakamega forest, solitary bees 

Contact Address: John Muo Kasina, University of Bonn, Centre for Development Research (ZEF), 

Walter Flex Str.3, +149 Bonn, Germany, e-mail: jkasina@yahoo.com 

338 ID 56

BIOTA Project 

Impact of Climate Variability and Land Cover Changes on 

Agriculture, Biodiversity, and Human Health in West Africa 

JOERG SZARZYNSKI, CHARLES RODGERS, PAUL L. G. VLEK 


The vulnerability of West African countries to climate and environmental changes is 

likely to increase within the next decades as demands on resources continuously rise 

in association with rapidly growing populations. In addition, there has been a growing 

awareness of the fact that human-induced environmental changes also raise the 

risks to human health. In recognition of the societal need for improved prediction 

of the current and the expected future climate change, and to develop strategies to 

reduce the socio-economic impact, interdisciplinary research is required. Thus, an 

integrative multiscale monitoring concept was designed within the framework of the 

GLOWA Volta and BIOTA West Africa scientific research networks, funded by the 

Federal German Ministry for Science and Education (BMBF) in cooperation with 

several counterparts from Burkina Faso, Ghana, Benin, and Côte d’Ivoire. The instrumental 

monitoring system, described as “Biophysical Observation Network” (BON), 

combines important features of biophysical ground measurement and remote sensing 

techniques. The multiscale data collection from the experimental sites is progressively 

incorporated into a web-based GIS database. The sites are used for comprehensive 

ground-truth surveys, essential for the assessment of accuracy of classified satellite 

imagery. Additionally, they serve to build capacity in the region by providing training 

opportunities for local students and research scientist. This paper presents results 

and perspectives regarding the impact of weather fluctuations and climate variability 

on ecosystems, biodiversity, and human health in West Africa. Different scales are 

considered since the spectrum of processes determining weather conditions in West 

Africa ranges from the propagation of planetary Rossby waves on the global scale to 

small-sized changes in land cover on the regional to local scale. Land degradation is 

associated with changes of biophysical surface properties such as albedo or roughness. 

These modifications again lead to surface cooling, lowered atmospheric heating rates 

and reduction in convection. The resulting diminution of surface pressure decreases 

within the equatorial trough in turn weakens the African monsoon flow and the associated 

moisture flux convergence finally causing a pronounced decrease in rainfall and 

evaporation. 

Keywords: African monsoon, biodiversity, BIOTA , climate variability, GLOWA 

Volta, scaling issues 

Contact Address: Joerg Szarzynski, University of Bonn, Center for Development Research (ZEF), 

Walter-Flex-Straße 3, 53113 Bonn, Germany, e-mail: szarzynski@uni-bonn.de 

ID 174 339


Fundación Vuelta Larga in Northeast Venezuela: Development of 

Environmentally Friendly Rural Technologies and Nature 

Conservation Strategies 

INGRID REIBER 1 , KLAUS MÜLLER 2 , GREGOR MAISENBACHER 3 , RAINER 

SCHULTZE-KRAFT 1 

1 University of Hohenheim, Biodiversity and Landrehabilitation in the Tropics and Sub- 

tropics, Germany 

2 Fundación Vuelta Larga, Venezuela 

3 University of Hohenheim, Tropennetzwerk e.V., Germany 

As people become strangers to nature and ecosystems deteriorate and disappear, new approaches 

to counteract such deterioration are ever more important. The goal of the Fundación Vuelta 

Larga, a private foundation created in 1988 in Sucre, Venezuela, is to create public awareness 

in support of sustainable environment and use of environmentally friendly technologies, based 

on experiences and demonstrations examplified on an 800 ha area adjacent to the Parque Nacional 

Turuépano. 80–100 years ago, the vegetation was a high-water table influenced tropical 

rainforest which because of forest clearing and burning degraded into a savannah floodplain 

with scattered trees. The foundation’s main objective is vegetation restauration and creation 

of a bufferzone for the Turuépano park including reforestation, reintroduction of endangered 

species, housing with tropical architecture and tropical furniture, traditional indigenous handicraft, 

and adapted agriculture and aquaculture. The work is funded by income from ecotourism. 

The “Ruta de las Cumbres”, an ecotourism pilot project of regional and national importance, offers 

ecotourist visitors an insight into sustainable rural development projects via a tour through 

the mountains. Rural development and environmental education workshops for multiplicators 

are organised in cooperation with the Ministries of Education and Environment. Within educational 

activities, an important project is the establishment and promotion of tree nurseries 

in schools. Current scientific studies are about butterfly diversity and the development of secondary 

forests, particularly about the role of Erythrina fusca (“bucare”), a leguminous pioneer 

tree well adapted to seasonal flooding. In the last 30 years, trees were planted along the boundaries 

of the foundation’s area and along watercourses in order to accelerate the development of 

secondary forests. Time series of such forests are currently mapped to compare their bucare-influenced 

regeneration with an area without bucare. Preliminary results show that the savannah 

where no bucare was planted could not develop into forest although there was no fire during 

the last 35 years. In the bucare-influenced secondary forests of the savannah, 10 different tree 

species were found whereas in the bordering hill forests more than 40 species appear. 

Keywords: Bufferzone, Erythrina fusca, floodplain, savannah, reforestation 

Contact Address: Ingrid Reiber, University of Hohenheim, Biodiversity and Landrehabilitation in the 

Tropics and Subtropics, Garbenstrasse 13, 70593 Stuttgart, Germany, e-mail: inreiber@web.de 

340 ID 358

Resource and Policy Economics 

a) Economic Valuation 343 

b) Conflicts and Stakeholder Involvement 357 

c) Globalization and Liberalization 373 

d) Knowledge and Education 387 

341


342

Economic Valuation 

INNA RUDENKO: 

The Cotton Chain in Central Asian Uzbekistan: One Step 

Forward, two Back? 345 

LILA KARKI, SIEGFRIED BAUER, UMA KARKI: 

Implication of Project Intervention on Poverty Alleviation 

and Sustainable Livelihoods 346 

NODIR DJANIBEKOV: 

Economic Analysis of Agricultural Reforms in Khorezm 

Region (Uzbekistan) 347 

RUDOLF WITT, LEVISON CHIWAULA, CHRISTOPHE BÉNÉ, 

HERMANN WAIBEL, DIEMUTH PEMSL: 

Methodology for Economic Valuation of Food Security and 

Vulnerability to Poverty for Inland Fisheries in Africa 348 

XENIA VAN EDIG, STEFAN SCHWARZE, MANFRED ZELLER: 

Indicator Based Poverty Assessment among Rural Households 

in Central Sulawesi, Indonesia 349 

HAI NGUYEN TIEN, HOLM UIBRIG: 

Human-ecological Investigation on the Land Use of Flowery 

Hmong to Overcome Poverty: a Case Study from Lao 

Cai Province, Vietnam 350 

LUKE OLARINDE: 

Performance Assessment of Land Enhancing Technologies: 

an Economic Analysis for Food Crop Farmers in Southwestern 

Nigeria 351 

THANAPORN KRASUAYTHONG, HERMANN WAIBEL: 

Why Do Farmers Adopt Alternative Vegetable Production 

Technologies? : Descriptive Analysis of Vegetable Farmers 

and Farmers’ Knowledge and Attitude 352 

DIOP ABDALLAH, GONGNET GBEUKOH PAFOU: 

Socio-economic Analysis of Vegetables Production and Marketing 

- a Case Study of N’djamena 353 

RICHARD BLAIR, WERNER DOPPLER: 

A Socio-economic Evaluation of Agricultural Diversification 

in the Demerara-mahaica Administrative Region of 

Guyana 354 

343


344 

UTE SCHNEIDERAT, MARIANNA SIEGMUND-SCHULTZE, JÖRG 

STEINBACH: 

Diversification of Livelihood Strategies of Households in 

Selected Communal Areas in Namibia 355 

CIPLIS GEMA QORIAH, HANS MELICZEK: 

Supply Response and Competitiveness of Na-Oogst Tobacco 

Production Analysis in Jember Regency-Indonesia 356


The Cotton Chain in Central Asian Uzbekistan: One Step 

Forward, two Back? 

INNA RUDENKO 


The cotton sector, contributing a considerable share to total export revenues, always 

was of paramount importance to Central Asian Uzbekistan. However, it also was 

blamed as the cause for the human-induced ecological disaster in the Aral Sea Basin. 

Concurrently, affected by fluctuations in prices at the world cotton market, the export 

of cotton fiber caused the Government of Uzbekistan (GoU) between 1998–2001 a 

loss of USD 1.479 bln. Hence a continuation of the cotton monoculture and export 

of low value fiber can no longer be regarded as the vehicle for a permanent, broadbased, 

and environmentally sustainable growth. A shift from the primary commodity 

exports to the export of value added cotton products and the removal of trade barriers 

became key of recent reforms. The GoU and the private sector have shown in the 

recent past substantial interest in reviving the cotton-textile sector by supporting foreign 

direct investments, the emergence of numerous textile Joint Ventures, creating 

a favourable climate for textile enterprises, simplifying taxation, and granting exemption 

from customs duties and discounts on the purchase of cotton fiber. A Value Chain 

Analysis (VCA) was applied to examine existing and newly established cotton-textile 

companies and recent developments in the Khorezm Region as an example for Uzbekistan. 

VCA linked agriculture, ginning and textile industries in one cotton value added 

chain and provided a comprehensive picture of the process of creating value added. 

VCA allowed a closer insight on interactions among all actors in the entire chain and 

GoU. Finally, VCA revealed both the impact of present regulations and reforms on 

the cotton textile sector and obstacles for its further development into a sector with 

comparative and competitive advantages. There is room for improvement of the ecological 

and economic situation in Uzbekistan if anticipated reforms are streamlined 

and sequentially consider the whole cotton chain rather than the state revenues. 

Keywords: Comparative advantages, cotton, value chain analysis 

Contact Address: Inna Rudenko, University of Bonn, Center for Development Research (ZEF), 

14 Khamid Alimjan Street, 740000 Urgench, Germany, e-mail: inna@zef.uzpak.uz;irudenko@ 

uni-bonn.de 

ID 205 345


Implication of Project Intervention on Poverty Alleviation and 

Sustainable Livelihoods 

LILA KARKI 1 , SIEGFRIED BAUER 1 , UMA KARKI 2 

1 Justus-Liebig-University Giessen, Institute of Agriculture and Food Systems Manage- 

ment, Germany 

2 Auburn University, College of Agriculture, USA 

The number of people living under poverty is still very high despite numerous poverty 

alleviation programs launched over the years. Although several development models 

and approaches have been practised, 38 % population in Nepal still live in dire 

poverty. Many of the projects to trim down poverty have been supported by multi and 

bilateral agencies in one or the other form. However, assessment of impact of such 

interventions has yet to emphasise specifically at micro level. Therefore, this study 

was conducted to assess the socio-economic impacts that accrued to the beneficiary of 

subsistence farm community and to delineate the relationship with sustainable livelihoods. 

A randomised household survey was conducted to collect field data applying a multistage 

random sampling technique for 120 households in the mid hills, Nepal. The 

data has been analysed using descriptive statistics, qualitative tools and econometric 

models. To net out the impacts due to project intervention on peoples’ livelihood, 

income measures, consumption pattern, head count index of the respondents, and 

poverty gap techniques have been used. 

Analyses for some socio-economic and ecological variables like derived income and 

food self-sufficiency level, a positive but not significant impact is identified. The influence 

on ecological development, equity in resource allocation and sharing benefits 

between male and female farmers and opportunity for capacity building indicators 

have been found positively significant. However, beneficiaries’ participation during 

project planning and performance evaluation phases has been disregarded. 

Assessment of impact of development activities helps allocate resources optimally 

thereby enhancing the benefits from future projects. Therefore, impact evaluation 

at grass-root level and beneficiaries’ capacity building on planning and evaluating 

performances should always be given top priority. 

Keywords: Buffalo enterprise, factor productivity, rural economy, women empowerment 

Contact Address: Lila Karki, Justus-Liebig-University Giessen, Institute of Agriculture and Food 

Systems Management, Senckenbergstraße - 3, D-35390 Gießen, Germany, e-mail: Lila.Karki@agrar. 


346 ID 255


Economic Analysis of Agricultural Reforms in Khorezm Region 

(Uzbekistan) 

NODIR DJANIBEKOV 


Since 1991, there have been various reforms implemented in agricultural sector of 

Uzbekistan to achieve gradual transition from socialistic to market-oriented economy. 

These reforms have included market liberalisation, reformation of land relations, structural 

changes, and creation of supporting market infrastructure. At the same time, 

the state policy on agricultural sector development has emphasised cotton production 

as an element of stable export revenues and agricultural revenues as subject to redistribution 

to industrialisation. According to market liberalisation programme and 

implementation of the state policy on agricultural development, agricultural product 

markets were liberalised. However, production and input use decisions have been 

dominated by administrative methods of economic regulation such as state procurement 

quota and price control. 

Within the framework of agricultural reforms, the farm restructuring and land reform 

have been implemented. The government originally intended a change in the farming 

institution from collective to private farm-based system. Nevertheless, shift in 

farming system has been achieved without introduction of the concept of land property, 

remaining land under the state ownership. Moreover, the transition to marketoriented 

economy includes transformation of agricultural subsidisation policy to the 

extent that it does not degrade producer incentives. The focus of the economic analysis 

is on the agricultural reforms in Uzbekistan such as market liberalisation, land 

and water reforms. The analysis relies on a partial equilibrium model developed for 

the agricultural sector of Khorezm region of Uzbekistan to assess the effects of these 

reforms on the regional crop and livestock production. The model includes different 

farm subaggregates with various production technologies and resource endowments 

distributed through number of production districts. The comparison of single scenarios 

and their combinations is given to determine the changes in production through the 

gradual application of the reforms. This study revealed that the highest level of welfare 

is possible in application of complete package of reforms, which would include 

water pricing, state order abolishment, completion of decollectivisation process. 

Keywords: Khorezm region, land reform, regional modelling, state order, water pricing 

Contact Address: Nodir Djanibekov, University of Bonn, Center for Development Research (ZEF), 

Walter-Flex Str 3, 53113 Bonn, Germany, e-mail: nodir@uni-bonn.de 

ID 389 347


Methodology for Economic Valuation of Food Security and 

Vulnerability to Poverty for Inland Fisheries in Africa 

RUDOLF WITT 1 , LEVISON CHIWAULA 1 , CHRISTOPHE BÉNÉ 2 , HERMANN 

WAIBEL 1 , DIEMUTH PEMSL 3 

1Leibniz University Hannover, Development and Agricultural Economics, Germany 

2Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research (CGIAR), Worldfish Center, 

Egypt 

3WorldFish Center, Policy, Economics, and Social Sciences, Malaysia 

Fish play an increasingly important role in national and local economies of many 

developing countries. Africa’s rivers, wetlands and lakes are especially important for 

poor rural households for whom they provide employment and income opportunities 

in areas where other economic alternatives are scarce or inexistent. They also provide 

nutritional safety-nets in these regions with limited roads and access to market. 

However, policy makers and regional decision makers tend to underrate fisheries, in 

particular inland small-scale fisheries. Often preference is given to large-scale irrigation 

projects, in an attempt to increase agricultural productivity, or to electricity-generating 

dam projects, without necessarily recognising and integrating the role played 

by small-scale fisheries for local economic development and food security. 

This study contributes to an economic assessment of the food safety value of inland 

fisheries. The objectives are (1) to develop an adapted portfolio of methodologies for 

inland fisheries valuation, and (2) to conduct an in-depth socio-economic study in the 

Lake Chad Basin, more precisely, in Cameroon and Nigeria. The paper presents a 

methodology that captures the following: 

Using the Vulnerability as Expected Poverty concept, the susceptibility of fishery dependent 

households to micro and macro shocks will be assessed. The computation 

of a vulnerability scale is expected to clarify the relationships between fishery-related 

activities and poverty as well as between socio-political determinants and poverty. 

The methodology will be applied in the context of an empirical study carried out in 

collaboration with the WorldFish Centre, in five African countries: Cameroon, Nigeria, 

Niger, Malawi and Zambia. 

Keywords: Inland fisheries, non-market valuation, Sub-Saharan Africa, vulnerability 

Contact Address: Rudolf Witt, Leibniz University Hannover, Development and Agricultural Economics, 

Hannover, Germany, e-mail: witt@ifgb.uni-hannover.de 

348 ID 227


Indicator Based Poverty Assessment among Rural Households in 

Central Sulawesi, Indonesia 

XENIA VAN EDIG 1 , STEFAN SCHWARZE 1 , MANFRED ZELLER 2 

1Georg-August-Universtiy Göttingen, Department of Agricultural Economica and Rural 

Development, Germany 

2University of Hohenheim, Institute of Agricultural Economics and Social Sciences in the 


Targeting is decisive for the success of development programs and projects focusing 

on poverty reduction. Hence, a project or programme that seeks to reduce poverty has 

to find out which households live in extreme poverty. This assessment requires costly, 

time intensive large-scale surveys. Therefore, there is a need for cheap, time-saving 

and easy-to-implement poverty assessment tools. The assessment of absolute poverty 

as well as the definition of suitable indicators to predict absolute poverty among rural 

household in Central Sulawesi, Indonesia, are the objectives of this paper. The 

developed poverty assessment tool can be offered to local NGOs and help to reduce 

poverty in the region. Data was collected from 279 randomly selected households in 

2005. From the expenditure data the daily per capita expenditures are derived. The 

log of this variable is the dependent variable in the regression models. A household 

is classified as very poor when the expenditures are below IDR 2723 per household 

member and day, which is equivalent to 1 US$ PPP. 19.35 % of the households in 

the research area fall short this poverty line. Beside the expenditure data, indicators 

of various dimensions of poverty were surveyed and the independent variables for 

the regressions were derived from these indicators. Applying different multivariate 

regression models (one-step OLS, two-step OLS and Quantile regression), we analysed 

which set of indicators yields the highest Balanced Poverty Accuracy Criterion 

(BPAC). BPAC is defined as the accuracy among the very poor minus the absolute 

deviation of undercoverage and leakage. We only included indicators in the model 

which are easy-to-survey to assure that the tool is applicable at low costs. One-step 

Quantile regression yields the highest BPAC of 72.22 %. For applying the model in 

practice, NGOs need to survey the found indicators, multiply them with the coefficient 

from our regression model, sum them up, and add the constant. If the value is 

below the poverty line, the household can be categorised as very poor. 

Keywords: Indicators of poverty, Indonesia, poverty assessment 

Contact Address: Xenia Van Edig, Georg-August-Universtiy Göttingen, Department of Agricultural 

Economica and Rural Development, Göttingen, Germany, e-mail: xedig@agr.uni-goettingen.de 

ID 114 349


Human-ecological Investigation on the Land Use of Flowery 

Hmong to Overcome Poverty: a Case Study from Lao Cai 

Province, Vietnam 

HAI NGUYEN TIEN, HOLM UIBRIG 

Dresden University of Technology, Institute of International Forestry and Forest Products, 

Germany 

In the context of the economic renovation, Vietnam has transferred land-use rights 

from state and cooperative units under central planning to individual, community and 

other entities with market orientation. Despite remarkable success in lowland agriculture 

the advancement within the uplands stays behind the political targets. These 

regions are predominantly inhabited by ethnic minority groups. The relative isolation 

from the markets, the ethnic group and location specific customary and subsistence 

oriented livelihood on the one hand and state claims to implement the governmental 

forest land-use policy and management on the other hand cause particular problem 

situations of the local human ecosystems. 

This ongoing study examines current land-use systems and seeks to find out potentialities 

to harmonise the relevant legal regulations with the customary land-use management. 

Arguments should be elaborated for the continued rural development adopting 

both the state land-use policy and customary land-use management. In a selected village 

area the mosaic of land utilisation is analysed from the viewpoint of the villagers, 

Flowery Hmong, and of the management board of the 661 project which is striving 

for afforestation/ regreening of state claimed protection forest land. 

The analysis adopts the ’Human Ecosystem’ model as developed by Machlis et al. 

(1997). It combines ’critical resources’ of both the social and the ecosystem and puts 

them in relation to attributes of ’social order’, ’institutions’, and ’cycles’ of the social 

system. A tool mix of the RRA approach was used to collect mainly qualitative primary 

data. The results show the land-use system in the village area and influencing 

endogenous and exogenous factors. Among them the first ranking is to secure sustenance 

of the villagers. Furthermore, the results enlighten the current conflict on land 

and forest utilisation. This has been caused by the governmental land area claims for 

the 661 project not taking into account the locally available resources for making a 

living. It is concluded that real participatory land use planning and land allocation 

could facilitate local people based land and forest land resources management. 

Keywords: Customary claims, Market orientation, Participatory planning, Self-sustenance, 

State land-use policy 

Contact Address: Holm Uibrig, Dresden University of Technology, Institute of International Forestry 

and Forest Products, Pienner Strasse 7, 01737 Tharandt, Germany, e-mail: druibrig@forst.tu-dresden. 

de 

350 ID 136


Performance Assessment of Land Enhancing Technologies: an 

Economic Analysis for Food Crop Farmers in Southwestern 

Nigeria 

LUKE OLARINDE 

Ladoke Akintola University of Technology, Department of Agricultural Economic and 

Extension, Nigeria 

Many consumers’ behaviour shows that their (consumers) general preferences for the 

attributes or traits of products are subjective. More so, their perceptions of and impressions 

about the characteristics of the products affect significantly their demand 

for them. Consumers’ preferences for agricultural products are however subject to 

their availability in motivating qualities and quantities. In turn, farmers’ role in preferential 

adoption decisions, which enhance agricultural productivities and crops’ qualities, 

have had very limited attention in research. This forms the basis of this paper. 

Two sets of improved management systems introduced by the Oyo State Agricultural 

Development Project to food crop farmers were investigated for their performances. 

These involve the adoption of land enhancing technologies that include (1) repeated 

leguminous cover crops and (2) appropriate fertiliser application. A participatory survey 

was conducted with one hundred and eighty (180) food crop farmers in five differently 

scattered farming communities in the derived savannah agro ecological belt 

of south western Nigeria. The main aim of the survey was to identify the farming 

methods practised by the sampled farmers , analyse the economic efficiency of each 

method, and determine the socioeconomic and demographic factors, farm specific and 

other intrinsic “risk” factors affecting the farmers’ productivity. Though both farming 

methods showed significant improvement in terms of crop yield over the yields on 

farm lands with partial or no application of any of these technologies, financial returns 

from both methods are found to be almost at par with probable overwhelming 

financial returns from the method of the “leguminous cover crops” in the nearest future. 

The paper also showed that the framers’ choice for any of the two introduced 

land enhancing technologies depends largely on the food crop type cultivated. From 

the findings, a reach out to all case is made for peasants who appear inaccessible 

by the agricultural development project’s agents to incorporate them into the main 

scheme of better and improved agricultural management technologies. This will enable 

a wider acceptability of these technologies and many other ones that are suited 

for differing farming communities. 

Keywords: leguminous cover crops, management technologies, preferential adoption 

Contact Address: Luke Olarinde, Ladoke Akintola University of Technology, Department of Agricultural 

Economic and Extension, 4000 Ogbomoso 210001, Nigeria, e-mail: lolarinde@yahoo.com 

ID 585 351


Why Do Farmers Adopt Alternative Vegetable Production 

Technologies? : Descriptive Analysis of Vegetable Farmers and 

Farmers’ Knowledge and Attitude 

THANAPORN KRASUAYTHONG, HERMANN WAIBEL 

University of Hannover, Development and Agricultural Economics, Germany 

Much of commercial vegetable production in Thailand is monoculture with high use 

of agrochemical inputs particularly pesticides. These have become a main cause of 

health hazard and environmental degradation in agricultural systems. As a response 

to this problem, alternative vegetable production technologies have been developed. 

However, until now vegetable farmers adopted such technologies on a very low scale. 

One among several determinants for low adoption rate is riskiness of new technologies. 

Such technologies are often viewed as being more risky because they usually 

require restricted use of risk-reducing agrochemical inputs. 

This paper shows the results of applying a comprehensive methodology to assess 

adoption of alternative agricultural production technologies in commercial vegetable 

production systems. Risk consideration were incorporated in the adoption model, to 

clarify to what extent differences exist in terms of preference and behaviour between 

adopters, non-adopters and disadopters. The study was carried out in four steps. In 

the first step, a workshop with academicians and experts experienced in vegetable 

production and marketing of vegetable products was conducted in order to provide 

background information for drawing the definition of alternative vegetable production 

technologies and the definition of an adoption threshold. Based on the workshop results, 

an adoption survey was conducted with 297 farmers in 2005 in selected districts 

of Northern Thailand. In the third step, a simultaneous multivariate choice model 

applying a Heckman procedure was developed to identify economic and behavioural 

factors affecting the adoption of the alternative vegetable production technologies. 

The adoption categories were established by following the results of the workshop, 

i.e. the adoption threshold based on farmers’ practices and knowledge of the alternative 

vegetable production technologies. As a final step, the farm level and the policy 

implications of the adoption factors identified are discussed. 

Keywords: Adoption, farmers’ preferences, Thailand, vegetable 

Contact Address: Thanaporn Krasuaythong, University of Hannover, Development and Agricultural 

Economics, Königswother Plazt 1, 30167 Hannover, Germany, e-mail: kthana@ifgb.uni-hannover.de 

352 ID 232


Socio-economic Analysis of Vegetables Production and Marketing 

- a Case Study of N’djamena 

DIOP ABDALLAH 1 , GONGNET GBEUKOH PAFOU 2 

1High School of Science and Technique of Agriculture and Forest (ESTAF), Plant Production, 

Chad 

2University of N’djaména, Faculté des Sciences Exactes et Appliquées, Ecology, Chad 

Agriculture is often the most important economic sector in the developing countries. 

In Chad 80 % of the active population is engaged in agricultural activities and agriculture 

contributes up to 50 % of the GNP. Vegetables are of great importance in Chad in 

twofold sense — as food and as commercial products. They are of economic interest 

from several points of view. Where the opportunities for sale are good (from middle 

of February till end April in case of Market in N’Djaména), vegetables are among the 

most profitable agricultural products. In the past decade the consumption of vegetables 

in N’Djaména increased and reached currently about 30 — 45 kg/person/year. 

The objective of this Study was to evaluate the socio-economic status of vegetables 

producers and sellers, by identifying at first their difficulties during the production, 

followed by analysing the methods of products sale in different markets in N’Djaména 

and finally to propose recommendations. 

The Data were obtained from the survey by administering to a standardised questionnaire 

to 40 randomly selected vegetables producers in four areas [Ligna, Djeddaya 

(localised along the Chari-River), Karal and Lakechad]. Supplementary data were 

obtained through key person interviews 

(n = 20) and field observations. The cultivated vegetables, which this study considers, 

are tomato, sweet potato, cabbage, okra and salad. 

The results indicate that the average of cultivated land is 0.25 — 0.35 ha per farmer, 

in LakeChad it can be more than 1 ha. The largest proportion of marketed vegetables 

is produced in the area of the Lake-Chad. It was find out, that some agronomical, 

technical and economical difficulties have been met during the cultivation. The impact 

of this is reflected in levels of farm incomes. The examined indicators show that 

generally the socio-economic status of vegetables producers is ameliorated in all investigated 

areas. Finally, methods how to ameliorate the production and to generate 

supplementary financial income through new model of marketing were recommended. 

Keywords: Vegetables, Marketing, N’Djaména, Production, socio-economic Analysis 

Contact Address: Diop Abdallah, High School of Science and Technique of Agriculture and Forest 

(ESTAF), Plant Production, B.P. 1709 N’Djaména Tchad, N’Djaména, Chad, e-mail: adiop@gmx.net 

ID 477 353


A Socio-economic Evaluation of Agricultural Diversification in the 

Demerara-mahaica Administrative Region of Guyana 

RICHARD BLAIR 1 , WERNER DOPPLER 2 

1University of Hohenheim, Agricultural Economics and Social Sciences in the Tropics 



Germany 

Income insecurity is inextricably linked to poverty and by extension living standard. 

At the farm household level agricultural diversification has always been recognised as 

a principal risk-reducing strategy. In an effort to secure more stable income streams 

under risky ecological environments and volatile market conditions, farming households 

usually employ a mix of ex-ante strategies, with farm level diversification being 

a principal component in this mix. In the study area, farmers suffer from regular flooding 

and instability in output prices. Under such conditions however, it is observed that 

a sizeable proportion of the households practices either very low farm diversification, 

or is entirely specialised in a single agricultural activity. While income risks faced by 

farmers in the study area result from varied sources such as production risks, market 

risks and input risks, in light of the anomaly observed, this study focuses on production 

risks particularly resulting from flooding, and market risk due to instability 

in crop prices. An objective of this study therefore is to estimate and analyse the 

magnitude of these agricultural risks faced by individual farmers, and to relate these 

findings to the degree of diversification practised. The study utilises Farming Systems 

Analysis in exploring how living standard of the farming families contribute to the existing 

degree of diversification. The study also analyses panel data on crop yields 

and crop prices in ascertaining the level of income risk resulting from production and 

market variations. Econometric analysis is also undertaken in estimating the impact 

of cropped land size, diversification degree (estimated by way of the Simpson‘s Index 

of Diversity), land tenancy arrangement, and the nature of technology employed in 

production on income. The study then identifies and simulates strategies aimed at 

reducing farm income variability through the optimising of farm diversification. The 

findings of these simulations form the basis for recommended strategies at the farm 

household level. 

Keywords: Farming Systems Analysis, Market Risk, Production Risk, Simpson Index 

of Diversity 

Contact Address: Richard Blair, University of Hohenheim, Agricultural Economics and Social Sciences 

in the Tropics and Subtropics, Fruwirth Strasse 12 70599, Stuttgart, Germany, e-mail: 

blair@uni-hohenheim.de 

354 ID 283


Diversification of Livelihood Strategies of Households in Selected 

Communal Areas in Namibia 

UTE SCHNEIDERAT 1 , MARIANNA SIEGMUND-SCHULTZE 2 , JÖRG STEINBACH 1 

1 Justus-Liebig-University Giessen, Department of Livestock Ecology, Germany 

2 University of Hohenheim, Animal Breeding and Husbandry in the Tropics and Subtrop- 

ics, Germany 

Livelihoods of rural households in communal areas in Namibia are constrained by 

low rainfall amounts, high rainfall variability and low soil fertility. Thus, neither agricultural 

intensification is an option for livelihood improvement, nor land expansion, 

which is restricted by the land tenure system. Adequate range management of current 

resources is actually hampered by changes in access to land because of the weakened 

control function of traditional leaders. Additionally, the reduction of state subsidies 

increased the cash demand in Namibian rural areas. Under those conditions, diversification 

of activities is a strategy to cope with a temporary crisis, minimising risks, 

and helping to maintain livelihoods in uncertain environments. Embedded within 

the Biodiversity Monitoring Transect Analysis in Africa (BIOTA-project), this study 

aims to describe the diverse livelihood strategies of rural communal households in 

a mixed system in northern Namibia, and two pastoral systems in central and south 

Namibia. Three community surveys were conducted, covering almost all 70 rural 

households. Semi-structured questionnaires assessed the productive and socio-economic 

household situations. Activities of rural households include livestock keeping, 

crop production, part-time and permanent wage employment, old age pension or other 

state transfers, social network transfers and small enterprises. Diversification within 

the agricultural sub-systems covered the keeping of multi-species herds (cattle, goats, 

sheep, donkeys), or carrying out multi-cropping (millet, sorghum, maize, beans, melons, 

vegetables). Off-farm incomes, generated via absenteeism (22 % of households) 

and old age pension payments (48 % of households) were crucial. While livestock 

keeping was mentioned as the predominant activity by 81 % of the households in the 

pastoral systems, cattle were hardly ever sold, although about 11 % of the goat flock 

were sold. In the agro-pastoral system, cattle were sold only in cases of emergency, 

i.e. yield failure, in order to compensate for food shortage. Infrastructure and the proximity 

of an urban centre, as well as the harshness of climatic conditions influenced the 

type of income-sources of these rural households; the education level did not. 

Keywords: Communal farming system, diversification, household survey 

Contact Address: Ute Schneiderat, Justus-Liebig-University Giessen, Department of Livestock Ecology, 

Ludwigstraße 21, 35390 Gießen, Germany, e-mail: Ute.Schneiderat@agrar.uni-giessen.de 

ID 517 355


Supply Response and Competitiveness of Na-Oogst Tobacco 

Production Analysis in Jember Regency-Indonesia 

CIPLIS GEMA QORIAH, HANS MELICZEK 

Georg-August-University, Dept. of Rural Development, Germany 

Tobacco (Nicotiana tabacum L.) is a tall perennial herbaceous flowering plant that belongs 

to the Solanaceae or nightshade family. It is the world’s most widely cultivated 

non-food crop and is chosen by farmers from more than 120 countries because of its 

performance under widely varying climatic (merely requiring a frost free period of 

100–130 days) and soil conditions to meet the demands of many different markets. It 

also is a plantation commodity that pays high taxes, earns foreign exchange, and employs 

many workers who earn relatively high incomes. In Indonesia, Voor-Oogst (VO) 

tobacco is used in producing cigarettes without cigar flavouring and clove cigarettes. 

Na-Oogst (NO) tobacco is the main material for making big cheroots, cigarillos, and 

chewing tobacco. 

As well as showing a downward trend, Bes-No tobacco prices continue to fluctuate 

substantially. The world market is quite thin, and a small percentage of over- or undersupply 

creates large percentage changes in price. This high degree of uncertainty 

has led to propose for regulations by the Jember government that would reduce the 

tobacco area. 

The Policy Analysis Matrix (PAM) analysis shows that even at reduced prices, tobacco 

is privately and socially more profitable than the next best alternative, maize. 

Hence, even though maize is a second food staple, it would not be good public policy 

to restrict tobacco acreage. The government would perform a useful function if it 

assisted growers in organising cooperatives that could negotiate prices with tobacco 

exporters. Providing information about the situation in international tobacco markets 

at the time farmers are deciding what to plant, would also be a useful government 

function. 

Keywords: Na-Oogst Tobacco, Policy Analysis Matrix (PAM), Supply Response 

Contact Address: Ciplis Gema Qoriah, Georg-August-University, Dept. of Rural Development, Hermann 

Rein Strasse 13 / 102, 37075 Goettingen, Germany, e-mail: c_qoriah@yahoo.com 

356 ID 555

Conflicts and Stakeholder Involvement 

NIKOLAS HASANAGAS, ELENI RIGAKI, ALEJANDRA REAL: 

Democracy Models in Non-profit and Economic Interest 

Groups Involved in Rural-environmental Policy: a Quantitative 

Analysis 359 

UDO NEHREN, SANDRA ALFONSO: 

Canopia Project — Humboldt Meets Disney in the Brazilian 

Amazon 360 

ÁUREA FABIANA APOLINÁRIO DE ALBUQUERQUE, WERNER 

DOPPLER: 

Socio-economic Development of Indigenous People in Three 

Different Environments in Pernambuco, Brazil 361 

ARIMAR LEAL VIEIRA, MARCOS XIMENES PONTE, AN- 

TONIO CARLOS REIS DE FREITAS, REBEKKA KUBISCH: 

Resources Management and Effective Co-operation of Organisations 

in Amazonia: A Discussion on the Social Component 

of Recycling in the City of Belém 362 

STEFAN HOHNWALD, ARI PINHEIRO CAMARÃO, JOSÉ ADÉRITO 

RODRIGUES FILHO, CLEMENS WOLLNY: 

Palatability Comparison of Woody Capoeira and Forage 

Legume Species in a Cafeteria Trial in the Eastern Amazon 363 

GISELA GLIMMANN, ANDRE FABIAN, JÜRGEN KROSCHEL, 

SIMONE SEHER, EILEEN GEHRKE, IVONNE ANTEZANA, 

SIMON FREUND: 

Endogenous Poverty Assessment as a Contribution to Propoor 

Oriented Research Design — A Case Study in Potatoproducing 

Communities in the Central Highlands of Peru 364 

PINDI PATANA, RENATE BÜRGER ARNDT: 

Community Decisionmaking Participation and Collaborative 

Management in Ecotourism Development - A Case Study 

in Tangkahan, North Sumatera 365 

PROSPER FUAMBENG YONGHACHEA, LINDSEY NORGROVE, 


Agropastoral Conflicts in the North West Province of Cameroon366 

357


358 

HARTMUT GAESE, MARC J. J. JANSSENS, RUI PEDROSO, 

SABINE SCHLÜTER, JUAN CARLOS TORRICO: 

Land Competition Between Farming Systems and a Biodiversity 

Paradise in the Central Atlantic Rainforest of Brazil 367 

CARLOS MAGRI FERREIRA, PATRICIO MENDEZ DEL VIL- 

LAR, ALCIDO ELENOR WANDER: 

Socioeconomic Contrasts of Colonisation and Utilisation 

of the Brazilian Cerrado 368 

MUND JAN-PETER, BUNTHAN NGO: 

Processes and Disparities in the Cambodia Agricultural Sector 369 

KATRIN VOHLAND, MARIAM AKHTAR-SCHUSTER: 

Checklist for Agricultural Adaptive Research in Drylands 

— How to Identify Synergies and Avoid Conflicts Between 

Competing Aims of Sustainable Development 370 

TANTY S. THAMRIN: 

The Limits of Collaborative Management Board in Lore 

Lindu National Park, Indonesia 371


Democracy Models in Non-profit and Economic Interest Groups 

Involved in Rural-environmental Policy: a Quantitative Analysis 

NIKOLAS HASANAGAS 1 , ELENI RIGAKI 2 , ALEJANDRA REAL 3 

1Technolgical Education Institution of Kavala-Drama, Hellas, Department of Forestry 

and Natural Environment Management, Greece 

2University of Bochum, Faculty of Philosophy, Germany 

3Georg-August-Universität Göttingen, Institute of Forest Policy and Nature Conservation, 

Germany 

The patterns of collective action and the process of decision-making gain in research 

interest in a world which suffers severe poverty problems. The organised participation 

of people in environmental policy-making through interest groups is decisive for 

achieving a fair world. But this is only possible if these groups are as “democratic” as 

possible, namely if the interests they express find the widest possible acceptance and 

do not serve only political elites or industrial monopolies. The purpose of this article 

is therefore to contribute to a better understanding of the democracy models found in 

interest groups. The percentage of qualified members influences the participation of 

the members in the process of decision-making of their interest group and noticeably 

determines which type of democracy model takes place within the group. According 

to results gathered by a pan-European survey through out the years 2002–2003 — the 

collected data was afterwards processed through cross-sectional analysis-, non-profit 

groups have more members with university degrees than economic groups (e.g. federations 

of enterprises, associations of land owners and entrepreneurs, and syndicates of 

employees). In the former, the members participate more extensively in the General 

Assembly but less in the process of Agenda-Setting, while the inverted behaviour is 

observed in the latter organisations. The former present characteristics of developmental 

democracy and protective/ competitive elitist democracy in General Assembly and 

Agenda-Setting respectively, while the latter competitive elitist democracy and participative/ 

developmental democracy respectively. Advantages and disadvantages of 

the democracy models, organisational requirements and conditions that support each 

democracy model are discussed. 

Keywords: Democracy models, interest groups, participation 

Contact Address: Nikolas Hasanagas, Technolgical Education Institution of Kavala-Drama, Hellas, 

Department of Forestry and Natural Environment Management, P.Mela 12, 54622 Thessaloniki, Greece, 

e-mail: nikolashasanagas@yahoo.com 

ID 594 359


Canopia Project — Humboldt Meets Disney in the Brazilian 

Amazon 

UDO NEHREN, SANDRA ALFONSO 

University of Applied Sciences Cologne, Institute for Technology in the Tropics, Germany 

The tropical rainforests of the Brazilian Amazon are more than ever threatened by 

unsustainable land-use practices and overexploitation. The ongoing deforestation 

and degradation are a serious threat to both the natural and cultural environment in 

the Amazon itself and the global ecological balance. Initiatives to protect the Amazon 

rainforest from further devastation have been undertaken for several decades, 

but many of them failed mainly due to the lack of benefits for local communities. 

Therefore, strategies integrating environmental requirements into economic and social 

needs have been formulated. Most of them are based on the economic and social 

values of biodiversity. Ecotourism is a promising alternative to benefit directly 

from biodiversity, because of its high economic potential and good prospects in the 

long term. On the other hand, there are ecological and cultural risks, particularly 

when tourism development expands into remote areas. To minimise those dangers, 

the needs of local communities and the interests of investors and other stakeholders 

have to be considered and weighed against each other. Against that background, the 

presented pre-feasibility study for the “CANOPIA-Project” analyses the possibilities 

of combining scientific research in tropical rainforests with ecotourism. The innovations 

of the project are the scientific orientation in the field of canopy science, using 

extraordinary observation systems such as cranes and balloons to study the hidden 

world of forest canopies, as well as the unique project concept. The latter is based on 

the hypothesis that it is possible and profitable to establish a large scale ecotourism 

project with a minimum capacity of 200 beds, which 

- allows tourists to explore the forest canopies with cranes, trams, etc., 

- gives them the opportunity to observe scientists during their work, 

- supports scientific research activities through profits from tourism, 

- encourages the development of a region with structural difficulties, 

- creates a local market for high value agricultural products and 

- helps to protect a rainforest area. 

To find out if and how such a project could be realised in the Brazilian states of 

Amazonas or Pará was the aim of the study. 

Keywords: Amazon Rainforest, Canopy Science, Ecotourism, Regional Development 

Contact Address: Udo Nehren, University of Applied Sciences Cologne, Institute for Technology in 

the Tropics, Betzdorfer Str. 2, 50674 Cologne, Germany, e-mail: udo.nehren@web.de 

360 ID 198


Socio-economic Development of Indigenous People in Three 

Different Environments in Pernambuco, Brazil 

ÁUREA FABIANA APOLINÁRIO DE ALBUQUERQUE, WERNER DOPPLER 


Germany 

Indigenous people in the Amazon rainforest are often in the focus of international 

interests. Socio-economic research in this zone has shown difficulties in getting adequate 

information from those traditional systems. Areas and indigenous societies in 

the Pernambuco State have been selected since the contacts to the outside world exist 

and would allow better information for research. The main problems these societies 

face are the increasing pressure for land from outside people, small connection to 

the monetary system and market and certain crises of tribal identity. Three different 

indigenous groups have been selected which differ in their ecological and economic 

environment and hence, show different relations to the outside world and economic development. 

The objective of the study is to analyse the socio-economic development 

of indigenous people in and changing environment and to assess the future potential 

for a sustainable socio-economic development in the frame of the cultural settings. 

The indigenous families were classified according to their different ethnic features and 

different environmental conditions. Indigenous families were randomly selected and 

interviewed. The methods adopted in this study were the Farming Systems Approach 

to describe and analyse the socio-economic settings of the indigenous families, and a 

comparative analysis between the three farming systems to track down differences in 

resource capacities, problems and impacts. The current results denoted that the closer 

the indigenous are to the urban centres, the higher the off-farm income and the higher 

the tendency to re-allocate indigenous family work to off-farm activities. Those living 

in the arid zone have lower farm income and living standard than in the other ecological 

environments. There are indications that irrigation in the highly erratic rainfall 

areas could improve the farm income if market relations can be developed.The perception 

of the different ethnic groups indicate a close relation to traditional behaviour and 

culturally based decision-making. Three strategies are interesting for testing using 

simulation models: (1) water resource development, (2) changes in credit conditions 

and (3) introduction of less-water intensive crops. 

Keywords: Brazil, farming systems, indigenous people, living standard, socio-economic 

development 

Contact Address: Áurea Fabiana Apolinário de Albuquerque, University of Hohenheim, Farming and 

Rural Systems in the Tropics and Subtropics, Institut 490c, University of Hohenheim, 70593 Stuttgart, 

Germany, e-mail: aureaalb@uni-hohenheim.de 

ID 236 361


Resources Management and Effective Co-operation of 

Organisations in Amazonia: A Discussion on the Social 

Component of Recycling in the City of Belém 

ARIMAR LEAL VIEIRA 1 , MARCOS XIMENES PONTE 1 , ANTONIO CARLOS REIS 

DE FREITAS 2 , REBEKKA KUBISCH 3 

1Federal University of Pará, NAEA, Brazil 

2Brazilian Agricultural Research Corporation (EMBRAPA), Embrapa Mid-North Agriculture, 

Brazil 

3Johann-Wolfgang-Goethe-University Frankfurt, Institut für Molekulare Biowissenschaften, 

Germany 

This paper aims to understand the organisation process of recycling in Amazonia 

through the discussion of the social components of the sorting collection system 

mainly conducted by former farming families in the city of Belém. In the middle 

of the 70’s, the Brazilian Amazon region faced several problems related to the implementation 

of large industrial and agricultural projects. Consequently, this situation 

caused mismanagement of natural resources, rural conflicts and loss of land used by 

farming families in some rural areas of the state of Pará. This unfavourable condition 

encouraged a process of migration of these families to Belém. Furthermore, due to 

the lack of opportunities in the formal labour market in the city, these families were 

forced to collect recycling materials, as scavengers, in order to earn their living. A 

broad understanding of this issue involves the relationships among different groups as 

well as the social-economical situation of these actors. To support this research, an interdisciplinary 

study was conducted mainly based on the fields of Industrial Ecology 

(IE), Theory of Groups, Cost-Benefit Analysis (CBA) and anchored by a Life Cycle 

Assessment (LCA). Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) is known as a promising tool for 

environmental management. In order to contribute to the discussion of LCA, as well 

as its application field, this study also intends to include the social component in its 

scope, through the analysis of the agents that act in the recycling of aluminum cans. 

Finally, the results show the current benefits of the sorting-collection system, indicating 

the gains through the organised groups which, in final statement, takes place by 

means of the effective co-operation among the actors. 

Keywords: Farming families, life cycle assessment, recycling, social component, theory 

of groups 

Contact Address: Arimar Leal Vieira, Federal University of Pará, NAEA, Av. Augusto Correa s/n, 

66055-000 Bélem, Brazil, e-mail: arimarlv@yahoo.com.br 

362 ID 518


Palatability Comparison of Woody Capoeira and Forage Legume 

Species in a Cafeteria Trial in the Eastern Amazon 

STEFAN HOHNWALD 1 , ARI PINHEIRO CAMARÃO 2 , JOSÉ ADÉRITO RODRIGUES 

FILHO 2 , CLEMENS WOLLNY 3 

1Georg-August-University Göttingen, Institute of Animal Breeding and Husbandry in the 


2Brazilian Agricultural Research Corporation (EMBRAPA), Brazil 


In north-eastern Pará, extensive pasture production on smallholdings shows low performance, 

and pasture improvement strategies, e.g. the use of forage legumes, have been hardly adapted. 

One reason for low performance is the re-sprouting secondary vegetation, locally called “capoeira”. 

However, recent studies showed that a lot of these capoeira species are intensively browsed by 

cattle, so that it was anticipated that the phytodiverse capoeira might still include some interesting 

supplementary forage species. Thus, the 10 most palatable and frequent capoeira 

species are tested against known promising forage legume species, in this study. Therefore, an 

on-farm cafeteria trial is conducted on a 0.5 ha Brachiaria brizantha pasture at Igarapé-Açu 

(47º36´W/1º08´S). Six capoeira species, namely Attalea maripa (Arecaceae), Banara guianensis 

(Flacourtiaceae), Cecropia palmata (Cecropiaceae), Neea oppositifolia (Nyctaginaceae), 

Phenakospermum guianensis (Strelitziaceae), Solanum juripeba (Solanaceae), and the three 

forage legumes Calliandra calothyrsus, Cratylia argentea, Flemingia macrophylla plus the Pmobilising 

Tithonia diversifolia (Asteraceae) were chosen and planted in 5 × 5 m subplots with 

25 plantlets, each. These unfenced treatments were replicated five times in a randomised block 

design on the pasture plot. As control, three randomised ungrazed subplots of each species were 

planted outside the plot (n=80 subplots, 2000 forage plantlets). The pasture will be grazed by 

mixed-bred steers at 2 LU ha −1 in the first year, by sheep at 15 LU ha −1 in the second, and by 

buffaloes at 1.5 LU ha −1 in the third year, both during rainy and dry seasons (=600 kg ha −1 , 

each year). Browsing damages, relative growing performance, relative consumed biomass, and 

“in vitro” digestibility of the each species will be compared. The study will show if palatable 

native capoeira species can be recommended as an alternative to commercially forage legume 

species. As these species are commonly found on smallholdings and well adapted to the ecosystem, 

the farmer might have low-cost alternatives for forage production. 

Keywords: Animal production, Brazil, browsing, buffaloes, cattle, secondary vegetation, sheep 

Contact Address: Stefan Hohnwald, Georg-August-University Göttingen, Institute of Animal Breeding 

and Husbandry in the Tropics and Subtropics, Kellnerweg 6, 37077 Göttingen, Germany, e-mail: 

shohnwa@gwdg.de 

ID 452 363


Endogenous Poverty Assessment as a Contribution to Pro-poor 

Oriented Research Design — A Case Study in Potato-producing 

Communities in the Central Highlands of Peru 

GISELA GLIMMANN 1 , ANDRE FABIAN 1 , JÜRGEN KROSCHEL 2 , SIMONE SEHER 1 , 

EILEEN GEHRKE 1 , IVONNE ANTEZANA 1 , SIMON FREUND 1 

1Humboldt University Berlin, Centre for Advanced Training in Rural Development (SLE), 

Germany 


The International Potato Center (CIP) seeks to reduce poverty and achieve food security in 

developing countries through scientific research and related activities on potato, sweetpotato, 

and other Andean root and tuber crops. The CIP’s 2003-vision exercise paved the way for a 

more consequent orientation of the Center’s research towards pro-poor impacts and contributing 

effectively to the Millennium Development Goals. 

The objective of the present study was to contribute to a better understanding of what poverty 

or well-being for small-scale farmers means and how farmers perceive potato production in the 

context of poverty alleviation, and inform institutions to plan future interventions. Therefore, 

the degree, dynamics and causes of poverty in four potato producing Andean Highland communities 

of Peru were assessed. This was achieved through the “Participatory Approach to Poverty 

Assessment” (PAPA), which has been developed as a multidimensional approach aiming at capturing 

farmers’ own concepts about poverty-related factors and opportunities for improving the 

living situation, including the role of non-tangible assets e.g., social support. The study illustrates 

that well-being of households is associated to a diversified, market-oriented agricultural 

production strategy, to access to institutions for the provision of information, technologies, inputs 

or credit, to income diversification and to social support within the communities. The 

intensification of potato production is an important strategy to improve livelihood, especially if 

farmers got access to markets. The study revealed that agricultural support measures are often 

selectively applied, mostly to best-educated farmers; in contrast, poorer households have less 

access to agricultural support and often have different needs. 

The study concludes that holistic interventions are needed taking into account the heterogeneity 

of poverty causes. A pre-intervention assessment, e.g. through PAPA, which mirrors the 

endogenous perception and necessities at community and individual level, could serve as a 

basis for targeting research and development activities. As a consequence, conducting participatory 

research and disseminating results would support the community aspiration contributing 

more effectively to poverty alleviation. 

Keywords: Institutional learning, Pro-poor targeting, potato production 

Contact Address: Gisela Glimmann, Humboldt University Berlin, Centre for Advanced Training in 

Rural Development (SLE), Hessische Str. 1-2, 10099 Berlin, Germany, e-mail: gisell23a@hotmail.com 

364 ID 140


Community Decisionmaking Participation and Collaborative 

Management in Ecotourism Development - A Case Study in 

Tangkahan, North Sumatera 

PINDI PATANA 1 , RENATE BÜRGER ARNDT 2 

1Georg-August-University Göttingen, Tropical and International Forestry, Faculty of Forestry, 

Germany 

2Georg-August-University Göttingen, Forest Policy and Nature Conservation, Germany 

Generally active local participation in decisionmaking is a precondition for benefits 

reaching communities. In developing countries, however, this paradigm is difficult 

to put into practice owing to various constraints. Based on a study in the Tangkahan, 

Leuser National Park, it is demonstrated that long decisionmaking processes as radical 

step to set up the view how the local community can benefit sufficiently from 

tourism rather than destructive activities such as illegal loggers. Thus, to have a say 

in the management area is only one of many ways to ensure that local people benefit 

from ecotourism. Rather, the modes of participation are related to the institutional 

arrangements and the different stages of tourism development present in a community. 

Management of natural resources surrounding national park faces many problems, 

especially when it related into land tenure system and benefit shared among parties. 

Conflict of interest often rise into different stage of many stakeholders due to lack of 

forest regulation, top down approach and law enforcement. As a new destination in 

North Sumatra, Tangkahan is an interesting alternative to the famous Bukit Lawang 

orangutan rehabilitation centre. There is no such rehabilitation centre, but the location 

is definitely more remote and far from beeing as touristy as Bukit Lawang. The 

villagers of Tangkahan try to participate in the integration of their own subsistent 

livelihoods into the local economy. Illegal logging was common until three years ago. 

Then, illegal loggers from local villages (2000 household) were convinced to use ecotourism 

as a tool for increasing an alternative income besides farming. At this point 

however the ex-loggers expectations are not metdue to a lack of promotion and a low 

standard of products and services to meet visitor satisfaction (IUCN, 2004), the Park 

only attracts small visitor numbers. 

Keywords: Collaborative management, community participation, decisionmaking, 

ecotourism, North Sumatera, Tangkahan 

Contact Address: Pindi Patana, Georg-August-University Göttingen, Tropical and International 

Forestry, Faculty of Forestry, Hermann-Rein-Strasse 13/app.101, 37075 Goettingen, Germany, e-mail: 

pindi_patana@yahoo.com 

ID 581 365


Agropastoral Conflicts in the North West Province of Cameroon 

PROSPER FUAMBENG YONGHACHEA, LINDSEY NORGROVE, RAINER 

SCHULTZE-KRAFT 

University of Hohenheim, Biodiversity and Land Rehabilitation in the Tropics and Subtropics, 

Germany 

Conflicts between sedentary farmers and transhumant pastoralists are common in sub- 

Saharan Africa. In recent years these have often been large scale, the most notable 

involving large migrations from Nigeria into Adamouwa Province in Cameroon in January 

2002. Such conflicts regularly involve the use of guns and machetes as weapons, 

killing of cattle, and the intentional destruction of farmers’ property (fields, plantations, 

granaries). In May 2005, a serious agropastoral conflict occurred in Wum, 

North West Province of Cameroon. The climax vegetation of Wum is forest - savannah 

transition; however most of the forest has been already converted to agriculture. 

The economy of Wum depends on crop and livestock production. The Wum population 

comprises two distinct ethnicities: the autochthonous sedentary Aghem ethnicity, 

who are the majority, and the Fulbe pastoralists, who herd cattle. The Aghem cultivate 

predominantly maize, cocoyams, sweet potatoes, cassava, beans, cowpea and 

groundnuts. In Wum, the Fulbe have diversified their traditional pastoralist lifestyle 

to include farming. Their main crops include: maize, cocoyams and chili pepper and 

on average now have more than three times more crop land per household than the 

Aghem (9.5 ha compared with 2.5 ha), which was obtained in previous negotiations 

with village chiefs. While the root of the conflict might be that the Fulbe now compete 

directly with the Aghem in crop production, the trigger for the conflict was the 

claim by the latter that the Fulbe do not control and prevent their cattle from destroying 

Aghem crops so the Aghem retaliated and impounded the Fulbe cattle and asked 

for large ransoms for the cattle to be released. The local council suffered the effects 

of no slaughter houses and no cattle market since the council derived most of it revenues 

from the grazers. The council decided to levy a tax on all cattle that had to pass 

through Wum to the neighbouring villages. The conflict has still not been resolved. 

The implications of this conflict on food security and land use in Wum are discussed. 

Keywords: Agropastoral conflicts, Cameroon, food and cattle production 

Contact Address: Prosper Fuambeng Yonghachea, University of Hohenheim, Biodiversity and Land 

Rehabilitation in the Tropics and Subtropics, University Hohenheim, 70593 Stuttgart, Germany, e-mail: 

prosperfy@yahoo.co.uk 

366 ID 341


Land Competition Between Farming Systems and a Biodiversity 

Paradise in the Central Atlantic Rainforest of Brazil 

HARTMUT GAESE 1 , MARC J. J. JANSSENS 2 , RUI PEDROSO 1 , SABINE 

SCHLÜTER 1 , JUAN CARLOS TORRICO 2 

1University of Applied Sciences Cologne, Institute for Technology in the Tropics, Germany 

2University of Bonn, Institute of Crop Science and Resource Conservation - Tropical 


The mountainous hinterland of Rio de Janeiro is the habitat of the Atlantic Rainforest, characterised 

by a potentially dense forest of rich biological diversity. The hilly upland forms a highly 

fragmented agricultural landscape with a very few forest fragments . Land use is dominated by 

extensive cattle farming systems and small ruminants on marginal land (60 % of the same State) 

and by intensive, thriving horticulture farming systems on the adjacent flatlands, irrigated from 

water sources mostly originating in the surrounding forested hills. This enables intensive production 

of leafy vegetables. Farming systems have been analysed within a Brazilian-German 

research cooperation, the BLUMEN project. A detailed survey was conducted in the municipality 

of Teresopolis, within the Preto river basin at an altitude between 700–1000 m above sea 

level among crop and animal farmers. About 83 % of the farms are family owned and 51.3 % 

are less than 10 ha in size. These smallholdings occupy only 6.7 % of the cultivated area, whilst 

farms larger than 150 ha cover the largest portion (36.6 %) of the cultivated area. 

Crop land and range land compete with preservation and reforestation strategies. Degradation 

of land is a mean feature of the municipality. Testimonies suggest that in the last 50 years water 

discharges have decreased up to 50 %, due to deforestation and to the loss of many small water 

springs (1/6 in this survey). The Rio Preto is polluted with agro-chemicals residues. 

Cattle husbandry based on a local Mestizo breed, is done by the vast majority (76 %) of the 

surveyed farmers. Sheep, goat and horse husbandry rank in a secondary position. Cattle farmers 

prefer cattle breeding (61 %), to beef cattle (22 %) and lastly to milk cattle (17 %). Although 

stocking rate approximates 0.7 ha/TLU, paddock rotation is rarely practised. Average weight 

increase is only 350 g/head/day. Stabled husbandry of goats and sheep shows better levels of 

sustainability. Horse breeding is usually carried out for recreation, showing high levels of 

investment and underlining the tourism potential of the region. 

It is concluded that preserving, if not improving, 20 % (say 8 % for the whole of Mata atlantica) 

of total land with fragmented biodiversity paradises can only be achieved by increasing agrodiversity 

elsewhere whereby tree crops could play a buffer and connecting role. 

Keywords: Brazil, farming systems, land degradation, land use, Mata atlantica 

Contact Address: Hartmut Gaese, University of Applied Sciences Cologne, Institute for Technology in 

the Tropics, Betzdorfer Straße 2, 50679 Köln, Germany, e-mail: hartmut.gaese@fh-koeln.de 

ID 607 367


Socioeconomic Contrasts of Colonisation and Utilisation of the 

Brazilian Cerrado 

CARLOS MAGRI FERREIRA 1 , PATRICIO MENDEZ DEL VILLAR 2 , ALCIDO 

ELENOR WANDER 1 

1Brazilian Agricultural Research Corporation (EMBRAPA), National Rice and Beans 

Research Center (CNPAF), Brazil 

2French Agricultural Research Centre for International Development (CIRAD), Annuals 

Crops Department, France 

The Brazilian central region has an agricultural potential of more than 40 million 

hectares. This potential is concentrated in the Cerrado. During 2003 crop season, 

considerable amounts of agricultural products came from this region. The produced 

amounts reached 27.15 million tons of soybeans (48.1 %), 13.81 million tons of maize 

(27.5 %), 2.03 million tons of rice (19.6 %), 0.83 million tons of beans (28.2 %), 2.40 

million tons of cassava (10.9 %) in 2003 seasons. Additionally, there were stocks of 

7.51 million of cattle (3.8 %), and there were produced 44.3 million liters of cow milk 

(33.7 %). The percentages in parentheses represent the participation in national production. 

This development of production in the region was obtained with the adoption 

of technology adapted to the region and brought benefits like the development of the 

Cerrado. However, in its course there occurred some undesirable effects like increasing 

in land prices and coming up of social conflicts and environmental imprudences. 

Secondary data on rice production and cultivation area for 1990 to 2003 in the municipalities 

located in the Brazilian Cerrado were obtained from the Brazilian Institute 

of Geography and Statistics and statistically analyzed. In this study three different 

situations were identified: (a) areas of strong agriculture enterprises, with higher production 

density and high yield levels; (b) areas with traditional agriculture, which is 

getting under pressure of the strong agricultural enterprises; and (c) less developed 

areas, where extensive ranching and cropping at low technological level are being 

practised. A zoning of these three situations was done with geographic information 

system tool MapInfo Professional. Finally, the study points out some social and environmental 

threats and present proposals and challenges for agricultural research and 

public policies to seek for a more equilibrated development for the Brazilian Cerrado 

region. 

Keywords: Brazilian savannah, development policies 

Contact Address: Alcido Elenor Wander, Brazilian Agricultural Research Corporation (EM- 

BRAPA); Federal University of Goias (UFG); Faculdades Alves Faria (ALFA), Rodovia Goiania 

a Nova Veneza, km 12, 75375-000 Santo Antonio de Goias, Brazil, e-mail: awander@cnpaf. 

embrapa.br 

368 ID 20


Processes and Disparities in the Cambodia Agricultural Sector 

MUND JAN-PETER 1 , BUNTHAN NGO 2 

1Royal University of Agriculture, Phnom Penh, Department of Land Management and 

Land Administration, Cambodia 

2Royal University of Agriculture, Phnom Penh, Department of Agricultural Technologies, 

Agriculture plays the most important role in Cambodian society by ensuring food 

security at community and national level. Although Cambodia has achieved overall 

national rice self sufficiency with a very small surplus at the national level since 2000, 

there are still regional and local deficit regions, in particular in remote rural areas on 

unsuitable soils. A growing number of families are not able to survive on their own 

rice production, especially in the areas affected by the worst floods in the Mekong 

floodplain in 2000 and 2001 or irregular severe drought on poor sandy soils in 2004– 

2005. Cambodian agriculture is still remarkably undiversified with more than 2.3 

million ha planted with rice only and no significant robust growth in the agricultural 

sector over the past five years. 

Today, processes of land occupation and land use change intensify the challenges in 

ensuring food security, especially in recently cultivated upland regions. Current population 

dynamics are driven by land occupation and land shortage in the lowlands. 

Land use planning issues and economically motivated large scale land distributions 

characterise growing disparities and transitions in the agrarian sector. Continuous 

intervention of the state into land regulations, ownership policy, land use planning 

measures and distribution of land use rights to large scale agro-industrial investors 

illustrate the Cambodian practise. Comparing Cambodia to other South East Asian 

countries the agrarian question concentrates primarily on the dispute whether or not 

concentration of land ownership is indispensable for a full capitalist transition into a 

modern economic agriculture. Land and access to land became one of the most crucial 

factors in Cambodian agriculture since 1991, when Cambodia transferred its collective 

economy into a modern market economy. Nevertheless, predominant agrarian 

strategies for small farmers as well as economic investors are exploitations and even 

over-exploitations of natural resources with little investment into sustainable production. 

As a result, the Cambodian government’s goal to reduce rural poverty will not 

be successful without a more rapid and sustained agricultural growth including poor 

and landless small-scale farmers. 

Keywords: Agricultural development, cambodia, Disparities, Food security, Land 

concessions 

Contact Address: Mund Jan-Peter, Royal University of Agriculture, Phnom Penh, Department of 

Land Management and Land Administration, GTZ Main Office Phnom Penh, Phnom Penh, Cambodia, 

e-mail: jpmun03@yahoo.com 

ID 326 369


Checklist for Agricultural Adaptive Research in Drylands — How 

to Identify Synergies and Avoid Conflicts Between Competing 

Aims of Sustainable Development 

KATRIN VOHLAND 1 , MARIAM AKHTAR-SCHUSTER 2 

1 University of Potsdam, Vegetation Ecology and Nature Conservation, Germany 

2 University of Hamburg, Biocentre Klein Flottbek and Botanical Garden, Germany 

The formulation of the United Nations Millennium Goals (MDGs) is the most humanfocused 

approach of the UN international commitments and contracts of the UN for 

maintaining and enhancing human well-being on the basis of an intact environment 

and sustainable development. It was acknowledged that the most important sector for 

action to achieve the MDGs is rural development, including availability of food and 

water, sanitation and education. However, during the formulation of scientific projects 

as well as during their implementation phase, the MDGs as well as the cultural, social 

and economic realities in the target areas are often only insufficiently regarded. One 

of the main reasons is the lacking awareness in the research community that participation 

should already start with the problem formulation. Other important reasons 

that counteract food security are conflicts between the different aims of national and 

international scientific programmes and the UN Conventions to achieve sustainable 

development. Enhancing biomass production is one of the main sub-goals always 

present when improving agricultural and environmental conditions is. This is seen 

as a pathway to increase crop production and fuel material as well as to safeguard 

biodiversity. However, conflicts might arise when using GM crops or exotic species. 

Afforestation especially of wetlands may in some cases increase water consumption 

above a sustainable level. Further, the conservation of carbon stocks is not accounted 

for in the Kyoto protocol and therefore often ignored in discussions on sustainable 

land use practices. On the other hand, the tight relationship between environmental 

protection and rural development is widely acknowledged, and synergies occur between 

different measures for sustainable development e.g. in the field of improving 

water use efficiency by means of rain water harvesting technologies. In order to raise 

the awareness of the need of sound relationships between the needs and the aims of 

the local people, the international aims and actions for sustainable development, and 

the agricultural research projects, we would like to present and discuss a checklist to 

detect competing sub-goals and to transform them into synergy processes in order to 

reach the MDGs. 

Keywords: Biodiversity, food security, UN conventions 

Contact Address: Katrin Vohland, University of Potsdam, Vegetation Ecology and Nature Conservation, 

Maulbeerallee 2, 14469 Potsdam, Germany, e-mail: katrin.vohland@web.de 

370 ID 194


The Limits of Collaborative Management Board in Lore Lindu 

National Park, Indonesia 

TANTY S. THAMRIN 

Georg- August University, Göttingen, Agriculture Faculty, Natural Resource Program, 

Germany 

This paper seeks for an empiric experience of the stakeholder to see the limits of Collaborative 

Management model that build in Lore Lindu National Park, and to have a 

clear understanding about weakness, and opportunities for Collaborative Management 

Board in Lore Lindu National Park. This paper analyses the limits of Collaborative 

Management Board, as one of the Collaborative Management models that build in 

Lore Lindu National Park. As it is understood, the Collaborative Management (Comanagement) 

Board in Lore Lindu National Park is one of the stakeholder efforts 

(individual and groups) who are concerned with sustainable natural resources, social 

justice and enquiry, and community-based initiatives to minimise the conflict over 

natural resources in the park. The result presented on the paper are based on SWOT 

(Strengthening — Weakness — Opportunity — Threatening) analysis, interviewed 

with the Head of Lore Lindu National Park Authority Management, FKTNLL coordinator, 

government and interviews with NGOs who work in Lore LIndu National 

Park, as well as analysis of reports, both published and available in World Wide Web. 

Since 2002, Collaborative Management models have been started in Lore Lindu National 

Park. The model is based in three main reasons. First, the communities needs 

on access and control to the natural resources surround them. Second, sharing the 

“strength stakeholders” controls over natural resources management. Third, accommodate 

the stakeholder’s needs and interest. In Lore Lindu National Park case, “the 

stakeholder’s strength” is government, private sectors, NGOs and researchers. Collaborative 

Management is a pathway to give more opportunity to solve the problems for 

both communities and stakeholders. To maximise the effort, it is important to understand 

that Collaborative Management Board might have its limitation. The knowledge 

and understanding of the limits will keep the stakeholders and social actors aware and 

prepare to anticipate the limits to reach the best results. 

Keywords: Collaborative Management, Interest. , Stakeholder, stakeholder Analysis, 

SWOT Analysis 

Contact Address: Tanty S. Thamrin, Georg- August University, Göttingen, Agriculture Faculty, Natural 

Resource Program, Christophorusweg 12 App. 7, 37075 Göttingen, Germany, e-mail: tantysthamrin@ 

yahoo.com 

ID 338 371


372 ID 338

Globalization and Liberalization 

OGHAIKI ASAAH NDAMBI, KHALID MAHMOOD, OTTO GARCIA: 

Agricultural Research Needs in a Globalized World: Method 

Improvement 375 

ADAM DRUCKER, SIPKE-JOOST HIEMSTRA, NIELS LOUWAARS, 

J.K. OLDENBROEK, M.W. TVEDT: 

The Influence of Globalisation on Livestock Biodiversity 

and Farmer Livelihoods: Implications for Future Policy 

and Research 376 

OTTO GARCIA, KHALID MAHMOOD, OGHAIKI ASAAH NDAMBI: 

Should Small-scale Dairy Farmers Welcome Globalisation? 377 

KHALID MAHMOOD, OGHAIKI ASAAH NDAMBI, OTTO GARCIA: 

Globalisation May Bring Prosperity to Subsistence Dairy 

Farmers in Developing Countries 378 

SOLOMON ASFAW, HERMANN WAIBEL, DAGMAR MITHÖFER: 

Adoption and Impact of Eurepgap Standards: the Case of 

Kenyan Smallholder Export Farmers 379 

ISMAIL MOUMOUNI MOUSSA: 

Impacts of the Liberalisation of Agricultural Research and 

Extension on Multi-functional Agriculture in Banikoara, Benin380 

M. B. ELGALI, SALAH ABDELMAGID, SIEGFRIED BAUER: 

Liberalisation Policies and the Economic Performance under 

Drought Conditions: the Case of Sudan 381 

MARAILE GÖRGEN: 

Democracy and Decentralisation in Cambodia - Capacity 

Buildings for Female Commune Councilors with the Goal 

to Increase the Development of their Communes 382 

SOLOMON ASFAW: 

Does Food Aid Reach the Poor? New Evidence from Northern 

Ethiopia 383 

CIPLIS GEMA QORIAH, ADHITYA WARDHONO: 

Analysis of Rice Agribusiness Development in Jember Regency, 

Indonesia 384 

VINCENT OGUNLELA, A. O. OGUNGBILE: 

Alleviating Rural Poverty in Nigeria: A Challenge for the 

National Agricultural Research System 385 

373


374 

MOHAMED AHMAD AWAD, WERNER DOPPLER, RALF SCHLAUDERER: 

Impact Assessment of Future Development Strategies to 

Improve Natural Resources Conservation and Living Standards 

of Farmers in Lake Nasser Region, Egypt 386


Agricultural Research Needs in a Globalized World: Method 

Improvement 

OGHAIKI ASAAH NDAMBI, KHALID MAHMOOD, OTTO GARCIA 

IFCN Dairy Research Center, Germany 

Economic evaluation of farming systems in developing countries is very complex and 

subject to error as rural farmers do not keep records. Most researchers and students 

have diverse opinions, leading to the use of several methods in farm analysis. As such, 

difficulties arise in comparing results, since assumptions differ in each method. There 

is therefore a great need for a globalised method for farm analysis. The TIPI-CAL 

(Technology Impact and Policy Impact Calculations) model was developed by the 

IFCN (International Farm Comparison Network) and is method that can stand global 

applications. This model has an advantage of revealing feasible economic situations 

under given farm conditions, thereby exposing irrelevance and allowing for checks on 

the validity of submitted data. 

Raw data was collected from typical dairy farms in Cameroon, using in-depth interviews. 

Data which had previously been analysed using Excel without the model was 

re-analysed using the TIPI-CAL model. The model enabled a precision in data input 

of vital elements of cost and revenue such as mortality rates, annual milk yields, 

opportunity costs and depreciation costs. The separation and measurement of dairy 

inputs and revenues from those of the whole farm was also plausible with both small 

and large farms, thereby enabling the model applicable in small-scale farming systems 

as well. From comparison of the two methods we found that, the TIPI-CAL 

model revealed significantly higher total costs of production as well as the total income 

generated from dairy production than the former method. It was realised that, 

the profit, though still low, appeared double when all cost and benefit components 

(cash and non-cash) were included in the model calculations. This internationally 

accepted methodology helped in clarifying doubts from previous studies, which questioned 

why farmers remained motivated in production, despite the low cash profits 

they obtained. In addition, this method allows the comparison of production systems 

at regional, national and international levels. 

Keywords: Farm analysis, Globalisation, International comparison, TIPI-CAL model 

Contact Address: Oghaiki Asaah Ndambi, IFCN Dairy Research Center, Bohlweg 55, 38100 Braunschweig, 

Germany, e-mail: ndamboa@yahoo.com 

ID 292 375


The Influence of Globalisation on Livestock Biodiversity and 

Farmer Livelihoods: Implications for Future Policy and Research 

ADAM DRUCKER 1 , SIPKE-JOOST HIEMSTRA 2 , NIELS LOUWAARS 2 , J.K. 

OLDENBROEK 2 , M.W. TVEDT 3 

1 Charles Darwin University, School for Environmental Research, Australia 

2 Wageningen University and Research Centre, Centre for Genetic Resources, The Nether- 

lands 

3 Fridtjof Nansen Institute, Norway 

Improving the livelihoods of poor livestock-keepers is a key means of reducing poverty 

and food insecurity. Attaining such livelihood improvements requires the conservation 

and sustainable use of livestock diversity, as animals of different characteristics, 

and hence outputs, suit differing local community needs, markets and agroecosystems 

. In the context of approximately 30 % of the world’s farm animal genetic resources 

(FAnGR) being at some degree of risk of extinction, there has been a steadily growing 

debate on the need for a legal framework and other options to deal with access, exchange 

and conservation of FAnGR. Exploring such options through an analysis of the 

current situation and a range of future projections to 2050, reveals that the livestock 

sector has been and will continue to be influenced by, among other factors, the process 

of globalisation. The three main drivers behind such globalisation trends are related to 

a continuation of the “livestock revolution”, human population growth, urbanisation 

and increasing affluence in the South. They include: (1) a rapid worldwide increase in 

consumption and production of livestock products, with a major increase in the share 

of developing countries in total consumption and production, (2) a continuation of ongoing 

changes in the status of livestock production from a multipurpose activity with 

mostly non-tradable output, to food and feed production in the context of globally 

and/or regionally integrated markets, (3) an emergence of rapid technological change 

in livestock production and processing in industrial systems. With particular regard to 

the impact of globalisation on FAnGR and poor farmer livelihoods, the full paper discusses 

these drivers in greater detail, together with the need for policy and research to 

support smallholders. The need for such work to include the development of national 

policies or international instruments which could facilitate or regulate international 

exchange while helping to avoid negative impacts is also explored. 

Keywords: Farm animal genetic resources, globalisation, livelihoods, smallholders 

Contact Address: Adam Drucker, Charles Darwin University, School for Environmental Research, Elengowan 

Drive, 0810 Darwin, Australia, e-mail: adam.drucker@cdu.edu.au 

376 ID 238


Should Small-scale Dairy Farmers Welcome Globalisation? 

OTTO GARCIA, KHALID MAHMOOD, OGHAIKI ASAAH NDAMBI 

IFCN Dairy Research Center, Germany 

Globalisation means an ever-changing economic climate, in which challenges and 

opportunities come at you from every side. In such a competitive global situation, the 

first thing is to assess how small-scale farmers are positioned to convert challenges 

into opportunities, which they can capitalize on. 

This study main objective was to evaluate how small-scale dairy farmers in selected 

developing countries produce milk as compared to their counterparts in several industrialised 

nations. The measurement of cost of milk production is taken as the indicator 

for global competitiveness. It is assumed that the lower the production costs for a liter 

of milk, the better positioned a farmer is to compete in a global market. 

This study uses the methodology and database of the International Farm Comparison 

Network (IFCN) to analyse typical dairy farming cases in India, Pakistan and Peru 

(as developing countries) and Germany, United States, and Australia (as industrial 

nations). The IFCN methodology relies on panels of local dairy experts (3–6 people), 

who assist in selecting the farming cases, revise the data collected and validate the 

results of the economic analyses. 

The results of this comparative study show that small-scale farmers in developing 

countries are low-cost producers. This positions subsistence dairy farmers on solid 

grounds to exploit the poverty reduction benefits inherent in globalisation. However, 

these small-scale farmers are quite clear that, although they can produce milk competitively, 

their ability to successfully operate in a globalised world depends on a 

set of conditions such as (1) having working capital for growth and intensification, 

(2) counting with reliable and remunerative markets, and (3) availing affordable quality 

livestock services. Finally, small-scale dairy farmers in these countries would very 

much welcome globalisation once conditions of a well-managed global trade complement 

their global leadership as low-cost producers. 

Keywords: Dairy, globalisation, IFCN, Milk Production, Poverty 

Contact Address: Otto Garcia, IFCN Dairy Research Center, Bohlweg 55, 38100 Braunschweig, Germany, 

e-mail: otto.garcia@ifcndairy.org 

ID 286 377


Globalisation May Bring Prosperity to Subsistence Dairy Farmers 

in Developing Countries 

KHALID MAHMOOD, OGHAIKI ASAAH NDAMBI, OTTO GARCIA 

Federal Agricultural Research Centre (FAL), IFCN Dairy Research Center, Germany 

Half of the world, nearly 3 billion people are living on income less than US$ 2 per 

day. Of these, an estimated 798 million people suffer from chronic hunger, which 

means that their daily in take of calories is insufficient to lead an active healthy life. 

Milk is an important food resource which is rich in protein and vitamins. In order 

to meet the WHO standard of daily intake of milk as 120 grams per head, we need 

750 million tonnes of milk annually but there is a shortage of 150 million tonnes 

each year, mostly in developing countries. The question is: who shall fill this gap 

in production? a) Industrialized countries exporting to the developing countries, b) 

Developing countries them selves. 

For this study data is collected from typical dairy farms through setting up a panel of 

experts from developing countries and industrialised countries. The countries selected 

are India, Pakistan, Germany and USA. The methodology of the study uses the concept 

of typical farms developed by IFCN (International Farm comparison network) 

method. 

The analysis shows that subsistence farmers are in better position to produce milk 

on lower production costs as compared to industrialised countries. The difference in 

cost of milk production is up to 50 percent in most of the cases. The cash costs of 

subsistence farms are relatively a lot lower which are only 20 percent of the cash costs 

of industrialised countries. The main difference of this lower cash costs comes from 

the feeding and management practices. Feeding systems in developing countries are 

more based on feeding by-products of crops and roughages which are very cheep as 

compared to grains and concentrates in industrialised countries. 

The study concludes that developing countries have the higher potential to fill the gap 

in milk production on lower costs as compared to industrial countries. As subsistence 

farmers are feeding roughages, utilising the family labour and simple technology. The 

subsistence farmers can only achieve this target if the conditions of livestock services 

to improve the animal health, easy access to loan for buying inputs for the farm and 

access to competitive market 

Keywords: IFCN, milk gap, poverty, production system, subsistence, WHO 

Contact Address: Khalid Mahmood, Federal Agricultural Research Centre (FAL), IFCN Dairy Research 

Center, 55-Bholweg, 38100 Braunschweig, Germany, e-mail: khalid.mahmood@fal.de 

378 ID 289


Adoption and Impact of Eurepgap Standards: the Case of Kenyan 

Smallholder Export Farmers 

SOLOMON ASFAW 1 , HERMANN WAIBEL 1 , DAGMAR MITHÖFER 2 


2 International Centre of Insect Physiology and Ecology (ICIPE), Kenya 

Despite the success of the horticulture industry in Kenya to which many smallholder 

farmers contribute, producers are facing new challenges related to changes in the 

structure of consumer demand and the transformation of the food retail market in Europe. 

European Union (EU) retailers increasingly ask for produce certified according 

to food safety and quality standards. The European Retailer Protocol for Good Agricultural 

Practices (EurepGAP) is the most widely known example of a common EU 

supermarket standard. Though it is a private standard, it is regarded as a condition 

of entry to EU markets and is unlikely to provide price premiums. Compliance to 

these standards for smallholders entails costly investments in variable inputs (in particular 

the switch to approved pesticides) and long-term structures (e.g. grading shed, 

charcoal cooler, disposal pit and pesticide store). These investments are “lumpy” and 

mostly specific to the fresh export vegetable business. It is questionable whether smallscale 

farmers have the resources and skills to comply with standards and the cost of 

implementing these standards may drive producers out of lucrative fresh export business. 

This article addresses three major objectives: (1) to investigate the nature, magnitude 

and significance of cost of compliance with EurepGAP standards, (2) to examine factors 

explaining the smallholder decision to adopt EurepGAP standards among which 

cost of compliance can be expected to be a major one and (3) to assess the impacts 

of EurepGAP standards on smallholder welfare. Analysis is based on a random cross 

section sample of 439 small-scale export vegetable producers in Kenya whose production 

was monitored in 2005/2006. To account for self-selection as a source of 

endogeneity we use the two-stage standard treatment effect model. The first stage 

consists of the adoption decision model for the adoption of EurepGAP standards and 

the second stage is the impact model that provides estimates of the impact of adopting 

EurepGAP standards on farm net-income. 

Keywords: Adoption, eurepGAP Standards, Export vegetables, Impact, Smallholder 

Contact Address: Solomon Asfaw, University of Hannover, Development and Agricultural Economics, 

Königsworther Platz 1, 30167 Hannover, Germany, e-mail: solomon@ifgb.uni-hannover.de 

ID 139 379


Impacts of the Liberalisation of Agricultural Research and 

Extension on Multi-functional Agriculture in Banikoara, Benin 

ISMAIL MOUMOUNI MOUSSA 

Humboldt-University Berlin, Rural Sociology, Germany 

The assessment of the performance of agricultural services for sustainable poverty 

alleviation in the context of globalisation and liberalisation should take the multifunctionality 

of agriculture into consideration. This multi-functionality forces to an 

interdisciplinary analysis of the impacts of the liberalisation of research and extension 

on agriculture. This paper aims at investigating the impacts of the withdrawal of the 

state and the involvement of private stakeholders, NGOs and farmer organisations in 

delivering and financing research and extension on the farming for subsistence and 

income, the social cohesion and collective action, the agriculture as source of prestige 

and the environment protection in Banikoara. Semi-structured interviews were 

carried out with local government leaders and workers of public research and extension 

organisations, development projects, the district farmer organisation and NGOs 

in Banikoara district. The study provided the evidence that the liberalisation of agricultural 

research and extension in Benin tends to (i) orient farmers towards the production 

of cash crops to the detriment of food availability and quality, (ii) destroy 

the social cohesion through the dismemberment of families, tensions and conflicts in 

villages, and (iii) damage the environment. However, its impacts on the agriculture 

as sources of prestige are mitigated. Any reform of agricultural research and extension 

to fit into the globalisation and the liberalisation context should serve all of the 

functions of agriculture, if it has to drop local communities from poverty and to ease 

the transition into the globalisation. Strengthen the ability of research and extension 

workers to take into account the multi-functionality of agriculture may be useful in 

the context of globalisation. 

Keywords: Agricultural research and extension, Benin, Liberalisation, Multi-functional 

agriculture 

Contact Address: Ismail Moumouni Moussa, Humboldt-University Berlin, Rural Sociology, Luisenstr. 

53, 10117, Berlin, Germany, e-mail: ismailmm@gmail.com 

380 ID 40


Liberalisation Policies and the Economic Performance under 

Drought Conditions: the Case of Sudan 

M. B. ELGALI 2 , SALAH ABDELMAGID 1 , SIEGFRIED BAUER 2 

1 University of Gezira, Arab organization for Agricultural Development, Sudan 

2 Justus-Liebig-Universität Giessen, Project and Regional Planning, Germany 

This paper assesses and quantify the impact of the economic liberalisation measures 

adopted by the Sudan in its agriculture sector, and thier performance under drought 

conditions and price uncertainty. Agriculture is the main sector of Sudan’s economy. 

Sudan is among one of the least developed countries (LDCs) of the world. The country 

is characterised by its small-open economy, and the economic performance is pledged 

to the weather conditions especially rainfall. Based on these facts, Sudan plans to put a 

path for the sustainable development by adopting the structural adjustments programs 

(SAPs) to its economy. The study develops a multi-market model for Sudan. The 

model embodies important characteristics of agriculture in Sudan like substitution 

effects and the dependency of the agricultural supply on rainfall. Stochastic variables 

in the model are prices, supply and the rainfall. The model is extended to incorporate 

food security aspects, which are directly affected by the agriculture performance. The 

model simulations revealed that, the direct impact of the SAPs would overall lead 

to considerable gains in Sudan’s agricultural supply and the country’s food security. 

However, when weather conditions are not favourable; represented by low levels of 

rainfalls, the positive results are overturned. The study concludes that, Sudan should 

adjust its domestic policy towards free market policy in order to eliminate economic 

distortions and benefit from the efficient use of resources. To avoid food shortages and 

food price fluctuations the country should keep strategic stock of cereals (Sorghum, 

millet, wheat and rice) amount to one third of its current consumption. 

Keywords: Multi-market , Structural Adjustments, sudan 

Contact Address: M. B. Elgali, Giessen University, Regional Planing, Senckenbergstraße 3, 

35390 Gießen, Germany, e-mail: melgali@yahoo.com 

ID 462 381


Democracy and Decentralisation in Cambodia - Capacity 

Buildings for Female Commune Councilors with the Goal to 

Increase the Development of their Communes 

MARAILE GÖRGEN 

Georg August Universität Göttingen, Germany 

With the introduction of the Millennium Development Goals, world wide poverty reduction 

obtained a new importance. To eradicate or at least decrease poverty and 

hunger until the year 2010, many economical as well as political terms need to be 

ensured. The most important issue is the guaranty of an efficient, democratic political 

system. With the introduction of the decentralisation reform by the Royal Government 

of Cambodia in the year 2001, democracy became an important aspect in Cambodian 

politics. Decentralisation means that certain rights, responsibilities and resources are 

transferred from the central level of government to the democratically elected communes. 

It aims to promote democracy and to improve the living conditions of the 

populations. In this decentralisation process, the enactment of the Law on Elections 

of Commune Councils took place. In February 2002 the first commune council elections 

were held in all 1621 communes with 11261 councilors elected. Although the 

1993 constitution guarantees equality between men and women, only 8, 5 % of these 

elected councilors are female. That “the systematic integration of women augments 

the democratic basis, the efficiency and the quality of activities of local government” 

was recognised by the Cambodian government as well as by international stakeholders. 

Therefore capacity buildings were developed to strengthen the capacity of female 

councilors. Today, many of them are attending capacity buildings which aim to address 

specific challenges female councilors are facing and to enhance their capacity 

to perform their roles and functions. Moreover the capacity buildings provide space 

in order to experience sharing and networking. The capacity buildings have been successful 

so far: 75 % of the female councilors attending capacity buildings/forums supported 

by the German Technical Cooperation reported that these forums contributed 

to an increased knowledge about their duties and responsibilities in the council. Female 

councilors are able to undertake own projects that contribute to the development 

of their commune. Moreover 86 % of the interviewed female councilors want to restand 

for the 2007 commune council elections. As these results show, Cambodian 

women move towards a democratic, decentralised country and a society which aims 

to fight hunger and poverty. 

Keywords: Decentralisation, Democracy, fighting Poverty and Hunger, Gender 

Contact Address: Maraile Görgen, Georg August Universität Göttingen, Leinestrasse 34, 37073 Göttingen, 

Germany, e-mail: maraile.goergen@gmx.de 

382 ID 193


Does Food Aid Reach the Poor? New Evidence from Northern 

Ethiopia 

SOLOMON ASFAW 

University of Hannover, Development and Agricultural Economics, Germany 

The paper examines the degree to which food aid (food-for-work and free food distribution) 

is targeted to the poorest and most vulnerable groups according to household 

income and asset ownership using cross section data of 149 households in Northern 

Ethiopia. By doing so, it is examined whether resource related indicators played an 

overriding role in the targeting process or whether there is a significant leakage to 

asset rich households. I used Heckman two-step econometric estimation procedure in 

an attempt to account for sample selection bias. 

Food-for-work participation does not appear to be self-targeted with relatively wealthier 

households less likely to participate. The probability of participation was found to 

be mainly related to household demography like age and marital status of household 

head whereas resource related covariates do not appear to influence it. Households 

with higher farm income and oxen holding were more likely to take part in foodfor-work 

programmes pointing to leakage in targeting. However, off-farm income is 

negatively related. The findings do not support the commonly held notion that femaleheaded 

households are more food insecure and should be targeted for food-for-work. 

The intensity of participation also doesn’t seem to depend on poverty related factors, 

however, households with large farm size found to have spent less number of days 

in food-for-work programme. On the other hand the probability of participation in 

free food distribution programme increased significantly with increasing age and offfarm 

income. Households were more likely to receive free food in the current year, if 

they had participated in this programme during the four previous years while households 

that received free food only once or twice in this period were less likely to have 

participated in the current year. 

Keywords: Ethiopia, food aid, food-for-work (FFW), free food distribution (FD), 

Heckman model, targeting 

Contact Address: Solomon Asfaw, University of Hannover, Development and Agricultural Economics, 

Königsworther Platz 1, 30167 Hannover, Germany, e-mail: solomon@ifgb.uni-hannover.de 

ID 27 383


Analysis of Rice Agribusiness Development in Jember Regency, 

Indonesia 

CIPLIS GEMA QORIAH, ADHITYA WARDHONO 

Georg-August-University, Dept. of Rural Development, Germany 

In Indonesia one of food plant commodities that strengthen food stability is rice. This 

commodity is extremely popular among Indonesian people. This relates to cultural 

factors and the characteristics of Indonesian societies, which continuously consume 

rice as food processed of rice. Rice commodities has also been dominating in Jember 

regency. However, the area cropped for rice in the last 4 years indicated a declining 

trend; it covered an area of 131.522 ha in 2003, declined from 141.880 ha in 2002. 

Nevertheless, rice production shows an increasing trend. 

The above background initiated the author to address the following issues: (1) to identify 

socioeconomic factors dominantly affecting entrepreneurship in rice production 

(2) to find out the working mechanisms of rice distribution channel from farmers to 

retailers. (3) to find out the structure and performance market in rice commodity. 

The results showed that the key factors of socio-economic aspects of rice agribusiness 

people in Jember are the knowledge of the commodity dealing with its process, 

technical ways, technology and channels of distribution, the residential area, length of 

time of business operation, farmers’ dependence on assembling sellers and processing 

parties, high gaps of cost, farmers’ educational level. Rice products trading in Jember 

is mostly dominated by farmers and, then, retailers. There are only a small number 

of Rice Mills and big business people; however, they have more powerful decisions 

on cost than those of farmers, assemblers and retailers. The structure of rice market 

tended to the imperfect market side. In other word we can concluded that price of rice 

was influenced by its supply. 

Keywords: Agribusiness development, Jember regency , market rice 

Contact Address: Ciplis Gema Qoriah, Georg-August-University, Dept. of Rural Development, Hermann 

Rein Strasse 13 / 102, 37075 Goettingen, Germany, e-mail: c_qoriah@yahoo.com 

384 ID 579


Alleviating Rural Poverty in Nigeria: A Challenge for the National 

Agricultural Research System 

VINCENT OGUNLELA, A. O. OGUNGBILE 

Ahmadu Bello University, Institute for Agricultural Research, Department of Agronomy, 

Nigeria 

Rural poverty is a serious threat to food and nutrition security in sub-Saharan Africa 

and specifically in Nigeria. Land degradation, caused by human-induced soil erosion, 

deforestation, over-grazing and other human activities, accounts for much of rural 

poverty occurring in Nigeria. Apart from low external inputs, land degradation brings 

about low productivity in subsistence farming, while also fostering land conversion to 

marginal agricultural lands with fragile soils. Farm households respond to declining 

land productivity in diverse ways. Prospects for economic growth and future human 

welfare are also threatened by land degradation, whose environmental damage leads 

to losses in farmers’ income and greater risks for poor households. An urgent reversal 

of this trend is necessary in order to rescue from the cycle of poverty, the rural populace, 

whose economic livelihood is directly dependent on land exploitation. Unfortunately, 

over half of Africa’s rural poor are located on “low potential” and “fragile” 

lands. Other contributors to rural poverty in Nigeria are agricultural and economic 

policies of previous governments, which negatively affect farming communities. Of 

the many technology-related constraints of farmers, only a fraction can be addressed 

effectively through agricultural research. Worse still, most resource-poor farmers are 

unable to formally articulate their technology needs. Besides, farmers’ constraints are 

not always researchable problems, leading to farmers’ despondency, and difficulty in 

research priority setting. The national agricultural research system (NARS), which 

is expected to contribute to agricultural development and rural poverty alleviation in 

Nigeria, is beset by enormous constraints of low funding, poor infrastructure, and instability 

in staff, policy, governance and institutional arrangements, all of which are 

not conducive to sustained agricultural growth. The public sector research cannot 

do the task alone, so private sector research needs to be encouraged. Universities, 

with their comparative advantage, should also play active role in agricultural research 

activities and programmes. The various agricultural development and rural poverty 

alleviation programmes being embarked upon will be discussed. 

Keywords: Agricultural research, environmental degradation, Nigeria, rural poverty 

Contact Address: Vincent Ogunlela, Ahmadu Bello University, Institute for Agricultural Research, 

Department of Agronomy, PMB 1044, 810001 Zaria, Nigeria, e-mail: vbogunlela@yahoo.com 

ID 614 385


Impact Assessment of Future Development Strategies to Improve 

Natural Resources Conservation and Living Standards of Farmers 

in Lake Nasser Region, Egypt 

MOHAMED AHMAD AWAD 1 , WERNER DOPPLER 1 , RALF SCHLAUDERER 2 


Germany 

2University of Applied Sciences Weihenstephan, Department of Agriculture, Germany 

The continuous population increase in Egypt places immense pressure on the limited 

arable land and water resources. The establishment of new settlements was accepted 

as the best alternative to extend agricultural land and provide new development opportunities. 

Lake Nasser region is a potential area for these settlements. To ensure 

the establishment of sustainable farming community, three strategies were proposed: 

(i) improvement of irrigation infrastructure; (ii) introduction of low input crops; and 

(iii) promotion of organic farming. They were suggested based on socio-economic 

and environmental evaluation of the development activities in the study area to improve 

the living standard of settling families while alleviating any negative impacts 

on the environment and natural resources. Linear programming was used to simulate 

and analyse the future impacts of the suggested strategies on the living standards and 

resource use of the farming families. The model results showed that the improved 

irrigation infrastructure could significantly reduce: irrigation costs, hired labour and 

yield reduction. Accordingly, it could significantly increase the farm income and the 

family income. It was found that farmers could significantly benefit from their investment 

in the operational costs of the improved irrigation network as long as it is less 

than 450 euro/ha of irrigated land. The reduced costs and the high market prices of the 

low input crops made the cultivation of these crops as the optimum solution for all 

farmers. It will result in substantial improvement of family income and hence the living 

standard. This strategy could significantly reduce the negative ecological impacts 

of using fertilisers and pesticides on Lake Nasser. The organic farming is expected 

to be successfully adopted in the area because the model replaced all conventional 

farming practices by organic farming of all crops. Organic farming could also provide 

higher family income even if farmers were subjected up to 60 % decrease in their 

yields. The successful adoption of the last two strategies requires training courses 

and other awareness programmes to help the farmers understanding the methods of 

cultivation and the usefulness of such farming practice. 

Keywords: Income improvement, linear programming, natural resources conservation 

Contact Address: Werner Doppler, University of Hohenheim, Farming and Rural Systems in the Tropics 

and Subtropics, Fruwirthstraße 12, 70593 Stuttgart, Germany, e-mail: doppler@uni-hohenheim.de 

386 ID 314

Knowledge and Education 

EZATOLLAH KARAMI: 

Poverty Alleviation in Developing Countries: Principles 

for Agricultural Knowledge and Information System 388 

AHMED E. SIDAHMED: 

The ICARDA Approach for Knowledge Management and 

Dissemination (KMD): Generation and Use of International 

Public Goods (IPGs) for Rural Poverty Reduction 389 

BALASUBRAMANIAN RAMANI: 

Towards Young Professionals’ Platform for Agricultural 

Research for Development (YPARD) 390 

CLESENSIO TIZIKARA, FREDDIE KWESIGA: 

Enhancing Agricultural Productivity in Sub-saharan Africa 

through IAR4D and Competitive Grants Processes: Experiences 

and Lessons 391 

MAMUSHA LEMMA, VOLKER HOFFMANN: 

Taking a Systems Approach to Agricultural Education, Research 

and Extension: Analysis of the extension role and 

Practical Attachment Program of Mekelle University, Ethiopia 392 

PETRA HOLIKOVA: 

Evaluation and Perspectives of Agricultural Education in 

Bié Province, Angola 393 

PIYATAT PANANURAK, SUWANNA PRANEETVATAKUL, HER- 

MANN WAIBEL: 

Impact Assessment of Farmer Field School on Cotton Production 

in Asia: a Cross Country Comparison 394 

387


Poverty Alleviation in Developing Countries: Principles for 

Agricultural Knowledge and Information System 

EZATOLLAH KARAMI 

Shiraz University, Agricultural Extension, Iran 

Developing countries are facing two dilemma, poverty (especially rural poverty) and 

un-sustainability of their agricultural production systems. Current research and observations 

indicate that rural poverty and un-sustainability are linked. The only feasible 

way out of current crisis is establishment of more appropriate Agricultural Knowledge 

and Information Systems (AKIS).The AKIS is understood as a system that links rural 

people and institutions to promote mutual learning and generate, share and utilise 

agriculture-related technology, knowledge and information. The system integrates 

farmers, agricultural educators, researchers and extensionists to harness knowledge 

and information from various sources for better farming and improved livelihoods. 

The linkage among environment, poverty and AKIS are complex and in many cases, 

poorly understood. The conventional AKIS of Third World countries have been criticised 

for their inability to alleviate poverty and contribute to sustainable agricultural 

development. Therefore, there is a need for innovative AKIS(s). The process of developing 

international guidelines and principles has been difficult. In a truly international 

context, there are many issues to consider and little can be taken for granted. The regulatory 

context varies, the cultural/religious context varies, and social and economic 

priorities for development vary. Despite all these limitations this paper based on the 

research conducted in developing countries particularly in Iran attempts to provide 

some principles which are essentials in establishing AKIS(s). 

Such an innovative AKIS should be fundamentally different from traditional knowledge 

systems that support conventional agriculture. The AKIS should evolve along 

with changes in values and policies. It includes new actors and different roles and 

tasks than traditional agricultural knowledge system. Farmers deserve a more prominent 

placement than traditional end of the pipe user of knowledge. Other stakeholders 

including consumers, interest groups and government should also be considered. It requires 

new technologies, production systems and farming practices, which tend to be 

more knowledge intensive. Scientists should play a different role than their traditional 

producers of innovations. 

Keywords: Agricultural research, poverty, Sustainability 

Contact Address: Ezatollah Karami, Shiraz University, Agricultural Extension, Shiraz, Iran, e-mail: 

ekarami@shirazu.ac.ir 

388 ID 120


The ICARDA Approach for Knowledge Management and 

Dissemination (KMD): Generation and Use of International 

Public Goods (IPGs) for Rural Poverty Reduction 

AHMED E. SIDAHMED 

ICARDA, Knowledge Management and Dissmination, Syria 

KMD Program aims to ensure efficient packaging and access of research generated 

knowledge to rural communities beyond pilot sites, thus contributing to the MDGs’ rural 

poverty reduction targets. KMD addresses causes of poor access of pro-poor Key 

Agricultural Knowledge Elements (KAKEs). The aim is to capitalize on the experience 

gained, to affect culture and behaviour of partners ensuring equity, transparency 

and flexibility to achieve maximum impacts. KMD research explores innovative approaches 

for knowledge management; adding value to the work of ICARDA and 

NARS scientists; assists in taking full advantage of advances in ICTs, and building 

partnerships (e.g. Networks, CoPs) in generating and using KAKEs. KMD research 

is designed to generate Public Goods (NPGs, IPGs) from investigating approaches 

and processes for the dissemination, upscaling and outscaling of supply / demand 

based KAKEs. Supply-driven approaches justify the benefits of public investment 

in agricultural research and development to the concerned donor community in the 

short-term. Demand-driven approaches explore ways for utilising knowledge (human 

experience) in the development and dissemination of new technologies and embodied 

knowledge of social benefits. Both approaches identify methodologies; win-win 

scenarios; and innovations that enhance and sustain the livelihoods of a broad range 

of users. Therefore, KMD is undertaking research, rooted in the principles of colearning 

and sharing, with the broader stakeholder community, on assessing their receptiveness 

to the KAKEs which can then be upscaled /out-scaled and the conditions 

required for their mainstreaming established. The KMD research approach has three 

steps: 1) Consistent analysis and documentation of existing knowledge pathways; 2. 

Ground truthing surveys with the broader stakeholder community for selecting valid 

NPGs and IPGs; 3.Dissemination: a) Up-scaling: expansion of a small-scale activity 

by creating demand to identify factors and favourable environments for mainstreaming, 

b) Out-scaling: depends on broad stakeholder support for selected KAKEs and 

provides a larger supply of innovations at various levels, c) Mainstreaming: developing 

low risk, cost effective approaches allowing equitable and wider use of KAKEs. 

Keywords: Best Bet Practices, KAKE, Knowledge Management 

Contact Address: Ahmed E. Sidahmed, ICARDA, Knowledge Management and Dissmination, 

P.O. Box 5466, Aleppo, Syria, e-mail: a.sidahmed@cgiar.org 

ID 354 389


Towards Young Professionals’ Platform for Agricultural Research 

for Development (YPARD) 

BALASUBRAMANIAN RAMANI 

University of Hannover, Institute for Botany, Germany 

Following the EFARD conference in Zürich (Switzerland), on April 2005 and with 

the support of the International Fund for Agricultural Development (IFAD), the International 

Plant Genetic Resources Institute (IPGRI), the Global Forum on Agricultural 

Research (GFAR), the Centre de Coopération Internationale en Recherche 

Agronomique pour le Développement (CIRAD), the Consultative Group on International 

Agricultural Research (CGIAR), the University of Hannover, and the Swedish 

University of Agricultural Sciences (SLU), a group of young professionals in Agricultural 

Research for Development (ARD) started a dialogue with numerous stakeholders, 

including the Swiss Agency for Development and Cooperation (SDC), on 

the present scenario of young professionals in ARD. This suggestion was widely supported 

and found critically relevant for addressing current ARD challenges in a globalized 

world. A common agreement was thus reached, which recognizes that young 

professionals’ needs, beliefs, and special competences merit a better representation 

in future ARD. The need for such a Platform was thoroughly discussed by a wider 

public of young ARD professionals at the Annual General Meeting of the CGIAR in 

Morocco, in December 2005. Following this meeting, it was concluded that a global 

platform, under the wings of GFAR, would be an important first step towards addressing 

the issues and concerns of young professionals in ARD. A strategic workshop of 

the Platform core group members was conveyed at the Wageningen University and Research 

Centre (The Netherlands) on 02–05 May 2006, where the vision, mission and 

activities of the Platform were decided. The Young Professionals Platform for Agricultural 

Research for Development (YPARD) was born and its official launch will 

take place on 8 th November 2006, as a side event to the GFAR triennial conference 

(Nov. 9–11, 2006) in New Delhi, India. The main objectives of YPARD at present 

are: (1) To facilitate the exchange of information and knowledge among young professionals 

across disciplines, professions, age and regions, (2) to broaden opportunities 

for young professionals to contribute to strategic ARD policy debates , (3) to promote 

agriculture among young people , and (4) to facilitate access to resources and capacity 

building opportunities. 

Keywords: Agricultural Research for Development (ARD, Challenges, GFAR, Multistakeholder 

platform, Opportunities, Young Professionals, YPARD 

Contact Address: Balasubramanian Ramani, University of Hannover, Institute for Botany, Herrenhaueserstrasse 

2, 30419 Hannover, Germany, e-mail: balasub@botanik.uni-hannover.de 

390 ID 162


Enhancing Agricultural Productivity in Sub-saharan Africa 

through IAR4D and Competitive Grants Processes: Experiences 

and Lessons 

CLESENSIO TIZIKARA 1 , FREDDIE KWESIGA 2 

1Association for Strengthening Agricultural Research in Eastern and Central Africa, (ASARECA), 

Uganda 

2Forum for Agricultural Research in Africa (FARA), Sub-Saharan Africa Challenge Pro- 

gramme, Ghana 

Revitalizing agricultural research in Africa will require addressing issues like demandled 

approaches, accountability, and building of critical mass, avoidance of duplication, 

sustainable financing and capacity strengthening. The emergence of Integrated 

Agricultural Research for Development (IAR4D) as a basis for conducting research 

has presented an opportunity to address sub-Saharan Africa’s persistent problems in 

new ways. IAR4D involves an innovative set of principles, an integrated research 

agenda, and a recognised need for greater organisational capacities and flexibility 

among research partners. Research is not merely intended to develop and escort new 

technologies to farmers but also empower farmers to better understand and respond 

to changing circumstances as they emerge. Competitive funding has been widely 

adopted as one mechanism of encouraging institutional innovation and change necessary 

for implementing research using the IAR4D paradigm. Research funding is 

moving away from open-ended institutional support towards a performance-based 

system where the research aims, and plans for research implementation, are developed 

and decided in the context of agreed priorities and value-based criteria. This 

situation has warranted assertive action for promoting complementary mechanisms 

of financing agricultural research that attracts financial resources through evidence of 

capability to deliver against set targets to a standard that meets the expectations of 

all stakeholders. Agricultural research systems must communicate better with other 

parties in the agricultural sector, critically question their own goals and strategies and 

develop the capability to showcase the contribution they make to rural development 

more evidently. The emerging evidence is that with careful planning and conscious 

commitment, competitive funding can be meaningfully harnessed to change the manner 

in which agricultural research is conducted and lead the transformation process 

necessary to turn Africa around. 

Keywords: ASARECA, Competitive Grants, FARA, IAR4D, SROs, sub-Saharan 

Africa 

Contact Address: Clesensio Tizikara, Association for Strengthening Agricultural Research in Eastern 

and Central Africa, (ASARECA), P.o. Box 765 Plot 5 Mpigi Road, Entebbe, Uganda, e-mail: 

c.tizikara@asareca.org 

ID 46 391


Taking a Systems Approach to Agricultural Education, Research 

and Extension: Analysis of the extension role and Practical 

Attachment Program of Mekelle University, Ethiopia 

MAMUSHA LEMMA, VOLKER HOFFMANN 

University of Hohenheim, Agricultural Communication and Extension, Germany 

The capacity to benefit from knowledge depends on the ability to acquire and apply 

existing knowledge, and the ability to produce new knowledge. Agricultural education 

is central to the building of this capacity for the production, dissemination, and 

utilisation of knowledge. In Ethiopia, higher education is undergoing a major expansion 

and re-form in light of its contribution to capacity building and development. The 

paper discusses the development role of higher education in Ethiopia with reference 

to Mekelle University using a systems approach to agricultural knowledge as an analytical 

concept. The main focus of the paper is the Practical Attachment Program 

(PAP) that links education, research and extension within the university as well as 

between the university and its stakeholders. The PAP provides social continuity for 

the university, putting it in touch with rural communities and stakeholders. The development 

effect of the university can be enhanced when its education, re-search and 

extension functions are integrated and developing organically. However, extension 

is not a well articulated function of the university. While significant attention has 

been given to research, provisions for fully integrating extension within the research 

process have been inadequate. This paper examines efforts at Mekelle University in 

putting knowledge into use, and identifies critical gaps in knowledge transformation 

and dissemination and managing its knowledge resources. The paper finally offers 

conclusions and recommendations to strengthen the extension role of the university. 

The paper observes that improving the knowledge environment within the university 

requires the adoption of an effective academic reward structure of research and extension, 

and developing staff research-orientation and knowledge sharing culture. 

Keywords: Teaching, research extension, practical attachment program, Tigray, Ethiopia 

Contact Address: Mamusha Lemma, University of Hohenheim, Agricultural Communication and Extension, 

Stuttgart, Germany, e-mail: mamushaet@yahoo.com 

392 ID 61


Evaluation and Perspectives of Agricultural Education in Bié 

Province, Angola 

PETRA HOLIKOVA 

Czech University of Agriculture in Prague, Institute of Tropics and Subtropics, Czech 

Republic 

The presentation is based on personal experience with one year teaching at the secondary 

Agricultural school provided within the project “Establishment of the Centre 

of Agricultural Education in Bié Province, Angola”. The project has been realised by 

the Institute of Tropics and Subtropics (Czech University of Agriculture in Prague) 

and supported by the Ministry of Education, Youth and Sports of the Czech Republic 

as a bilateral development project from 2003 to 2005. 

The 27 years civil war in Angola caused massive destruction of the country’s infrastructure, 

disruption of markets, interruptions in the transfer of knowledge, social and 

economic instability. Several generations have grown up with only a minimum approach 

to education which is fundamental for the eradication of poverty and plays a 

crucial role in economic, social and cultural development. Although a former Portuguese 

colony has a huge agricultural potential, agricultural production is low. The 

establishment of quality agricultural education system is essential for a reconstruction 

of the sector of agriculture. The Bié Province situated on the central plateau in the 

middle of Angola is one of the most affected areas by the civil war. 

The poster includes main problems identified in agricultural education and recommendations 

of its improvement. Knowledge of the majority of the students coming from 

basic schools is very low. Basic and secondary schools, particularly rural schools, 

do not function properly in the province due to lack of qualified local teachers. The 

quality of teaching is also impacted by the high number of students in classroom; the 

average number of students in class is around 50. Rate between boys and girls in 

classroom is unfavourable to girls; the same gender inequality is also evident between 

teaching staff. Although there is demand for education students have not adequate 

access to information sources. The local library has been destroyed during the civil 

war and access to Internet is scarce and expensive. The learning materials are usually 

incomplete; laboratories for practical training are poorly technically equipped or are 

missing. 

Keywords: Agriculture, Angola, Bié Province, curriculum development, education 

and training 

Contact Address: Petra Holikova, Czech University of Agriculture in Prague, Institute of Tropics and 

Subtropics, Kamycka 129, 165 21 Prague 6, Czech Republic, e-mail: secretary@natura.czu.cz 

ID 204 393


Impact Assessment of Farmer Field School on Cotton Production 

in Asia: a Cross Country Comparison 

PIYATAT PANANURAK 1 , SUWANNA PRANEETVATAKUL 2 , HERMANN WAIBEL 1 

1Leibniz Universität Hannover, Development and Agricultural Economics, Faculty of 

Economics and Mangement, Germany 

2Kasetsart University, Department of Agricultural and Resource Economics, Faculty of 

Economics, Thailand 

From 2000 to 2004, Food and Agricultural Organisation of United Nations (FAO) 

was supporting the Farmer Field School (FFS) project on the Integrated Pest Management 

(IPM) training farmers under “FAO-EU IPM Programme for Cotton in Asia”. 

The major purpose of the programme is detoxifying, existing pest control strategies, 

and replacing them with more sustainable, environmentally friendly cotton production 

technologies. In addition, the programme also develops, implements, and evaluates 

sustainable farmer education program. The impact of FFS on cotton production was 

assessed by many studies on individual country level. Results varied considerably according 

to the setting, the evaluation methods and the yardstick used to assess impact. 

In addition, whether the investment in the programme is worth to the society is an 

interesting question. Hence, in this study will be an alternative choice to confirm the 

impact results. The objective of this study is to assess and compare the impact of FFS 

on productivity and efficiency of cotton production in three major cotton producing 

countries in Asia, namely are India, Pakistan, and China. Farm level panel data were 

collected during the year 2000 to 2003, organised and supported by “FAO-EU IPM 

Programme for Cotton in Asia”. Baseline surveys were conducted before the start of 

training (India and China is year 2000, and Pakistan is year 2001) and repeated in 

the year after the FFS participated. A methodology applying the “difference in difference” 

concept will be used in this study to evaluate the impact of FFS using impact 

parameters like pesticide cost, yield, gross margin, and net farm benefit. The model 

will be measured in each group of FFS pre and post-training. 

Keywords: Cotton, different in different model, impact assessment, IPM 

Contact Address: Hermann Waibel, Leibniz-University Hannover, Development and Agricultural Economics, 

Faculty of Economics and Management, Königsworther Platz 1, 30167 Hannover, Germany, 

e-mail: waibel@ifgb.uni-hannover.de 

394 ID 378

Institutions and Systems 

a) Institutions and Social Capital 397 

b) Social Ecology 411 

c) Adoption and Impact Assessment 425 

e) Poverty (GTZ) 437 

395


396

Institutions and Social Capital 

TINA BEUCHELT, THOMAS DUFHUES, ISABEL FISCHER, 

GERTRUD BUCHENRIEDER: 

Individual Social Capital — A Structural Approach 399 

ELISABETH GOTSCHI, ANDREAS HUNGER, BERNHARD FRE- 

YER, ROBERT DELVE: 

Integrating Subjectivity, Self-reflection and Dialogue in Agricultural 

Research and Development Projects 400 

KAREL SRNEC, VLADIMIR KREPL, VLADIMIR VERNER: 

Micro-financing Institutions in Less Developed Countries: 

Conditions When Appropriate Changes from Informal to 

Formal Institutions 401 

JOY MUENI KIIRU, JOHN MBURU: 

Determinants and Consequencies of Transaction Costs of 

Microfinance and their Impact on Rural Poor Borrowers’ 

Incomes 402 

FRANKLIN SIMTOWE, MANFRED ZELLER, JOHN MBURU: 

Determinants of Intra-group Insurance in Microfinance: 

Evidence from Joint Liability Lending Programs in Malawi 403 

ISMAIL MOUMOUNI MOUSSA, BERNARD P. AGBO: 

Funding Agricultural Research for Connecting Local Communities 

to the Globalized World: Experiences from Benin 404 

T. S. AMJATH BABU, ERNST-AUGUST NUPPENAU: 

Incentive Contracts Linked with Market Mechanisms: Can 

We Address the Water Allocation Problems in a More Effective 

Way? 405 

LUKAS KALOUS, PETRA HOLIKOVA, MARTIN LOSTAK, JANA 

MAZANCOVA: 

Assistance in Establishment of Sustainable Aquaculture in 

Bié Province, Angola 406 

DANSINOU SILVERE TOVIGNAN, DAVO SIMPLICE VODOUHÈ: 

Cotton Production Technologies and Women’s Time Use: 

Giving More Attention to Children Education, Health and 

Nutrition 407 

397


398 

SOLOMON DESTA, LAYNE COPPOCK, ADAN WAKO, IBRAHIM 

ADEN, GETACHEW GEBRU, SEYOUM TEZERRA, CHACHU 

TADECHA: 

Collective Action by Women’s Groups to Combat Drought 

and Poverty in Northern Kenya 408 

EMILY OUMA, AWUDU ABDULAI, ADAM DRUCKER: 

Factors Influencing Cooperation and Collective Action: Implications 

for Communal Cattle Breeding Schemes in Trypanosomosis 

Prevalent Areas in Eastern Africa 409


Individual Social Capital — A Structural Approach 

TINA BEUCHELT 1 , THOMAS DUFHUES 1 , ISABEL FISCHER 1 , GERTRUD 

BUCHENRIEDER 2 

1 University of Hohenheim, Rural Development Theory and Policy, Germany 

2 Leibniz-Institute of Agricultural Development in Central and Eastern Europe, Agricul- 

tural Development Theory and Policy, Germany 

Social capital has been recently held up as a conceptual framework to build a bridge 

between the diverse disciplines involved in rural development. Some researchers state 

that social capital can even become a joint concept for all social sciences. However, 

despite its potential and the impressively rapid take-up of the concept by the community 

of development professionals, it remains an elusive construct. No definition is 

yet generally accepted and many definitions are in use. Recently, social capital in the 

form of social networks has gained much attention in rural development theory and 

empirical research. Social networks or structural components of social capital are a 

largely missing dimension of income and poverty analysis. Moreover, most research 

on social capital assumes that it is a uniform entity. Therefore, the effects of different 

forms of social capital on household outcome are rarely investigated. Similar to 

the broad range of definitions for social capital, there are as many different ways to 

measure it. The objective of this contribution is to bring more structure into the conceptual 

framework of social capital and to broaden our understanding of individual 

social capital in rural household economies prone to poverty. After an extensive literature 

review, this work proposes a lean and clear definition of social capital: Social 

capital is best conceived as networks plus resources, (e.g. credit, information). As 

social capital is rooted in social networks, it should be measured relatively to its roots. 

Moreover, social capital is assumed to be not a homogeneous entity. Hence, it is 

necessary to distinguish different forms of social capital. In the case of rural areas in 

developing countries, the separation into so-called bonding and bridging capital seems 

to be most appealing. Finally, we propose the operationalization of these two forms 

of social capital as function of an agent’s so-called weak ties (e.g. acquaintances) 

(plus resources) and strong ties (e.g. close relatives) (plus resources). These issues 

will be systematically discussed and presented in this contribution in order to make 

the formerly ’fuzzy’ concept of social capital more tangible for empirical research in 

the area of rural development. 

Keywords: Binding social capital, bridging social capital, definition of social capital, 

measuring social capital, social capital 

Contact Address: Tina Beuchelt, University of Hohenheim, Rural Development Theory and Policy, 

Institute 490a, 70593 Stuttgart, Germany, e-mail: beuchelt@uni-hohenheim.de 

ID 360 399


Integrating Subjectivity, Self-reflection and Dialogue in 

Agricultural Research and Development Projects 

ELISABETH GOTSCHI 1 , ANDREAS HUNGER 2 , BERNHARD FREYER 1 , ROBERT 

DELVE 3 

1University of Natural Resources and Applied Life Sciences, Institute of Organic Farming, 

Austria 

2Johannes Kepler University Linz, 

3International Centre for Tropical Agriculture (CIAT), Zimbabwe 

Globalisation and neo-liberal policies have an impact on development cooperation, as 

well as, „research for development” initiatives. More and more small projects are being 

replaced by programmes and budgetary support mechanisms, to address concerns 

over the limited focus and impact of individual projects. Though budgetary support is 

meant in theory to empower governments to take their own decisions and allow control 

over the development process, the implementation, however, has proven difficult. 

This paper reflects on problems in the organisation and implementation of agricultural 

and rural development projects. The „field theory” of Bourdieu (1979, 1993) is 

used to analyse challenges and problems of so-called participatory approaches. This 

paper argues that transdisciplinary research can contribute to the improvement of “research 

for development”, agricultural and rural development projects in the South and 

the North as the global challenges do not stop in the so-called Third World but also 

need to be faced in the industrialised countries. Industrialized country vs. developing 

country; NGOs vs. beneficiaries, political vs. economic elites vs. farmers, workers 

in the formal and informal sector, are areas competing over these project resources. 

These “fields” try to distinguish themselves from others, so as to establish criteria 

(norms, values) that justify exclusion. Development cooperation, as well as, research 

for development, are fields themselves that need to consider these tendencies in their 

own work. The challenges are to be self-reflective and more critical towards their 

own field and its limitations, trying to be more open and collaborative with other partners 

to ensure targeting of the economically poor, the “beneficiaries” more effectively. 

For rural or agricultural development, or research projects, it is not sufficient to engage 

in “participatory” processes at regional or national headquarters, but requires 

working directly with farmers, men, women and children at the grassroots level. Acknowledgement 

of different preferences within the household and community, market 

instabilities and food security issues urge to focus on subsistence needs and consider 

socio-cultural qualities. 

Keywords: Development, dialogue, participation, transdisciplinary research 

Contact Address: Elisabeth Gotschi, University of Natural Resources and Applied Life Sciences, Institute 

of Organic Farming, Gregor Mendel Strasse 33, Wien, Austria, e-mail: elisabeth.gotschi@gmx.at 

400 ID 137


Micro-financing Institutions in Less Developed Countries: 

Conditions When Appropriate Changes from Informal to Formal 

Institutions 

KAREL SRNEC, VLADIMIR KREPL, VLADIMIR VERNER 

Czech University of Agriculture Prague, Engineering, Economics and Rural Development 

in the Tropics and Subtropics, Czech Republic 

The year 2005 was declared by the UN General Assembly as the international year of 

micro-credit. This fact emphasises the significance of micro-finance in the collective 

effort of the world community to reach the Millennium Development Goals accepted 

by the United Nations. Micro-finance activities constantly help to reduce poverty and 

increase the income of the population. Micro-finances are one of the important factors 

influencing the reduction of public debt of Less Developed Countries. The study characterises 

the evolution of indebtedness from the macroeconomic viewpoint and microfinance 

activities. One of the main questions is when and under which conditions it 

is acceptable to accelerate the transformation of informal micro-financial institutions 

into formal institutions. In conclusion the fundamental prerequisites and general conditions 

for this transformation are defined. The moment for the transformation of 

informal micro-financial institutions into formal institutions comes when institutions 

meet three requirements, so-called triangles: (1) Maintenance of the environmental 

stability in which they operate (critical triangle) - sustainable environment - necessity 

to prevent hunger - need to reduce hunger in region . (2) External sustainable 

development of financial institutions — external stability of institutions- financial stability, 

which secures the sustainable development of institutions - must have sufficient 

size and quality (stand up to the competition, to broaden provided services and improve 

their quality) - must have an effective impact on increasing economic stability 

and prosperity of clients . (3) Internal economic sustainable development of financial 

institutions — internal stability of institutions (international triangle of economic stability) 

- profitability — management, where returns exceed costs and micro-financial 

institutions (MFIs) achieve profit - liquidity — an ability to pay clients on request of 

their deposits (MFIs do not deal with their own financial resources and together generate 

cashless financial transactions)- solvency — an ability to pay from one’s own 

ordinary income (or by conversion of property) ordinary costs and obligations in case 

of losses. 

Keywords: Hunger reduction, indebtness, less developed countries, micro-financing, 

micro-financing institutions 

Contact Address: Karel Srnec, Czech University of Agriculture Prague, Engineering, Economics and 

Rural Development in the Tropics and Subtropics, Kamýcká 129, 16521 Prague 6 - Suchdol, Prague, 

Czech Republic, e-mail: srnec@itsz.czu.cz 

ID 95 401


Determinants and Consequencies of Transaction Costs of 

Microfinance and their Impact on Rural Poor Borrowers’ Incomes 

JOY MUENI KIIRU 1 , JOHN MBURU 2 

1 University of Bonn, Center for Development Research, Germany 


Many studies have approached the issue of transactions costs of microfinance from the 

institutional perspective with a view to drive recommendations on viable microfinance 

lending institutions. Only few studies have approached the same issue from the poor 

borrowers’ perspective. 

The major objective of the paper is to fill in this gap by attempting a rigorous analysis 

of the determinants of transaction costs and their impact on borrowers’ small business 

returns or income generation. The main hypothesis of the paper is that transactions 

costs especially those arising from joint liability affect small businesses’ profitability 

substantially and therefore play an important role in poverty reduction initiatives. Empirical 

data used for the study was generated from a random sample of about 200 rural 

households in Makueni District Kenya. 

By use of statistical and qualitative methods the paper illustrates how group lending 

programmes involve individual borrowers in both joint and individual costs that result 

in lost incomes / business profits. It also examines how social capital, human capital, 

type of business, socio-economic attributes among other important factors affect the 

transaction costs and operations for individual borrowers in joint liability borrowing 

arrangements. Preliminary results indicate that the group borrowing approach weakens 

the social capital within the community while at the same time it increases the 

transactions costs of the whole group in case of loan default by a member (s). 

The paper concludes by discussing the role of transaction costs in establishing efficient 

and viable small business ventures among the rural poor with support from 

microfinance. It is emphasised that in order for microfinance to serve as a poverty 

reduction tool, it is important to minimise the transactions costs on the borrowers’ 

side. 

Keywords: Joint liability, microfinance, rural poor, transaction costs 

Contact Address: John Mburu, University of Bonn, Centre for Development Research (ZEF), Walter- 

Flex-Str. 3, 53113 Bonn, Germany, e-mail: jmburu@uni-bonn.de 

402 ID 58


Determinants of Intra-group Insurance in Microfinance: Evidence 

from Joint Liability Lending Programs in Malawi 

FRANKLIN SIMTOWE 1 , MANFRED ZELLER 2 , JOHN MBURU 1 

1 University of Bonn, Center for Developemnt Research (ZEF), Germany 

2 University of Hohenheim, Institute of Agricultural Economics and Social Sciences in the 


The success of group lending with joint liability has been partly attributed to its ability 

to induce group members to provide mutual insurance when a member fails to repay. 

Although theorists have proposed conditions under which group lending with joint 

liability encourages group members to provide mutual insurance once some group 

members fail to repay their loan, very little empirical research has been conducted to 

test the validity of such theories. The objective of this study was, therefore, to examine 

the extent to which intra-group insurance occurs and to investigate the underlying 

determinants of the willingness of group members to offer mutual insurance. The data 

used in the study was collected in Malawi by the International Food Policy Research 

Institute (IFPRI) in collaboration with the Rural Development Department (RDD) of 

Bunda College of Agriculture. The data is from 99 farm and non-farm credit groups 

of the Malawi Rural Finance Company (MRFC). The determinants of intra-group 

insurance were investigated using a Probit model. The results revealed that although 

89 percent of the borrowers accepted the fact that they were to contribute to repay 

loans for defaulting group members, only 42 percent expressed willingness to offer 

that support. An analysis on factors influencing the willingness of members to provide 

mutual insurance revealed that factors of production as well as pre-existing social ties 

increased the likelihood that group members would be willing to support each other. 

The results further indicated that the likelihood of providing mutual insurance among 

group members varies with dynamic incentives and risk pooling factors while peer 

monitoring is statistically insignificant. The presence of new members in the group, 

which potentially introduces a matching problem, works against mutual insurance. 

The cost of insurance, captured by the variation in loan size among group members, 

reduces the willingness of peers to contribute to repay defaulted loans of their peers. 

Keywords: Dynamic incentives, intra-group insurance, joint liability, Malawi 

Contact Address: Franklin Simtowe, University of Bonn, Center for Developemnt Research (ZEF), 

Walter Flex Str.3, Bonn, Germany, e-mail: fsimtowe@yahoo.com 

ID 3 403


Funding Agricultural Research for Connecting Local 

Communities to the Globalized World: Experiences from Benin 

ISMAIL MOUMOUNI MOUSSA 1 , BERNARD P. AGBO 2 

1 Humboldt-University Berlin, Rural Sociology, Germany 

2 Projet AGRAN (GTZ), CENAP à Agonkanmey, Benin 

Poverty alleviation and the reduction of the gap between rich and poor countries in 

the context of globalisation remain one of the important challenges for African research. 

Especially, agricultural research has a major role to play because of the socioeconomical 

importance of agriculture in many developing countries. It became vital 

to establish institutional arrangements and to set up operational approaches and strategies 

that would help taking advantages from this major reality. This paper describes 

and analyses the funding strategies of agricultural research for easing the transition 

of local communities to the globalisation on the national scale in Benin. For this purpose, 

semi-structured interviews were carried out with leaders of the public research 

organisation, development projects, farmer organisations and NGOs. The key requirements 

for connecting local communities to a globalised world are (i) the development 

of commodity networks at different levels, (ii) the improvement of innovations for 

agricultural production and processing and (iii) the access to the international market. 

The strategies developed for this purpose are (1) the organisation of research around 

the main commodity, (2) the involvement of local communities in identifying research 

priorities, (3) the establishment of competitive grants system for improving the effectiveness 

and the efficiency of agricultural research and (4) the involvement of other 

stakeholders in agricultural research. The main issues to address for improving the 

effectiveness of agricultural research in connecting local communities to a globalised 

world are the investment in strategic research to build or improve the chains of values, 

the sustainability of the funding system and the assessment criteria. 

Keywords: Agricultural research, Benin, Globalisation, Local community 

Contact Address: Ismail Moumouni Moussa, Humboldt-University Berlin, Rural Sociology, Luisenstr. 

53, 10117, Berlin, Germany, e-mail: ismailmm@gmail.com 

404 ID 39


Incentive Contracts Linked with Market Mechanisms: Can We 

Address the Water Allocation Problems in a More Effective Way? 

T. S. AMJATH BABU 1 , ERNST-AUGUST NUPPENAU 2 

1 Justus Liebig University, Institute of Agricultural Policy and Market Research, Germany 

2 Justus-Liebig-University Giessen, Institute of Agricultural Policy and Market Research, 

Germany 

Even though price driven mechanisms like water markets, at least theoretically, induce 

efficient allocation of the water resource, they often fail to achieve the goal especially 

in low income countries where the transaction costs are prohibitively high (especially 

due to extensive fragmentation of lands and peculiarities of cropping systems) and the 

returns from agricultural enterprises are meagre. The low price elasticity of water use 

coupled with political infeasibility of higher water prices are frequently driving these 

markets to malfunction though many international agencies advocate the formation of 

water users association and economic pricing of water. We believe that these failures 

stem from the frequent assumptions of zero transaction costs and no political infeasibility. 

We see a serious need of designing mechanisms that aim to fill this void. The 

current paper intends to propose an incentive framework that induces farmers to save 

water and ensures them the benefits of water trading especially in a transboundary 

river basin setting. 

The proposed mechanism visualises a principal, who is having authority to make 

legally valid contracts with farmers (agents) and who prescribes a set of technical 

and management measures to reduce water use, who charges a penalty for the farmer, 

failing to adopt a subset of measures for meeting a minimum reduction, and who 

shares the income from the trade of saved water. This principal can be a Water Users 

Association holding a water use right by a grandfathering system or an authority. Any 

reduction from the entitled level is assumed to be transferred to the upper layer water 

authority that act as an agency to reallocate the saved water to those economic activities 

where the marginal value of water is higher, like for instance industries. The 

key task of this paper is to craft a principal-agent model addressing moral hazard (as 

efficiency of farmers in employing the technical and management measures is hidden) 

and to optimise the contract. The main benefits of the system can be lower transaction 

costs, better income for the farmers, higher political feasibility and more efficient 

water allocation. 

Keywords: Incentives, moral hazard, principal-agent, transbounday issues, water allocation 

Contact Address: T. S. Amjath Babu, Justus Liebig University, Institute of Agricultural Policy and 

Market Research, Senckenbergstr. 3, 35390 Giessen, Germany, e-mail: amjathbabu@gmail.com 

ID 156 405


Assistance in Establishment of Sustainable Aquaculture in Bié 

Province, Angola 

LUKAS KALOUS 1 , PETRA HOLIKOVA 2 , MARTIN LOSTAK 2 , JANA MAZANCOVA 3 

1Czech University of Agriculture in Prague, Department of Zoology and Fisheries, Czech 

Republic 

2Czech University of Agriculture in Prague, Institute of Tropics and Subtropics, Czech 

Republic 

3Czech University of Agriculture, Department of Engineering, Economy and Rural De- 

velopment, Czech Republic 

In the Bié province were identified possibilities of fish production as a favourable source of animal 

proteins for human consumption. The province was hardly affected during 27 years civil 

war. Infrastructure like roads, electricity, education and health systems felt to ruins. Reconstruction 

activities nowadays interfere with constrains caused by land mines. Factors like difficult 

transport of goods and food from the coastal harbours, restricted area for local food production 

and long-term interruption of agricultural production, which resulted in inexperienced farmers, 

lead to food deficiency. 

Although fish are important part of human nutrition in the province, fish production from rivers 

is insufficient at present. The natural stocks are in many places grossly overfished mainly 

by usage of fish poison (leafs of Tephrosia spp.) and explosives. This unselective catching 

approach has resulted in a serious decline of fish availability in some areas. On the other hand 

almost all communities have small streams close to the village which also could be potential 

sites for fish farming. Very good climatic conditions and natural water resources challenge the 

feasibility of sufficient fish production. 

The advantage of fish farming is relatively cheap and easy to establish its production. Introduction 

of aquaculture ponds into farming systems can improve the economic and ecological 

sustainability of resource-poor farms. Potential benefits from integrating aquaculture in smallholder 

farming systems include: producing high nutritional value food for human consumption, 

contribution to rural income via employment within farming as well as within related activities 

and improvement of food security due to diversification of the production. The fisheries sector, 

including fish farming, is one of the priority sectors targeted for development for the province 

government. 

Main tasks for establishment of fish production in the Bié province represent: 

Identifying fish species that can be reared in fish ponds or cages (preferably local species to 

reduce negative impact to native fish communities). 

Development of integrated extensive fish farming technology suitable for local conditions. 

Assistance with construction of pioneer integrated fish farms within the local communities. 

Providing workshops and information campaign on the possibilities of fish farming. 

Keywords: Angola, fish farming, fish production, nutrition 

Contact Address: Petra Holikova, Czech University of Agriculture in Prague, Institute of Tropics and 

Subtropics, Kamycka 129, 165 21 Prague 6, Czech Republic, e-mail: secretary@natura.czu.cz 

406 ID 192


Cotton Production Technologies and Women’s Time Use: Giving 

More Attention to Children Education, Health and Nutrition 

DANSINOU SILVERE TOVIGNAN 1 , DAVO SIMPLICE VODOUHÈ 2 

1Justus-Liebig-University Giessen, Institute of Agricultural Policy and Market Research, 

Germany 

2University of Abomey-Calavi, Agricultural Extension, Benin 

Cotton is for most francophone West African countries the main export crop is subject 

of many challenges not only in terms of international trade, but also in terms household 

management in rural communities. Cotton producers in West African setting are 

small-scale farmers working mainly with family labour. Production activities require 

both male and female labour. Actually, two main production technologies (organic 

and conventional) are used with different labour demand features, particularly female 

labour. The development of organic cotton gives women the opportunity to hold their 

separate cotton farm and draw cash income from it. This study investigates how cotton 

production technologies adopted by the household (organic or conventional) influence 

the time use systems of women and the impact on children education, health and nutrition 

that are also household responsibilities demanding particular time investment 

from women. The goal of the paper is to make aware, projects, NGOs and institutions 

working on education, health and nutrition issues in rural area, that, their strategies 

should be adapted to specific time use systems of women. Therefore, it aims also to 

provide them with accurate data to ease strategic decision-making. Data for this paper 

have been collected from both conventional and organic cotton producers’ household 

having children less than 10 years old in central Benin. Preliminary tentative results 

confirm the difference of time use systems of women in household adopting organic 

and conventional cotton. Particularly, women holding their own cotton farm share 

their working time between the husband’s farm and their own farm. By getting their 

own income, they contribute financially more to the education and health of their children. 

However, they lack time in choosing appropriate food combination for their 

children. As the health situation of an individual depends first of all on his nutritional 

state, nutritional trainings should be targeted to those women who are getting increasing 

interest in holding separate cotton farm. 

Keywords: Conventional cotton, education, gender, health, nutrition, organic cotton, 

time planning 

Contact Address: Dansinou Silvere Tovignan, Justus-Liebig-University Giessen, Institute of Agricultural 

Policy and Market Research, Senckenberg Str. 3, 35390 Gießen, Germany, e-mail: Dansinou.S. 

Tovignan@agrar.uni-giessen.de 

ID 371 407


Collective Action by Women’s Groups to Combat Drought and 

Poverty in Northern Kenya 

SOLOMON DESTA 1 , LAYNE COPPOCK 2 , ADAN WAKO 3 , IBRAHIM ADEN 3 , 

GETACHEW GEBRU 4 , SEYOUM TEZERRA 4 , CHACHU TADECHA 3 

1Global Livestock CRSP Pastoral Risk Management Project, c/o International Livestock 

Research Institute, Kenya 

2Utah State University, Dept. Environment & Society, United States 

3Community Initiatives Facilitation and Assistance, Kenya 

4Global Livestock CRSP Pastoral Risk Management Project, c/o ILRI, Ethiopia 

Collective action can be an effective means of local development and risk reduction 

among rural people, but few examples have been documented in pastoral rangeland 

areas. We conducted extensive qualitative interviews for 16 women’s groups residing 

in settlements in northern Kenya during early 2005. Our objectives were to understand 

how groups were formed and governed, what activities they have pursued, and 

to what extent such groups can mitigate drought crises and reduce poverty for their 

members. The groups we interviewed had existed for an average of 10 years. Group 

size averaged about 24 women, 20 of whom were typically illiterate. Half of the 

groups had formed after facilitation by a GO or NGO partner and half formed spontaneously. 

Groups are governed under detailed constitutional frameworks. Leaders are 

typically elected. Groups primarily form to improve living standards of the members. 

Groups undertake a wide variety of social and economic activities founded on savings 

and credit schemes, income diversification, small business development, and expansion 

of education, health service, and natural resource management functions. Groups 

have also taken an active role in mitigating drought impacts on their members. There 

are many examples of group members that have lifted themselves up from destitution. 

The greatest threats to the sustainability of these women’s groups come from external 

factors such as drought and political incitement as well as internal factors such as unfavourable 

group dynamics and illiteracy. Principles of good group governance and 

wisdom in business creation and management were repeatedly stated by respondents 

as the key ingredients for long-term success. Groups have ambitious plans to further 

improve their social and economic circumstances; rates of group formation in the region 

appear to be increasing. In a highly risky and poverty-stricken environment such 

as northern Kenya, such groups help create relatively deep pools of social, human, 

and diversified economic capital. Many of these processes fill large gaps in public 

service delivery and should be encouraged by policy makers. 

Keywords: Boran, human capital, pastoral development, Rendille, social capital 

Contact Address: Layne Coppock, Utah State University, Dept. Environment & Society, 84322- 

5215 Logan, UT, United States, e-mail: Lcoppock@cc.usu.edu 

408 ID 445


Factors Influencing Cooperation and Collective Action: 

Implications for Communal Cattle Breeding Schemes in 

Trypanosomosis Prevalent Areas in Eastern Africa 

EMILY OUMA 1 , AWUDU ABDULAI 1 , ADAM DRUCKER 2 

1 University of Kiel, Department of Food Economics and Consumption Studies, Germany 

2 Charles Darwin University, School for Environmental Research, Australia 

In sub-Saharan Africa, many rural populations live in absolute poverty and suffer 

from chronic hunger. Most of these populations comprise livestock keepers and smallholder 

farming communities who eke out a living under harsh environmental conditions. 

Animal diseases are serious constraints to livestock productivity in African rural 

areas and reduce opportunities for improving food security and reducing poverty. 

Modern biotechnology approaches provide key components of improving livestock 

productivity by introducing genes that control desirable traits such as disease tolerance 

through marker assisted breeding with great precision, resulting in improved 

strains of livestock. In order for rural populations to benefit from such kind of innovations, 

sustainable access pathways need to be identified. Communal group breeding 

schemes have been identified in literature as sustainable and potential pathways 

to achieve measurable genetic gains of desirable livestock traits from nucleus herds 

in subsistence systems of developing countries. However, there exists a knowledge 

gap on factors that may influence the likelihood of success of such communal-based 

schemes. Such information would be useful in developing appropriate interventions 

as community participation and cooperation in developing countries increasingly get 

centre stage in the policy arena as a pathway towards achieving sustainable economic 

development. This paper investigates factors that influence community participation 

in communal development initiatives in trypanosomosis prevalent production systems 

in Narok and Suba district of Kenya and the Ghibe valley in Ethiopia, which mainly 

comprise pastoral, agro-pastoral and mixed crop-livestock systems. In these systems, 

cattle keepers have preferences for traits associated with trypanotolerance, fecundity 

and traction potential; traits which could be integrated in breeding objectives and selection 

indices in breed improvement programs. Game theoretic models as well as 

econometric models are applied. 

Keywords: Communal participation, Eastern Africa, livestock productivity, trypanotolerance 

Contact Address: Emily Ouma, University of Kiel, Department of Food Economics and Consumption 

Studies, Olshausenstrasse 40, 24098 Kiel, Germany, e-mail: eouma@food-econ.uni-kiel.de 

ID 526 409


410 ID 526

Social Ecology 

ROMUALD RUTAZIHANA, JACOB WANYAMA, EMMA BRADLEY: 

Promotion of Traditional Animal Traction Practices among 

the Shangaan People of Mozambique for Poverty Alleviation 413 

JENNY EISOLD, SILKE TÖNSJOST, MICHAEL BOLLIG, ANJA 

LINSTÄDTER: 

Local and Scientific Knowledge on Natural Resource Management 

- A Case Study from Northwestern Namibia 414 

KAMAL EL-SIDDIG, JENS GEBAUER, HUSSEIN DAWOUD 

DAWOUD, ANDREAS BUERKERT: 

The Status of Urban and Peri-urban Agriculture in Khartoum, 

Sudan 415 

CHUONG VAN HUYNH: 

Assessing the Current Land Use Management and Crop 

Systems on the Sloping Land in Central Vietnam: A Representative 

Case Study of Thuy Bang Commune 416 

LUCIE PROCHAZKOVA, BOHDAN LOJKA, JAN BANOUT, JANA 

LOJKOVA, ZBYNEK POLESNY, DANIEL PREININGER: 

Diversification of Shifting Cultivation Cycles among Smallscale 

Farmers in the Peruvian Amazon 417 

SIMONE GIERTZ, GERO STEUP, CHRISTINE STADLER, SARAH 

SCHÖNBRODT, BERND DIEKKRÜGER, HEINER GOLDBACH: 

Analysis and Evaluation of the Agro-potential of Inland 

Valleys in the Upper Ouémé Catchment (Benin, West Africa) 418 

GANESH RAJ JOSHI, LILA KARKI: 

The Cultivation of Vegetables in the Central Hills and Mountains 

of Nepal — Implications for Poverty and Food Security 419 

BJÖRN NIERE, CLIFFORD S. GOLD, DANNY COYNE, THOMAS 

DUBOIS, DENNIS OCHIENO: 

Banana Tissue Culture: Benefits for East African Farmers 420 

NITYA GHOTGE, SAGARI RAMDAS: 

Research Experiences from the Field : India prosperity 

and Poverty in a Globalized World ? challenges for Agricultural 

Research. 421 

411


412 

IDHA ARSANTI, MICHAEL BÖHME, HANS E. JAHNKE: 

Evaluation of Vegetable Farming Systems for Competitiveness 

in Upland Areas of Indonesia 422 

WIBKE CREWETT, FRANZISKA BRINGE, STEFAN SIEBER: 

How to Scale-up Sustainable Agricultural Practices? 423


Promotion of Traditional Animal Traction Practices among the 

Shangaan People of Mozambique for Poverty Alleviation 

ROMUALD RUTAZIHANA, JACOB WANYAMA, EMMA BRADLEY 

Vetaid Mozambique, Gaza Food Security Project, Mozambique 

The Shangaan people are agro-pastoralists who live in the south of Mozambique. The 

Shangaan who originated from near the central Africa came into the present day Gaza 

Province of the Republic of Mozambique from further south as they fled the Zulu 

wars. Traditionally the Shangaan people till their land along the Limpopo valley, 

keep livestock and fish for their livelihoods. Livestock kept include cattle, sheep and 

goats, pigs and chicken. Like most rural poor populations in developing countries, the 

Shangaan community use their animals for their transport and land tilling needs. The 

Shangaan have therefore developed a rich knowledge on how to keep, handle and use 

their animals for power. Animals used for drought power include cattle and donkeys. 

However, over the years, the Shangaan people have encountered a series of disasters 

that have affected the conservation and use of their traditional knowledge. The liberation 

war from the Portuguese, the civil conflict which started immediately after their 

country got independence, floods and frequent droughts, resulted in displacement and 

loss of the draught animals, as well traditional knowledge. With the signing of peace 

accord in 1992 and the subsequent accelerated development effort in their region, the 

Shangaan agro-pastoralists are, not only having to rebuild their herds, but also their 

knowledge on how to handle and use their animals their power needs. To promote this 

knowledge and practice, VETAID Mozambique conducted a survey on the traditional 

techniques of animal traction in the north of Gaza Province. The objective was to 

evaluate the traditional techniques in the region and design a programme to integrate 

these techniques with appropriate modern techniques for the food security of these 

people. This paper presents the results of this survey how by use of Endogenous Livestock 

Development approach VETAID Mozambique and its partners is promoting the 

use of animal draft power in a bit to ensure food security. 

Keywords: Community-based Animal Traction Centres, Endogenous Livestock Development, 

Food Security, the Shangaan people, Traditional Animal Traction Practices, 

VETAID Mozambique 

Contact Address: Jacob Wanyama, Vetaid Mozambique, Gaza Food Security Project, Rua Dos Combatentes 

Talhao No. 13, C.P. 44, Chokwe, Mozambique, e-mail: wanyama@vetaid.net 

ID 537 413


Local and Scientific Knowledge on Natural Resource Management 

- A Case Study from Northwestern Namibia 

JENNY EISOLD 1 , SILKE TÖNSJOST 2 , MICHAEL BOLLIG 1 , ANJA LINSTÄDTER 1 

1University of Cologne, Savanna Range Management - Ecological and Economic Sustainability, 

Germany 

2University of Cologne, Institute of Cultural and Social Anthropology, Germany 

In todays complex web of socio-economic, political and environmental changes, natural 

sciences approaches might offer insufficient understanding of the dynamics underlying 

the socio- ecological systems. Local knowledge is an important key to understand 

pastoralists strategies of sustainable resource management. It is especially 

interesting to investigate how local knowledge is produced and used in a highly unpredictable 

system, characterised by nonlinear dynamics. Pastoralism is the dominant 

form of land use and economy in the arid north western part of Namibia. Therefore 

the sustainable management of natural resources is important to guarantee future subsistence 

in this region. Local knowledge is embedded in power relations as well as in 

specific conditions and is one framework in decision- making processes. Pastoralists 

adopt and reject management options on the basis of perceived indicators in order 

to cope with the variability of natural resources in space and time. Anthropological 

and ecological data are compared and synthesized to gather new insights concerning 

range management and decision-making processes regarding mobility. By contrasting 

the data of the in- and outsiders view, the similarities and differences between 

the scientific knowledge and local knowledge on range management will be shown. 

Our comparison of local and ecological perspectives is based on the perception of 

OvaHerero pastoralists on a Communal Conservancy and the range ecologists´ view. 

It focuses on three core aspects of range management:(i) Indicators for range assessment, 

(ii) Important fodder plants, (iii) The perception of environmental change in 

selected grazing areas. Synergetic effects between both concepts of knowledge will 

help to gain a better understanding of local management strategies. Thus our interdisciplinary 

approach not only contributes to the interpretation and understanding of 

ecological processes in the highly stochastic and sensitive environment of African arid 

savannahs. It is also valueable for identifying crucial aspects of a successful management 

of natural ressoures in drylands. Thus sustainable management strategies, that 

meet the introductory mentioned challenges can be improved. 

Keywords: Cognitive Anthropology, local Knowledge, Namibia, Natural Resource 

Management, Range Ecology, Savannah 

Contact Address: Jenny Eisold, University of Cologne, Savanna Range Management - Ecological and 

Economic Sustainability, Gyrhofstraße 15, 50931 Cologne, Germany, e-mail: jenny.eisold@uni-koeln. 

de 

414 ID 45


The Status of Urban and Peri-urban Agriculture in Khartoum, 

Sudan 

KAMAL EL-SIDDIG 1 , JENS GEBAUER 2 , HUSSEIN DAWOUD DAWOUD 3 , 

ANDREAS BUERKERT 2 

1Agricultural Research & Technology Corporation, Cotton Research Program, Sudan 

2University of Kassel, Organic Plant Production and Agroecosystems Research in the 


3Agricultural Research Corporation, Shambat Research Station, Khartoum North, Sudan 

Khartoum, the capital of Sudan, is located at the confluence of the Blue Nile and 

White Nile. The city has grown rapidly in recent years and today has an estimated 

population of six million people including two million refugees fleeing the past civil 

war in the southern Sudan as well as the ongoing civil war in the western Sudan. Khartoum 

is located in the semi-arid savannah belt of the Sudan, with an average annual 

rainfall of 200–300 mm and a long dry season from September to June, though there is 

much variation in both the amount and frequency of rainfall from one year to the next. 

A wide spectrum of production systems can be found ranging from household subsistence 

to large-scale commercial farming. Horticultural crops grown in Khartoum 

state comprise a long list of vegetables, fruit trees, ornamental plants, and medicinal 

and aromatic plants. Some of these crops are indigenous to the country while others 

are exotic. Some are considered of major importance in the world while others are 

of minor importance and local usage. In addition, intensive livestock production systems 

for milk, meat, and poultry or egg production are operational within and around 

Khartoum city. In view of the large gap in data on food and related nutrient-flows 

between urban and peri-urban, studies must be conducted to minimise nutrient depletion 

and to maximise environmentally sound land management. Therefore, a research 

project founded by the Alexander von Humboldt Foundation is launched with the objective 

of quantifying nutrient fluxes and understanding nutrient replenishment and 

waste recycling. The knowledge obtained from this project will help to minimise nutrient 

depletion and maximise environmentally sound land management and offer the 

opportunities for effective involvement of the urban and peri-urban sector in nutrient 

recycling. 

Keywords: Nutrient fluxes, urban and peri-urban agriculture, vegetables, fruit production 

Contact Address: Kamal El-Siddig, Agricultural Research & Technology Corporation, Cotton Research 

Program, P.O. Box 126 Wad Medani, Sudan, e-mail: k_elsiddig@yahoo.com 

ID 461 415


Assessing the Current Land Use Management and Crop Systems 

on the Sloping Land in Central Vietnam: A Representative Case 

Study of Thuy Bang Commune 

CHUONG VAN HUYNH 

Humboldt-University Berlin, Faculty of Agriculture and Horticulture, Germany 

Vietnam is an agricultural country.In recent years Vietnam has made significant improvements 

in agricultural productivity through the intensification of lowland rice 

production and the increased use of improved crop systems and new land use policies. 

The greatest potential for expansion of cropland is in the sloping areas of central 

Vietnam. But much of the central Vietnam is still underdeveloped. This region is 

characterised by widely variable soil types, many of which are of low fertility, prone 

to erosion and severe climate. 

Main objective is to assess the existing land use management issues and to delineate 

the crop systems those are influencing to agricultural production and food security. 

A case study of about 2298 ha of Thuy Bang commune, Thua Thien Hue province 

has been selected to be stimulated through the incorporating of participatory rural 

appraisal, secondary data, farmer seminar and SWOT analysis. The study has found 

that farmers in the sloping areas are focusing on the planting of annual crops such 

as low rice, maize, peanut and cassava, beans, vegetables, sweet potato as well as 

perennial crops such as fruits trees, pepper and forestry trees. Many of these crops are 

cash crops that were expected to improve the incomes and living standards of sloping 

farmers. Differentland use types identified: Winter-Spring rice + Summer-Autumn 

rice; Winter-Spring rice + fallow; Winter-Spring rice + beans; Winter-Spring peanut 

+ cassava or maize; Winter-Spring sweet potato + cassava; Winter-Spring vegetables 

+ Summer beans or peanut; Fruit trees + bean or peanut, forestry trees. The current 

land use management is still limited and lack of land information for local people, 

the land use issues for all purposes are the lack of precision planning. The major 

constraints are the poor cultural, educational and economics situation of the residents 

and the poor professional competence of the local land administration staffs. There 

is a need to change these tillages, crop residue management practices to reduce soil 

erosion rates, develop soil fertility and increase crop yield as well as better land use 

management policies. 

Keywords: Central Vietnam, crop systems, land use management, land use types, 

sloping land 

Contact Address: Chuong Van Huynh, Humboldt-University Berlin, Faculty of Agriculture and Horticulture, 

Lentzealle 75, D- 14195 Berlin, Berlin, Germany, e-mail: van.chuong.huynh@rz.hu-berlin.de 

416 ID 181


Diversification of Shifting Cultivation Cycles among Small-scale 

Farmers in the Peruvian Amazon 

LUCIE PROCHAZKOVA, BOHDAN LOJKA, JAN BANOUT, JANA LOJKOVA, 

ZBYNEK POLESNY, DANIEL PREININGER 

Czech University of Agriculture in Prague, Institute of Tropics and Subtropics, Czech 

Republic 

Since the population in developing countries increases, the agriculture expand into 

the new area, which is mainly forest in the tropics. About 60 % of the deforestation 

of tropical rain forests is carried out by small-scale farmers. This research is focused 

on the Amazon basin, where small-scale farmers widely practice shifting cultivation. 

Main objective was to create a classification system of methods of land use and found 

out typical crop sequence, composition and length of particular phases of shifting cultivation 

cycle on the basis of fields’ history. Land use was examined in two settlements- 

Antonio Raimondi and Pimental in Ucayali, Peru. Research aimed at characterising 

the differences in land use after initial slash-and-burn. Data were gathered through 

semi-structured questionnaire and were focused on socio-demographic and field characteristics, 

crop sequence and composition, and length of different stages of shifting 

cultivation cycle currently practised among agroforestry-reliant households (n= 27). 

Visit to crop field and forest fallow aimed to reconstruction of extensive cropping history. 

Several specific cycles were identified for each study site. Whereas settlers in 

Antonio Raimondi plant annual crops after slashing and burning the forest, settlers in 

Pimental gave more importance to perennial crops. Process of deforestation and land 

degradation is relatively more pronounced in younger settlement (Antonio Raimondi). 

These differences are caused by different social backgroung. Land holdings among 

households within traditional communities are unequally distributed and reflect local 

land scarsity. These results question the view of indigenous agriculture systems as ‘unsustainable’ 

and underscore the importance of studying local variation in indigenous 

agroforestry practices. 

Keywords: Agroforestry, deforestation, land degradation, slash-and-burn, swiddenfallow 

Contact Address: Lucie Prochazkova, Czech University of Agriculture in Prague, Institute of Tropics 

and Subtropics, Kamycka 129, 165 21 Praha 6, Czech Republic, e-mail: lucka.proch@centrum.cz 

ID 251 417


Analysis and Evaluation of the Agro-potential of Inland Valleys in 

the Upper Ouémé Catchment (Benin, West Africa) 

SIMONE GIERTZ 1 , GERO STEUP 1 , CHRISTINE STADLER 2 , SARAH 

SCHÖNBRODT 3 , BERND DIEKKRÜGER 1 , HEINER GOLDBACH 3 

1University of Bonn, Department of Geography, Germany 

2University of Bonn, Institute of Crop Science and Resource Conservation - Plant Nutrition, 

Germany 

3University of Göttingen, Department of Landscape Ecology, Germany 

The fast growing population in all countries of sub-Saharan Africa demands an increase 

of food production. In some regions the arable land becomes already scarce 

and the degradation of soils progresses due to the shortening of the fallow period. Inland 

valleys offer an extensive, fairly unexploited potential for agricultural production, 

due to their higher water availability, lower fragility and higher fertility compared to 

the upland soils. In the last decade the Upper Ouémé catchment in central Benin is 

subject to high population growth caused by high fertility and high immigration rates. 

This causes an expansion of agricultural area, which leads to deforestation and shortage 

of available land for agricultural production. Therefore, the exploitation of inland 

valleys will become more important in this region. The presented study aims to analyse 

the present and future agro-potential of the inland valleys. To assess the surface 

of the inland valley area a multilevel approach is applied combining DEM-analysis, 

remote sensing and field mapping. Based on the field work a typology of inland valleys 

is carried out in order to extract representative inland valleys for each type, which 

are intensively investigated in terms of physical aspects. For evaluating the usability, 

socio-economic aspects as distance to the next market are taken into account. Based 

on these investigations the assessment of the present and future agro-potential is performed 

by an interdisciplinary modelling approach. The effects of future climatic and 

land use changes on the hydrology of the inland valleys are analysed using a hydrological 

model. As a result the temporal variability of the extent of the saturated area 

and the length of the period with sufficient water availability for cultivation in the 

inland valleys are used in the plant growth model. With this model different cultures 

are simulated in order to assess the potential yields. The work is carried out in close 

collaboration with local authorities. The results of this study will create a reliable 

base for the planning process of inland valley exploitation in the region. 

Keywords: Agro-potential, hydrological model, inland valleys, plant growth model 

Contact Address: Simone Giertz, University of Bonn, Department of Geography, Meckenheimer Allee, 

53115 Bonn, Germany, e-mail: sgiertz@uni-bonn.de 

418 ID 440


The Cultivation of Vegetables in the Central Hills and Mountains 

of Nepal — Implications for Poverty and Food Security 

GANESH RAJ JOSHI 1 , LILA KARKI 2 

1Department of Agriculture, Ministry of Agriculture and Cooperatives, Government of 

Nepal, Nepal 

2Justus-Liebig-University Giessen, Institute of Agriculture and Food Systems Manage- 

ment, Germany 

The vegetables and potato are the important crops in terms of nutrition and income in 

Nepal. These crops share about 7 percent of the total gross cropped area. The area and 

production of these crops is increasing in the recent years especially in the mountains 

and hills with the development of roads and marketing infrastructures. 

A study was undertaken with a view to identify the factors that determine the area 

allocation decision under vegetables and potato by 176 farming households in the 

mountains and hills of the central development region of Nepal. The study reveals 

that on an average, a household allocated 0.25 hectare area to these crops and also 

these crops contributed about 27 percent to the total cash income of the household. 

The area allocation decision of the household was analysed by using a two-limit tobit 

procedure because about 7 percent of sampled household did not allocate any area for 

these crops. The analysis showed that the education of the household head, nearness 

of the villages to the road heads and markets and the training imparted to farmers 

on vegetable crops have significant and positive effect on the area allocation. On the 

other hand, the area under the competing crops such as wheat during winter season 

and the maize during rainy season has negative significant effect on the vegetables’ 

area allocation. This is because farmers’ in these regions especially in the inaccessible 

areas still prioritise the cultivation of staple crops from the perspective of household 

food security. The findings of this study have important implication for reducing 

poverty and strengthening food security. This can be achieved through developing 

and improving the roads and markets, strengthening the technical capability of the 

farmers by education and imparting trainings and strengthening existing extension 

services and network. 

Keywords: Cultivation, food security, Hills, Mountains , Vegetables 

Contact Address: Ganesh Raj Joshi, Department of Agriculture, Ministry of Agriculture and Cooperatives, 

Government of Nepal, Nepal, e-mail: grjoshi20@yahoo.com 

ID 87 419


Banana Tissue Culture: Benefits for East African Farmers 

BJÖRN NIERE 1 , CLIFFORD S. GOLD 2 , DANNY COYNE 3 , THOMAS DUBOIS 3 , 

DENNIS OCHIENO 3 

1 Federal Biological Research Centre for Agriculture and Forestry, Institute for Nematol- 

ogy and Vertebrate Research, Germany 

2 CIAT, Uganda 

3 IITA, ESARC, Uganda 

Banana is the main food staple and a key component of food security in the Great 

Lakes region of eastern Africa. Banana is also an important cash crop in parts of 

Rwanda, Tanzania and Uganda. Where it is grown, it often makes the highest contribution 

to household income. A complex of biotic and abiotic factors imperil banana 

in the region. The banana weevil and a complex of nematodes are considered the most 

important pests on East African highland bananas. Pest and diseases of banana are 

mainly transmitted with infested banana suckers, traditionally the planting material of 

this vegetatively propagated crop. 

Propagation of pest and disease-free banana planting material and the introduction of 

new pest and disease-resistant banana varieties is therefore of vital importance for the 

well-being of farmers in the region. Pest and disease-free banana can be micro-propagated 

in tissue culture. Tissue cultured banana are the preferred planting material in 

commercial plantations all over the world. Even in the absence of pests, tissue cultured 

banana also have higher yields and mature earlier than sucker-derived material. 

Currently, tissue cultured banana planting material is not widely available to farmers 

in Rwanda, Tanzania, and Uganda due to insufficient dissemination channels in this 

region. This is attributed to a lack of understanding of the benefits of this technology. 

There is also a lack of agronomic data demonstrating the benefits of tissue cultured 

banana belonging to the unique group of East African highland banana (Musa AAA- 

EA). Data on performance of tissue culture plants for the plant and ratoon crop will 

be presented. Plant and ratoon crops of tissue cultured banana under different management 

regimes are compared to suckers derived planting material, including hotwater 

treated suckers. Additional benefits are expected through the absence of pest 

and diseases. 

Keywords: Banana weevil, east African highland banana, nematode, tissue culture 

Contact Address: Björn Niere, Federal Biological Research Centre for Agriculture and Forestry, Institute 

for Nematology and Vertebrate Research, Toppheideweg 88, 48161 Münster, Germany, e-mail: 

b.niere@bba.de 

420 ID 582


Research Experiences from the Field : India prosperity and 

Poverty in a Globalized World ? challenges for Agricultural 

Research. 

Anthra, India 

NITYA GHOTGE, SAGARI RAMDAS 

During the latter half of the previous century, agricultural and livestock research in 

India were dominated by green revolution technologies, monocultures, the propagation 

of hybrids and the replacement of local knowledge and farming systems with 

imported technology. While these technologies did bring prosperity to some, they 

also enhanced the poverty of many who were unable to cope with the demands made 

by the exotic technology . By 1992, the negative environmental consequences of these 

technologies led to certain key international conventions such as the CBD Convention 

on Bio Diversity being signed by different nations. The importance of biodiversity 

began to be discussed and research itself slowly began to explore horizons beyond 

the green revolution. At about the same time the WTO also came into place calling 

for new economic polices, structural adjustment programmes and globalisation 

of the economy in India. By the beginning of this century, research in the country 

was forced to face the challenges of globalisation both in the formal and non formal 

sectors . Since 1996, ANTHRA ( a resource organisation working on strengthening 

peoples livelihoods, through supporting sustainable livestock production) in response 

to the needs of livestock owners has been involved in action research with different 

communities; pastoral, peasant, tribal - to document, validate and disseminate valuable 

local practices and indigenous knowledge systems related to livestock breeds, 

livestock health, housing, management, nutrition, fodder varieties, grazing methods 

as well as the gender dimensions of these practices. Overwhelmingly, our findings 

on local practices have been that many of these work excellently, are in tune with 

local cultures, economies and environment and have enormous potential if applied 

appropriately of significantly improving the livelihoods of extremely marginal communities. 

While these practices may not bring great “prosperity” as in a globalised 

world poor farmers are seldom in a position to keep pace with international market 

swings, this form of endogenous livestock development would probably equip poor 

livestock owners to stave of the danger of crippling poverty far better than the green 

revolution technology could . 

Keywords: Action research, Convention on Biodiversity, endogenous livestock development, 

green revolution, indigenous knowledge, livestock research , WTO 

Contact Address: Nitya Ghotge, Anthra, F Lantana Gardens Nda Road Bavdhan, 411021 Pune, India, 

e-mail: anthra.pune@gmail.com 

ID 271 421


Evaluation of Vegetable Farming Systems for Competitiveness in 

Upland Areas of Indonesia 

IDHA ARSANTI 1 , MICHAEL BÖHME 1 , HANS E. JAHNKE 2 

1 Humboldt University Berlin, Horticultural Plant Systems, Germany 

2 Humboldt-Universität Berlin, Development Planning and Project Management, Ger- 

many 

Vegetable farming systems (VFS) in uplands in Indonesia comprise some horticultural 

products, like mustard, cabbage, potato, carrot, chilli, and cauliflower. Its production 

is important for the vegetable consumption in Indonesia. The research is focused on 

the problems regarding the profitability, sustainability and competitiveness of VFS 

and to clarify the highest priority product to be cultivated in the upland area. 

The information and data from the literature were not enough to get answers of the 

questions. Therefore it was necessary to collect primary data in the investigated regions. 

This data collection was carried out in three upland areas by analysing two 

villages in each with main vegetable producer in order to characterise the typical physical 

condition of agroecology. It is then applied a respondent classification based on 

commodity on these two villages in each region. In each village 25 respondents (50 respondents 

in the two villages) were interviewed. The number of all respondents in all 

regions is 150 farmers. The Domestic Resource Cost Method, Cost Benefit Analysis 

and Analytical Hierarchy Method were used in this study, especially for calculation 

of economical value. 

This research shows that VFS in upland areas of Indonesia is profitable, especially for 

potato, cabbage and carrot, but for other vegetable products, such as chilli and mustard 

have no profitability. Vegetable products which have comparative and competitive 

advantages are cabbage and potato, and otherwise based on social and economic 

analysis, both of them can be sustainable. The highest priority product to be cultivated 

in upland area is potato, it considers not only profitability aspect but also marketing 

condition and sustainability perspective. 

Based on the results of this research, it can be concluded that some of programs are 

necessary to be created for the government in order to support the development of 

vegetable farming system in upland areas, such as technical assistance, improving the 

quality and safety standards of products, developing competitive agribusiness areas, 

especially for potato and cabbage as export and import substitution products based on 

the agro ecosystem advantage or infra structural in each region. 

Keywords: Social economy, sustainable agriculture, vegetable farming system 

Contact Address: Idha Arsanti, Humboldt University Berlin, Horticultural Plant Systems, 

Lentzeallee 75, 14195 Berlin, Germany, e-mail: idha_arsanti@yahoo.com 

422 ID 272

How to Scale-up Sustainable Agricultural Practices? 


WIBKE CREWETT 1 , FRANZISKA BRINGE 2 , STEFAN SIEBER 2 

1 University of Göttingen, Institute of Social- and Cultural Geography, Germany 

2 Leibniz-Centre for Agricultural Landscape Research (ZALF) e. V., Institute of Socio- 

Economics, Germany 

Recent research work approached the topic of sustainable agriculture in the developing 

world and indicated its contribution to reducing poverty (Pretty and Hine 2001). 

Examples from the field reveal that a larger number of sustainable agricultural practices 

which can be easily adapted to different environmental settings are at hand. 

These practices that often combine traditionally and scientifically generated knowledge 

are regarded to provide excellent opportunities to improve the livelihoods of 

small and poor farmers. Since such “good practices” are available their wider dissemination 

is considered a major tool to contribute to the alleviation of poverty. However, 

scaling-up of such low-cost and input-saving agricultural practices lags behind time. 

Until now only little systematic analysis of why scaling-up of sustainable agriculture 

shows only poor results as well as recommendations on what could be done to speed 

up the diffusion of good practices to more farmers is very general. There are some 

macroeconomic factors identified to be conducive to scaling-up as well as there is a 

theory which explains the driving forces that determine the adoption of innovations 

but an applicable framework for practitioners and decision-makers to assess scalingup 

potentials of particular practices as well as to provide guidance for planning scaling-up 

activities to foster dissemination of those practices is still missing. Addressing 

these issues, the Leibniz-Centre for Agricultural Landscape Research (ZALF) in cooperation 

with GTZ-Sustainet and FAO on behalf of BMELV carried out an analysis of a 

number of case studies on good practices from Africa and Asia to more systematically 

examine determinants of scaling-up of good practices. As a result, the research team 

developed a generalisable framework to analytically approach scaling-up activities at 

the project level. Taking into account the resource requirements of the innovation, 

the potential of the local community as well as the qualities of the implementing organisations 

it enables planners to more systematically assess and design scaling-up 

activities. 

Keywords: Good Practices, scaling-up, Sustainable Agriculture 

Contact Address: Stefan Sieber, Centre of Agricultural Landscape Research E.v., Institute of Socioeconomics, 

Eberswalder Straße 84, 15374 Müncheberg, Germany, e-mail: stefan.sieber@zalf.de 

ID 550 423


424 ID 550

Adoption and Impact Assessment 

ASHOK MALKARNEKAR, DIEMUTH PEMSL, HERMANN WAIBEL: 

Technology Adoption under Heterogeneity and Uncertainty: 

the Case of Bt-cotton Production in Karnataka, India 427 

CHRISTOPH REIBER, RAINER SCHULTZE-KRAFT, MICHAEL 

PETERS, VOLKER HOFFMANN, PETER LENTES, H. CRUZ, 

CARLOS LASCANO: 

Adoption and Diffusion Processes of Silage Technology in 

the Area of Yoro, Honduras 428 

MENNO KEIZER: 

Improving Livelihoods through Coconut Product Diversification, 

a Case from Vietnam 429 

PETER LENTES, MICHAEL PETERS, DOUGLAS WHITE, FRED- 

ERICO HOLMANN, CHRISTOPH REIBER: 

Assessing and Comparing Income Generation of Livestock 

Holders in Olancho, Honduras. An Analysis Across Typical 

Landscapes and Farming Systems 430 

NORMA ELY SANTOS, SIEGFRIED BAUER: 

Analysis of Small Landowners’ Willingness to Accept Conservation 

Payments in Brazilian Amazonia 431 

VIJESH VIJAYA KRISHNA, MATIN QAIM: 

Public-private Partnerships in Biotechnology Research and 

Impacts on Technology Adoption: the Case of Bt Eggplant 

in India 432 

DEEPESH PUTHIYAPURAYIL CHANGAT, VIJESH VIJAYA KRISHNA: 

An Ex-ante Economic Evaluation of Nutritional Impacts of 

Transgenic-biofortified Potato in India 433 

XIANGPING JIA, FRANZ HEIDHUES, MANFRED ZELLER: 

Determinants of Credit Rationing: A Study of Rural Households 

in North China 434 

SALWA ALMOHAMED, WERNER DOPPLER: 

Socio Economic Impact of Irrigation Project on Living Standard 

of Farming Population in North - Syria 435 

425


426 

ELIZABETH KABURA NYAGA, WERNER DOPPLER: 

Smallholder Cash Crop Production and its Impact on Poverty 

in Kenya 436


Technology Adoption under Heterogeneity and Uncertainty: the 

Case of Bt-cotton Production in Karnataka, India 

ASHOK MALKARNEKAR 1 , DIEMUTH PEMSL 2 , HERMANN WAIBEL 1 


2 WorldFish Center, Policy, Economics, and Social Sciences, Malaysia 

Bollworm resistant Bt cotton varieties were introduced in India in 2002 with great 

expectations with regard to a reduction in the use of insecticides. 

A panel of 100 early adopters of Bt cotton in Karnataka State in South India was studied 

to investigate the adoption and productivity of the new varieties. Data used in the 

analysis is from farm level interviews with early adopters conducted in 2002/2003 (the 

first Bt cotton season) and the same group of farmers supplemented by a control group 

in 2004/2005. The impact of Bt varieties on insecticide use and output is assessed using 

production function analysis within a damage control framework. In addition, a 

stochastic partial budgeting model is used to assess the net benefits of different bollworm 

control options. The assumptions for this modelling exercise are partly derived 

from the descriptive findings of the case study. Furthermore, the marginal productivities 

from the econometric modelling have been linked to the simulation model. 

Contrary to widespread perceptions, results indicate considerable pesticide overuse 

and good damage control effects at low levels of insecticide use and for Bt and non- 

Bt cotton users. Simulations to assess the comparative performance of different pest 

management strategies indicate that potential pest damage and potential yield are important 

determinants of pest control profitability. The model confirms the observed 

disadoption behaviour for Bt varieties among many farmers in Karnataka state. The 

simulation results also suggest that need based integrated pest management (IPM) 

strategies outperform other strategies in most of the scenarios. 

Keywords: Bt-cotton, India, panel data, production function estimation, stochastic 

simulation 

Contact Address: Ashok Malkarnekar, University of Hannover, Development and Agricultural Economics, 

Königsworther Platz 1, 30167 Hannover, Germany, e-mail: ashok@ifgb.uni-hannover.de 

ID 587 427


Adoption and Diffusion Processes of Silage Technology in the Area 

of Yoro, Honduras 

CHRISTOPH REIBER 1 , RAINER SCHULTZE-KRAFT 1 , MICHAEL PETERS 2 , 

VOLKER HOFFMANN 3 , PETER LENTES 4 , H. CRUZ 5 , CARLOS LASCANO 2 




3Universität Hohenheim, Department of Agricultural Communication and Extension, Germany 

4International Centre for Tropical Agriculture (CIAT), Honduras 

5Dirección de Ciencia y Tecnología Agropecuaria (DICTA), Honduras 

Feed shortage during the 5–6 month dry season in extended areas of Central America severely 

limits livestock production. An alternative feeding strategy to overcome this constraint includes 

silage preparation during the rainy season. However, adoption of forage conservation methods 

by small-scale farmers has been low. Reasons include high investments required, lack of knowhow 

and lack of knowledge of appropriate low-cost alternatives. 

In 2002, CIAT and its partners identified the need and demand for forage conservation technologies 

by farmers in the area of Yoro, Honduras. Silo types such as heap and earth silos and 

especially little bag silage (LBS) were offered during farmer trainings and field days in order to 

catalyze innovation, adoption and dissemination processes of silage technologies with and by 

small-scale farmers. 

Adaptation, adoption and diffusion processes of silage technology and factors influencing these 

processes were identified for the Yoro area. 

Over the last three years, there were annual growth rates of farmers using silage of 91, 57 and 

103 % respectively, with presently 67 farmers. In the same period, the quantity of forage ensiled 

increased by 82, 71 and 135 % respectively, with presently about 3880 tons. 

Until 2003, there were only medium and large-scale farmers using mainly the common bunker 

silo type that involves an initial investment of about US$ 600 for materials and construction (30 

t forage capacity). Since 2004, the use of alternative low-cost silo types has been increasing up 

to presently 50 % (11, 17, 22 % for LBS, earth and heap silo respectively). The present share 

of small-scale farmers using silo increased from 0 to about 20 %. While until 2002/2003, 91 % 

of the farmers ensiled maize, the present share is about 65 % with an increasing use of sorghum 

and mixtures of improved pastures, sugar cane and forage legumes. 

In Yoro, the most relevant factors boosting the spread of silage use are forage scarcity and the 

absence of a forage market, existence of a milk market, promotion of silage technology and 

technical assistance, presence of farmer associations and innovators who are at the same time 

key communicators and influentials. 

Keywords: Farmer trainings, feeding strategy, forage conservation, silage 

Contact Address: Christoph Reiber, University of Hohenheim, Institute of Plant Production and Agroecology 

in the Tropics and Subtropics 

current address: Drosselweg 6, 72501 Gammertingen, Germany, e-mail: chreiber@gmx.de 

428 ID 145


Improving Livelihoods through Coconut Product Diversification, a 

Case from Vietnam 

MENNO KEIZER 

International Plant Genetic Resources Institute, Malaysia 

Coconut is a crop of poor land and poor people. Around 96 % of coconut farmers are 

smallholders tending less than four hectares. These people are marginalised and often 

do not own their land. Because of limited market opportunities, rural coconut producing 

families often have little alternative than to sell the raw product, copra, which is a 

low-value commodity. Diversification of coconut products could reverse this situation 

coupled with addressing the marketing issues dominating the industry. This research 

paper deals with a coconut high value product produced by local communities in Vietnam 

and investigates the marketing chain of gift baskets made from the leave of the 

coconut tree. The utilisation of the coconut leaves, which otherwise would be a waste 

product, provides a livelihood opportunity for many rural people in Ben Tre province. 

Gift baskets have an important socio-cultural value in Vietnamese society. They are 

widely used for the presentation of gifts for special events at certain times of the 

year. The production of midrib, i.e. processing of the main vein of the coconut leave, 

provides an additional or is sometimes the only source of income, especially for the 

elderly. It is therefore an important activity in the peoples’ livelihood. Basket-producers 

are experienced craftswomen and men. Due to the proximity of the market, the 

existence of local traders and their competitive edge of producing high quality baskets, 

they are able to make a decent living. Although local authorities have expressed 

their concern about reduced productivity of coconut trees because of excessive leave 

harvesting, there is no hard evidence available at the moment on what the effect of the 

various harvest methods practised is on the coconut yield. A study into these effects 

is highly recommended. This could not only lead to improved harvest practices by the 

midrib producers but could also provide information to policymakers that midrib baskets 

and coconut production could go hand in hand and would provide an additional 

livelihood opportunity for many rural families in Ben Tre province. 

Keywords: Livelihoods, Market system research, product diversification, sustainability, 

value chain analysis 

Contact Address: Menno Keizer, International Plant Genetic Resources Institute, 

Po Box 236 Upm Post Office, 43400 Serdang, Malaysia, e-mail: m.keizer@cgiar.org 

ID 455 429


Assessing and Comparing Income Generation of Livestock 

Holders in Olancho, Honduras. An Analysis Across Typical 

Landscapes and Farming Systems 

PETER LENTES 1 , MICHAEL PETERS 2 , DOUGLAS WHITE 2 , FREDERICO 

HOLMANN 2 , CHRISTOPH REIBER 3 

1 International Centre for Tropical Agriculture (CIAT), Honduras 

2 International Centre for Tropical Agriculture (CIAT), Colombia 

3 University of Hohenheim, Institute of Plant Production and Agroecology in the Tropics 


The prolonged dry season (3–6 months) limits livestock production in wide parts of Central 

America. Responding to drought, livestock holders rely on feeding supplements, (concentrates, 

molasses) and conserved forage. Many small-scale farmers cease milk production during dry 

periods resulting in scarcity of cash. 

Characteristics of farms across herd sizes (small 1–15, medium 16–70 and large > 71 heads) 

are compared in terms of land allocation, the use of supplements and conserved forage for 

livestock in dry and wet season. 

Sampling of 86 farms was done in two groups. A random sample along a transect and a targeted 

sample of positive deviances, farms with known higher level of technification. Most of the 

income is generated with meat and milk. 

Income per head of young stock (sold after 12 months) depended on the amount of milk given 

to the calves and the length of the lactation throughout the groups. Young bulls (sold after 24 

months) bring more among the large producers. Positive deviances earn less with young stock 

than the others but earn more when producing young bulls. 

Along with herd size, the availability of improved pastures rises whereas basic grain production 

declines. This suggests a more intensive livestock production for larger cattle owners and a 

more subsistence—oriented system for small producers. But comparing production cost per 

milking cow for the dry season and the income gained, points out that small farmers (provided 

that they milk in the dry season) are generating income in a more efficient way. This is partly 

due to high cost of forage production among large farmers. Small farmers obtain higher prices 

selling small quantities of milk to the local market. The highest dry season-income per cow 

was found among the positive deviances. 

Improvement of dry season forage availability through stepwise seeding of improved forages 

and their conservation would thus be an appropriate and effective alternative to increase and 

sustain cash flow of poor producers. It would enable more of them to milk their cows during 

fodder scarcity periods. 

Keywords: Cash, dry season, Forage, Honduras, Livestock, Socio-economics 

Contact Address: Peter Lentes, International Centre for Tropical Agriculture (CIAT), Tegucigalpa, Honduras, 

e-mail: p.lentes@cgiar.org 

430 ID 144


Analysis of Small Landowners’ Willingness to Accept 

Conservation Payments in Brazilian Amazonia 

NORMA ELY SANTOS, SIEGFRIED BAUER 

Justus-Liebig-Universität Giessen, Institute of Agriculture and Food Systems Management, 


Policies designed to enhance forest conservation face various barriers especially when 

applied in areas inhabited by small landowners because of the long period of time 

needed to achieve benefits. In case of some communities located in southeastern of 

Marajo Island, Brazilian Amazonia, it might be possible to obtain gains for environmental 

services through the forest conservation and sustainable management practices, 

since the area still maintains a large forest area. However, the implementation of conservation 

policies would eventually led to a change of the current agricultural methods 

including slash-and-burn, shifting cultivation, ranching and non-managed logging to 

others more sustainable. Therefore, the main objectives of this paper are: to assess the 

monetary amount required by the local households by using the willingness to accept 

compensation (WTA) approach and, to determine the factors affecting the farmers’ 

decision for setting such values. 

Based on a field survey conducted with one hundred farm households in six different 

communities in southwestern Marajo Island, the study results infer important findings: 

the payments demanded to give up the current activities are within the two Brazilian 

minimum wages per ha per year. Households with smaller income use the minimum 

wage as base for the payments estimates, whereas households with larger income use 

the cost opportunity approach to calculate the payments estimates. 

OLS regression was employed to determine the relations between payments requested, 

the productive capability, farmer’s socio-economic characteristics, and the quality of 

land and forest area. Tobit regression was employed to evaluate the interdependencies 

between the area size informed by the farmers and some other explanatory variables. 

The results of econometric analysis revel that: (1) The willingness to accept payments 

for conservation programs is for the most of farmers shaped by timber and heart of 

palm production, as well as area of native forest; (2) The area available for such 

program is associated with the area of native forest, the distance to the closest village, 

the household size and with timber and heart of palm production. 

Keywords: Amazonia, forest conservation , land use, sustainable use, willingness to 

accept 

Contact Address: Norma Ely Santos, Justus-Liebig-Universität Giessen, Institute of Agriculture 

and Food Systems Management, Project and Regional Planning, 35392 Giessen, Germany, e-mail: 

normaelysantos@yahoo.com.br 

ID 530 431


Public-private Partnerships in Biotechnology Research and 

Impacts on Technology Adoption: the Case of Bt Eggplant in India 

VIJESH VIJAYA KRISHNA, MATIN QAIM 

University of Hohenheim, International Agricultural Trade and Food Security, Germany 

The study analyses ex-ante the adoption of transgenic insect-resistant Bt eggplant, 

developed under a public-private research partnership in India. Eggplant is often 

described as the “poor man’s vegetable”, because it is popular amongst small-scale 

farmers and low-income consumers. Eggplant is attacked by various insect pests, the 

major one being the shoot and fruit borer, Leucinodes orbonalis Guenée. Farmers’ 

willingness to pay (WTP) for Bt technology is estimated using the contingent valuation 

method. Given the economic importance of shoot and fruit borer, the average 

WTP for proprietary Bt hybrids is more than four times the current price of conventional 

hybrids, but only a quarter of the total economic loss inflicted by the pest. Since 

the private innovating firm has shared the technology with the public sector, it is likely 

that public open-pollinated Bt varieties will also be released after a small delay. This 

is will reduce farmers’ WTP for Bt hybrids by 35 %, thus decreasing the scope for 

corporate pricing policies. Nonetheless, ample profit potential remains, as the mean 

WTP will remain almost three times higher than the existing price of conventional hybrid 

seeds. Analysis of factors influencing farmers’ adoption decisions demonstrates 

that public Bt varieties will improve technology access for resource-poor eggplant 

producers, who currently resort to intensive chemical measures for borer management. 

Partnership with the public sector might facilitate technology approval process 

for proprietary technologies, where biosafety procedures are highly politicized, with 

technology critics trying to block technologies developed by the private sector. The results 

suggest that public-private partnership can be beneficial for all parties involved. 

Keywords: Adoption, Biotechnology, Bt eggplant, Contingent valuation, India, Insecticide 

use, Public-private partnership, Shoot and fruit borer, Willingness to pay 



432 ID 155


An Ex-ante Economic Evaluation of Nutritional Impacts of 

Transgenic-biofortified Potato in India 

DEEPESH PUTHIYAPURAYIL CHANGAT 1 , VIJESH VIJAYA KRISHNA 2 

1Humboldt Unversity Berlin, Department of Agricultural Economics and Social Sciences, 

Germany 

2University of Hohenheim, International Agricultural Trade and Food Security, Germany 

Though proven correlation exists between malnutrition and income poverty, it is well 

recognised that economic growth alone can not form panacea for under-nourishment. 

To address this problem an array of approaches is adopted by the policy makers of 

developing countries. Biofortification of food is a relatively new development that 

compliments the existing instruments to ameliorate malnutrition problem. It refers to 

breeding staple food crops for higher nutrient content levels. Protein-energy malnutrition 

(PEM) is a major type of macronutrient malnutrition in the developing countries, 

which is characterised not only by energy deficit due to reduction in all macronutrients, 

but also by a deficit in many micronutrients. From the perspective of welfare 

economics, the present study addresses the nutritional impacts of a transgenic biofortified 

crop — protein rich potato or ‘protato’; developed by the public research sector 

of India. The protato, enhanced with a gene from the amaranth plant, has up to a third 

more protein than traditional potatoes and significantly higher levels of the essential 

amino acids viz. lysine and methionine. A probe into (i) the nature and extent of 

protein malnutrition in socioeconomic context of India (ii) the extent to which the 

protein rich transgenic potatoes can help ameliorate protein malnutrition, and (iii) the 

consumer attitude and willingness to purchase them, forms the major research objectives. 

The paper elaborates the research design and includes review of previous 

studies to examine the impact and direction of various socioeconomic factors of consumer 

households determining attitude towards genetically modified foods. Using the 

secondary data, the demand for potatoes is estimated across Indian states with varying 

levels of per capita income, combining rural and urban population. Methodological 

aspects of calculating disability adjusted life years (DALYs), employed to measure 

impacts of PEM are also detailed in the paper. 

Keywords: Biofortification, India, Nutrition, Protato, Protein-energy malnutrition, 

Transgenic potato, Willingness to purchase 

Contact Address: Deepesh Puthiyapurayil Changat, Humboldt Unversity Berlin, Department of Agricultural 

Economics and Social Sciences, Luisenstr. 56, 10099 Berlin, Germany, e-mail: deepeshpc@ 

gmail.com 

ID 429 433


Determinants of Credit Rationing: A Study of Rural Households 

in North China 

XIANGPING JIA, FRANZ HEIDHUES, MANFRED ZELLER 

University of Hohenheim, Institute of Agricultural Economics and Social Sciences in the 


Compared with the burgeoning urban economy, the situation in rural China can hardly 

be cheerful. Rural communities suffer from low grain prices, insecure land rights, lack 

of capital, and the rising costs for education and health. One of the policy instruments 

of the Chinese government is to address the rising inequalities between urban and 

rural areas by providing subsidized credit to rural households. 

This paper investigates which type of rural households benefit from credit. After a 

brief overview of rural financial market in China from a historical perspective, we 

describe the method of data collection and the theoretical and econometric model. 

Using first-hand survey data of households from North China, a two-stage probability 

models will be applied to analyse the determinants of credit rationing in both formal 

and informal credit markets. We model a sequential decision-making process where 

in the first stage households decide to apply for a loan or not, and in the second 

stage, state-owned banks as lenders decide to fully or partially grant the requested 

loan amount or to reject the loan altogether. In the first stage, univariate LOGIT 

models are used to estimate the probability of applying for loans. In the second stage, 

we test hypotheses concerning household characteristics that can be observed by the 

lender to determine the credit rationing decision. To account for selection bias, we use 

—following models developed James Heckman— the Mill’s ratio estimated from the 

first stage LOGIT models. Two sequential models are estimated: one for the informal 

and one for formal credit market. This allows us to identify differences in demand 

and supply behaviour in these two market segments. 

Keywords: China, Credit rationing, Rural households 

Contact Address: Xiangping Jia, University of Hohenheim, Institute of Agricultural Economics and 

Social Sciences in the Tropics and Subtropics, Schloß, Osthof-Süd, 70599 Stuttgart, Germany, e-mail: 

jjoseph@uni-hohenheim.de 

434 ID 219


Socio Economic Impact of Irrigation Project on Living Standard 

of Farming Population in North - Syria 

SALWA ALMOHAMED 1 , WERNER DOPPLER 2 

1University Hohenheim, Agricultural Economoics and Social Sciences in the Tropics and 

Subtropics, Germany 


Germany 

Rainfall is the main water source for agriculture in the arid and semi-arid areas. The 

low rainfall and the non constant quantities over the year caused low agricultural 

yields and consequently low farm and family income of farming communities. 

Syria is one of those countries where irrigation plays an important rule to increase the 

agricultural production. Therefore, many land reclamations projects were conducted 

through expansion of irrigated areas with building channels. This study investigates 

the impact of irrigation project in West —Maskana area on the living standard of 

farming population existing in the area. 

75 farming families were randomly selected. 50 farmers were selected from the 

project area while the other 25 were selected from outside the project area. This stratified 

random sampling was used as a basis for classification to enable the comparison 

between project beneficiaries and non-beneficiaries. 

The current results of the economic analysis of different farming systems showed that 

irrigation project has increased the land productivity 9–12 times and consequently the 

farm income has also increased. Additionally the analysis showed that the contribution 

of farm income in the family income has increased to reach more than the half of 

the family income. 

The main reason behind this fact is the high level of availability of irrigation water. 

Therefore, families outside the project area have directed their resources towards offfarm 

activities. Results showed that the contribution of off-farm income of non beneficiaries 

farming families in their family income is 71 %. 

In general, water availability enhanced the agricultural intensification. Results showed 

significant differences in crop intensify between different farming systems. Crops intensity 

indicator was 143 % in the beneficiaries’ farmer group while it was only 92 % 

in the non-beneficiaries farmers group. 

Keywords: Farming systems, irrigation projects, Syria 

Contact Address: Salwa Almohamed, University Hohenheim, Agricultural Economoics and Social 

Sciences in the Tropics and Subtropics, Fruwirthstr.12, 70593 Stuttgart, Germany, e-mail: salwa@ 


ID 596 435


Smallholder Cash Crop Production and its Impact on Poverty in 

Kenya 

ELIZABETH KABURA NYAGA, WERNER DOPPLER 


Germany 

This paper is based on an ongoing research on impact of smallholder cash crops production 

on living standards under different farm and family conditions. In Kenya, 

most farmers are small scale producers of cash crops such as tea and coffee. Prior to 

early 1990’s, farmers earned enough income to provide for adequate food, education 

and good health to their families. These industries have been faced with challenges 

such as decline in world prices, entry of many competitors in the market including introduction 

of products that replace the functions of these cash crops. These challenges 

have negative impacts on competitiveness and market participation of the smallholders. 

Cash crop production is currently not contributing to alleviation of rural poverty. 

The daily efforts of the farmers do not trickle back to them but enrich the marketers 

and buyers. There is therefore a relationship between cash crop production, poverty 

and hunger among rural families. The paper will highlight issues of resource allocation 

and use among different groups of smallholder tea and coffee farmers. It will also 

highlight the relationship between cash crop production and living standards measurements 

such as food supply and security, family income, health and education. This paper 

is motivated by the fact that despite the allocation of almost all their resources and 

time in cash crop production, farmers are ravaging in poverty; unable to get enough 

food, pay health services and school fees. Most of the land was invested in cash crops 

and farmers do not have enough land left for food production and other income generating 

activities. Unemployment is spreading fast because the tea and coffee farms 

can no longer absorb the growing population which includes the farmers seeking offfarm 

income and youths who dropped prematurely out of school. The results show 

differences in resource allocation and use; and levels of living standards among the 

farming systems. The results show that financial and physical capitals and to some extent 

human capitals are the main resources that caused variations in both agricultural 

productivity and living standards in the two farming systems. Analysis has been done 

using econometric models. 

Keywords: Kenya, low living standards, poverty, smallholder cash crops production 

Contact Address: Elizabeth Kabura Nyaga, University of Hohenheim, Farming and Rural Systems 

in the Tropics and Subtropics, Fruwirth Strasse 12, 70599 Stuttgart, Germany, e-mail: kabura@ 


436 ID 233

Poverty (GTZ) 

MICHAEL ALATISE: 

Agricultural Research Priorities That Can Foster Prosperity 

and Reduce Poverty in Nigeria 439 

GODIHALD MUSHINZIMANA: 

Analysis of the Implementation of Governmental Programs 

for the Development of marshlands and Valley Lowlands 

in Southern Rwanda 440 

THEINGI MYINT, LILA KARKI, SIEGFRIED BAUER: 

Rice Market under Halfway-liberalised Economy in Myanmar: 

Structure, Conduct and Performance Approach 441 

ROCH MONGBO, ANNE FLOQUET: 

Pineapple Against Poverty?: Market Opportunities, Technological 

Development and Social Stratification in Southern 

Benin 442 

REINHOLD GLAUNER, ULRICH BICK, ANDREAS KNOELL: 

Refinement of the Malaysian Forest Certification Scheme 

MTCC with Regard to the Requirements for Public Procurement 

of Tropical Timber of the City of Hamburg 443 

MUTLU PETRA, ANNE FLOQUET: 

Prosperity and Poverty among Cotton Growers in Benin 

— Potential Contributions of a New Partnership among 

Stakeholders Within the Value Chain 444 

HANS JOCHEN REGNER, AMER Z. SALMAN, HEINZ-PETER 

WOLFF: 

Approaches and Impacts of Participatory Irrigation Management 

(PIM) in Complex, Centralized Irrigation Systems 

— Experiences and Results from the Jordan Valley 445 

SILVIA MARTIN HAN, MELANIE DJÉDJÉ, JESSICA FRÜHWALD: 

Managing for Development Results — A Baseline for Impact 

Monitoring on Poverty. Case Study in Sub-saharan 

Africa, Niger 446 

NDAMBI BENINWECK ENDAH, OGHAIKI ASAAH NDAMBI: 

Impact of Malaria on Food Production in the Western Highlands 

of Cameroon 447 

437


438 

ANNE FLOQUET: 

Towns as a Motor for Economic Development — Trends 

Observed in Periurban Areas Around Mid Sized Cities in 

Benin and the von Thünen’ S Framework 448

Poverty (GTZ) 

Agricultural Research Priorities That Can Foster Prosperity and 

Reduce Poverty in Nigeria 

MICHAEL ALATISE 

Federal University of Technology, Agricultural Engineering, Nigeria 

The prevailing social conditions in Nigeria present a startling paradox due to their 

robust endowment in natural and human resources not being matched with the level 

of poverty of the people. The most difficult challenge facing Nigeria today is poverty 

reduction to foster sustainable socio-economic growth. Africa remains a rural society, 

which largely depends upon aggriculture and pastoralism and Nigeria exemplifies this 

assertion in all ramifications. Thus the main objectives of this paper are to (1) evaluate 

the country’s land and water resources, the methods of agricultural practice and 

its past and present agricultural programmes; (2) highlight the much desired agricuculral 

research challenges and little efforts made in this area and (3) establish longterm 

partnerships among reseachers,practioners and end-users. Various programmes 

that set-up to combat poverty were discussed and causes for their failures were identified. 

The reseach challenges include the following: (1) data collection, collation, 

storage and retrival particularly on (climatological, hydrological, hydro-geological), 

and crop area survey and machinery; (2) study of crop water requirements and irrigation 

scheduling to include: (a) evaluation of ET models in different ecological zones 

of Nigeria and (b) crop yield response to irrigation water management, (3) classifications 

of soil types in the different ecological zones and (4) design and fabrication of 

appropriate machines for the various farming operations. Finally, the paper calls for 

education and enlightenment of the rural community, the creation of an environmen 

where new ideas can find expression, and integration of , land and water resources for 

agricultural and rural development. 

Keywords: Aecological zones, ET models, hydro-data collection, poverty reduction, 

water resources 

Contact Address: Michael Alatise, Federal University of Technology, Agricultural Engineering, 

Dept. of Agricultural Engineering Fed. Univ. of Technology, 340001 Akure, Nigeria, e-mail: 

micalatise@yahoo.com 

ID 595 439


Analysis of the Implementation of Governmental Programs for the 

Development of marshlands and Valley Lowlands in Southern 

Rwanda 

GODIHALD MUSHINZIMANA 

University of Bonn, Department for Economic Sociology, Germany 

Due to an immense growth in population and a high population density combined with 

an extensive production level as the result of the subsistence economy, the Rwandan 

government was forced to cultivate its remaining land resources in the past, namely 

the marshlands that comprised approximately 12 per cent of the country’s usable agricultural 

area. An intensive cultivation of these marshlands is to be achieved primarily 

through cooperative community usage, the introduction of new cultivation methods 

(multicropping and agrosilvopastoral systems), and the establishment of microfinancing 

institutions. Apart from assuring food security, the exploitation of marginal, especially 

erosion-threatened hillsides is meant to be prevented under the aspect of ecological 

considerations. The question remains open whether the social situation of the 

small farmers in the wetlands has improved for those who have been living there or 

for those who were settled anew in some parts, in order to better living conditions 

with regard to social care and agricultural infrastructure. No explicit socialeconomic 

studies have been carried out up to now. It is the aim of this research study is to 

analyse the political, administrative and social implementation with regard to the consequences 

of this development policy. Based on the sociological approach of implementation 

theory the governmental program, its characteristics and development will 

be described; on the one hand the implementation by the responsible agencies will be 

analyzed, on the other hand the decision framework of the farmers by regarding the 

structure of their farm enter-prises and by undertaking a social structure analysis. The 

research project is designed as a comparative study of two reclaimed marshlands. Between 

September and December 2005 structured interviews, group discussions and 

guided expert inter-views were carried out in 70 households in the marsh districts 

Rugeramigozi and Base respectively. The work was conducted in close cooperation 

with the PASI-Project Group of the University of Mainz (Prof.Jörg Grunert), with 

the Agricultural Department of the National University in Butare, which has a strong 

focus on production-technical aspects, and in coordination with German Agro Action. 

Keywords: Implementation, Marshlands, Valley Lowlands 

Contact Address: Godihald Mushinzimana, University of Bonn, Department for Economic Sociology, 

Nussallee 21, 53179 Bonn, Germany, e-mail: mushinzimana@agp.uni-bonn.de 

440 ID 259

Poverty (GTZ) 

Rice Market under Halfway-liberalised Economy in Myanmar: 

Structure, Conduct and Performance Approach 

THEINGI MYINT, LILA KARKI, SIEGFRIED BAUER 

Justus-Liebig-University Giessen, Institute of Agriculture and Food Systems Management, 


Rice plays an important role in Myanmar’s economy as an staple food and high 

amount of foreign exchange earning comes through export. The agricultural economy 

of Myanmar has been under transition from a planned to a market system since 

late 1980s. Two liberalisations of rice marketing had been done in 1987 and 2003. 

The first liberalisation implemented by allowing free domestic marketing and private 

export of some agricultural products except rice. Rice procurement and rationing systems 

were abolished under the second liberalisation. However, the government is still 

not undertaking full-scale rice export deregulation actually. Therefore, the rice marketing 

system in Myanmar works within the boundaries and limitations of a halfwayliberalised 

economy which triggers questions about the structure, conduct and performance 

of rice marketing system. In this study, the general SCP (Structure, Conduct 

and Performance) approach is adapted, which allows for feedback relationships, competitive 

behaviour (conduct) of firms and performance (in terms of price, transaction 

cost, etc.) that might influence the market structure elements by analysing the secondary 

and primary market survey data of rice surplus and deficit regions. Market 

structure describes the environment and the characteristics of a market that exercise 

strategic influence on the nature of competition and pricing. According to the findings, 

dimensions of rice market structure seem to be competitive market however government 

intervention on supply side exists as the land policy tightly control in paddy 

production and procurement system as well. Market intermediaries set the rice price 

as prevalent market even though they are not allowed to access the international market 

as export is monopolised by government institutions. Therefore, the rice market 

performance indicates lower retail price share to producers from the results of high 

marketing margins along the channels across rice markets taken in this study. The 

results show an idea intended for the rice market that the current policy environment 

might develop by deregulation of land policy in supply side along with getting access 

the international rice market in demand side to become efficient competitive rice 

market in Myanmar. 

Keywords: Halfway-liberalised economy, Myanmar, rice market, SCP approach 

Contact Address: Theingi Myint, Justus-Liebig-University Giessen, Institute of Agriculture and Food 

Systems Management, Project and Regional Planning, Senckenbergstr. 3, 35390 Gießen, Germany, 

e-mail: theingi.myint@agrar.uni-giessen.de 

ID 330 441


Pineapple Against Poverty?: Market Opportunities, Technological 

Development and Social Stratification in Southern Benin 

ROCH MONGBO 1 , ANNE FLOQUET 2 

1 University of Abomey Calavi, Department of Economy, Benin 


Over the past 10 years in southern Benin, pineapple production has been going through 

a tremendous development following a rapid increase in local and regional demands 

and a relative success of a few agricultural and trade entrepreneurs in sizing niches 

on European markets. This is considered as a real blessing for this part of the country 

where the agrarian development over the century (palm trees economy controlled by 

the elders, failure of state agricultural services to promote a sustainable farming system 

and a cash crop as cotton in the central and northern part of the country, important 

development of land market by the end of the 1980s to the benefit of urban ad middle 

class population, etc.) has generated soil exhaustion, over fragmentation of family 

farms, rampant poverty and vulnerability of small farmers and massive migration to 

Lagos and Cotonou. This paper presents part of the results of empirical investigations 

conducted in 2004 and 2005 on the circumstances, modalities and consequences of 

the recent development of a pineapple economy in southern Benin. The research was 

conducted in 3 villages representative of the agro-ecological variety of the pineapple 

production area. Qualitative methods were combined with a quantitative survey on 

a randomly selected sample of farmers. The results presented and analysed in this 

paper start with a short description of the various strategies and coalitions of actors 

(farmers and their organisations, merchants, inputs sellers and agricultural extension 

services) that have ended establishing a commodity chain ‘filière ananas’ in the southern 

Benin with marginal if any intervention of the state. Then, based on the empirical 

data, the paper presents and analyses the technological development at farm level, the 

strategies of farmers to manage farm labour, activity systems and access to inputs 

and market. The paper pays particular attention to the social stratification induced by 

these transformations and the challenges therein for researchers and policy makers. 

Keywords: Cash crop, commodity chain, endogeneous institutional innovation, pineapple, 

stakeholder networks 

Contact Address: Roch Mongbo, University of Abomey Calavi, Department of Economy, Socianthropology 

and Communication, Cotonou, Benin, e-mail: rmongbo@intnet.bj 

442 ID 576

Poverty (GTZ) 

Refinement of the Malaysian Forest Certification Scheme MTCC 

with Regard to the Requirements for Public Procurement of 

Tropical Timber of the City of Hamburg 

REINHOLD GLAUNER 1 , ULRICH BICK 1 , ANDREAS KNOELL 2 

1Federal Research Centre for Forestry and Forest Products, Institute for World Forestry, 

Germany 

2University of Hamburg, Wood Science, Section World Forestry, Germany 

Global trade with forest resources, especially between developing and industrialised 

countries, often resulted in an unbalanced distribution of profits and negative consequences 

for the local population and environment in originating areas. Reliability and 

credibility concerning social, ecological and economical sustainability therefore are 

most important features of certification schemes, here with regard to forest resources. 

In worldwide constraints towards sustainable forest management (SFM) in tropical 

regions a few national forest certification schemes were developed in recent years. 

Amongst them the Malaysian Timber Certification Council (MTCC) which follows a 

phased approach in line with guidelines of the International Tropical Timber Organisation 

(ITTO). MTCC is an independent non-profit organisation established to plan 

and operate a voluntary national timer certification scheme in Malaysia. The current 

scheme in use, the Malaysian Criteria & Indicators 2002 (MC&I 2002), has undergone 

strong revisal in nationwide fieldtests in 2004. The revised standard (MC&I 

2002, version 2004) aims for compliance with the principles of the Forest Stewardship 

Council (FSC). The Free and Hanseatic City of Hamburg (FHH) implemented a 

policy to restrict the import and use of tropical timber to sources which are certified 

under internationally accepted certification schemes. This includes an evaluation of 

existing certification schemes and a definition of the specific requirements of FHH 

concerning SFM. The guidelines for public procurement of tropical timber emphasise 

the need for credible criteria to demonstrate that the resources derive from legal and 

sustainable managed sources. Based on former discussions between MTCC and FHH 

a joint project is launched in 2006. The Federal Research Centre and the University 

Hamburg will provide scientific support for the evaluation and refinement of the revised 

standard. Specialists from both countries will form a joint project team that will 

work independently in cooperation with MTCC and other relevant organisations in 

Malaysia to assess and refine the given standard. This includes the development of 

additional indicators and verifiers, if necessary. 

Keywords: Hamburg, Malaysian Timber Certification Council, national certification 

initiatives, sustainable forest management 

Contact Address: Ulrich Bick, Federal Research Centre for Forestry and Forest Products, Institute for 

World Foresty, Leuschnerstraße 91, Hamburg, Germany, e-mail: bick@holz.uni-hamburg.de 

ID 245 443


Prosperity and Poverty among Cotton Growers in Benin — 

Potential Contributions of a New Partnership among Stakeholders 

Within the Value Chain 

MUTLU PETRA 1 , ANNE FLOQUET 2 

1 GTZ, Pro Cgrn, Benin 


Cotton has been an important source of income and capital accumulation for farmers 

in northern Benin during two decades. Visible signs were investments in housings, 

expansion of cultivated areas in cash and food crops and investments from cotton 

growers organisations in collective goods, school buildings and community teachers 

for example. Nowadays many farmers who are growing cotton draw a negative income 

out of it. They go on with this crop because it is the only way to have access to 

inputs on credit and to get some “one shot” cash. Negative effects of impoverishment 

are lack of farm investment, soil fertility depletion, dependency on child farm work, 

dissension among cotton growers organisations and break up of contracts among actors 

within the value chain. 

We will present an on going experience where the incentive for reversal is coming 

from the last links within the value chain. A large garment firm in Germany, arguing 

on social responsibility, designed a public private partnership with GTZ as a public development 

agency, for promoting cotton that is environmentally sustainable, socially 

responsible and economically profitable for cotton farmers in three different African 

settings (Burkina Faso, Benin and Tanzania). 

In Benin, about 10.000 farmers, one input dealer and one ginner agree on production 

standards and monitoring criteria that allow for obtaining a label CmiA and for 

benefiting from specific trading arrangements. Support is given in form of additional 

training and extension to farmers’ groups engaged in the process as well as for building 

contractual arrangements among partners. Monitoring of progress is being partly 

performed by participants in the process and partly by external agencies. Each lint 

cotton ballot leaving the country and produced within the specific arrangement has 

a “passport” describing the conditions of its production. It is expected that training 

and self monitoring on one hand, reshaping of contractual arrangements for timely 

access to input and cotton payment will have immediate positive effects on farmers’ 

performances. 

Keywords: Benin, cotton, public private partnership, value chain 


444 ID 569

Poverty (GTZ) 

Approaches and Impacts of Participatory Irrigation Management 

(PIM) in Complex, Centralized Irrigation Systems — Experiences 

and Results from the Jordan Valley 

HANS JOCHEN REGNER 1 , AMER Z. SALMAN 2 , HEINZ-PETER WOLFF 3 

1German Technical Cooperation (GTZ), Project Water Resource Management for Irrigated 

Agriculture, Jordan 

2University of Jordan, Faculty of Agriculture, Jordan 


Germany 

Participatory Irrigation Management (PIM) is a key term in the toolbox of current approaches 

to improve the efficiency and performance of water resource management. Experiences from 

several countries indicate that introducing participatory elements in the relationship between 

decision makers on water resources and end users of water is an essential process in the complex 

set-up of successful water resources management. The differences between the applied 

participatory approaches support the assumption that PIM cannot be transferred from one situation 

to another without modifications. Published guidelines on elements and procedures in 

participation put their focus on general applicability, but the successful implementation of PIM 

in a specific case crucially depends on its sensible adaptation to the local situation. 

Water resource management in the Jordan River’s east bank underwent significant changes 

since the 1960s and became a highly centralised irrigatiion system under the control of the 

governmental Jordan Valley Authority (JVA). The social structure of the farming population 

developed alongside the reorganisation, but weakened tribal bonds in favour of the economic 

independence of individual families. Efforts towards an improved utilisation of water by introducing 

participatory elements in water resources management thus have to cope with complex 

incentive structures of individuals on the level of farmers’ communities and within the administration. 

The implementation of a concept, which relies on four years of analyses on socially 

acceptable mechanisms in the Jordanian context and the evaluation of former - less successful 

- approaches, now yield its first positive results. Major economic effects are decreasing maintenance 

costs of the pressurized conveyance system, a higher security of water supply through the 

therewith improved reliability of the system and the increase of cultivated areas due to a lower 

share of buffer zones within irrigation plots, which were a part of farmers’ reaction against the 

risk in water supply. Major social effects originate from the improved and more transparent 

communication structures, which reduce the number of conflicts between farmers and the need 

for interventions of governmental authorities in local disputes. 

Keywords: Jordan, participatory irrigation management, PIM 

Contact Address: Heinz-Peter Wolff, University of Hohenheim, Farming and Rural Systems in the Tropics 

and Subtropics, Fruwirthstraße 12, 70599 Stuttgart, Germany, e-mail: hpwolff@uni-hohenheim.de 

ID 213 445


Managing for Development Results — A Baseline for Impact 

Monitoring on Poverty. Case Study in Sub-saharan Africa, Niger 

SILVIA MARTIN HAN 1 , MELANIE DJÉDJÉ 2 , JESSICA FRÜHWALD 1 

1 Humboldt University Berlin, Advanced Training in Rural Development, Germany 

2 Consultancy for International Cooperation, Western and Eastern Africa, Germany 

The German cooperation in Niger has committed itself to contribute to the fight against poverty 

(Programme de Lutte contre la Pauvreté, LUCOP) as outlined in the national PRSP. Thus, a 

regular follow up of the results due to the programme’s interventions became a necessity. A 

results based monitoring system was initiated according to the new orientation on impacts of 

the international development policy. 

The present study delivered the baseline for the results based monitoring. Main challenges met 

were the identification of linkages between the national poverty strategy and the programmes 

intervention as well as the national and international definitions of poverty and those of the local 

people. For what results the programme can be made responsible and how do interventions of 

other projects and organisations influence locally the programme’s impact? 

The OECD-DAC Model of results chains (slightly adapted by GTZ) and the DFID Model of the 

four dimensions of poverty helped to tackle the task. In identifying the underlying hypotheses 

of the programme’s strategy through the results chains, differences between programme’s outputs, 

outcomes and impacts became evident and measurable through indicators. Then linkages 

could be drawn to indicators of the national strategy. 

The programme’s key indicators formed the reference for the field study, which was carried 

out in the two regions of the intervention zone. The methodology applied comprised semistructured 

interviews, adapted PRA tools and observation. Villagers were invited to define 

themselves categories of poverty and means to measure well being. 

Main findings were: Dependency on agriculture is considered the principal cause of poverty 

(income, access to production factors and services). Poverty is always influenced by a combination 

of factors belonging to the four dimensions of poverty. Thus to fight against poverty it 

is necessary to be aware that poverty is a multidimensional phenomenon. Furthermore, consequences 

of extreme poverty do not restrict to man but impact directly the natural surroundings 

by destroying the environment (excessive tree cut, selling wood), basis for future subsistence. 

In summary, the intention of the study is to make a practical contribution to reinforce the impact 

monitoring system of development programmes for poverty alleviation in rural areas. Thus 

effective use of current resources should lead to more visible and successful achievement of the 

MDG. 

Keywords: Food security,monitoring, evaluation, poverty assessment, rural areas 

Contact Address: Silvia Martin Han, Humboldt University Berlin, Advanced Training in Rural Development, 

Straße des 17. Juni 145, 10623 Berlin, Germany, e-mail: silvia.martin.han@gmx.de 

446 ID 543

Poverty (GTZ) 

Impact of Malaria on Food Production in the Western Highlands 

of Cameroon 

NDAMBI BENINWECK ENDAH 1 , OGHAIKI ASAAH NDAMBI 2 

1 University of Hohenheim, Germany 

2 IFCN Dairy Research Center, Germany 

Parasitic diseases contribute immensely to undermining the health status and jeopardising 

the economic development of African nations. 515 million cases of clinical 

malaria where reported globally in 2002 with more than 80 % in Sub-Saharan Africa. 

Experts estimate that a child dies every 30 seconds from malaria in Africa. WHO 

reports rank Cameroon endemic, with an incidence rate of 45.96� in 1998. Country 

statistics revealed incidence values of 83.6 % in 1984, 90.5 % in 1985, and 67.5 % 

in 1986. The incidence remains high because of deteriorating health systems, growing 

drug resistance and insecticide resistance. An epidemiological study of malaria 

was carried in the agricultural region of Dschang, Cameroon. The study was done 

in 2 phases; collection of blood samples by the finger prick method from a total of 

515 persons, and data collection from the Dschang District Hospital laboratory. Of 

the 515 persons, 79(15.3 %) were positive for malaria, ranking Dschang as meso-endemic 

for malaria. From our studies, transmission occurs through out the year with 

parasitemia increasing during the rainy months. The month of August had the highest 

Plasmodium Index of 17.5 % from our tests, while July and August had the highest 

Plasmodium Index for the patients who visited the hospital. These months are the 

peak periods for final weeding and harvesting of most staple crops in the rainy season. 

During the dry season, mosquito density is highest along rivers, which are fertile 

farming areas where farming is done. Malaria causes weakness of patients thereby 

reducing labour output, causes interruption of the production cycle and also causes 

deviation of funds from farm inputs to treatment costs for malaria. Malaria is therefore 

a great hazard to food security and a hindrance to poverty alleviation since poor 

farmers in agricultural production zones are highly vulnerable. Malaria remains a big 

problem as no effective vaccine has yet been developed against it. The use of drugs 

is limited due to costs incurred and worse still, it is not a guarantee, since the farmer 

remains exposed to predisposing factors promoting transmission and re-infection. 

Keywords: Cameroon, Food Security, Hazard, malaria 

Contact Address: Ndambi Beninweck Endah, University of Hohenheim, Fruwirthstrasse 7 - 4304, 

Stuttgart, Germany, e-mail: matni3@yahoo.com 

ID 105 447


Towns as a Motor for Economic Development — Trends Observed 

in Periurban Areas Around Mid Sized Cities in Benin and the von 

Thünen’ S Framework 

Cebedes NGO, Benin 

ANNE FLOQUET 

City growth strongly affects enterprises of the food sector in their hinterlands through 

pull and push effects. For several decades, scholars have been debating on the role 

played by small market towns on rural areas and on their impact on growth. Indeed, 

recent poverty studies reveal that the part of poor people in Benin has been increasing 

in rural areas but not in urban and peri-urban areas. In this context, the research programme 

ECOCITY is studying changes in agriculture and related processing activities 

at the interface between mid sized towns in Benin and Senegal and their hinterlands. 

The German economist von Thünen (1783–1850) has been a pioneer in developing 

a theoretical framework on how cities influence spatial arrangements of agricultural 

productions. According to it, land use is patterned in concentric circles. 

Around Abomey, such concentric circles can nowadays be found, due to processing 

microfirms rather than to the crops which had previously provided them with raw 

materials. Such microenterprises in the food processing sector root in traditional skills 

and expand in response to a growing urban demand; their proximity to each other is a 

source of positive externalities so that their trends to clustering should remain. High 

impoverishment of soils in the near hinterland constraints their exploitation, even if 

new trends in the use of city wastes can be observed.. High value crops can be found 

further from the city in high potential areas like river banks but have to compete with 

products from long distance marketing networks already supplying the city. 

Historic inheritances and influence of a large network of long distance markets therefore 

blur the expected concentric circles of high value crops at the periphery. In such 

a context, evidence seems to be lacking for restraining the spatial expansion of the 

city and protect periurban farm activities, even if these activities provide employment 

for thousands of periurban and urban inhabitants. 

Keywords: Cluster of firms, periurban agriculture, town, von Thünen 


448 ID 573

Animals and Production Systems 

a) Animal Genetics and Breeding 451 

b) Animal Nutrition: Ruminants 469 

c) Animal Nutrition: Chicken and Pigs 477 

d) Endogenous Development by livestock keepers 485 

e) Evaluation of Animal Production Systems 497 

449


450

Animal Genetics and Breeding 

NGO THI KIM CUC: 

Strategy to Assess Genetic Diversity and Conserve Vietnamese 

Animal Genetic Resources Based on Molecular Parameter 

453 

SARAH SAKINEH ZARIN, NIELS KOHLSCHÜTTER, ULRICH 

KÖPKE: 

The Role of Meat Quality in Conservation of Indigenous 

Endangered Farm Animals: Case Study of Endangered 

Goose Breeds “Diepholzer Gans” 454 

LUTFI MUSA, KURT-JOHANNES PETERS, MOHAMED KHAIR 

AHMED, BIRGIT ZUMBACH: 

The Case for the Conservation of Sudanese Kenana and 

Butana Cattle Breeds 455 

NGUYEN THI KIM KHANG, DANYEL JENNEN, LOTHAR MEN- 

NICKEN, DAWIT TESFAYE, SIRILUCK PONSUKSILI, KARL 

SCHELLANDER, KLAUS WIMMERS, MICHAEL HOELKER: 

Genetic Variety of the Different Vietnamese Local Chicken 

Breeds and Effect on the Fads1 and Fads2 Genes 456 

MARIA WURZINGER, ALFONS WILLAM, JAVIER DELGADO, 

MICHAELA NÜRNBERG, ANNE VALLE ZÁRATE, ANGELIKA 

STEMMER, GUIDO UGARTE, JOHANN SÖLKNER: 

Design of a Village Breeding Programme for a Llama Population 

in the High Andes of Bolivia 457 

SAIDU OSENI, BABAFUNSO SONAIYA, GALMAN OMITOGUN: 

West African Dwarf Goat Production under Village Conditions: 

1. Characterisation and the Establishment of Breed 

Standards 458 

WORKNEH AYALEW, ADAM DRUCKER, CLEMENS WOLLNY, 

OLOROUNTO D. KOUDANDE, FAUSTIN VIDOGBENA, HIP- 

POLYTE DOSSA, LEMMA GIZACHEW, ULFINA GALMESSA: 

Community-based Management of Animal Genetic Resources: 

Experiences in Implementation of Participatory Processes 459 

SANN VATHANA, SAMELL KEO: 

Phenotypic Characteristics of Four Indigenous Chicken Breeds 

in Cambodia 460 

451


452 

WATCHARA LAENOI, CHRISTOPH KNORR, RANGSAN CHAROEN- 

SOOK, KESINEE GATPHAYAK, THERDCHAI VEARASILP, UDO 

TER MEULEN, BERTRAM BRENIG: 

Molecular Characterisation and Chromosomal Assignment 

of Porcine Bax and Tac1 461 

ULRIKE JANSSEN-TAPKEN, HAJA N. KADARMIDEEN, PE- 

TER VON ROHR: 

Marker Assisted Selection for Disease Resistance in Nucleus 

Breeding Systems from a Crossbreeding Experiment 

— a Simulation Study 462 

ASHRAF EL-SAYED, MICHAEL HOELKER, FRANCA RINGS, 

DANYEL JENNEN, ERNST THOELN, MARC-ANDRÉ SIRARD, 

KARL SCHELLANDER, DAWIT TESFAYE: 

Genetic Analysis of Bovine Embryonic Biopsies as a Tool to 

Identify Genes Related to the Establishment of Pregnancy 

after Embryo Transfer 463 

MICHAEL HOELKER, URBAN BESENFELDER, VITA HAVLICEK, 

FRANCA RINGS, DAWIT TESFAYE, DANYEL JENNEN, KARL 

SCHELLANDER: 

The Bovine Oviduct as a Temporary in Vivo Culture System 

for Oocytes and Embryos Derived from in Vitro Production 

464 

MELKAYE GEBRESELASSIE MELKA, DAWIT TESFAYE, KARL 

SCHELLANDER, FRANCA RINGS, MICHAEL HOELKER, VITA 

HAVLICEK, URBAN BESENFELDER: 

Expression of Apoptosis Regulatory Genes and Incidence 

of Apoptosis in Different Morphological Quality Groups of 

Ivp Bovine Preimplantation Embryos 465 

DESSIE SALILEW WONDIM, DAWIT TESFAYE, KARL SCHELLANDER: 

Dielectrophoretic Behaviour of MII Bovine Oocytes and 

Zygotes and its Relation to the Embryonic Developmental 

Competence and mRNA Expression Pattern 466 

NGUYEN TRONG NGU, DANYEL JENNEN, SIRILUCK PON- 

SUKSILI, EDUARD MURANI, DAWIT TESFAYE, KARL SCHEL- 

LANDER, KLAUS WIMMERS: 

Muscle Fiber Type Distribution of Longissimus Dorsi Muscle 

in High and Low Performing Pigs and in Different Pig 

Breeds 467


Strategy to Assess Genetic Diversity and Conserve Vietnamese 

Animal Genetic Resources Based on Molecular Parameter 

NGO THI KIM CUC 

Georg-August-Universität Göttingen, Institute of Animal Breeding and Genetics, Germany 

Vietnam is one of the countries, which is richest in biodiversity in the world. There 

are 50 local breeds known. They show specific adaptation to climate or disease and 

the local low input - low output production system. Despite their importance, their 

population sizes have been decreasing, some breeds are dangerous and threatened 

of extinction. The erosion of local breeds could be linked with the loss of valuable 

genetic variability and unique characteristics. 

Moreover, identification of the local breeds in the country is mainly based on: their 

original areas, names called by local people and their phenotypic characteristics. According 

to definition for breed of FAO, there might be more breeds to be discovered 

in next years. Therefore, correct identifications of populations to conserve need to be 

an attention. Microsatellite was assessed to be very useful to assess genetic diversity 

and identify breeds for conservation. 

Microsatellites markers which developed by the European Commission — funded 

project of Development of Strategy and Application of Molecular Tools to Assess 

Biodiversity in Chicken Genetic Resources (AVIANDIV), Institute of Animal Breeding 

and Biotechnogy at Hohenheim University - Germany and the Project of Animal 

Biodiversity Assessment in Vietnam (BIODIVA) funded by France as well as Food 

and Agriculture Organization of United Nations (2004) - Secondary guidelines for 

development of national farm animal genetic resources management plans: measurement 

of domestic animal genetic diversity (MoDAD): Recommended microsatellite 

markers should be used to assess genetic diversity of chickens, pigs and ruminant, 

respectively. 

The result obtained will be useful to identify breeds for efficient conservation measures 

and to monitor genetic variation within and between conservation flocks. It 

enables to contribute objective information on the global assessment and evaluation 

of the state of the world animal genetic resources. 

Keywords: Animal genetic conservation, microsatellite, Vietnam 

Contact Address: Ngo Thi Kim Cuc, Georg-August-Universität Göttingen, Institute of Animal Breeding 

and Genetics, Albrecht-Thaer-Weg 3, 37075, 0551 Göttingen, Germany, e-mail: cucngokim@ 

yahoo.com 

ID 75 453


The Role of Meat Quality in Conservation of Indigenous 

Endangered Farm Animals: Case Study of Endangered Goose 

Breeds “Diepholzer Gans” 

SARAH SAKINEH ZARIN, NIELS KOHLSCHÜTTER, ULRICH KÖPKE 

University of Bonn, Institute of Organic Agriculture, Germany 

Erosion of livestock genetic resources increased since industrialisation in agriculture. 

Today 30 % of the farm animal breeds are at risk of being lost. This is mainly caused 

by replacement of local indigenous breeds of livestock with high productive hybrid 

breeds. Livestock genetic resources form the pool of diversity available to meet the 

increasing global demand for food and agriculture. “Diepholzer Gans” is an indigenous 

endangered breed of goose, which originated in Germany. Its performance and 

features have been compared with a hybrid breed of the company “Eskildsen” as a 

reference, especially for meat quality, under identical feeding and housing conditions. 

The aim was to recognise parameters that support the conservation of the endangered 

breed of goose by means of “on-farm” strategy and marketing on niche markets, as 

one of the most cost efficient conservation strategies. The influence of breed type was 

evaluated by determining body weight gain, feed intake, feed conversion ratio, health 

status, carcass value and meat quality of the geese. Significantly higher body weight 

gain (6.3 kg living weight for Eskildsen and 5.6 kg for Diepholzer breed) and lower 

feed conversion ratio for the hybrid breed were determined. Dressed body, breast and 

thigh weight were significantly lighter for the Diepholzer breed. The muscle fraction 

in the breast and thigh was higher for the Eskildsen breed. No differences were 

found in the electric conductivity and pH value except at 20 minutes post-mortem 

in breast muscle when the conductivity was higher for the Diepholzer. Colour scale 

values; L*, a* and b* of the two breeds were not significantly different. The drip 

loss of fresh breast muscle was significantly higher for the local breed. The type of 

breed did not affect freezing loss, cooking loss and the shear force. In conclusion 

the “Diepholzer Gans” gained 12% less body weight and there were no relevant differences 

in meat quality. Nevertheless marketing of the Diepholzer based on better 

quality to encourage conservation by means of “on-farm” strategy is impossible. But, 

using the Diepholzer breed on niche markets in combination with other aspects that 

indicate a regional product, make this strategy possible. 

Keywords: Diepholzer goose, indigenous endangered breeds, livestock genetic resources, 

meat quality, on-farm conservation 

Contact Address: Sarah Sakineh Zarin, University of Bonn, Institute of Organic Agriculture, Bonn, 

Germany, e-mail: sa_zarin@yahoo.com 

454 ID 357


The Case for the Conservation of Sudanese Kenana and Butana 

Cattle Breeds 

LUTFI MUSA 1 , KURT-JOHANNES PETERS 1 , MOHAMED KHAIR AHMED 2 , BIRGIT 

ZUMBACH 3 

1Humboldt-University Berlin, Department of Animal Breeding in the Tropics and Subtropics, 

Germany 

2University of Khartoum, Genetics and Animal Breeding, Sudan 

3University of Georgia, Athens, Department of Animal and Dairy Science, United States 

Kenana and Butana in Sudan are characterised to have the best milk potential among 

local breeds in the country. Under improved feeding and management Kenana and 

Butana yield on average 1500 kg milk and up to 4500 kg per lactation. Unfortunately, 

their numbers are very small compared to other less productive types of cattle. These 

two breeds are now subjected to fast genetic dilution due to different factors. 

Their crossbreeding with Friesian is gaining ground very quickly. Many farmers have 

realised that crossbreeding Friesians with Butana or Kenana give better milk yield 

than crossing with other local breeds. Therefore, the demand for Butana and Kenana 

to produce crossbreed for improved system is very high. 

Drought, famine and most recently civil war in Western Sudan have led to the displacement 

of millions of mostly nomadic people. Displaced people who have managed 

to keep some of their animals (generally Baggara cattle which are poor milkers) 

during the droughts have done so because they moved early on to riverian areas, the 

homeland of the Kenana and Butana cattle.Now,crossbreeding is happening between 

Baggara and the better breeds of Kenana and Butana cattle. 

This has led to widespread concern over the fate of Butana and Kenana types and 

to efforts for conservation of these strains for both present and future use. Conservation 

methods (e.g. in-situ and ex-situ) are discussed and the possibilities for insitu 

conservation (on farm conservation) based on establishing sustainable improvement 

breeding programme involving the cattle owners breeding goals and practices 

are addressed. 

Keywords: Butana, cattle, conservation, Kenana, Sudan 

Contact Address: Lutfi Musa, Humboldt Universität Zu Berlin, Berlin, Germany, e-mail: lutfimusa@ 

hotmail.com 

ID 130 455


Genetic Variety of the Different Vietnamese Local Chicken Breeds 

and Effect on the Fads1 and Fads2 Genes 

NGUYEN THI KIM KHANG 1 , DANYEL JENNEN 1 , LOTHAR MENNICKEN 1 , DAWIT 

TESFAYE 1 , SIRILUCK PONSUKSILI 2 , KARL SCHELLANDER 1 , KLAUS 

WIMMERS 5 , MICHAEL HOELKER 1 

1University of Bonn, Institute of Animal Science, Animal Breeding and Husbandry Group, 

Germany 

2Research Institute for the Biology of Farm Animals (FBN), Germany 

Egg yolk fatty acids are a functionally important source for the ω6 and ω3 polyunsaturated 

fatty acids. Decreasing the ω6:ω3-PUFA ratio to 5:1 in human diets is 

considered to improve human health with respect to the risk of cancer, adiposity, diabetes 

and cardiovascular diseases. Genetic polymorphism of the Vietnamese local 

chicken breeds and European breeds are still poorly studied as DNA markers which 

could be used to reduce the ω6:ω3-PUFA ratio. Members of the FADS family are considered 

the most crucial enzymes involved in the biosynthesis of the fatty acids. They 

introduce double bonds[n1] between defined carbons resulting in the desired fatty 

acid modifications and thereby, they change the fatty acid profiles on chicken. The 

objectives of this study were to identify, clone and show the expression of the functional 

candidate genes FADS1 and FADS2 and to compare potential polymorphisms 

for distinguishing breeds of different origins. Therefore, unrelated laying hens of 

Vietnamese local chicken breeds Ri, H’mong, Te, Noi and Ac as well as an European 

breed were used for this study. Liver tissue was collected to identify the candidate 

genes. The chicken cDNA sequence of FADS1 and FADS2 was obtained and SNPs 

located within both genes. In addition, real time PCR was performed to quantify the 

expression of the FADS1 and FADS2 genes in the different breeds. The results show 

that no polymorphisms were found in FADS2, while two were found in the FADS1 

at position 391 (C->A) and 468 (C->T). The later showing an amino acid change 

from Val to Ala.The Ri and Ac chickens are dominant heterozygous (CA and CT, respectively), 

whereas Te, H’mong and Noi chickens are homozygous (CC) for both 

SNPs. The expression of FADS2 is stronger than FADS1 and the highest levels for 

both genes are observed in Te chicken. (This project was supported by the Federal 

Ministry of Education and Research, BMBF grant VNB02/B07, Germany). 

Keywords: ω3, ω6, chicken, FADS1, FADS2, polymorphisms 

Contact Address: Klaus Wimmers, Research Institute for the Biology of Farm Animals, Molecular Biology 

Research Division, Wilhelm-Stahl-Allee 2, 18196 Dummerstorf, Germany, e-mail: wimmers@ 

fbn-dummerstorf.de 

456 ID 433


Design of a Village Breeding Programme for a Llama Population 

in the High Andes of Bolivia 

MARIA WURZINGER 1 , ALFONS WILLAM 1 , JAVIER DELGADO 2 , MICHAELA 

NÜRNBERG 3 , ANNE VALLE ZÁRATE 3 , ANGELIKA STEMMER 3 , GUIDO 

UGARTE 4 , JOHANN SÖLKNER 1 

1University of Natural Resources and Applied Life Sciences Vienna, Department of Sustainable 

Agricultural Systems, Austria 

2University of Hohenheim, Institute for Animal Production in the Tropics and Subtropics, 

Germany 

3Universidad Mayor de San Simón, Bolivia 

4Asociación de Servicios Artesanalesy Rurales (ASAR), Bolivia 

Llama husbandry is of high importance for the Bolivian high Andean agro-ecosystem 

and its inhabitants. Due to their unique adaptation to high altitude conditions, 

llamas are traditionally a cornerstone of the Andean farming system. Despite the 

harsh environment, they provide the household with fibre, meat and dung and males 

are used as pack animals. Although llamas contribute to a large extent to the income 

of many Bolivian households, there is no national breeding programme in place. 

Initiatives for genetic improvement are rarely found and are usually carried out by 

NGOs or research stations. Farmers in the Province of Ayopaya in the Department 

of Cochabamba formed an organisation with the aim of improving agricultural production 

and especially llama husbandry. In this study a detailed outline of a breeding 

programme with a focus on organisational and technical details is described. Facing 

constraints like illiteracy of farmers, bad infrastructure and lack of finances a simple 

breeding programme is set up. All calculations are carried out with the computer programme 

ZPLAN, which is based on a deterministic approach. The breeding goal is a 

higher fleece weight while keeping the fleece quality at the current high level. Greasy 

fleece weight and fibre diameter are identified as main selection criteria. Mass selection 

of males is based on own performance. Selected males are either exchanged 

between farmers and used in the herds or are kept in a central mating centre owned 

by the breeders‘ organisation during the mating season. Different scenarios with only 

intra-herd use, only using the central mating centre or different combinations are compared 

in terms of genetic gain and expected increase of inbreeding. 

Keywords: Bolivia, breeding programme, llama 

Contact Address: Maria Wurzinger, University of Natural Resources and Applied Life Sciences Vienna, 

Department of Sustainable Agricultural Systems, Gregor Mendel Straße 33, 1180 Vienna, Austria, 

e-mail: maria.wurzinger@boku.ac.at 

ID 152 457


West African Dwarf Goat Production under Village Conditions: 1. 

Characterisation and the Establishment of Breed Standards 

SAIDU OSENI, BABAFUNSO SONAIYA, GALMAN OMITOGUN 

Obafemi Awolowo University, Department of Animal Science, Nigeria 

The role of small ruminants in poverty alleviation and their contribution to sustainable 

livelihoods especially in rural areas have been demonstrated by several R&D 

programmes in Sub-Saharan Africa. Proposals have been made for the evolvement of 

purebreeding schemes for the conservation of the genetic pool which the WAD goat 

represents. A crucial starting point however, is the characterisation and the establishment 

of breed standards for WAD goats under village conditions. So far, there has 

been little progress in this regard on account of the difficulties in establishing on-farm 

data recording schemes. Also, comprehensive studies relating to the within breed diversity 

among WAD goats are rare. Such studies will show details about performance 

and morphometric characteristics of WAD goats in their native environment. All these 

represent vital information needed for breed characterisation and the establishment of 

breed standards. A conceptual framework for the attainment of these objectives is 

presented, with illustrations drawn from an on-going R&D project involving WAD 

goats. The framework is hinged on on-farm livestock performance recording systems. 

Project inception embraced awareness campaigns and sensitisation of farmer groups, 

where the scope and rationale for the studies are discussed. Pilot villages are randomly 

selected from different ecozones where WAD goats are raised in Southwestern 

Nigeria. Research methodology involved structured household interviews combined 

with fortnightly visits and the establishment of on-farm recording schemes. Data on 

performance, morphometric and qualitative traits at all ages are recorded. Direct observations 

and documentation of all aspects of the rural setting relating to the raising 

of WAD goats — farming systems and feed resources - are documented. With data 

accumulation, computer databases are created for data management, analysis, interpretation/information 

retrieval. Analysis of data helps to derive productivity indices 

under village conditions. The framework involves some feedback mechanism to provide 

farmers with innovative techniques in goat management and simple selection 

schemes within each village. Overall, the framework will facilitate the design of appropriate 

genetic improvement measures geared towards boosting the productivity of 

WAD goats under smallholder units. 

Keywords: Breed standards, characterisation, livelihood, on-farm, west African Dwarf 

goat 

Contact Address: Saidu Oseni, Obafemi Awolowo University, Department of Animal Science, Department 

of Animal Science, Faculty of Agriculture Oau Ile-Ife, 220005 Ile-ife, Nigeria, e-mail: 

soseni@oauife.edu.ng 

458 ID 533


Community-based Management of Animal Genetic Resources: 

Experiences in Implementation of Participatory Processes 

WORKNEH AYALEW 1 , ADAM DRUCKER 2 , CLEMENS WOLLNY 1 , OLOROUNTO D. 

KOUDANDE 3 , FAUSTIN VIDOGBENA 4 , HIPPOLYTE DOSSA 4 , LEMMA 

GIZACHEW 5 , ULFINA GALMESSA 7 

1International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI), Ethiopia 

2Charles Darwin University, School for Environmental Research, Australia 

3National Institute for Agricultural Research, Benin 

4Georg-August-University Göttingen, Animal Breeding and Husbandry in the Tropics and 


5 Oromia Agricultural Research Institute, Ethiopia 

Community-based management (CBM) of existing animal genetic diversity in developing countries 

has been argued to support the improvement of the livelihoods of poor livestock keepers 

while also ensuring the conservation of the genetic resources. ILRI in collaboration with partner 

national institutions in Benin Ethiopia and Kenya has been implementing a 3-year CBM 

research project since September 2004 by developing a framework to fully engage communities 

in the management of these resources. CBM involves series participatory processes to elicit 

livestock development priorities of target communities in tandem with preferences of market 

actors, and to design as well as implementation appropriate interventions that serve community 

needs while also improving effectiveness and sustainability livestock genetic improvement 

activities through collective action. In the context of the Convention on Biological Diversity 

(CBD), participation also entails application of the principle of Prior Informed Consent (PIC) in 

research involving biological material and indigenous knowledge. The project already started 

to create essential community structures as a basis to operate. This paper critically looks in 

to what constitutes a community in the context of this project and examines experiences with 

implementation of these participatory processes. The participatory processes opened up broad 

opportunities to identify livestock development priorities, elicit and incorporate local knowledge 

and enhance collective action of community members. However, participatory exercises 

and community preferences were shaped by previously established priorities of the project and 

perceptions of researchers. These highlighted the need for capacity building at community level 

and encouraged collective action. In terms of PIC, the project countries have not yet developed 

the essential institutions that would implement them, and at the community level there is need 

for capacity building for the communities to fully grasp the implications of PIC. It was therefore 

concluded that lessons in participatory processes are learned by doing. 

Keywords: AnGR, CBD, CBM, community participation, PIC 

Contact Address: Workneh Ayalew, International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI), P O Box 5689, 

Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, e-mail: w.ayalew@cgiar.org 

ID 556 459


Phenotypic Characteristics of Four Indigenous Chicken Breeds in 

Cambodia 

SANN VATHANA, SAMELL KEO 

Royal University of Agriculture, Faculty of Animal Science and Veterinary Medicine, 

Cambodia 

Domestic poultry diversity is an important part of food resource, especially among 

rural farmers in Cambodia. However, the pressure on its production system is increasing 

rapidly. Chicken diversity can be exploited by characterising its performance and 

farmer acceptance. This paper aimed to describe the phenotypic characteristics of 

four major indigenous chicken breeds in Cambodia. Surveys were carried out during 

2003–2004 as fact finding study to investigate the major breed candidates. Seven candidates 

were recorded from 150 sampled households, however, only 4 breeds were 

frequently observed. Sampov (Local bantam: A), accounted for 55 % of total population, 

whereas Kandong (Slow feathering: B), Skoeuy (Bicolour: C), and Kragnas 

(Frizzle: D) represented 10, 7, and 5 % respectively. Except A which was found thoroughly, 

each breed had regional-specific location. Secondly, an on-station experiment 

to determine the growth performance of these four breeds was conducted with seven 

week old chickens for 12 weeks. The average daily gain (g/day) of A (15.74) and B 

(15.31) were significantly higher than C (13.35) and higher than D (12.05). Breeds 

showed differences in their feather feature, colour, and length. Male A showed a 

bright colourful red and black feather whereas barbules colour was typical in C. Male 

B had less dorsal and body feather than any other breeds. The dominant colour in 

D was pale black and their contour feathers are curved outward. The comparative 

percentage of feather of A was 8.92 significantly higher than C (5.70) and C (4.78) 

and higher than B (3.83) resulted in differences in percentage of plucked and dressed 

weighs. Phenotypic characteristic of these breeds is concreted information while available 

documentation is still limited. Ranking the economical value of these breeds is 

not necessary while farmers have different acceptant criteria. It is required more investigation 

on on-farm performance of these breeds and their tolerance to epidemic 

disease. The most rational and sustainable way to conserve these resources to combat 

threat to rural food security is to ensure that indigenous breeds remain functional parts 

of production systems. 

Keywords: Genetic diversity, indigenous chicken, promising economic breed 

Contact Address: Sann Vathana, Royal University of Agriculture, Faculty of Animal Science and Veterinary 

Medicine, Phnom Penh, Cambodia, e-mail: vathana20@yahoo.com 

460 ID 423


Molecular Characterisation and Chromosomal Assignment of 

Porcine Bax and Tac1 

WATCHARA LAENOI 1,2 , CHRISTOPH KNORR 2,1 , RANGSAN CHAROENSOOK 1 , 

KESINEE GATPHAYAK 1 , THERDCHAI VEARASILP 1 , UDO TER MEULEN 3 , 

BERTRAM BRENIG 2 

1 Chiangmai University, Department of Animal Science, Thailand 

2 Georg-August-University Göttingen, Institute of Veterinary Medicine, Germany 

3 Georg-August-University Goettingen, Institute of Animal Physiology and Animal Nutri- 

tion, Germany 

The BCL −2 associated X protein (BAX) is a member of the Bcl −2 protein family and 

functions as a repressor of programmed cell death (apoptosis). The preprotachykinin 

A gene (TAC1) encodes two tachykinin peptides (substance P and neurokinin A) that 

act as neurotransmitters in the central and peripheral nervous systems. To isolate the 

genes from the porcine genomic PAC library TAIGP714 probes were generated with 

primers derived from exons of the human orthologs. For Bax, a 501-bp long fragment 

(spanning exons 3 to 4) was amplified on porcine genomic DNA (GenBank Accession 

no: AM233489). The TAC1-specific primers formed a 415-bp long amplicon 

(spanning exon 7) in pigs (GenBank Accession no: AM233488). Probe sequencing 

and comparison with the human genes verified sequence identity (BAX 94 % and 

TAC1 84 %). The gene-containing PAC clones were further isolated and sequenced. 

The chromosomal assignment of the genes was done by analyses of porcine hybrid 

panels (somatic cell and radiation hybrid panel) and by fluorescent in situ hybridisation. 

BAX was assigned to SSC6q21 and TAC1 to SSC9q12-q14. So far, comparative 

exon sequencing using a panel of 138 animals (Angeln Saddleback, Pietrain, German 

Landrace, German Edelschwein, Swabian-Haellian swine, Buntes Bentheimer, Thai 

native pigs, Thai wild pig, Chinese Luchuan, Chinese Rongchang, Chinese Yushanei 

as well as German and Thai herniated crossbred piglets) identified two SNPs in BAX 

(SNPintron1: C→T, p(C)=0.804 and q(T)=0.196; SNPintron3: T→A, p(T)=0.975 

and q(A)=0.025). Up to now, no SNPs have been found in TAC1. The chromosomal 

localisation of BAX in combination with its known physiology proposes a possible 

contribution of the gene to the phenotype hernia, but this hypothesis has to be further 

elucidated. 

Keywords: BAX, pig, SSC6q21, SSC9q12–14, TAC1 

Contact Address: Christoph Knorr, Georg-August-University Göttingen, Institute of Veterinary 

Medicine, Burckhardtweg 2, 37077 Göttingen, Germany, e-mail: cknorr@gwdg.de 

ID 310 461


Marker Assisted Selection for Disease Resistance in Nucleus 

Breeding Systems from a Crossbreeding Experiment — a 

Simulation Study 

ULRIKE JANSSEN-TAPKEN, HAJA N. KADARMIDEEN, PETER VON ROHR 

Swiss Federal Institute of Technology Zurich (ETH), Institute of Animal Sciences, Switzerland 

The aim of the study was to evaluate different breeding strategies for disease resistance 

in combination with production traits in pastoral systems with experimental 

data for genetic information and results from questionnaires for socio-economic aspects. 

Using a stochastic approach, a closed nucleus breeding was simulated. The 

base population consisted of N = 400 unrelated F2 crossbreed individuals from two 

breeds with fixed alleles in the desired traits: decrease in packed red blood cell volume 

(PCVD), decrease in body weight (BWD), natural logarithm of the mean count 

of parasites (PAR) as indicator of Trypanotolerance, live weight at 12 months of age 

(LW), milk yield (MY) and calving interval (CI) for production and reproduction 

traits. There were 10 discrete generations of selection; with selected animals in each 

generation randomly mated with the assumption of AI and MOET. The genotype of 

each individual was modeled using 10 unlinked additive quantitative trait loci (QTL) 

with two flanking markers each and a model with 100 loci without marker information 

for the polygenic effect. The phenotypic values were sum of genotypic and a residual 

effect. The input parameters for QTL and marker as well as LW variance and correlations 

were taken from results of the completed QTL mapping experiments by the 

International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI) in Kenya; other information for the 

remaining traits was based on international studies. The economic values came from 

a socio-economic study in pastoral production systems. Breeding value estimation 

for selection was based on best linear unbiased prediction (BLUP), BLUP in combination 

with marker information (MABLUP) and estimation on markers only (MA). 

Results indicate greater genetic gain via BLUP-evaluation but also reasonable genetic 

gain via MABLUP with better results for disease resistance. MA-results require more 

computational time but show the potential genetic gain without infecting the animals 

for phenotypic observations. 

Keywords: Cattle breeding, disease resistance, marker assisted selection, nucleus 

breeding system, simulation, stochastic approach 

Contact Address: Ulrike Janßen-Tapken, Swiss Federal Institute of Technology Zurich (ETH), Institute 

of Animal Sciences, ETH Zentrum UNS, Universitätsstrasse 65, 8092 Zürich, Switzerland, e-mail: 

ulrike.janssen@inw.agrl.ethz.ch 

462 ID 420


Genetic Analysis of Bovine Embryonic Biopsies as a Tool to 

Identify Genes Related to the Establishment of Pregnancy after 

Embryo Transfer 

ASHRAF EL-SAYED 1 , MICHAEL HOELKER 1 , FRANCA RINGS 1 , DANYEL 

JENNEN 1 , ERNST THOELN 1 , MARC-ANDRÉ SIRARD 2 , KARL SCHELLANDER 1 , 

DAWIT TESFAYE 1 


Germany 

2University of Laval, Research Center for Reproduction Biology, Department of Animal 

Sciences, Canada 

The purpose of this work is to address the relationship between transcriptional profile of embryos 

and the pregnancy success based on blastocyst biopsies taken prior to transfer to recipients. 

Biopsies (30–40 % of the intact embryo) were taken from IVP day 7 blastocysts (n=98) 

and 60–70 % part were transferred to recipients after re-expansion. Based on the success of 

pregnancy, biopsies were pooled in three groups: those resulted in no pregnancy (G1), resorption 

(G2) and those resulted in calf delivery (G3). Gene expression analysis of these groups of 

biopsies was performed using home made bovine preimplantation specific array (219 clones) 

and cDNA array (BlueChip) ( 2000 clones). Three independent pools (10 in each) of biopsies 

from the three groups were used for mRNA isolation and subsequent RNA amplification. 

Approximately 2 µg of amplified RNA was used from each group to perform an indirect dye 

labelling. Images were analysed using GenePix Pro Version 4.0 software. Data analysis performed 

using Significant Analysis for Microarray (SAM) software. Real-time PCR was used to 

confirm the resut of microarray experiments. A total of 52 genes were differentially regulated 

between G1 and G3 and 58 genes differentially regulated between G2 and G3. Biopsies resulted 

in calf delivery are enriched with genes necessary for implantation like (Cox2 and Cdx2), carbohydrate 

metabolism (ALOX15), growth factor (BMP15), signal transduction (PLAU) and 

placenta-specific 8 (PLAC8). Biopsies from blastocyst ended with resorption are enriched with 

transcripts involved protein phosphorylation (Cytokeratin A) Plasma membrane (Occludin) and 

glucose metabolism (PGK and aldose reductase). Biopsies from blastocyst resulted in no pregnancy 

are enriched with transcripts involved inflammatory cytokines (TNF1a), protein amino 

acid binding (EEF1A1), transcription factors (MSX1 and PTTG1), glucose metabolism (PGK, 

aldose reductase) and CD9 which is inhibitor of implantation. In conclusion, we generated 

direct candidates of blastocyst specific genes which determine the fate of the embryo after 

transfer. 

Keywords: Blastocyst, cattle, embryo loss, microarray, preimplantation 

Contact Address: Dawit Tesfaye, University of Bonn, Institute of Animal Science, Animal Breeding 

and Husbandry Group, Endenicher Allee 15, 53115 Bonn, Germany, e-mail: tesfaye@itz.uni-bonn.de 

ID 464 463


The Bovine Oviduct as a Temporary in Vivo Culture System for 

Oocytes and Embryos Derived from in Vitro Production 

MICHAEL HOELKER 1 , URBAN BESENFELDER 2 , VITA HAVLICEK 1 , FRANCA 

RINGS 1 , DAWIT TESFAYE 1 , DANYEL JENNEN 1 , KARL SCHELLANDER 1 


Germany 

2University of Veterinary Sciences, Institute of Animal Breeding and Genetics, Austria 

In vitro production (IVP) of bovine embryos offers enormous potential both for agriculture 

and animal breeding. However, its widespread use is still fraught with problems, 

since in vitro produced embryos do not reach the quality of in vivo derived 

embryos. Thereby the aim of the present work was to explore whether a temporary 

culture in the bovine oviduct enhances the quantity and quality in vitro produced embryos. 

A total of 758 in vitro produced embryos at 8-cell stage were endoscopically 

transferred to the oviduct of 15 synchronised recipient heifers (43–59 per recipient) 

and were flushed back at day 7. As a control we produced 547 embryos parallel and 

cultured them until day 7 completely in vitro (CR1, 5 % CO2, 20 % O2). In a second 

experiment we incubated 646 cumulus oocyte complexes together with frozenthawed 

spermatozoa and transferred both into the fallopian tube of the oviducts of 12 

synchronised recipient heifers (50–77 cumulus oocyte complexes per recipient) and 

flushed embryos back at day 7. As a control we cultured 441 cumulus oocyte complexes 

which had been incubated with spermatozoa parallel to the transferred cumulus 

oocytes complexes completely in vitro. Embryos transferred into the ovicuct at 8-cell 

stage did not reach higher blastocyst rates at day 7 than completely in vitro cultured 

embryos (23.7 % vs. 24.7 %). Contrary, cumulus oocyte complexes transferred together 

with spermatozoa into the bovine oviduct at day 0 reached significant higher 

blastocyst rates (p < 0.05) at day 7 (16.31 % vs. 6.89 %), day 8 (28.34 % vs. 19.72 %) 

and day 9 (31.1 % vs. 24.31 %) than completely in vitro cultured complexes. Moreover, 

blastocyst development (day 7/day 9) was faster in the in vivo cultured embryos 

(52.5 % vs. 33.6 %). Collectively, we were able to show that in vivo culture from fertilisation 

up to day 7 can enhance embryonic preimplantative development while in 

vivo culture from 8-cell to day 7 stage does not. That suggests that microenvironment 

in the period from fertilisation up to 8-cell stage has superior impact on bovine embryo 

development in terms of blastocyst quantity and quality than culture condition 

after 8-cell stage. 

Keywords: Bovine, embryo transfer, in vitro, in vivo, oviduct 

Contact Address: Michael Hoelker, University of Bonn, Institute of Animal Science, Animal Breeding 

and Husbandry Group, Endenicher Allee 15, 53115 Bonn, Germany, e-mail: michael.hoelker@itz. 

uni-bonn.de 

464 ID 559


Expression of Apoptosis Regulatory Genes and Incidence of 

Apoptosis in Different Morphological Quality Groups of Ivp 

Bovine Preimplantation Embryos 

MELKAYE GEBRESELASSIE MELKA 1 , DAWIT TESFAYE 1 , KARL 

SCHELLANDER 1 , FRANCA RINGS 1 , MICHAEL HOELKER 1 , VITA HAVLICEK 1 , 

URBAN BESENFELDER 2 


Germany 

2University of Veterinary Sciences, Institute of Animal Breeding and Genetics, Austria 

Apoptosis occurs during early development in both in vivo- and vitro- produced embryos, and 

may cause embryonic loss. In order to resolve the mechanisms and reasons of cellular fragmentation 

it is crucial to understand what genes may be responsible for regulation of this process. 

Despite the fact that apoptosis plays an important role in preimplantation embryo development, 

the correlation among morpholocial embryo quality, expression of apoptosis regulatory genes 

and the incidence of apoptosis has not yet been established. The objectives of this study were, 

therefore, investigating stage specific mRNA and protein expression profiles of apoptosis regulatory 

genes in three quality groups of in vitro-produced bovine preimplantation embryos; 

analysing the relationship between DNA fragmentation and morphological quality of embryos; 

and investigating the mRNA expression of Ped gene in bovine embryos of different cleavage 

rates. The relative abundance of mRNA of 9 pro- (Bax, caspase-9, Bcl-xs, P53, caspase −3 , 

Fas) and anti- (Bcl-w, Bcl −2 and Mcl −1 ) apoptotic genes was analysed by using real time PCR. 

Moreover, differential cell staining, TUNEL labelling and western blot were done to analyse the 

variation in cell numbers, detect apoptotic nuclei and protein expression, respectively. The expression 

of Bax, caspase −3 and caspase-9 genes was found to be significantly (p < 0.05) higher 

in poor quality preimplantation embryos as compared with that of morphologically good embryos 

of the same stage of development. Moreover, the anti-apoptosis Mcl −1 expression was 

significantly higher in good quality groups of immature oocytes, 8-cell and Morula stage embryos 

than that of their poor quality counterparts. Bax protein was detected only in morphologically 

poor quality blastocysts. Bcl −2 protein was not detected in quality 1, 2, & 3 blastocysts. 

In conclusion, a higher incidence of apoptosis was evidenced in morphologically poor quality 

blastocysts and this study demonstrates that Bax, caspase −3 and Mcl −1 can be used as potential 

markers of embryo quality to evaluate in vitro produced bovine preimplantation embryos. 

Keywords: Apoptosis, bovine embryo, embryo quality 

Contact Address: Melkaye Gebreselassie Melka, University of Bonn, Institute of Animal Science, Animal 

Breeding and Husbandry Group, Endenicher Allee 17, Bonn, Germany, e-mail: melke_g@yahoo. 

com 

ID 432 465


Dielectrophoretic Behaviour of MII Bovine Oocytes and Zygotes 

and its Relation to the Embryonic Developmental Competence and 

mRNA Expression Pattern 

DESSIE SALILEW WONDIM, DAWIT TESFAYE, KARL SCHELLANDER 

University of Bonn, Institute of Animal Science, Animal Breeding and Husbandry Group, 

Germany 

This study was aimed at investigating the dielectrophoretic behaviour of oocytes and 

zygotes in relation to the developmental competence and transcriptional abundance. 

Metaphase II (MII) bovine oocytes with (PB+) and without (PB-) first polar body 

and zygotes were subjected to dielectrophoresis procedure designed as 4 MHz AC, 

5 v, 450 µm electrode distance and medium conductivity 80 µs/cm. The PB+, PBand 

zygotes were classified into very fast, fast, slow and very slow depending on their 

speed in the electric field. Parthenogenetic activation was used to assess the rate of embryonic 

development of dielectrophoretically separated of oocytes. The result shows 

that,in PB+ oocytes the blastocyst rate at 7 (days post activation) dpa was higher 

(p < 0.05) in very fast than in very slow. In PB- oocytes, the blastocyst rate at 6 and 7 

dpa was higher (p < 0.05) in the very fast and fast compared to the slow and very slow. 

Similarly, the total blastocyst rate at 7 days post insemination was higher (p < 0.05) in 

the very fast compared to very slow and slow dielectrophoretic categories of zygotes. 

Moreover, cDNA microarray experiments were performed between very fast and very 

slow dielectrophoretic PB+ oocytes and zygotes for transcriptional analysis. The result 

reveals that 31 and 5 genes were up and down regulated respectively in very fast 

compared to the very slow dielectrophoretic categories of oocytes. Among the up-regulated 

genes, DNMT1 and ANXA2 are believed to involve in ion binding. RPLP2 and 

RPLPO involve in protein biosynthesis and RNA binding. Others including NUSAP1 

and CDC91L1 are involving in cell cycle regulation. Similarly, 25 and 17 genes were 

up and down regulated respectively in the very fast dielectrophoretic categories of zygotes 

relative to the very slow. Among the up-regulated genes, NANOS1, ZNF85 and 

IQGAP1 are involved in ion binding and STK6, SMARCA5 and NASP are needed for 

cell cycle regulation. In conclusion dielectrophoretic separated oocytes and zygotes 

showed difference in the rate blastocyst development accompanied by difference in 

transcriptional abundances. 

Keywords: Developmental rate , dielectrophoresis, oocyte, zygote 

Contact Address: Dessie Salilew Wondim, University of Bonn, Institute of Animal Science, Animal 

Breeding and Husbandry Group, Endenicher Allee 15, Bonn, Germany, e-mail: dsalilew@uni-bonn.de 

466 ID 509


Muscle Fiber Type Distribution of Longissimus Dorsi Muscle in 

High and Low Performing Pigs and in Different Pig Breeds 

NGUYEN TRONG NGU 1 , DANYEL JENNEN 1 , SIRILUCK PONSUKSILI 2 , EDUARD 

MURANI 2 , DAWIT TESFAYE 1 , KARL SCHELLANDER 1 , KLAUS WIMMERS 2 


Germany 

2Research Institute for the Biology of Farm Animals (FBN), Germany 

Muscle fiber types, characterised by the content of different myosin heavy chain 

(MYH) isoforms, are responsible for variation of growth performance and meat quality 

traits in farm animals. The first objective of this study was to compare the muscle 

fiber type composition based on relative abundance of transcripts of MYH isoforms 

in animals showing high and low muscularity within breed. For this experiment, six 

discordant sibpairs representing extremes for the complex trait body conformation 

were selected from a F2 resource population DUMI, which was created by reciprocal 

crossbreeding of Duroc and Berlin Miniature pigs, a cross of Vietnamese Pot Belly 

Pigs, Saddle Back Pigs and German Landrace. Secondly, we aimed to compare the 

expression profile of MYH isoforms among different breeds of Duroc and Pietrain 

from Germany and Mongcai from Vietnam, which have been known to extremely differ 

in muscle growth and meat quality. Results from real-time RT-PCR quantification 

of MYH isoform I, IIa, IIx and IIb showed that the relative expression of MYH IIb 

(fast-glycolytic) was significantly higher (p < 0.05) in pigs with large muscle area 

in DUMI (60.5 vs 47.5 %). Conversely, the content of MYH I/slow (slow-oxidative) 

fibers was statistically different (p < 0.05) with lower percentage in high performing 

animals (18.4 vs 33.5 %). Moreover, the comparison among breeds confirmed the 

trend of high MYH IIb transcript abundance going together with high muscularity. 

In Pietrain and Duroc, abundance of MYH IIb accounted for more than half of the 

MYH transcripts (65.4 % and 59.7 %) whereas Mongcai showed very low MYH IIb 

(11.4 %) but high type I, IIa and IIx RNA levels (24.1, 28.5 and 35.9 %, respectively). 

All together, the present results indicate that IIb fibers are the most prominent in pigs 

having large eye muscle area. (This project was supported by the Federal Ministry of 

Education and Research, BMBF grant VNB02/B06, Germany). 

Keywords: Different pig breeds, muscle fiber, myosin heavy chain, realtime RT-PCR 

Contact Address: Klaus Wimmers, Research Institute for the Biology of Farm Animals (FBN), Germany, 

Research Unit of Molecular Biology, 18196 Dummerstorf, Germany, e-mail: wimmers@ 

fbn-dummerstorf.de 

ID 431 467


468 ID 431

Animal Nutrition: Ruminants 

NI NI MAW, AUNG AUNG, KHIN SAN MU: 

Preliminary Report on Nutritive Value of Tree Foliages 

Available In yezin Area, Myanmar 470 

O. INSUNG: 

Influences of Cutting Age and Ensilage Method on Yield 

Chemical Compositions and Ruminal Dry Matter and Organic 

Matter Degradability of Suwan 1 and Suwan 5 Corn 

(Zea May Linn) 471 

OLAJIRE FAGBOLA, JACOB O BABAYEMI: 

Reduction of Poverty through Improved Animal Nutrition 

via Low Input Agricultural Production of Panicum maximum 472 

AUNG AUNG, KHIN SAN MU, MAR MAR KYI, MOE THIDA 

HTUN, TIN NGWE, NI NI MAW: 

Investigation on the Effects of Supplementation of Chickpea 

Husk and Boiled Sesame Meal on the Performance of 

Growing Bulls in Myanmar 473 

AUNG AUNG, HELGE BÖHNEL, TIN NGWE, UDO TER MEU- 

LEN: 

Control of Leucaena toxicosis in Myanmar Sheep Using 

IBT-Göttinger Bioreactor Grown Mimosine Degrading Ruminal 

Klebsiella 474 

KAMAL ELDIN HASSAN ALI ELTOM, HELGE BÖHNEL, FRANK 

GESSLER: 

Cytotoxicity of Haemophilus somnus Grown in Continuous 

Culture 475 

469


Preliminary Report on Nutritive Value of Tree Foliages Available 

In yezin Area, Myanmar 

NI NI MAW, AUNG AUNG, KHIN SAN MU 

University of Veterinary Science, Myanmar 

Tree leaves are considered to be the most abundant protein source in nature. These 

form a bulk of ruminant diets in tropical, arid and semi-arid, and hilly regions. Conventionally, 

tree foliages have been fed together with gricultural by-products, mainly 

crop residues, containing low levels of nitrogen to nhance rumen microbial fermentation 

and hence the animal productivity. In Myanmar, the use of tree leaves has 

received little attention in the feeding systems for ruminants, mainly because of inadequate 

knowledge on their nutritive value. We have undertaken studies to: 

• evaluate the nutritive values of locally available tree foliages, 

• conduct feeding trials and assess the feeding value of tree foliages in large 

• evaluate the nutritive values of locally available tree foliages, 

• conduct feeding trials and assess the feeding value of tree foliages in large and 

small ruminants, 

• examine the usage of tree foliages as replacement of commercial concentrates, 

• introduce tree foliages as protein supplements in Urea Molasses Multinutrient 

Blocks (UMMB), and 

• transfer feeding strategies to farmers in the region. 

This paper reports our preliminary findings on some nutritive value parameters. Proximate 

analyses of leaves from 30 species of trees were carried out from October 2001 

to March 2002. The values of DM (8.3–86.5 %), OM (66.89–98.05 %),CP (8.03– 

32.43 %), neutral detergent fibre (16.93–71.10 %), and acid detergent fibre (7.37– 

53.10 %), respectively. These results suggest that some of tree leaves, (e.g., Fluggea 

leucopyru, Leucaena leucocephala and Gliricidia sepium, with CP levels 28.78 %, 

22.0 %, 18.64 % respectively) could be good sources of protein for ruminants. Dried 

L. leucocepahala leaves have been incorporated in the UMMB at 8 % level. Acceptability 

and intakestudies on these blocks and their response on dairy cows in Yezin 

area are being investigated. 

Keywords: Nutritive values, tree foliages 

Contact Address: Ni Ni Maw, University of Veterinary Science, U.v.sc, Yezin, Myanmar, e-mail: 

ninimaw05@gmail.com 

470 ID 541


Influences of Cutting Age and Ensilage Method on Yield Chemical 

Compositions and Ruminal Dry Matter and Organic Matter 

Degradability of Suwan 1 and Suwan 5 Corn (Zea May Linn) 

O. INSUNG 

Rajamangala University of Technology Srivijaya, Nakhonsithammarat Campus, Thailand 

The research was conducted to investigate the influences of the cutting ages and the 

ensilage methods on yield, chemical compositions and ruminal dry matter and organic 

matter degradability of Suwan1 and Suwan5 corn. It was found that only the height 

and the stem diameter which were different across varieties (p < 0.01). Cutting plants 

at different cutting ages affected the heights of stems, stem diameters, total weights, 

stem and leaf weights (p < 0.01) and corncob weights (p < 0.05). The second experiment 

dealed with the influences of the cutting ages and ensilage methods on the 

chemical compositions and the quality of the ensiled plants. It was found that the 

cutting ages affected on the acid detergent fiber (ADF) (p < 0.05) only, but had no 

influences to neutral detergent fiber (NDF) (p > 0.05) and to acid detergent lignin 

(p > 0.05). The third trial was coped with the ruminal dry matter and organic matter 

degradability of ensiled corn samples using the nylon bag technique. It was found 

that all ruminal degradation parameters were not affected by the varieties of corn. 

The ’a’, ’b’, ’c’, ’ed2’, and the ’PTDG’ values for the dry matter degradation were 

affected by the cutting ages (p < 0.01). The ensiled method affected the ’a’, ’b’, ’ed2’ 

values (p < 0.01) but not the ’c’, ’PTDG’ and the lag time (p > 0.05). The degradation 

parameters of the organic matter were different from those of the dry matter for 

plant species, cutting age and for ensilage methods. The research result implies that 

the yield, quality and the ruminal degradability of Suwan1 were not much less than 

Suwan5 under this experiment environment. 

Keywords: Chemical composition, corn, cutting age, ensilage method, ruminal degradability 

Contact Address: O. Insung, Rajamangala University of Technology Srivijaya, Nakhonsithammarat 

Campus, Thungsong, 80110 Nakhonsithammarat, Thailand, e-mail: ongarge@lycos.com 

ID 180 471


Reduction of Poverty through Improved Animal Nutrition via Low 

Input Agricultural Production of Panicum maximum 

OLAJIRE FAGBOLA 1 , JACOB O BABAYEMI 2 

1 University of Ibadan, Department of Agronomy, Nigeria 

2 University of Ibadan, Animal Science, Nigeria 

Intensive grass production is yet to attract attention of farmers in the sub-saharan 

Africa. Hence, animals are poorly nourished via nutrient deficient forage since many 

tropical soils are low in nutrient content. The problem is further compounded through 

non-availability of chemical fertilisers coupled with poor logistics. Therefore, there 

is an urgent need for alternatives if animals will not be undernourished. 

In a split-split-plot design experiment with three replicates under field conditions, the 

yield and nutrient content of Panicum maximum (var. Ntchisi) was evaluated. The 

main plot factor was arbuscular mycorrhizal (AM) fungi inoculation with two levels; 

inoculated and non-inoculated. The sub-plot factor was organomineral fertiliser 

(OM) application with four levels; grade A, grade B, mixtures of grades A and B and 

no feertilizer application. The sub-sub-plot factor was cutting frequencies (4, 6 and 8 

weeks). Harvested forage was evaluated for yield, rumen degradability and nutrient 

composition. Data were analysed with ANOVA and the means separated using Duncan’s 

multiple range test. Dry matter yields among fertiliser treated forages were similar 

but significantly higher compared to the control (no fertiliser application). Maximum 

dry matter yield, 11.04 t/ha was obtained under the application of the mixtures 

of organomineral fertilisers grades A and B. Grass inoculated with AM was 15.8 % 

higher in yield compared to non-inoculated. There was no effect of time of cutting on 

the dry matter yield of all treatments, but the yield increased with increasing cutting 

frequency. Application of OM and AM fungi enhanced the crude protein (CP) of the 

forage but have no significant effect on rumen dry matter degradation characteristics. 

The highest CP, 13.13 % was obtained when grass was inoculated with AM and had 

the mixtures of fertilisers applied. Cutting frequency significantly affected the dry 

matter and CP release. With increasing cutting frequency, the degradation features 

of the forage increased. Quantitative and qualitative production of nutrient enriched 

grass for ruminants through the combinations of the assayed agronomic practices is 

possible. 

Keywords: Rumen: grass: fertiliser: degradability: crude protein: yield 

Contact Address: Olajire Fagbola, University of Ibadan, Department of Agronomy, Ibadan, Nigeria, 

e-mail: fagbola8@yahoo.co.uk 

472 ID 199


Investigation on the Effects of Supplementation of Chickpea Husk 

and Boiled Sesame Meal on the Performance of Growing Bulls in 

Myanmar 

AUNG AUNG, KHIN SAN MU, MAR MAR KYI, MOE THIDA HTUN, TIN NGWE, 

NI NI MAW 

University of Veterinary Science, Department of Physiology and Biochemistry, Myanmar 

Four growing bulls in Yezin area in were randomly allotted to a 2 × 2 factorial arrangement 

in a 4 × 4 Latin square design to compare the effectiveness of four diets. Four 

dietary treatments were RUSC1 (Urea-treated rice straw + Untreated sesame meal + 

chickpea husk at the level of 0.1 % of liveweight), RBSC1 (Urea-treated rice straw 

+ boiled sesame meal + chickpea husk at the level of 0.1 % of liveweight), RUSC2 

(Urea-treated rice straw + untreated sesame meal + chickpea husk at the level of 0.2 % 

of liveweight) and RBSC2 (Urea-treated rice straw + boiled sesame meal + chickpea 

husk at the level of 0.2 % of liveweight). All dietary treatments were weekly adjusted 

by supplements at the level of crude protein not less than 10 %. Each feeding trial 

consisted of 15 days of adaptation, 7 days of preliminary feeding, 16 days of determination 

of voluntary intake for urea-treated rice straw and 3 days of faecal and urine 

collection. TDN intake (83.62 g/kg0.75 / day) for RUSC1 was satisfactory in comparison 

with other treatments, although the significant difference (p < 0.05) was not observed. 

Achievements for RBSC1 (63.28, 68.66, 83.18, and 73.75 %) were relatively 

higher than those of RUSC 2, RBSC2 and RBSC2. Slight differences in daily weight 

gain (0.82, 0.67, 0.51 and 0.64) were observed among the treatment means and that 

of RUSC1 was umerically satisfied. These parameters observed in this experiment 

showed that feed efficiency and weight gain of RUSC1 was numerically characteristic 

although is not significantly (p < 0.05) higher than those of other dietary treatments. 

Keywords: Bolied sesame meal, chickpea husk, growing bulls 

Contact Address: Aung Aung, University of Veterinary Science, Department of Physiology and Biochemistry, 

UVSc, Yezin, Myanmar, e-mail: aung.aaung@gmail.com 

ID 8 473


Control of Leucaena toxicosis in Myanmar Sheep Using IBT- 

Göttinger Bioreactor Grown Mimosine Degrading Ruminal 

Klebsiella 

AUNG AUNG 1 , HELGE BÖHNEL 2 , TIN NGWE 1 , UDO TER MEULEN 3 

1 University of Veterinary Science, Department of Physiology and Biochemistry, Myanmar 

2 Georg-August-University Göttingen, Institute of Tropical Animal Health, Germany 

3 Georg-August-University Goettingen, Institute of Animal Physiology and Animal Nutri- 

tion, Germany 

Rumen juice of German steer was taken and then treated with mimosine using a fermenter 

for 16 days to develop mimosine degrading bacteria. After this treatment, 

mimosine degrading bacteria (Klebsiella spp) were developed, then isolated and multiplied 

by using IBT-Göttinger Bioreactor. For the use of field experiment, they were 

incorporated with sodium alginic acid. 

12 local sheep from Pyawbwe area, Myanmar, were allocated in 4 groups. The experiment 

was conducted with complete randomised design. Group I was fed with normal 

ration and used for control. Group II was used as treated control group fed with 40 % 

Leucaena of total ration and without inoculating with ruminal Klebsiella. Animals 

from group III and IV were fed with the same ration to group II. The microbes were 

inoculated to animals from group III once at the beginning of feeding trial and 14 

days to animals from group IV continuously. Clinical sings, feed intake and body 

temperature were recorded daily. Experimental period was 14 days for feeding trial 

and 5 days for collection of faecal and urine samples. 

Clinical signs of Leucaena toxicosis such as loss of hair and dullness were found 

in group II, but not in other treated groups. Daily intakes of animals from group II 

gradually decreased although it was increased in other groups. Body temperatures of 

treated control animals were also higher than others and ranged from 39.7 to 40.6 °C 

while the others at the range of 38 to 38.9 °C. The mean value of TDN intake (g/ d/ 

kg BW0.75 ) of group II (0.5) is significantly lower than those of group I (0.89), III 

(0.79) and IV (0.8) respectively. 

According to these findings, IBT-Göttinger Bioreactor grown ruminal Klebsiella shows 

in vivo degradation of mimosine in Myanmar sheep. 

Keywords: IBT-Goettinger Bioreactor, Kelbsiella, sheep 

Contact Address: Aung Aung, University of Veterinary Science, Department of Physiology and Biochemistry, 

UVSc, Yezin, Myanmar, e-mail: aung.aaung@gmail.com 

474 ID 202


Cytotoxicity of Haemophilus somnus Grown in Continuous 

Culture 

KAMAL ELDIN HASSAN ALI ELTOM, HELGE BÖHNEL, FRANK GESSLER 

Georg-August-University Göttingen, Institute of Agronomy and Animal Production in 


Haemophilus somnus (Histophilus somni) is the cause of many disease manifestations 

in cattle and sheep including thrombotic meningoencephalitis (TME), pneumonia and 

reproductive disease. The effect of temperature and pH on the growth kinetics of 

Haemophilus somnus in continuous culture were investigated in a previous study. In 

this study, we present primary results of the investigation of the effects of temperature 

and pH on the cytotoxic activity of Haemophilus somnus. Haemophilus somnus 8025 

(type strain) was grown in continuous culture system using the bioreactor (fermenter) 

of the Institute of Biotechnology in the Tropics (IBT), Göttingen, at each pH for 24 

hours and at each temperature for 12 hours. The culture temperature was set at 37°C 

for studying the pH effect; for the temperature the pH was set at 7.1, while the culture 

agitation and dilution rates were kept constant. An MTT assay was used to determine 

the cytotoxicity of the cell free culture filtrate (CFCF) to MDCK cells. Fermenter 

cultures at different temperatures (29, 31, 33, 35, 37, 39 and 41°C) and pH (6.8, 7.0, 

7.2, 7.4, 7.6, 7.8, 8 and 8.2) were tested. CFCF was 2-fold serially diluted in 96 well 

tissue culture plates. Non filtered Supernatant of some cultures was also tested for 

comparison. Controls of MDCK Cells, trypsin and fermenter medium were included 

in each plate. CFCF and supernatant of cultures at all pH and all temperatures tested, 

except at 29°C, were Cytotoxic to MDCK cells at the lower dilutions. 

Keywords: Continuous culture, Haemophilus somnus, MTT assay 

Contact Address: Kamal Eldin Hassan Ali Eltom, Georg-August-University Göttingen, Institute of 

Agronomy and Animal Production in the Tropics and Subtropics, Kellnerweg 6, 37077 Göttingen, Germany, 

e-mail: kamalhali@maktoob.com 

ID 516 475


476 ID 516

Animal Nutrition: Chicken and Pigs 

SANCHAI JATURASITHA, PILASLUCK PANPRASERT, NUCHA 

SIMASATIKUL, RATCHANEEWAN KHIAOSA-ARD, THERD- 

CHAI VEARASILP, MICHAEL KREUZER, PRASIT CHANARATHA: 

Effects of Salbutamol in Swine Diets on Quality and Salbutamol 

Residues in Pork after its Withdrawal of from the 

Diet for Seven Days before Slaught 478 

KANYAKON WONGRAK, THERDCHAI VEARASILP, T. APICHART- 

SRUNGKOON, NUCHA SIMASATITKUL, WANDEE TARTRAKOON, 

UDO TER MEULEN: 

Study of Ileal Amino Acid Digestibility of Soybean and 

Sunflower Meals in Growing Pigs Using in Vivo and in 

Vitro Methods 479 

SANCHAI JATURASITHA, TIRANUN SRIKANCHAI, MICHAEL 

WICKE, VIBOON RATTANAPANON, SEBASTIAN CHAKEREDZA, 

UDO TER MEULEN: 

The Effect of Inclusion of Dietary Tuna Oil in Diets of 

Growing-finishing Pigs on Slaughter Weight and Backfat 

Characteristics 480 

SANCHAI JATURASITHA, PARINYA KANYAKUM, RATCHA- 

NEEWAN KHIAOSA-ARD, NUCHA SIMASATITKUL, MICHAEL 

WICKE, AMNUAY LEAWTHARAKUL: 

Chemical Composition and Sensory Evaluation of Breast 

Muscle of Indigenous and Modern Chickens Raised in North 

Thailand 481 

EUSTACE AYEMERE IYAYI, TOLULOPE OSOSANYA, OLUWAKEMI 

ADENIYI: 

Utilisation of Velvet Bean (Mucuna pruriens) for Broiler 

Production in Nigeria 482 

YENNI NURAINI, M. AGUS SUPRAYUDI, STEPHAN WES- 

SELS, GABRIELE HÖRSTGEN-SCHWARK: 

Effect of Dietary L-ascorbyl-2-phosphate magnesium on 

the Growth, Survival Rate and Stress Resistance of Juvenile 

Giant Freshwater Prawn (Macrobrachium rosenbergii) 483 

477


Effects of Salbutamol in Swine Diets on Quality and Salbutamol 

Residues in Pork after its Withdrawal of from the Diet for Seven 

Days before Slaught 

SANCHAI JATURASITHA 1 , PILASLUCK PANPRASERT 1 , NUCHA SIMASATIKUL 1 , 

RATCHANEEWAN KHIAOSA-ARD 1 , THERDCHAI VEARASILP 1 , MICHAEL 

KREUZER 2 , PRASIT CHANARATHA 3 

1Chiang Mai University, Department of Animal Science, Thailand 

2ETH Zurich, Institute of Animal Science, Switzerland 

3Chiang Mai University, Department of Clinical Microscopy, Thailand 

The objective of this investigation was to determine the effect of salbutamol supplementation 

for finishing swine which is sometimes illegally applied in Thailand to reduce 

carcass fatness. Longissimus dorsi muscles were obtained from crossbred swine 

(Duroc × (Large White × Landrace)) fed a diet containing 0 (control), 4, 8 and 12 

ppm of salbutamol from 70–100 kg of live weight. Salbutamol was withdrawn from 

the diet 7 days before slaughter. Meat pH at 45 min and 24 hr p. m. was not different 

(p > 0.05) among groups. However, meat conductivity at 45 min p. m. was lower 

(p < 0.05) in all salbutamol treated groups than in control. Meat colour had a higher 

redness with salbutamol supplementation, and water holding capacity (WHC) was 

higher (p < 0.05) in the salbutamol-treated groups than in the control group. Swine fed 

diets with low salbutamol levels tended to have meat with high maximum shear force 

and energy (p > 0.05). Longissimus dorsi protein content was highest (p < 0.05) with 

12 ppm salbutamol in the diet, and intramuscular fat content was lowest (p < 0.05) 

with 4 ppm salbutamol. No systematic variation with respect to salbutamol level was 

found with cholesterol and fat content of pork while shelf life as estimated by the 

thiobarbituric acid reactive substances (TBA) number, was prolonged with salbutamol 

(p < 0.05 with 12 vs 0 ppm salbutamol). Salbutamol residues in meat, liver and 

kidney clearly increased (p < 0.05) with increasing dietary level of salbutamol. In 

conclusion, the use of salbutamol has to be considered as a mal-practice in the tropics 

in the sense of a natural production systems approach. 

Keywords: Beta-Agonist, Pork Quality, Residue, salbutamol 

Contact Address: Sanchai Jaturasitha, Chiang Mai University, Department of Animal Science, 

239 Heuy Kaew Rd., 50200 Chiang Mai, Thailand, e-mail: agisjtrs@chiangmai.ac.th 

478 ID 102


Study of Ileal Amino Acid Digestibility of Soybean and Sunflower 

Meals in Growing Pigs Using in Vivo and in Vitro Methods 

KANYAKON WONGRAK 1 , THERDCHAI VEARASILP 1 , T. 

APICHARTSRUNGKOON 1 , NUCHA SIMASATITKUL 1 , WANDEE TARTRAKOON 2 , 

UDO TER MEULEN 3 

1Chiang Mai University, Animal Science, Thailand 

2Naresuan University, Agricultural Science, Thailand 

3Georg-August-University Goettingen, Institute of Animal Physiology and Animal Nutri- 

tion, Germany 

The objective of this study was to determine ileal crude protein and ileal amino 

acid digestibility of growing pig using in vivo and in vitro methods. The in vivo 

ileal digestibility was studied in first experiment using four crossbred barrows (Large 

White × Landrace × Duroc) at initial average weight of 40 kg BW. The animals were 

surgically fitted with ileal simple T shape cannula and housed in individual metabolism 

cage. The experimental diets were 1) broken rice-soybean meal 2) corn-soybean meal 

3) cassava starch-soybean meal and 4) cassava starch-sunflower-soybean meals. The 

experimental work was 4 × 4 latin square design. The in vitro ileal digestibility was 

studied with the same experimental diets as in the first experiment but using intestinal 

digesta collected from the same experimental animals. The average value of in vivo 

ileal digestibility for protein of all treatments (broken rice-soybean meal and corn-soybean 

meal, cassava starch-soybean meal and cassava starch-sunflower-soybean meals 

diets) and all feedstuffs (broken rice, corn, soybean meal and sunflower meal) were 

lower (p < 0.05) than those of the in vitro method. Meanwhile, in vivo ileal digestibility 

of amino acids for all treatments and all feedstuffs were higher (p < 0.05) than 

those of the in vitro method. The correlation coefficient of ileal digestibility for lysine 

and crude protein between in vivo and in vitro methods were high (r=0.8000, 

0.6682, respectively). The regression equations of lysine and crude protein were 

Y=71.6471+0.1445X and Y=70.4556+0.1296X respectively. While, the correlation 

coefficient of ileal digestibility for DM and arginine between in vivo and in vitro 

methods were lowest. There was no correlation coefficient of ileal digestibility for 

threonine, valine and isoleusine between in vivo and in vitro methods. 

Keywords: Amino acid, correlation coefficient, crude protein, in vitro digestibility, 

in vivo digestibility 

Contact Address: Therdchai Vearasilp, Chiang Mai University, Department of Animal Science, 

239 Huay Kaew Road, 50200 Chiang Mai, Thailand, e-mail: agitvrsl@chiangmai.ac.th 

ID 126 479


The Effect of Inclusion of Dietary Tuna Oil in Diets of Growingfinishing 

Pigs on Slaughter Weight and Backfat Characteristics 

SANCHAI JATURASITHA 1 , TIRANUN SRIKANCHAI 2 , MICHAEL WICKE 3 , VIBOON 

RATTANAPANON 4 , SEBASTIAN CHAKEREDZA 5 , UDO TER MEULEN 5 

1 Chiang Mai University, Department of Animal Science, Thailand 

2 Research Institute for the Biology of Farm Animal, Germany 

3 University of Goettingen, Inst. of Animal Breeding and Husbandry, Germany 

4 Chiang Mai University, Department of Biochemistry, Thailand 

5 Georg-August-University Göttingen, Institute for Animal Physiology and Animal Nutri- 

tion, Germany 

This study was evaluated the effect of inclusion of tuna oil in diets of growing-finishing 

pigs (barrows and gilts) on backfat characteristics when slaughtered at different 

weights. Four hundred and eighty crossbred pigs averaging 30 kg were assigned to 12 

treatment combinations (40 pigs/treatment combination) in a 2 × 2 × 3 factorial arrangement. 

The treatments were: dietary (0 and 2 % tuna oil); sex (barrows and gilts); 

and slaughter weight (90, 100 and 110 kg). As pigs reached their slaughter weight, 

they were randomly selected (8 pigs/treatment combination; 96 pigs in total) and slaughtered. 

Backfat colour, hardness, melting point and fatty acid profile were assessed. 

There was no significant difference in colour among treatments. Backfat of tuna oil 

group and of gilts was softer than those of the control group (p < 0.001) and barrows 

(p < 0.05), respectively. This could have resulted in the low melting point of fat. 

Moreover, the thiobarbituric acid reactive substances (TBA) values of fat from tuna 

oil group stored for 3 days was higher (p < 0.001) than that of the control group. The 

cholesterol and triglyceride levels were not affected by diet and sex but the triglyceride 

level increased with increasing slaughter weight (p < 0.01). The tuna oil group 

had higher polyunsaturated fatty acid (PUFA) content, ratio of PUFA: saturated fatty 

acid (SFA) and total n −3 fatty acids but lower n6:n3 fatty acid than those of the control 

group (p < 0.01). Gilts had higher PUFA in backfat than barrows (p < 0.05). The 

backfat from both 90 and 100 kg slaughter weight had a lower ratio of n6:n3 fatty acid 

than that of 110 kg group (p < 0.05). Therefore, feeding growing-finishing swine with 

2 % tuna oil increases omega −3 fatty acid in backfat. The PUFA:SFA was increased 

and n6:n3 ratios approached the recommended levels for healthy eating in human beings. 

However, due to oxidative susceptibility barrows should not be slaughtered at 

more than 100 kg to be acceptable to consumers. 

Keywords: Backfat, fatty acid, pig, tuna oil 



480 ID 487


Chemical Composition and Sensory Evaluation of Breast Muscle 

of Indigenous and Modern Chickens Raised in North Thailand 

SANCHAI JATURASITHA 1 , PARINYA KANYAKUM 1 , RATCHANEEWAN 

KHIAOSA-ARD 1 , NUCHA SIMASATITKUL 1 , MICHAEL WICKE 2 , AMNUAY 

LEAWTHARAKUL 3 

1 Chiang Mai University, Department of Animal Science, Thailand 

2 University of Goettingen, Inst. of Animal Breeding and Husbandry, Germany 

3 Chiang Mai Livestock Research and Breeding, Thailand 

The experiment was conducted to determine chemical composition and sensory evaluation 

of breast muscle of four different chicken strains, namely, Bresse, Maehongson, 

and black-boned chickens (Cheefah and Faluang). Maehongson, Cheefah and 

Fahluang chickens are indigenous chickens raised in the rural mountainous area of 

Maehongson province, North Thailand. Maehongson chicken originated from wild 

chicken that has been trapped to raise at home in order to improve the behaviour. 

Cheefah and Fahluang are black-boned chickens raised by hilltribe people at Maehongson 

province as well. They have meat, skin, bone and even internal organ in black 

colour. The Bresse strain originates from the south of Burgundy County (France) and 

has been introduced to Thailand as it is also considered to have a comparably dark 

meat. Eighty chickens of each strain were equally separated into male and female. 

Using a 4 × 2 factorial arrangement, the experiment was designed in CRD. The chickens 

were raised from one day to 16 weeks of age. The result showed that Bresse 

chicken (modern strain) had higher fat percentage than indigenous strains (p < 0.01) 

but the protein percentage, it found no significant difference among strains. Breast 

muscle of Maehongson strain (native chicken) had higher cholesterol and triglyceride 

content as well as TBA number than other strains (p < 0.01). The sensory evaluation 

in term of tenderness, flavor and overall acceptability for all strains were not 

different. Bresse muscle had higher shear force value than other indigenous strains. 

Furthermore, black-boned chickens found to have mild quality among modern and native 

chickens. In conclusion, as the differences were minor in magnitude, indigenous 

strains have the potential to as a product for a niche market 

Keywords: Breast, chemical composition, chicken, panel test 



ID 101 481


Utilisation of Velvet Bean (Mucuna pruriens) for Broiler 

Production in Nigeria 

EUSTACE AYEMERE IYAYI, TOLULOPE OSOSANYA, OLUWAKEMI ADENIYI 

University of Ibadan, Ibadan, Nigeria, Department of Animal Science, Nigeria 

Velvet beans (Mucuna pruriens) is currently being promoted as food for man and feed 

for animals in Nigeria. Its implication and potential as alternative plant protein was 

studied with one hundred and eight 1-d-old broiler Anak chicks. Raw and heated 

mucuna bean meal (RMBM & HMBM, respectively) were used to replace soybean 

meal (SBM)and to assess the effect on performance and organs relative weights in 

the birds at both the starter and finisher phases. Three diets were formulated. Diet 1 

was the basal diet and contained 120g kg −1 SBM while diets 2 and 3 contained 120 

g kg −1 RMBM and HMBM, respectively in place of SBM. Each diet had 3 groups 

of 12 birds each. Feed intake, FCR and weight gain in birds on the RMBM and 

HMBM diets were significantly (p < 0.05) depressed compared to birds on the SBM 

diet at the starter phase but not at the finisher phase. The relative weights of liver, 

spleen, kidney, heart and brain were significantly (p < 0.05) reduced in the birds on 

the RMBM diet compared to those on the basal and HMBM diets. The packed cell 

volume (PCV), haemoglobin (Hb), red blood cell count (RBC) and white blood cells 

(WBC) were significantly (p < 0.05) reduced in the RMBM diets compared to the 

other 2 diets. Histopathological results showed that birds on the RMBM diet showed 

severe and widespread vacuolar degeneration and necrosis of the hepatocytes, interstitial 

congestion, tubular degenerations and necrosis in the kidneys. The hearts in 

birds on the RMBM diet had degeneration and fragmentation of their myofibrils and 

lymphoid depopulation in the spleen. These results suggest the possibility of utilising 

mucuna bean meal to replace soybean meal in broiler feeding at both starter and 

finisher phases. However, in spite of its present promotion as food for man and feed 

for animals in the country, the bean should be subjected to appropriate processing like 

dry heating to overcome its depressive effects on feed intake, growth and degenerative 

syndromes in organs. 

Keywords: Broilers, mucuna bean, Nigeria , production 

Contact Address: Eustace Ayemere Iyayi, University of Ibadan, Ibadan, Nigeria, Department of Animal 

Science, Ibadan, Nigeria, e-mail: eustace.iyayi@mail.ui.edu.ng 

482 ID 33


Effect of Dietary L-ascorbyl-2-phosphate magnesium on the 

Growth, Survival Rate and Stress Resistance of Juvenile Giant 

Freshwater Prawn (Macrobrachium rosenbergii) 

YENNI NURAINI 1 , M. AGUS SUPRAYUDI 2 , STEPHAN WESSELS 1 , GABRIELE 

HÖRSTGEN-SCHWARK 1 

1Georg-August University, Göttingen, Institute of Animal Husbandry and Genetics, selected 

2Bogor Agricultural University, Faculty of Fisheries and Marine Science, Indonesia 

Among other factors, suboptimal feed quality may contribute to low survival rates of 

juvenile giant freshwater prawn. Most fish and shrimps are extremely sensitive to vitamin 

C deficiency. Quantitative requirements of vitamin C for optimum prawn growth 

varies among species and size of prawns. Therefore the objective of this experiment 

was to detect the amount of L-ascorbyl-2-phosphate magnesium (L-APM) in the diet 

allowing optimum growth and survival. Experiments were carried out at the hatchery 

of the Bogor Extension Fisheries Programme, Bogor, Indonesia. Aquaria, each with 

a water volume of 65 litres, were stocked with 100 post larvae (PL) of 0.02 g average 

weight. After adaptation, post larvae were fed with pelleted test feed (1mm diameter, 

3000 Kcal DE/kg) including five different levels of L-ascorbyl-2-phosphate magnesium 

(L-APM):0 (control), 50, 100, 150, and 200 mg/kg of feed. Each level of L-APM 

was tested in triplicate (18 aquaria). Juveniles were fed to satiation three times per day 

over a period of 60 days. The daily amount of feed ingested was recorded for each 

aquarium. After 60 days, PL were counted and weighted again. Water quality parameters 

(temperature, pH, oxygen, nitrite, ammonia) were measured daily during the 

whole experimental period. The best growth of juveniles was observed in the L-APM 

treatment with 200 mg/kg feed and the highest survival rates in the L-APM treatment 

with 150 and 200 mg/kg feed. The highest lipid retention (1.16 %) was observed in juveniles 

fed with L-APM supplement of 200 mg/kg of feed. Whereas the highest protein 

retention (2.48 %) was found in juveniles fed on a ration supplemented with a L-APM 

level of 150 mg/kg of feed. The optimum level of L-APM as a source of vitamin C for 

increasing survival rate was 150 mg L-APM/kg of feed. The results clearly showed 

that addition of L-APM to the diet can improve the growth and survival rate of the 

giant freshwater prawn juveniles. 

Keywords: Growth rate, L-ascorbyl-2-phosphate magnesium, Macrobrachium rosenbergii, 

survival rate 

Contact Address: Stephan Wessels, Georg-August-University Göttingen, Institute of Animal Husbandry 

and Genetics, Albrecht-Thaer-Weg 3, 37075 Göttingen, Germany, e-mail: swessel@gwdg.de 

ID 295 483


484 ID 295

Endogenous Development by livestock 

keepers 

SIMON RIEDEL, CLEMENS WOLLNY, TEMESGEN AYANA, 

WORKNEH AYALEW: 

Filling Knowledge Gap of Smallholder Cattle Keepers on 

Prevalence and Control of Bovine Trypanosomosis: an Example 

from Dano District, Western Ethiopia 487 

SIRIRAT KIATPATHOMCHAI, MICHAEL. P SCHMITZ, T. S. 

AMJATH BABU: 

Interactions of Shrimp and Rice Farming Systems in Southern 

Thailand: How Can We Internalise the Unidirectional 

Externalities? 488 

VICENTE C PIRES SILVEIRA, FABIANA ANDREIA FICK, ROSANE 

MARIA CORADINI NOAL, MARCOS ALVES DOS REYS: 

Milk Production in the Global Market: the Adaptation of 

Small Farmer in the State of Rio Grande Do Sul, Brazil 489 

JEROME GEFU: 

Endogenous Development of Pastoral and Livestock Communities 

in Nigeria: Role of Research 490 

EUSEBIO JACINTO: 

Supply Chain Interventions for the Benefit of Small Fishery 

Producers: Case Studies from the Philippines 491 

BALAKRISHNAN NAIR: 

Ethnoveterinary Medical Traditions and Methodology for 

their Documentation, Assessment and Promotion 492 

GIRMA TESFAHUN KASSIE, CLEMENS WOLLNY, AWUDU 

ABDULAI, ADAM DRUCKER, WORKNEH AYALEW: 

Farmers’ Preferences of Phenotypic Traits in Cattle Production 

and Marketing: A Case Study in Central Ethiopia 493 

RAUL PEREZGROVAS: 

Direct Involvement of Indigenous Women in Sheep Improvement 

Research in Chiapas, México 494 

485


486 

STEPHAN WESSELS, GABRIELE HÖRSTGEN-SCHWARK: 

How to Sustainably Increase the Proportion of Males in 

Nile Tilapia (O.niloticus) by Temperature Treatment: A 

two Generation Selection Experiment for Thermal Sensitivity 

495 

WOLFGANG BAYER, LUCAS BASILIO KAPUNDA, PHILIP 

SASSOON: 

Dairy Cattle for Poverty Alleviation in Southern Tanzania 496

Endogenous Development by livestock keepers 

Filling Knowledge Gap of Smallholder Cattle Keepers on 

Prevalence and Control of Bovine Trypanosomosis: an Example 

from Dano District, Western Ethiopia 

SIMON RIEDEL 1,2 , CLEMENS WOLLNY 2 , TEMESGEN AYANA 3 , WORKNEH 

AYALEW 2 

1 Georg-August-University Göttingen, Biotechnology, Germany 

2 International Livestock Research Institute, (ILRI), Ethiopia 

3 Bako Agricultural Research Centre, Animal Production, Ethiopia 

Trypanosomosis is a major constraint to cattle farmers in parts of Sub Saharan Africa, 

including Ethiopia. ILRI in collaboration with national partners in Benin, Kenya and 

Ethiopia is implementing a project on “Improving Livelihood of the poor through 

Community based Management of Indigenous Animal Genetic Resources”. This 

project seeks to develop participatory processes in sustainable improvement of cattle 

production. In Ethiopia, the project works with smallholder cattle keepers in Dano 

District in the south-west of the country. Diseases, and particularly Trypanosomosis, 

were identified by farmers to be the most important constraint to cattle production, 

followed by seasonal scarcity of feed and water. As part of designing a development 

framework for sustainable utilization of lical cattle, this study explored the cattle 

keepers’ knowledge on the prevalence and control of Trypanosomosis. Semi-structured 

interviews were used to document farmers’ perception about the disease and 

their control measures. Laboratory diagnosis was used to record disease prevalence 

in cattle which were identified by farmers to sick with Trypanosomosis. The results 

showed that farmers are not aware of the nature of disease transmission, correct disease 

symptoms and their control measures. Blood examinations on 84 sample animals, 

suspected to be infected showed that 27.4 % of the cattle indeed were infected with 

Trypanosomosis. 83 animals were infected with Trypanosoma congolense, and one 

with Trypanosoma vivax. Infected animals had significantly less Packed Cell Volume 

PCV than non-infected animals (22.0 vs. 24.3). Farmers mainly recognized the disease 

by the following symptoms: Diarrhoea, hair loss, weight loss, coughing and 

change in skin colour. About 94 % of the farmers mentioned other ways than Tsetse 

fly as transmitter for the disease. These results were reported and discussed with 

the farmers. The project is undertaking further efforts to fill the knowledge gap and 

introduce sustainable disease control measures in the next two years. 

Keywords: Farmers’ perceptions, Trypanosoma congolense, Trypanosoma vivax 

Contact Address: Simon Riedel, Georg-August-University Göttingen, Biotechnology, 53227 Bonn, 

Germany, e-mail: simonriedel@gmx.de 

ID 554 487


Interactions of Shrimp and Rice Farming Systems in Southern 

Thailand: How Can We Internalise the Unidirectional 

Externalities? 

SIRIRAT KIATPATHOMCHAI, MICHAEL. P SCHMITZ, T. S. AMJATH BABU 

Justus-Liebig University Giessen, Institute of Agricultural Policy and Market Research, 

Germany 

Rice farming, a dominant economic as well as culturally important activity in Thailand 

is affected by the prevailing low prices of the rice grain in domestic and international 

markets as well as the raising cost of cultivation and opportunity costs. The 

current bleak scenario is exacerbated in southern Thailand especially in the Songkha 

Lake Basin due to prevailing low productivity of rice crop. Further deteriorating the 

situation, an increasing trend of myopic conversion of rice fields to shrimp farms for 

short term gains are gaining momentum especially from the late 1980s. Even though 

the initial gains were substantial for rice field turned shrimp farms, this is proved to be 

unsustainable. Here we are looking at the unidirectional externalities originating from 

the conversion which brings the productivity of rice fields further down. It can be observed 

that the fields in the coastal areas were converted initially but were extended 

to the inland making more area be saline which is essential for shrimp cultivation but 

deleterious for rice farming. The external effects originate from the saline effluences 

discharged to common irrigation canals which may 1) destroy the soil structure and 

2) retard the growth of rice and hence 3) decrease the efficiency and productivity of 

farming. In the present study, a quantification of external effects on rice farming using 

the primary survey data supported by data from secondary sources is attempted. 

The fiscal and non-fiscal measures of internalising this externality is sought after but 

we would like to concentrate on non-fiscal solutions especially by allocating property 

rights to farmers. The importance of the work lies in the fact that rice farming which 

is proved to be a sustainable agricultural activity in southern Thailand may loose its 

existing area share to unsustainable farming systems if the market failures are not 

corrected as soon as possible and one has to consider the fact that the re-conversion 

of shrimp farms back to rice fields are prohibitively costly and hence the change is 

economically almost irreversible. 

Keywords: Externality, Rice Farming, Shrimp Farming, Southern Thailand, sustainability 

Contact Address: Sirirat Kiatpathomchai, Justus-Liebig University Giessen, Institute of Agricultural 

Policy and Market Research, Diezstr.15, 35390 Gießen, Germany, e-mail: Sirirat.Kiatpathomchai@ 

agrar.uni-giessen.de 

488 ID 565


Milk Production in the Global Market: the Adaptation of Small 

Farmer in the State of Rio Grande Do Sul, Brazil 

VICENTE C PIRES SILVEIRA, FABIANA ANDREIA FICK, ROSANE MARIA 

CORADINI NOAL, MARCOS ALVES DOS REYS 

Federal University of Santa Maria, Agricultural Education and Rural Extension, Brazil 

The Brazilian milk production chain presents two historical moments. In the first moment 

the government interveined by fixing milk and dairy product prices. During this 

period, the dairy industry was formed by small and medium sized companies, which 

made the presence and participation of state companies and cooperatives become extremely 

important. During the second moment, since the beggining of the 90s, there is 

free market due to the globalisation of world economy. In the dairy sector fixed price 

was eliminated and there was a concentration of dairy industry and distribution sector. 

The government and cooperatives began to play an secondary magnitude, practically 

as mediators of the supply of raw matter or small industrial units of regional level. 

During this period, the goods and services market began to be dominated by global 

companies. In the state of Rio Grande do Sul, milk production was submitted to an intense 

transformation process, pressiored by external and internal economical factors. 

The rearticulation process of this sector under the free market point of view allowed 

the creation of a production approach based on raw matter demand, where low production 

costs combined with product quality became the main point of this activity 

and the focus of industrial strategy in order to become comercially competitive in the 

global market. In Rio Grande do Sul milk production is concentrated in small farm 

than the national average, in areas of up to 50 hectares, being that these properties are 

responsible for 84.3 % of the total production. The implementation of tools at a farm 

level, which can assist in the milking of cows in a more hygenic way, allied to the 

monitoring of production indicators are other means of helping small farmers which 

are willing to maintain themselves in this sector which continues to become more 

competitive. To know technical and economical results is of great importance since 

it is possible to evaluate farmer capitalisation and decapitalisation processes, allowing 

a deeper study of social relations which characterise the production and farming 

systems as a whole. 

Keywords: Dairy farmer, dairy sector, Milk production, Milk quality 

Contact Address: Vicente C Pires Silveira, Federal University of Santa Maria, Agricultural Education 

and Rural Extension, Sala 5112b Predio 44, 97105-900 Santa Maria, Brazil, e-mail: vicentesilveira@ 

smail.ufsm.br 

ID 572 489


Endogenous Development of Pastoral and Livestock Communities 

in Nigeria: Role of Research 

JEROME GEFU 

Ahmadu Bello University, National Animal Production Research Institute, Shika, Nigeria 

Extensive pastoral production occurs in some 65 % of Africa’s drylands. It provides 

10 % of the world’s meat production and supports some 200 million pastoral households 

keeping nearly a billion head of ruminants. Smallholder livestock remains critical 

to millions of people living in poverty. In West Africa, some 30 million pastoralists 

apply a variety of production strategies, including husbandry and health practices, 

feeding and marketing strategies. In many parts of Africa pastoralists have maintained 

indigenous animal breeds of varying gene pool that are well adapted to harsh environments. 

Their production systems are still widely informed by indigenous knowledge 

and practices, which span several generations. However, pastoralism is increasingly 

under pressure due to increasing and varied demand for livestock products. The need 

to expand and adapt has, therefore, become imperative. Following scientific verification 

of some common pastoral production practices and techniques through applied 

research, viable aspects of traditional practices could be incorporated into modern 

scientific techniques and systems for improved production. Applied research aims 

at providing good understanding of the nature and dynamism of production systems 

from which appropriate policy and institutional changes required to positively influence 

livestock production would emerge. This research orientation is a departure 

from the usual research activities that are often geared towards the production of peerreviewed 

publications that are often required for professional mobility of research 

officers. Applied research cum community-led development initiatives, rather than injection 

of values and ideas alien to the community, stands better chance of impacting 

positively on the livelihoods of producers, as producers exercise greater control over 

their destiny with minimal external input. The paper draws on results of recent applied 

research in pastoral communities in Nigeria. It documents and classifies various 

livestock health delivery and production systems with practical relevance to improved 

production in pastoral communities. The research results have had positive influence 

on government policy of integrating traditional practices and technologies into scientific 

procedures of animal health and production. 

Keywords: African pastoralist, applied research, endogenous livestock development, 

production systems 

Contact Address: Jerome Gefu, Ahmadu Bello University, National Animal Production Research Institute, 

Shika, PMB 1096, 800001 Zaria, Nigeria, e-mail: jgefu@yahoo.com 

490 ID 574


Supply Chain Interventions for the Benefit of Small Fishery 

Producers: Case Studies from the Philippines 

EUSEBIO JACINTO 

Tambuyog Development Center, Philippines 

In the Philippines, small-scale fisheries, as common pool resources, remains beset by 

the problems of resource degradation and widespread poverty in coastal communities. 

Community-based coastal resources management (CBCRM) approaches centreed on 

property rights are being increasingly adopted by fisherfolk and non-government organisations 

as both tactical necessity and strategic imperative. 

With the CBCRM movement in the Philippines entering its second generation, there 

have been both successes and failures. There have been substantial gains in the area 

of resource conservation especially with marine protected areas as one of the main 

strategies being employed. However, this stands in stark contrast to assertions of 

small-scale fishers that they do not benefit economically from the market from their 

crucial role in coastal resource management. 

This dilemma of market disempowerment is further embedded in the phenomenon 

of rapid global economic integration, which if not properly managed, threatens to 

exacerbate the plight of coastal communities. To deepen the investigation into the 

situation of small-scale fishers vis-à-vis other economic players at the local, national 

and global level, case studies analysing the supply chain were conducted on selected 

fishery products, including tuna, milkfish and seaweed. 

These studies focused on the dynamic of interlinkages in the fishing industry and 

sought to describe the full range of activities required to bring fishery products from 

capture/culture, through the different phases of production and delivery to final consumers. 

Based on these studies, development interventions were initiated by local 

associations of small fishery producers with support from government agencies and 

non-government organisations. These interventions include enhancement of property 

rights arrangements, mitigation of externalities caused by fishery activities, and measures 

towards supply chain integration. 

The case studies will also highlight palpable changes, from the perspective of small 

producers, in the areas of governance and distribution of benefits along the supply 

chain with focus on sourcing of inputs, stability of resource tenure, and development 

of independent capacity in marketing and processing. 

Keywords: Community property rights, community-based coastal resources management, 

small-scale fishers, supply chain, value chain analysis 

Contact Address: Eusebio Jacinto, Tambuyog Development Center, 91 V. Luna Rd. Ext. Cor. Maningning 

St. Sikatuna Village Diliman, 1101 Quezon City, Philippines, e-mail: ted@tambuyog.org 

ID 601 491


Ethnoveterinary Medical Traditions and Methodology for their 

Documentation, Assessment and Promotion 

BALAKRISHNAN NAIR 

Foundation for Revitalization of Llocal Health Tradition, Community Health Education 

and Outreach, India 

Nearly 70 % of the world’s rural poor depends on livestock as a critical component 

of their livelihood. It is estimated that approximately Rs 50 billion are lost annually 

on account of livestock diseases in India. Modern veterinary health delivery is facing 

many constraints such as high treatment cost, inaccessibility and presence of antibiotic 

and hormonal residues in the milk and other animal products. Veterinary services 

have a crucial role in controlling highly contagious diseases and zoonotic infections, 

which have implications for human health as well as that of livestock. The Indian subcontinent 

has rich ethnoveterinary health traditions which are the products of decades 

of experiences. These traditional medicines can be used for the animal health care that 

can cut down the cost considerably. Moreover they are readily accessible to the ordinary 

farmer. The key challenges are to find out the effectiveness and contemporary 

relevance of these practices. The modern laboratory and clinical studies for validation 

involve long time and huge resources. The worldview of the theoretical foundation 

of modern science and the traditional knowledge are completely different. Therefore, 

it is necessary to have an assessment which involves world view which is nearly similar 

to the traditional knowledge and practices. An Ayurveda/Mrugayurveda based 

Assessment methodology was developed in order to find the safe and efficacious ethnoveterinary 

practices in select locations of South India. A total of 116 plant species 

for 19 health conditions that are commonly seen in cattle were taken for assessment in 

different geographical locations. The basic principle of this assessment is a consensus 

of opinion among different medical systems about the management of a health conditions. 

It was found that nearly 70 % of the practices had supportive evidence from 

Ayurveda (one of the Indian systems of Medicine) and modern pharmacology on their 

prescribed uses. 

Keywords: Endogenous livestock development, ethnoveterinary health traditions 

Contact Address: Balakrishnan Nair, Foundation for Revitalization of Llocal Health Tradition, Community 

Health Education and Outreach, 74/2 Jarakabande Kaval Attur Post via Yelahanka, 560 064 Bangalore, 

India, e-mail: nair.mnb@frlht.org 

492 ID 350


Farmers’ Preferences of Phenotypic Traits in Cattle Production 

and Marketing: A Case Study in Central Ethiopia 

GIRMA TESFAHUN KASSIE 1,2 , CLEMENS WOLLNY 2,1 , AWUDU ABDULAI 3 , 

ADAM DRUCKER 4,2 , WORKNEH AYALEW 2 

1Georg-August-University Göttingen, Animal Breeding and Husbandry in the Tropics and 



3University of Kiel, Department of Food Economics and Consumption Studies, Germany 

4 Charles Darwin University, Australia 

Production and marketing decisions in the semi-subsistence cattle keeping systems of 

Ethiopia are principally influenced by farmers’ preferences of cattle phenotypic traits. 

Eliciting the preferences and quantifying the economic worth of these characteristics 

would reinforce efforts in the production, marketing, and sustainable conservation 

and use of animal genetic resources (AnGR). This study focused at understanding 

what farmers and farmer-buyers’ preferences are regarding the cattle they want to buy 

and/or keep or sell. The research was conducted in and around Dano district of Central 

Ethiopia both on farm and in the cattle markets. Farmers, as cattle keepers, identified 

age, origin, and suitability for ploughing for oxen/bulls and age, fertility, origin of 

the animal, and calf strength for cows/heifers as the most important traits. As cattle 

buyers, farmers selected age, suitability for ploughing, origin of the animal, and calf 

strength for oxen/bulls and age, origin, milk yield and calf strength for cows/heifers 

as the crucial traits in their buying decisions. Spearman rank-order correlation coefficients 

showed that covariations of farmer rankings are strong and mainly occur along 

the upward slant. The research verified the fact that farmers have age-old mechanisms 

of identifying and ranking their trait preferences in a consistent and meaningful 

manner. The identification of these trait preferences implies that decisions for genetic 

improvement and conservation of indigenous cattle in these production systems 

should be based on comprehensive understanding not only of the relative importance 

attached to each phenotypic trait but also of the ways in which cattle keepers and 

consumers measure these traits. 

Keywords: Cattle buyers, Cattle keepers, Covariation, Dano, Trait preferences 

Contact Address: Girma Tesfahun Kassie, Georg-August-University Göttingen, Animal Breeding and 

Husbandry in the Tropics and Subtropics, Kellnerweg 6, 37077 Göttingen, Germany, e-mail: gkassie@ 

gwdg.de 

ID 100 493


Direct Involvement of Indigenous Women in Sheep Improvement 

Research in Chiapas, México 

RAUL PEREZGROVAS 

University of Chiapas, Institute of Indigenous Studies, Mexico 

In developing countries, animal extension approaches utilise the introduction of exotic 

genes as the basis for crossbreeding interventions. Most of these efforts end up failing 

due to lack of adaptation of the high-performance breeds. In Highland Chiapas, the 

Tzotzil ethnic group derives up to 36 % of its income from sheep husbandry and the 

weaving of typical woolen clothes; government efforts have attempted to absorb the 

local wool sheep with high-producing breeds such as the Merino, without success. 

A different approach tried to improve fleece quality in Chiapas sheep by selection, 

and a research project was designed utilising an open nucleus scheme. Commercial 

or industrial traits of high-quality wool (white, short, fine) were exactly the opposite 

of those developed by the local weavers (coloured, coarse, double-coated, long). To 

account for the difference groups of Tzotzil shepherdesses and weavers were invited 

in 1996 to collaborate as part of the sheep-improvement plan, directing research goals 

by means of their continuous assessment of fleece-quality in the animals of the nucleus 

flock. This collaboration is put into practice by grading the quality of the fleece 

in all sheep under 24 months of age, prior to each six-monthly shearing. 

The list of achievements in the first 10 years of this unique inter-ethnic collaboration 

includes a set of selection objectives for fleece quality, and a comprehensive understanding 

of the characteristics of wool in the local sheep and its relationship with 

the transformation of wool into clothes through the ancient textile process utilised 

over centuries by the Tzotzil women. As a result, current fleece variables within 

the improvement programme include: fleece quality, staple length, textile aptitude 

(proportion of coarse/fine fibers), greasy fleece weight, and wool growth. Improved 

rams from the nucleus flock have been introduced within community flocks, and their 

offspring have inherited superior fleece-quality traits. Direct participation in the programme 

by the local experts in sheep husbandry and weaving, has been a key issue in 

the success of this endogenous research approach. 

Keywords: Endogenous livestock development, fleece quality, Tzotzil shepherdesses 

Contact Address: Raul Perezgrovas, University of Chiapas, Institute of Indigenous Studies, Centro Universitario 

Campus III, 29264 San Cristóbal de Las Casas, Mexico, e-mail: rgrovas@unach.mx 

494 ID 220


How to Sustainably Increase the Proportion of Males in Nile 

Tilapia (O.niloticus) by Temperature Treatment: A two 

Generation Selection Experiment for Thermal Sensitivity 

STEPHAN WESSELS, GABRIELE HÖRSTGEN-SCHWARK 

Georg-August-University Göttingen, Institute of Animal Husbandry and Genetics, Germany 

Stunting still is one of the major problems in production of mixed sex Nile Tilapia 

stocks. Thus all-male stocks are highly desirable in cultivation of Nile Tilapia. High 

temperature treatments are capable of changing the phenotypic sex towards maleness. 

Loss of productivity due to early recruitment in the ponds could be minimised by selection 

of temperature sensitive lines to sustainably increase the proportion of males 

by temperature treatment. Therefore a selection experiment over two selection generations 

was carried out starting with 36 families of Oreochromis niloticus from Lake 

Manzala (Egypt) as a base population. 

In order to detect the families‘ thermal sensitivity they were subdivided into a control 

(28°C) and treatment group, each consisting of 110 fish. The treatment groups 

were subjected to a 10 day thermal treatment at 36°C water temperature starting 9 

days post fertilisation. After gradual readaptation to 28°C each treatment and corresponding 

control group was raised separately till sexing (microscopical inspection 

of gonads at a minimum age of 90 days). For later selection purposes 10 males and 

females were kept from each control group. Families showing the highest surplus of 

males in the temperature treated groups were selected. Hence, 14 % of the families in 

the base population and first selection generation were selected. Two generations of 

selection increased the male percentage in the temperature treated groups to more than 

90 %. High response to selection and a high realized heritability of 0.83 indicated that 

temperature sex determination has a strong genetic background. Thus, production of 

temperature sensitive lines seems to be a feasible approach to significantly increase 

the percentage of males in a consumer- and environment-friendly way. 

Keywords: Male percentage, Nile Tilapia, realized heritability, selection, temperature 

treament 



ID 510 495


Dairy Cattle for Poverty Alleviation in Southern Tanzania 

WOLFGANG BAYER 1 , LUCAS BASILIO KAPUNDA 2 , PHILIP SASSOON 2 

1 Independent Advisor in Livestock Systems Development, Germany 

2 Caritas, Mbyea, Tanzania, Southern Highland Network, Tanzania 

In the past half-century, various ways of increasing dairy production have been tried in 

Tanzania, with the “Heifer in Trust” (HIT) scheme being the most successful. A group 

of farmers receives a small number of exotic dairy heifers (mostly Holstein-Friesian 

crosses) and distributes the animals to individual families. Farmers are obliged to 

keep the cows indoors, are advised to make compost with the manure, and have to 

repay two calves per heifer received: one to the group to be passed on to another 

group member and one to the project to cover expenses. A recent study in the southern 

highlands of Tanzania examined the effectiveness of this approach in alleviating 

poverty. 

In the highlands, high-grade dairy animals can produce 5000 l of milk/lactation or 

more if they receive adequate amounts of concentrates; at lower elevations with higher 

disease pressure, lower-grade animals fare better. Income from milk sales helped 

the smallholder families to acquire additional land, improve their houses (and cattle 

sheds), finance small-scale businesses, send children to secondary school, and expand 

the dairy business. Manure helped double the maize yield and improve yields of cash 

crops (tomatoes, bananas). Keeping dairy cattle stimulated farmers to drill shallow 

wells. Partnership between spouses has reportedly improved through the loan agreement. 

Families that barely managed to survive six years ago are now considered 

wealthy. Milk marketing is presently not a problem, although it may need attention in 

future. 

However, only 2—3 % of households in any village are reached by the HIT scheme 

and its success depends on good functioning of the farmers’ groups. Whereas some 

groups could increase dairy cattle keeping from initially 5 to 25 households within six 

years, other groups stagnated or failed. It was also found that the project has reached 

mostly the moderately poor and able-bodied people and that dairy production is most 

successful in peri-urban areas. 

Keywords: Credit, dairy cattle, manure, poverty alleviation, Tanzania 

Contact Address: Wolfgang Bayer, Independent Advisor in Livestock Systems Development, Rohnsweg 

56, 37085 Göttingen, Germany, e-mail: wb_bayer@web.de 

496 ID 415

Evaluation of Animal Production Systems 

DIEMUTH PEMSL, MADAN M. DEY, FERDINAND J. PARAGUAS: 

Determining High Potential Aquaculture Production Areas 

— Analysis of Key Socio-economic Adoption Factors 499 

ADE SUNARYO, M. AGUS SUPRAYUDI, STEPHAN WES- 

SELS, GABRIELE HÖRSTGEN-SCHWARK: 

Effects of Shelter on Survival- and Growth Rate of Giant 

Freshwater Prawn (Macrobrachium rosenbergii de Man) 

During Post Larvae Stages 500 

GETAHUN LEGESSE GIZAW, MARIANNA SIEGMUND-SCHULTZE, 

GIRMA ABEBE, ANNE VALLE ZÁRATE: 

Smallholder Sheep and Goat Production Systems in Southern 

Ethiopia: Opportunities and Limitations 501 

SABINE HOMANN, ANDRE VANROOYEN: 

Strengthening Livestock Market Flows and Feeding Practices 

for Improved Livelihoods in Southern Zimbabwe 502 

OGHAIKI ASAAH NDAMBI, VOLKER HOFFMANN, BAYEMI 

HENRI: 

Stimulating Milk Production in Cameroon - Meeting the 

Challenges 503 

INA GRUBER: 

How to Meet Future Demand for Animal Products: the 

Case of Benin 504 

LILA KARKI, SIEGFRIED BAUER, UMA KARKI: 

Buffalo Production: A Prosperous Enterprise to Empower 

Women Farmers and to Sustain Subsistence Farming 505 

HIPPOLYTE AFFOGNON, HERMANN WAIBEL, DELIA GRACE, 

THOMAS RANDOLPH: 

A Methodology to Measure the Costs of Animal Trypanosomosis 

in West Africa 506 

DAO DAOUDA, LEHMANN BERNARD, DUMONDEL MICHEL: 

Analysis of the Potential Contribution of Improvements in 

the Livestock Production System to Better Livelihood of 

Small Farmers’ Households: Livestock Production System 

Model as Represented by Major Actors 507 

497


498 

GESINE HAENSEL, MUHAMMAD IBRAHIM: 

Uniting Cattle Production and the Provision of Environmental 

Services on the Same Plot: An Analysis of Farmers 

Costs, Benefits and Incentives to Adopt Silvopastoral Systems 

in Costa Rica, Nicaragua and Colombia 508 

STEPHANIE GOOD, YOSEPH SHIFERAW, LENA DAVIDSSON, 

RICHARD HURRELL, THOMAS RANDOLPH: 

Animal Source Foods and Nutrition During Early Life 509 

POONSUB INSUNG: 

Development of Iron — Fortified Thai Snack Food Products 

Using Pork Blood as an Iron Sources 510 

SAMUEL MBUKU, ISAAC KOSGEY, ALEXANDER KAHI: 

Identification Systems and Selection Criteria of Pastoral 

Goat Keepers in Northern Kenya- Implications for a Breeding 

Programme 511


Determining High Potential Aquaculture Production Areas — 

Analysis of Key Socio-economic Adoption Factors 

DIEMUTH PEMSL, MADAN M. DEY, FERDINAND J. PARAGUAS 

WorldFish Center, Policy, Economics, and Social Sciences, Malaysia 

Aquaculture production increased with an average 10 % annual growth rate since 1990 

and today some 90 % of aquaculture production takes place in developing countries 

thus providing livelihood and income especially to marginal groups without access to 

resources such as agricultural land. 

A project coordinated by the WorldFish Center is developing a GIS-based decision 

support model to facilitate the prioritising of national research, development and extension 

strategies and targeting of development assistance for aquaculture in the partner 

countries (Cameroon, China, Bangladesh, Malawi). Stakeholders need to know 

where and under which conditions certain aquaculture technologies would be feasible. 

Factors that determine the adoption of certain technologies include agro-physical 

(rainfall, temperature, soil type, slope) and socio-economic (availability of land, 

labour, and capital, infrastructure, input supply) characteristics. The input of agrophysical 

factors in the model is straight forward by generating maps showing the 

rainfall or temperature of a certain area. However, many important socio-economic 

variables are not explicitly spatially distributed (such as household land holdings or 

education). 

Four main stages are used to integrate socio-economic variables in the GIS based 

decision support model: (1) identification of key factors for successful adoption of target 

technologies on the micro-level, (2) development of indicators on the meso-level, 

(3) generation of input data sets (geo-referenced) for the GIS model, and (4) assignment 

of ranking/weights to the indicators. The paper outlines the conceptual framework 

used for the socio-economic part of the decision support model and highlights 

some of the inherent methodological challenges. Results of the analysis of aquaculture 

adoption in Bangladesh and Malawi, representing different levels of intensification 

of aquaculture production are presented and discussed. Spatial econometric 

techniques are used to assign ranks to the developed indicators. 

Keywords: Adoption of aquaculture, decision support model, developing countries, 

spatial econometrics 

Contact Address: Diemuth Pemsl, WorldFish Center, Policy, Economics, and Social Sciences, Penang, 

Malaysia, e-mail: d.pemsl@cgiar.org 

ID 123 499


Effects of Shelter on Survival- and Growth Rate of Giant 

Freshwater Prawn (Macrobrachium rosenbergii de Man) During 

Post Larvae Stages 

ADE SUNARYO 1 , M. AGUS SUPRAYUDI 2 , STEPHAN WESSELS 1 , GABRIELE 

HÖRSTGEN-SCHWARK 1 

1 Georg-August University, Institute of Animal Husbandry and Genetics, Germany 

2 Bogor Agricultural University, Marine Culture and Fisheries Faculty, Indonesia 

One of the major constraints in the culture of giant freshwater prawn (Macrobrachium 

rosenbergii) is the low survival rate during the post larvae phase due to cannibalism. 

The objective of this experiment was therefore to evaluate the effects of shelter on 

survival- and growth rate of post larvae. Experiments were carried out at the hatchery 

of the Bogor Extension Fisheries Programme, Bogor, Indonesia. Aquariae, each with 

a water volume of 100 litres, were stocked with post larvae (PL) of an average weight 

of 0.02 g at a density of one PL per litre. After acclimatisation, PL were fed with commercial 

pelleted feed of 1mm diameter. Five different shelter types were evaluated: 

multiple vertical shelter (B), single diagonal shelter (C), zigzag shelter (D), horizontal 

single shelter (E), and a combination of vertical and horizontal shelter (F). Each 

shelter type and a control without shelter (A) was tested in triplicate (18 aquaria) over 

a period of 60 days. Thereafter PL were counted and weighted again. Water quality 

parameters (temperature, pH, oxygen, nitrite, ammonia) were measured daily during 

the whole experimental period. The results of the experiments clearly showed that 

each type of shelter in comparison to the controls improved the survival rate significantly. 

The highest survival rate with 53 % was obtained by using a combination of 

vertical and horizontal shelter (treatment F). The final average weight of PL was also 

highest in treatment F (3.38g) and differed significantly from the weight observed in 

controls (2.87g). Results of these experiments should be also examined under pond 

conditions. 

Keywords: Growth rate, post larvae, shelter, survival rate 



500 ID 298


Smallholder Sheep and Goat Production Systems in Southern 

Ethiopia: Opportunities and Limitations 

GETAHUN LEGESSE GIZAW 1,2 , MARIANNA SIEGMUND-SCHULTZE 1 , GIRMA 

ABEBE 2 , ANNE VALLE ZÁRATE 1 

1University of Hohenheim, Animal Breeding and Husbandry in the Tropics and Subtropics, 

Germany 

2University of Hawassa, Department of Animal and Range Sciences, Ethiopia 

Small ruminants are an integral part of mixed-farming systems throughout Ethiopia. 

Assessment of the existing small ruminant production systems is an important tool to 

inform researchers about the actual problems farmers face and the opportunities that 

exist within the systems. A survey was conducted from April to July 2004 in the Adilo 

and Kofele areas of the mixed farming systems of southern Ethiopia. Adilo is one of 

the most densely populated areas in Ethiopia. Kofele represents southern highlands 

populated at medium level and the farmers keep more livestock and own bigger farmland 

than their counterparts in Adilo. Following the identification of the major small 

ruminant supplier localities to the markets in the study area, ten of them were purposefully 

selected from each study site for further sampling. Then, an average of twenty 

households was randomly selected from each locality, totalling 399 households. A 

structured questionnaire was used to collect data on productive and socioeconomic aspects 

which were later validated by group discussions. Small ruminants hold several 

roles in the study sites. They provide meat, milk and skins; however, the principal 

purpose of keeping sheep and goats is to generate income. Sheep milk consumption 

is widespread around Kofele unlike most agricultural systems in the country. Nearly 

all respondents in Adilo (93 %) reported that they fatten their animals for sale. Lack 

of feed which is directly related to the shrinking farm size was ranked as a major 

constraint by Adilo respondents while small ruminant diseases ranked as a topmost 

priority problem in Kofele. The growing demand for small ruminants both in local 

and international markets, the improving transportation infrastructure, and the experience 

of farmers in small ruminant keeping are practical opportunities to enhance 

the contribution of the sector. This study has produced a general understanding of 

the small ruminant systems and identified major challenges. A thorough monitoring 

of the productive and economic performance of small ruminants is required to capture 

full picture of their contribution thereby directing possible intervention areas to 

maximise benefits to the farmers. 

Keywords: Ethiopia, mixed-farming systems, small ruminants 

Contact Address: Getahun Legesse Gizaw, University of Hohenheim, Animal Breeding and Husbandry 

in the Tropics and Subtropics, Garbenstrasse 17, 70593 Stuttgart, Germany, e-mail: getahun@ 

uni-hohenhem.de 

ID 444 501


Strengthening Livestock Market Flows and Feeding Practices for 

Improved Livelihoods in Southern Zimbabwe 

SABINE HOMANN, ANDRE VANROOYEN 

International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics (ICRISAT), Zimbabwe 

The growing demand for livestock products offers income opportunities for smallscale 

farmers in semi-arid areas of Zimbabwe provided they could increase off-take 

rates and improve animal quality. To achieve this, farmers need to increase their 

investments in feeding methods and practices — but with poorly developed markets 

for livestock products and services, farmers have little incentive to make the necessary 

investments. 

We conducted household surveys on cattle and goat production in three districts in 

Zimbabwe, at sites with differences in market access (proxied by distance to nearest 

market) and human population densities. The survey examined off-take rates, management 

practices and socio-economic profiles of livestock keepers. In addition, focus 

group discussions with livestock traders provided information on market opportunities 

and input technologies required. 

Cattle provide only limited income, although they are the preferred form of investment. 

Goats are sold more often, to meet household expenses. Farmers use formal 

market systems in remote areas, while they choose informal marketing strategies in 

areas closer to urban markets — bypassing levies and transaction costs. Significant 

numbers of cattle offered for sale at official sales-pens are not sold — largely as a 

result of low prices offered by buyers due to poor animal quality or because of imperfect 

market situations where few buyers dictate very low prices. For goats no formal 

markets exist, but large numbers are sold to traders and then transported to urban areas, 

where demand is high. Prices are also low and variable during the year, because 

of a lack of market competition and poor animal condition. 

The main challenges are to improve livestock markets and disseminate market information 

to small-scale producers. Premium prices paid for animals in better conditions 

will create the incentives for farmers to invest in improved animal feed and management 

technologies. This will require joint investments by both private and public 

sectors. 

Keywords: Animal feed and management technology, crop-livestock farming systems, 

livestock market development 

Contact Address: Sabine Homann, International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics 

(ICRISAT), Po Box 776, Bulawayo, Zimbabwe, e-mail: s.homann@cgiar.org 

502 ID 408


Stimulating Milk Production in Cameroon - Meeting the 

Challenges 

OGHAIKI ASAAH NDAMBI 1 , VOLKER HOFFMANN 2 , BAYEMI HENRI 3 

1IFCN Dairy Research Center, Germany 

2Universität Hohenheim, Department of Agricultural Communication and Extension, Germany 

3Institute of Agricultural Research for Development Bambui, Bovine Production, Cameroon 

Cameroon falls within counties with the lowest per caput production and consumption 

of milk. The per capita consumption of milk in Cameroon is about 15 Kg milk equivalents 

per year, compared to 40 Kg in Africa and 94 Kg in the world. Milk has been 

envisaged as a principal protein source that can raise protein consumption and hence 

reduce malnutrition, which is still a major problem to Cameroon, with a prevalence of 

22 % in children less than 5 years. Due to urbanisation and population growth, milk 

production per head is expected to double by the year 2020, in order to meet demand. 

This study was intended to assess the opportunities and constraints to dairy development 

in Cameroon. Data was collected through visits and execution of individual 

interviews to farmers and other stakeholders, using questionnaires. 

Results showed that dairying development has a potential revealed by: availability of 

demand and importation of dairy products especially in urban areas, availability of 

processing plants, resistant cattle breeds, labour force, veterinary, research and extension 

services. Milk production was however dominated by Fulani herders, who owned 

local cattle breeds, stayed far from markets, had land disputes with crop farmers and 

suffered from feed shortage, especially in the dry season. 

Improved feeding and livestock management could lead to a tripled average daily 

milk yield of local cows. Exotic breeds could produce higher amounts of milk; however, 

their high costs of production and low adaptability are a problem to farmers. 

Crossbreeding could produce better results; however, research still needs to be done 

to show profitable levels and acceptable scale of production. Market availability and 

access to extension, veterinary and credit services could stimulate milk production in 

rural areas. 

Furthermore, the organisation of farmers into dairy cooperative groups can be recommended 

as a means of fostering their production, marketing and credit worthiness 

hence improving on income generation from dairying. 

Keywords: Cameroon, Constraints, dairy development, Opportunities, Research 

Contact Address: Oghaiki Asaah Ndambi, IFCN Dairy Research Center, Bohlweg 55, 38100 Braunschweig, 

Germany, e-mail: ndamboa@yahoo.com 

ID 37 503


How to Meet Future Demand for Animal Products: the Case of 

Benin 

INA GRUBER 

University of Bonn, Institute for Food and Resource Economics, Germany 

At present the livestock sector in developing countries undergoes several changes on 

the way to development. Population growth, stagnant productivity and extensive production 

methods which are based to a large extent on the use of natural resources lead 

to high demand combined with limited production. This situation is also the case in 

Benin producing animal products mainly for own consumption including gifts and 

sacrificing, for improving household income of small farmers and for regional trade. 

Connections to the world market are in general weak, but frozen chicken and eggs are 

imported in large amounts. Benin will face an over proportional increase in demand 

for animal products due to its high population growth and an expected income growth 

per capita. The latter is relevant as income elasticities are greater than one for high 

protein products such as animal products in this region. This increasing demand of 

about 134 % up to 2025 could be satisfied by changing the production method towards 

a more intensive system, increasing herd size or increasing import quantities. The further 

developed Agricultural Sector Model BenIMPACT studies the possibilities to 

meet the higher demand for animal products in the future. In the new version the 

livestock sectors is integrated into the model affording the opportunity to analyse and 

discuss the future development as well as international trade of animal products. The 

results are confronted with expert opinions which were evaluated in a field survey in 

October/November 2005. The experts stated that additional quantities will be mainly 

provided by intensification. They also assume that an expansion in animal numbers is 

a method for higher supply. However they projected small increases in productivity 

for the next twenty years why it seems obvious that without the connection to the 

world market the expected demand cannot be met. 

Keywords: Agricultural sector model, Development, livestock management 

Contact Address: Ina Gruber, University of Bonn, Institute for Food and Resource Economics, Nussallee 

21, 53115 Bonn, Germany, e-mail: gruber@agp.uni-bonn.de 

504 ID 278


Buffalo Production: A Prosperous Enterprise to Empower Women 

Farmers and to Sustain Subsistence Farming 

LILA KARKI 1 , SIEGFRIED BAUER 1 , UMA KARKI 2 

1 Justus-Liebig-University Giessen, Institute of Agriculture and Food Systems Manage- 

ment, Germany 

2 Auburn University, College of Agriculture, USA 

Livestock is a paramount component in Nepalese agricultural system. Its economic 

contribution to rural households (28.5 %), agricultural sector (31.5 %), and national 

economy (18 %) is in increasing trend. However, the share of animal products in 

Nepalese dietary energy supply is merely 7.5 %. Buffalo contributes 69 % and 64 % 

to the total milk and meat production respectively. Besides, manure and draft power 

have been two key outputs that buffalo provides to maintain the soil fertility and agricultural 

operations, where chemical fertiliser and mechanisation have not often been 

practised. However, buffalo production has not yet been accorded top priority in the 

livestock sector. The study was conducted in the mid hills of Nepal. The field data 

were collected applying multi-stage random sampling technique. The collected data 

have been analysed using descriptive statistics, econometric models, and qualitative 

tools. Additionally, annual compound growth rate of buffalo population and their production 

and factor productivity have been analyzed. The model results reveal high 

possibility to increase factor productivity by utilising the available farm resources 

optimally. The highest economic contribution of buffalo to all other farm animals 

(cow, goat, sheep, poultry) underpins its production potentialities in livestock based 

farming system. The involvement of women in production and marketing activities 

also analyzed. The significant involvement of women in raising buffalo activity opens 

possibilities of empowering them through human capacity development and income 

generating prospects. The socio-economic contribution of this enterprise to the rural 

households can further be increased substantially if farmers are made aware of the 

concept comparative advantage and motivate them accordingly. Simultaneously, government 

have to provide farmers with some other strategic interventions in order them 

to facilitate applying modern buffalo technology, enhance their technical and managerial 

capacity and constant support on diversifying the products to ease marketing. 

Keywords: Buffalo enterprise, factor productivity, rural economy, women empowerment 

Contact Address: Lila Karki, Justus-Liebig-University Giessen, Institute of Agriculture and Food 

Systems Management, Senckenbergstraße - 3, D-35390 Gießen, Germany, e-mail: Lila.Karki@agrar. 


ID 261 505


A Methodology to Measure the Costs of Animal Trypanosomosis 

in West Africa 

HIPPOLYTE AFFOGNON 1 , HERMANN WAIBEL 1 , DELIA GRACE 2 , THOMAS 

RANDOLPH 3 

1Leibniz-University Hannover, Economics and Business Administration, Germany 

2Free University Berlin, Institute of Parasitology and International Animal Health, Germany 

3International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI), Livestock & Human Health, Kenya 

This study assesses the farm level costs and the productivity of drugs used for controlling trypanosomosis, 

a serious cattle disease and major constraint to agricultural production in West 

Africa. Trypanocide drug treatments are the principal method of control but emerging resistance 

to these drugs threatens the sustainability of their continued use. The study was conducted 

in West Africa in Burkina Faso and Mali from June 2003 to May 2004. Data were 

collected by a team of veterinary epidemiologists, technicians and agro-economists. In all, 208 

herds with a total of 3565 cattle in 18 villages were monitored during a period of 12 months. 

Epidemiological data were collected three times (the rainy season, the dry cold season and the 

dry hot season). Input and output data were collected by enumerators posted in the villages 

throughout the study period. Additional price data were collected in local markets and abattoirs. 

The methodologies of data analysis included Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) adjusted for 

clustering and a production function model integrating a damage control function. Resistance 

was captured by including a dummy variable for trypanocide drug failure. Results show that 

depending on epidemiological conditions, trypanosomosis costs, at farm level, 8.76 to 24.71 

[e/TLU/Year] (Cost of trypanosomosis is composed of the production loss due to the disease 

plus the costs of disease abatement). The costs of the disease represent 8 % to 22 % of annual 

household cattle production revenue per Tropical Livestock Unit (TLU). Farmers in villages 

with high disease prevalence and high drug resistance realise significantly less output on average 

than those in low prevalence and low resistance villages. Where disease is common, there 

is significantly less total output (29.5 %) in the presence of high versus low drug resistance. 

The marginal value products of trypanocides vary but are positive and greater than one. In economic 

terms, this implies that contrary to common opinion, farmers tend to under- rather than 

over-use trypanocide drugs. Based on the results, recommendations are made for introducing 

an extension system that promotes rational use of trypanocides to avoid inefficiency of input 

use. 

Keywords: Costs of disease, damage control, productivity, resistance, trypanocide, trypanosomosis 

Contact Address: Hippolyte Affognon, Leibniz-University Hannover, Economics and Business Administration, 

Königsworther Platz 1, 30167 Hannover, Germany, e-mail: haffognon@yahoo.com 

506 ID 240


Analysis of the Potential Contribution of Improvements in the 

Livestock Production System to Better Livelihood of Small 

Farmers’ Households: Livestock Production System Model as 

Represented by Major Actors 

DAO DAOUDA 1 , LEHMANN BERNARD 2 , DUMONDEL MICHEL 2 

1 University of Cocody, Center of Scientific Research, Ivory Coast 

2 Swiss Federal Institute of Technology (ETH), Agrifood and Agrienmvironmental Eco- 

nomics Group, Switzerland 

Livestock production plays an important role in the economies of many African countries. 

In Côte d’Ivoire, rapid population growth (3.8 % in 1999) and urbanisation have 

modified dietary customs. There is a fast growing consumer demand for meat, eggs, 

and milk, which cannot be satisfied by local production alone (31 % for meat and 

11 % for milk). Both constraints at the production level as well as poorly adapted and 

inefficient local, commercial networks characterise the system. The consequence is 

high transportation costs lead to a qualitatively and quantitatively inadequate supply 

of livestock products to urban centres from the countryside. 

Acknowledging this inefficiency, this project is funded by ZIL and aimed to provide a 

detailed description, analysis, and understanding of the local livestock system. Team 

learning is increasingly recognised as a critical factor in tackling strategic problems. 

Considering all the points above, we have tried to interlink all the participants in 

the livestock production process through a systems approach using group modelling 

(Vennix, 1996). Vennix group modelling is a process whereby all participants exchange 

their perceptions of the origin of a problem and analyse its causes and their 

effects on the dynamic evolution of this problem. The preferred partners has been key 

stakeholders in cattle, small ruminants and poultry production, starting with farmers 

and including co-operatives and consumer associations, veterinarians, drug retailers 

and sellers, development agencies, the Ministries of animal production of agriculture, 

trade and their local representatives and NGOs. The mapping and modelling process 

recommended by Sterman (2000) and Vennix (1996) has been used and adapted to the 

context of livestock production in Côte d’Ivoire. On this poster, we present the first 

model which reflects the views of the major actors. 

Keywords: Côte d’Ivoire , Efficacy, Group Model building, livestock 

Contact Address: Dao Daouda, University of Cocody, Center of Scientific Research, 01 Bp 1303 Abidjan 

01, Abidjan, Ivory Coast, e-mail: daouda.dao@csrs.ci 

ID 508 507


Uniting Cattle Production and the Provision of Environmental 

Services on the Same Plot: An Analysis of Farmers Costs, Benefits 

and Incentives to Adopt Silvopastoral Systems in Costa Rica, 

Nicaragua and Colombia 

GESINE HAENSEL 1 , MUHAMMAD IBRAHIM 2 

1 , 

2Center for Research and Higher Education in Tropical Agriculture (CATIE), Agroforestry, 

Costa Rica 

Driven by a growing world population and rising incomes, the demand for livestock 

in developing countries is expected to double over the next twenty years. This trend 

gives reason for concern that an expansion of livestock production will put additional 

pressure on natural resources. At the same time, this quickly growing demand opens 

a unique opportunity for small-scale livestock farmers to enter markets as suppliers 

and to enhance their household welfare through additional income. One important 

challenges associated with this trend is finding ways of linking the promotion of sustainable 

livestock production systems with the provision of adequate incentives for 

their adoption. The GEF project “Integrated Silvopastoral Approaches to Ecosystem 

Management” is testing a novel approach which has potential to meet this challenge. 

It uses payments for environmental services (PES) as an incentive for the adoption of 

silvopastoral practices on degraded pasture land in Costa Rica, Nicaragua and Colombia. 

Small and medium sized farmers are rewarded with payments for the provision 

of global environmental services generated by silvopastoral systems. Payments are 

issued over a period of two to four years to cover parts of up-front investment costs. 

Once payments end, the systems are expected to generate returns which exceed those 

of traditional land-use practices thus providing the basis for their long-term sustainability. 

The present paper analyses farmers’ costs and benefits of adopting silvopastoral 

systems in three different countries and identifies socio-economic characteristics 

of farm households which favour/impede their adoption. To shed light on the question 

whether transaction costs constitute a barrier to small-scale farmers’ participation 

in PES systems, transaction costs of farmers are measured who participate in Costa 

Rica’s national PES scheme. Based on those findings, suggestions are made on how 

to design PES systems which enable small-scale farmers to participate as efficient 

providers of environmental services, and how to compose silvopastoral systems which 

maximise farmers’ household welfare. 

Keywords: environmental services, silvopastoral systems, transaction costs 

Contact Address: Stephan Piotrowski, University of Hohenheim, Agricultural Development Theory 

and Policy, Schloss Osthof-Süd, 70599 Stuttgart, Germany, e-mail: spiotrow@uni-hohenheim.de 

508 ID 334


Animal Source Foods and Nutrition During Early Life 

STEPHANIE GOOD 1 , YOSEPH SHIFERAW 2 , LENA DAVIDSSON 3 , RICHARD 

HURRELL 1 , THOMAS RANDOLPH 4 

1ETH Zurich, Human Nutrition, Institute of Food Science and Nutrition, Switzerland 

2International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI), Ethiopia 

3International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA), Austria 

4International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI), Livestock & Human Health, Kenya 

In Ethiopia, most food supplies are derived from plant products, in particular cereals, 

pulses and root crops. Only 7 % of the daily energy intake comes from animal products 

such as milk, eggs, meat. Animal-source foods (ASF) provide not only energy 

and high quality protein but are also excellent sources of bioavailable micronutrients. 

The extremely low consumption of ASF (milk, eggs, meat, and liver) can be assumed 

to be a contributing factor to the poor nutrition and health of Ehiopian infants and 

young children. 

The ongoing, longitudinal study on animal source foods and nutrition during early 

life in Ethiopia evaluates the possible link between livestock keeping, food intake 

and nutritional status of young children (6 — 18 months old) in resource poor areas. 

Fieldwork started in March 2005. A total of 302 low income families (with small 

livestock n = 108, without livestock n= 194) with 6 months old infants have been 

recruited into the study in the Debre Zeit area, 50 km from Addis Ababa. During the 

bi-monthly visits during one year information about dietary intake and — in particular 

- the introduction and consumption of ASF is collected and growth of the child is 

monitored. In parallel, information about agro-economic factors is collected to link 

the households’ economics with the consumption of ASF. At the end of the study, a 

blood sample is drawn to assess the prevalence of anemia in the study population. 

Preliminary data show that consumption of ASF is very low. However, cow milk 

had been introduced to more than half of the children by 6 months of age. The most 

common complementary foods are cereal based gruels, biscuits, and injera, a staple 

food made of fermented Teff (eragrostis tef ). 

Keywords: Agricultural economics, animal source foods, Ethiopia, infants, nutrition 

Contact Address: Stephanie Good, ETH Zurich, Human Nutrition, Institute of Food Science and Nutrition, 

Zurich, Switzerland, e-mail: stephanie.good@ilw.agrl.ethz.ch 

ID 474 509


Development of Iron — Fortified Thai Snack Food Products Using 

Pork Blood as an Iron Sources 

POONSUB INSUNG 

Rajamangala University of Technology Srivijaya, Department of Food Technology, Nakhonsithammarat 

Campus„ Thailand 

The research was conducted to develop the iron-riched food products using boiled 

pork blood (BPB) as an iron source. Pork blood was drained off by hydraulic press 

consisting approximately 30 % of the dry matter. Two Thai crackers, Thongmount 

(TM) and Phantkhript (PK) were selected as iron fortified products. Four levels of 

BPB in TM and PK products were 10, 20, 30 and 40 % and 25, 50, 75 and 100 %, 

respectively. The sensory evaluations were used as criteria for measurement the acceptability 

of the products. It was found that the higher BPB content, the lower acceptability 

of the products (p < 0.01). The TM and PK products at 10 % and 25 % 

BPB content, respectively, had the highest general appearance, colour, texture, acceptability, 

taste, crispy and flavor (p < 0.01). However, the TM and the PK products at 

30 % and 75 % BPB content respectively had the overall acceptability, higher than 7 

points according to the nine-point hedonic scale. Therefore, both the iron fortified 

products containing BPB at 30 % and 75 % BPB content, respectively used for shelf 

life study lasted for 0 to 45 days. The decreasing in overall acceptability of the TM 

products throughout the entire storage period of 45 days was lower than that of the 

PK products. The overall acceptability of the TM products during the 30 day-storage 

period was not significantly different (p > 0.05) from those stored at 0 and 15 days. 

The acceptability of the PK products at day 15 was, however, significantly different 

(p < 0.01) with that of day 0. This research result implies that using iron fortified TM 

products can be an alternative for solving the iron deficiency of Thai people. 

Keywords: Iron-fortified products, Pork blood, Snack food, Thailand 

Contact Address: Poonsub Insung, Rajamangala University of Technology Srivijaya, Department of 

Food Technology, Nakhonsithammarat Campus„ Thungsong - Nakhonsithammarat, 80110 Thungsong, 

Thailand, e-mail: plek@lycos.com 

510 ID 226


Identification Systems and Selection Criteria of Pastoral Goat 

Keepers in Northern Kenya- Implications for a Breeding 

Programme 

SAMUEL MBUKU 1 , ISAAC KOSGEY 1 , ALEXANDER KAHI 2 

1 Egerton University, Animal Sciences, Kenya 

2 Kyoto University, Laboratory of Animal Husbandry Resources, Japan 

The objective of this study was to describe and assess the pastoral animal identification 

systems and selection criteria among pastoral goat keepers (Rendille and the Gabra) 

in Marsabit district of northern Kenya. Data on identification modes and selection 

criteria were collected from a total of 200 respondents (100 from each community) in 

a four-month field survey using semi-structured and structured questionnaires. Data 

were analysed through calculation of indices, which represented a weighted average 

of all rankings of a particular variable. Ranks were based on the first three choices of 

priority records and identification modes by the respondent. The index was derived 

as the sum of [3 for rank 1 + 2 for rank 2 + 1 for rank 3] for a particular variable 

divided by sum [3 for rank 1 + 2 for rank 2 + 1 for rank 3] for all variables in question. 

The most important records kept are dates of birth, castration records and entries into 

the flock from outside. Other records like dates of weaning, culling, performances, 

health and exits are also kept but ranked lower. Most of the animal identification is 

done through ear notching, branding and coat colour of the animals. Selection criteria 

with index ≥0.200 were considered important and included big body size (Rendille, 

0.260; Gabra, 0.251) and milk yield (Rendille, 0.206) for the buck’s dam. Big body 

size (Rendille, 0.264; Gabra, 0.245) and offspring quality (Rendille, 0.252; Gabra, 

0.265) were considered important attributes for the buck’s sire. Less attention was 

paid to individual phenotypes of the buck because selection is done at juvenile age. 

The results from this study imply that pedigree and performance recording has been 

practised through own intricate knowledge. This study showed that pastoralists have 

deliberate selection criteria. Productive and adaptive traits are important in the selection 

of breeding stock. This study provides a framework needed for the development 

of community-based genetic improvement programmes. 

Keywords: Community-based genetic improvement programmes, goats, pastoral systems, 

selection criteria, tropics 

Contact Address: Alexander Kahi, Kyoto University, Laboratory of Animal Husbandry Resources, 

Division of Applied Biosciences Graduate School of Agriculture, 606-8007 Kyoto, Japan, e-mail: 

kahi@kais.kyoto-u.ac.jp 

ID 525 511


512 ID 525

Index of Authors 

A 

Abdallah, Diop . . . . . . 353 

Abdelgader, Hayder . 188 

Abdelmagid, Salah . . 381 

Abdulai, Awudu 409, 493 

Abdullah, Kamaruddin 89 

Abebe, Adane . . . . . . . . 68 

Abebe, Girma . . . . . . . 501 

Abu Shaban, Ahmed . . 72 

Acioli de Abreu, Eliana M. 

. . . . . . . . . . 148 

Ackello-Ogutu, Chris 328 

Ackermann, Jörn . . . . 211 

Adam, Adam . . . . . . . 264 

Aden, Ibrahim . . . . . . 408 

Adeniyi, Oluwakemi . 482 

Affognon, Hippolyte . 506 

Agbo, Bernard P. . . . . 404 

Agboton, Bonaventure Vidjinnagni 

. . . . . . . . . . 189 

Aguila Alcantara, Edith 

. . . . . . . . . . 259 

Aguirre Calderon, Oscar Alberto 

. . . . . . 221–223 

Ahmad Awad, Mohamed 

. . . . . . . 85, 386 

Ahmed, El-Fadil . . . . 302 

Ahmed, Mahasin Hassan 

Mohamed Ali 

. . . . . . . . . . 304 

Ahmed, Mohamed Khair 

. . . . . . . . . . 455 

Ajayi, Ayodele Ebenezer 

. . . . . . . . . . 262 

Akhtar-Schuster, Mariam 

. . . . . . . . . . 370 

Akinnifesi, Festus K. 212 

Akouègnon, Guy-Erick 46 

Akoy, El-Amin . . . . . . 302 

Akter, Zafrin . . . . . . . . 161 

Al-Jaleel, Ali . . . . . . . 130 

Alabdullah, Ibrahim . 263 

Alamirew Chekol, Dilnesaw 

. . . . . . . . . . 237 

Alatise, Michael . . . . . 439 

Albert, Helmut . . . . . . . 19 

Albrechtsen, Merete . 180 

Alfonso, Sandra . . . . . 360 

Ali-Dinar, Hassan . . . 130 

Almohamed, Salwa . . 435 

Alzérreca, Humberto 218 

Amelung, Wulf . . 50, 162, 

170 

Amin, Mohamad Yaser 97 

Amjath Babu, T. S. . . 239, 

405, 488 

Amosha, Dadhi . . . . . . . 28 

Andrade, Onelia . . . . . 282 

Antezana, Ivonne . . . . 364 

Apichartsrungkoon, T. 

. . . . . . . . . . 479 

Apolinário de Albuquerque, 

Áurea Fabiana 

. . . . . . . . . . 361 

Araya, Hailu . . . . . . . . . 25 

Arndt, Renate Bürger 365 

Arnold, Ute 245–247, 249 

Arsanti, Idha . . . . . . . . 422 

Asfaw, Solomon . 16, 379, 

383 

Assefa, Getnet . . . . . . 105 

Atehnkeng, Joseph . . 175 

Aung, Aung 470, 473, 474 

Ayalew, Workneh . . . 110, 

459, 487, 493 

Ayana, Temesgen . . . . 487 

Aziz, Tariq . . . . . . . . . 164 

B 

Béné, Christophe . . . . 348 

Babayemi, Jacob O . . 472 

Bandyopadhyay, Ranajit 

. . . . . . . . . . 175 

Banout, Jan 145, 286, 417 

Barbosa Lima, Amanda 

. . . . . . . . . . 271 

von Bargen, Susanne 178 

Barrigossi, José Alexandre 

Freitas . . . 143 

Bartl, Karin . . . . . . . . . 102 

Basu, Arnab K. . . . . . . . 12 

Bauer, Siegfried . 92, 239, 

346, 381, 431, 

441, 505 

Baumung, Roswitha . . 98 

Bayer, Wolfgang . . . . 496 

Beck, Stephan . . . . . . . 218 

Becker, Mathias 169, 330, 

336, 337 

Beining, Alice . . . 69, 313 

Belli, Henderiana . . . . 103 

Bending, Gary . . . . . . 160 

513


Bengono, Bertram . . . 151 

Beninweck Endah, Ndambi 

. . . . . . . . . . 447 

Berg, Ernst . . . . . . . . . . 76 

Bernard, Lehmann . . . 507 

Besenfelder, Urban . . 464, 

465 

Beuchelt, Tina . . . . . . 399 

Bhandari, Netra 129, 205, 

210 

Bhudthapa, Bharat . . . 210 

Bick, Ulrich . . . . . . . . 443 

Binder, Claudia R. . . . . 82 

Birech, Rhoda . . . . . . . 187 

Bitomo, Obate . . . . . . 151 

Bittencourt, Paulo Celso 

Santiago . . 260 

Blair, Richard . . . . . . . 354 

Bobojonov, Ihtiyor . . . 86, 

257 

Böhme, Michael 274, 422 

Böhnel, Helge . . 474, 475 

Börner, Jan . . . . . . . . . . 76 

Bogardi, Janos . . . . . . 236 

Bollig, Michael . . . . . 414 

Boonsit, Panita . . . . . . 138 

Bouillot, Hélène Laurence 

. . . . . . . . . . 218 

Bradley, Emma . . . . . . 413 

Braga Sarmento, Célia 

Maria . . . . 219 

Braun, Mathias . . 18, 121 

Brenig, Bertram . . . . . 461 

Brienza Junior, Silvio 219 

Bringe, Franziska . . . 423 

Brockhaus, Maria . 27, 30 

Brodowski, Sonja . . . . . 50 

Brunner, Almut . . . . . 241 

Buchenrieder, Gertrud 

. . . . . . . . . . 399 

Buerkert, Andreas . . . 127, 

128, 159, 415 

Büttner, Carmen . . . . . 178 

Buresh, Roland . . . . . 169 

514 

Burkhardt, Jürgen 69, 283, 

313 

Bystricky, Maria . . . . 315 

C 

Cabrera, Alfonso . . . . 192 

Cadisch, Georg . . . 40, 60, 

160, 166, 193 

Calles, Teodardo . . . . 316 

Callo-Concha, Daniel 204 

Camarão, Ari Pinheiro 

. 219, 260, 363 

Campos, Adriana . . . . 261 

Cantú Silva, Israel . . . 167 

Cardellino, Ricardo . . . 96 

Carlos, Quiros . . . . . . 291 

Chakeredza, Sebastian 

. . . . . . . . . . 480 

Chamkrachang, Wasana 

. . . . . . . . . . 195 

Chanaratha, Prasit . . . 478 

Charoensook, Rangsan 

. . . . . . . . . . 461 

Chemnitz, Christine . . 13 

Chiwaula, Levison . . . 348 

Chuansin, Suleeporn . 306 

Chuenchooklin, Sombat 

. . . . . . . . . . 296 

Clemens, Joachim 

. 245–247, 249 

Colombo, Stefanie . . . 285 

Conrad, Christopher . 233 

Coppock, Layne . 28, 408 

Corral Rivas, José Javier 

. . . . . . 221, 271 

Cotty, Peter . . . . . . . . . 175 

Coyne, Danny . . . . . . . 420 

Crewett, Wibke . . . . . 423 

Cruz, H. . . . . . . . . . . . . 428 

Cuhls, Carsten . . . . . . 249 

D 

D. V. Ni . . . . . . . . . . . . 249 

Dalle Tussie, Gemedo . 84 

Daouda, Dao . . . . . . . . 507 

Darr, Dietrich . . . . . . . . 78 

Davidsson, Lena . . . . 509 

Dawoud, Hussein Dawoud 

. . . . . . . . . . 415 

Delgado, Javier . . . . . 457 

Delve, Robert . . . . 24, 400 

Deng, Zhixin . . . . . . . . 168 

Denich, Manfred 202, 204 

Dercon, Gerd . . . . . . . . 40 

Desta, Solomon . . 28, 408 

Dey, Madan M. . . . . . 499 

Diafas, Iason . . . . . . . . 327 

Didonet, Agostinho Dirceu 

. . . . . . . . . . 143 

Diekkrüger, Bernd . . 118, 

418 

Dinh Pham, Hien . . . . . 35 

Dintan, Yeyep . . . . . . . 147 

Dinurrohman Susila, Anas 

. . . . . . . . . . 147 

Diwani, Thuweba . . . 336 

Djédjé, Melanie . . . . . 446 

Djanibekov, Nodir . . . 347 

Do Anh, Tuan . . . . . . . 206 

Döll, Petra . 117, 269, 278 

Donner, Matthias . . . . 175 

Doppler, Werner . . 72, 85, 

354, 361, 386, 

435, 436 

Dores, Eliana . . . . . . . 170 

Dossa, Hippolyte . . . . 459 

Drucker, Adam . . 98, 376, 

409, 459, 493 

Du Preez, Chris . . 50, 162 

Dubois, Thomas . . . . . 420 

Dubon, Juan A. . . . . . . . 74 

Dufhues, Thomas . . . 399 

Dux, Julia . . . . . . . . . . . 47 

E 

Echavarría Chairez, Francisco 

Guadalupe 

. . . . . . . . . . 111

Eguavoen, Irit . . . . . . . . 71 

Eisold, Jenny . . . . . . . 414 

El-Sayed, Ashraf . . . . 463 

El-Siddig, Kamal . . . . 415 

Elagib, Tahani . . . . . . 319 

Elfadl, Elfadl . . . . . . . 318 

Elgali, M. B. . . . . . . . . 381 

Eltom, Kamal Eldin Hassan 

Ali . . . . . . . 475 

Elzein, Abulegasim . . . 60, 

193 

Engel, Stefanie . . . . . . 203 

Erasmi, Stefan . . . . . . 282 

Escobar, German . . . . 315 

España, Mingrelia . . . 160 

Estada, Ernesto González 

. . . . . . . . . . 291 

Etzold, Cay . . . . . . . . . . 31 

F 

Fabian, Andre . . . . . . . 364 

Fagbola, Olajire . . . . . 472 

Fariñas, Jose . . . . . . . . 270 

Fasinminrin, Johnson 262, 

281 

Faures, Jean-Marc . . . 117, 

278 

Feick, Sebastian 117, 278 

Ferreira, Carlos Magri 

. . . . . . . . . . 368 

Fick, Fabiana Andreia 489 

Fischer, Elke . . . . . . . . 139 

Fischer, Isabel . . . . . . 399 

Floquet, Anne . . . 88, 442, 

444, 448 

Flores Nájera, Manuel de 

Jesus . . . . . 111 

Foerch, Gerd . . . . . . . . . 68 

Forkutsa, Irina . . . . . . 233 

Formowitz, Beate . . . 159 

Fosu, Benedicta . . . . . 153 

Franco, Luis H. . 315, 317 

Frauz, Bettina . . . . . . . 307 

Freyer, Bernhard . . 24, 54, 

155, 187, 400 

de Freitas, Antonio Carlos 

Reis . . . . . 362 

Frenken, Karen . 117, 278 

Freund, Simon . . . . . . 364 

Fröde, Alexander . . . . . 83 

Fromm, Ingrid . . . . . . . 74 

Frühwald, Jessica . . . . 446 

Fuchs, Julia . . . . 246, 247 

G 

Gómez Meza, Marco V. 

. . . . . . . . . . 167 

Gómez Ruiz, Walter Jorge 

. . . . . . . . . . 111 

von Gadow, Klaus . . . 271 

Gaese, Hartmut . 207, 367 

Gaesing, Karin . . . . . . 335 

Gaiser, Thomas . 272, 273 

Galmessa, Ulfina . . . . 459 

Garcia, Miriam . . . . . . 102 

Garcia, Otto 375, 377, 378 

Garming, Hildegard . . . 79 

Garrido-Perez, Edgardo I. 

. . . . . . . . . . 220 

Gathumbi, J.K. . . . . . . 177 

Gatphayak, Kesinee . 461 

Gatzweiler, Franz . . . 202 

Gauli, Archana . . . . . . 205 

Gebauer, Jens . . 127, 128, 

415 

Gebreamlak, Abera . . . 25 

Gebremichael, Yohannes 

. . . . . . . . . . . 25 

Gebreselassie Melka, 

Melkaye . . 465 

Gebru, Getachew 28, 408 

Gefu, Jerome . . . . . . . 490 

Gehrke, Eileen . . . . . . 364 

Geiger, Hartwig . . . . . 319 

Germer, Jörn . . . . . . . . . 48 

Gerold, Gerhard 220, 235 


Gerster-Bentaya, Maria 

. . . . . . . . . . 129 

Gessler, Frank . . . . . . 475 

Ghalavand, Amir . . . . 251 

Ghanem, Nasser . . . . . 100 

Ghotge, Nitya . . . . . . . 421 

Giertz, Simone . . . . . . 418 

van de Giesen, Nick . 236 

Giller, Ken 108, 172, 331 

Gizachew, Lemma . . . 459 

Glauner, Reinhold . . . 211, 

443 

Glimmann, Gisela . . . 364 

Goergen, Georg . . . . . 189 

Görgen, Maraile . . . . . 382 

Gold, Clifford S. . . . . 420 

Goldbach, Heiner 69, 154, 

283, 418 

Goldfarb, Maria Cristina 

. . . . . . . . . . 276 

Gomez, Carlos A. . . . 102 

González Rodríguez, Humberto 

. . . . . 167, 

258 

Gonzalez Rivero, Annia 

. . . . . . . . . . 136 

Gonzalez Tagle, Marco Aurelio 

. . . . . 222, 

223 

Good, Stephanie . . . . 509 

Gotschi, Elisabeth 24, 400 

Grace, Delia . . . . . . . . 506 

Gresens, Frank . . . . . . 283 

Gruber, Ina . . . . . . . . . 504 

Gruissem, Wilhelm . . . 58 

Guenni, Orlando . . . . 316 

Guimaraes Callado, Sandra 

Maria 131, 207 

Guo, Jianchun . . . . . . . 312 

Guthiga, Paul . . . 328, 329 

Gweyi-Onyango, Joseph 

Patrick . . . 165 

H 

515


Haensel, Gesine . . . . . 508 

Hammer, Karl . . . . . . . 227 

Hanna, Rachid . . . . . . 189 

Hardeweg, Bernd . . . . 120 

Hartmann, Marco . . . . . 77 

Hasanagas, Nikolas . . 359 

Hauck, Mirjam . . . . . . 288 

Hauser, Stefan 

. . 49, 150–152, 

184, 225, 226, 

321 

Havlicek, Vita . . 464, 465 

Heawsungcharern, Methinee 

. . . . . . . . . . 303 

Heidhues, Franz . . . . . 434 

Heller, Joachim . . . . . 191 

Hennenberg, Klaus . . 224 

Henri, Bayemi . . . . . . 503 

Hensel, Oliver . . . . . . 320 

Herbst, Susanne . . . . . 244 

Herrero, Mario . 108, 291, 

331 

Herrfahrdt, Elke . . . . . 232 

Herzog, Helmut . . . . . 277 

Hess, Hans-Dieter 42, 102 

Hiemstra, Sipke-Joost 376 

Hiepe, Claudia . . . . . . 118 

Hilger, Thomas . . 40, 166 

Hillmann, Boris M. . . . 43 

Himmelsbach, Wibke 258 

Hindorf, Holger 176, 177 

Hoelker, Michael . . . . 100, 

456, 463–465 

Hörstgen-Schwark, 

Gabriele . . 483, 

495, 500 

Hofer, Joachim . . . . . . . 18 

Hoffmann, Irene . . . . . . 96 

Hoffmann, Volker 46, 109, 

129, 209, 256, 

392, 428, 503 

Hohnwald, Stefan . . . 148, 

363 

516 

Holikova, Petra . 393, 406 

Holm-Müller, Karin . 329, 

330 

Holmann, Frederico . 430 

Holst, Hartwig . . . . . . 288 

Holtz, Wolfgang . . . . . 103 

Homann, Sabine . . . . 502 

Honnef, Susanne . . . . . 56 

Hoogeveen, Jippe . . . 117, 

278 

Houndagba, Jean Cossi 

. . . . . . . . . . 273 

Htun, Moe Thida . . . . 473 

Hunger, Andreas . . . . 400 

Hurrell, Richard . . . . . 509 

Huynh, Chuong Van . 274, 

416 

I 

Iñiguez, Luis . . . . . . . . 111 

Ibragimov, Nazar . . . . 133 

Ibrahim, Muhammad 508 

Ibrakhimov, Mirzakhayot 

. . . . . . . . . . 233 

Igue, Attanda Mouinou 

. . . . . . 272, 273 

Insomphun, Songchao 

. . . . . . . . . . 195 

Insung, O. . . . . . . . . . . 471 

Insung, Poonsub . . . . 510 

Ismail, Mohamed . . . . 302 

Isselstein, Johannes . . . 84 

Iturbe, Josu . . . . . . . . . 213 

Iyayi, Eustace Ayemere 

. . . . . . . . . . 482 

J 

Jacinto, Eusebio . . . . . 491 

Jaenicke, Hannah 43, 191 

Jagoda, Agata Monika 34 

Jahnke, Hans E. . . 77, 422 

Jan-Peter, Mund . . . . . 369 

Janjai, Serm . . . . . . . . 303 

Janßen-Tapken, Ulrike 

. . . . . . . . . . 462 

Janssens, Marc J. J. . . . 57, 

168, 207, 367 

Jantschke, Cornelius . 228, 

299 

Jarchau, Peter . . . . . . . . 21 

Jaturasitha, Sanchai . 478, 

480, 481 

Jelantik, I. Gusti Ngurah 

. . . . . . . . . . 103 

Jennen, Danyel . 100, 456, 

463, 464, 467 

Jia, Xiangping . . . . . . 434 

Jihu, Tan . . . . . . . . . . . 312 

Jiménez-Osornio, Juan J. 

. . . . . . . . . . 213 

Jimenez Perez, Javier 

. . . . . . 221–223 

Joergensen, Rainer Georg 

. . . . . . . . . . 159 

Johns, Annika . . . . . . . 162 

Joshi, Ganesh Raj . . . 419 

Junge, Birte . . . . . . . . . 275 

K 

Kabura Nyaga, Elizabeth 

. . . . . . . . . . 436 

Kadarmideen, Haja N. 

. . . . . . . . . . 462 

Kahi, Alexander . . . . . 511 

Kaikai, Wilson Olarasha 

. . . . . . . . . . 333 

Kakumanu, Krishna Reddy 

. . . . . . . . . . 239 

Kalous, Lukas . . . . . . . 406 

Kambiré, Hermann . . . 27 

Kandeler, Ellen . . . . . 160 

Kanouté, Moussa . . . . 256 

Kanwal, Shamsa . . . . 164 

Kanyakum, Parinya . . 481 

Kappas, Martin . . . . . . 282 

Kappel, Robert . . . . . . 333

Kapunda, Lucas Basilio 

. . . . . . . . . . 496 

Karami, Ezatollah . . . 388 

Karimuna, La . . . . . . . 149 

Kariuki, Judy . . . . . . . 325 

Karki, Lila 346, 419, 441, 

505 

Karki, Uma . . . . 346, 505 

Karladee, Dumnern . . 138 

Karlovsky, Petr . . . . . . 213 

Kasina, John Muo . . . 338 

Kassie, Girma Tesfahun 

. . . . . . . . . . 493 

Kato, Osvaldo R. 219, 260 

Ke, Youpeng . . . . . . . . 312 

Keizer, Menno . . . . . . 429 

Kelley, Timothy . . . . . . 33 

Kenea, Wondimu . . . . 335 

Keo, Samell . . . . . . . . 460 

Keutgen, Anna . . . . . . 136 

Khang, Nguyen Thi Kim 

. . . . . . . . . . 456 

Khiaosa-Ard, Ratchaneewan 

. . . . . . 478, 

481 

Khidir, Mohamed Osman 

. . . . . . . . . . 140 

Khoshbakht, Korous . 227 

Kiatpathomchai, Sirirat 

. . . . . . . . . . 488 

Kienzler, Kirsten . . . . 133 

Kiewnick, Sebastian . 175, 

181, 183 

Kiiru, Joy Mueni . . . . 402 

Kijora, Claudia . 105, 106 

Kilcher, Lukas . . . . . . . 55 

Kim Cuc, Ngo Thi . . . 453 

Kleisinger, Siegfried . 301 

Kling, Christof . . . . . . 318 

Knoell, Andreas . . . . . 443 

Knorr, Christoph . . . . 461 

Köller, Karlheinz . . . . 299 

Köpke, Ulrich . . . . . . . 454 

Koerbler, M. . . . . . . . . 180 

Kösters, Raimund . . . . 50 

Kohlschütter, Niels . . 454 

Kongkaew, Thanuchai 40 

Kosgey, Isaac . . . . . . . 511 

Kotschi, Johannes . . . 311 

Koudande, Olorounto D. 

. . . . . . . . . . 459 

Kpongor, Dilys Sefakor 

. . . . . . . . . . 287 

Kraemer, Claudia . . . . . 22 

Kraemer, Manfred . . . 338 

Krasuaythong, Thanaporn 

. . . . . . . . . . 352 

Krause, Michael . . . . . 289 

Krepl, Vladimir . . . . . 401 

Kreuzer, Michael 42, 102, 

478 

Kriesemer, Simone . . 109 

Krishna, Vijesh Vijaya 

. . 90, 144, 146, 

432, 433 

Kroschel, Jürgen . 60, 193, 

364 

Kruijssen, Froukje . . . . 91 

Kruse, Thorben . . . . . 212 

Kubisch, Rebekka . . . 362 

Kühne, Ronald F. 47, 147 

Kuenkel, Nana . . . . . . . 13 

Kufa, Taye . . . . . . . . . . . 69 

Kuhlmann, Friedrich . 255 

Kung’u, James . . . . . . 291 

Kunz, Robert . . . . . . . 191 

Kurtz, Ditmar Bernardo 

. . . . . . 121, 276 

Kwesiga, Freddie . . . . 391 

Kyi, Mar Mar . . . . . . . 473 

L 

La Rosa, Michael . . . . 274 

Laabs, Volker . . . . . . . 170 

Laenoi, Watchara . . . . 461 

Lamers, John 41, 86, 133, 

171, 233, 257 

Lange, Dagmar . . . . . . . 56 


Lange, Frank-Michael 285 

Lanna, Anna Cristina 143 

Lascano, Carlos . . 42, 428 

Lay, Jann . . . . . . . . . . . 332 

Lazarte, Martha . . . . . 295 

Le Anh, Tuan . . . . . . . 249 

Leawtharakul, Amnuay 

. . . . . . . . . . 481 

Legesse Gizaw, Getahun 

. . . . . . . . . . 501 

Lemma, Mamusha . . . 392 

Lentes, Peter . . . 428, 430 

Leykun, Zekarias . . . . . 62 

Liasu, Mojeed . . . . . . . 163 

Linstädter, Anja . . 61, 414 

Lipu, Sance . . . . . . . . . 235 

Lobe, Ingo . . . . . . . . . . 162 

Lojka, Bohdan . 145, 286, 

417 

Lojkova, Jana . . 145, 286, 

417 

Lopez, Raquel C. . . . . . 51 

Lostak, Martin . . . . . . 406 

Louwaars, Niels . . . . . 376 

Lueang-A-Papong, Pornchai 

. . . . . . . . . . 195 

Luecke, Wolfgang . . . 302 

Lücke, Wolfgang . . . . 304 

Luedeling, Eike . . . . . 127 

M 

Maass, Brigitte L. . 43, 84, 

134, 135, 213 

Macharia, Joseph . . . . 187 

Madaleno, Isabel Maria 

. . . . . . . . . . 137 

Maertens, Miet . . . . . . . 15 

Magesa, Jeremiah . . . 135 

Mahat, Jeetendra . . . . 210 

Mahat, Shyam Lal . . . 210 

Mahayothee, Busarakorn 

. . . . . . . . . . 303 

517


Mahmood, Khalid . . . 375, 

377, 378 

Maia, José Guilherme S. 

. . . . . . . . . . 314 

Maisenbacher, Gregor 340 

Makuza, Stanley . . . . . . 99 

Malidadi, Charles . . . 134 

Malkarnekar, Ashok . 427 

Manske, Günther . . . . 153 

Maqsood, Muhammad 

Aamer . . . 164 

Markemann, André . . 112 

Markus, Mau . . . . . . . 255 

Marley, Paul . . . . . 60, 193 

Marquardt, Svenja . . . 218 

Marroquín Agreda, Francisco 

. . . . . . . . . . . 57 

Martin Han, Silvia . . . 446 

Martius, Christopher . . 41, 

233, 257, 338 

Marx, Friedhelm . . . . 314 

Matthess, Annemarie . 20 

Mausch, Kai . . . . . . . . . 16 

Maw, Ni Ni . . . . 470, 473 

Mayer, Andrea Corinna 

. . . . . . . . . . 218 

Mazancova, Jana . . . . 406 

Mbuku, Samuel . . . . . 511 

Mburu, John . . . 328, 329, 

334, 402, 403 

Meilwes, Silke . . . . . . 131 

Melchinger, Albrecht 318 

Meliczek, Hans . . . . . 356 

Mendez del Villar, Patricio 

. . . . . . . . . . 368 

Mendoza Luna, Alexander 

R. . . . 181, 183 

Mennicken, Lothar . . 456 

Mercado, Agustin . . . 166 

ter Meulen, Udo 461, 474, 

479, 480 

Michel, Dumondel . . 507 

Michuki, George . . . . 332 

518 

Mimler, Matthias . . . . . 89 

Minde, Isaac . . . . . . . . . 26 

Mithöfer, Dagmar 16, 212, 

379 

Mohamed, Ahmed . . . 188 

Moll, Peter . . . . . . . . . . . 32 

Mongbo, Roch . . . . . . 442 

Moreira, Fabio Pires . 143 

Moreira, Jose Aloisio Alves 

. . . . . . . . . . 143 

Moumouni Moussa, Ismail 

. . . . . . 380, 404 

Mu, Khin San . . 470, 473 

Muchadeyi, Farai Catherine 

. . . . . . . . . . . 99 

Müller, Joachim . 70, 228, 

300, 303 

Müller, Klaus . . . . . . . 340 

Müller, Marc . . . . . . . . 257 

Mugambi, David . . . . 334 

Mugendi, Daniel . . . . 334 

Mund, Jan-Peter . . . . . 119 

Murani, Eduard . . . . . 467 

Musa, Lutfi . . . . . . . . . 455 

Mushinzimana, Godihald 

. . . . . . . . . . 440 

Mussgnug, Frank . . . . 169, 

337 

Mustafa, Rajaa . . . . . . 255 

Muthomi, James W. . 177 

Mutie, Stephen . . . . . . 328 

Muuss, Uwe . . . . . . . . 271 

Myint, Theingi . . . . . . 441 

N 

Nagel, Philipp . . . . . . . 111 

Nagieb, Maher . . . . . . 128 

Nair, Balakrishnan . . . 492 

Nambiro, Elizabeth . . 330 

Ncube, Bongani . . . . . 172 

Ndambi, Oghaiki Asaah 

. 375, 377, 378, 

447, 503 

Ndumu, Deo . . . . . . . . . 98 

Ndung’u, J.K. . . . . . . . 177 

Nehren, Udo . . . . . . . . 360 

Neumann, Günter . . . 161, 

165 

Neupane, Prem Raj . . 205 

Ng’ang’a, Stanley Karanja 

. . . . . . . . . . 291 

Ngo, Bunthan . . . . . . . 369 

Ngome, Francis E.A. 337 

Ngoumbe, Seraphin . 321 

Ngu, Nguyen Trong . 467 

Nguyen Thanh, Phong 

. . . . . . . . . . 249 

Nguyen Tien, Hai . . . 350 

Ngwe, Tin . . . . . 473, 474 

Nico, De Ridder . . . . . 291 

Niere, Björn . . . . . . . . 420 

Njayou, Mustapha . . . 150 

Njukeng, Achiangia Patrick 

. . . . . . . . . . 179 

Nkongmeneck, Bernard 

Aloys . . . . 321 

Noal, Rosane Maria Coradini 

. . . . . . . . . . 489 

Noga, Georg . . . . . . . . 130 

van Noordwijk, Meine 

. . . . . . . . . . 166 

Norgrove, Lindsey . . . . 47, 

194, 366 

Nürnberg, Michaela . 457 

Nunez, Francisko . . . . 276 

Nuppenau, Ernst-August 

. . . . . . 263, 405 

Nuraini, Yenni . . . . . . 483 

Nyunt, Khin Thein . . 190 

O 

Ochieno, Dennis . . . . 420 

Odjo, Agnes Thomas 189 

Oechsner, Hans . . . . . 307 

Ogundare, Abosede . . 163 

Ogungbile, A. O. . . . . 385

Ogunji, Johnny Onyema 

. . . . . . . . . . 104 

Ogunlela, Vincent . . . 385 

Oguntunde, Philip . . . 298 

Olarinde, Luke . . . . . . 351 

Oldenbroek, J.K. . . . . 376 

Olufayo, Ayorinde . . . 262, 

281 

Olukunle, Olawale John 

. . . . . . 298, 305 

Omar Mahmoud, Toman 

. . . . . . . . . . 332 

Omitogun, Galman . . 458 

Ongprasert, Somchai . . 70 

Onwonga, Richard . . . 155 

Opondo, Martha . . . . . 129 

Orthmann, Bettina . . . 224 

Oseni, Saidu . . . . . . . . 458 

Ososanya, Tolulope . . 482 

Ouma, Emily . . . . . . . 409 

Owiti, Judith . . . . . . . . . 58 

P 

Pawelzik, Elke . 136, 147, 

195, 306 

Pacheco Bustos, Alex Gustavo 

. . . . . . . . . . 154 

Pafou, Gongnet Gbeukoh 

. . . . . . . . . . 353 

Paluasheva, Gavhar . . 233 

Pananurak, Piyatat . . . 394 

Pangnakorn, Udomporn 

. . . . . . . . . . 250 

Panprasert, Pilasluck . 478 

Pansak, Wanwisa . . . . . 40 

Papagiannopoulos, 

Menelaos . 314 

Paraguas, Ferdinand J. 

. . . . . . . . . . 499 

Pariyar, Shyam . . . . . . 248 

Parzies, Heiko . . . . . . 319 

Patana, Pindi . . . . . . . . 365 

Pedroso, Rui . . . . . . . . 367 

Pemsl, Diemuth . 44, 348, 

427, 499 

Perezgrovas, Raul . . . 494 

Peters, Kurt-Johannes 

. . . 77, 97, 105, 

106, 455 

Peters, Michael . 315, 317, 

428, 430 

Petra, Mutlu . . . . . . . . 444 

Philipsson, Jan . . . . . . 110 

Phongpiachan, Puntipa 

. . . . . . . . . . 138 

Pilling, Dafydd . . . . . . . 96 

Pinmanee, Satid . . . . . 300 

Pinos Rodríguez, Juan 

Manuel . . . 111 

Pinto, Alicio . . . . . . . . 170 

Platzen, Hermann . . . 297 

Pocasangre, Luis . 75, 182, 

192 

Pohl, Rebekka . . . . . . 139 

Pohlan, Jürgen . . . 57, 154 

Polesny, Zbynek 145, 286, 

417 

Ponsuksili, Siriluck . . 456, 

467 

Ponte, Marcos Ximenes 

. . . . . . . . . . 362 

Porembski, Stefan . . . 224 

Portmann, Felix . . . . . 269 

Praneetvatakul, Suwanna 

. . . . . . . . . . 394 

Preger, Anne . . . . 50, 162 

Preininger, Daniel . . . 145, 

286, 417 

Pretzsch, Jürgen . 78, 206, 

326 

Priess, Jörg . . . . . . . . . . 89 

Printz, Andreas . . . . . . 116 

Prochazkova, Lucie . . 417 

Pulatov, Alim . . . . . . . . 86 

Puthiyapurayil Changat, 

Deepesh . . 144, 

433 

Q 


Qaim, Matin . . . . . . . . 432 

Qoriah, Ciplis Gema . 356, 

384 

Quintela, Eliane Dias 143 

Quiros, Oscar . . . . . . . 276 

R 

Rafiou, Maliki . . . . . . . . 88 

Rahman, Mohammad Azizur 

. . . . . . . . . . 234 

Rahmatullah . . . . . . . . 164 

Rajagopal, Sethulekshmi 

Kumbalath 

. . . . . . 144, 146 

Ramírez Lozano, Roque G. 

. . . . . . . . . . 167 

Ramani, Balasubramanian 

. . . . . . . . . . 390 

Ramdas, Sagari . . . . . 421 

Randolph, Thomas . . 506, 

509 

Rattanapanon, Viboon 480 

Rawat, Moon . . . . . . . 210 

Real, Alejandra . . . . . 359 

Rechenburg, Andrea . 244, 

246 

Regner, Hans Jochen . 445 

Reiber, Christoph . . . 428, 

430 

Reiber, Ingrid . . . . . . . 340 

Rennert, Bernhard . . . 104 

Reys, Marcos Alves Dos 

. . . . . . . . . . 489 

Richter, Christian . . . . 132 

Riedel, Simon . . . . . . . 487 

Rietdorf, Ute . . . . . . . . 333 

Rigaki, Eleni . . . . . . . . 359 

Rijal, Baburam . . . . . . 210 

Rillig, Matthias . . . . . 162 

Rings, Franca . . . . . . . 100, 

463–465 

Rischkowsky, Barbara 260 

519


Rischkowsky, Barbara 96 

Ritschel, Anja . . . . . . . 176 

Rodgers, Charles 236, 339 

Rodrigues Filho, José 

Adérito . . 148, 

363 

Rodrigues, Roberta B. 314 

Rodriguez, Belkys . . . 160 

Roehrig, Jackson 234, 237 

Römheld, Volker 161, 165 

Rojas, Teresa . . . . . . . 295 

Rokaya, Sher Bahadur 

. . . . . . . . . . 210 

Roth, Andreas . . . . . . . 283 

Rudenko, Inna . . . . . . 345 

Rufino, Mariana 108, 331 

Ruiz Garvia, Carlos Alberto 

. . . . . . . . . . 217 

Rutazihana, Romuald 413 

S 

Sabahi, Hossein . . . . . 251 

Sadashivappa, Prakash 90 

Salilew Wondim, Dessie 

. . . . . . . . . . 466 

Salman, Amer Z. . . . . 445 

Sandwidi, Jean-Pierre 236 

Sanetra, Claudia . . . . . 277 

Santos, Norma Ely . . . 92, 

431 

Sarawut, Phupaichitkun 

. . . . . . . . . . 303 

Sarvas, Anton . . . . . . . 299 

Sassoon, Philip . . . . . . 496 

Satienperakul, Kanitta 70 

Sauerborn, Joachim . . . 48 

Schaefer, Georg . . . . . . 19 

Scheer, Clemens . . . . 171 

Schellander, Karl . . . . 100, 

456, 463–467 

Schellberg, Jürgen . . . 121 

Scherf, Beate . . . . . . . . . 96 

Schieder, Tina . . . . . . . 284 

Schlauderer, Ralf 85, 386 

520 

Schlüter, Sabine 207, 367 

Schmidt, Kai . . . . . . . . 288 

Schmitt, Julia . . . . . . . 209 

Schmitz, Michael. P . 488 

Schneider, Sarah . . . . 270 

Schneiderat, Ute . . . . 355 

Schoell, Regina . . . . . . 82 

Schönbrodt, Sarah . . . 418 

Schöngart, Jochen . . . 224 

Scholz, Uwe . . . . . . . . . 21 

Schopp, Marion . . . . . 238 

Schroeder, Jobst-Michael 

. . . . . . . . . . 211 

Schultze-Kraft, Rainer 

. . . . . . 46, 139, 

194, 270, 315– 

317, 340, 366, 

428 

Schulz, Carsten . . . . . 104 

Schwarze, Stefan . . . . 349 

Seher, Simone . . . . . . 364 

Seifeldin, Ibrahim M. 140 

Sereke, Firesenai . . . . 285 

Serrano, Martha . . . . . 218 

Shapo, Haider . . . . . . . 264 

Shiferaw, Yoseph . . . . 509 

Simasatitkul, Nucha . 479, 

481 

Siart, Sonja . . . . . . . . . 256 

Sidahmed, Ahmed E. 389 

Siebert, Stefan . . 117, 269, 

278 

Sieber, Stefan . . . . . . . 423 

Siegmund-Schultze, Marianna 

. 112, 355, 

501 

Sikora, Richard A. . . 175, 

181–183, 192 

Silveira, Vicente C Pires 

. . . . . . . . . . 489 

Simasatikul, Nucha . . 478 

Simtowe, Franklin . . . 403 

Sinn, Helmut . . . . . . . . 301 

Sirard, Marc-André . . 463 

Sölkner, Johann . . 98, 457 

Sokhannaro, Hep . . . . 240 

Sommer, Rolf . . . . . . . 287 

Somsri, Songpol . . . . . . 91 

Son, Tran Thuc . . . . . . 169 

Sonaiya, Babafunso . 458 

Sonder, Kai . . . . . . . . . 105 

Spreer, Wolfram . 70, 228, 

300 

Springer-Heinze, Andreas 

. . . . . . . . . . . 20 

Srichuwong, Sombat . 306 

Srikanchai, Tiranun . . 480 

Srnec, Karel . . . . . . . . 401 

Sruamsiri, Pittaya . . . 228 

Stadler, Christine . . . . 418 

Stahr, Karl . 272, 273, 275 

Stark, Marco . . . . . . . . 201 

Steinbach, Jörg . . . . . . 355 

Steinmüller, Norbert . 105 

Stemmer, Angelika . . 112, 

457 

Steup, Gero . . . . . . . . . 418 

Struwe, Jörn . . . . . . . . 211 

Sunaryo, Ade . . . . . . . 500 

Suprayudi, M. Agus . 483, 

500 

Suryaprakash, S. . 90, 144, 

146 

Sylvester, Hanns . . . . . 31 

Szarzynski, Joerg . . . . 339 

T 

Tadecha, Chachu . . . . 408 

Tästensen, Friederike 290 

Tartrakoon, Wandee . 479 

Taubert, Barbara . . . . 326 

Tegegne, Firew . . . . . . 106 

tesfamariam, tseheye . 161 

Tesfaye, Dawit . 100, 456, 

463–467 

Tezerra, Seyoum . . . . 408 

Thamrin, Tanty S. . . . 371 

Thoeln, Ernst . . . . . . . 463

Tibbo, Markos . . . . . . 110 

Tiemann, Tassilo . . . . . 42 

Tiessen, Holm . . 213, 217, 

259, 261 

Tischbein, Bernhard . 233 

Tittonell, Pablo . 108, 291, 

331 

Tiyayon, Patumporn . 228 

Tizikara, Clesensio . . 391 

To, Xuan Phuc . . . . . . 208 

Tönsjost, Silke . . . . . . 414 

Torrico, Juan Carlos . 207, 

367 

Tovignan, Dansinou Silvere 

. . . . . . . . . . 407 

Tran Khuu, Tien 246, 247 

Treviño Garza, Eduardo 

Javier . . . . 258 

Tupitsa, Alexander . . . 41 

Tursunov, Mehriddin . . 86 

Tvedt, M.W. . . . . . . . . 376 

U 

Ucan-May, Mario . . . 220 

Ugarte, Guido . . . . . . . 457 

Uibrig, Holm . . . 289, 350 

Uwe, Klaus . . . . . . . . . 245 

V 

Valle Zárate, Anne . . 112, 

457, 501 

Van Edig, Xenia . . . . . 349 

Van Engelen, Vincent 119 

Van Wijk, Mark T. . . 108, 

172, 331 

Vandamme, Verena Damida 

. . . . . . . . . . 132 

Vanrooyen, Andre . . . 502 

Vathana, Sann . . . . . . . 460 

Vearasilp, Suchada . . 195, 

306 

Vearasilp, Therdchai . 461, 

478, 479 

Veiga, Jonas Bastos da 

. 148, 219, 260 

Verner, Vladimir . . . . 401 

Vidal, Stefan . . . . . . . . 190 

Vidogbena, Faustin . . 459 

Vieira, Arimar Leal . . 362 

Vielhauer, Konrad . . . 153, 

241 

Vlek, Paul L. G. . 51, 133, 

153, 169, 204, 

233, 236, 241, 

287, 339 

Vodouhè, Davo Simplice 

. . . . . . . . . . 407 

Völker, Marc . . . . . . . . . 44 

Vohland, Katrin . . . . . 370 

Von Hörsten, Dieter . 304 

Von Rohr, Peter . . . . . 462 

Vosti, Stephen A. . . . . . 76 

W 

Waibel, Hermann . . . . . 16, 

33, 44, 120, 212, 

348, 352, 379, 

394, 427, 506 

Waithaka, Michael . . . . 26 

Wako, Adan . . . . . . . . 408 

Wambugu, Anthony . 334 

Wander, Alcido Elenor 

. . . . . . 143, 368 

Wanyama, Jacob . . . . 413 

Wardhono, Adhitya . . 384 

Wassmann, Reiner . . . 171 

Waters-Bayer, Ann . . . 25 

Weerasinghe, Vithanage 

Primali Anuruddhika 

. . . . . . . . . . 301 

Wehrhan, Anne . . . . . 170 

Weigend, Steffen . . . . . 99 

Weinmann, Markus . . 161 

Weinmann, Ulrika . . . 307 

Weippert, Heike . . . . . 272 

Weltzien, Eva . . . . . . . 256 


Werner, Kloas . . . . . . . 104 

Wessels, Stephan . . . . 483, 

495, 500 

Wettstein, Hans–Rudolf 

. . . . . . . . . . 102 

Weyerhaeuser, Horst . 201 

White, Douglas . . . . . 430 

Wick, Barbara . . . 47, 261 

Wicke, Michael . 480, 481 

Wiegler, Kai . . . . . . . . . 21 

Willam, Alfons . . . . . . 457 

Wilson Wijeratnam, Shanthi 

. . . . . . . . . . 191 

Wimmers, Klaus 456, 467 

Wink, Michael . . . . . . 105 

Winter, Stephan . 63, 179, 

180 

Wiriya-Alongkorn, Winai 

. . . . . . . . . . . 70 

Wirth, Manfred . . . . . 104 

Witt, Rudolf . . . . . . . . 348 

Wittman, Dieter . . . . . 338 

Woldemariam, Tadesse 

. . . . . . . . . . 202 

Wolff, Heinz-Peter . . . 72, 

445 

Wollni, Meike . . . . . . . . 14 

Wollny, Clemens 

. . 99, 148, 363, 

459, 487, 493 

Wongrak, Kanyakon . 479 

Worbes, Martin . . 41, 217 

Wu, Lifeng . . . . . . . . . . 44 

Wünscher, Tobias . . . 203 

Wulf, Sebastian . . . . . 248 

Wunder, Sven . . . . . . . 203 

Wurzinger, Maria 98, 111, 

457 

Wydra, K. . . . . . . . . . . . 62 

Y 

Yan, Ray-Yu . . . . . . . . 135 

Yang, Yongping . . . . . 201 

521


Yonghachea, Prosper Fuambeng 

. . . . . 194, 

366 

Yuyama, Kaoru . . . . . 314 

Yvonne, Kakpo . . . . . . 88 

Z 

522 

Zapfack, Louis . . . . . . 150 

Zarin, Sarah Sakineh . 454 

Zavgorodnyaya, Darya 

. . . . . . . . . . 231 

Zech, Wolfgang . . . . . 170 

Zeller, Manfred . . 14, 349, 

403, 434 

Zeray, Lijalem . . 234, 237 

Zhang, Peng . . . . . . . . . 58 

Zilberman, David . . . . . 33 

Zinsmeyer, Stefanie . . . 20 

Zöfel, Katrin . . . . . . . . 317 

Zollitsch, Werner . . . . 111 

zum Felde, Alexandra 182 

Zumbach, Birgit . . . . . 455

Abstract IDs 

A 

Abstract ID 

3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 403 

8 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 473 

10 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90 

20 . . . . . . . . . . . . . 368 

25 . . . . . . . . . . . . . 251 

27 . . . . . . . . . . . . . 383 

32 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76 

33 . . . . . . . . . . . . . 482 

34 . . . . . . . . . . . . . 318 

37 . . . . . . . . . . . . . 503 

38 . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232 

39 . . . . . . . . . . . . . 404 

40 . . . . . . . . . . . . . 380 

45 . . . . . . . . . . . . . 414 

46 . . . . . . . . . . . . . 391 

49 . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227 

52 . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188 

54 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49 

55 . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184 

56 . . . . . . . . . . . . . 338 

57 . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208 

58 . . . . . . . . . . . . . 402 

59 . . . . . . . . . . . . . 238 

61 . . . . . . . . . . . . . 392 

62 . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225 

63 . . . . . . . . . . . . . 226 

64 . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152 

65 . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151 

66 . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163 

71 . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189 

74 . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136 

75 . . . . . . . . . . . . . 453 

76 . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104 

82 . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146 

83 . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217 

84 . . . . . . . . . . . . . 240 

86 . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140 

87 . . . . . . . . . . . . . 419 

89 . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137 

94 . . . . . . . . . . . . . 236 

95 . . . . . . . . . . . . . 401 

99 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74 

100 . . . . . . . . . . . . 493 

101 . . . . . . . . . . . . 481 

102 . . . . . . . . . . . . 478 

105 . . . . . . . . . . . . 447 

106 . . . . . . . . . . . . 111 

109 . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51 

110 . . . . . . . . . . . . 164 

113 . . . . . . . . . . . . 289 

114 . . . . . . . . . . . . 349 

117 . . . . . . . . . . . . 325 

118 . . . . . . . . . . . . 211 

119 . . . . . . . . . . . . 192 

120 . . . . . . . . . . . . 388 

123 . . . . . . . . . . . . 499 

126 . . . . . . . . . . . . 479 

127 . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42 

128 . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35 

129 . . . . . . . . . . . . 102 

130 . . . . . . . . . . . . 455 

131 . . . . . . . . . . . . 213 

133 . . . . . . . . . . . . 206 

134 . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71 

135 . . . . . . . . . . . . 326 

136 . . . . . . . . . . . . 350 

137 . . . . . . . . . . . . 400 

139 . . . . . . . . . . . . 379 

140 . . . . . . . . . . . . 364 

141 . . . . . . . . . . . . 262 

143 . . . . . . . . . . . . 148 

144 . . . . . . . . . . . . 430 

145 . . . . . . . . . . . . 428 

147 . . . . . . . . . . . . 179 

148 . . . . . . . . . . . . 319 

149 . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84 

150 . . . . . . . . . . . . 275 

151 . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98 

152 . . . . . . . . . . . . 457 

154 . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62 

155 . . . . . . . . . . . . 432 

156 . . . . . . . . . . . . 405 

158 . . . . . . . . . . . . 187 

159 . . . . . . . . . . . . 270 

160 . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26 

161 . . . . . . . . . . . . 138 

162 . . . . . . . . . . . . 390 

166 . . . . . . . . . . . . 273 

167 . . . . . . . . . . . . 191 

172 . . . . . . . . . . . . 286 

174 . . . . . . . . . . . . 339 

176 . . . . . . . . . . . . 170 

179 . . . . . . . . . . . . 330 

180 . . . . . . . . . . . . 471 

181 . . . . . . . . . . . . 416 

183 . . . . . . . . . . . . 272 

187 . . . . . . . . . . . . 166 

189 . . . . . . . . . . . . 284 

191 . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61 

192 . . . . . . . . . . . . 406 

193 . . . . . . . . . . . . 382 

194 . . . . . . . . . . . . 370 

195 . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77 

523


524 

196 . . . . . . . . . . . . 269 

197 . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78 

198 . . . . . . . . . . . . 360 

199 . . . . . . . . . . . . 472 

201 . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97 

202 . . . . . . . . . . . . 474 

204 . . . . . . . . . . . . 393 

205 . . . . . . . . . . . . 345 

207 . . . . . . . . . . . . 120 

211 . . . . . . . . . . . . 117 

213 . . . . . . . . . . . . 445 

214 . . . . . . . . . . . . 103 

219 . . . . . . . . . . . . 434 

220 . . . . . . . . . . . . 494 

221 . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91 

226 . . . . . . . . . . . . 510 

227 . . . . . . . . . . . . 348 

229 . . . . . . . . . . . . 306 

230 . . . . . . . . . . . . 274 

231 . . . . . . . . . . . . 195 

232 . . . . . . . . . . . . 352 

233 . . . . . . . . . . . . 436 

234 . . . . . . . . . . . . 282 

235 . . . . . . . . . . . . 334 

236 . . . . . . . . . . . . 361 

238 . . . . . . . . . . . . 376 

240 . . . . . . . . . . . . 506 

241 . . . . . . . . . . . . 209 

243 . . . . . . . . . . . . 314 

244 . . . . . . . . . . . . 333 

245 . . . . . . . . . . . . 443 

248 . . . . . . . . . . . . 190 

249 . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43 

250 . . . . . . . . . . . . 283 

251 . . . . . . . . . . . . 417 

252 . . . . . . . . . . . . 296 

253 . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16 

254 . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72 

255 . . . . . . . . . . . . 346 

256 . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69 

257 . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58 

259 . . . . . . . . . . . . 440 

260 . . . . . . . . . . . . 250 

261 . . . . . . . . . . . . 505 

263 . . . . . . . . . . . . 162 

268 . . . . . . . . . . . . 154 

269 . . . . . . . . . . . . 329 

271 . . . . . . . . . . . . 421 

272 . . . . . . . . . . . . 422 

273 . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50 

274 . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82 

275 . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15 

276 . . . . . . . . . . . . 106 

278 . . . . . . . . . . . . 504 

280 . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46 

281 . . . . . . . . . . . . 235 

282 . . . . . . . . . . . . 224 

283 . . . . . . . . . . . . 354 

284 . . . . . . . . . . . . 178 

285 . . . . . . . . . . . . 287 

286 . . . . . . . . . . . . 377 

287 . . . . . . . . . . . . 139 

289 . . . . . . . . . . . . 378 

292 . . . . . . . . . . . . 375 

294 . . . . . . . . . . . . 255 

295 . . . . . . . . . . . . 483 

296 . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40 

298 . . . . . . . . . . . . 500 

299 . . . . . . . . . . . . 285 

300 . . . . . . . . . . . . 134 

301 . . . . . . . . . . . . 135 

302 . . . . . . . . . . . . 133 

303 . . . . . . . . . . . . 257 

305 . . . . . . . . . . . . 128 

310 . . . . . . . . . . . . 461 

312 . . . . . . . . . . . . 305 

313 . . . . . . . . . . . . 298 

314 . . . . . . . . . . . . 386 

315 . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85 

316 . . . . . . . . . . . . 281 

321 . . . . . . . . . . . . 150 

322 . . . . . . . . . . . . 160 

324 . . . . . . . . . . . . 321 

325 . . . . . . . . . . . . 256 

326 . . . . . . . . . . . . 369 

328 . . . . . . . . . . . . 221 

330 . . . . . . . . . . . . 441 

334 . . . . . . . . . . . . 508 

336 . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56 

338 . . . . . . . . . . . . 371 

340 . . . . . . . . . . . . 194 

341 . . . . . . . . . . . . 366 

343 . . . . . . . . . . . . 222 

347 . . . . . . . . . . . . 118 

348 . . . . . . . . . . . . 171 

349 . . . . . . . . . . . . 131 

350 . . . . . . . . . . . . 492 

351 . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47 

352 . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48 

354 . . . . . . . . . . . . 389 

356 . . . . . . . . . . . . 223 

357 . . . . . . . . . . . . 454 

358 . . . . . . . . . . . . 340 

360 . . . . . . . . . . . . 399 

365 . . . . . . . . . . . . 169 

367 . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99 

368 . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41 

369 . . . . . . . . . . . . 317 

371 . . . . . . . . . . . . 407 

373 . . . . . . . . . . . . 204 

374 . . . . . . . . . . . . 315 

375 . . . . . . . . . . . . 271 

378 . . . . . . . . . . . . 394 

379 . . . . . . . . . . . . 145 

381 . . . . . . . . . . . . 143 

383 . . . . . . . . . . . . 331 

385 . . . . . . . . . . . . 207 

386 . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57 

387 . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44 

389 . . . . . . . . . . . . 347 

398 . . . . . . . . . . . . 130 

399 . . . . . . . . . . . . 295 

400 . . . . . . . . . . . . 201 

401 . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68 

403 . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86 

407 . . . . . . . . . . . . 168 

408 . . . . . . . . . . . . 502 

410 . . . . . . . . . . . . 180 

414 . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24 

415 . . . . . . . . . . . . 496 

417 . . . . . . . . . . . . 327 

418 . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25

419 . . . . . . . . . . . . 132 

420 . . . . . . . . . . . . 462 

421 . . . . . . . . . . . . 239 

423 . . . . . . . . . . . . 460 

424 . . . . . . . . . . . . 263 

425 . . . . . . . . . . . . 337 

428 . . . . . . . . . . . . 165 

429 . . . . . . . . . . . . 433 

431 . . . . . . . . . . . . 467 

432 . . . . . . . . . . . . 465 

433 . . . . . . . . . . . . 456 

435 . . . . . . . . . . . . 119 

437 . . . . . . . . . . . . 301 

438 . . . . . . . . . . . . 212 

440 . . . . . . . . . . . . 418 

442 . . . . . . . . . . . . 110 

444 . . . . . . . . . . . . 501 

445 . . . . . . . . . . . . 408 

446 . . . . . . . . . . . . 100 

448 . . . . . . . . . . . . 219 

449 . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28 

450 . . . . . . . . . . . . 290 

452 . . . . . . . . . . . . 363 

453 . . . . . . . . . . . . 258 

455 . . . . . . . . . . . . 429 

458 . . . . . . . . . . . . 108 

461 . . . . . . . . . . . . 415 

462 . . . . . . . . . . . . 381 

463 . . . . . . . . . . . . 234 

464 . . . . . . . . . . . . 463 

465 . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79 

466 . . . . . . . . . . . . 233 

469 . . . . . . . . . . . . 277 

470 . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89 

472 . . . . . . . . . . . . 320 

474 . . . . . . . . . . . . 509 

475 . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83 

476 . . . . . . . . . . . . 105 

477 . . . . . . . . . . . . 353 

479 . . . . . . . . . . . . 205 

481 . . . . . . . . . . . . 237 

482 . . . . . . . . . . . . 220 

483 . . . . . . . . . . . . 172 

484 . . . . . . . . . . . . 167 

487 . . . . . . . . . . . . 480 

488 . . . . . . . . . . . . 182 

489 . . . . . . . . . . . . 328 

493 . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70 

494 . . . . . . . . . . . . 332 

495 . . . . . . . . . . . . 300 

496 . . . . . . . . . . . . 144 

497 . . . . . . . . . . . . 228 

498 . . . . . . . . . . . . 202 

499 . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34 

501 . . . . . . . . . . . . 302 

503 . . . . . . . . . . . . 183 

507 . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31 

508 . . . . . . . . . . . . 507 

509 . . . . . . . . . . . . 466 

510 . . . . . . . . . . . . 495 

511 . . . . . . . . . . . . 307 

512 . . . . . . . . . . . . 304 

513 . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14 

515 . . . . . . . . . . . . 241 

516 . . . . . . . . . . . . 475 

517 . . . . . . . . . . . . 355 

518 . . . . . . . . . . . . 362 

519 . . . . . . . . . . . . 299 

520 . . . . . . . . . . . . 244 

521 . . . . . . . . . . . . 218 

522 . . . . . . . . . . . . 288 

524 . . . . . . . . . . . . 231 

525 . . . . . . . . . . . . 511 

526 . . . . . . . . . . . . 409 

527 . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30 

529 . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92 

530 . . . . . . . . . . . . 431 

532 . . . . . . . . . . . . 109 

533 . . . . . . . . . . . . 458 

535 . . . . . . . . . . . . 291 

537 . . . . . . . . . . . . 413 

539 . . . . . . . . . . . . 127 

541 . . . . . . . . . . . . 470 

542 . . . . . . . . . . . . 159 

543 . . . . . . . . . . . . 446 

545 . . . . . . . . . . . . 175 

546 . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33 

550 . . . . . . . . . . . . 423 

Abstract IDs 

551 . . . . . . . . . . . . 147 

552 . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27 

554 . . . . . . . . . . . . 487 

555 . . . . . . . . . . . . 356 

556 . . . . . . . . . . . . 459 

557 . . . . . . . . . . . . 312 

559 . . . . . . . . . . . . 464 

560 . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96 

562 . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55 

564 . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13 

565 . . . . . . . . . . . . 488 

567 . . . . . . . . . . . . 210 

568 . . . . . . . . . . . . 153 

569 . . . . . . . . . . . . 444 

571 . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88 

572 . . . . . . . . . . . . 489 

573 . . . . . . . . . . . . 448 

574 . . . . . . . . . . . . 490 

575 . . . . . . . . . . . . 129 

576 . . . . . . . . . . . . 442 

577 . . . . . . . . . . . . 261 

578 . . . . . . . . . . . . 193 

579 . . . . . . . . . . . . 384 

581 . . . . . . . . . . . . 365 

582 . . . . . . . . . . . . 420 

584 . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60 

585 . . . . . . . . . . . . 351 

587 . . . . . . . . . . . . 427 

588 . . . . . . . . . . . . 316 

589 . . . . . . . . . . . . 203 

592 . . . . . . . . . . . . 246 

593 . . . . . . . . . . . . 247 

594 . . . . . . . . . . . . 359 

595 . . . . . . . . . . . . 439 

596 . . . . . . . . . . . . 435 

597 . . . . . . . . . . . . 176 

598 . . . . . . . . . . . . 264 

600 . . . . . . . . . . . . 161 

601 . . . . . . . . . . . . 491 

602 . . . . . . . . . . . . 149 

604 . . . . . . . . . . . . 259 

606 . . . . . . . . . . . . 303 

607 . . . . . . . . . . . . 367 

608 . . . . . . . . . . . . 177 

525


526 

609 . . . . . . . . . . . . 260 

610 . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32 

611 . . . . . . . . . . . . 249 

612 . . . . . . . . . . . . 245 

614 . . . . . . . . . . . . 385 

617 . . . . . . . . . . . . 112 

618 . . . . . . . . . . . . 181 

619 . . . . . . . . . . . . 248 

621 . . . . . . . . . . . . 336 

622 . . . . . . . . . . . . 297 

623 . . . . . . . . . . . . 335 

624 . . . . . . . . . . . . 155 

625 . . . . . . . . . . . . 311 

626 . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75 

627 . . . . . . . . . . . . 313 

628 . . . . . . . . . . . . 116 

629 . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18 

630 . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19 

631 . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20 

632 . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21 

633 . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22 

634 . . . . . . . . . . . . 122 

635 . . . . . . . . . . . . 276 

658 . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63 

659 . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12 

660 . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54 

661 . . . . . . . . . . . . 278

Tropentag 2006 - Book of Abstracts

Create successful ePaper yourself

Delete template?

Save as template?